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 I. — THE ANCIENT LANGUAGES 
 
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 I 
 
 SHORT AND COMPREHENSIVE 
 
 GREEK GRAMMAR, 
 
 WITH 
 
 MATERIALS FOR ORAL EXERCISES, 
 
 FOR 
 
 SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. 
 
 
 By J. T. CHAMPLIN, 
 
 PROFESSOR OF GREEK AND LATIN IN WATERVILLE COLLEGE. 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 D. APPLETON & COMPANY, 200 BROADWAY. 
 
 M DCCC HI. 
 
-?K 
 
 , ft 
 
 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1852, by 
 
 J. T. OHAMPLIST, 
 
 in the Clerfc's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 A Greek Grammar, appearing at the present day, 
 after the principles of the language have been so 
 thoroughly investigated, would hardly be expected 
 to contain much that is new, except in form and 
 statement. The materials for this have been taken 
 largely from Kiihner's Larger Greek Grammar, trans- 
 lated by Jelf, and in some parts from Kriiger's 
 Greek Grammar, while the chapter on the verb, in 
 the syntax, is little more than a condensed transla- 
 tion of Wunder's admirable treatise on that subject. 
 With these materials I have woven in such others 
 as I have collected in the course of several years' 
 experience in teaching the language and editing 
 Greek authors, and have endeavored to classify, re- 
 organize, and vivify the whole. 
 
 The simple design with which the Grammar has 
 been prepared is, to exhibit the central and essential 
 facts and principles of the language in the clearest, 
 most practical, and most summary form possible. 
 For this purpose, all theories and complications of 
 system belonging to general grammar have been 
 
IV PREFACE. 
 
 avoided, and only their results used. At the same 
 time, while it has been intended to introduce all 
 the fundamental principles of the language, these 
 have not been followed out with that copiousness 
 of detail and illustration which would be appro- 
 priate in a larger grammar. The rule which has 
 been followed on this point is, to amplify and illus- 
 trate the principles as far as is necessary for their 
 clear understanding, and no further. Also, certain 
 details which lie on the borders between grammar 
 and lexicography, and may quite as well be left to 
 the latter, have been omitted. In short, the aim 
 has been to meet all the real wants of the ordinary 
 student of Greek, without embarrassing him or dis- 
 tracting his attention by what is unnecessary. And 
 should it be felt that this end has, in any good 
 degree, been attained, the book will fully meet the 
 expectations of the author. 
 
 As Greek is not so much studied by the young 
 as the Latin, and as but few aspire to so familiar 
 an acquaintance with it as to be able to speak or 
 even to write it, it has not been thought necessary 
 to introduce any thing by way of exercises, except 
 simple lists of words for oral practice. If any teacher 
 should feel the need of more extended and systematic 
 exercises, he will readily find them in any of the 
 Greek exercise books, as those of Arnold, Boise, or 
 Kendrick. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 ORTHOGRAPHY, OR LETTERS, SOUNDS, AND SYLLABLES. 
 SECTION I. 
 
 LETTERS AND THEIR SOUNDS. 
 
 Classification of the Letters . § 1 
 
 Sounds of the Letters .2 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 CHANGES OF LETTERS. 
 
 Changes of the Vowels 3 
 
 Changes of the Consonants ....... 4 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 SYLLABLES. 
 
 Quantity of Syllables . . 5 
 
 Accent of Syllables 6 
 
 Changes of Accent on Syllables 7 
 
 Unaccented Words, or Proclitics and Enclitics ... 8 
 
 Inclination of the Accent ....... 9 
 
VI CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 DECLENSION. 
 
 Introduction 10 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 FIRST DECLENSION. 
 
 Classification and Endi»ig3 of Nouns of the First Declension . 11 
 Paradigms of the First Declension 12 
 
 ♦ SECTION II. 
 
 SECOND DECLENSION. 
 
 Classification and Endings of Nouns of the Second Declension 13 
 Paradigms of Nouns of the Second Declension . . .14 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 THIRD DECLENSION. 
 
 Classification and Endings of Nouns of the Third Declension 15 
 
 Paradigms of Nouns of the Third Declension . . . .16 
 Anomalous and Defective Nouns, chiefly of the Third Declension 17 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 DECLENSION AND COMPARISON OF THE ADJECTIVE AND ADVERB. 
 
 Classification of Adjectives and Participles . . . .18 
 
 Paradigms of Adjectives and Participles . . . . 19 
 
 Comparison of Adjectives ....... 20 
 
 Comparison of Adverbs 21 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 NUMERALS. 
 
 Classification and Table of Numerals 22 
 
 Declension of Numerals 23 
 
 SECTION VI. 
 
 PRONOUNS. 
 
 Personal Pronouns 24 
 
 Demonstrative and Relative Pronouns .... 25 
 Indefinite and Interrogative Pronouns 26 
 
CONTENTS. Vll 
 
 Correlative Pronouns and Adverbs 27 
 
 Strengthening of Pronouns 28 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 CONJUGATION. 
 
 Introduction 29 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 VERBS IN 0). 
 
 Classification of Verbs in a> 30 
 
 Reduplication and Augment 31 
 
 Reduplication and Augment in Compound Verbs . . .32 
 
 Tense-Characteristic, Mode- Vowel, and Personal Endings . 33 
 
 Paradigms of Verbs in o> 34 
 
 Remarks on the Paradigms ...... 35 
 
 Accent of the Verb 36 
 
 Formation of the Tenses 37 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 VERBS IN /It. 
 
 Regular Verbs in /it 38 
 
 Irregular Verbs in /it 39 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 ANOMALOUS VERBS. 
 
 Anomalies in Meaning 40 
 
 Anomalies in Form 41 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 UNINFLECTED WORDS, OR PARTICLES. 
 
 Adverbs 42 
 
 Prepositions 43 
 
 Conjunctions 44 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 FORMATION OF WORDS. 
 
 Formation by Derivation 45 
 
 Formation by Composition 46 
 
Vlll CONTENTS. 
 
 SYNTAX 
 
 CHAPTEE I. 
 
 WORDS AS SUBJECT, PREDICATE, ATTRIBUTE, AND OBJECT. 
 
 The Substantive or Noun 47 
 
 The Pronoun 48 
 
 The Article 49 
 
 The Adjective 50 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 AGREEMENT. 
 
 General Rules of Agreement ...... 51 
 
 Special Rules of Agreement 52 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE OBLIQUE CASES. OBJECT. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 THE GENITIVE. 
 
 Genitive of the Cause, Ground, or Origin .... 53 
 
 Genitive of Mutual Relations . . . . . .54 
 
 Genitive of Position, Separation, and Privation ... 55 
 
 Partitive Genitive and Genitive of Material . . . .56 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 THE ACCUSATIVE. 
 
 Verbs with one Accusative 57 
 
 Verbs with two Accusatives 58 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 THE DATIVE. 
 
 Dative of the Person 59 
 
 Dative of the Thing 60 
 
CONTENTS. IX 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE VERB. 
 SECTION L 
 
 THE TENSES. 
 
 The Present . . 61 
 
 The Perfect 62 
 
 The Aorist 63 
 
 The Imperfect .64 
 
 The Pluperfect . . ... 65 
 The Future ... 66 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 THE MODES. 
 
 The Indicative 67 
 
 The Subjunctive 68 
 
 The Optative 69 
 
 The Infinitive 70 
 
 The Participle 71 
 
 The Imperative 72 
 
 The different Forms of the Verb with the Particle av . 73 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 
 
 The Indicative in Conditional Sentences . . . . .74 
 The Subjunctive in Conditional Sentences .... 75 
 The Optative in Conditional Sentences 76 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 Sentences expressing a Wish 77 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 FINAL SENTENCES. 
 
 The Subjunctive and Optative in Final Sentences . . .78 
 The Future Indicative in Final Sentences .... 79 
 Indicative of Historical Tenses in Final Sentences . . ,80 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 PARTICLES. 
 
 Adverbs 
 Prepositions 
 
 81 
 
 82 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 VERSIFICATION 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 ORTHOGRAPHY, OR LETTERS, SOUNDS, AND SYLLABLES, 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 LETTERS AND THEIR SOUNDS. 
 
 § 1. Classification of the Letters, 
 
 1. The Greek language has as signs of its sounds the fol- 
 lowing twenty-four letters, called the Alphabet : — 
 
 A, a 
 
 *A\<£a 
 
 Alpha 
 
 a 
 
 B, ft 6 
 
 Bjjra 
 
 Beta 
 
 b 
 
 r, y 
 
 TdpfJLa 
 
 Gamma 
 
 g (hard) 
 
 A, d 
 
 AeAra 
 
 Delta 
 
 d 
 
 E, e 
 
 *E yftiKop 
 
 Epsilon 
 
 6 
 
 z, C 
 
 Zrjra 
 
 Zeta 
 
 z 
 
 H, rj 
 
 *Hra 
 
 Eta 
 
 e 
 
 e, s, 6 
 
 Qtjtcl 
 
 Theta 
 
 th 
 
 I, * 
 
 'leSra 
 
 Iota 
 
 i 
 
 K, K 
 
 Ka7T7ra 
 
 Kappa 
 
 k 
 
 A, X 
 
 AdpfiSa 
 
 Lambda 
 
 1 
 
 M, \L 
 
 Mv 
 
 Mu 
 
 m 
 
 N, v 
 
 Nu 
 
 Nfc* 
 
 n 
 
 s, I 
 
 St 
 
 Xi 
 
 X 
 
 O, o 
 
 *0 pucpov 
 
 Omikron 
 
 6 
 
 II, 7T, C7 
 
 m 
 
 Pi 
 
 P 
 
 p, p 
 
 'Pc3 
 
 Rho 
 
 r 
 
 2, 0-, j (final) 
 
 Styyxa 
 
 Sigma 
 
 s 
 
 T, r 
 
 Tav 
 
 Tau 
 
 t 
 
 Y, v 
 
 T Y ^aXcfr 
 
 Upsilon 
 
 u 
 
 *. <t> 
 
 3>Z 
 
 Phi 
 
 ph 
 
 X, X 
 
 XI 
 
 Chi 
 
 ch 
 
 *i * 
 
 ¥t 
 
 Psi 
 
 Pa 
 
 Q, (o 
 
 *Q fteya 
 
 Omega 
 
 6 
 
12 LETTERS AND THEIR SOUNDS. [§ 1. 
 
 2. Of these letters, seven are vowels, viz. a, e, 77, i, o, v, a>, 
 of which e and o are always short, 77 and w always long, and 
 a, 1, and « are long in some syllables and short in others 
 (called doubtful vowels). The sign used to designate a short 
 vowel is w , and a long one "", while both these signs united 
 (-) designate a doubtful vowel, which may be either short 
 or long. 
 
 3. The remaining letters are consonants, and are divided 
 into mutes, liquids, etc., as in other languages. 
 
 Rem. 1. The letters £ and ^ are double consonants, the former 
 being composed of k<t, ycr, or x<r, and the latter of /3o-, 7rcr, or (pa. 
 The letter £ also stands for ad in some words (as, 'A^mfe, instead 
 of 'ABIjuaade), and is regarded by many as always equal (by transposi- 
 tion of a and d) to da. 
 
 4. The vowels 1 and v are often preceded by some one of 
 the other vowels in the same syllable, and pronounced with 
 it in one combined or blended sound. These combinations 
 are called proper diphthongs, and are nine in number, at, av, 
 ci, ev t riv, ot, ov, cov, and vi mostly before another vowel. Be- 
 sides these combinations, d, 7/, and .© are found with 1 written 
 under them (iota subscript) instead of after them ; as, a, 77, », 
 which are called improper diphthongs. 
 
 5. The curves s and c , one of which is w T ritten over the first 
 letter of every word, when that letter is a vowel or diphthong, 
 or p (over p also in the middle of a word, when doubled), are 
 called breathings ; as, laropla, df)p t pd{3dos, Uvppos. The rough 
 breathing ( c ) corresponds to our h, and the smooth breathing 
 ( ' ) simply indicates the particular kind of effort required to 
 pronounce a vowel unpreceded by a consonant, as distin- 
 guished from that required to pronounce it when it is preceded 
 by a consonant. 
 
 Rem. 2. The breathings, as well as the accent (see § 6), are 
 written over the second vowel of diphthongs ; as, cvktjKos ; but when 
 both the vowels of an improper diphthong are written one after the 
 other (as when they begin a word which commences with a capital), 
 they are placed over (or rather, as is the case with all initial capitals, 
 over and a little before) the first letter; as/AiSr/s. But when the 
 
§ 3.] CHANGES OF LETTERS. 13 
 
 whole word is written in capitals, the breathings, as well as the accents 
 and all other grammatical signs, are omitted altogether ; as, AAH2. 
 
 Rem. 3. The letters v and p at the beginning of a word regularly 
 take the rough breathing, and of two p's in the middle of a word, the 
 first takes the smooth and the second the rough ; as, vnep, poapr], 
 apprjv. The kind of breathing used in other cases must be learned 
 from observation. 
 
 Rem. 4. The rough breathing is much less used by the iEolic and 
 Homeric dialects than by the Attic ; as, i/'/x/xes, rjtXios, instead of 
 vp.es, fjXios. 
 
 § 2. Sounds of the Letters. 
 
 1. The sounds of most of the consonants are sufficiently 
 indicated in the alphabetical table ; but it should be stated in 
 addition, that y has the sound of ng in anger before k, y, x, £ ; 
 as, ayycXos (ang-gelus) ; also, r before i is always hard, never 
 having the sound of 5 or sh ; as, Yakarla (not Galashia). 
 
 Rem. 1. The Greek historians of Rome expressed the Latin Qu by 
 Ko or Kv, and the Latin V by Ov or B. 
 
 2. The Greek vowels and diphthongs are generally pro- 
 nounced by English and American scholars mostly after the 
 analogy of the English language. But vi should be pro- 
 nounced like whi ; as, vlos (ivhios) ; and many scholars give 
 ou, (ov the sound of ou in soup, rather than of ou in our. The 
 improper diphthongs are generally pronounced as the simple 
 letters. 
 
 Rem. 2. In translating proper names into the Latin or English, 
 at becomes ce, et becomes I or e, ol becomes ce, ov (also o in the end- 
 ing of words) becomes u, and v becomes y ; as, &aldpo$, Phcedrus ; 
 AvKelov, Lyceum. 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 CHANGES OF LETTERS. 
 
 § 3. Changes of the Vowels. 
 
 1. The vowels vary in the same words in the different dia- 
 lects, especially in the Ionic and Doric dialects, the former of 
 which delights in the softer, and the latter in the harsher 
 
 2 
 
14 CHANGES OF LETTERS. [§ 3, 
 
 sounds. Thus a common variation between them is, the use 
 of a, in many words, by the Doric, in place of e, 77, o, or o>, by 
 the Ionic ; as, rpdcpco for rpe^xa, irparos for 7TpG>T0S) etc. 
 
 2. The vowels are changed for the sake of euphony or har- 
 mony (chiefly in the inflection of words) by contracting two 
 or more which immediately follow each other into one long 
 vowel or diphthong. In this way 77, t, v, and a> absorb a fol- 
 lowing vowel, and are simply made long in quantity when 
 short before ; as, fadves = lx6i>s ; — a, e, and o form a diph- 
 thong with a following 1, the 1 being subscribed under a ; as, 
 yrjpal == yrjpa ; — e before a long vowel or diphthong, and o 
 before eo, ai, 01, and ou, are dropped ; as, (f>i\eoi$ = cj)iKo'is. 
 There are also some other contractions, less capable of being 
 generalized into a rule. 
 
 Rem. 1. In some cases the principle of contraction in nouns and 
 verbs varies, and sometimes even in different declensions of the noun ; 
 as, €a=d in the second declension, = 77 (but a when a vowel pre- 
 cedes) in the third. Other particulars about contraction will be 
 learned from the paradigms. 
 
 3. Vowels are frequently changed by crasis (the sign of 
 which, called coronis, is that of the smooth breathing placed 
 over the contracted syllable), or the contracting of *two words 
 into one, when a small and unimportant word, ending in a 
 vowel (such as the article, neuter relative, Km, J, eya>, rot, etc.), 
 is closely connected with a following word beginning with a 
 VOWel ; as, dvrjp from 6 dvfjp, TakrjSes from to d\r)6es, Oarepa from 
 
 to €T€pa, Kaya from Ka\ cya>, Kara from Ka\ etra (the 1 being sub- 
 scribed when it belongs to the second word, but not when 
 it belongs to the first). 
 
 Rem. 2. As will be seen from the above examples, when the 
 vowel of the second word has a smooth breathing, that is simply re- 
 tained after contraction , and no additional sign of the crasis is added ; 
 and when the vowel of the second word has the rough breathing, the 
 coronis takes its place on the contracted syllable, and a smooth mute 
 (7r, k, t) at the beginning of the first word becomes rough (<£, ^, 6). 
 
 4. A vowel is often cut off by elision (the sign of which is 
 the apostrophe ') at the end of a word before another word 
 
§ 4.] CHANGES OF LETTERS. 15 
 
 beginning with a vowel ; as, tovt co-tiv. It occurs most fre- 
 quently in the poets, and chiefly in separate words, but often 
 also in compound words, where the apostrophe, however, is 
 omitted ; as, avcXQtiv from dvd and i\6elv. 
 
 Rem. 3. Elision generally takes place, even in prose, at the end 
 of all the prepositions, except nepi and rrpo and sometimes eVe/ca ; of 
 many particles and adverbs ; as, d\\d, apa, p.6Xa, and many other ad- 
 verbs in a before av ; also, ha, ye, ore (but not on), ert, etc. ; of the 
 forms of the pronouns ending in a, o, e ; of eWt, <t>r)fii, olda, olcrBa, 
 and verbal forms in fit, cri, t, a, €, o ; as, aXX* avros, <j)r}p eya>. In 
 poetry it occurs in many other cases (occasionally even in a long 
 vowel or diphthong), and in a few cases before a consonant; and 
 sometimes, too, the first vowel of the last word is elided, instead of 
 the last vowel of the first word (aph&resis) . 
 
 5. The changes by crasis and elision take place in order 
 to prevent the difficulty in pronunciation arising from the 
 concurrence of two vowels in separate words, which is also 
 effected in certain cases by adding v (before another word 
 beginning with a vowel) to various endings : — 
 
 a) To the end of the dative plural and many adverbs in <ri. 
 
 b) To the third person singular and plural of verbs in <n (also 
 eWt) ; and the third person singular in e. 
 
 c) To the Epic vv, *e, and suffix <j)i. 
 
 d) Often also to c'Ikoo-i, the demonstrative ending /, and s to ovtco, 
 axph p*XP L ( or more strictly s is dropped in these words before a 
 consonant). • 
 
 e) Also k to ov, and s to ck ; of which the latter becomes e£ (=e/c-s) 
 before a vowel and at the end of a sentence, and the former ovk before 
 a vowel (oi>x when the following vowel has the rough breathing), and 
 ov (having an accent) at the end of a sentence, and in the mean- 
 ing no. 
 
 Rem. 4. The variable v, also, is regularly added to the above 
 endings before periods and the principal punctuation-marks, and in 
 poetry, sometimes even before a consonant in the following word, for 
 the sake of making a short syllable long. 
 
 § 4. Changes of Consonants in Inflection and Derivation. 
 
 1. The mutes before a mute, viz. 7r, j3, <f> (pi-mutes), and *, 
 y, x (kappa-mutes), before t, 6", 6 (tau-mutes), are changed in 
 each case to the pi- or kappa- mute which corresponds (in the 
 order in which they are here introduced) to the tau-mute 
 
16 CHANGES OF LETTERS. [§ 4. 
 
 before which they are to come. So that when /3, <£, *y, ^ 
 
 would regularly come before r, the first two become 7r, and 
 
 the last two k ; and, in like manner, «•, <f> and k, ^ become, 
 
 respectively, j3 and y before 5, and 7r, /3 and *, y become 
 
 $ and x before 6 ; as, rerpiirrai (instead of Terpt/3-rat), pdfidos 
 
 (for paTT-Sos), liiKkxOrjV (for €7rk€K-6rjv). 
 
 Rem. 1. The first mute in each of the above classes is called (in 
 reference to the degree of aspiration with which they are pronounced) 
 a smooth mule, the second a medial or middle mute, and the last a 
 rough mute. And those which can stand before each other, as de- 
 scribed above, are called cognate mutes. 
 
 2. The mutes se, k, t (smooth mutes) are changed respec- 
 tively into <j>, x> & (rough mutes), also, before a rough breath- 
 ing, both in inflection and derivation, and in separate words ; 
 but /3, y, d (middle mutes) are changed thus only in the in- 
 flection of the verb ; in other cases they remain unchanged ; 
 as, d(j> ov (instead of air o£), icprjpepos (from It? fjpepa), e'lkoxa 
 (for eiXoy-d). 
 
 3. A tau-mute (r, 6\ 6) before p, or another tau-mute is 
 changed into o-, but before or is dropped ; as, 7re7r£io-pat (instead 
 of 7reT7€i6-jxai), Tjpeio-Brjv (for rjpelb-6r)v)^ avvaco (for dwr-o 1 ©). 
 
 4. A pi-mute (77-, /3, <£) before /x is changed into ti, and be- 
 fore .0- forms with that letter the double consonant ^ ; as, 
 rerpippai (instead of rerpt/3-pai), \el\jscD (for XetV-o-o)). 
 
 5. A kappa-mute (k, y, x) before p. becomes y, and before 
 o- (except in the preposition eY) forms with that letter the 
 double consonant £ ; as, /BePptypai (for j3€(3pex m pai>), Ppe£<o (for 
 fipex'crco). 
 
 6. The liquid v is changed into p before a pi-mute (71-, j3, 
 <£, ^), into y before a kappa-mute (k, y, *i £)> an d before 
 another liquid (X, tt, p) into the same liquid ; but v remains 
 unchanged before a tau-mute (r, S, 0) and in enclitics ; as, 
 €p7T€ipia (for €P-7r€ipla), ep/3dXXa> (for ej/-/3dXXa>), (rvyAcaXea) (for 
 o-vz>-KaXea>), cryppLiTTto (for o'VV-piirTco) ; but o-wSeoo, ovirtp, rovye. 
 
 Rem. 2. In like manner 1/ in o-w is changed into a before cr fol- 
 lowed by a vowel. But v in the preposition eV is not generally 
 changed into p before that liquid ; as, eVptWo). 
 

 § 5.] SYLLABLES. 17 
 
 7. The liquid v (except in a very few cases, mostly in lv 
 and 7raXiV) is dropped before o- and £ ; and vr, i>6\ v6 are not 
 only dropped before o-, but the preceding short vowel is length- 
 ened, viz. e into ei, o into ov, and short a, *, and v become 
 long; as, crv^vyla (instead of crvvfyyla), (rvo-rrjfjLa (for enWr^/za) ; 
 
 CT7T€l<T(d (for OTT«/§0-G)), XeOUCTl (for XeOJTO-l), TV^dtLCn (for TV- 
 <f)6eVT(Tl) . 
 
 8. When in an uncompounded word two successive sylla- 
 bles would regularly begin with a rough mute, the first (or the 
 second, when the syllables belong to the inflectional ending 
 of a verb) becomes smooth ; as, ire^iKr^Ka (instead of ^e^iXr/Ka), 
 €Tv0rfp (for i&u0qp)i ireOrjv (for €6e6r)v) ; but rv<p6r)Ti (instead of 
 
 Rem. 3. As, too, p is an aspirate, this letter is not repeated at 
 the commencement of two successive syllables in reduplication, but 
 is simply doubled and i placed before it ; as, eppvrjKa (instead of 
 pepvrjKa) . 
 
 9. When in inflection or derivation a rough mute, at the 
 
 end of a word which commences with r, is changed so as to 
 
 cease to be such, the loss is compensated by changing the 
 
 preceding t to 6 ; as, 6pty<o (from Tpicjxo, <j> having become 
 
 ^ by inflection), &tyo> (from TA<Mi), 6pl^ (gen. rpixos). And 
 
 on a like principle, e£o) (with a rough breathing) from ex©. 
 
 Rem. 4. The r is changed thus, also, before the passive endings 
 of the verbs rpecfxo, TA$Q, TPY$Q, which begin with 6 ; as, idpty- 
 6r)v, 0p€(j>-6t)croiMii. 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 SYLLABLES.* 
 
 § 5. Quantity of Syllables. 
 
 1. Syllables are said to be long or short according to the 
 length of time required for their pronunciation. 
 
 * As to the division of Greek words into syllables, the English analogy 
 is more commonly followed, in this country, than any other. " Syllabica- 
 
 2* 
 
18 SYLLABLES. [§ 6. 
 
 2. The length of a syllable depends either upon the natural 
 properties of its vowel, or upon its position with reference to 
 the consonants which follow. 
 
 3. A syllable is short by nature when its vowel is e or o, 
 
 and generally when it is a, i, v ; as, IvopXo-a ; and long by nature 
 
 when its vowel is 77, a>, a contracted vowel or a diphthong, or 
 
 (occasionally) a, I , v ; as, ^pas, 7raldevfjs^ a6\os (from ae$W), 
 
 KpipcS, 
 
 Rem. X. In Homer, a long vowel or diphthong at the end of a 
 word, and not receiving the poetic accent (i. e. when it is not in the 
 arsis) , is made short when the next word begins with a vowel. 
 
 4. But a syllable with a short vowel becomes long by posi- 
 tion when two or more consonants or a double consonant 
 (£, £, and yjr) immediately follow it. 
 
 Rem. 2. But a short vowel is not generally long by position 
 (except in Homer) before a mute followed by a diquid (as, 'aKprj, 
 (S&rpvs), except it be in composition, or when /3, y, or d is followed 
 by X, /i, or v ; as ^Kvipoa (from £k and i/e/i©), jSt^Xoy. 
 
 Rem. 3. In final syllables, in Homer, a short vowel is made long 
 by position when it stands before one consonant in its own word, and 
 one or more at the beginning of the following word, and generally 
 when both consonants (except they are a mute followed by a liquid), 
 or a double consonant, stand at the beginning of the following word. 
 
 § 6. Accent * of Syllables. 
 
 1. There are three accents in Greek, the acute ('), the 
 grave ( % ), and the circumflex (" or"). The acute marks a 
 sharp and rising tone, the grave a depressed or falling tone, 
 and the circumflex a rising, ending in a falling tone (it being 
 composed of an acute followed by a grave accent) ; as, rv7rro), 
 
 top \6yov, KdKCDS. 
 
 tion," says Sophocles (Gram,), "is not based upon any linguistic princi- 
 ple. According to Sextus it is foolish talk. In ancient inscriptions a 
 word is divided where the line ends." 
 
 * Those who reject or disregard the written accent usually follow the 
 Latin rule, viz. to accent the penult in dissyllables, and in polysyllables 
 the penult if long, but otherwise the antepenult. 
 
§ 6.] SYLLABLES. 19 
 
 2. The acute may stand upon either of the last three sylla- 
 bles of a word ; the circumflex, upon either of the last two ; 
 but the grave accent is never found except on the last sylla- 
 ble, and then it is merely a depressed or softened acute. 
 Hence the grave accent, as such, is barely imaginary, it 
 being assumed by the ancient grammarians as understood 
 upon all syllables which have no written accent. 
 
 3. Words having the acute accent on the last syllable (ulti- 
 mate) are called oxy tones (as, kclkos), those having the circum- 
 flex, perispomena (as kokoSs), and those having no accent at all 
 on this syllable, barytones (as, irpayiia, rvnTco). 
 
 4. Words having the acute accent on the last syllable but 
 one (penult) are called paroxytones (as, tvittco), and those hav- 
 ing the circumflex on this syllable, properispomena (as, <£i- 
 \ova-i) ; while those having the acute on the last syllable but 
 two (antepenult) are called 'prop or oxy tones ; as, avOpviros. 
 
 5. The acute may be placed indifferently on long or short 
 syllables ; the circumflex, only on syllables long by nature ; 
 as, koXos, dvflpamov, xPVH- a ^ 7r " ff * 
 
 6. No accent but the acute can ever stand on the ante- 
 penult, and this only when the ultimate is short both by nature 
 and position ; as, avOpayrroQ (but avBp&Trov). 
 
 7. No accent but the acute can stand on the penult when 
 the ultimate is long by nature ; as, relxrj (but reixos). 
 
 8. No accent but the circumflex can stand on a penult 
 long by nature, when the ultimate is short by nature, or long 
 only by position ; as, T£ix os i v&pa* a$\ag. 
 
 Rem. 1. The above rules, as will be seen, are rather rules of 
 limitation as to the kind of accent on particular syllables, than rules for 
 the actual place of the accent on individual words. The place of the 
 accent on words in their unchanged form must be learned from the 
 Lexicon, and then these, and other rules which will be given in con- 
 nection with the paradigms, will be a guide for the change of accent 
 growing out of a change of form. 
 
 9. An oxytone (except ris, ri, who ? what ?) before another 
 word, without the intervention of some punctuation-mark, has 
 
20 SYLLABLES. [§ 7. 
 
 its accent depressed and written as grave ; as, 6 pev Kvpos 
 
 €7T€pa(r€ tov jrorapov. 
 
 10. The endings at and 01 (except in the third pers. sing, 
 opt. act., and in the adverb o'Uoi) are treated as short, as far 
 as the rules of accent are concerned ; as, ru7rrerat, x®P°h 
 
 €KTTa\ai. 
 
 11. The Attic endings <os and ©i/, also, of the second and 
 third declensions, where e precedes either immediately or with 
 but a liquid between, and the Ionic €o>, allow an acute on the 
 antepenult, since the e was generally clipped or omitted in 
 pronunciation (synizesis) ; as, dvwyew, (jfuXoyeX©?, nokccDv, 6V 
 
 CT7TOT60), €VK€pG>S. 
 
 12. As a general rule, the accent remains on the accented 
 
 syllable of the nominative of a noun or adjective, unless 
 
 changed according to the above general rules ; but on verbal 
 
 forms it is generally as near the beginning of the word as 
 
 allowable by the above rules. 
 
 Rem. 2. As to the place of the accent relative to other gram- 
 matical signs, the acute is written after the breathing and between the 
 two points of the diaeresis ("), while the circumflex is written above, 
 in both cases ; as, anai-, evpos, KXeifco, icKrjXdcs. 
 
 § 7. Changes of Accent on Syllables. 
 
 The accent is often changed, in accordance with the pre- 
 ceding rules, by inflection, derivation, contraction, elision, etc. 
 
 1. When the accent remains on the same syllable, it is 
 often changed in kind according to the preceding rules, viz. 
 the circumflex into the acute, and the reverse, as the quantity 
 or character of the syllables is changed ; as, koKos acoXoO, 
 pLOxxra. fiov(T7]9f (f>evyco (ftevye. 
 
 2. The accent is drawn towards the beginning of a word, 
 when it is increased by the addition of a syllable at the begin- 
 ning, or when, by some change, the reason for retaining the 
 accent on the penult is removed ; as, tv7tt(o — tctvcjxi, fiov- 
 Xevo) — ftovXcve. 
 
 3. The accent is drawn towards the end of the word, when 
 
§ 8.] SYLLABLES. 21 
 
 the ultimate becomes long, or when the addition of final sylla- 
 bles makes it necessary to remove the accent nearer to the 
 end; as, 7wro/icu — TU7rra>/ie$a, rvcfrdrjcroiieBa; avOpomof- — avBpanrov, 
 
 4. In derivation and composition, most compound nouns 
 and adjectives, and all compound verbs, draw the accent as 
 near to the beginning of the word as the laws of accentuation 
 permit ; as, fyikodeos (from 6e6s), airofavy* (from <£evya>). 
 
 5. The accent of a word is not disturbed by contraction, 
 when neither of the contracted syllables is accented; but when 
 either of the two contracted syllables has the accent, if these 
 be the penult and antepenult, the accent of the contracted 
 syllable (also, a syllable formed by crasis) depends upon the 
 quantity of the ultimate, according to the general rules (as, 
 v\r)€<r<ra — v\rj(T(ra 9 ^iXeofievos — <pLkovfi€POs } ra aKka — rdAXa) ; if 
 they be the ultimate and penult, the contracted syllable (the ul- 
 timate) has the circumflex, when the first had the acute, and the 
 acute, when the second had it; as, foot — fool, iarans — ioT&s. 
 
 Rem. 1. In crasis the accent of the first word is lost, and either 
 that of the second remains, or it is changed as above. 
 
 6. When the accented vowel of a word is cut off by elision, 
 the accent is thrown back, as an acute, upon the preceding 
 syllable, except in monosyllables, prepositions, and the parti- 
 cles dXkdy ovde, fJLrjde, rjde, ide, and the enclitics nva, 7rore, when 
 
 it wholly disappears; as, (prjfi eya> (from <£*7/n), nap 9 e/xoO (from 
 
 Trapa). . 
 
 7. Most dissyllabic prepositions, when placed after their 
 word, or used as the abridged forms with clp.1, have their ac- 
 cent drawn from the last to the first syllable, which is called 
 anastrophe, and takes place chiefly in poetry ; as, 'itiaKrjv Kara 
 (instead of Kara) ; <p[Kov fiera ; d\X ovftev avr$ tcdv ifxa>v fx e'lpyeiv 
 \kkra (for fiereo-Ti). 
 
 § 8. Unaccented Words, or Proclitics and Enclitics. 
 
 1. There are a few small words which are so closely con- 
 nected with the following word as to lose their accent. Such 
 
22 SYLLABLES. [§ 9. 
 
 words are called proclitics or atonies , and are the follow- 
 ing : 6, ^, ot, al (forms of the article) ; eV, els (es), c* (e|), a>s 
 (preposition?) ; o£ (ovk, ovx), cos (as), e;. 
 
 Rem. 1. But ck and cos have an accent when placed after their 
 word ; as, kclkcov e£, Kanoi cos (so, also, cos for oi/ra>ff). The negative 
 ov, also, is accented at the end of a sentence ; as, izcos yap ov; 
 
 2. Enclitics, on the contrary, are small words so dependent 
 on the word which precedes them as either to throw back 
 their accent upon that word, or, if the accentuation of the 
 word will not allow that, lose it altogether. They are the 
 following : — 
 
 a) The pres. indie, of et/xt and fopl (except the sec. pers. et and 
 
 b) The forms of the pronouns /zoO, fioi, p>e, — &ov, trol, ere, — ov, 
 of, e, viv, — cr(f>coLV, cr<plcri, and the Ionic forms crfficoe, o-cfiecov, crqbeas* 
 
 c) The indefinites vis, ri (in all cases, including the abridged forms 
 rov and tco), 7ra>s, ttco, 7tt), ttov, ttoB'l, iroQkv, rroi, ttotc (but all these 
 words take an accent as inter rogatives) . 
 
 d) The particles re, roi, ye, vvv, irep, 6r\v, and the inseparable Se. 
 
 Rem. 2. Many of these enclitic particles unite with other small 
 words into a single word ; as, ovre, ctre, coenrep, ootls, etc. 
 
 § 9. Rules for the Inclination of the Accent. 
 
 An enclitic being viewed as a suffix to a word, and hence 
 a part of it, the following rules for the loss or throwing back 
 of its accent will be seen to follow from the general laws of 
 accent already given. 
 
 1. An oxytone before an enclitic naturally resumes the 
 acute form of its accent, which had been depressed before, 
 since it no longer stands at the end of the word ; as, drjp ns 
 (instead of 6rjp t\s), koKos eVrt, etc. 
 
 2. A perispomenon unites with an enclitic without any 
 change of accent, as though the added enclitic were always a 
 short monosyllable (which, however, it is not always) ; as, 
 (pebs n (for cfi&s r\) ; KaXov twos-, etc. 
 
 3. A paroxytone unites with a following monosyllabic en- 
 clitic without any change of accent (as though the added 
 

 § 9.] SYLLABLES. 23 
 
 syllable were always short), but before a dissyllabic enclitic 
 word there is no union, and consequently the enclitic retains 
 its accent ; as, <f>ikos p.ov (for cf)[\os /xoO) ; but cpikos earl, etc. 
 
 4. A proparoxytone or properispomenon (except such as 
 end in £ or -<//■) unites with the following enclitic, so as to receive 
 from the enclitic an additional acute accent on the last sylla- 
 ble ; as, avdpcojros riff (instead of avOpcowos t\s), <rcop.d eort (for 
 <rc3/za ear/) ; but av\a£ twos* 
 
 Rem. 1. The forms of the demonstrative pronouns which take 
 the enclitic suffix 8e, and most of the adverbial forms ending in o, 
 which have the enclitic suffixes 6ev (Be), <re, c9t, take the accent 
 (which before the last class of suffixes is always acute) on the last 
 syllable before the suffix ; as, roa-ocrde, Toacode (both from rocros) , 
 ovpavodev. In cases where the root does not end in o, the accent of 
 the root is retained in the forms with Bev, ere, 6i. 
 
 5. When several enclitics follow each other, they are to be 
 regarded as so many syllables added to the last accented 
 word, and those preceding receive the accent of those follow- 
 ing, according to the preceding rules of inclination ; as, koXos 
 ye ris (proparox.), KaXoi ye el\<ri (proparox. and oxyt.), koXoI ye 
 Ti\pes ela-i (two proparox.), etc. 
 
 6. But enclitics often retain their accent, especially when 
 they stand at the beginning of a sentence or clause, or are in 
 some way emphatic (in which case earl becomes ecrrt), viz. : — 
 
 a) eljii after el, ovk, a>s, dXX', p,rj, Kai, fiev, on, nov, tovt, 
 
 b) crov, vol, <re after /cat, an accented preposition, and in contrasts ; 
 as, /caret ere ; c/xot, ov croi. 
 
 c) ov y ot, e, only when they have a reflexive sense. 
 
 d) Enclitics are also accented when the syllable on which the ac- 
 cent would be thrown back is cut off by elision ; as, kclKos (V eVriV, 
 but Kakbs de ioriv. 
 
 Note. As to punctuation-marks, the period, exclamation point 
 (as far as used), and comma are the same in Greek as in English; 
 but the interrogation point is the same as the English semicolon ( ; ) , 
 while the place of our colon and semicolon is supplied by a dot, like 
 the period, placed at the top of the line ( * ). 
 
24 DECLENSION. [§ 10. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 DECLENSION. 
 
 § 10. Introduction. 
 
 1. The parts of speech susceptible of declension in Greek 
 are the article, the noun, the adjective, and the pronoun. 
 The verb, also, is inflected, but this is called conjugation, and 
 will be treated of in a subsequent chapter. 
 
 2. The Greek has three numbers, the singular, the dual, and 
 the plural ; and five cases, the nominative, the genitive, the 
 dative, the accusative, and the vocative. The dual denotes 
 two, and is but little used. The cases denote the same as in 
 Latin, except that the place of the Latin ablative is supplied 
 partly by the genitive, but chiefly by the dative, which, there- 
 fore, means not only to, for, but by, with, at, etc. 
 
 Rem. 1. The dual has but two endings, one for the nom., ace, 
 and voc, and one for the gen. and dat. Neuter nouns have the 
 nom., ace., and voc. alike in each number. 
 
 3. The gender of nouns in Greek, which, as far as it de- 
 pends upon the meaning, is determined by substantially the 
 same general conceptions of gender as in the Latin, is three- 
 fold, masculine, feminine, and neuter. 
 
 4. The gender of the noun is indicated in Greek by the 
 article, which corresponds nearly to our definite article, and 
 invariably accompanies the noun in certain relations. The 
 article is thus declined : — 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 Plural 
 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fern. Neut. 
 
 
 Masc. Fern. Neut. 
 
 
 Nom. 6 
 
 
 the 
 
 t e * 
 
 ol at Ta, 
 
 the 
 
 Gen. tov 
 
 TTJS TOV, 
 
 of the 
 
 T(OV TCDV T&V, 
 
 of the 
 
 Dat. to 
 
 TTJ T<5, 
 
 to (by) the 
 
 toIs Tats toIs, 
 
 to (by) the 
 
 ACC. TOV 
 
 TT]V TO, 
 
 the 
 
 TOVS TQS TCLy 
 
 the 
 
§11.] - FIRST DECLENSION. 25 
 
 Dual 
 Masc. Fern. Neut. 
 
 Norn., Ace, and Voc. to> to. t&, the two 
 
 Gen. and Dat. toIv tcuv toIv, of to (by) the two, 
 
 Rem. 2. The interjection eo stands in place of the article with the 
 vocative. The feminine forms of the article in the dual, as indeed 
 of adjectives, are rarely found, the masculine being commonly used in 
 this number with feminine nouns. 
 
 5. There are three declensions of nouns in Greek, distin- 
 guished as the frst, second, and third declensions. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 FIRST DECLENSION. 
 
 §11. Classification and Endings of Nouns of the First 
 
 Declension, 
 
 1. Nouns of the first declension end in a (a), 77, as, and 77s, 
 of which those in a and rj are feminine, and those in as and rjs 
 masculine. 
 
 2. The case-endings are : — 
 
 Singular. Plural Dual. 
 
 Nom. a a tj as 7]9 ai a 
 
 Gen. rjs as qs ov (old ao, eco, cov (old dcov, €0)i>, Dor. av) aw 
 
 Dor. d) 
 
 Dat. 77 a xi 
 
 a XI 
 
 ais (old at«ji, 770-4, ys) 
 
 aiv 
 
 Ace. av av 7]v 
 
 av 7]v 
 
 as (iEol. ais) 
 
 a 
 
 Voc. a a 77 
 
 a 77, a 
 
 at 
 
 a 
 
 3. Feminine nouns (and adjectives) of the first declension 
 are of four classes : — 
 
 a) Where a is preceded by p, e, or t (a pure), in which 
 (and a few others) the a is retained throughout the singular. 
 
 b) Other nouns in a, which in the gen. and dat. change a 
 into 77. 
 
 c) Nouns in 77, which retain the 77 throughout the singular. 
 
 3 
 
26 
 
 FIRST DECLENSION, 
 
 [§12. 
 
 d) Certain nouns in a (also a few masc. in as) preceded by 
 a or e (also, the adj. form 077), which are contracted, respec- 
 tively, into a and 77 (as, rjs), and the circumflex retained in all 
 the cases in all numbers ; as, pvda, pva, pvas. 
 
 4. The gen. sing, of masc. nouns of this declension ends in 
 ov in the Attic dialect, except in a few cases where this dialect 
 uses the Doric gen. in d and the Ionic in eo> ; as, 6pvi6o6r)pa 
 (of a fowler) ; Kap(3vo-eco. 
 
 5. The vocative of nouns in rjs has a in the following 
 cases : — 
 
 a) When preceded by r (rrjs). 
 
 b) When derived from a noun and a verb ; as, yecoperprjs — 
 
 yecoperpa. 
 
 c) All national denominations, and a few proper names; 
 as, Ueparjs — ILepaa (a Persian). 
 
 
 § 12. 
 
 Paradigms of the First Declension. 
 
 
 
 
 Singular 
 
 
 
 
 
 victory. 
 
 shadow. 
 
 muse. 
 
 mina. 
 
 judge. 
 
 steward. 
 
 Norn. 
 
 VLK7J 
 
 o-klo, 
 
 fiovo-a 
 
 p.v(da)a 
 
 1 KpLTTJS 
 
 raplas 
 
 Gen. 
 
 vlktjs 
 
 ffKias 
 
 povo"qs 
 
 pvas 
 
 KpLTOV 
 
 raplov 
 
 Dat. 
 
 vUrj 
 
 CTKiq 
 
 povarj 
 
 pva 
 
 KplTT) 
 
 rap la. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 VLKTjV 
 
 (TKldv 
 
 povaav 
 
 pvav 
 
 KplTTjV 
 
 Taplav 
 
 Voc. 
 
 VIKT) 
 
 (TKLCL 
 
 povcra 
 Plural 
 
 pva 
 
 KplTO, 
 
 rap la 
 
 Norn. 
 
 VLKai 
 
 a-Ktal 
 
 povaat 
 
 pval 
 
 KpiraL 
 
 raplai 
 
 Gen. 
 
 VIKCQP 
 
 CTKLGiV 
 
 povcrcov 
 
 pvcov 
 
 KpLTGbV 
 
 rapiav 
 
 Dat. 
 
 vUais 
 
 (TKials 
 
 povaais 
 
 pvals 
 
 Kpirals 
 
 rapiais 
 
 Ace. 
 
 vUas 
 
 aKids 
 
 povaas 
 
 pvas 
 
 Kpirds 
 
 raplas 
 
 Voc. 
 
 inKai 
 
 (TKiai 
 
 povcrai 
 
 Dual. 
 
 p.val 
 
 Kpiral 
 
 rapXai 
 
 N.A.V 
 
 . VLKa 
 
 crKia 
 
 povcra 
 
 pva 
 
 KpLTO 
 
 rapla 
 
 G.&D 
 
 . vUaiv 
 
 VKldlV 
 
 povaaiv 
 
 pvaiv 
 
 Kpiralv 
 
 rapiaw. 
 
 Rem. 1. 
 
 The 
 
 gen. plur 
 
 . of nearly all nouns 
 
 of this declension, 
 
 the gen. and dat. 
 
 [)f oxytora 
 
 ?s in all numbers, both of this 
 
 and the e 
 
§ 13.] SECOND DECLENSION. 27 
 
 ond declension, have the circumflex accent on the last syllable ; but 
 the feminine forms of adjectives and participles in os, 77 (a), ov, as they 
 have the same accent throughout as the masculine, as far as the laws 
 of accent will admit, so they do in the gen. plur. 
 
 Rem. 2. In nearly all other cases, the accent of the nom. remains, 
 unless it be changed by the general laws of accentuation. 
 
 Rem. 3. Without the article (6, 77, to) the noun corresponds to the 
 English noun both with and without a, and with it, to our noun 
 with the. 
 
 EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE. 
 
 faxf)-) soul. yaA?}, weasel. ytyvpa, bridge. 
 
 cj)c0VT), voice. arrody porch. oi/a'a, house. 
 
 KofjLTji hair. irXevpa^ side. TroAtrT??, citizen. 
 
 K(i)fjLT] 9 village. doga, opinion. Trpobor^, traitor. 
 
 7R/X77, gate. fiaarCkeia, kingdom. TExvtr-qSi artist. 
 
 \\mr), grief. jjLoipa, fate. veavias, young man. 
 
 y?7, earth. fiao-iXeia, queen. 'E/j/z^a)?}?, Mercury. 
 
 Note. Let the pupil be required not only to decline these words 
 according to the paradigms, and write them out with their proper 
 accent, but also to give the English or Greek for the separate cases, 
 as asked by the teacher. The teacher, in this way, may construct 
 brief oral exercises w r hich will be of the most useful character to 
 the pupil. Thus: What is the meaning of (ficovrjs, 7tvXtj, irpobora, 
 etc. 1 Or, What is the Greek for to the side, by fate, O bridge, of the 
 citizens, etc. 1 Let all the lists of examples be treated in this way ; 
 and let it be understood by the pupil that he must be prepared to 
 give the answer to all such questions as may be proposed upon them. 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 SECOND DECLENSION. 
 
 § 13. Classification and Endings of Nouns of the Second 
 
 Declension. 
 
 1. Greek nouns of the second declension end in 0$ and 01/, 
 the former masculine, feminine, or common, the latter neuter. 
 
 2. The case-endings are : — 
 
28 
 
 SECOND DECLENSION. 
 Plural. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Nom. os ov 01 a 
 
 Gen. ov (Ep. oio, coo, cov 
 
 Dor. co, cos) 
 
 Dat. co ols (old oicri) 
 
 Ace. ov ovs (iEol. ois, Dor. cos) a 
 
 Voc. e ov ot a 
 
 ft 14. 
 
 Dual 
 
 CO 
 
 oiv (Ep. ouv) 
 
 olv (Ep. oav 
 
 CO 
 
 3. Some nouns (and adjectives) of this declension take co 
 throughout in place of the vowels and diphthongs of the above 
 endings, and subscribe i where it belongs to the ending. This 
 mode of declining is called the Attic second declension, and 
 always has the voc. like the nom. 
 
 Rem. A few nouns of this class drop v in the ace. sing. ; as,*AtW — 
 A#co, Xayco? — Xaycov or Xayco, ecos — eco, morning; others vary between 
 this and the third declension, having cases according to each ; as, 
 Mivcosy yeXcos, aXcos ; also, 'AttoXKcov and Uoareibcov in the ace. 
 
 4. Nouns (and adjectives) in eos, oos, eov y oov are con- 
 tracted ; aS, OCTTeOV OCTTOVV. 
 
 
 §14. 
 
 Paradigms 
 
 of Nouns 
 
 of the Second Declension. 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural 
 
 Dual. 
 
 
 word. 
 
 te 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 N. 
 
 Xoyos 
 
 CTVKOV 
 
 Xoyot 
 
 CTVKa 
 
 Xoyco 
 
 crvKco 
 
 G. 
 
 Xoyov 
 
 ctvkov 
 
 \6ycov 
 
 CTVKCOV 
 
 \6yoLV 
 
 CTVKOLV 
 
 D. 
 
 Xoycp 
 
 CTVKCO 
 
 Xoyois 
 
 CTVKOIS 
 
 Xoyoiv 
 
 CTVKOiV 
 
 A. 
 
 Xoyov 
 
 CTVKOV 
 
 Xoyovs 
 
 CTVKa 
 
 Xoyco 
 
 CTVKCO 
 
 V. 
 
 Xoye 
 
 CTVKOV 
 
 Xoyot 
 
 CTVKa 
 
 Xoyco 
 
 CTVKCO. 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural 
 
 Dual 
 
 
 temple. 
 
 IIULI,. 
 
 
 
 
 
 N. 
 
 vecos 
 
 avcoyecov 
 
 veco 
 
 dvcoyeco 
 
 veco 
 
 avoayeco 
 
 G. 
 
 V€CO 
 
 dvcoyeco 
 
 vecov 
 
 avcoyecov 
 
 vecov 
 
 ■ 
 
 avcoyecov 
 
 D. 
 
 veco 
 
 avcoyeco 
 
 vecos 
 
 avcoyecos 
 
 veccv 
 
 i 
 
 avcoyecov 
 
 A. 
 
 VCCOV 
 
 avcoyecov 
 
 vecos 
 
 civcoyeco 
 
 veco 
 
 civcoyeco 
 
 V. 
 
 vecos 
 
 avcoyecov 
 
 veco 
 
 avcoyeco 
 
 veco 
 
 civcoyeco. 
 
14.J 
 
 
 SECOND DECLENSION. 
 
 
 Norn. 
 
 Singular, 
 sailing. 
 irkoos 7r\ovs 
 
 bone, 
 ourkov 
 
 OCTTOVV 
 
 Gen. 
 
 7t\6oV 
 
 7r\0V 
 
 oarkov 
 
 OCTTOV 
 
 Dat. 
 
 7rXoe0 
 
 7tXg> 
 
 octtcco 
 
 OCTTCd 
 
 Ace. 
 
 ttKoov 
 
 ttXovv 
 
 oorrkov 
 
 OCTTOVV 
 
 Voc. 
 
 7r\6e 
 
 ttXou 
 
 Plural. 
 
 ocrTeov 
 
 OCTTOVV 
 
 Nom. 
 
 7r\6oi 
 
 7rXot 
 
 oaria 
 
 OCTTCL 
 
 Gen. 
 
 ttKocov 
 
 7tXg)j/ 
 
 octtccdv 
 
 OCTTCOV 
 
 Dat. 
 
 ifkoOLS 
 
 7r\o7s 
 
 OCTT€OLS 
 
 OCTTo'lS 
 
 Ace. 
 
 irkoovs 
 
 7t\ov$ 
 
 6 erred 
 
 OCTTCL 
 
 Voc. 
 
 ttKooi 
 
 ttXoI 
 
 Dual 
 
 6o~Tea 
 
 ocna 
 
 N. A. V. 7rAo'a> 
 
 7rXa). 
 
 6ctt€co 
 
 OCTTCO 
 
 G.&D. 
 
 7tX6olu 
 
 7t\o1v 
 
 octtcolv 
 
 OCTTolv. 
 
 29 
 
 Rem. 1. The voc. sing, is sometimes like the nom. ; as, a> Oeos, 
 a> cfiikoS' 
 
 Rem. 2. For examples of adjectives of the Attic declension, am 
 of contract adjectives, see under the adjectives. 
 
 Rem. 3. The masc. and neut. of adjectives and participles in os 
 77, ov are declined like the above nouns with these endings. 
 
 Rem. 4. For the accent, see the general rules and § 11, R. 1. 
 But the gen. sing, of oxytones in cos retains this accent, contrary to 
 the general usage in this declension ; the accent of cideXcpe, also, from 
 adekefios, is irregular. 
 
 EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE. 
 
 7rora/xoy, river. 
 vofios, pasture. 
 
 VOfJLOS, law. 
 
 vovs, mind, 
 cvpos, breadth. 
 Tavpos, bull. 
 
 oIko$, house. 
 
 kLvSwos, danger. 
 Xecta, people. 
 Xaycos-, h are. 
 pohoV) rose, 
 avrpov, cave. 
 
 doypov, gift. 
 
 IfjLdTiov, garment. 
 
 qbappaKov, medicine. 
 koXos, rj, oV, beautiful. 
 aio~xp6s) <*, 6V, shameful* 
 cfiavXoS) 77, 01/, mean. 
 Btios, a, 01/, divine. 
 
 hiKaios, a, 01/, just. 
 
 avdpcomvos, t], ov, human 
 
30 THIRD DECLENSION. [§ 15. 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 THIRD DECLENSION. 
 
 § 15. Classification and Endings of Nouns of the Third 
 
 Declension. 
 
 1. Nouns of the third declension have various endings in 
 the nom., but these are not generally the true endings of the 
 root or stem of the word, s being often added in the nom., 
 and the preceding consonant dropped or changed according to 
 the laws of euphony, or r, kt being rejected from the root or 
 changed into s or p, or the final vowel being changed. The 
 true stem may generally be found in the gen. by rejecting 
 the ending -os. 
 
 Rem. 1. For the changes of consonants before s, and other eu- 
 phonic changes of consonants in declension, see § 4. 
 
 2. The following are the endings of the different cases : — 
 
 Singular. Plural. Dual. 
 
 N. -ors es, neuter a e 
 
 G. OS, (OS COV QIV (Ep. Oliv) 
 
 D. X cri (Ep. ecr(o-)t, Dor. oiv (Ep. oiiv) 
 
 acr(cr)t) 
 
 A. v, a as a € 
 
 V. generally like nom. cs a e 
 
 3. The gen. sing, of nouns in evy, and of most in ??, vs 
 (short), ends in ews-, the t and v of the nom., in the last two 
 endings, being changed to e in all the cases of all numbers, 
 except the ace. and voc. sing. There is the same change of 
 vowel, also, in neuters in X and £, but the gen. sing, almost 
 invariably ends in eos. But in words in evs, when a vowel 
 precedes the ending, the e is generally rejected by contrac- 
 tion in all the cases of the sing, and plur. except before v ; as, 
 Xoevs, xoeW or x°^ s f X oe ' a or X "* 
 
§ 15.] THIRD DECLENSION. 31 
 
 Rem. 2. But in the tragic and comic writers, the genitive sing. 
 of nouns in is is sometimes eos, and in the Ionic and Doric dialects 
 neither the i nor v is changed in the cases. Sometimes, also, these 
 vowels are not changed in the Attic, especially in adjectives in is, i, 
 whose root does not end in a consonant, and in certain poetic nouns, 
 all in is, except ey^eXt; s, which does not change v in the sing. ; as, 
 'id pis, i (gen. tdpios), ydo-rpis, %kdms, drjpis, s lpis, kcktls, fidyabis, 
 urjvis, nopris, etc. 
 
 4. Nouns in evs, is, and vs (short) are all contracted 
 into ei in the dat. sing., and into eis in the nom., ace, and 
 voc. plural (but into vi and vs, from vs — long — in words of 
 more than one syllable) ; while those in X, v, rjs and os 
 (both from cs) are contracted in the dat. singular into et, 
 and in the nom., ace, and voc. plural (the last two in the 
 dual also) into rj ; and in the gen. sing, those in rjs and os 
 into ovs. In most cases the contracted forms are the ones 
 chiefly used in the Attic dialect, except the ace. sing, and 
 plur. from evs. 
 
 5. Nouns in avs and ovs are contracted only in the ace. 
 plur. ; but many neuters in as, whose root ends in r, reject 
 the r, and are then contracted with the preceding vowel in 
 all the cases of all numbers, except in the nom., ace, and 
 voc. sing., and the dat. plur. The nouns to Senas and to o-e\as, 
 too, whose root does not end in r, are contracted in the dat. 
 sing, and the nom., ace, and voc. plur. ; as, o-eha't = o-iXa, 
 
 aeXaa == <reXa. 
 
 6. When the root of mase and fern, nouns ends in a con* 
 sonant (except sometimes, mostly in poetry, where the conso- 
 nant is a tern-mute before the unaccented endings is and vs), 
 the ace sing, ends in the vowel a ; but where it ends in the 
 vowels i, v, av, and ov (from nom. is, vs, avs t and ovs), the ace 
 ends in the consonant v, except in ftovs, evpvs, lx&vs, vavs, and 
 7roXt?, which, in the Epic dialect, not unfrequently have the 
 ace in a. 
 
 7. The voc. sing, is often like the nom. ; but generally like 
 the root, when the root is changed in the nom. by lengthening 
 the final e or o into y or » (which, however, is usually re- 
 
32 
 
 THIRD DECLENSION. 
 
 [§16. 
 
 tained in the voc. when it is accented), or dropping or changing 
 consonants before ? ; as, prjrop (nom. prjrcop), avtp (dvtjp), ylyav 
 (the full form of the root being yiyavr, of which r is dropped, 
 since it cannot stand at the end of a Greek word), plu (from 
 pty, 1. e. pivs). 
 
 Rem. 3. In like manner, also, we have ^AwoXXov, Uoo-eiftov, 
 acorep, although the root of these words ends in a long vowel. 
 The accent, too, in these words, is thrown back to the first syllable, 
 contrary to the general rule. 
 
 8. Also nouns in is, vs, civs, ovs, whose root does not end in 
 a consonant, have the voc. like the root, the s of the nom. 
 being rejected ; the word irais also has iral. 
 
 Rem. 4. The ending 9js is sometimes found in the old Attic, in- 
 stead of the plural ending ees-, els, from nouns in evs ;_ as, pacriXees 
 -els, -rjs. 
 
 N. 
 G. 
 D. 
 A. 
 V. 
 
 N. 
 G. 
 D. 
 A. 
 V. 
 
 §16. Paradigms of Nouns of the Third Declension. 
 
 Singular. 
 6, animal. 6, lion. 17, nose. 17, vein, rj, flame. 6, fj, bird. 
 
 Brjp Xecov pis (piXe^ <fiX6£ opvis 
 
 flrjpos Xeovros pivos (fiXeftos (fiXoyos opviBos 
 
 Brjpi Xeovri ptvi (fiXe^i (pXoyi opviBi 
 
 Brjpa XeovTa piva (fiXefta (j)X6ya opviv (or-#a) 
 
 Brjp Xeov plv <fiXe\js <fiX6£ opvis 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Brjp€S Xeovres pives (fiXc/Bes (fiXoyes opviBes 
 
 Brjpcov XeovTcov pivcov (j)Xe[3cbp (fiXoycov opviBcov 
 
 Brfpcrl Xeov&i picrl (pXeyj/i (pXo£i opvicri 
 
 Brjpas Xeovras plvas (fiXt&as <pX6yas opviBas 
 
 Brjpes Xeovres plves (pXeftes (pXoyes opviBes 
 
 Dual 
 
 Xeovre plve <fiXe[3e (pXoye opviBe 
 
 N.A.V.%<r 
 
 G. &/ D. Bnpolv Xeovroiv pivolv (pXeftolv <j)Xoyo7v opvLBoiV, 
 
§16.] 
 
 THIRD DECLENSION. 
 
 33 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 6, king. 
 
 to, body. 
 
 to, ear. 6, jackal 
 
 6, worm. 6 
 
 , 7) , swine. 
 
 N. 
 
 ava£ 
 
 crcopa 
 
 (a)?) ovs Oojs 
 
 KLS 
 
 crvs 
 
 G. 
 
 CLVCLKTOS 
 
 craparos 
 
 oaros Ocoos 
 
 KLOS 
 
 crvos 
 
 D. 
 
 aVCLKTl 
 
 (japan 
 
 COTL ucol 
 
 icd 
 
 crvi 
 
 A. 
 
 avatcra 
 
 crcopa 
 
 ovs 6ol>a 
 
 KLV 
 
 crvv 
 
 V. 
 
 t r- .>/ 
 ava£, ava 
 
 crwpa 
 
 ovs Sons 
 
 Plural. 
 
 KLS 
 
 crvs 
 
 N. 
 
 avaKT€S 
 
 crcopara 
 
 gotcl flcocs 
 
 KL€S 
 
 aves 
 
 G. 
 
 aVCLKTCOV 
 
 crcopdrcov 
 
 WTCOV 6a>cov 
 
 KL(DV 
 
 ovcov 
 
 D. 
 
 ava£i 
 
 cr&pacri 
 
 » J A ' 
 (OCTL OCOCTL 
 
 KLCTL 
 
 crvcrl 
 
 A. 
 
 aVCLKTCLS 
 
 crcopara 
 
 o)ra 60x1s 
 
 Kias 
 
 crvas 
 
 V. 
 
 avaKTes 
 
 croapara 
 
 wra flues 
 
 Dual 
 
 KL€S 
 
 0~V€S 
 
 N.A.V 
 
 avaKTe 
 avaKTOis 
 
 crwpare 
 
 are 6 one 
 
 Ki€ 
 
 crve 
 
 G. &D. 
 
 croaparoiv 
 
 &TOLV Baoiv 
 
 KLolv 
 
 crvolv. 
 
 
 
 CONTRACTS. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 
 
 i), galley. 
 
 to, race. 6, fish. 
 
 7), echo. 6, 7), sheep. 
 
 N. 
 
 TpLTJpTJS 
 
 ykvos 
 
 lx@vs 
 
 fan 
 
 ois 
 
 G. 
 
 Tpl7]p€OS -ovs yeveos 
 
 -ovs Ix^vos 
 
 tjxoos -ovs 
 
 1 > 
 
 OLOS 
 
 D. 
 
 rpirjpe'i -et 
 
 ykvti - 
 
 €L Ix6vl -vl 
 
 7]X0'i "OL 
 
 oil 
 
 A. 
 
 TpL-qpea ~it] 
 
 yevos 
 
 Ix^vv 
 
 Tjxoa -co 
 
 OLV 
 
 V. 
 
 rpirjpes 
 
 ykvos 
 
 l X 0v 
 Plural. 
 
 t) X oI 
 
 OLS 
 
 N 
 
 TpLTjpees -eis yevea • 
 
 7] IxOves -vs 
 
 like sec. 
 
 -9 
 OL€S 
 
 G. 
 
 rpirjpecov • 
 
 nv yevecov 
 
 •COV Ix^vcov 
 
 dec. 
 
 olcov 
 
 D. 
 
 Tpirjpecn 
 
 yevco-L 
 
 Ixdvo-t, 
 
 
 OLCTL 
 
 A. 
 
 rptrjpeas ~eis yevea • 
 
 7j IxOvas m vs 
 
 
 oiaff, ots 
 
 V. 
 
 TpiT)p€€S "€LS yeV€d • 
 
 •Tj IxOves m vs 
 
 
 ofcs 
 
 
 
 
 Dual. 
 
 
 
 N.A.V 
 
 Tpifjpee -77 
 
 yevee 
 
 •rj lx@ve 
 
 like sec. 
 
 9 
 ote 
 
 G.&D 
 
 , TpirfpeoiP - 
 
 oiv yeveoiv -olv ix^voiv 
 
 dec. 
 
 ololv* 
 
34 
 
 THIRD DECLENSION. 
 
 [§16. 
 
 77, siaie. to, mustard, to, city. 
 
 aarrv 
 
 a<TT€OS 
 
 Singular. 
 6, king. 6, cubit. 77, state. 
 
 N. jSa&ikevs 7ttj\vs noKis a warn 
 
 G. fiao-iktctis 7rr)X €0S ' eo)S noKeos -ecos (Tivaireos 
 
 D. fiacrikel -el tt^X 61 " €L 7r6Xe'i -ei aivaiTei -et aarei -ei 
 
 A. fiavikia -77 7rf)xyv irokiv nivairi ao~rv 
 
 V. /3acrtXeO ^X^ 7rdXt vivcmi aorv 
 
 Plural 
 
 N. /3acri\€€s -eis 7rr)X €€s " €iS voX^cs -as cnvdnea -77 aorea -77 
 
 G. j3ao~i\€CdV 7rr)X €c0V ttoXccov o-Lvanecov do~T€cov 
 
 D. /3acrtXe€cri 7rf)x €(rL 7rdXecri cnvdirtvi aVrccrt 
 
 A. fiao~iXeas -el? 7rr}X eas ~ €LS 7rdXea? -et? o-ivdirea =77 aorea -7/ 
 
 V. /SacrtAee? -ei? 7rT}X €€S " €LS ttoXecs -et? o-ivdrrea -77 aarea -77 
 
 N.A. 
 
 V. 
 
 /SacrtXee 
 
 Trfoee 
 
 7rdXee 
 
 divanee acrree 
 
 G.&D. 
 
 /3ao-tXeoii> 
 
 7T7]X£01V 
 
 iroXeoiv 
 
 (TLvairkoLV dcjTeoiv. 
 
 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 
 
 to, horn. 
 
 
 to, prize. 
 
 Pericles. 
 
 N. 
 
 
 Kepas 
 
 
 yepas 
 
 HepLKXerjs -rjs 
 
 G. 
 
 
 Keparos -paos -pcos 
 
 yepaos -pcos 
 
 JJepiKkeeos -eovs 
 
 D. 
 
 
 K€pciTi -pat ■ 
 
 pa 
 
 yepa'i •pa 
 
 IlepiKkee'i -eet -et 
 
 A. 
 
 
 Kepas 
 
 
 yepas 
 
 ILepLKXeea -ka -77 
 
 V. 
 
 
 Kepas 
 
 
 yepas 
 
 UepUXees -et? 
 
 
 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Socrates. 
 
 N. 
 
 
 Kepara -paa 
 
 •pa 
 
 y'epaa -pa 
 
 ^coKparrfs 
 
 G. 
 
 
 Kepdrcov -pdcov -pcbv 
 
 yepdcov 'pcov 
 
 ScoKpdreos -ovs 
 
 D. 
 
 
 K€pdO~l 
 
 
 yepao~i 
 
 ^coKpdre'L -et 
 
 A. 
 
 
 Kepara -paa 
 
 •pa 
 
 yepaa -pa 
 
 2coKpdrea -77 (also rjv) 
 
 V. 
 
 
 Kepara -paa 
 
 •pa 
 Dual. 
 
 yepaa ~pa 
 
 *2coKpares. 
 
 N.A. 
 
 V 
 
 . Kepare -pae 
 
 •pa 
 
 yepae ~pa 
 
 
 G. & D. Kcpdrow -pdoiv -pcov yepdoiv -pcov. 
 
 Rem. 1. There is one noun in as (viz. aiSoas) declined like 77^0), 
 in the common Attic, and some others in the dialects ; as, r)d>s> Par- 
 
§16.] 
 
 THIRD DECLENSION. 
 
 35 
 
 ticular anomalies and irregularities will be found in the list of anoma- 
 lous nouns to follow. 
 
