I i I m rKONTlSPIECE. A Professor eTplainivg the Polite Arts^ to his Pupils. A SHORT SYSTEM ^ POLITE LEARNING, BEINO AJ>r EPITOME OF THE ARTS AND SCIENCES; DESIGNED FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS. BY AN EMINENT WRITER OF PHILADELPHIA. A iaste of every sort of knowledge is necessary to form the inind ; and ia the only way to give the understanding its due improvement, to the full extent of its capacity. — Locke. % NINTH AMERICAN EDITION, IMPROVED. ^ ■ :'... ':' ^:' 39fttIaMa)iita : PUBLISHED BY M'CARTY & DAVIS, NO. 171, MARKET-STREET. Stereotyped hy J. Hoice. 1835. Enstem District of Pennsylvania^ to wit : BE IT REMEMBERED, That on the seventeenth day of April, in jfu(t***** the fiftieth year of the Independence of the United States of * L. S. * America, A. D. 1826, M'Garty & Davis, of the said district, ******* have deposited in this office the title of a Book, the right whereof they claim as proprietors, in the words following, to wit: ''A short system of Polite Learning, being an Epitome of the Arts and Sciences; designed for the use of Schools. By an eminent writer of Philadelphia. 'A taste of every sort of knowledge is necessary to form the mind ; and is the only way to give the understanding its due improve- ment, to the full extent of its capacity.' Locke. Ninth American Edition, improved.'* In conformity to the Act of the Congress of the United States, entituled, " An Act for the encouragement of Learning, by securing the Copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the Authors and Proprietors of such Copies, during the times therein mentioned;" — And also to the Act, entitled, " An Act, supplementary to an Act, entitled, "An Act for the encouragement of Learning, by securing the copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the Authors and Proprietors of such Copies, during tlie times therein men- tionetl," and extending the benefits thereof to the arts of designing, en- graving, and etching historical and other Prints." D. CALDWELL, Clerk of the Eastern District of Pennsylvania, In ExchaiigG Duke Uaivorsity JUL i :i 1933 I ^ PREFACE. S IN presenting the ninth American edition of this K valuable little work to the public, the editors feel ;>^i gratified to observe, that, though not greatly enlarg- ed, it has, in th'feir apprehension, been much im- proved. Numerous and important additions and alterations have been made in various parts of it. Some articles have been considerably enlarged— others, propor- tionably pruned and condensed. Several have been rewritten and corrected ; and not a few entire new ones, framed and inserted. The language, punctua- tion, and definitions have all undergone a careful revision, and been rendered as perspicuous as pos- sible ; — the civil divisions, and other particulars in the Geographic department, have been duly con- formed to present facts ; and the more modem dis- coveries and improvements in natural philosophy, and other branches of science, introduced, in place of the less accurate speculations of former times ; while the whole of the numerous and varied items which compose its contents, have been so classed and altered in their arrangement, as to render the work much more systematic and instructive than a2 VI PREFACE. any of the preceding editions. And it is, upon the whole, confidently believed, that a greater quantum and variety of matter, useful, important, scientific, and interesting, than this little volunfe now contains, is nowhere to be found, within the same compass. The work now appears in a stereotype form^ as a pledge to our schools, teachers, and other individ- uals wishing to avail themselves of it, that a constant and regular supply shall, in future, be always at their command. . ^■ The Arts and Sciences^ by bemg wrapped up in the learned languages, and obscured by a multitude of technical terms, have long been held beyond the reach and capacity, not only of youth in general, but of maturer years also ; especially, where the advantages of education have been limited. This epitome, however, will, it is hoped, bring them to the level of the most moderate capacity ; and, with- out much expense either of time or money, furnish a tolerably correct outline and general idea of all the principal branches of useful and Polite Learning Philadelphia^ March 25, 1826. CONTENTS. Page Of Arts and Sciences, ....*'.**...... 9 Theology, 11 Religion, , 12 Philosophy, 14 Physics, .' 15 Mechanics, 16 Hydrostatics, 19 Specific Gravity, ib. Hydraulics, ih. Acoustics, ib. Pneumatics, ib. Meteors, , 22 Electricity, 23 Lightning and Thunder, ib. The Aurora Borealis, 25 The Ignus Fatuus, 26 Wind, 27 The Rainbow, 30 Hail, 32 Snow, 33 Rain, 34 Fog and Dew, 35 Waterspouts, 36 The Tides, 37 Earthquakes, 39 Volcanoes, 40 Mineralogy, . . . . . . . . . . . , ib. Architecture, 44 Painting, 45 Sculpture, 48 Ethics, 50 Jurisprudence, ib. Government, 52 Politics, t)5 Commerce, ib. Logic, , . 56 VIU CONTENTS. Page Rhetoric and Oratory, 59 Tropes or Figures, 61 Grammar, 66 Language, 67 Poetry, 69 Music, 77 Optics, 79 Mathematics, . .^ f 80 Arithmetic, 81 Geometry, , 82 Metaphysics, / 84 Astronomy, ib. The Solar System, . 85 The Fixed Stars, 92 Geography, 93 Europe, 100 Asia, • 105 Africa, 109 America, 112 North America, .115 British Colonies, 116 United States , ib, Mexico, 125 South America, 126 The West Indies, 127 Chronology, 129 Mythology, 138 The Celestial Deities, ib. The Terrestrial Deities, ..,,,. 144 The Marine Deities, 148 The Infernal Deities, 149 The Subordinate Deities, 152 The Demi-Gods, 15J History, 157 Physic, 182 Anatomy, ib. Surgery, 183 Pharmacy, ib. Chemistry, ib. Botany, 184 Chemistry, 185 A SHORT SYSTEM OF POLITE LEARNING. OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. Question, What is meant by a Science ? Answer. A Science is a system of any branch of knowledge, comprehending its doctrine, rea- son, and theory ; without any immediate appli- cation of it to the uses of life. Q. What is an Art? A. An Art is a collection of rules and precepts, for doing a thing with certainty, ease, and accu- racy. Science is knowledge in theory ; Art is know- ledge in practice. Botany is a science; Garden- ing, an art, Q. How are the Arts divided ? A. The Arts are divided into liberal and mechanical. Q. What are the Liberal Arts? A. The Liberal Arts are those that are in- genious, and cultivated without any immediate regard to the profit arising from them ; as poetry, music, and painting; , rhetoric, grammar, and sculpture. 10 POLITE LEARNING. The liberal or polite arts are nearly allied to the sciences, and are, indeed, in many instances, the same with them. Music, for example, may be ranked either with the arts or sciences, or both. As a science, it teaches the just disposition, quantity, and relation of sounds. As an art, it enables us to express those sounds with facility and correctness. Q. Why are they called Liberal Arts? A. They are termed Liberal Arts because the ancients allowed them to be studied only by the liberty or free persons. In the eighth century, the whole circle of sciences, was made up of what was then termed. The Seven Liberal Arts; viz. Grammar, Logic, Rhetoric, Music, Arithmetic, Geometry, and Astronomy. The fine arts are such of the mechanic arts as re- quire the union of peculiar ingenuity, taste, and skill, in the artist; as, Painting, Sculpture, &c. Q. What are the Mechanic Arts ? A. The Mechanic Arts are those wherein the hand and body are more concerned than the mind, and which are cultivated for the sake of the profit arising from them : as cabinet-making, ship-building, turnery, weaving, masonry, and the like ; popularly known by the name of trades, Q. Why are they termed Mechanic Arts ? A. They are denominated Mechanic Arts from the latin word [niachznay~\ signifying a machine; as they are all practised by the use of certain machines or instruments. Q. What are the Principal Sciences ? A. The Principal Sciences are theology, phi- THEOLOGY. 11 losophy, and jurisprudence; physic, rhetoric, grammar, poetry, and mathematics. THEOLOGY. Q. What is Theology.^ A. Theology is the science which instructs us in the knowledge of God, and Divine things, and teaches us the manner in which we should serve our Creator. Q. From what is the word Theology derived ? A. The v«ord Theology is derived from the Greek words [Theos logos,'] signifying the word of God. Q. How is Theology divided ? A. Theology is divided into natural and re- vealed. Q. What is Natural, and what Revealed Theology ? A. Natural Theology is the knowledge we have of God from his works, from the light of nature, and from reason. Revealed Theology is that knowledge of God, which we obtain from revelation. Q. To whom was the title of Theologist, or Divine, first given ? A. The title of Theologist or Divine was first given to St. John, the evangelist ; who was, by that title, distinguished from the other three evangelists ; because their gospels contain only trhe history of Christ, but that of St. John estab- 12 POLITE LEARNING. lishes his eternal divinity ^ as the word of God, and his incarnation. RELIGION. Q. What is Religion ? A. Religion is that worship and homage which man owes to God, as his Creator, Preserver, and Redeemer. "The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom; a good understanding have all they that keep his commandments." ^ DAVID. " Be particular not to neglect religion in the educa- tion of your children. In vain will you endeavour to conduct them by another path. If they are dear to you; if you expect from them credit or comfort; from religion, must be derived their happiness, and your own.'' FATHER GIRDIL. " Religion, soother of all our keenest sorrows, source and refiner of all our real joys, shed thy heavenly influence on our souls; direct, animate, and crown, all our pursuits; pervade and consecrate all our thoughts, words, and actions: so, shall we answer the design of God in our creation, taste true happiness in this life, and arise to complete an immortal felicity in the world to come.'' ' DR. ASH. Q. What is the foundation of Religion? A. Religion is founded on the existence of a Supreme Beings who requires the love, service, and adoration of his creatures. Q. Whence do we derive our knowledge of the duty and homage we owe to God ? RELIGION. 13 A. We obtain our knowledge of the duty and homage we owe to God, from the dictates of rea- son and the light of nature, but especially from the sacred Scriptures. Q. Who is the Author of the Scriptures ? A. God himself is the Author of the Scrip- tures;— he spake them by the mouths of his holy and inspired prophets and apostles. Q. Are there not several varieties of Religion prevalent in the world ? A. There are numerous Religious Sects in the world ; but the Jewish, Christian, Mahometan, and Pagan, are the four principal ones. It is calculated that, of the human family, about 9,000,000 are Jews, 170,000,000 Christians, 140,000,000 Mahometans, 480,000,000 Pagans. Total, .... 800,000,000— and that of the one hundred and seventy millions of Christians, about 50 millions are Protestants, 30 millions, Greeks and Armenians, and 90 millions, Roman Catholics. Q. How is the Jewish Religion founded ? A. The Jewish Religion is founded upon the law given by Moses to the Israelites, as cop tained in the Old Testament, Q. Who was the author of the Christian Re- ligion? A. The author of the Christian Religion, was Jesus Christ, the Son of God: who left the 14 POLITE LEARNING. bosom of the Father, to dwell in flesh and blood here on earth: where, after performing many miracles, and works of beneficence, he was cru- cified and buried; but, the third day, he rose from the dead; and shortly after ascended to the Father. Q. What is the Pagan Religion ? A. The Pagan Religion is the idolatrous rites performed by the Pagans, or heathen nations ; who worship and adore false gods, or give those honours to creatures, and the works of man^s hand, which are due only to God. Q. When, and by whom, was the Mahome tan Religion founded? A. The Mahometan Religion was founded in the seventh century, by the impostor Mahomet; whose whole doctrine Is a ridiculous compound of Paganism, Judaism, and Christian heresies. Q. What are the advantages derived to society from true Religion ? A. The advantages derived from true Reli- gion are many — it inspires sincerity in all men, justice in princes, integrity in magistrates, obe- dience to the laws, honesty in trade, union in families, and, above all, and what is better than all, it secures, to those who possess it, everlast- ing happiness in the world to come. PHILOSOPHY. Q. What is Philosophy ? A. Philosophy, properly speaking, is the PHYSICS. 15 Science of Wisdom ; or, it is the employment of the human mind in examining and explaining the nature, modifications and effects of matter y the principles of morality^ the operations of reason^ and the properties of abstract or immaterial things. This last, is called meta- physics. Q. From what is the term Philosophy de- rived? A. The term Philosophy is derived from the Greek words philos^ to love, and sophia^ wis- dom. Q. How may Philosophy be divided .'* A. Philosophy may be divided into Physics, or natural philosophy; Ethics, or moral philo- sophy; Logic, and Metaphysics. PHYSICS. Q. Of what do Physics treat? A. Physics, or Natural Philosophy, treat of the nature or modifications of matter, and ex- plain the various phenomena of the material world. Physics are also called physiology. ^ Q. What is Matter? A. Matter is the general name of every thing or substance that has lengthy breadth^ and thick- 7iess. Q. What are the properties of Matter? 16 POLITE LEARNING. A. The inherent properties of Matter, are solidity J divisibility^ Tnobility^ and inertness. The solidity of a body prevents any other substance from occupying the same place at the same time. Divisibility is that property of a t)ody by which its parts may be separated. Mobility, a capability of being moved. Inertness, without a disposition to move. To matter also belong the forces of attraction, repulsion, and gravity. Attraction in bodies is_ their tendency to approach each other. Repulsion, a tendency to repel, or separate from each other; and Gravity, the tendency of all bodies towards the centre of the earth. Q. What is Motion? A. Motion implies a continued and successive change of place; and without it nothing can be produced or destroyed. To motion belongs the force that produces it — the quantity of matter moving — the velocity and direction — the space — the time — and the momentum, Q. What is the Centre of Gravity ? A. The Centre of Gravity, in any body, is that point about which all its parts do exactly balance each other. MECHANICS. Q. What are Mechanics ? A. Mechanics are a science which considers MECHANICS. 17 motion and moving bodies, their nature and laws, with the effect of mechanic powers and their various combinations, in the construction of machines or engines. ' That part of mechanics which considers the motions of bodies, arising from weight or gravi- ty, is generally called statics, Q. What is meant by Mechanic powers? A By Mechanic powers are meant those ma- chines which are used for raising greater weights, or overcoming greater resistances, than could be effected by natural strength, without them : the power, or strength, being applied to one part of the machine ; and the weight, or resistance, to another. Q. How many Mechanic powers are there ? There are six Mechanic powers: the lever, the wheel and axle, the pulley, the inclined plane, the wedge, and the screw. Q. Please to describe each. A. The lever is an inflexible bar, turning on a supporting prop, as its centre of motion. There are three kinds of levers : 1. When the prop is between the weight and the power ; as, iron-crows, pincers, and scissors. 2. When the weight, or resistance, is between the prop and the power ; as, the oars of a boat, and knives which are fixed at the point. 3. When the power is between the weight and the prop ; of which sort, are, the bones of a man^s arm, and the wheels of clocks and watches. The wheel and axle are contrived chiefly for b2 18 POLITE LEARNING, the raising of weights to a considerable height ; the power being applied to the rim of the wheel, and the weight drawn up by a rope winding round the axle. T\\Q pulley is a little wheel or rundle, having a channel round it, and turning on an axis, Avith a rope which rests in its channel, and has the power applied at one end, and the weight at the other. An assemblage of these is called a system of pulleys; some of wliieh are in a block, that is fixed; and others in a block, which is moveable, and rises with the weight. An inclined plane is like tlie chamfered part of an edgetool, which is ground down only on one side, to the edge. A wedge^ in the common form, is like two inclined planes, joined together at their bases. The sci^ew may be considered as an inclined plane, wrapped round a cylinder, which is turn- ed by a winch or lever. It is of great efficacy in raising weights, or in pressing bodies closely together. Of these six simple machines, all the most compound engines in the world consist. As the screw includes the inclined plane, and two in clined planes make the wedge, we have all the mechanical powers combined in the common jack, if it be aided by a fly-wheel ; for, then we have also the lever, the wheel and axle, and the pulleys. PNELMATIGS. 19 HYDROSTATICS. Q. What are Hydrostatics ? A. Hydrostatics is that science which treats of the weight and action of fluids. A fluid is a body whose parts are easily moved among themselves, and readily yield to any impression. Fluids are either non-elastic and incompressi- ble; as water, wine, oil, mercury; or elastic, and compressible; as air, gas, &c. Q. What is meant by Specific Gravities ? A. By Specific Gravities we mean the relative weight which equal bulks of difierent bodies, have to each other. It is by w^eighing them in water, and thus comparing their weight with that of water, that the specific gravities are found. Q. What do Hydraulics teach ? A. Hydraulics teach us how to estimate the swiftness and force of fluids in motion. All water works, mills, pumps, &c. come under the notice of hydraulics. Q. What is Acoustics? A. Acoustics is the doctrine of sounds. All sonorous bodies, whilst sounding, are in a state of vibration, and communicate similar vibrations to the surrounding air, which thus convey sound. [See music] PNEUMATICS. Q. Of what do Pneumatics treat? A. The science of Pneumatics treats of the 20 POLITE LEARNING. mechanical properties of elastic or aerial fluids; such as their weight, density, compressibility, and elasticity. Q. What are the properties of Air? A. Air is a transparent, invisible, elastic, and compressible fluid, about 900 times lighter than water, and capable of almost indefinite expan- sion.* It is essential to animal life and the growth of plants. Q. What is to be understood by the Atmos- phere ? A. The Atmosphere is all that mass of air which encompasses the earth to the height of many miles, moves along with it in its annual and diurnal motions, in which the clouds and vapour float, which is the medium of sound, and which we constantly breathe. Q. Of what is pure Atmospheric Air com- posed ? A. Pure Atmospheric Air is composed of three gaseous substances: viz. Of oxygen gas, . . . 