J I \, I iiTfiuifiiisisiflAuoiJiiOG irtf\iSfE^(yj D ^jpgcaMEMS of various racSS of ka N k B nd. VIH. AUSTRALIAN. :: i Ancient E6yptian Scribe. V* Dyn — Mariette's Discoveries, 1852-4. (Louvre Museum:) M.HevfrU.,j))ioto6.,Ea ES.DuvaUColift.fW' INDIGENOUS RACES OF THE EARTH; OR, INCLUDING MONOGRAPHS ON SPECIAL DEPARTMENTS OF PHILOLOGY, ICONOGRAPHY, CRANIOSCOPY, PALEONTOLOGY, PATHOLOGY, ARCHEOLOGY, COM- PARATIVE GEOGRAPHY, AND NATURAL HISTORY: CONTRIBUTED BY ALFRED MAURY, MBLIOTnECATRE DE L'lNSTITUT DE FRANCE; SECRETAIRE GENERAL DE LA SOCIETE" DE GEOGRAPHY DE PARIS; MEMBRE DE LA SOCIETE" IMPERIALS DES ANTIQUAIRES DE FRANCE, DES ACADEMIES DE BORDEAUX ET DE CAEN, DES ACADEMIES ET SOCIETES D'ARCHEOLOGLE DE BELGTQUE, DE PICARDIE, DE MADRID, DES SOCIETES ASIATIQUE ET MEDICO-PS YCHOLOGIQJJE DE PARIS, DE LA SOCIETE" d'HISTOIRE DE LA SUISSE-ROMANDE ET DE LA SOCIETY DE LITTERATURE NEERLANDAISE DE LETDE; CHEV ALTER DZ L'ORDRE DE LA LEGION D'HONNEUR, ETC. ETC. ETC., FRANCIS PULSZKY, and J. AITKEN MEIGS, M.D., OF LVCBOCZ AXD CSELFALVA, profrssor of the institutes of medicine in the Phila- delphia COLLEGE OF MEDICINE; LIBRARIAN OF THE ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADEL- PHIA ; RECORDING SECRETARY OF THE PHILADELPHIA COUNTY MEDICAL SO- CIETY; FELLOW OF THE COL- LEGE OF PHYSICIANS. ETC. FELLOW OF THE HUNGARIAN ACADEMY; COR- RESPONDENT OF THE INSTITUTO DI COR- RL3PONDENZA ARCHEOLOGICA DI RO- MA; LATE UNDER SECRETARY OF STATE IN HUNGARY, ETC. ETC. ETC., ("With Communications from Prof. Jos. Leidy, M. D., and Prof. L. Agassiz, LL. D.) PRESENTING FRESH INVESTIGATIONS, DOCUMENTS, AND MATERIALS; BY J. C. NOTT, M.D., and GEO. E. GLIDDON, MOBILE, ALABAMA, FORMERLY U. S. CONSUL AT CAIRO, AUTHORS OP "TYPES OP MANKIND." PHILADELPHIA : J. B . LIPPINCOTT & CO LONDON: TRUBNER & CO. 185 7. (J N 2-3 FIRST ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HAIL, BY INTERNATIONAL ARRANGEMENT WITH THE AMERICAN PROPRIETORS. Entered, according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1857, by J. B. LIPPINCOTT & CO., in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. TO RICHARD K. HAIGHT, NEW YORK. I bave presumed on our long friendship, and the associations arising from our joint archseological and ethnological pursuits — as well as on my having been your colleague in numerous scientific societies in various parts of the world, for a period of more than twenty years — to dedicate this volume to you. G. R. G. PUBLISHERS' ANNOUNCEMENT. Through the medium of a Prospectus, we have again invited public co-operation in bringing out a second work on Anthro- pology ; and it is with no slight satisfaction that we now publish a larger list of Subscribers than even that received for " Types of Mankind." Such testimonials of the interest taken by our fellow-citizens in scientific researches, are regarded by ourselves, as they will doubtless be by others both at home and abroad, as the best evidence of the love of knowledge developed in the United States through our educational institutions. Under this conviction, we have endeavored to augment the value of " Indigenous Races of the Earth," by sparing neither exertion nor outlay to make the book itself worth}' of the patronage bestowed upon it. Whether in the number of the wood-cuts and the lithographic plates, or as regards the anjount of letter-press, it will be found, by those who may choose to compare the promises made in our Prospectus with their fulfil- ment in the present volume, that we have really given much more than could have been anticipated in a book the cost of which, to the American Subscriber, is only Five Dollars per copy. (v) VI PUBLISHERS ANNOUNCEMENT. It is to this practical consideration alone that we appeal, should criticism allege that any of the mechanical part of this work might have been more skilfully executed. Had the price been higher, the performance would assuredly have been superior In j ustice to the labors of the Authors and the Contrib utors, we will state, that no monetary compensation is equal to the pains bestowed by each upon his part; and several of the above have kindly furnished their quota without the remotest pecuniary object; at the same time, let it be noted, that the accomplished lady to whose single pencil four-fifths of the entire series of illustrations herein contained are due, sponta- neously volunteered, and for two years has employed it, in behalf of her husband's literary interests. Aside, also, from the communications made by Professors Joseph Leidt and L. Agassiz, as well as by Lieut. Haber- sham, U. S. N., the reader will find in this volume several items of novelty, — altogether uncontemplated by us when the first Prospectus was issued last autumn. Among these may be mentioned the inedited Eskimo-cranium derived from the late Dr. Kane's first Arctic Expedition, and the equally inedited Tclmldchi-cranium and portrait presented by Mr. E. M. Kern, — artist in the recent North Pacific Expe- dition of the " Vincennes," under Captain Rodgers, U. S. N. We hope, therefore, that every Subscriber will feel satisfied that we have fully redeemed our engagements in the premises. J. B. Lippincott & Co., Publishers. PREFATORY REMARKS. BY GEO. R. GLIDDON. The title of the present volume, — "Indigenous Races of the Earth," as well as that of our former work, — "Types of Mankind," are due to my colleague. Dr. JSTott possesses, beyond most men, the faculty of epitomizing the gist of an argument in the fewest words. It is on that account, and more especially for the disappointment readers may feel upon finding my name substituted for my colleague's, in this part of our joint book, that its opening page must contain an expression of my regret at the only untoward event which, from first to last, has been encountered in the literary undertaking now brought favorably to an end. Being unavoidable, however, such issue — unforeseen but a few days ago — requires some brief explanation. On my return from Europe last May, M. Alfred Maury's manu- script for Chapter I. was the only part of this book in a state of com- pletion. Mr. Francis Pulszky's, for Chapter II., arrived in consecu- tive portions by the mails from London; Dr. J. Aitken 1 Meigs's, for Chapter III., and mine for Chapters V. and VI., were written here, during the past summer and autumn ; while Dr. I^ott, in the same interval, prepared his for Chapter TV. at Mobile. It having been deemed inexpedient to incur the risks of loss of these manuscripts by sending them hence to Mobile, Dr. ]STott, except through private correspondence and my oral report to him " chez lui" last [November, was necessarily unaccpiainted with their several tenor : but, when receiving from his hands the manuscript for Chap- (Tii) Vlll PREFATORY REMARKS. ter IV., I anticipated ho difficulty in supplying him with the "proof- sheets" of our volume quite" in time for one — to whom the subjects developed in it are so familiar — to write the few pages of synopsis desirable for its "Prefatory Remarks." Under this expectation, the "proof-sheets" have been punctually forwarded hence to Mobile by our Publishers ; and I took for granted that, by the 15th February, at furthest, Dr. ISTott's second manuscript would have reached me here for the press. Unfortunately, we have all " reckoned without our host." From the latter part of December until, I may say, this moment, the wintry condition of the roads has been such as to compel my colleague to write me, almost at the last moment, that, having received but few of the "proof-sheets," and these in no connected series, he must abandou the hope of editing our "Prefatory Remarks." My individual chagrin at this contre-temps is so great that I will not attempt to offer any substitute for Dr. Nott's frustrated intentions. At a more propitious time, and through some other vehicle, I hope that my colleague may publish his own commentary upon " Indige- nous Races of the Earth," — which owes far more to his personal science and propulsion than appears on its face. In consequence, my part reduces itself to the editorship of three additional contribu- tions, — to three paragraphs about Egyptian ethnography — and to succinct observations concerning my own Chapters V. and VI. The gratifying communications now presented afford much scien- tific novelty and food for the reader's reflections. I append each in its order of date. " Navy Yard, Philadelphia, Jan. 20th, 1857. " Messrs. Nott & Gliddon, "Dear Sirs: — Your communication in regard to the hairy race who inhabit the Kurile Islands, and the red men of Formosa, has been received. "I take pleasure in forwarding you two 'heads ' of the former, as drawn by Mr. A. E. Hartman, the able artist of the United States Survej'ing Steamer 'John Hancock,' and only regret that I am unable to furnish you with similar sketches of the latter, our opportu- nities of examining them having been very limited. I take the fol- lowing extracts in regard to these slightly known races from a nar- rative of our Cruise which I have now in press : — "THE KED MEN OF THE ISLAND OF FORMOSA. " I will say nothing more about Formosa for the present. We left its shores about as ■wise as we were upon our arrival, and it was not until our second visit that we picked up PREFATORY REMARKS. IX what little information now exists upon the files of the Expedition in regard to it. Upon leaving Keilung (the port of the island of Formosa), for Hong-Kong, we kept along the east coast of the island, in the vain search for a reported harbor. There was nothing to be seen but an iron-bound coast with range after range of lofty mountains lifting themselves above the heavy surf that broke along the entire beach. One day we thought we had dis- covered it: we saw ahead the smoke of distant villages rising back of a bight in the coast which looked very much like a harbor ; but, upon approaching it, we found ourselves mis- taken. We, however, lowered a boat and attempted to land, but the surf was breaking so furiously that it would have been madness to have entered it. Besides, the beach was crowded by naked and excited savages, who it was generally reported were cannibals, and into whose company we should consequently have preferred being thrown with reliable arms in our hands. The two convicts, whom the captain had taken in the boat to interpret in case of his being able to land, became so frightened at the savage appearance of those reported man-eaters, that they went on their knees to him, protesting, through the steward, that the islanders had eaten many of their countrymen, and that if he went any nearer they would do the same by him and the boat's crew. Finding it impossible to pass the surf, the boat returned onboard, and we squared away for Hong-Kong." * * * * "And now, be- fore I turn to my journal for a few pages in regard to our experience while coasting around this island, let me enlighten the reader as much as possible in regard to it from other sources. The Encyclopaedia Britannica says, — " ' The Dutch at an early period established a settlement on this island. "'In 1625, the viceroy of the Philippine Islands sent an expedition against Formosa, with a view of expelling the Dutch. It was unsuccessful. . . . About the middle of the seventeenth century, it afforded a retreat to twenty or thirty thousand Chinese from the fury of the Tartar conquest. ... In 1653, a conspiracy of the Chinese against the Dutch was discovered and suppressed ; and, soon after this, Coxinga, the governor of the maritime Chinese province of Tehichiang, applied for permission to retire to the island, which was refused by the Dutch governor ; on which he fitted out an expedition, consisting of six hun- dred vessels, and made himself master of the town of Formosa and the adjacent country. The Dutch were then allowed to embark and leave the island. . . . Coxinga afterward en- gaged in a war with the Chinese and Dutch? in which he was defeated and slain. But they were unable to take possession of the island, which was bravely defended by the posterity of Coxinga; and it was not till the year 1683 that the island was voluntarily surrendered by the reigning prince to the Emperor of China. ... In 1805, through the weakness of the Chinese government, the Ladrone pirates had acquired possession of a great part of the southwest coast.' " The Encyclopaedia Americana says, — '"The island is about two hundred and forty miles in length from north to south, and sixty from east to west in its broadest part, but greatly contracted at each extremity. That part of the island which the Chinese possess presents extensive and fertile plains, watered by a great number of rivulets that fall from the eastern mountains. Its air is pure and wholesome, and the earth produces in abundance corn, rice, and most other kinds of grain. Most of the India fruits are found here, — such as oranges, bananas, pineapples, guavas, coeoanuts, — and part of those of Europe, particularly peaches, apricots, figs, grapes, chestnuts, pomegranates, watermelons, &e. Tobacco, sugar, pepper, camphor, and cin- namon, are also common. The capital of Formosa is Taiouan, — a name which the Chi- nese give to the whole island.' " In addition to the foregoing extracts from standard authority, we have a most, marvel- lous account of this island from the pen of Mauritius Augustus, Count de Benyowsky, a Polish refugee from Siberian exile, who visited its east coast, in 1790, in a small armed ves- sel containing about one hundred men. The account by this nobleman is interesting in the extreme, but unfortunately he is guilty of one gross and palpable falsehood, which necessa- rily throws a shade of distrust on his entire narrative. He speaks ' of anchoring in several xu PREFATORY REMARKS. boat backed into the surf in the attempt to land: he could only tremble and cry out, 'Dey eat man! dey eat man!' His friends on the other side had evidently impressed him with that unpleasant national characteristic, and hence his fright when apparently about to be rolled helplessly to their feet by a boiling surf. "The same day upon which we made this our last attempt to land among them, we steamed along up their coast, keeping as close as was prudent, — in fact closer, — and exa- mining with our glasses as far back as we could see. In this way we saw small but appa- rently comfortable stone houses, neatly-kept grounds, — what looked like fruitful gardens and green fields, — all being cultivated by 'Chinese prisoners who had not yet been eaten,' we were told on the other side ; or rather we were told that their friends, when captured, were made to work until needed for culinary purposes. "We were surprised at this air of comfort among half-naked savages, and could not but wonder how they could have built such nice-looking houses, until we finally concluded that their prisoners had been made to turn their hands to masonry as well as gardening. Thus ended our second and last visit to Formosa." "THE AINU, OR HAIRY KURILE. [See Lieut. Habersham's comments, infra, Chapter vi., pp 620-621.] - '. (Louvre Museum) 110 Fig. 2. " Skhem-ka. Profile." j ' VI. — Egyptian head (Louvre Museum) Ill VII. — "Men-ka-her — Vth Dynasty," (Louvre Museum) 112 VIII. — Fig. 1. "Aahmes-nofre-ari." } IT> ,. M > f 116 „ 6 „ . > (Berlin Museum) -j ,,„ Fig. 2. " Nefer-hetep I." j v ' \ 113 IX. - Fig. 1. " Etruscan Vase." | (BritiBh Museum) 190 Figs. 2, 3, 4. " Etruscan drinkmg-jars. ) Ethnographic Tableau. — " Specimens of Various Races of Mankind." 618 Chart. — "Illustrative of the Geographical distribution of Monkeys, in their relation to that of some inferior Types of Men." 641 (xxiv) INDIGENOUS RACES THE EAETH. CHAPTER I. ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF TONGUES, THEIR RELA- TION TO THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF RACES J AND ON THE INDUCTIONS WHICH MAT BE DRAWN FROM THESE RELATIONS. BY ALFRED MAURY, Librarian of the French Imperial Institute, Secretary-General of the 80CIETE DE GEOGKAPHIE I)E PARIS. [COMMUNICATED TO DR. NOTT AND MR. GLIDDON.] SECTION I. Authors who have occupied themselves with the comparison of languages have been inclined sometimes not to distinguish, in the grammar, that which belongs to the very constitution of speech (itself nothing else than the constitution of the human mind), and that which appertains to such or to such another given form of utterance. It is here, however, that an important distinction should be made : because, if the difference between generic and specific characters be not perceived, a man is incapable of analysis ; and instead of making a classification he loses himself in a synthesis vague and indefinite. Languages are organisms that are all conceived upon the same plan, — one might almost say, upon the same skeleton, which, in their development and their composition, follow fixed laws : inasmuch as these laws are the consequence of this organism itself. But, along- side of this identity in the procedure, each family of tongues has its own special evolution, and its own destinies. They all possess among (25) 26 ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND themselves some particular analogies, which are made evident upon comparing these families one with another ; hut such resemhlances are never the same amongst many families ; and two groups, that have a given characteristic in common, differ through some other which, notwithstanding, links one of them to a group more remote. In brief, the specific characters of languages are like those of ani- mals ; no characteristic taken singly possesses an absolute value, being merely a true indication of lineage or of relationship. It is their multiplicity, the frequent recurrence of grammatical forms alto- gether special, which really constitutes families. The closer affinity becomes grasped when words are discovered, either in their " ensem- ble," or for uses the most customary and most ancient, to be iden- tically the same. Thus, then, we recognise two degrees of relationship among the idioms spoken by mankind, viz : the relationship of words coupled with a conformity of the general grammatical system ; or, this con- formity without similitude of vocabulary. Languages may be termed daughters or sisters when they offer the former degree of relationship, and allied when they are connected through the latter. Do all languages proceed from a common stock — from one primitive tongue, which has been the (souche) trunk of the branches now-a- days living isolately ? This, for a long time, was believed. Nevertheless, such belief was not based upon an attentive comparison of tongues that had either not yet been attempted, or which was hardly even sketched out : but it arose simply from confidence reposing upon the recital of Genesis, and owing to the servile interpretation that had been foisted upon its text. Genesis, indeed, tells us, at the beginning of its Xlth chap- ter, 1 — " There were then upon all the earth one single language and the same words." This remark of the sacred historian has for its object to explain the account of the Tower of Babylon. The nature of his narrative cannot occasion doubt in the eyes of criticism the least practised. We have here a myth that is certainly very ancient, and which the Hebrews had brought hack again (after the Captivity) from their mother-country. But it is impossible to behold in it an expose really historical. The motive given for the construction of the tower is that which would suggest itself to the mind of a simple and ignorant population, unable to comprehend the reason why the Assyrians should erect this tower destined for astronomical observations, inti- 1 Verse 1 ; Hebrew Text (Cahen, La Bible, Traduction nouvelle, Paris, 1831, i. p. 28) — " And now [KuL— H-AReTs] the whole earth was of [S/iePAeH AKha.1l] one lip and of [DeBeRIJI AKAaDIM] one (set of) words." CLASSIFICATION OF TONGUES. 27 mately woven with, their religion. And the explanation of the name of BaBeL (Babylon) itself completes the evidence that the recital had been written ex post facto ; and, like so many myths, suggested by the double acceptation of a word. 2 The confounding of the speech of the whole earth, could have been but the work of time, and of time very prolonged ; because we now know what lengthened persistency, what vitality, is the property of tongues ! One perceives in this antique legend a remembrance of the confusion which prevailed among the divers peoples, and amid the different races, who visited Babylon for political or commercial interests. As these populations must have been already very divided, their languages were parcelled out, at the period of the narrative, into a great number of dialects ; and the simultaneous employment of all these idioms in one and the same city appropriately gave it the name of City of confusion. Babylon, moreover (like its modern suc- cessor, Bagdad of the present day), was. situate almost at the point of partition of the two great branches of the white race, viz : the She- mites, or Syro- Arabians, on the one side, and of the Japetid^;, or Irauo-Arians, on the other. The valley of Shinar was then, there- fore, as the frontier-line betwixt two races who possessed some tradi- tions of a common origin; and the Biblical mythos of the " Tower" had for its object an explanation of the forgotten motives of their separation. Certainly, if one were to take the account of Genesis to the letter, it would be necessary to suppose that the first men had not yet attained more than the first degrees of speech, and that their idiom was then of great simplicity. Now, this primitive idiom ought to 2 [It is an amusing coincidence that, while the above scientific passages by my erudite friend, M. Maury, are in the stereotyper's hands, the religious and profane press of the United States should be ringing with the joyful news of the actual discovery, on the classic plain of Arbela too, of "that Titanic structure" (as the enthusiastic penny-a-liner well terms it), the " Tower of Babel" ! " Surprising," indeed, would it be were such disco- very authentic. It becomes still more "surprising" in view of the palpable anachronisms by which this pious writer betrays his total ignorance of the nature, epochas, and results, of cuneiform researches: but, what seems most "surprising" is, that this newest canard of some adolescent missionary writing to Boston (the "modern Athens") from "Beirut, Dec. 8, 1856," should travel the rounds of the whole press of America without (so far as I can learn) one word of critical commentary, or exposure of its preposterous fallacies. Those who, even in this country, follow step by step each discovery made in Assyria, for account of the Imperial Government, by the erudite and indefatigable Monsieur Place, as it is announced at Paris, are perfectly aware that every newly-examined " tower " in that region (besides being long posterior in age to the last built of 67 Egyptian pyramids) only affords additional " confirmations " of the modus through which, — during the Babylonish captivity, and duly registered in passages of Hebrew literature written after the "school of Esdras" established itself at Jerusalem — this myth of the " Tower of BaBJeL," as shown above, arose in the Israclitish mind. Compare Types of Mankind, 1854, pp. 297, 506, 559-60: — G. R. G.] 28 ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND have preserved itself the least altered in that very country where lan- guages had been one at the beginning. And yet, the Hebrew and Chaldsean tongues, which were those of these countries, are very far from belonging to what may be called the first floor in the formation of language. The Chinese, and the languages of Thibet as well as of the trans-Gangetic peninsula, have held to much more of the type of primitive tongues, than have those of the Semitic stock. Analo- gies infinitely greater ought to be perceived among the most ancient languages — Hebrew, Egyptian, Sanscrit, Chinese ; inasmuch as they should be much nearer to the source. Albeit we meet with nothing of the kind ; and the style of Genesis no more resembles that of the Chinese " Kings," than the language of the Rig-veda approaches that which the hieroglyphics have preserved for us. Amidst these idioms there exists nothing but those identities that are due to the use of onomatopees, which was more frequent in primitive times than at the present day. The grammatical forms are different. Now, let us note that — such is the persistency of these forms in languages — the Greek and the German, which have been separated from the San- scritic stem for more than 3000 years, have preserved, notwithstand- ing, a common stock of grammar. How much richer should not this stock have been amongst those languages of which we cited the names above. Besides, even were the similar words of these primitive idioms much more numerous than a few biliteral and monosyllabic onoma- topees, this would be far from sufficing to establish unity. Many similar words result, in tongues the most diverse, from the natural (liaisons) connections that certain sounds have with such or such another sensation. Between the word and the perception, there are very many secret analogies that escape us, and which were more de- cided when man lived in closer contact with nature. This is what the learned historian of Semitic tongues, M. Ernest Bjenan, 3 has judi- ciously remarked. Primitive man endeavored to imitate everything that surrounded him ; because he lived altogether externally. Other verbal resemblances are the effect of chance. The scale of sounds in human speech is too little extended, and the sounds themselves merge too easily one into another, to prevent the possibility of the produc- tion of a fortuitous affinity in a given case. Similitudes, to be veritable, ought to be grounded upon principles more solid than a few rare analogies. And these resemblances do not exist among those languages carried, according to the ipse dixit of the slavish interpreters of Genesis, from the valley of Shinar to the four corners of the world. The constitution of the tongues of 8 Histoire et Systirne comparS des Langues Semicigiies, Paris, 8vo., Ire partie, 1855. CLASSIFICATION OF TONGUES. 29 each, family appears as a primitive fact, of which we can no more pierce the origins than we can seize those of the animal species. In the same manner that creation has sported amid the infinite varieties of one and the same type, so human intelligence has manifested itself through a multitude of idioms which have different]/ rendered its conceptions and its ideas. SECTION n. The ancient grammarians, who submitted speech to a logical and reasoned analysis, had figured to themselves that, in its formation, the human mind musl have followed the rational march indicated by reason. An examination of the facts has proved that there happened nothing of the sort. Upon studying a tongue at the divers epochs of its grammatical existence, it has become settled that our processes of logic and of analysis were unknown to the first men. Thought presented itself at first under a form at one and the same time confused and complex, in which the mind had no consciousness of the elements of which it was composed. Sensations succeeded each other so rapidly that memory and speech, in- lieu of reproducing their signs separately, reflected them all together in their simultaneous action. Thought was wholly sympathetic. That which demonstrates it is, that the most ancient languages offer this character in the highest degree. In them the word is not distinguishable from the phrase, — otherwise speaking, they talked by phrases, and not by words. Each expres- sion is the complete organism, of which the parts are not only appendices one of another, but are inclosed within each other, or are tightly interlocked. This is what philologists have termed aggluti- nation, polysynthetism. Such manner of expressing oneself is doubt- less little favorable to perspicuity ; but, besides that the first men were far from possessing the clear and precise ideas of our time, their conception was sufficiently simple to be seized without great labor of reflection. Furthermore, men, without doubt, then understood each other rather by intuition than through reasoning. What they sought for was an intimate relation between their sentiments and those vocal signs, by the help of which the former could be manifested; and these relations once established, they were perceived and com- prehended like the play of the features, like the meaning of a gesture, rather spontaneously than through analysis of their parts. In whatever method we would explain to ourselves, however, this primitive characteristic of human speech, it is now-a-days not the 30 ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND less determined. The history of languages is but the continual march from synthesis towards analysis. Everywhere one beholds a first idiom giving place to a vulgar tongue, that does not constitute, to speak correctly, a different idiom, but which is a vernacular in its second pljasis, that is, at a period more analytical. Whilst the primitive tongue is overloaded with flexions in order to express the more delicate relations of thought, richer in images if perhaps poorer in ideas, the modern dialect is clearer, more explicit, — separating that which the ancients crowded together ; breaking up the mechan- isms of the ancient tongue so as to give to each idea, and to each relation, its isolated expression. And here let not the expressions be confounded with the words. The words, otherwise called the elements, that enter into the expres- sion, are short, generally monosyllabic, furnished nearly all with short vowels or with simple consonants ; but these words disappear in the expressions within which they enter ; — one does not seize them more than can the eye, in the color green, distinguish the blue and yellow. The composing words are pressed (imbricated, to speak with botanists), to such degree, that one might call them, according to the comparison of Jacob Grimm, blades of herbage in a grass-plot. And that which takes place, for the composition of the expressions, happens also as regards the pronunciation of the words that so strin- gently cling to them, viz : the same simplicity of sounds, inasmuch as the expression must nevertheless allow all the parts of its organ- ism to be seized. "ISTo primitive tongue," writes M. Jacob Grimm, in his memoir on the origin of speech, " possesses a duplication of consonant. This doubling arises solely from the gradual assimilation of different consonants." At the secondary epoch there appear the diphthongs and breakages (brisements) ; whereas the tertiary is char- acterized by softenings and by other alterations in the vowels. Above all, it is the Sanscrit which has made evident these curious laws of the gradual transformation of languages. The Sanscrit, with its admirable richness of grammatical forms, its eight eases, its six moods, — its numerous terminations and its varied forms enouncing, alongside of the principal idea, a host of accessory notions — was emi- nently suited to the study of the growth and decline of a tongue. At its debut, in the Eig-veda, the language appears with this synthetic character; these continual inversions, these complex expressions that we just now signalized as conditions in the primordial exercise of thought. Afterwards follows the Sanscrit of the grand epopees of India. The language had then acquired more suppleness, whilst preserving, nevertheless, the rigidity of its pristine processes : but soon the grammatical edifice becomes decomposed. The Pali, which CLASSIFICATION" OP TONGUES. 31 corresponds to its first age of alteration, is stamped with a remark- able spirit of analysis. "The laws that presided over the formation of this tongue," writes Eugene Burnouf, 4 "are those of which the application is discernible in other idioms, at diverse epocbas and in very different countries. These laws are general, inasmuch as they are necessary. Let the Latin, in fact, be compared with the lan- guages which are derived from it; the ancient Teutonic dialects with the tongues of the same origin ; the ancient Greek with the modern ; the Sanscrit with the numerous popular dialects of India ; and the same principles will be seen to develop themselves, the same laws to be applicable. The organic inflections of the mother tongues subsist in part, but in an evident state of alteration. More generally they disappear, and are replaced ; the cases by particles, the tenses by auxiliary verbs. These processes vary from one tongue to another, but the principle remains the same. It is always analysis, whether a synthetical language finds itself suddenly spoken by bar- barians who, not understanding the structure, suppress and replace its inflexions ; or whether, abandoned to its own course, and by dint of being cultivated, it tends towards decomposition, and to subdi- vide the signs representative of ideas and of the relations them- selves." Tbe Prakrit, which represents the secondary age of alteration in ancient tongues, is submitted to the same analogies. On the one hand, it is less rich; on the other, simple and more facile. Finally, the Kawi, ancient idiom of Java, is a corruption of the Sanscrit ; wherein this language, deprived of its inflexions, has taken in their place the prepositions and the vernacular dialects of that island. These three tongues, themselves formed through derivation from the Sanscrit, soon undergo the same lot as their motber : they become, each in its turn, dead, learned, and sacred languages, — the Pali, in the isle of Ceylon and in Indo-Cbina ; the Prakrit among the Djainas ; the Kawi in the islands of Java, Bali and Madoura ; and in their place arise in India dialects more popular still, the tongues Crours, Hindee, Cashmerian, Bengalee, the dialect of Guzerat, the Mahratta, &c, together with the other vulgar idioms of Hindostan, of which the system is far less learned. 5 Languages of the regions intermediary between India and the Caucasus offer, in their relation and affiliation, differences of the same order. At the more ancient periods appear the Zend and tbe Parsi, bound together through a close relationship with the Sanscrit, but corresponding to two different developments of the faculty of 4 Sssai sur le Pali, par E. Bcrnouf et Chr. Lassen. 6 Ernest Renan, Op. cit., "de l'origme du langage," p. 22. 