 Rem. 2. The accent of most monosyllabic nouns and adjectives, 
 instead of remaining as long as the laws of accent will admit, accord- 
 ing to the general rule, upon the same syllable as in the nom., is 
 thrown upon the last syllable in the gen. and dat. of all numbers (see 
 the paradigms). But in some monosyllables the accent is thus 
 changed, without reason, only in the gen. and dat. sing, and dat. 
 plur., viz. in dfias, Bdos, KPA2, nais, 0-779, Tpas* Some words, also, 
 which become monosyllabic by contraction (and a few longer words), 
 change the accent thus to the last syllable, either according to the 
 one or the other of these classes. 
 
 Rem. 3. As to the gender of nouns of this declension there are 
 the following general rules : — 
 
 a) Masculine. All nouns in av, vv, as (gen. avos, avros), cvs, rj£, 
 and most in r\v, cov (covos, ovtos, covtos), np, €ip, vp, cop, ns (tjtos), ovs, 
 cos (coos, cotos, coftos), and \jr. 
 
 b) Feminine. Nouns in as (gen. ados), avs, ivs, vvs, co and cos (6os) 9 
 abstract nouns in ottjs, vttjs, and most in ets, ts and w, vs, and 
 cov (ovos). 
 
 c) Neuter. All nouns in a, rj, op, cop, os, 1, v, and those in ap, as 
 (gen. aros, aos), and contracts in rjp, except 6 tyctp, 6 Xay. 
 
 EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE. 
 
 r) 7riVa£, clkos, tablet, 
 r) a\a>7T77f, eKOSifox. 
 o, riPfe x<fc,.C0ttgft. 
 to crrofia^ aros 1 , mouth. 
 
 to KTrjfMa^ arosi possession. 
 
 r) iXms, tdos, hope, 
 
 7) epty, tSof, strife. 
 
 6 fxtjv^ p,r]v6si month. 
 
 6 XifMTjv^ evos, harbor. 
 
 6 a£cov, ovos, axle. 
 
 r) drjddiVi 6vos 9 nightingale* 
 
 6 ayKeav, avos, elbow. 
 
 to opos, ovs, mountain. 
 
 r) albas, ovs, shame. 
 
 r) veiQco, ovs, persuasion. 
 
 'SocfioKkrjS) eovst Sophocles, 
 yjsevdfjs, ovs, false. 
 7r\f)pr]Si ovs, full. 
 
 6 linrevSi €0)s, horseman. 
 6 fxdpTiS) €cos 9 prophet. 
 
 6 7re\€Kvs, €cos, axe. 
 Taxys, eos, SWlft. 
 
 6 /ivy, v6s, mouse. 
 
 6 cTTaxvsy vos 9 ear of grain, 
 
36 THIRD DECLENSION. [§ 17. 
 
 § 17. Anomalous and Defective Nouns, chiefly of the Third 
 
 Declension. 
 
 Nouns are said to be anomalous, when more or less of 
 their cases are inconsistent with each other in form, accord- 
 ing to the general rules of declension in the language ; they 
 are said to be defective, when they want one or more of their 
 cases. When they have but a single form, they are said to 
 be indeclinable. The following list contains the chief of 
 these nouns in common use, both of the third and the other 
 declensions. 
 
 drjSav, ovos (f], nightingale), reg. ; also Gen. drjbovs, Voc. drjbol. 
 J Ai&7?, ov (6, Hades), reg. ; also Gen. "Mbos, Dat. "A'ibi. 
 okicf), 9)9 (fj, strength), reg. ; also Dat. oXkl. 
 
 ak(f)L (to, meal), for akcfiiTOV or akfyiTa. 
 
 akcos (r), threshing-floor), of the Attic sec. dec. with Ace. oXo ; 
 
 also of the third dec, Gen. coos or covos, etc. 
 dvbpdirobov, ov (to, slave) ; and Dat. Plur. Epic dvbpaTrobto-o-i. 
 
 dvrjp (6, man), G. dvepos dvbpos, D. dvkpi dvbpi, A. dvepa civSpa, 
 V. avep ; Plur. dp6p€S apbpes, G. dvepa>v dvdpcov, D. dvbpdat av- 
 bpearcri, A. dvepas avbpas, V. dvepes avbpes ', Dual dvepe avbpe, avk- 
 poiv dvbpolv. 
 
 dpvos (tov, ttjs, of the lamb, dp,v6s serving as nom.), D. dpvi, reg. 
 
 except D. Plur. dpvdo-i. 
 do-TTjp, €pos (6, star), reg. except D. Plur. do-Tpdo-i. 
 (Bovs (6, f), ox, cow), G. /3oos-, D. /W, A. fiovv (poet, fioa), V. fiov ; 
 
 Plur. fioes, G. j3ow, D. fiova-i (Ep. fceacri), A. (Boas fiovs § 
 
 Dual /3o6, fioolv. 
 yao-Trjp (rj, belly), epos, reg. except being contracted in the G. 
 
 and D. Sing., and having the D. Plur. in ao-i (rare rjpo-i), like 
 
 6vyaTT)p. 
 ye\<os, (dtos or o> (6, laughter), 
 y\d<j)v (to, cave), defective, for ykafyvpov. 
 yoi^u (to, knee), G. yovaros, other cases regular from yovaT- as 
 
 stem, or yovvar- Epic and Ionic ; except that some of the 
 
§ 17.] THIRD DECLENSION. 37 
 
 Epic forms are contracted ; as, G. yowos, D. yowl ; Plur. 
 N. yovva, G. yovvcov, D. yovvacri. 
 
 ypavs (17, old woman), G. ypaos, etc., after the analogy of /3o€y. 
 But in the Ionic it becomes yprjvs or yprjvs', and so in the 
 other cases. 
 
 yvvrj (f), woman), G. ywatKos, D. yvvaiK.1, A. ywal/ca, V. yvvai ; 
 Plur. ywalfces, G. yvvaiKcov, D. yvvai^i, A. yvvalzas, V. -yvj/atKes" ; 
 Dual yvi/cu*e, ywatKoti/. In the comic writers ywi) is some- 
 times declined as though of the first declension. 
 
 haKpvov (to, a tear), reg., and the older poetic form bdicpv, from 
 which the D. Plur. baKpvm, found in Attic prose, comes. 
 
 Sepais (to, body), defective. 
 
 devdpov (to, tree), ov, reg. ; also bevbpeo-i, deubprj, from to bevdpos. 
 
 deo-noTrjs (6, master), ov, reg., and also A. Sing, and Plur. deano- 
 Tea, deanoTeas. 
 
 ArjprjTrjp (fj, Demeter). Like the Sing, of BvyaTrjp. 
 
 dopv (to, spear). Like yow, with the additional poetic forms 
 
 G. bopos, D. bopi, N. Plur. boprj. 
 bco (to, house), Epic for bcop,a, bcbp,aTa. 
 
 cIkcov (fj, image), ovos, reg. ; also G. elicovs, A. cIkco, PI. A. elicovs. 
 Zevs (6, Zeus, Jupiter), G. Aids, D. Ad, A. Ala, V. Zev. Also 
 
 Zr\v, Zrjvos, Zrjvi, Zrjva. 
 
 fjpcos (6, hero), coos, reg. ; also D. fjpcp, A. tfpco, A. PL rjpcos. 
 
 QaXrjs, G. QaXeco, D. Oa\fj, A. QaXrjv ; later 9aXoO and QoX^tos^ 
 -tjtl, -r]Ta. 
 
 Bepts, ibos, 10s, ltos, lo-Tos (r), justice), A. Bepiv ; also the form Bepis 
 
 as the subject of an infin. in Homer. 
 deparrcov, ovtos (6, attendant), reg. ; and also A. Sing. Sepaira, N. 
 
 Plur. Bepanes. 
 
 BvyaTrjp (r), daughter), G. BvyaTepos OvyaTpos, D. BvyaTepi Bvyarpl, 
 A. BvyaTtpa BvyaTpa (poetic), V» Bvyarep ; Plur. N. BvyaTepes 
 BvyaTpes (poetic), G. BvyaTepcov BvyaTpwv (poetic), D. BvyaTpa- 
 o-fc, A. BvyaTepas, V. BvyaTepes; Dual Bvyarepe, BvyaTepoiv. 
 
 IktIvqs, ov (6, hawk), reg. ; and also, A. licriva, N. PL iKrtz/es. 
 
 Kapa, Ion. *ap?7 (to, ifAe head), G. KaprjTos KpdaTOS Kparos KaprjaTOS 
 
 ' 4 
 
38 THIRD DECLENSION. [§ 17, 
 
 and rrjs Kparos, D. KaprjTi Kpdan Kpari Kaprjari Kapa Kaprj, A. Kapa 
 Kaprj, and to or tov Kpaxa ; PI. N. Kapfjara Kapa, G. Kparcov, D. 
 Kpacri, A. Kaprjara Kpdara and tovs Kparas. 
 
 Kkdbos, ov (6, bough), reg. ; and D. Sing. jc\a&', D. Plur. KXaSeo-i. 
 
 KXei's (Ion. KXrjts, old Att. KA^y), (77, Are?/), G. /cAeiSos (Kkrjtdos, 
 
 icXydos)) reg. ; but also A. KXaz>, PL N. and A. kXcIs. 
 koivcdvos (6 and rj, partaker), ov, reg. ; but also, N. and A. PL 
 
 Koivcoves, Kotvcovas. 
 Kpivov (to, lily), ov, reg. ; also Plur. N. Kplvea, D. Kpivecn. 
 kvcov (6, 77, dog, bitch), G. kwos, D. kwL, A. Kui>a, V. ktW ; PL 
 
 N. kvvcs, G. kvvgzv, D. Kucrt, A. Kwas ; Dual kvv€, kvvoIv. 
 Xaas, Xas (6, Stone), G. Xoos 1 Aaov, D. XaV, A. Xaav \au \aa (rare), 
 
 D. PL \deaai. 
 AtVa (to, oil), used chiefly as a Dat. 
 /laA^ (armpit), a defective Gen. 
 fidprvs, later fxdprvp (6, witness), vpos, reg. from the last form ; 
 
 also fidpTvv occasionally in A. Sing. 
 fiTjrrjp (tj, mother), like dvydrrjp, but not contracted in the Plur. 
 
 except in the Dat. 
 vavs (rj, ship), vaos, reg. like ypavs. But Attic G. veas, D. vr)t t 
 
 A. vavv ; PL N. i^es, G. i>ea>j>, D. vavvi, A. z>aOs ; Dual G. D. 
 
 veolv. The Ionic changes a into 77 ; as, j^Oy, i^os, i^i*, i^a ; it 
 
 has, too, G. veos, A. via ; PL N. rees, G. vecov, A. j/eay ; Dual 
 
 G. D. veolv. 
 OlbtiTOvs (6, (Edipus) , G. Oldlrrodos, Ol$i7rov, Oi§t7ro§ao, Oi&7roSa, 
 
 OiSt7ro5ea), D. OlbiTTodc, Oldnrodr), A. Oidinoda, Olb'nrovv, Olbnro- 
 
 hrjv, V . OiStVov, OtSi7roSa. 
 
 oveipov (to, dream), or oveipos, ov, reg. ; but commonly G. <W- 
 paTos, D. ovelpciTi ; PL N. and A. SvelpaTa oveipa (rare), G. 
 
 oveipaTcov, D. oveipao-i, derived from to orap. 
 
 opz/ir (see the paradigm) ; also PL N. opveis opvis, G. opveav. 
 
 naTrjp (6, father), like \ir\rr\p. 
 
 Uvv^ (fj, Pnyx, place of meeting for the Athenian Assem- 
 bly), G. Uvkvos, etc., from the stem ttvkv. Only later Uw 
 k6s, etc. 
 
§ 17.] THIRD DECLENSION. 39 
 
 TrpeorPevrrjs (6, ambassador), ov, reg. in Sing. ; but PL N. and 
 
 A. Trpeo-jSeis, G. 7rpeo-/3ea)i/, D. 7rpeo-/3ecri, from irpecrfivs. 
 7rp€orj3vTT]s (6, oZtZ man), ov, reg. ; but also irpeo-fivs, A. irpio-fivv, 
 
 V. Trpko-fiv ; PL N. 7rpeo-/3ets. 
 7Tp6(Tco7TOV (to, face), ov t reg. ; also N. PL 7rpocra>7rara, D. 7rpoo~a>- 
 
 7ra<7t. 
 npoxoos (17., pitcher) , oov, reg. ; also D. PL irpoxovcri. 
 Trvp (to, fire), 7Tvp6$, reg. ; also PL nvpd, G. irvpcov, D. irvpols, 
 o~f)s (6, moth), creos, later o^tos. 
 
 o-Itos (6, grain), ov, reg. in. Sing., but Plur. orra (rtria (rare). 
 o-raStoi/ (to, stade), ov, etc. ; but Plur. more commonly ora&oi. 
 o-radfios (6, station, stall) ; Plur. o-ratf/xoi and arTaOfid. 
 otixos (6, row), ov, reg. ; also G. r^s o-rtxos'j D. 777 cmxh etc. 
 ray; as a> rdV, goocZ siY, O friend, sometimes, O friends, 
 raws (6, peacock), reg. of Attic sec. dec. ; but also N. PL raoi, 
 
 and some forms as if from raw, avos. 
 rtypis, 10s or idos (6, rj, tiger), reg. except PL N. rLypeis, G. rt- 
 
 ypeoov. 
 
 vdap (to, water), G. v&zroy, D. u6an vd« (rare) ; PL N. and A. 
 
 vdaTa, G. vbaTcov, D. vdacri. 
 vlos (6, son), ov, reg. Also G. ineos, D. vU7, etc., like fiao-ikevs. 
 
 And Epic, G. vlbsr, D. v«, A. via ; PL N. vies, D. i/Jeo-i or 
 
 vtdo't, A. via?; Dual vie. 
 vo~p.lvT] (r), battle), rjs, reg. ; but also D. vapuvi. 
 XeLp (17, hand), x €t P°*i re g- except x^P^ Dat. Plur. Also the 
 
 poetic forms, G. x c P° s > D. x e /> l '» Dual x € P°~ lv ' 
 X&idav (rj, swallow), 6vos, reg. ; also V. xeXtdoi. 
 xpecoy (to, debt), G. ^peas ; also G. xp^ ovs t e ^ c "> re S- fr° m XP* 0S * 
 xp&s (6, skin), G. xp<° T °$i D. x/>a>Ti ( a l so X/ 3 *?* i* 1 tne Phrase 
 
 «* XP<?)> etc - 
 
40 DECLENSION OF THE ADJECTIVE. [§ 18. 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 DECLENSION AND COMPARISON OF THE ADJECTIVE AND ADVERB. 
 
 § 18. Classification of Adjectives and Participles. 
 
 1. Adjectives either have a separate ending for each of 
 the three genders, or one in common for the masc. and fern, 
 and one for the neuter, or one for the masc. and fern, and 
 none for the neuter. But all participles have three endings. 
 
 2. The special feminine forms of all adjectives and partici- 
 ples are declined like feminine nouns of the first declension, 
 while all masculine forms in os (cos Attic), together with the 
 neuter forms in ov (o>i> Attic), in the same words, are declined 
 after the second declension, and all other forms of the mascu- 
 line and neuter of adjectives and participles, after the third 
 declension. 
 
 3. The rules, therefore, which have been given for the 
 declension of nouns apply equally to the declension of adjec- 
 tives and participles. 
 
 Rem. 1. The principal difference between the declension of the 
 participle and the adjective or nonn is, that the voc. masc. of partici- 
 ples is always the same as the nom. 
 
 4. Most adjectives in os (with almost no exceptions in com- 
 paratives and superlatives) have three endings ; yet many 
 compound adjectives and some primitives have but two end- 
 ings, especially in Attic writers and the poets. 
 
 5. Adjectives in as*, qy, eis, us, and of those in o>z>, £k&» and 
 aKoov, have three endings. 
 
 6. Adjectives in eo?, ea, eov and o'oc, 6r] (6a with a p before 
 o), 6ov may be contracted into ovs, r) (ea in a, when p pre- 
 cedes), ovv, and then declined like contract nouns of the 
 first and second declensions with the same endings. 
 
 7. Adjectives in rjs, es ; is, t ; cos, cov (of the Attic sec. dec.) ; 
 coy, ov (except €kg>v, aKcov), and those in ovs, avv, compounds of 
 voiis and 7rXoi)y, have only two endings. 
 
§19.] 
 
 DECLENSION OF THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 41 
 
 § 19. Paradigms of Adjectives and Participles. 
 
 I. WITH THREE ENDINGS. 
 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 
 
 Plural. 
 
 
 N. 
 
 KaX6s 
 
 KaXrj 
 
 KaXov 
 
 
 KaXoi 
 
 KaXal 
 
 KaXd 
 
 G. 
 
 KaXov 
 
 KaXrjs 
 
 KaXov 
 
 
 KaXcbv 
 
 KaXcop 
 
 KaXcov 
 
 D. 
 
 
 KaXfj 
 
 KaXS 
 
 c 
 
 
 KaXols 
 
 KaXals 
 
 KaXols 
 
 A. 
 
 KaXov 
 
 KaXfjv 
 
 Kakov 
 
 
 KaXov s 
 
 KaXds 
 
 KaXd 
 
 V. 
 
 KaAe 
 
 Kakf) 
 
 KaXov 
 
 Dual. 
 
 KaXoi 
 
 KaXal 
 
 KaXd 
 
 
 
 N. A. 
 
 V. KOXA 
 
 (m. 
 
 &> n.) KaX 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 G. D. 
 
 KaXolv (m 
 
 . &/ D.) KaX 
 
 axv» 
 
 
 Rem. 1. When e, t, or p precedes os, the fern, has a throughout, 
 as in the noun. All participles in os are declined as the above. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 N. 
 
 Tras 
 
 Tracra 
 
 irav 
 
 iravres 
 
 irao-ai 
 
 irdpra 
 
 G. 
 
 iravros 
 
 TTao-rjs 
 
 TtaVTOS 
 
 TrdvTcov 
 
 TraoSiV 
 
 iravrcov 
 
 D. 
 
 Travrl 
 
 Trdcrrj 
 
 iravri 
 
 ttckti 
 
 irdcrais 
 
 ttclo-l 
 
 A. 
 
 navra 
 
 Travai 
 
 TTCLV 
 
 irdvras 
 
 irdo-as 
 
 irdvTa 
 
 V. 
 
 7TCLS 
 
 Traa-a 
 
 TTCLV 
 
 7TaVT€S 
 
 iraa-ai 
 
 Tvdvra 
 
 Dual. 
 N. A. V. ivavre (m. &, n.) wdo-a 
 G. D. Tvdvroiv (m..&> n.) Trdo-aiv. 
 
 Rem. 2. The other two adjectives iu as, /xeXas and rdXas (G. 
 avos), have a lengthened ending for the fern, in aiva\ and, in like 
 manner, the two adjectives in rjv, reprjv and apo-qv or apprjv (G. evos)', 
 have a lengthened ending in eiva. All participles in as are declined 
 like the above ; also, participles in vs, vaa, vv ; as, detKvvs deiKvvaa 
 deiKvvv, G. vvtos, vo-qs. 
 
 N. x a P^ €ls 
 G. xapUvros 
 D. x a p' L€VrL 
 A. x a P l£VTa 
 V. x a P uv 
 
 Singular. 
 
 XapUcrcra x a P L€V 
 
 Xapieo-o-rjs x a P L€VT0S 
 
 Xapieoraj] x a P l€VTl 
 
 XapUcrcrav x a P l€V 
 
 XapUcraa x a P l€V 
 
 Plural. 
 
 XapUvTcs x a P^ €<TcraL X a p' L€VTa 
 
 Xapievrcov x a P L€0 ~°'^ >u X a P l * VT( * >v 
 
 XapUvi x a P i * (TO ' aLS X a p' L€a ' 1 
 
 XapUvras x a P L ^ (T0 ' as X a P l€VTa 
 
 Xapievres x a P^ €(rcra1 ' X a P l€VTa 
 
42 
 
 DECLENSION OE THE ADJECTIVE, 
 
 [§19, 
 
 Dual. 
 N. A. V. x a p' l€VT€ ( m » &> n -) x a P l * (r(Ta 
 G. D. x a P L * VTOlv ( m » & n.) xapikatraiv. 
 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 
 Plural. 
 
 
 N. 
 
 Xvdeis 
 
 \vBeUra 
 
 XvBev 
 
 XvBevres 
 
 XvBelo-ai 
 
 XvBevra 
 
 G. 
 
 XvBevros 
 
 XvBeiarjs 
 
 XvBeVTOS 
 
 XvBtVrCDV 
 
 XvBeiCTUV 
 
 XvBevrcov 
 
 D. 
 
 XvBevri 
 
 XvBelo-g 
 
 XvBkvTl 
 
 XvBelcri 
 
 XvBeiaais 
 
 XvBelo-f, 
 
 A. 
 
 XvBevra 
 
 XvBelcrav 
 
 XvBev 
 
 XvBevras 
 
 XvBelo~as 
 
 XvBevra 
 
 V. 
 
 XvBels 
 
 XvBelcra 
 
 XvBev 
 
 XvBevres 
 
 XvBelaai, 
 
 XvBevra 
 
 Rem. 
 
 Dual. 
 N. A. V. XvBevre (m. & II.) XvBelaa 
 G. D. XvBevroiv (m. &/ n.) XvBelcraiv, 
 
 3. All participles in eis are declined like XvBeis ; also par- 
 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 N. 
 
 Xvcov 
 
 Xvovo-a 
 
 G. 
 
 XvOVrOS 
 
 Xvovcrqs 
 
 D. 
 
 XvOVTl 
 
 Xvovo"rj 
 
 A. 
 
 Xvovra 
 
 Xvovcrav 
 
 V. 
 
 XllCOV 
 
 Xvovaa 
 
 
 Plural. 
 
 
 Xvovres 
 
 Xvovo~ai 
 
 Xvovra 
 
 Xvovrcov 
 
 Xvovo-cqv 
 
 XvOVTCOV 
 
 Xvovcri 
 
 Xvovo^ais 
 
 Xvovcri. 
 
 Xvovras 
 
 Xvovaas 
 
 Xvovra 
 
 Xl)OVT€S 
 
 Xvowai 
 
 Xvovra 
 
 ticiples in ovs, ovaa, 6v ; as, didovs, bidovcra, diftov, Gf. ovros, ovo~r}s. 
 Some adjectives in eis (like vaptets-) with rj or o before eis contract the 
 rj or o with that ending, making fjs, rjo~cra, r)v, and ous, ovaaa, ovv 
 (Ep. uncontracted, oeiv). 
 
 Xvov 
 
 Xvovros 
 
 Xvovri 
 
 Xvov 
 
 Xvov 
 
 Dual. 
 N. A. V. Xvovre (m. &L n.) Xvova-a 
 G. D. Xi/oiroiz> (m. & n.) Ai/ouo"aij/. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 icXivovora kXlvovv kXivovvtcs Kkivovcrai Kkivovvra 
 
 G. kXivovvtos kXivovotjs kXivovvtos kXivovvtcdv kXivovctcdv kXivovvtcdv 
 D. kXivovvtl kXivovcttj kXivovvti kXivovcti Kkivovcrais kXivovcti 
 KXivovo-av kXivovv KXivovvras Kkivovo~as Kkivovvra 
 
 KXivovcra kXivovv kXivovvtcs Kkivovo-ai Kkivovvra 
 
 Dual. 
 N. A. V. kXivovvtc (m. & n.) KXivovcra 
 G. D. kXivovvtoiv (m. &/ n.) Kkivovcraw. 
 
 N. kX 
 
 IVCOV 
 
 A. Kkivovvra 
 V. kXivcdv 
 
§19.] 
 
 DECLENSION OF THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 43 
 
 Rem. 4. All un contracted participles in a>v are declined like 
 Xvcov, except that the part, of the second aor. starts with the accent 
 on the last syllable in the nom. The fut. part, of liquid verbs, and 
 the contracted forms of the part, of contracted verbs in eoo and oo>, are 
 declined like kKlvcov ; but the contracted form of the part, of verbs in 
 aco retains co throughout; as, Ttficov Tifxcocra rifxcov, G. TifMcovros rifxcocrrjs 
 TifjicovTos, etc. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 N. 
 
 TjCJVS 
 
 TjOeia 
 
 fjftv 
 
 rjdees 
 
 -els 
 
 rjdelai 
 
 rjdia 
 
 G. 
 
 rjtjeos 
 
 fjdelas 
 
 rjdeos 
 
 TjCJ€Ct)V 
 
 
 rjheitov 
 
 fjftecov 
 
 D. 
 
 rjde'i -el 
 
 rjdela 
 
 f) Set -et 
 
 r}becrL 
 
 
 Tjdeiais 
 
 fjdecri 
 
 A. 
 
 rjdvv 
 
 fjbeiav 
 
 rjdv 
 
 fjdeas 
 
 -et? 
 
 f)8elas 
 
 rjdea 
 
 V. 
 
 ■fjdv 
 
 rjbela 
 
 f)dv 
 
 77 Sees 
 
 -els 
 
 rjdelai 
 
 ■qbia 
 
 Dual. 
 N. A. V. r)8U (m. &, n.) rjdela G. D. rjdioiv (m. & n.) $Maiv. 
 
 Rem. 5. The* forms in ea, in the neut. plur., are not contracted 
 in adjectives th vs, it will be observed, as they are in neuter nouns in 
 v of the third dec. ; nor is the Attic ending ecos used in the gen. sing, 
 masc, as it is in nouns. In the Ionic dialect the fern, form is gener- 
 ally ea or ctj instead of eta ; and in the Epic the masc. form is often 
 used as fem. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 XeXvKores XeXu/ctnat XeXvKora 
 
 XekvKOTcov XcXvkvlcov XeXvKOTCOV 
 
 XeXvKocrL XekvKvlais XeXvKocri 
 
 XeXvKoras XzXvKvias XeXvKora 
 
 \e\vKOT€s XeXv/cutat XeXvKora 
 
 Singular. 
 N. XeXvicas XeXvicvla XeXvKos 
 G. XcXvkotos XeXvKvias XcXvkotos 
 D. XcXvkoti XeXvKvla XcXvkotl 
 A. XeXvKora XeXvicvlav XzXvkos 
 V. XeXvicas XeXvKvla XeXvKos 
 
 Dual. 
 N. A. V. XeXweore (m. & n.) 
 
 G. D. 
 
 XeXvicvia 
 XcXvkotolv (m. & n.) XeXvKvlaiv. 
 
 
 
 Singular 
 
 
 
 Plural. 
 
 
 N. 
 
 XPV(T€0S 
 
 Xpvcrea 
 
 Xpvcreov 
 
 XpvcreoL 
 
 Xpvcreat, 
 
 Xpvcrea 
 
 
 Xpvcrovs 
 
 Xpvrf 
 
 Xpvcrovv 
 
 Xpvcrol 
 
 Xpvcral 
 
 Xpvcra 
 
 G. 
 
 Xpvarov 
 
 Xpwrjs 
 
 Xpvcrov 
 
 XpvcrSv 
 
 Xpvcrcov 
 
 Xpvcrcov 
 
 D. 
 
 Xpvao} 
 
 Xpvafj 
 
 Xpwa 
 
 Xpvcrols 
 
 Xpvcrals 
 
 Xpvcrols 
 
 A. 
 
 Xpvcrovv 
 
 Xpvrfv 
 
 Xpvcrovv 
 
 Xpvcrovs 
 
 Xpvcras 
 
 Xpvcra 
 
 T. 
 
 Xpvcrovs 
 
 Xpvcrrj 
 
 Xpvcrovv 
 
 Xpvcrol 
 
 Xpvcral 
 
 Xpvcra 
 
44 
 
 DECLENSION OF THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 [§19. 
 
 Dual 
 
 N. A. V. xp v ™ ( m - & n -) xp v(T °- 
 G. D. xp v(T0 ^ v ( m - ^ n xP V(Ta ^ v * 
 
 Rem. 6. The contracted forms of adjectives in 60?, or), 6ov are de- 
 clined in the same way ; when uncontracted, they are declined like 
 Kakos. But when the feminine ending ea is preceded by p it is con- 
 tracted into a, while 6rj, when p precedes, becomes 6a, and is not gen- 
 erally contracted. 
 
 N. 
 G. 
 D. 
 A. 
 V. 
 
 Rem. 7. The compounds of ttovs have ow in the ^neuter after the 
 analogy of this form, but in the oblique cases they generally have 
 the endings of ttovs (-odos, oSt, etc.), but sometimes ov, e'lc. 
 
 
 II, 
 
 WITH 
 
 TWO ENDINGS. 
 
 
 Singular. 
 evvovs evvovv 
 
 
 Plural, 
 evvot evvoa 
 
 Dual 
 
 N. A. V, 
 
 evvov 
 
 
 
 evvcov 
 
 €VV(0 
 
 CVVCO 
 
 
 
 evvois 
 
 
 €VVOW 
 
 
 
 evvovs evvoa 
 
 G. D. 
 
 GVVOVS €VVOVV 
 
 
 evvoi evvoa 
 
 evvoiv. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural 
 
 Dual 
 
 N. tXecos 
 
 tXecov 
 
 tXeo) tXeco 
 
 N. A. V, 
 
 G. TXeco 
 
 
 tXecov 
 
 tAeo) 
 
 D. tXecp 
 
 
 tXecos 
 
 
 A. tXecov 
 
 
 tXecos tXeco 
 
 G. D. 
 
 V. tXecos 
 
 rXe<0Z> 
 
 tXeo) 4 A 60) 
 
 tXeo)*/. 
 
 Rem. 8. The 
 
 v in the ace. 
 
 sing, is sometimes drop 
 
 iped here also. 
 
 as in nouns. The compounds of ye'Aco? and Ktpas sometimes follow 
 this form, and sometimes the third declension ; as, rpUepcos (G. o> or 
 cdtos), (pcXoyeXcos (G. o> or <oros). UXecos has a fern, form also, irXea, 
 G. irXeas, etc. 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural 
 
 
 Dual. 
 
 N. 
 
 tt€ttcov 
 
 TTtTTOV 
 
 TTeTToves 
 
 irkirova 
 
 N. A. V. 
 
 G. 
 
 TTCTTOVOS 
 
 7T€TT0V0S 
 
 7T€TT0VC0V 
 
 TreTTOVCOV 
 
 Tveirove 
 
 D. 
 
 7T€TT0VL 
 
 ttzttovi 
 
 7T€7TOCri 
 
 7T€7TOO-l 
 
 
 A. 
 
 Trenova 
 
 TTtTTOV 
 
 neTrovas 
 
 Trerrova 
 
 G. D. 
 
 V. 
 
 TTeTTOV 
 
 TT€TTOV 
 
 TT€TTOV€S 
 
 neTrova 
 
 7T€TT0V01V. 
 
 Rem. 9. Comparatives in cov, ov are declined in this way, except 
 that the voc. masc. is like the nom., and the ending ova in the ace. 
 sing, and nom., ace, and voc. plural is often contracted into co, and the 
 endings oves, ovas (nom., ace, and voc. pi.) into ovs ; as, peifav 
 ova, (D, -oves, ovs. 
 
*19.] 
 
 DECLENSION OF THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 45 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 N. d\r]6f)s dXrjSes 
 
 dXrjOecs -els 
 
 dXrjdea -rj 
 
 G. aXrjdeos -ovs \ dXrjSecov • 
 
 (DV 
 
 D. akrjOei -el 
 
 a^J7#eo"£ 
 
 
 A. aknOea -fj aKr]Bes 
 
 d\r]6eas -eis* 
 
 dXrjdea -rj 
 
 V. aXrjOes 
 
 as the nom. 
 
 
 Dwa^. 
 
 
 N. A. V. dXrjBee -i) 
 
 G. D. akr]6eoLV -oiv 
 
 . 
 
 Rem. 10. But when a vowel precedes ia the contraction is into a 
 
 instead of 77 ; as, vyua -a. 
 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Dual. 
 
 N. Tp6(f>lS Tp6(j)L 
 
 Tp6(pL€S Tp6(j)ia 
 
 N. A. V. 
 
 (jr. Tp6(j)lOS 
 
 TpO<p'lG)V 
 
 rp6<pt€ 
 
 D. rpocjyu -t 
 
 Tp6(pL(Tl 
 
 
 A. Tp6qblV . TpOCpL 
 
 rpo(j)ias -is rp6(f)ia 
 
 G. D. 
 
 V. rpocpi 
 
 Tp6<fil€S TpOCpia 
 
 TpO(filOlV. 
 
 Rem. 11. But compound adjectives in is, which have a noun for 
 their last component part, as well as other adjectives thus compounded, 
 generally follow the declension of that noun, rejecting the finals' (when 
 there is one, and shortening the final vowels in other cases) to form 
 the neuter ; as, ev^apis, 1, G. ltos (like x^P LS ) 5 ^vcXttis, i,G. idos (like 
 i\7rls). So, also, fjLeyaXrjTcop, op, G. opos (rjrop, opos). In imitation 
 of these forms, simple adjectives in is, 1 sometimes have in poetry a 
 declension in idos, idi, etc. ; and the compounds of ttoXis generally 
 have this form, though the noun ttoXis does not. 
 
 Rem. 12. Adjectives of one ending are declined like nouns of 
 either the first or third declension, and are either masculine, feminine, 
 or common (rarely neuter), and used mostly without a noun ; as, 
 6 7revr]s, rjros (poor, poor man), 6, r) (fivyds, ados (fugitive, a fugitive, 
 whether male or female). 
 
 III. WITH IRREGULAR ENDINGS. 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 
 Plural. 
 
 
 N. TTpaos 
 
 irpatia 
 
 Trpdov 
 
 TTpdoi 
 
 TTpaeis TTpaeiai 
 
 irpaea 
 
 G. Trpdov 
 
 TTpaeias 
 
 Trpdov 
 
 TTpaeoov 
 
 TTpa€l(OV 
 
 Trpaecov 
 
 D. irpdco 
 
 Trpaeia 
 
 irpdco 
 
 TTpdois 
 
 TTpaeo'i TTpaeiais 
 
 TTpaiai 
 
 A. irpdov 
 
 irpaeiav 
 
 irpdov 
 
 Trpdov s 
 
 Tvpaeis TTpatias 
 
 TTpaea 
 
 V. irpde 
 
 Trpafia 
 
 Trpdov 
 
 TTpdoi 
 
 Dual. 
 
 Trpaels irpafiai 
 
 Trpaea 
 
 N.A.V. 
 
 Trpdco (m. 
 
 & n.) TTpacla G. D. 
 
 TTpdoiv (m. &. n.) 
 
 TTpaeiaiv. 
 
46 
 
 COMPARISON OF 
 
 THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 [§20. 
 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 N. TToXvS 
 
 ttoXXt] 
 
 TToXv 
 
 pceyas peydXrj 
 
 fxeya 
 
 Gr. woWov 
 
 noXXjjs 
 
 TToXXoV 
 
 peydXov peydXrjs 
 
 peyaXov 
 
 D. 7roXXc3 
 
 TToXXjj 
 
 TToXXcO 
 
 /xeyaXa) fxcydXij 
 
 fxeydXco 
 
 A. TToXllV 
 
 7ToXXr)V 
 
 7ToXlf 
 
 fxeyav p.€ydXr)v 
 
 \xkya 
 
 V. 7T0\v 
 
 7roWr) 
 
 7ToXv 
 
 fJLeya p.€ydXrj 
 
 Likya. 
 
 Rem. 13. The plural and dual of these adjectives are regular, 
 from the forms peydXos, 77, ov and noXXos, 77, oj>, from which, it will 
 be seen, the entire fern, and the gen. and dat. sing, are taken. In the 
 Epic dialect noXvs is declined regularly like other adjectives in vs, 
 and in the Ionic, woXXos ; in Homer we find a mixture of both forms. 
 
 Rem. 14. Besides the above, there are some other anomalous 
 adjectives ; as, N. 6 <rcbs, r) o-cos o~d (rare), to ow, A. tov, ttjv a&v ; Pi. 
 rovs acos, to. era. Regular form crcoos, a, ov (safe). Also, N. ivs tjvs, 
 neuter iv rjij ev (good), G. crjos, A. ivv rjvv ; PI. G. idcov. 
 
 Rem. 15. As to the accent, it is regulated by the same princi- 
 ples as in nouns of the same declension ; but the voc. and neuter 
 sing, of all adjectives of three or more syllables in cov, G. ovos, and 
 some compounds in ??$•, G. eos, have the accent on the antepenult ; as, 
 cvdaifxov (from evbalpcov) , e^diov ; KaKorfOes (from KaKorjdrjs). 
 
 EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE. 
 
 In making exercises these may be taken with the nouns in the preceding examples. 
 
 
 rdXas, wretched. 
 j3apvs, heavy. 
 rkpr}v, tender. 
 €vo-€I3t)Si -es, pious, 
 agios, worthy, 
 lo-rdsy stationing, 
 rifxrjeis, honored. 
 
 /3eX™W, -ov, better. 
 cf)vyds, fugitive, 
 pddws, easy, 
 crdxppcov, "ov, wise, 
 didovs, giving, 
 deaevvs, showing. 
 
 t€tvcJ)g>s, having struck. 
 tvttcdv, striking, 
 dpyvpeos, of silver. 
 8lttX6os, double. 
 'IBpis, *, knowing. 
 riSeis, placing. 
 
 
 § 20. Comparison of Adjectives. 
 The common forms for the comparative and superlative 
 
 are. 
 
 -T€pos, repa, repov (comparative), 
 -raros, Tarrj, rarov (superlative), 
 
 which are generally annexed to the positive without much 
 change. 
 
§ 20,] COMPARISON OF THE ADJECTIVE. 47 
 
 1. Most adjectives in os cast off y and receive these endings 
 without any further change, when the syllable before os is 
 long by nature or position (a mute and liquid generally mak- 
 ing position here) ; as, tcr^vpoy, -porepos, -poraros, /za/epoy, -pore- 
 poy, -poTaTos. But where the preceding syllable is short (except 
 in K€v6s, <tt€v6s)i the final o becomes co on receiving these end- 
 ings ; as, e^upoy, -pG)T€pOS, -patTCLTOS. 
 
 Rem. 1. Adjectives in eos and ooy, if compared without contrac- 
 tion, would, according to the preceding rule, simply cast off y and 
 lengthen o into co, which is often done in those in ooy ; but those in 
 eos reject also the e before co, and those in oos generally form the com- 
 parative and superlative by rejecting os and adding ear epos, eararos, 
 which are commonly contracted with the preceding o into ovcrrepos, 
 
 OVCTTCLTOS ', aS, 7TOp(f)Vp€OS {-p€COT€pOS, -p€GdTCLTOs), -p&TEpOS, -pCOTCLTOS ', 
 
 cbrXooy, a7rkoa>T€pos, cbrAocoraroy , also (-oeorepoy, -oeararos), a7rkov- 
 orepoy, aTrXovararos. 
 
 Rem. 2. The adjective yepaios regularly rejects os before annex- 
 ing the comparative and superlative endings ; sometimes, also, naXaios 
 and cr^oAatoy and (plXos ; as, yepaios, -alrepos, -alraros ; (plXos, (filXre- 
 pos, -raroy. So, also, irepalrepos, from rrepa. 
 
 Rem. 3. The adjectives fxeaos, o^ios, evdios {'ibios in Attic writ- 
 ers), tcroy, Trapa7r\f)o-ios, generally rjcrvxos, and sometimes qblXos, sub- 
 stitute at for o on adding the comparative and superlative endings ; as, 
 p.eo~os, -air epos, -alraros. 
 
 Rem. 4. Some adjectives in os change*)? into is or es and add the 
 comparative and superlative endings to these ; as, XdAoy (XaXlarepos, 
 -raros), nrco^os ; acfiBovos (es, but sometimes co), aicpdros, eppco/xeVoy, 
 aafievos, €7ri7recW. 
 
 2. Adjectives in rjs, -ey, G. eos (except yj/vSrjs), ay, -av (also 
 lid/cap), and most in vy, -«a, -v, add repos and raros to the neuter; 
 as, o*a(j)f)Si aa(j)ear€pos 9 'raros ; o£vy, -urepoy, -raros ; /xeXay, -aVre- 
 pos, -raros* 
 
 3. Adjectives in eis reject the i and then add repos and raroy ; 
 as, ^apt'ety, ^aptecrrepoy, -raroy. 
 
 4. Adjectives ending in £, coi>, oz/, and qy (gen. ov) add ecrre- 
 poy, ecrraroy, sometimes Icrrepos, t'oraroy, to the Stem, which is 
 found in the neuter, or by rejecting the genitive ending ; as, 
 apirat; (G. ay-oy), apiray la-re poy, -tcrraroy. 
 
 Rem. 5. The compounds of x<*P LS a dd co to the root before adding 
 repos and raros ; as, eVtxapty (G. troy), €7rt^aptr-co-repoy, -coraroy. 
 
48 
 
 COMPARISON OF THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 [§20. 
 
 5. A few adjectives in vs (chiefly fjftvs and raxvs in the com- 
 mon language) and pos (chiefly alxpds and €x@pos) drop these 
 endings and add Icov (sometimes o-cov) and icrros for the com- 
 parative and superlative ; as, rjdvs, rfiicav (neut. rjdiov), rjdicrros ; 
 alcrxpds, alaxicov. alcrxLuros 5 raxvs, ra^icoz/ (AttlC BdcrcrcDv) , rdx^crros. 
 
 Rem. 6. The comparative and superlative are but rarely formed 
 by adding pdXXov {more), and fxaXiora or TrXticrra (most), to the posi- 
 tive. 
 
 6. The following adjectives have anomalous comparatives 
 and superlatives, some of them from several different roots, 
 and generally with slightly different shades of meaning : — 
 
 dyaBos, good. 
 
 KdKOS 
 
 , bad, 
 
 Kako?, beautiful, 
 fiiKp6s. small, 
 
 oXlyos.few, 
 rroXvs, much, 
 p,eyas, great, 
 padios, easy, 
 dXyeivos, painful, 
 
 7TLCl)V, fat, 
 
 rrencoif, ripe, 
 
 fieXricov (ffeXrepos) 
 dp.€LV(DV (dpeiW) 
 Kp€LO~ crcov 
 Xcocou (cpeprepos) 
 
 KaKLCOV 
 
 Xeipcov (xepeiccv) 
 KaXXicov 
 
 pLlKpOT€pOS (peiOdv) 
 
 iXdcrcrcDV, iXdrrcov 
 r\crwcA)V, rjrrcDV 
 
 7r\€L(DV, TvXicOV 
 [X€l£(DP 
 
 pdcov 
 
 dXyeworepos 
 
 dXyicov 
 
 7TLOT€pOS 
 7T€7TaLT€pOS 
 
 fieXncrros (fitXraros) 
 
 a p lotos 
 
 KpdrLcrros 
 
 XcQCTTOS (cpepTdTOs) 
 
 KaKicrros 
 
 XeipioTos 
 
 KaXXicrros 
 
 fjuKporaros 
 
 iXdxicrros 
 
 6Xiy icrros 
 
 TrXelcrros 
 
 fxeyicrros 
 
 pacrros 
 
 dXyeivoraros 
 
 aXytcrros 
 
 moraros 
 
 Trerrairaros. 
 
 Rem. 7. Verbals in ros are sometimes compared ; as, alperos, 
 -r&repos, -rcoraros. Also superlatives, and adjectives having a super- 
 lative meaning, and by the comedians, the pronoun avros and even 
 proper names ; as, 7rpo)ms, TTpconaros ; jSacriXevs, ftacriXevrepos (more 
 a king) ; avros, avrorepos, avroraros (ipsissimus) . 
 
 Rem. 8. There are some comparatives and superlatives and words 
 having a superlative meaning, which have no positive, but are derived 
 from nouns, pronouns, or adverbs ; as, fitjicicrros (from the noun jxrjKos), 
 
§21.] 
 
 COMPARISON OF THE ADVERB. 
 
 49 
 
 irpovpyiaiTcpos (from rrpovpyov), irporepos and irpcoros (from irpo),vn€p- 
 repos, vnepraros and vnaros (from vnep), ecrxaros (from e|), dcvrepos 
 (from 5uo) . 
 
 Rem. 9. The Epic dialect sometimes forms the superlative by re- 
 jecting the nominative ending, os, tjp, e,tc, and adding simply aros ; 
 as, peos, pZcltos ; pvxos, pvx^ros ; irv6pr]P, rrvparos ; {>7rep, vTrepraros or 
 vnaros. 
 
 l±aKap, happy. 
 yXvKvs, sweet. 
 dXrjOtjs, Zrwe. 
 fxe\as, black, 
 agios, worthy. 
 Kovcfios, light. 
 iriKpos, hitter. 
 iiTLxcipLs, 'pleasing. 
 7rop(j)vp€os, purple. 
 
 EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE. 
 
 yepaios, old. arrXoos, simple. 
 
 (friXos, dear. o~<po8p6s, vehement, 
 
 cv&aificov, fortunate, raxvs, swift. 
 
 dcfrrjXig, elderly. t]8vs, sweet. 
 
 xapUis, pleasant. 
 rjvvXOSi quiet. 
 'Laos, equal. 
 aKparos, unmixed. 
 XdXos, talkative. 
 
 alo~xpds, shameful. 
 ix$p6s, hostile. 
 o-o><fipcov, prudent. 
 7rTto^oy, poor. 
 a<p6ovds, bounteous. 
 
 § 21. Comparison of Adverbs. 
 
 1. The positive of most adverbs is derived from the corre- 
 sponding adjective (or participle) by assuming the ending 
 cos. Or as a practical rule, since the accent of the adjective 
 in the genitive plural is the same as that of the adverb, adverbs 
 are derived from adjectives by changing cop of the gen. plur. 
 into as, without any change of accent ; as, o-ocpos (G. PI. crocpcop), 
 crocficbs ; (piXos (G. PI. (fiiXcop), (fiiXcos ', reraypepcos (from the part. 
 
 T€Tayp€POs). 
 
 2. Most adverbs derived from adjectives, however, do not 
 assume cos in the comparative and superlative from the com- 
 parative and superlative endings of the adjective, but use the 
 accusative neuter singular of these forms for the positive, and 
 the accusative neuter plural for the superlative ; as, crafycos 
 (from cracprjs), cra(f)eaT€pcp, o~a(fieo~TaTa ; cro(pcos (o~Q<pos), aQCJ)(OT€pop, 
 aocjxoTaTa ; rjdecos (fjSvs), fjBiop, rjftio'Ta, 
 
 Rem. 1. Adverbial comparatives in cos are not wanting (as, aafa- 
 5 
 
50 NUMERALS. # [§ 22. 
 
 <TT€p<os, fiei^ovcos, etc.), but there is no well-established case of a super- 
 lative in <os, in classical Greek. 
 
 3. Most primitive adverbs, especially those in w, have their 
 comparative in repo> and their superlative in rdrco, rather than 
 in the above adjective endings ; as, aVa>, dVarrepa), dvcordrcD. 
 
 So, mostly, ay\i or dyxov. dyxorepco (Ep. dVcrorepco) or acr(roj> 
 (Dor. acrviov), dyxprdrco or ay^tcrra ; 7repa, 7T€paiT€pcd ; tt]\ov, ttjXo- 
 rzpcD, TT]\oTdroi> ; eicds, e<acrrepa>, €KaoTdra> ; fia*pdi/, fiaKporepav and 
 fjLdKpoTcpov, fiaKpordrco and fiaKporarov ; iyyvs, iyyvrcpca (iyyvrepov, 
 %yy iov), iyyvrdra) (iyyvrara, iyyicrra) ; 7rpo, 7rporepco ; cnro, dirorepco, 
 dTTOTarco ; 7rpcot, 7rp(o'iaLT€pov (7Tpcpa.LT€pov, TTpcolrepov) , -rarci ; evtov, 
 ivhorepco, ivbordrco ; rrpovpyov, 7rpovpyictLT€pov, 7rpovpyi,aiTaTa', vvKrcop, 
 
 WKTldlTepOV, WKTLdlTClTCO. 
 
 Rem. 2. The comparison of p,d\a, fidXkov, p.dXki(TTa, and T/a"cro^ 
 (comparative), fjuora, is quite anomalous. 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 NUMERALS. 
 
 § 22. Classification and Table of Numerals. 
 
 1. The Greek numerals are divided into cardinals, ordi- 
 nals, multiplicatives, proportionals, numeral substantives, and 
 numeral adverbs, 
 
 2. The ordinals are derived from the cardinals, as will be 
 seen from the following table ; so, also, are the numeral ad- 
 verbs, by dropping (after the first three) the final letter of the 
 cardinal and adding the ending d<is ; as, anal; {once), Ms 
 (twice). Tpis (three times), rcrpdias, 7T€vrdKis, etc. Also from 
 indefinite numeral words, iroWaKis, w^eovaKis, etc. 
 
 Rem. 1. Numeral substantives (which express abstract numbers) 
 end in as, G. dbos, and are derived partly from the cardinals, and 
 partly from the ordinals ; as, has or fiouds (unity) , bvds (duality) , rpids 
 (triad, trinity), rerpds, TTCjinds (irepTrrds, ireprds), e^dV, ifi$op,ds, oydods. 
 heds, deltas, hbeKas, dadeicds, etc., ei/cd?, rpiaKas, rccraapaKOvrds, etc., 
 eKovrds, xiXiaf, ' /xvptdf, etc. A few, also, in vs ; as, rpirrvs (triad), 
 
 T€TpCLKTVS, X^ 00 ™*' 
 
 3. Multiplicatives (denoting how many fold, and ending in 
 7r\6os -ovs), and proportionals (denoting hotv many times as 
 
§22.] 
 
 NUMERALS. 
 
 51 
 
 many or great, and ending in 7r\d<no?, rarer n-Xao-iW), are de- 
 rived either from cardinals, ordinals, numeral adverbs, or 
 indefinite numeral words ; as, rerpairkovs [fourfold), bnfkdo-ios 
 (twice as great), iroWaifkdo-tos {many times as great), etc. Of 
 the same character also are diaaos and Tpiara-os. 
 
 Rem. 2. There are also adverbial multiplicatives in 6d, x a i X*l 
 (xf])<) X**s'i as > &X#a &'x a ^Wl &7rAJ7 ( iri a twofold manner, separately), 
 TpLxrj, rerpaxa or rerpaxr), iravrayj), etc. 
 
 4. There are no distributives in Greek, but it uses instead 
 either the cardinals compounded with o-vv (as, avvhvo, by twos, 
 crvvrpeis, etc.), or dud, els, Kara, with the cardinal in the ace. 
 depending upon it ; as, Kara dvo, dua rreure, etc. 
 
 Rem. 3. Numeral adjectives in aios denote the day on which 
 something happened ; as, devrepaios, on the second day. 
 
 5. The following table gives only the cardinals and ordinals, 
 as being the most used and those from which the other classes 
 of numerals are derived. The Greek letters before the first 
 column (with a stroke above them up to 900, and below them 
 afterwards) were used to denote the number expressed by 
 the corresponding numerals. For this purpose the obsolete 
 Ban (r), Koppa (£/), and Sanpi (^) were used with the 
 other letters. 
 
 
 TABLE OF 
 
 NUMERALS. 
 
 
 Cardinals. 
 
 Ordinals. 
 
 1 
 
 a els (one) 
 
 irpatros (first) 
 
 2 
 
 P dvo 
 
 $€UT€pOS 
 
 3 
 
 y rpels 
 
 TpLTOS 
 
 4 
 
 & reacrapes 
 
 rerapros 
 
 5 
 
 € 7T€VT€ 
 
 7T€fM7rTOS 
 
 6 
 
 f 1 
 
 €KTOS 
 
 7 
 
 f ewrd 
 
 e(38op.os 
 
 8 
 
 / » r 
 T) OKTG) 
 
 oydoos 
 
 9 
 
 euu'ea 
 
 euuaros (euaros) 
 
 10 
 
 C hkKa 
 
 $€KaTOS 
 
 11 
 
 id euhena 
 
 eudeKarog 
 
>2 
 
 
 NUMERALS 
 
 12 
 
 i/3'- 
 
 h&heKa 
 
 13 
 
 l 7 
 
 TpivKaLheKa 
 
 14 
 
 i* 
 
 recrcrapeovcaiSeKa 
 
 15 
 
 
 7T€VT€Kaid€Ka 
 
 16 
 
 ir 
 
 cKKaibcKa 
 
 17 
 
 <i 
 
 iTTTCiKaldeKa 
 
 18 
 
 l V 
 
 oKTccKaideKa 
 
 19 
 
 iff 
 
 ivveaKaideKa 
 
 20 
 
 r 
 K 
 
 ei/coo - * 
 
 21 
 
 KCL 
 
 cI'koci eiff 
 
 30 
 
 X 
 
 -rpiaKovra 
 
 40 
 
 t 
 
 TtacrapaKOVTa 
 
 50 
 
 V 
 
 7T€vrr]K0VTa 
 
 60 
 
 g 
 
 i^rjKOvra 
 
 70 
 
 
 
 iftdofirjKOVTa 
 
 80 
 
 77 
 
 6ydor)Kovra 
 
 90 
 
 h' 
 
 ivV€VT)KOVTa 
 
 100 
 
 P 
 
 iwiTov 
 
 200 
 
 r 
 
 diciKoaioi 
 
 300 
 
 T 
 
 TpiaKoa-ioi 
 
 400 
 
 V 
 
 T€TpaKO<riOl 
 
 500 
 
 *', 
 
 TrevraKocrioL 
 
 600 
 
 X 
 
 itjaKoaioi 
 
 700 
 
 +' 
 
 eirTa.KO(Tioi 
 
 800 
 
 / 
 (0 
 
 OKTCLKOCTiOi 
 
 900 
 
 V 
 
 ivvcLKoaiot. 
 
 1,000 
 
 a 
 
 Xi'Xiot 
 
 2,000 
 
 fi 
 
 bio~x}\iOi 
 
 3,000 
 
 ,y 
 
 rpto-^/Xiot 
 
 4,000 
 
 fi 
 
 T€TpaKLO-\LkLOL 
 
 5,000 
 
 JE 
 
 TT€VTaKl(J^(lktOl 
 
 6,000 
 
 F 
 
 €^a/cicr^iXiot 
 
 7,000 
 
 £ 
 
 €7rra/cicr^iXiot 
 
 8,000 
 
 7) 
 
 oy(Wi(r;(iXioi 
 
 9,000 
 
 fi 
 
 ivVCLKKTXlklOl 
 
 10,000 
 
 t 
 
 pvpiOL 
 
 20,000 
 
 fi 
 
 bi(rp.vpioi 
 
 50,000 
 
 y 
 
 TrevTdKMrpvpiOL 
 
 100,000 
 
 p 
 
 SfKaKiarpvpioi 
 
 [§22. 
 
 ScoSe/caTo: 
 
 rpL<TKCU$€KaTOS 
 
 T€(j(TapaKai$€KaTQS 
 TrevTCKaidzK aros 
 
 €KKai$SKCLTO$ 
 
 tTTTCLKaihkKaTOS 
 
 OKTCdKaideKdTOS 
 
 ivv€aKaibe kotos 
 elKocrros 
 cIkoo-tos npcoTos 
 
 TpldKOCTTOS 
 
 T€0~0~apa.KO(TT6s 
 
 TreVTTjKOO-TOS 
 
 ££t)koo~t6s 
 
 iftdoprjKoo-TOS 
 
 oyftorjKOtJTOS 
 
 iwtVTJKOO'TOS 
 
 €KCLTOO~t6s 
 
 blO.KO(TlOO~T6s 
 
 TpiaKOO-LOOTOS 
 
 TCTpaKOO-LOa-TOS 
 
 TrevraKocnoo'Tos 
 
 €^aKO(TLocrr6s 
 
 iTTTaKoariooTos 
 
 OKTUKOO-IOCTTOS 
 ivVCLKOCTlOOTOS 
 
 XikioaTos 
 diaxiXiocTTos 
 
 TpKTXlXlOCTTOS 
 
 Terpa/acr^tXiooTOf 
 TrevraKKTxiXioo-Tos 
 ii-aKiarxikioo-Tos 
 
 iTTTaKlO-^CklOO'TOS 
 
 oySoKKr^tXiocrroy 
 ivvaKKTX^oo-Tos 
 fivpLoaros 
 Siarpvpioo-Tos 
 
 7T€VTaKL(TpiVpLOOT6? 
 
 SeKaKio-pvpioo-TOS. 
 
§ 23.] NUMERALS. 53 
 
 Rem. 4. In the compound numbers, both cardinal and ordinal, 
 above twenty (and sometimes even in the tans), the smaller number 
 is generally placed first and connected with the larger by kcli (occa- 
 sionally by €7?l), but sometimes the smaller follows without a connec- 
 tive ; as, 7revT€ ical Etroox, or eUocn ivevre, rarely ei/Kocri kcli rrevre. 
 
 Rem. 5. In expressing eighteen, nineteen (eighteenth, nineteenth), 
 twenty-eight, twenty-nine, etc., a subtractive form is sometimes used, 
 consisting of the part, of dico (want) agreeing either with the smaller 
 or the larger number ; as, evbs beovros nevrrjKovra (undequinqua'ginta, 
 fifty, one wanting) ; evos decou 77€vtt]ko(tt6s avr)p (undequinquagesimus 
 vir, the fiftieth man, wanting one). 
 
 Rem. 6. In regard to fractions and mixed numbers, i is expressed 
 in general by the adjective fjfu&vs, or by q/u prefixed to the term des- 
 ignating any particular kind of weight, measure, or magnitude ; as, 
 T]fjLtrciXavrov (half -talent) , etc. ; \, \, \, etc. by compounding the ordi- 
 nals Tplros, etc. with the noun p.6piov (part) ; as, rpLrniiopiov %, re- 
 raprnfJiopLov \, etc. In expressing mixed numbers, either the ordinal 
 next greater than the whole number is placed before the above ex- 
 pressions for fractions, or the cardinal before their plural forms : the 
 former implying the antecedent wholes by expressing a subsequent 
 part, and the latter expressing the wholes in parts : as, rpirov j^/xtra- 
 \avrov (2i talents, lit. the third half talent, implying two whole ones 
 besides), or, rpla rjiiiTakavra (1£ talents, three half-talents) , etc. 
 
 § 23. Declension of Numerals. 
 
 1. The first four cardinal numbers are thus declined : — 
 
 dvo (dvco) 
 Svotv (Sucty, 6\>o>j>) 
 dvolv (8vo~i, dvolo~L) 
 dvo (§uco). 
 
 reaaapes (rerrapes) recraapa 
 
 T€0"(rdpG)i> 
 
 rkauapai (poet, jkrpacri) 
 
 recrcrapas Tecraapa. 
 
 Rem. 1. The negative compounds of els, ovdeis and p.nbels, are 
 declined like els (as, ovdeis, ovdefiia, ovdev, G. oidevos. ovdefiias, etc), 
 and are sometimes used in the plural ; as, oideves, ovdevcov, ovdevas- 
 
 Rem. 2. *A/x<£g>, like §vo, has aiMpoiv in the gen. and dat. of all 
 genders, and has only these forms. But both this and dvo, Bvco are 
 
 5* 
 
 IN. 
 
 €LS 
 
 fj.La 
 
 ev 
 
 G. 
 
 €VOS 
 
 fJLtas 
 
 Ivos 
 
 D. 
 
 evl 
 
 fxia 
 
 r t 
 
 evi 
 
 A. 
 
 eva 
 
 iilav 
 
 rt 
 
 ev. 
 
 N. 
 
 rpels 
 
 rpla 
 
 
 G. 
 
 TplCOV 
 
 rpicov 
 
 
 D. 
 
 Tpicrl 
 
 TplO~l 
 
 
 A. 
 
 TpflS 
 
 rpla 
 
 
54 
 
 PRONOUNS. 
 
 [§24. 
 
 sometimes indeclinable, especially in Homer. In the Epic dialect 
 dvo becomes doico, 80101, D. doiols, etc. 
 
 2. Of the other cardinals, only the round numbers from 
 two hundred (diaKoo-101) to ten thousand (pvpioi) are declined. 
 These are declined like the plural (like the singular only 
 when they belong to a collective noun in the singular) of 
 adjectives with three endings in os, v (a), ov, while all ordi- 
 nals are declined like these adjectives both in the singular and 
 plural. 
 
 Rem. 3. To express two or more thousands or tens of thousands, 
 numeral adverbs are prefixed to -^lKloi and pvpioi ; as, rpLo~x&ioi 
 (three thousands), nevrataarpvpioi (fifty thousands). 
 
 SECTION VI. 
 
 PRONOUNS. 
 
 § 24. Personal Pronouns. 
 
 1. The simple substantive or personal pronouns iy6> (I), 
 (tv (thou), 1 (he, she, it), avros (he, himself) : — 
 
 Singular. 
 
 N. iyt>, I 
 
 
 CTV 
 
 0) 
 
 
 avros 
 
 
 -0 
 
 G. ip,ov, jiov, of me 
 
 
 (TOV 
 
 od 
 
 
 avrov 
 
 -r)s 
 
 'OV 
 
 D. e/xot, fiol, to me 
 
 
 (TOL 
 
 oi 
 
 
 avTG* 
 
 ■ 
 
 4 
 
 -0) 
 
 t 
 
 A. e/xe, p.k, me 
 
 
 (T€ 
 
 Dual. 
 
 * 
 
 € 
 
 
 avrov 
 
 -r)v 
 
 -0 
 
 N. A. z/a>, we loth, us loth 
 
 cr(£a> 
 
 (T(f)(t)€ 
 
 
 avroo 
 
 -a 
 
 t 
 -0) 
 
 G.D. vcov, of (to) us 
 
 loth 
 
 a(f)cov 
 Plural. 
 
 (T(j)COLV 
 
 
 avroiv 
 
 ~aiv 
 
 •oiv 
 
 N. rjpels, we 
 
 
 vpeis 
 
 o-(£eI.9, 
 
 a(f)ea 
 
 avroi 
 
 -ai 
 
 -a 
 
 G. rjptov, of US 
 
 
 vpcov 
 
 (T(pCDV 
 
 
 aVTCDV 
 
 •cov 
 
 'COV 
 
 T). Tjp.lv, to us 
 
 
 vp.1v 
 
 (T(f)l<Tl, 
 
 
 avrols 
 
 m a7s 
 
 -o7s 
 
 A. r)pas t US 
 
 
 vpas 
 
 o~<pas, 
 
 cr(f)ea 
 
 aVTOLS 
 
 -as 
 
 -a. 
 
 Rem. 1. Alto? with the article means the same, and is often con- 
 tracted with the article, making ravrov (from rov avrov), ravrco , ravrrj , 
 ravro or ravrov (v being often added to the neuter of the contracted form). 
 
§24.] 
 
 PRONOUNS, 
 
 55 
 
 N. 
 G. 
 
 DIALECTIC FORMS OF iya, (TV, |. 
 FIRST PERSON. SECOND PERSON. 
 
 Singular, 
 iyoiv (JEol., Ep.) ; eyavya, rv (Dor.), tvvtj (Ep.) 
 
 iyavrj (Dor.), 
 e/xeojf/xev, tteO(Ep. and Ion.) ; 
 
 ifielo , ifte 6e v ( Ep . ) ; ifievs, 
 
 ipovs (JEol. and Dor.). 
 
 D 
 
 rev (Dor.) ; tre'o, crcv (Ep. and 
 Ion.); creio, reoto (Ep.) ; 
 (TtBev (poet.); revs, reovs 
 (iEol. and Dor.) ; tlos, tl- 
 
 0)9, TIO), TLOVS (Dor.). 
 
 rlv, Te'iv (Ep. and Dor.) ; rot 
 (Ep. and Ion.). 
 
 e/xoi (Bceot.) ; e/uV, efiivya 
 (Dor.). 
 
 Dual 
 N. A. j/ou, v<oiv (Ep.). a-(pS'i, &(f)mp (Ep.). 
 
 G. D. v&'iv (Ep.). <r(j)aiv (Ep.). 
 
 Plural 
 rjfxses (Ion.) ; afxes (Dor.) ; v/zees (Ion.) ; v/xe? (Dor.) ; 
 types (JEol. J. 
 
 rjfxecov (Ep. and Ion.) ; fjficiau 
 
 (Ep.) ; a/x/xecoi/ (iEol.). 
 aii/u (Ep. .^Eol.) ; a/ziieo~i 
 
 (^Eol.). 
 fjneas (Ep. and Ion.) ; a/x/xe 
 
 (Ep. &iEol.);cx/x€(Dor.). 
 
 N. 
 G. 
 D. 
 A. 
 
 iifjLfxes (JEoh). 
 vfiecov (Ep. and Ion.) ; vfieiow 
 
 (Ep.) ; vfxfiecov (JEol.). 
 vfxfiLv (Ep. and iEol.). 
 
 vfjiias (Ion.) ; i/'/z/ze (Ep. and 
 JEol.) ; vps (Dor.). 
 
 Singular. 
 G. eb, eu (Ep. and Ion.) ; 
 eto, eelo, €#ey (Ep.); 
 iovs(JEo\. and Dor.). 
 
 D. €01. 
 
 THIRD PERSON. 
 
 Dual 
 
 N. A. 
 
 a(j)(0€, acfxa 
 
 (Ep.). 
 
 G. D. 
 
 Plural. 
 G. o-<^€o>j/(Ep. and Ion.) ; 
 
 cr(j)€ia>v (Ep.). 
 D. atfd, o-(f)Lu (Ep. and 
 
 Ion.); 5ox£i(jEo1.). 
 A. o-$e(Ep.); o-<£eas (Ion.); 
 
 ^e (Dor.) ; aa-(j)e 
 
 (JEol.); juV (Ion.). 
 
 A. ie (Ep.); /*iV (Ion.); 
 
 j/tV, <r<fie (Dor. and al- o-$a>iV(Ep.). 
 so Attic poetry) . 
 
 2. From the genitive of the above personal pronouns are 
 derived the possessive pronouns. They are inflected like 
 adjectives in 05, and are as follows : — 
 
56 PRONOUNS. [§ 24. 
 
 ifxos (my, mine), rjpirepos (our), vcotrepos {of us two, only Epic), 
 o~6s (Dor. and Ep. reos, thy, thine), vpirepos (your), o-qbcotrepos (of 
 you two, only Epic), i6s (Dor. and Ep.), o? (Ms, her, its, Dor. and Ep., 
 but the Attic generally uses iavrov instead of it), acpirepos (generally 
 plur., their). 
 
 Rem. 2. In the Doric and Epic dialect we find dpos or dfxos, our, 
 vpLos, your, a(f>6s, his; also, acfierepos often in the sense of e/xoy, aos, 
 rjpirepos and vpirepos. 
 
 3. Reflexive Pronouns. — These are ip.avrov {of myself \ my 
 oivn), o-tavTov (of thyself ', thy oicn), iavrov (of himself \ his oivn). 
 They are composed of avros joined to the three accusatives 
 e/ze, o-e, and e, the parts being always separated in Homer, and 
 in the plural of the first and second person, and sometimes of 
 the third, in the Attic dialect. They can have no nominative, 
 of course, since they always express the object of one's own 
 action, thought, or reference. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 G. ifjLavrov -rjs rjp,(ov avrcov 
 
 D. ifiavTco -fj fjfjuv avrols (-ah) 
 
 A. ipavTou -r\v fjfias avrovs ( m ds) 
 
 e ~ 
 
 (jr. (reavrov -rjs vp,cov avrcov 
 
 D. creavrcp -fj vplv avrols (-als) 
 
 A. veavrop -r\v vp.ds avrovs ( m ds) 
 
 Gr. iavrov -rjs iavriov, or gtQj&v avrcov 
 
 D. iavrco -rj iavrols -als, or o~<piorLV avrols (-als) 
 
 A. iavrov -r)v -6 iavrovs -as -a, or o~(pas avrovs ('<*?), o-(f>ea avrd. 
 
 Rem. 3. aeavrov and iavrov are often contracted in the different 
 cases by dropping the e ; as, oravrov, cravrco, aavrrjv ; avrco, avrfj, 
 avrols, avrals, etc. 
 