22 parts, ^ ^^^j Of nitrogen gas, . . / / parts, V ^^ ^^^er Of carbonic acid gas, 1 part, } ^ ' 100 parts, or pure air. (^, What is Oxygen ? * Mr. Boyle found by experiment, that air, by its elaj ticity, would so expand itself as to occupy 13,769 times more space than contained it before. And we know that air may be compressed to 128th part of the space it natu- rally occupies. Its expansion and compressibility may, however, be considered as almost infinite. PNEUMATICS. 21 A. Oxyge»!i is the principle of combustion, and the vehicle of heat; and is absolutely necessary for the support of animal life. Q. What is Nitrogen ? A. Nitrogen is chiefly distinguished by its being incapable of supporting combustion, or animal life. It has the effect of neutralizing, in some measure, the properties of oxygen; thus, rendering it fit for breathing and promoting com- bustion; and is highly favourable to vegetation. Q. How is Carbonic Acid Gas produced ? A. Carbonic Acid Gas is produced by the res- piration of animals, and by combustion. It is the proper nutriment of vegetables; which nature has endowed with organs for its decomposition. One gallon of common air is sufficient for a man during the space of one minute, and no longer:*^, lighted candle, also, destroys the vivifying quality of a gallon of air in one minute, and without a fresh sup- ply it will cease to burn. Q. Of what . gravity is the Atmosphere, and what are its principal effects ? A. A quart of Atmospheric air, at the earth's surface, weighs sixteen grains ; being 900 times lighter than rain water: but, from its great height, it presses upon the earth, and all the bodies thereon, so powerfully, as to bind them down with a force amounting to upwards of fif- teen pounds weight upon every square inch: hence, it prevents the vessels of animals and plants from being too much distended by the impetus of the circulating blood and juices. 22 POLITE LEARNING. Q. Is the Atmosphere of the same density and heat, at all distances from the earth ? A. No: the air is lighter, in geometrical pro- portion, the higher we ascend ; and its heat also decreases, but not in a similar ratio. By this loss in gravity, and the consequent sinking of the mercury in the barometer, the altitude of mountains is ascertained. Q. How many Elements does Nature em- bosom ? A. Formerly we said Nature embosomed four elements; earthy water, air, and Jire; but, as each of these, except Jire, or caloric, is a com- pound body, the elements, or radicals, amount to nearly fifty. OF METEORS. Q. What is a Meteor? A. A Meteor is a transient body, or the re- semblance of a body, formed in the atmosphere, and exhibiting various appearances. A. How are Meteors divided ? Q. Meteors are divided into three kinds : the igneous, aerial, and aqueous. Of th-e igneous kind, are lightning, aurora borealis, ignus fatuus, and other fiery phenomena. The aerial consists of winds. The aqueous are composed of va- pours, or watery particles, variously separated, and condensed by cold : such are, clouds, hail, and snow; rain, waterspouts, dew, and the like. ELECTRICITY. 23 ELECTRICITY. Q. What is Electricity ? A. Electricity, or the electric fluid, is an ex- ceedingly subtile fire which pervades all nature, and produces most singular and extraordinary phenomena. It is the cause of thunder and lightnings of the aurora borealis, and, in many instances, of earthquakes. The science of electricity is the art of moving and accumulating this astonishing agent, so as to exhibit its various effects. All those bodies which readily transmit this electric fluid, are called conductors ; and those that do not, non-conductors, or electrics. All the metals, semi- metals, metallic ores, charcoal, water, and most fluids, are conductors of electricity. Q. How does it appear that thunder and lightning are the efiects of electricity.^ A. Dr. Franklin has proved, by a variety of experiments, that the lightning of electricity, and that which flashes in the clouds during a thunder storm, are of exactly the same kind, and operate in the same manner. OF LIGHTNING AND THUNDER. Q. What is Lightning ? A. Lightning is a large, bright flame, darting 24 POLITE LEARNING. swiftly through the air; of momentary duration, and commonly attended with thunder. Q. How is this Meteor accounted for ? A. Lightning, in the present advanced state of electricity, is universally allowed to be an electrical phenomenon : for, as before observed, it has been proved by a variety of experiments, that the lightning of electricity, and the light- ning which glares in^he clouds, are precisely the same, both in kind and operation. Q. What is the cause of Lightning ? A. Lightning is caused by a discharge of the superabundant electricity of one cloud into an- other, or into some part of the earth which is negatively electrified. According to the theory of Franklin, when the air in one place, is electrified positively,* and in another negatively, it causes particular clouds and different parts of the earth, to possess opposite electricities; so that on their approach within a certain distance, a dis- charge is made from the one into the other ; and in the discharge, a flash of lightning is observed. Q. How is Thunder produced ? A. Thunder is produced by a concussion m the air, from an electrical explosion; and thi^ rattling noise we hear, is probably the effect of the sound, carried rapidly by the agitated air among the clouds, which hang irregularly around, one above another. * When any body possesses more than its natural sfiare of the electric fluid, it is said to be positively electrified; and when less^ negatively. AURORA BOREALIS. 25 Q. What is the reason that thunder is not heard till some time after the lightning is seen ? A. The reason that thunder is not heard till some time after the lightning is seen, is, that sound is much longer in arriving at our ears, than light is at our eyes : for, light moves almost instantaneously; but sound moves only at the rate of 1 142 feet in a second. Q. I have heard of thunderbolts, and of their strange effects: pray, what are they? A. What is vulgarly called a thunderbolt, is only lightning when it acts with extraordinary violence, and breaks or shatters whatever lies in its way. When the explosion is high in the air, it will do no mischief; but, when near the earth, it may kill animals, destroy trees, burn houses, &c. Q. How can we ascertain its distance? A. The distance of Lightning may be esti- mated by the interval of time between the flash and the noise. The ordinary difference between the two is about seven seconds, which, at the rate of 1142 feet in a second, gives the distance of about a mile and a half; but it sometimes comes in a second or two;, which shows that the explosion is very near us, or even among us. # OF THE AURORA BOREALIS. Q. What is the Aurora Borealis? A. The Aurora Borealis is an extraordinary, C 26 POLITE LEARNING, luminous meteor, showing itself in the night al- ter a dry season, chiefly in the northern parts of the atmosphere; and, hence, the vulgar give it the name of northern lights^ or streainers, Q. Pray, describe this meteor? A. The Aurora Borealis appears most com- monly in the form of an arch; partly bright, and partly dark; but always transparent, and usually of a red colour, inclining to yellow. It sends out frequent coruscations of pale light, which seem to rise from the horizon in a pyramidical and undulating form, and shoot with great velo- city toward the zenith, or that point which is immediately over the head of the spectator. Q. How is it accounted for ? A. The Aurora Borealis is deemed an elec- trical phenomenon, and supposed to be occasion- ed by the flashing of electric fire, from positive towards negative parts of the atmosphere, at a great distance, and in the upper region, where the resistance is least; and that it appears chiefly in the northern parts, because the alteration in the heat of the air is there the greatest. OF THE IGNUS FATUUS. Q. What is the Ignus Fatuus ? A. The Ignus Fatuus issccfinmon ignited me- teor; chiefly seen at night, in\neadows, marshes, and other moist places. It is known among the vulgar by the appellations, Will'ioith'a'Wispy and Jack'With'a'lantern, WIND. 27 Q. How is this phenomenon explained ? A. The Ignus Fatuus is ascribed, by late dis- coveries, to inflammable air, arising from the pu- trefaction and decomposition of vegetable sub- stances in water, and taking fire by means of the electrical matter contained in fogs. In short, positive and negative electricity in the air, with a proper quantity of moisture to serve as a con- ductor, will readily accoupt for these, as well as for falling stars^ so called, and other fiery phe- nomena. OF WIND. Q. What is Wind? A. Wind is air put into motion, more or less rapid, by which it flows in currents from one region to another. Q. What are the principal causes of this mo- tion or agitation ? A. The principal causes of the motion or agi- tation of the air, are local alterations in the state of the air, by means of heat. For, when the air is heated over ftne part of the earth more than over another, the warmer or rarefied air becomes specifically lighter than the rest, and is therefore overpoised by it, and raised upwards; the higher parts of it difiusing themselves every way over the top of the atmosphere; while the neighbour- ing air below, rushes in on all sides, till the equi- librium is restored. Hence, we mav account also for the ascending 28 POLITE LEARNING, of smoke in a chimney; and for the rushing of the air, through the keyhole of a door, or any small chink, into a room where there is a fire. Q. How are the Winds divided ? A. The Winds are divided into four principal ones; the east, west, north, and south; which take their names from the four cardinal points of the world. Q. What is the nature of each ? A. The east wind is damp; because it comes from the bosom of the Atlantic, where it im- bibes large quantities of vapour; — the west^ com- ing from temperate regions across the American continent, is pleasant, pure, and exhilarating; — the north wind is cold, because it comes from the frigid zone, or countries remote from the in- fluence of the sun; — -and the souths coming from the torrid zone, is warm. Q. Why are the Winds deemed beneficial? A. The Winds are deemed beneficial, not only on account of their use in movino; various ma- chines, and immense importance in navigation, but because they serve to purify and refresh the atmosphere, to convey the heatibr cold of one region to another, and to produce a circulation of vapours from the ocean to inland countries. But, though their effects, on the whole, may be of great benefit, their violence is sometimes very detri- mental. Q. What is a Whirlwind ? A. A Whirlwind is a violent and impetuous rushing in of the air from all points, in a circu- WiiND. 29 lar or whirling inanner^ so as to threaten de- struction to all around. It is produced by some great and very sudden change in a particular part of the atmosphere by means of a cloud, or some electrical cause. When these causes are numerous and very vio- lent, accompanied with lightning and thunder, the wind becomes so furious and terrible, that it overthrows houses, roots, up trees, and destroys every thing in its course. This is denominated a Hurricane. Q. What is the ordinary velocity of Wind.'^ A. The velocity of Wind, in what is termed a gentle breeze, may be from four to six or eight miles an hour; a strong breeze or brisk Wind will travel perhaps from ten to fifteen miles an hour; and a Hurricane or Tempest, probably not less than fifty or sixty miles. The Air is often observed, in different regions, to move in contrary currents; and this, almost always, previous to thunder. Q. What are Clouds ? A. Clouds are a quantity of condensed va- pours, suspended in the atmosphere, Q. How are they formed ? A. Clouds ai'e formed from a collection of watery particles, raised from the earth by solar and subterraneous heat. The particles, at their first rise, are too minute and separate to be per- ceived; but meeting in their ascent, with a greater degree of cold, they are condensed' and their parts united, so as to reflect light, and become visible. C 2 30 POLITE LEARNING. Q. At what height do you suppose the Clouds to be suspended ? A. The Clouds are suspended from about a quarter of a mile to two miles in height, accord- ing to their specific gravity, and to the elasticity or density of the atmosphere. They are frequent- ly visible below the tops of very high hills. Q. May we then be sometimes above the Clouds? A. Yes, considerably: in mountainous coun- tries, it is no unusual thing to see the clouds pouring down in rain upon the vallies below, while a clear sunshine is enjoyed around you upon the mountains. Q. What is the cause of the various forms and colours of the Clouds? A. The various forms of the Clouds arise from their loose texture, which allows them to change into any form, according to the different currents of the air: and their colour is owing to their particular situation with regard to the sun, and the different reflections of his light. It appears from the observable motion of the Clouds, that there are different currents in the air, at the same time, and in the same quarter, one under the other. OF THE RAI>TL(JW. Q. What is a Rainbow? A. A Rainbow is a meteor in the form of an RAINBOW. 31 arch, exhibited in a rainy atmosphere, opposite to the sun. Q. Of what colours does it consist ? A. The colours of the Rainbow are, begin- ning from the upper part, red, orange, yellow? green, blue, indigo, and violet; which are called the seven primary colours: for all other colours, are composed of some of them. Every ray of light is a compound body; con- sisting of these seven colours; but mixed in such proportions, as to produce the appearance of white. As these colours possess different de- grees of frangibility, they are easily separated. Let a ray of light pass through a drop of water, and the violet will suffer a greater refraction than the red; consequently, they will be separa- ted. Q. How is the Rainbow formed ? A. The Rainbow is formed by the rays of the sun being refracted in the drops of falling rain, and thence reflected to the eye of* the spectator, who is between the sun and the rain. Q. How are the various colours produced? A. The various colours of the Rainbow are produced by the different refractions of the rays, transmitted to the eye from several drops; one higher than another; the rays least refracted pro- ducing red; thosemost refracted, violet; and the intermediate ones, the other colours, in the order before mentioned. Q. I have sometimes observed two bows, one above the other; how are these accounted for? 32 POLITE LEARNING. A. When two Rainbows are formed, the inte- rior and stronger one is produced by one reflec- tion; the exterior and fainter, by two: when the latter is visible, its colours lie in a contrary order to .the other. Q. What part of the whole spectrum, or bow, does each of these colours occupy ? A. If it be divided into 360 parts, the red will occupy 45; tlie orange 27; the 7/ e Haw 48; the gi^een 60; tlie o/ue 60; the indigo 40; and the violet SO parts. Q. How is the lunar Rainbow formed? A. The lunar Rainbow is formed in exactly the same manner as the other; by the beams of the moon falling upon the bosom of a shower. Q. How is that lucid ring, called the halo^ which we sometimes see diffused around the moon, accounted for? A. As the halo always appears in rainy or frosty weather, we may suppose it occasioned by the refraction of light, in the watery, or fro- zen particles of the atmosphere. OF HAIL. Q. What is Hail? A. Hail is an aqueous concretion, generally round, but sometimes angular, triangular, &c. ac- cording to the suddenness of its first formation, and the degrees of cold through which it passes in its descent. SNOW. 33 Q. How is it produced ? A. Hail is produced thus: Particles oi water being brought together by the agency of the electric fluid, in the upper regions of the air, form drops; and these, in their descent through a cold atmosphere, are congealed, and form hail- stones of greater or less size and density, accord- ing to the intenseness of the cold, the quantum of water firsl: congealed, and the number of other particles which adhere during their descent. OF SNOW. Q. How is Snow produced ? A. Snow is formed in the middle region of the atmosphere, by particles of water there con- gealed, and to which, similar particles unite and still accumulate as they descend through a cold air, till they fall to the earth in what we term flakes of Snow. Q. Why are those flakes so light? ' A. The lightness of these flakes of snow, is owing to the extent of the surface, in compari- son with the matter contained under it; as gold itself may be extended in surface till it will float upon the least breath of air. Q. What is the cause of their whiteness? A. The particles of ice that compose flakes of Snow, being solid, transparent, and difierently arranged, reflect the light from every part; and thus produce their whiteness. 34 POLITE LEARNING. Q. Of what benefit is Snow to the earth ? A. Snow furnishes a covering for corn and other vegetables, by which they are guarded from the intense cold of the air; especially, from piercing winds and hard frosts: It also prevents the internal heat of the earth from escaping; and, when melting, it moistens and pulverizes the soil, and thereby promotes vegetation. OF RAIN. Q. What is Rain? A. Rain is a precipitated cloud, descending in the form of drops of water; or, it is snow dissolv- ed in passing through the lower and warmer re- gion of the atmosphere. Rain, therefore, has its origin in regions below those of snow and hail. Q. How do you account for the various sizes of drops of Rain ? A. The various sizes of rain-drops, may be accounted for as follows: On mountains,* drops of Rain, as well as flakes of snow and hailstones, are very small; but the more intense the electri- city is that forms them, the larger they are. Their bulk is also increased from the length of their descent through a humid atmosphere, in which they attract particles of vapour as they fall: for, it is known, that a vessel placed on the top of a high tower, will not collect so much rain as another of the same dimensions, set on the ground. FOG AND DEAV. 35 Q. What are the chief uses of Rain ? A. Rain moistens and softens the earth, and thus fits it for affording nourishment to plants. By falling on mountains, it carries down with it many particles of loose earth, which serve to fertilize the surrounding valleys: it purifies the air from noxious exhalations, which tend, in their return to the earth, to meliorate the soil: it also moderates the heat of the air; and is one means of supplying fountains and rivers. Q. Was there any Rain before the flood? A. It is supposed there was no Rain before the flood, but that the earth was moistened by plen- tiful dews or mists: of course, there could have been then no rainbow. This meteor is recorded in the bible as appearing, for the first time, after that great occurrence. OF FOG AND DEW. Q. What is Fog? A. Fog or mist, is a meteor, consisting of gross vapours, floating near the surface of the earth. Q. How is it formed ? A. Fog is formed by vapours raised from the earth, which meet, at their first entrance into the atmosphere, with cold sufficient to condense them considerably; and thus arrest their ascent. They therefore either remain suspended for a time, or return back in a light drizzling rain. 36 POLITE LEARNING. Fogs are only low clouds, or clouds in the lowest region of the air; and clouds are nothing more than Fogs raised on high. Q. How is Dew formed ? A. Dew is formed from extremely light and subtile vapours, which, as they ascend from the earth, become condensed by the coldness of the night, before they have arisen to any considerable height, and return back in imperceptible drops OF WATERSPOUTS. Q. What is a Waterspout ? A. A Waterspout is a large column of water, rising in a spiral form from the agitated ocean, with a frightful rushing noise, to a vast height in the air. Q. What is the cause of this phenomenon ^ A. Dr. Franklin ascribes Waterspouts to the same cause which produces whirlwinds; namely, the rarefaction of the air; and this hypothesis is strengthened by the fact that Waterspouts seldom appear except in warm climates. Q. Do Waterspouts often occur. '^ A. In the vicinity of the equator, Waterspouts are very frequent; and would often endanger or destroy ships, were not means found to reduce them before their very near approach. Q. How may this be done ? A. A Waterspout is easily reduced by the dis- charge of a cannon* By this the pressure of the TIDES. 