32 ON THE DISTRIBUTION' AND speech. The Zend, notwithstanding its traits of resemblance with the Vedic Sanscrit, allows our perceiving, as it were, the first symp- toms of a labor of condensation in the pronunciation, and of analysis in the expression. It wears all the external guise of a tongue with flexions (langue a flexion) ; but at the epoch of the Sassanides [a. d.' 224 to 644] as M. Spiegel remarks, it already commences to dis- robe itself of them. The tendency to analysis makes itself by far more felt in the old Persic, or Parsi ; and, in modern Persian, decomposi- tion has attained its ultimate term. We might reproduce the same observations for the languages of the Caucasus, the Armenian and the Georgian; for Semitic tongues, by comparing the Rabbinical with the ancient Hebrew; but what has been already said suflices for the comprehension of the fact. The cause of these transformations is found in the very condition of a tongue, in the method through which it moulds itself upon the impressions and wants of the mind, — it proceeds from its own mode of generation. An idiom is an organism subject, like every organ- ism, to the laws of development. One must not, writes Wilhelm von Hulmboldt, consider a language as a product dead and formed but once ; it is an animate being and ever creative. Human thought elaborates itself with the progress of intelligence; and of this thought, language is a manifestation. An idiom cannot, therefore, remain stationary ; it walks, it develops itself, it grows up, it fortifies itself, it becomes old, and it reaches decrepitude. The tongue sets forth with a first phonetic radical, which renders the sensation in all its simplicity and its generality. This is not yet a verb, nor an adjective, nor a substantive ; it is a word that expresses the common sensation that may lie at the bottom of these gramma- tical categories ; which translates the sentiment of welfare, of plea- sure, of pain, of joy, of hope, of light, or of heat. In the use that is made of speech, there is doubtless by turns a sense verbal or nominal, adverbial or qualifying ; but nothing, however, in its form indicates or specifies such a part (role). Very simple languages are still nearly all at this elementary stage. It is at a later day only that the mind creates those formswhich are called members of a discourse. These had existed without doubt virtually, but the intelligence did not feel the need of distinguishing them profoundly by an essential form. Subsequently there forms went on multiplying themselves ; but their abundance no less than their nature has varied according to countries and to races. Sometimes it is upon the verb that imagination has exhausted all the shades of expression ; at others it is to the substantive that it has attributed these modifications. Mind has been more or less inventive, and more or less rational : it has CLASSIFICATION OF TONGUES. 33 seized here upon delicacies which completely escaped it tnere ; and in the clumsiest tongues one remarks shadowings, or gradations, that are wanting to the most refined. Of this let us give an example : — the Sanscrit is a great deal richer than Greek in the manner by the aid of which it expresses the relationship of the noun to a phrase, and the relations of words between themselves. It possesses a far deeper and much purer sentiment of the nature of the verb and of its intrinsic value : yet, notwithstanding, the conception of the mood in a verb, considered as distinct from time, escaped it, — the verbal nature of the infinitive remained to it unknown. Sanscrit in this respect, therefore, yields to Greek, which, moreover, is united to it by very tight bands. Thus then, human intelligence did not arrive in eveiy language to the same degree, and consequently it did not create the same secondary wheel-work. The general mechanism presented itself everywhere the same ; because this mechanism proceeds from the internal nature of our mind, and this nature is the same for all mankind. The genius of each tongue, then, marked out its pattern ; and this genius has been more or less fecund, exhibits more or less of mobility. "Words have constantly represented the same order of objects, because these objects do not change according to countries or according to races ; but they are offered imder aspects the most varied, and these aspects have not always been identical under different skies and amid diverse societies. Hence the creation of words in unequal number to represent the same sum-total of known objects. The brilliant imagination of one people has been a never-failing source of new wojds, of novel forms ; at the same time that, amongst others, the idea has remained almost embryonic, and the object ever presented itself under the same aspect. If given impressions were paramount, the words by which they were translated became greatly multiplied. In the days of chivalry there was a host of expressions to render the idea of horse. In Sanscrit, the language of Hiudostan, where the elejihant plays a part as important as the horse among ourselves, words abound to designate this pachyderm. Sometimes it is de- nominated as "the twice-drinking animal," sometimes as "he who has two teeth;" sometimes as "the animal with proboscis." And that which happens for substantives occurs also for verbs. Among the American tongues, spoken by populations who had few objects before their sight, but whose life consisted altogether in action and feeling, verbal forms are singularly multitudinous. On the opposite hand, in Sanscrit and in Greek, which were spoken in the presence 3 34 ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND of a civilization already advanced, amid an infinitude of productions of nature or of industry, the nouns take precedence over the verbs. Here the richness of the cases dispenses with the rigorous sense of .. prepositions, as occurs in Greek ; whereas among ourselves, who in French possess no longer any cases, the meaning of the phrase exacts that our prepositions should be well defined. Hence, then, the life itself of a people has been the source of the modifications operated in its tongue, and each idiom has pursued its development after its own fashion. Two causes combine towards effecting an alteration of languages, viz : their development within themselves, and their contact with foreign idioms, — above all with such as belong to families altogether distinct ; but the second, compared to the first, is of small account. The influence of neighboring foreign tongues introduces some new words and sundry locutions, certain " idiotisms ;" but it cannot, without difficulty, inject into alien speech those grammatical forms which are its own heritage. Its influence re-acts much more upon the style than on the grammar. If two languages of distinct families are spoken by neighboring populations, or by those living in perpetual contact, it or- dinarily happens that the most analytical tongue forces its processes to penetrate into that which is the less so. Thence it is that the German, brought into contact with the French, loses a portion of its syntheti- cal expressions, as well as the habitual use of those compound phrases which it received from the Asiatic speech whence it issued ; and that the French, when spoken by Negroes, is stripped of its grammatical richness, and becomes simplified almost to the level of an African tongue. In the same manner the Armorican, or Bas- Breton, whilst preserving the ground-work of Celtic grammar, is now-a-days spoken under a form that recalls more of French than of the ancient Armorican. One sees, therefore, that the crossing of languages, like that of races, has really not been very deep. Once invaded by a stranger- tongue, one of a nature more logical in its processes, the old lan- guage either has not undergone more than superficial alterations, or has disappeared entirely, without bequeathing to the idiom which followed it any inheritance but that of a few words. Such is what happened to Latin as regards the Gallic (G-aulois). This Celtic tongue is completely supplanted by the idiom of the Romans, and has left no other vestiges of its existence than a few words, together with, doubtless, some peculiarities of pronunciation also that have passed into the French. One perceives equally well in English, here and there, words and locutions that appertain to the Welsh ; and which, CLASSIFICATION OP TONGUES. do in consequence, must be a heritage of the tongue whilom spoken by the Kelts of Albion. If the grammatical dispossession of a language could have been wrought gradually, one ought to find some mixed phrases at the living period of those tongues that have been driven out by others. Now, such is not the case. The Basque, for example, foreign in origin both to French and Spanish, has indeed been altered through the adoption of a few words and a few locutions borrowed from these languages, by which it is surrounded, and, as it were, invested ; but it evermore clings to the basis of its structure, the vital principle of its organism ; and a Franco-Basque, or a Basco-Spanish, is not spoken, nowhere has ever been spoken. Modern Greek has appro- priated many words from Turkish, no less than from Italian, as well as some expressions of both tongues ; but its entire construction remains fundamentally Hellenic, notwithstanding that it belongs to the analytical period, and that the ancient Greek was still emerging frorn the synthetic. Again, the Persian, which is so imbued with Arabic words that writers of this language often inter- calate sentences wholly Arabic in their discourses, remains, never- theless, completely Indo-Germanic as concerns its grammar. But we have not seen that this tongue has ever associated the Persian declension with the Arabic conjugation, or yoked the Persian pre- positions to Semitic affixes and suffixes. Finally, the Osmanlee Turkish, besides incorporating words of every language with which the Turks have been in contact for more than a thousand years, has purloined all its scientific nomenclature from the Arabs, most of its polite diplomatic phrases from the Persians; but, whilst fusing Semitic as well as Indo-European exotic words into its copia ver- borum, the radical structure of its so-called Tartarian [or, Turanian] grammar, no less than its original vocabulary, is still so tenaciously preserved, that a coarse Siberian Yakut can even now, after ages of ancestral separation, communicate his simple ideas to the intelligence of a Constantinopolitan Turko-Sybarite. All these considerations show us, therefore, that the families of tongues are assemblages (des ensembles) very distinct, and the results of a diversified order of the creative faculty of speech. This faculty does not, then, appear to us as absolutely identical in its action ; and we must necessarily admit that it corresponds, under its different forms, to races of mankind possessing different faculties, as well for speech as for ideas. This is what the study of the principal classes or families of tongues will make still more evident ; seeing that we shall find them in a relation sufficiently striking to the different human races. 36 ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND One of the most skilful philologists of Germany, M. A. E. Pott, Professor of Linguistics at the University of Halle, has recently combated (in a work entitled, " The Inequality of Human Races, viewed especially as regards the Constitution of their Speech, 5 ) the hypo- thesis of a unique primitive language, whence all others are supposed to have issued ; and he has shown that it has no more foundation than that which would make all the species of one and the same genus issue from a single individual, and all varieties from one primitive type. He has claimed for languages an ethnological character, suited to the classification of races, not less certain than the physical type and the corporeal forms. Perhaps even, he observes, the idiom is a criterion more certain than the physical constitution. Does not speech, in fact, reflect the intelligence better, — is not language more competent to give the latter' s measurement, than can be gath- ered from the dimensions of the facial angle, and the amplitude of the cranium ? A powerful mind may inhabit a slender and mis- shapen body, whilst a well-made tongue, rich in forms and nuances, could not take its birth among intellects infirm or degenerate. This observation of M. Pott is just ; but it ought likewise to be allowed that the classification of languages offers, perhaps, more uncertainty than that of races considered physiologically. The truth of this remark of M. Pott must, nevertheless, be restricted ; because speech is not the complete measure of intelligence, taken in the aggregate. It is merely proportionate to the degree of perception of relationships, of sensibility, and of memory : because we shall see, further on, that some peoples, very far advanced in civilization, could have a language very imperfect in its forms ; at the same time that some savage tribes do speak an idiom possessing a certain grammatical richness. SECTION in. Philologists who have devoted themselves to the comparative study of the languages of Europe, MM. F. Bopp and Pott, in particular, have established the more or less close relationship of these tongues amongst each other. All, with the exception of some idioms, of which we shall treat anon, offer the same grammatical system, and a vocabulary whose words can be attached one to another through the rules of etymology. I say the rules, because etymology now-a- days possesses its own, and is no longer governed by arbitrary, often ingenious, but chimerical distinctions. Through the attentive com- 5 Die Ungleichheit menschlicher Rassen haupsachlich vo.n SprachwissenschaJ '(lichen Standpunkte, vnter besonderer Berilchsichtigung von des Grafen von Gobineau gleichnamigen Werke; Leingo & Detmold, 8vo., 1S56. CLASSIFICATION OF TONGUES. 37 parison of the changes that well-known words have undergone in passing from one language into another, modern philology has be- come enabled to grasp the laws of permutation as regards the letters, and the regular processes for the exchange of sounds. These facts once settled, it has become possible to trace backward words, in appear- ance strangely dissimilar, to a common root which stands forth as the type whence modifications have produced all these derivative words. It is in the Sanscrit that this type has been discovered ; or, at the very least, the Sanscrit presents itself under a form much more ancient than the European formations ; and, in consequence, it ap- proaches nearest to that type of which we can no longer grasp any but the diversified derivatives. In like manner, the grammar of the languages of Europe, in its fundamental forms, is recognized in the Sanscrit grammar. This grammar, of which we specified above the character and richness, incloses, so to speak, in substance, those of all the European idioms. The elements which compose these idioms are like so many debris of a more ancient tongue, whose model singularly approximates to the Sanscrit. It is not, however, that the languages of Europe have not each their own riches and their individual genius besides. In cer- tain points they are often more developed than the Sanscrit. But, taken in their collective amplitude, they are certainly branches more impoverished than that which constitutes the Sanscrit. These branches appertain to a common source that is called Indo-European or Indo-Crermanic. The sap seems, nevertheless, to have exhausted itself little by little ; and those branches most distant from the trunk have no longer anything like the youth, fulness, and life, which flow in the vessels of the branches of primary formation. Hence the languages of Europe belong to a great family, that, at an early hour, divided itself into many branches, of whose common ancestor we are ignorant, but of whom we encounter in the Sanscrit the chief of one of the most ancient collateral lines. We have pre- viously stated that the Persic (Parsi) and the Zend were two tongues very intimately allied to the Sanscrit. They are consequently sisters : and, whilst certain tongues of Europe, such as the Greek and the Shlavic languages, recall, in a sufficiently striking manner, the Sans- crit ; others, the Germanic tongues, hold more closely to the Persic and the Zend. Comparison of the languages of Europe has caused them to be grouped into four great classes, representing, as it were, so many sis- ters from the same mother, but sisters who have not been called to an equality of partition. The more one advances toward the East, the more are found those tongues that have partaken of the inheritance. 38 ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND Whilst the Sclavonic idioms, and in particular the Lithuanian family, have preserved, almost without alteration, the mould of which Sans- crit yields us the most ancient product, the Celtic languages, driven away to the "West, remind us only in a sufficiently-remote manner of the mother-tongue ; and, for a long time, it was thought that they constituted a group apart. This distribution of languages in Europe, co-relative in their affi- nity with the antique idioms once spoken from the shores of the Cas- pian Sea to the banks of the Ganges, is an incontestable index to the Asiatic origin of the peoples who speak them. One cannot here sup- pose a fortuitous circumstance. It is clearly seen that these tribes issuing from Asia had impinged one against another ; and the Celts, as the most ancient immigrants on the European continent, have ended by becoming its most occidental inhabitants. "We have been saying that the European languages of Indo-Ger- manie stock are referred to four families. We have already enume- rated the Celtic, the Indo-Germanic, and the Shlavic tongues. The fourth family, which may be called Pelasgic, comprehends the Greek, the Latin, and all the languages that have issued from them. Let us examine separately the characteristics of these linguistic families, whose destinies, posteriorly to the populations which spoke them, have exercised such influence upon those of humanity. The Greco-Latin group has received the name of Pelasgic, Greece and Italy having been peopled originally by a common race, the Pe- lasgi, whose idiom may be considered as the (souche) source of the Greek and the Latin. The first of these tongues is not, in fact, as had been formerly imagined, the "mother" of the other. They are simply two sisters : and if a different age is to be assigned to them, the Latin possesses claims to be regarded as the elder. Indeed, this language presents a more archaic character than the classical Greek. The most ancient dialect of the Hellenic idiom, that of the ^Eolians, resembles the Latin much more than the later dialects of Greek. Whilst, in this last tongue, the presence of the article announces the secondary period, at the same time that contractions are already nu- merous, the synthetical character is more pronounced in Latin ; its grammatical elements have not yet been separated into so many dif- ferent words; and the phraseology, as well as the conjugation and the most ancient forms of declensions, possess a striking resemblance to that which we encounter in the Sanscrit. The Latin vocabu- lary contains, over and above, a multitude of words whose archaic form is altogether Sanscrit. This language has moreover passed, in its grammatical forms and its syntax, through a series of transforma- tions that we can follow from the most ancient epigraphic and poeti- CLASSIFICATION OF TONGUES. 39 cal monuments back to the authors of the IVth and Vth century before our era. Latin itself was nothing more than one of the branches of the ancient family of Italic tongues, and which comprehended three branches, — the Japygian, the Etruscan, and the Italiot. These again, in their turn, subdivide themselves into two branches : the first con- stituting the Latin proper, and the second comprising the dialects of the Ombrians, the Marses, the Volsciaus, and the Samnites. "We are acquainted with the Japygian tongue solely through some inscriptions found in Calabria, and belonging to the Messaprine dia- lect. Their decipherment is as yet little advanced ; notwithstanding the labors that comparative philology has undertaken in these latter days : 7 but, what of it is understood suffices to exhibit to us an Indo- European tongue, which becomes recognizable in a much more certain manner in the inscriptions of the Italiot languages ; that is to say, of tongues somewhat-closely allied to the Latin, and whose forms approximate already, in sundry respects, more to the Sanscrit. The comparison of these last idioms to their Asiatic prototype per- mits us not merely to seize the relationship of the tribes that spoke them. It enables us to judge, also, of the degree of civilization which they had attained when they penetrated into Europe. In fact, as has been remarked by one of the most accomplished philologues of Ger- many, M. Th. Mommsen, those words that we discover at once with the same signification, in the different Indo-European tongues, — except, be it well understood, the modifications which became elaborated ac- cording to the inherent genius and the pronunciation of each of these languages — give us the measure of the social state of the emigrant race at the moment of its departure. ~Eow, all the names of cattle, of domestic animals, for ox, sheep, horse, dog, goose, 8 are the same in Sanscrit, in Latin, in Greek, and in German. Hence, the Indo- European population knew, upon entering Europe, how to rear cattle. We see also that they understood the art of constructing carts, yokes, and fixed habitations ; 9 that the use of salt 10 was common with them ; ' See on this subject the learned works of F. G. Geotefend, entitled, — Rudimenta lingua Umbricce ex inscripiionibus antiquis enodala (Hanover, 1835) ; — of S. Th. Aufrecht, and A. Kirchhoff, Die TTmblischen Sprachdenkmdler (Berlin, 1839) ; — and of Th. Mommsen, Die Un- teritalischen Dialecte (Leipzig, 1850). 8 Sanscrit gaus, Latin bos, Greek j3ots, French boivf, English beef: — Sanscrit avis, Latin ovis, Greek ois, English sheep : — Sanscrit cevus, Latin equus, Greek " m -os, English horse. The mutation of P into Q is again met with in passing from the Umbrian and the Sanscrit into Latin ; for example, pis for quis ; Sanscrit hansas, Latin anser, Greek ynv ; and the same for pecus, taurus, canis, &c. 9 Sanscrit jugam, Latin j'ugum, Greek ?{,yov, French Jong, English yoke: — Sanscrit akshas, Latin axis, Greek afav whence Siia^a, French char, English car: — Sanscrit damas, Latin domus, Greek li^os : — Sanscrit vtcas, Latin vicus, Greek d,Ko; ; English house. w Sanscrit saras, Latin sal, Greek &\as, French sel, English salt. 40 ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND that they all divided the year into lunar months, and counted regu- larly up to more than 100, 11 according to the decimal system ; and that they professed a worship similar to that depicted for us in the Eig-veda. "But, as a counter-proof, — the words that we simply encounter both in Greek and Latin, but which do not exist in the Sanscrit in their proper sense, and of which only a remote etymological radical can be discovered, become witnesses, in their own turn, for the progres- sions that had been accomplished in Europe. They unfold to us what had been the acquirements in common, which the Pelasgi pos- sessed prior to their complete separation into Hellenic and into Italic populations. 12 We thence learn how it is that from this Pe- lasgic epoch dates the establishment of regular agriculture, — the cultivation of the cereals, of the vine and the olive. Finally, those words possessed by the Latin alone, but which the Greek has not yet acquired, display the progress accomplished by the Italic popula- tions after they had penetrated into the Peninsula. For instance, the word expressing the idea of " boat" (navis, Sanscrit nans), and which was subsequently applied to a " ship" (French navire, and by us preserved in navy, &c), belongs to the three languages as well as that which renders the idea of " oar." The Pelasgi had, therefore, imported with them from Asia, acquaintance with, transportations by water; but the words for sail, mast, and yard, are exclusively Latin. It was, consequently, the Italic people who invented (for themselves) navigation by sails; and this circumstance completes the demonstration, that it was through the north of the Italian peninsula that the Pelasgi must have penetrated into it. 13 We are, unfortunately, still perplexed as to what was the precise idiom of these Pelasgi. It is, perhaps, in the living tongue of the Albanians, or Skippetars, that the least adulterated descendant of 11 The names of numbers are the same up to a hundred, and the numeral system is iden- tical. 12 [My colleague, M. Maury, writes me that his Histoire des Religions de la Grece A nlique (2 vols. 8vo., publishing by Ladrange, Paris), is on the point of issue — Feb. 1857. It is the fruit of long years of research, and cannot fail to throw great light upon ante-Hellenic events. In another equally - interesting field, the Melanges Hisloriques of our friend M Ernest Renan (now in press) will explore many points of contact, or of disunion, between Sanscritic and Semitic languages and history. — G. R. G.] 13 [This interesting method of resuscitating facts long entombed in the ashes of ante- history, confirms the accuracy of Dr. David F. Weinland's views, "On the names of animals with reference to Ethnology," in a paper read before the American Association for the Advancement of Science, last August. But I know of it only through a very condensed report {New York Herald, Aug. 26, 1856). — G. R. G.] CLASSIFICATION OF TONGUES. 41 this idiom must be sought for. 14 Notwithstanding the quantity suf- ficiently noteworthy of Greek and Shlavic words that has penetrated into the Albanian, a grammatical system, nearer to Sanscrit than the Greek affords, is encountered in it. Such, for example, is the de- clension of the determinate adjective through a pronominal appendix, — which is observed likewise in Sclavonic tongues, so approximate, on the other hand, to Sanscrit. The conjugation of the verb is very distinct from that in Greek, and denotes a system of flexion less developed. I shall say nothing about the neo-Latin tongues, born from the decomposition of Latin, and which lost little by little the synthetical character and the flexions of their mother. I will but remark, that it is very curious to establish how the languages issued from this stock that have been spoken by populations whose national life is very slightly developed, are those which present an analytical con- stitution the least pronounced, and wherein the flexions have not became so greatly impoverished. The Valaq or Roumanie, the Rheto-Bomain or dialect of the country of the Grisons, are certainly more synthetic, and grammatically less impoverished than French or Spanish. But, at the same time that these tongues have preserved their more complex character, they have become still more altered in respect to their vocabulary ; and one feels in them very strongly the influence which intermixture of races exerts upon languages ; otherwise called, the mingling of different tongues. The verb in the Hheto-Eomain, for instance, is conjugated now-a-days in the future tense and in the passive form like a German verb. The Sclavonic, or Letto-Shlave, tongues decompose themselves into several groups that correspond to different degrees of linguistic development. The Lettish group, or Lithuanian (which comprehends the Lithuanian, properly so called, the Borussian or ancient Prus- sian, and the Lettia or Livonian), answers to a period less advanced than the Shlavic branch; for example, the Lithuanian substantive has but two genders, whilst the Shlave recognizes three. The Lithu- anian conjugation does not distinguish the third persons of the singular, of the dual and the plural. The Shlavic conjugation, on the contrary, clearly distinguishes seven persons in the plural and in the singular. But, by way of amends, the Lithuanian keeps in its declension the seven cases and the dual, so characteristic in Sanscrit. 14 See on this subject the Eludes Albanaises of M. J. von Hahn published at Vienna in 1854. M. A. F. Pott has made the observation, that the Valaq idiom preserves probably some vestiges of this antique language of Illyria ; the use of the definite article, notably, seems in Wallachian to proceed from sources foreign to Latin. 42 ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND These cases are even occasionally identical with those of this last tongue. The Sclavonic, or Shlave, idioms properly so denominated, subdivide themselves into two branches, that of the south-west and that of the west. The first comprises the Russian, the Bulgarian which furnishes us with the most ancient Shlavic form (approximating very much to the idiom termed Cyrillic or ecclesiastical, in which are composed the most ancient monuments of the Christian literature of this race), the IUyrian, the Serle or Servian, the Croat, and the Slovine spoken in Carinthia, in Carniola, a part of Styria, and in a canton of western Hungary. The Shlavic tongues of the west embrace the Lekh or Polish, the Tcheq or Bohemian, the Sozab or Wendic (popu- lar dialect of Lusace), and the Polab, — that has disappeared like the ancient Prussian, and which was spoken by the Sclavonic tribes who of yore were spread along both banks of the lower Elbe. The Germanic languages attach themselves (we have already said), more to the Zend and the Persic than to the Sanscrit. The Persic and Zend are part of a group of tongues that is designated by the name of Iranian languages. It embraces again many other idioms, of which several have disappeared. To it are attached notably the Affghan or Pushtu, the Beloodchi spoken in Beloodckistan, the Kurd, the Armenian, and the Ossete — which seems to be nothing else than the language of those people known to the ancients by the name of Albanian, the Aghovans of Armenian authors. This narrow bond between the Germanic and the Iranian languages tells us plainly whence issued the populations which spread themselves over central Europe, and that very likely drove before them the Celts. The affinity that binds these Germanic tongues amongst each other, — that is to say, the ancient Gothic, or dialects of the German properly so called, to which cling the Flemish and the Dutch, the Prison and the Anglo-Saxon, and lastly the old Icelandic and its younger sisters the Danish and Swedish — is much closer than that observable between the Shlavic and amongst the Pelasgic languages. Eour traits in com- mon, as Mr. Jacob Gbjmm has noticed, attach them together, viz : variation of sound, which the Germans call "ablaut;" metathesis, or transposition ; and finally, the existence of two different forms of verbs and of nouns, that are denominated "strong declension or con- jugation," and "weak declension or conjugation." An attentive comparison of the laws of the Sanscrit grammar and vocalization, with those of German grammar and vocalization, has revealed some curious analogies which explain those resemblances that had been, even anciently, perceived between German and Greek. Celtic languages are known to us, unhappily, only through some CLASSIFICATION OF TONGUES. 43 doubtless very degenerate representatives of that powerful family, viz : the Gf-celic or Welsh, and the Armorican or Bas-breton (which are in reality no more than dialects of the Kimric tongue), the Irish, the Erse or Gadhelic idiom spread over the Scottish Highlands, and the Manx or idiom of the little isle of Man, — not forgetting the lost Cornish dialect. "We hardly know anything of the tongue spoken of erst by our fathers, the Gauls (G-aulois or Galls); except that the small number of words remaining to us suffices to classify it with the same family. Of all the branches of the Indo-European family this Celtic is, in fact, the one whose destinies have been the least happy, and the most confined. Its tongues have come to die along the shores of the Ocean that opposed an impassable barrier to renewed emigration of those who spoke them. Invaded by the Latin or German populations, the Keltic races have lost, for the most part, the language that distinguished them, without, on that account, losing altogether the imprint of their individuality. The history of the Indo-European languages is, therefore, the surest guide we can follow in endeavoring to re-construct the order of those migrations that have peopled Europe. This community of language that unveils itself beneath an apparent diversity, can it be simply the effect of a commonality of organization physical and intellectual? The inhabitants of Europe, — do they belong solely to what might be termed the same formation ? It would, if so, become useless to go searching in Asia for their common cradle. The fact is in itself but little verisimilar ; but, here are some comparative connections of another order that come to add themselves to those which languages have offered us, and to confirm the inductions drawn from the pre- ceding data. On studying the mythological traditions contained in the Yedas, as well as in the most ancient religious monuments of India and Persia, there has been found a multitude of fables, of beliefs, of surnames of gods and some sacred rites, some variants of which, slightly altered, are re-encountered in the legends and myths of antique Greece, of old Italy, of Germany, Scandinavia, Russia, and even of England. It is only since a few years that these new analogies have been brought to light; and the Journal directed by two distinguished Orientalists of Berlin, MM. Th. Aufrecht and Adalbert Kuhn, has been the chief vehicle for their exposition. One of the first Indianists of Germany, M. Albert Weber, has also contributed his portion to this labor of (rapprochement) comparison ; of which, in France, the Baron d'Eckstein learnedly pursues the application. I have already said that the names of gods met with in Greek and Latin indicate to us a worship (culte) among the Pelasgi altogether 44 ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND similar to that of which the Big-veda is the most ancient monument. It cannot, of course, be expected that I should here enumerate all these names. I will, however, select out of their multitude, some of a-nature suited to cause these analogies to he understood. The God of Heaven (or of the sky) is called by the Greeks Zeus Pater ; and let us here notice that the pronunciation of Z resembles very much that of D, inasmuch as the word Zeus becomes in the geni- tive Dios. The Latins termed the same god Dies-piiter or Jupiter. How, in the Veda, the God of Heaven is called Dyauslipitar. The Greeks designated the sky as Ouranos, and invoked it as a supreme god. And, it must again be noted that, in their tongue, the V does not exist, but is always rendered by OU. In the Veda, on the other hand, it is termed Varouna. The Earth always receives — among the Greeks, the Latins, and the Germans, — the epithet of " mother ;" and likewise under this surname is it invoked in the Vedic hymns. But these are, after all, only similitudes of names : some complete myths connect amongst each other all the Germanic populations. These myths, too, have become invested, amid each one of the latter, with a physiognomy slightly distinct; because every thing in niythos is shifting and changeable : and, even among the same people, myths modify and transform themselves according to times and according to places ; but, a basis, — a substratum, of ideas in common remains ; and it is this residue which permits us to grasp the original relationship of beliefs. Well, — we might cite a host of these fables that have run over the whole of Europe, but ever preserving the same traits. I will give one of them, just by way of specimen : — Grecian antiquity has recorded various legends concerning a mar- vellous artisan yclept Aa/<5«Aos (the " inventive") who occasionally becomes confounded with the God of fire, personification of light- ning (and the thunderbolt), Hepheestos ; whom we call, after the Latins, Vulcan. The Aryas (proper name of those Arians who composed the Sanscrit Vedas) also adored, as a blacksmith-god, the personified thunderbolt. They termed him T-wachtrei; and the physiognomy of this personage possesses the greatest analogies with that of Vulcan. Tivaehtrei is called the "author of all works ;" because fire is the grand agent of human industry ; and he is Ignipotens, as says Virgil speaking of Vulcan. And, in the same manner that this divinity had forged the thunderbolt of Jupiter, and executed the cup out of which immortals quaffed ambrosia, Twachter' had forged the thunderbolt of Indra, god of the sky (or Heaven) in the Vedic pantheon ; and was the maker of that divine cup whence was poured out the soma, — which was, at one and the same time, ambrosia and the libation. CLASSIFICATION OF TONGUES. 