 4. The reciprocal pronoun is d\\r)\G>v (of one another) , an 
 abridged compound from aXXoi aXXcov. As it always refers to 
 more than one, and implies the action of one on another, it 
 can, of course, have no singular and no nominative. 
 
§25.] 
 
 PRONOUNS. 
 
 57 
 
 Plural 
 G. dXXrjXwv dXXrjXcov dXXr)X(ov 
 D. dXXrjXois dXXr)Xais dXXrjXois 
 
 Dual. 
 dXXrjXoiv dXXrjXaiv dXXrjXoiv 
 dXXrjXoiv dXXrjXaiv dXXrjXoiv 
 
 A. dXXrjXovs dXXtjXas aXXrjXa dXXrjXo) aXXrjXa aXXrjXco. 
 
 § 25. Demonstrative and Relative Pronouns. 
 
 1. The demonstrative pronouns are ovtos, ode (this, the for- 
 mer generally referring to what precedes, the latter to what 
 follows), and ixelvos (that), ode is simply the article with the 
 inseparable particle -de, and is declined like the article, which 
 see, § 10, 4. The others are thus declined : — 
 
 Singular. 
 
 N. 
 
 OVTOS 
 
 aVTT) 
 
 TOVTO 
 
 eKelvos 
 
 eKeivrj 
 
 eKelvo 
 
 G. 
 
 TOVTOV 
 
 TaVTTJS 
 
 TOVTOV 
 
 eKeivov 
 
 eKelvrjs 
 
 eKeivov 
 
 D. 
 
 TOVTO) 
 
 TaVTTJ 
 
 TOVTCO 
 t 
 
 eKeiv<a 
 
 eKelvrj 
 
 eKelvco 
 
 A. 
 
 TOVTOV 
 
 TailTTJV 
 
 TOVTO 
 
 Plural. 
 
 eKeivov 
 
 eKelvrjv 
 
 eKelvo 
 
 N. 
 
 OVTOl 
 
 avTai 
 
 Tavra 
 
 eKelvoi 
 
 eKelvai 
 
 eKeiva 
 
 G. 
 
 TOVTCOV 
 
 TOVTO)V 
 
 TOVTCOV 
 
 €K€IVG)V 
 
 €K€lV(OV 
 
 eKelvcov 
 
 D. 
 
 TOVTOIS 
 
 TavTais 
 
 TOVTOIS 
 
 eKelvois 
 
 eKeivais 
 
 eKeivois 
 
 A. 
 
 TOVTOVS 
 
 Tavras 
 
 TavTa 
 
 Dual. 
 
 CKclvOVS 
 
 eKeivas 
 
 eKeiva 
 
 N.A 
 
 , TOVTO) 
 
 Tavra 
 
 TOVTO) 
 
 eKeivo) 
 
 eKeiva 
 
 eKeivto 
 
 G.D. 
 
 TOVTOIV 
 
 TavTaiv 
 
 TOVTOIV 
 
 eKeivoiv 
 
 eKeivaiv 
 
 eKeivoiv 
 
 Rem. 1. As to the dialectic peculiarities, the article, which prop- 
 erly belongs here, has to'i and rat (ovtos, also, tovtoi, Tavrai) in the 
 nom. plur. in the Doric dialect, besides other peculiarities in the 
 oblique cases, such as nouns of the first and second declensions have. 
 'EKelvos becomes Kelvos in the Epic dialect and in Attic poetry, ktjvos 
 .ZEol., ttjvos Dor. In ovtos and avros, the Ionic inserts e before 
 the long endings ; as, tovtcco, avTeij, etc. .ZEolic Tcovdecov for T&vde. 
 
 Rem. 2. Like ovtos are declined toctovtos (so great), toiovtos 
 (such), and ttjXikovtos (so old), except that ovtos, in these words, 
 does not take a r (and often ends in v in the neuter singular) at the 
 beginning in the oblique cases (as, toctovtos, Tooravrr], toctovto or 
 ToaovTov, G. toctovtov, etc.). Like cKeivos is declined aXXos, aXXrj, 
 aXXo (other, another). 
 
58 
 
 PRONOUNS. 
 
 [§26. 
 
 2. The relative pronoun os (who, which, that) is declined as 
 follows : — 
 
 Singular. Plural. Dual 
 
 os 
 
 N. 
 
 G. oS 
 D. o5 
 
 A. 
 
 ov 
 
 T)S 
 T 
 
 V 
 
 rt 
 7]V 
 
 ft 
 OL 
 
 ft 
 
 at 
 
 a 
 
 rt tt tt 
 oj a co 
 
 wv 
 
 COV 
 
 hv 
 
 T ? ? 
 
 olv aw OLV 
 
 T 
 
 OLS 
 
 als 
 
 ols 
 
 like the gen. 
 
 ft 
 
 ovs 
 
 as 
 
 a 
 
 like the nom. 
 
 Rem. 3. The article is mostly used for the relative in the Doric 
 and ancient forms of the language and in the Tragedians ; also, to a 
 considerable extent, in the Epic language. In Homer and the Doric, 
 o stands for os ; olo in the Epic and Ionic, and sometimes oov Epic 
 and €Tjs Homeric, for ov, fjs* 
 
 § 26. Indefinite and Interrogative Pronouns, 
 
 1. The indefinite and interrogative pronouns have the same 
 form (tis, tls, any certain, some one ; ivho 7 ichich 1 what ?), 
 but are distinguished from each other by their accent and 
 position relative to the word to which they belong ; the former 
 having its accent throughout (when it does not lose it by 
 being an enclitic) on the last syllable (and always written as 
 grave when not a circumflex) and standing after its word, 
 the latter retaining the accent (always written acute, except 
 on the contracted forms) on the first syllable throughout, and 
 standing before its word. 
 
 
 INDEFINITE. 
 
 
 INTERROGATIVE 
 
 
 N. 
 
 
 t\s 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Tt 
 
 t 
 TLS 
 
 tL 
 
 G. 
 
 
 TLVOS, TOV 
 
 
 TLVOS, TOV 
 
 
 D. 
 
 
 TLV\, T(U 
 
 
 TLVL, TCQ 
 
 
 A. 
 
 
 TLVCl 
 
 \ 
 Tl 
 
 Plural. 
 
 TLVa 
 
 tL 
 
 N. 
 
 
 rives 
 
 TLva, arra 
 
 TLV€S 
 
 rlva 
 
 G. 
 
 
 TLVCOV 
 
 
 TLVCOV 
 
 
 D. 
 
 
 Ticri 
 
 
 TLCTl 
 
 
 A. 
 
 
 TLVCLS 
 
 tlvcl, arra 
 Dual 
 
 TLvas 
 
 TLVa 
 
 N.A 
 
 TLV€ 
 
 
 TLV€ 
 
 
 G. 
 
 D. 
 
 TLVOLV 
 
 
 TLVOLV. 
 
 
<j> 27.] PRONOUNS. 59 
 
 Rem. 1. The negative compounds of r\s, ovtis, wris, etc. are de- 
 clined like the simple rls ; as, ovtlvosj ovtivi, etc. 
 
 2. When the interrogative rls and other interrogative words 
 
 (whether pronouns or adverbs) stand in dependent sentences, 
 
 the relative 6s, 6 is prefixed to them, making them indirect 
 
 interrogatives ; as, ooris, oVoo-o?, Snolosy oirorepos, oirov, onus, 
 
 etc. In oris (who, whoever), but not in the others, the relative 
 
 is declined throughout with the interrogative. Thus : — 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 N. 
 
 OCTTLS tJTLS OTL 
 
 o1tiv€s aiTives anva, arra 
 
 G. 
 
 OVTLVOS, OTOV fjOTlVOS 
 
 Z)VTlVCOV, OTCQV 
 
 D. 
 
 CpTLVL, OTto fjTIVl 
 
 oloTicri, 6tois( rare) afoTto-t 
 
 A. 
 
 OVTLVa T]VTlVa OTL 
 
 ova-TLvas dcTTivas aTiva,aTTa 
 
 Rem. 2. The forms rty, tls have in the dialects, gen. rio, rev 
 (Ep., Ion., and Dor.), dat. Tea, rS (Ep., Ion.) ; and tls, gen. plur. 
 rtcov (Ep., Ion.), dat. reoicri (Ep., Ion.), neut. plur. aWa. In oorns the 
 relative (which then becomes o) is, frequently not declined in the Epic 
 and Ionic, and r is doubled in the neuter, as, oris, ottl, and in the ob- 
 lique cases has the like dialectic endings to those of the simple tls, tls. 
 
 3. The indefinite pronoun Selva (Mr. such-a-one) has but 
 one form for all gende rs, and is thus declined : — 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 N. belva delves 
 
 G. belvos Seivcov 
 
 D. 8ehi 
 
 A. delva 8e?vas. 
 
 Sometimes it is wholly indeclinable ; as, rov, t<5, tov helva. 
 
 § 27. Correlative Pronouns and Adverts. 
 
 Correlative pronouns and adverbs are those which have a 
 mutual relation to each other in both sense and form. The 
 correlative ideas expressed by correlative pronouns relate to 
 quantity or quality ; those expressed by adverbs, to place, time, 
 and manner. The relation in each case is that between an 
 interrogative, an indefinite, and a demonstrative and relative. 
 
60 PRONOUNS. [§ 27. 
 
 i. e. between a question answered indefinitely or by a demon- 
 strative followed by a relative. The regular correlatives in 
 Greek, it will be seen from the following, commence with n in 
 the interrogatives, and have the same form in the interroga- 
 tives and indefinites (being distinguished only by the accent), 
 while the demonstratives commence with r, and the relatives 
 (and dependent interrogatives) with 6 (except tjXIkos), 
 
 I. PRONOMINAL CORRELATIVES. 
 
 Uocos, iroa-os, rocros (roGocrbe, toq-ovtos) , Soros or onoaos, = how 
 great (many) ? of a certain size (or quantity), so great, as ; — 
 irolos, ttoios, toIos (roiocrBe, tolovtos), olos or onolos, — of what 
 kind 7 of a certain kind, such, as ; — tttjXlkos, .... rrf\iKos 
 
 (TTJXlKOO-de, T7]\lKOVTOs), fjXlKOS OY OTTrjXlKOS = llOW old {large) J 
 
 . ... so old, as. There are also the incomplete and rarely 
 used correlative pronouns, ttootos, of what number 7 and 67ro- 
 otos, in whatever number, -ttoo-tcuos, in how many days ? and 
 oTTooTalos, in whatever number of days, tvwos (twvovtos), so 
 little, (each without the other correlative parts,) and Trobanos, 
 
 Tjfxebairos (vfjiedcmos, dXkobaTros, TravToftcnros), OTrohairos, = of what 
 
 country ? of our (your, another, every) country, of whatever 
 country. 
 
 II. ADVERBIAL CORRELATIVES. 
 
 IIov (tt66c poet.), 7tou (rodi poet.), ov (u6i poet.) or ottov 
 (onodi poet.), == where ? somewhere, here, where; — irodev, nodev, 
 Todev, oBev or oiroQev, = whence ? from some place, thence, 
 whence ; — not (noae poet.), arm, . . . . (ol poet.) or 07701 (onoo-e 
 poet.), = whither ? to some place .... whither ; — 770'7-e, irori, 
 t6t€, ore or oVoYe (dialectic forms, nrjixos .... ttjiaos, etc.) == 
 when 1 at some time, then, when; — TrrjvUa .... (r^vina poet.) 
 T7)PLKade or TTjVLKavra, TjvUa OY on^viKa, = at what time of day 1 
 . ... at this (that) time of day, at which time of day ; — 77£s, 
 7ra>s, (tqos, &s poet.), a>de OY ovtcos (eKeLvms), cos or 6ncos, = how ? 
 somehow, thus (so), as ; — jrfj, 7177, (rfj poet.) rjjSe or ravrrj, 77 
 
§ ^8] PRONOUNS. 61 
 
 or oiTjjy = in what way (direction) ? in some way, in this way, 
 
 in which way ; — novaKis, .... roadicis, Sadicis or onoo-aKLs =3 
 
 how often ? .... so often, as often, as. Also the somewhat 
 
 correlative words reus, so long, eW, till ; rofypa, so long as, 
 
 6(f) pa, as long as. 
 
 Rem. In common prose, the ideas here, there are expressed by 
 evBa, evBdhe, ivravOa (Ion. ivdavra) , and hence, by evBev, ivOevbe, evrev- 
 6ev (Ion. ivBevrev). There are also the common demonstrative ad- 
 verbs vvv (now) and devpo (hither), and the relative adverbs iwei and 
 €7T€idr] (when). 
 
 § 28. Strengthening of Pronouns. 
 
 1. The enclitic particle ye (yd Dor. and iEol.), which is 
 placed after words of all sorts to give prominence or emphasis 
 to their meaning, is often actually joined to eya> and av for 
 this purpose, in which case the accent is thrown back to the 
 first syllable, in eya>, except in the gen. ipov ; as, eycoye (I for 
 one, I for my part), ep,oiye, cruye, etc. The iEolic and Doric 
 add vr) also, in the same way ; as, eyavrj. 
 
 2. The suffix -de is added to certain demonstrative words to 
 increase their demonstrative force ; as, ode, roioVSe, hbe, etc. 
 With like effect, also, the accented iota (1 long) is added to 
 demonstrative pronouns and adverbs, and absorbs a preceding 
 short vowel ; as, ovroai (this here), avrrji, tovtL (o being ab- 
 sorbed), 6dl, €K€LVO(TL ', OVTCOCTL, WVl, tvdabL AlsO TOVTOyl (from 
 
 tovto ye l), ravray'i, etc. 
 
 3. The enclitic Tre'p is attached to all relatives to give pre- 
 cision and exactness to the relative meaning (just as re is in 
 the Epic) ; as, 6Wep (precisely who), oo-oo-irep, oBevnep, etc. 
 
 4. The particles dr), o^ore, ovv, drjworovv, are often added to 
 relative pronouns (but not to the simple relative cfc), and some 
 relative adverbs, in order to make their meaning more compre- 
 hensive, like our suffix ever in whoever, whatever, etc. ; as, 
 no-TL(rbr]TTOTe (whoever possibly, whoever), 6<ttktovv (whoever ihen y 
 whoever), oo-oo-drj-n-oTe (hoioever great) ; oncoo-ovv, oTvovdrj, etc. 
 
 6 
 
62 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB. [§ 29< 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB. 
 
 § 29. Introduction. 
 
 1. Besides the active and passive, the Greek often uses the 
 tenses of the passive, except the aorist and future, in a reflex- 
 ive or intransitive sense ; in which sense, also, it has separate 
 forms for the aor. and fut., thus forming a third voice, called the 
 middle. The middle voice, then, expresses the action of an 
 agent upon himself, a part of himself or in some way in ref- 
 erence to himself ; as, rv7rro/xat, I strike myself ; irv^aro ttjv 
 K€<paKr)v, he struck his head ; araB^ao-Oai, to weigh with one's 
 self consider. 
 
 Rem. 1. Verbs having only the middle voice are called deponent 
 verbs ; but if they have their aorist tense in the passive form (as many 
 do) , they are called deponent passives. 
 
 2. In addition to the tenses of our language, the Greek has 
 what is called an aorist tense in each of the three voices, cor- 
 responding to the Latin narrative perfect, and nearly to our 
 narrative imperfect, as distinguished from the progressive 
 form with am, was, etc., which form corresponds to the 
 Greek imperfect. 
 
 3. The Greek, also, has two forms for the aorist and future 
 in both the active, passive, and middle, and two perfects and 
 pluperfects in the active, besides the future perfect, which is 
 both middle and passive. 
 
 4. These double tenses are distinguished as primary and 
 secondary tenses, some verbs forming one and some the 
 other, but not commonly both, even in a single tense. Pure 
 verbs (i. e. those having a vowel before the ending <w), with 
 few exceptions, form only the primary tenses ; while mute 
 and liquid verbs may form both, except the second future 
 active and middle, which is formed only by liquid verbs. 
 
§ 29.J CONJUGATION OF THE VERB. 63 
 
 The future perfect is almost wholly confined to pure and 
 mute verbs, and occurs but rarely even in these. 
 
 5. The present, perfect, and future are called principal 
 tenses ; the imperfect, pluperfect, and aorist, historical tenses. 
 
 6. The modes in Greek are the indicative, the subjunctive, 
 the optative, the imperative, and the infinitive. The subjunc- 
 tive is much more largely used than in English, being often 
 used where we use the indicative, or the potential of a prin- 
 cipal tense, while the optative corresponds almost wholly to 
 the historical tenses of the English potential. Hence the 
 optative may be considered as the subjunctive of the historical 
 tenses. 
 
 7. Besides the modes, the Greek verb also has participles 
 and the gerundive or verbal adjective in tos and rios. 
 
 8. Only the principal tenses have the infinitive, imperative, 
 and participle, and of these the future never has the impera- 
 tive, and the perfect but rarely, since a command is always 
 present, either as something independent or primary in its 
 character (imper. aor.), or as subordinate (imper. pres.). 
 Also, the future has no subjunctive, as the subjunctive is itself 
 future in meaning; and the aorist has both the subjunctive 
 and optative, because it is used both as a principal and an his- 
 torical tense. 
 
 9. The verb, like the noun, has three numbers, the singu- 
 lar, the dual, and the plural ; but there is no separate form 
 for the first person of the dual in the active voice and the first 
 and second aorist passive (which have endings of the same 
 kind as the active), its place being supplied by the first per- 
 son plural. By some grammarians the first person dual is 
 rejected throughout the passive, as well as in the active. 
 
 10. Besides verbs ending in © in the indicative present, 
 there are a few which end in pi, and form their present, im- 
 perfect, and second aorist active and middle with different 
 endings from other verbs. Verbs of the first form are called 
 verbs in a> ; those of the second, verbs in pi. 
 
64 VERBS IN 0). [§ 30. 
 
 - SECTION I. 
 
 VERBS IN 0). 
 
 § 30. Classification of Verbs in g>. 
 
 1. Verbs in a> are classified according to the last letter of 
 the root, which may generally be found by dropping o> of the 
 pres. indie. This letter is called the characteristic, as it de- 
 termines the character or class of the verb. 
 
 2. When the characteristic is a vowel, the verb is called a 
 pure verb, when it is a pi-, kappa-, or tau-mute, it is called 
 a mute verb, and when one of the liquids X, /*, v, p, a liquid 
 verb. 
 
 3. When the characteristic vowel is a, e, or o, this is gener- 
 ally contracted with the inflectional endings in the pres. and 
 imperf , and the verb is called a contract pure verb, or simply 
 a contract verb ; as, ^tXew, <£iXa>. 
 
 4. The root obtained by dropping a> of the pres. is not 
 always the true root of the verb, but is often strengthened in 
 mute and liquid verbs by the introduction of vowels or conso- 
 nants which do not properly belong to the real root of the 
 word. When the root of the pres. thus differs from the true 
 root, it is called the strengthened or impure stem, and the true 
 root, after rejecting the vowels or consonants by which it is 
 strengthened, the pure root or stem. The characteristic, also, 
 is called pure or impure, according as it is the final letter of 
 the true root, or that modified by the strengthening consonant ; 
 as, tv7tt-(o, — impure stem tvttt, pure tvtt ; impure character- 
 teristic tit, pure n. 
 
 Rem. 1. The strengthened stem of mute and liquid verbs remains 
 only in the pres. and imperf., the pure stem being aVways found in 
 the second aor. or some other secondary tense (when used), or in de- 
 rivative words. 
 
 5. The strengthened stem of verbs of the pi-mute class 
 ends in tvt, the pure stem ending in it (except in /3Xa7rro> and 
 
§ 31.] VERBS IN a). 65 
 
 Kpu7rro), which end in /3 — ifSkdfinv — ; and (3a7TTco, Odirrca, pd7rra>, 
 crfcd7rra), pL7TT(D f and SpviTTG), which end in 0) ; as, Konrco, aor. 
 
 €k6tT7)V. 
 
 6. The strengthened stem of verbs of the kappa-mute class 
 generally ends in o-a or tt (rarely in £), the pure stem ending 
 in y (except in <£/nWa>, which ends in k) ; as, Trpdo-aoo, sec. 
 perf. Trenpaya. 
 
 7. The strengthened stem of verbs of the tau-mute class 
 generally ends in { (rarely in o-cr, tt), the pure stem ending 
 in d ; as, ko/zi£g), derivative Kopidf}. 
 
 Rem. 2. The following verbs ending in crcrco (ttco) have 8 (instead 
 of y) for their pure characteristic, viz. Trdaaco, 7rXdo-cra), /Spdcro-o), epea- 
 cra), tttiWco, /3Xittcd, and perhaps a few others. On the contrary, of 
 those ending in fo>, those denoting a sound or cry (as, o-revdfa), 2o 
 groan), together with ordfo), or/fa), <TTepi£<o, /zaoTifa*? acj)v((o, and 
 dAcm-afca, have y for their pure characteristic (instead of d) ; while 
 KXdfca, 7rXd£a>, o"a\7ri£a> have yy. The verbs naifa, dpird^co, /Saord^co, 
 and yuordfa) vary between d and y. 
 
 Rem. 3. The most common strengthening of the stem-vowel in 
 mute verbs is by changing e into ex, and v into ev in the pres. and im- 
 perf. ; as, XetVa) (root Xi7r-), (f)evy<D (root (pvy-). 
 
 8. The stem of many liquid verbs, also, is strengthened in 
 the pres. and imperf., either by doubling X, by inserting v after 
 the characteristic, by introducing i before v or p, in the endings 
 awa, eivco, aipco, and etpw, or by simply lengthening in quantity i 
 and v in the endings luco, vvco, vpa ; as, crreXXa (pure stem o-reX), 
 T€fj,vco (re/Li), (patpco (<fidi>), ktcivco (kt€j/), atpa) (dp), (nreipcD (o"7rep), 
 AcpiVco (/cpiv), dp.vpco (apvv), crvpa) (o*vp). 
 
 § 31. Reduplication and Augment. 
 
 1. The additions made to the beginning of the stem of 
 verbs in their conjugation are called reduplication and aug- 
 ment. 
 
 2. Reduplication takes place in the perf. and pluperf. 
 (which latter tense generally takes, also, the temporal aug- 
 ment e before the reduplication) of all voices, and in the future 
 perf. mid. or pass., in all verbs commencing with a single con- 
 
 6* 
 
66 VERBS IN a). [§ 31. 
 
 sonant (i. e. not two consonants nor a double consonant) or a 
 mute and liquid, except p, and in most cases yv, yX, and /3X. 
 It consists in repeating the initial consonant, with e (Ep. et in 
 some verbs) after it, which are retained in all the modes and 
 the participle ; as, Xua>, perf. Xe'-Xv/ca, subj. Xe-Xu«a>, infln. Xe- 
 Xu/ceVat, part. Xe-XuKa>s, plup. i~Xc-XvK€iv. 
 
 Rem. 1. But XafjLJ3dvco, Xayxdvco, cruXXeya) (and some other com- 
 pounds of Xeyco), (p€co), and peipofjuu, generally take et instead of the 
 reduplication ; as, Xapftdva, perf. et'Xrj^a, plup. clXrjfaiv. But ktclo- 
 fjicu takes the reduplication as though it commenced with a mute and 
 liquid ; as, perf. /ce'-KrrjjLiat. 
 
 3. Many verbs beginning with e, o, or a short a before a 
 consonant, instead of the regular reduplication in the perf. 
 and pluperf., augment the vowel, as in the temporal aug- 
 ment, and at the same time repeat before it the unaugmented 
 vowel with the following consonant. This is called the Attic 
 reduplication, but is in general use. It rarely admits any 
 additional augment in the plup. except in tjktjkociv ; as, dkeco, 
 perf. d\-T]\€Ka, plup. aX-r/XeWi/ ; e/zeo), ifx-rjfieKa. But when the 
 second syllable of the stem is a diphthong, it is shortened 
 (except in epelda) in the reduplicated tenses, viz. et into t (into 
 e in liquid verbs), and ov into o ; as, dXet^co, dX-r)Xi<fia; aicov^ 
 aK-r)Koa, etc. 
 
 Rem. 2. The verbs that take this reduplication (which they gen- 
 erally retain in the pass., except d/coua>, which becomes rjicovo-fxai 
 in the perf. pass.) are (except in the dialects) chiefly the following: 
 dyelpa), aKova), dXet'c^G), dXe'a), dpoco, iyeipay, ecr6i<D, iXavvco, ^Xe'y^o), 
 ep^o/xat (from the Stem eXevd-), e/tect>, (pepa (eVe/c-), epei'Sa), opva-o-co, 
 oXXvfiL and opwjit. 
 
 Rem. 3. The sec. aor. act. of ayco and cj)epa> (eVe/c-) have a sim- 
 ilar reduplication (also various other sec. aor., both act. and mid., in 
 the Epic dialect), except that the augment is placed on the repeated 
 vowel, and hence remains only in the indie. ; as, rjyayov, rjveyKov (but 
 dydyo), subj.). 
 
 4. The augment belongs only to the indicative of the his- 
 torical tenses ; and in verbs beginning with a consonant con- 
 sists of e (called the syllabic augment) placed before the stem 
 
§ 31.] VERBS IN (o. 67 
 
 of the verb in the imperf. and aor., and before the reduplica- 
 tion in the pluperf. ; as, e-Xvov, «-Xi/o-a, e-Xe-XvKe«/. 
 
 Rem. 4. But when the verb begins with p, a double consonant, 
 or two consonants which are not a mute followed by a liquid, and 
 even with /3X and yX in some cases, and yv always, the perf., pi up., 
 and future perf have only the syllabic augment (except that p is redu- 
 plicated in some poetic perfects), like the imperf. and aor., but, unlike 
 those tenses, retain it through all the modes and in the participle, as 
 they do the reduplication, when they have it. In those beginning 
 with p, the p is doubled after the augment (except in a few poetic 
 forms, and where yet X, cr, and p are sometimes doubled) ; as, pinm, 
 imp. (-'ppiTTTov, perf. eppt^a ; f^reo), €^tjtt]K€lv ; e(f)6opa (pres. (fi&elpco), 
 iyvcopiarpai (yvcoplfa), eykvpat, (y\v(p(o), eftXcKTTrjKa (j3\aaTavco) . 
 
 5. The only augment which verbs beginning with a vowel 
 or diphthong receive in any tense, consists in lengthening, 
 in certain cases, the initial vowel, which is called the temporal 
 augment. But here, also, the perf., pluperf., and fut. perf. 
 retain the augment throughout, while the imperf. and aor. 
 retain it only in the indicative. 
 
 6. The temporal augment changes a, a, ai into 77, n ; o, 01 
 into ©, a) ; € into 77 ; and simply lengthens in quantity t and 
 
 v short ; as, imp. rjyov (pres. ayo>), rjvtjov (at/£a>), fjTOvv (atreco), 
 perf. rjXiriKa \i\.Tri£<jn) , aor. oo/xiXr/cra (o/xtXeo)), aKrjica (otKea>). 
 
 Rem. 5. But some verbs in a, av, and ot followed by a vowel (but 
 not o'lopai), and a few in 01 not followed by a vowel, are not aug- 
 mented by any change of vowels, though a is long in quantity in the 
 augmented tenses. Such verbs are dtco (imp. dtov), avalvco, olaicifa, 
 olicovpeco, etc. 
 
 Rem. 6. In the following verbs in e, the c is changed into et by 
 the augment, instead of into 77, viz. iaco (allow), iOifa (accustom), 
 ikl(r(T(o (roll), eXfcco (cXk-, draw), ipydfypcu (work), €p7rco epirvfa 
 (creep), iaricuo (entertain), e^co (have), enopai (follow), and alpeco 
 (ip-, take) ; as, eiWa, etcoBa, elxop, etc. Also elnov (stem in-). 
 
 Rem. 7. The o in ov, and generally the e in ev and a at the begin- 
 ning of verbs, are not changed by augment. But cv occasionally be- 
 comes nv, and ei becomes 77 in etKa£a>. 
 
 7. Verbs beginning with eo augment the second vowel (o) ; 
 
 as, imp. iaprafyv (eoprdfw). 
 
 Rem. 8. A few verbs commencing with co, ov, and some even with 
 a short vowel, take the syllabic augment (e) before their vowel, viz. 
 
68 VERBS IN 0). [§ 32. 
 
 o)6ea) (imp. idodovv, rare ooOovv, aor. eWa) , au>eo/iac, ovptco ; aywfii 
 and aXio-KOfjLai in the aor. and perf., and the perfects eWa, eo\na, 
 eopya. Also some others in the Epic dialect. 
 
 Rem. 9. The verbs opaco, dvoiyco, and dXiWo/uu, take both the 
 syllabic and temporal augment; as, imp. dvecoyov, perf. iaypaxa, etc. 
 
 Rem. 10. The verbs j3ouXo/xai, bvvafxai, and /xeXXa> also often take 
 77, especially in the later writers, instead of €, as though their stem 
 commenced with a vowel ; as, TjfiovXofAnv, r)dwr)6r)v, fjp.€Xkov, etc. 
 
 Rem. 11. In common prose only the augment of ixpyv (except the 
 augment c of the pluperf.) can be omitted, which is more commonly 
 Xprjv, but in most kinds of poetry (rarely in the Attic) both the tem- 
 poral and syllabic augment was often omitted for the sake of the 
 metre, and for other reasons. In Ionic prose, also, the temporal aug- 
 ment is often omitted in all of the tenses. 
 
 Rem. 12. Sometimes the present prefixes e to the root of a verb, 
 which has the appearance of the syllabic augment ; as, i-deXco (6e\co). 
 Also, the present of verbs in /xi, and some other verbs, whose root 
 begins with a single consonant or a mute followed by a liquid, are 
 reduplicated in the present, by prefixing the first consonant followed by 
 1 to the stem ; as, ck'-Sco/xi (stem do-), ri-rpdco, etc. 
 
 § 32. Reduplication and Augment in Compound Verbs. 
 
 1. Most verbs compounded with a preposition take the aug- 
 ment and reduplication between the preposition and the verb ; 
 but where the compound verb has no simple form in use, or 
 expresses not merely a modification of the idea of the simple 
 verb, but a new idea, like an original verb, the augment and 
 reduplication are often placed before the preposition, as in a 
 simple verb ; as, a7r-e/3aXXoi/ (d7ro-/3aXXa>, to throw fr6?n), dwo- 
 peftXriKa, etc. ; but dfjLcpLepvvfjiL (to clothe, having no compound 
 idea in it), aor. ^/i^iWa, etc. 
 
 Rem. 1. In forming these compounds, prepositions ending in a 
 vowel lose it, except nepi and 7rpo, and the o of the latter of these is 
 generally contracted, by crasis, with the augment e into ov (as izpov- 
 fiaivov, but also TTpoeaxov, and the like). The 1/, also, in ev and avv, 
 which had been dropped or assimilated before a consonant in the pres- 
 ent, appears again before the augment; as, o-vv-eXeyov (avWeyco), etc. 
 
 Rem. 2. Some verbs, on account of their partaking, perhaps, at 
 the same time, of the nature of simples and compounds, take the aug- 
 ment and reduplication both before and after the preposition, viz. a/x7re- 
 
 
§ 33.] VERBS IN 6). 69 
 
 XOfiai, dyexofJLCLi, dfic^iyuoeCD, dvopdoco, eW^Xeo), rrapoiveco ; also foairdo), 
 diaKovea, dfjL(f)i(r(3r)Te<o. Some verbs, also, vary as to the place of the 
 augment, and some as to its being double or single. 
 
 2. In all other compound verbs, except those beginning 
 with 6W- before a short vowel (in which case this short vowel 
 receives the augment), the augment and reduplication come at 
 the beginning of the compound word ; as, oikoSo^o, cpKodofiovit ; 
 dvarrvxeco, i-bvcrTvxpvv ; — but oWapeo-rea), dvcrrjpecrT-qo-a, etc. 
 
 Rem. 3. Occasionally, also, in compounds with ev, a short vowel 
 following this particle is lengthened by the augment ; as, €vepy€Tecoj 
 evrjpyerovv or evepyerovv. 
 
 § 33. Tense- Characteristic, Mode- Vowel, and Personal 
 • Endings. 
 
 1. The tense-characteristic is the consonant which immedi- 
 ately follows the stem, in certain tenses, before the mode- 
 vowel and personal endings ; as, ifiovXev-cr-dfjLTjv. 
 
 Rem. 1. The pres. and imperf. of all voices, and the perf. and 
 pluperf. pass., and all the secondary tenses, except the second future 
 passive, have no tense-characteristic. 
 
 2. The tense-characteristic of the first fut. and aor. act. and 
 middle, and the fut. perf., is o- ; that of the first aor. pass., 6 ; 
 that of the first fut. pass., the syllable Grjcr, and of the second, 
 rja- ; and that of the perf. and pluperf. act. of verbs of the pi- 
 and kappa-mute class, a mere aspiration of the final mute, but 
 in all other verbs k ; as, Xv-o--a>, eXu-o--d/i7;z/, XeXu-cr-o/zat ; i\v-6- 
 f)v ; \v-6r)(T'OfjLai t Tptfi-rjo-ofjLCU ; T€Tpi(f)a (i. e. Ter/9tj3-d), XeXv-K-a, 
 
 7r€7T€l'K-a. 
 
 Rem. 2. It will be understood, of course, that in verbs ending in 
 a tau-mute, this mute is dropped before the characteristics k and cr, and 
 changed into cr before 6, and that the pi- and kappa-mutes suffer the 
 usual euphonic changes before cr and the aspiration (see § 4) ; as, nclo-co 
 (instead of ncMo-co), iirtio-O-qv (for ineiOBTju), Tpeyjrco (for Tpeircrcd), ne- 
 7rXe^a (for 7re7rXe/c-d) . 
 
 Rem. 3. The fut. and aor. act. and middle of liquid verbs do not 
 take cr, but the fut. adds w, ov/xat (coming from ea>, copai) to the pure 
 stem of the verb, while the aor. simply lengthens this stem, by chang- 
 
70 VERBS IN a). [§ 33. 
 
 ing the final a into q, and e into ei, and t and t> short into i and v long, 
 before affixing the inflectional endings ; as, <rreXa), ecrretXa. Hence 
 they belong in character to the secondary tenses. 
 
 Rem. 4. The first aor. act. and mid. of the verbs rlBrjfii, bibafii, 
 and 177/xt has k, instead of tr, for characteristic, after the analogy of 
 the perf. ; as, e&j/ca, eSaxa, rjica. On the contrary, the irregular first 
 aorists clna, 771/ey/ca, and e^ea have no characteristic. 
 
 3. The mode-vowel and personal endings constitute that 
 part of a verbal form which follows the tense-stem (consisting 
 of the stem of the verb, with the augment, if any, prefixed, 
 and the tense-characteristic affixed to it). The mode- vowel 
 varies with the mode, and the personal ending with the person 
 and number of the verb (as, /3ouXeu-o-/xcu, (Zovkev-cQ-fxai, povXev-e- 
 o-0€, fiovXev-Ti'O-Se). But often the mode-vowel is so blended by- 
 contraction with the initial vowel of the personal ending, That 
 they do not appear as separate parts. Hence these two ele- 
 ments, and the tense-characteristic, will be exhibited together 
 in the paradigms of the verb, and separated from the verb- 
 stem ; as, fiovXev-o-rjs for fiovXev-crrj-iS) fiovXcv-o-rj for jSouXev- 
 <re-at. 
 
 4. The following things should also be observed with re- 
 gard to the personal endings and mode-vowels, which may be 
 seen from inspection of the paradigms : — 
 
 a) That the third person dual of the principal tenses in the 
 indie, and subj. of all voices ends in oi>, and of the historical 
 tenses, in r)v (occasionally, also, the sec. pers. in Attic writers). 
 
 b) That the third pers. plur., indie, and subj. active of the 
 principal tenses ends in o-i (arising from -vtl, -vo-t), and of the 
 historical tenses (indie, and opt.) in -v ; while in the middle, 
 the third pers. plur. of the first class of tenses ends in -irai, 
 and of the second in -vro. 
 
 c) The principal tenses in the sing, of the middle (indie, 
 and subj.) end in -/zat, -a-aL, -rat, the historical tenses (indie, 
 and opt.), in -/x^, ~o-o 9 -to. 
 
 d) The mode- vowel of the subj. is always that of the indie, 
 lengthened, viz. o into o>, c and a into 77, and ei into 7. 
 
§ 34,] VERBS IN o>. 71 
 
 e) The mode-vowel of the opt. is always oi, except in the 
 first aor. act. and middle, where it is at. 
 
 f) The secondary or abbreviated ending of the third pers. 
 plur. of the imper. act. is always the same in form (except in 
 the perf.) as the gen. of the part, of the same tense. 
 
 § 34. Paradigms of Verbs in o>. 
 
 In order to make a full paradigm of verbs in w, the forms 
 of the pure verb are given as far as used, and the other parts, 
 essential to exhibit the characteristic formations of the other 
 classes of verbs, have been borrowed from verbs of those 
 classes. For this purpose, the old device of a second future 
 active and middle has been revived, but by taking it from 
 liquid verbs, where the form actually exists. 
 
 
72 
 
 VERBS IN g>. 
 
 Active Voice. 
 
 [§3*- 
 
 S. 1. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 D. 1. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 P. 1. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 S. 1. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 D. 1 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 P. 1. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 S. 2. 
 
 3. 
 D.2. 
 
 3. 
 
 Present. Imperfect. 
 
 Indicative. 
 Xv-o), I free e-\v-ov, 1 freed (or was freeing) 
 
 Xv-eu, thou freest e-Xv-e?, thou freedst 
 
 .Xv-et, fo (sAe, it) frees e-Xv-e, he freed 
 
 \v-ctov, you two free 
 \v-€tov, they two free 
 Xu-o/xei/, ice free 
 Xv-€T€, you free 
 \v-ovo~i, they free 
 
 i-\v-€Tov, you two freed 
 €-X'v-€tt]v, they two freed 
 €-\v-ofjL€v, ice freed 
 e-\v-€T€, you freed 
 e-Xv-oy, they freed. 
 
 Subjunctive and Optative. 
 Xu-o), I may (can, etc. ) free Xu-ot/xt, I might (etc.) free 
 
 \v-r)S, thou may st free •' Xv-ols, thou mightst free 
 
 \v-t], he may free Xv-ol, he might free 
 
 \v-t)tov, you two may free 
 Xv-nrov, they two may free 
 \v-(DfjL€v, ice may free 
 \v-t]T€, you may free 
 Xv-cocn, they may free 
 
 Present Imperative. 
 \v-€,free thou 
 Xi>-ero), let him free 
 \v-€Tov,free you two 
 \v-€tcqv, let those two free 
 
 Xv-eiv, to free 
 
 Xv-oitov, you two might free 
 \v-oitt)v, they two might free 
 \v-oifiev, we might free 
 Xv-oire, you might free 
 Xv-otev, they might free. 
 
 Infinitive, and Participle. 
 P. 2. \v-€T€,free ye (you) 
 
 3. Xv-ercocrav, \ 
 
 _ / > let them ft 
 
 or -ovToav ) J 
 
 Xv-cov, freeing. 
 
 Free, 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 S. 1. Xe-X£-Ka, I have freed 
 
 2. Xe'-Xv-Ka?, thou hast freed 
 
 3. Xc-Xv-kc, he has freed 
 D. 1. 
 
 2. \€-\v-kqtov, you two have freed 
 
 3. Xe-Xv-/caroy, they two have freed 
 
 Pluperfect. 
 
 cXe-Xv-iceiv, I had freed 
 iXe-Xv-Keis, thou hadst freed 
 i\€-\v-K€ij he had freed 
 
 eXe-Xu'-Karoz/, you two had freed 
 iXe-Xv-Kelrnv, they two had freed 
 
§34.] 
 
 VERBS IN co. 
 
 73 
 
 Middle and Passive, 
 
 Present. Imperfect 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 e-\v-6fjLr]p, I ransomed (or pass.) 
 e-Xv-ov, thou ransomedst 
 i-Xv-ero, he ransomed 
 €-Xv-6fjLe6ov, ive two ransomed 
 i-Xv-ecrOov, you two ransomed 
 i-Xv-icrdnv, they two ransomed 
 i-Xv-ofieOa, we ransomed 
 i-Xv-ecr6e, you ransomed 
 i-Xv-ovro, they ransomed. 
 
 Subjunctive and Optative. 
 
 Xv-oLfinv, I might ransom 
 Xv-oio, thou might st ransom 
 Xv-oito, he might ransom 
 Xv-olfxeOov, we two might ransom 
 Xv-ol(t6ov, you two might ransom 
 Xv-olcrBnv, they two might ransom 
 Xv-oifM€da, we might ransom 
 Xv-oicrOe, you might ransom 
 Xv-oivto, they might ransom. 
 
 Xv-ojjLaL, I ransom (or pass.) 
 Xv-77, -ei, thou ransomest 
 Xv-craL, he ransoms 
 Xv-ofieSov, we two ransom 
 Xv-ecrflov, you two ransom 
 Xv-ecrOov, they two ransom 
 Xv-opeda, we ransom 
 Xv-€ct0€, you ransom 
 Xv-ovrat, they ransom 
 
 Xv-cofiaL, I may ransom 
 Xv-7], thou may st ransom 
 Xv-nrai, he may ransom 
 Xv-cQfA€6ov, we two may ransom 
 Xv-ncrOov, you two may ransom 
 Xv-r)cr8ov, they two may ranson 
 Xv-cofj.€da, we may ransom 
 Xv-rjcrde, you may ransom 
 Xv-covrai, they may ransom 
 
 Present Imperative, Infinitive, and Participle. 
 Xv-ov, ransom thou P. 2. Xv-ccrde, ransom ye 
 
 Xv-eaBco, let him ransom 3. Xv-eoScocrav 
 
 Xv-ccrdov, ransom ye two or -ecrOcov 
 
 Xv-ecr6cov, let those two ransom 
 
 Xv-ecrOai, to ransom Xv-6 
 
 let them ransom, 
 
 ofievosi 
 
 Pluperfect. 
 Indicative. 
 
 iXe-Xv-fjLrjv, I had ransomed 
 iXi-Xv-cro, thou hadst ransomed 
 iXe-Xv-TO) he had ransomed 
 iXe-Xv-jjicdov, wc two had ransomed 
 iXe-Xv-crBov, you two had ransomed 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 Xe-Xv-fiai, I have ransomed 
 Xe-Xv-crai, thou hast ransomed 
 Xe-Xv-raL, he has ransomed 
 Xc-Xv-iieOov, we two have ransomed 
 Xe-Xv-crOov, you two have ransomed 
 Xe-Xv-crdov, they two have ransomed iXe-Xv-adnv, they two had ransomed 
 
 7 
 
74 VERBS IN o). [§ 34. 
 
 t 
 
 Active Voice. 
 
 P. 1. Xe-Xv-Ka/xey, toe have freed iXe-Xv-Keifxev, ice had freed 
 
 2. Xe-Xv-Kare, you have freed iXe-Xv-Keire, you had freed 
 
 3. Xe-Xv-Kacri, they have freed iXe-Xv-Ktcrav, they had freed. 
 
 Subjunctive and Optative. 
 S. 1. \e-\v-Mo, I may have freed Xe-Xv-Koifxi, I might have freed 
 
 2. \€-\v-Kr]s,thou mayst have freed \c-\v-kois ,thou mightst have freed 
 
 3. \e-\v-KT], he may have freed Xc-Xv-kol, he might have freed 
 D. 1. 
 
 2. Xe-Xv-KrjTov, you two may have Xe-Xv-KOLTov, you tico might have 
 
 [freed [freed 
 
 3. X€-Xv-kt]tov, they two may have Xe-Xv-Koirnv, they two might have 
 
 [freed [freed 
 
 P. 1. Xe-Xv-Kcofxev, ice may havef reed Xe-Xv-K.oi}iev, we might have freed 
 
 2. Xe-Xv-KrjTe, you may have freed Xe-Xv-KOLre, you might have freed 
 
 3. Xe-Xv-Kcocri, they may have freed Xe-Xv-Koiev , they might have freed. 
 
 Perfect Imperative, Infinitive, and Participle. 
 
 m 
 
 S. 2. Xi-Xv-Ke, etc., like the imperative present, in perfects with 
 3. the sense of the present, in other verbs it is not used. 
 
 D. 2. 
 3. 
 
 Xe-Xv-icevai, to have freed Xe-Xv-Koosi having freed. 
 
 First Future. First Aorist. 
 
 Indicative. 
 S. 1. Xv-croo, I shall free e-Xv-o-a, I freed 
 
 2. Xv-creis, thou wilt free e-Xv-aas, thou freedst 
 
 3. Xv-nei, he will free e-Xv-ae, he freed 
 D. 1. 
 
 
 2. Xv-crerov, you two will free t-Xv-ararov, you two freed 
 
 3. Xv-crerov, they two will free i-Xv-o-arnv , they two freed 
 P. 1. Xv-aoficp, we will free c-Xv-aafjiev, ice freed 
 
 2. Xv-or€T€, you will free i-Xv-o-are, you freed 
 
 3. Xv-aovai, they will free e-Xv-crav, they freed. 
 
 Optative {Future and Aorist). 
 
 S. 1. Xv-aroifii, I would free Xv-o-aipi, I might free 
 
 2. Xv'(tols, thou wouldst free Xv-crats, -o~eias, thou mightst free 
 
 3. Xv-aoi, he would free Xv-crai, -crete, he might free 
 
§ 34.] VERBS IN a). 75 
 
 Middle and Passive. 
 
 Ae-Xv-/xe#a, ice have ransomed iXe-Xv-peda, we had ransomed 
 
 \e-\v~o-6e, you have ransomed iXe-Xv-crde, you had ransomed 
 
 Xe-Xv-vTai, they have ransomed iXe-Xv-vro, they had ransomed. 
 
 Subjunctive and Optative. 
 Xe-Xv-pevos a), I may have ransomed Xe-Xv-pzvos e'lrjv, I might have rans. 
 Xe-Xv-pevosfis, thou may st have rans. Xe-Xv-pevos ei^s, thou mightst h. r. 
 Xe-Xv-pkvos #, he may have rans. Xe-Xv-pevos a^, he might have rans. 
 
 Xe-Xv-peva tjtov, you two may have Xe-Xv-pevco etrjTov, you two might 
 [ransomed [have ransomed 
 
 Xe-Xv-pevco tjtov, they two may have Xe-Xv-pevco elrjrnv, they two might 
 [ransomed [have ransomed 
 
 Xe-Xv-pevoi a)/iej/, we may have rans. Xe-Xv-pevoi etnpev, we might h. r. 
 
 Xc-Xv-pevoi t}t€, you mayhcverans. Xe-Xv-pevot ei^re, you might h. r. 
 
 Xc-Xv-pevoi wen, they may have rans. Xe-Xv-pevoi e'lnaav, they might h. r 
 
 Perfect Imperative, Infinitive, and Participle. 
 Xi-Xv-o-o, ransom thou P. Xe-Xv-crOe, ransom ye 
 
 Xe-Xv-o-Oco, let him ransom Xe-Xv-crQcocrav, 
 
 let them ransom. 
 
 \ 
 
 Xe-Xv-aOov, ransom you two or -o~6cov 
 
 Xe-Xv-o-OcQv, let those two ransom 
 
 Xe-Xv-aBaL, to have ransomed Xe-Xv-pevos, having ransomed. 
 
 First Future. First Aorist. 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 Xv-o~opai, I shall ransom e-Xv-o-aprjv, I ransomed 
 
 Xv-o-y, -et, thou wilt ransom i-Xv-aco, thou ransomedst 
 
 Xv-creTai, he will ransom c-Xv-o-aro, he ransomed 
 
 Xv-crojieOov, we two will ransom i-Xv-adpedov, we two ransomed 
 
 Xv-aecrSov, you two will ransom i-Xv-cracrdov, you two ransomed 
 
 Xv-aeo-Qov, they two will ransom i-Xv-cracr6r]v , they two ransomed 
 
 Xv-aopeOa, we will ransom i-Xv-o-dpeSa, we ransomed 
 
 Xv-cr€o-0€, you will ransom e~Xv-o-ao-8e, you ransomed 
 
 Xv-o-bvrai, they will ransom i-Xv-cravro, they ransomed. 
 
 Optative (Future and Aorist). 
 
 Xv-croLpnv, I would ransom Xv-o~aiprp/, I might ransom 
 
 Xv-o-oio, thou wouldst ransom Xv-o~aio, thou mightst ransom 
 
 Xv-ctolto, he would ransom Xv-crairo, he might ransom 
 
76 
 
 VERBS IN a. 
 
 {§34. 
 
 Active Voice. 
 
 D. 1. 
 
 2. 
 3. 
 P. 1. 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 S. 1. 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 D.l. 
 2, 
 3. 
 
 P. 1. 
 2, 
 3, 
 
 Xv-o-oirov, you two would free \v-o~anov, you two might free 
 
 Xv-aoirnv, they two would free \v-craiTr)v, they two might free 
 
 Xv-croLpev, we would free Xv-o-aipev, we might free 
 
 \v-o-olt€, you would free Av-o-cure, you might free 
 
 Xv-aoiev, they would free Xv-o-atev, -aeiav, they might free. 
 
 Subjunctive and Imperative (Aorist). 
 
 Xv-cra, I may free 
 
 Xv-arjs, thou may st free Xv-o-ov,free thou 
 
 Xv-o-r], he may free Xv-craTco, let him free 
 
 Xv-o-qTov, you two may free 
 Xv-crrjTov, they two may free 
 Xv-crcoii€v, we may free 
 Xv-crr]T€, you may free 
 Xv-o-coo-i, they may free 
 
 Xv-crarov, free you two 
 Xv-aarcw, let these two free 
 
 Xv-crare , free ye 
 
 Xv-crcLTcocravj -oravrcov, let themfree. 
 
 S. 1. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 D.l. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 P. 1. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 S. 1. 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 Infinitive and Participle (Future and Aorist). 
 Xv-creiv (to) will free Xv-aai, to free (to have freed) 
 
 Xv-acov, about to free Xv-aas, freeing (having freed), 
 
 Second Perfect. Second Pluperfect. 
 
 Indicative, 
 irk-fyrjv-a, I appear €7T€-<fir)v-€iv, I appeared 
 
 7T€-cprjv-as , thou appearest e7re-</>qi>-«s, thou appearedst 
 
 7T€-(pr]v-€y he appears eVe-c/np-et, he appeared 
 
 7T€-(j)T]v-aTov , you two appear eVe-^v-ecroz/, you two appeared 
 
 7T€-<fir]v-aTov, they two appear e7T€-(priv-€Lrr]v, they two appeared 
 
 n€-<pr)v-ap.€v, we appear €7T€-<fir)v-eLiJ.€v, ice appeared 
 
 7T€-(pT]v-aT€ , you appear iire-^v-eire , you appeared 
 
 7T€-(j)r)v-ao-i, they appear eVe-c^y-ecray, they appeared. 
 
 Subjunctive and Optative. 
 
 7T€-<f)r)v-cD , I may appear 7re-(j)T)v-oini, I might appear 
 
 Tre-^rjv-ns, thou mayst appear 7r€-<$)r]v-ois, thou mightst appear 
 
 7T€-<pr)v--n, he may appear 77€-<j)r)v-oi, he might appear 
 
§ 34.] VERBS IN O). 77 
 
 Middle and Passive. 
 
 Xv-o-olfieQov, we two would ransom Xv-aaifMeOov, we two might ransom 
 
 Xv-o-otcrdov, you two xuould ransom \v-o-cuo~6ov, you two might ransom 
 
 Xv-voio-Onv, they two ivould ransom Xv-o~aio~6r]v , they two might ransom 
 
 \v-o~oifjLeda, we tvould ransom Xv-aaipeOa, we might ransom 
 
 Xv-croia-de, you would ransom Xv-aaLcrde, you might ransom 
 
 \v-o-oivto, they ivould ransom Xv-craivTo, they might ransom. 
 
 Subjunctive and Imperative (Aorist). 
 
 Xv-a-cofxai, I may ransom 
 
 Xu-077, thou may st ransom Xv-aat, ransom thou 
 
 Xv-arrjTai, he may ransom Xv-o-dadco, let him ransom 
 
 Xv-o-cofxeBov, we two may ransom 
 
 Xv-o-r]o~6ov, you two may ransom Xv-cracrdoi>, ransom ye two 
 
 Xv-o-Tjadov, they two may ransom Xv-o-daOcov, let those two ransom 
 
 Xv-o-dofx^Ba, we may ransom 
 
 Xv-crncrde, you may ransom Xv-o-aoSe, ransom ye 
 
 Xv-crcovrai, they may ransom Xv-adadcoo-av, -o~do-6cov, let^ them 
 
 [ransom. 
 
 Infinitive and Participle {Future and Aorist). 
 
 Xv-o-eo-dai, (to) will ransom Xv-o-aaOai, to ransom 
 
 Xv-o~6fX€vos, about to ransom Xv-o-dfxevos, having ransomed. 
 
 Future Perfect. 
 Indicative. 
 Xe-Xv-o-ofjLa*, I should have ransomed 
 Ae-Av-077, -et, thou wilt have ransomed 
 Xe-Xv-a-eraL, he will have ransomed 
 Xe-Xv-o-ofieOov, we two shall have ransomed 
 Xe-Xv-o-eo-Qov, you two will have ransomed 
 Xe-Xv-areo-Qov, they two will have ransomed 
 Xe-Xv-o-dfjieda, we shall have ransomed 
 Xe-Xv-creo-de, you will have ransomed 
 Xe-Xv-orovraL, they will have ransomed. 
 
 Optative. 
 Xe-Xv-croifxnv, I would have ransomed 
 Xe-Xv-croio, thou wouldst have ransomed 
 Xe-Xv-o-oiro, he would have ransomed 
 7* 
 
78 
 
 D. 1. 
 
 2. 7T€-(f)f]v-r]Tov, you 
 
 VERBS IN co. 
 
 Active Voice. 
 
 L§34. 
 
 two may rre-cpijv-oLTov, you two might ap- 
 [appear [pear 
 
 3. 7T€-(p7]u-T]Tov , they two may Trc-cprjv-oirrjv, they two might ap- 
 
 [appear [pear 
 
 P. 1. 7T€-(pT]v-coii€v, ive may appear 7re-(fif}v-oifi€i>, ive might appear 
 
 2. 7T€-(pr]v-T]T€, you may appear Tre-cprjv-oLre, you might appear 
 
 3. 7re-4>r]v-co(ri, they may appear 7re-(pf)v-ot,€v, they might appear. 
 
 Second Perfect Imperative, Infinitive, and Participle. 
 7T€-(fir}v-e, appear thou 7T€-(fir) v-£vai, to appear Tre-ty-qv-cos. 
 
 S. 1. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 D.l. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 P.l. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 ELI. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 D.l. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 P.l. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 S.l. 
 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 Second Future. 
 
 crreX-a), I will send 
 c^reX-e^s•, thou wilt send 
 oreX-ei, he will send 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 crreX-elTov, you two will send 
 oteX-zItov, they two will send 
 oreX-ovpeu, ive will send 
 crreX-eire , you will send 
 crreX-ovcrL, they will send 
 
 Second Aorist. 
 
 €-\ltt-ov, I left 
 e-Xin-es, thou didst leave 
 e-Xi7r-e, he left 
 
 €-\i7r-€Tov, you two left 
 €-Xl7t-€tt]v, they two left 
 iXin-opev, ive left 
 €-\ltt-€T€, you I eft 
 €-\i7r-ov, they left. 
 
 Optative (Puture and Aorist). 
 o-reX-oT/xt, -0/771/, I would send XiV-oiftt, I might leave 
 oreX-oI?, -oiT]s, thou wouldst send \17r-01s, thou mightst leave 
 crreX-oI, -0177, he would send Xi7r-ot, he might leave 
 
 oreX-olrov, -oitjtov, you two w. s. XtV-otrov, you two might leave 
 
 crreX-oLTTjv, -oirjrrjv, they twoiv. s. \ltt-olttju, they two might leave 
 
 OT€\-olp.€v , -oinpev, ive would send \'nr-oipev, we might leave 
 
 OT^X-oire, -oir)T€, you would send XtV-otre, you might leave 
 
 oT€\-ol€v,-oir]o~av,they would send \'nr-oi€v, they might leave. 
 
 Subjunctive and Imperative (Aorist). 
 
 XtVo), I may leave 
 
 A 17*77?, thou mayst leave Xnr-c, leave thou 
 
 X 17177, he may leave Xi7r-era), let him leave 
 
§ 34*] VERBS IN a). 
 
 Passive and Middle. 
 
 \e-\v-a-oLjjLeSop, we two would have ransomed 
 Xe-Xv-o-oicrOov, you two would have ransomed 
 
 Xe-Xv-aoLo-Snv, they two would have ransomed 
 
 \e-Xv-o-oliie6a, we would have ransomed 
 Xe-Xv-aoicrde, you would have ransomed 
 Xe-Xv-o-oivTo, they would have ransomed. 
 
 Future Perfect Infinitive and Participle. 
 Xe-Xv-aecrdai, (to) will have ransomed Xe-Xv-o-ofxevos. 
 
 79 
 
 Second Future. 
 
 erreX-oupxc, I will send for 
 (rreX-17, -el, thou wilt send for 
 oreX-eZrai, he will send for 
 arik-ov^edov, we two will send for 
 crrik-fio-dov, you two will send for 
 (TTcX-elo-Oov, they two will send for 
 oreX-ovfieOa, we will send for 
 oreX-eur^e, you will send for 
 o~T€\-ovvTai, they will send for 
 
 Second Aorist. 
 Indicative. 
 
 e-Xnr-ojjL^v, I stayed (lit. left myself) 
 
 e-XtV-ov, thou stayedst 
 i-\i7r-€To, he stayed 
 i-Xt7r-6fi€6ou, we two stayed 
 i-\i7r-€o~6ov, you two stayed 
 €-\nr-eo~6r}v, they two stayed 
 €-\L7r-6fjL€0a, we stayed 
 e-Xi7r-€o-#e, you stayed 
 €-\i7t-ovto, they stayed. 
 
 Optative (Future and Aorist). 
 
 o-reX-oifjLTjv, I would send for XtTr-oLfiijv, I might stay 
 
 oreX-oIo, thou wouldst send for X1V-010, thou mightst stay 
 
 crreX-oiro, he would send for Xltt-olto, he might stay 
 
 oreX-o'ifjLeOoi', we two would send for Xltt-ol^Oov, we two might stay 
 
 o~TeX-ol.o-6ov,you two would send for Xin-oicrBov , you two might stay 
 
 orik-oio-Onv, they two would send for Xnr-oio~6r)v , they two might stay 
 
 o-reX-olfjieda, we would send for Xi7r-o//xe0a, we might stay 
 
 crreX-oicr#e, you would send for X'nr-oicrOe, you might stay 
 
 o-tcX-oIvto, they would send for Xwr-oiin-o, they might slay. 
 
 Subjunctive and Imperative (Aorist). 
 
 XiV-co/jtat, I may stay 
 
 Xin-n, thou mayst stay Xnr-ov, stay thou 
 
 Xi7r-r]Tai t he may stay Xnr-eoBco, let him stay 
 
80 VERBS IN «. [§ 34. 
 
 Active Voice. 
 D.l. 
 
 2. Xltt-vtov, you two may leave \itt-ztov, leave ye two 
 
 3. Arr-?7Toi/, they two may leave \l7t-€tcov, let those two leave 
 P. 1. Xltt-co^v, we may leave 
 
 2. \i7r-r)Te, you may leave Ai7r-ere, leave ye, etc. 
 
 3. Xi7r-co(7t, /Aey 772tfy leave Ai7r-era)craz>, -<Wa>i'. 
 
 Infinitive and Participle {Future and Aorist). 
 (TTiK-eiv, (to) will send orek-cov, about to send 
 
 \t7T-elv, to leave \17r-cov. leaving, having left. 
 
 Passive Voice. 
 
 First Future. First Aorist. 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 S. 1. \v-6fjo-onai, I shall be freed i-\v-6r)v, I iv as freed 
 
 2. \v-6rjo-r), -€i, thou wilt be freed i-\v'6r]s, thou wast freed 
 
 3 \v-6r)creTaL, he will be freed i-\v-Sr), he ivas freed 
 
 D.l. Xv-dijo-opeOov, we two shall be freed 
 
 2. \v-6rj<recr6ov,youtwo will be freed i-\v-6r]Tov,you two were freed 
 
 3. \v-6r]cr€cr6ov, they two will be freed i-Xv-Brjrrjv, they two were freed 
 P. 1. Xv8r]cr6iJL€6a, we shall be freed i-\v-8i]fxev, ive were freed 
 
 2. \v-8r)0~e<r8e, you will be freed i-\v-8r)Te, you were freed 
 
 3. \v-6r)o-ovTat, they will be freed e-Xv-Bno-av, they were freed. 
 
 Optative (Future and Aorist). 
 S. 1. \v-6rjcroLfjiT]v, I would be freed \v-8ei-qv, I might be freed 
 
 2. Xv-Srjcroio, thou wouldst be freed \v-8ci-ns, thou m-ghtst be freed 
 
 3. \v-6rjaoiTo, he would be freed \v-8eir), he might be freed, etc. 
 D. 1. \v-6y](toi^€6ov, we two would be freed 
 
 2. \v-6r]o-oio-8ov, you two ivouldbe freed \v-6ei-nrov, -Ofirov 
 
 3. \v-6rja-oia-0rjv, they two would be freed Xv-8€lt)tt]v, -Bdrnv 
 P. 1. Xv-drjo'OLfj.eOa, we would be freed \v-6eir)p.ev, -delfiev 
 
 2. \v-8rja-oicrBe, you would be freed Xv-delrjTe, Scire 
 
 3. \v-6t]o-oivto , they would be freed Xv-delrjo-av, -Belev. 
 
 Subjunctive and Imperative (Aorist). 
 S. 1. \v-6a>, I may be freed 
 
 2. Xv-8[]s, thou mayst be freed \v-8r)Ti, be thou freed 
 
 3. \v-6j), he may be freed \v-8tjtco, let him be freed 
 
§34.] 
 
 VERBS IN a). 
 
 81 
 
 Middle and Passive 
 
 \nr~a>H€6ov, we two may stay 
 \Ln~no-6ov, you two may stay 
 \i7r-rjo-0ov, they two may stay 
 XiTr-afieOa, we may stay 
 \i7r-ncr6e, you may stay 
 \L7T-covraL, they may stay 
 
 XLir-eoSov, stay ye two 
 Xnr-eo-dcov, let those two stay 
 
 XiV-eo-tfe, stay ye, etc. 
 \i7r-ea6<D(Tav 7 -ecrOcov. 
 
 Infinitive and Participle (Future and Aorist). 
 orck-eurOai, (to) will send for crrtX-ovfievos, about to send for 
 
 Xi7r-eo-#ai, to stay \L7r-6fievos, staying , having stayed. 
 
 Passive Voice. 
 
 D.l 
 
 2. \v-6rjrov,you tivo maybe freed \v-6rjrov, he ye two freed 
 
 3. \v-6t)tov, they two may be freed \v-6rjrcov, let those two be freed 
 P. 1. \v-8g>[A€p, we may be freed 
 
 2. Xv-6rjT€, you may be freed Xv-drjre, be ye freed, etc. 
 
 3. \v-6(0(tl, they may be freed Xv-Orjrcoo-av , -Oevroav. 
 
 Infinitive and Participle (Future and Aorist). 
 \v-6r]o-€o-6ai, (to) will be freed Xv-Ono-SfjLevos, about to be freed 
 
 \v-6rjvai, to be freed (to have been freed) \v-6e is, freed. 
 
 Second Future. Second Aorist. 
 
 Indicative. 
 S. 1. TpL^-rjcroixai, I shall be rubbed, etc. e-rpifi-nv, Iioas rubbed, etc. 
 [Endings like First Fut. and First Aor. in all the modes and part.] 
 
 VERBAL ADJECTIVES TO \v-CQ. 
 
 \vtos, fj, 6v, freed or freeable \v-reos, to be freed. 
 
 PERFECT PASSIVE AND MIDDLE OF MUTE AND LIQUID VERBS. 
 
 \€L7T(o, leave. 
 
 1. XeXet/M/xat 
 
 2. XeXcn/rat 
 
 3. XeXci7rrat 
 
 1. \c\etfXfjLe6ov 
 
 2. XeXe«/>#oz/ 
 
 3. XeXet(j(>#oz> 
 P. 1. \e\cifXfjLc6a 
 
 2. \{\€L(f)d€ 
 
 D 
 
 Ppex**, wet. 
 f3€(3p€yp,ai 
 /3<F/3pe£at 
 (3e{3p€KTaL 
 fiefipeyfiedov 
 /3€{3p€x6ov 
 Pe{3p€x6ov 
 fiePpeyficQa 
 
 3. XeXei/xjuei/ot etcrt /3e/3pey/xevoi eicri iyfrevcrfxivoi elal rjpfievoi clcri. 
 
 Note. The endings of the imper. and infin., and of the pluperf. 
 
 indie, are affixed with a like change of consonants, in accordance with 
 
 the general laws of euphony (see § 4). The third pers. plur. of the 
 
 pluperf. has rjcrau with the part, perf., as the perf. has elm. 
 
 ^evfoo, deceive. 
 
 eyfrevaaL 
 
 eyjsevo-Tai 
 
 i^€Vo m p.e6ov 
 
 tyzvcrSov 
 
 %y\reva-6ov 
 
 iyjsevo-fJieOa 
 
 e^revaOe 
 
 aipco, raise, 
 rjpfiai 
 rjpcrai 
 rjprai 
 fjpp.c6ov 
 rjpBov 
 rjpOov 
 TJpp.€6a 
 rjpSe 
 
82 
 
 VERBS IN <D. 
 
 Active Voice of Contract Verbs. 
 
 KM, 
 
 erificop 
 irifias 
 irlfjia 
 
 S. 1. r"/xo5 
 
 2. TLfias 
 
 3. TLfia 
 
 D.l. — - 
 
 2. rijiarov lri\iarov 
 
 3. TLfiarov Iti\l6.tt}v 
 
 Present and Imperfect. 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 (ptXco ecfilXovp 
 
 (^iXeTs 1 €(pi\eis 
 
 (piXelrop ecpiXelrop 
 
 (piXelrov i(f)iX€LTT]v 
 
 P. 1. TlfACO}JL€P €TLflCOfl€P <plXoVfl€P €(f)lXoV[l€P 
 
 2. tl fiare irifiare cptXelre icpiXelre 
 
 3. Tip.cocTi irifjLCDV cpiXovcn icpiXovp 
 
 Subjunctive and Optative, 
 
 (piXco (fnkoifu 
 
 dr/Xco 
 
 idi)Xovp 
 
 dnXols 
 
 idvjXovs 
 
 dr]\o7 
 
 idrjXov 
 
 SrjXoirov 
 
 edr/XovTO* 
 
 dnXovrop 
 
 idr]XovTT]V 
 
 drj\0VjJL€V 
 
 idrjXovfiev 
 
 3t]\0VT€ 
 
 idqXovre 
 
 dnXoion 
 
 idr)Xovp. 
 