37 surrounding air is decreased both through rare- faction and expansion; and the Waterspout re- turns upon the ocean, in the form of a heavy- rain, or torrent OF THE TIDES. Q. What is meant by the Tides? A. Tides are two periodical motions of the waters of the sea; called the flux and reflux, or the flow and ebh, Q. Please to explain these motions ? A. The sea is observed to flow from the equa- tor towards the north and the south pole, for about six hours; in which motion, or flux, the sea gradually swells; so that, entering the mouths of rivers, it drives back tlie river waters towards their source. After this flux has continued for six hours, the sea seems to rest for about twelve minutes; and in this state it is called high water. When this pause is over, the ebb commences, and the sea retires from the poles towards the equator, for six hours more; in which time, the water sinking, the rivers resume their course towards the sea. After this reflux, the sea again rests another twelve minutes; and in this state, it is called low water, Q. How are these phenomena accounted for ? A. Tides are occasioned by the attraction of the moon, which extends to the earth in so pow- erful a manner, as to draw up the waters of the ocean in a heap, immediately beneath the moon. D 38 POLITE LEARNING. At the same time, the waters on the opposite side of the earth, being feebly attracted, the neighbouring waters, pressing towards that place, swell into a heap, pointing to the opposite part of the heaven, and causing the Tides to rise at the respective antipodes at the same time. Thus, does the moon, in going once round the earth in twenty-four hours and three quarters, produce two tides or swells, and as many ebbs. Q. What are the causes of the Tide rising much higher at one time than at another ? A. The causes of the Tide's riaing higher at one time than at another, are, that about the time of the new and full moon, the action of both the sun and moon are united, and draw in the same straight line, by which means the waters are most elevated at these times, and are called spring tides; and this elevation is farther in- creased the nearer these two luminaries are to tlie equator: consequently, the highest spring Tides are in March and September. The lowest Tides are about the first and third quarter of the moon, and are called neap tides: for, at these times, the sun and moon act con- trariwise; the sun raising the waters at the point where the moon causes them to be lowest: so that these Tides ai;e occasioned only by the differ- ence by which the attraction of the moon, which is nearest to the earth, prevails over that of the sun. Q. Whence proceed their other irregular mo- tions ? A. The other irregular motions of the Tides EARTHQUAKES. 39 are caused principally by a multitude of islands and continents, which interrupt the course of the waters, and produce a variety of appearances in different places. Were it not for these, as the tides are caused principally by the moon, and consequently follow her apparent course from east to west, and her declination from north to south, except the irregularities already mention- ed, all the motions of the waters would be uni- form. OF EARTHQUAKES. Q. What is an Earthquake.'* A. An Earthquake is a tremendous agitation of some considerable part of the earth, attended with a noise like thunder; and frequently with an eruption of wind or smoke, water or fire. It is, undoubtedly, the greatest and most formida- ble phenomenon of nature. Q. What is the cause of these te^rible phe- nomena ? A. Earthquakes of a superficial kind, may have an electric origin : for, when a part of the earth is in a highly electrified state, the approach of a non-electric cloud, will produce a sudden discharge, and occasion a violent commotion in the earth, many miles in compass. But the prin- cipal agent of those that are interior and more tre- mendous, is subterraneous fire. Q. Please to explain those of subterraneous origin ? 40 POLITE LEARNING. A. The earth abounds with subterraneous ca verns, canals, and veins; some full of exhalations, others, ful! of water; and some parts replete with nitre, sulphur, bitumen, &c. which produce fire : hence, it is easy to conceive the terrible ef- fects which may be occasioned from such con-i, fined air, or water, when acted upon, and greatly rarefied by fire; especially, if it be considered, that the expansive force of steam is twenty- eight times greater than that of gunpowder. OF VOLCANOES. Q. What are Volcanoes ? A. Volcanoes are burnina; mountains, which emit flame, ashes, cinders, stones, liquid sulphur, and other substances. Q. Are there many of them ? A. Yes, Volcanoes are found in all quarters of the globe; but the principal of those in Eu- rope, a-re Etna, or Gibel, in Sicily; Vesuvius, in Naples; and Hecla, in Iceland. It is owing to those vents of subterraneous fires, that the ef- fects of earthquakes are not more frequent and dreadful. MINERALOGY. Q. Of what does Mineralogy treat? A. Mineralogy treats of all fossil bodies; as, gold, silver, iron, tin, lead, and coal; besides the MINERALOGY. 41 various kinds of stone: as, marble, diamonds, the loadstone, &c. Q. Give a short description of the principal metals. 1. A. Gold is the purest, most ductile, and the heaviest of all metals, except platina. It is found in mines, in various parts of the world; but abounds most in the mines of Peru and Chili, in South America. 2. Silver is a white metal ; heavy, sonorous, brilliant, and very ductile. It is found in the greatest abundance in South America, 3. Copper is of a red colour; very sonorous and elastic, and the most ductile of all the metals, except gold. It is found in various parts of the world; but particularly in Sweden.* 4. Iron is universally and largely diffused throughout nature; pervading almost every thing. It is the chief cause of colour in earths and stones, and exists in almost all vegetables and animal fluids. Iron, though the cheapest, is by far the most useful of all the metals. When placed, for some time, in contact with red-hot charcoal, it becomes much harder and more elastic, and is then called steel ; and when suspended perpendicularly for a considerable period, or acted upon by intense friction, it ac- quires the properties of a magnet. 5. Lead is very heavy, of a livid white * A mixture of copper and tin forms bronze : two parts of copper and one of zinc, form brass: other proportions make prince's metaL D2 42 POLITE LEARNING, colour, and tjje softest of all metals. It is exten- sively used in making paints; and produces grey, white, red, or brown, according to the quantity of oxygen with which it is brought in contact. It is found in the greatest abundance in England. 6. Till is a white fusible metal, neither so hard as silver, nor so soft as lead. The Tin mines in Cornwall and Devonshire (England) furnish the greatest part of all the tin consumed in Europe. Six pounds of brass, with fifteen pounds of lead, and a hundred pounds of iron, make the composition called pewter. 7. Mercury or Quicksilver is a fluid matter, resembling melted silver. In the temperature of our atmosphere, it is neither ductile nor malleable. It is the heaviest of all metals, gold and platina excepted; is in a high degree volatile, and extremely fluid; easily adheres to gold, less readily to sih^er, with dif- ficulty to copper, but to iron not at all. Q. What of the diamond, and other precious stones ? A. The diamond, called by the ancients, ada- raant^ is the most valuable of all the precious stones. Its goodness consists in its water or colour, lustre and weight. It is found chiefly in the mines of Golconda, in Hindoostan; is the hardest of all gems, and can be cut only by it- self. ^'Diamond, cut Diamond,^^ The ruby is next to the diamond in vflue, and is of a crimson colour, inclining to purplo. MINERALOGY. 43 The garnet is very like the ruby, and perhaps is of the same species. The hyacinth is sometimes of a deep red, and sometimes of a yellow colom*. The emerald is a grass green. The beryl J a sea, or bluish green. The sapphire^ a sky blue. The topaz or chrysolite is of a gold colour. All these are transparent: but the cornelian^ which is of a pale red or orange colour; the onyx^ of a greyish cast; the turquoise^ between a blue and a green; and the lapis lazuli^ which is studded with spots of gold on an azure ground; are opaque, or only half transparent. Q. What do you know of the magnet or load- stone ? A. The magnet or loadstone is found in iron mines in several parts of the world: as, China, Arabia, Bengal, Hungary, Germany, and En- gland; and resembles the ore of iron in appear- ance, but is closer and more ponderous. Q. What are its properties ? A. The magnet or loadstone powerfully at- tracts iron, to which it also communicates the same attractive power; and every magnet, how- ever small or divided, has two poles, one of which points to the north, and the other to the south. The discovery of the virtues of this stone is of the highest importance to navigation and commerce. 44 POLITE LEARNING. ARCHITECTURE. Q. What is Architecture ? A. Architecture is the art of building or erect- ing edifices: it is of three kinds; Civil, Military, arid Naval. Its excellence consists in giving to the materials employed, such form and disposi- tion as to produce beauty, strength, and conve- nience. Q. In what does Civil Architecture consist? A. Civil Architecture consists in designing and building edifices for the uses of civil life; as, dwelling houses, churches, and colleges. These are constructed agreeably to one of the five orders of this art. Q What are these five orders of Civil Archi- tecture ? A. The five orders of Civil Architecture are the Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, Tuscan, and Com- posite. -These have their names from the per- sons or people who invented them; except the last, which was invented by the Romans, and is a compound of the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. Besides those five orders, the Gothic^ a fanci- ful, yet sublime style of building, is still used in the construction of churches and other public buildings, not only in Europe and Asia, but in America also. Q. What is Military Architecture ? A. Military Architecture is the art of strength- ening and fortifying towns, or other places; so as to shield them from the assaults of enemies, and the violence of arms, by the erection of forts, PAINTING. 45 castles, and other fortresses, with rampai'ts, bas- tions, &c. This art is more usually termed For- tification. Q. What is Naval Architecture ?^ A. Naval Architecture is the art of construct- ing ships, galleys, and other floating vessels; whether for the service of war or commerce. The construction of moles, ports, docks, &c. be- longs to this art. Q- What are the acquirements necessary for a good architect ? A. The acquirements necessary for a good architect, are an acquaintance with drawing, geo- metry, optics, and history. PAINTING. Q. What is Painting? A. Painting is the art of representing- objects, by lines and degrees of colours, on an even and uniform surface. Q. How is this art divided ? A. Painting is divided into six parts: the de- sign, the proportion, the expression, the clare- obscure, the ordonnance, and the colouring. Design is the simple contour, or outlines, of the figures or things intended to be represented; or the lines that terminate or circumscribe them. Proj)ortion is the just magnitude of the sev- eral members of a figure, a group, &e. ; with re- gard to one another, to the whole figure, the group, and the entire piece. 46 POLITE LEARNING. The Expression of a piece of painting, is the appearance which it has to the eye ; or, the de- gree of power which the artist gives it, of con- veying to the beholder, a correct idea of the object or objects it represents. It ought to be natural, lively, and striking. Clare-obscure is the art of distributing the lights and shades of a piece ; both with regard to easing the eye, and heightening the effect of the whole composition. Ordonnance denotes the disposition of the parts of a picture; either with regard to the whole piece, or to the several parts. Colouring is the manner of applying and conducting the colours of a picture; or the mix- ture of lights and shades, formed by the various colours employed in Painting, Q. What are the various kinds of Painting ? A. Paintings are distinguished with regard to the materials used ; the matter whereon they are applied ; and the manner of applying them. The principal kinds are as follow: Oil-paintings for which the colours are ground in nut or linseed oil ; and may be ap- plied to canvass, wood, or walls ; stone, glass, or metals. This discovery, which was made by a Flemish paint- er, in the beginning of the 14th century, is of great importance to the art; since, by it, the colours of a picture are preserved much longer, and receive a soft- ness and lustre, which the ancients, to whom it was unknown, could never give their pieces, whatever var nish they might use. Water colours^ or limning^ is a more an- PAINTING. 47 cient art than painting in oil, in which the co- lours are mixed with water only; with, some- times, the addition of a little sizing. Fresco is a kind of painting done with water colours, on fresh plaster, or on a wall laid with mortar not yet dry ; so that, incorporating with the mortar, and drying along with it, the co- lours become extremely durable. Distemper is a term for painting, when the colours are mixed with size, whites of eggs, or other proper glutinous, or unctuous substances, without oil. Miniature is a delicate kind of painting; consisting of fine points, or dots, instead of lines, and done with thin water colours. Encaustic is a species of Painting with burned wax. It consists in applying water colours upon a coating of beeswax; and when the picture is dry, it is put near a fire, by which the wax melts, and absorbs all the colours. Enamel is a method of Painting with ena- mels, or metalline colours, giound and reduced to powder, and used, like other colours, with a pencil; then fused, baked again, and vitrified by force of fire. Glass is a kind of Painting similar to enamel; the colours being incorporated with the glass it- self, by exposing them to a proper degree of heat. Jlquatinta is a method of etchings on copper, lately invented; by which, a soft and beautiful effect is produced, resembling a fine drawing in water colours, or Indian ink. 48 POLITE LEARNING. Mezzotinto is an ingenious method of repre- senting figures, on copper; so as to form prints in imitation of Painting in Indian ink. SCULPTURE. Q. What is Sculpture ? A. Sculpture is the art of cutting or carving wood and stone into images; and of fashioning wax, earth, plaster, &c. to serve as models, or moulds for the casting of metalline figures. Q. Is not this a very ancient art? A. Of the antiquity of Sculpture there can be no doubt; since the sacred writings mention it in several places: as, in the case of Laban's idols, taken away by Rachel; the brazen serpent, made by Moses, and the golden calf, by the people of Israel. Q. What is Statuary ? A. Statuary is a branch of Sculpture, employ- ed' in making statues. The ancients far surpassed the moderns in this art; perhaps, because it was more popular, and therefore, more cultivated. Q. What are deemed the best specimens of Sculpture in England? A. The specimens of Sculpture that seem to stand highest in England, are — the statues of Phrensy and Melancholy, on the piers, before Bethlehem hospital; — an elegant statue of Ed- ward VI. in bronze, at St. Thomas's hospital, in South wark, by Sckeemaker; — another of Sir Isaac Newton, at Cambridge, by Roubiliac; — the SCULPTURE. 49 monuments of the duke of Argyle and Mrs. Nightingale, by the same artist; — and one of Dr. Chamberlain, by Sckeemaker. Westminster-abbey is the famous repository of Sculp- ture in England; but the figures lose much of their effect by being crowded together without order or ar- rangement. Q. Is it not probable, that Sculpture is more ancient than Painting? A. There is reason to believe that Sculpture is not only more ancient than Painting, but that it stood higher in the public esteem also; since the ancient painters appear to have imitated the statuaries ; and their works have not that free- dom of style, especially with respect to their dra- pery, which the pencil might easily have ac- quired, to a greater degree than the chisel. Q. What is Bass-relievo ? A. Bass-relievo is a term in Sculpture, signi- fying that the figures or images do not stand en- tirely above the plane on which they are formed. Creux is opposed to relievo; and implies that the figure, cut and formed, lies within the plane of the plate or substance engraved on. A Bust is the portrait of a person, in relievo; showing only the head, shoul(^s, and breast. Q. Which is the more difficult of these two arts, Painting or Sculpture } A. Painting has a greater number of requi- sites than Sculpture; but, at the same time, its expedients are the more numerous; and, there- fore, we may venture to affirm, that, whenever E 50 POLITE LEARNING. Sculpture pleases equally with a Painting, the Sculptor is certainly the greater artist. ETHICS. Q. What are Ethics? A. Ethics, or Moral Philosophy, is the sci- ence of morals, or of manners and duty, in all our intercourse with our fellow men; whether in public or private life. Q. What is the design of this science ? A. The design of Ethics or moral philosophy, is to teach men their duty, and the reason of it; — to teach them virtue,* benevolence, prudence, fortitude, and temperance; moral obligation, and relative duty. * Virtue, says Paley, comprehends benevolence, pru- dence, fortitude, and temperance; and is the doinff of good to mankind, in obedience to the will of God, and for the sake of his favour, and of everlasting happiness. Here — the good of mankind is the object ; the will of God, the rule ; and his favour, with everlasting happiness, the end or motive of virtue. Benevolence proposes good ends ; prudence suggests the best means of attaining them ; fortitude encounters the dif- ficulties that lie in our way to them ; and temperance directs to the right use or moderate enjoyment of them. JURISPRUDENCE. Q. What is Jurisprudence ? A. Jurisprudence is the science of what is just and unjust; or the knowledge of the laws, rights, customs, and ordinances, necessary for the administration of justice. JURISPRUDENCE. 