45 Fwachter' has for assistants, or for rivals, the Bibhavas, 15 — other divine artists, who play a considerable part in the songs of the Veda and in Hindostanic history; wherein one recognizes numberless traits common to the Hellenic legend of the Cyclopians, the Cabiri, the Telchines, and in particular to that of Daedalus. Now, these same legends are picked up here and there from different points of Europe, in localities the most distant, and between which no interchange of ideas could anciently have occurred. The celebrated blacksmith "Wieland," or Velant, so famous in the traditions of northern Ger- many, — who, in Scandinavia, is termed Volund — is a compound of Vulcan and Daedalus, no less than another heir to the Vedic tradi- tions about Twachter'. The adventure so classically-renowned of the Cretan hero, and of his son Icarus, reproduces itself, with but trifling variations, in that of Volund. He is also shut up within the labyrinth ; but Scandi- navian tradition no longer places in Crete (Candia) this marvellous edifice. It is on an island named "Savarstadr." The Greek fable gives to Daedalus wings, in order that he may escape from his prison. In the story of the people of the north, it is a shirt of feathers with which he clothes himself. His brother Eigil, here substituted for Icarus, wishes to try the power of this feathery dress ; and perishes like the son of Daedalus — victim of his rashness. A scholiast teaches us, that the celebrated Greek voyager Pytheas had found at the islands of ^Eolus, now the Lipari-isles, the singular custom of exposing, near the volcano (Stromboli) in which it was believed that Vulcan made his residence, the iron that one desired to see fashioned into some weapon or instrument. The rough metal was left during the night thus disposed, and upon returning on the morrow, the sword, or other implement, was found newly manufac- tured. An usage of this kind, founded upon a similar credence, is spread through a number of Germanic countries. It is no longer Vulcan, but Wieland, a cripple like him moreover, who becomes the mysterious blacksmith. In Berkshire (England) they used formerly to show, near a place called White-Horse hill, a stone, whereupon, according to the popular notion, it was enough to deposit a horse- shoe with a piece of silver, and to tie near it the animal to be shod ; and, on coming back, the operation was found done. The marvel- lous farrier Way land- Smith, as he was called, had paid himself with the silver money ; and the shodden brute was ready to be led away. In many cantons of Germany, analogous stories used to be told : only, 15 On this point consult the learned work of M. F. Neve, entitled Essai sur U myths des Ribhavas, Paris, 1847. 46 ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND the name of the invisible blacksmith underwent changes, and imagi- nation embroidered upon the common web some particular details. Wieland, who is also named " Geinkensekmid," is associated in certain localities, with a bull ; wbich recalls to mind that one manu- factured by Daedalus, to satisfy the immodest passion of Pasiphae, the "all-illumining" spouse of Minos — whom Hellenic tradition makes a king of Crete, but who is encountered both amidst the Arians and the Germans. Among the Aryas he bears the name of Manou, or rather of Manus. He is a legislator-king ; having for his brother Yania, the god of the dead; just as Minos's brother was Pihadamanthus (Rhada-»iaw-thus). This last, as well as Tama, is re- presented with a wand in his hand, and judging in the infernal regions. Among the Germans, Manus is called Mannus. He is also (a man and) an ancient king, who, like the Indian Manus, is an Adam, the first author of mankind. I must refer to the learned work of M. A. Kuhn those who wish to penetrate deeper into these curious comparisons. The glimpse I have just given, shows how much of authority they add to those analogies that the comparative study of languages has furnished us. Our German philologists have felt this, inasmuch as they insert, in the same periodical repertory, mythological researches of this kind, purely linguistic. I would add, that such comparative examinations enable us to comprehend better the nature and the history of the Hellenic religion in particular, and the religions of antiquity in general. This method yields us the key to a multitude of myths which we could not decipher did we not mount up to their Asiatic origines. Allow me yet again to offer a short example. According to the Grecian fable, Aomon was the father of Ouranos. The motive for this filiation had not until now been pierced through. "Why should the most ancient of the gods, their supreme father, have had an "anvil" for his own father? such being the Greek signification of this word. Sanscrit can alone tell us, — as M. R. Eoth, one of the most ingenious and skilful Orientalists of Germany, has remarked. The Sanscrit form of this Greek name is Agman, and the word signifies, at one and the same time, "anvil" and "sky" (or heaven). The myth becomes intelligible. Here, as in innumer- able other cases, the god receives for his progenitor another personi- fication, from the same part of nature that he represents. And, in the same manner that Rhea has engendered Demeter, — that is to say, the "mother-earth," because Rhea (as the meaning of her name indicates) is a personification of the Earth ; so, likewise, as Helios (the sun) had for his father Hyperion, that is to say, again the sun, — did Ouranos (the sky) receive birth from Acmon, — whose name CLASSIFICATION OF TONGUES. 47 has the same acceptation. But, whilst the word Acmon passed into Greek with the sense of " hammer," — against which that of " anvil" was easily interchangeable — it lost, among the Hellenes, the meaning of " sky," and thus the myth, transported into Europe, ceased to possess significance any more. In the presence of analogies and connections so conclusive, it is impossible to suppose simply that a population of the same race, and with the same fundamental stock of language, was spread from India and Persia to Britain and Erin : we must necessarily suppose that the peoples coming from Asia had imported into Europe their idiom and their traditions. Must it hence be admitted that this portion of the earth had not then been already populated ; and that those Asiatic tribes, which took the leadership of this long defile of conquerors, found nothing before them but solitudes ? It is again the study of languages that will furnish us with the reply. I have stated that all the idioms of Europe belong to the Indo- European stem ; three groups (or if you will, three languages), form- ing the only exception ; without speaking, be it well understood, of the Turkish, scarcely implanted on this side of the Bosphorus, and whose introduction dates but from a few centuries ; nor comprising, either, the Maltese, — solitary vestige of Saracenic dominion in Italian lands. The first group is represented by the Basque tongue, or the Eiskari, which embraces but two dialects. The second is the Finnish group, comprising the Lapponic, the Einnic or Suomi, and the Esihonian spoken in the northern part of Livonia, as also at the islands of (Esil and Dago. Lastly, the third group reduces itself to the Magyar, or Hungarian, which links itself to the Finnish group through an indi- rect relationship. "We know how the Magyar introduced itself into Europe. It is the tongue of the ancient Huns, who, mingling with the populations of Dacia and Pannonia, gave birth to the Hungarians ; but we are less advanced as regards what concerns the history of the Finnish and the Basque languages. Wilhelm von Humboldt, who devoted himself to researches of great interest upon the Basque tongue, has shown that this language had of yore a much more extensive domain than the little corner of land by which it is now confined. Names of places belonging to the whole of southern France, and even to Liguria, prove that a population of Euscarian idiom was anciently spread from the Alps to the occidental extremity of Spain. These people were the Iberes, Iberians, yonderers ; and the Basque is the last relic of their tongue. 48 ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND The labors of the skilful philologue of Beziers, M. Boudakd, have put the finishing stroke in bringing this fact to light. The Celts, or Kelts, encountered before them, therefore, the Iberes ; whom they pushed onward into the south of Gaul, where we find them established in the time of Caesar. They amalgamated with them, as the name of Celt-Iberia teaches ; and very certainly in Lan- guedoc also, no less than in Aquitania. These Iberians — a nation lively and impressionable, vain and stirring — may well have infused into the Keltic blood that element of restlessness and levity which one perceives in the Gauls, but which is alien, on the contrary, to the true Kelt, — at once so attached to his traditions, and ever so headstrong in his ideas. The Basque tongue, otherwise called Iberian, resembles in nothing the Indo-European idioms. It is "par excellence" a polysynthetical language, — a tongue that, in its organism, reminds one, in a suffi- ciently-striking manner, of the languages of America. It composes " de toutes pieces" the idea-ivord; suppresses often entire syllables; and, in this work of composition, preserving sometimes but a single letter of the primitive word, it presents those adjunctive particles that by phi- lologists are termed postpositions — as opposed to prepositions — which serve to distinguish cases. In this manner is it that the Basque constructs its declension. This new characteristic re-appears in another great family of languages which we shall discuss anon, viz : the Tartar tongues belonging to central Asia. The Basque, consequently, denotes a very primitive intellectual state of the people who occupied western Europe previously to the arrival of the Indo-Europeans ; and, were it allowable to draw an induction from an isolate characteristic, one might suppose that the Iberes were, as a race, allied to the Tartar. But this hypothesis, daring as it is, receives a new degree of probability from the study of the second group of European lan- guages, foreign to the Indo-Germanic source, viz : the Finnish group. This group is not restricted to a few idioms on the north-east of Europe. It extends itself over all the territory of northern Russia even to the extremity of Kamtsehatka. Comparison of the numerous idioms spoken by tribes spread over Siberia has revealed a common bond between them, as well of grammar as of vocabulary. These tongues, which might be comprehended under the general appellation of Finno- Japonic (from the name of those occupying upon the map the two extremes of their chain), offer this same characteristic of agglutina- tion that has just been signalized in the Basque ; but in a much less degree. They make use of that curious S} r stem of postpositions which appertains also to the ancient idiom of the Iberes. Those ter- CLASSIFICATION OF TONGUES. 49 urinations destined to represent cases are replaced by prepositions distinct from the word, — which, in our languages, precede, on the contrary, the words of which they modify the case. It must be noted that the apparition of these postpositions invariably antecedes, in the gradual formation of tongues, the employment of cases ; whereas, prepositions replace these when the tongue becomes altered and simplified. Cases are nothing, indeed, but the result of the coupling of the postposition to words. The organic march of the declension presents itself, therefore, throughout the evolution of lan- guages, in the following manner, viz : at first the root (or radical), ordinarily monosyllabic ; next, the radical followed by postpositions, — corresponding to the period of agglutination; again, the radical submitted to the flexion, — corresponding to the ancient period of our Indo-European tongues ; and, finally, the preposition followed by the radical, — corresponsive to the modern period of these same lan- guages. It is to be noted that the postposition (in relative age) never returns subsequently to the preposition, — any more than can the milk-teeth grow again in an old man after the loss of his molars. Thus, then, the age of the Finnish tongues and of the Basque is fixed. They were idioms of analogous organization, and of which the arrest of development announces a sufficiently feeble degree of intellectual power. 16 The brethren of the Aryas and Iranians, upon penetrating into Europe, had only, therefore, to combat populations living in a state analogous to that in which we find the hordes of Siberia, — species of Ostiaks or of Vogouls, of Tcheremiss or of Mord- vines. "With their intellectual superiority, the people coming from occidental Asia had no need of being very numerous to vanquish such barbarous tribes ; with whom, doubtless, they frequently amal- gamated, but of whom they ever constituted the aristocracy. This warrior and haughty spirit of those Asiatic conquerors preserved itself above all among the Germans, and it is to be perceived also amid the Latins and the Greeks. Let it not, however, be imagined that, beneath the influence of the neighborhood which new migrations created for them, such tribes of Finnish stock thrown off to the north-east of Europe, and those 16 The study of the vocabulary of the Finnish tongues, and even that of the Tartarian, proves to us that those populations were wanting in a quantity of knowledge that we find, from the very beginning, amidst the Indo-European populations, and which the former were afterwards forced to borrow from the latter. For example, the name of salt, in all the idioms of that family as well as in Hungarian, expressed by a derivative of the Sanscrit, Greek, or Latin name. Indeed, it is certain that the use of salt remained for a long time unknown to the inhabitants of Northern Europe ; and that Christian II, king of Denmark, had gained over the Swedish peasants by bringing to them this precious condiment. 4 50 ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND Iberian peoples repulsed to the south-west, have remained absolutely stationary. Their languages tell us the contrary ; because these lan- guages have improved : but such perfectioning has not been able to step beyond certain bounds. The Finnic spoken in Finland, for in- stance, has drawn nearer to tongues a flexions (with flexions) ; but never has it been able to attain that degree of force, of clearness and energy, which makes the merit of our Indo-European idioms. As concerns sounds, notwithstanding their homogeneity, the Fin- nish tongues, — or, to qualify them more exactly, the Ougro-Tartar languages — vary considerably. There are some very soft ones, like the Suomi or Finlandish ; and some very harsh, like the Magyar ; but a principle of harmony dominates them. This principle is especially perceptible in the Suomi. Indeed, this idiom seeks above all for sweetness and euphony. It avoids, in consequence, mono- syllabic radicals, and nearly always attaches to the root a final vowel that bears no accent. Hence M. Schleicher has remarked how this gives to the words of this tongue the measure of a "trochee." 17 We meet again with this harmonic tendency equally in the Tartar tongues, which the "ensemble" of their characteristics and words attaches also as closely to the Ougro-Japonic languages, as the Tartar type attaches itself to the Finnish, or Ougrian, through the interme- diacy of the Tungouse type. The separation is not more decided (tranoMe) between the races of Siberia and those of central Asia, than between the idioms which they speak. The Mongol, the Mand- ohou, the Ouigour, the Turkish, are not fundamentally distinct from the Finnish tongues ; and this explains why some philologers had been struck with the resemblance between Turkish and Hungarian. "We are here referring to the primitive Turkish, to that which was spoken in Turkestan, and of which some dialects yet subsist in cer- tain parts of Russia and of Tartary ; because, as to that which is now European Turkish, it is altered almost as much as the Turkish blood itself. It is imbued with Arabic and Persian words ; it has become singularly softened down : in the same manner that the Asiatic Turks, by dint of crossing themselves through marriage with Georgian girls, with Greek, Arab, Persian (occasionally with an Abyssinian or negress), Sclavonian and other women, have ended by taking a physiognomy altogether different from that of their ancient progeni- tors, — which has been gaining in nobleness and regularity what it loses in singularity. European blood has so well infiltrated itself into that of the Hunnic hordes which conquered the country situate between the Danube and the Theis, that it is now-a-days impossible B The Greeks and the Latins called trochee a foot composed of along and a short syllable. CLASSIFICATION OF TONGUES. 51 to descry any more of the Mongol, anything of that hideousness bo celebrated among the Huns, in the expressive traits of the present Magyar. One may, then, designate this vast family of languages under the denomination of Ougro- Tartar. All of them, at divers degrees, are subject in their words to the law of euphonic transformations of vow- els in the particles suffixed, that is to say, joined on at the ends of words. In order that nothing should come to injure the clearness of the radical's pronunciation, everything is combined so that its vowel remains immutable ; and hence, accordingly as this vowel is hard, soft, or intermediary, the vowels of the suffixes are submitted to modifications having for object to prevent the asperity or the heaviness of the latters' sound from smothering the sound of the radical. This law, so remarkable, is precisely the reverse of what happens in languages a flexions (with flexions), for the case ; because in them it is the suffixes that act upon and influence the vowels of the radical. All these tongues proceed equally through the path of agglutina- tion. The radical is, indeed, at bottom monosyllabic. Its almost con- stant junction to a particle-suffix makes it, in reality, a dissyllable, whose monosyllabic origin is nevertheless recalled by the presence of the accent upon the first syllable. Never does the radical suffer any foreign syllables to place themselves at its head (or commence- ment) ; and we still behold in Magyar how, notwithstanding that it has largely undergone the influence of the Indo-European tongues by which it is surrounded — as in Finnish, as in Turkish, as in Mongol, — a word can never begin with two consonants ; and lastly, the generical employment of the postposition to designate the relations of the substantive. The number of these postpositions varies according to the development and the richness of the tongue. In Suomi, for example, the adjunctive particles are very numerous, not less than fifteen being counted, which makes in reality fifteen cases ; without including the nominative, that forms itself without suffix : and still, notwithstanding, the Finnish does not recognize the distinction of one of the most natural cases, viz : the accusative, which it renders through indirect cases. The whole of these languages, maugre their apparatus of forms, are nevertheless poor. It is clear that this heap of postpositions results, in reality, from a powerlessness of the mind to reduce to simple and regular expressions the relations of words betwixt each other. We must not, therefore, wonder at finding, in the Ougro-Tartar tongues, almost always the same terminations, as well in the plural as in the singular. 52 ON THE DISTKIBTTTION AND One may partition, according to their degree of development, these tongues into four groups, — the Ougrian group, that comprises the Ostiak, the Samoyede, the Vogoul, and divers other dialects of Sibe- ria : the Tartar group properly so called, which comprehends the Mongol that occupies in it the lower rung, the Ou'igour, the Mand- chou, and the Turkish, whose position is on the highest : the Japonic group, to which belongs the Corean ; and the Finno-Ougrian, that embraces the Suomi or Einlandic, the Esthonian, the Lapponic, and the Magyar ; all which latter tongues are superior to those of the pre- ceding groups, as concerns the grammatical system and ideology. The Finno-Ougrian family prolongs itself into North America, where we encounter its most widely-spread branches in the most boreal latitudes. And in like manner it is to be noted, that the Es- kimaux race, and the septs thinly scattered over those frozen coun- tries, approximate in their type to that of the Ougrian. The idioms spoken in the entire sub-Arctic region present the same uniformity, therefore, as the fauna of this region. 18 Indeed, we know that animal species are found to be very nearly the same along the boreal latitudes both of the Old and the ISTew world. Whilst one body of the great Indo-European migration from Asia was advancing by detachments into our temperate countries, another corps descended through the defiles of the Hindoo-Kosh, and by the basin of the Indus, into the vast plain of the Ganges ; and spread itself bit by bit over the whole peninsula, of which this river laves the northern provinces. This is what we are taught not merely by the traditions of the Hindoos, but also by the study of the languages spoken in this peninsula. In fact, while we encounter, at the north of Hindostan, idioms emanating from the Sanscrit family, we meet, further to the south, with an " ensemble " of tongues, absolutely foreign to it, as well in vocabulary as in grammar. These languages appertain all to the same family, and they are denominated, after the Hindoos, by the epithet of Dravirian or Dra- vidian. Hence, the Arian tribes had been preceded in India by popu- lations of a wholly distinct family ; in the same manner- that the sisters of the former had encountered in Europe another race, differ- ent likewise from themselves. And, what is remarkable, the two categories of languages spoken by the autochthones of Europe and the indigenous peoples of Hindostan belong, in classification, to lin- guistic families having many traits in common. The Dravidian tongues subdivide themselves into two groups ; one 18 Agassiz, " Sketch of the Natural Provinces of the Animal World, and their relation to the different Types of Man" — in Nott and Ghddon's Types of Mankind, 7th edition, 1856, pp. lx. — xiii. CLASSIFICATION OF TONGUES. 53 the northern, and the other southern. The first embraces the lan- guages spoken by the dispersed native tribes, whom the descendants of the invading Aryas have repelled into the Vindhya mountains, viz : the Male or Radjmahali, the Uraon, the Cole, and the Khond or Gonde. The second comprises the Tamoul or Tamil, the Telougou or Telenga (called also Kalinga), tbe Talava, the Malayalam, and the Carnatic or Carnataka. As the populations at the south of the penin- sula bave preserved, during a longer time, their national indepen- dence, and even have attained a civilization of their own, one can understand that the idioms of the southern group must be far richer and more developed than those of the northern group. Nevertheless, despite this inequality of development, one discovers, in a striking manner, the same characteristics in the whole of these tongues. Another branch of the same family, which extends to the north-east of the basin of the Ganges, indicates to us through its presence, that a fraction of the indigenous population was thrown towards the north-east ; so that, it must now be admitted, the great Dravidian nation, cut through its centre (by the intrusive Aryas), was, like the primitive population of Europe, driven off to the two opposite extre- mities of its vast territory. The Bodo and the Dhimal are the two principal representatives of this cluster separated from the stem, whose most advanced branches continue onward until they lose them- selves in Assam. All the characters appertaining to the Ougro-Japonic tongues are found again in these Dravidian languages, of which the Gonde may be considered to have preserved to us their more ancient forms. All manifest in a high degree the tendency to agglutination. The law of harmony, that we have perceived just now in the Finnish lan- guages, re-appears here with the same character. Tbe foundations of the grammatical system, which are identical in all these tongues, doubtless constitute them as separate families from Tartarian ; but this (Dravidian) family is very close, certainly, to those idioms spoken by the Tartars. The same contrasts exist, as regards the vocalization, between the Ougro-Japonic and the Dravidian tongues. The Mag- yar may be compared to that Dravidian idiom richest in consonants, — for example, to the Toda or Todara, which is spoken by an ancient aboriginal tribe established in the Nilgherri-hills ; and the Finnish, with the Japonic, correspond in their softness to the Telougou talked at the south-east of Hindostan. These Dravidian populations were spread even to the islands of Ceylon, the Maldives and the Laquedives ; inasmuch as the idioms there still spoken attach themselves also to the Dravidian group. Comparative philology demonstrates to us, therefore, that a popu- 54 ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND lation in race very approximate to the Tartar, and which was, con- sequently, itself allied to the Finnish race, did precede the Aryas in old Hindostan. One must not judge of the intellectual and social condition of these ahorigines from the literary movement that has heen wrought in the hody of the Tamoul, which was the counterblast of that grand intellectual movement represented to us by the Sanscrit, and was certainly due to the Aryan influence. In order to judge what these primitive populations of Hindostan had been, one must go and study their scattered remains. This has been done, quite in recent times, by the English, to whom we owe some most interesting details about these antique tribes. These debris of primeval Indian nationality are now distributed in three distinct parts of the peninsula. The first are met with in the heart of the Mahanuddy, as far as Cape Comorin ; being the Bheels, the Tudas, the Meras, the Coles, the Gondes or Khonds, the Soorahs, the Paharias, &c. The second inhabit the northern section towards the Himalaya; such are the Radjis or Doms, and the Brahouis. The third occupy the angle that sepa- rates the two peninsulas of India, and which is designated by the name of Assam, as well as that mountainous band constituting the frontier between Bengal and Thibet. The whole of these tribes live even now as they lived very many centuries ago. They are agricultural populations, who, from time to time, clear with fire a portion of the jungle or the forest. The word which, amongst these people, renders the idea of culture, signifies nothing else than the cutting down of the forest. The Aryas, on the contrary, were a pastoral people ; and in India, as in many other countries, the shepherds triumphed over the farmers. Everything, furthermore, announces among these Dravidian people much gentle- ness of character, which is again a distinctive trait of the Mongols and of the Finnish populations. Their worship must have been that naturalistic fetishism which remains the religion of the Bodos, the Dhimals, and the Gondes. They adored objects of nature. They had deities that presided over the different classes of beings and the principal acts of life ; and they knew naught of sacerdotal castes or of any other regular organization of worship. Some usages, preserved even at this day among several of these indigenous tribes, show us that woman, at least the wife, enjoyed among them a very great degree of independence. The facts accord, then, with linguistics to show us how, within that portion of Asia comprehended between the Euphrates and Tigris, and the Indus, there had existed a more intelligent and stronger race, that, at a very early day, divided itself into two CLASSIFICATION" OF TONGUES. 55 branches, of which one marched into Europe, and the other into Hindostan ; both encountering, in each new country, some popula- lations of analogous race, and possibly allied, whom they subju- gated, and of whom they became the superior caste — the aristocracy. The two inferior castes of India, the Vaisyas and the Soudras, are but the descendants of such vanquished nations, — the anterior type of India's autochthones being even yet represented in a purer state by some of the Dravidian "hill-tribes" above described. But, alongside of this grand and powerful race of Aryas and Iranians, there appears, from the very remotest antiquity, another race, whose territorial conquests were to be less extended and less durable, but of whom the destinies have been glorious also. It is the Semitic (Shemitic, Shemitish) or Syro-Arabian race. From the banks of the Euphrates to the shores of the Mediterranean, and to the extremity of the Arabic peninsula, this race was expanding itself. Its great homogeneity springs from the close bonds which combine together the different dialects of its tongue. These dialects are the Aramsean, the Hebrew, the Arabic, the Chaldasan and the Ethiopic. By their constitution, all these idioms distinguish themselves sharply from the Indo-European languages. They possess neither the same grammatical system, nor the same verbal roots. In Se- mitic languages, the roots are nearly always dissyllabic ; or, to speak with philologists, triliteral, that is to say, formed of three letters : and these letters are consonants ; because, one of the most distinctive characteristics of the Semitic tongues is, that the vowel does not constitute the fundamental sound in a word. Here vowels are vague, or, to describe them otherwise, they have not any settled fixed-sound, distinct from the consonant. They become inserted, or rather, they insinuate themselves between strong and rough conso- nants. Nothing of that law of harmony of the Ougro-Tartar or Dravidian tongues, nothing of that sonorousness of Sanscrit, of Greek, and neo-Latin languages, — exists in the Semitic. Man speaks in them by short words, more or less jerked forth. The process of agglutination survives in them still; not, however, completely, as in the Basque. There are many flexions in them, but these flexions do not constitute the interior of words. Since the publication of M. Ernest Kenan's great labors upon the history of Semitic languages, we are made perfectly acquainted with the phases through which these languages have passed. They have had, likewise, their own mould, which they have been unable to break, even while modifying themselves. The Rabbinical, the "ISTahwee" or literal Arabic, in aspiring to become languages more analytical than the Ohaldee or the Hebrew, have remained, not- 56 ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND withstanding, imprisoned within the narrow hars of an imperfect grammar. This is the reason, as M. Ernest Eenan has remarked, that, — whilst the Indo-European tongues continue still their life in our day, as in past times, upon all points of the globe — Semitic languages, on the contrary, have run through the entire circle of their existence. But, in the more circumscribed course of their life, they have presented the same diversities of development established for all the preceding families ; and, at the same time that the Ara- maean which comprises two dialects, — the pagan Aramaean or Sabian, and the Christian Aramaean or Syriac — is poor, without harmony, without multiplied forms, ponderous in its constructions, and devoid of aptitude for poetry, the Arabic, on the contrary, distinguishes itself by an incredible richness. The Semitic race, of which the birth-place must be sought in that peninsular space shut in, at the north by the mountains of Armenia, and at the east by those which bound the basin of the Tigris, has not gone outside of its primitive father-land. It has only travelled along the borders of the Mediterranean, as is proved to us by the incontestable Semiticism of the Phoenician tongue, whose inscriptions show it to have been very close to the Hebrew. Africa has been almost the only field for its conquests. Phoenician colonies bore a Semitic idiom into the country of the ISTumidians and the Mauri; later again, the Saracenic invasion carried Arabic — another tongue of the same family — into the place of the Punic, which last the Latin had almost dispossessed. In Abyssinia, the G-heez or Ethiopic does not appear to be of very ancient introduction, and everything leads to the belief that it was carried across the Red Sea by the Joktanide Arabs, or Himyarites, whose language, now forgotten, has left some monuments of its existence, down to the time of the first Khalifates, in divers inscriptions. The Semites found in Africa upon their arrival a strong popula- tion, that for a long period opposed itself to their conquests. This population was that of the Egyptians ; whose language now issues gra- dually from the deciphering of the hieroglyphics, and which left, as its last heir, the Coptic, still living in manuscripts that we collect with avidity. This Egyptian was not, however, an isolated tongue. The Berber — otherwise miscalled the "Kabyle," which name in Arabic only means "tribe," — studied of late, has caused us to find many conge- ner words and " tournures." And this Berber (whence Barbary) itself, yet spoken by the populations Amazirg, Shillouh, and Tuareg, was expelled or dominated by the Arabic. Its domain of yore extended even to the Canary-isles. Some idioms formerly spoken in the north CLASSIFICATION OF TONGUES. 57 of Africa attached themselves to it through, bonds of relationship more or less close. The presence, throughout the north of Africa, of inscriptions in characters called Tifnag, and which seem to have been conceived in Berber language, makes known to us that this tongue must have reigned over all the territories of the Barbaresque States ; and was most probably that of the JSTumidians, Gsetulians, and Garamantes. Egyptian civilization was very profuse in aspirates. Its gramma- tical forms denote a more advanced period than that of the Semitic tongues : its verb counts a great number of tenses and moods, formed through the addition of prefixes or of suffixes. But its pronoun and its article have still an entirely Semitic physiognomy, notwithstand- ing that the stock of its vocabulary is absolutely foreign to that of those languages. We have already caused it to be remarked that, in the Galla (of Abyssinia) one re-encounters the Semitic pronoun. The influence exerted at the beginning by the Semites over the race to which the Egyptians were proximate — and whom we will call, with the Bible, Hamitic — was, therefore, in all likelihood, very profound. When the Semites entered into relations with the Hamites, the language of the latter must have been yet in that primitive stage in which essential grammatical forms might still be borrowed from foreign tongues. An intermixture sufficiently intimate must have occurred between the two races ; above all in the countries bordering upon the two territories. Such is what occurred certainly for the Phoenicians, whose tongue was Semitic, whilst the stock of population belonged, nevertheless, to the Hamitic race. For Genesis gives Canaan as the son of Ham ; and Phoenicia, as every one knows, is " the land of Ca- naan." The whole oriental region of Africa as far as the Mozam- bique coast affords numerous traces of Semitic influence. Along- side of the Gheez, that represents to us, as E. Penan judiciously writes it, the classical form of the idiom of the Semites in Abyssinia, several dialects equally Semitic arrange themselves ; but all more or less altered, either by the admixture of foreign words, or through the absence of literary culture. Amid these must be placed the Amhario, the modern language of Abyssinia. Semitic tongues underwent, in Africa, the influence of the lan- guages of that part of the world ; and, in particular, of those of the Hamitic family, spoken in the countries limitrophic to that inha- bited by the Semites. African languages cannot all be referred to the same family : but they possess among themselves sundry points of resemblance. They constitute, as it were, a vast group, whence detaches itself a family 58 ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND that may be called the African family " par excellence," and which extends from the Occidental to the Oriental coasts, re-descending even into the Austral portion. All the languages that form part of this group, and in general the tongues of the whole of this portion of the globe, possess one system of vocalization, otherwise termed, a powerful phonology; and some- times even a disposition almost rhythmical, which gained for them, on the part of some philologists, the name of alliteral tongues. Thus, although the consonants in them be often aspirated, and affect odd pro- nunciations, they are never accumulated together. Double letters are rare, and in certain tongues unknown. For example, in Oaffr, the vowels have a pronunciation clear and precise. In the major number of the languages of Southern Africa, and in some few of those of Cen- tral Africa, the words always terminate with vowels, and present regu- lar alternations of vowels and consonants. This is above all true of the Caffrarian languages. 