 S. 1. Tl^G) TLflCOfll 
 
 2. TlfiaS TlflCpS 
 
 3. Ti/xa ri/xcp 
 
 D.l. — - 
 
 2. TLflCLTOP TljACpTOP 
 
 3. TlfJLCLTOV TLfUOTTjP 
 P. 1. TLfltOfl€P TLfACQfieV 
 
 2. rifiare rificore 
 
 3. Tificocn. rifjLcaev 
 
 (JHkjjs 
 
 (ptXfj 
 
 cf)tXo7s 
 (fiiXoi 
 
 dr/Xco 
 
 dnXols 
 
 dr/Xol 
 
 6'riXoi/xi 
 
 6/7X0!? 
 
 677X01 
 
 (piX( 
 
 §T)X&TOV 
 
 dnXcorop 
 
 drjXolrov 
 dr/Xulrnv 
 
 (piXrjTOV 
 
 (piXrjrov (piXoiTTjV 
 
 (piXcofiev (J)lXo7jjl€V 
 
 (piXijre (piXoIre 
 
 (piXwa-L (fiiXolep 
 
 Attic Optative. 
 TLficor/v, -cons, -cor) (piXoLrjP. -oins, -oltj dr]XoLT]P, -oins, -on] 
 
 -CprjTOV, -COT\TT\P -OLTjTOP, -OLl]TnP 'OLrjTOPf-GL-qTTjP 
 
 drjXcDfjiep drfKo7fjL€V 
 drjXcore onXotre 
 bnXcdciL dnXolep. 
 
 -cpnuep, -cor/re, -coep 
 
 S. 2. Wixa 
 
 3. ripaTco 
 
 D. 2. Tifiarop 
 
 3. ripJircop 
 
 P. 2. TLfiarc 
 
 3. TLfxarcocrap or 
 
 Tt/IOJVTCOZ/ 
 TlflCLP 
 
 -oiep -oir]fjL€P, -olrjTe, -ol€p. 
 
 Tiptop, cocra. cop 
 
 G. COPTOS 
 
 'OLT]fJL€P, -OlT]T€, 
 
 Imperative. 
 (ptXec 677X01; 
 
 (plXELTCO drjXoVTCO 
 
 (piXeLTOP drjXovrop 
 
 (piXeiTcop dnXovrcop 
 
 cpiXelre 6eXo0r€ 
 
 (piXciTcoomp or deXovTcocrap or 
 
 (J)lXovptcop drjXovprcop. 
 
 Infinitive and Participle (Present). 
 
 (piXelp dnXovp 
 
 dnXcop, ovcra, ovv 
 G. ovptos* 
 
 cpiXcop. ovcra, ovp 
 G. ovptos 
 
§34.] 
 
 VERBS IN a. 
 
 83 
 
 Middle and Passive of Contract Verbs. 
 
 Present and Imperfect. 
 Indicative. 
 
 TLfJLCJfiai €TlfJLQ3flT)V tfilkovfldl ifpLkoVfirfV 
 
 Tifxa crt/xo5 <J)i\tj, -el £(fiiXov 
 
 ti/jlcltcu irtfiaTO </>iXeiTat ecpiXelro 
 
 TLfJLiiifJLcdoU €TLfJLOifl€6oV (plXoVfiedoV i^iXoVfJLedoV 
 
 Tifiacrdov erLfxaaOov (fcCkelcrdov ttyikeladov 
 
 TifJLaadov €TLfJLdo-6rjv (\)Ckeicr6ov i<pL\eicr8r]v 
 
 TifiafjieOa eYt/*a)/xe#a (friXovfieOa tipiXovfjieQa 
 
 Tifiao-Qe eTLjxaa-Oe (piXelo-de e'(/)iXeto-#e 
 
 Ti\L&vrai ircfMcovTo <f>iXovvrat. i(piXovvro 
 
 dnXovfiat 
 
 dnXol 
 
 dnXovrat 
 
 teXovficdov 
 
 drjXovcrdov 
 
 drjXovadov 
 
 brjXovjjieda 
 
 dr]Xova-6€ 
 
 drjXovvrai 
 
 Subjunctive and Optative. 
 
 TifAtofJLaL TifAcpfiTjv (fiiX&fjiat, (f)iXoLfj,r]v SqXaS/xcH 
 
 Tifia TifJLcpo <^>t\7 cj^iXolo drjXol 
 
 TtfiaraL rifx&TO ^>CKr\Tat (f>iXoiTO dnXcorai 
 
 TinafJLtflov TLfjicpneOov <£iXa)/ie#oi/ (f)iXoifi€6ov $t]Xa)[ie6ov 
 
 Tifiacrdov TLjMpcrdov <f)iXrj(r6ov (fiiXo'icrdov dnXacrdov 
 
 TifiacrOov Ti\L<&(r6r\v (j)iXr)<rdov (ptXolardrjv drjXcoaOov 
 
 TijJL&fJLeda TifAcpfjLefla <^uXa>/ze#a (friXoifAcOa SrjXwfieOa 
 
 Tifxao-de ri/iwcr^e (friXrjo-de (f)iXoia6e dnXaoSe 
 
 TlfJL&VTai, TlflCOVTO (jtiX&vrat, (fiiXoivTO drjX&vrai 
 
 idnXovfi7]V 
 
 idrjXov 
 
 ibrjXovro 
 
 idnXovfiedov 
 
 idnXovo-Qov 
 
 ibrjXovcrOnv 
 
 idnXovfieda 
 
 cdrjXovade 
 
 ibnXovvTo. 
 
 ftijXoliirjv 
 
 $77X010 
 
 dnXolro 
 
 dnXolfieOov 
 
 dnXoladov 
 
 SnXoio-dnv 
 
 dnXoifxeda 
 
 drjXola-de 
 
 drjXoivTO. 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 (j>iXov 
 
 (friXelaQco 
 
 (frCkeiaBov 
 
 (ptXeiadcov 
 
 <£tXe«r0e 
 
 (piXcladaxTav or 
 
 (fnXclddcov 
 
 Infinitive and Participle (Present), 
 Tipao-Oat, (piXelo-Oat 
 
 Tt/X«ftei/0?, ?7, OV CJ)lX0VfA€l>0S, 7}, ov 
 
 S. 2. TIJJLG) 
 
 3. TlfJLOL(r6(i> 
 
 D. 2. Ttfiao-Bou 
 
 3. TifidaOav 
 P. 2. TLfiade 
 
 3. TifmadaMrav or 
 rijidcrdcov 
 
 $7]XoV 
 
 dnXovadco 
 
 8r)Xov<r6ov 
 
 SrjXovcrdav 
 
 BrjXovcrde 
 
 h-nXcLva-OaKrcw or 
 
 8rjXod(rd<ov» 
 
 drjXovcrdai 
 drjXovfJLCVos, 17, ov. 
 
84 VERBS IN co. [§ 35. 
 
 § 35. Remarks on the Paradigms. 
 
 1. The endings for mute and liquid verbs (except some 
 variations in the tense -characteristic, for which see § 30) are 
 the same through all the tenses as for pure verbs, except in 
 the future of liquid verbs, which is given in the paradigm as 
 the second future. Certain changes, however, take place in 
 particular cases in the characteristic consonant of these verbs, 
 when it comes before another consonant in the ending. For 
 which see § 4. 
 
 2. Contract verbs have all the primary tenses like other 
 pure verbs, but are contracted only in the pres. and imperf. 
 Out of the pres. and imperf., however, the short characteristic 
 vowel is generally lengthened ; viz. a (unless preceded by e, «, 
 or p, when a is simply lengthened in quantity) and e- into 77, 
 
 and o into co ; as, drfKaxrco (£77X00)), T€TLfj,7]Ka (rt/xaco), i(pi\r)(Ta 
 
 ((^)tXea>) ; but 7r€(pa)pdKa (a being preceded by p). 
 
 3. Verbs in oco are always contracted, those in aco except in 
 the Epic dialect, and those in ceo except in Epic and Ionic. 
 But monosyllabic verbs in eco (except deco, to hind, which may 
 be contracted in all its forms) are contracted only when two 
 c's would come together ; as, irke-cis irktis, etc. When uncon- 
 tracted, contract verbs are inflected like any other pure verb ; 
 
 as, cpiXeco, (piXhis, </>iAeei, etc. 
 
 4. The verbs £ao), irtivaa), dt\}rd(o f Kvdco, yj/dco, cr/xda), and XP** * 
 take 77 in the Attic dialect in all cases where other verbs in a<o 
 are contracted into a ; as, St^, f^ 7rei^re, etc. 
 
 5. The verb piyoa takes regularly, in Attic writers, a> and 
 cp, where other verbs in ow take ov and 01 ; as, infin. piy&v, opt. 
 
 piycorjv, etc. 
 
 6. Certain futures in ao-w, ecra>, and lo-co (penult short), from 
 stems of two or more syllables in cg>, afa, and especially t£o>, 
 generally drop the cr in the indie, infin., and part, in the Attic 
 dialect, then contract the a and e with the 0, and take the cir- 
 cumflex ending -&, -ovp,at,, like contract verbs ; as, €\a> (for 
 
§ 35.] VERBS IN ©. 85 
 
 cXdo-co), -as, -a, etc. ; TeXco (reXeo-a)), -el?, -eT, etc. ; Aco/xt© (/co/xto-co), 
 -els, -el, etc. 
 
 7. The pluperf. act. has sometimes the following variations 
 from the paradigm : — 
 
 a) -77 for -eiv in the first pers. sing, indie. 
 
 b) -eicrav for the more common -ecraj/, in the third pers. plur„ 
 indie. 
 
 c) -oirjv, -rjs, etc. in the opt. of the second pluperf. instead of 
 the more common -ot/zi, -ots, etc. 
 
 8. The ending -et, in the second person sing. pres. and fut. 
 indie, middle and pass., is used together with the form -77 by 
 most Attic writers, and is regularly used by Aristophanes, and 
 very generally by Plato. In the verbs (3ov\ofjLai, oi'o/zai, and 
 6\j/ofxai the form -« is always used, -g being used only in the 
 subj. The original form (found in the Ion. and iEol.) was 
 -crai, as it was -<ro in the historical tenses. Afterwards o- was 
 dropped and the vowels contracted. 
 
 9. Instead of the periphrastic form of the third pers. plur. 
 indie, mid. and pass, of the perf. and plup. of mute and liquid 
 verbs, the older Attic writers sometimes use the endings arat, 
 aro (common, also, in Ion. and Epic writers in pure verbs), 
 aspirating the preceding pi- or kappa-mute of the root ; as, 
 T€Tpi(pa.T(U (instead of r^rpip\ikvoi eicrt), €T€rd^aro (for TZTa.yp.kvoi 
 770-az/), i<p0dparo (for i(f)6app.€i/oi rycrai/), Ace^oo/3iV6arai (for /cf^wpto"- 
 fievoi clai). 
 
 10. Instead of the periphrastic form of the subj. and opt. 
 perf. and pluperf. mid. and pass., the verbs Krdo/zat, pipvTjo-Kco., 
 i3dXXa), and Kakea have regular endings for these modes ; viz. 
 subj. -co/xat, -7), -t)tcu, etc. ; opt. -fljjLrjv, -770, -tjto or cop.r)v^ -<So (also 
 -010), o>to, etc. 
 
 11. On the contrary, a periphrastic form, consisting of a 
 participle with the proper form of etiu, yiyvopai, diaylyvofun, 
 Kvpeco, virapxa, 7re'Xa>, e'xa), also tpxofj.cu with the future participle, 
 used as auxiliaries, is sometimes found instead of the regular 
 terminational form, but expressing the additional idea of some- 
 
 8 
 
86 VERBS IN 0). [§ 35. 
 
 thing being in the state or condition implied by the participle ; 
 as, dTLfir)<Tas €x« (he has having dishonored, has in dishonor, 
 has dishonored), XcXvkws eVo/xat, \v6fxev6s clfxi, \v6els elfii, etc. in 
 all modes and voices. 
 
 12. In like manner, also, /zeAAco with the pres., fut, or aor. 
 infim forms a periphrastic future to express what is about, 
 intended, or destined to take place ; as, to peXov <rvvolcreirV, what 
 is destined to profit, what would surely profit. 
 
 13. As to the dialects, the following table exhibits briefly 
 the more common dialectic forms of the endings, especially 
 the Ionic, Doric, iEolic, and Epic forms : — 
 
 Indicative Active. 
 S. 1. -€iv (plup.) Ion.-ea(also-ea?,-ee,2dand3dpers.) 
 
 2. -€is (pres. and fut.) Dor. -es; iEol. -e«r0a. 
 D.3. -ttjv Dor. -rav. 
 
 P. 1. -pep Dor. -/ies. 
 
 3. -ova- 1 (pres. and fut.) Dor. -ovn ; iEol. -o«n. 
 -a o-i (perf.) Dor. -avri. 
 
 In the imperf. and aor. act. and middle, the Epic, Ionic, and 
 Attic poets use the forms -<tkov, -aKOfirju preceded by either e or 
 a to express a reiterated action ; as, elnea-Kov, -es, -e, etc. 
 
 Indicative Middle and Passive. 
 S. 1. -\ir\v Dor. -\i.av. 
 
 P. 1. -fic6a Poetic -fLeatia ; iEol. 'fjLetiev. 
 
 3. -vto (imp.and2d aor.) Ion. -aro (e being placed before it 
 
 in place of the connecting vowel 
 in pure verbs). 
 -rja-av iEol., Dor., Epic, -ev. 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 S. 1. -CD Epic •(DfJU. 
 
 2. -rjs Epic -vo-da. 
 
 3. -77 Epic -rjo-i ; uEol. and Dor. -7 or -«. 
 
 Also, the Epic may use o and e as connecting vowels, in- 
 stead of cd and 17. 
 
§ 36.] VERBS IN <o. 87 
 
 Optative. 
 S. 1. "Oirjv JEiOl. -ot]v. 
 
 2. -ois Mol. and Ep. -oio-Ba. 
 
 P. 3. '01VT0, -dlVTO loll. -OLCLTO, -CLlCiTO. 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 P. 3. •VTCDV iEol. "VTOV. 
 
 "(rOoop JEtol. -ctBov. 
 
 Infinitive. 
 m €LV Ep. -e/xej/at, -e/zez/; ^Eol. -77*/; Dor. -6i/. 
 
 -elz/ (sec. aor.) Ion. -ee«/ ; Dor. -kv. 
 
 •tvai (perf. act.) MoY. -r^v ; Dor. -J^ez/, -e«/. 
 
 ■j;mi (aor. pass.) Ep. and Dor. -rjnevat, -JJ/zei/, -jj/xeii/; 
 
 Participle. 
 -as, -a era (aor. act.) iEol. -ais, -aio-a. 
 -a>s (perf. act.) iEol. -av. 
 
 -via (perf. fern.) Dor. -oucra or -eta. 
 
 14. In verbs in aa, the Epic repeats a before a contracted a 
 or a, and o or o> before or after ©, o> ; as, o^aay (for Spas), 
 Spool (for Ojoai), yeAcoozros (yeAa)i>ro?), bpcocoat (Spaicrt). The Ionic 
 changes a into e (as does the Doric, also, sometimes), and in 
 those parts of the verb where a is followed by o, may change 
 the o also into co ; as, opeco (for 6pdo>), e^pe'coiro (ixpdovro). 
 
 15. In verbs in ew, the Epic changes the e into et (as, niseia) ; 
 the iEolic into 77 (as, dSt/c^co), and the Doric into 1 (as, dSi/a'co) ; 
 and where e is followed by o, the Doric changes them into i<o ; 
 
 aS, fJL€Tpid)fl€POS (for p.€Tp€Op.€VOs). 
 
 16. In verbs in oo>, the Ionic contracts 00 into ev ; as, d£tev- 
 
 jne#a (d£too/xe#a). 
 
 § 36. ^ccerc* o/^e Verb. 
 
 1. The general rule here is, that the accent, both in simple 
 and compound verbs, is removed as far from the final syllable 
 as the laws of accentuation will permit (see § 6). 
 
88 VERBS IN 0). [§ 36. 
 
 Rem. 1. Monosyllabic verbs having- their vowel long by nature 
 are all perispomena, except cpys and xph- 
 
 2. In the indicative, the accent is not drawn back, in ac- 
 cordance with the above rule, beyond the augment in com- 
 pound verbs ; as, irapkcrxov (not irdpecrxw). 
 
 3. In the imperative, there are excepted from the general 
 rule the aorist forms, viz. eiVe, evpe, e\6k, Ide, and Aa/3e ; also 
 the form in ov of the second aor. mid., which is a perispome- 
 non in simple verbs, and mostly, also, in compounds (but not 
 in verbs in pi compounded with dissyllabic prepositions), at 
 least by the Attics ; as, \aj3ov, and dva{3a\ov. 
 
 4. In the optative, the endings m and oi are long, and hence 
 do not allow the forms to which they belong to be proparoxy- 
 tones, as in other cases. 
 
 Rem. 2. The opt. mid. of verbs in pi takes the accent on the pe- 
 nult even when the last syllable is short, except ayapai, bvvapai* im- 
 o-rapai, inpidprjv, and a few others, which follow the general rule. 
 
 5. The infinitive of the first aor. act. and of the perf. mid. 
 or pass, has the accent on the penult ; the infin. of the second 
 aor. act. and middle, with all infinitives ending in -vai, place 
 the accent (which is of the kind required by the general rules) 
 on the syllable which has the connecting vowel (see the 
 paradigms). 
 
 6. The participle, in all its forms, usually retains the ac- 
 cent, so far as it can be done according to the general rules 
 of accent, upon the same syllable as in the nom. sing. masc. 
 
 7. The participle of the perfect passive has the accent on 
 the penult. 
 
 8. The participle of the second aorist active and those in 
 cos and eis, as well as those in eis, as, ovs, and vs from verbs in 
 pi, are oxytones in the masc. and neuter, and properispomena 
 in the feminine ; as, fiaXcbv, ovo-a, 6v ; lards, dcra, dv, etc. 
 
§ 37.] VERBS IN co. 89 
 
 § 37. Formation of the Tenses. 
 
 1. From the stem of the present are derived the pres. act. 
 and middle or pass., by simply annexing the proper endings 
 (as shown in the paradigms), and the imperf. act. and mid. or 
 pass., by annexing the endings and prefixing the augment. 
 
 2. From the pure stem (see § 30) the fut. act. and mid. of 
 pure and mute verbs (i. e. the first fut.) is derived by annex- 
 ing the tense-characteristic (§ 33) or and the proper endings. 
 
 Rem. 1. For the lengthening of the characteristic vowel of con- 
 tract verbs, in the pure stem, and the Attic form of certain futures 
 from verbs in eco, a£o>, and ifo>, see § 35, 2 and 6 ; and for the fut. of 
 liquid verbs (second fut. act. and rnid.) see § 33, R. 3. 
 
 Rem. 2. The following contract verbs (also a few in vco and Xco) 
 retain the short vowel in all the tenses, viz. OXdco, tcXac*, oTraco, yeXdco, 
 ^aXdco ; £e'a), £ea>, rpeco, aXea), ap/ceco, e/xea), reXeco, aldeopai, aKeofiai ; 
 dpoco ; and sometimes alveco, cupe'co, 7to#€g>, Seo), /caXeco, and iroveco. 
 
 Rem. 3. The verbs 7n>eo>, ttXcco, Been take et/, instead of 77, out of 
 the pres. and imperf, and peco takes sometimes ev and sometimes v ; 
 but Kaco (Kaico) and kXcico (Kkaico) take av for 77. Several of these verbs, 
 and some others, as, nvecoj TrXtco, (pevyco, kXcico, 7rcu£a>, 7rvvda.v0p.aL, 
 often have their future in -crovpai (called the Doric future) , and ttL- 
 7ttco and xH<° always do, while ^eco, icrSico, and ttlvco have no char- 
 acteristic in the future ; as, 7recrovp.aL (from ttltttco) ; niopai (fut. mid. 
 of 7tivcq), edofiai (fut. of eV0uo), ^ea) and ^eo/Luu (fut. of ^eco ; first aor. 
 e X ea). 
 
 3. The first aorist of the active and middle of pure and 
 
 mute verbs has the pure stem and the tense-characteristic cr, 
 
 like the future, with the augment prefixed in the indie. 
 
 Rem. 4. For the first aor. of liquid verbs, see § 33, R. 3. But 
 a'lpco, aXkofxai, laxvaivco, Kepdaivco, KoiXaivco, XevKalvco, craivco, opyaivco, 
 7T€7raLV(D, and those in iavco and patveo take long a (without 1 subscribed) 
 instead of 77 in the end of the root in the first aor. ; as, apai (rjpa in 
 the indie, on account of the augment). Those in awco and aipco vary 
 between 77 and a. 
 
 4. The first perfect active has the pure stem, as found in 
 the future, and prefixes to it the reduplication or temporal 
 augment (which remains in all the modes and part.), and has 
 k or the rough breathing (i. e. a aspirated) for the tense-char- 
 acteristic (see § 33, 2). 
 
90 VERBS IN 0). [§ 37. 
 
 Rem. 5. A few first perfects of mute verbs with a monosyllabic 
 stem, change e of the stem into o ; as, K€K\o<fia (/cXe7rro)), 7T€770fi(pa 
 (7re/x7rco), TtTpcxfia (rpeVco, which has also TerpcKpa), ecrrpocpa (crrpe(/>a>), 
 eiXo^a (Xeyco). AeSot/ca is anomalous. 
 
 Rem. 6. In the first perf. active (also the plup. act., and perf. and 
 plup. mid. and pass., and the first aor. and first fut. pass., — the sec- 
 ond aor. and fut. pass., also, when used) liquid verbs with a monosyl- 
 labic stem change e (of the pure stem) into a, and Kplva), kXiVco, nXvvco, 
 reive*, and KTeivco (stem rev and ktw, and hence have e changed into a 
 also) drop their v before the ending ; as, crreXXa), ecrraX/ca, eVraX/xat, 
 io-TakBrjV) ivTok-qv; Kplvco, K€Kpa<a, K€Kpip.ai, €KpLSrfv 9 etc. But some 
 of these verbs in vco and most other verbs in va> have no first perf. 
 active in good Attic writers. 
 
 5. The first pluperfect active is formed from the tense- 
 stem of the first perfect, by simply adding the proper ending, 
 and prefixing the augment according to the rule. - 
 
 6. The first aorist passive is formed from the pure stem, 
 as found in the first fut. active, by adding to it the character- 
 istic 6 with the proper ending, and prefixing the augment, 
 which remains only in the indie. 
 
 Rem. 7. But several pure verbs in the first aor. pass, (also in the 
 perf., pluperf, and first fut. pass, and verbal adjective) add a to the 
 stem before the tense-characteristic and endings. These are : — 
 
 a) The verbs which retain a short vowel out of the pres. and im- 
 perf. (see R. 2), except eXaoo (iXavvco), alveco, alpeco, Sea), x^j Ovco, 
 
 dpOO), \l)(D. 
 
 b) XP*** fl° S 1Ye an ora cle), 7rXea>, ^o® ; 7rpio), XP 1 ' ^ kvXlco (kv\lv- 
 dco) ; {/o>, ftvco (j3vveci)), £vco ; ttciicd, tttclicd, iraXata) ; yjsavcD, aeico^ Xeuo), 
 KeXevco, 6.K.OVCO. 
 
 c) Bpaco, Opavco, AcXeto), Kpovco, xP ta) 5 an d some others, which take o* 
 in some of the above tenses, but not in the perf. 
 
 But in some of the verbs in all these classes, the o- is not always 
 used in these passive forms, and is regularly dropped before another 
 a in the second pers. sing. perf. and plup. ; as, rerekeaai (from rere- 
 Xecrfiai) . 
 
 7. The first future passive is formed from the first aor. 
 pass, by substituting the tense-characteristic o- for the final */, 
 and adding the proper endings. 
 
 8. The perfect and pluperfect passive are formed from the 
 pure stem, by adding the proper endings, and prefixing the 
 augment and reduplication according to the rules already- 
 given. 
 
§ 37.] VERBS IN 0). 91 
 
 Rem. 8. For the euphonic changes in the final mute, in mute 
 verbs, before the endings /xat, firjv, etc. in the perf. and plup. pass., 
 see § 4. But when two y's or /x's would come before p., the last of 
 the two is dropped. So, also, is o- before a or between two conso- 
 nants in the endings; as, eXrjXeypat (for eX^Xeyy/ncu, from eXe-y^a)), 
 K€KajjLfj.ai (for K€Kafj.fjLfiai, from Kafinrco), TTeiteia-ai (for 7re7reio-o-at, from 
 7T€l6(o), 7T€(pav6€ (for TrecfravaSc), etc. 
 
 Rem. 9. The characteristic *> in liquid verbs is commonly changed 
 into or, but occasionally into /x, and in a few cases is dropped before p, 
 in the perf. and plup. pass, endings ; as, rjdvo-pat (from rjdvvco). But 
 the v reappears before other letters in the endings, as, t, cr,6, whether 
 in these tenses or the aor. and fut. pass. ; as, 7re(^ao-/xat 5 Trk^avrai, 
 ityavdrju. 
 
 Rem. 10. The verbs rpeirco, rpe(f)co, and arpecpco change e of the 
 root into a, in the perf. pass, (but not in the aor.) ; as, TerpapLfiai, re- 
 6pajjLfxai, earpafifiai. 
 
 9. The future perfect is formed by adding o-o/zat to the stem 
 of the perf. and lengthening the characteristic vowel, when 
 short in the perf. 
 
 10. The verbal adjectives in tos and rios are formed by- 
 adding these endings to the pure stem, as found in the first 
 aor. pass. ; as, \vtos, Xvtzos (c-Xv-^p) ; o-toKtos^ -rios (e-orraX- 
 6tjv) ; Tikecrros {i-reXeo-'Brjv). 
 
 11. The second aorist (of all voices) is derived from the 
 pure stem by adding the proper endings and prefixing the 
 augment, which, however, remains only in the indie. 
 
 Rem. 11. In deriving the pure stem from the stem of the pres. the 
 strengthening consonants (see § 30) must be dropped in mute and 
 liquid verbs, and the strengthening vowels and diphthongs before the 
 characteristic be shortened, generally rj and at into a, et and t into t, 
 and cv into v ; as, eXadov (from \-q6co), eXtirov (Xcittcd), €<pvyov ((pevyco), 
 erptftrjv (rpi/3a>), i)(ap' t l v (X^P *)* 
 
 Rem. 12. Mute verbs with a monosyllabic stem and e for a stem- 
 vowel, often, and liquid verbs always, change the e into a in the sec- 
 end aorist ; as, erpenrov eTpcnr6p.r]v irpdirriv (rpe7rco), irpdfprjv (rpecpco). 
 
 €KXa.TT7]V (KkeTTTCo). 
 
 Rem. 13. The second aor. is not formed from verbs with a regu- 
 lar derivative ending (as, ao>, ceo, oa>, eva>, aivco, woo, a£aj), nor often 
 in verbs having a tau-mute for characteristic, nor when it would be 
 distinguished from the imperf. only by the quantity of the penult. 
 But in the last case the second aor. pass, is sometimes found, since 
 here it differs from the imperf. ; as, iypdcfrrjv ; iicXivTjv. 
 
92 
 
 VERBS IN a. 
 
 K37. 
 
 Rem. 14. Only a few verbs have both aorists in the act. and mid., 
 but more in the pass. In the active, the second aor. is but little used 
 in regular verbs, and in the passive, the tragic poets generally prefer 
 the first aor., though not so generally the prose-writers. Tpenco is the 
 only verb which has both aorists in all the voices, or even in the active 
 and passive at the same time. 
 
 12. The second perfect, also, is derived from the pure stem, 
 
 and has the same endings, and reduplication or augment, as 
 
 the first perfect. 
 
 Rem. 15. But the short a of the pure stem in the second aor. is 
 lengthened into tj (or a when preceded by p) in the second perf., e is 
 changed into o, and X (coming from et of the pres.) into ot, while ij is 
 changed back to ev, as in the present, and i(not from et) becomes long 
 again ; as, reOrjXa (ddWco), eKrova (kt€lvco, stem ktcv-), XeXotira (Xei7ra), 
 pure stem X177-), 7re<pplKa ((fypicrcrco, stem (ppXit-), rrecpevya {(pevyco, stem 
 <f>vy-) . 
 
 Rem. 16. It is from the partiality of this tense to the sounds o and 
 ot that the anomalous perfects olda, eotxa, eppcoya, and e'lcoda have 
 arisen. 
 
 13. The second pluperfect is derived from the second per- 
 fect, like the first pluperfect from the first perfect, and the 
 second future passive from the second aor. pass., like the first 
 fut pass, from the first aor. pass. 
 
 These examples may be 
 
 kcdXvcd, hinder, 
 dvco, sacrifice, 
 
 7TL(TT€VCO, trUSt. 
 
 Kpovco, knock, 
 kXc/co, close, 
 €7riTr)b€voc>, pursue, 
 ddLKtco, wrong, 
 C*]T€cd, seek, 
 olKodop.€(Oy build, 
 7-eXeco, accomplish, 
 
 epcoraco, ask. 
 
 OrjpdcD, hunt, 
 io-Tidco, entertain. 
 Trrepoa), give wings 
 
 EXAMPLES for practice. 
 
 inflected, the tenses formed, and exercises constructed on them. 
 
 to. 
 
 7r€p.7r(0, send. 
 XetVco, leave, 
 rp//3a), rub, 
 ypdcf)cD, write. 
 dXei^xa, anoint. 
 (3\d7TT<D> injure. 
 /cXeVra), steal. 
 p'ltttcd, throw. 
 ?tX€kg), weave. 
 Xeyco, say. 
 aXXdcro"a>, change. 
 KT]pv(rcrc0, proclaim. 
 npdcro-cD, do, 
 rdcrcra), arrange. 
 
 epei'Sa), rest upon. 
 7m'0a>, persuade, 
 dvvrco, perform. 
 KOfilfa, bring. 
 iyKcopLLa^co, praise. 
 e^erd^a), examine. 
 o-reXXa), send. 
 Kpivco, judge. 
 kXiVo), lie down. 
 6gvi>a>, provoke, 
 (fiaivco, appear. 
 atpa), raise. 
 (fiOeipco, destroy. 
 dp.vvcD, repel. 
 
$ 38.] VERBS IN fu. 93 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 VERBS IN pi. 
 
 § 38. Regular Verbs in pi. 
 
 1. Some pure verbs, with the characteristic «•, a, o, or S, 
 lengthen these vowels (a and e into rj, o into o>, and £ into £) in 
 the indie, pres., imperf., and second aor. active, and annex to 
 them directly, without a connecting vowel, in both the active 
 and middle or passive, endings somewhat different from those 
 of verbs in g>. But the other tenses are formed as in other 
 pure and contract verbs (see paragraph 4). 
 
 Rem. 1. The lengthened characteristic vowel, however, becomes 
 short again in the dual and plural, except in the second aor. of Hcrrrjpi 
 and o-fievvvjjLi (€<ttt]v and ecrfirjv), where it remains long in all numbers, 
 and in the imperat and inhn. ; as it does also in certain second aorists 
 formed after the analogy of verbs in pi from the verbs /3atVco, <pSduco, 
 aXiaKopai, /3ioo), /3i/3/30)o-kg), yiyv6)(TKco> didpdo-Koa, bvco, and (pvco (see 
 § 39, 2). 
 
 2. Verbs of this class, also, beginning with a single conso- 
 nant and having a monosyllabic stem, take a reduplication in 
 the present and imperfect, consisting of the first consonant 
 with i (as, ri^tu, stem 6e, the cognate r being used instead of 
 6 in the reduplication, according to § 4, 8) ; but where the 
 root begins with or or 7rr, the pres. and imperf. receive an as- 
 pirated i (I) instead of the reduplication ; as, tarrjpi (stem o-ra). 
 
 Rem. 2. Besides those beginning with a single consonant, a few 
 other verbs in pi take the reduplication ; as, Kixprjph nipTrX-qpi, and 
 7TLfji7rpr)fxi. In the last two, p is introduced between the augment and 
 the stem, for the sake of euphony, which, however, is dropped, for 
 the same reason, when the verbs are compounded with eV and vvv, 
 and v becomes p before it ; as, ipniTrprjpi, ouprrinX^pi, but eV«r//x- 
 nXrjv. 
 
 3. In the subjunctive the short characteristic vowels e, a, 
 and o are contracted with the endings, and in the optative they 
 receive an i between them and the ending, the syllables thus 
 formed, in both cases, taking the accent. 
 

 94 VERBS IN fJLl. [§ 38. 
 
 Rem. 3. The ending 6i of the sec. pers. imper. act. is used in the 
 second aor. only in the form arrjOu in regular verbs in /xi, but is re- 
 tained in several second aor. and syncopated perfects formed after the 
 analogy of verbs in /xt (see RR. 1 and 6) ; as, ftrjSi, yv<*>6i, earaOi^ de- 
 8l6l, etc. And of these, ottjOl and ftrjBi in composition are contracted 
 into ara and /3a, but chiefly in poetry ; as, Trapdara, Kard^a. 
 
 Rem. 4. The full ending am (sec. pers. pres. mid.) is generally 
 retained in the indie, the a being regularly rejected and the vowels 
 suffering contraction only in the subj. The ending ao is usually con- 
 tracted only in the second aor. ; in the imperative pres. and indicative 
 imperf. the full form is generally used in most verbs, and regularly in 
 dido fiat. 
 
 Rem. 5. The optative active often drops the 77 in the endings of the 
 dual and plural, and in the third pers. plur. uses -ev for -rjaav. 
 
 4. There are some peculiarities of verbs of this conjugation, 
 in the parts which follow the common conjugation, which 
 should be noticed : — 
 
 a) The first aor. forms (see § 33, R. 4) l&paz, §*a, and eda>Ka 
 are commonly used in the sing, instead of the second aorists 
 Z8r) v, t]v, eSoi/, but are used in the plural (and in the mid., except 
 fjKdfirjv) only by a few Attic writers. 
 
 b) The perf. and pluperf. of to-r^tu have the augment aspi- 
 rated, which in the plup. is often el instead of e ; as, eo-r^/ca, 
 
 €0~Tr)K€LV Or €l(TTT)K€lV. 
 
 Rem. 6. For the syncopated form of the perf. and plup. of eorrjKa 
 and other verbs, see § 39, 3. 
 
 c) The characteristic vowel is lengthened in the perf. act. 
 and in the future and aor. act. and middle, as in pure verbs, 
 except that rlOriyn and fy/xi lengthen it into e* in the perf. ; as, 
 reflected, eha. The a in these verbs remains, also, in the perf. 
 and plup. pass. ; but in other cases the characteristic vowel is 
 short throughout the mid. and pass. ; as, SeSo/xat, eara/xT^, IrkQ^v, 
 idoOrjv, Tz6r\<jo\mi. 
 
 5. Verbs in /xt frequently or regularly borrow many forms 
 from their primitives in da, ea, o'a>, and vco : — 
 
 a) In the imperf. sing. S/Sooxu is regularly declined like a 
 contract in 6a (ibloow, ovr, ov), and riOrjfu and hjfu often like a 
 contract in eco ; as, irlOow, etc. 
 
 
§ 38.] VERBS IN /Lit. 95 
 
 b) In verbs in vfii the subjunctive and optative are regularly- 
 formed from a pres. in vco, and often other forms of the pres. 
 and imperf. act., but not usually in the middle ; the second 
 aor., both act. and mid., is almost wholly wanting. 
 
 c) The optative imperf. and second aor. mid. and pass, of 
 ri^/xt, ujfj.ii and didcofii often takes the form -oifirju, -oio, -otro, 
 like the regular conjugation. 
 
 Rem. 7. The perf., pluperf., and second aor. act. of lorrjfiL have 
 an intransitive meaning, to stand. 
 
 6. The following are the paradigms of Io-ttj/jli, to station, 
 Tidrtfii, to put, dldcofxi, to give, deUvvfii, to show, with the second 
 aor. mid. iirpid^v, I bought, to supply the place of the second 
 aor. mid. of io-tt?/u, which is not used, and the second aor. act. 
 cdvv (from dwco), I entered, to complete the paradigm of verbs 
 in vpi. 
 
96 
 
 I place. 
 S. tarrjfu 
 
 LOTTOS 
 loTX]CTi 
 
 D. 
 
 VERBS IN fit. 
 
 Active Voice. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Indicative. 
 I put. I give. 
 
 ri6r)pi bibcopi 
 
 tl6t]s bibcos 
 
 rlO-qcn bib(DO~i 
 
 [§88. 
 
 S. 
 
 D. 
 
 LO-TrjTOV 
 
 lorrjrov 
 P. icrrcopev 
 to-rfjre 
 
 lcTTQd(Tl 
 
 S. (taraSi) 
 
 larr] 
 
 lararco 
 D. Icrrarov 
 
 P. larare 
 
 lorarcocrav or 
 
 iuTCLVTCOV 
 
 lot aval 
 
 terras 
 
 nOrjrov bibSrov 
 
 nBrjrov bibcorov 
 
 nSoapev bib&pev 
 
 TiOrjre bibcore 
 
 tlOcoctl bibcocn. 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 (TiOeTi) (biboBi) 
 
 riOei bibov 
 
 TiOera) biborco 
 
 riSerov biborov 
 
 nBercov biborcov 
 
 rl&erc bibore 
 
 ndercoo-av or biborcoaav or 
 
 Ti$€VrCOV blboVT&V 
 
 Infinitive. 
 TiOkvm bibovai 
 
 Participle, 
 n&eis bibovs 
 
 I show. 
 beLKvyp.1 
 betKiws 
 beivvo'L 
 
 Icrrarov 
 
 riBerov 
 
 biborov 
 
 be'iKwrov 
 
 torarov 
 
 riBerov 
 
 biborov 
 
 beiKvvrov 
 
 tcrrapev 
 
 riBepev 
 
 bibopev 
 
 b€iKWfJL€V 
 
 to-rare 
 
 rlBere 
 
 bibore 
 
 beiicwre 
 
 io-rao-L 
 
 nBelcn or 
 
 bibovai or 
 
 beacvvai or 
 
 
 nBeacn 
 
 bibodai 
 
 beaawacri 
 
 
 Subj 
 
 mctive. 
 
 
 loray 
 
 tlBco 
 
 bibS 
 
 beaawco 
 
 lorrjs 
 
 TiBfjS 
 
 bibcos 
 
 beiKvvrjs 
 
 lorfj 
 
 TlBfj 
 
 bibco 
 
 beucvvrj 
 
 beiKvvrjrov 
 
 beacvvrjrov 
 
 beiK.vvcop.ev 
 
 beiKvvrjre 
 
 beiKvvcocji. 
 
 (beitcwBi) 
 beiKvv 
 beacvurco 
 be'iKwrov 
 beiKvvrcov 
 be'iKwre 
 beacvvrcooav or 
 beacvvvTcov. 
 
 beacvvvai* 
 
 beucvvg. 
 
§ 38.1 
 
 VERBS IN fit. 
 
 Middle and Passive. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 9* 
 
 s. 
 
 tarafiai 
 
 TiBefiai 
 
 dibofiat 
 
 dciKWjjLai 
 
 
 laraa-ai 
 
 TiBccrai 
 
 ftidocrai 
 
 fteiKwcrai 
 
 
 (tora) 
 
 (riBrj) 
 
 
 
 
 ta-Tarat 
 
 riBerat 
 
 SldoTat, 
 
 detKPvrat 
 
 D. 
 
 la-rdfieBov 
 
 ridefiedop 
 
 didSfxeBov 
 
 deLKirufieBov 
 
 
 taracrdov 
 
 TiBeo-Bov 
 
 dibo&Bov 
 
 dciKvvo-Bov 
 
 
 IvtcktBov 
 
 TiBeaBov 
 
 bihocrBov 
 
 Seifcwo-Bov 
 
 P. 
 
 lardfieBa 
 
 TiBifieBa 
 
 didofxeBa 
 
 SeiKvufxeBa 
 
 
 tarao-Be 
 
 TiBeo-Be 
 
 MdotrOe 
 
 deiKwaBe 
 
 
 IdTavrai 
 
 riBcvrai 
 
 ftidovrat 
 
 deiKvuvrac. 
 
 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 
 S, 
 
 iotcb/zch 
 
 TlBSfUU 
 
 didoofiai 
 
 deiKvucofiai 
 
 
 larfj 
 
 TiBfj 
 
 6\8« 
 
 decKVVT] 
 
 
 loTrjrai 
 
 nBfJTai 
 
 StSdarat 
 
 SeiKvvnTai 
 
 D 
 
 ioroDfjLeOov 
 
 TiBoofJLeBov 
 
 didcofieBov 
 
 deiKvvoifieBov 
 
 
 l(jrr]<j6ov 
 
 TiBrjorBov 
 
 didooaBov 
 
 dcLKvvno'Bop 
 
 
 l(TT7](T60V 
 
 TiBrjcrBov 
 
 SibcocrBov 
 
 beiKvvnaBov 
 
 P. 
 
 IcrToofieBa 
 
 TlB<£>\XtBa 
 
 didcofieBa 
 
 deiKwcoficBa 
 
 
 l(TTJ](Td€ 
 
 riBrjcrB€ 
 
 diftcoaBe 
 
 deiKiwna-Be 
 
 
 Icrr central 
 
 TiBwirai 
 
 diBeovrai 
 
 SeiKvucovrai. 
 
 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 
 S. 
 
 la'Taa'o 
 
 TiBeao 
 
 didoao 
 
 heiKvva-o 
 
 
 (1(JT(0) 
 
 (tlBov) 
 
 (SioW) 
 
 
 
 lordadco 
 
 TiBkvBa 
 
 didoaBoo 
 
 SeiKiwaBco 
 
 D 
 
 Ivrao'Bov 
 
 rlBcaBou 
 
 hiftovBov 
 
 heiKwaBov 
 
 
 'KTTaaScov 
 
 TiBsaBoov 
 
 diboaBcov 
 
 &€LKVVCrB(OV 
 
 P. 
 
 IcrracrBe 
 
 TiBecrBe 
 
 Stdoo-Be 
 
 deiicvvcrBe 
 
 
 la'TaaOcoaav or 
 
 TiBeaBcoo-av or 
 
 dcboo'Bcoo'av or 
 
 dciKvvcrBcDcrav or 
 
 
 lordo-Bcov 
 
 TiBeaBcov 
 
 biboo-Boav 
 
 beiKVv o-0g>i/ . 
 
 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 
 
 lorao-Qai 
 
 TiBeo-Bai 
 
 Sldoo-Bat 
 
 SeiKWcrBai. 
 
 
 
 Participle. 
 
 
 
 iaTapevos 
 
 TiBepevos 
 
 8ld6[M€VOS 
 
 SftKW/xei/off. 
 
 9 
 
98 
 
 S. tarrjv 
 Icmjs 
 torrj 
 
 D. 
 
 torarov 
 io-rdrrjv 
 
 P. torajiev 
 to-rare 
 Icrraaap 
 
 S. loTalrjv 
 laTalrjs 
 icrrair] 
 
 D. 
 
 iaravnrov 
 Icrrai-qrqp 
 
 P. l(Trair)fJi€v 
 Icrrairjre 
 lo-rairjaav 
 
 S. €OTT]V 
 €<TTr}$ 
 
 M 
 
 €0T7] 
 
 earrjrov 
 i<Tri)TT)v 
 
 eOTTJfieV 
 
 eorrjre 
 eorqcrav 
 
 VERBS 
 
 IN fit. 
 
 Active Voice. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 irL6r)V 
 
 ebibcov 
 
 eridrjs 
 
 ibibcos 
 
 irWrj 
 
 eblbco 
 
 iriOerov 
 
 ebiborou 
 
 inBerrjv 
 
 ibeborrju 
 
 irldefiev 
 
 ibibofieu 
 
 erlBere 
 
 id loot e 
 
 erlBeaav 
 
 iblboo-av 
 
 Optative. 
 
 riBeirjv 
 
 blboLTjV 
 
 riBelns 
 
 bibol-qs 
 
 riBeir) 
 
 biboirj 
 
 riBe'uqrov 
 
 bibolrjrov 
 
 rideirjrrjv 
 
 hiboLr)rr]v 
 
 riBcln^ev 
 
 biboirjuev 
 
 riBeirjre 
 
 bibolrjre 
 
 riBeirjo'av 
 
 bibol-qo'av 
 
 (See also § 
 
 38, R. 5.) 
 
 Second Aorist. 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 eBrjV 
 
 ebcov 
 
 eBrjs 
 
 ebons 
 
 Wrj 
 
 e'bco 
 
 eBerov 
 
 eborov 
 
 lBkrr\v 
 
 eborrjv 
 
 eBefiev 
 
 ebofiev 
 
 Were 
 
 ebore 
 
 cBeoav 
 
 eboo-av 
 
 l§38. 
 
 ibeinvvv 
 ebeiKvvs 
 
 ibei 
 
 €LKVU 
 
 ibeiKwrov 
 
 ibeiKvvTTjv 
 
 ibeiKWfiev 
 
 ebeiKwre 
 
 ebeiKwaav. 
 
 beiKVvoifJLt 
 
 bciKVVOLS 
 
 beiKiwoL 
 
 
 beiKvvoirov 
 
 beLKvvoirnv 
 
 beiKvvoLfxep 
 
 beiKvuoire 
 
 beiKVvoiev. 
 
 ebvv 
 ebvs 
 
 ebvrov 
 
 ibvrrjv 
 
 ebvfxev 
 
 ebvre 
 
 ebvaav. 
 
§38.] 
 
 VEEBS IN III. 
 
 99 
 
 
 
 Middle and 
 
 Passive. 
 
 
 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 
 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 
 s. 
 
 laTdjJLTju 
 
 iriBefjirjv 
 
 iftidofirjv 
 
 id€LKVVfJL7]V 
 
 
 IVTCKTO 
 
 eTiOeao 
 
 €$idoaro 
 
 ideiKvvao 
 
 
 (t(TT(o) 
 
 (iri&ov) 
 
 (idldov) 
 
 
 
 ICTTOTO 
 
 €Tl6€TO 
 
 eSt'Soro . 
 
 idcLKWTO 
 
 D 
 
 la-rdfjiedov 
 
 €TlBk\LtBoV 
 
 idibofxeBov 
 
 edeucvvficBov 
 
 
 loTCLO-QoV 
 
 iriBecrBov 
 
 ididoaBov 
 
 iheiKWo-Bov 
 
 
 l(TTa<r6r}V 
 
 iriBccrBrjV 
 
 ididoaBrjv 
 
 id€LKvva"Br]v 
 
 P. 
 
 lo-TCLfieda 
 
 irtQefjieda 
 
 idibofxeBa 
 
 edeiKvvfieBa 
 
 
 lo-raarde 
 
 irlBea-Be 
 
 idldoo-Be 
 
 ifteiKwcrBe 
 
 
 Icrravro 
 
 iriBeVTO 
 
 iftldovTO 
 
 idetKWVTO. 
 
 
 
 Optative. 
 
 
 S. 
 
 laTaljirjv 
 
 TlBetfJLrjV 
 
 biholyL7]v 
 
 detKWOLfJLTjV 
 
 
 Icttcllo 
 
 TlBclo 
 
 bihoio 
 
 bcLKVVOLO 
 
 
 IcttoIto 
 
 TlBflTO 
 
 hihoiTo 
 
 dciKvvoiro 
 
 D. 
 
 loraifxedov 
 
 riBeifieBov 
 
 bihoiyieBov 
 
 dcLKWOLfJLcBoU 
 
 
 l(TTCU(r6oV 
 
 TiBelcrBov 
 
 hihoicrBov 
 
 deiicvvoLcrBov 
 
 
 loTaurBrjv 
 
 TiBcicrBrjv 
 
 $i§olcrBr)V 
 
 beiKWoicrB-qv 
 
 P. 
 
 l(TTaLfJL€0a 
 
 TiBeifieBa 
 
 bidoifxeBa 
 
 deucpvoijieBa 
 
 
 l<TT<ii(r6e 
 
 TiBtio-Be 
 
 dtdolaBe 
 
 heiKirvoiarBe 
 
 
 IVTCUVTO 
 
 TlBflVTO 
 
 SiboivTO 
 
 bciKVVOlVTQ. 
 
 
 
 Second Aorist. 
 
 
 
 
 Indicative, 
 
 
 
 €7TpLafJLT]V 
 
 iBepijv 
 
 ihojiriv 
 
 
 
 inflected 
 
 inflected 
 
 inflected 
 
 
 
 like 
 
 like the 
 
 like the 
 
 
 
 laTcifirjv. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 
100 
 
 VERBS IN pi. 
 
 [§38. 
 
 Active Voice. 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 
 oto3 inflected 
 
 6(0 inflected Sd> inflected 
 
 bv<D inflected 
 
 
 like the 
 
 like the like the 
 
 like 
 
 
 Present. 
 
 Present. Present. 
 Optative. 
 
 beiKvvoi). 
 
 
 orairjp inflected 
 
 6%ir)v inflected bo'irjv inflected 
 
 bv-nv, -rjs, -77, 
 
 
 like the 
 
 like the like the 
 
 -rjToVf-rjrrjV, 
 
 
 Imperfect. Imperfect. Imperfect 
 
 -t)ijl€v, etc. 
 
 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 
 s. 
 
 CTTrjdl 
 
 6es bos 
 
 bvfa 
 
 
 CTTT)T(0 
 
 Serco boTOD 
 
 bvToa 
 
 D. 
 
 OTTjTOV 
 
 Qkrov boTov 
 
 bvrov 
 
 
 OTTjTCOV 
 
 Oercov borcov 
 
 bvTcav 
 
 P. 
 
 <TTT\T€ 
 
 Sere bore 
 
 bvT€ 
 
 
 aTrjToocrav or 
 
 6eT(t>aav or borcoaav or 
 
 bvTcoaav or 
 
 
 (TTavr&v 
 
 6kvT(OV bovrciav 
 Infinitive. 
 
 bvvrwv. 
 
 
 arrival 
 
 Selvai bovvai 
 Participle. 
 
 bvvai. 
 
 
 ards 
 
 Bels bovs 
 
 bvs. 
 
 Rem. 8. The following table exhibits the chief dialectic varia- 
 tions of verbs in pi : — 
 
 Indicative Active. 
 
 S. 3. -a 1 Dor. -rt, sometimes -j/ri. 
 
 P. 3. -vai Dor. -vti ; Ion. dcri, used also in certain cases by 
 
 the Attic. 
 -crai/ -^Eol., Dor., Epic, simply v added to the radical 
 
 vowel. 
 In the indie, act. sing., the iEol. lengthens the radical vowel a into 
 at, o into 01, and the Bceotic e into «. 
 
 Indicative Middle and Passive. 
 P. 3. -vraij -vto Ionic -arai, -aro. 
 
 The iEol. and Epic lengthen the radical vowel c into?; in the indie, 
 mid. and pass, of verbs in pi. 
 
§38.] 
 
 VERBS IN /it. 
 
 Middle and Passive. 
 
 101 
 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 
 like 
 
 6a>fiai 
 like the 
 
 bSfUU 
 
 like the 
 
 t<rrcS/xcu. 
 
 Present. 
 Optative. 
 
 Present. 
 
 7TpiaiflT]V 
 
 inflected 
 
 BeijjLTjv 
 inflected 
 
 bolpnv 
 inflected 
 
 like 
 
 like the 
 
 like the 
 
 iaraipLnv. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 Imperative. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 (jrpiaaro) irpioa 
 like the 
 
 (Seao) Oov 
 like the 
 
 (Socro) bov 
 like the 
 
 Present. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Present. 
 
 vTao-Bat, 
 
 Infinitive. 
 QkvQai 
 
 hoo-Qai. 
 
 arapevos 
 
 Participle, 
 depevos 
 
 bofievos- 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 S. 2. -jjs Epic -rjTjs. 
 
 3. -fj _ Epic -7777. 
 
 -a> Epic -c3o"t, -o)7]o , i i -0)77. 
 
 The Epic and Ionic use, also, the uncontracted forms in the sub- 
 junctive, as in contract verbs, and lengthen and repeat the radical 
 vowel as in those verbs (see § 35, 14). 
 
 Infinitive. 
 ^Eol. -pevai ; Dor. -/iei>, -fxeiu ; Epic -ucwu, -/xev. 
 
 -vai 
 
 EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE. 
 
 fcvywfii) yoke. 
 Kixprjfju (root \pa) 9 lend. 
 ovivTjfjLL (root ova), aid. 
 bvvapai (mid.), able. 
 
 bifyfiai (-«■>), look for. 
 
 9* 
 
 £kvw\t.k (C € )» boil, 
 izryyvvpi (iruy"), fasten. 
 
 poavwpi (po), spread. 
 o-Tpavirvfii (orpo), strengthen, 
 pr\yw\ki (fay)) break. 
 
102 VERBS IN p*. [§ 39. 
 
 § 39. Irregular Verbs in *u. 
 
 1. Inflection of in pi, to send, ei/u, Zo be, etjii, fo go (often 
 future), $J7fu, to 5a?/, say 2/es, assert, Kel^ai, 2o Zie down, and 
 ^at, to seZ (the two last perfects middle with the sense of the 
 present). 
 
 I. ltj/jlCj I send, Upca,) I go (send myself). 
 Present Tense. 
 Indicative Active. 
 Ind. S. trjfxi 
 
 17) s 
 17) (TL 
 
 D. 
 
 i€TOV 
 
 Indicative Middle and Passive. 
 S. tefiai 
 
 tf 
 
 l€TOV 
 P. L€fJL€l> 
 L€T€ 
 
 teicri or laai. 
 
 leaai, it) 
 icrai 
 
 D. UfieOou 
 tecrdov 
 lecrOov 
 
 P. lefieOa 
 tecrde 
 "icvrai. 
 
 Subj. ia>, like ti6g> from TiQrjpi. Subj. t%uu, like ndcopai. 
 Imp. S. tei, ierco, D. lerov, leTwv, Imp. S. tecro or toi/, UaSco, D. 
 P. terf , lerooaav or ikvrav. teo-Qov, leoScov, P. tecrtfe, ieo-#<»- 
 
 cray or leo-QtoV. 
 Inf. tez/ai. Inf. iecr0afc. 
 
 Part. tetV, eitra, €i>, G. Uptos. Part. Ufievos, rj, ov. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 Indicative Active. Indicative Middle and Passive. 
 
 S. lr)V (tciv), ?7)S, 17), D. l€TOV, S. UfJLTJV, UaO OY 10V, l€TO, D. 
 
 teT^i/, P. Ufi€P, cere, Ucrav. UfieOov, ?€<r6ov, ieaOnv, P. te/xe- 
 
 #a, Tecr^e, levro. 
 Opt. ieiV, like TiSeiTjv. Opt. icifup, like TiOciprjv. 
 
 Second Aorist. 
 Indicative Active. Indicative Middle. 
 
 Ind. S. r)V S. (e/x7;i/), ei/x^y 
 
 5? etcro 
 
 5 CtTO 
 
§39.] 
 D. 
 
 P. 
 
 VERBS IN fu. 
 
 103 
 
 ctoi/, drop 
 erqv, elrrjp 
 e/zei>, etfjL€V 
 ere, etre 
 eow, etcraj>. 
 
 D. etfieOop 
 
 €L(r6oP 
 
 et(r07)P 
 
 P. elficda 
 etcrtfe 
 
 Cipro. 
 
 Subj. S, inflected like the Pres- Subj. S/xa*, inflected like the 
 
 ent. 
 Opt. clrjp^ like the Imperfect. 
 Imp. &, erco, like the Present. 
 Infin. clvai. 
 Part, ety, etcra, eV. 
 Perf. ctAca. 
 Plup. etAceti/. 
 Fut. rj(T(0. 
 
 First Aor. §m. 
 
 Present. 
 Opt. clfirjp^ like the Imperfect. 
 Imp. (ecro) o£, like the Present. 
 
 Infin. eadaL. 
 
 Part, efieposi 7], op» 
 Perf. etttat. 
 Plup. elfirjp. 
 Fut. £6r)(rofiai. 
 
 First Aor. u0qv. 
 
 ii. elfjbl, lam,, elfu, I go, will go. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 
 Attic Forms. 
 
 Indie 
 
 S. ei/xt 
 
 elfu 
 
 
 
 (eis) et 
 
 
 > t 
 
 -? 
 
 
 eCTTt 
 
 etcrt 
 
 
 iorop 
 
 troz/ 
 
 
 €OTOP 
 
 troy 
 
 
 » / 
 
 » 
 
 
 ecr/xev 
 
 lfi€P 
 
 
 s / 
 
 M 
 
 
 core 
 
 LT€ 
 
 
 > / 
 
 »f- t T 
 
 tacrt (etc 
 
 
 e«ri 
 
 Subj. 
 
 S. & 
 
 » 
 ta> 
 
 
 ■s> 
 
 »f 
 
 
 11? 
 
 IflS 
 
 
 » 
 
 # 
 
 
 ?7 
 
 m 
 
 
 D. ^TOI/ 
 
 ITjTOP 
 
 
 9 
 
 *f 
 
 
 ^roy 
 
 itjtop 
 
 
 P. 2>/iez/ 
 
 l<OfJL€P 
 
 
 » 
 
 *f 
 
 
 rJT€ 
 
 irjre 
 
 
 Sxrt 
 
 tcocrt 
 
 Dialectic Forms. 
 
 iffd (JEol.) 
 
 €&,eWt(Ion.,Ep.) elcrda (Ep.) 
 eW (Dor.) 
 
 etiteV, ifxep, et/xes (L, E., Poet , D.) 
 
 tacrt (etcrt rare) eacri, eVrt (Ion., Dor.) 
 
 ea>, eta) (Ion., Ep.) 
 
 V&z(Ep.) 
 i?7<rt (Ep.) 
 
 Sites, tco/xei/ (Dor.) to/xej/ (Ep.) 
 eWt (Ion.) 
 
104 
 
 VERBS IN /Lit. 
 
 [§39. 
 
 Imp. 
 
 S. 
 
 *1<t6l (eV(o-)o) 
 
 Wl (el) 
 
 
 
 6OTC0 (tJtcd) 
 
 yf 
 LTCO 
 
 
 D. 
 
 €(TTOV 
 
 LTOV 
 
 
 
 eoToav 
 
 Xtcov 
 
 
 P. 
 
 ecrre 
 
 
 
 
 coraxrav, ecr- 
 
 'iTeocrav, Iovtcov, 
 
 
 
 TG)I>, OVTCDV 
 
 'Itcov. 
 
 ecrcro (Ep.) 
 
 %<ro (Dor.) 
 
 Infin. 
 
 Part. 
 
 zivai 
 
 QOV, OV 
 
 ievai 
 
 ovtos 
 
 e/x(/i,)e^ai,e/x(/x)ev i/x(/i)ei/ai, i- 
 (Ep.), ixtv (Ep.), 
 
 TjfjLev eljjLev, rjpes 'ivai (rare). 
 eljxes (Dor.) 
 lav, lovcra, lop icov (iovcra, ecGcra, €V(ra, €a(r[o-)a, 
 ioiaa Dor.), iov (Ion.) 
 G. Iovtos e'ls also in some oblique cases 
 (Dor.). 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 Indie. S- rjv (rj, rj/JLT/v) 
 rjs, rjcrda 
 
 J], TJV 
 
 f]€LV, fjia, fja 
 yeis, f]€L(T0a 
 
 T]€L, f]€LV 
 
 ea, rja, eov, e&Kov (Ion., fjrjv Ep.) 
 €7]s, erjada (Ep., eas Ion.) 
 rjev, rjrjv, e(TK€ ^'ie,^e, te (Ep.) 
 (Ion., rjs Dor.) 
 
 D. rjTOV, rjCTTOV f]€LTOV, fjTOV 
 
 rJT-qv, rjoTTjV r]€iTr]V, jjrrjv 
 
 P. r)\L£V 
 
 fjeifxev, r\\i*v i 
 
 TjT€, 7JOT€ 
 
 T]€IT€, fjT€ \ 
 
 rjcrau 
 
 rjecrav e 
 
 Opt. S. €?r)V 
 
 t0LpLL,l0LT]v[l€L7]v) 
 
 €*r)s 
 
 'lots, loirjs 
 
 €LTJ 
 
 loLj LOL7] (et/;) 
 
 D. e"r)TOV, €LTOV 
 
 XoiTOV 
 
 cItjttjv, elrrjv 
 
 lolrrjv 
 
 P. clrjfxev, clfiep 
 
 loipsv 
 
 ei^re, €?re 
 
 m 
 10LT€ 
 
 elrjorav, etev 
 
 Xoi€V 
 
 rjfjL€s (Dor.) 
 %are (Ion.) 
 k'&av, eacrav 
 (Ion.) 
 
 trrjv, Itov (Ep.) 
 770/xei/ (Ep.) 
 
 fjlcrav, ycrav, 
 fj'iov, io-ai/(E.,I.) 
 
 Fut. of dpi (I am) : eo-o/zai (Dor. iao-ovfiai). Reg. through 
 all the modes, except the syncopated form eo-rat, for ccrerat, 
 indie, third sing. 
 
§ 39.] VERBS IN /Lit. 105 
 
 in. <f>7]fjLi (cj)dcrfeco), I say, say yes, assert. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Ind. S. (fulfil D. P. (pafiev 
 
 (prjs (parol/ (park 
 
 (f>r)(ri (parov (petal 
 
 Subje S. (pco, (pfjs, (f)rj, D. (frrjrov, (prjrov, P. (pcofxev, (prjre, (paxrt. 
 
 Imp. S. (pa6i or (pd6i D. (pdrov P. (pare 
 
 (paToa (pdrvv (pdraxrav, (pdvrcov 
 
 Inf. (pduai. Middle (pdaQai. 
 
 Part, (pas, (pacra, (pdv, G. (pdvros. Middle (pdfxevos. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 S. €(prjV D. P. €(pafl€V 
 
 c(pr)s, €(prj(T$a €(parov €(pare 
 
 €(prj i(paT7]v etyaerap 
 
 Opt. S. (patTjVy (palrjs, (pair], D. (palrjrov, (pairjTrjv, P. (pal(j))ix€v, 
 (pal{rj)r€, (palrjaav or (palev. 
 
 Fut. (£170-0). Aor. €(pTjcra. 
 
 Imperf. Mid. ((pdfirjv. 
 
 iy. Kel/xac, I lie down (lit. / haw laid myself down) . 
 
 Present. 
 
 Ind. S. Ketpat 
 
 
 D. K€lfJL€6oP 
 
 P. KtlfxeQa 
 
 Kelo-ai (mat 
 
 Ep.) 
 
 K€l(r6oV 
 
 Ktlo-Be 
 
 Kclrai 
 
 
 K€lo~6oV 
 
 Kelvrai 
 
 Subj. K€(Ofiai, like Xva>fiai. 
 
 
 
 Imp. S. K€?(TO 
 
 
 D. KclcrSov 
 
 P. Ketone 
 
 Kclo-OcO 
 
 
 K€iO'6a)V 
 
 K€l(r$(0(rav 
 
 Inf. Ktio-Oai. 
 
 
 
 
 Part. Kclfievos, rj, ov. 
 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 
 S. eKclfXTJV 
 
 
 D. iK€lfJL€0OP 
 
 P. iK€lfJL€0a 
 
 €K€lO'0 
 
 
 €Keio-dov 
 
 €K€HT0€ 
 
 €K€lTO 
 
 
 €K€l(T07]V 
 
 €K€lVTO 
 
 Opt. Kcolfirjv, like \vol}ir)V. 
 
106 VERBS IN fit. [§ 39* 
 
 y. rj/jbai, KaOrj/xaL^ I have seated myself \ sit. 
 
 Pres. rjfJLai, rjo-ai, r)Tai, etc. 3 plur. rjvrai. 
 Impf. 757x771/, rjcro, t/oto, etc. 3 plur. tjvto. 
 Imper. rja-o, rj<r0co, etc. Infin. fjo-Sai. Part, rjfiwos. 
 
 Also, 
 
 Pres. Ka&i/zcu, Ka0r](rai, KaBrjTai, etc. — Subj. KaScofiai (or KaOoofiai^ 
 
 etc.), KaOfj, Ka6rjTai, etc. 
 Imp. €Ka0f)i*r]v (KaOrjiJLrjv}, €Ka6rf(ro (Ka6rjcro) i eKaSrjro or KadrjcrTO 
 
 (Kadrjro), 3d plur. €Ka6r)VTO or KaOrjvTO. — Opt. KaOolfxr^v (/ca^- 
 
 fjLTjv?)) KaBdio, KaBoiTo (icaOjJTO ?). 
 
 2. There are several pure verbs (or with a pure root) which 
 form the second aor. act. (and sometimes middle) by dropping 
 the mode-vowel before the endings, after the analogy of verbs 
 in fu ; but the remaining tenses are like verbs in co. The 
 synopsis and inflection of these aorists are after the form of 
 the second aor. of lorTi/xt, i. e. they retain the long vowel of the 
 indie, whatever it is, etc. (See § 38, Rem. 1 and 3.) 
 
 3. A few pure verbs in the Attic dialect (chiefly in poetry), 
 in imitation of the Epic dialect, drop the connecting vowel 
 before the endings (except in the third person plur.) in the 
 perf. and pluperf. act., and thus form these tenses after the 
 analogy of verbs in \ii. They are called second perfects and 
 pluperfects, or syncopated perfects and pluperfects. The sin- 
 gular of the indie, is not used except in behia. Thus we have 
 
 (ecrraa), €<ttoltov, eo-Tafiev, €(ttclt€, ecrracri (for eoraacri) ; subj. eorco, 
 77?, etc. ; imper. t&radi ; infin. iardpai ; part. eVrcoy. 
 
 Rem. 1. The verbs which have this form of the perf. in some of 
 its parts, more or less frequently, in the Attic dialect, are ylyvofiat 
 (yeyaa), (BaLvoo (/3e/3aa), 6vf]<TKa> (redvaa), T€T\r)Ka (T€T\aa)> y3t/3pa)- 
 (TKOi (/3e/3pa)s, part.), ttltvtco (7Tf7rra)s, part.). 
 
 Rem. 2. In the part, the characteristic vowels a and e are regu- 
 larly contracted with the ending- cos in the Attic dialect, acta, ecos into 
 cos. In this case they generally retain the a> in the endings in all 
 
 * KaOrjfAai is generally used in prose. 
 
§39.] 
 
 VERBS IN fu. 
 
 107 
 
 cases and genders ; as, corrects, eorcScra, terra)?, G. iarcoros, coroxn;?, etc. 
 But when uncontracted, they sometimes retain this form in the masc. 
 and fem., and sometimes are declined like the regular perf. participles 
 in cos*. 
 
 4. An old perfect (second perfect) of the obsolete etSo 
 (video, I see), olba (I know, i. e. have seen), follows the anal- 
 ogy of verbs in /zt, and is thus inflected in the perf. and 
 pluperf. : — 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 D. P. tcr/xev (otbafiev, I. toftev) 
 
 Xotov tare (oidare) 
 
 larov laden (otbdert) 
 
 Subj. S. clbv (Epic elbeco), dbfjs, elbjj, D. elbqrov, P. cido/iey (eioV 
 
 fiev Epic), eldrJTe, elbaxri. 
 Opt. S. elbelrju, elbclrjs, elbclrj, D. clbelrjTov, clbeirjTrjU^ P. elbelrjfiev^ 
 elbeirjre, elbeirjerav Of elbeUv. 
 
 Ind. S. otba 
 
 olada (olbas) 
 otbe 
 
 Imp. S. 
 