51 Q. Whence is the word Jurisprudence de- rived? A. Jurisprudence is compounded of the Latin v^ords, JuriSy the genitive case of Jti^'y right^ and prudentia^ knowledge or skill. Q. How are the laws distinguished ? A. The laws are distinguished into the Law of Nature, the Law of Nations, and Civil Law. Q. What is the Law of Nature ? A. The Law of Nature is that which nature and reason have taught to mankind; as the power of parents over their children. Q. In what consists the Law of Nations? A. The Law of Nations consists in certain rules, sanctioned by all civilized nations, against violating hospitality; or encroaching upon the privileges of ambassadors, &c. sent by one state to another. Q. What is Civil Law ? A. Civil Law, in professional language, is de- rived from the ancient statutes of the Romans; but, in a general sense, it is the peculiar law of every nation, ordained to provide for the public utility, and the necessities of the people, consid- ered as a body corporate. When this respects a city or borough, which enjoys particular privi- leges, it is called raunicipal law. Q. Specify the several kinds of law now used in England. A. The laws of England, are,— First, the common law; containing a summary of all the rights and privileges in what is called Magna Charta, or the great charter of England, 52 POLITE LEARNING. and a reference to those laws which have been established by ancient usage. Second, statute law: consisting of the statutes, acts, and ordinances, of the king and parliamenl. Third, canon law; which is a collection of constitutions, decisions, and maxims, for a rule in church government. Fourth, martial law; used in all military and maritime affairs. Fifth, forest law; which relates to the regu- lation of forests and the chase. Q. What are the laws now prevalent in the United States? A. Each one of the United States, is governed by laws framed by its own legislature, and by the common law of England; but the army and navy are regulated, in particular cases, by martial law. The laws of congress, also, are binding through- out the Union, in ail matters which concern our general welfare, as a nation. OF GOVERNMENT. Q. What is the object of Government? A. The object of Government is, or ought to be, the protection of the lives, properties, rights, and privileges, of the people, collectively and individually. Q. How many kinds of national Government are there? A. There are four kinds of national Gpvern- GOVERNMENT. 53 ment, viz. Monarchial, Aristocratical, Demo- cratical, or Republican, and Mixed. Q. What iiy Monarchial Government ? A. Monarchial Government is that in which the supreme authority is in the hands of one per- son; who is styled a sovereign, emperor, monarch, king, prince, &c. Of these, some are absolute or despotic in their authority; i. e. they have no rule for their conduct, but their own loill, and are therefore absolute masters of the lives and property of their subjects: others are limited; having their powers strjctly defined and restrained by the laws. Q. What is an Aristocratical Government? A. An Aristocratical Government is that wherein the nobles, or great men of a nation, ex-* ercise the supreme authority, without the sufira- ges of the people. If their numbers be small, it is calkd an oligarch}/, Q. What is a Democratical or Republican Government ? A. A Democratical or Republican Govern- ment is that wherein the people have the sove- reign authority in their own hands; whence, it is delegated, for a given time, to those whom they may choose to appoint as their representatives in congress, parliament, &c. This government, wherein all men, by wisdom and patriotism, may equally aspire to posts of honour and trust among their fellow citizens, as they may aspire to heaven, by the practice of virtue and piety, is the only true, free, and Republican Government. E 2 54 POLITE LEARNING. Q. What is to be understood by a mixed Gov- ernment? A. A mixed Government is one wherein any two, or more, of the preceding forms, are blended; as, in Great Britain; where the Government is a compound of monarchy, aristocracy, and de- mocracy. The country under a monarch, emperor, king, prince, duke, &c. is called an empire, kingdom, principality, dukedom, &c. but that under an aristocracy or democ- racy, particularly the latter, is termed a state, repub- lic, or commonwealth. Q. What appears to have been the earliest form of Government among men ? A. The earliest form of Government among men, seems to have been Patriarchal; or one in which the chief magistrate or ruler sustained the character of father of his people, Q. Into how many branches or departments is Government divided ? A. Government is divided into three branches, viz: the Legislative^ whose business it is to make the laws — The Executive; by whom the laws are carried into eflect, obedience enforced;, or transgression punished — and the Judiciary; whose right it is to explain the laws, determine controversies between man and man, and pro- nounce sentence of penalty or punishment. The fundamental laws of a country or state, which secure the rights of the people, and regu- late the conduct of their rukrs, are termed its Constitution, POLITICS.— COMMERCE. 55 OF POLITICS. Q. What are Politics ? A. Politics are the science of government. Q. What is necessary to the forming of an able politician ? A. An able politician must possess an accu- rate knowledge of the whole condition of his own, and of every other country; with regard to geographical situation, and government; his- tory, laws, population, productions, commerce, &c. OF COMMERCE. Q. What is Commerce ? A. Commerce is the exchanging of one com- modity for another; or it is the buying and sell- ing of merchandise, with a view of acquiring profit. It appears to be nearly as ancient as the world: and at first consisted simply in exchang- ing things necessary for life. This is, even now, the state of commerce amongst the people on the coast of Siberia; in Russian and Norw~egian Lapland; and with many of the Asiatic and African tribes, as well as of those of America. Money was not, at a very iearly period, known; nor is it now in use, as a medium of trade, amongst the people here men- tioned. Q. What nations have made themselves most famous in commerce? 56 POLITE LEARNING. A. The people most famous in commerce, were the Phenicians, Egyptians, Carthaginians, and Rhodians; and, in modern times, the Flem- ings, Venetians, Genoese, Portuguese, and Dutch; but especially the British, and Americans. The famous society of the Hanseatic Towns, joined n a league, offensive and defensive, is commonly be- lieved to have been instituted at Bremen. It was not, in the beginning, composed of more than the towns situated on the Baltic sea, or of those that were only a little distant; but, its reputation increasing, there were few of the commercial towns in Europe, that did not become of the number. Immediately before the great French revolution, this society comprised Lubeck, Hamburgh, Bremen, Rostock, Brunswick, and some others; but it now, a«J well as many other ancient associations, is totally dis solved. LOGIC. Q. What is Logic ? A. Logic is the science of correct thinking; or, it is the art of using reason well in our in- quiries after truth, and in the communication of it to others. Q. What are the principal operations of the mind? A. The principal operations of the mind, are perception^ judgment y reasonings and disposi ti07l, Q. Define perceptio7i. A. Perceptio7i is the art of apprehending^ LOGIC. 57 seeing, or conceiving in the mind, the existence, nature, or properties of what we contemplate, Q. What is the result of perception ? A. The result of perception is an idea^ or mental image; or it is the view which the mind takes of objects now no longer present; as, The steeple which we saw, and the orator whom we heard, though far away, are still be- fore the eye of the mind. Q. yVhdXis judgment? A. Judgment is that operation of the mind by which we compare two or more ideas to- gether, with a view of determining whether they agree or disagree. Q. What is a judgment expressed in words, called ? A. A judgment expressed in words, is called di proposition; of which there are several kinds; viz. — 1. ^Affirmative; as, Man is an intelligent being; — 2. Negative; as. Birds and beasts do not reason; — 3. Conditional; as, If we rise early, we shall save time. Q. What is reasoning? A. Reasonings or argumentation, is that oper- ation of the mind by which we draw our conclu- sions on any subject that is not, in itself clear, by comparing it with other similar subjects, that are clear, known, and evident. Q. What are these conclusions^ or acts of reasoning, called? A. These conclusions^ or acts of reasoning, when just, are called syllogisms ; when false, sophisms. 5S POLITE LEARNING. EXAMPLES. No virtuous man is a slandei:er: But Sileno and Garrulous are both slanderers; Therefore, neither of them is a virtuous man. j3 Syllogism. A church is a building of stone: A religious assembly is a church; Therefore, a religious assembly is a building of stone. A Sophism. If the sun be risen, the night is past: But the night is not past; Therefore, the sun is not risen. •/? Syllogism. A goose goes upon two feet: Stultus goes upon two feet; Therefore, Stultus is a goose. A Sophism. Q. What is disposition? A. Disposition^ or arrangement, is the order in which we place our per^ceptions and reasonings on any subject, with a view of getting the clear- est knowledge of it ourselves, retaining it best in our memory, and communicating it most ef- fectually to others. Our pe7'ceptions should be clear and distinct y full and comprehensive; and orderly in their ar- rangement. Q. To whom is the art of Logic nK)st useful ? A. Logic is useful to all men; but especially to preachers, lawyers, legislators, and those who are called to reason with, and instruct others. All who think and judge for themselves, ♦^^ough they may be unconscious of it, are con-* RHETORIC AND ORATORY. 59 stantly 'using logic; though it may not be meth- odized by art. RHETORIC AND ORATORY. Q. What is Rhetoric? A. Rhetoric or Oratory y is the art of speak- ing justly, methodically, and elegantly upon any subject, so as to please, persuade, and instruct. A speech made or delivered according to the rules of this art, is called an oration, and the speaker, an orator, Q. What are the qualifications of a good ora- tor? A. A good orator should possess the five fol- lowing requisites: 1. Memory J to enable him to retain what he has to advance till the proper time and place for introducing it. 2. Logic J or a logical mindy to direct to the right use of his reasoning powers. 3. Invention^ to enable him to find out and frame such arguments as are best adapted to convince, persuade, instruct, conciliate, and gain belief. 4. Disposition^ whereby he may arrange his arguments in the most advantageous manner. 5. Elocution, which implies a clear and dis- tinct enunciation, just time and action, proper tones and emphasis, with appropriate, harmoni- 60 POLITE LEARNING. ous language, loud enough to be well heard and understood.* "^^^ Q. How many parts has an Oration? A. An Oration has five parts, viz: — ^the Exordium, Narration, Confirmation, Refutation, and Peroration. Q. What is the Exordium? A. The Exordium^ or Preamble, is the begin- ning of the Oration, designed to secure the atten- tion of the hearers, gain their good opinion, and give them a general idea of the subject. It should be brief, modest, and perspicuous. The Narration is a recital of facts as they oc- curred, or are supposed to have occurred. It should be made as probable, perspicuous, inter esting, and concise as possible. The Confirmation is the establishing of the truth, or proposition, as advanced in the Narra- tion. The Refutation — which should ever be lively and pungent — is the refelling of the arguments of the opposing party, by shewing them to be false, unsound, or inconclusive. The Peroration^ or conclusion, recapitulates the principal arguments, in a concise, forcible, * Elocution comprises, 1st. Composition or the grammatical arrangement, plain- ness, and propriety of language. 2d. Elegance ; which consists in the purity, perspicuity, and politeness of language, and is gained chiefly by studying the most correct writers, conversing with polite, well in- formed people, and making frequent and careful essays in composition. 3d. Dignity; which adorns language with sublime thoughts, rhetorical figures, &c. TROPES OR FIGURES. 61 ' and impressive manner, so as to excite the feel- ings, and awaken love, pity, or hatred. Rhetoricians advise, to place some of the most pow- erful arguments first, and the feebler next, reserving some of the best for the last. TROPES OR FIGURES. Q. What do Tropes or Figures of Speech denote } A. Tropes or Figures of Speech always de- note some departure from simplicity of expres- sion. They exhibit ideas in a manner more vivid and impressive than could easily be done by plain language. Example. A good man enjoys comfort in the midst of ad- versity. This is simple language; but when I say — ^^To the upright, there ariseth light in dark- ness,^^ I use figurative language, and express the same sentiment in a more elegant and impress- ive manner. Q. What effects have Tropes or Figures upon language? A. Tropes or Figures greatly enliven, beau- tify, and enrich language, by furnishing a multi- tude of words and phrases, suited to express our ideas in all their varieties of shade and difference, and which it would be almost impossible to do, without such figures. Q. Can you enumerate these figures } A, Yes — the principal Tropes or Figures are — 62 POLITE LEARNING. Personification^ Apostrophe^ Simile^ Meta- phor^ Allegory^ Irony ^ Hyperbole^ Climax^ Antithesis^ Metonomy^ and Synecdoche. Please to explain each of these Figures. Personification is the bestowing of sensation, life, or action, upon things inanimate. EXAMPLES. The earth thirsts for rain. Cheer'd with the grateful smelly old ocean smiles. Behold, the morn^ in russet mantle clad. Walks o'er the dew of yon high eastern hill. At his command, the uprooted hills retired* Each to his place: they heardhxs voice, and went Obsequious. Hill and valley smiPd. Ye woods and wilds ^ whose melancholy gloom Accords with my souPs sadness, and draws fortlx The voice of sorrow from my bursting heart. Farewell awhile: I will not leave you long. The Apostrophe bestows an ideal presence upon real persons who are either dead or absent It addresses them as if actually present. EXAMPLES. Retire, for it is night, viy love^ and the dark winds sigh in thy hair. Retire to the hall of my feasts, and think of the times that are past; for I will not return until the storm of war is gone. — Ossian, Weep on the rocks of roaring winds, maid of Inistore: bend thy fair head over the waves, thou fairer than the ghost of the hills, when it moves in a sunbeam at noon, o'er the silence of TROPES OR FIGURES. 63 Morven. He is fallen! Thy youth is low, — pale beneath the sword of Cuchullin. — Ossian. A Simile is a comparison by which any thing is illustrated. This figure, equally familiar and beautiful, discovers resemblances, real or imaginary, between objects or actions, which in their general nature, are dissimilar. EXAMPLES. The music of Caryl^ was, like the mem,ory of joys that are past ^ pleasant and mournful to the soul. Often, like the evening sun, comes the mem,- ory of former times upon my soul. She never told her love; — But let concealment, like -^worm V the hud. Feed on her damask cheek : She pinM in thought; And, like patience on a monument, sat smiling at grief. A Metaphor is the putting of a word to a use which, in its original import, it does not admit. A Metaphor in borrowed words compares. As, for excess, we say — a flood of tears. EXAMPLES. Spring awakes the flowers; Autumn gath- ers the fruit. Wallace was a thunderbolt of war; Fingal, the gale of spring. A Metaphor expresses a comparison without using the signs of comparison; and in this alone it differs from a Simile. Comparison is the foundation of both. Our Washington was the pillar of Columbia's hope — 64 POLITE LEARNING. This is a Metaphor, — Washingtouy like a mighty pillar upheld the state. — ^This is a Simile, Charles the twelfth was the lion of the north. Metaphor, Charles the twelfth was like a lion prowling for his prey. Simile, An Mlegory is a continued metaphor; or it is a figurative representation in which something is intended, different from what is expressed by the words literally taken. EXAMPLES. Venus (love) grows cold without Cere,? (bread) and BachuSj (wine. ) An Allegory is a chain of Tropes — I've passed the shoals; fair gales now swell my hopes. The following is a correct and most beautiful Alle- gory, representing the people of Israel under the image of a vine. " Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt; thou hast cast out the heathen, and planted it: thou preparedst room before it, and didst cause it to take deep root, and it filled the land. " The hills were covered with the shadow of it, and . the boughs thereof weve like the goodly cedars. " She sent out her boughs unto the sea, and her branches unto the river. " Return, we beseech thee, and behold and visit this vine. "SOth Psalm. Irony J dissembling with an air, Means otherwise than words declare. EXAMPLES. Cry aloud; for he is a god: eitJier he is t^lk- TROPES OR FIGURES. 65 ing, or he is pursuing, or he is on a journey; or, peradventure he sleepeth, and must be awaked. 1 KingSy xviii. 27. Hyperbole soars high, or creeps too low; Exceeds the truth, things wonderful to show. EXAMPLES. Achilles \YdiS fleeter than the stag — sivift as the wind, A Climax, or gradation, is a figure in Rheto- ric, which gradually increases the representation till it reaches its highest point of interest or im- portance. EXAMPLES. A Climax, by gradation, a- or flfg-scends. They were my countrymen, my neighbours, my friends! She was young, beautiful, amiable, accom- plished, and pious. An Antithesis is a figure which strengthens language, argument, or representation, by oppo- sition or apposition, EXAMPLES. If you wish to be rich, study not to increase your stores, — but to diminish your desii^es. Tho' deep, yet clear; tho' gentle, yet not dull; Strong, without rage; without o'erflowing, full. Metonomy is the putting of the cause for the ejfect, or the effect for the cause; the container, for the contained; or the sign for the thing sig- nified. 66 POLITE LEARNING. EXAMPLES. We are reading Virgil — i. e. VirgiVs works. Gray hairs [old age] should be honoured. The kettle [the water in the kettle] boils. He addressed the chair. The fair [the ladies] are fickle. A Synecdoche puts a part for the ivhole^ the ichole for a part, EXAMPLES. Thirty head [cattle'] perished in the waveSj [the sea,] While o'er the roof [house] loud thunders break. GRAMMAR. Q. What is Grammar ? A. Grammar is the art of rightly expressing our thoughts, either in oral or written language. Q. Whence is the word Grammar derived ? A. The term Grammar is taken from the Greek word [gra/nmaj] which signifies a letter. Q. How is Grammar divided ? A. Grammar is divided into four parts : ety- mology, orthography, syntax, and prosody. Etymology deduces and explains the origin, reason, and derivation of words; in order to arrive at their first and primary signification. Orthography, or spelling, teaches to write words with all the proper and necessary letters. Syntax is the constructing or right ordering LANGUAGE. 