19 M. d'Avezac writes about the Yebou, or Ebo, tongue spoken in Guinea : in regard to euphony, this language may be considered as one of the softest in the world ; vowels abound in it ; and it is in this respect remarkable that (except, perhaps, some rare and doubtful exceptions) not merely all the words, but even all the syllables end in vowels : the consonants offer no roughness in their pronunciation ; and many are articulated with a sort of quaint- ness (mignardise), which renders it difficult to seize them, and still more difficult to express graphically by the letters of our alphabet. 20 Among some other African tongues, on the contrary, the termination is ordinarily nasal. Amid the majority of the languages of northern and midland Africa, the words finish with a vowel. Such is what one observes in the Woloe, the Bulom, the Temmani, the Tousnali, and the Fasoql. As concerns the system proper of sounds, and the vocabulary, they vary greatly in African languages : and the harmony, sonorous- ness, and fluidity of speech, frequently meet, in certain sounds, with notable exceptions. It is the character of these various sounds that may serve as a basis for the classification of the tongues of Africa. All present compound vowels and consonants ; amongst which, m p, m b, are of the frequentest employment. The duplex consonants n k,n d, appear likewise. Finally, in some African idioms, one en- counters the consonants dg, gb, Jcb, bp, bm, Tee, Jch, rh, pmb, b lm.™ 19 See on this subject The Kafir Language; comprising a sketch of its history, by the Bev. John W. Appleyard (King William's Town, 1850), p. 65 seqq. 20 Memoires de la Sociele Bthnologique de Paris, ii. part 2, p. 50. 21 In these illustrative notations no attempt is made, of course, to follow any of the diversified "standard alphabets" recently devised for the use of Missionaries. On this question of the expediency of such alphabets, and their success so far, I coincide entirely ■with the criticism of a very scientific friend, Prof. S. S. Haldeman {Report on the Present CLASSIFICATION OF TONGUES. 59 Aspirates and the sibilants are not rare, any more than the vise, simple or compound, of the iv . Among some languages of this family, the palatal and dental letters are confounded, or at least are not clearly distinguishable. Several tongues are completely devoid of certain letters : for instance, the Qdji, and divers others, are want- ing in the letter I; and replace it, whenever they meet with it in what foreign words they may appropriate, by r, or d, or n. The accordances, of different parts of the discourse, are often regulated by a euphonic system which is felt very strongly in sundry idioms, notably in the Yazouba. The radicals are more frequently monosyllabic. It is the addition of this radical with a modifying particle (which is most commonly a prefix) that gives birth to the other words. The relations of cause, of power, of reciprocity, of re- flectivity, of agent, &c, as well as those of time, number, and sex, are always expressed through a similar system. The radicals, thus united to formative particles, become, in their turn, veritable roots, and con- stitute the source (souche) of new words. One can comprehend, never- theless, how very imperfect is such a system, for defining clearly the relations, at once so multiplied and so distinct, existing between words. There exist above all some for which African languages are of extreme poverty; for example, the ideas of time and motion. And this character approximates them, in a manner rather striking, to the Semitic tongues. As in these latter idioms, African languages do not distinguish the present from the future, or the future from the past : otherwise, they express both these tenses by one and the same particle. The penury and the vagueness of particles indica- tive of the prepositions, — or to speak with grammarians, of the pre- fixes to prepositions — are again far more pronounced in the majority of African idioms than amidst the Semitic. They enunciate, by the same particle, ideas as different as those of movement towards a State of our knowledge of Linguistic Ethnology, made to the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Aug. 1856). My experiences of the hopelessness of arriving at any exact countervails in European characters for Arabic intonations alone, so as to enable a foreigner, who has not heard Arabs speak, even to pronounce correctly, render me very sceptical as to the ultimate possibility of transcribing, through any one series of Alphabetic signs, the infinitude of distinct vocalizations uttered by the diverse groups of human types; which articulations, as Prof. Agassiz has so well remarked, take their original departure from the different conformations of the throat inherent in the race-cha- racter of each distinct group of mankind. Should any one, however, desire to put this universal " Missionary Alphabet" through an experimentum crucis, he need not travel far to test its applicability to remote, abnormal, and barbarous tongues, by trying its efficacy upon three cognate languages close at hand. Let a Frenchman, wholly unacquainted with English, transcribe into the " Missionary Alpha- bet," a short discourse as he hears it from the mouth of a Londoner. Then, pass his manu- script on to a German (of 'course knowing neither French nor English), and let him read it aloud to an Englishman. " Le diable mime ne s'y reconnaitrait pas !'■' — G. R. G.] 60 ON" THE DISTRIBUTION AND point, or the departing from a point ; of position in a place, toward a place, or near a place. The same poverty is observable in the conjunctions : copulative particles being employed frequently to render the idea of possession and of relationship ; those which ex- press the idea of connexion being often replaced by pronouns or by definite particles. Per contra, African languages, as well as the Semitic, are ex- tremely rich in respect to the changes (voies) of the verb, that is to say, in forms indicating the manner in which a verb may be employed. These changes — which are so numerous, notably in Arabic — are not the less so in the majority of African languages; beyond all, in the princi- pal group that extends from the Mozambique coast to Caffraria on one side, and to Congo on the other. Although these changes are com- posed, in the major portion of such tongues, by the addition of pre- fixes, they form themselves in others through the aid of suffixes. The number of these changes varies singularly according to the tongues. Thus, in the Sechuana language, and in the Temneh, there exist six changes ; in the Sooaheeli seven, in the Caffr eight, and in the Mpongwee eleven. To give an idea of the opulence of these changes in a single verb, we borrow an illustration from the language of Congo. Sal a, to labor; s alii a, to facilitate labor ; salisia, to labor with somebody ; salanga, to be in the habit of laboring ; salisionia, to labor the one for another; sal any an a, to be skilful at laboring. All verbal roots are susceptible of similar modifications through the help of certain particles that may be added to them. In this method, by the sole use of the verb, an expression is attained indicating whether the action be rare, frequent, difficult, easy, excessive, &c. And this richness of changes does not prevent the language froni being, as regards its verbs, and viewed in respect to their number, of great poorness. For instance, — the idiom of Congo, from which we have just borrowed the proof of such a great richness of changes, does not possess any word to express the idea of "living," but is obliged to say in place, to conduct ones soul, or being in one's heart. Another very characteristic trait of the majority of African tongues is, that they do not recognize the distinction of genders, after the manner of the Semitic idioms or the Indo-European. They distinguish, on the contrary, as two genders, the animate and the in- animate ; and in the class of animate beings, the gender man or in- telligent, and the gender brute or animal. Others of these languages, in lieu of distinguishing numbers after the fashion of Indo-European and Semitic- idioms, recognize only a collective form which takes no heed of genders, and a plural form that applies itself to beings of the CLASSIFICATION" OF TONGUES. 61 same genders. This is a particularity that we shall again encounter in the clicking languages, or the Hottentot. We do not possess sufficient elements as yet to give a complete classification of the languages of Africa. It is only since the recent publication of the Polyglotta Africana of Mr. S. W. Koelle that we have acquired an idea of the reciprocal affinities which link together the tongues of Western Africa. The classification proposed, however, by Koelle is freely intro- duced into the following schedule. I. — ATLANTIC languages, or of the north-west of Africa. These tongues have, with those of southern Africa, for a common characteristic, the mutation of prefixes. They comprise the following groups, viz : 1st. — The Fouloup group, which embraces the Fouloup or Floupe, properly so called, spoken in the country of the same name, — the Filham, or Filhol, spoken in the canton which surrounds the city of Buntoun; this town is situate upon the river Koya, at about three weeks' march from the Gambia. 2d. — The Sola group, which comprises the Bola talked in the land of Gole and that of Bourama,— the Sarar, idiom of the country of this name stretching along the sea to the west of Balanta and to the north of the district where the Bola is spoken, — the Pepil spoken in the isle of Bischlao or Bisao. 3d. — The Biafada group, or Dchola, spoken at the west of JSTkabou and north of Nalou, — the Padschade, which is an idiom met with at the west of Koniadschi and east of Kabou. 4th. — The Bulom group, comprehending the Baga, a tongue spoken by one of the popoulations of this name which inhabits the borders of the Kalum-Baga, eastward, to the islands of Los, 21 — the Timne talked at the east of Sierra-Leone, — the Bulom spoken in the country of this name that bounds on Timne, — the Mampua, or Manpa Bulom, called also Scherbo, idiom of the region extending westward of the Ocean, between Sierra-Leone and the land of Bourn, — the Kisi, spoken west and north of Gbandi, and east of Mende. II. — MANDINGO family — spread over the north-west of Upper Soodan. 22 It is unknown to what family of tongues belong the idioms of the other populations termed Baga, who dwell upon the banks of the Rio-Nunez and Rio-Pongas. 62 ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND This very extended family comprehends the Mandingo, properly so termed, or better the Mende', — the Kabunga, Mandingo dialect spoken in the land of Kabou, — and several other dialects of the same language, such as the Tokonka, dialect of Toro ; the Dchalunka, dialect of Fouta- djalon ; the Kankanka, dialect of Kankan ; the Bambara, the Kono, talked westwards and northwards of the Kisi; the Vei, in the country of this name situate to the east of the Atlantic and north of Gbandi, which embraces several dialects, viz : the Tene, spoken in the land so called, that has Souwekourou for its capital ; the Gbandi, spoken at the north of Gula and at the west of Nieriiva; the Landoro, talked west of Limba; the Mende, spread over the west of Kono and the Kisi, and east of Karo; the Gbese, idiom of the borders of the river Nyua; the Toma, called likewise Bouse, spoken in the land of the same name situated to the south of that of the Gbese; and the Gio, talked westward from Fa. EX— UPPER-GUINEAN— that is, the languages of the Pepper, Ivory, Gold and Slave, coasts, decompose themselves into three groups, viz : 1st. — The Kroo tongues, comprising the Dewoi, spoken on the banks of the river De, or St. Paul's ; the Bassa, talked in a portion of the Liberian territory ; the Era, or Kroo, spread south of the Bassa along the coast; the Krebo, spoken in a neighboring canton ; the Gbe, or Gbei, whose domain lies east of the Great Bassa. 2d. — The languages of Dahomey, of which the principal are the Dahome, or Popo ; the Mahe, spoken eastward of the Dahome ; and the Hwida, talked in the country of that name, located to the south of the GeUfe islands. 3d. — The languages Akou-Igala, embracing the numerous dialects of the speech of the Akou, among which the Yozouba, spoken between Egba and the Niger, — and the Igala, language of the country of that name — are the most important. 23 "We shall revert further on to the Yozouba. IV. — The languages of the north-west of UPPER SOODAN divide themselves into four groups : 1st. — The group Guzen, represented chiefly by the idiom of a very barbarian people, the Guzescha, who inhabit to the west of Ton ; a The Tebou, of which M. D'Avezac has published the grammar [Mimoires de la Socieie Etlmologique de Paris, II, part 2, pp. 106 seqq.), appertains to this group. CLASSIFICATION OF TONGUES. 63 2d. — The group Legba, which embraces the Legba and the Kiamba ; 3d. — The group Koama, to which belongs the Bagbalan ; 4th. — And lastly, the group Kasm, spoken westward of the land of the Gfuzescha. V. — The tongues of the DELTA of the Niger are divided into three groups : — the first represented by the Ibo dialects, — the second by the Egbele and several other idioms, — the third by the dialect of Okouloma, the name of a maritime dis- trict near the country of the Ibo and that of Outcho. VI. — The NUPE family, or languages of the basin of the Tchadda, — a family embracing nine idioms, of which the principal are the ]STup:e, or Tatba, spoken in a country neighboring Raba on the Niger ; and the Goali, or Gbali, talked to the east of the ISTupe. VII. — The family of CENTAL-AFRICAN languages is composed of two groups : 1st. — The tongues of Bornotl, which comprise also those of the Kanam, and the Budouma, spoken in the lake-isle of that name. The main language of Bornou is the Kanouri, which attaches itself by close relationship to the three tongues of Guinea, — the Ashantee, the Fantee, and the Odji. 2d. — This group comprehends the Pika, or FiKA, and the Bode dialects spoken west of Bornou. VHT. — The WOLQE, or JIOLOF, spoken by the populations of Senegambia, distinguishes itself, with sufficient sharpness, from all the preceding tongues ; and offers a grammatical system that has more than one trait in common with the Semitic languages. IX. — In the same region, another family of tongues has the E00- LAH, or PEULE, for its type ; one dialect of which is spoken by the Fellatahs, and very probably also by the Hausa, or Haousans. The vocabulary of these divers idioms, and notably that of the Peule, has presented a remarkable analogy with the Malayo-Polynesian 34 languages, of which we shall treat anon. It seems, therefore, that the Peule family might not, perhaps, be attachable to African tongues. The Wolof, although constituting a separate family, ap- proaches in certain points the Yozouba, spoken to the 24 Gustave d'Eichthal, ffisloire el Origine des Foulahs ou Fellans, Paris, 1841 (Tirage & part de l'Extrait des Memoires de la Societe Ethnologique). 64 ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND north of the Bight of Benin, — between the 2d and 3d de- gree of W. long., and the 6th and 10th degree of IS. latitude. The Wolof demarcates itself by its final inflexions. To it other idioms, seemingly, have to be attached : such as the Bidschago, or Bidshoro, which is spoken in the island of Wun, — the Gadschaya, idiom of a tribe called also Sehe- rule, or Serawouli, — and lastly the Goura. X. — Another group, which is characterized by initial inflexions, is spread over the basin of the Gambia, and is represented by the Landoma, that is spoken in the land of KaJcondi, — and the Nabou, used in the canton of Kahondan. The Wolof verb is susceptible of seventeen modifications, that consist in adding to each radical one or two syl- lables, and which extend or restrict its acceptation. It is something like the forms of the Arabic verb. The article follows the substantive, and embodies itself with it, as in agglutinate languages. The plural article exhibits equally an especial characteristic that makes it participate of a demonstrative pronoun. In general, the Wolof offers, in its phonology, that same harmonical disposition which belongs to all the African languages. XI. — Although the Wolof approximates to the YOZOUBA more than to any other African tongue, these two idioms still re- main separated by a difference sufficiently defined. The Yozouba possesses, in its grammatical system, a great degree of perfection and regularity. One observes in it an " ensemble " of prefixes complete and regular, that, upon joining themselves to the verb, give birth to a multitude of other words formed through a most simple process. The radical thus passes on the abstract idea of action into all derivative concrete ideas ; and thus reciprocally by the addi- tion of a simple prefix, a noun becomes a possessive verb. Another peculiarity of the Yozouba is, that the same ad- verb varies in form and even in nature according to the species of words it qualifies. The Yozouba system, notwithstanding its individuality, con- nects itself tolerably near with that of the tongues of Congo. The M'pongwe, for example, spoken on the Gaboon coast, forms its verbs by adding a monosyllabic prefix to the substantive ; by opposition to certain Senegambian languages, such as the Mandingo, in which they employ suffixes to modify the sense of the verb or the noun. XXI. — The CONGrO-languages appertain to that great formation of CLASSIFICATION OF TONGUES. 65 African tongues of which we treated ahove, and that divide themselves into many groups, united incontestably by close bonds. 1st. — The first group is that of the tongues of Congo ; the whole of them characterized by the initial flexion. They embrace the languages of the tribes named Atam, of which one of the chiefest is the TJdom, spoken in a country of this name, which has Ebil for its capital, — the languages of Mo- ftos-tribes, that subdivide themselves into several groups, embracing a great number of idioms, — the tongues of Congo and of Angola that comprise three groups ; the first, repre- sented above all by the Mbamba ; the second, by the Ba- huma, or Mobuma; and the third, by the JSPgola, speech of Angola. 2d. — The second group, comprehends the toDgues of South- West Africa, viz : the Kihiau, that also forms its verbs by means of prefixes, and attaches itself very nearly to the Congo-languages. It appears to identify itself with the MuNTOU-tongue, spoken by the Veiao, whom one encounters in the country of Knyas, about two months' journey west from the Mozambique coast. To this group, likewise, be- longs the Marawi, the Niamban, and many other languages. 3d. — The third group is represented by the Souahilee-tongues ; comprising the Souahili properly so-called, spoken by the inhabitants of the coasts of Zanzibar; and the languages of neighboring peoples who dwell to the south of the Galla- country; such as the Wanika, the Okaouafi, the "Wakamba. A good deal of the BjHiAtr-language is met with in the Sou- ahili ; which indicates well the affinity of the two groups. 4th. — The fourth, the group-Caffr, comprehends the Zoulou, or Caffr proper, — the Temneh, the Sechuana, the Damara, and the Kiniea. All these languages offer the same organ- ism, and a great richness of changes (votes) together with an extreme poverty of verbs. Xl II. — The tongues of the preceding formation approximate in a very singular manner, as regards certain points of their organism, to that family that may be termed HAMITIC (from Khime, Chernmia, the ancient native name of Egypt); and which has for its type the Egyptian,' of which the Coptic is but a more modern derivative. To it may be attached, on the eastern side, the Galla ; and on the western, the Berber. The Egyptian is known to us from a high antiquity, thanks 5 66 ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND to its hieroglyphical system of writing, of which the employ- ment mounts up to at least 3500 years before our era. This writing, — wherein are beheld the figured and metaphysical representations of objects (mostly indigenous to the Nile) gradually passed into the state of signs of articulation — permits us to assist, as it were, at the formation of speech. Through the use of these signs, one seizes the first appa- rition of verbal forms, as well as of a host of prepositions. The basis of Egyptian seems to be monosyllabic; but the employment of numerous particles very soon created many dissyllables. This language recognizes two articles, two genders, two numbers. The verb through its conjuga- tions, — which is are made by the aid of prefixes and suffixes, and that counts many changes, — participates more of the Indo-European grammatical system than of the Semitic. Egyptian vocalization seems to have been very rich in aspirates. This linguistic family, to which the Egyptian belongs, would appear to have been very widely extended at the beginning. The Berber, vulgarice Kabyle, now almost re- duced to the condition of a "patois," has a tolerably rich literature, and comprehends several very distinct dialects, viz : the Algerian Berber, spoken by the Kabail — moun- tain tribes of the Atlas — imbued with Arabic words ; the Mozabee, the Shillouh, the Zenatiya of the province of Constantine, and the Towerga, or Touarik. XIV, — The HOTTENTOT family of tongues — or "langues 1 Klies," cliceing languages — is characterized by the odd aspiration, so designated, which mingles itself (as a sort of gluching) in the pronunciation of the greater number of words. Hottentot languages bear, above all in the conju- gation of their verbs, the character of agglutination. Like Semitic tongues, they are deprived of the relative pronoun. They distinguish two plurals for the pronoun of the first person, the one exclusive and the other inclusive; the former excluding the idea of the person to whom a dis- course is addressed ; and the latter, on the contrary, inclo- sing it. In their nouns, there exist two genders in the sin- gular,, and three in the plural number, — this third one, called common, has a collective value. It follows that when an object be designated in the singular, its gender always becomes indicated. These tongues distinguish three num- bers, but they are unacquainted with the case ; whilst the CLASSIFICATION OP TONGUES. 67 adjective remains completely indeclinable, and takes neither the mark of gender nor of number. This family of clicking languages comprehends the Hottentot, or Quaiquai, — and the Bosjesman dialects, ISTamaqua and KOEANA. Notwithstanding its strange phonological system, the family of Hottentot tongues is not altogether so profoundly dis- tinct from African languages, as one might be tempted to suppose at first sight. It is incontrovertible that these sounds, in nature at one and the same time nasal and guttural, which we term Kliks, constitute a special charac- teristic ; but the foundation of the grammatical forms in Hottentot idioms is met with among the tongues of Africa. Thus, the verb presents, like them, a great richness of changes : it has a form direct, negative, reciprocal, causative ; and all these voies are produced by the addition of a particle to the end of the verbal radical. Their double plural, a common and a particular, is a trait which assimilates them to the Polynesian and even to the American languages. The double form of the first person plural, indicating if the personage addressed be comprised in the "we," or is ex- cluded from it — writes Wilhelm von Humboldt — has been again met with in a great number of American tongues, and had been assumed until now to be an especial characte- ristic of these languages. This character is encountered, however, in the majority of the languages that we are here considering ; in that of the Malays, in that of the Philip- pine isles, and in that of Polynesia. In Polynesian tongues, it extends even to the dual; and such, moreover, is its particular form, in them, that, were we to guide ourselves by logical considerations merely, it would become neces- sary to view these tongues, as being the cradle and the veritable father-land of this grammatical form. Outside of the South Sea, and of America, I know of it nowhere else than among the Mandchoux. Since Wilhelm von ■ Humboldt penned these words, the same grammatical pecu- liarity, which exists in the Malgache (of Madagascar), has been discovered in an African tongue, — the VEi-language. African languages present, therefore, to speak properly, but a very feeble homogeneity. The same multiplicity of shades, that is particularly observed among the Blacks, reappears in their idioms. On studying the grammars and the vocabularies of the latter, one seizes the tracing-thread of those numberless 68 OK THE DISTRIBUTION AND crossings which have made, of the branches of the Negro- race, populations very unequal in development of faculties, and in intelligence exceedingly diverse. One perceives a Semitic influence in the speech, as one sometimes discovers it in the type of face. The Hottentots, who are more dis- tinct from Negro-populations than any other race of Austral Africa, separate themselves equally through their tongue. The Foulahs and the "Wolofs, so superior to the other Negroes by their intellect and their energy, distinguish themselves equally through the respective characteristics of their idiom. And in like manner that, maugre the variety of physical forms, a common color, differently shaded (nuance'e), reunites into one group all those inhabitants of Africa whose origin is not Asiatic, a common character links together the grammars of their languages; — or, in other words, African idioms have all a family-air, without precisely resembling each other. There is one important remark to be made here. It is, that some African languages denote a development sufficiently advanced of the faculty of speech, and consequently of the reflective aptitudes of which this is the manifestation. In this fact we have a new proof that tells against the unity of the origin of languages. Because, if African languages were the issue of other idioms, fallen in some way among minds more narrow (homes) than had been those of the supposed-elder nations that spoke them, they ought neces- sarily to have become impoverished, to have altered them- selves ; and the laws, which have been established above in the history of one and the same tongue, would lead us to expect that these last ought to be at once more analytical and more simple. Now, their very-pronounced characteristic of agglutination excludes the idea of languages arising from out of the decomposition of others ; and the complex nature of their grammar attests a date extremely ancient for their forma- tion. The idioms of Africa carry, then, the stamp both of primitive and complicated languages ; and, as a conse- quence, of tongues which are not derived, at an epoch relatively modern, from other languages possessing the same parallel character. Hence it must be concluded, that these African languages are formations as ancient as other linguistic formations ; possessing their own characteristics ; and of which the analogies correspond with those that bind up together the great branches of the Negro-race. CLASSIFICATION OF TONGUES. 69 "We have seen that a few of the African languages recall to mind, either through their vocabulary, or by peculiarities of their grammar, the Polynesian idioms. These idioms constitute, as it were, a grand Zone, that extends betwixt Africa and America : and this position explains how migra- tions of the race that spoke them, and which we shall call Malayo- Polynesian, may have come over to blend themselves with the negroes of Africa. From Madagascar as far as Polynesia, we find a family of similar tongues that has become designated by the name of Ma- layo-Polynesian, after that of the race. It decomposes itself into two groups, viz : the Malay group, com- prehending an "ensemble" of idioms spoken from Madagascar to the Philippine-islands ; and the Polynesian group, properly so-termed. One meets again, in this family, with the self-same inequality of development amid the different languages that compose it. Whilst the Malay denotes an advanced degree of culture, the idioms of Po- lynesia offer a simplicity altogether primitive. These have restricted their phonetic system within very narrow limits ; and they employ matter-of-fact methods, no less than very poor forms, in order to mark the grammatical categories. It is through the help of particles, oftentimes equivocal, that these languages try to give clearness to a discourse compounded, albeit, of rigid and invariable elements. The structure of Polynesian words is much more simple than that of the Malay words : a syllable cannot be terminated by a consonant fol- lowed by a vowel ; or it is not even formed save through a single vowel. These languages are, besides, deprived of sibilants ; and they tend towards a planing-away of homogeneous consonants, and to cause those that possess a too-pronounced individuality to disappear. It has seemed, therefore, that the Polynesian tongues result from the gradual alteration of Malay languages ; which are far more energetic and much more defined. Otherwise this Polynesian family offers a tolerably great homogeneity : everywhere one re-beholds in it this identical elementary phonology. The idioms of the Marquesas-isles, of New-Zealand, of Taiti, of the Society-islands, of the Sandwich and Tonga, are bound together by close ties of relationship. Such is the paucity of their vocal system, that they have recourse frequently to the repetition of the same syllable, in order to form new words. The onomatopee is very frequent in them. The grammatical cate- gories are also but vaguely indicated ; and one often sees the same word belonging to different parts of the same sentence. The methods of enunciating one idea are sometimes the same, whether for ex- pressing an action or for designating an object. The gender and number are often not even indicated. The vocal system (which 70 ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND recalls, in certain respects, that of the Dravidian tongues) seems, by the way, to have undergone, in the course of time, modifications sufficiently deep. The Malgache, or Malagasy, spoken at the island of Madagascar, constitutes, as it were, a link between the Malayo-Polynesian idioms and those of Africa. Mr. J. R. Logan, in an excellent sei'ies of labors on this tongue, 25 makes it seen how several traits in common existed between the Malgache and those tongues of the great Souahilee- Congo family, which he terms Zimhian. The same system of sounds. One finds again in them that euphony signalized in the idioms of Central Africa, associated with those double letters, nip, m d, nh, nd, n j, tr, dr, ndr, nr, ts, nts, tz, that also characterize the languages of Africa. Prefixes serve equally in them to represent the categorical forms of a word. Finally, that which is still more characteristic, the Malgache does not distinguish genders any more than do the African idioms ; and, like the vast Souahilee-Congo group, it carries with it the generical distinction, according as beings are animate, rational, or inanimate, irrational. But, side by side with these striking ana- logies, there exist fundamental differences. The Malgache-vocabu- lary is African in no manner whatever, although it may have imbibed some words of idioms from the coast of Africa : it might approach rather towards the Hamitic vocabulary ; but its pronouns are peculiar to itself. It possesses quite an especial and really characteristic power for combining formative prefixes ; and many traits attach it to those tongues of the Soodan which have surprised philologers by their analogies with Polynesian languages. It is, therefore, evident that the Malgache represents to us a mix- ture of idioms ; or, to speak more exactly, the result of influences exerted upon a Polynesian idiom by African languages, and, with some plausibility likewise, by those of the Hamitic class. This com- mingling betrays itself equally in the population of Madagascar. Evidently in this island, to judge by the pervading type of its inha- bitants, there has been an infusion of black blood into the insular, or reciprocally. In general, the races that find themselves spread over the zone occupied by the families of Malayo-Polynesian lan- guages do not at all present homogeneity ; and one must admit that they descend from innumerable crossings. Nevertheless, the fact — if fact it be, after the analyses of Crawfukd, indicated farther on — of a (fond) substratum of words in common, and of a grammar reposing upon the same bases, proves that one and the same race has exer- cised its influence over all these populations. 25 The Journal of ike Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia, Singapore, — Supplementary No. for 1854, pp. 481 seqq. CLASSIFICATION OF TONGUES. 