 'IctBl 
 
 D. 
 
 tOTG) 
 
 iorov 
 
 "OTGOU 
 
 P. tare 
 
 lOToacrav 
 
 Inf. elbtveu (tbficvcu, Ibfiev, Ibefiev). 
 Part, clbas, via (Ibvia Ep.), 6s, G. otos* 
 
 S. ybeiv, fjbr] D. 
 
 jjbeis, rjbeicrtia or 
 
 jjbei, ffbr), ybeiv 
 Or (Epic and Ionic) : - 
 
 Pluperfect. 
 
 jjbciTOV, JJ(TTOV 
 flbeiTTjV, ffornv 
 
 P. fjbciyLev, rja-yxv 
 jjbeire, rjare 
 
 jjbe&av, jjcra¥ 
 
 S. 1. Ijbca (Ion.), rjelbeiv (Ep.) 
 
 2. qeidets or rjclb^s (Epic) 
 
 3. #§€* or el'&re (Ion.), qei'Sa or qei&7 (Ep.) 
 P. 2. fl'Seare (Ionic) 
 
 3. taav (Epic). 
 Fut. Act. clbrjcrco (Ionic). Middle cio-o/wh, J shall know. 
 
108 ANOMALOUS VERBS. [§ 40. 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 ANOMALOUS VERBS. 
 
 § 40. Anomalies in Meaning. 
 
 1. "Where the future middle of a verb has a passive mean- 
 ing. 
 
 Rem. 1. This rarely occurs in liquid verbs, but in some mute 
 verbs, and often in pure verbs. Thus are used, regularly, the futures 
 TLfiTjcrofiaL, dbiKfjo-ofiai, olKTjcrojicu ; while some vary between the fut. 
 mid. and fut. pass.; as, (^/xiooo, cocfieXeco, orepea), <^)o/3ea>; ap^co, rp€(pco, 
 ay co, etpyco, rpi/So), j3Xa7rra), rapacrca), (pvXdacrco , etc. 
 
 2. Where active verbs have their future in the middle 
 form, but with an active sense, verbs of this class express 
 mostly some bodily or mental operation, and have, many of 
 them, an active fut., but not generally in good authors. 
 
 Rem. 2. There belong here, of regular active verbs, the following 
 futures : dKovcropai, d7ravrr](TopLaL, dTvoXavcropxii, fiadiovfiai, dXaXd^op.aL, 
 /Sorjcro/xat, yeXdcrofiai, iyj/rjaofiai, KcoKvcrofiai, oi/Aa>£opcu, oXoXv^ofMai, 
 ovptjcrofAai, irqhr)(iop.ai, criy^cropcu, cncQ7rr)<7op.ai, (T7rovbdcro[Aai, av pi £opat, 
 TooSdcrofiat,. Also the following irregular verbs have the future mid- 
 dle in an active sense, almost without an exception: dfiaprcwco , /3cuVa>, 
 ylyvopai, yiyvcocTKco, daKvco, didpdcTKco, 6eco, Siyydvco, 6vt](Tkco, Kapvco, 
 kXcuo), Xayxdvco, Xap/3ava), fiavOdvco, veco (swim), opa/vpu, 6paa>, naifa, 
 7ra(r^a), ttltvtco, 7rXeco, Trveco, peco, rpe^oo, rpcoyco, (fievyco, \dcrK<o, X^C 00 * 
 
 Rem. 3. The following vary between the active and middle future, 
 and yet more commonly use the latter : ci'Sco, dpTrdfa , yr/pdo-Kco , /3Xe7ra), 
 Sicokoj, iyKcop.La£co, inaLveco, eViopKea), 6avpid£cQ, KXeTrrco, pcxfieco, a7ca>7rra), 
 X cope a), /Sidco, tLktcd, and (fiddvco. 
 
 3. Most deponent verbs have the aorist, and nearly all the 
 future, in the middfe form ; but some have these tenses either 
 wholly or in part in the passive form. 
 
 Rem. 4. The following have both a middle and passive future : 
 cuSeopcu, ci^SofjLaL, 6\aXeyofuii, eVtpiXeopai, 7rpo#v/xeo/xai, diavoeopju, 
 eXacrcroopai. But epa/xat has only the fut. pass. €pacr6r)(Top,aL. 
 
 Rem. 5. The following have the aorist wholly in the passive 
 form : dXdofxai, d^Oofiai, fiovXofjiai) fieo/xat, TJdofiai, oto/xat, cre'/Sopcu, 
 <pavrd(opa.L, diaXeyopaL, eVipeXeopcu, p.€rap.ihkop.cu, iudvfieo^aL^ irpodv- 
 peop.a.L, evvoeopm, Siavoeop,ai, a7roj/oeo/xat, eVavrtoop-cu , 6uXa/3€0/xa»j 
 (pt\oTLp.€opuiL, dvvafMdi, cViWa/xai . 
 
§ 41.] ANOMALOUS VERBS. 109 
 
 Rem. 6. The following fluctuate between the pass, and mid. aor- 
 ist : auXifo/xcu, opeyo/xai, Trpay/xareuo/xai, and (fiiXocppoveofiai. In the 
 following, the middle aor. is more used than the passive : ppyxdopai, 
 yiyvofiai, fiefxcpofxat, oXocpvpofiat,, tt7roXoyeo/xat , KoivoXoyeoficu', but in the 
 following the middle aor. is less used than the pass. : ayapai, aldeo- 
 pai, d/xtXXaoy^at, apveop-aL, and TTpQvoeop.ai. 
 
 4. Many deponent verbs have a passive meaning. 
 
 Rem. 7. Especially deponents which have an aorist middle often 
 have, also, the passive aor. with the passive meaning ; as, dycjvLaOrjvaL, 
 alici<rdrjvai, alriadrjvaL, aTroXoyrjOrjvai^ (BicurOrjvai, be^Orjvat,, dcopT]8j]vai, 
 epyacrdrjvai, laOrjuai, \oyt(rdT]vaL } Xco^rjdrjvaL, p,Lp.r]6rjvaLj 7rpo<pa(rL<rdrivai 1 
 •Xjpr](T6r)vai, Qjvr]6r]vai» 
 
 Rem. 8. Also several perfects of deponent verbs have both an 
 active and passive meaning ; as, ^ycovladat, yTtacrSai, ftepido-Oah Se&o- 
 prjaOai, elpydcrQai, e(TK€(j>8ai, nv)(6ai (from ei^o/zcn)? rjyrjoSaL, /ceKrfj- 
 <r6ai, fi€fir)XO-vricr6aL, \Lep.i\j.r)<r6ai, 7re7rpay /xareOo-^at , K€xapi(rdai % ecovrj- 
 o~6ai, dnoXeXoyfjcrSaL, aTTOKGKpLcrOai, (n/XXeXoyio"#ai, aTrovcvorjaOai. 
 
 5. The second aor. and second perf. of some transitive 
 verbs are intransitive, especially the following : aorists, eSui/, 
 Zo-rqP) e<fivv, €(tk\t]v ; perfects, iyp-qyopa, oXgjXo, 7re7roi#a, eaya, 
 eppwya, TerrjKa^ 7r€7rvya, akvnTta, and irkfynva. 
 
 § 41. Anomalies' in Form, 
 
 1. Many liquid verbs, and some mute verbs, in forming 
 certain tenses, add an e to the root of the present ; as, /xcXXw 
 (/xeXX- present stem), fut. ^XX^o-co (stem /zeXX*-). 
 
 2. On the contrary, some verbs drop € of the present in 
 forming the other tenses ; as, 6Wco (6W- present stem), fut. 
 do£<o (8oK-). 
 
 3. The ending ava (in a few va>, cuVg>, vvco) is added to the 
 stems of a number of verbs in the pres. and imperf. The 
 remaining tenses are formed partly from the pure stem, and 
 partly from the pure stem strengthened by e ; as, pres. /3Xaora- 
 
 j/a), aor. e/3Xa(7TOi/, fut. ftXao-Trjcrco. 
 
 4. In several of the verbs of the above class, before adding 
 avcDy n and cv of the pure stem are shortened into a and v, re- 
 spectively, in the pres. and imperf., and v (which is often 
 changed according to the laws of euphony, § 4, before the 
 
 10 
 
110 ANOMALOUS VERBS. [§41, 
 
 following consonant) is inserted before the characteristic. 
 Hence we have from the roots pvd-, X77/3-, tci/^-, fiav6dpa>, Xa/x/3a- 
 
 pcd, rvyxdvco. 
 
 Rem. 1. In this way certain associate forms of verbs in use arose ; 
 as, <j)vyyavc0 to <p€vy<o, Xifinavco to XetVo). 
 
 5. Several stems ending in a vowel add <tkg> to the pres. 
 and imperf., and some of them, at the same time, change their 
 characteristic vowel (a into 77, e or o into i) ; as, dpeo-Kco (ape-), 
 
 evpLCTKco (eupe-). 
 
 6. Some of the verbs in <tkco (also some other verbs in ©) 
 take the reduplication of verbs in pa in the pres. and imperfect; 
 
 aS, $L$pd(TK(D (5pa"), /3t/3/3COO-Ka) (/3/3CD-), TLTpda. 
 
 Rem. 2. Some of the verbs in o-kco have an independent meaning, 
 some a causative, and some an inceptive or inchoative meaning ; as, 
 §ibpd(TK.G>, to run away, pedvcrKco, to make drunk, yrjpdcrKco, to become 
 old, etc. 
 
 7. Certain tenses from obsolete presents are associated, 
 simply on account of the correspondence of their meaning, 
 with presents in use of quite different stems. Thus the forms 
 oyfsopai, axpdrjv, clbov, from the stems 07r- and Id-, are associated 
 with the pres. 6pd<o, and serve as tenses to it ; just as in Eng- 
 lish we associate together go, went, gone, though from differ- 
 ent roots. 
 
 8. A number of the verbs in ^t add pvfu to the stem, when 
 it ends in a consonant, vwpi, when it ends in a vowel ; as, 
 aywpi, oXAu/u (i. e. o\wfii, v being assimilated to X for eu- 
 phony). 
 
 9. Less common are some other anomalies, such as meta- 
 thesis, by which a vowel changes places with a following 
 liquid in certain tenses, and is lengthened in the change ; and 
 syncope, by which a short vowel (generally e) is rejected in 
 some tenses or forms of the verb. 
 
 Rem. 3. Metathesis takes place in the perf. and first aor. pass, of 
 the verbs /3dXXco, KaXeco, Kapvco, repvco, and Qvtjo-kcd, and the stems 
 0aX, *aX, *a/x, re/x, 6av, become in these tenses /3X?;, k\tj, Kpn, r^n, 
 6vr) ; hence, $€-fi\ri-Ka, e-ickfj-Orjv, etc. 
 
§41.] 
 
 ANOMALOUS VERBS. 
 
 Ill 
 
 Rem. 4. Syncope occurs : a) Especially in several second aorists, 
 and rejects e ; as, rjypuprjv (from cycipco, iyep-, hence regularly rjyepo- 
 firjv), rjveyKov (eW-, hence regularly, with the reduplication, § 31, 
 R. 3, rjv€V€Kov), €ttt6p.tjv and fut. TTTTjcrofiai from Trkropai. b) In connec- 
 tion with the reduplication (see paragraph 6) ; as, ylyvopai (yei>-, and 
 hence properly yi-ysv-opai), iriirna (7rer-), pip.™ from pevco, TTLnpacrKco 
 from 7T€pd(o ; also in the perfects nkirTcoKa (nero-) and izkitrapai from 
 Treravwpi. c) In ot/xat, Sprjv (for olojiai, co6pr]v) the connecting vowel 
 is rejected by syncope, as is done generally in verbs in /xt. 
 
 10. The following alphabetical list contains most of the 
 anomalous verbs of the above classes in use in the best Attic 
 writers. It has not seemed best to encumber the list with 
 those of less common occurrence, or belonging to the dialects, 
 nor with mere defective verbs, all of which may be better 
 learned from the Lexicon, as they occur. Mere irregularities 
 in the formation of particular tenses will be found treated of 
 under the sections devoted to that subject. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Future. 
 
 Aorist. 
 
 Perfect, 
 
 ayuvpi (break) 
 
 Zfr 
 
 ea£a 
 
 eaya 
 
 Passive 
 
 
 idyrjv 
 
 ( J €ayp,ai) 
 
 alp€(o (take eX-) 
 
 alprja'co 
 
 el\ov 
 
 rjprjKa 
 
 
 alpedijaopac 
 
 rjpeSrjv 
 
 r\pr)p.ai 
 
 alcrOdvopai (perceive) 
 
 al(r6r}(Top.ai 
 
 rj(r66p.T]v 
 
 rjoSrjpai 
 
 dXe|a) (ward off) 
 
 (d\ €^T)(T(o) 
 
 (rjX^cra) 
 
 
 Middle 
 
 d\€£r)(rop,<u 
 
 T]\€£dp.7)V 
 
 
 akio-Kopai (be taken) 
 
 aXoaa'op.aL 
 
 idXoov, rjXcov 
 
 idXaica, 7J\<oKa 
 
 dpaprduco (err) 
 
 dp.apTr\(jQpai 
 
 rjpapTov 
 
 T}p.dpTTJKa 
 
 Passive 
 
 
 ap,apTT]6rjvai 
 
 Tjp.dprrjp.at, 
 
 dpPXio-Kc* (miscarry) 
 
 (dpISXaKrco) 
 
 rJpftXcoo-a 
 
 TJp,p\a>Ka 
 
 dp,<f>i€vwpi (clothe) 
 
 dp(pioo 
 
 rjfMpiecra 
 
 
 Middle 
 
 dp.(pl€<TOpLCU 
 
 
 7]p.<j)ie(rp,ai 
 
 dvakivKa (spend) 
 
 dvaXaxra) 
 
 dvdXcocra 
 
 dvaXcoKd 
 
 
 
 dprfkaxfa 
 
 dvrjkcoKa 
 
 Passive 
 
 dva\<odf)(rop.aL dvaXatdrjv 
 
 dvak(Dp.ai 
 
 
 
 dwfk&drju 
 
 dvfj\(opLai 
 
 dwxOdvopm (be hated) 
 
 d7r€X^V <ro H' ai 
 
 diTrjx06p,r)v 
 
 dirqx6r)pm 
 
112 
 
 ANOMALOUS VERBS. 
 
 R41. 
 
 dpeo-Kco (please) 
 
 dpecro) 
 
 rjpeo-a 
 
 (dprjpeKa) 
 
 av£(dv)a> (increase) 
 
 av£r]<T<0 
 
 r)v£r](ra 
 
 T)V^T)Ka 
 
 Passive 
 
 av^r](6r])(Topai 
 
 7)v£f)6r]V 
 
 rjv^TjfiaL 
 
 axGofiai (be vexed) 
 
 dx6€(r(6f]cr)op.ai r\y&£(r6r]V 
 
 P 
 
 /3atVo> (go) 
 
 firjo-onai 
 
 ?f*V> 
 
 j3ei3r]Ka 
 
 /3t/3pa)crKa) (to eat) 
 
 (Ppaxropat.) 
 
 (e/3pa>cra) 
 
 /3e/3pa>Ka 
 
 Passive 
 
 (ftp<08r)(Top,cu) 
 
 iPp6)6r]U 
 
 fUeftpcDfiai 
 
 /SXao-Tavto (spring) 
 
 /3Xao"r^cra) 
 
 eftXacTTov 
 
 ((3)€(3XdoTT]Ka 
 
 /3Aa)<TKa) (come) 
 
 jjloXov/acu 
 
 efioXov 
 
 p.€p.(3X(DKa 
 
 
 
 (efiXcov) 
 
 fiefiXaxa 
 
 fBoo-Kco (feed) 
 
 j3o(TKr)<T(i) 
 
 
 
 
 
 PovXofiai (will) 
 
 jSouAqcro/icK 
 
 efiovXrjOrjv 
 
 PcfiovXrjfjLai 
 
 ya/xea> (marry) 
 
 ya/xw 
 
 eyrjfxa 
 
 yeydfxijKa 
 
 Middle 
 
 yapovfiai 
 
 eyr]fidp.Tjv 
 
 y€ydp.T]p,ai 
 
 yrjpd{(TK)(i> (become old) yrjpdo-Ofiai (era) 
 
 ) eyrjpacra 
 
 yeyrjpaKa 
 
 yiyvopai (ylvofxai) (be~ 
 
 y€vr)(TOfiai 
 
 lyevop.7]v 
 
 ytytvqpiai 
 
 [come) 
 
 yevTjSfjaojjLai 
 
 
 yeyova 
 
 yiyvaxTKco (know) 
 
 yvdxrop,at 
 
 cyvcov 
 
 eyvooKa 
 
 Passive 
 
 yvcocrdrjcropai 
 
 lyvw(r6t]v 
 
 Zyvcoo-fiai 
 
 duKvco (bite) 
 
 drjtjofjLai 
 
 edaKov 
 
 ? 
 
 Passive 
 
 hrjxBrj(Top,ai 
 
 idrj)(Br]v 
 
 dedrjyp,cu 
 
 hapOavco (sleep) 
 
 dap6r)crop.ai(?) 
 
 edapdov 
 
 deddpSrjKa 
 
 dtdpdo-KcD (run off) 
 
 dpdo-opai 
 
 edpau 
 
 dedp&Ka 
 
 doKeco (srem) 
 
 do£co 
 
 edoija 
 
 dedoyp,cu 
 
 (i)6t\a> (will) 
 
 (e^eXiycra) 
 
 T)6eXr](Ta 
 
 r)6eXr]Ka 
 
 etVe«/ (say €p-) 
 
 epa> 
 
 tlnov (-ira) 
 
 €?pT]Ka, 
 
 Passive 
 
 pr)6r)(TOiiai 
 elp^crofiai 
 
 epprjOrjv 
 
 €tpT)p.ai 
 
 eXavvco (drive) 
 
 eXcS 
 
 ^Xacra 
 
 iXqXaKa 
 
 Passive 
 
 
 rjXdBrjv 
 
 iXqXafuu 
 
 Middle 
 
 
 r)Xa<rdp.t]v 
 
 
 (t'popai) (ask) 
 
 ipfjcropai 
 
 rjpdfirjv 
 
 
 
 W® (g°f orth ) 
 
 €pf>T)(T(D 
 
 TJpprjcra 
 
 fjppr)Ka 
 
 epxop.cu (go iXevO-) 
 
 eXevcro/xat 
 
 rjXOov 
 
 iXrjXvBa 
 
 id6l(x> (eat ۤ-, (f>ay) 
 
 iidofjLCH, 
 
 €<payov 
 
 ibrfboKa 
 
 Passive 
 
 
 (r)d€(r&r}v) 
 
 tSijfco'iiai 
 
§41.] 
 
 ANOMALOUS VERBS. 
 
 113 
 
 €v8(o (sleep) 
 
 €vdrjO'(0 
 
 
 
 
 €vpl(TK(o (Jind) 
 
 evprjo'co 
 
 evpov 
 
 €VpT]Ka 
 
 Passive 
 
 €vp€6fjO"opac 
 
 €Vp€0T]V 
 
 evpTjpai 
 
 e^o) {have o"x*, o"X €m ) 
 
 e^cDy o-xw® 
 
 €O-\0V 
 
 eoxP& 
 
 Passive 
 
 
 (i(TX€0T)v) 
 
 eo-xw™ 
 
 Middle 
 
 e£'o/xai, o-\Wop.ai iaxoprju 
 
 
 fya> (cook) 
 
 €yJA7]crop.ai 
 
 rj-^-qcra 
 
 ? 
 
 Passive 
 
 
 T)^T)6r)V 
 
 rjyjfrjpai 
 
 £evywpi (join) 
 
 £ev£a> 
 
 e£ev£a 
 
 P 
 
 Passive 
 
 
 i£vyr)V (i^vx^rp 
 
 ') efcvypai 
 
 Middle 
 
 fcv^opai 
 
 iCevgdpLrjp 
 
 
 £<bwvpi (gird) 
 
 fa) (TO) 
 
 e£Wa 
 
 (efaica) 
 
 Passive 
 
 
 
 cfao-pai 
 
 Middle 
 
 
 ifaardprjv 
 
 
 7jPd((TK)oi> (become a man) fiprjarco 
 
 TJftrjcra 
 
 rjPrjica 
 
 Siyydvco (touch) 
 
 Bl^opai (-co . 
 
 *) Wiyov 
 
 ? 
 
 6ut)(tkco (to die) 
 
 6avovp.ai 
 
 %6avov 
 
 rk6vr\Ka 
 
 iKveoficu (come) 
 
 l£opai 
 
 lK6p.7}V 
 
 iypai 
 
 Ikdo-KOfiaL (propitiate) 
 
 IXao'op.ai 
 
 iXacrdprju 
 
 
 Passive 
 
 
 ikdo , 6r)v 
 
 (tXao-/zai) 
 
 Kapvco (weary) 
 
 Kap.ovpai 
 
 €Kapov 
 
 K€Kp.TJKa 
 
 Kepdvwp.1 (mix) 
 
 K€pda"(0 (?) 
 
 eKepda-a 
 
 K€Kpd<a (?) 
 
 Passive 
 
 
 eKpaOrjv 
 
 K€Kpdp,ai 
 
 
 
 €K€pda-6rjv 
 
 K€Kepaa-pai 
 
 Middle 
 
 
 iK€paadp,r)P 
 
 
 Kopkvvuyn. (satiate) 
 
 (/cojoeo-o)) 
 
 cKopcara 
 
 (iCCKOpTJKa) 
 
 Passive 
 
 
 €Kopea-6rjv 
 
 KCK0p€O-p.ai 
 
 Kpip.ap.ai (hang) 
 
 Kp€fXT]CrO}JLai 
 
 
 • 
 
 Kp*p.dvwp.i (hang) 
 
 Kpepco 
 
 iicpcp.ao'a 
 
 ? 
 
 Passive 
 
 
 iKpepda-Orjv 
 
 (K€KpepLap,ai) 
 
 Xayxdva (get by lot) 
 
 \r}£opai 
 
 eXaxov 
 
 etXrjxa 
 
 Passive 
 
 
 ikrfl((hf» 
 
 etXrjypai 
 
 \ap$dv<o (take) 
 
 Xrjyf/opai. 
 
 eXaftov 
 
 ct\r)(f)a 
 
 Passive 
 
 \rj(f>6t]o-op,ai 
 
 ikrjtpOrjv 
 
 et\r)p.pxu 
 
 Middle 
 
 
 €\a^6p.T]V 
 
 
 10 
 
114 
 
 ANOMALOUS VERBS. 
 
 [§41. 
 
 \av6dvco (concealed) 
 
 Xr/crco 
 
 ZXaOov 
 
 XiXrjda 
 
 Middle 
 
 Xf)(TOfiaL 
 
 £Xa66prjv 
 
 XtXrjo-pa 
 
 fiavdavco (learn) 
 
 fiaOfjcrofMH 
 
 %p.a6ov 
 
 p.ep,ddr]Ka 
 
 pd X opai {fight) 
 
 fjLaxovfjLcu 
 
 ifjLcixecrdprjv 
 
 liepdxnptu 
 
 /xeXet (it concerns) 
 
 fieXr](T€L 
 
 epeXrjcrev 
 
 pipiKrjKGV 
 
 fieWa (intend) 
 
 fieWrjcrcj 
 
 e/xeXX^cra 
 
 P 
 
 fieXofiai (care) 
 
 fiekrjo-ofjLcu 
 
 ep,€\r}6r]V 
 
 liep.iKrjp.ai, 
 
 fieveo (remain) 
 
 fi€Pa> 
 
 €fJL€LVd 
 
 p,€p.ev7]Ka 
 
 filyuvfii, (mix) 
 
 fU^G) 
 
 epiga 
 
 (p^fiixa) 
 
 Passive 
 
 pLLX^rjcrofiat 
 
 Wc^i hm* 
 
 ' p.€piyp.ai 
 
 /iLpLvrjo-Koa (remember) 
 
 p,vf]<r<o 
 
 cfivqcra 
 
 
 Passive 
 
 p.vrj(r6r]crop.aL 
 p,€p,vr)aropxii 
 
 lpvr\v6r\v 
 
 p.kp.vr\pjai 
 
 vefico (distribute) 
 
 vep.a> 
 
 t-veipa 
 
 V€vep.rjKa 
 
 Passive 
 
 
 ivefjLT)6r)v 
 
 V€veprjp.at 
 
 o£cd (swell) 
 
 6£rjcrco 
 
 &&] era 
 
 (6'SoSa) 
 
 oXywjii, otyco (open) 
 
 6t£(D 
 
 e<o£a, ol£ai 
 
 hx a 
 
 
 
 £<0X@l p i olxQrjvai eo>y/xat 
 
 olofiat (think) 
 
 olrjo-opai 
 
 cprjOrjv 
 
 
 
 o?xofiai (depart) 
 
 olxi) (ropai 
 
 
 («W at ) 
 
 oXicrddva) (slip) 
 
 oki<r6f)(r<j) (?■! 
 
 1 coXio~6ov 
 
 (aXlo-QriKa) 
 
 oXXvfic (destroy) 
 
 dXa> 
 
 cokecra 
 
 oX&XeKa 
 
 Middle 
 
 oXovpai 
 
 Q)\6fJLT]V 
 
 oXcoXa 
 
 ofjLWfjLt. (swear) 
 
 op.ovp.ac 
 
 cofxocra 
 
 6p.a>p.OKa 
 
 
 
 6pLo((r)dr)vat, 
 
 op.cop.oo'Bai 
 
 6p.6pywpi (wipe off) 
 
 
 
 copop^a 
 
 ? 
 
 Passive 
 
 
 tofjLOpxOrjv 
 
 ? 
 
 Middle 
 
 6pop£op.ai 
 
 G)fJLOp£dp,T]V 
 
 
 6pd(t> (566, 07T-, Id') 
 
 oyjfOfjLcu 
 
 eldov 
 
 i&paKct 
 
 Passive 
 
 d(f>di]o~opuii 
 
 a>(f)6T]v 
 
 id) papal, cop pat 
 
 Middle 
 
 
 cldoprjv 
 
 
 ocrcppalvopai (smell) 
 
 6a(j)pr](TOfxai, 
 
 oi(T<Pp6jir)V 
 
 (a>o-<f>pT)p,ai) 
 
 o^ei'Xo) (owe) 
 
 6<f)€l\r)<T0i) 
 
 o)(f)€i\r]ara 
 
 co<f)€iXr}Ka 
 
 6(f)\l.(TKdl><D (0We) 
 
 6(j)XT]cra> 
 
 SxpXop 
 (axfiXr/o-a) 
 
 w(f)Xr]Ka 
 
§41.] 
 
 ANOMALOUS VEKBS. 
 
 US 
 
 7rd(rxet> {suffer irr)6- ,ir€v6-) 
 
 ireicropLai 
 
 tiraBov 
 
 TTtTTOvSa 
 
 7r€Tdvwfj.t (spread) 
 
 7rera<70), ra> 
 
 €7T€Ta(ra 
 
 (7T€7T€TaKa) 
 
 Passive 
 
 
 e7T€Tdcrdr]V 
 
 7reVra/i<u 
 
 7T€TOficu {fly) 
 
 7TT7)(TOfJLai 
 
 lirr6p.r]v 
 
 7T€7l6TTJIiat 
 
 Passive 
 
 7T€Tr)crofxat, 
 
 €7TTT]V 
 
 
 Middle 
 
 
 €7TTdp.T]V 
 
 
 7TT]yvvfiL (fasten) 
 
 
 
 €7rr}£a 
 
 7T€7TT]ya 
 
 ttlvco (drink n-e-, tto-) 
 
 iriopai 
 
 €7TlOV 
 
 7T€7rct)/ca 
 
 Passive 
 
 7rodrjo~opai 
 
 iiroS-qv 
 
 7re7rop.ai 
 
 7Ti7rpd<rK<D (sell) 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 7T€1TpCLKCL 
 
 Passive 
 
 lT€7rpd(TOfjLai 
 
 Zirpa6r)v 
 
 7r€7rpap,ai 
 
 7TL7TTCO (fall 7T6T-, 7T€TO-) 
 
 rrecroC/xat 
 
 €7T€(rOV 
 
 77€7TT(OKa 
 
 7rvv6duofxat, (ask) 
 
 ircvcropai 
 
 €7Tv86flT]V 
 
 TreTTVcrp-ai. 
 
 f)€CQ (fl0W) 
 
 pyrjaofiaL 
 
 » » « / 
 
 eppvrjv 
 
 i » f / 
 
 eppvrjKa 
 
 
 peiHrofiai 
 
 eppevcra 
 
 
 prjyuvfjLi (tear) 
 
 ph& 
 
 cppriga 
 
 J/ 5 t 
 
 eppcoya 
 
 Passive 
 
 payrjaojicu 
 
 ippdyrju 
 
 
 Middle 
 
 
 ipprj^dfxrju 
 
 
 pLTTTecO, piTTTCO (kltrl) 
 
 pt^o> 
 
 eppiya 
 
 €ppi<pa 
 
 Passive 
 
 
 eppi(t)(0)T}v 
 
 tppLflfJLCU 
 
 p<avwfju (strengthen) 
 
 pd)cr<o 
 
 
 
 ? 
 
 Passive 
 
 pGMrOrjcroiiai 
 
 »» e § a 
 
 €pp<0o~ur)V 
 
 €ppcop,ai 
 
 o-phwpi (quench) 
 
 o-/3ecra) 
 
 €<rfi€<ra 
 
 
 
 Passive 
 
 (T^ecrOfjcrofxaL 
 
 iar^€cr6i]V 
 
 ecr/3ecr/xat 
 
 Intransitive 
 
 o-ftfjo-OfJLai 
 
 ecrfirjv 
 
 eo-firjKa 
 
 cKeSdvwpi (scatter) 
 
 (TKtScb 
 
 ea-KeOao-a 
 
 
 
 Passive 
 
 
 l(TK.ebd(r6r)u 
 
 icTKedaa-fJiat 
 
 o-kottcco (consider) 
 
 (TKe\lrofxai 
 
 iarKi(j)6r]v 
 
 €(TK€fJifACU 
 
 <T7T€v8co (offer a libation) 
 
 o"7relo"a> 
 
 €0-7T6L(ra 
 
 (coireiKa) 
 
 €0"IT€L(rpMl 
 
 oTopevwfjLi (spread) 
 
 cropo) 
 
 eoropccra 
 
 
 
 (See oTp&vwpi.) 
 
 
 (eo~Topkcr6r]v) 
 
 eVropecr/zai 
 
 orpd)vwp.L (spread) 
 
 orpaxrcD 
 
 €O~TpC0O~a 
 
 — — 
 
 Passive 
 
 
 l(TTptt>6r)V 
 
 caTpcofxai 
 
 Middle 
 
 
 €(TTp(oadp.rjv 
 
 
116 
 
 ANOMALOUS VERBS. 
 
 [$41. 
 
 T€}JLVCO (CUtj 
 
 T€jJL<0 
 
 €T€fJLOV 
 
 TeTfirjKa 
 
 Passive 
 
 T€Tp,TJo-OfJLai 
 
 lrp.r\6j]V 
 
 TeTfirjfiai 
 
 tivco {pay) 
 
 rta-d) 
 
 ertcra, riaai 
 
 T€TlKO, 
 
 Passive 
 
 
 IrlcrS-qv 
 
 T€TL(TfJLai 
 
 Middle 
 
 
 iriadfirju 
 
 
 TLTpOXTKO) (W0Und) 
 
 Tpdxrco 
 
 erpcoo-a 
 
 — ? 
 
 Passive 
 
 rpcoBrjo-ofiat, 
 
 irpooOrjv 
 
 rerpcofxai. 
 
 rpe^w (run bpafi') 
 
 dpap.ovfj,ai 
 
 edpafiov 
 
 dedpdfirjKa 
 
 Passive 
 
 
 
 ^ebpap-rjaBai 
 
 Tvyxavc* (happen) 
 
 T€v£op,ai 
 
 trvxov 
 
 rervx^JKa 
 
 tv7ttg> (strike) 
 
 TV7rrr)(ra) 
 
 (jETVTTOv) 
 
 
 Passive 
 
 TVTTTT](TO\iai 
 
 irV7TT]V 
 
 rerufifxaL 
 
 <\>ep<d (hear eVeK-, oi-) 
 
 ota-Q) 
 
 rjveyKov 
 
 ivrfvoxo- 
 
 Passive 
 
 iv€xOrj(rop,ai 
 ol(r6q(rop,ai 
 
 rjvex^rjv 
 
 3 , 
 €VT)veypai 
 
 Middle 
 
 otaofiai 
 
 T)V€yKa.fJLTJV 
 
 
 <f>0dva> (anticipate) 
 
 cj)6^(rofiat 
 
 €(p6a(ra, €(f)$T]v e<p$aKa 
 
 xaipa (rejoice) 
 
 Xcuprjo-co 
 
 exdprjv 
 
 K€xdp7]Ka(-fiai) 
 
 Xp&vwfxi (to color) 
 
 
 expcocra 
 
 ? 
 
 
 
 Passive 
 
 
 €XpG>0-67]V 
 
 Kexpaxrfiai 
 
 aOeco (push) 
 
 axrco (&df)o-(0 
 
 ) eaxra 
 
 (eoaica) 
 
 Passive 
 
 &cr6f}(T0fj,cu 
 
 iao-Brjv 
 
 eoxr/iai 
 
 Middle 
 
 coo-o/iai 
 
 icocrdfXTjv. 
 
 
\) 42.] UNINFLECTED WORDS, OR PARTICLES. 117 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 UNINFLECTED WOEDS, OR PARTICLES. 
 § 42. Adverbs. 
 
 1. Adverbs express the relations of 'place (as, navTayf), 
 everywhere), time (as, wWcop, by night), manner (as, ovtgx, 
 thus), modality {affirmation, negation, certainty, uncertainty, 
 conditionally, etc. ; as, vai, yes, ov, not, \ir\v, truly , nov, 
 doubtless , to-coy, perhaps, and the like), and intensity and 
 frequency (as, fidXa, iraw, much, avdis, again, and the like). 
 
 2. Besides the ending as, in which adverbs derived from 
 nouns and participles (see § 21, 1) end, there are other 
 endings of adverbs, most of them arising from the endings 
 of the different cases of nouns, pronouns, and adjectives, as 
 the genitive, dative, and accusative. 
 
 3. The genitive ending appears in adverbs ending in -tjs and 
 -ou ; as, i£rjs, €7rnro\fjs, ttov, Sfiov, dy%ov, ovBafiov. Also in -off of 
 the third declension ; as, ^poinds (from irpoi£), and probably 
 ivTos {within) and Utos {without). Also those in £ were 
 probably derived from old genitives in -a/cos by dropping o 
 and combining < and s ; as, 7rv£ {with the fist), Xd£, dXXd^ 
 fiovvd£, etc. 
 
 4. The dative ending appears in adverbs ending in t, et, ©, 
 oi, at {rja-c, acri), tj or a (the iota having been lost), and € ; as, 
 rjpi {early), iicovTi, eyepri, ay^t, "P rt 5 TrafwrXiy&t, avToyjsei, d/zeXct, 
 atet Or det, e/cet ; Karoo, efco, o{/7rco ; fU>X *> °*i on"oi> oLkoi, 'icrdfiol 
 {at the Isthmus), UvBol; ndXai, x ^* 'A^wja-i (a£ Athens), 
 Bvpavi {at the door) ; C1XX77, TrcffJ, Xdtfpa, eV#a, ivravBa, 'iireira ; 
 r^Xe, ctye, etc. 
 
 5. The accusative ending appears in adverbs ending in -oj/, 
 -i\v -ov, -a (sing., or plur. neut.) ; as, drjpov, irkr^a-lov, irKt,v6r)b6v ; 
 irpQni)V, fjuiicpdv ; Hai/a^Sd, rd^a, (rd(f)a, Kpv<pa, iva, etc. 
 
 Rem. 1. The neuter sing, or plur. of many adjectives in use as 
 such is often used adverbially ; as, 7roXu or noWd (much), \x6vov 
 {only), etc. 
 
118 UNINFLECTED WORDS, OR PARTICLES. [§ 43. 
 
 Rem. 2. The three endings of adverbs, -6ev, -0i, and -be (-ere), 
 correspond, respectively, to the gen., dat., and ace. endings, denoting 
 whence, where, and whither, as, ovpavoOev {from heaven), ovpavoOi 
 (in heaven), ovpavovbe (to heaven), dXkocre (to another place) . 
 
 § 43. Prepositions. 
 
 1. The prepositions are used partly with the oblique cases 
 of nouns and pronouns, which they generally stand before, 
 and partly in composition. 
 
 Rem. 1. Only 7rp6s, in the expressions npbs be and km irpos (but 
 besides, and besides), is found without a case to govern in Attic prose. 
 
 Rem. 2. The improper prepositions dvev, eveita, axph ^XPh never 
 
 appear in composition. 
 
 2. The cases which stand with the different prepositions 
 are : a) The genitive alone with npo, before, a7r6,fro?n, ig (ex), 
 oat of, out, dvri, instead of, avev, icithout, evena or elvena (gener- 
 ally placed after its case), on account of, &xpi and pexPh until, 
 and some other words, such as x^P LV ^ §' lK l v (ace. of nouns), 
 having the force of prepositions, h) The dative alone with lv, 
 in, o-uv (!;vv), icith. c) The accusative alone with eh (is, and 
 sometimes as before designations of persons), into, to, dvd, on, 
 in, upon, d) The genitive and accusative with bid, Kara, rarcp, 
 fierd. e) The genitive, dative, and accusative with irapd, d^l, 
 
 irepi, 7Tp6s, V7ro, im. 
 
 Rem. 3. The principal meanings of the prepositions which gov- 
 ern two cases are : — 
 
 1) bid with the gen. through ; with the ace. through, on account of, 
 by means of, through the efficiency or fault of. 
 
 2) Kara with the gen. down from, against, on account of, concern- 
 ing ; with the^acc. by, in, upon, to, according to, by virtue of, in re- 
 spect to; of time, about ; also, the way and maimer. 
 
 3) V77€p with the gen. above, over, for, instead of, on account of ; with 
 the ace. over, above, of space, time, measure, and number. 
 
 4) fierd with the gen. with; with the ace. after. 
 
 Rem. 4. The principal meanings of the prepositions which govern 
 three cases are : — 
 
 1) d ii(f) l with the gen. and dat. around, about, on account of; with 
 the ace. about, of place and time. 
 
 2) ire pi with the gen. concerning, on account of; with thfcdat. and 
 ace. about, in respect to. 
 
§ 44.] UNINFLECTED WORDS, OR PARTICLES. 119 
 
 3) irapd with the gen. from by, from near by; with the dat at, by; 
 with the ace. to, near. 
 
 4) 7rp6s with the gen. from before (7rpos tieSv, by, before the gods) ; 
 with the dat. by; with the ace. to, against, according to, for the 
 benefit of 
 
 5) im with the gen. upon, at, on, by, after, under, during, for; 
 with the dat. upon, on, at, by, after, concerning, on account of, from, in 
 order to, under condition that, in the power of; with the ace. upon, 
 against, after. 
 
 6) vno with the gen. under, by, from, on account of; with the dat. 
 under, by ; with the ace. under, during. 
 
 Rem. 5. In composition, the prepositions usually have some one 
 of their primitive local meanings ; as, — 
 
 1) iv, in, within, by: <?yy eios, ivoucclv, ipp.ev€iv. 
 
 2) o~vv, with, together : o-vpiTopeveo-Oai, o~u\\£y€iv. [arravat,. 
 
 3) fiera, with (participation), around: /xere^eti/, nerahihovai, /x€#i- 
 
 4) ami, against, instead of: avrtkeyeiv, dirnSMvai. 
 
 5) 7rpo, before : irpoTarreiv, Trpofiaiveiv, irpoaiptivBai. 
 
 6) onto, from, away: aTrotiOeo-Oai, dirkp-^o'dai. 
 
 7) i£, out : i%€pxzo~6ai, iKJSdXkeu/. 
 
 8) els, into : clo-ep^a-dai. 
 
 9) ava, up, through, back : avafiaiveiv , avayaptiv . 
 
 10) Kara, down through, completely : KarafiaLveiv, KarainpLTrpavat. 
 
 11) hid, through, over: §i€pxeo-6ai, SiaftaLveiv. 
 
 12) V7r€p, over: V7repj3aiv€iv, virepao^os, vnepopav. 
 
 13) dp<fii, around, two-sided : dp,<picrTopos. 
 
 14) rrepi, around, over : TT€pi€px*crdai, 7repixapf}s, 7T€piopav. 
 
 15) Trapd, to, near by, along by : irapfwai, TrapaKaXelv, irapaifkziv. 
 
 16) 7rpos, towards, to: irpoo-kpxevOai, irpoo-TiQkvai. 
 
 17) in I, upon, against, after : iiririOkvai, imkvai, iiriTaTT^iv. 
 
 18) V7TO, under, slightly: viroytios, wo^oopeti/. 
 
 § 44. Conjunctions. 
 Conjunctions are of two classes : — 
 
 I. Coordinate conjunctions, or such as connect sentences 
 (or words, when the sentences are abridged) that merely have 
 a common reference to each other, while each expresses a 
 complete sense by itself. These are : — 
 
 1. Copulative conjunctions ; as, <ai, and, also, re, and (the 
 former implying a more intimate connection, the latter a looser 
 connection, or a mere succession, without any internal connec- 
 tion) ; re . . . . re, both .... and, on the one hand . . . . on the 
 
120 TJNINFLECTED WORDS, OR PARTICLES. [§ 44. 
 
 other , re Kal (written together), both .... and, Kal .... Kal, Z>o^ 
 • • • • and also. 
 
 2. Adversative conjunctions ; as, U, £w£ (to which the con- 
 cessive fiev often corresponds in the related sentence), pevroi, 
 yet, drdp, but, still, dXkd, but on the contrary, but, yet, while, 
 kclLtoi, and yet, Kalnep, although (with a part.), opcos, neverthe- 
 less, av (after Kal or de), and on the contrary, on the other 
 hand, again. 
 
 3. Disjunctive conjunctions ; as, fj, or (aut, vel, ve, sive), 
 fj . . . . fj, either .... or, eire .... ei're (with the indie.) or eai/re 
 
 (rjvre) .... idvre (fjvri) with the subj., whether . . . .or, ovre .... 
 
 ovVe and fjLTjre .... fjLrjre (occasionally with the simple re or Kal in 
 
 the second member), neither .... nor, oide and /iqSe, nor also, 
 
 and not, also not, even not, not at all. 
 
 Rem. 1. The conjunction fj (than) is also used with comparative 
 words, and those denoting separation, difference. 
 
 4. Causal conjunctions ; as, ydp,for,for example. 
 
 5. Deductive conjunctions ; as, olv, consequently, therefore, 
 apa, then, Tolvvv, then, SO then, rolyap (roiyaproL, roiyapovv), for 
 
 that very reason, wherefore ; also df) (now, hence) is deduc- 
 tive. 
 
 II. Subordinate conjunctions, or such as connect a subordi- 
 nate to a principal sentence. They are : — 
 
 1. Causal conjunctions ; as, on, Bloti, as (also the temporal 
 conjunctions ore, ottotc, eW, and eVeiS^ used causally), because, 
 since, when, while ; also are with a participle. But with verba 
 sentiendi et declarandi, on and a>s introduce objective substan- 
 tive sentences, and are explicative in their character. 
 
 2. Hypothetical or conditional conjunctions ; as, et, if; also 
 the temporal conjunctions eVei and eVet^, after that, as, irplv, 
 before, care, ecos, axP 1 * an< ^ ^XPh till, until, so long as, gener- 
 ally have a hypothetical force. 
 
 3. Final conjunctions (expressing an end or purpose) ; as, 
 iva, cos, o7T(os, that, in order that ; ntf, Iva pJ\, a>s p.i], ott<*>s pr), 
 that not, in order that not. 
 
§ 45.] FORMATION OF WORDS. 121 
 
 4. Consecutive conjunctions (denoting a sequence or succes- 
 sion) ; as, cos and wore, so that. 
 
 5. Comparative conjunctions ; as, ws and coo-irep, as. 
 
 Rem. 2. Adverbs of place and time, also, are used to connect sen- 
 tences, and hence fill the office of conjunctions ; as, ov, rj, ha, evQa, 
 61, and other relative adverbs of place (see the correlative adverbs, 
 § 27, II.); ore, Snore, cos, f)viK.a, when, iv op, ecos, while, eVet, cTreidr), 
 after that, core, pexpi, and a^/at, ft7/, urcfo'Z, also ef , a7ro, and ei? with 
 the case of a relative or correlative pronoun, which express time. 
 Besides, relatives and direct interrpgatives (see the correlatives, § 27, 1.) 
 serve to connect sentences with others, forming what are called rela- 
 tive or adjective sentences. 
 
 Note. Interjections are mere articulate sounds expressive of emo- 
 tion; as, a, ah! <pev, alas! oval, woe! otfioi, woe is me! €vye,well 
 done !. etc. They have no grammatical relations, and hence require 
 no treatment. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 FORMATION OF WORDS. 
 
 § 45. Formation by Derivation. 
 
 1. Verbs are derived from roots (whether found in nouns, 
 adjectives, verbs, or other parts of speech) by adding the end- 
 ings (and sometimes with some change in the root) aw, ea>, og>, 
 cvco, a£co, i£co, alvco, and vvco. 
 
 2. These endings have more or less distinct meanings. 
 Especially, those in oca, alvco, and vvco generally have a causa- 
 tive meaning (as, XevKalveiv, to whiten, make white) ; and those 
 in aeico and tdco express a desire or longing for something 
 (desideratives) ; as, noXefino-elco, I desire to fight. 
 
 3. Nouns denoting persons (personal appellatives) are de- 
 rived from verbal roots by the endings as, ns, rns ; os ; np, cop, 
 svs ; as, o-TpaTvyos, a general, prjroop, an orator, etc. 
 
 4. Abstract and other common nouns which are not personal 
 appellatives, are derived from verbal stems by the endings a, 
 
 11 
 
122 FORMATION OF WORDS. [§ 45. 
 
 eia, aia, rj, fir) ; os, fios ; cris, fxa ; US, /3Xa,3/?, injury, 7roi7jfia 9 a 
 poem, deo-pos, bond, etc. 
 
 5. Nouns are derived from adjectives by the endings a or 77, 
 
 ta, eta, oca, os, rrjs, crvprj ; as, 6€ppr) (from Beppos), evdaip,oi>la 
 (evdatpcov) , ra)(VTT]s (rcr^j), etc. 
 
 6. Nouns are derived from other nouns by various endings. 
 Of these may be noticed : - — 
 
 1) Patronymics, i. e. names of persons derived from then- 
 parents or ancestors. They end in db^s (from names of the 
 first declension only) and ibrjs (which becomes cidqs or oldrjs 
 when the stem of the primitive ends in e or o) ; and the corre- 
 sponding feminine endings as (gen. ados), Is (gen. [80s); as, 
 'AXcvadrjs (from 'AAeuas), AlaKiftrjs (AlaKos), Urjkeldrjs (ilijXevs) ; 
 Bopeds (Bopeas), TauraXts (TavraXos), etc. 
 
 Rem. 1. There are also the rare and poetic patronymic endings 
 [av (masc.) and ivq or idovq (fern.) ; as, Kpovicov {Kp6vos)^AKpicricovrj 
 ('AKplaios). 
 
 2) Gentile nouns, i. e. nouns denoting one's country. They 
 
 end 111 lttjs, drqs, r]rr]S, oorrjs \ tos, auos, and evs ; as, 'AftdrjpLTTjs 
 
 (a person belonging to Abdera), 'HTTeipcor^s- {belonging to 
 Epirus), 'AOrjvalos, etc. 
 
 3) Diminutives. — These receive the endings aw, iov, Ihiov, 
 dpiov, vhpiov, lo-kov, urKq, is, and denote a small or dear object 
 of the kind denoted by the primitive ; as, oIkISlov (a little 
 house, from out/a), ttoXlxviov (ttoKls), etc. 
 
 7. Adjectives are derived from the different parts of speech 
 by the endings os, eos, 10s (as 7os, aios, elos, 010s, <pos), ikos, taicos, 
 
 VOS, TOS, T€OS, LflOS, UVOS, TJVOS, LVOS (ivOS, XvOS, IVQS, €LUOs), X6s (aS 
 
 r)X6s, (o\6s), aXeos, pos (as epos, rjpos) ; eis (as rjets, oeis), rjs, 
 codrjs, and ficou. 
 
 8. Of the above adjective endings, those in eos denote the 
 material of which any thing is made ; as, xpvo-eos, of gold ; 
 and those in ei? (rjeis, 6as) and abrjs generally denote fulness, 
 though vdrjs sometimes denotes likeness ; as, vXrjeis (abounding 
 with wood), dveficobrjs (windy) ; but ywaiKcobrjs, woman-like, 
 
 
§ 46.] FORMATION OF WORDS. 123 
 
 § 46. Formation by Composition. 
 
 1. When the first word of a compound is an indeclinable 
 word, it is not changed, except that most dissyllabic preposi- 
 tions ending in a short vowel lose that vowel before a vowel in 
 the following word (but not 7repl, and sometimes d/x<£i and 7rp6j ; 
 as, deikoyta, a7ro/3a\Xc«> ; 7re/He;(G>, 7rpov%co (crasis), and 7rpoe£co (no 
 crasis on account of the aspirate). 
 
 Rem. 1. Here belong the inseparable particles a-, or av- before a 
 vowel (denoting negation or privation, like the English in-, un-, or 
 -less, but sometimes having a collective sense, together, as in anas, ako- 
 Xos, and then evidently a contraction from dpa, or intensive, as in 
 drei/rjs, very tight), 8vs, -vtj (English mis- or un-), and apt-, cpi-, da-, 
 (a-, Xa- {very, much, all intensive) ; as, ept/3a>Xa£, very fertile, etc. 
 
 2. When the first word of a compound is a noun, the sec- 
 ond word, when it begins with a vowel, is generally joined 
 directly to the stem of the first, but sometimes to the nomina- 
 tive after rejecting s (especially when s follows v) ; but when 
 the stem of the first ends, and that of the second begins, with a 
 consonant, o (and sometimes *) is introduced between them ; 
 as, dvhpayaOia (i. e. dvbp-ayadla), dcrTvyeiTcdV (aoru-yetVo)^) ; <£Xe/3o- 
 rop.fiv ((£Xe/3-o-T<tyieIz/). 
 
 Rem. 2. The o is sometimes introduced, also, when only the first 
 ends in a vowel, or the second begins with a vowel (as, povoetdfjs) ; 
 sometimes, too, co is used for o, and sometimes, especially in the early 
 forms of the language, a, rj, i, et, ot, <r, cri are introduced as connect- 
 ing syllables ; as, odoLnopos, reXeacjyopos, etc. 
 
 3. When the first word of a compound is a verb (which is 
 not very often the case in the common language), the second 
 word, when it begins with a vowel, is generally joined directly 
 to the pure stem of the verb when it ends in a consonant, but 
 inserts <r when it ends in a vowel, and sometimes, also, when 
 it ends in a pi- or kappa-mute (as, neiQapyfiv, iravo-dvep.os, 7rXq- 
 gnnros). On the contrary, when the second word begins with 
 a consonant, a-i is inserted between the parts, when the first 
 ends in a vowel or p, and sometimes when it ends in a pi- or 
 kappa-mute, but in other cases, e, o, or t : as, Xvo-lnopos, orpe- 
 
 \j/t$iKos ; XeinoTatjla, dpxi0€(>»pos, etc. 
 
124 FORMATION OF WORDS. [§ 46. 
 
 4. When the second word begins with a short vowel, this is 
 lengthened in several compound nouns, viz. a and e into 77, and 
 
 o into co ; as, o-Tparrjyos (aya>), avr]K€(TTOs (aKeo/iat), vtttjKOOS, ^€PTj~ 
 Xao-ia, Tpiozfiokov (ofiokos), v7roop€ia, crvvoofioros, 
 
 5. The second word generally remains unchanged at the 
 end when it is a verb and the first word a proper preposition ; 
 as, eKfidWeiv, ai>a/3atWt*>, etc. 
 
 6. Many verbal substantives, also, especially abstracts, re- 
 main unchanged when compounded with a preposition ; also 
 ftovXrj, diKr], (TKevri, and o&fc ; as, i^o7r\iO-la t etc. 
 
 7. Adjectives, also, may remain unchanged, whatever be 
 the first part of the compound ; as, ivdrjXos, airioros, dvcrdpeoros, 
 TjfiUaKos, 7rdyKa\os, <j)L\6(ro(j)os. 
 
 8. With the exception of the three last-named cases, com- 
 pounds are usually changed at the end by receiving a deriva- 
 tive ending, either nominal or verbal, according as a noun or 
 a verb is to be formed from the compound stem ; as, iWo- 
 rp6(jx)s, l7T7roTpo(f)La, iiTTTorpo^ielv ; vop.o$e(ria, vojxoBerelv, vop.o6eTL m 
 
 k6s, etc. 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 Note. — The different parts of a sentence, and the different kinds 
 of sentences, are supposed to be already known. See my English 
 Grammar, § 38. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 WORDS AS SUBJECT, PREDICATE, ATTRIBUTE, AND 
 
 OBJECT. 
 
 § 47. The Substantive or Noun. 
 
 1. The noun is used in all the four relations of subject, 
 predicate, attribute, and object. 
 
 2. As subject, it is in the nominative case when its verb is 
 
 in a finite tense, but in the accusative when the verb is in the 
 
 infinitive. 
 
 Rem. 1. The nominative sometimes stands without a verb, when 
 in the progress of a sentence the structure is changed (anacoluthon) . 
 
 3. The noun as subject is sometimes omitted, particularly 
 where it is implied in the predicate (verb), or may be easily 
 supplied from the context ; as, olvoxoevei (he pours out wine, 
 i. e. 6 olvoxoos). So, also, 6 Kf)pv£ (the herald) and 6 o-a\7riyKTT]s 
 (the trumpeter) are regularly implied in the corresponding 
 verbs, and not expressed. Nouns to be supplied from the 
 context are chiefly Bcos (as with 7rape';(ei,.7rpocr77/xaiWt, etc.), rjfxepa, 
 wpayfia, v pay para, or a word implied in some other word in the 
 connection and readily supplied by the mind. 
 
 11* 
 
126 WORDS AS SUBJECT, PREDICATE, ETC. [§ 47. 
 
 Rem. 2. With most impersonal verbs the accompanying infinitive 
 or substantive sentence is the subject, but with those relating to cer- 
 tain operations of nature (as, vei, it rains), 6e6s or Zevs may be sup- 
 plied. 
 
 4. The noun does not by itself form a complete predicate, 
 but often forms a part of the predicate with the verb to be, 
 and other verbs which express an incomplete predicative idea ; 
 such as verbs meaning to become, grow, remain, appear, be 
 named, called, appointed, chosen, regarded (as something) ; 
 as, Kvpos eyevero ftacriXevs. 
 
 5. The noun as attribute is always either in apposition (the 
 
 same case) with another noun (sometimes with cos intervening), 
 
 or in the genitive case, or in some oblique case governed by a 
 
 preposition. In either case it attributes or ascribes some 
 
 quality to a noun (like the attributive adjective) as something 
 
 belonging to it, and not merely predicated of it ; as, ol rov 
 
 Scvdpov KapTroi (the of-the-tree fruit, as opposed, say, to the 
 
 fruit of the vine, or any other kind of fruit) ; Kpoto-os, 6 /3ao-t- 
 
 Xevs (king Crcesus) ; f] npos ttjv ttoXiv 660? (the to-the~city 
 
 way). 
 
 Rem. 3. The noun which the attributive gen. depends upon is 
 sometimes understood, especially some case of oIkos, as in the phrase 
 ev or els abov (Hades), when o'Ikco or oIkov is understood. 
 
 6. The noun as an object expresses either the direct or the 
 indirect or circumstantial object of transitive verbs. As the 
 indirect or circumstantial object, it is generally attended by 
 a preposition ; as, eTv^rdprjv ttjv Ke(fia\f)v ; fj\6ov els tt\v 7t6\iv, 
 
 Rem. 4. What would regularly be the subject of a subordinate 
 clause is often made either the subject or object of the principal clause ; 
 as, $r)\os yap poi nooXoy, on prjropiKrjv pepe\iri]Kev (Polus is evident to 
 me, instead of, it is evident to me that Polus ; and so in other imper- 
 sonal expressions) ; viroTTTevcre tqv Mdyov, cos ovk e'lr], k.t.X., he feared 
 the Magian, that he was not, etc. (instead of, he feared that it ivas not 
 the Magian , etc . ) . 
 
 Rem. 5. The noun in the vocative case is not used in any of the 
 above relations, but merely in a direct address to something, and stands 
 independent in a sentence. The nominative is sometimes used in very 
 much the same way, especially with the pronoun ovros (which is also 
 
§ 48.] WORDS AS SUBJECT, PREDICATE, ETC. 127 
 
 used thus alone) ; as, a> ovros AiW (ho there, Ajax!). But strictly 
 some form of the verb dvai, or some other verb, is to be supplied with 
 such nominatives, or they are in apposition with a pronoun (either ex- 
 pressed or understood) of the second person. 
 
 7. Abstract and material nouns are sometimes used in the 
 plur. to denote the different parts, kinds, exhibitions of the 
 abstract or material idea (as, KpiOal, different kinds of barley, 
 <j>ikiai, friendships). Proper names, also, may be used in the 
 plur. either to denote several persons of the same name or of 
 like qualities (as, 'Acr/cA^Tr/oat). On the contrary, the sing, of 
 national denominations is often used to designate the entire 
 nation ; as, 6 Uepa-rjs, the Persian. 
 
 § 48. The Pronoun. 
 
 1. Pronouns, like nouns, may be used as subject, attribute, 
 or object, or in the predicate, though rarely in the last relation. 
 
 2. Pronouns, too, as attributes, generally agree with their 
 noun like an adjective, and rarely express the attributive rela- 
 tion when standing alone or with a preposition in an oblique 
 case. 
 
 3. The pronoun as a subject is often understood ; especially 
 
 the indefinite rU, rives, and both the personal and possessive 
 
 pronouns of the first, second, and third persons, which are 
 
 regularly used only when emphatic, as in contrasts, etc. 
 
 Rem. 1. The personal pronouns are eyo>, av, avros. Instead of 
 the regular possessive pronouns Attic writers sometimes use the gen. 
 of the personal pronouns (pov, crou, avrov, rjpcov, vjjlSv, vcov, avrSv) 
 to express the simple possessive idea ; but the possessive idea is often 
 expressed reflexively by the possessive pronoun with the addition of 
 the gen. of avros, or else by the gen. of the substantive-reflexive pro- 
 noun, which latter usage is the more common in the sing, and in the 
 third person plural ; as, ol vperepoi nai^es (your children), 6 ipavrov 
 7TaTr)p (my own father), 6 rjperepos avrcov izarr]p (our own father), etc. 
 
 Rem. 2. The enclitic forms of the personal pronouns, p.ov, jxol, /xe, 
 are less emphatic than the longer forms, the latter being regularly 
 used in antitheses and other emphatic positions. 
 
 4. As an object, the reflexive pronouns are used when the 
 subject of the sentence, or else the subject or object of the 
 
128 WORDS AS SUBJECT, PREDICATE, ETC. [§ 48. 
 
 principal sentence, is to be represented as the object of its 
 own action, thought, or reference ; but the oblique cases of 
 avros, or a demonstrative pronoun, are used, when this is not 
 the case, or when the writer exhibits the action or thought 
 rather as his own, than as that of the preceding subject or 
 object ; as, 6 dvrjp airtKreivev iavrov, the man killed himself ; 
 6 rvpavvos vofil&i tovs ttoXitcls v7Trjp€Te7i/ iavra (serve himself) ; 
 6 avfjp aneKTeivev avTov (killed him, i. e. some other person than 
 himself). 
 
 Rem. 3. The pronoun ov, oT, e, etc. is but little used in Attic 
 Greek, but when it is, it generally has the reflexive meaning, rather 
 than that of a simple pronoun of the third person. The other per- 
 sonal pronouns, also, (especially the enclitic forms,) sometimes have 
 a reflexive sense, especially as the subject of an inhn. ,; as, oXpai /xe 
 aKrjKoevai. 
 
 5. The reflexive pronoun of the third person is sometimes 
 used for those of the first and second persons, and sometimes 
 for the reciprocal pronoun ; as, del f)p.as avepivdai iavrov s 
 (instead of ifxavrovs) ', Ka.6* avrolv diKparels \6yxas orqcravre 
 (against themselves, against each other). 
 
 6. c O avros means the same (idem) ; without the article it 
 serves as the pronoun for the third person, but often has the 
 meaning of ipse (he himself). When without the article and 
 connected with a noun or pronoun, it means very, self. When 
 connected with eKaaros, it always precedes that word, contrary 
 to our usage, which always is each for himself (not himself 
 each). 
 
 Rem. 4. From the exclusive meaning (self very) of avros, it often 
 comes to mean only, alone, even, of himself, and the 'personality or 
 essential totality of something, as distinguished from a part (see 
 II. 1. 4). 
 
 7. Ovtos and i<€lvos differ very much as hie and ille do in 
 Latin, while ovtos differs from ode by being somewhat less 
 pointedly demonstrative, and hence generally referring to 
 something just said, while ode usually refers to something just 
 to he said, often meaning, therefore, the following. There is 
 
§ 48.] WORDS AS SUBJECT, PREDICATE, ETC. 129 
 
 the same distinction, also, between the double demonstrative 
 forms through the whole list of correlative pronouns and ad- 
 verbs (see the list, § 27). 
 
 Rem. 5. The demonstratives ode and ovros may sometimes be 
 translated by here, there; as, 68e .... Kpecov .... ;\;copei (here comes 
 Creon). From its pointed demonstrative sense, ode sometimes refers to 
 the speaker ; as, ro^ever dvdpos rovde {you shoot at this man, i. e. the 
 speaker). 
 
 Rem. 6. The neuter of a demonstrative (especially ovros) often 
 refers to a word or sentence which is to follow, and sometimes to a 
 sentence which precedes, as a sort of equivalent or apposition to it ; 
 
 aS, €K€lvO K€pbdLV€LV rjyeiTCU, T T] V fjdoVTJV', TOVTO yiyVOdCTKCdV, OTtj 
 
 ac. r. X. ; rco tj]v 'AfMpiTroXiv (pdaKetv Trapadtocreiv . . . . tovtco Trpocra- 
 yayo\ievov. 
 
 Rem. 7. A demonstrative pronoun, too, may be used, as in our 
 language, either for the sake of perspicuity or emphasis, in referring 
 to a word which is too far separated from its verb by intervening 
 clauses, or is to be rendered specially prominent, thus resuming the 
 subject; as, ovdels viroXapfidvei rov QiKltttvov tcou iv OpaKj] kclkuv 
 . . . . tovtcdv [lev imSvp.e'iv. This emphatic use of the demonstra- 
 tive is common when the relative clause precedes ; as, oca 6° e^dpos 
 .... ireipdrai irpoXafielv .... irep\ rovrcov , etc. 
 
 8. The interrogative ris is regularly used in direct ques- 
 tions, but sometimes, also, instead of 6o~ris, in indirect ques- 
 tions, when a writer, in order to impart greater animation to 
 the discourse, asks an indirect question as though it were di- 
 rect; as, tU el (who art thou) ; ov yap tern mKpcbs it-erao-ac tl 
 rreirpaKTai rols aXkois (for it is not proper to examine what has 
 been done by others) ; ovk olBa Sans ia-rlv (I know not who it 
 is ; direct, who is it?). 
 
 Rem. 8. There is the same distinction between all the direct 
 and indirect interrogatives, both pronouns and adverbs (see the list 
 in§ 27). 
 
 9. The indefinite rh (a, a certain, some, somebody, some 
 one) retains its indefinite meaning with adjectives and adverbs 
 of quantity and quality, and, according to the circumstances, 
 either weakens or strengthens their meaning ; as, ovdeis tls (no 
 one in particular, almost no one) ; els tis (a certain one) ; eh 
 tis eKaoros (each particular one ; see Soph. Ant. 262) ; puKpos 
 
130 WORDS AS SUBJECT, PREDICATE, ETC. [§ 49. 
 
 Ti$ (somewhat small), <tx^ov n (something near) ; ttoo-os tls 
 (something hoio large ? about hoio large ?). 
 
 Rem. 9. From the indefinite sense of tls.tl, it sometimes comes to 
 mean (like our somebody), great, distinguished ; as, rjvxeis t\s clvai 
 (you claim to be somebody) ; boKel tl Xeyeti/ (he imagines he is saying 
 something, i. e. something to the purpose). Sometimes, too, it is 
 used in referring vaguely or modestly to the speaker or the one ad- 
 dressed ; as, Savovcr oXei riva (dying she will destroy some one, i. e. 
 the speaker). 
 
 10. The relative pronoun (6s) has nothing peculiar in its 
 usage (save in the matter of agreement, which will be treated 
 under that head), except that it retains its original demonstra- 
 tive meaning in 6s /xeV . . . . 6y 6\r (some .... others), kol 6s 
 (and he), bs <a\ 6s (this one and that one), and rj d 7 6s (said 
 he), even in common prose. 
 
 Rem. 10. The indirect interrogative 6<ttis is also used as a rela- 
 tive, but only in speaking of the character or class of something ; as, 
 tls ovk av €7Taiveo~€i€v avbpa tolovtov, 6o~tis eoxocre rrjv Upav ttoKlv 
 (such a man, ivho saved the sacred city) ; pandpios 6 arts ovcriav ko\ 
 vovv e^et {whoever). 
 
 § 49. The Article. 
 
 1. The Greek article (6, f), to) was originally a demonstra- 
 tive pronoun, and retains much of its demonstrative force in 
 common usage. It is properly only an attributive, and is 
 used almost wholly like the English the. 
 
 Rem. 1. In the Epic dialect it is regularly used as a demonstra- 
 tive or relative, and to some extent in the Ionic and Doric, and even 
 in the Tragedians ; as, 6 yap rjXOe Boas em vjjas y Axaia>p (for he came, 
 etc.) ; aXka ra pev noXlcou i£ iirpaBopev, ra didaarat (but what we 
 took from the cities, these have been divided), tciv . . . . 7rerpaia fi\a- 
 ara bapiacrev (whom, etc.). It retains the strictly demonstrative mean- 
 ing in Attic prose, only in the phrases 6 pkv . ... 6 be {the one .... 
 the other), kol tov (and he), tov koI tov {this man and that ; so also to 
 Kal to, this thing and that), to ye (this), npo tov {before this), tw (for 
 this reason) ; or when standing immediately before one of the relatives 
 6s, olos, 6o~os ', as, tov 6s e(p7) becrnovrjs tovtov eivai (him who said, 
 etc.). 
 
 2. The article imparts particularity or individuality to 
 what without it is vague and general ; as, rj yvvrf (the woman, 
 
§ 49.] WORDS AS SUBJECT, PREDICATE, ETC. 131 
 
 i. e. some particular woman indicated by the connection ; but 
 yvvr), simply, a woman). 
 
 Rem. 2. Even proper names, though properly without the article, 
 since of themselves they indicate individuals, may take the article thus, 
 when they refer to persons as icell known, or as previously named, and 
 now referred to again ; as, avafiaivei ovv 6 Kvpos (i. e. the Cyrus who 
 has been before named, and is the general subject of the discourse). 
 
 Rem. 3. Even the attributive (whether adjective or noun in appo- 
 sition) of a proper name takes the article only when some speciality 
 is to be imparted to it ; but the names of rivers usually take the arti- 
 cle and are placed before the general term for river as adjectives ; as, 
 6 "AXvs 7rora/io?, the Halys river. So, too, often, of hills, countries, 
 and islands. 
 