67 of words in a phrase or sentence; so as to make the meaning clear and distinct. Prosody treats of the true pronunciation of syllablesj in respect to quantity and accent. Q. What are meant by quantity and accent ? A. Quantity is the length of time taken up in pronouncing a syllable; and accent, the pro- nouncing of it with a stronger or a weaker tone of voice. Q. How many kinds of words are there? A. Ten; commonly called parts of speech. Q. What are their names ? A. The article, noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, participle, adverb, preposition, conjunction, and interjection. Q. Is it necessary to study the Grammar of our own language? A. Yes: Without a competent grammatical knowledge of our own language, we should be ignorant of its beauties, and unable to express ourselves correctly, or -politely, even on the most trifling occasions. LANGUAGE. Q. What is Language? A. Language is a set of words, or an assem- blage of expressions, which chance or caprice has established among a people, in order to com- municate their thoughts one to another. Q. Whence the origin of language? A. Language is supposed to he. of divine ori- eS POLITE LEARNING. gin, and supernaturally communicated to the first man, Q. Whence comes the diversity of Lan- guages ? A. The diversity of Languages, is generally allowed to have taken its rise from the confusion of tongues, at the building of the tower of Babel. Q. Where may an account of this event be seen; and by w^hom is it given? A. We have a particular account of the con-^ fusion of tongues given in the eleventh chapter of Genesis, written by Moses. What is the most ancient language, is a point that has been much controverted. The majority seem in- clined to the Hebrew; deeming it the primitive lan- guage, and the source of all the rest: the Syriac has the next greatest number of advocates; but many sup- port the Greek; others maintain the Teutonic, and some, the Chinese. Q. What are the principal languages now iised in Europe and America ? A. The English, French, German, Spanish, and Italian, are almost the only languages now used in Europe or America? The English language, whose root is chiefly Saxon, enriched by derivations from the Latin, and by familiar phrases from the French, with occasional formations from the Greek language, is not excelled by any other, for copiousness and strength. The French tongue is extremely brisk and lively; composed of ancient Gallic v/ords, and, like the En- glish, largely indebted to the Latin. The German lias a variety of dialects; principally of Geitic orisrin. • POETRY. 69 The Italian is almost wholly an alteration of the Latin; and the Spanish language also plainly discovers itself to be of the same family. • Q. Who was the inventor of letters ? A. There being no authentic relation of any- alphabetical character before the flood, the greater number of writers have contented themselves with tracing the origin of letters to Moses; who is supposed to be the same with the Egyptian Thoth or Hermes. That orderly arrangement of the letters, called the alphabet, is generally ascribed to Cadmus, king of Thebes: he first brought letters from Phenicia into Greece, about 1045 years before Christ; whence, in the following ages, they spread over the rest of Europe. POETRY. Q. What is Poetry? A. Poetry is a species of composition, made according to certain harmonious measures, or proportions of time and sound. Q. What is a Poem? A. A Poem is a complete or finished piece of Poetry; as Homer's Iliad. Q. What is Rhyme? A. Rhyme is that kind of Poetry in which the terminating sound of one line agrees with that of another; as, Soon as we draw our infant breath, The seeds of sin grow up for death. 70 POLITE LEARNING. Q. What is Blank Verse? A. Blank Verse, like other Poetry, is mea- sured, but d5es not rhyme ; as, Night, sable goddess ! from her ebon throne, In rayless majesty, now stretches forth Her leaden sceptre o'er a slumbering world. Silence, how dead! and darkness, how profound! Nor eye, nor listening ear, an object finds: Creation sleeps. young. Q. What is meant by measitre, in Poetry ? A. The term measure, in poetry, means tlie number of syllables, or of feet, contained in a line. Q. What measures are most in use? A. The measures most in use are those of ten, eight, and seven syllables. Q. Give an example of each. Of ten. The bending Hermit here a prayer begun — '^ Lord, as in heaven, on earth thy will be done/' Then, gladly turning, sought his ancient place; And passM a life of piety and peace. PARNEI^L. Of eight. The woodbine wafts, in odours meek, To kiss the rose's glowing cheek; Pale twilight sheds her vagrant showers, T' awake Aurora's infant flow'rs: May smiles on ev'ry face I see, But, ah! she smiles no more on me! MRS. ROBINSON POETRY. 71 Of seven. Oh then, e'er the turf or tomb Cover us from ev'ry eye; - Spirit of instruction, come. Make us learn that we must die! COWPER. There are several other shorter measures in use, but , they are not so common. \ Q. What is Pastoral Poetry? A. Pastoral Poetry is that which describes a shepherd's life, or the life of rural nymphs and swains. Q. What is an Elegy ? A. An Elegy is a mournful poem, or funeral song. Q. What is Lyric Poetry ? A. Lyric Poetry is that which is generally used in the composition of odes and, songs, de- signed to be sung to the lyre or harp. Q. What is Pindaric ode ? A. Pindaric ode, so called from its inventor, Pindar, is a sort of Poetry, which consists of loose and free numbers, of unequal measures. Q. What is Satire? A. Satire is a free, witty, sharp, and jocose, poem; severely reproving the vices and follies of those in whom they are found. Q. What is Comedy ? A. Comedy is an agreeable, humorous repre- sentation of the customs of common life. Q. What is Tragedy? A. Tragedy exhibits the actions of virtuous 72 POLITE LEARNING, and illustrious persons; so as to excite sympathy, or promote the patriotic, heroic, and social vir- tues. Tragedy and Comedy are called dramatic Poetry. Q. What is an Epic or Heroic poem ? A. An Epic or Heroic Poem, is a poetical narration or rehearsal of the illustrious and im- portant actions of the person celebrated in the poem; as, the exploits of Achilles, in the Iliad of Homer. Q. An Epigram — what is that? A. An Epigram is an inferior kind of poem, whose peculiar character is brevity, beauty, and a sharp turn of wit at the close. Q. What is an acrostic — a rondeau — a cha- rade — echo — rebus, &c.? A. They are a trifling kind of productions, not here jvorth a description. Q. What is a poetical foot — and why so called ? A. A certain number of syllables connected, form what is called a poetical foot. They are termed feet, because it is by their aid, that the voice, aa it were, steps along through the verse in a measured pace: and it is necessary that the syllables which mark this regular movement of the voice, should, in some way, be distinguished from the others. Q. How many kinds of these feet are there ? A'. All the poetic feet are reducible to eight kinds; four of two syllables, and four of three; viz. POETRY. 7S A Ti'ochee - c A Dactyl - o o . An Iambus o - An Amphibrach a - o A Spondee An Anapaest o o - A Pyrrhic o a A Tribrach o o a Q. How are these several kinds of feet dis- tinguished ? A. A Trochee has the first syllable accented, and the last unaccented; as, hateful, pettish. An lambiis has the first syllable unaccented, and the last accented; as, betray, consist A Sjwndee has both the words or syllables accented; as, the pale moon. A Pyrrhic has both the words or syllables unaccented; as, 5n the tall tree. A Dactyl has the first syllable accented, and the last two unaccented ; as, labourer, possible. An ^otniphiby^acft has the first and last syllables unaccented, and the middle one accented ; as, .delightful, domestic. An Jinapaest has the first two syllables unac- cented, and the last one accented ; as, contravene, acquiesce. A Tribrach has all its syllables unaccented ; as, numerable, conquerable.^ * Some of those feet may be denominated principal ones; as pieces of poetry may be wholly or chiefly formed of any of them. Such are the Iambus, Trochee, Dactyl, and Anapaest. These may also be divided, each into several species, ac- cording to the number of feet or syllables of which they are composed. They are capable also of numerous variations, by intermixing them, and by the admission of the secondary feet. The Spondee, Pyrrhic, Amphibrach, and Tribrach, arc secondary feet. 74 POI^ITE LEARNING. Q. What advantage then, is to be derived from understanding th^se feet? A. An acquaintance with these feet, enables those who read Poetry, to judge of its correct- ness, to relish its beauties, and to read it, in the hearing of others^ with more propriety and ef- fect. Give an example of Trochaic verse. Restless mortals toil for nought ; Bliss in vain from earth is sought; Bliss, a native of the sky, Never wanders. Mortals, try; There, you cannot seek in vain; For, to seek her, is to gain. idle, after dinner, In his chair, Sat a farmer, ruddy, fat and fair. Give an example or two of Iambic verse. And may, at last, my weary age Find out a peaceful hermitage. How lov'd, h5w valu'd once, avails thee not, To whom related, or by whom begot: A heap of dust alone remains of thee; ^Tis all thou art, and all the proud shall be. Be wise t6-day; 'tis madness t6 defer; Next day the fatal precedent will plead; Thus on, till wisdom is push'd out of life. POETRY. 75 Give an example of Dactylic measure. From thS l5w pleasQres 5f this fallen natQre, Rise we to higher, &c. Give an example of Jinapsestic verse. y6 woods, spread yOur branches apace, - To your deepest recesses I fly; 1 would hide with the beasts of the chase; I would vanish from every eye. May I govern my passi5ns, with abs5lute sway, And grow wiser and better, as life wears away. Q. How many kinds of poetical pauses are there ? A. There are two kinds of poetical pauses — one for the sense, and another for the melody; perfectly distinct from each other. The former is called the sentential pause; ancl the latter, the harmonic panse. The sentential pauses are those which are known to us by the name of stops; as, the com- ma, semicolon, colon, &c. Q. What have you to remark respecting the harmonic pause? A. The harmonic pauses may be subdivided into the final pause, and the cxsnral pause. These sometimes coincide with the sentential pauses, and sometimes have an independent state; that is, exist where there is no stop in the sense. 76 POLITE LEARNING. Q. Where, in reading Poetry, is the Jinal, and where, the csesural pause, to be made ? A. The final pause takes place at the end of the line, closes the verse, and marks the mea- sure: the caesural pause divides the line into equal, or unequal parts, falling generally on the fourth, fifth, or sixth syllable, in heroic verse. The final pause preserves the melody, without interfering with the sense; for, as it has no pe- culiar note of its own, but always takes that w^hich belongs to the preceding-word, it changes with the matter, and varies with the sense; and thus, prevents monotony. Exemplification of the caesural pauses: ["] The silver eeV\ in shining volumes rolVd^ The yellow carp'\ in scales bedropp^d with gold. Round broken columns" ^ clasping ivy twin^dj O^er heaps of ruin'\ staWd the stately hind. Oh, say, what stranger cause", yet unexplor^d^ Could make a gentle belle", reject a lord. The line is sometimes divided into four parts, by the introduction of what is called a demi-cse- sura; thus, Warms' in the sun", refreshes' in the breeze, Glows' in the stars'", and blossoms' in the trees; Lives' through all life", extends' through all extent, Spreads' undivided" ^ operates' y unspent. MUSIC. 77 MUSIC. Q. In what does Music consist ? A. Music consists in a succession of pleasing sounds, with reference to a particular, internal sense, implanted in us, by the Great Author of Nature. Q. What does Music teach, considered as a science ? A. Music, considered as a science^ teaches us the just disposition and true relation 'of sounds; so that they may affect us in the most agreeable manner: as an«r/, it enables us to express these sounds with facility and correctness. Q. What is to be understood by the composi- tion of Music? A. The composition of Music is the art of framing pieces of music, and writing them in notes, upon paper ; according to the rules of the science. Q. How many sounds may be expressed by the human voice. A. The human voice is ordinarily capable of expressing twenty-two sounds. Q. ^ What is Melody ? A. Melody is the agreeable effect which arises from the succession of single sounds.. Q. What is Harmony ? A. Harmony is the pleasing union of several sounds. Q. What are the principal qualities o^ mu- sical sounds ? ^ A. The primary and essential qualities of G2 78 POLITE LEARNING. musical sounds are, relative acuteness or grau- til/ J and proportionate duration. Bodies of unequal size^ length, or tension, emit sounds differing both in duration and in gravity or acuteness. Thus, in a set of regularly tuned bells, the largest gives the gravest sound, and the smallest, the most acute. Human voices also differ in this respect: a man's voice being more grave than that of a woman. Q. Whence is the word Music derived ? A. The term Music, is supposed to have been originally formed from the Latin word musay muse; the Muses being considered as its inven- tors. Q. Had not Music a very early origin ? A. Music appears to have been among the most ancient of the arts; particularly that of vocal music, Man, in the early ages, had not only the various tones of his own voice on which to make his observations, before any other art, or any instrument, was found out, but had the various natural strains of birds to give him oc- casion to improve his own voice, and the modu- lations of which it was capable. Q. How are the various musical instruments supposed to have been invented } A. The 'first invention of wind instruments, is ascribed to the observation of the wind whist- ling in the hollow reeds. As for other kinds of instruments, there were so many occasions for using cords or strings, that men could not fail to observe their variou;? sounds; and this may liavc given rise to stringed instru- OPTICS. 79 ments. And in regard to pulsatile instruments, such as drums, cymbals, &c. they may have arisen from the observation of the sounds of hol- low and concave bodies. Q. Is not Music in great repute ? A. Music has been in the highest esteem in all ages, and among all people. Authors, to ex- press their high admiration of it, have incul- cated, that it was used in heaven, and was one of the principal entertainments of the gods, «ind of the souls of the blessed. Q. What are the effects of Music ? A. Music not only delightfully recreates the mind, and gives it new vigour for business, but, by it, diseases are said to have been cured, sedi- tions quelled, passions raised and calmed, and even madness occasioned. OPTICS. Q. What are Optics ? A. Optics is that science which explains the nature and laws of vision; whether natural, as j^rformed by the eye; or, artificial, as efiected by instruments. Q. How is vision produced ? A. Vision, or the act of seeing by the eye, is produced through the rays of light which are reflected from an object, and received in at the pupil; and which, being refracted, in their pas- sage through the coats and humours, to the retina, and thence conveyed, by the optic nerve, to the 80 POLITE LEARNING. common sensorium in the brain, cause the lumin- ous object to be perceived, by the mind. Q. What are the other benefits of this science ? A. Besides explaining the manner in which vision is performed in the eye, it treats of sight, in general; explains the several modifications which the rays of light undergo in the eye, and (' why some can only see a short, and others a greater, distance: sliows why objects appear someth«es greater, and sometimes smaller; sometimes distinct, and sometimes confused ; sometimes near, and sometimes remote: and ac- counts for the production of light, colours, &c. All the rules of perspective have their founda- tion in Optics. MATHEMATICS. Q. What are Mathematics ? A. Mathematics is a science that contemplates whatever is capable of being numbered or mea- sured. Q. What is the etymology of the word? A. The word Mathematics is derived from the Greek ; and the original word signifies di^ cipline or scieiice; for, this is the oldest science, and the rest took their common name from it. Q. How are Mathematics divided ? A. Mathematics are divided into pure and mixed: i\\e,pure considers quantity, abstractedly, and without any relation to matter or bodies; the mixed are interwoven with physical considera- tions. ARITHMETIC. 81 Q. Of what use is this science ? A, The science of Mathematics, opens and extends our ideas, strengthens and improves our understanding, fixes our attention, and, by giving a habit of just reasoning, prepares us for all other kinds of study, and every important employment of life. Q. What are its principal branches ? A. The principal branches of Mathematics are, Arithmetic, Geometry, Mechanics, Optics, Astronomy, Geography, Chronology, and Archi- tecture. ARITHMETIC. Q. What is Arithmetic ? A. Arithmetic is the science or knowledge of numbers, and has five principal rules for its ope- rations; namely; Numeration, Addition, Sub- traction, Multiplication, and Division. Numeration teaches to read or express the jtrue value of any number of figures, written down, or named. Addition, to collect several numbers or quan- tities into one sum; as, 7 and 5 are 12, and 8 are 20. Subtraction takes a less number from a greater, and shows the remainder or difierence. Multiplication enables us to find the amount of any number taken any proposed number of times; so that it is a compendious kind of addi- tion. Division is the reverse of Multiplication, and 82 POLITE LEARNING. shows how often one number is contained in an- other. Reduction, the Rule of Three, Practice, In- terest, Fellowship, the Extraction of Roots, &c. are no more than so many combinations of those five elementary rules. Q. To whom is Arithmetic necessary ? A. A knowledge of Arithmetic is necessary to every one. It is the soul of commerce, and essentially necessary in every department of life. GEOMETRY. Q. What is Geometry ? A. Geometry is a science teaching the men- suration of quantity, extension, and magnitude ; that is, of lines, surfaces, and solids. The word is from the Greek, and signifies to measure the earth. It had its rise among the Egyptians; who were, in a manner, compelled to invent it, to remedy the disorders occasioned by the annual inundations of the river Nile, which bore away the bounds and landmarks of their estates. Q. What is a Line ? A. A Line is length only, having neither breadth nor thickness. It is supposed to be formed by the motion of a point; and is to be conceived as the limit of a surface, and not as a part of that surface, however small. Q. What is a Surface ? A. A Surface or Superficies, is a magnitude, GEOMETRY. S3 extending in length and breadth, but without thickness or depth. It is produced by the mo- tion of a line ; and is chiefly considered as the external part of a solid. Q. What is a Solid ? A. A Solid is magnitude, endued with three dimensions, or extended in length, breadth, and depth. It is terminated, or contained, under one or more planes or surfaces, as a surface is under one or more lines. Q. How is Geometry divided ? A. Geometry is divided into four principal branches; Altimetry, Longimetry, Planimetry, and Stereometry. Q. Explain the purport of each ? A. JlltiTnetry includes the measuring of lines, either in respect to height or depth ; whether ac- cessible or inaccessible. Longimetry is the art of measuring lengths and distances; both, accessible; as roads, &c. and inaccessible ; as, arms of the sea, &c. Planimetry teaches the mensuration of planes, or surfaces; which is performed by square mea- sures; as, square inches, square feet, &:c. It in- cludes surveyings or fhe art of measuring land; by taking the dimensions, laying down the same in a map or draught, and finding its contents or area. Stereometry is the mensuration of all kinds of solid bodies, by cubic measures; as, cubic inches, cubic feet, &c. This includes gauging^ or the art of finding the contents of any vessel^ or the quantity of liquid contained therein. 