71 Where must one go and seek for the cradle of this race ? Com- parative philology places us upon a trail towards its discovery. There exists in the trans-Gangetic peninsula an "ensemble" of lan- guages appertaining to the same family as the Chinese ; by attaching itself on the one hand to the Thibetan, and on the other to the Siamese. These tongues have been designated by the name "mono- syllabic," because the primitive monosyllabism is perceived in them in all its original simplicity. In monosyllabic languages, there yet exist only simple words rendered through one single emission of the voice. These words are, at one and the same time, both substantives and verbs : they express the notion, the idea, independently of the word ; and it is the modus through which this word becomes placed in relationship with other words that indicates its categorical sense in a sentence. The Chinese tongue — above all under its ancient or archaic form — is the purest type of this monosyllabism. It corres- ponds in this manner to the older period which had preceded that of agglutination. Every Chinese word — otherwise said, each syllable — is composed of its initial and of its final sound. The initial sound is one of the 136 Chinese consonants; the final sound is a vowel that never tolerates other than a nasal consonant, in which it often terminates, or else a second vowel. "What characterizes the Chinese, as well as the other languages of the same family, is the accent that manifests itself by a sort of singing intonation ; which varies by four different ways in the Chinese, reduces itself to two in the Barman, and ends by effacing itself in the Thibetan. The presence of this accent destroys all harmony, and opposes itself to the "liaison" of words amongst themselves ; because, the minutest change in the tone of a word would give birth to another word. In order that speech should remain intelligible, it is imperative that the pronunciation of a given word must be invariable. Hence the absence of what philologists call "phonology" in the Chinese family. Albeit, in the vernacular Siamese, already an inclination manifests itself to lay stress upon, or rather to drawl out, the last word in a compound expression. These compounded expressions abound in Chinese ; the words that enter into them give birth, in reality, through their assemblage, to a new word ; because the sense of this expression has often no resem- blance whatsoever, almost no relationship, to that of the two or three words out of which it is formed. The drawling upon the second syllable that takes place in the Siamese is the point of departure from monosyllabism, which already shows itself still more in the Qambodjian. The Barman corresponds to the passage of monosyllabic tongues, wherein the sounds are not 72 ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND oonnected, into languages in which the sounds are hound together. Indeed, nearly all the Barman words are monosyllabic; but they have the faculty of modifying themselves in their pronunciation so as to hitch themselves on to the other words, and hence originate a more harmonious vocalization. All the basin of the Irawaddy, and Aracan (that is separated from the Burmese empire by a chain of mountains running nearly parallel to the sea, the mounts Teoma), are inhabited by tribes speaking idioms of the same family as the Barman. Little by little, other languages of the same family, such as the Laos, have been driven back from the north-west of the trans-Gangetic peninsula by con- quering populations emanating from this Burmese race, which now- adays opposes such an energetic resistance to the English. It is precisely to the same race that belong the more savage populations of Assam. Here, speech and their physical type leave no room for doubt in this respect. Of this number are the Singpho and the Manipouri. But, that the Thibetan is itself nothing but a modification, but an alteration, of the languages of this same monosyllabic family, is what becomes apparent to us through the tongues of several tribes of Assam and of Aracan, — such as that of the Nagas, and that of the Youmas, which serve for the transit from the Barman into the Thi- betan. These more or less barbarian populations, spread out at the north-west of the trans-Gangetic peninsula, have all the character of the race that has been called the yellow. Evidently it is there that one must seek for the savage type of the Chinese family. The Thibetan is certainly that tongue which most detaches itself from the monosyllabic family ; and, by many of its traits, it ap- proaches the Dravidian idioms. It demarcates itself from the Bar- man through its combinations of particular consonants, of which the vocal effect is sweeter and more mollified ; but the numerous aspi- rates and nasals of the Chinese and the Barman are re-beheld in it. Upon comparing the monuments of the ancient Barman tongue, with those of the ancient Thibetan, one perceives that formerly this language had more of asperity, — asperity of which the Thibetan still preserves traces ; because, notwithstanding its combinations of softened consonants, this language is at the bottom completely devoid of harmony. Particles placed after the word modify its sense, and the order of these words is always the inverse of what it is in our idioms. Hence the apparition, in these tongues, of the first lineaments of that process of agglutination already so conspicuous in the Barman. One may construct in it some entire sentences com- posed of disjointed words, linked between each other only by the CLASSIFICATION OF TONGUES 73 retro-active virtue, or faculty, of a final word; and it is thus that these languages arrive at rendering the ideas of time still more com- plex. The Barman, in particular, is, in this respect, of very great richness, — a series of proper names can be treated in it as an unity, and may take on at the end the mark u do" of the plural, which reacts then upon the whole : and even a succession of substantives is susceptible of taking the indefinite plural u mya." These languages cause us, therefore, to assist, so to say, at the birth of agglutinative idioms, of which the Basque has afforded us, in Europe, such a curious specimen. Albeit, whatever be the de- velopment that several idioms of the trans-Gangetic peninsula may bave acquired through the effects of their successive evolution, they are all not the less of extreme simplicity. The Barman is the most elaborated of the whole family; whereas the Chinese, and the speech of the empire of Annam, are but very little. As concerns the vocal system, on the contrary, the Thibetan and the Barman do not raise themselves much above the Chinese ; and it is in the south of the trans-Grangetic peninsula that one must inquire for more developed articulations, always exercising themselves, however, upon a small number of monosyllabic sounds. On the opposite hand, the tongues of the south-east of that peninsula approximate more to the Chi- nese as regards syntax. One sees, then, that, maugre their unity, the monosyllabic lan- guages form groups so distinct that one cannot consider them as proceeding the ones from the others, but which are respectively con- nected through divers analogies ; and that they must, in consequence, be placed simply parallel with each other, at distances ever unequal from the original monosyllabism. Although the Barman and the Thibetan approach each other very much, — and that they find, in certain idioms, as it were, a frontier in common, — they still remain too far asunder with regard to the grammar, the vocabulary and the pronunciation, for it to be admitted that one may be derived from the other. They seem rather to be, according to the observation of Mr. Logan, two debris differently altered of a more ancient tongue that had the same basis as the Chinese. Thus one must believe that, from a most remote epoch, the yellow race occupies all the south-east of Asia ; because the employment of these monosyllabic languages is a characteristical trait which never deceives. In those defiles of Assam where so many different tribes — repelled thither by the conquests of the Aryas, of the Chinese and the Burmese — find themselves gathered, the races of Tartar-type all distinguish themselves from the Dravidian tongues through then 74 ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND monosyllabic structure, allied sometimes to the Thibetan, at others to the Barman. In the peninsula of Malacca, or Malaya, and amid the isles of Malaysia, one meets with some populations which, as regards the type, recall to mind the most barbarous tribes of Assam, — the Gar- rows, for example. There have been found again at Sumatra some tribes whose customs and whose type very much recall those of the savage populations at the north-east of Hindostan. The Nagas, or Kakhyens, of whose tongue we have already spoken, possess a very remarkable similitude of traits and usages with the Polynesians and divers indigenous septs of Sumatra. They tattoo themselves like the islanders of the South Sea. Every time they have slain a foe, they make (as has been observed amongs the Pagai of Sumatra) a new mark on their skins ; and, as takes places among the Aboungs — another people of the same island — and also among certain savages of Borneo, a young man must not wed so long as he has not cut off a certain number of the heads of enemies. Among the Michmis — another tribe of Assam — one finds again the usage, so universal in Polynesia, and equally diffused amid the Sumatran Pagais, of ex- posing the dead upon scaffolds until the flesh becomes corrupted and disengages itself from the bones. All these tribes of Assam, which remind us as well of the indigenous septs of the Sunda-islands as of the primitive population of the peninsula of Malacca, speak mono- syllabic tongues appertaining to the Tbibeto-Barman, or Siamo- Barman, family. This double circumstance induced the belief that it is the trans-G-angetic peninsula whence issued the Malayo- Polynesian populations. The languages they speak cluster around the Siamese and the Barman ; but, in the ratio that they are removed from their cradle, their sounds become softened down, and they become impoverished, whilst evermore tending, however, to get rid of the monosyllabism that gave them birth. These transformations, undergone by the Malayo-Polynesian lan- guages, have been, nevertheless, sufficiently profound to efface those traits in common due to their relationship. They arise, according to probability, from the numerous interminglings that have been operated in Oceanica. "Whilst some petty peoples of the Thibeto-Chinese source were descending, through the trans-Gangetic peninsula, into Malaysia, and advanced incessantly towards the East, those Dravidian tribes that occupied India, and which themselves issued from a stock, if not identical, at least very neighborly with the preceding, were coming to cross themselves with these Malaysian populations. But such cross-breeding was not the only one. There was another that CLASSIFICATION OF TONGUES. 75 altered the race still more. This commingling took effect with a third population that appears to have been the veritable primitive race of the south of Hindostan- — a black race which has been thrown to the east, but whose remains are still found about the middle of the Indian Sea, at the Andaman islets, and that constitutes the foundation of the pristine population of Borneo and the Philippines. It seems to be the same population that occupied exclusively, prior to the advent of Europeans in those waters, New Guinea, Australia, Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania), and divers archipelagoes placed to the eastward of New South Wales. The tongues of these black Oceanic tribes were, without doubt, very barbarous, and they have been, in several cases, promptly sup- planted by the Malayan idioms. They have, notwithstanding, still left traces of their existence at the Sandwich isles, which seem to have been occupied at the beginning, and before the arrival of the Polynesians proper, by the black race. The ground-work of their vocabulary has remained Australian, although the grammar is wholly Polynesian. It is the same at the Viti islands. Elsewhere, how- ever, as at the Philippines, those blacks who are known under the name of Aiytas, (Ajetas), or Igolotes, have adopted the idiom of the Malayan family, which has penetrated into their island with the conquerors. Unhappily, we possess but very little information concerning the Australian languages. All that may be affirmed is, that they were quite distinct from the two groups of the Malayo-Polynesian family : the Malay group and the Polynesian group being themselves very sharply separated. Mr. Logan has caught certain analogies between the Dravidian idioms and the Australian tongues: which is easily understood; because the populations that expelled from Hindostan those puny tribes which, at the beginning, had lived dispersed therein, must have exerted by their language some influence over the idiom of these septs, which was evidently very uncouth. A profound study of the names of number, in all the idioms of the Dravidian family, has revealed to him the existence of a primary numerical system purely binary, — which is met with again in the Australian languages ; aud it corresponds to that little-advanced stage in which one would sup- pose the black race that had peopled India must have been. And this binary system, which the later progress of intelligence in the Dravidian race has caused to be replaced by more developed systems — the quinary system, and the decimal — has left some traces both in tongues of the southern trans-Gangetic peninsula, and amidst certain 76 ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND populations of the peninsula of Malaya. 26 Now, we again encounter, even yet, this binary system among Australian populations. The Dravidian idioms have, then, chased before them the Austra- lian tongues at a primordial epoch that now loses itself in the night of time. At a later age, there appeared the Malayo-Polynesian lan- guages, which have coalesced in order to push still farther on to the eastward, or at least to drive within a more circumscribed space, these same Australian tongues. Then, after having implanted them- selves in those islands whence the Australian savages had been gra- dually expulsed, the two groups, the Malay and the Polynesian, declared war against each other ; and now- a-days, in the Indian Ocean, the Polynesian becomes more and more crowded out by the Malay. This fact brings us back naturally to the problem of the origin of that linguistic formation which we have designated by the name " Malayo-Polynesian." "We have said that the Thibeto-Barman races had expelled from India those black tribes with which they must have intermingled in certain cantons. The Dravidian populations acted in the same way. Several of the primitive tribes of Hindostan preserve still, in their features and in their skin, the impress of an infusion of Australian blood. Has a mixture of another nature taken place in Polyne- sia ? Are the islanders of the Great Ocean born from the crossing of some race coming from elsewhere ? Several ethnologists, and notably M. Gustave d'Eichthal, 27 have admitted that the Polynesians came from the east. Besides the resemblances of usage which these ethnographers have perceived between divers American populations (and especially those of the Gfuarani family) and the Polynesians, they have discovered, in their respective idioms, a considerable number of words in common. Nevertheless, such similitudes are neither sufficiently general, nor sufficiently striking, to enable us with certainty to identify the two races. There are concordances that, as regards words, may originate simply from migrations ; or which, as regards forms of syntax, result from parity of grammatical development. This does not prevent the employment of other facts (as yet histori- cally unproven, and fraught with tremendous physical obstacles) to demonstrate the possibility of the emigration of some American popu- lations ; but upon this point languages do not yield us anything decisive. More conclusive are the comparisons that M. d'Eichthal 26 Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia, April — June, 1855, p. 180. 21 Etudes sur VEistoire Primitive des Races Oeianiennes et Americaines, by the learned "Se- cretaire-adjoint de la Society Ethnologique." CLASSIFICATION OF TONGUES. 77 has made between the tongues of those FoulaJis, or Eellatahs, that inhabit Senegarnbia, and some idioms of the Malayo-Polynesian family. These analogies are too striking for us to refuse some recog- nition of an identity of origines ; which, furthermore, resiles from many other comparisons. The light complexion of the Eoulahs, and the superiority of their intellect, had at an early hour attracted the notice of voyagers. "We would admit, therefore, that the Malayo- Polynesian race, — whilst it advanced towards the south-east of Asia, and exterminated or vanquished the black races — had penetrated on the opposite hand into Africa ; crossed itself with the negro popula- tions ; and thus gave birth to the Foulah-tribes and their congener peoples. At Madagascar, we re-encounter this same Malayo-Polyne- sian race under the name of Ovas, or Hovas. This island appears like the point of re-partition of the race that might be named " par excel- lence" Oceanic, because it is by sea that it has invariably advanced. [JTot to interrupt the order of the foregoing sketch of these Oceanic languages, we have hitherto refrained from presenting another con- temporaneous view, that would, in many respects, modify the one which, on the European continent, represents an opinion now cur- rent among philologists concerning those families of tongues to which the name " Malayo-Polynesian" has been applied. If the high authority of Mr. John Crawfurd 28 were to be passed over in Malayan subjects, our argument would lack completeness ; at the same time that the results of the learned author of the " History of the Indian Archipelago," were they rigorously established, would merely ope- rate upon those we have set forth, so far as breaking up into several distinct groups, — such as, Malgaohe, Malay, Papuan, Harfoorian, Polynesian, Australian, Tasvianian, &c, — the families of languages, in this treatise, denominated by ourselves Malayo-Polynesian. And it must be conceded concerning those tongues spoken by the perhaps- indigenous black races of Malaysia, Micronesia, and Melanesia, that, while, on the one hand, science possesses at present but scanty infor- mation; on the other, no man has devoted more patience and skill to the analysis of such materials as we have, than Mr. Crawfurd. The following is a brief coup d'ceil over his researches. " A certain connexion, of more or less extent, is well ascertained to exist between most of the languages which prevail from Mada- gascar to Easter Island in the Pacific, and from Formosa, on the coast of China, to 'New Zealand. It exists, then, over two hundred degrees of longitude, and seventy of latitude, or over a fifth part of the surface of the earth. ****** The vast region of which I — — — 28 A Grammar and Dictionary of the Malay Language, London, in 8vo., 1852; vol. i., Dissertation and Grammar. 78 ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND have given the outline may be geographically described as consist- ing of the innumerable islands of the Indian Archipelago, from Sumatra to New Guinea — of the great group of the Philippines — of the islands of the North and South Pacific — and of Madagascar. It is inhabited by many different and distinct races of men, — as the Malayan, the brown Polynesian, the insular Negro of several varie- ties, and the African of Madagascar." Beginning with these last, Mr. Crawfurd says, — " Very clear traces of a Malayan tongue are found some 3000 miles distant from the nearest part of the Malayan Archipelago, and only 240 miles from the eastern shore of Africa. Prom this isolated fact (which the author, pp. eclxxvi — xxxi, shows by historical navigation to be by no means improbable), the importance and the value of which I am about to test, some writers have jumped to the conclusion that the language of Madagascar is of the same stock with Malay and Javanese, and hence, again, that the people who speak it are of the same race with the Malays. It can be shown, without much diffi- culty, that there is no shadow of foundation for so extravagant an hypothesis." And, in fact, after exhibiting how in their grammars, both groups of tongues resemble each other merely by their simpli- city, he manifests, through a comparative vocabulary, that the whole number of known Malayan words, in the Malagasi language, is but 168 in 8340 ; or about 20 in 1000. Next, the insular Negroes of the Pacific Archipelagoes — the " Puwa-puwa, or Papuwa, which, however, is only the adjective 'frizzly,' or 'curling.' " After enumerating their physical characte- ristics at different islands, he concludes — "Here, then, without reckoning other Negro races of the Pacific which are known to exist, 29 we have, reckoning from the Andamans, twelve varieties, generally so differing from each other in complexion, in features, and in strength and stature, that some are puny pigmies under five feet high, and others large and powerful men of near six feet. To place all these in one category would be preposterous, and contrary to truth and reason." That they have no common language is made evident (p. clxxi) through a comparative vocabulary of seven of these Oriental Negro tongues ; whence the unavoidable conclusion that each is a distinct language. Adverting digressionally to the Australians, — who are never to be confounded, physically-speaking, with any of the woolly-haired 29 In a later monograph on the "Negroes of the Indian Archipelago" (Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, 1853, p. 78), Crawturd maintains, — "There are 15 varieties of Oriental Negroes. ****** There is no evidence, therefore, to justify the conclusion, that the Oriental Negro, wherever found, is one and the same race." CLASSIFICATION OF TONGUES. 79 blacks of the Pacific Archipelagoes. The point of contact between these distinct types is at Cape York, in Torres Straits, and around its neighboring islets. No where else has amalgamation betwixt them been perceived. "As to the great bulk of the inhabitants of Australia, they are assuredly neither Malays, Negroes, nor Poly- nesians, nor a mixture of any of these, but a very peculiar people, distinct from all the other races of men" (p. clxxvi). In lists of about thirty languages, already known in the yet-discovered parts of Australia, Mr. Crawfurd (p. ccxci) has been unable to detect more than four or five words of corrupt Malay ; and that only in the tongue of a tribe at Cobourg peninsula, once Port Essington. As to Polynesia, our author holds : — " The languages spoken over this vast area are, probably, nearly as numerous as the islands of themselves ; but still there is one of very wide dissemination, which has no native name, but which, with some propriety, has been called by Europeans, on account of its predominance, the Polynesian. This language, with variations of dialect, is spoken by the same race of men from the Eiji group west, to Easter island eastward, and from the Sandwich islands north, to the New Zealand islands south. The language and the race have been imagined to be essen- tially the same as the Malay, which is undoubtedly a great mistake" (p. cxxxiv). After pointing out their physical contrasts with cha- racteristic precision, he adds — " The attempt, therefore, to bring these two distinct races under the same category had better be dropped, for, as will be presently seen, even the evidence of lan- guage gives no countenance." Again bringing to his aid compara- tive vocabularies, Mr. Crawfurd (p. ccxl) ascertains that the total number of Malayan words, in the whole range of Polynesian tongues, is about 80 ; including even the numerals ; which them- selves make up nearly a sixth part of that trifling quantity, — on which imagination erects an hypothesis of unity, between the lusty and handsome islanders of the South Seas, and the squat and ill- favored navigators of Malayan waters. Lastly, the Malays themselves. Sumatra is, traditionally, their father-land; but they were wholly unknown to Europeans before Marco-Polo in 1295 ; and, 220 more years elapsed before acquaint- ance with them was real. From this centre they seem to have radiatedover the adjacent coasts and islands; subduing, extermina- ting, enslaving, or driving into the interior, the many sub-typical races of the same stock which appear to have been, like themselves, terrse geniti of the Archipelago, distinguished by their restless and ever-encroaching name. "By any standard of beauty which can be 80 ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND taken, from the Ganges to the Pillars of Hercules, the Malays must he pronounced as a homely race," — whose heau-ideal of cuticular charms (as Crawfurd says in his larger History) is summed up in the phrase " skin of virgin-gold color." In their physique, the Malays are neither Chinese nor Dravidians, neither Polynesians nor Mala- gasi, neither Oriental nor Occidental Negroes; hut as Dryden the poet sung (p. xvi) : — "Flat faces, such as would disgrace a screen, Such as in Bantam's embassy were seen : — " in short, nothing else than Malays. For the specification of their language and its dialects, the " Grammar and Dictionary" is the source to which we must refer; but, what singularly commends Mr. Crawftjrd's analytical investigations to the ethnographer is, the careful method through which, by well-chosen and varied compara- tive vocabularies, he has succeeded in showing, how Malayan blood, language, and influence, decrease in the exact ratio that, from their continental peninsula of Malacca, as a starting point, their coloni- zing propensities have since widened the diameter between their own primitive cradle, and their present commercial factories, or piratical nuclei. Nor must it be forgotten that, upon many of the islands themselves, both large and small, there exist distinct types of men, independently of Malayan or other colonists on the sea- board, speaking distinct languages. Thus, in Sumatra, there are 4 written, and 4 unwritten tongues, besides other barbarous idioms spoken in its vicinity : at Borneo, so far as is yet known of its un- explored interior, there are at least 9 ; at Celebes, several. At the same time that, according to Mr. Logan, each newly-discovered savage tribe, like the Orang Mintird, the Orang Benud, the Orang Muka Kuning, &c, amid the jungle-hidden creeks around Singa- pore, presents a new vocabulary. Being one of the few Englishmen, morally brave enough to avow, as well as sufficiently learned to sustain, by severely-scientific argu- ment (pp. ii-vii, and elsewhere), polygenistic doctrines on the origin of mankind, Mr. Crawfurd's ethnological opinions are entitled to the more respect from his fellow-philologues, inasmuch as — without dispute about a vague appellative, " Malayo-Polynesian," — his philo- sophic deductions must logically tally with those continental views, to which a Franco-Germanic utterance is given at the close of our section Hid. Upon the various systems of linguistic classification, through which each unprejudiced philologist — i. e., to the exclusion always CLASSIFICATION OF TONGUES. 81 of preconceived dogmas fabricated, as Koranic Arabs would say, fi aya- mena ed-djah'Uieli, "daring our days of ignorance" — defines his more or less scientific, but ever-individual, impressions, differences of opinion must inevitably ensue ; some scholars reasoning from one stand-point, others from another : nor would we, when closing this parenthesis about the term "Malayo- Polynesian," overlook the physiological fact indicated by Prof. Agassiz, 30 viz : that identities among types of men linguistically similar, whilst historically and ethnically different, do sometimes arise only from similarity in the internal " structure of the throat" — anatomical niceties imperceptible to the eye perhaps, but not the less distinctly impressive on an acute and experienced ear.] Of all the families of languages at present recognized on the sur- face of our globe, there only remains for us to examine the American tongues. Endeavor has been made to attach them to the Polynesian family ; but from these they essentially distinguish themselves, and we shall see presently that certain traits assimilate them, on the con- trary, to African languages. Let us signalize a primary fact. It is that, whilst the populations of the two Americas are far from offering a great homogeneity of physical characters, their languages, on the contrary, consti- tute a group which, as relates to grammar, affords an unity very remarkable. That which distinguishes all these tongues is a tendency, more apparent than that among any other linguistic family, to agglutination. The words are agglomerated through contraction, — by suppressing one or several syllables of the combined radicals — and the words thus formed become treated as if they were simple words, susceptible of being again employed and modified like these. This property has induced the giving to the languages of the ISTew "World the name of poly synthetical, — which M. F. Liebeb, has proposed to alter into that of olophrastic. Besides this characteristic, there are several others that, without being so absolute, seem nevertheless to be very significant. Thus, these idioms do not in general know our distinction of gender ; in lieu of recognizing a masculine and a feminine, they have an animate and an inanimate gender. I have said above, that there is one trait which is common to them and to divers idioms of Polynesia, as well as to the Hottentot tongues. It is the existence of two plurals (and sometimes of two duals), exclusive and inclusive, otherwise tei'med, 80 Christian Examiner, Boston, July, 1850, p. 31 : — Types of Mankind, p. 282. 6 82 ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND particular and general. The exclusive plural, in certain dialects, applies itself to the orator, and to the community to which he belongs, by excluding the others ; whereas, in sundry dialects, this same plural applies to those in whose name one speaks, to the exclusion of the persons to whom one is addressing a discourse. One trait of the grammar of American languages, that has greatly struck the first Europeans who sought to grasp their rules, is what they have called transition. This process, otherwise intimately con- nected with polysynthetism, consists in dissolving the pronoun indi- cative of the subject, — no less than that one indicating the object, — into the verb, so as to compose but a single word. Hence it follows that no verb can be employed without its governing case (regime). The number of these transitions varies according to the languages, and the pronoun incorporates itself with the verb generally by suffixes. By means of a modification of the principal radical, American tongues arrive at rendering all the accessory or derived notions that attach themselves to the idea of verb. Hence arises a vast number of voies. These changes constitute all the riches of the New World's idioms. This abundance of changes is above all striking in the Al- gonquin, and in Dahkota, — the language of an important Sioux tribe. On the contrary, in the Moxo, — a tongue of South America, the conju- gations reduce themselves to one. Here we have a new trait of resemblance between the idioms of Africa and those of the ISTew World. A classification of American languages has been attempted. It is a difficult undertaking ; because, in general, amid populations that live by tribes exceedingly fracted, and in a savage state, words become extremely altered in passing from one tribe to another. New words are created with great facility ; and were one to take but the differences into account, it might be believed that these languages are fundamentally distinct. The erudite Swiss, long a distinguished citizen of the United States — successor, in philology, to a learned Franco- American, Duponceau — Mr. Gallatin, has found in North America alone some 37 families of tongues, comprising more than 100 dialects ; and even then he was far from having exhausted all the idioms of that portion of the world. It is true that he embraces, within his classification, the Eskimaux and Athapascan idioms, which appertain, as well as certainly the former race, to the Ougro-Finnie stock, — otherwise termed the boreal branch. Among North Ameri- can families, those of the Algonquin, Iroquois, Cherokee, Choctaw and Sioux, are the most important; but, concerning the indigenous tongues spoken around the Rios, Gila and Colorado, philological science hitherto possesses only vague information. CLASSIFICATION OF TONGUES. 83 At the centre of America we meet with four families, viz : the family Quicho-Maya, of which the chief representatives are the idioms of Yucatan; — the second family is exhibited in the Otomi, which at first had been erroneously made a completely separate type, — the third is the Lenea family, principally spread over the territory of Honduras, — and lastly, the fourth family is represented by the Nahuatl, otherwise called the ancient Mexican ; of which we possess literary monuments written in a kind of hieroglyphics. The Quicken, or Quichoa — language of the Incas — comprehends several dialects, of which the principal is the Aymara. The Quichoa, of all the families of the ~Hew "World, possesses most prominently the polysynthetical character. The Guarani family, to which the Chilian attaches itself, manifests a very great grammatical development. It was spread throughout the south- and east of austral America, and was spoken over a vast expanse of territory. Finally, the two fami- lies, the Pampean or Moxo, and the Cardib, occupy, in the hierarchi- cal ladder of American idioms, the very lowest rungs. In these there is excessive simplicity, — for instance, in the G-alibi, spoken by savage tribes of the French Guyana, and which belongs to the Caribbean family. One finds in it neither gender nor case; the plural is ex- pressed simply by the addition of the word papo, signifying all, and serving at one and the same time for the noun as well as the verb. In this last part of a discourse, the persons are not discriminated ; and the same form acts in the plural, no less than in the singular, for the three persons. American languages have, then, also passed through very different phases of development; but, even when they have attained, as in Quichoa and the Quarani, a remarkable degree of elaboration, they have been unable, notwithstanding, to overcome the elementary forms upon which they had been scaffolded. In the presence of such existing testimonies, of this gradual development, it becomes, henceforth, impossible to conclude any- thing from those analogies signalized between American and African languages, as regards imagined filiation. The aspect of two vast linguistic groups, placed at distances so remote, might have engendered a supposition of some links of proximate relationship between the populations speaking them, if, in view of their physique, the Indians of the New World, and the negroes and Hottentots of Africa, were not so entirely different. But, seeing that we have established each floor (Stage) of linguistic civilization — if one may so speak — we cannot admit that these tongues have been transported from Africa to America, or, at least, that their grammar already 84 ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND governed the idioms spoken by such supposititious emigrants. Simi- litude between the two groups shows us merely, that the native abo- rigines of Africa and of America possessed an analogous faculty of language ; and that neither could rise above a certain level, which, at first sight, may have been taken for a common characteristic, and as a sign of filiation. section m. The sketch we have just given of the families of tongues spread over the globe's surface has led us to observe, that the linguistic families coincide (with tolerable exactitude) with the more trenched divisions of mankind. Each superior race of man is represented by two families of lan- guages corresponding to their largest brancbes, viz: the White race, or Caucasic, by the Indo-European and Semitic tongues ; — the Yellow race by the monosyllabic and the Ougro-Tartar tongues, otherwise called "Finno- Japonic." To the Black race correspond the tongues of Africa; — to the Red race, the tongues of America; — to the Malayo- Polynesian races, the tongues of that name; — to the Australian race, the idioms of Australasia. ITo more of homogeneity is beheld, however, amongst the languages spoken by those inferior races inha- biting Africa, America, Oceanica, or Australia. The multifarious crossings of these primitive races, — crossings that may be called those of the secondary race-floor — are represented by families that possess characteristics less demarcated, and which participate generally of the two families of idioms spoken by the races whose intermixture gave birth to them. The Dravidian languages partake of the Ougro-Tartar and the monosyllabic tongues. The Hamitic languages are intermediate between the Semitic and the African tongues. The Hottentot lan- guages hold to the African and the Polynesian tongues ; certain lan- guages of the Soodan offering, also, the same character, but with a predominance of Polynesian elements ; whereas it is the African element that preponderates in Hottentot idioms. The apparition of these grand linguistical formations is, therefore, as ancient as that of the races themselves. And, in fact, speech is with man as spontaneous as locomotion, — as the instinct of clothing and of arming oneself. This is what the Bible shows us in the abridged recital it gives of Creation.' God causes to pass before A-DaM, the-Man, all the animals and all the objects of the earth (as CLASSIFICATION OP TONGUES. 