 3. The idea of individuality expressed by the article some- 
 times approaches the possessive, and sometimes the distribu- 
 tive idea ; as, rb p.ipos (the usual part, one's own part) ; teal 
 
 TaVTT]? €7TL 7rk€OVT€S Opdrjs TOVS (j)l\0VS 7TOLOVfJLe6a (we mdke the 
 
 friends, i. e. the friends we need, our friends) ; edcoicev dvrl 
 dapeiKov rpla fjixidapeiKa rod fj,rjv6s tw <tt par iu>ttj (three half- 
 darics the month to each soldier). 
 
 4. The article, also, like the English the (but much more 
 extensively), is used to denote the species or class, as an ab- 
 stract individuality ; aS, 6 7TCUS TTCLVTCOV BrjpLCOV €OTt dvO~p€Ta\ei- 
 
 pio-TOTaros (the child is the most difficult to train of all animals). 
 
 Rem. 4. Hence abstract nouns and designations of persons, offi- 
 ces, arts, and sciences take the article when they are spoken of as a 
 collective individuality, or in contrast with something else, but are 
 without it when spoken of in their most abstract or ideal relations ; 
 as, r] dperrj (the assemblage of qualities called virtue; but aperr), virtue 
 in its vaguest sense, without any notion of a collective individuality) ; 
 6eos (a god, god ; but 6 Seos, the god, the deity) ; avdpomos (a man, 
 man; 6 avOpconos, the man, mankind). 
 
 Rem. 5. But the article is often omitted where it might be used 
 according to the above rules, especially in familiar relations and 
 where frequent usage has worn off the speciality of the term ; as in 
 7ra.TT]p, p<r)Trip, yvvr], and other designations of kindred ; also, in such 
 terms as ttoXis, city, fjXios, sun, ^ao-tXevs, king, etc. 
 
 Rem. 6. The article, too, is regularly omitted with a noun in the 
 predicate, since the idea expressed by a noun in the predicate is al- 
 ways general ; as, ovk olpai ere ti)v yecofierplav prjropiKrjv \kysw (I 
 cannot think that you call the science of geometry rhetoric). 
 
132 WORDS AS SUBJECT, PREDICATE, ETC. [§ 49. 
 
 5. Adjectives and participles used as nouns regularly take 
 the article and express the class, and may sometimes be ren- 
 dered into English by he icho, those who, etc. ; as, 6 a-oqbos 
 (the wise man, i. e. as a class, as opposed to the foolish man) ; 
 iv rals okiyapxlais ov% o /3 ov\6 fie v o s , aXX' 6 d v v a or r ev oav 
 
 Karrjyopel (not the one who wishes, but the one who has the 
 power). 
 
 6. Adverbs, prepositions followed by their case, infinitives, 
 sentences, also words and letters referred to merely as such, may- 
 take the article (which is always the neuter to, — rarely to, — 
 unless it refers to some noun implied after the adverb or prep- 
 osition, when it is of the gender of that) before them, which 
 gives them the force of nouns, or if a noun follows the adverb, 
 the adverb preceded by the article has the force of an attribu- 
 tive ; as, to irpoGrSev {the formerly , the former time), to irapairav 
 (altogether), to. ejfiwpe00€p (formerly, lit. the things formerly 
 said or done), to. pdXiora (in the highest degree), t6 kot e/xe 
 (as to that pertaining to me, as far as I am concerned), to 
 TTp&Tov (the first, at the first), t6 fiera tovto (after this, lit. the 
 after this) ; ol lv aVret (supply avOpuiroi, the men of the city) ; 
 so also with ol dfKpi Tiva (some one and his associates or follow- 
 ers), and ei evBdbe, etc. ; ol Trakai avbp€s (the men of former 
 times), 6 vvv fiao-tXevs (the present king) ; tovto 6° hrnv oi> p.6vov 
 to fir) it poKCLTeyvcoKevai pLTjbev", to vp,els, the word you, 
 
 etc. 
 
 Rem. 7. The words most commonly understood with the article, 
 in its above-named usage with adverbs and prepositions with their 
 case, are avr\p or avSpwros (especially in the plural), yrj or x^P a > an d 
 npaypia or XPIV- - ^ ne of these last (in the plural), also, is properly 
 understood with tcl followed by a genitive without a preposition; as, 
 tcl t?]s ttoX^cos (the affairs of the city). Ylos, also, is often understood 
 with the article ; as, 6 ^lXlttttov (the son of Philip). Also any noun 
 which has just been used may be omitted, and simply the article re- 
 peated in its place. 
 
 7. When a noun which takes the article has an adjective, 
 participle, pronoun, a genitive case, or other qualifying word 
 belonging to it as an attributive (§ 47, 5), the article is placed 
 
§ 49.] WORDS AS SUBJECT, PREDICATE, ETC. 133 
 
 "before these qualifying words, which may stand either imme- 
 diately before or immediately after the noun (which, in this 
 latter case, sometimes has an article before it besides that of 
 the attributive), and in both cases express a combined idea with 
 the noun, and contrast it with other objects of the same class ; 
 as, 6 ayaObs dvrjp or (6) durjp 6 dyafios (a good man, as contrasted 
 with a bad man), 6 t&v 'A^ra/wi/ drjpos or (6) drjpos 6 tq>v 'AOn- 
 vaicov (the Athenian people), 6 irpbs tovs Hepcras iroXepos or (6) iro- 
 Xepos 6 irpbs tovs Uepaas (the Persian war), etc. 
 
 Rem. 8. The article may be separated from its word, also, by pkv, 
 de, ye, re, cipa, tol, tolwv, yap, Kal, dr), tls, avTos, iavTov, and an 
 oblique case used as the object in a sentence ; as, tov pev avdpa. 
 
 8. When an adjective belonging to a noun having the arti- 
 cle does not hold an attributive relation to it, but properly 
 belongs to the predicate after some form of dpi understood, it 
 does not take the article before it, but either stands before the 
 noun and article, or after them both ; as, 6 dvrjp o-o<fi6s or o-oobbs 
 6 dvrjp (the man is wise, or when he is wise, since he is wise, 
 etc., as the connection indicates). 
 
 Rem. 9. The words aKpos, peaos, eaxaTos, when related to a noun 
 as in the last case, mean the top, the middle, the extreme; but when 
 they stand in the attributive relation, they have their proper adjective 
 meaning ; as, rj iroXis pear) (the middle of the city), but r) pear] iroXis, 
 the middle city, the central city, etc. So, also, 6 povos irais or irais 6 
 povos means the only son, while 6 irais povos or povos 6 irais means the 
 son alone. 
 
 9. Several nouns (or other wbrds used substantively) stand- 
 ing independent of each other, and connected by Kal or re ... . 
 Kai, have the article repeated before each ; but when they all 
 express one combined idea, the article is placed before the 
 
 first noun only ; as, Kai r) acocj^poo-vvr] Kal r) diKaioo-vvrj Kal r) dv- 
 hpela ; but Kal rbv olvo^oov Kal pdyeipov Kal liriroKopov Kal dirjKovov. 
 
 Rem. 10. According to the same principle, the article is repeated 
 with each, or placed only before the first, of two attributives belong- 
 ing to one noun ; as, 6 apio~Tos irais 6 dyairrjros (the best, the beloved 
 child) ; but ol avpiravres aXXoi (piXoL {all other friends together; where 
 the last attributive and noun express a combined idea, which is quali- 
 fied by the first attributive) . 
 
 12 
 
134 WORDS AS SUBJECT, PREDICATE, ETC. [§ 50. 
 
 10. When a personal or demonstrative pronoun, or iras y 
 
 anas, oXo?, €Kao~Tos, eKarepos, ap(pco, dpLcfaoTepos, IS used With a 
 noun having the article, it is commonly placed either before 
 or after the noun and article, but iras, anas, and oXos often 
 take the article before them as other attributives, and the 
 demonstrative pronouns expressing quality or quantity (tolov- 
 tos, rotocrSe, toctovtos, and t^lkovtos) regularly do ; as, v^els 6 
 drjfios ; 6 avqp ovtos (or the reverse, and so in the other exam- 
 ples) ; avros 6 fiacrikzvs ; jrdvTts oi crTpaTTjyoi ; dp<fioT€p<o ra oara ; 
 but always 6 toiovtos (etc.) durjp ; and often rj nava yrj (the 
 whole earth) and to o\ov Trpoo-coirov, the whole face. 
 
 Rem. 11. With the indefinite words aXXos, erepos, 7ro\vs, and 
 6\iyos, the article is used precisely as with the corresponding words 
 in English. Thus, dXKos, other, different, 6 dWos, the other (but aXXos 
 both with and without the article sometimes means besides, or is wholly 
 pleonastic) ; <?T€pos, one of two, 6 erepos, the one or the other of txuo, 
 oi erepoL, the one or the other of two parties; 7roXkoi, many, oi ttoXKoi, 
 the many ; 6\lyoi,few, oi oAi'yoi, the few. 
 
 § 50. The Adjective. 
 
 1. The adjective is properly used only as an attribute and 
 in the predicate ; as, 6 o-o(f>6s dvr/p ; 6 dvrjp o~o<fi6s (io-nv). 
 
 2. The neuter ad ective, however, is sometimes used substan- 
 tively, and hence in all the relations in which a noun may be 
 used. Hence the neuter sing, expresses the quality abstractly, 
 while the neuter plur. expresses it concretely, or as exhibited 
 in different parts or kinds, or under different conditions ; as, 
 to koXoi/, the beautiful ; ra Ka\d, beautiful things. The adjec- 
 tive and participle, also, in the neuter sing, is often used to 
 express the idea in the most comprehensive form ; as, to Kparovp, 
 the ruling power. 
 
 Rem. 1. The neuter sing, of adjectives in -ikov (and some others) 
 denotes a collective idea; as, to vavTiKov (the naval force) ; to viov (the 
 youth), etc. But the neuter plural of such adjectives denotes a con- 
 nected series of events (xpr)^aTa or irpdypaTa being understood) ; as, 
 to. Ipo'iKd, the Trojan war ; tcl 'EAA^z/i/ca, Grecian affairs, interests, or 
 history, etc. So also with the neuter plur. of the possessive pro- 
 nouns ; as, to. rjfjL€T€pa, our affairs, to. ipd, my affairs. 
 
§ 50.] WORDS AS SUBJECT, PREDICATE, ETC. 135 
 
 3. Masculine and feminine adjectives (and participles), also, 
 are sometimes used as substantives, the noun being under- 
 stood ; as, ol Ovvroi, mortals, ol o-ofyoi, the wise, el e^oures, the 
 rich, etc., where avOpconoi or avdpes is understood. Also, rj 
 
 va-repaia (tmovo-a, Trpcarrj, devrcpa, etc.), with rjpepa understood ; 
 f) TToXefila (qbiXia, olKovfi€ur), awdpos), with x^P a or 71 understood ; 
 f) evdfia and rj TayivTr) (sc. bhos) ; f) de£ia and rj dpio-repd (sc. 
 X €ip), etc. 
 
 4. When two adjectives qualify one noun, they are con- 
 nected by Kal, or re ... . Kal when each qualifies it independ- 
 ently and equally (and if there be more than two adjectives, 
 only the last two have the connective) ; but when one or more 
 adjectives form a combined idea with a noun, they may be 
 qualified by an additional adjective (most frequently a pro- 
 noun or numeral) without a conjunction ; as, o-oobos re «w dya- 
 66s Kal ko\6s dvrjp ; but 7roXXoi dyaBol avdpes ', ovtos 6 dvrjp 
 dya66s', rpels dyaSoX avd pes, etc. 
 
 Rem. 2. But 7roXXoi is generally connected with the following 
 adjective by a conjunction, contrary to the usage in English. 
 
 5. Where a quality is equally applicable to the idea of the 
 
 noun and the action of the verb, the Greek, as well as the 
 
 Latin, often uses an attributive adjective, where we use a 
 
 predicative adjective, or an adverb or adverbial phrase ; as, 
 
 rjcplrj 6° dveftT] (she early ascended, since she was early and 
 
 her ascent early), etc. 
 
 Rem: 3. Many adjectives of place, time, manner, and causality are 
 used thus; as, np&ros, varraros, picros ; o\jnos, x#i£os ; ra^vs, (3pa8vs, 
 €k6)v, ttvkvos, povos, etc. Thus eyoo povos elfti means, I alone or only 
 will go ; but eyo) povov elpi means, I will only go (and nothing else), 
 etc. But where the quality is applicable only to the predicate, the 
 adverb is always used. 
 
 6. The adjective in the comparative represents its quality 
 as belonging to some object in a higher degree than it exists 
 in some other object with which it is contrasted (hence imply- 
 ing only two objects or parties) ; while the superlative repre- 
 sents it as existing in something in the highest degree in which 
 
136 WORDS AS SUBJECT, PREDICATE, ETC. [§ 50. 
 
 it exists in any object with which it properly comes into com- 
 parison. 
 
 Rem. 4. The comparative is sometimes strengthened by such 
 words as en (still) ; paKpoo, noXKop, peya, tto\v (much) ; oXiyco, oklyov 
 (little) ; roaovrco, ocrco, toctovto, bcrov (so much, how much) ; and occa- 
 sionally even by paXkov, which then means/ar. 
 
 Rem. 5. The superlative is often found strengthened by nearly all 
 the words which strengthen the comparative, except en and paXXov; 
 also by kcli (even), kol paXiora (even in the highest degree), nXelo-rov, 
 peyio-rov, paXuara ; by cos, ottcos, oti, fj. and olos (as possible, possible; 
 as, cos raxicrra, as quickly as possible) ; by els dufjp (one man, for a sin- 
 gle man, as, kol ttclvtcov els dvr]p peylaroov alrios KCLKGov, and the 
 cause, as far as one man can be, of all the greatest evils) ; also iv rols 
 (imprimis, especially, by far), where the article must either refer to the 
 dat. plur. of the superlative understood, Or to some neuter noun of 
 general import, as x?hl xa(JLV ' The negative is also used with the su- 
 perlative, instead of a direct superlative of the opposite meaning; as. 
 ovx fJKicrra, ovk. iXaxio-ros (not the least, instead of the direct superla- 
 tive greatest). 
 
 7. When two qualities of the same subject are compared, 
 both adjectives (or adverbs) are put in the comparative and 
 connected by the comparative particle fj ; as, ol dgels p,aviKoo- 
 repot rj dvdp€i6r€poi {more mad than brave); but when the 
 same quality is compared in two subjects, they are connected 
 by 7, as before, but only the first adjective is in the compara- 
 tive ; as, ovdev Kpelaaov r) cf)i\os o-afyrjs, nothing is better than a 
 firm friend. 
 
 Rem. 6. In the last case, the genitive of the latter of the two attri- 
 butes compared (or, by a shortened process, of the object itself, not un- 
 frequently, instead of the quality) may be used, instead of fj and the 
 same case as that of the noun in the first member (see § 54, 1) ; as, 
 X<*>P a ovbev tjttov rrjs fjperepas (than ours, or sometimes fipcov, 
 t than we) evripov. 
 
 8. When the thing compared is considered disproportion- 
 ately great or small considering that with which it is com- 
 pared, the comparison is expressed by the comparative and 
 fj coo-re (rarely jf or 5 o>?) with the infinitive, when the object 
 with which the comparison is made is an action ; and by 
 */ Kara (npos rare) with the ace, in other cases ; as, rjv pel {a 
 Katca ?) coo-re avaK.\aeiv {the evils were too great to be be- 
 
 
§ 50.] WORDS AS SUBJECT, PREDICATE, ETC. 137 
 
 Wailed); ol'Adrjpcuoi ev SiKeAt'a /xet£a> rj Kara baKpva eTreirovOe- 
 <rav, the Athenians had suffered evils in Sicily too great for 
 tears. 
 
 9. The comparative is often used without any object ex- 
 pressed with which the comparison is made, when either that 
 object is easily supplied from the context or is sufficiently 
 implied in it, or when the idea simply is that some quality 
 exists in an object in a greater or less degree than common or 
 is desirable ; as, ol ISi&rai d^eivovs ras yvw/ias exov<ri (private 
 citizens have the letter views, i. e. better than public men) ; 
 ov x € ^P 0V 7r6X\aKis clkovclv (it is not worse to hear often, i. e. 
 worse than it would be to hear but once, = no disadvan- 
 tage). Often this kind of comparison may be translated into 
 our language by too, very, somewhat, etc. 
 
 10. When a subject is compared with itself under different 
 circumstances, the comparative or superlative of an adjective 
 is used with the gen. of the reflexive pronouns; as, fteXrlcov 
 €i o-eavTov (you are superior to yourself) ; apio-rosavrds 
 iavrov la-Tiv (he is in his lest days). 
 
 Rem. 7. The superlative is sometimes used with rcov akXcov in- 
 stead of the comparative ; as, rcov aWcov voraroi, {inferior to the rest; 
 lit. the last of the rest). So in Latin (Tac), ii ceterorum Britanno- 
 rum fugacissimi. In such passages, the meaning the rest or others 
 seems to pass into that of all, since it includes all except the subject 
 of the comparison. 
 
 Note. As the verb will be fully treated of hereafter, it does not 
 require a separate treatment here. It need here only be said, that 
 some forms of thai (principally the pres. indie.) are often omitted, 
 leaving the subject without a predicate ; particularly in general state- 
 ments and proverbs ; with the verbal in reos and nouns and adjectives 
 denoting necessity and duty (as, dvdyKr], defies, elicos, etc.) ; and with 
 the adjectives, eroipos, 7rp66vfios, (ppovdos, olos re, dvvaros, pdhiov, 
 XaXenov, drjXov, and a£iov. 
 
 12 
 
138 AGREEMENT. [^ 51. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 AGREEMENT. 
 
 § 51. General Rules of Agreement. 
 
 1. The verb agrees with its subject in person and num- 
 ber, and the adjective (participle, pronoun, and numeral) in 
 gender, number, and case; as, av Xeyeis ; 6 o-ocfrbs dvrjp ; 
 
 T] yVVT) (TO(f)f) €(TTIV, etC. 
 
 2. The noun in apposition, or in the predicate, necessa- 
 rily agrees with the subject only in case ; it agrees with 
 it in gender and number only when it is a personal 
 appellative, and hence either has separate forms for the mas- 
 culine and feminine, or is of the common gender ; as, ILpkmv, 
 6 rvpavvos, or Kpecov t)v rvpavvos ; * &vTiy6vr), r\ fia(ri\is, or 'AvTiyovrj 
 f)v fiaoriXls ', r) yvvrj (or 6 dvrjp) diddaKaXos 1<ttiv ', but yvvr) dcwov 
 tl koWos, a woman, a paragon of beauty, 
 
 3. After verbs signifying to be, exist, become, grow, remain, 
 
 appear, to be called, named, appointed, chosen, regarded as 
 
 something, and the like, the adjective or noun in the predicate 
 
 agrees with the subject, whether it be a noun or pronoun, 
 
 according to the above principles ; as, Kpeav iyhero rvpavvos, 
 
 Kreon became a tyrant ; $[hnnros -fipedn o-rparnyos, Philip was 
 
 chosen general ; avrn iarl 7rrjyr) dp€TTjs, this is the fountain of 
 
 virtue ; naures ovtoi vojaol cla-lv, ovs, k. t. X., all these things 
 
 are laws, which, etc. 
 
 Rem. 1. But where the pronoun, as subject, refers to some gen- 
 eral idea, as thing, affair, etc., or where it relates to the nature of 
 something, it commonly stands in the neuter without regard to the 
 gender of the noun in the predicate ; as, tovto iamv r) aperr) ; tl eWt 
 dperr) (what is virtue'? i. e. what is its nature?). 
 
 4. Verbs, adjectives, and nouns agreeing with two or more 
 subjects are in the plural (or in the du^l when the two subjects 
 are viewed as a pair). As to the gender of the plural adjec- 
 tive here, it is of the same gender as the subjects, when they 
 
§ 51.] AGREEMENT. 139 
 
 are of like gender with each other; bvit in the mascu- 
 line, when the nouns are personal appellatives and of ' 
 different genders; and with other nouns, generally in the 
 neuter; d.S,'Aydd<ov Kal ScoKpdrrjs \oL7Tol ; f) rv XV KaL h ap€Tt) 
 Kvptal licriv ; rj firjTTjp Kol r} Bvydrrjp rjcrav KtiXal ; 6 avy)p KCLl 
 fj yvvrj ayaOo'i elo~L ; likivOoi kol £v\a xpr]o-ipa lariv. 
 
 Rem. 2. But the verb and adjective (the attributive adjective reg- 
 ularly) often agree with the nearest of several nouns, or with one 
 which is viewed as prominent above the rest, instead of agreeing with 
 them all ; as, kol vopos kol (f>6(3os iKavos epcora kco\v€lv ; riyyai 
 iraaai kol cro(f>l(r p.ara did rov UXovrov eV#' evprjpieva', iirvdtro 
 2rpofi(3 ixidrjv kol ras vavs dive\r)\v6 ora. 
 
 Rem. 3. Sometimes, too, irregularly, nouns connected by rj or 
 fj . . . . fj, ovt€ .... ovre (either .... or, neither .... nor), have 
 their predicate in the plural, and one or more plural nouns of the mas- 
 culine or feminine gender have their predicate in the singular ; as, 
 a Arjpcxficov rj QrjpnnrLbrjs e^owi ', Iva y iyvnrai dno rrjs dot-rjs 
 d p x a i T€ Kal ydp.ai. 
 
 5. When the subjects are of different persons, the verb is 
 in the plural (except occasionally, when it agrees with the 
 nearest subject), and of the first person, when one of the sub- 
 jects is of that person, but of the second when one of them is 
 of the second person and none of the first ; otherwise in the 
 third person ; as, iyco ko.1 crv \eyopev ; iyco ko\ avros \eyo[i€v ; <rv 
 Kal avrol Aeyere ; vfiels Kal avros Xeyere. 
 
 6. The gender and number of the relative pronoun, and 
 the person and number of its verb, are commonly determined 
 by those of the nouns and pronouns to which the relative re- 
 fers (antecedent), according to the above principles ; but its 
 case depends upon the office which it sustains in its ow ( n sen- 
 tence ; as, iyco, os Xeyco ; dvr)p, ov eldov, crocpos icrriv, etc. 
 
 Rem. 4. The antecedent of the relative is often omitted, when it 
 is some general word or demonstrative pronoun, or may be easily 
 supplied from the context ; but the gender and number of the relative 
 is the same as if they were expressed ; as, Ik rcov irapovrcov Kal a> v 
 Sparc (i. e. €K rov rcov a Spare) < 
 
140 AGREEMENT. [§ 52. 
 
 § 52. Special Rules of Agreement. 
 
 1. The gender and number of the predicative adjective 
 (rarely of the attributive adjective, but often of the part, in a 
 remote attributive relation) and of the relative or other pro- 
 noun, and the number of the verb, are often determined, rather 
 by what is implied in the nouns to which they refer (i. e. by 
 the sense), than by their grammatical form, particularly after 
 words used in a collective sense ; as, &s (pdorav fj irX^Ovs, 
 thus spake the multitude. 
 
 2. Upon this principle a masculine plural is often used re- 
 ferring to a collective noun of any gender, or to the 
 name of a city or country used for its inhabitants^ or the name 
 or designation of an individual used for its class, since in all 
 these cases several persons are implied ; as, to o-rpdrevpa 
 
 €7TOpL^€TO oTlTOV, K 6 TV T V T € S TOVS fioVS KCU OVOVS ', 0€fJLL(TTOKXrjS 
 
 (fievyei is Kepuvpav, &>v avrcov evepyerrjs (Themistocles flies to 
 
 Corcyra, being their benefactor) ; 6 Adpaxos irapeftoriBei dnb rov 
 evwvpov tov ia vtcqv (Lamachus came to their aid from his own 
 left wing, i. e. of his own men) ; dXnOfjs rjv cfilXos, Z>v dpidpbs 
 ov 7r6kvs (he was a true friend, of whom — i. e. of such as 
 who — the number is small). 
 
 Rem. 1. For the same reason a plural is often used with the col- 
 lective or distributive words eKaaros, etcdrepos, t\s } irds ris, ovdels, 
 os civ and octtls, aWos ciXkov (aWodev) ; as, ecpvyov etc rrjs dyopds, 
 Set) tore s els e Kao~ tos prj avXrjcpOeLT] ; ovd els eK0ipf)6rj , rovs 
 dnoXcoXoras TrevOovvres', Kal pe elcriovra r]o~7rd£ovTo aXXos aX- 
 XoOev (me coming up they saluted, one in one way and another in 
 another) ; 6av pd^ovres aXXos aXXcp eXeyev. 
 
 3. An adjective in the predicate, or a relative or demonstra- 
 tive pronoun, referring rather to the general idea thing, affair, 
 kind, race, art, act, etc. than to the specific idea of the word 
 with which it is grammatically connected, is often put in the 
 neuter {neuter sing., unless sometimes when referring to two 
 nouns) without reference to the gender or number of the 
 
 noun; as, 17 yrj iyevvrjcrev av6 pair ov, o (ivllich race) crvvearei 
 
 InepexeL tcov aKkcov ', deivov oi noXXol (the masses are a terrible 
 
§ 52.] AGREEMENT. 141 
 
 thing) ; Ka\6v fih rj o-axfipocrvpr] re kcu 8iKaioo~vvr) (a noble 
 
 tiling) ; (f)i\ocro<fiia eorrl x a p' l€V (& pleasant thing), av tls avTov 
 
 perpicos ayjfrjTcu iv rrj rjXiKia ; ovk oida eire xpl kclkiclv eir ayvoiav 
 
 the kcu dfjL(j>6T€pa ravr' direiv (whether to call it cowardice 
 
 or ignorance, or both these things together) ; oldep.la Trapaivecris 
 
 dyadovs av 7roif]<r€ie ro^oras, etp) ep.Trpoo~6ev tovto (this art) 
 
 fjLcpLekerrjKOTes €iev 5 cj)Bove7 t) kcu <£o/3eirat, ap(f>oTepa yap rdde 
 
 7rao-x« rd ueifa (both these things, i. e. envy and fear, implied 
 
 in the verbs (fidovel and <£o/3eiTat). 
 
 Rem. 2. In like manner the verbal adjectives in -tos and -reos and 
 some others, are generally placed in the neuter plural in the predicate, 
 when the verb is impersonal, or in other words has for its subject an 
 infinitive or sentence; as, ovtcos yvvaiKos ovbapSs f) o-cttjtc a iariv, 
 thus ive should never make ourselves inferior to a woman. 
 
 4. A subject in the neuter plural generally has a singular 
 
 verb, unless sometimes when individuals are implied in the 
 
 neuter, or a plurality of parts is to be indicated ; as, ra £coa 
 
 rpkx**' '•> KaKov yap dvdpbs da>p y ovnviv ovk e^ei ; but to. reXn 
 
 (the magistrates) 6p.6o~avTa £ £e7T€ pifrav. 
 
 Rem. 3. So, too, generally, with a part, in the accusative abso- 
 lute ; as, do£av (sometimes ho^avra, also) ravra, these things having 
 been approved. 
 
 5. As the dual is plural compared with the singular, and 
 
 is used only when two things are viewed as paired together, 
 
 and only enough to indicate this connection, a plural predicate 
 
 or qualifying word often refers to a dual subject ; while a 
 
 dual predicate or qualifying word sometimes refers to a plural 
 
 subject; as, bv* dvkpe Ocoprjo-arovro ; x ei P- a PP 0L wora/noV, 
 
 Kar opeacfx, piovres orv pftdXXeTov oj3pipov vdcop ; eyeXaad- 
 
 rrjv afi(f)co fiXeylsavTes els dXXrjXco. 
 
 Rem. 4. For the same reason a plural is often connected with 
 Siko, since this by itself sufficiently indicates the duality of the sub- 
 ject ; as, dvci) vUes. 
 
 6. Feminine duals almost always take an attributive in the 
 masculine form, the feminine form of the adjective, article, 
 and pronoun being but little used in the dual ; as, rcb ^ope ; 
 tovto) to) Teyya ; toIv \epo7u ; afKJxo tovtco fjpepa* 
 
142 AGREEMENT. [§ 52. 
 
 7. The predicate of a sentence, as well as the relative pro- 
 noun of the following clause (when there is one), properly 
 agrees with the subject of the sentence ; but sometimes, by a 
 species of attraction, the predicate (or part, in the participial 
 construction), or the following relative, agrees with the noun 
 in the predicate ; or more frequently, the relative agrees with 
 the noun in the predicate of its own clause ; as, ij pev brj nepi- 
 odos .... elal crrddioi e£ ; rovs yap peyicrra e £tj pa prrj ko- 
 ras, peyicrrqv de ov<rav .pXafirjv 7r6\ecos (for ovras) ; Kal diKrj 
 iv dv6pa)7rois ttcds ov Ka\6v, 6 (referring to Kakov, instead of 
 dUrj) iravTCL fjpe pance to. av6pG>irwa\ Xoyot pr\v elan iv eKacrrois 
 fjpcov, as eXnidas ovopa^opev. 
 
 Rem. 5. The neuter article, too, before a phrase which is quoted 
 and used as a noun, is sometimes attracted into the gender of the noun 
 which precedes; as, KaXrjv ecprj TvapaLveo-iv eivai. rrjv md bvvap.iv ep- 
 detv (for to icad, k. t. X.). 
 
 8. A superlative having a partitive gen. depending upon it 
 generally agrees in gender with the subject, rarely with the 
 genitive; as, tj \v7ttj xa\e7rcordr7) naB&v. 
 
 9. Since the possessive pronoun, and various other adjec- 
 tives derived from the names of places and meaning belong- 
 ing to, are equivalent to the gen. of the corresponding pro- 
 nouns or nouns, the noun in apposition with the genitive idea 
 contained in these pronouns and adjectives is always in the 
 genitive case ; as, epos rod d6\lov /3/os {the life of me the 
 wretched) ; 'AOrjvalos &v (being an inhabitant of Athens) no- 
 Xecos rrjs p€yio-TT]s ; S o~(f)€T€pos avTcov 7raTr)p (the father oj them, 
 themselves, i. e. their father). 
 
 10. When the antecedent (whether expressed or understood) 
 
 of a relative is in the genitive or dative, the relative, if it 
 
 would regularly be in the accusative (rarely when it would 
 
 be in any other case), is attracted into the same case as its 
 
 antecedent; as, o-vv rols 6r\ crav pols ols 6 irar^p KareXnrev 
 
 (for a) ; €K ra>v 7rapovT<£>v na\ a>i> Spare (for Ka\ €K rovrav, a Spare). 
 
 Rem. 6. This applies not only to the relative os, but to the other 
 relatives (see § 27). Indeed, the relatives olos, oaos, So-rtaovv, and 
 
§ 52.] AGREEMENT. 143 
 
 tjXlkos are attracted into the case of the antecedent noun in the princi- 
 pal clause (the correlative demonstrative being suppressed) even when 
 they would regularly stand in the nominative, as predicate, with the 
 verb dvai. Besides, the subject of the relative sentence is attracted 
 into the same case as the relative, the verb elvai is suppressed, and 
 both the relative and subject are often transposed to the principal 
 clause and placed before the antecedent; as, x a P^C°f JLaL °^ °~ 0L 
 dvdpt, instead of ^ap/^o/xat dvdpl tolovtco, olos o~v ei, I am pleased 
 with such a man as you are. 
 
 Rem. 7. But the relative, instead of being attracted into the case 
 of the antecedent, is sometimes attracted into the case required by the 
 subordinate clause which immediately follows it, and sometimes re- 
 mains unchanged, while the antecedent is attracted into its case; 
 as, dv6pd)7rovs, ols (for ol) oirorav tls rrKeiova yaa-Qbv 8tSo>, /xer' eket- 
 vcov e(j) rj/jids aKoXovSrjcrovcriv ; rrjv overlap (for r) ovaria) r)v KareXnrev 
 ov nXeiovos d£ia eVrt ; irepco (for erepov) d* otco kczkoV tl dooaofxev 
 {rjrelv ; 7rep\ hv ovdeva Kivbvvov (for ovdels Kivbvvos) ovtlv ov% vire- 
 fi€ivav ol irpoyovoi. 
 
 11. When the noun to which the relative refers is trans- 
 posed to the relative clause, (which is chiefly done when the 
 relative sentence is emphatic, in which case, also, it some- 
 times has a demonstrative in the principal clause referring 
 emphatically to the transposed noun,) it is placed after the 
 relative more or less closely, and the relative may be regarded 
 as agreeing directly with the noun, like our what or whatever ; 
 as, %v eldes avbpa, ovtos io-riv (what man you saw, this is he) ; 
 kol yap €7r£/xeXeicr^at 6eovs ipofjLifcv dvSpcuTrcov^ ov% ov rpoirov ol 
 7roXXol vofjil£ovo-i (not in what manner). 
 
 •Rem. 8. Before the plural relatives ot, olrives without an antece- 
 dent expressed, tariv is generally used instead of the plural, and in 
 all tenses ; as, eariv ot diri(f)vyov (there were those or some who fled), 
 eo-Tiv hv direo-x^To (there are some from whom he abstained), and so, 
 with different verbs, the relative is found in all cases, without any 
 change of cotiv. In imitation of this formula, we find ecrnv rj or 07177 
 (there is some way in which = in some way), eoriv ore (there is when 
 = some time) , etc. 
 
144 THE GENITIVE. [§ 53. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE OBLIQUE CASES. — OBJECT. 
 SECTION I. 
 
 THE GENITIVE. 
 
 § 53. Genitive of the Cause, Ground, or Origin. 
 
 1. Verbs of proceeding from, becoming, arising from, hav- 
 ing become or arisen, being produced or created, take a genitive 
 of that whence they proceed, etc. {genitive of origin 
 
 Or author}. Such verbs are yiyueaSai, (frvvai, elvai (<£eureo-#ai, 
 T€Kvovo-0ai, poetic) ; as, eo-0\a>v y€P€o-6ai, to be born of noble 
 parents ; so, too, K€K\fj<r6al twos, to be called the son of some 
 one; dpicrrcov avbp&v aptcrra fiovkevficiTa ylyvovrai, the best 
 counsel comes from the best, etc. 
 
 Rem. 1. But more commonly, in prose, the preposition e«, some- 
 times dno or bed, is connected with the gen. with this class of verbs ; 
 as, €K rovrewv be yvvaiKcov oi vvv Bafivkavioi ytyovaaiv. 
 
 Rem. 2. In poetry, we find the causal gen. used thus to denote 
 the origin or author of some state, after passive and intransitive verbs 
 of all kinds, instead of the regular construction with vtto, irapd, irpos, 
 €K, 6\'a ; as, 7r\r) yc\s dvyar pos ttjs €jjltjs vnep Kapa, being struck 
 on the head by my daughter. 
 
 2. Veros of smelling, emitting or breathing forth an odor, 
 take the genitive of the thing, and sometimes of the spot, 
 which emits the odor, and hence is the cause of the 
 smell ; such as ttvUlv, o^lv, Trpoo-fiaXKeiv ; as, p.vpov ivvfw, to be 
 redolent with perfumes. 
 
 3. Verbs denoting sensation and perception generally take 
 the gen. of the source of the perception. Such 
 
 verbs are aKovtiv, aKpoda-Oai (kKv€lv, d'Uvat, poetic), a7roSe^e<j^at, 
 alcr6dvecr6ai, do-typaivecrOai, avvievai, etc. ; as, kcu Kcocpov (rvvirjfii 
 Kal OV (f)<D vcvptos aKovco. 
 
 Rem. 3. The thing heard, etc., as distinguished from its cause 
 or source, when expressed is regularly in the accusative with these 
 
§ 53.] THE GENITIVE. 145 
 
 verbs (as, o-vvlno-i oira Seas, he perceives the voice of the goddess) ; 
 but it is often put in the genitive, it being conceived at the same time 
 as the cause ; as, ipov Xeyovros ovk yj Kovaarc (me speaking, 
 my speech) . 
 
 Rem. 4. As obedience implies listening to one's directions, the 
 verbs aKovciv, v7raK.ov€iv, KaraKovecv, dvnKovaTelv, kXvclv often take the 
 gen. in this sense, and occasionally 7rei'0ecrt9cu (and the opposite cni-ei- 
 Ofiv), instead of the dative; also, the adjectives Karroos, vtttjkoos ; 
 as, 0€ov $' coy SrjfjLos aKovev (obeyed as a god) ; v7tt]k6ovs tup 
 dpxoprcov . 
 
 4. Also verbs of seeing, learning, considering, knowing ; 
 judging, examining, inquiring, saying ; congratulating, ad- 
 miring, praising, Uaming, take the gen. (sometimes with 
 Trtpi) of that (generally a person) about, of, for, or in 
 which one sees, blames, etc. something. Such verbs are 
 opdv, Otao-Oai, o-ko7T€7v, vnovoeiv, Ivvoziv, yiyvcoafceiu, eTricrTacrSai, 
 tldevai, IvQvpfiorQai, and the like ; Trvvddveo-Oat,, alo~6dv€<r6ai, pavQd- 
 veiv, Kpivew, egeTafciv, Aeyeiz>, drj\ovv, and the like ; £rj\ovv, aya- 
 crOai, 6avp.d£siv, liraLva.v, pepcfreo-dai ; as, kcu rrpcorov pep avrcov 
 e o- k 6 7r e i , and in the first place he considered about them ; 
 d tadeco pe vo s clvt g>v , oanv pev x^P av KCLL °^ aP tX 0L€V > oehold" 
 ing on their part, how great and what a country they had. 
 
 Rem. 5. The action, quality, circumstance, or whatever it is which 
 is examined, praised, etc. in something, is either in the ace, or is 
 expressed by a subordinate clause, or by a participle agreeing with 
 the gen. ; as, rod ro^orov ov kclXcds %X €L Xeyetv, on, k. t. X., 
 about the archer it is not well to say, that, etc.; ttoWo. c Op.r]pov 
 inaivovvres . But with Oavpd&iv and ayaadat both the person 
 and the quality, etc. are sometimes in the gen. ; as, Savpdfa 2<DKpd- 
 tovs tt]s cro^las, I admire Socrates for his wisdom. 
 
 5. Verbs expressing grief, pleasure, sympathy, etc. take a 
 gen. (sometimes with rrepi) of that at or on account of 
 which the feeling is exercised. Such verbs are dXyelv, 
 olKT€Lp€iv, ohvpzo-dai, rjdeoSac, 6\o<fivp€o~6ai, etc. ; as, ovtl ydpov 
 toctovtov obvpopai; tt co fiar os fj o~ 6 n . 
 
 Rem. 6. But verbs expressing sorrow, sympathy for, and many 
 other verbs denoting affections of the mind, often take the accusa- 
 tive (see § 57, 3), instead of the gen., the occasion of the feeling 
 being viewed more as an object; as, 6 Kvpos aKovo-as rod pev irdBovs 
 
 13 
 
146 THE GENITIVE. [§ 53. 
 
 coKreipev avrov. And some take the dative (see § 60, 1), the meaning 
 being grieved, etc. at something. 
 
 6. Adjectives, also, expressing the idea of misery (espe- 
 cially in exclamations), and interjections implying the same, 
 take the gen. as the cause of the wretchedness; 
 as, & ra\aiva tcov 8' d\y ecov ! O wretched from your suffer- 
 ings ! ot [Mo i 8 i co y fx co v ! at at kclkcdv ! So in many other 
 exclamatory expressions ; as, co TL6o-ei8ov, rov fiaKpovs ! O Nep- 
 tune, for the length ! 
 
 7. So verbs expressing other strong feelings, as of anger 
 and annoyance, take the gen. (sometimes with Trept or hi) of 
 the occasion of the feeling, such as x°^°^o-^ at 5 x^ € ' 
 
 crOaL, pLVvUiv, 6vp.ovcr6ai, Korelv, a^OecrOai, ^aXe7raiVetv, etc. ; as, 
 
 Aavacov Kexo^cofiivoi, being angry on account of the Greeks. 
 
 Rem. 7. Bat many verbs expressing anger and many other verbs 
 of feeling often govern the dat. (sometimes in addition to the gen.), 
 which is frequently used in a causal relation (see ^ 60. 1); but the 
 meaning with the dat. is, to be angry, etc. at something, rather than 
 'on account of. 
 
 Rem. 8. The gen. of the infin. with the article is often used to 
 denote the aim or intent of an action, as its final cause ; as, rov 
 li rj 8 lacpevye iv rov \aycov, that the hare may not escape. 
 
 8. Words denoting knowledge, skill, experience, practice of 
 or in something (and their opposites) ; capability, power, 
 fitness, or talent for something, take the gen. of that in 
 which the knowledge, skill, etc. are exhibited, as the 
 cause or occasion of its existence. Such words are, einrtipos, 
 
 Cl7T€ipOS, €77LCrTr]LlCDV, €77lO-TdjjL€l'OS, ClV€TTUTTT]lUOV (rarely (7000?, CTVP€L- 
 
 6Yz/at), rpiftcov, crvyyvcop.cov, d8a.T]s, aidpts, ciTraidevros, Idicorrjs, 18lco- 
 T€V€lv, 7r€ipacr6ai, 8iaTreipd(r6ai, aTrcmeipdo'Oai, dneipcos, ££vcos €\eiv, 
 
 etc. ; verbal adjectives in -ik6$, and all others in which the 
 notion of any capacity is implied ; as, crvyyvcop.cov tcov dvQpcoTtivcov 
 it pay par cov, acquainted with human affairs ; ov8 y apa .SiSao-zca- 
 X i k6 s 6 prjTcop io-rl 8 i k a ctt n pi cov , the orator, then, is not ca- 
 pable of instructing the courts. Also many other adjectives 
 of an active meaning ; as, ydiioi o\k6 po i <fi [\ cov, marriages 
 which ruin friends. 
 
§ 53.] THE GENITIVE. 147 
 
 9. Verbs of caring for, looking out for, being concerned 
 for, and their opposites, take the gen. (sometimes with wept or 
 vn€p) of that (person or thing) which occasions or calls 
 forth the care or concern; such as e7ri/xeXeo-0ai or eVt/xeXeT- 
 
 (rdaty (fipovTi&iv, KTjBecrdat,, Trpovoeiv, irpoopdv, fxeXei, yuera/xe'Xet, a/xe- 
 Xelv, 6\LycL>p€LV, Karaippopelv, cfieideo-Oai, (pyXdrTecrdat (e/z7ra£eo-#at, 
 o&€o~6cu, akeyeiitf dXeyi&w, T-qixeXtiv, poetic), etc. ; as, ovtjeu (fipov- 
 t I £eiv co v ^XP y ) v 5 tov ar ltov tt p oo pdv . 
 
 Rem. 9. MeXet, which is regularly impersonal, and takes the dat. 
 of the person concerned, and the gen. of that which concerns it (as, 
 /LteXet not twos), is sometimes personal in poetry, and even in prose 
 may take a neuter pronoun as nom. ; as, p,€X7]o~ovo~i °"' ^M 01 wttol. 
 Some of the verbs of this class, also, sometimes take an ace, but in a 
 strictly transitive sense ; as, (ppovTL&w tl, to examine something, 
 
 10. Verbs of pouring libations or drinking to one, take the 
 gen. of the person (or something connected with a person) i n 
 honor, or out of regard to whom the act is per- 
 formed ; as, crireio-ov dyaOoii Aatpovos, pour the libation in honor 
 of the good Damon ; koX cpiXoTno-ias irpovirivev, and drank for 
 his health, i. e. drank his health. So x^o-dai, iwixelo-Oai, etc. 
 
 11. Verbs signifying a desire or longing for take the gen. 
 of that which is desired, as the cause or occasion of 
 the feeling ; such as, Itti6v\xCiv, Ipdv, epao-dm {Iparl^Lv, poetic), 
 lfi€ip€LV, lp,eip€crdcu (XiXaUorOai, eX&V crSac, poetic) , diaKelo-Oai ; biy\/r}v, 
 TTCtvrjv, etc. ; as, 7roXe/zou % par a i irndijijiiov ; 7rdvT€S tcov dya- 
 
 6 <D V €TTL 6 VfXOV 0~ L V, 
 
 Rem. 10. The verbs izoOeiv, (pCXziv, dyaTreiv, crrepyeiv do not take a 
 gen., but an ace. (the last two a dat. in the sense contented with) ; 
 also, some other verbs of this class occasionally. 
 
 12. The following classes of verbs, which take their object 
 (generally a person) in the ace. or dat., often take, also, a 
 genitive (in some cases with dvri, nepi, eveKa or ck) denoting 
 the cause or ground of the act or state, viz. verbs of 
 envying, grudging ; of requital, revenge ; accusing, condemn- 
 ing ; prosecuting, sentencing ; such as, <fi6ovelv, peyaipew ; rio-a- 
 crBai, Tip&pficrBai, rifKopelu (ace. pers., gen. of thing) ; alTida-$ai 9 
 
148 THE GENITIVE. [§ 54, 
 
 iTraLTtdaOat, $id>K€iv, elo-dyeiv, vndyetv, ypd(p€crdaL, TTpoo-KakeicrOai,, 
 8ucd£eiv 9 KpLveiv, alpctv (ace. pers., gen. of thing) ; i^ukvai, iyita- 
 Aelz>, i7ri(TKf)7TT€(r6ai (dat. of pers., gen. of thing) ; also, ^evyeiv 
 (to be accused) and dXcovca, to be convicted, with gen. of thing 
 only ; as, r ov -%P °" v ov y^p ov <fi 6 o v co ; y p a (ft e o~6 a I riva 
 TTapavoficov (to prosecute one for illegal measures) ; KpLve- 
 o-6ai acrefieias. So, also, the adjectives eW^o? and wtu- 
 6wos, liable to, chargeable with, guilty of ; but in the sense 
 devoted to, evoxos takes the dative. 
 
 Rem. 11. As Kara in composition regularly takes the gen. of the 
 person, verbs of judicial proceeding, when compounded with this prep- 
 osition, take the person in the gen., and the charge, crime, etc. in the 
 accusative; as, kcu tcdv aWcov de ficopiav Karrjyo pel . Some- 
 times, too, with some verbs of this class, an accusative of the kindred 
 idea or its attribute is found instead of the gen. of the thing ; as, o era 
 pkv rts alridral riva tovtcdv, whatever accusations any one brings 
 against any one of these. Two genitives, also, are sometimes found 
 with Karnyopelu. 
 
 Rem. 12. The fine or punishment, also, is sometimes put in the 
 gen. (especially Bavdrov) with the above verbs, the fine being consid- 
 ered as the equivalent of the offence, and hence, strictly, the gen. of 
 price ; as, Bavdrov Kplveiv, etc. 
 
 § 54. Genitive of Mutual Relations. 
 
 1. Adjectives in the comparative, and in the positive when 
 they have a comparative force, as is the case especially with 
 numeral adjectives in -da-tos, -ttXovs, and devreoos, etc., varepos, 
 7T€pio-o-6s, bis rocros, etc. ; also, other words denoting difference 
 
 (as, BicKpepeiv, did(j)€pos, aWos, dXXolos, dXhorpios, erepos, evavrios, 
 
 €fjL7ra\iv) take the gen. of that with which the comparison is 
 made, as expressing a mutual relation with the subject 
 of the comparison (i. e. each implying the other) ; as, 6 vlos 
 fi€ i £<ov Zo~Ti t ov Tzar p 6 s ', r p lttX d o~ iov KCKpa^op-ai o~ ov ; 
 
 Ol)§€ VOS dtVTCpOS ', OV$€P d lCL<p € p € IV TO. €T€pa TCOV €T€p(OV. 
 
 Rem. 1. Instead of the gen. after comparatives and comparative 
 words, the comparative particle jf, with the same case after it as be- 
 fore it, is often used ; as, d L7r\r) o~i a vkp.ovrai k k ar e p co tcl noma 
 rj rol o~ l aXXoLO-L (see § 50, 6) . So, also, the neuter comparatives 
 7r\eov, 7r\euo, %\arrov agreeing with a noun (or ifkeov, p^elov used ad- 
 
§ 54.] THE GENITIVE. 149 
 
 verbially) are followed by numerals in the same case with tj ; as, 
 err] yeyovcos tt\ € i co efidopyKovra, having lived more th seventy 
 years (lit. having lived severity years more). 
 
 Rem. 2. Where we say not greater or less than any ■ **ng, the 
 Greek says, greater or less than none; as, pnftevos /xelfo, , ovdevos 
 fjrrov, etc. 
 
 Rem. 3. For the superlative with the gen., see § 50, 1C and R. 7. 
 
 2. Verbs of superiority, surpassing, prominence, eminence, 
 and their opposites, inferiority, submission, posteriorly, imply 
 a comparison, and hence take the gen. of the obp-ct with 
 which the comparison is made; such as, rrpoexeiv, 
 
 VTT€p<pEp€LV, 7TpO(p€p€LV, V1T€p(SdX\€LV, V1T€p^ €f ' V ') 7T€piylyV€CT$m, TT€piel" 
 
 vai (npcDTeveiv poetic), dpicrreveLV, KpaTiorreveiv, Ka\\io-T€vziv r VTrarev- 
 etv, 7rp€o-(3ev€LV, diacfiepziv, /3aXXeiz> ; f]TTao~6ai, peiovcrdai. yviKau-Qai 
 poetic), vo-repelv, vo-repi^eiv, vcrrepov eivai, Kp artier 6 at., iXarrov- 
 crdat, peioveKTclv ', as, rols ottXols av r co v v it € p(p e p o p.ev ', 
 
 7Tp€0~(3€V€LV TCOV IT O X X CO V IT 6 X € CO V . 
 
 3. Also verbs of being superior to, being lord over, govern- 
 ing, take the implied opposite, viz. that which is gov- 
 erned, in the gen. Such verbs are Kvpuvau, KOLpavelv, deenro- 
 Cew, rvpavvelv, rvpavveveiv, crTpaTnytiv, crrparnXarelv, lirLrpoTrtvzLV, 
 dvdcrcreLv, alcrvpvdv ySepiaTevetv poetic), fiacrikevtiv, €tvltcltt€LV (sel- 
 dom), apytiv (dpxzveus poetic), eTTio-Tarziv, ornpatvetv (tcpalveiv 
 poetic), fjyepovtveLV, rjye'io'Qai, xopr)ye7v, Kparelv, etc.; as, Kpat- 
 vei (TTparov; icrarpaTreve avrco r fj s x cop as (governed 
 as satrap for him). Also the adjectives lyKparrjs and aKpaTrjs. 
 
 Rem. 4. Some of the verbs in both this and the preceding para- 
 graph govern the ace. sometimes, being taken in a proper transitive 
 sense (as Kpareiv, in the sense to conquer) ; and many verbs meaning 
 to govern take the dat., especially in the early writers, the sense being 
 to act the king to, give commands to, be a leader or guide to, etc. 
 This is particularly the case with dvacro-eiv, (Bao-ikevetv, iTTio-Tarfiv 
 (almost invariably), crnpaivetv, Oepuorreveiv, rjyepoveveiv, and rjyelcrdaL 
 (see §59, 4). 
 
 4. Verbs of shooting or aiming at a mark, real or imagi- 
 nary, also of failing, missing, being deceived in something, 
 take the gen. of that aimed at, as the correlative notion ; 
 such as to^€V€lv (sometimes with Kara), dKovrl^iv, o-Toxd^crdat^ 
 
 13* 
 
150 THE GENITIVE. [§ 54. 
 
 (SdWciv (with ace. in the sense to hit), tivai, TLTvo-KeoSai, apapTa- 
 veiv, (T<pa\\€(r6ai, yp-evdecrOai, etc.; as, AvTopedovTos clkov- 
 r icr € dovpl (fxieivco ; r ov f) 5 e o s (rro^d^eraL^ y v co p,n s dpi- 
 
 (TTT]S f)/JLdpT7]Ka. 
 
 Rem. 5. So, also, the adverbs evdv, ISvs, p^xpts, and (ixpts, which 
 mean straight for or up to a mark or limit, take the gen. of the limit ; 
 as, Wvs vt]gov, straight to the ships. 
 
 5. Verbs of striving after, reaching after, and obtaining 
 take the object striven after in the gen. Such verbs 
 are iTreiyGaOai, oppdv, oppdcrdai, e7rt/3d\\eo-#at, iiraifra^uf {io~o-v- 
 pevos Epic) ; i(pi€0-6at, (sometimes with ace), imTpetyeoSaL (crTpe- 
 <j)€oBai and peTao-TpecpeaOat poetic), lTYLTp£iT€o-6ai, tTufiareveiv ; €ttl- 
 paiecrOai, opeyeoSat ; \ayxdvetv (seldom), rvyxdvecv, Kvpelv, Tvpoo-j]- 
 K€L ypoi twos) ; as, TTOvrjpov twos 77 alo~xpov epyov e(f)Leo-6ai', 
 Tvy %dv e iu xp T} paTcov. 
 
 Rem. 6. But \ayxdvew, Tvyxdvew, and Kvpeiv in the sense to find, 
 meet with, gain, generally take the accusative. 
 
 6. Verbs of meeting with, approaching, which imply a striv- 
 ing or reaching after something as an aim, take that object in 
 the gen. ; such as dvTav (to meet, partake of enjoy), viravTav, 
 diravrdv, dvTidv, dvTi$o\r\o~ai ; Trekd&iv and TreXd^eoSai, ifSncrid^w, 
 €fJL7re\d£€o-0a.L, eyyifcw, etc. ; as, clvtclv p,dxns ', ireXdo-ai veoov. 
 
 Rem. 7. When these verbs have only the simple notion of meeting 
 or drawing nigh to they take the dat., which is the common construc- 
 tion of vnavTav and viravTid^eiv in Attic writers (see § 59, 2). 
 
 7. Verbs of remembering, reminding, and forgetting take a 
 gen. (but sometimes the ace. in a more strictly transitive 
 sense) of the related idea of the person or thing re- 
 membered or forgotten; such as p.ipvr\o-Ktw, pipvf)o~Ke- 
 o~6ai, pvqpov€V€iv, pvaaQai \ \av6dveo~6ai, ImXavOdveo-Bai (\rj6eiv 
 
 poetic, \n6dveiv, to cause to forget, Epic) ; as, pvrjo-aTo yap 
 TraTpos", tov p.eu (pSovov i 7re\ eXn ctt o . So also the cor- 
 responding adverbs \dOpa, \a6pal<os % and Kpvcpa. 
 
 Rem. 8. Those verbs of this class which have a causative meaning, 
 as to cause to remember or forget, to remind, may take with the gen. 
 an ace. of the person reminded, etc.; as, vnepvYjo-ev re 
 
 € 7Ta.Tp6 s • 
 
§ 54.] THE GENITIVE. 151 
 
 8. Words expressing relationship, connection, dependence, 
 equality, contraposition, and community in (and their con- 
 traries) take the gen. of the related object. Words of 
 
 this kind are kolvos, 'lo-os (lo~6poipos poetic), avriTraXos (dvrWoyyos 
 
 Pind.), IcTOppOTTOS ; OflOLOS (SfXaVVfJLOS poetic), 6{l€(TTlOS, 6fJLO(TToXoS, 
 
 7Tpocr<p€pT]s ', eirix^p^os, (fiiXos, ftiddoxos, $ov\os, <xk6Xov6os, e£r)S, i(p€- 
 £rjs ; crvvepyos, crvvrpcxpos, (TVftffivfjs, avvr)6r)s, crvyyci'rjs, <rvp,y\rr]tf)os, 
 £vp,(jxDi>os, £vp,(f)vros ((TVfKpopos poetic), (Tvvvofios, dde\(f)6s (evuofxos 
 poetic), evflcos, €Tpo<fios, Kkrjpovofie'iv ; as, eVrt 6"e ravra SfMola rov 
 
 f H(f> alarr ov ; tovtcdv ef^s, after these things; K.\rjpovo~ 
 
 p. overt rrjs v p,€Te pas dotjrjs. 
 
 Rem. 9. "icros, kolvos, and 6p.o1os more commonly take the dat., 
 and igfjs and efagrjs often do. Also ddeXcfros, dovXos, (piXos, SlclSo- 
 Xos, and some others, take the dat. (§ 59, 2 and 4) when they are 
 used more strictly as adjectives, in the sense like to, serving, friendly 
 to, etc. The verb KXrjpovofjieiv takes also the gen. of the person, when 
 the person is named ; as, os y€ KeK.Xr]pov6p,r)K.as /xei> rcov &iX(ovos 
 Xprj fiaToov. In later Greek, the ace. of the thing inherited, and 
 even of the person, is found with this verb. 
 
 9. Verbs of beginning something, and of ceasing and stop- 
 ping, take the gen. of the thing begun. Such verbs are 
 apytw, apx^crdai, vtrapyziv, Karapx^v^ ££dpxcw ', Xrjyeiv, irav^aBai 
 (ttovciv with acc. pers. and gen. of thing), rik^vrdv, Xcoobdv 
 (sometimes with acc. of person, also), %x €iv ( to sto p)-, dvairvelv 
 (to rest, cease from) ; as, pLoXrrrjs e £ a p ^ e c *> , to begin a 
 song; ovde nav verai x^ou, nor will he cease from 
 anger, 
 
 10. Verbs of buying and selling, exchanging and barter- 
 ing, also verbs and adjectives of valuing, ^Inke a gen. (often 
 with dvTi, or else irpos and the acc, with verbs of exchanging) 
 of the object bought, etc. (called genitive of the price). 
 
 Such words are oweur&u, dyopdfciv, TTpiacrdai, KrdaOai, irapaXapL^d- 
 v<ziv, 7TG)AeZi>, dirohihoo-Bai, Ttzpihihoo-Qai, hihovai ', dp.€i(3€LP 1 aficifieo-OaL, 
 aXXdrreiv, Xveiv, etc. ; ripxiv, TifidoSat, noelcrBai (with 7roXXov, oXlyov, 
 Or 7T€pl and the gen.), d^iovv, a^iovoSai, diza^iovv, a£ios (d£i(os), 
 
 dvd^Los ; as, epcopai 6tt6 aov ttcdXtj (may I ask at what price 
 he would sell it ? ) ; ZXvo-ev drroivaiv, he released them for 
 
152 THE GENITIVE. [§ 54. 
 
 a ransfom ; fioos citjios, worth an ox; npav ra4 (or nvd) 
 tivos, to fine one something. 
 
 11. The verbs eluai (which is often understood in this con- 
 nection) and yepeaBaL in the sense to belong to, pertain to, etc., 
 and adjectives denoting sacred to, peculiar to, suitable to 
 (as tcW, oUelos, Kvpios, lepos, TrpeTTcov), take the gen. (sometimes 
 with TTpos, on the part of, belonging to, in connection with dvai) 
 of the possessor or that to which the thing belongs or 
 is peculiar, etc. (called the possessive genitive); as, to v. 
 2 (ok par ov s noWr) rj v dperr), much virtue belonged to Socrates; 
 iavTov tlvai, to be his Oicn master ; diKalov ttoXltov Kpii/co 
 (I take it to be the part of a just citizen, euro* being under- 
 stood) ; 7roXXo€ xP°' V0V to-Ti, it is an affair of a long 
 time; ol be ku>$vpqi t cb v ityeo-Tr) kotcdv I'Sioi, but the dangers 
 belong to the leaders. 
 
 12. As space is the necessary condition of an action, and is 
 always implied in it, we find the gen. of the place in various 
 expressions, and of the way with verbs of motion, chiefly in 
 poetry, and the latter chiefly in Epic poetry (called the geni- 
 tive of place) ', as, ve<fios S* ov (fralveTO 7rdcrr]s yairjs ovd' 
 opecov (a cloud did not appear in all the earth or mountains) ; 
 Beeiv 7reS to to, to run through the plain ; thai rov 7rp6cco, to go 
 forward (68ov being understood). 
 
 13. In like manner, also, time, as a necessary condition of 
 an action, is often expressed in the gen. (sometimes with prep- 
 ositions to define it more closely) both as a point and as a 
 space (called the genitive of time)', as, ovKen rod Xonrov 
 irao-x oi ^ v av KdKCQS (for the future) ; ravra oXiyov XP°' V0V 
 €0~Tai TeXevfieva (in a short time) ; fiao-iXevs ov p.ay/i.rai deKa 
 
 r]\ikp(av (within ten days, for ten days). 
 
 Rem. 10. Here belong such genitives as eapos (in spring), Bepovs 
 (in summer), x €L f JL ^ iV0S i™ winter), fjpepas (by day), vvktos, deiXrjs, 
 67roc>pr)s, firjvos, iviavrov ; rov avrov, rov nporepov, £kclo~tov, apx*)?, tov 
 Xolttov (in later writers more commonly conceived as mere extent of 
 time, and expressed by the ace. Xolttov, to Xolttov, ra Xolttcl). 
 
§ 55.] THE GENITIVE. 153 
 
 § 55. Genitive of Position, Separation, and Privation. 
 
 GENITIVE OF' POSITION. 
 
 1. Adjectives of being opposite, corresponding to in posi- 
 tion, being near to, take a gen. of the spot or person; 
 such as clvtlos, Ivavrios, /xecroy, dvriaTpcxfios, Trapaifkiicnos ', as, 
 kvavrloL eo-rav 'Axac&v, they stood opposite or before the 
 Achaans. 
 
 2. So, also, with adverbs expressing position, proximity to, 
 
 or distance from. Such as avra, clvtt)v, durla, avriov, avTLKpv, 
 
 anavTLKpv, Ivavriov, Karavrlov, Ivvmiov, TrpoaOev, eimpocrBev, irpOTva- 
 
 poide ; OTTLQ-Bev, 7ri\as, 7t\t](tlov, lyyvs, avvov, iyyvSi, e.yyvrara, lyyv- 
 
 TCLTcOf ay^L, dyxov, cr^eSoV, X ( °P^ S '> r ^ 6 > rrfKodi, €K.ds, airoTTpoOev, dno- 
 
 irpoOi, avevOe, dirdvtvOs ; v^roOcv, KadvnepOe, cipco, Kara), vep6e> djj,(f)LS, 
 
 e£a), euros, eaco, izkpa, irkpav ; as, rvfipov 7Tpo(rzlpnov aaaov, I 
 
 crept up nearer to the tomb ; Oavdrov eyyvs, near to death. 
 
 Rem. 1. ^Kvrlov, iyyvs, «7X 6 ' ^Xas, and perhaps some others, 
 sometimes take the dative (see § 59, 2). 
 
 3. So, too, with the adverbs of place, irov, irov, ttj), iroOev, ev, 
 77 (tva, rrjde poetic), ovdafxov, TravTayj], Kavraypv, etc., where the 
 genitive is strictly of the partitive character; as, lp.$a\fiv 
 irov t?)s €K€lvq)v x <*> p a s > to make an incursion into some part 
 of their country. Also with the adverbs of time, ttoXKclkis, 
 7jy>GH, oyjse, dvrUa ; as, irpcot rrjs 77 p.k pas, early in the day. 
 
 4. Also, to denote a state or moral position (in what re- 
 spect) with the adverbs (also adjectives) eu, KaAa>?, juerpiW, aS?, 
 ttcos, ottco?, 77, 07177, ovtcos, code, ghtcivtcds, and others, joined with 
 €X€tv (rJKtiv Herod., but rare in Attic writers), and occasionally 
 with dvai and KelaOai ; as, €v ttoSvv ex^Lv, to be well off as to 
 the feet ; 7ra>s npos aXXr)\a rdxovs e^a, how they are re- 
 lated to each other in respect to velocity. 
 
 GENITIVE OF SEPARATION. 
 
 5. Verbs denoting removal, separation, rising from, de- 
 parture, and most verbs of motion, may take the gen. of the 
 point of departure; such as dinkvai ((3aiv€iv, dvadvvai, 
 
154 THE GENITIVE. [§ 55. 
 
 rpeirco'Bai, deipeiv, x^P^i X^&^Bai, dvaxd£eaBai, dXvcrKeiv, favyew, 
 poetic), (p€p€iv, ayeiv, irapax^p^v, avyx^p^ (rarely), eUeiv, vivel- 
 kclv, vnavio-rdaBaL, e^LaraaBaL, voa(j)i£eiv, ^copi^etv, dtopi^eiv, Sie^av, 
 a7re^6ii/, etc. ; as, cos $ 6 pcov 6pco ri]v o~r]v opaipov (from the house) / 
 vTToxvpt'iv rod 7T ed lo v, to retire from the plain. 
 
 6. Verbs of beginning from, leaving off, ceasing, driving 
 away from, keeping off, delivering from, deviating from, and 
 adverbs which express separation from something, may take 
 the gen. (sometimes with dno or ek ; and transitives may take, 
 also, the ace. of the direct object) of that whence the 
 motion, real or supposed, began; such as lhai, pcBUvai, 
 peBUaBai, d<fii€vai [rivd twos), d<pi€o-BaL, v(fii€vai, v(pi€o~Bai, dirJvcu, 
 irapikvai, irpoUo-Oai (generally aCC.), koxXvclv, eprjTveiv, elpyew, /3Xd- 
 7TT6LV, e'Lpy€o~6ai, e'xew, airextw, dnexecrBai, dXaXKelv, dpvveiv (usu- 
 ally with aCC. and dat.), \veiv, iXevBepovv, d7raXXdrT€LV, pveaBai, 
 
 o-co(€lv ; as, tcov ificov /x' € I p y e i v , to exclude me from mine ; 
 
 6<fiB a X pov dXdco o- ev avriOeov UoXvcprjpov (they deprived of his 
 
 eye by blinding, the verb being taken in a pregnant sense) ; 
 
 (TcoBrjvai KdKcav, to be saved from evils. 
 
 Rem. 2. So, also, in imitation of this local separation, we occa- 
 sionally find the point^whence a space of time commences in 
 the gen. without a preposition ; as, devrepep ere'i rovrcov (in the sec- 
 ond year from these things ; either before or after, as the case may be). 
 
 GENITIVE OF PRIVATION. 
 
 7. As implying a species of separation, verbs, 
 nouns, and adjectives expressing the idea of being without, 
 wanting, being deserted, and transitive verbs (which may take 
 besides an ace. of the direct object) which express actions 
 that produce a state of want, destitution, etc. of something, 
 take the gen. of that of which there is a want, etc.; 
 
 such as vTzpziv, d-iroarepelv, ^poOy, ipTjpovv (povvovp, deveaBai, \ei- 
 irtcrBai, poetic), diropeiv, irkveaBai, delv, beicrBai (sometimes, also, 
 gen. or ace. alone, or two genitives), Xeuretv, eXXeiVecr&H, eVt- 
 XeiVeo-^at, wrtavl&iv, del and xph (generally with a dat. or ace. 
 besides) ; iXcvBepos, pouos, KaBapos, icevos, eprjpos, yvpvos, 6p(f>av6s, 
 
5 56.] THE GENITIVE. 155 
 
 7r£vr)s 9 yjfiXos, and most adjectives compounded with a priva- 
 tive ; as, axfieXi a s Sf^eirej, needing aid ; arifxos €7rai- 
 v<dv, unhonored with praises; evdeia xp 1 H JL( ^ T<0 ^^ a want 
 of money. 
 
 8. So, also, adverbs which express privation, absence, want, 
 
 or exception from ; such as avtv, avcvOev {without), arep, arepOe, 
 v6(t(J)lv, x co P ls 'i TrXrjv, §i>X a » as ? ttXtjv tov d a l /jlovos, except 
 
 the divinity. 
 
 § 56. Partitive Genitive and Genitive of Material. 
 
 PARTITIVE GENITIVE. 
 
 1. The partitive genitive, which denotes the whole as dis- 
 tinguished from its parts, in its strictest sense is only a species 
 of the attributive genitive, and, like that, is governed by the 
 noun which it limits. But as the noun here must be one 
 which expresses a part of a whole, the partitive genitive is 
 governed only by a noun expressing a part of a whole; 
 as, o-co/xaroff fiepos, a part of the body. 
 