84 POLITE LEARNING. METAPHYSICS. Q. What are Metaphysics? A. Metaphysics may be considered as the science of mind. It contemplates the nature and properties of abstract qualities, and of im- material or spiritual beings; as, Deity ^ the^ow/, angels^ intellect ^ &c. Physics treats of material or natural things; and judges of them from experience. Metaphysics is applied to the contemplation of im- material or spiritual things : and judges of them only by abstraction, independent of material things. ASTRONOMY. Q. What is Astronomy ? 4 A. Astronomy is a mixed, mathematical sci- ence; teaching the knowledge of the celestial bodies, their magnitudes, motions, distances, pe- riods, eclipses, and order. Q. What is the use of this science? A. By knowledge derived from Astronomy, the size of the earth is discovered, the situation of countries ascertained, trade and commerce carried on to the remotest parts of the world, and its various products distributed for the health and comfort of the human family. By the study and grandeur of this sublime sci- ence, our faculties are enlarged and ennobled, and we soar above the comparatively little things of this nether world; while, at the same time, our SOLAR SYSTEM. 85 understandings are convinced of the existence, power, and goodness, of the Supreme Being; who carries on tlie wonderful harmony and con- nexion observable throughout the solar system. OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM. Q. Of Avhat does the Solar System consist? A. The Solar System consists of the sun, with eleven primary, and eighteen secondary planets, or moons, and a number of comets. Q. Give some particulars of the Sun. A. The Sun, an immense globe of fire, is fixed in the centre of the system, having a central mo- tion about his own axis, in 25 days 6 hours; as is evident by observing the black spots seen on his disk or surface. He is 763,000 miles in dia- meter; about one million of times larger than the earth; and dispenses light and heat to all the planets and comets revolving round him. Q. What are the Planets ? A. The Planets are opaque, spherical bodies; having no light of their own, but shining by the reflected light which they receive from the Sun. That side of them, only, is illuminated, which is turned towards him. Q. Can you name these Planets ? A. The names of the Planets are. Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars, Ceres, Pallas, Juno, Vesta, Jupiter, Saturn, and Herschel. Of these, the Earth has one moon; Jupiter, four; Saturn, seven; and Herschel, six. The H 86 POLITE LEARNING. other seven primaries, appear to have no moons or secondaries. Q. What motions have these Planets ? A. They have each a two-fold motion — one in their orbit, called their annual or yearly motion, and another around their own axis, termed their diurnal or daily motion. Q. In what direction do these planets move? A. All the pfimaries move round the sun, from west to east, and the secondaries roupd their primaries, in the same direction, except those of Herschel, which move from east to west. Q. What particulars have you to mention con- cerning each of the Planets ? A. Mercury is the nearest Planet to the Sun, and goes round him in 87 daj^s 23 hours of our time, nearly; which is the length of his year; but being seldom seen, on account of his prox- imity to the Sun, and no spots appearing on his surface, the time of his rotation on his axis, or the length of his day, is unknown. His dis- tance from the Sun, is computed to be thirty- seven millions of miles ; his diameter, 3200; and, in his course round the Sun, he moves at the rate of 105,000 miles every hour. Venus, the second Planet in order from the Sun, is computed to be 6S million of miles from the Sun. By moving at the rate of 76,000 miles every hour in her orbit, she completes her annual revolution in 224 days 17 hours. Her diameter is 7700 miles, and her diurnal rotation is performed in 24 of our days, nearly. When ihe appears to the west of the Sun, she SOLAR SYSTEM. 87 rises before him, and is called the Morning-star; and when to the east of the Sun, she shines after he is set, and is then called the Evening-star. Q. Why are Mercury and Venus called in- ferior Planets ? A. Because their orbits are included within the earth^s orbit, as appears from their exhibit- ing all the varieties of shape and aspect which the moon does, during their revolutions round the Sun. The Earth is the third Planet in order from the Sun ; and at tlie distance of more than ^^ million of miles from him. She completes her annual circuit in 365 days 5 hours 49 min- utes; moving at the rate of 58,000 miles every hour : which motion, though 120 times swifter than that of a cannon-ball, is little more than half the velocity of Mercury in his orbit. The Earth^s diameter is 7970 miles. By turn- ing round her axis, every 24 hours, from west to east, she causes an apparent diurnal motion of all the heavenly bodies, from east to west. This Planet is attended by a satellite, or secondary Planet, called the Moon; which respects the Earth as the centre of its motion; going round the Earth, from change to change, in 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes; and accompanying her around the Sun every year. The Mooivs diameter is 2180 miles, and her distance from the Earth 240,000 miles: she com- pletes her orbit in 27 days, 7 hours, and 43 min- utes; moving about 2290 miles every hour; and turns round on her axis, in exactly the same time 88 POLITE LEARNING. that she goes round the earth; which is the rea- son of her always presenting to our view, the same face. Mars is the next in order, or fourth from the Sun; being the first beyond the orbit of the Earth; and at the distance of 144 millions of miles from the Sun. He moves in his orbit at the rate of 55,000 miles every hour, and completes his revolution in 1 year, 321 days, 17 hours, and 21 minutes; which is the length of his year. The diameter of Mars is 4200 miles; and his diurnal rotation is performed in 24 hours 39 min- utes. He sometimes appears gibbous, but never horned like the Moon ; which shows that his orbit circumscribes that of the earth: and hence, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and Herschel, are called superior Planets, Jupiter J the largest of all the Planets, is fifth in the system; and at the distance of 490 millions of miles from the Sun. By moving in his orbit at the rate of 29,000 miles every hour, he fin- ishes his annual revolution in 11 years, 314 days, 12 hours. His diameter is computed to be 89,000 miles: and by a prodigiously rapid motion on his axis, he performs his diurnal rotation in 9 hours S^ minutes. The body of Jupiter is surrounded by sev- eral parallel faint substances, called belts; and he is attended by four satellites, which revolve round him and enlighten him by night, as our Moon does the Earth. Saturn is the sixth in the system; and about 900 millions of miles from the Sun. Travelling SOLAR SYSTEM. 89 at the rate of 22,000 miles every hour, he per- forms his annual circuit in 29 years, 167 days, 5 hours. His diameter is computed to be 79,000 miles; and his motion on his axis, is so rapid, that his diurnal rotation is performed in 10 hours 16 minutes. Saturn has belts, similar to those of Jupiter, and is surrounded also by a thin broad ring, as an artificial globe is by a horizon: its diame- ter is about 21,000 miles; which is equal to its distance from the body of the planet on all sides. Saturn has also seven satellites; which go round him on the outside of his ring, and nearly in the same plane with it. Herschel is the most remote of all the Planets, from the Sun, and was discovered to belong to this system, in 1782, by Dr. Herschel, of Bath. Its distance from the Sun is about 1800 million of miles; its magnitude is about 90 times greater than that of the Earth; and its revolution round the Sun is performed in about 83 years. Six satellites, as attendant upon Herschel, have been discovered. Q. Can you form any measure to show the proportionate bulks of these planets ? A. Supposing a globe of 24 inches diameter, to be the size of the Sun, the proportionate diame- ter of Mercury would be about one-eighth of an inch; of Venus, one-fifth; of the Earth, one- fourth; of Mars, one-sixth ; of Jupiter, two and a half inches; of Saturn, one inch nine-tenths; and of Herschel, one inch one-tenth. Q. What might be the distance of the Planets 112 90 POLITE LEARNING. from the Sun, according to these proportions of their bulk ? A. Mercury would be about 32 yards from the centre of the Sun ; Venus, 60 yards ; the Earth, 82; Mars, 126; Jupiter, 430; Saturn, 788; and Herschel, 1570 yards. In this pro- portion, the Moon^s distance from the centre of the Earth would be only seven inches and a half. Q. Can you assist the imagination in forming an idea of the actual distance of the Planets from the Sun ? A. Suppose, that a body projected from the Sun, should continue to fly with the swiftness of a cannon ball, which is at the rate of 480 miles in an hour ; this body would reach the orbit of Mercury, in 8 years 290 days; of Venus, in 16 years 59 days; of the Earth, in 22 years 211 days; of Mars, in 34 years S2 days; of Jupiter, 116 years 166 days; of Saturn, 213 years 329 days; and of Herschel, in 427 years 290 days. Q. What are the Comets belonging to this system ? A. Comets are opaque, globular bodies, with transparent trains or tails; moving in very ellip- tical orbits, and in every direction, around the Sun. They become visible to us through only a small part of their course, as they approach the Sun; and remain lost to us through their im- mense journeys beyond the orbit of the most distant Planet; so that their number and periods cannot be easily determined. Q. How are their tails accounted for ? A. Their tails seem to be produced by some SOLAR SYSTEIVL 91 luminous matter in their atmosphere, which is visible only in the parts opposite to the Sun. Q. What is an Eclipse ? A. An Eclipse is a privation of light in any of the heavenly bodies ; caused by some other body coming between it and the Sun. There are various kinds of eclipses; but those of the Sun and Moon are the most remarkable. Q. How is an Eclipse caused ? A. An Eclipse of the Sun — or more properly of the Earth, — is caused by the Moon, as she re- volves in her orbit, passing between the Sun and the Earth, and thereby intercepting his light. This Eclipse begins at the west side of the Sun, and can never happen except at the time of the new Moon. An Eclipse of the Moon is caused by the in- terposition of the Earth between the Sun and the Moon; this can only happen at the full Moon; for the Earth, being then between the Sun and the Moon, will sometimes intercept his light from the Moon. This Eclipse begins on the east side. Q. Do the Planets ever eclipse each other? A. The primary Planets can never eclipse each other, by reason of the bulk of the Sun, and the immense distances of these Planets from him: but a primary may eclipse its secondary, or a secondary, a primary: this is frequently the case with Jupiter and his satellites. 92 POLITE LEARNING. OF THE FIXED STARS. Q. What are the Fixed Stars ? A. The Fixed Stars are supposed to be of the same nature with the Sun; and of equal, or of greater, magnitude. They shine with their own native lustre, and are diminished in appearance only by their immense distance from us. These stars are said to be fixed, because they have gen- erally been observed to retain the same situations with respect to each other. Q. What is their distance ? A. The nearest of the Fixed Stars, is comput- ed to be above 32 million of millions of miles from us ; which is further than a cannon ball would fly in 700,000 years: and it is very proba- ble that they are situated as far from each other as they are from us ; for, there is no visible al- teration in their magnitudes, situations, or dis- tances, when viewed from the different parts of the Earth's orbit ; consequently, the orbit of the Earth, which is 162 millions of miles in diame- ter, is only a point in comparison to their dis- tance. Hence, it is easy to prove, that the Sun, seen from so great a distance, would appear no bigger than a star; and that the surrounding system of Planets and Comets must be invisible from the nearest Fixed Star. — ^^From all this, it is highly probable, that each star is a sun to a system of Planets, which, at various distances, and in dif- ferent periods, perform their revolutions round GEOGRAPHY. 93 it ; though invisible to us, by our best telescopes. Q, What is the number of the stars ? A. The real number of the Stars can never be kitown. But as the powers of the telescope are increased, a greater number is discovered. The British catalogue, which includes a great many that cannot be seen without the help of a teles- cope, contains only about 3000; and of this num- ber, the naked eye cannot, in the clearest night, discover more than 1000. There is a remarkable track around the heavens, called the milky way, from its peculiar whiteness; which, in some parts, is single; in others, double; and was, formerly, thought to be formed by an infinite number of very small stars : but, the telescope shows it to be otherwise; and, therefore, its whiteness must be owing to some other cause. Q. As the Stars are fixed, what is the cause of their apparent motion ? * A. The apparent ihotions of the Fixed Stars, or their risings and settings, are the effects of the Earth's rotation on her axis from west to east: and our seeing different stars, at different seasons of the year, is owing to the revolution of the Earth in its orbit around the Sun. GEOGRAPHY. Q. What is Geography ? A. Geography is that science which describes the surface of this globe, as divided into land and water. 94 POLITE LEARNING. Q. Is the study of Geography necessary ? A. The science of Geography is not only cu- rious and entertaining, but highly useful. It opens and enlarges the mind ; gives a true know- ledge of the various situations of countries, with their rivers, mountains, &c. and is of such im- portance in history, that without it, nothing can be understood with satisfaction and correctness. Q. How is the Earth proved to be globular? A. 1. By its casting a round shadow upon the moon during an eclipse. 2. By its having been circumnavigated. 3. By our seeing further the higher we are situated. 4. By our seeing the masts of a ship at sea, while the hull is hidden from us by the convexity of the water. The unevenness of the surface on land, aris- ing from hills and vales, can be no material ob- jection to its rotundity ; since the highest moun- tains bear no mor^ proportion to the whole sur- face of the Earth, than the unevenness on the rind of an orange does to the roundness of its figure. Q. What is the Axis of the Earth ? A. The Axis of the Earth, is an imaginary right line, passing through its centre, and ter- minating in the north and south poles. Q. What is the Equator^ or Equinoctial Line ? A. The Equator, or Equinoctial Line, is a circle encompassing the globe, in the middle, from east to west, and dividing it into northern and southern hemispheres. Q. When does the Sun cross this line? GEOGRAPHY. 95 A. The Sun crosses the line on the 20th of March, and 22d of September; when the days and nights are equal, in all parts of the world. Q. What are Meridians ? A. Meridians are circles which run north and south, cross the Equator, and pass through the poles. Meridians are used to measure longitudes, or the distance of one place, east or west, from another place. Q. What is the Ecliptic? A. The Ecliptic is the Sun's apparent path in the heavens. Q. What is the Horizon ? A. The Horizon is that circle in the heavens which limits our vision, and divides the upper hemisphere from the lower. It is divided into 32 equal parts, called points, of which E. W. N. and S. are termed cardinal points. Q. What are we to understand by the Equi- noctial Points, or Equinoxes ? A. The Equinoctial Points, or Equinoxes, are those two points in which the Ecliptic cuts the Equator. Q. What are the Solstitial Points, or Sol- stices ? A. The Solstitial Points, or Solstices, are the first points of the signs. Cancer and Capricorn; being 23i degrees from the Equator, and 90 from the Equinoxes. The Sun is in the summer Solstice, on the 21st of June, when the days are longest in the northern hemisphere — and in the winter Sol- 96 POLITE LEARNING. slice on the 21st of December; when the days are the shortest. Q. Is not the Ecliptic divided ? A. The Ecliptic is divided into 12 equal parts, of 30 degrees each; called the 12 signs of the Zodiac. Q. What are the names, characters, and order of these Signs ? A. The Signs are as follow — Northern Signs. Aries t the Ram; Taurus ?S the Bull; Gemini n the Twins; Cancer 25 the Crab-fish; Leo SI the Lion .; Virgo r(^ the Virgin. Southern Signs. Libra :£^ the Balance ; Scorpio ti^, the Scor- pion ; Sagittarius f the Archer; Capricornus Vy the Mountain-goat ; %^quarius zsa the Water- bearer ; Pisces X the Fishes. Q. What are the Colures? A. The Colures are two Meridians; one pass- ing through the Equinoctial, and the other through the Solstitial point of the Ecliptic. Q. What is the Zenith? A. The Zenith is that point in the heaveiis directly over our heads. Q. What is the Nadir? A. The Nadir is that point directly opposite the Zenith; and, therefore, under our feet. Q. What are the Tropics? GEOGRAPHY. 