85 it were, in a cosmorama), and the-Man gives to each a name. 31 It is impossible to declare more manifestly that speech (language) ia an innate and primitive gift. From the instant that man was created, he must have spoken, by virtue of the faculty he had received from God. The use of this faculty has also been as different among the diverse races of mankind as that of all other faculties. And, in the same manner that there have been races pastoral, agricultural, pisca- tory and hunting, — that there are populations grave, and populations volatile ; adroit and cunning tribes, as well as tribes stupid and shal- low — so there have been races with language developed and powerful, populations that have attained a high degree of perfection in speech ; whereas others have very quickly found their development arrested, — just, indeed, as there have been, and ever will be, races pro- gressive and races stationary. We are unable to pierce the mystery of the origins of humanity. "We are ignorant as to a process by which God formed man, and the Bible itself is mute in this respect. It neither resolves, nor indicates the difficulties inherent in, the first advent of our species. But, it ia very evident that, in speaking of mankind in general, — that is to say, of A-DaM; for such is the sense of the word — it designates, according to Oriental habits, the race by an individual : in precisely the same method that, in the ethnic geography of the children of Eoah [Genesis x), it represents an entire people by a single name. Thus, Genesis speaks to us only of the genus homo, which it personifies in an individual to whom it attributes the supposed instincts of the first men. This being at present settled, it cannot be concluded from biblical testimony that all human beings spoke one and the same tongue at the beginning, — any more than we can conclude that there had been but one primitive couple. From the origin there were different languages, as there were like- wise different tribes ; and from out of these primitive families issued all the idioms subsequently spread over the earth. Because, the faculty of speech was, at its origin, coetaneous with the birth of man- kind ; and linguistic types are not now formed, any more than new races of men, or new animals, are being created. Existing types be- become altered, modified. They cross amongst each other within certain limits, — and with the more facility according as they may 81 Genesis, II, 19 : — " Jehovah-Elohim forma de terre tous les animaux des champs, tous les oiseaux du ciel, et les fit venir vers I'homme pour qu'il vit a, les nommer ; et comme I'homme nommerait une creature anime'e, tel devait etre son nom." — (Cahek's Hebrew text, L p. 8.) 86 ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF TONGUES. already possess greater affinity. They become extinct and disap- pear: but that is all. The work of creation on our globe is terminated; and all the invisible dynamics which the Creator set in motion, in order to people this physical and moral world, may indeed preserve that which they have produced ; but I'dge du retour for them has arrived. They have become powerless and sterile for creations that are reserved, without doubt, for other worlds. A. M. Paris, Library of the Institute — April, 1856. ICONOGR APHIC RESEARCHES. 87 GHAPTEK II. ICONOGRAPHIC RESEARCHES ON HUMAN RACES AND THEIR ART ; BY FRANCIS PTJLSZKY. ' Tedd a durva Scythat a Tiberishez, es A nagy R6ma fiat Bosphorus oblihez Barlang leszen amott a Capitolium 'S itt uj' R6ma emelkedik." 'Put the rude Scythian on the Tiber, And the son of great Rome on the Cimmerian coast, There the Capitol will become a den, And here rises a new Some." (Berzsenyi.) Letter to Mr. Geo. It. Cfliddon, and Dr. J. 0. Nott, on, the Races of Men and their Art. My Dear Sirs: Reading your " Types of Mankind," equally valuable for consci- entious research and sound criticism, I could not but be pleased with your felicitous idea of supporting ethnological propositions by the testimony of copious Egyptian, Assyrian, Persian, Greek, and Chi- nese monuments, in order to prove the constancy of national types, during the historical period of antiquity, by authentic representa- tions. Blumenbach and Prichard only cursorily referred to ancient monuments; your publication was the first 1 to call Archaeology into the witness-box for cross-examination in the question of races and * If our work, published early in 1854, may take credit for having somewhat extended and popularized this method of research, the road had been widely opened, ten years pre- viously by Morton (Crania JEgypiiaca, Philada., 1844). Subsequently to Morton, the same method was applied with singular felicity by M. Courtet de l'Isle (Tableau ethno- graphique du Genre Humain; 8vo., Paris, 1849) ; but, as mentioned in "Types," (p. 724,) I was not aware of M. Codrtet's priority until the text of our book was entirely stereotyped. His volume has become so rare, that I was unable to procure a copy during my late stay at Paris, 1854-5. A portion, however, was originally published under the title of "Icono- graphie des races humaines," in the Illustration, Oct. and Nov., 1847: and another formed part of the interesting discussions of the Societe Elhnologiquc de Paris, on the " Distinctive Characteristics of the White and of the Black races;" Seance du 25 Juin, 1847. (See the Bulletin of that Society, parent of those in London and New York, Annee 1847, Tome lr, pp. 181-206, and 284.) G. R. G. 88 ICONOGRAPHIC RESEARCHES Fig. 1. nationalities. 2 But, whilst you judiciously selected the most charac- teristic reliefs of Egypt and Assyria from the classical works of Champollion, Rosellini, Lepsius, Botta, and Layard; all Etruscan, Roman, Hindoo, and American antiquities were excluded from the "Types;" and I felt somewhat disappointed when I found, that as to your Greek representations you were altogether mistaken. You published, on the whole, five busts 3 belonging strictly to the times and nations of classical antiquity, but there is scarcely one among them on which sound criticism could bestow an unconditional approval. You may find that I am rather hard upon you, as even your critic in the Athenaeum Francais* objected only to one of them. Still, ami- cus Nott, amicus GrLiDDON, sed magis arnica Veritas ; and I hope that if you have the patience to read my letter with attention, you will yourselves plead guilty. The busts which I am to review are the alleged portraits of Lycue- gus, the Spartan legislator, of Alexander the Great, of Eratos- thenes, of Hannibal, and of Juba I., king of ISTumidia. I. As to the great Lacedsemonian lawgiver, you borrowed his por- trait from Pouqueville, 5 who took it from Ennio Quirino Visconti. 6 It cannot be traced farther back. The celebrated Italian archaeologist, publishing that head of a marble statue in the Vatican, freely acknowledges that he has scarcely any authority for attributing it to Lycurgus, by saying that he thinks the statue might be a portrait of the famous one-eyed legis- lator, — inasmuch as the conformation of the left eye and cheek is different from the right side of the head ; and, according to him, such want of symmetry charac- terizes a man blind of one eye. 7 I leave 1 Blumenbach read a lecture : De veterum urlificium anatomies perili%riv bhbv o^yaxiriv it. (Homer, Odvss., iv, 481.) "It only remains to say "with Homer, To visit Egypt's land, a long and dangerous way." (Strabo, lib. xvii.) The earliest of all monuments of art carry us back to the cradle of our civilization, Egypt, of which we are scarcely accustomed suffi- ciently to appreciate the real importance to the history of mankind. We speak here not only of its political power and high culture under the Pharaohs, nor only of the literary labors of the critical Alexan- drines under those Ptolemies who were fond to be protectors of Greek science ; but we allude likewise to the fact that, long after Egypt had merged into the Roman empire, became converted to Christianity, and lost all tradition of independence, still its peculiar national character was not swamped, nor its tough energy broken. It manifested itself strongly enough in the Athanasian controversy, in the Monophysite schism, in the many saints and legends of Chris- tian Egypt, and in the most important establishment of anachoret and monastic rule which originated in the Thebais, and thence spread all over the world, as an evidence of the vitality of that nation and of the indelibility of its moral type. At the very dawn of history we meet in Egypt with statues and bas-reliefs which, according to the hieroglyphic inscriptions, are certainly contemporaneous with the builders of the pyramids ; though it is rather difficult to designate the precise century before our era to which they belong, because the Egyptians made no use of any conventional system or astronomical cyclus for their Chronology. Mariette's discoveries in the Serapeum at Memphis have proved that no Apis-cyclus (equal to 25 years) was ever known to the Egyp- tians, 38 as formerly believed by scholars from the interpretation of a passage in Plutarch. As to the Sothiae cyclus, it was certainly known, but its use for chronology remains more than doubtful. 39 The Egyptians possessed no historical era ; they dated their public documents by the years of each king's reign. With such a system the least interruption of the dates vitiates all the series. 38 Mariette, Renseignments sur les soixanie-quatre Apis, in the Bui. archeol. de V Aihenaum Franqaia, May- — Nov., 1855: — Alfred Maury, Des travaux modernes sur l'Egypte Ancienne;" Revue des Deux 3Iondes, Sept., 1855, pp. 1060-3. 39 Buhsen (JEgyptens Stelle, iii. p. 121, seqq.) tries to prove a Sothiao Era of Menephthah ; but is not borne out by any astronomical dates on the monuments. Vide also the critical discoveries of Biot, infra, Chap. V. GENERAL REMARKS OK ICONOGRAPHY. 101 Unfortunately for our knowledge of Egyptian chronology, 40 the list of Dynasties by Manetho has reached us only in mutilated extracts, and the ciphers annexed to the names of the sovereigns have evi- dently been tampered with. They are not the same in the several extracts of Eusebius, Syncellus, and Africanus ; nor do they tally with the original hieroglyphic documents. So much, notwithstand- ing, we can say with mathematical certainty, — now that the com- plete chronology of the XXUhd, or Bubastite, Dynasty has been reconstructed by Mariette from the documents of the Serapeum at Memphis, — that the 'first year of the reign of Psammeticus I., answers to the 94th year of the era of JVabonassar, or to the Julian year 654 B. C. The same series of documents places the beginning of the reign of Tirhaka, — ■ ally to king Hezekiah against Senna- cherib of Assyria, — towards 695 B. C. 41 But here the dates may be already uncertain to the extent of one or two years ; and beyond them the consecutive series of precise numerals ceases altogether. Some further dates have been astronomically determined, but the intermediate figures cannot be taken for more than approximate. For the XXJJnd dynasty we obtain a synchronism, and a means of rectifying chronology, through the conquest of Jerusalem by She- shonk L, which happened in the 5th year of Behoboam, king of Judah. 43 But even this synchronism does not yield an exact date, inasmuch as the chronology of the Book of Kings presents some difficulties not yet satisfactorily resolved. 43 Accordingly, Newman places the capture of Jerusalem in the year 950 B. C. ; 44 Bunsen in the year 962 ; 45 and "Winer in the year 970. 46 At any rate, it is certain that king Sheshonk began to reign before the middle of the tenth century, B. C. An astronomical fact, the heliacal rising of the dog-star, under Harnesses JJJ., of the XXth dynasty, recorded in a hieroglyphical in- scription at Thebes, defines the epoch of this king, and assigns his place, according to the calculation of M. Biot, to the 13th century B. C. ; or just to the same period which had been ascribed to him before the discovery of this inscription, solely on the approximating calcula- tion of the lists as rectified by the monuments. 40 See for the following, principally De Rouse's Notice Sommaire, Muse'e de Louvre, p. 19 seqq. 41 The Hebrew chronology makes it nearer to B. C. 710, and is scarcely reconcilable with the Egyptian computation about this synchronism. 42 Cf. Brugsch, Reiseberichte aus jEgypten. &c, Berlin, 1855 — "Die Halle der Bubas- titen-Konigs " at Karnac, pp. 141-4. 43 Newman, History of the Hebrew Monarchy — Appendix to Chapter IV., on Chronology. 44 Op. cit. p. 151 and 160. « ^gyptens Stelle, iii. p. 122. 46 Biblisches Woerterbuch, voce Israel. So likewise Sharpe, Historic Notes on the Books of the 0. and N. Testaments, London, 1854, pp. 04, 88. 102 GENERAL REMARKS ON ICONOGRAPHY. For the XLXth dynasty, we have seemingly again a synchronism, that of Moses with Ramesses LT., and with Menephthah LT. ; hut it is of little value for exact dates, hecause the duration of the govern- ment of the Hebrews by their Judges is very uncertain. Biot's astronomical calculation is more valuable, with the aid of which we may establish that Seti I., father of Ramesses the great, lived about 1500 B. C — [say 15th century B. 0.]; and hence that the XVIIth dynasty began to reign towards the eighteenth century B. C. Never- theless, as the Vicomte de Rouge, (whose authority we follow in preference to other Egyptologists, since he expresses himself most cautiously in dealing with chronological figures, and avoids hypo- theses) says, "it would not be astonishing if we should be here mistaken to the extent of one or two centuries, inasmuch as the historical documents are vitiated, and the hieroglyphical monuments incomplete." "Thus we have reached," continues de Rouge, "the time of the expulsion of the Shepherds, beyond whom no certain calculation is as yet possible from the monuments known. The texts do not agree how long these terrible guests occupied and ravaged Egypt, and the monuments are silent about them. However, their domination lasted for a long time, since several dynasties succeeded one another before the deliverance, and that is all we know about it. ISTor are we better informed concerning the duration of the first empire, and we have no certain means for measuring the age of those pyramids which bear evidence of the grandeur of the first Egypt. Neverthe- less, if we remember that the generations which built them are separated from our era, first by the eighteen centuries of the second empire, then by the very long period of the Asiatic invasion, and lastly by several dynasties of numerous powerful kings, the age of the pyramids will not lose anything of its majesty in the eyes of the historian, although he be unable to fix it with exact precision." It is to such an early period of the history of mankind that some of the statues and reliefs of Egypt can now be traced back with cer- tainty; and even they do not present us with the rudiments of an infantine art, but are actually specimens of the highest artistic char- acter. Like Minerva springing forth from the head of Jupiter, a full-grown armed virgin, Art in Egypt appears, in the very earliest monuments, fully developed, — archaic in some respects, but not at all barbarous. Through the kindness of MM. de Rouge", Mariette, Deveria, and Salzmann, and of Chev. Lepsius at Berlin, and their regard for Mr. Gliddon, we are enabled to publish a series of royal and princely effigies of the first or Old Empire, carefully copied, often photographi- GENERAL REMARKS ON ICONOGRAPHY. 103 cally, from these original statues and reliefs at the Louvre and other Museums. They are the earliest monuments of human art known to us ; being portraits of the Egyptian aristocracy at a time preceding- Abraham by many centuries. They enable us to form a correct idea of Egyptian art in its first phasis, before it became fettered by a traditionary hieratic type. In an ethnological respect, they give us the true features of the original Egyptians : and it is very remarkable that many statues and reliefs, later by more than two thousand years, bear exactly the same character; that, again, two thousand years subsequently have not changed the national type, — the Fellah (peasant) of the present day resembling his ancestors of fifty cen- turies ago, viz : the builders of the pyramids, so closely, that his Nilotic pedigree never can be seriously questioned henceforward. The character of the Egyptian race is most distinctly expressed upon its monuments throughout all the phases of its history ; and these sculptures of the IVth dynasty differ from those of later ages merely in details, not in spirit. Ernest Kenan, the great Shemitic philologue, describes that character in the following words: "The earliest [Cushite and Hamitic] civilizations stamped with a character peculiarly materialistic ; the religious and poetical instincts little developed; the artistical feeling rather weak; but the senti- ment of elegance very refined ; a great aptitude for handicraft, and for mathematical and astronomical sciences; literature practically exact, but without idealism; the mind positive, bent on business, welfare, and the pleasures ; neither public spirit nor political life ; on the contrary, a most elaborate civil administration, such as Euro- pean nations never beeame acquainted with, until the Roman epoch, and in our modern times." *' The Egyptians were eminently a practical people, of so little imagination, that in religion they conceived no heroic mythology. Whilst their gods were personified abstractions, all of them, with the only exception of the Osirian group, stand without life or history. In literature the Egyptians never rose above dry historical annals, religious hymns, proverbial precepts, poetical panegyrics, and liturgi- cal compositions. Epic and dramatic poetry was feeble, 48 romance 47 Histoire et Systeme compare des Langues Semiliques, Paris, 1855; Ie. partie, p. 474. ^ The publication of M. de Rough's critical translation of the Sallier Papyrus, containing the poetic recital of the Wars of Ramses, 14th century, B. C, against the Asiatic Sheta, or Kheia (recently read to the Imperial Institute), will prove that the metrical style of these Egyptian canticles frequently resembles Hebrew psalmody. Meanwhile, see some brief specimens of hieroglyphical poetry in Birch, Crystal Palace Catalogue, Egypt, 1856 ; pp. 266-8. 3 104 GENERAL REMARKS ON ICONOGRAPHY. simple, 49 philosophical speculation tame, 50 whilst critical history seems to have been unknown to them. Induction teaches us that the art of such a race must be analogous ; truthful, but narrow ; practical, but of no high pretensions; and indeed we find, upon close observa- tion, that it displays very little variety in its forms ; but within its narrow range it is distinguished, however, by the utmost fidelity and truthfulness. Ideal heroic types are entirely foreign to Egyptian art; we find scarcely any scenes purely mythological, in the abstract sense of the term (that is, as admired in Hellenic and Etruscan art), among their numerous reliefs or paintings ; the representations of godhead and subordinate divinities being always brought into connexion with sacrifices and oblations, which almost seem to have been the only object of the nation's religion. The king, his pomp, processions, and battles, and the individual life, daily occupations, sports and pastimes of the Egyptians, remain the favourite subjects of the artists who, for more than two thousand years of routine, constantly returned to that source, without ever exhausting it, always marking their composition with the stamp of truth, and preserving the great- est regard for individuality. Accordingly, the statues, whenever they represent men, and not gods, are portraits intended to give the real, and not the embellished and idealized features of the men represented. But, whilst we meet with the greatest variety in respect to the faces, the posture of- the statues remains altogether stereotyped during all the times of Egyptian history. Statuary had, in the valley of the Nile, very few forms of expres- sion ; about six or seven, which were repeated over and over again, all of them of the most rigid symmetry, without any movement. No passion ever enlivened the earnest features, no emotion of the soul disturbed the decent composure and archaic dignity imparted by the Egyptian sculptor. "No warrior was sculptured in the various atti- tudes of attack and defence; no wrestler, no discobolus, no pugilist exhibited the grace, the vigour, the muscular action of a man ; nor 49 As a sample, see De Rough's French rendering of a hieratic payprus which presents sundry curious analogies with the story of Joseph, — Revue Archeologique, 1852; vol. ix., pp. 385-97. 60 To judge, that is, by the "Book of the Dead," (Lepsittb, Todtenbuch der JEgypter nach dem Hieroglyphischen Papyrus in Turin, Leipzig, 4to, 1842) or as Bkugsch (Sai'-an-Sinsin, sive Liber Metempsychosis veterum JEgypliorum, Berlin, 4to, 1851, p. 42) restores Champollion's name for it, the "Funereal Ritual," — wherein, amid the recondite puerilities of a celestial lodge, with its ordeals, quaint pass-words, and ministering demons, it is evident that an Egyptian's idea of a "Future State" in Heaven never soared above aspirations for a repe- tition of his terrestrial life in Egypt itself! Be it noted here that M. de Rouge 1 has found the chapter " On life after death" on a monument of the XHth dynasty ; thereby establish- ing the existence of large portions of this Ritual in ante-Abrahamic days. GENERAL REMARKS OK ICONOGRAPHY. 105 were the beauties, the feeling, and the elegance of female forms dis- played in stone : all was made to conform to the same invariable model, which confined the human figure to a few conventional postures." 51 Of groups they knew only two, both of them most characteristic. Sometimes it is the husband with the wife, seated on the same chair on terms of perfect equality, holding one another's hand, or putting their arms round one another's waist, in sign of matrimonial happi- ness, evidently founded upon monogamy and perfect social equality between the sexes. 52 Sometimes again it is the husband, in his character of the head of the family, quietly sitting on a chair, accom- panied by the standing figures of his wife and children, sculptured as accessories, and considerably smaller in size than the husband and father. As to the single statues, they are either standing erect, the arms hanging down to the thighs in a straight line (though occasionally the right hand holding a sceptre, whip, or other tool, is raised to the chest), the left foot always stepping forward ; or the figure is seated, with the hands resting on the knees, or held across the breast. Another attitude is that of a person kneeling on the ground, and holding the shrine of some deity before him. The representation of a man squatting on the ground and resting his arms upon his knees, which are drawn up to his chin, is the most clumsy of the Egyptian forms, if the most natural posture to the race, being perpetuated to this day by the Fellaheen when resting themselves ; whilst the statues in a crouching position are the most graceful for their natural naivete. If we add to these few varieties of positions the stone coffins, imita- ting the mummy lying on its back, and swaddled in its clothes, we have exhausted all the forms of Egyptian statuary. Specimens of these six attitudes, all of them equally rigid and symmetrical, being found among the earliest monuments of the empire from the IVth to the XLTIth dynasty, it cannot be doubted that Egyptian statuary added no new form to their primitive sculptural types during the long lapse of nearly thirty centuries, which wrought certainly some variety into the details, but not upon the forms. In fact, the statue W Sir J. Gardner Wilkinson, Popular account of the ancient Egyptians, II. 272. There are some partial exceptions to the rigor of this rule, such as the "Wrestlers at Benihassan," the "Musicians at Tel-el-amarna," "Ramesses playing chess at Medeenct-Haboo," the same monarch "spearing the Scythian chief" at Aboosimbel, an occasional group in grand battle-tableaux, various scenes of negro captives, &c. ; but they appear to be accidental, or perhaps instinctive, efforts of individual artists to escape from the conventional trammels prescribed by theocratic art. In the folio plates of Rosellini, Champollion, Cailleaud, Prisse, and Lepsius — especially the last two authorities — such instances may be found. 52 Idem, II. 224. 106 GENERAL EEMAEKS ON ICONOGEAPHT. was in Egypt never emancipated from architecture. 53 It was sculp- tured for a certain and determinate place, always in connection with a temple, palace, or sepulchre, of which it became a subservient ornamental portion, an architectural member as it were, like the pair of obelisks placed ever in front of the propyleia, or the columns sup- porting a pronaos. This poverty of forms, and their constantly recurring monotony, make the inspection of large Egyptian collec- tions as tiresome to the great bulk of visitors, as the review of a Russian regiment is to the civilian ; one figure resembles the other, and only the closer investigation of an experienced eye descries a difference of style and individuality. The bas-reliefs were not, for the Egyptians, so much independent works of art, as architectural ornaments, and means for conveying knowledge, answering often the purpose of a kind of vignettes or illustrations of hieroglyphical inscriptions. They record always some defined, historical, religious, or domestic scene, without pretension to any allegorical double-meaning, or esoteric symbolism. Beauty remained with their hierogrammatic artists less important than dis- tinctness, the correctness of drawing being sacrificed to convention- alisms of hieratic style ; but, on the other hand, a general truthful- ness of the representation was peculiarly aimed at. The unnatural mannerism of the Egyptian bas-relief manifests itself principally in the too high position of the ear, 54 and in representing the eye and chest as in front view, whilst the head and lower part of the body are drawn in profile. 65 Nevertheless, this constant mannerism and many occasional incorrectnesses are blended with the most minute appre- ciation of individual and national character. It is impossible not at once to recognize the portraits of the kings upon their different monuments ; and we alight on reliefs where some of the figures are so carelessly drawn as to present two right or two left hands to the spectator, yet combined with such characteristic effigies of negroes,, of Shemites, of Assyrians, of Nubians, &c, that they remain superior to the representations of human races by the Greeks and Romans. This general truthfulness applies to Egyptian art from the very first dawn of history, throughout all the subsequent periods, down to the time of the Roman conquest. But whilst the principal features of art remained stationary, the eye of the art-student finds many cbanges in details, and these constitute the history of Egyptian art. 53 Cf. Wilkinson, Architecture of the Ancient Egyptians, London, 1853. 64 Mobton, Cran. JEgypt., Philad., 1844, pp. 26-7; and "inedited MSS." in Types of Man- kind, p. 318: — Pruner, Die UeberbkibselderAltayyptishchenMenschenrage,Mimchen,lS4:(i,ii.6. 55 For a ludicrous example, see the " 37 Prisoners at Benihassan," in Rosellini, M. R. XXVI — VIII ; of the remote age of the Xllth dynasty. GENERAL REMARKS ON ICONOGRAPHY. 107 The proportions of the statues in the time of the Old Empire [say from the 35th century b. c, down to the 20th, 56 ] are short and heavy; the figures look, therefore, somewhat awkward; hut, on the whole, they are conceived with considerable feeling of truth, and executed with the endeavour to obtain anatomical correctness. The principal forms of the body, and even its details, the skull, the muscles of the chest and of the knees, are nearly always correctly sculptured in close but not servile imitation of nature. The shape of the eye is not yet disfigured by a conventional frame, nor is the ear put too high ; but the fingers and toes evidently offered the greatest difficulties to the primeval Egyptian artists. They commonly failed to form them correctly ; the simplicity and exactitude displayed in sculpturing the face and body scarcely ever extended to the hands and feet, which are blunt and awkward. The earliest of all the statues now extant in the world, as far as we know, is the efhgy of Kam-ten, or Homten, a "royal kinsman" of the md dynasty, found in his tomb at Abooseer, and now in the Berlin Museum. The following wood-cut [7] is a faithful reduction of this statue's head, characterized by a good-natured expression, without any mannerism or conventional type about the features ; the eye is correctly, and the mouth naturally drawn ; not yet twisted into the stereotyped unmean- ing smile of the later periods. It is interesting to compare the head of this statue with the low-relief portrait [8] of the same prince from the same tomb, in order to perceive the difference between the artistic con- ception of a statue and of a relief in Egypt. The relief portrait is evi- Kam-ten, Statue Fig. 7. 66 As previously stated, in the present impossibility of attaining, for times anterior to the XVIIth dynasty, any precise chronology, we shall make use herein of the vague term cen- turies, when treating on events anterior to the age of Solomon, taken at B. C. 1000. The numerical system of Chev. Lepsius furnishes the scale preferred by us, which is defined in Types of Mankind, p. 689. His arrangement of Egyptian dynasties may be consulted in Briefe aus JEgyplen, JEthioplen unci der Halbinsel des Sinai, Berlin, 1852, pp. 364-9; of which the elegant English translation by the Misses Horner (Bohn's Library, 1853) contains the later emendations of this learned Egyptologist. 6 * Communicated in lithograph by Chev. Lepsius to Mr. Gliddon ; together with our sub- sequent Nos., 8, 9, 10, and other heads that space precludes us from inserting; but for the important use of all which, in these iconographic and ethnological studies, we beg to tender to the Chevalier our joint acknowledgments. 108 GENERAL REMARKS ON ICONOGRAPHY. Kam-teu, Belief. Fig. 9. dently more conventional. It is not a free artistical imitation of Fig. 8. nature, the hand of the sculptor heing fettered by traditionary rules. This conventionalism of the reliefs not being applicable to statues, is an evi- dence that sculpture in Egypt began with the relief, which again grew out of the simple outline. The principal difference between the two portraits is, that the eye is not fore-shortened in the relief, whilst the lips are too long; still, the peculiar raising of the angles of the mouth is not conventional in the first period of Egyptian art. The red granite statue of prince Bet-mes, [9] in the British Museum, (No. 60, A,) an officer of State, "king's relation," of the same period, displays a similar artistical character; clumsy proportions, but a close observation of nature, without any tendency to embellish or to idealize. It is, what it was intended to be, a faithful portrait. The homely relief-head [10] of an- other "royal relative," Ey-meei, of the IVth dynasty, from the Berlin Museum, possesses such a striking individuality of character that, in spite of the conventional repre- sentation of the eye, we cannot doubt for a moment its resem- blance to this royal kinsman of king Cheops - Suphis, whose tomb is the great pyramid of Geezeh. We now have the pleasure of submitting to the reader, in a series of lithographic plates, por- traits as yet unique in the history Et-meei, Relief. of Art, which for antiquity, inte- rest, beauty, and rareness, surpass everything hitherto known. Bet-mes, Statue. Fig. 10. pin. m M.Solzmannpiioto6.'P.aris Ancient Scribe' (Ante,. PI I.') -Profile - JSJraK Same head, altered into a modern Fellah. Giidikn.resterarFlilai F SDTival &. Co. lila press PhiT GENERAL REMARKS N" ICONOGRAPHY. 109 Particulars concerning the unrivalled and still-inedited discoveries, during the years 1851-54 at Memphis, of M. Auguste Mariette, now one of the Conservateurs of the Louvre Museum, are supplied by our collaborator Mr. Gliddon [Chapter V. infra]. With that frank liberality which is so honorable to scientific men, MM. de Rouge, Mariette, and Deveria, not merely permitted Mrs. Gliddon to copy whatever, in that gorgeous Museum, might become available to the present work ; but the last-named Egyptologist kindly pre- sented her husband with the photographic originals (taken by M. Deveria himself from these scarcely-unpacked statues, — May, 1855,) from which our copies have been transferred directly to the stone, without alteration in any perceptible respect. In these complaisant facilities, the very distinguished photographer of Jerusalem, M. Aug. Salzmann, also volunteered his skilful aid ; and we reproduce [see PI. LL] the facsimile profile of the " Scribe," due to his accurate instrument. Not to be outdone in generosity towards their trans- atlantic colleague, Chev. Lepsius, who had just been surveying these " nouveautes archeologiques" at the Louvre, subsequently forwarded from Berlin, to Mr. Gliddon in London, a complete series of archaic Egyptian portraits, drawn on stone also from photographs, which included likewise copies of those already obtained from M. Mari- ette's Memphite collection. Such are some of those unrequitable favors through which we are enabled to be the first in laying docu- ments so precious before fellow-students of ethnology. Their power- ful bearing upon the question of permanence of type in Egypt during 5000 years, — upon that of the effects of amalgamation among dis- tinct types, in elucidation of the physiological law that the autoch- thonous majority invariably, in time, absorbs and effaces the foreign minority ; and as supplying long-deficient criteria whereby to analyze and compare the ethnic elements of less historical nations than the Egyptians, — these interesting points fall especially within the pro- vince of Dr. ZSTott ; and he has discussed them in his Prefatory Re- marks to this volume. With these brief indications, we proceed to test our theory of the principles that characterize the Art of different nationalities ; calling to mind, with regard to these most antique specimens of all statuary, that, until their arrival at Paris in the autumn of 1854, it had scarcely been suspected that the primordial Egyptians attained the art of making statues " ronde-bosse" much before the XLTth dynasty [about 2200 b. c.]