 Rem. 1. The attributive genitive, besides the partitive use, ex- 
 presses the author or cause, and the owner, possessor, or subject. It is 
 possessive or objective, according as it expresses simply the cause 
 or owner, or at the same time the cause and the object of 
 the state or action indicated ; as, to tt)s o-o<fiias kclXXos, the beauty 
 of wisdom (i. e. which belongs to wisdom as the subject or possessor) ; 
 fj tt]s o-o(j)ias €7n6vfjLia, the desire of wisdom (i. e. excited by and ter- 
 minating upon wisdom) . 
 
 Rem. 2. Sometimes two genitives, expressing different relations, 
 are connected with one noun ; in which case, one of the genitives 
 forms a combined idea with the noun, and the other limits this com- 
 bined idea ; as, Kopijs vvpifalov "Aidov, the damseVs chamber of mar- 
 riage to Hades. 
 
 Rem. 3. In like manner, as adjectives of an active meaning take 
 the gen., so those derived from verbs which govern two accusatives 
 may take two genitives; as, 6 eas ottvs iKoifinv evy fxaTcov 7rpo<rrj~ 
 yopos, offering prayers to the goddess. 
 
 2. The partitive genitive, also, is connected with adjectives 
 (especially superlatives), pronouns, numerals, and participles 
 (with the article) used as substantives; as, Ovtjtcdv yhp ou- 
 
156 THE GENITIVE. [§ 56. 
 
 dels ia-Tiv evfkupav avT\p (no one of mortals) ; 77 ttXcig-tt] 777?; 
 
 Ol €V (j)pOVOVVT€S T CO V 6. V 6 p CO 77 CO V , tllC wisC part of ilieil. 
 
 Rem. 4. As the partitive construction is used in some cases where 
 it is not required, as in the phrases, dla ^pjvaiKcov , divine of women, 
 Tzorua Sedcov, etc. ; so with the distributive words 6 pev . . . . 6 Se, 
 eKaoTos, eKcirepos, Tras, and aWos ciWov. etc., the noun is often in the 
 same case with the part., instead of being in the gen. ; as, vcov rco 
 KacTLyvqTco Kpecov rbv pev wporitras, r 6 v h e ciTipao-as ej(€L, our 
 brothers (instead of of our brothers), Creon has honored one and dis- 
 honored the other. 
 
 3. The partitive gen. is used with elvai, yiyvecrdai, rlQevai, 
 TtScaBtu, 77oiei<r6ai, apiOpficrOai, r)yfio~6ai, to be numbered among, 
 accounted of, and any verb whose action extends to only a 
 part of the object; as, top ddvarov fjyovvrcu irdvres ol aXXot r co v 
 
 fieyia-Toav kcikcqv eunt (to be one of the greatest evils)', 
 pLova-LKTjs d\ el-ov, t 1 6 7] s Xoyovs (do you refer words to music 1) ; 
 gvveXeyovro t&v \L6cov (they collected some of the stones). 
 
 4. With verbs of participating, sharing in, communication, 
 community (with which, however, pkpos or polpa is sometimes 
 expressed in the ace.) ; such as perex^tv, perecrri poi, didovai, 
 peradtbopaL, TTpocrhihovai, TTpobibovai (rarely), biabibovai, Koivcovelv, 
 KoivovcrOai, iirapxew, peraXap^dveiv, crvWapSdveiv, crvWap^dvecrdaL 
 (rarely) , crvvaipeo-6a.L ; as, cat a px&v kcli r i p cov p.e t €\€iv, 
 to partake of both offices and honors. 
 
 5. With verbs of actual or imaginary contact, taking hold of, 
 being in dependence on or connected icith, since the contact 
 is only with a part of the object (but when the action relates 
 to the whole, the object stands in the ace.) ; such as Siyydveiv, 
 
 yj/av€LUj a.77Tecr6a.i, icfiaTTTecrSai, dpdrrecrdaL, \ap3dveiv, "Xapfidveo-Oat, 
 i7rLkcipj3dv€0~6ai, dvTikapfidveo-6a.L ; e^ecrc^at, dv~ex €0 ~@ aL i Trfpte^ccrc^at 
 [urxpraM poetic), yKixtvOai, eirecrOai, and avv^TrecrdaL (rarely) ; as, 
 rbv he irecrovra tt o h co v e\a$€ (he seized by the feet) ; epyov 
 
 ixupetla, let us take hold of the work; rov vopov exeo-Bai, 
 to abide by the Jaw, i. e. obey the law. 
 
 Rem. 5. In poetry, verbs of entreating, such as XicrcropciL. uceirv- 
 eiv, iKvelcrSaL, etc. are used not only with the gen. yovvcov {the knees), 
 but by analogy, with other genitives, since the suppliant touched the 
 
§ 56.] THE GENITIVE. 157 
 
 knees of the image in making entreaties, whence the usage extended 
 to other modes of making entreaties; as, aleu epe X to- ere cr Kero 
 yovvoov, always entreated me by the knees; ae p erep^o/xat twv 
 6 e co v , / beseech thee by the gods, 
 
 6. Verbs of eating and drinking take the genitive when the 
 idea is of eating and drinking of something, or a part of some- 
 thing (but the ace. when the idea is that of simply eating or 
 drinking in general, or consuming the whole). Such as io~8i- 
 civ, (frdyeiv, TTivciv, yevecrdai, yevciv (ace. of pers. and gen. of 
 thing, or two ace.) ; as, ia-OUtu Kpe&v, to eat of flesh; yeveiv tlvcl 
 TLfjLrjs, to cause one to taste of honor (also yevew two. peSv, to 
 give one wine to drink). 
 
 GENITIVE OF MATERIAL. 
 
 • 7. The gen. of the material (sometimes with i£ and, or hid ; 
 and sometimes the instrumental dat. instead of the gen.) is 
 found with verbs of making, forming, etc. ; as, x a ^ K °v ^oie- 
 ovTai to, dyaXpara, the statues are made of brass; klo-o-ov 
 crenels, crowned with ivy. 
 
 8. With verbs and adjectives of filing or being full ; such 
 
 as 7rXr)0co, TrKvpoco, 7rLp7r\rjpi, pearoco (mostly poetic), ye/ze«>, (3p[- 
 
 Secv, vdo~o~€iv, €7TLvd(T(r€tv, <ra.TT€iv, cviropeiv, etc. ; irktos, €p7r\eos 9 
 
 7rXr)pr)$, p€o~T6s,7r\ovcnos i dao~vs, etc.; as, tcov aTravraiv €V7roprj~ 
 
 a- at, to be well supplied with all things; irXncrdpevos o'ivoio 
 
 deiras, having filed the cup with wine ; dao-vs devdpcov, thick 
 
 with trees. 
 
 Rem. 6. Transitive verbs of this class may take an ace. in addi- 
 tion to the gen., of course, and some of the verbs and adjectives, espe- 
 cially (3pideLv and daavs, may take the dat. instead of the gen. 
 
 9. With verbs of satisfying, enjoying, being satisfied or 
 
 benefited ; such as curat, acrao-Qai, Kopeo-aaBai, dnokaveLV, diravpe- 
 
 cr6aiy €v cox^c dai, arravpav, ovivacrdai, etc. ; as, atparos acrai Apea, 
 
 to satisfy Mars with blood; eva>x°£ rov \6yov, enjoy the 
 
 speech. 
 
 Rem. 7. Verbs of enjoying sometimes take the ace. instead of the 
 gen., and sometimes they take ano or Vk before the gen. The gen. 
 
 14 
 
158 THE ACCUSATIVE. [§ 57. 
 
 of material is extensively used in the earlier forms of the language, 
 especially in the Epic, the primitive mind viewing materials as 
 causes; as, \ovecr6ai 7roTap,o'lo, to be washed of a river. 
 
 Rem. 8. The genitive absolute expresses the relations of either the 
 causal gen., the gen. of place, or the genitive of time. For its usage 
 see § 71, 3. 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 THE ACCUSATIVE. 
 
 § 57. Verhs with one Accusative. 
 
 1. As the accusative denotes the immediate or suffering 
 object of a transitive verb, most verbs take but one ace, the 
 remote or circumstantial object (when required or expressed) 
 generally being in another case, or constructed with preposi- 
 tions. 
 
 2. Any verb, whether active or intransitive, may take an 
 
 ace. of the cognate noun, and of the kindred idea, or of their 
 
 attribute or equivalent idea (called the accusative of kindred 
 
 signification) ; as, fjBeadai rjdovds (cognate), x a ^P €Ly ^ovt]v 
 
 (kindred idea), p,eya (sc. xw a ) x a ' l P €iV (attribute of cognate 
 
 noun), x a ' L P& rovro (thus) or akyiiv irpa^iv, to grieve at the 
 
 affair, i. e. to grieve the grief suitable to the affair (equivalent 
 
 idea). 
 
 Rem. 1. Verbs which take an attributive or kindred notion to the 
 cognate idea often receive a modified or augmented meaning beyond 
 their common meaning (called the pregnant or intensive meaning) ; 
 as, vLKav \Layr\v, to gain a battle by conquering ; rpoTvas Karapprjyvvvai, 
 to cause routs by breaking the ranks ; a dLefiaXKes, which you slander- 
 ously stated. 
 
 3. Verbs denoting a state or feeling, whether of mind or 
 body, may take an ace. of the state or feeling, or that wherein 
 the state or feeling consists (ace. of kindred signification) ; 
 such as verbs of being pleased, angry, envying, pitying ; 
 thinking, caring, willing ; conceiving, knowing ; living, far- 
 ing well or ill, dying ; condition in life, serving ; flowing, 
 
§ 57.] THE ACCUSATIVE. 159 
 
 springing forth, shining ; and bodily condition, as sitting, 
 
 falling, sleeping, etc. ; as, ovdh dclaao-a, fearing nothing (no 
 
 fear) ; Oappeiv n or nva, to brook something or some one ; el- 
 
 devai ttjv <fivo-iv npayfjidrcov, to know the nature of affairs 
 
 (instead of, know the knowledge) ; x°P r )7 € ^ v Acovvo-ta, to serve as 
 
 choregus at the Dionysiac festival. 
 
 Rem. 2. For the gen. with some verbs of this class, see § 53, 7, 
 9, and 11. 
 
 4. Verbs of motion take the space or way passed over in the 
 ace. ; and in poetry, the place or object reached by the motion 
 is sometimes in the ace. ; as, p,o\e2v yecpvpav, to pass the bridge ; 
 ikavveiv bpopov, to run a race ; fiaiveiv 7ro§a, to go a step of the 
 
 foot (=r fialveiv nodos fidcriv) ; X^P^ ^ irpvpvav, he goes to the 
 stern ; ao-rv Kabjxelov poXav, having come to the city of Cad- 
 mus. 
 
 Rem. 3. But in prose (and generally in poetry), the ace. denot- 
 ing the limit or object reached by a motion is governed by preposi- 
 tions ; as, dvd, Kara, els, rrpos, etc. 
 
 5. Verbs of doing any thing, or performing any act, may 
 take an accusative of the deed or thing done (often of kin- 
 dred signification) ; such as verbs of finishing, learning, eat- 
 ing, laboring, fighting, acting wrongly or impiously, uttering, 
 swearing, shouting, lamenting, confessing, accusing, etc. ; as, 
 Tikevrrjo-ai epya, to finish the works ; ao-Kovvres <p66vov, exercis- 
 ing envy ; olvov ttLvuv, to drink wine ; prjpara elnelv, to speak 
 words. 
 
 6. Verbs of producing or effecting any thing take an ace. 
 of the effect or result (often of kindred signification) ; such as 
 verbs of making, inventing, creating, exhibiting, engraving, 
 working, pouring, digging, etc. ; as, revxeov Bap^a, making a 
 breastplate ; tlktclv t£kvcl, to bear children ; 7ra>p.a x^ 0V(Tlv t 
 they pour a draught ; olvov Kepcovrai, they mix wine. 
 
 7. Verbs of transmitting, delivering over, receiving, per- 
 ceiving, possessing, holding, inhabiting, acquiring, and the 
 like, take an ace. (often of the kindred signification) of the 
 
160 THE ACCUSATIVE. [§ 57. 
 
 gift, payment, thing received, held, etc.; as,' 8 copa dlbcoo-i; 
 
 8a>pa Se^ecr^at ; Idelv Seafia', navra ravra €vp6fiT)v, I 
 
 acquired all these things. 
 
 8. The extent of time over which an action extends is put 
 in the ace. (generally without prepositions) after all classes 
 of verbs ; as, eva fxrjva pevcDv, remaining one month; tovtqv 
 emvov tov xpovov, they were drinking all this time. 
 
 Rem. 4. Of this nature are the adverbial accusatives of time, rjpos, 
 
 ivvrjfJLCLp, VVKTCCp, TTCLWXCL, (Tr]p.€pOV. ClVptOV, O.KfjLl']V , CtpX^V, 7T€paS, TeXoS, 
 
 to TeXevToiov, vkov, evayxos, TTpoTepov, to npaiTOV, to irpiv, to clvtikci, 
 to 7rdXai, rcop^aToi/, Katpov, irp&TOV, to Trakaiov, to Xoittov, to IqoBivov, 
 heCkivov, vo~T€pov, ttclvvo-tcltov , i^amva, brjpov, elvdwx €S > elvdeTos, €tos, 
 els €tos, and the like. 
 
 Rem. 5. When the time is in the gen. it is regarded as the cause 
 or antecedent condition of the action ; as, tovto iykvtTo TavTns ttjs 
 f) fjiepas (on ths day, the time being considered as a necessary -con- 
 dition of the action). See § 54, 13. 
 
 9. Quantity or amount of space, time, distance, value, 
 weight, etc. is put in the ace. (generally without a prepo- 
 sition) after all verbs susceptible of such an object ; as, XeineTo 
 dovpos ipar]v, he left an intervening space of the distance of a 
 spear'* s cast ; e7rop€vo-a.To dvo o-Tadiovs, he proceeded two stadia ; 
 ovdenco t'lKoviv %tt) yeyovcos, not yet having lived twenty years; 
 ZXkovto. TpiTov TjfiLTaXavTov, weighing a talent and a half (also 
 with the cognate o-Ta6p.6v, the weight of a talent and a half). 
 
 Rem. 6. Here, also, belong- the adverbial accusatives, noXXd 
 (often), tcl noXXd or cos to. noXXd (for the most part), ttoXv, 7toXX6v, 
 peya, fieydXa, ^eyicrra, oXiyov, piKpov, jiiKpd, av^vd, fxaKpd, 'lcov, to- 
 ot ovto, oaw, ivdvTa, to Ittitvov, adrjv, ayynv, etc. 
 
 10. The accusative (properly of the equivalent idea) is used 
 after adjectives and intransitive and passive verbs of all kinds, 
 but particularly those which denote quality or feeling, to de- 
 fine their meaning more closely, or to denote in what respect 
 it is taken (called accusative of nearer definition, or by synec- 
 doche)-, as, icdfjiveiv tovs 6<f)6a\fiov s (as to the eyes, in the 
 eyes) ; 8eivo\ pdxrjv (in battle). Also, ofteji with the verb 
 tlpl, a quality pertaining to some place or relation is expressed 
 by such accusatives as eupos, vyf/os, peyeOos, fidOos, firJKOS, 7t\tj6os, 
 
§ 57.] THE ACCUSATIVE. 161 
 
 dpiOpov, yevos, ovopa, pepos, irpocfiacrLV, to d* akndes, yvtapnv iprjv, 
 etc.; as, ye v os (in race) e<ov QiyaXevs; Kepo-os ouofia (byname). 
 
 Rem. 7. The ace. of the part affected or concerned seems to be of 
 this nature ; as, ^X^-yeis- tyju icecfraXrjv, struck on the head. 
 
 Rem. 8. Here, also, belong certain neuter accusatives denoting 
 some particular case or way in which any verbal notion operates, and 
 which from frequent usage have acquired almost wholly an adverbial 
 meaning ; as, Tovvavrlov, Tavavria, raXka, Xolttou (for the rest), to d* 
 o\ov, troTepov, irorepa, Odrepa, dpfyorepov (poetic), dpcpoTepa, doia 
 (Epic), ovderepa, t\, tl, to, tovto (tclvtcl) pev .... tovto (raOra) 
 be, tclvt cipa, 6, on, olov, are, ovdev (prjdev) tl, noXXa, iravra, to Kara 
 (els, cttl) tl or Tiva ; as, e'L twos peya r/u to crcopa (pvcret rj Tpocpfj rj 
 dp<poTe pa (in both ways, by both) ; to els epe, as far as pertains to 
 me. So, also, the nouns Kpdros, Ta^os, p,eyeBos, prjKos, to pepos, etc. 
 often have a purely adverbial idea. 
 
 11. The accusative often stands in apposition with a whole 
 
 sentence, expressing its substance, effect, or purpose ; as, pfyei 
 
 dirb irvpyov, Xvypou oXeBpov, he will throw you from the 
 
 tower, — a sad death. But when the noun in apposition refers 
 
 more to the subject of the sentence, it is regarded as in the 
 
 nominative ; as, e^eirvevcrev 'Ayapepivcov ]3iW, nXnyels 6vyaTpos 9 
 
 aivxpov epyov. 
 
 Rem. 9. Here belong, also, Tpbirov (manner), tovtov tov rporrov, 
 TravTa TpoTrov, Tiva Tpoirov, dUnv, and other expressions in making 
 comparisons ; also, to de (ye) peyicrTov, kol to peyicrTov, to t)e deivo- 
 TaTov, kcu to betvoraTov, Ka\ to eo~x<iTov, to ye eo~xaTov, to KecpdXaiov, to 
 TeXevTaiov, etc. 
 
 12. The accusative (instead of the gen., see § 53, 8) is 
 sometimes found after adjectives derived from or compounded 
 with verbs ; as, noXXa kclkci gwio-Tcop, conscious of many evils ; 
 Tp'iftcov to. Toidbe, skilled in such things. 
 
 13. The adverbs of protestation pd and vr\ take the accusa- 
 tive ; as, ph tov Kvva, by the dog. 
 
 Rem. 10. Ma and ov pa are used in negative sentences, or where 
 a negative is implied by the context ; vr\ and va\ pa, in affirmative 
 sentences. 
 
 Rem. 11. Sometimes an ace. stands apparently independent, but 
 is really governed by some word which was in the mind of the writer ; 
 as, ere t)r), ere ... . cpfjs, k. t. X. (supply Xeyo>), thee now, thee, I mean, 
 sayest thou, etc. 
 
 14* 
 
162 * THE ACCUSATIVE. [§ 58. 
 
 § 58. Verls with two Accusatives, 
 
 1. Transitive verbs which take the accusative of a personal 
 object (or some object viewed as a person), may take in addi- 
 tion an ace. of the cognate noun or kindred idea ; as, dtddo-Kco 
 
 ae, or diddcTKCQ ore ypa.pp.ara. 
 
 2. This construction is chiefly confined to the following 
 classes of verbs : — 
 
 1) The verbs which are employed in expressions that de- 
 note the saying or doing of any good or evil to one ; such as 
 
 epydfeoSaL, irofiv, TTpdrreiv, etc. ; \eyew, elirelv, etc. ; as, TroXXa 
 KciKa f] pas TToiovvTes, doing us many evils, 
 
 2) Those used in entreating, praying, asking, etc. some- 
 thing of one ; such as alrelv, alreiardai, cmairfiv, ipzorap, ipioSai, 
 i^erd&iv, Icrropelv, etc.; as, alrel avrbv deica rd\avra, he 
 asks of him ten talents. 
 
 3) Those used in speaking of teaching or reminding one 
 of something ; such as bihdcrKeiv, iraiheveiv, dvapipvr\o-Keiv (with 
 which, however^ as well as with viropipv^a-Keiv, the gen. of the 
 thing is more common), etc.; as, dMo-Kco o-e ypdppara, I 
 teach you letters. 
 
 4) Verbs of concealing and dividing or distributing into 
 parts ; such as upviTTeiv {^KevSeiv, poetic), baieiv, biaipeiv, repvew, 
 etc. ; as, biaipelv rbv x LT &va rpla p,epr], to divide the coat 
 into three parts. 
 
 5) Verbs of advising, persuading, challenging, compelling ; 
 
 such as ireideiv, inoTpvveiv, iiralpziv, TvpOKaXtlo-Bai, avayKa^ziv, ^tC. ; 
 
 as, eneiOov ovdev ovbiva, they persuaded no one of any 
 thing. 
 
 6) Verbs of depriving, taking away from, purifying, strip- 
 ping, putting on and off, clothing, throwing around ; dcfraipel- 
 vQai, (TTepelv, aTTOVTepeiv, crvkav, KaOalptiv, Xoveiv, v'nrT€0-6ai, €k3v€lu, 
 ivbveiv, aptyievvvvai, irzpifiaKkeo-Qai ; as, rr\v Tiprjv anoo-Tepei 
 
 fxc, he deprives me of my honor. 
 
 Rem. 1. Some of these verbs sometimes have a different construc- 
 tion from that here given, but in a somewhat different sense. Thus, 
 
§ 59.] THE DATIVE. 163 
 
 when the person is in the dat., the additional idea is implied of its being 
 for the advantage or disadvantage of the person ; so the gen. of the 
 person or thing after crrepe'ivy dnooTepelv, and d<fiaipe'i(r6aL implies 
 rather a separation (see § 55, 5) than a simple deprivation. 
 
 3. Two accusatives, also, one a direct, and the other a 
 predicative or appositional object (often an adjective), are 
 used after the active or middle of such verbs as take two 
 nominatives in the passive (see § 51, 3) ; such as verbs of 
 making, choosing, estimating, explaining, recognizing, call- 
 ing, naming, giving, receiving, teaching, etc. ; as, Traidevetv 
 riva (ro<p6v, to instruct one so that he is wise ; alpelo-Bal nva 
 arpaTTjyou, to choose one general. 
 
 Rem. 2. As in the partitive construction with €Kao~ros, eKarepos, 
 etc. (see § 56, R. 5), the whole is sometimes put in apposition with 
 its parts, instead of in the gen., so, mostly in poetry, especially Epic 
 poetry, the part often follows in the ace. in apposition with the whole, 
 as a nearer definition, or the exact object; as, tvoLov ere (pvyev e picos 
 oSovtcdv, what a word escaped you, viz. the inclosure of your teeth! — 
 what a word escaped your lips ! 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 THE DATIVE. 
 
 § 59. Dative of the Person. 
 
 The dative is used of a personal object (or something 
 viewed as a person) when the person is represented as shar- 
 ing or interested in the action, and not as the direct object of 
 it, like the ace, nor as the cause or antecedent of it, like the 
 gen. Hence the dat. is commonly used after words where 
 the relation may be expressed by to or for, or is similar to 
 that expressed by these words. In other words, the dat. is 
 used after words which express or imply a transmission to, 
 community or connection with, likeness to, unlikeness to, or 
 regard to. 
 
 1. The dat. of the person is used with verbs which express 
 the transmission of something to one ; such as giving, allow- 
 
164 THE DATIVE. [§ 59. 
 
 ing to, granting, presenting, paying, selling, giving a share 
 to, transferring, etc. ; such as 6\6\Wt, dcopelaOai, rlveiv, escort, 
 fieTadidovai, dnovefieLV, etc.; as, Sidovai rl tivi\ tori p,oi or 
 cijeo-Ti fioi [it is allowed me) ; pLcrahbovai rots cjiiXois, to impart to 
 friends. 
 
 2. With words (whether verbs, nouns, adjectives, or ad- 
 verbs) denoting simple community or communication, or even 
 meeting, approaching ; as 6/xiXeiV, fuyvvvai, koivovv, fttaXXar- 
 T€iv (to reconcile to), oirivbeo-Oai ; elnelv, Xeyeiv, XaXeiV, Xrjpelv, 
 irpdrreiv, evxevOai (to Speak or act with, pray to) ; drravTav, 
 vwavrdv, tt\t] cria^ iv, etc. Also the corresponding nouns, adjec- 
 tives, and adverbs, especially those compounded with <rvv and 
 /Ltera ; such as kolvos, crvyyevrjs, vvvepyos, and (rvvaycovicrTrjS (gen. 
 and dat.), avfKpcovos, fieralos ; 7r\rj(TLOs, 7re\as, ayxh an d the 
 like; as, o/niXet to7s dyaBols dv6 pcoirois ', /xj) ftere^ov- 
 o-cov dvdpda-i ywaiK&v, women not sharing with men ; 7re- 
 Xafe firjrpi', ev^ovrci @€ols', 6 §e ravrrjs rrjs nla-recDS avra 
 
 o-wepyos kol <r way g>vi<ttt}s, fellow -procurer and promoter 
 with him of this confidence. 
 
 3. With verbs and adjectives denoting hostile communica- 
 tion, as contending, litigating, emulating, reproaching, blam- 
 ing, being angry at, envying ; such as ipl&iv, pdxeo-Oai, 7roXe- 
 
 fJL€LV, dycovi&crOai, oveibl&iv, \oihopelcrdai, €7rtTtpdv, eyKaXelv, 6vjxov m 
 a6ai, ^aXe7ratVet^, (fiOovelv ; also the adjectives dvrLos, ivavTios, 
 
 i^BpOS, 7V0\€fJ.L0S, ipTToftcdV, etC. ', aS, € pl^€ fJL€V(ll /3a(TtX^t, tO 
 
 contend with a king ; aWois iTTLTLpicorjs ; rvpavvos anas ex&pbs 
 iXevOe p la Ka\ vojjlols e vavr Los. 
 
 4. With verbs and adjectives denoting communication as 
 superior or inferior, as ordering, counselling, inciting, en- 
 treating, following, accompanying, retiring, yielding, serving, 
 obeying, trusting ; such as arj fiawe iv, liriTdrreiv, TTpoo-rdrTeiv, 
 zvTtXktcrBai, ivapaivfiv, TrapaKekeveadai, eweo-Bai, aKokovdelv, e?K.€iv, 
 vitsIkelv, x^pew* vwaKoveiv, izelOecrOai, irivTtveiv, etc. ; also the 
 adjectives and adverbs aKoXovBos, aKoXovOco?, 8t,ddoxos, kiro^ivcus, 
 itjrjs, ifet-rjs, etc. ; as, o-rjfialvei (fivXaKeacr i ; aWoicri drj 
 
§ 59.] THE DATIVE. 165 
 
 tout sir it eWeo ; 7T€7rccrT€V kcos rots vopois ', tcov e7ro/xe- 
 
 VCOV TOVTOLS', TCL i £ 7) S € K€ LVOLS. 
 
 5. With words denoting likeness and unlikeness, similarity 
 and dissimilarity, agreement and disagreement ; such as coute- 
 z/at, e'idecrOaL (poetic), 6p.oiovv, opouos, opoicos, 1V09, tcrcor, c£ io~oi;, 
 ei/ tcra), ipcfiepfjs, 7rapa7r\r)o~LOs, 7rapct7r\r)crLQi)S 9 6 avTos, apa, SpoXoyelv, 
 (Twaivelv ; dtdcpcovos, Sidifiopos, and many words compounded 
 with 6/-ioi), o-w, and peTa ; as, eldopevi] fei'z>G>; vpels 6e ei? 
 /xej/ to airo ^/xti/ o-irevbeTe (to £Ae same place with us) ; ro^ 
 6p<i)vvp.ov lp.avTco\ didfpopos to7s aWots. 
 
 Rem. 1. Some of the verbs and adjectives introduced in the pre- 
 ceding paragraphs are sometimes constructed with the gen., as may 
 be seen by referring to the treatment of that case (see especially 
 §§ 54, R. 9; 55, R. 1 ; 56, 4). Also, transitive verbs of the above 
 classes may take an ace. of the direct object in addition to the dat. 
 
 Rem. 2. Instead of the dat. after adjectives and adverbs of like- 
 ness, comparison, etc., we sometimes find a coordinate sentence intro- 
 duced by Kcii (as) ; as, ov^ Spoicos 7r€Tvoir)K.ao~i kcll "Opirjpos, they have 
 not done as Homer did. Also, after taos and opouos, the dat. of the 
 object is often used instead of the dat. of the attribute ; as, Kopai 
 Xap'iTecrcriv opoiai (hair like the Graces, instead of, hair like the hair 
 of the Graces, see § 50, R. 6). 
 
 6. With words denoting a moral likeness or fitness, as well 
 as those denoting what is pleasing, agreeable, etc., and the 
 contrary ; such as irpeirciv, appoTTew, irpoo-^Ktiv (with an accom- 
 panying infin.), del, xph 'i dvayKaiov, irpzirovTcos, a^penas, cIkos 
 €cttc, cIkotcos ', dvhdvziv, dpecrK€iv, etc. ; as, /3aonXeI ^yelro 7rpe~ 
 1T€LV ', to 7 s TavTa dpi 0~K€Tai. 
 
 7. With verbs and adjectives of helping, favoring, benefit- 
 ing, and averting ; such as, dprjyetv, dpvveiv, aXeijciv, akakKelv, 
 TipcDpelv, fior)6eiv, liriKovpfiv, dirokoyeicrBai, \vcriTikeLv, eirapKeiv, 
 Xpacap-elv, and many verbs compounded with o~vv ; as, o~vp<fie- 
 p€Lv, <rvp7rpdTT€Lv, etc. ; also the adjectives ax^eXt/ios, xpW 1 ^ ^ 
 cfiikos, etc.; as, rots Qavovvi tt\ovtos ovdev ox^eXel, wealth 
 avails nothing to the dead. 
 
 8. The dat. is used, also, with ehai and yiyveo-dai, denoting 
 the person possessing, or rather having something ; as, to> 
 Kvpco rjv peyakrj (Saorikela, Cyrus had a great kingdom. 
 
166 THE DATIVE. [§ 59. 
 
 9. In general, the dat. is useato denote that for whose 
 advantage, benefit, protection, etc. (or their opposites) any 
 thing is done (called the dative of the advantage or disadvan- 
 tage) ; as, &i\i(rTidr)s \ikv eirparre ^lXlttttco, Philistides managed 
 affairs for the benefit of Philip ; fikairreiv tlvL So also with 
 all sorts of nouns and adjectives which, from their own mean- 
 ing or the context, are conceived as bringing good, harm, or 
 hindrance to any person or thing ; as, x € pvw novos, labor for 
 the hands. 
 
 10. The dat. is used to denote the person (or thing viewed 
 as a person) in respect to, or on whose part, or in whose 
 view, wish, or desire a thing is so ; as, agios ei'7 Bavdrov rfj 
 
 7roAet (in respect to the State) ; ere pa drj, cos eoiKe, toIs (j>v- 
 
 \agiv evpr)KafjL€P (in the guards, on the part of the guards). 
 
 Rem. 3. This usage with a participle corresponds very nearly to 
 our mode of expression with one and a participle ; as, " to one entering 
 Rome, the dome of St. Peter's is seen at a distance." But in Greek, 
 this dat. is used not only with participles of going, coming, stand- 
 ing and the like, but with various others with which the usage is not 
 allowable in our language, especially with those denoting ivilling, 
 desiring, and their opposites ; as, e'i croi fiovXopevcp eo-riv, if it is to 
 you wishing = if you wish. So in the phrase cos o-vvekovn dweiv, to 
 speak tike one summing up all in a ivord = to speak briefly. In this 
 and other cases, both with and without the part., the cos indicates the 
 private character of the view, opinion, etc. ; as, aos yepovri, for an 
 old man, cos e/xot, as it seems to me; cos Ibovri, as far as one who sees 
 can judge. 
 
 Rem. 4. The dat. of the personal pronouns, especially of the first 
 and second persons, is often used in this way with but little apparent 
 meaning (called the ethical dative) ; as, co p-rjrep, cos koXos fioi 
 6 7ra.7nros, how beautiful in my eyes grandfather is! olp.ai cro 1 eiceivovs 
 tovs ayadovs tcl ire&Ka pabioos viKr)o~etv (I think, I would have you 
 know) . 
 
 11. The dative of the agent is often used with the perf. 
 pass, (rarely with other pass, forms) instead of vno with the 
 gen., and regularly with verbal adjectives in tos and reos (ex- 
 cept in a few cases where the ace. is used, the meaning of 
 the verbal being equivalent to del and the infin., and the con- 
 struction, in such cases, being the same as though the idea 
 
§ 60.] THE DATIVE. 167 
 
 were expressed thus) ; as, &s pot fedqXarae, as has been shown 
 
 by me ; dcrKrjTea €(ttl crot fj dperf), OV dcrKrjTeov \-€a) icrri <toi ttjv 
 
 dp€Tr)v, virtue is to be practised by you, or there is to be a prac- 
 tising of virtue by you. 
 
 Rem. 5. Besides the dat. of the agent, the impersonal verbal in 
 rov, rkov or rd, rea governs the same case as the verb from which it 
 is derived, like the Latin gerund with est ; but the personal verbal 
 (as those may be which are derived from transitive verbs) agrees 
 with its subject, like the Latin gerundive, and takes only the dat. of 
 the agent. 
 
 12. The dat., also, denotes the accompanying object (chiefly 
 personal), either with the pronoun clvtos agreeing with it 
 (meaning together with), or, chiefly in military movements, 
 with verbs of going or coming, with which the force, array, 
 army, men, ships, etc. stand in the dat. ; as, at vrjes idXcoa-au 
 avTols dvbpdcnv {together with the men); dvex^p^o-av t<5 
 a-rpara, they retired with the army. 
 
 § 60. Dative of the Thing. 
 
 1. The dative of the thing denotes the cause, ground, or 
 reason of an action, with all sorts of verbs and expressions, 
 but especially such as denote a feeling or state of mind, the 
 cause being considered rather a*s instrumental than origi- 
 nating (in which latter case the gen. is used, see § 53) ; as, 
 dirrjXBov ^>o/3&), they departed through fear, i. e. by means of 
 fear; alo-xvvecrOai to 2 s ttctt pay p.ev ov s, ashamed at what 
 has been done. So with yaiptiv, -qdeaOaL, dydWecrOai, liraipecrOai, 
 Xv7reTo-#at, dXyelv, trrevd^iv, 6avp.d^iv, dyandv, dpe&icecrOai, dyava- 
 /crew, x°^ €7T &s (fiepeiv, etc. 
 
 2. The actual means or instrument by or with which any 
 thing is done is put in the dat. ; as, rbv o-Kr]7TTpco iXda-aa-Ke, 
 he struck him with his sceptre ; ftaXkeiv \i6ois, to throw at 
 with stones; xP a(T ® aL T $ vdan, to use the water (the thing 
 used being regarded as the instrument or means). 
 
 3. The dat. is used with comparatives, superlatives, and 
 
168 THE DATIVE. [§ 60. 
 
 words which imply a comparison, or distinction, to denote the 
 excess, difference, or respect in which a thing differs from, is 
 inferior to, or preeminent above others; as, vcrrepifriv rjpepa 
 fjua> to be too late by one day ; lo-xyew r<5 o-co/xart, to be 
 strong in body (in respect to the body); ttoo-I raxvs^ swift 
 in respect to the feet = swift of foot, etc. 
 
 4. The dat. is used to denote the standard according to 
 which a judgment or opinion is formed, especially with verbs 
 of measuring, judging, deciding, etc. ; as, o-rafyza^ei/ov rats 
 X d pio- 1, judging by the gratification ; rfj i o-Otjtl reK^atpo- 
 fievov, inferring from the garment ; frpiovv nva x^^ als 
 dpaxpats , to fine one in (i. e. upon the basis of) a thousand 
 drachma, etc. 
 
 5. The dat. is used to denote the material, when it is not 
 conceived of as an antecedent, but rather as an instrumental 
 condition of the thing made ; as, dpfia xp V(T <? Ka ^ L dpyvpco 
 ev ?j(TKr)Tai, the chariot is finely wrought with gold and silver. 
 
 6. The dat., also, but chiefly in poetry, denotes the place 
 of an action, but rather as its scene than the condition ; as, 
 fivx^> OakdpLoio, in the privacy of the chamber. 
 
 Rem. In prose, prepositions are generally used with the dative 
 of the place. * 
 
 7. The dat., too, denotes the time at or in which, and the 
 manner, circumstances, etc. under which a thing happens ; as, 
 
 TTj 7TpO)TTJ TjjJLepa d(f)LKOVTO e7Tt TQV TTOTdpLOV (oU the first day, 
 
 within the first day) ; reus yvpLvoTraidLaLs, at the gymnopcedic 
 festival ; Tpaje? p.iv Kkayyfj Icrav, the Trojans advanced with a 
 din ; 6 avros dpi rjj y vco p. rj , I myself am of the opinion, etc. 
 
$ 61.] THE TENSES. 169 
 
 CHAPTER IV, 
 
 THE VERB. 
 SECTION I. 
 
 THE TENSES. 
 
 § 61. The Present, 
 
 1. The present tense expresses a limited present, 
 i. e. an action actually occurring at the time of speaking ; as, 
 what are you doing 7 I am writing. 
 
 2. It expresses an unlimited present, i. e. general 
 truths, which, being always true, are always present truths; 
 as, time and tide wait for no man ; God is love ; when the 
 spring comes the Mrds sing. 
 
 3. It often expresses what is past, the speaker or writer, 
 from the vividness of his conceptions, viewing a past event as 
 present. This is called the historical present, and is em- 
 ployed in lively narrative, where the mind is so absorbed in 
 the events that they seem to be present. 
 
 4. It sometimes expresses what is future, the act being 
 so firmly resolved upon, or looked upon as so certain, as to 
 seem to be in process of execution, and hence present ; as, 
 
 et <fir]<Ti tolovtov tl zivai, bei^arco, Kayco tear a(3 aiPCD [I descend, 
 
 i. e. will descend). This is especially the case with the verb 
 e?/u, the present of which regularly has a future meaning. 
 
 5. Verbs of hearing, seeing, learning; as, anovco, 
 k\vco, imvBavcc, also ahtKco, (pevyco, vlkg>, and some others which 
 express an idea that is abiding in its nature, are often used in 
 the present to denote what is past, but which continues to the 
 present, the idea having something of the nature of a general 
 truth; as, QefiicrTOKkea ovk aicoveis avhpa ayaBbv yeyovora (do 
 
 you not hear, have you not heard, a general report). 
 
 6. The verbs fJKa (I am present) and ot^o/xat (I am gone) 
 
 15 
 
170 THE TENSES. [§ 63. 
 
 may generally be best translated as perfects, I have come, I 
 
 have gone. 
 
 Rem. The present participle always refers to the time of the finite 
 verb with which it is connected ; as, ravra Xeycov cnrrjkOev. 
 
 § 62. The Perfect. 
 
 1. The Greek perfect (like the English) expresses not 
 merely a past completed action, but its continu- 
 ance in effect to the present time of the speaker, and this 
 in all the modes ; as, 7re<fievy a, I have escaped and remain 
 in that state = I am free. 
 
 2. Hence the idea of the present continuance of 
 an action is often more prominently expressed by the perfect 
 than that of its completion ; as, riOv-qKa, I am dead (liter- 
 ally, I have died). In this sense, too, the perfect often has a 
 future meaning, like the present (see § 61, 4) ; as, 6'AoAa, I 
 am a dead man, i. e. am sure to die, shall certainly die. 
 
 § 63. The Aorist. 
 
 1 . The aorist expresses an action merely as past, 
 without any implication of its continued effects or existence ; 
 as, eypayj/a, 1 wrote (in time past, but wholly indefinite). 
 
 2. The aor. often expresses customary a c t i o n , or what 
 is wont to be done, which we express by the present ; 
 in which case it ranks among the principal tenses ; as, ovrot 
 SiaTTTvxdevTes axpB^o-av Ktvoi (have usually teen found). 
 
 3. The dramatic writers often use the first pers. sing, of the 
 aor. in dialogue to express a present sentiment or feeling with 
 more energy, by representing it as already confirmed 
 by experience. This happens especially with the verbs 
 
 yvecra, i7rrjv€<ra 9 iyeXacra, ebaKpvcra, r\<j6r)v, aTiiinvcra^ and the like. 
 
 4. So, also, instead of commanding a present action, the 
 Greek sometimes uses the aor. in inquiring why it has not 
 been done ; as, « ovv ovk eXegds fioi; why then have you not 
 said it to me ? == say it to me immediately ! 
 
§ 64.] THE TENSES. 171 
 
 5. As only the indie, of the aor. has the augment, the sign 
 of past action, so in this mode alone does it express wholly 
 what is past, the remaining modes expressing mostly the bare 
 action, and only in certain connections what is past. 
 
 1) The imperative expresses the bare idea of the action 
 of the verb without any reference to time, and hence has 
 nothing of the idea of the continuance of the action, which is 
 expressed by the imper. pres. 
 
 2) The participle expresses almost wholly a past action, 
 and, joined to a finite verb which refers to the future, expresses 
 the idea of the future perfect. 
 
 3) The subjunctive expresses partly the idea of the 
 simple future and partly that of the future perfect ; of the last 
 only when it stands in connection with conjunctions of time 
 and condition, or relative pronouns and adverbs. 
 
 4) The optative retains the meaning of the past only 
 when it is connected with a past tense ; otherwise, it refers to 
 the future ; connected with av it never has a past meaning. 
 
 5) The infinitive expresses sometimes a past action, and 
 
 sometimes the bare action of the verb without any notion of 
 
 time or continuance. 
 
 Rem. The aor. corresponds nearly to the English imperfect with- 
 out a periphrasis, e. g. I loved (not was loving), but may often be 
 translated by the perf. and pluperf. 
 
 § 64. The Imperfect. 
 
 1. The imper feet expresses the continuance of an action 
 in a particular point of past time, defined or im- 
 plied in the connection, and corresponds nearly to the English 
 progressive form of the imperf., e. g. I was loving. 
 
 2. Hence, in narrating past events, the imperf. is used only 
 where there is an obvious continuance of action, or a 
 delineation rather than a mere narration ; in other cases 
 the aor. is used. In this way, according to the nature of the 
 events or circumstances to be related, the one tense or the 
 other is used, giving variety and liveliness to the discourse. 
 
172 THE TENSES. [§ 66. 
 
 Rem. It is not, however, to be inferred from the above, that an 
 action expressed by the aor. is necessarily any shorter than that ex- 
 pressed by the imperfect, but merely that it is related simply as a past 
 event, without any reference to its duration. That is to say, the im- 
 perf. represents an action as continued, the aor. without any reference 
 to its continuance. 
 
 § 65. The Pluperfect. 
 
 1. The pluperfect expresses a past action as taking 
 place before another past action, and continuing 
 in its effects up to the time of that action; as, 
 alirvkai eK€K\eivTo (had been shut and remained so up to a 
 time defined in the context). 
 
 2. But when the previous completion of an action is obvious 
 from its connection, and is not to be particularly marked, but 
 only its simple antecedence to another action, the pluperf. is 
 not generally used, but the aor. in its stead ; as, eVet^ de 
 b i e fin <rav (to. SpLa), 7Tpoa"qvx ovTO civOls Oeois, ichen they jpassed, 
 instead of, when they had passed. 
 
 § 66. The Future. 
 
 1. The first and second future, commonly called the 
 
 simple future , expresses the futurity of an action, but 
 
 without defining at what time in the future it will 
 
 take place; as, 6dyf/co rbv aSeX(/)oV, I will bury my brother 
 
 (but whether immediately or after some hours or days is left 
 
 undetermined). 
 
 Rem. 1. After an historical tense the fut. may be translated by 
 should, would, etc. 
 
 2. The periphrastic future, formed by fiiWco with 
 a pres. or fut., and occasionally, an aor. infinitive, correspond- 
 ing to the Latin fut. part, with sum, expresses the immedi- 
 ate future, since it represents an action as on the point 
 of being done, or as destined immediately to 
 take place; as, v/xas /xe'XXa) ay civ els &a<riv (I am on the 
 point of leading you). 
 
§ 67.] THE MODES. 173 
 
 3. The third future, or future perfect, expresses 
 
 the antecedent completion and continuance of an 
 
 action in the future; as, ttcis 6 Trapcbv <po(3os XeAvcre rat, all 
 
 the present fear will have been removed and remain so ; nearly 
 
 == will be removed, but more emphatic. 
 
 Rem. 2. To express the same idea in the active, the future ecrofxai 
 with a perf. part, is used. But this is not of very frequent occur- 
 rence ; as, Tvapa rovTcdv diKrjv € l\r) <fi 6t e s ecreaSc (lit. you will be 
 having received, you will have received, you will receive). 
 
 Note. The pres., the perf., and the fut. are called principal or 
 leading tenses, the imperf, the pluperf., and the aor. historical tenses. 
 But the historical present belongs to the subordinate tenses, and the 
 aor. employed to express general truths (see § 63, 2), to the leading 
 tenses. 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 THE MODES. 
 
 § 67. The Indicative. 
 
 1. The indicative of all the tenses is used to express 
 ideas and interrogatories exhibited as realities or facts. 
 
 2. The Greek, unlike the Latin, always uses the indie, and 
 not the subj., in indirect or dependent questions ; also in 
 causal, explanatory, and objective sentences (introduced by 
 on, a??, 07tg)?), when they limit, or depend upon, a verb in the 
 leading clause which is in one of the 'principal tenses ; as, 
 fidde avT&v, rives eloriu (indirect question) ; ivvofiv xph T °vro \xkv, 
 yvvalx oti e<pvfi€v (objective) ; ovb* ottcos air eBavev ovdels 
 eXzyev. 
 
 3. But when these sentences depend upon or limit a verb 
 in an historical tense, the optative is often used (for which see 
 under the optative) instead of the indie. ; still the indie, (par- 
 ticularly of the pres. and fut.) is not unfrequently found here 
 also. So, too, even in oratio obliqua, a relative sentence 
 dependent on a verb in an historical tense, and forming an 
 actual part of the reported discourse, generally has its predi- 
 
 15* 
 
174 THE 3I0DES. [§ 67. 
 
 cate in the indie, where in Latin the subj. is always used ; 
 
 as, Kal evSvs e/3oa, on ftaatXevs epxerail ol 6° e\eyov, on nepl 
 
 ctttovDcov tJkol€V avdpes, olrives lkclvoI t ctout at ra Trapa j^acriXecos 
 
 rols ¥XXtjo~iv arrayyeTXat. 
 
 Rem. 1. Relative sentences are introduced either by some case 
 of the relative (or correlative) pronouns 6s, ootls, olos, Snows, Soros, 
 6noo-os, or by the relative adverbs denoting where, whence, whither, and 
 as; as, ov, 68ev, ol, f], wj, cocrTrep, cocrre, ottcos, etc. 
 
 4. After verbs signifying to care, to effect, to see, or take 
 care {that), the subordinate sentence with ottcos (expressing a 
 'purpose or object) has its predicate in the fut. indie, where 
 the Latin uses ut with the subj., such sentences being really 
 indirect questions. But sometimes the subjunctive or the op- 
 tative with av (for which see under the optative) is found after 
 
 these verbs ; as, ottcos vpels epe £tt aiv e o-ere , epol fie\r)o~€L. 
 
 5. The indie, is also used after conjunctions or adverbs of 
 time, in all sentences which express a definite reality 
 or fact; as, Kal ravra £ttolovv, pe^pi ctkotos eyevero (the 
 reference being to the actual coming on of darkness) ; crxedov 
 d* ore ravra rj v , Kal tJXlos idvero. 
 
 Rem. 2. The conjunctions of time are : ore, oirore, r\viKa, corre- 
 sponding to the Latin eo tempore quo, quando (in the time in which, 
 when), or the temporal cum (quum) ; oo-cikls, ottoo-clkls, quoties, cos, ut 
 temporal ; ecos, tare, pexpi, "XP^ ocfypa (poetic), usque ad ilium tempus 
 quo, donee and per illud tempus quo, than; iirci, eVeiS^, eVet re (Ion.), 
 post id tempus quo, postquam and postea, cum, in which sense cos is 
 also used ; irplv, ante id tempus quo, antequam, priusqua/n. 
 
 6. The conjunction irplv, however, is used only with the 
 indie, of an historical tense, and this, of course, only when an 
 actual past event is spoken of; as, ov Trp6o-6ev Irrava-avro ttoXc- 
 
 povvres, 77 p\v €7roir]o~av Tracrav rqv tt6\iv SpoXoyelu AaKe8atp.ouLOvs 
 Kal avrcov rjyepovas dvai (before they made, until they made, re- 
 ferring to an actual matter of fact). In all other cases, either 
 the infin., or the subj. or optat. either with or without oV, is 
 used with irplv, which will be further treated of under these 
 divisions. 
 
 7. When relative, conditional, and temporal sentences (es- 
 
§ 68.] THE MODES. 175 
 
 pecially the latter) refer to something in the indefinite present, 
 they do not have the indie., but mostly the subj. with av (for 
 which see under the subj.). It is very rare, too, that the 
 indie, fut is used in temporal sentences, and only when some 
 particular action is referred to, which is looked upon as cer- 
 tain to occur. 
 
 8. It follows, also, from the nature of the indie, that it is 
 used in sentences' expressing a consequence or result (i. e. 
 those introduced by wore, rarely w?, not used in their relative 
 sense) only in reference to a result actually occurring, or 
 which has actually occurred, and not merely conceived of; 
 as, kcll yiyvercu toctovtov fxera^v rcov arparevficiTcov, cocrre rfj {jcrre- 
 paLCt ovk. i (pavrj crav oi 7ro\ep.iOL f crude rrj rpirrj. 
 
 Rem. 3. The infin. with cocrre will be found under the section on 
 the infin. For the indie, in conditional sentences, see Sec. III. For 
 the indie, in sentences expressing a wish, see Sec. IV. For the 
 indie, of an historical tense with av, expressing repeated or customary 
 action, see § 73, 3, 2). For the very rare use of the indie, in senten- 
 ces expressing an aim or purpose (final sentences), see Sec. V. 
 
 § 68. The Subjunctive. 
 
 1. The Greek subjunctive always refers to what is 
 future ; hence the future tense has no subjunctive. But it 
 differs from the fut. indie, in expressing a future event as con- 
 tingent or merely probable, while that expresses it as a cer- 
 tainty ; as, Kal irore tls elirricriv Ihcov Kara d&Kpv x* 0V(Tav \RMiy 
 say, will probably say). 
 
 2. Although this use of the subj. in directly affirming or 
 denying the future probability of an event is quite limited in 
 independent sentences, even in Epic Greek, and in the later 
 forms of the language was supplanted by another form of 
 speech (for which see § 69, n.), still this is its meaning in all 
 cases where it occurs, in dependent as well as independent 
 sentences. 
 
 Rem. 1. Before enumerating these cases it should be stated that 
 the particle (modal adverb) civ which accompanies the subj. does not 
 materially alter the meaning of the sentence, but only increases the 
 idea of contingency or conditio nalily expressed by the subj. 
 
176 THE MODES. [§ 68. 
 
 3. The subjunctive, without av, is used (mostly in independ- 
 ent sentences) : — 
 
 1) As the so-called deliberative or interrogative 
 
 subjunctive, when one expresses his secret doubts what 
 
 he ought to do, and throws himself, as it were, on the advice 
 
 of those around, though the decision necessarily depends upon 
 
 himself. Such questions would naturally be mostly in the 
 
 first person; as, 770)? ovv pd^copai Bvvtos cov Beta tvjqj ; — cpcopev 
 
 ovtcos rj pr) cfi co p,e v ; 
 
 Rem. 2. This appeal to the opinion or desire of those present is 
 expressed more emphatically by the addition of /3oi;Aei. /3oi'\ecr£e, or 
 BeXeis, BeXere. Hence, while dpa fiovkecrBe rovro pt Trotelv, means, 
 do you wish that I should do this 1 povXecrOe to b\ov irpdypa dcpcopev, 
 means, shall ice give up the whole thing ? would you? 
 
 2) As the so-called ad hortative subjunctive (where 
 we use let, let us), which is generally in the first person (rarely 
 in the second or third), and often with the introductory words 
 Wi, aye, ayer6 y <fiepe, which make the appeal little less than a 
 command; as, pdBcopev (let us learn, we should learn); 
 (f)ep\ &> t€Kpov, vvv Kai to ttjs vrjcrov pdBrjs (would you ICOTn J = 
 
 see that you learn). 
 
 3) As the so-called d e h ortative or prohibitive sub- 
 junctive, used mostly in the first person plur. and the sec- 
 ond person sing, and plur., rarely in the third person, and still 
 more rarely in the first person sing., and in all these cases, 
 except that of the first person plur., only in the aor. tense. 
 The negative here is pr] (p-qbiv, prjhzis) : as, « feiwi, pi) Brjr 
 ddiKTjdco (that I may suffer no wrong, let me suffer no wrong) ; 
 
 aXX' ovv it po pr]vv o~r]s y€ tovto prjdevl Tovpyov, you at least ICO 111 d 
 not inform of= do not inform of 
 
 4) As the so-called subjunctive of anxiety or fear, 
 which is affirmative with pr), asserting the existence of a fear, 
 and negative with ov pi], denying its existence ; in the latter 
 case in all persons (commonly of the aor.), in the former, 
 which is of rare occurrence in any person, no examples are 
 found of the third person of the present ; as, pr) dypoiKOTepov rj 
 
§ 68.] THE MODES. 177 
 
 (let it not be too uncivil = I fear it may be thought too uncivil) 
 
 to d\r]6es elireiv ; ov o~€ prj 7rpo5o5, do not fear that I shall betray 
 
 you. 
 
 Rem. 3. As will be seen, there is implied in both affirmative and 
 negative sentences of this kind a verb expressing the idea of fear, 
 care, or anxiety, which is occasionally expressed, and in this case the 
 present is used as well as the aor., and in all persons; as. evXaftov 
 (fear, beware) pr] (pavfjs K.aK.6s yeycos 1 . 
 
 4. The subjunctive is used, rarely with av, in senten- 
 ces denoting an aim or purpose ; as, \e£ad\ cb s* eldS rb ndv ; 
 tovt avro vvv dldaorxi o it co s av €Kpdd co . 
 
 5. The subjunctive is used, generally with av, in rel- 
 ative sentences; as, ovs civ oi deol nepl ttX^lcttov wolcdv- 
 t a i , Sclttov CLTraWaTTOVCTL tov £rjv. 
 
 6. The subjunctive is used, almost wholly with av, in 
 temporal sentences, so much so that av is generally 
 united with the temporal conjunction into one word ; making 
 
 orav, oiTorav, tjvlk av, ecos civ, ear av, a^pis av, uexpis av, eTreiddv, 
 €7TT]V (rare), irpiv av', o(ppa av, evr av (poetic) ; as, ivvoeW\ 
 orav 7ro p 6 tjt € yalav, cvaeftelv to. npos Seovs ', £o~6\6v Ka\ to re- 
 TVKTai, 6t ayyikos dicripa e I d r\ . 
 
 7. The subjunctive is used in the conditioning part, called 
 the protasis, of conditional sentences, almost wholly 
 with av (which, contracted with the conditioning el, becomes 
 lav, fjv, rarely av) ; as, edv $ airf) tovtcov to %aip€iv, rdAX eyob 
 Kairvov o-Kias ovk av irpiaipT]v dvBpl rrpos ttjv fjdovfjv. 
 
 8. The subjunctive in these last three cases generally ex- 
 presses an assumed or probable future idea, or general thought 
 or truth, and >vhen this idea appears, as antecedent to that of 
 the principal clause, it is in the aor. subj. The verb in the 
 principal clause must be in one of the principal tenses ; as, ov 
 Xpr) /xe cvdevfe aneXOelv, it p\v av h £> dUrjv, it is not proper for 
 
 me to go hence, before I shall give satisfaction. 
 
 Rem. 4. The av is sometimes omitted by the poets when it would 
 be used by prose-writers, but without changing the sense ; as, dprjyeT, 
 ear* eyeb poXco Ta(j)ov peXrjBels tg>8c ; dvbpi tol xpeobi/ p,vr]pr)V Trpocrti- 
 vac, TepTTvbv ei (instead of idv) tl irov ndSr}. 
 
178 THE MODES. [§ 69. 
 
 9. In the like cases to those above, when the verb of the 
 principal clause is in an historical tense, in direct discourse 
 the optative without avis uniformly used in place of the_ 
 subj., and in indirect discourse (oratio obliqua), partly the 
 subj. with av and partly the opt. without av ; as, ol 
 TTaibes fxov fierel^ov, oacov iyco ifravoifii \ ol S' eXeyov, on ra pev 
 
 TTpOS fJL€CTT)fJLppLaV TTJS €7rl Ba(3vX<bva e'lT] KOL Ml]diaV, SY f)0~TT€p 
 
 fj ko l e v ; el yap tl ttlo'tov icrnv Ik xP r )°~ Tr lp' L(liV '> ° * s av o~v 
 7T p o cr Btj , toIot& eipcurK civai Kpdros ; VTreo-x^Q-Be avrois rore cmiivai, 
 orav ra diKaia e^ao-iv ol o-TpaTLcorat. 
 
 § 69. The Optative. 
 
 The optative expresses the same uncertainty and inde- 
 
 terminateness of an impending action as the subj. does, but 
 
 with reference to an historical tense, instead of a principal 
 
 tense, answering to the past tenses of the potential mode in 
 
 our language. Hence the optative may be called the subj, 
 
 of the historical tenses, which it regularly follows in 
 
 the subordinate clause, and corresponds to in its inflectional 
 
 endings. 
 
 Rem. 1. As a substitute for the subj. the optative retains the same 
 reference to the future as that mode has. But it has the same time 
 as the verb of the principal clause, where it is used in place of the 
 indie. , as it often is in order to give a clause a closer dependence upon 
 the leading clause, giving it more decidedly the form of indirect dis- 
 course ; as, 7]p<jL>Toov ere, rls ovros icrriv (who is he? but changed to 
 the optat. e I r\ , who he could be) ; eXe^ev 6 ayyeXos, ore 6 Kvpos rjXdev 
 (or eXSoi, with the same difference as above). 
 
 I. The optative without av in subordinate sentences, 
 closely dependent upon a past tense (see the preceding Rem.) 
 or an opt. in the principal clause is used : — 
 
 1. In sentences denoting a purpose or aim (for examples 
 of which see Sec. V.). 
 
 2. In relative, temporal, and conditional sen- 
 tences : — 
 
 1) After the indicative of an historical tense, in 
 
§ 69.] THE MODES. 179 
 
 which case the subordinate sentence does not generally denote 
 a single definite action, but one always recurring under cer- 
 tain circumstances, and hence, generally, repeated ; as, kcu ovs 
 fxev lb 01 evraKTcos, irpocreXavvoav avrols, rives re elev rjpero, kcu enel 
 TzvdoiTo, €tttjv€l (whomsoever he saw — as often as he saw 
 any .... when he learned = as often as he learned). 
 
 2) Temporal sentences take an optative after another 
 optative; as, ovrcos t) dvdpcoTrtvr) cro^ici ovbev p.dXXov olde to 
 apio-Tov alpeio~dai, rj el KXrjpovpevos on Xd^ot rovro tls 7T parrot 
 
 {what he should obtain by lot, this should do). 
 
 3) In the oratio obliqua, when the relative, temporal, or 
 conditional sentence is viewed as a part of the indirect or 
 
 reported discourse ; as, ecpt] etvcu aKpov, b el p.i) ns 7TpoKaraXrj- 
 y\roiro, dbvvarov earecrdai TrapeXBelv. 
 
 4) When a conditional sentence (and occasionally a rela- 
 tive sentence) takes the optative, after an optative in the prinr 
 cipal clause, both clauses express, not the reality, but the 
 possibility of an event; as, rdx dv o-a^r) Xi^ciev, et vw 
 7rp6s plap Kpipciv GeXois, he would soon speak the truth, if you 
 should condemn him to torture; bv iroXis o-ri)o~eie (whatever 
 ruler the city should appoint), rovde xpi kXvclv. 
 
 Rem. 2. But occasionally a conditional sentence has the optative, 
 while the principal clause has the indie, i. e. the subordinate clause 
 expresses the mere possibility of an event, and the principal clause the 
 reality of a present or future action; as, eijecrriv vp.1v, el /3ov- 
 \o l(t6 e (if you should wish), Xa(36vras onXa, oidjrep rjpels exopev, els 
 rov avrbv i)piv Kivdvvov epfiaiveiv. For the further treatment of condi- 
 tional sentences, see Sec. III. 
 
 3. In objective sentences after the conjunctions on, as, 
 
 oncos, onus pr), pr), and words signifying to think, perceive, say, 
 
 show, care, effect, fear, and the like ; as, r) de dneKpivaro, on 
 
 fiovXoiro pev diravra rco jrarpl x a P l C €a '^ aL 5 avrol 6° ivemXovv 
 
 epoL, a) s pdXXov /xeXot p.oi, ottcds to. o~d KaXas e^ot r) ottcds tcl 
 
 eavrcov. 
 
 Rem. 3. For the use of the indie, and subj. in this class of sen- 
 tences, see § 67, 4. 
 
180 THE MODES. [§ 69. 
 
 4. In indirect questions; as, Kai 6 'Ao-Tvdyrjs idavpaae 
 yxev, rivos KeXevcravTos tjkol (wondered at whose call he might 
 come ; direct question, at whose call do I come ?) 
 
 Rem. 4. But after a verb in the present tense, such questions are 
 expressed partly by the indie, and partly by the deliberative subj, 
 And even after a past tense, the indie, is sometimes used instead of 
 the optative. See R. 1 ; also Xen. Cyr. I. 6. 12-14. 
 
 II. The optative with av in both independent and de- 
 pendent sentences. 
 
 1. The optative (especially of the aor. and pres., but 
 
 rarely of the pluperf.) is often used with av to express the 
 
 presumption or assumption that something may or will be, and 
 
 this, too, in many cases which we should express as definite 
 
 by the indie. ; as, ei/i/oelre, otl tjttov av ordo-is etr) [would he less, 
 
 supposing it to take place) ivos apxovros rj 7ro\\cov. 
 
 Rem. 5. The optative with av, both in dependent and independent 
 sentences, always has a future reference, since, even in speaking of 
 events which belong to the present, it does not represent them as 
 realities, but only as probabilities, and hence, if ever to become reali- 
 ties, to become so in the future. 
 
 2. The optative with av is often used in independent 
 sentences as a modest expression of a command or refusal, 
 and in interrogatories as a icish or desire also; as, Xeyoi/x' 
 av (I would speak, = give me an opportunity to speak), 6V 
 rJKovcra rov 6eov rrdpa ; ovk av ivipa (f) pa a a i\xi (I will not speak 
 further, = don't urge me to speak further); r\ yap yivoir* 
 av (what I should like to know could be, etc.) cXkos iiei(ov rj 
 <f}[\os Ka<6s ; 
 
 3. The optative with av is used, also, in its usual sense, 
 in all subordinate sentences in which the indie, of a principal 
 sentence can be used, when, instead of a definite present or 
 future assertion, a bare assumption or possibility is to 
 be expressed, hence in objective sentences with on, &?, 
 077GK, in relative sentences, and in indirect ques- 
 tions ; as, ripcoTcnv €K€ivoi, cl (if, whether) dolev av tovtcov to. 
 Trio-rd (indirect question) ; ovk olda, o n av ns xph (Ta, ' T0 avrols 
 
§ 70.] THE MODES. 181 
 
 (relative); ev6a 8rj aireKpivaro KXedvcop, on irp6o-6ev av air o 6 a- 
 voiev rj ra 07rXa tt apabolev (objective). 
 
 III. The optative without av stands in independent 
 sentences only in a wish, 
 
 1. The wish that something may or may not happen is 
 expressed by the simple optative without oV, often with 
 the addition of «, el yap, eWe (Homeric at yap, aWe) ; as, a> iral, 
 yivoio 7raTp6s evrvx^o-Tepos, would that you had been descended 
 more fortunate from your father ! For the other modes of 
 expressing a wish, see Sec. IV. 
 
 2. A particular use of the optative with av (Epic *e, 
 k£v) is found in a few cases in Homer and Herodotus, where 
 it refers to the past. Homer uses it in the principal clause of 
 a conditional sentence, where the Attic writers always use the 
 indie, of an historical tense. Herodotus, on the contrary, uses 
 it to express a presumption that something has occurred ; as, 
 
 el [lev tls tov oveipov 'A^atoov aXXos eviVTrev, y^ev^os kcv (palfiev 
 (we should have pronounced it a fabrication) ; aXka ravra fiev 
 kol <j>66vcd av e'lrroiev (may have spoken). 
 
 § 70. The Infinitive, 
 
 The general principle here is, thatthe Greek uses 
 the infinitive with all verbs which express or 
 imply the icill or the ability for performing an ac- 
 tion. 
 
 1. We may enumerate, as examples of the first class, 
 verbs signifying to icill, not to ivill, to seem (to b$ willing), 
 to be resolved, to be of opinio?!, to desire, to ivish, to be 
 obliged, to be necessary, to advise, to dissuade, to compel, to 
 cause, to be the occasion, to prevent, to ask, to forbid, to com- 
 mand, to allow, to be proper or fit, to happen, to come to pass ; 
 and of the second, verbs signifying to be able, to be fitted for, 
 to be practicable, to be just (8Uaios), to be brought about, to be 
 ready, to be determined, to venture, to learn (i. e. to become 
 
 16 
 
182 THE MODES. [^ 70, 
 
 fitted for something), to understand (i. e. to be fitted for), to 
 
 he accustomed; as, y iy v cocr /ce TavBpcoTrtia prj (refteiv ayav ', 
 evboOev array o p e v co o~ol pq KivelcrOai', a p%€cr6 a i err io~ Ta- 
 ps, a t. 
 
 Rem. 1. Of course, it is immaterial whether these ideas are ex- 
 pressed by a single verb or by an adjective (often agreeing with the 
 subject, where we use the impersonal form) or noun with elpl ; as, 
 6 xp°v° s Pp a X^ s (*• e * t°° short, not sufficient for) dfjlcos dirjyrjcrao'BaL 
 ra TTpaxOevra. So, too, the same verb would naturally have different 
 constructions in different meanings. In like manner, verbs signifying 
 to fear, to be ashamed, to dread, when they mean little more than to be 
 unwilling, take the infin. ; as, (f)o(3ovpai dhiKelv ere. The Greek, 
 therefore, uses the infin. in nearly all cases where the Latin uses ut, 
 quo, quo-minus, and quin with a finite verb. 
 
 2. As words denoting to be able, to be fitted for, take an 
 
 infin. , so the correlatives tolovtos olos, to&ovtos Sctos, ovtco cocrre, 
 
 which have substantially this meaning, are used with the infin., 
 
 both in the nom. and the ace. ; as, tolovtos Io-tlv, olos ivdvTas 
 
 els dpeTrjv 6 p fidv , he is of such a character as to incite all to 
 
 virtue; Bkapa 8* eicro^et tolovtov, oiov Kal o~TvyovvT irroi- 
 
 KTio-ai. But the demonstrative is often omitted, leaving the 
 
 relative alone, in which way olov r dvai (to be able) arose ; 
 
 also 6 tl (octop) fi elbivai (as far as I know). 
 
 Rem. 2. For cocrre with the indie, see § 67, 8. It differs from 
 wore with the infin. as follows. It is used with the indie, to express 
 an actual occurrence either present or past ; but with the infin. to de- 
 note that a person or thing has the requisite power to effect a certain 
 action or result, so that it may happen, but not that it must ; as, rjv 
 de xtcov TroWr) Kal tyvxos ovtcds, cocrre to v8cop en rjyvvTo (a defi- 
 nite fact); Kpavyrju TroXXrjv iirolovv koKovvtcs dWrjXovs, cocrre Kal 
 tovs noXepiovs a kov e iv , calling to each other they made noise enough 
 for the eneftiy to hear them, but whether they did or not is not said. 
 