97 A. The Tropics are two circles, running par- allel to the Equator, at the distance of 23^ de- grees from it. That on the north is called the Tropic of Cancer; and that on the south, the Tropic of Capricorn. Q. Describe the Arctic and Antarctic, or Polar Circles. A. The Arctic Circle lies at the distance of 23i degrees from the north pole, and the An- tarctic, as far from the south pole. Q. What are Zones? A. Zones are five spaces into which the globe is supposed to be divided, by the Tropics and Polar Circles. Q. Describe them. A. The Torrid Zone is 47 degrees broad, lies between the Tropics, has the Equator passing through the middle of it, and is very hot. The Temperate Zones lie between the Tro- pics and Polar Circles, are 43 degrees broad, and moderate, as to heat and cold. The Frigid Zones extend from the Polar Cir- cles to the Poles — are 23^ degrees broad, and excessively cold. Q. What are Climates ? A. Climates are a sort of division of the earth, used by ancient geographers, to denote our approaching to, or receding from, the Equa- tor. The northern and southern hemispheres contain each thirty climates; of which twenty- four, extending from the Equator to the Polar Circles, are termed hour climates, and the other six, month ones. I 9S POLITE LEARNING. Q. What is Latitude ? A. Latitude is the distance of any place, north or south from the Equator. It never can exceed 90 degrees. Q. What Is Longitude ? A. Longitude is the distance of any place or meridian, east or west, from the first meridian. It can never, with propriety, go beyond 180 de- grees. The first meridian may be placed any where. But it is usually fixed at the metropolis of some country, as London, Paris, Washington, &c. Q. How is the Land divided ? A. The Land is divided into four principal parts, or quarters; called Europe, Asia, Africa, and America: which are subdivided into empires, kingdoms, states, islands, peninsulas, isthmuses, and promontories or capes. These, together, contain about 800 million of people. A Continent is a large extent of land, com- prehending several regions or countries, without an entire separation of its parts by water. An Island is a smaller portion of land, en- tirely surrounded by water. A Peninsula is a tract of land encompassed by water, except at one narrow part, by which it joins the neighbouring Continent. An Isthmus is a neck, or narrow part of land, which joins a Peninsula to the Continent. A Promontory is a high point of land, stretching itself into the sea; the extremity of which is called a Cape or Promontory. Q. How is the Water divided ? GEOGRAPHY. 99 A. The Water is divided into Oceans, Seas, Lakes, Gulfs, Straits, and Bays or Creeks. An Ocean is a vast collection of water, with- out any separation of its parts by land. The whole expanse of water encompassing the land, forms but one general Ocean; but it is generally divided into five parts; called, the Northern, Southern, Indian, Atlantic, and Pacific Oceans. More than two thirds of the whole surface of this globe are water. A Sea is a smaller collection of water, which communicates with the Ocean, and is confined by land. A Lake is a large collection of water, entirely surrounded by land. A Gulf^ or Bay, is a part of the Ocean, run- ning up into the land ; and surrounded by it, except at a narrow passage, by which it commu- nicates with the Ocean: if a gulf be very large> it is called an inland sea: if very small, it is termed a Creek, A Strait is a part of the Ocean restrained be- tween two shores; and is the passage which joins one body of water to another. Q. Have not these divisions of land, and water some resemblance to each other ? A. Yes; a Continent is similar, in extent, to an Ocean ; an Island, encompassed by water, re- sembles a Lake encompassed by land ; a Penin- sula of land, is like a Gulf or Inland Sea; an Isthmus, whereby two bodies of land are joined, resembles a Strait, which unites two bodies of 100 POLITE LEARNING. water ; and a Promontory or Cape of land, is like a Bay or Creek of the sea. Q. What is meant by the Old, and what by the New World ? A. The Old Worlds so called because long known, includes Europe, Asia, and Africa, and forms one large Continent ; and North and South America, which form another Continent, are call- ed the New Worldy because discovered so lately as the year 1492. Q. What is understood by the East^ and what by the West Indies ? A. The East Indies comprehends Hindoostan, and all the Asiatic islands, situated between the Indian and Pacific Oceans; and the West Indies, the islands in the Atlantic Ocean, between the Continents of North and South America. OF EUROPE. Europe, though the least extensive of the four quarters of the globe, is, in many respects, the most important; and that which, next to our own country, demands our particular attention. It is there, that the human mind is supposed to have been the most expanded; the arts and sci- ences most extensively cultivated, and the great- est variety of character, government, religion, and manners, exhibited. Europe lies between 2Q and 12 deg. N. lat. and .Q5 E. and 10 W. long, from London; is GEOGRAPHY. 101 3,000 miles long, and 2,500 broad, containing about 1 96 millions of inhabitants. It is bounded E. by Asia, W. by the Atlantic, N. by the Northern Ocean, and S. by the Mediterranean Sea, which divides it from Africa. The Christian religion prevails generally through Europe: there are, nevertheless, some Jews, and many Mahometans; and there is perhaps, no form of government which it does not embrace. Europe comprehends the following empires, kingdoms, and states or republics; viz. — 12 102 s POLITE LEARNING. ^ ^ ^ 5:; c Sb .^r§ fac PQ 1-3 c o ^ ^^ 3 •*>J tt o P^ o ^ c o o P- Q^ o *7* .2: S ^ < N O ^ cs ►2 — ^ c 3 S o « 2 M rt ^ rt O 5=? ^0^ S c a •> -5 2- ^ bo --^^ ^ ^ IS ^ ^ Ml ^ -o ;i, eq C W .- . - ^ S * 2 cT S ^S > ^_ N-^ >— t 'q3 *5 5:£ ,. bi3 Cf} ^ :« =5 o O o > 2: 'o 3 CO bo O 03 O J O CQ V^ ^i o o o o o o o c coos^co«o«^c^o CO CC G^ > CO C^ O »-^C0i--5 oOO ■is§ o o o o o o o o OOO© o o o o o o o o o o o o ^-t^ o c? o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o^o^o^o^o^o^ o^cTo'o'tfro ,«> ;(S^GO "^ CN'CD O ' r VO rH O C o o o o _ o o o o o o^o^o^o^ Tf O i-TsTrf 10 i-O CD ri rH o r^ «>. O O^CO CO rf CO o o o o o o o o o o o o o o^o oTF^fCoo © GO 00 rt< i-i CO 1-1 rH GO CD CD^ r-TsTco cT 5>JD . ^ cf == «r I t>^ C/J J5 O 2 S ^ b£u •»jid O ^ Cape Town. Hottentots. E. AFRICA. Inhambane, and I Sabia. Sofola, Sofola. Mocaranga, Zimbao. Mozambique, Mozambique. Melinda, Melinda. Magadaxa. Ajan, and Adel. Abyssinia, Gondar. jSFubia, Sennaar. Dongola. GEOGRAPHY. Ill CENTRAL AFRICA. Countries. Chief Towns. Zahara, or the Great Desert. • Totnbuetoo, Tombuctoo. Soudan. Darfur, Cobbe. In Egypt, Bilidulgerid, Zahara, and Abyssinia, the people are of a tawny complexion; but in all other parts they are quite black, have flat noses, thick lips, and woolly hair. 'Q. What are the commodities of Africa ? A, The commodities in Barbary, Egypt, and Nubia, are rice, figs, raisins, oranges, lemons, citrons and almonds ; pomegranates, olives, and senna; leather, civet, sugar, and indigo: in Ni- gritia and Guinea,— ostrich's feathers, gold dust, elephants' teeth, and pepper: in tiie south, along the coast, — -ambergris, frankincense, musk, mil> let, pearls, gold, silver, &c. But the persons of the natives make the most considerable article in the traffic on the Guinea or Western coast; where the Europeans and Americans, to the disgrace of humanity, and contrary to their own laws, purchase them, like so many cattle, carry them to the West Indies, or to the American continent, and sell them for slaves. Q. What are the Islands of this quarter ? A. The only considerable Island in size, is Madagascar, in the Indian ocean ; the others arc all small. The most remarkabl© are St. Helena, 112 POLITE LEARNING. Ascension, St. Jago, St. Vincent, Mayo, Canary, Teneriffe, Ferro, and Madeira, in the Atlantic ocean. Q. Are there any Mountains of note ? A. The principal Mountains are, Sierra Leone, or Lion Mountains, between Nigritia and Gui nea; Atlas, between Barbary and Bilidulgerid, the Mountains of the Moon, between Abyssinia and Monomotapa; and the Peak of TenerifTe, which rises nearly three miles above the level of the sea. Q. What are its Rivers ? A. The Rivers of Africa are neither numerous nor large, the Nile excepted: the most noted, are the Nile, in Nubia and Egypt; and the Niger, running through all Nigritia ; of which, the Gam- bia and Senegal are branches. Q. Give me some account of the Pyramids of Egypt ? A. The Pyramids of Egypt, near Cairo, are the most stupendous structures that ever were raised by the hands of men: the basis of the largest covers eleven acres of ground, and its perpendicular height is 500 feet; but if measured obliquely, 700 feet. Their antiquity is beyond the researches of history, and their original use, still unknown. OF AMERICA. Q. Give me some account of America. A. The continent of America is composed of two great peninsulas, Joined by a neck of land GEOGKArilV. 115 about 60 miles over, called the Isthmus of Da- rien or Panama. These, taken together, extend from N. to S. about 8,000 miles, and are of very unequal breadth. Q. When, and by whom, \v:ts America first discovered ? A. America was discovered in the year 1492, by Christopher Columbus, a native of Genoa: he left Palos, in Spain, on the 3d of August, with three small ships, fitted out for him by Isabella, queen of Castile; and, after a perilous voyage of 33 days, landed on one of the Bahama islands; where the astonished natives, simple, naked, tim~ orous^ and inoffensive, received and treated him and his companions as beings of a superior order, and of celestial origin. Columbus afterwards visite Islands. < Sydney. St. Johns, 3 f Charlotte Town. Nova Scotia, " Halifax. New Brunswick, Frederickstown. Lower Canada, Quebec. Upper Canada, York. New Britain, a sterile, cold country, including Hudson's Bay and Esquimaux, with New North and South Wales. Quebec is siUiated on the St. Lawrence river, contains about 10,000 inhabitants, is the capital of all British Amer- ica, and residence of the Governor General. These countries are valuable, chiefly for their fisheries, fur, trade, and lumber. UNITED STATES. Q. What do you know of the history of that part of America, now called the United States ? A, The United States was originally au ex- tensive wilderness, inhabited by numerous tribes of warlike Indians ; and though it was known to the English as early as 1498, they Avere not able to effect any permanent settlement in any part of it till about the year 1607; when they suc- ceeded in establishing a colony at James-town, in Virginia. Other settlements were afterwards GEOGRAPHY. 117 made, by emigrants from Europe, in different parts of this territory. Q. Did not these infant colonies suffer consid- erably by the Indians ? A. Yes ; many of the first settlers were en- tirely cut off by the Indians, and many perished by hunger. Q. Can you proceed with this narrative ? A. Yes; and I observe, that in process of time, Great Britain, either by treaty or conquest, became mistress of the whole continent, from the frozen regions of the north, to the Gulf of Mexico on the south; and the colonies, chiefly composed of emigrants from her, grew in strength, wealth, and resources, with amazing rapidity. Q. Did these colonies appear to feel any mea- sure of attachment to Great Britain ? A. The attachment of the colonies to Great Britain was very great: they cheerfully fought her battles, submitted to her government, and received her laws; which, fo-r a long time, were wise and equitable. Q. Did any thing occur to interrupt this har- mony and good understanding ? A. Yes: in the year 1765, the British parlia- ment changed their measures towards the Amer- ican colonies; and, attempting to raise a revenue from them, by oppressive taxes, and spurning their remonstrance and petitions for redress, lost their affections and their confidence, and roused them to resistance and opposition 118 POLITE LEARNING. Q. What measures were afterwards adopted by the Americans ? A. The Americans united for their mutual de- fence, chose deputies to represent them in con- gress, and to conduct their public affairs. Thesi* deputies first met at Philadelphia, in September, 1774. The breach continued to widen, a war ensued, and on the 19th of April, 1775, the first battle, between the American and British armies, was fought at Lexington, near Boston ; and on the 4th of July, in the following year, the Con- gress, then sitting at Philadelphia, declared the United Colonies, then 13 in number, to be free and independent states. Q. Of what does the Union now consist t A. The Union now consists of 24 regularly organized and independent states, together with three extensive regions of country called Terri- tories, out of which additional states will, no doubt, in time, be erected. These 24 states con- tain about - - . 796,000 square miles. The Territories,. 1,286,000 Total, 2,082,000 square miles. Q. Who was commander in chief of the American armies during this war ? A. The commander in chief of the American armies, was George Washington, a native of Vir- ginia. Q. How long did this war last ? A. The war lasted about eight years; during which time, great valour and magnanimity were GEOGRAPHY. 119 displayed, and incredible sufferings endured, by the Americans. Q. Who ultimately triumphed? and when was peace established ? A. The Americans at length gained their point; and peace was concluded in 1782: when Great Britain, after expending nearly 120 mil- lions of money, and losing 50,000 men, relin- quished all claim to the dominion of these states, and yielded, reluctantly^ to their arms what she had long haughtily refused to their prayers. Q. Did America receive any foreign aid in this struggle for liberty ? A. Yes ; early in the contest, France acknow- ledged the independence of the United States, and lent them aid, both in money and men; and, afterwards, Holland also gave pecuniary assis- tance, and, as well as Spain, was arrayed in arms against Great Britain. Q. Does the same confederation into which the states entered at the commencement of the war, still continue? A. No: the original confederation was soon found to be inadequate to the purposes for which it was framed: delegates were appointed from the several states, to form a new constitution; which was drawn at Philadelphia, in 1 787; and in 1789 it was organized, and still continues the supreme law of the land. Q. What form of government was adopted in the United States ? A. The form of government adopted in the United States, was Republican: it is vested in a 120 POLITE LEAKNIPTG. President and two legislative branches, viz. a Senate and House of Representatives. All the individual state governments are also republican. Q. How is the President appointed ? A. The President and Vice-President are chosen by electors, who are appointed by the people for that purpose. They continue in office four years, and may be re-elected as often as the people think proper. Q. By whom are the Senators chosen ? A. Senators are chosen by the state Legisla- tures: two by each state; with a biennial rotation of one-third. Their term of office is six years. Q. By whom are the House of Representa- tives chosen ? A. The House of Representatives are chosen by the people at large; one for every 58,000, and to serve two years. Q. Who was the first President of the United States ? A. The first President of the United States was George Washington: he was twice unani- mously elected to that office. Upon his declin- ing a third election, he was succeeded by John Adams. After serving one term, he gave place to Thomas Jefferson; who, having served two terms, and declined a third election, was follow- ed by James Madison, for eight years; and he, by James Monroe, who also served eight years; and was succeeded by John Quincy Adams, who, after serving four years, was succeeded by Andrew Jackson, our present chief magis- trate. Q. How are the United States bounded ? A. The United States and their territories are GEOGRAPHY. 121 bounded E. by the Atlantic and New Bruns- wick, — W. by the Pacific, — N. by Canada and the Lakes, — and S. by the Gulf of Mexico, and New Spain, or Mexico. They embrace about 1400 miles of sea coast, on the Atlantic, and 500 on the Pacific, and ex- tend in Various breadths, from ocean to ocean, a distance of more than 3,000 geographical miles, and contain nearly 10 J millions of inhabitants. Q. What is the military strength of the United States? A. The military strength of the United States lies in a well disciplined militia, of about 900,000 freemen, with about 10,000 standing ti'oops employed on the frontiers, and in the dif- ferent fortresses of the Union. Its navy, estab- lished only for the protection of commerce, is yet in its infancy, and consists of 7 line of battle ships of 74 guns each. 7 frigates of 44 do. 3 do. of 36 do. 2 do. of 24 do. 13 sloops of war of 18 do. 6 schooners of 12 do. 14 of smaller size, as gallies, gun-boats, &c. 2 of 74 guns each, are laid up under cover; and 5 line of battle ships, and 4 frigates, are now build ing. Q. W hat have you to observe respecting the soil and climate of this country ? A. The climates vary from warm to vei^y cold: the soil has all the grades, from worst to best; and produces, or, by cultivation, may be 1. 122 POLITE LEARNING. brought to produce, almost every species of grain, fruit, pulse, roots, and plants, found in the different parts of the world. Q. What are the principal mountains? A. The principal mountains in the United States, are the White mountains in New Hamp- shire;— the Alleghany mountains, which include a great number of ridges, under various names, extending from Hudson^s river, in the state of New York, in a south-western direction, up- wards of 900 miles; in various breadths, from 60 to 150 miles; — also the Stony and Californian mountains in the west. Q. Describe the face of the country in the United States ? A. Between the AUeghanies and the ocean, the face of the country is generally level; espe- cially to the southward; but, west of the AUe- ghanies, it is finely diversified, well watered, and fertile. The eastern, or New England states, are elevated, rocky, and uneven. On, and within, the northern boundary of the United States, is a chain of fresh water lakes; the largest, perhaps, in the world. Lake Erie is 300 miles long, and 40 broad — Ontario and Michigan, each, in circumference 600 miles — Huron, 1000 miles; and Superior, 1500. Be- tween Lake Erie and Ontario, are the great falls of Niagara. The river is here 742 yards wide, and falls 137, or, as some say, 150 feet, perpen- dicularly, over a rock;*afibrdinga scene, at once the most awful, romantic, and interesting, that can be imagined. GEOGRAPHY. 123 The noise of this astonishing cataract, is heard to the distance of 20, 30, or even 40, miles; and a constant mist arises from it, in which, when the sun shines, may be seen all the colours of the rainbow. In the winter, this mist congeals on the neighbouring trees, and exhibits the most beautiful appearances. There is, on the Mississippi, a pleasing cata- ract, called St. Anthony's Falls; where. the whole river, 250 yards wide, descends, perpen- dicularly, more than 50 feet. Another remarka- ble cascade, named the Falling Spring, is seen on a branch of James's River, in Virginia; where the descent is at least 200 feet, perpendicular. Q. Have the United States any considerable commerce ? A. Yes: the merchants of the United States trade extensively with almost every part of the commercial world. Q. What are the principal articles of their trade? A. The principal exports from the United States, are cotton, tobacco, flour, corn, rice, flax- seed, pitch, tar, lumber, potashes, salted fish, and oil. The imports consist, chiefly, of cloths, and hardwares; tea, coffee, sugar, spirits, and wines. Q. What is the capital of the United States? A. Washington, a flourishing city in the Dis- trict of Columbia, on the Potomack, is the capital of the United States. Washington lies in 37 deg. 53 min. N. lat. is 139 miles S. W. from Philadelphia, and 40 from Baltimore, and may contain about 15,000 inhabitants. The population of the whole district may be estimated at 38,000. POLITE LEARNING. S o i- « w 3^ ^ s S •-' o — <*- — ti •." Jr, a S .. rt o i sill LO 11 "n- C5 c* »o -rr or:; O re o* C5 '?