. The authors of " Types of Mankind," in their wide investigation of monographic data, were unable to produce any Nilotic sculpture more ancient than bas-reliefs. 58 Exceptional doubts, 58 Op. oil., pp. 241-3, PI. I.— IV. 110 GENERAL REMARKS ON ICONOGRAPHY. to this current opinion on the relative modernness of Egyptian statuary, were then entertained chiefly by Mr. Birch — who had already classified, as appertaining to the Old Empire, various archaic fragments in the British Museum, — by Chev. Lepsius, when publish- ing a few mutilated statues among the early dynasties of the Denk- maler, — and by the Vicomte de Rouge, who wrote in 1852 ; 59 " Trois statues de la galerie du Louvre (nos. 36, 37, 38) presentent un excel- lent specimen de la sculpture de ces premiers ages. Dans ces mor- ceaux, uniques jusqu'iei et par consequent inestimables, le type des hommes a quelque chose de plus trapu et de plus rude ; la pose est d'une grande simplicity; quelques parties rendent la nature avec verite ; mais Ton sent deja qu'une loi hieratique a regie les attitudes et va ravir aux artistes une partie precieuse de leur liberte." It must, therefore, be gratifying to the authors of the precursory volume to the present, to find their doctrine, "that the primitive Egyptians were nothing more nor less than — EGYPTIANS," 80 so incontestably confirmed by a group of statues which did not reach Paris for six months after the publication of their researches ; and we may now rejoice with those archaeologists, whose acumen had already foreshadowed the discovery of beautiful statuary belonging to the early days of the pyramids, that, henceforward, the series of Egyptian art continues, in an unbroken chain, from the 35th century B. C. down to long after the Christian era. Prince Sepa [Plate HI., fig. 1], and his wife ISTas, or ISTesa, [fig. 2], are the first we shall examine among these statues of the Louvre ; from Lepsius's copy. They are likewise somewhat clumsy as regards the general proportions ; but parts of the body, for instance the knees, are sculptured with an anatomical correctness superior to that of the monuments of the great Ramses. The statue of Shbmka [Plate IV.] "superintendent of the royal domains" (IVth or Vlth dynasty), seated between the small-sized standing figures of princess Ata, his wife, and their son Knem, is an excellent illustration of incipient elongation together with greater elegance of the artistical canon. In spite of the awkward composition, it attracts our atten- tion powerfully, since the face teems with life and individuality; whilst the forms are correct in the main, but lamentably stumpy and clumsy about the bauds and feet. [See Plate V, fig. 2.] The head of a Priest, Pher-nefer, or Pahoo-er-nefer [Plate V., fig. 1 ], " Superintendent of the timber-cutters and of agriculture," found together with Shemka in the same sepulchre, is uncommonly 69 Notice dee Monuments exposes dans la galerie d'antiquitSs eigypliennes (Salle du rez-de-chaus- sSe), au MusSe du Louvre, Paris, 1852, pp. 7-8. «> Types of Mankind, p. 245. .-~ :- I PI. III. .,# Sepa. '■.■:'■ .'■■."■-;... I ill : ■•■ ; : -& ^ II ■ ' ■ I 4 I '+ v*" "\ ! I iff ff ' ' ' ,M. Nesa. 'Louvre Museum. PL IV. . Knem. Skhem-ka. Ata (Luuvre Museum.) GENERAL REMARKS OK ICONOGRAPHY. Ill well moulded; but the crouching statuette of a "Scribe," — cele- brated at the Louvre as "le petit bonhomme" — is the crowning masterpiece of primitive art revealed through Mariette's exhuma- tions. It is from this venerable tomb of the Vth dynasty, 5000 years old, which the later constructors, (above 2000 years ago,) of the ancient Avenue of Sphinxes leading to the Memphite Serapeum had cut through and walled-up again. The material is white limestone, colored red ; which even to its trifling abrasions is reproduced as a most appropriate frontispiece to this work [Plate I.]. The profile view [Plate II., fig. 1] exhibits the excellence of its workmanship, no less than the purest type of an ancient Egyptian. Beneath it [fig. 2], Mr. Gliddon has repeated the same head, with the sole addition of the moustache and short beard, and the mutation of the head-dress into the quilted-cotton skull-cap of the modern peasantry ; and thus we behold the perfect preservation of a typical form of man through 5000 years of time, in the familiar effigy of a living Fellah ! "We are not reduced to mere conjectures," comments the Conservator of the Imperial Louvre Museum, "concerning the figure of the crouching Scribe, placed in the middle of the hall (Salle civile.) 61 It was found in the tomb of Skhem-ka with the figures collected together in the hall of the most ancient monuments (Salle des Monuments.) It appertains, therefore, to the Vth or the Vlth dynasty. The figure, so to say, is speaking : this look which amazes was obtained by a very ingenious combination. In a piece of opaque white quartz is encrusted a pupil of very transparent rock-crystal, in the centre of which is planted a little metallic ball. The whole eye is fixed in a bronze leaf which answers for both eyelids. The sand had very happily preserved the color of all the figures in this tomb. The movement of the knees and the slope of the loins are above all remarkable for their correctness . all the traits of the face are strongly stamped with individuality ; it is evident that this statuette was a portrait." These, with the beautiful head of another Egyptian, long m the Louvre, but unclassed until 1854, [Plate VI.] ^ of perhaps the same period, exceed in artistic interest all the monuments of the Nile-val- ley ; and the speaking expression of their countenances invariably catches the eye of every visitor of the Egyptian Gallery at Paris. Not that they approach ideal sculptured beauty, such as we are accustomed to meet with in Greek statuary ; on the contrary, there is not a spark of ideality in either of the two representations ; their 61 De Rouge, Notice Sommaire des Monumens egypliens exposes dans les galeries du Mush du Louvre, Paris, 18mo., 1855, p. 66. One further observation, instead of being any way em- bellished in our Plate I., our copy, obtained through the heliotype, is defective in the legs; which, projecting in advance of the upper part of the body, are heavier and less propor- tionate than in the stone original ; but possessing no measurements for their reduction, we have not felt at liberty to deviate from M. Deveria's photograph. 62 The following is M. Deveria's note on this gem of antique art: — "Buste provenant d'une statue de l'ancien art memphite, contemporaine des pyramides. Pierre calcaire, pein- ture rouge, grandeur naturelle." Paris, Louvre Museum, 30th May, 1855. 112 GENERAL REMARKS ON ICONOGRAPHY. type is neither grand nor handsome ; but they are truthful and most lively portraits of Egyptians, stamped with such a striking individu- ality, as to leave the impression that they must have resembled their originals, notwithstanding that the imitation of nature is with them not at all painfully scrupulous, and rather evinces considerable artistical tact in the execution. The correctness of the position of the ear in these early Egyptian monuments is peculiarly interesting, since it confirms the observation of Dr. Morton, before alluded to, that its misplacement on the later and more ordinary monuments is not founded upon strict imitation of nature, but that it belongs alto- gether to conventional hieratic mannerism. The relief portrait of king Men-ka-her, of the Vth dynasty [Plate ~VTL) — [say, about 30 centuries b. c] certainly deserves a place of honor as the earliest royal etEgy in existence, not mutilated in its features. 63 It was found, 1851-4, by M. Mariette, on the lower side of a square calcareous stone employed by later hands in a construe tion of the XlXth Dynasty [14th century B. c] in the Serapeium of Memphis. The stone belonged originally to a different monument, probably destroyed by the Hyksos, the ruins of which were thus adopted for building materials by a posterior and irreverent age, — just as Mehemet Ali and his family have destroyed Pharaonic and Ptolemaic temples for the construction of barracks and factories, out of stones Id scribed with the signs of a much higher civilization than that of Egypt's present rulers. 64 It is remarkable that the ear of Men-ka-her is placed too high on tbis relief, whereas on the relief of the "royal daughter" Heta (IVth Dynasty), lithographed by Lep- sius for the Denkmaler, it is entirely correct. The greatest pains have been taken to present a correct facsimile of this ante-Abrahamic Pharaoh's beautiful face. The original was stamped, drawn, and colored at the Louvre, by Mrs. Gliddon ; and the shade of paper on which it is lithographed, is intended to resemble- that of the stone, which has been divested of its pristine colors. Under the X 1 1 tb Dynasty [b. c. 22 centuries] the expression of statues becomes peculiarly refined, and the short and clumsy propor- tions are more elongated. "It seems," says De Eouge, 65 "that in the course of centuries the race has become thinner and taller, under the influence of climate," — or perhaps by the infusion of foreign 63 Those of Shupho and others at Wadee Magara are rather effigies than likenesses, and are too abraded to be relied on. 64 Gliddon, Appeal to the antiquaries of Europe on the destruction of the monuments of Egypt, London, 1841: — Prisse d'Avennes, Collections d'Antiquites egyptiennes au Kaire, ReTue Ar- ch^ologiqne, 16 Mars, 1846. 65 Notice Som., p. 24: — Id., Rapport sur les Coll. egyptiennes en Europe, 1851, p 14. ■ •?> Pahou-er-nowre. 5 1 Pl.V. Skhem-ka. [ Profile.) i Li/iwre Museum.) PI. VI. .-*■-■ J m " ^- fa..'.. ^. (Louvre Museum. GENERAL REMARKS ON ICONOGRAPHY. 113 Shemitic blood, suggests the ethnologist. I do not dare to decide this question, but I simply state the fact, that not only in Egypt but likewise in Greece, and later again at Constantinople, the archaic representations were positively shorter ; and that each successive canon of art extended the legs as well as all the lower parts of the body in relation to the upper ones. Thus the Selinuntian reliefs are shorter than the statues of ^Egina ; which again are shorter than the canon of Polycletes ; whilst the canon of Lysippus is still longer. 66 The barbarous figures upon the triumphal arch of Constantine are so short that they resemble dwarfs ; at the same time that the human body under Justinian and his successors becomes, on the reliefs, by full one-eighth too long. Contemporaneously with the more elegant proportions of the sta- tues of the "XTTth Dynasty, the column makes its appearance in Egyptian architecture. In the hypogea of Beni-Hassan we behold even the prototype of the fluted Doric column. 67 The bas-reliefs of this Dynasty are more beautifully and delicately carved than they ever were at other dates in Egypt ; the movement of the figures is so truthful, and, in spite of the conventional formation of the eye, chest, and ear, so artistically conceived, that we are led to expect much more from the progressive development of Egyptian art than it really accomplished. The glorious dawn was not followed by the bright day it promised. Art culminated under Sesortasen I. [22 cent. b. a], the splendid leg of whose granite statue is at Berlin. It was delicate and refined, but the feeling of ideal beauty remained unknown to the Egyptian race, and the freedom of movement in the reliefs was never transferred to the statues, nor did the relief become emancipated from the thraldom of hieratic conventionalism in the details of the human body. The development of art ever continued to be imperfect and unfinished in the valley of the Nile. There are but very few statues of this period (XTTth Dynasty) extant in the collections of Europe ; monuments closely preceding the invasion of the Hyksos, and therefore more exposed to their ravages, belong to the rarest specimens of Egyptian art. The (inedited) head of prince Amenemha, [11] governor of the west of Egypt, in the time of the XTT th Dynasty, copied from his dark-basalt statue in the British Museum, and the portrait of king Nefer-Hetep I., of the XLTIth Dynasty [Plate VLTJ, fig. 2, from the Denkmaler~], may give those interested in these minute comparisons an idea of the beauty and delicacy of that period, whilst with Amenemha even the 66 See principally K. 0. Mijller, Handbuch der Archceologie, * *"■ ;"' Nefer-hetep I. ( Berlin Museum .) GENERAL REMARKS ON ICONOGRAPHY. 117 Under the long reign of the great conqueror Ramesses LT., the Sesostris of the Greeks, as well as under his successor Menephtah, II. (possibly, as Lepsius considers, the Pharaoh of the Exodus), there is a considerable falling off from the accomplished forms of the pre- ceding periods. Egyptian artists now indulge merely in external grandeur, whilst expression and individuality are neglected. The taste for colossal statuary of enormous size, which always announces ' an inroad of barbarism into art, prevails in the time of the great Conqueror. The artist no longer aims to create satisfaction, but only to excite wonder in the heart of a spectator. The overcoming of mechanical difficulties becomes his highest goal ; — a certain sign that engineer's work is more appreciated by the people than artistic merit. It is remarkable that the deterioration of style, which thence- forward continues for many centuries, appears just under the reign of Ramesses II., who brought Egypt into close contact with Asiatic nations through matrimonial alliances 74 and by conquest: in confirm- ation of which Asiatic infiltration, we perceive that, about his time, several words, avowedly Shemitic, were introduced into the body of the Egyptian language, 75 and Asiatic divinities were im- ported into the Egyptian pantheon; thus for instance Atesh, or Analha, the goddess of love, adored on the banks of the Euphrates, had temples dedicated to her at Thebes ; 76 Baal entered into Ni- lotic theognosy; Astarte soon after had a Phoenician temple at Memphis ; the goddess Kioun-t, with her companion Renpo, appears on steles. 77 But this intercourse with foreign nations, and phara- onic domination over a portion of Asia, exercised no good influence and I designated them, in Types, proceed from emasculation; otherwise, that, at some period of his adult age, he became (not voluntarily like Origen, who was imbued with Matthew xix. 12) an Eunuch; which probable circumstance would also explain the condign ven- geance wreaked by him on the god Amun and its votaries, to whom he doubtless owed his treble voice. My own experiences during 28 years in the Levant entirely corroborate the view taken [loc. cit.) by Marietter — " Nous avons, de notre temps m6me, quelques exemples de ces alliances. Dans ce cas, les infortunes que la civilisation musulmane admet dans son sein a. de si riSvoltantes condi- tions, £pousent des veuves, leurs compatriotes ou leurs allie'es, aux enfants desquelles ils transmettent les b Ltdian. Scythian. NEGRO. Chaldee. ing for Assyria and Babylonia ; it is so striking that it cannot be mis- taken. Next to the Chaldean stands the negro for the Egypto- ^Ethiopian empire added by Cambyses to the Persian. It was on the Nile that Persia became first acquainted with negroes, and therefore chose them for the representatives of Africa ; though the empire of the Achsemenidas, ceasing in Nubia and the western Oases, never extended over Negro-land, or the Soodan proper. The third sup- porter of the platform can be none else than the representative of the Scythian empire of Astyages. His peculiarly-round skull, which still characterizes the pure Turkish and Magyar blood, designates him as belonging to a Turanian race. The last figure in the group wears the Phrygian cap, and personifies the Lydian empire of Crcesus, of which Phrygia, on account of its rich gold-mines, was the most important province. Thus, in the rock-hewn tomb of Darius, (about 490 B. c.) at a time i« Types of Mankind, p. 85, fig. 1 ; and pp. 247-9. i« Texieb, L'Armenie el la Perse, II., pi. 126, "Persepolis — Tombeau dans le roc." CUNEIFORM WRITING. 151 when Greek art was still archaic, Persian sculpture preserved five characteristic types of mankind in an admirable work of art, as evidences of the constancy of the peculiar cast of features of human races. The monumental negro resembles the negro of to-day ; the Arian features of king Darius and his guards are identical with those we meet still in Persia and all over Europe ; the Turanian (or Scythian) bears a family resemblance to many Turks and Hunga- rians ; the identity of the Assyrian and modern Chaldean physiog- nomy has been mentioned and proved above ; and the Phrygian represents the mixed population of Asia Minor, a modification of the Arian type by the infusion of foreign blood — Iranian, Scythic, and Shemitish interminglings. Persian art, as a branch and daughter of the Assyrian, never rose to a higher development than under Darius and Xerxes. The dis- sensions and the profligacy of the royal house checked the progress of art, which remained stationary until Alexander the Macedonian destroyed the independence of the empire, and tried to hellenize the subdued Persians. His endeavors, continued by the first Seleucidse of Syria, were not devoid of results ; because, even when Persia recovered its independence and re-appeared in history as the Par- thian empire, all its coins bear Greek inscriptions and imitations of Grecian types. "We ought not to forget, notwithstanding, that the Parthians were probably not Persians proper, but an unartistical Tu- ranian tribe, held in subjection by the earlier Persians under their Achsemenian kings, which, in its turn, revolting from the yoke, ruled the Persians for above four centuries. Some specimens of a peculiar style of art have been lately disco- vered within the boundaries of the old Persian empire, viz : at Pte- riurn and ISTymphse. They were published by Texier ; 148 and it has been suggested that they might be Median. The bas-reliefs certainly present nothing to suggest any relation to the art of that race which originated the cuneiform writing ; nor is a perceptible affinity con- spicuous between them and the Egyptian style. Nevertheless, the artists who chiselled them knew of the productions of Greek genius. The breath of Hellenism has passed over them, as we perceive from the following male [36] and female [37] heads. They are, therefore, by many centuries posterior to the great Median empire. Still, it would be presumptuous to attribute them to any determinate nation- ality, since none of the highlands flanking Asia Minor, inhabited then by aboriginal tribes, were ever completely hellenized; although they were powerfully affected by the genius of Hellas, whose progress 148 Asie Mineure, PI. 61, 78,—" Bas-relief taille' dans le roc. L'Offrande" — et seq. 152 NATIONS OF THE CUNEIFORM WRITING. Fig. 36. Fig. 37. never was stopped by "barbarians," but only by the equally pow- erful and expanding Sbemitic and Arian civilization. The national spirit of the Arians in Persia revived after five centuries of Greek and heL fem'zed-Parthian rule. Ardeschir, tbe son of Babek, and grandson to Sassan, rose up in rebellion against tbe Parthian Arsacides, and broke down their supremacy in a long protracted war about the beginning of the third century of our era (a. d. 214-226 : obiit, 240). With his tri- umph, Persian art revived once Goddess from Pterium. more ; and although it inherited no Fig. 38. connection with the traditions of Achsemenian art, it was again characterized by the peculiar rich- ness of the flowing drapery. Sassanide art is at any rate equal, if not superior, to the contemporary style of Rome ; indeed, the head of Ar- deschir himself, [38] from a rock- sculpture at Persepolis, is a -most creditable work of art, scarcely surpassed by any Roman relief of the same period. This "Indian summer" of ancient Persian art lasted but for a short time ; it de- generated under the later kings, and was entirely destroyed by the Mohammedan conquest, in the se- venth century. The Kur'an was introduced by fire and sword, and became soon the undisputed law of the Persian race. Accordingly, we might expect the cessation of artistical life. But here we meet with a most striking evidence in favor of our assertion that art is the result of a peculiar innate ten- dency of some races, which cannot be crushed out by civil and reli- gious prohibitions. As soon as the Persians recovered their politi- cal independence, and fell off from the Arab, Khalifate of Bagdad, they continued to draw and even to carve human forms, though they never ceased to profess strict adherence to the Kur'an. Their style Ardeschir. 149 119 Texier, Armenie, 1852, ii., PI. 148. THE ETRUSCANS AND THEIR ART. 153 of art changed now for the third time ; but neither the instinct for art, nor its habitual practice, has ever yet been destroyed among the true Iranian race of Persia. Y. — THE ETRUSCANS AND THEIR ART. The Etruscans were a mongrel race, the result of the amalgama- tion of different tribes, partly Asiatic, partly European, both Italian and Greek. Their language was mixed, though it is still greatly disputed how far the Greek elements pervaded the aboriginal forms of speech. As to the origin of the Etruscans : the most probable opinion is, that Lydians from the ancient Torrhebis in Asia emi- grated to Italy and became the rulers of the then little-civilized abo- rigines, who were either Pelasgic TJnibrians, or a Celtic Alpine tribe, which had- previously and gradually migrated southwards. They - held the country from the Po to the Tiber, and extended even to (Jf southern Italy. Greek immigrants, principally ^Eolians from Corinth, settled among them at a somewhat later period, and the mixture of these nationalities produced the historical Etruscans. In regard to the details, the standard authors on Etruria differ in their opinions. Raoul-Pochette takes them for Pelasgi, modified by Lydians; whereas 15Tiebu.hr denies the Lydian immigration related by Herodo- tus ; the Tyrrhenians being with him foreign conquering invaders, but not Lydians. Still, the monuments of Etruria bear evidence both to the early connection between Etruria and Lower Asia, and to the existence of an unartistic aboriginal population of Umbri, Siculi, &c. This view is supported by a great orientalist, Lanci, 150 who distin- guishes three periods of Etruscan literature : — 1st. When the Phoe- nico-Lydian elements arrived in Italy ; 2d., when the Greeks began to mix with it, after the advent of Demaratus ; and 3d., when Gre- cian mythology, letters, and tongue, preponderated. Similar is that of Lenormant, 151 in perceiving three phases of civilization in Etruria — " une phase asiatique, une phase corinthienne, une phase athe- nienne." If, notwithstanding, we remember how, as late as 1848, the whole stock of words recovered from inscriptions amounted to but thirty-three ; 152 and that, — besides a few names of deities, like ^ESAR, "God" (Osiris ?),— tl^e formula RLL AVTL "vixit annos," CLAN" loo Parere di Michaelangelo Lanci inlorno all' Iscrizione Elrusca delta statua Todina del museo Valicano, Roma, Aprile, 1837. 151 " Fragment sur l'etude des vases peintes antiques, Revue Archeol., May, 1844, p. 87. 152 Denis, Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria, London, 1848, pp. xlii-v, that is to say, such words as cannot be explained from Greek and Latin roots. -'• 154 THE ETRUSCANS "filius," and SEC "filia," comprised all now known in reality of the lost speech of the Tyrrheni ; we may well exclaim with the prophet, " it is an ancient nation, a nation whose language thou knowest not." "Whatever be the pedigree of the Etruscans, they were a hardy and enterprising nation, full of energy and skill, ready to receive improve- ments from foreign populations, even if, in their institutions, they were rather conservative. History shows them as a free, aristocratic, and manufacturing nation, characterized by a marked practical ten- dency, by little idealism and feeling for beauty, but much ingenuity in applying art to household purposes and to the comfort of private life. They were, in fact, the English of antiquity, — but they had not the good luck of the British islanders to be surrounded by the sea, and thus to have enjoyed the possibility of maintaining and develop- ing their independence without foreign intervention. Eew dangers threatened the Etruscans from the north : they protected themselves sufficiently against the incursions of savage Gauls, by fortifying their towns, the cyclopean walls of which are still the wonder of the tra- veller. It was principally towards the south that they had to contend with powerful foes. The maritime states of Cumse, Corinth, Syra- cuse, and Carthage, interfered with the extension of Etruscan naval enterprise, and prevented its full development on the Adriatic and on the Mediterranean. Still, the Etruscans were strong enough to defend their own coast, and to exclude the establishment of indepen- dent Greek and Punic settlements on the Tuscan territory. A more important and finally fatal enemy arose in their immediate vicinity, ■ — Rome, with her population of hardy agriculturists, and a senate bent upon conquest and annexation. Accordingly, wars recurred from time to time, from the foundation of the city until 120 b. c, when the Tyrrhenian country was finally annexed to Rome. Never- theless, the city on the Tiber had long previously felt the influence of the Etruscans in her institutions, laws, and religion. Etruria gave kings and senators to Rome. Her sacerdotal rites, her works of public utility, the dignified costume of official splendor, and appa- rently even that universal popular garb, the toga, were all of Etrus- can origin. There are principally three features in the history of Etruria, which had a peculiar influence on its art. Being of mixed origin themselves, the Tuscans displayed a greater receptivity of exotic influences, than more homogeneous nations, who feel always' a kind of repulsion against foreigners. Being exposed to the attacks of the Gauls, they had to live in towns ; and therefore commerce and manufacturing industry were of greater importance among them than agriculture. Lastly, their history presents no epoch of great national triumphs, ele- AND THEIR ART. 155 vating the patriotism of the people, and inspiring the poet and artist. Art being everywhere the mirror of national life, we find these pecu- liar features of the Tuscan history expressed in the paintings and sculptures of Etruria. They lack originality. The artists borrowed their forms of art from all the nations with whom their country came into contact. Idealism and a higher sense of beauty remained foreign to them ; in consequence, they never reached the highest eminence of art. Under their hands, it became principally ornamental and decorative, mechanical; and, above all, practical and comfortable among these obesos et pingues Etruscos. Whilst temples and their propylee are the principal objects of Greek architecture, the walls of the town, the bridge, the canal, the sewer, and the highway, charac- terize Tuscan art. This Etruscan want of originality and peculiar receptivity of foreign influences extends not only to the forms, but even to the subjects of their paintings and sculpture. They rarely occupy themselves with their own myths and superstitions, but deal principally with Greek mj'thology as developed by the great Epics and even Tragic poetry of Greece. All the artistical forms of Etruria were imported from abroad. Micali, in his Monumenti Antichi, and Monumenti Inediti, has pub- lished so many and such various ancient relics of Etruscan workman- ship, that a three-fold foreign influence on Tuscan art can no longer be doubted, viz : Egyptian, Asiatic and Greek. Besides these, we find that the bulk of the nation must have clung to a peculiar kind of barbarous and ugly idols, intentionally distorted like the pateeci of the Phoenicians. These deformed caricatures continued to be fabri- cated in Etruria to a rather late period : 153 they are an evidence of the fact that there was an unartistical element in the Tuscan nation, never polished by the Lydian and Greek immigration. The easy introduction of foreign forms of art shows likewise that there existed no higher national style in Etruria previous to the Tyrrhenian influences. The most peculiar of all the foreign forms of art among the Tus- cans is the Scarabseus, that is to say, the beetle-shape of their sculp- tured gems. They must have borrowed it direct from Egypt without any Greek inter-medium, since the scarab-form of gems is exceedingly rare in Greece, and not of so early a period as the Etruscan scarabsei. In Egypt this form was always national, being the most common symbol of the creative power of godhead. The Egyptian, beholding 153 Gerhard, Sformale immagini in Bronzo, Bullelino dell' Institute, 1830, p. 11 ; and Etru- rischc Spiegelzeichnurgen, Chap. 1. 156 THE ETRUSCANS the beetle of the Nile with its hind legs rolling a ball of mud, which contained the eggs of the insect, from the river to the desert, saw in the scarabaaus the symbol of the Creator, shaping the ball of the earth out of wet clay, and planting in it the seeds of all life. 154 The Egyptian artist often represented this symbol of godhead ; and when he had to carve a seal, (the sign of authenticity by which kings and citizens ratify their pledged word and engagements,) he cut it on stone, which he carved into the shape of a beetle, as if thus to place the seal under the protection and upon the symbol of godhead, in order to deter people both from forgery and from falsehood. Placed over the stomach of a mummy, according to rules specially enjoined in the "funereal ritual," it was deemed a never-failing talisman to shield the "soul" of its wearer against the terrific genii of Anienthi. The Egyptian symbol, however, possessed no analogous religious meaning for the Etruscans when they adopted the form of the scarabfeus : and even after they had abandoned it, they still retained the Egyptian cartouche, which encircles nearly all the works of Etrus- can glyptic. Besides the scarabsei, we find in Etruria several other Egyptian reminiscences, — head-dresses similar to the Pharaonic fashion, 155 and even idols of glazed earthenware, entirely of Egyptian shape ; for instance the representation of Khons, the Egyptian Hercules ; 156 of Onoueis, the Egyptian Mars ; or of sistrums and cats, 157 all of them most strikingly Egyptian in their style. A certain class of black earthenware vases decorated with stamped representations in relief, many of the earliest painted vases, some gems mostly of green jasper, and the marble statue of Polledrara now in the British Museum, are by style and costume so closely con- nected with the monuments of Assyria, that it is now difficult to doubt of a connection between Etruria and inner Asia. The disbe- lievers in the Lydian immigration explain the Oriental types of Etruria by intercourse with Phoenician merchants, and by the im- portation of Babylonian tapestry, — -celebrated all over the ancient world, — which might have familiarized the Etruscans with the Assyrian style and type of art. But the use of the arch in Tuscan architecture finally disposes of this explanation, since we learned that the arch was known to the Assyrians, but not to the early Greeks. It was introduced into the states of Hellas at a rather late period, about 154 Hoeapollo Nilous, Hieroglyphica, transl. Cory, London, 1840; — "How an only- begotten," | X, pp. 19-22. 155 Monumenti dell' Institute-, vol. 1, pi. XLI. fig. 11-12. 156 Micalt, Monumenti Antiehi, tav. 45-46. 15 ' Idem, Monum. Inedili, tav. I, II, XVII, L. AND THEIR ART. 157 the times of Phidias. Had this architectural form heen brought to Etruria by the Phoenicians, it would have reached Greece at the same time as Italy, or earlier; whereas the contrary is the case. The earliest architectural arch we know is in Egypt, and belongs to the reign of Eamesses the Great. 158 Monsieur Place and Dr. Layard have discovered brick arches in the palaces of Sargon and his successors in Assyria, and on the Ninevite reliefs we often see arched gates with regular key-stones. Etruria was the next in time to make use of the arch. The Lydians, neighbors of Assyria, must have been acquainted with arched buildings, and in their new home made a most extensive use of this architectural feature for gates, and for sewers ; of which the celebrated Qloaca Maxima of Rome, built by the Tarquinii, is the most important still-extant example. It is, therefore, rather amusing to perceive that Seneca, 159 having before his eyes this monument of his country's early greatness, thoughtlessly alleges that Democritus, the contemporary of Phidias, invented the principle of the arch and of the key-stone. Indeed, the Romans were no great critics : Seneca ex- tracted the above-mentioned fact(!)from the Greek author Posidonius, and trusted his Grecian authority more than his own knowledge. Democritus was probably the man who introduced the arch from Italy into Greece, and got the credit of its invention among his vain fellow-citizens. Of all the foreign influences on Etruscan art, the Greek was the most powerful. It soon superseded both the Egyptian and the Oriental types. But here we ought not to forget that many of the Italic colonies of Grsecia Magna came from Asia, not from European Greece, and that the art of Ionia proper and of the neighboring countries exercised at least an equal influence on the Italiots with that of Greece proper. Our histories of art, hitherto, have not paid sufficient attention to the development of art among the Asiatic Greeks ; although the monuments discovered and to a certain extent published by Sir Charles Fellowes, Texier, Elandin and others, yield ample material for a comprehensive work on the subject, which might probably show that not only the poetry, history or philosophy, of the Greeks, but even their art, had its cradle in Asia Minor. At any rate, the numerous colonies of Miletus, Phocfea, Heraclia, Cyme,and other states of Ionia and ^Eolis, carried the principles of Greek art further than Greece proper. As to the Greek influence on Etruria, we have to distinguish two if not three periods : the early Asiatic Ionian, which introduced the ls8 Sir Gardner Wilkinson, Ancient Egyptians, v. 1, p. 18, & II, p. 300: — crude brick arches are, however, certainly as old as Thotmes III. 153 Epistol. 90. 