 3. Almost uniformly, also, the infin. (rarely, if ever, except 
 by the later writers, 6tl and as with the indie, or opt.) follows 
 the verbs signifying to think, to believe, to suppose, to judge, 
 to hope, to promise, to swear, to deny. But after verbs signi- 
 fying to say, to announce, to hear, the construction with the 
 infin. and with otl and co? is about equally common ; but with 
 vorbs signifying to know, to perceive, the construction with the 
 
§ 70.] THE MODES. 183 
 
 infin. is the least frequent ; as, en de iXiriC^ ^al <p[Xov avrbv 
 fxdXXov tj/jlIv y ewq a ecrSat rj vvv ecm ; rbv KaXbv KayaBbv avbpa 
 evdalfjiova elv at (j>rj fii \ e^ecrriv dp velar 6 at rois aXXois, otl ov 
 7T a p Tj v . 
 
 Rem. 3. These and similar verbs are also constructed with the 
 participle, for which see § 71. 
 
 4. While the verb ho^elv gone rally takes the infin. the simi- 
 lar verb (f>aiu€o-Sai is generally constructed with the part., except 
 occasionally in the passive sense 1 am believed, when it takes 
 the infin. ; as, l/*oi de arv /cat ttXovt ee iv p.ev jxeya (paiveai . 
 
 5. The infin., also, sometimes stands with the verbs signi- 
 fying to endeavor, to care, to look out, effect (that something 
 take place) ; but, as we have seen above, § 67, 4, these verbs 
 are generally constructed with onm ; as, eT7ip.eXop.ai p,fj 
 air o^wXevtraj rbv lttttov. 
 
 6. The passive verbs XeyeoSai, dyyeXXeaSat, SfidXoyeto-Oai, and 
 the like, when personal, take the nom. with the infin., but 
 when impersonal, the ace. with the infin. ; as, 6 'Ao-crv pt,os 
 els rrjv yjapav e p. /3 aXXe iv ay ye XX era i ; Eep^ea Xeyerai 
 aKovo-avra ravra el-irai. But the passives vopi^erai, 7rio~Teveo~6ai , 
 and the like, are always personal. 
 
 7. When the infin. and the verb on which it depends have 
 the same subject, this subject is not expressed before the infin. 
 as it often is in Latin ; as, SpoXoyS) dpaprelv (I confess that I 
 erred ; Latin, fateor me pecasse). But when this subject is 
 emphatic, as in contrasts, it is expressed after the principal 
 verb, sometimes in the nom. and sometimes in the ace. ; as, 
 KXecov ovk e<fir] av r 6 s (or avrov), aAV eKelvov (Ni/acu/) crrpar-qyelv. 
 
 8. So, also, where the subject of the infin. is different from 
 that of the governing verb, but is expressed as an object of 
 the governing verb, it is never repeated before the infin. as 
 it is in Latin ; as, ovbev\ dvOpoaircov v^elpr^v dv ovre fieXriov ovre 
 rjhiov epov (3epicDKei/ai (avrov, referring to ovdevl being omitted). 
 
 9. When the governing verb and the infin. have the same 
 subject, an adjective, adjective pronoun, or participle serving 
 
184 THE MODES. [§ 70. 
 
 as a predicative explanation of this subject, is always in the 
 case required by the governing verb (or participle) ; as, €<j)T]- 
 crda KeXatvecjie'i Kpovicovi o'lrj Iv adavaTouriv aet/cea \oybv dpvvai 
 (that you alone repelled); iycb pev ovx opoXoyrjcrco aKX-qros 
 rj«.€Lv, d\\ % {mo crov Ke k\tj /JL6PO s (that I have come uncalled, 
 but called, etc.) ; tgov (pacrKovTo^p Si/caoro3i/ eivat (here Sikootgoj/, 
 though belonging to the predicate, after thai, agrees with tcqp 
 (pao-KovToov, which is at the same time the subject and the gov- 
 erning verb). 
 
 10. When a predicative explanation connected with the 
 infin. refers to the object of the governing verb, it is sometimes 
 in the same case as that object, and sometimes in the ace, as 
 though the subject of the infin. were expressed and it agreed 
 with it; as, edtopTo Kvpov, ws TV poBv fiordrov 7Tp6s top noXepop 
 yevecrdai ; ideopTo pov, Trpoo-Tarijv yepeo~6ai. 
 
 11. The infin., like a neuter noun, but without becoming 
 so entirely a noun as to lose the construction and government 
 of a verb, may take the neuter article in any case of the sing. 
 before it, and be governed as a noun. With regard to quali- 
 fying words connected with an infin. having an article, the 
 following should be observed : — 
 
 1) The subject of such an infin. is always in the ace. ; as, 
 
 to top Tralda rayy pavBdveiv Ttpitvov Ivti* 
 
 2) The object of such an infin. is in the case usually gov- 
 erned by the verb; as, lv tco (ppopelp yap p.7]dep tJ8kttos j3ios 
 (in being anxious for nothing). 
 
 3) A personal predicative explanation connected with an 
 infin. with the article is in the 1 nom., when it refers to the sub- 
 ject of the governing verb; as, 8t,a to gevos elvai ovk au o'Ui 
 ddiKrjOrjvaL ; would you not think .... because you are a stran- 
 ger ? 
 
 4) The attributive qualification of such an infin., as of all 
 forms of the verb, is an adverb, and a predicative adjective 
 referring to it is in the neuter ; as, to pep yap avrbv 4k mK&v 
 7re(£euyeVai, rj 6" 1 o" r v . 
 
§ 70.] THE MODES. 185 
 
 Rem. 4. The poets often use the infin. with the article where the 
 prose-writers use only the simple infin. 
 
 12. The infin. after certain adjectives expresses an action 
 as a nearer definition of the adjective, or as indicating the 
 point of view in which its meaning is to be taken. Such infin. 
 are mostly in the active, even where the passive seems to be 
 required, the action being referred to the object of the princi- 
 pal verb; as, Ka\ firjv abiXois eXecvos el (to pap eyco (and in 
 
 truth, to my friends I was pitiful to behold, i. e. for them to 
 behold = to be looked upon). Here also belongs the phrase 
 6avfia Ihia-Oai. But there are few cases of the infin. after 
 nouns. 
 
 13. The infin., also, follows such adjectives, when they are 
 in the comparative with fj (than) after them ; in which case 
 a>s or coo-re is sometimes added to the infin. ; as, t6 yap v6o-T\p.a 
 fiel^ov r) (pepeiv (too great to bear) ; ol AaKedaijioutot fjo-Qovro 
 "'EkDlkov eXdrrco hvvapLiv €%ovra fj co o~ r e rovs (pCkovs co (f> e X e 1 v . 
 
 14. The Greek often uses, not only a simple infin., but also 
 a whole infin. sentence, whether having its own subject or one 
 continued from the governing sentence, to express the end or 
 object of an action after a sentence or a verb which expresses 
 the meaning of a sentence. 
 
 1) The simple infin. is used especially when the end of the 
 action is to be presented as a gift or present ; by the poets, 
 also, after verbs of going, coming, existence ; as, ovk av rbv 
 avrov ivalbd tls 8oir) ktclvcIv (to be killed = that they might 
 kill him) ; \iav6 avziv tJkojjl€V £ivoi irpos aaTccv. 
 
 2) The end of an action may be expressed by a whole 
 infin. sentence after all kinds of sentences, but the infin. sen- 
 tence must always be introduced by icj> <a (icf> y £ re, or, in its 
 full form, eVi tovto), itf co), and coo-re (or in full, em roto-be, 
 too-re), that, in order that, so that, to the end that; as, irav 
 7roLOvaLV, cocrre (to the end that) hin-qv fir) Sid ovai. 
 
 Rem. 5. When eft co or i<j) core is used, as it sometimes is (espe- 
 cially by Herodotus and Thucydides), in the sense on condition that, 
 
 16 * 
 
186 THE MODES. [§ 70. 
 
 in case that, if, it takes the fut. indie. ; as, ol ev ^iBdop-rj Meo-o-rjvioi 
 ^vveftrjcrav 7rpos AaKedaLp.ov[ovs, e(^)' coTe (on condition that) i£iao~i 
 (future in meaning) ck TLekoirovv7](jov kcll p7§e7rore im (3ij orour at 
 avTrjs* 
 
 15. In intermediate sentences, which express a limitation 
 or qualification of the general sentiment, or some word in the 
 connection, where we use so with the infin., or as with the indie. 
 or potential mode, the Greek, chiefly after verbs signifying to 
 say, to hear, to conjecture, to judge, to seem, to remember, uses 
 the infin., generally with cos before it. This as properly re- 
 fers to ovrcos (generally omitted), so that the full sense is, so 
 to speak (judge, etc.) as some one (the speaker) does ; as, 
 
 KaiToi aXrjOes ye, cos tiros el tt el v, ovhev elprjKaat (they have 
 
 uttered nothing true, so to speak)-, ev ye eXeyev, cos ovrcoa-l 
 aKovo-ai (to hear as I do=.to my hearing) ; dXX\ eludo-ai 
 pev (as I conjecture), fjdvs. 
 
 16. In like manner ehai (in Herodotus with cos) often stands 
 independent of the rest of the sentence and apparently without 
 much meaning, after iic&p (mostly in affirmative sentences), 
 Kara bvvap.iv, to e-jr eKeivois, to kclto. tovto, to vvv, to Tfjfiepov, to 
 o-vyLirav, etc. Also belv (sometimes with cos, rarely too-Te) with 
 
 ttoXXov, oXiyov, puKpov ; as, odev drj eKovca eXvai (willing to 
 be so) ovk a.7ToXeL7TeTaL rj ^vx*} ? boKel ovv pot xprjvai ovtghti fjpas 
 
 iroirjuaL, to jxev Tr\\iepov elvai (for the day, for the present) 
 
 XP^o-aaBaL avTjj ; to be Tas Ibias evepyealas vnopipvricrKeiv kcli Xeyeiv 
 fiiKpov belv o/jlolov ecTTi tco oveibei^eiv. But belv is sometimes 
 omitted, leaving the gen. alone. 
 
 17. The infin. also (with an ace. w T hen its subject is differ- 
 ent from that of the governing verb) is used after irplv or 
 the less common 7rp\v rj ; as, -f] yvptj ndXtv (ppovdrj, irp\v elirelv 
 
 eoSX6v T) KCIKOV \6yOV, 
 
 Rem. 6. For the cases in which the indie, or the subj. and optat. 
 are used with npiv, see §§ 67, 6 ; 68, 6 ; 69, I. 2. 
 
 18. When the discourse of another is related by the ace. 
 with the infin. and not by on and a finite verb, the infin. con- 
 struction is often continued into the subordinate sentences 
 
§ 71.] THE MODES. 187 
 
 after relative words and temporal and conditional conjunc- 
 tions ; as, elvat de ra^yrrfra ovdevl irepco ofxolov, ovrco ware, el firj 
 
 7T poXdfl (3 aV€ IV TT]S 6d0V TOVS 'ivdoVS Iv CO TOVS fJLV p flTJKdS 
 
 crvWty ecr 6 at , ovdeva av crcpecov air o cr co £e cr 6 at. 
 
 19. The infinitive often expresses the substance of a com- 
 mand, a request, or a wonder (in this case usually taking the 
 article before it), without any particular verb of commanding, 
 asking, or wondering upon which it depends (called the im- 
 perative use of the inf.) ; as, Oapcrcov vvv, Acofi^bes, inl Tpco€(Tcn 
 fidx^o-dac (taking courage . ... to Jfght —fight) ; 6eo\ noXiraL, 
 fifj'pc SovXelas Tv^eii/ (/ei me not incur); tovtov 5* vfipL- 
 {eivf dvairvelv be! ov el res la £/ji>, dyairdv ebei (that this 
 man should riot in insolence, should breathe freely !). 
 Rem. 7. For the use of av with the infin. see § 73. 
 
 § 71. The Participle. 
 
 1. The participle, which is' much more used in Greek 
 than in English, has both a dependent and an independent 
 construction, — dependent, when it agrees with either the sub- 
 ject or object of the sentence in gender, number, and case ; 
 independent, when it agrees with some noun in the gen. (gen- 
 itive absolute), or stands in the ace. neuter (ace. absolute), 
 either alone or with a neuter adjective, in both cases independ- 
 ent of the rest of the sentence in which it occurs. 
 
 2. The dependent participle expresses either an 
 objective relation or an attributive relation, — objective, where 
 it is equivalent to the infin., or a subordinate sentence intro- 
 duced by that, in our language ; attributive, where it merely 
 describes or defines the subject or object of a sentence like an 
 adjective or a noun in apposition, except that it retains the idea 
 of time. 
 
 I. The objective dependent participle is used 
 either invariably, or mostly, or often, after the following 
 verbs : — 
 
188 THE MODES. [§ 71. 
 
 1) To happen, to appear, to be evident, to show, to prove, 
 
 to Conceal, to anticipate, Tvyxdveiv, (fiaivecrBai, (pavepov elmi, SrjXov 
 elvai, beiKvvvai, drjXovv, et-eXeyxtw, XavOdveiv, (pBdveiv, etc. ; as, 
 
 drjXos el KaracjypovSu jjlov (you are evident despising me, or 
 as we say, it is evident that you despise me). 
 
 2) To begin, to cease, to leave, to bear, to endure, to con- 
 tinue, to labor, to become weary of, to give up, apx^o-Bai, wave- 
 
 o~6ai, Xr\yeiv, Traveiv, imXeiTreiv, Kaprepiiv, dvix*o-6ai, diareXelv, dcayt- 
 yvecrOai, Kap.veiv, aneip-qKevai, dnayopeveiv, etc. ; as, ovttotg iiravo- 
 
 \ir]v rjjjLas olKT€Lpcop {I could never cease pitying, or to pity). 
 
 Rem. 1. Some verbs of these two classes, as rvyxdveuv, (pBduetv, 
 XavOdveiv, biareXiiv, biayiyvecrOai, bidyeiv, when followed by a parti- 
 ciple, may generally be best rendered into English by the correspond- 
 ing adverb, and the participle, as though it were a finite verb in the 
 same tense; as, eXaBe rpe(f)cov top (fiovea, he was unconsciously 
 nourishing his murderer (literally, nourishing his murderer, he knew 
 it not). 
 
 3) To rejoice, to be pleased, to be vexed, to be indignant, 
 
 to be ashamed, to repent, xcupetz>, dyairdv, fjdeo~Bai, ^aXe^a)? (be- 
 petv, axOecrdai, dyavaKTelv, a\o~xyvto~Bai, (jLeTapiXecrBai, etc. ; as, ovk 
 eiT ai<TXVV£0-6z, yrjs ovtco voo~ovo~r)S, 'Idia KLVOVPTCS KdKa. 
 
 4) To see, to overlook, to allow to take place, to perceive, to 
 remember, to learn, to hear, to know, to be conscious of, to 
 find, to seize, opdv, irepopdv, alcrBdvecrBai, pL€p,i/rjaBai, yiyvuvKeiv, 
 pavBdveiv, aKOveiv, elbevau, avveiftivai eavrcp, evpiaKeiv, KaraXapfidveiv, 
 
 etc. ; as, ovk i pdvQavov rpefyav bu ara (he did not know 
 that he was cherishing). 
 
 Rem. 2. Many of the above classes of verbs take the infin. also 
 (see §70, 1,3), but with a somewhat different meaning. The partici- 
 ple expresses simply a condition of the subject or object of a verb, 
 whereas the infin. expresses the object itself of a verb ; as, alo-xvvopcu 
 ravra Xeyav (I, speaking these things, am ashamed) ; but alo~xvvopai 
 ravra Xkyeiv (I am ashamed to speak = at the speaking of). And so 
 in other cases. For such of these verbs as are used with on or cos, 
 see Sec. V. The part, in this relation is used with w? but rarely, and 
 mostly by the poets; as, cos prjSev eld or* tadt \x hv dvtaropels, be 
 assured that I know nothing of what you relate (lit. regard me as 
 knowing). 
 
 II. The dependent participle is used, also : — 
 
 
§ 71.] THE MODES. ' 189 
 
 1) As an attributive which depends upon or qualifies a sub- 
 ject or object like a noun in apposition. This, too, can rarely 
 be translated by a part., but generally eitner by a relative, 
 temporal, conditional, causal, or final sentence. But often the 
 idea of time, condition, cause, end, is expressed by particles 
 connected with the part. ; as, evflvs, avrUa, apa, Kainep, aWcos 
 re kcli, are, olov, cos ', as, tls rjv ttotc 6 Toixrde \e£as rovs \6yovs 
 (who was it, I should like to know, who spoke these words ?) ; 
 (jfuAei yap oKveiv irpaypH dprjp Trpdcrcrcov pkya (when he is doing) ; 
 (TvpfiovkevG* crot, Kai7rep vecortpos cov, prj acpaipelorBai a av dcos ', 
 
 \r)'i£6fjL€voi £&(Tiv (they live by robbery = because they plun- 
 der). 
 
 2) With the particle 60s in the sense with the impression, 
 conviction that, under the pretext, appearance that, and (with 
 the fut. part.) with the purpose, particularly with the fut. part, 
 of 7rapao-K€vd£ecr6ai ; as, wy ovv an^Way fxevot, tovtcov tcov kclkoZv 
 
 rjdecos iKoifirjOrjo-av (under the impression that t\ey were rid of 
 these evils) ; ol *A6r)va7oi Trap€o~K€va£ovTQ cos iro\ep,rj<rovT€S (just 
 as if they were going to fight). 
 
 3) In dialogue, when one inquires the ground or explana- 
 tion of something which the other has just stated, where we 
 more commonly use an independent sentence ; thus, A. 6 epos 
 Trarrjp aireKTeivev avrov. — B. ti Xaftcov ddiKovvra ; (A. My father 
 
 killed him. B. In the commission of what crime did he detect 
 him ?). 
 
 III. We come now to the independent participle, 
 which is either in the gen. or ace, corresponding to the Latin 
 ablative absolute, and, like the dependent participle, expresses 
 the relations of time, condition, cause, etc., which ideas are 
 also more emphatically expressed sometimes by the addition 
 of certain particles, particularly cos. 
 
 1) The genitive absolute, consisting of a part, joined to a 
 noun in the gen., is used with cos to denote that the idea ex- 
 pressed by it is to be regarded as the substance of some con- 
 ception, opinion, or conviction, implied in the connection ; as, 
 
190 THE MODES. [§ 72. 
 
 ipcora o n /3ovXet, cos TaKrjBrj (/xov) epovvros (persuaded that I 
 will tell the truth). c £ls is also sometimes used thus, even when 
 the opinion is expressed by yiyv&o-Keip, or ovtco ttjv yvdopr)v e'xetv ; 
 
 aS, COS €fXOV OVV loVTOS 07T7] CLV KOL VpeiS, OVTCO TT)V yVQOp7]V €)(€T€. 
 
 The part, here expresses what is called the conceived or as- 
 sumed ground. 
 
 Rem. 3. The noun belonging- to the part, is sometimes omitted, 
 when it may be easily supplied from the connection, leaving the part- 
 alone ; as, evrevBev rr p o'i 6 vt co v icpaivero 'Lx vr ) "irnw KaL K-oirpos. 
 
 2) The accusative absolute consists of a neuter singular 
 
 participle ; as, deov, e£oy, napou, 7T/)ocn}/<:oj>, Trapexov, pe\ov, pera- 
 
 jxekov, boKovV) bo$;av, or the participles of passive verbs used im- 
 personally, e. g. irporaxBev, elp-qpevov, ytvopevov eV e/xoi, or 01 
 impersonal expressions formed from a neuter adjective with 
 the part, of dpi, e. g. ddvvarov, alcrxpov 6V, and may generally be 
 rendered into English by a temporal or causal sentence hav- 
 ing the same time as the finite verb which it stands connected 
 with ; as, d\\d ri dl], vpds l£bv dnoXecraL (when it was allowed), 
 ovk em tovto fj\6ojjL€v ; It is also constructed with cos like the 
 gen. absolute ; as, avTL7rapeo-K€vd^€TO eppcopevcos, cos pdx^s cri 
 berjo-ov (just as if there were still a necessity of battle). 
 
 Rem. 4. The dat. of the participle agreeing with a noun some- 
 times appears to be independent, and may be conveniently rendered so 
 into English, but the noun always refers to a person interested in the 
 action more or less remotely, and hence cannot be absolute, but ex- 
 presses the ordinary relation of the dat. to a verb ; as, dnopovvT i 
 avrco epxercu Ilpop-qdevs (while he iv as perplexed, in his perplexity) . 
 
 Rem. 5. For the use of av with the part, see § 73, 5. 
 
 § 72. The Imperative. 
 
 As the Greek imperative does not differ materially 
 from the imperative in English, we simply add here : — 
 
 1. That the negative particle for the imperat. is prj, p*)&<> 
 
 pr/deis (not ov, etc.) ; as, pr) poi dvriXeye. 
 
 2. That a negative command or prohibition cannot be ex- 
 pressed by the imperat. of the aor., but either by the imperat. 
 
§ 73.] THE MODES. 191 
 
 of the pres. or the subj. of the aorist (see § 68, 3, 3) ; as, 
 
 TavTa fjLOL wpaijov, T€Kvov, kol jjlt} fipddvve, jJLTjd c TTipLvq o~6rjs 
 €TL Tpoias. 
 
 3. That the Greek expresses a command not merely by 
 the imperat., but also sometimes by the opt. with av (see § 69, 
 II. 2), and sometimes by different kinds of questions, and 
 occasionally by the infin. (see § 70, 19). 
 
 4. Acommandis expressed in the way of a question : — 
 
 1) By the fut. indie, sometimes with and sometimes with- 
 out ov ; as, nalfes, ov o-KeyjreaBc (will you not look to it ? = 
 look to it immediately). 
 
 2) By ov with the indie, of the pres. or aorist ; as, ti ovv 
 ovk iXBcbv Kva£dp7] Xeyeis ravra (tell them immediately). 
 
 3) By ov and the optative with av ; as, ovk av cf)6dvois Xe- 
 ycov (would you not speak first 7 = speak first). 
 
 4) By the deliberative subjunctive (see § 68, 3, 1). 
 
 5) A prohibition is expressed in the way of a question 
 by \ir\ or ov fir) with the fut. indie. ; as, p.^ dpdo-eis tovto (you 
 will not do this, will you 1 -=.do it not) ; ov /xj) \a\rjo-eis (will 
 you not cease talking ? = cease talking). But without a ques- 
 tion, also, ov firj with the subj. expresses a prohibition ; as, ov 
 p,rj yevrjrai tovto (let this not take place). 
 
 Rem. In dependent questions after olada (also in other dependent 
 sentences) the imperative seems to stand for the future, or Set with 
 the infin. ; as, oto-0' ovv b dpdo-ov ; {knowest thou what thou shouldst 
 do?). 
 
 § 73. The different Forms of the Verb with the Particle av. 
 
 The particle &/, which expresses a presumption or proba- 
 bility of an action, may be used with all the modes of the 
 verb, except the imperat., but not in all the tenses. It is 
 used : — 
 
 1. With the subjunctive of all tenses in relative, tem- 
 poral, and conditional sentences ; but it is sometimes omitted 
 in each of these classes of sentences, especially by the poets, 
 
192 THE MODES. [§ 73. 
 
 where the sense would admit of its being used (see § G8, 
 R. 4). It is occasionally used with the subj. in sentences 
 denoting the end or purpose. 
 
 2. With the optative of all times (except the future) in 
 both independent and dependent sentences, in which the optat. 
 has the same function as the subj., except that it follows an 
 historical tense. But it never stands with the optative where 
 that stands in a closely dependent relation (see § 69, B,. 1) 
 upon the principal clause, nor after another optative. Hence 
 it is not used in the protasis of conditional sentences, nor in 
 sentences expressing a wish (see examples under Sections III. 
 and IV.). 
 
 3. With the indie, of the historical tenses (never of 
 the principal tenses) in order to express the conceived possi- 
 bility of an action. Here there are two cases. 
 
 1) In the apodosis of conditional sentences, 
 when the indie, of an historical tense stands in both the protasis 
 and apodosis (i. e. the clause containing the condition, and 
 that containing the consequence of the condition, or what is 
 based upon it). In sentences of this kind the protasis, if in 
 the imperf., should be translated into English by the imperf. 
 subj. or potential, and if in the aor., by the pluperf., while the 
 apodosis should be translated, in the first case, by the imperf., 
 and in the second, by the pluperf. potential ; as, el ravra oyrco? 
 €?xe, ttclvtes €7r € 6 v fio v v av rvpaweiv (if this were so, all would 
 desire to be king) ; and, el ravra ovtcos ecr^e, Tvdvres eTTe6v- 
 fi7](rap av rvpaweiv (if these things had been so, all would have 
 desired to be king). Here it will be seen that the reality 
 both of the condition and its consequence is denied, since the 
 condition on which the whole depends is merely assumed as 
 something which might have been, but was not. 
 
 2) In this case, too, which is not so common as the preced- 
 ing, av is used with the indie, of an historical tense 
 (chiefly the imperf.) in the apodosis of a conditional sentence, 
 but after an optat. in the protasis. Here the condition is ex- 
 
 
$73.] 
 
 THE MODES. 
 
 193 
 
 pressed as possible (not unreal), while the consequence . is 
 expressed in a modest way as a possibility instead of a reality. 
 We generally render the verb with & by would, wont, accus- 
 tomed, and the like. The condition in this, as well as in the 
 previous case, is sometimes expressed by a part, or conjunc- 
 tion of time, as well as by d; as, ol 6W, Uei ns dco> K ct, 
 
 7rpodpap6vres av earacrav (if any one might pursue would 
 
 stop, were in the habit of stopping). 
 
 4. With the infinitive of all the tenses, except the 
 future, in order to express the action as a conceived possi- 
 bility. Here there are two cases to be considered, according 
 as the sentence containing the infill, with Sv stands uncon- 
 nected with another sentence, or as it is connected with a 
 conditional sentence either expressed or implied. 
 
 1) When the infinitive sentence stands independent of a 
 conditional sentence. Here the irifin. with av, whether of 
 the pres. or aor., corresponds to the optat. with av in the like 
 relation, and always refers to the present ; as, voplfa rovro av 
 yiyveaOai (or yevicrdai), I think this would happen, = yiyvotro 
 
 (or yevoiro) av tovto, as vofilfa. But it may often be translated 
 by the future. 
 
 2) Where the infin. sentence is connected with a condi- 
 tional sentence. Here, if the conditional sentence has the 
 opt., the infin. expresses the same idea as the optative would 
 in its place, and 'hence the same as in the preceding case ; but 
 if the conditional clause has the indie, of an historical tense, 
 then the infin. stands where the indie, of an historical tense 
 would be used in direct discourse, — the infin. pres. for the 
 imperf. indie, and the infin. aor. for the aor. indie, and 
 hence is to be rendered as in 3, 1 ; as, KopivOioc ko\ 'Kpydoi, ei 
 Teyea ar(f)L(Ti n poary ivoiTo, ivopifav airaaav av e^cn/ TLekoTrovvr)- 
 (Tov (should have) ; avev <rei(rpov (= €t prj creicrpos eytvero) ovk 
 av poL doled to tolovto a v p. j3 rj v a i yevea-dai (could not have 
 
 happened). . 
 
 5. With the participle of all the tenses, except the fut., 
 
 17 
 
194 THE MODES. [§ 73, 
 
 and may be used, as with the infin., in all cases where the 
 participle, if resolved, would form a sentence which would 
 take av either with the optative or the indie, of an historical 
 tense ; as, co Trdvra roXficov Kano ttclvtos av (j) k p co v (=. bs (pepois 
 av) \6yov SiKaiov \kT)yavr\\x.a iroiKtKov ; dXX', co yepae, <fipd£e, .... cos 
 6 eXovros av ip,ov irpocrapKelv irav (= yiyycoaKcov, otl iyco e 6 e - 
 X o i fit av nav irpoo-apKeiv) . 
 
 Rem. 1. For ©?, which is often found with the participle with av, 
 see § 71. 
 
 6. With reference to the position of aV, it should be ob- 
 served : a) that it is never the first word in its sentence 
 (except sometimes in short parenthetical clauses) ; b) that 
 when it follows its verb it generally stands immediately after 
 it, but when it precedes it, as it always does the subj., it is 
 often widely separated from it ; c) that it generally comes 
 immediately after conjunctions, relative pronouns, negatives, 
 and adverbs which express or imply a conjecture (as tt©?, apa, 
 etc.), and also many other adverbs which turn or modify the 
 sense. 
 
 7. The particle av is often found twice (and sometimes 
 more than twice) in the same sentence, especially with the 
 optative : a) When its power is to be extended, not only to 
 the verb, but also to some other word in the sentence (mostly 
 pronouns, adverbs, and negatives, so that ovk. av, for instance, 
 has the meaning of the Latin haud ; as, ovk civ yvvaiK&v rjacroves 
 KaXolfjLcB' av, not surely should we be called), b) When it is 
 separated too far from its verb, it is repeated immediately after 
 it; as, (dot av, €i o~6evos Xci/3oi/xi, &77X co craip? av oV avrois <f)pov<Q. 
 c) But av is often found with a relative or conjunction without 
 its verb, when it may be readily supplied from the context ; 
 
 as, oo-nep av, axnrep av, 7TQ>s yap av, etc. 
 
 Rem. 2. In the Epic language *<f or kev is used for av, and in the 
 Lyric language, the Doric *d, kov. But Homer sometimes uses av 
 for Ktv, and sometimes, to make the contingent idea stronger, uses 
 them both together. 
 
§ 74.] CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 195 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 
 
 Note. The particle el or (compounded with av) edv, rjv^ av (with 
 a long a) is the conditional particle, and is connected with the hypo- 
 thetical clause (usually standing first, and hence called the protasis) 
 of a compound conditional sentence. The simple el stands with the 
 indie, or opt., but rarely, and only by certain writers, with the subj. ; 
 with which mode edv, fjv, av is regularly used, and with no other. 
 
 § 74. The Indicative in Conditional Sentences. 
 
 1. As the English often uses if with the indie, of all the 
 tenses, so the Greek uses el with the indie, of all the tenses 
 when a case is to be assumed as a fact for the sake of the 
 conclusion to be drawn from it, whether it really be a fact or 
 not ; as, el 6eol n dpcocri alaxpov, ovk elcriv 6eoi (if the gods do 
 what is base — as is assumed — they are no gods) ; etjrjv yap 
 avr(o prj ypd<petv, et ye to fteXncrTov rfj 7r6Xec (TKonelv e (3ov\ero 
 
 (if he wished to consider — as he pretended to — the best 
 interest of the state). 
 
 Rem. Here, in expressing unfavorable feelings or judgments, 
 ei, as implying less positiveness, and hence as a politer expression, 
 often stands for on ; as, Oavpafa el ravra ylyverai (if they have hap- 
 pened, instead of that they have happened). 
 
 2. But where el stands with the indie, of an historical 
 tense, while the principal clause has av with the indie, of an 
 historical tense also (which historical tense, in both cases, is 
 generally the imperf. or aor.), the existence of the condition 
 and the admissibility of the consequence are both denied, as is 
 done by our imperf. and pluperf. potential, as has been already 
 stated. See § 73, 3, 1. 
 
 3. But it should be stated further : — 
 
 1) The Greek often uses the imperf. with av, partly in 
 conditional sentences and partly in principal sentences, where 
 we use the pluperf. potential, when the object is to indicate 
 the continuance of a past action in the assumed point of 
 
196 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. [§ 76. 
 
 time ; as, old* av eyaye £crTacria£ov (would not have rebelled, 
 lit. was not likely to rebel), el aXXov elXeo-Oe. 
 
 2) Of course, different tenses may be used in the different 
 members of the compound sentence, according to the sense, 
 as is seen in the above example. So, too, the modes some- 
 times vary from their usual order of sequence, in order to 
 exhibit the idea in the different clauses in different lights, so 
 that an opt., sometimes in the protasis and sometimes in the 
 apodosis, is not unfrequently found connected with a subj. or 
 the indie, both of a principal and an historical tense ; as, el 
 tovto \eyeis, dfiapTavois av (if you say this, you would err). 
 
 3) The condition is often expressed by a participle, by a 
 noun with a preposition, or by a particle ; and sometimes 
 the conditional clause is not expressed, where it is readily 
 supplied from the connection; as, rore yap av Bavcbv (i. e. el 
 eoavov) ovk r)v (piAouri ovo epoi rocrovo a%os , evua or) eyvco av tls 
 (i. e. if he had been present), oo-ov a^iov e'lrj to cptkelcrBaL ap^ovra 
 vtto tcov irepi avrov. 
 
 § 75. The Subjunctive in Conditional Sentences. 
 
 We have here merely to repeat what has already been 
 
 stated (§ 68, 7 and 8), that the subj. with idv, fjv, av (rarely 
 
 with el) is used in conditional sentences only when it refers to 
 
 a probable future event, and stands connected with a principal 
 
 clause referring either to the present or future ; as, ko\ Sevp\ 
 
 eav p.01 rod xpovov doKrjre ri Karavyoka^eiv, ai)6i$ e K7re fiyJAco 
 
 ttoKlv tovtov tov avrov avbpa. 
 
 Rem. But el with the fat. indie, has nothing of the idea of 
 mere probability in it, but is simply an assumed future {Hit shall be 
 so, as I assume it will be). 
 
 § 76. The Optative in Conditional Sentences. 
 
 In addition to what has already been said on the use of the 
 opt. in conditional sentences (see § 69, 2) it may here be 
 added : — 
 
§ 77.] SENTENCES EXPRESSING A WISH. 197 
 
 1) That when the opt. with av stands in the apodosis, and 
 the opt. with el in the protasis, both the condition and the 
 consequence are represented as possible, and not, as in the 
 indie, of the historical tenses with et and av, as contrary to 
 fact (see § 73, 3, 1) ; as, yiyvoiro av tovto, las vofiifa, et au 
 7rapei7js, this would take place, as 1 think, if you should be 
 present. 
 
 2) As the Greek, in its delicate mode of representation, 
 often expresses positive convictions or facts as mere possibili- 
 ties by the optative, so it often expresses in the same way, as 
 possible, mere conceptions of the imagination; as, fyalr) av 
 % 6avova-a y, el (pcovrjv Aa/3ot, even the dead would speak, if she 
 could assume her voice. 
 
 Rem. Whether the optative with et and av should be used, or the 
 indie, of the historical tenses with et and av, depends upon whether 
 the case is viewed as possible or impossible. 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 § 77. Sentences expressing a Wish. 
 
 1. There are the four following ways of expressing a wish : 
 a) by the simple optative (rarely the subj.) ; b) by the indie. 
 of an historical tense ; c) by oo<j>e\ov with an infinitive ; in 
 which three cases the sentence is generally introduced by 
 et yap, eWe (Epic at#e), or cos ; d) by ncos av or ris av with the 
 optative, in a question. 
 
 2. The first two cases are nothing but conditional senten- 
 ces, without the principal clause expressed. The wish is 
 expressed by the opt., as in conditional sentences, when the 
 speaker regards the realization of the wish as possible ; by 
 the indie, of an historical tense, when he regards it as impos- 
 sible, — the imperf. when as a present impossibility, the 
 a or. when a past impossibility ; as, o> dvcnroTfjL, et'0' /x^7rore 
 yvoirjs, os et (0 that I had never known who thou art!) ; 
 et#' rjo-Oa dwaros (would that you were able, as you are not) 
 
 17* 
 
198 FINAL SENTENCES. [§ 78. 
 
 opav, octov irpoBvpos et ; ei$e (rot, a> UepiKXcis, Tore crvveyevopTjv, 
 would that I had then known you, 
 
 3. The verb axpiXov with an infin. is used (especially in 
 poetry) to express a wish which cannot or has not been ful- 
 filled (i. e. either present or past), and the infin. is sometimes 
 omitted. The negative here is firj (not ov) ; as, prjiror' 
 axpeXov \nre1v ttju Sicvpov, would that I had never have left, 
 lit. I never ought to have left. 
 
 4. For the expression of a wish whose fulfilment is regarded 
 as possible, by the opt. with av, see § 69, II. 2. 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 FINAL SENTENCES. 
 
 Note. The conjunctions (originally relative adverbs) which are 
 used to introduce final sentences are Iva, cos, oircos (poet. ocppa), and 
 the negative forms tva p-q, w? pq, oircos prj, and sometimes merely prj. 
 These sentences express the end or purpose for which that is done 
 which is expressed by the principal sentence. The predicate of such 
 sentences is most commonly in the subj. or opt. ; rarely in the indie. 
 of an historical tense, and very seldom in the fut. indie. 
 
 § 78. The Subjunctive and Optative in Final Sentences. 
 
 1. After a principal tense, or one which has the meaning of 
 a principal tense, the subj. is always used, except in a very 
 few cases, where the fut. indie, is used (see § 67, 4) ; but 
 after an historical tense, or one which has the meaning of an 
 historical tense, sometimes the optative, and sometimes the 
 subjunctive is used, — the optative, when the coincidence of 
 the beginning of the purpose with the action of the principal 
 sentence is to be indicated ; the subjunctive, when the refer- 
 ence is not to the time of the beginning of the purpose, but to 
 its existence, and it is to be distinctly indicated that the end has 
 not been attained, but is still in view ; as, Xey civSls, cos paWov 
 fia^o); Kal apa ravra elircop dvecrTf], cos prj peWoiro, d\\a 
 7T€ pa lv o iTO Tci biovTa ; a {to. ttKolo.) totc 'AfipoKop,as Vpolatp Kare~ 
 
§ 80.] FINAL SENTENCES. 199 
 
 Kavaev, tva pr) Kvpos $ia(3rj, that he may not pass, i. e. when 
 he has reached it. 
 
 Rem. Since the Latin always uses the pres. subj. after a principal 
 tense, and the imperf. subj. after an historical tense, in final senten- 
 ces, it is evident that the Romans constructed such sentences only 
 with reference to the time of the beginning of the purpose, and not of 
 its continuance. 
 
 2. It has already been stated (§ 68, 4) that av may be used 
 with final sentences, but it is rarely used with tva or the sim- 
 ple p.r\ ; as, kcu iniTrjftes ere ovk rjyeipovy tva a>s fjdicrTa didygs. 
 
 § 79. The Future Indicative in Final Sentences. 
 
 This occurs (and very rarely too) only after onus (a>?) or 
 O7rcos firj (see § 67, 4), and differs from the subj. or opt. in 
 sense only by expressing less uncertainty ; as, x^P €L <™> PI 
 
 rrpoa^evo-o-e, yevvalos irep ooi>, fjfi&v 7rco$ fir) ttjv Tvxrjv $ ia(j) 6 epels 
 
 (how you shall not, that you shall not). 
 
 Rem. The particle ottcos sometimes refers to some such word as 
 opa, Spare (see to it), to be supplied, when it is called the hortatory 
 
 0770)$*. 
 
 § 80. Indicative of Historical Tenses in Final Sentences. 
 
 After the indie, of an historical tense in the principal sen- 
 tence, the indie, of an historical tense is also used in the final 
 sentence, when a purpose is to be expressed which has not 
 been accomplished or cannot be accomplished. In this case 
 tva, as, owcos may be best rendered by in which case, in what 
 
 way, etc. ; as, ovkovv e*XP*l v (r€ n^yao-ou {evt-ai irrepov, 7TO)ff 
 
 €<fiaivov rots tieols t pay lkcot epos (thou shouldst have stayed the 
 
 wing of Pegasus, in which case thou wouldst have appeared 
 
 more tragical to the gods). 
 
 Rem. Final sentences are properly objective sentences, like those 
 introduced by on and cos (see § 69, 3). 
 
200 PARTICLES. [§ 8L 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 PARTICLES. 
 
 § 81. Adverbs. 
 
 1. Adverbs of place, time, and manner limit or qualify 
 verbs, as adjectives do nouns ; as, noWatas edav^ao-a, I have 
 often wondered ; ev Ae'yei?, you say well. 
 
 Rem. 1. For the classification and endings of adverbs, see § 42. 
 
 2. Adverbs of intensity limit or qualify adjectives and other 
 adverbs ; as, itapv 7roXXoi, very many ; padlcos ndw, very 
 easily. 
 
 3. Modal adverbs do not so much limit anv word in a sen- 
 tence, as modify the whole thought ; since they exhibit it 
 either as affirmative or negative, as certain or 
 doubtful, or as of an interrogatory character. 
 
 4. The affirmative adverb is mi, and the negative ov (ovk, 
 
 0^5 °^x0 or Mi — tne f° rmer being the direct and absolute 
 
 negative, and the latter only a conditional and contingent 
 
 negative, and hence generally used with the subj., opt., im- 
 
 perat., infin. (especially with the article), part, (particularly 
 
 if resolvable into a conditional clause), and in all other cases 
 
 where the action or quality to be denied is not conceived as a 
 
 certainty; as, ov yiyverac Tavra, these things are not; pr) 
 
 ytvoiTo, let it not be ; prj ypdcpcopevj let us not write ; d prj ypd- 
 
 cf)€Ls t if you do not write ; p,rj Triorrevcov, if one does not believe 
 
 (but ov iricrT€V(x)v, one who does not believe} ; to p.f) fevyciv (the 
 
 article giving a subjective character to the infin., and hence 
 
 requiring p$). 
 
 Rem. 2. There is the same difference between the negative ad- 
 verbs and pronouns compounded with these two negatives ; as, ovde 
 prjbe, ovt€ fJLTjre, ovdeis /nySeis, ovtis prjris, ovkcti /z^Keri, etc. 
 
 5. Two negatives in Greek, belonging to the same verb, 
 strengthen the negation. This occurs especially in the fol- 
 lowing cases : — 
 
§ 81.] PARTICLES. 201 
 
 1) A negative and a negative pronoun; as, ov ovfcts, fir) 
 
 firjdels, etc. ; as, ov Ken Kaipbv ovbeva tov fiorjdelv vofiicravTcs. 
 
 2) Verbs of a negative import, or made so by an accom- 
 panying negative, or implying fear, doubt, regularly take pr) 
 (and sometimes fir) ov) before a following infin. (and some- 
 times in a clause introduced by on and cbs) ; as, dtrapvovpai pr) 
 cTrio-raorOai, I deny that I know. 
 
 3) Verbs of a negative import preceded by a negative, or 
 
 implying another negative (as in questions), regularly take pr) 
 
 ov with the following infin. or part., making a double double 
 
 negative ; as, ovk anapvovpai fir) ovk into-rao-Oat,, I do not deny 
 
 that I know. 
 
 Rem. 3. With a verb in the indie, subj., or opt. after verbs de- 
 noting fear, anxiety, or with such a verb understood, ov pr) mean not 
 that (as, I do not fear that), and pr) ov, that not or lest not (as, I fear 
 that he may not) ; while the simple pr) means xohether not (as, I fear 
 xuhether he has not) ; thus, ov fir) XaXrjo-eis, I shall not apprehend that 
 you will talk; deboiica fir) ov reOvrjKev, I fear that he has not died; 
 dedoiKa fir) djroddvr], I fear whether he may not be dead. 
 
 6. Adverbs denoting certainty or uncertainty (most- 
 ly the former) are 8r) (Sat), drjra (now, surely, as is well 
 
 known) ; Or)y, Sr)6ev, drjrrov, drjTTOvQcv, vu, rjnov {without doubt, 
 
 forsooth, I dare say, mostly ironical) ; pr)v (pdv), t), tol, rjroi 
 
 (truly, indeed) ; nep, entirely, precisely ; ye, indeed, for one, 
 
 myself 
 
 Rem. 4. The particles irkp and ye are often mere suffixes (see 
 § 28), but retain the same meaning as when they are not joined on to 
 their word ; tol is an old form of the possessive pronoun of the second 
 person (instead of o-oi), but is generally a mere intensive particle, and 
 may be rendered by indeed, certainly, you know, sir, etc. 
 
 7. The single interrogative adverbs are fj (rJ7rov), ov, ovkovv 
 (implying a belief in the affirmative of the question, and hence 
 soliciting an affirmative answer) ; p&v, pi) (implying a belief in 
 the negative) ; apa (denoting doubt), apa ov (implying an affirm- 
 ative belief), and apa fir) (negative). 
 
 8. The double interrogative adverbs are irorepov (iroTtpa) 
 . . . .rj,apa t) (whether . , . . or), pr) rj (whether not 
 
202 PARTICLES. [§ 82, 
 
 or) ; also aXAon fj or simply aXXon (is there any thing else 
 than that ? is there? does there ? nonne ?). 
 
 Rem. 5. For the correlative interrogative words, both pronouns 
 and adverbs', both direct and indirect, see § 27. 
 
 Rem. 6. Of the above modal adverbs, the following are regularly- 
 placed after one or more words in their sentence: av, apa,avj 8ai, 
 $r), br]7TOV } brjTTOvdev, ftrjra, ye, 6r)V, nip, roi, fxr]v, noOiv, nodi, ttoi, ttj], 
 ttov, 770)?, nori, 7ra). Also the conjunctions 6e, yap, jJ-iv, fiivroi, 
 roivvv, re, ovv, yovv, vvv. 
 
 § 82. Prepositions. 
 
 Note. For the meaning and usage of prepositions with the differ- 
 ent cases, see § 43. 
 
 1. As the prepositions were originally adverbs, in the earlier 
 forms of the language, as in Homer and Herodotus (but 
 rarely in the Attic, and almost wholly in poetry), the preposi- 
 tion is very commonly separated from its verbs, and merely 
 qualifies it as an adverb [tmesis) ; as, 0776 Xotybv dfivvai (to 
 ward off destruction). 
 
 Rem. 1. While thus, in the early language, a preposition may be 
 repeated without its verb (as, Kara fxev enavcrav Apvpov Kara de 
 Xapdftprjv), in the later language we sometimes find a verb, noun, or 
 adjective repeated without its 'preposition ; as, crvpLirovzlv kcl\ cpepciv ras 
 o-vfMpopds, to labor and bear together the calamities. 
 
 2. As motion implies a subsequent state of rest, and rest a 
 previous motion, the construction (generally being of the in- 
 tensive or pregnant character) is often adapted to this antece- 
 dent or subsequent state, rather than to the principal idea ; a 
 preposition with the dat. being used for a preposition with the 
 ace. (especially iv for *&)', or the reverse, or and, e/c, or napd 
 with the gen., instead of iv or napd with the dat. ; as, fidWeiv 
 iv Koviyariv, to throw and leave in the dust ; crrds inl to avve- 
 bpiov (the ace. instead of the dat.); ol etc tt)s dyopas dni- 
 <pvyov (instead of ol iv rfj dyopa), those in the market-place fled 
 from it ; ootis S* d^iKvolro tcov nap a /3 a o~ tX eo> $• (instead of 
 ,3ao-iXeT), whoever of those with the king came. In the same 
 manner and and i< are used for inl with verbs of hanging ; 
 
§ 82.] PARTICLES. 203 
 
 the idea hanging from being expressed, instead of hang- 
 ing on. 
 
 Rem. 2. The same species of attraction occurs, also, in adverbs; 
 the forms denoting whither or whence being used in place of those de- 
 noting where, and the reverse. 
 
 3. Several nouns having a common dependence upon a 
 
 preposition take it severally, when they are independent of, 
 
 or contrasted with, each other, but only before the first, when 
 
 they are regarded as expressing a combined whole ; as, koI 
 
 irpos (piXovs de Ka\ Ijevovs kol 7rpos rrju aWrjv diairrju (where irpos 
 
 is omitted before ^eVovs, because a mere appendage of (piXovs, 
 
 but repeated before diatTTjv, because expressing a new and 
 
 independent idea). 
 
 Rem. 3. A preposition which would regularly be repeated before 
 a relative pronoun, or in the second member of comparative sentences, 
 after as, cbcnrep, fj, or before a word in the questions and answers of 
 dialogue, is often omitted ; as, iu r<£ xpo*/a>, o> (for iu o>) vp.(cv d/coua>. 
 
 Rem. 4. On the contrary, in poetry (especially Epic poetry), two 
 prepositions are sometimes found together ; as, 6\a npo, dfitfn nepl 
 (round about), Trap ck, vtt e/c, anoTrpo, 7rep\ irpo ; also npo or nepl in 
 connection with ei/e/ca, x^P lv - 
 
 Rem. 5. A preposition, also, is sometimes used superfluously be- 
 fore a case which would regularly be governed by another word ; as, 
 ixti^ov ootls avr\ ttjs avrov narpas (j)l\ov vopi£ei, whoever considers 
 a friend above his country. 
 
 4. The preposition, which regularly stands immediately 
 
 before the noun with its accompanying attribute, is sometimes 
 
 separated from it by particles (such as ye, p.kv> yap, ovv, etc.) 
 
 or olfiai ; and is sometimes placed after it (but not in Attic 
 
 prose, except 7re/n), in which case the accent is drawn from 
 
 the last to the first syllable (anastrophe, § 7, 7). 
 
 Rem. 6. Prepositions have the accent drawn to the first syllable, 
 also, when they seem to be used as compounds with clvai, to be; as, 
 iyco 7Tapa (apparently for irapeipL), I am present; so p.kra, irapa, Jetti, 
 Kept, vtto, eve. But strictly, in such cases some form of elvai is un- 
 derstood, and the prepositions have an adverbial meaning. 
 
 5. When the idea of the preposition in a compound verb is 
 prominent and somewhat distinct, it may take the same case 
 
204 PARTICLES. [§ 82. 
 
 as when it stands alone ; as, elo-rjXOou ttjv ypa(f>r}v^ or rbv dy&va, 
 1 entered upon the charge or into the action; Karrjyopelp.aov^ 
 to bring a charge against you ; inex^v tovtcd, to give attention 
 to this ; at (vrjes) VTrepasexdelcrcu, top AevKaSicov laBpLOP^ the ships 
 having been carried across the Leucadian isthmus. 
 
 Note. Conjunctions and interjections require no further treatment 
 than they have already received. See § 44. 
 
 : : i 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 VERSIFICATION. 
 
 Note. Only a few of the more common metres are here intro- 
 duced, and such as occur in continuous narrative, or at least in a con- 
 tinuous series of lines, in the Greek poets more commonly read in our 
 colleges. For the less common and more complicated metres, see 
 Munk's Greek and Roman Metres. For the quantity of syllables, 
 see § 5. 
 
 I. DACTYLIC HEXAMETER, OR HEROIC VERSE. 
 
 1. A line in this measure consists of six feet, which may- 
 be either spondees (consisting of two long syllables, ) or 
 dactyles (consisting of a long followed by two short sylla- 
 bles, ~) ; but the last foot but one is generally a dactyle, 
 
 and the last, regularly a spondee (the last syllable, however, 
 being sometimes short). 
 
 Rem. The metrical accent in this measure is on the first syllable 
 of each foot (called the arsis, the remainder of the foot being called 
 the thesis) ; and the ccesura (or pause at the end of some word near 
 the middle of the line, which divides a foot) is generally in the third 
 foot, but sometimes in the fourth. 
 
 2. The rule for the caesura, then, in this measure, is, to 
 make a pause at the end of the first word which divides afoot, 
 after the completion of the second foot (but if there be no such 
 division, there is no caesura). Thus : — 
 
 Tig t ap\(T(j)(0€ 0ejah> \\ cpi\dc Jw^w fid\x€(T0ai. 
 To) fiep I rapPr]\<TavT€ \\ Kal \ aldofie\vco /3a(ri|X^a. 
 Mdvri Ka\K(bv ov|7jworl \ pot || to \ Kprjyvov \ eiircSo 
 
 18 
 
206 VERSIFICATION. 
 
 3. In scanning a line of poetry (whether hexameter or any 
 other kind), regard the feet rather than the words, observing 
 the metrical and not the word-accent, and paying no attention 
 to the end of the words, except at the caesura, and the end of 
 the line. Thus : — 
 
 Tovdr] /zei/Scre'^VeiTa — 7r6^MpKr}s blosA xiXAevs. 
 
 Qdpcrrj (ras/iaXa^ei7re — O^oirpoiTi ovotl oicrda, 
 
 II. IAMBIC TRIMETER. 
 
 1. A line in this measure consists of six feet, of which the 
 fundamental foot is the iambus (~ ~), but admitting in certain 
 places either the dactyle, the spondee, the tribrach (~ w ~), or 
 the anapast ( w , the reverse of the dactyle). 
 
 Rem. 1. Here, also, as in the hexameter and most other metres, 
 the last syllable in a line need not be of the quantity required by the 
 character of the closing foot, but may be long when that requires a 
 short syllable, and the reverse. 
 
 2. The tribrach may be used instead of the iambus in any 
 of the six places or measures, the spondee in the odd places 
 (first, third, and fifth), the dactyle in the first and third, and 
 the anapcest chiefly in the first place (except in proper names, 
 when it is admissible in any place except the last). 
 
 Rem. 2. This is the form of the measure in the Tragedians, 
 which is the only form with which we are here concerned. 
 
 Rem. 3. This verse is called trimeter, because a metre or measure 
 is considered as consisting of two feet (a dipody), and hence, while it 
 has six feet, it has but three measures. It is sometimes called acata- 
 lectic (complete), to distinguish it from that which wants the last syl- 
 lable (catalectic) . . 
 
 3. In scanning this verse, place the principal accent on the 
 last syllable of the odd feet (i. e. of the first foot of each 
 dipody) and a slight accent on the last syllable of the even 
 feet (the first of which may be represented by the acute 
 accent and the second by the grave), and make a pause 
 for the caesura at the end of the first word which divides 
 a foot after completing the second foot, or the first dipody. 
 Thus : — 
 
VERSIFICATION. 207 
 
 HSqKaAtos^Kcu — creKTosav XeiaiVTrvXcov. 
 Qkoivovclv Tade\^<fiov — iV prjvr]SKapa. 
 ~Ep.oip€i>ov^d€is — pvQos^v Tiyovrjfyikw. 
 Harepdyepai^av — 6fja(p€T\K reprjTepa. 
 AWeapLCKa^TTjv — etjefjLov dvo-(3ov\iav. 
 
 III. ANAPAESTIC DIMETER (ACATALECTIC). 
 
 1. This verse consists of four feet, or two measures, in 
 which the anapaest is the fundamental foot, but admits either a 
 dactyle (but not before an anapaest in the same dipody) or a 
 spondee in its place. 
 
 2. This verse occurs in systems, at the beginning, or end, 
 or in the middle of the choruses of the Greek Tragedies, inter- 
 spersed with lines of but two feet (monometers), and closing 
 with a line having three feet and a syllable over (paramiac). 
 
 3. In scanning this verse, place the principal accent, as in 
 the iambic dimeter, on the last syllable of the first foot of each 
 metre, with a slight accent on the second, and make the 
 caesural pause generally at the end of the first dipody (which 
 is more properly a diceresis liian a caesura), but sometimes 
 after the first syllable of the second dipody. Thus : — 
 
 KaifjLf)V7rp07ru\(bv \\ rjbl'crprjvf] 
 <E»tXaSeX^>a/cara) || daKpV€ij3op.€vrj 
 N€(j)€\r)do4>pv<0v || VTT€paip.aToev 
 VcOosaio-xwel 
 Teyyovcrevco Trairapei^av, 
 
 Rem. 1. The above is a short anapaestic system from the Antigone 
 of Sophocles (526-530). The monometer has no caesural pause, nor 
 has the concluding line (parcemiac). 
 
 Rem. 2. In this kind of verse the last syllable has no license of 
 being long or short contrary to the requirements of its foot, but its 
 quantity is affected by the consonant or consonants which commence 
 the first word of the next line, as in other cases of position. 
 
 Rem. 3. Sometimes, even in the Tragedians, we find several 
 parcemiac lines in a system, besides a freer use of dactyles and spondees 
 than is allowed in the regular systems. See Soph. Elect. 186 - 193. 
 
208 VERSIFICATION. 
 
 Note. In the Homeric hexameter, e (and occasionally a, o, i, 
 and v) before a vowel or diphthong in the same word is often pro- 
 nounced with this vowel in one syllable (as, Ur)\r)'ia8P<o) , or the final 
 vow r el of one word is pronounced in one syllable with the first vowel 
 of the following word (synceresis or synizesis) ; as, iyio^ov. Synae- 
 resis, also, is found, to some extent, in the iambic, anapaestic, and 
 other metres of the Attic dramatists. 
 
 THE END. 
 
D. A pp let on & Co?s Educational Publications. 
 
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 PROF. W. S. TYLER. 
 
 The Histories of Cains Cornelias Tacitus. 
 
 With Notes for Colleges. 12mo. $1. 
 
 "Prefixed to the text is an 'Essay on the Style of Tacitus," abridged from Doder- 
 lein's Prolegomena. The text itself is founded on Orelli (Zurich, 1348). The notes 
 occupy about 200 pages, and evince the same scholarship, taste, and skill, which charac- 
 terized Professor Tyler's edition of the Germany and Agricola, Then follow an Index 
 of persons and places, and an Index to the notes — useful adminioula. which have here- 
 tofore seldom found place in American text-books. Altogether, the edition is one of the 
 best specimens of a classical text-book that we have ever seen. It will doubtless take its 
 place at once in all our colleges." — Methodist Quarterly Review. 
 
 " This edition of the 'Histories of Tacitus' cannot fail, we think, to receive the hearty 
 welcome of all who are interested in classical learning, especially of those who are de- 
 voted to Latin studies. Professor Tyler, the editor, has already given to the public 
 Tacitus's Germania and Life of Agricola, and the manner in which these were prepared 
 was a sufficient guaranty of his success in the work now before us. He has adopted 
 the most approved texts, and has incorporated into the notes and the accompanying 
 essays, grammatical suggestions, and collateral information, which are well fitted not 
 only to "aid the youthful student, but to awaken thought and interest in the mind of the 
 maturer scholar." — Providence Journal. 
 
 GESENIUS. 
 
 Hebrew Grammar. 
 
 Fourteenth Edition, as revised "by Dr. E. Eodiger. Translated by T. J. 
 Conant, Professor of Hebrew in Madison University, N. Y. With the 
 Modifications of the Editions subsequent to the Eleventh, by Dr. Da- 
 vies, of Stepney College, London. To which are added, a Course of 
 Exercises in Hebrew Grammar, and a Hebrew Chrestomathy, prepared 
 by the Translator. One vol. 8vo. Price $2. 
 
 "The profound and philosophical character of this work deserves a far more extended 
 and critical notice than can be undertaken in the columns of a newspaper. The high 
 reputation of Gesenius as a philologist and grammarian, and the fact that the present is 
 a translation of the fourteenth edition, are the best evidences of the estimate placed on 
 his labors by the savans of Europe, where, indeed, Gesenius has long ranked as the first 
 Hebrew scholar of his time. The American editor in addition to the apparently faithful 
 translation now offered, has also enriched the work by very valuable exercises in the 
 difficulties of the language. 
 
 " To those who desire to master a language rich in poetry of the most sublime de- 
 scription, and interesting by the many high and holy associations connected with 
 il, v.e recommend this work with entire confidence. To the student who undertake3 
 the acquisition of the Hebrew tongue, we promise in Mr. Conant's work a sure guide, 
 and an ample reward for his toil. 
 
 ' ; The mechanical execution is beautiful." — Richmond. Times. 
 
 3fi 
 
D. AppVeton & CoSs Educational Publications. 
 PROF. C. A. JOHNSON. 
 
 Select Orations of M. Tullius Cicero. 
 
 With Notes, for the Use of Schools and Colleges. 12mo. $1. 
 
 " I regard Professor Johnson's edition of Cicero's Orations as better adapted for the 
 use of our schools than any other that has appeared in the English language.' The im- 
 mense advances of philological science in the last quarter of a century, imperatively 
 demand a class of books for young students, of a higher character than most of those we 
 have hitherto been content to use. An edition of Cicero like Johnson's has long been 
 wanted; and the excellence of the text, the illustrations of words, particles, and pro- 
 nouns, and the explanation of various points of construction and interpretation, bear 
 witness to the Editor's familiarity with some of the most important results of modern 
 scholarship, and entitle his work to a large share of public favor. 
 
 " Very respectfully yours, 
 " Thomas Chase, Tutor in Latin in Harvard University. 
 
 "Cambridge, April 19th, 1851." 
 
 PROF. THOMAS A. THATCHER. 
 
 Cicero Be Officiis. 
 
 With English Notes. Chiefly selected and translated from the Editions 
 of Zumpt and Bonnell. 12mo. 90 cents. 
 
 " I have examined with much pleasure Prof. Thatcher's edition of Cicero de Officiis, 
 and am convinced of its excellence. The Notes have been prepared with great care 
 and good judgment. Practical knowledge of the w T ants of the student has enabled the 
 Editor to furnish just the kind of assistance required; grammatical difficulties are re- 
 moved, and the obscurities of the treatise are explained; the interest of the learner is 
 elicited, and his industry directed rather than superseded. There can be but one 
 opinion with regard to the merits of the work, and I trust that Professor Thatcher will 
 be disposed to continue his labors so carefully commenced, in this department of classi- 
 cal learning. 
 
 "M. L. Stoerek, 
 "Professor of Latin Language and Literature in Penn. College.* 
 
 PROP. J. A. SPENCER. 
 
 C. Julius Caesar's Commentaries on the Gallic 
 
 War. With English Notes, Critical and Explanatory ; a Lexicon, Geo- 
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 "The press of Messrs. Appleton is becoming prolific of superior editions of the clas- 
 sics used in schools, and the volume now before us we are disposed to regard as one of 
 the most beautiful and highly finished among them all, both in its editing and its execu- 
 tion. The classic Latin in which the greatest general and the greatest writer of his age 
 recorded his achievements, has been sadly corrupted in the lapse of centuries, and its 
 restoration to a pure and perfect text is a work requiring nice discrimination and sound 
 learning. The text which Mr. Spencer has adopted is that of Oudenorp, with such va- 
 riations" as were suggested by a careful collation of the leading critics of Germany. The 
 notes are as they should be, designed to aid the labors of the student, not to supersede 
 them. In addition to these, the volume contains a sketch of the life of Cresar, a brief 
 Lexicon of Latin words, a Historical and Geographical Index, together with a map of 
 the country in which the great Eoman conqueror conducted the campaigns he so 
 graphically describes. The volume, as a whole, however, appears to be admirably 
 suited to the purpose for which it w r as designed. Its style of editing and its typograph- 
 ical execution reminds us of Prof. Lincoln's excellent edition of Livy — a work which 
 pome months since had already passed to a second impression, and has now been adopted 
 in most ot the leading schools and colleges of the country. — Providence Journal. 
 
 35 
 
I). Ajjpleton & Co. J 8 Educational Publications. 
 
 PROF. J. L. LINCOLN. 
 
 Works of Horace. 
 
 With English Notes, Critical and Explanatory. 12mo. Maps. %\ 25. 
 
 The text of this edition is chiefly that of Orelli; and the Notes, besides embodying 
 whatever is valuable in the most recent and improved German editions of Horace, con- 
 tain the results of the Editor's studies and experience as a College Professor, which lie 
 lias been gathering and maturing for several years with a view to publication. It has 
 been the aim of both the publishers and the Editor to make this edition in all respects 
 suitable to the wants of American schools and colleges. 
 
 " I received a short time since a copy of Lincoln's Horace, directed to the Professor 
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 belief that it is one of the most valuable contributions to classical literature that our age 
 and country have produced. The notes are just what they should be, grammatical, 
 critical, and tasteful ; and the impression, particularly of the text, is about the most 
 beautiful Latin page on which my eye ever rested. 
 
 " Yours very truly, 
 
 "W. 8. Tylee, 
 
 Titus Liviiis. 
 
 PROP. J. L. LINCOLN. 
 
 Chiefly from the Text of Alschefski, with English Notes, Grammatical 
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 With an accompanying Plan of Koine, and a Map of the Passage of 
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 The publishers believe that, in the edition of Livy, a want is supplied which has been 
 universally felt ; there being, previous to this, no American edition furnished with the 
 requisite apparatus for the successful prosecution of the study of this Latin author. 
 
 OPINIONS OF CLASSICAL PKOFESSOES. 
 
 From Professor Anderson, of Waterville College. 
 "A careful examination of several portions of your work has convinced me that, for 
 the use of students, it is altogether superior to any edition of Livy with which I am ac- 
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 discrimination of words nearly synonymous, and the care in giving the localities men- 
 tioned in the text. The book will be hereafter used in our college." 
 
 From Professor Johnson, of New- York University. 
 " I can at present only say that your edition pleases me much. I shall give it to 
 one of my classes next week. I am prepared to find it just what was wanted." 
 
 From Professor Kingsley, of Yale College. 
 " I have not yet been able to read the whole of your work, but have examined it 
 enough to be satisfied that it is judiciously prepared, and well adapted to the purpose 
 intended. We use it for the present year, in connection with the edition that has been 
 used for several years. Most of the class, however, have procured your edition ; and it 
 is probable that next year it will be used by all." 
 
 From Professor Tyler, of Amherst College. 
 " The notes seem to me to be prepared with much care, learning, and taste ; the 
 grammatical illustrations are unusually full, faithful, and able. The book has been used 
 by our Freshman class, and will, I doubt not, come into general use in our oolleges." 
 
 From Professor Packard, of Bowdoin College. 
 " I have recommended your edition to our Freshman Class. I have no doubt that 
 your labors will give a new impulse to the study of this charming classic" 
 
 34 
 
I). Jlppteicm & Co." $ Educational Publications, 
 PROF. ASHBL C. KENDRXCK. 
 
 Greek Ollendorff ; 
 
 Being a Progressive Exhibition of the Principles of the Greek Grammar. 
 Designed for beginners in Greek, and as a Book of Exercises for Acad- 
 emies and Colleges. l"2mo. $1. 
 
 " Among the many elementary books published for the use of schools, we have not 
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 It teaches rules by examples, rather than examples by rules. 
 
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 " The book is well printed in good type, and on go }d paper, for which the Appletom 
 deserve due credit. 
 
 " We conclude by recommending this work to the favorable attention of teachers*— 
 IT. Y. Recorder. 
 
 PROP. JAMES R. BOISE. 
 
 Exercises in Greek Prose Composition. 
 
 Adapted to the First Book of Xenophon's Anabasis. One volume 
 12mo. Price 75 cents. 
 
 *** For the convenience of the learner, an English-Greek Vocabulary, a Catalogue 
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 33 
 
 
D. Ajipleton & CoSs Educational Publications. 
 
 Dr. Arnold's Classical Series. 
 
 FIRST LATIN BOOK: re-modelled, re-written, and adapted to the 
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 Prose Composition. Eevised and corrected by J. A. Spencer, A. M. 12mo. $1. 
 Very exact, copious, and scientific; Latin synonymes are carefully illustrated, differ- 
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 to Greek Prose Composition Part II. (The Particles.) 
 In this volume the Particles are treated in full, and the student carried as far for- 
 ward as is possible~in the art of composition in Greek. 
 
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 A capital volume, having admirable Introductory Exercises on the Forms and 
 Idioms of the Language ; a choice collection of passages (of length) from standard au- 
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 any One of the series. 
 39 
 
D. Appleton & Co: } s \' Educational Publications. 
 
 iii I ' ill,. \* n — — » — 
 
 THOMAS ARNOLD, D. D. 
 
 The History of Rome. 
 
 Reprinted entire from the last London Edition. Three volumes in one, 
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 "Arnold's History of Rome is a well known standard work. Full and acenrate as 
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 THOMAS ARNOLD, D. D. 
 
 Lectures on Modem History. 
 
 Edited, with a Preface and Notes, by Hexkt Reed, LL.D. 12mo. 
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 PROF. FREDERICK KOHLRAUSCH. 
 
 A History of Germany ; 
 
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 prepared expressly for this Edition. 8vo. $1 75. 
 
 * Messrs. Appleton- : 
 
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 "B. W. Dwigot. 
 41 Brooklyn, Jan. 2+t/i, 1352." 
 7 
 
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 W C. TAYLOR. 
 
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