< o -1 rj cr. ^ t^ -^ T-« r-t o i^ D O © !>» t>^^t^ -rocrt>rtN:cr5"o 3 CO »-l Ci Ci •-' CJ CIO f t^l^'^ r O ;:; X- 5 -r X --''^'x'o c< -^ b c^i r: rH r-i GEOGRAPHY. 125 MEXICO, IN NORTH AMERICA. Q. How is Mexico bounded I A. It was formerly a province of Spain^ but is now independent, and divided into two States, Mexico and Central America. They comprehend an extensive country, and lie between the territories of the United States, and the Gulf of Mexico on ilie E. and the Pa- cifiQ on the W. stretching from the Isthmus of Darien on the South, to the 41st deg. of N. lat. Q. What of the soil and climate I A. The climate, in many parts, is insalubri- ous in summer, but mild and healthy in winter. The soil is, in the highest degree, productive. INDEPENDENT STATEa Population. Capital. Population. Mexico, 8,000,000 I Mexico. 150,000 Central America, 2,000,000 | Gautimala, 50,000 Q. What possessions has Russia in North America? A. Russia claims the north-west section of North America, from Portlock harbour, round to Cape Prince of Wales, at Bhering's straits. This territory is valuable chiefly for its fur trade, L2 126 POLITE LEARNING. SOUTH AMERICA. Q. What is South America ? A. South America is a vast peninsula, of a triangular form, nearly encompassed by the great South sea. It is upwards of 4000 miles long, by about 3000 broad, and is connected to North America by the isthmus of Darien. Q. What of the mountains of South America ? A. The Andes, extending from north to south, the whole length of this continent, are the loftiest* and most extensive mnge of mountains upon the whole face of the globe, and embosom several volcanoes of the most sublime and ter- rific description. Chimborazo^ the most elevated point of the Andes, rises 21,500 feet above the level of the sea, which is more than 6000 feet higher than the summit of the celebrated Mont Blanc of Savoy. Q. What are the principal Rivers of South America ? A. The principal Rivers of South America, are the Amazon, La Plata, Orinoko, Para, and St Francis; with many others of less size and note. Amazon, 3000 miles long, of great width and depth, is the largest river in the world; and, the La Plata, upwards of 2000 miles long, and near the mouth, 150 broad, is little inferior to it. Q. Wliat of the soil and climate of South America ? A. So extensive a region must iiave a great * Except the Himmaleh Mountains^ on the north of Hin- dostan, the highest peak of which is said to be 28,000 feet above the level of the sea. GEOGRAPHY. 127 variety, both of soil and climate; but, it may be observed, in general, that the bountiful Creator has here bestowed liberally whatever is neces- sary for the comfort and convenience of man. South America has long been celebrated for its rich mines df gold and silver. The whole population may be estimated at about 15 mil- lions: some of the natives (the Patagonians) are of colossal stature. Q. What are tlie principal divisions of South America ? A. South America is divided into the fol- lowing u Columbia, Venezuela, Peru, Bolivia, Chili, Buenos Ayres, Rep. Uraguay, Paraguay, Brazil, INDEPENDENT STATES. Population. . 3,000,000 1,600,000 1,200,000 800,000 . 2,000,000 4,000,000 Capital. roiftilation. Bogota, 50,000 Caraccaf?, 30.000 Lima, 60,000 Chuquisaca, :30,ooo Santiago, 40,000 Buenos Ayres, 80,000 Monte Video, 10,000 Assumption, 12,000 Rio Janeiro, 150,000 Oilier Towns. Carthagena, Panama, Quito, Truxillo, Cusco, Guamanga, Areqaipa, La Plata, Potosi, Valpa- raiso, Santiago, Santa Fe, St. Salvador, Per- nambuco, Cayenne, Dernarara. THE WEST INDIES. Q. What is to be understood Jby the West Indies ? * 128 POLITE LEARNING. A. Under the general term, West Indies, ar« included a multitude of Islands, lying in several groups, between the two great continents of North and South America. They belong to different European powers: several of them are of considerable size, and great commercial importance. Q. What of the climate and seasons ? A. As the West India islands all lie within the torrid zone, they are oppressed with great heat, and have neither frost, snow, nor cold weather; the rains making the only distinction of seasons. Violent hail-storms, however, some* times happen, and earthquakes are not uncommon. Q. What are the principal articles of produce and exportation ? A. The principal articles of produce and ex- portation, are sugar, and coffee ; cotton, rum, and molasses; ginger, pepper, allspice, cocoa, and fruits. All the labour of cultivation is performed by the negroes, who compose more than seven- eighths of the whole population, which is about 2,400,000. The principal islands, with their chief towns, are as follow, viz. Islands. Town*;. Inhabitants. Cuba, Havana, 12,000 S. Hayti, or CCape Frangais, 8,000 St. Domingo, ^ St. Domingo, 25,000 J . C Spanish Town, 5,000? ^^ Jamaica, ^ ^ Kingston, 67,000 5 ^• Porto Rico, ♦ Porto Rico, • - S. CHRONOLOGY. 129 Islands. Towns. St. Thomas, .:.-•- Da. St. John, Da. Tortola, - E. St. Croix, - - - - - Da. St. Eustatia, Eustatia, ^ - Du. St. Christophei^, Bassetterre, - - E. Antigua, St. Johns, - - E. Guadalope, Bassetterre, - - F. Dominica, Charlotte Town, - E. Martinique, Fort Royal, St. Pierre, F. St. Lucia, . • - • F, Barbadoes^ Bridge Town, - - E. St. Vincent, Kingston, - - E. Grenada, Port Royal, - - E. Tobago, . - - - - - E. Curacoa, -.---- Du. CHRONOLOGY. Q. What is Chronology ? A. Chronology is the science of computing time, distinguishing its parts, and ascertaining the true period of events. Q. What Chronology is most ancient ? A. The most ancient Chronology is that given by Moses, which fixes the creation of the world at 4004 years before the birth of Christ, and which, by adding the current year A. D. 1826, makes the world to have existed 5830 years. The ancient Greeks computed time by Olym- piads, or periods of 4 years; the Romans reck- oned from the building of Rome, 752 years be- 130 POLITE LEARNING, fore Christ; and the Mahometans, from the He- gira, or flight of Mahomet to Mecca, in 622 of the Christian era. Q. What is Time? A. Time is the measme of duration; and is either absolute or relative. Msolutt time, or simple duration J flows uniformly, from eternity to eternity ; and has no regard to external ob- jects. Relative^ or apparent time^ is that por- tion of duration, which is measured by the uni- form motion of some sensible object; as the sun, the moon, clocks, watches, &c. Thus, two persons, one in London, and the other in Philadelphia, observing an eclipse of the sun, may see it commence or terminate at the same moment of absolute time; while, in re/a- tive timey their clocks or watches will show a diflerence of five hours. Q. What are the divisions of Time ? A. Time is divided into centuries, ages?, years, months, weeks, days, hours, minutes, and seconds. Q. What is the difference between an age and a century ? A. An age^ is, properly, the space of time during which a man or generation of men, lives upon the earth; a century is 100 years: but age is often taken in a more extensive sense, and embraces several generations, or even centuries; as, from Adam to the deluge, is termed the first age of the world, &c. Q. What is a Year? A. A true solar Year is twelve months, or the CHKOxNOLOGY. 131 space of time in which the earth moves round the sun; or in which the sun completes his ap- parent revolution in the ecliptic. It consists of 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, and 57 seconds. Q. Of how many days does a common civil year consist? A. A common or civil year consists of 365 days: but, as the odd hours, minutes, and seconds, of the solar year, amount, in four years, to nearly one whole day, every fourth year takes 366 days, and is called leap year. Q. What is to be understood by old and new style? A. The civil year, as settled by Julius Caesar, contained 365 days and 6 hours; which was 11 minutes 3 seconds more than the true solar year. This excess caused the times of the equinoxes and other seasons of the year, to arrive one day earlier than they ought, in every 130 years. Thus, at the time of the Nicene Council, A. D. 325, the vernal equinox fell on the 21st of March; but, in A. D. 1582, it occurred 10 days earlier; hence, it was seen, that great confusion must at- tend the celebration of Easter, and other move- able feasts, which would at length fall on the same days. This led Pope Gregory XIII. to think of re- forming the style. H^, accordingly, ordered the ten days that had been gained, to be stricken out of the year; which brought the vernal equi- nox again to the 21st of Marcb. And to pre- vent a repetition of this inconvenience, Gregory further ordered, that only every fourth, termed 132 POLITE LEARNING. leap year, should have 366 days, and the others, 365. This is called the Gregorian, or new style ; and agrees so nearly with the true solar time, that 6000 years will not make the difference of one day. Q. When was the new style adopted in Great Britain and America? A. The new style was not adopted in Great Britain and America, till A. D. 1752; when 11 days, which had heen gained, were taken from that year, by act of parliament. Q. What is a month ? A. The month is periodicalj synodicalj or civil. A periodical month is the time in which the moon passes round the earth; namely, 27 days, 7 hours, and 43 minutes. The synodical month, called a lunation, is the time which elapses from the moon^s parting with the sun, at a conjunction, till her return to him again ; which is 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes. Civil months are the 12 kalendar months, into which the year is divided for the use and convenience of civil lif^. They are of different lengths, and named as follow: — 1. January; from JannSj the most ancient king of Italy, who was deified by the people, and to whom they kept this month as sacred. 2. February; from Februo^ to purify or cleanse by sacrifice. This was the last month of the year, in which purifications and sacrifices CHRONOLOGY. 133 were used among the ancient Romans, for the ghosts of the dead. 3. March: from Mars, the god of war; to whom this month was kept sacred. 4. April; from aptrio, to open or unfold: be- cause, in this month, nature begins to unfold all her beauties. . 5. May; from the heathen goddess, Maia^ to whom this month was held sacred. G. June; from the heathen goddess, Juno, 7. July; in honour of Julius Caesar. 8. August; in honour of Augustus Caesar. 9. September; from the Latin septem, seven.* 1.0. October; from the Latin octo^ eight IL November; from novem, nine. 12. December; from decern, ten. Thirty days hath September, April, June, and November; February, twenty-eight alone. All the rest have thirty-one. But when you come to leap-year time, Give to Februmy full twenty-nine. Q. What is a Week? A. A Week is the succession of seven natural days; called Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wed- nesday, Thursday, Friday, and Saturday. On Sunday, the ancient Saxons worshipped the Sun; on Monday, the Moon; on Tuesday, their idol, Tuisco; on Wednesday, Woden; on Thursday, Thor ; on Friday, the goddess, Freia; and on Saturday, the idol, Seater. * At this period of time, the vear began with March. M 134 POLITE LEARNING. On account of the derivation of these names of the months and days from heathen supersti- tion and idolatry, the use of them is rejected by some religious denominations; who adopt in their stead, 1st month, 2d month, 3d month; and 1st day, 2d day, 3d day, &c. Others reject Sim- day^ only; and use Sabbath^ or Lord^s day^ in its place. Q. What is a Day? A. A Day is either natural or artificial. The natural Day contains 24 hours; the artificial day is the time between the rising and setting of the sun. Q. Do the difierent nations of the earth all be- gin the natural or civil day at the same time ? A. No; the Americans, British, French, Dutch, Germans, Spaniards, Portuguese, and Egyptians, begin at midnight ; the ancient Greeks and Jews, commenced at sunset; as do now the modern Italians and Chinese; while the Persians, Sy- rians, and modern Greeks, count from sunrise; and astronomers from noon. Q. Do all nations reckon the days in the same order '^, A. No; the Christians count from the Sab- bath, or Lord's day; in memory of the resurrec- tion of their Saviour, Jesus Christ; the Jews from Saturday, and the Mahometans, from Friday. Q. What is an Hour ? A. An Hour is the 24th part of a natural day. A minute is the 60th of an hour; and a second, the 60th of a minute. Q, How many weeks are there in a year ? CHRONOLOGY. 135 A. There are 52 weeks in a year, of 7 days each. Q. What is an epoch, and what an era ? A. An epoch is the time at which a new com- putation is begun, and from which dates are numbered by historians ; as, the creation of the world, the building of Rome, the birth of Christ, &c. An era is, properly, an account of time from one epoch to another; but it is often used as synonymous with epoch. For example, w^e say, Noah's flood happened A. M. (i. e. Anno Mundi^ or in the year of the world) 1656. Kings w^ere expelled, and consular govern- ment established at Rome, A. U. C. (i. e. ab tirbe conditay from the building of the city,) 244. America was discovered by Columbus, A. D. (i. e. Anno Domini^ in the year of our Lord) 1492. Philadelphia was founded, A. D. 1683. Independence was declared, July 4, 1776. Q. What is an Olympiad ? A. An Olympiad is the space of four years ; used by the ancient Greeks, to mark the time from the institution of the Olympic games;* which they celebrated at the beginning of every fifth year, in a plain near the town of Olympias. Q. What is a Lustrum ? *These games were contests in running, wrestling, boxing, chariot races, &c. instituted by Hercules in honour of Jupiter, 744 years before Christ. 136 POLITE LEARNIING. A. A Lustrum is a space of five years; used only by the Roman poets. Q. What is an Indiction? A, An Indiction is a revolution of fifteen years; used by the Romans, for indicting the time of certain payments made by the people to the republic. Q. What is 2^Juhilee? A. A Jubilee is a public festivity. Q. What is a Cycle of the sun ? A. A Cycle of the sun is a period of twenty- eight years, in which time the days of the month return to the same days of the week ; the sun's place, to the same signs and degrees of the eclip- tic; and the commencement of the leap-years, to the same days of the week. Q. What is a Cycle of the Moon. A. A Cycle of the Moon is a revolution of nineteen years; in which time, the new moons, full moons, conjunctions, oppositions, &c. return to the same days of the month. Q. Of what use are these Cycles ? A. By tlie revolution of the solar Cycle, is found the Dominical, or Sunday Letter: the year of the lunar Cycle is called the Golden Number; and from both, is determined the time of cele- brating Easter. Q. Have not the poets made another division of time ? A. Yes : Poets divide time into four ages: 1. The golden age; attributed to Saturn and Rhea; comprehending the earlier periods of the world, when men were more virtuous and happy. CHRONOLOGY. 137 2. The silver age; ascribed to the reign of Jupiter; extending to the time that tyrants ap- peared among the human race, aggrandizing themselves by oppression, violence, and injustice. 3. The brazen age; in which, rapacious men, possessed with the lust of dominion, endeavoured to reduce their brethren to a state of slavery. 4. The iro)i age; in which, every species of crime began, and which, they say, still continues. Q. What are meant by the seasons of the year ? A. The seasons of the year are those changes and varieties which are produced in nature, by the revolution of the earth around the sun. Q. What are the seasons called ; and how long do they continue ? A. The seasons are called Spring, Summer, Autumn, and Winter; each continuing three months. Q. When does each of these seasons begin ? A. Spring begins on the* 21st of March; Summer, on the 21st of June; %6.utum,ny on the 23d of September; and Winter, on the 21st of December. Q. What are the Dog-days ? A. The Dog-days are the oppressively hot days which elapse between the 19th of July and the 28th of August. They have their name from the great Dog star; which is observed, during that time, to rise and set with the sun. M 2 138 POLITE LEARNING. MYTHOLOGY. Q. What is Mythology ? A. Mythology is the history and explication of the fabulous gods and heroes of the heathen world. Q. Whence is the word Mythology derived? A. The word Mythology is derived from the Greek words viuthos^ a fable, and logos, a de- scription. Q. Of what use is a knowledge of these fa bles ? A. A knowledge of Mythology enables us to read, with advantage, the ancient classic authors, to understand the allusions of the poets, and to explain the historic and fabulous representations often found in pictures, &c. Q. How are the heathen gods divided ? A. The heathen gods are divided into six classes ; the celestial, terrestrial, marine, infernal, subordinate, and ^lemi-gods. OF THE CELESTIAL DEITIES. Q. Who are tlie Celestial Deities ? A. The gods of this class, are, Jupiter, Apol- lo, Mercury, Bacchus, and Mars; and the god- desses, Juno, Minerva, and Venus. Q. Who was Jupiter [^ A. Jupiter w^as the sovereign god of the hea- thens;"* the son of Saturn and Ops, bol^n in * The heathens, in general, believed that tlicro was only one supreme God: but, when they considered this one M\?THOLOGY. 139 Crete^ at the same birth with Juno, lie mar- ried his sister Juno, expelled his father out of liis kingdom, and divided it with his brethren. He is represented, in poetic fiction, as havinj;- metamorphosed himself into a swan, for Leda — into a hull, for Europa — into a shower oj' gold ^ for Danae — into a shepherd, i'ov Mnemoysne; and, thus, to have filled heaven with his natural children. Q. How was the sovereign authority divided amongst the sons of Saturn ? A. Jupiter, as the eldest, had the heavens; Neptune, the waters; and Pluto, the hifernal re- gions. Q. Had Jupiter any children by Juno ? A. Jupiter had two §ons, Vulcan and Mars, and a daughter named Hebe; whom, for hei* ex- traordinary beauty, he made e;oddess of youth. She was likewise his cupbearer, and poured out great being as inilueiicing the aiFairs of the worlJ, they gave him as many different names : and lience proceeded their variety of nominal gods. When lie tliundered or lightened, they called him J\ipitcr; when he calmed the sea, Neptune ; when he guided their conucils, Minerva ; and when he gave them strength in battle. Mars. In process of time, thev nsed diflerent representations of this Jupiter, Neptune, kc. and considered them, vulgarly at least, as so many dilierent persons. Afterwards ihey'rc- irarded each in dilTerent views ; according as tliey sbowered down blessings, or iullicled punLshincnts. 'J'here was also one Jupiter f