158 THE ETRUSCANS AND THEIR ART. rigid archaic style of the Tuscan bronze-figures ; 16 ° the later Doric style, carried to Tarquinii from Corinth by Demaratus, which cha- racterizes the potteries of Italy ; and perhaps a still later Attic style, chaste and dignified, such as we admire on the best Etruscan vases. Inasmuch, however, as all the names of the artists inscribed on the vases, the alphabet of the inscriptions, and the style of the drawing, are exclusively Grecian, there are many arch^ologists who do not attribute them to Etruria, but believe they may have either been imported from Greece, or manufactured in Etruria by guilds of Greek artists who maintained their nationality in the midst of the Tuscans. The national type of Tuscan physiognomies is rather ugly : entirely different from the Egyptian, Shemitic, Assyrian or Greek cast. It is characterized by a low forehead, high cheek-bones, and a coarse and prominent chin. The following wood-cut [38] shows two archaic heads from an embossed silver-relief found in Perugia, 161 now in the British Museum. The next figure is a fragment of a statue, [89] sculp- Fig. 38. Fig. 39. Etruscan Heads. Vulcian Head. tured out of a porous volcanic stone called Nenfro. It was found at Vulci, and is remarkable for the Egyptian head-dress and Etruscan features. 162 The head of Eos, or Aurora, [40] from a celebrated bronze now in the British Museum, found at Falterona in the province of Casentino, 163 gives a poor idea of the Tuscan feeling for beauty ; still, the liveliness of the movement and the excellent execution of the statuette cannot but excite our admiration. Another head [41] of a bronze figure in the British Museum strikingly exhibits the Etruscan 160 The Etruscan bronzes closely resemble the archaic Greek figures : still, the peculiar Etruscan physiognomy, and the national fashion of shaving the beard, distinguish them from the early Greek monuments. 161 Milmngen, Ancient Inedited Monuments, HE, pi. 162 Monumenti dell' Institute-, I, pi. XLI ; and Lenoir, Tombeaux Urusgues, Annali dell' Insti- tute-, 1832, page 270. 163 See also Mioali, Mon. Inediti, pp. 86-98, tavola XIII, 1 and 2. THE ART OF THE GREEKS. 159 type of features. These four specimens suffice to show the peculi- Fig. 40. Fig. 41. Eos. Etkuscan. arity of, and the difference between, the art of Etruria and that of the surrounding nations. It occupies a higher rank than the art of Phoenicia, but it is inferior to the Greek, since it remained depend- ent upon foreign forms, and was unable to acclimatize itself thoroughly in upper Italy. VI. — THE ART OF THE GREEKS. It was the Greeks, who, among the Japetide nations, occupied the most important place in the histoiy of mankind. Though compara- tively few in number, they have, during the short time of their national independence, done more for the ennoblement of the human race, than any other people on earth. It was among the Greeks that the genius of freedom, for the first time in history, expanded its wings in highly civilized states, even under the most complicated relations of aristocracy and democracy, of unity, suzerainty and federalism. Under the rule of liberty, the Greek mind dived boldly into the sea of knowledge, and along with the treasures of science secured that idea of plastical beauty and measure, which pervades all the Hellenic life so thoroughly that even virtue was known amongst that gifted race only as xciXmaya'hia. ; that is to say, beauty and good- ness. The power of Greek genius manifested itself not only by its intensity when applying itself to science and art, but likewise by its expansion and fertility. All the shores of the Euxine, of lower Italy, Sicily, Cyrene, and considerable portions of the Gaulish coast, were studded with Greek colonies, proceeding from the mother 1G0 THE ART OF THE GREEKS. country lite bee-swarms, not in order to extend its power, but to grow up themselves, and to prosper freely and independently. Within the same period, Macedonia, Epirus, and the inner countries of Asia Minor, up to the confines of the Shemites, were pervaded by Greek influences in art and manners ; and when at last exhausted by their unhappy divisions, the Greeks lost their independence, the hellenic spirit still maintained itself in art and science ; and, carried by Macedonian arms all over the Persian empire and Egypt, con- tinued to live and to thrive among nations of a high indigenous civilization. Greece, conquered by Rome, as Horace says, subdued the savage conqueror, and imported art and culture into the rude Latin world. Absorbed ethnically by amalgamation with Roman elements, Hellenism survived even the political wreck of Rome, and rose to a second though feeble development among the mongrel Byzantines, who, well aware that they were not Greeks, although speaking the Greek language, never ceased to call themselves Romans. Even now their country is called Roum-ili, by the Turk, and they call their own language Romaic. Down to our own days, Greek genius exerts its humanizing influences over the most highly cultivated part of the world, constituting the foundation of all the most comprehensive and properly human education. The national ebaracter of the Greeks, as expressed in their history, is fully developed in their art, which from its very beginning is characterized by freedom and movement, restricted by the most delicate feeling for measure, and refined by a tendency towards the ideal, without losing sight of nature. Progressive in its character, Greek art often change its forms of expression, — we may say from generation to generation, — with a fertility of genius, easier to be admired than explained. In Egyptian, Assyrian, and Persian sculp- ture, we noticed successive changes in the details, but scarcely any real and substantial progress. Among all those nations, the rudi- ments of art were not materially different from their highest develop- ment ; whilst in Greece we are able to trace the history of sculpture from comparative rudeness to the highest degree of eminence — human perfectibility, under the rule of freedom, has never been more gloriously personified than in the Greek nation. The question of the origin of Greek art has often been raised in antiquity as well as in modern times, but the answers are altogether contradictory. The celebrated Roman admiral Pliny, a "dilettante" who compiled his Natural History indiscriminately from all the sources accessible to him, preserved the charming story of the Corinthian girl, who drew the outline of the shadow of her departing lover's face on the THE ART OF THE GREEKS. 161 wall, aud mentions it as the first artistical attempt. Her father, he continues, filled the outline up with clay, and baking it, produced the first relief. "We can scarcely doubt that this pretty tale is derived from some Greek epigram, which was popular in the times of Pliny, for connecting art with love ; but it cannot satisfy criticism. "Wmckelman, the father of scientific archaeology, deduced the Greek statue a priori from the Herma or bust; forgetting that Hermas and busts, where the head has to represent the whole figure, belong to the later, reflecting epoch of sculpture. No little boy ever tries to draw a head alone, nor can he enjoy its representation ; he looks immediately for its complement, the body, without which he thinks it deficient. Indeed, busts and Hermas remained unknown to the national art of Egypt and Assyria ; moreover, the earliest sculptural works mentioned by Greek authors are statues, not busts. So are all the Palladia and Dsedalean works, the outlines and general fea- tures of which are known from their copies on vases, coins and gems. 164 The types of the earliest coins are figures, though soon succeeded by heads. Steinbuchel, with apparent plausibility, de- rives Greek art from Egypt. Still, it is rather going too far when he connects its rudiments with the mythical Egyptian immigration of Cecrops to Attica, and of Danaus to Argos, hypothetically placed about 1500 B.C., when Egyptian art was highly developed. "What- ever be the truth about the nationality of Cecrops and Danaus, so much is certain, that imitative art was unknown in Greece for at least seven centuries after the pretended date of their immigration; since the earliest records of works of art carry us scarcely beyond the end of the seventh century, b. c, and the earliest works extant do not ascend beyond the first half of the sixth century. Indeed, Greece and Grecians existed a long time before they possessed statu- aries. 165 (Plutarch, in Numa, says that images were by the learned considered symbolical, and deplored. Numa, the great Roman law- giver, forbade his people to represent Gods in the form of man or beasts ; and this injunction was followed for the first 470 years of the republic. 166 ) Another opinion, that Greek art is a daughter of the Assyrian, is likewise often hinted at ; but, as already mentioned, the earliest works of Greek sculpture are anterior, by a score of years, to the bloom of the Lydian empire, by which alone Greece could have become acquainted with the art of inner Asia. But though we cannot connect the rudiments of Greek sculpture either with Egypt or Assyria 164 Prof. Edward Gerhard published many of them in his " Centurien." ira Pausanias, lib. VIII., and XXII. ; and lib. IX. i 86 Varro, apud Auffust.de Oivit. Dei, lib. IV., c, 6: — R. Payne Knight, Symbolical Language of Ancient Art and Mythology, London, 1818, p. 71. 11 162 THE ART OF THE GREEKS. and Babylon, we must still admit the early influence of Egyptian (Saitic) and oriental art over Greece. A peculiar school of ancient sculpture, to which the invention of casting statues is attributed, developed itself in the island of Samos between the 30th and 55th Olympiad (657-557 b. c.) extending from the time of Psammeticus of Egypt to the epoch of Croesus of Lydia, and Cyrus of Persia ; and history contains many evidences of the intercourse of the Samians with the kings of Egypt and Lydia, and with the merchants of Phoenicia. The types of the coins of Samos, — the lion's head and bull's head, — are similar to the Assyrian representations. As to the Egyptian influence, Steinbiichel justly lays peculiar stress upon the rude archaic type of the silver coins of Athens with the helmeted head of Minerva, which was persistently retained by the republic even in the times of her highest artistical eminence. It certainly shows the eye, repre- sented in the Egyptian front-view, whilst the angle of the lips is raised, and smiles in the later pharaonic manner. All the earliest coins and bas-reliefs of Greece are characterized by the same pecu- liarity, and some of them retained even the Egyptian head-dress in slightly modified forms. The anecdote preserved by Diodorus Siculus, concerning Telecles and Theodorus of Samos, (who are said to have made a bronze statue in two halves, independently of one another, which upon being joined were found to agree perfectly),was likewise explained by the invariable rules of the Egyptian canon ; 167 though, according to our views, it has nothing to do with Egypt, and owes its origin probably to the traces of chiselling that removed the seam of the cast all along the figure, and which being of a diffe- rent color from the unchiselled surface of the statue, was mistaken for ancient soldering. The indubitable connexion of Greece with Egypt, under the Sa'ite dynasty, could not fail to have great influence on art. The Greeks gained from that quarter their acquaintance with the different mechanical processes of sculpture, carving, moulding, casting, and chiselling: though, too proud to acknowledge their debt to foreigners, they attributed the invention of the saw and file, drill and rule, to the mythical Cretan Dsedalus, or to the Samian Theodorus, the elder ; at any rate, to artists natives of the Archipelago in proximity with Egypt. It seems, indeed, that the opening of Egypt gave a sud- den impulse to sculpture and painting among the Hellenes : for nearly all the earliest works mentioned by the ancients belong to this period, with the exception, perhaps, of the casket of Cypselos, and of the 167 Diodok., i, 98:— 60 f.:— MUller, Archceologie, \ 70, 4. THE ART OP THE GREEKS. 163 golden statue of Jupiter, dedicated by Cypselos at Olympia. 168 The athletic statues of Arrhachion 169 (53 Olympiad), Praxidamas (58 01.), and Rhexibios (61 01.), at Olympia, of Cleobis and Biton, at Delphi 170 (about 50 01.), of Harmodius and Aristogeiton, at Athens (67 01.), all works of the Samian school, (and among them the works of art dedicated by Alyattes and Croesus to the Delphian temple), were the result of the intercourse with Egypt : and, from tbe description of some of them, as for instance, the statue of Arrhachion, we see that their rigid attitude must have resembled the Egyptian statues. Still, whatever be the foreign influences on the beginnings of Greek art, nobody will ever take the most archaic Greek relief for a specimen of Egyptian or Assyrian art. Though such Greek rudi- ments are less elaborate than the royal works of Thebes, Nineveh, or Persepolis, they have a peculiar national style unmistakably Greek. The earliest of all the existing Greek marble reliefs is the fragment of a throne found in Samothrace, now in the Louvre ; [41] which certainly Fig. 41. Fig. 42. Samotheacian Relief. belongs to the beginning of the Vlth century b. c. 171 and is probably contemporaneous- with the Pana- thensen vases 172 characterized by the figure of [42] Minerva. Both of them are rude, and influenced bv the Egyptian style. Still, the long and straight nose, the prominent chin, and the absence of individualism in the representation, are all as distinct from Egypt as from Assyria. 168 Ottfeied Mullee tries to prove that both these archaic sculptures must belong to a period posterior to Cypselos. w Pausanias, vi., 18, 6. «i Millinoen, Ancient Inediled Monuments, v. iii., 1. «° Heeodot. 1 31. W id em ^ j, i. MlNEEVA. 164 THE ART OF THE GREEKS. The sense of beauty was not yet sufficiently developed among Greek artists ; but it is remarkable that even in its rudiments Greek art, unlike tbe Egyptian, 173 bad nothing to do with portraits ; it was not the king, but tbe hero and the god who became the objects of the artist's creation. Not less striking is the complete absence of the landscape in Grecian art. The human form and animated nature are for the Greek the exclusive object of representation ; accordingly, he personifies day and night, the sun and the moon, time and tbe seasons, the earth and the sea, the mountains and the rivers ; he gives them the features of men ; but tbe human figure he draws is always a type of the race, not the e&gy of an individual. The peculiar archaic type, characterized by the elongated form of the nose, and the prominent and somewhat pointed chin, maintained itself up to the time of Phidias, preserving the characteristic features of the early Hellenes. We find the same profile on the coins of Do- rian and of Ionian States, in Sicily, in Attica, and in Asia Minor. The following heads will sufficiently explain our statement. Fig. Fig. 43. Fig. 44. Athenian Minerva. (Pulszky Coll.) Corinthian Coin. 43 is the type of the Athenian tetradrachms. Fig. 44 is tbe enlarged copy of a Corinthian silver coin. The following wood-cut is taken from the coins of Phoceea, in Ionia [45]; whilst Fig. 46 is copied from one of the statues on the pediment of the temple of ^Egina, dedicated to Jupiter Panhellenius — the god of all the Greeks — soon after the battle of Salamis (Olymp. 75). 1,3 [The art of each represents the instinctive genius of the two people, as diverse in intellect as in blood. " iEgyptiaca numinum fana plena plangoribus, Grseca plerumque choreis " — Bays Apuleius (De Genio. Socrat.) ; which is just the difference between Old and New Eng- land puritanism and South European catholicity. — G. E. G.] THE AKT OF THE GREEKS. Fig. 45. Fig- 46. 165 Phoolan Coin. ^Egina Statue. The mythical victory of the united states of Hellas over the Tro- jans, supported by all their Asiatic kin, represented on the pediment of this temple, was intended to symbolize the recent victory of the Greeks over the Asiatic host of Xerxes. One generation more carries us at once to the glorious time of Pericles and Phidias, to the highest development of ideal grandeur, as seen on the sculptures of the Parthenon, never surpassed by human art, — the beauty, pride and triumph of youthful Greece lives in them. We might have taken one of the Parthenon fragments in the British Museum, which, although the nose is mutilated, would give an idea of the genius of Phidias. But artistic eminence was not confined to Attica alone ; in Argos and Sicyon, in Sicily and in Grsecia Magna, in Ionia and Cyrene, sculptors and painters grew up second to none but to Phidias. For more than one century, down to the time of Alexander of Macedon, all the intestine wars, revolutions and temporary oppressions, could not arrest the majestic flow of Greek art, characterized by freedom and ideal beauty. The head of a child [48] from a Lycian relief, 174 and of a warrior, [49] from a monument of Iconium 175 (Koniah) in Lycaonia, show that Hellenic art flourished even in those countries where the bulk of the nation was not Greek, though we ought not to forget that all those monuments were evidently the work of Hellenic artists ; for, as Cicero justly remarks, all the lands of the "barbarians" had a fringe of Greek countries where they reached the sea. 175 The sculptures of Lydia, »* Texier, Asie Mineure, III, pi. 226. 1,5 Texier, Armenie, II, pi. 84. — 1. 176 De Rep. II, iv, — Coloniarum vero, quce est, deducta a Grajis adluat 1 Ita barbarorum agris quasi adtexta videtur ora esse Grtscios. quam unda non 166 THE ART OF THE GREEKS. and of all the countries of Asia Minor, differ little from the monu- ments of Greece proper. The type of the Sicilians and of the Italiots is somewhat more diverse ; principally characterized by the full and round chin of the Fig. 48. Ltcian Child. Lycaonian Soldier. Fig. 50. females, as seen in the following wood-cut [50] of Proserpina, taken from an intaglio in cornelian, which belongs to my collection. "We sometimes find the same peculiar chin even now among the females of Calabria and Sicily, but especially on the island of Ischia, where, according to a tradition, the Greek blood of its inhabitants was scarcely mixed by foreign intermarriages. One feature, sufficiently explained by the institutions of Greece, is common to all these monuments of Hellenic art, viz : the absence of portraits, — individuality being merged into the glorification of the human form by a purely ideal treatment. Just as in life the idea of the State absorbed the interests and even the rights of the individual, so individuality was ignored in the art of Greece ; we never meet with portraits during all the time of Greek independence; for even the representations meant to be portraits were ideal. Alcibiades, according to Clemens Alexandrinus, 177 became a Mercury, and Pericles looked a demigod. A rock-relief on a tomb in Lycia, at Cadyanda, the cast of which is Peoseepina. (Pulszky Coll.) 1,1 Admonit. adversus gentes, p. 35. THE ART OF THE GREEKS. 167 now in the British Museum, 178 inscribed with the historical names of Hecatomnos, Mesos, Seskos, £c, contains no portrait, but only ideal figures. The Crcesus of the magnificent vase of the Louvre might be taken for a Jupiter, were it not designated by the name. It was not before the time of Alexander the Macedonian that real portraits began to be made. Lysistratus, brother of the great sculptor Lysippus, was in Greece the first who made a plaster-cast of the face of living persons, and who, according to Pliny, 179 made real likenesses, whilst his predecessors had tried to make them rather beautiful than faith- ful. Pliny's testimony is fully borne out by the remaining monu- ments of art belonging to the period of Alexander : they show during the life of the great king some marked attempts at individuality, though idealism is not yet excluded from the portrait. The head of the conqueror of Persia, on his own coins, is scarcely distinguishable from the type of his mythic ancestor Hercules. Under his successor, Lysimachus, the portrait of Alexander on the Macedonian coins is by far more individual. The beautiful bust of Demosthenes I8 ° [51] in the Vatican, though it be the work of a later age, is certainly a copy of a bust contemporaneous with the last great citizen of Greece. It exhibits the peculiar features and lisping mouth of the eloquent unfortunate patriot ; still, the upper part of the head is undoubtedly ideal. A classical cornelian in my collection, with the intaglio head of Demetrius Poliorcetes [52], shows the efforts of some artists of the Fig. 51. Fig. 52. Demosthenes. Demetrius Poliokcetes, (Pulszky coll.) Macedonian period to blend idealism with individualism. This king's heroic beauty made the task easier; but as, in those times, a portrait always implied a kind of apotheosis, a bull's horn was 178 Synopsis of the British Museum, Lycian Room, Nos. 150-152. 1,9 XXXV, 44. 18 ° Visconti, Iconographti grecque, PI. 29, fig. 2. 168 THE ART OF THE GREEKS. Fig. 53. Perseus. Fig. 54. added to the head to designate Demetrius as the son of Neptune ; whilst in order to combine the horn with the human features, the hair was carved stiff, reminding one of the rigidity of a bull's hair. Equally grand is the portrait of Perseus [53], the last king of Mace- donia, on a cornelian cameo in the imperial library at Paris. 181 It so much resembles some ancient hero, that for a considerable time it was taken for an ideal head of Ulysses. Indeed, if we wish to get real Hellenic portraits, we must leave the territory of Greece, and seek for them among the more realistic nations pervaded by Hellenism, amid whom Greek art descended from the loftier heights of imaginative beauty, to tread the humbler paths of reality. Hitherto no actual portrait has been dis- covered belonging to the times of repub- lican Greece. The following beautiful head [54] on an Asiatic silver coin, in the British Museum, which bears the simple inscription BA2IAEfi2, (the coin) " of the king," is with the greatest plausibility attributed to the younger Cyrus : the die being sunk by some Ionian Greek at the time when this Satrap of Asia Minor rose in rebellion against his brother Arta- xerxes, and assumed the title of the king. Still, the features can scarcely be fairly taken for a portrait ; they are altogether ideal, in fact the embellished representa- tion of the purest Arian type. The aboriginal barbarism of the remoter provinces of the Mace- donian empire, — which was strongly modified, but never entirely overcome by the civilization of the conquerors, — renders the history of Hellenism in Asia, after the death of Alexander, most instructive. It is recorded on the relics of its art, especially on the coins of those Greek dynasties which were not surrounded by Greek populations. From the shores of the Euxine to the confines of India, they pro- claim the supremacy of Greek genius. Still, Hellenism maintains its glory only there where a continuous, uninterrupted, influx of Greek elements keeps up the original blood and spirit of the con- 181 Millin, Monuments Inidits., 1, XIX ; and Frontispiece to the Bulletin archeol. de I'Athe- ncBum Frangais of June, 1855. Cteits the younger. THE ART OF THE GREEKS. 169 querors, as for instance at the court of the Seleueidse at Antioch, and of the Ptolemies at Alexandria. But here the degeneration of the royal houses could not destroy the fertility of Hellenic art ; though in all the countries which were locally separated from Greece, Hellenism declined, and went over into barharism so soon as the original Greek blood of the conquerors was amalgamated with, and absorbed by, native intermixture. The coins of the kingdom of Bactria give the most striking illus- tration of this general rule. During the wars between the Seleucidse and the Ptolemies, Theodotus, the governor of Bactria about the middle of the third century, B.C., declared himself independent of Syria, and founded the Greek dynasty of the Bactrian kingdom. About the same time the Parthians rose likewise in revolt against Antiochus Theos, and their success cut the Bactrians off from Greece proper, and even from the Grecians of Syria. Still, for about a century, Greek art beyond the Hindoo Kush did not decline. The portrait of king Eucratides, king of Bactria, b. c. 170 [55], is, on the coins, a most creditable specimen of the taste and workman- ship of his artists. 182 The isolation of the royal family, however, and its remoteness from Greece and from Hellenic influences, unavoid- ably brought about a relapse into barbarism. King Hermseus, lord of Bactria, b. c. 98 [56], on a coin in the British Museum, is, accord- Fig. 55. Fig. 56. Fig. 57. Eucratides. HeBMjEUS. Kadphtses. ing to his features, apparently a descendant of Heliocles; but the workmanship of the coin is heavy and coarse, and after seeing it we can scarcely be surprised at learning that his dynasty was soon superseded by rude Turanian invaders, who, having no alphabet of their own, maintained at first the Greek, and then adopted the Indian letters and language. In the execution of the types of their coins, they exhibit the rudest barbarism. King Kadphyses [57], 182 p or these and other examples, cf. Wjlson, Ariana Antigua, London, 1841. 170 THE ART OF THE GREEKS. a. d. 50, had his name inscribed in Greek characters, on his coin, now in the British Museum ; but the shape of his skull is Turanian, and the die-sinker must have been a half-civilized and probably half-bred Bactrian. The series of the Arsacide coins is equally instructive, and leads to the same result. The Macedonian conquest destroyed at once the old Persian institutions and civilization ; for, although Alexander assumed the royal insignia and maintained the court etiquette and provincial administration of Persia, yet both he and his cour- tiers remained Greeks, and could not transform themselves into Asiatics. His successors in Asia, the Seleucidse, were still more averse to the old customs of the empire. They therefore removed their residence and the capital of the empire from Babylon, which at that time was still highly flourishing, so far west as Antioch ; and tried to introduce Greek manners and despotic centralized-civiliza- tion, into the provinces adjoining the seat of dominion. The out- lying Satrapies could not long be kept in subjection: and during the war between Antiochus Theos and Ptolemy Philadelphus of Egypt, Arsaces the Satrap stirred up the Parthians (256 B.C.), and at the head of his Scythian horsemen established the Parthian empire in opposition to the Greek Seleucidse, who could not hold the country beyond the Tigris. But Arsaces did not go back to the Achseme- nian institutions: he kept the Arian Persians in subjection, who from the time of Cyrus to Alexander had been the rulers of the Empire : his realm might easier be characterized as the revival of the Scythian empire of Astyages. The Parthians had no indigenous art of their own : according to Lucian, they were 6'u r otegee par la complication la plus ingenieuse de liens soeiaux, contracte, au jour meme ou elle se forme, et cache parmi les elements de sa vie, le principe d'une mort inevitable. . . . Oui, reellement c'est dans le sein meme d'un corps social qu'existe la cause de sa dissolution ; mais, quelle est cette cause ? — La degene- ration, fut-il replique ; les nations meurent lorsqu'elles sont composees d'elements digeneres Je pense done que le mot degenere, s'appliquant a un peuple, doit signifier, et signifie que ce peuple n'a plus la valeur intrinseque qu'autrefois il possedait, paree qu'il n'a plus dans ses veines le meme sang dont des alliages successifs ont graduellement modifie la valeur; autrement dit, qu'avec le meme nom, il n'a pas conserve la meme race que ses fondateurs ; enfin, que l'homme de la decadence, celui qu'on appelle l'homme degenere, est un produit different, au point de vue ethnique, du heros des grandes epoques. Je veux bien qu'il possede quelque chose de son essence ; mais, plus il degenere, plus ce quelque chose s'attenue Il mourra definitivement, et sa civilisation avec lui, le jour oil l'element ethnique primordial se trouvera tenement sub-divise et noye dans des apports de races etrangeres, que la virtualite de cet element n'exer- cera plus desormais d'action suffisante." Undoubtedly, the Science of Man commences with Buffon and Linn^ius — Buftbn first in merit, though second in the order of time. 2 1 De Gobineau, op. cit., pp. 3, 38, 39, 40. OF THE RACES OF -MEN. 215 By the writers anterior to their day, but little was done for human physical history. Among the classical authors, Thucydides, the type of the Grecian historians, treated of man in his moral and political aspects only. The nearest approximation to a physical history is contained in his sketch of the manners and migrations of the early Greeks, and in his history of the Greek colonization of Sicily. The books of Herodotus have more of an ethnographic character, in consequence of the account which he gives of the physical appear- ance of certain nations, whose history he records. Hippocrates theo- rizes upon the influence of external conditions upon man. Aristotle and Plato also distantly allude to man in his zoological character. From the Romans we derive some accounts of the people of North Africa, of the Jews and ancient Germans, and of the tribes of Gaul and Britain. Of these, as Latham has appropriately observed, "the Germania of Tacitus is the nearest approach to proper ethnology that antiquity has supplied." Linnaeus and Buffon, in their valuation of external characters — such as color of skin, hair, &c, — bestowed no attention upon the osseous frame-work. Of cranial tests, and of bony characters in general, they knew nothing, or, knowing, considered them of no value. Hence, although Linjletjs, in his Systema Naturse, brought together the genera Homo and Simia, under the general title Antliro- pomorpha, and although Buffon, filled with the importance of human Natural History, devoted a long chapter to the varieties of the human species, yet the first truly philosophical and practical recognition of the zoological relations of man appears in the anthropological intro- duction with which the illustrious Cuvier commences his far-famed Regne Animal. By the publication of his Decades Craniorum — commenced in 1790, and completed in 1828 — Blumenbach early occupied the field of the comparative cranioscopy of the Races of Men. In consequence of the application of the zoological method of inquiry to the elucidation of human natural history, that work at once gave a decided impulse to the science of Ethnography, and for a long time exerted a consi- derable influence on the views of subsequent writers upon this and kindred subjects. Unable to satisfy the constantly increasing de- mands of the present day, its importance has sensibly diminished. The general brevity of the descriptions, the want of both absolute and relative measurements, and the defective three-quarter and other oblique views of many of the skulls, render it highly unsatisfactory to the practical cranioscopist. Moreover, the number of crania (sixty-five) possessed by Blumenbach was too small, not only to esta- blish the characteristics of the central or standard cranial type of 216 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS each of the many distinct groups composing the human family, but was also found to be inadequate to demonstrate the extent, relatione, and true value of the naturally divergent forms of each group. Prior to the time of Blumenbach, however, Daubenton had already written the first chapter in cranial osteology, by his observations on the basis cranii, and the variations in the position of the foramen magnum occipitis. 22 For the second chapter — the study of the cranium in profile — we are indebted to Camper, who identified his name with the facial angle. 23 Scemmering applied the occipito-frontal arch, the horizontal periphery, and longitudinal and transverse diameters of the cranium to demonstrate the differences between the heads of Europeans and Negroes. 24 During the publication of the Decades, the celebrated Jno. Hunter, of London, began his scientifico-medical career with an inaugural thesis upon the subjects under considera- tion. 25 Nineteen years after the publication of the pentad, by which the sis decades of Blumenbach were completed, Morton's great and original work, the Crania Americana, was given to the world. 26 From that time, human cranioscopy asserted its claims to scientific consi- deration, and gave a decided impetus to anthropology. In 1844, from the same pen, apeared the Crania JEgyptiaca™ which Prichard hailed as a most interesting and really important addition to our knowledge of the physical character of the ancient Egyptians. 28 The only elaborate English contribution to cranioscopy, is the Crania Britannica of Messrs. Davis & Thurnam, the first decade of which has but recently been issued from the British press. To the sterling merits of this work allusion has already been made. Of the scientific labors of those eminent Scandinavian craniologists and antiquarians, Professors Retzius of Stockholm, Mlsson of Lund, and Eschricht of Copenhagen, I need not here speak. To the ethno- graphic student the writings of these savants have been long and favorably known. The French have done but little in this particu- 22 See Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences for 1764. Sur la Difference du Grand Trou occipital dans V Homme et dans les autres Animaux. 23 Dissertation snr les Varie'tfe Naturelles, &c, ouvrage posthume de M. P. Camper. Paris, 1792. 24 Ueber die Korperliche Verschiedenheit des Negers vom Europaer. Frankfurt und Mainz, 1785, p. 50, et seq. 25 Disputatio Inauguralis qusedam de Hominum Varietatibus et harum cansis exponens, &c. Johannes Hunter, Edinburgi, 1775. 26 Crania Americana ; or a Comparative View of the Skulls of various Aboriginal Nations of North and South America, &c. By Samuel George Morton, M. D. Philada., 1839. 21 Crania iEgyptiaca ; or, Observations on Egyptian Ethnography, &c. By Samuel George Morton, M. D. Philada., 1844. Published originally in the Transactions of the Amer. Philosoph. Society, vol. IX. 28 Nat. Hist, of Man, 3d edit. p. 570. OF THE RACES OF MEN. 217 lar department of science. The names of Serres, Foville, 20 Gosse, 30 Dunioutier, Blanchard, 31 and others, however, are hefore the public in this connection. As far as I have been able to ascertain, cra- niology has received more attention at the hands of the Germans. Prof. Engel, of Prague, has given us a philosophical dissertation upon cranial forms, the mensuration of the skull, &c. 32 To Prof. Zeune, we are indebted for a classification of skulls. 33 Dr. C. G. Carus, in an elementary work on Cranioscopy, indicates and developes to some extent the principles which should guide us in our examina- tion of the different cranial formations, in their relation to psychical conditions. 34 In a subsequent work, he comments upon and explains these principles more fully. 35 Passing over the names of Bidder, 36 Bruch, 37 Spo3ndli, 38 Kblliker, 38 A 7 irchow, 40 Lucffi,' n Fitzinger 42 and others, I must conclude this hasty enumeration by calling attention to the laborious and masterly work of Prof. Huschke, of Jena, — the result, as we are informed in the preface, of nine years study and reflection. 43 With the exception of an admirable paper on the Admeasurements of Crania of the principal groups of Indians of the United States, con- tributed by Mr. J. S. Philips to the Second Part of Schoolcraft's work on the Aboriginal Races of America, 44 nothing has been done for craniology on this side of the Atlantic since the demise of Dr. Morton. Indeed, the labors of Morton embody not only all that 26 Deformation du Criine resultant de la ra^thode la plus generale de couvrir la Tete des Enfants, 1834. Also, Traits complet de l'Anatomie, de la Physiologie et de la Pathologie du Systeme Nerveux, 1844. 30 Essai sur les Deformations artificielles du Crane. Paris, 1855. 31 Voyage au Pole Sud et dans l'0c6anie, &c, Anthropologic, Atlas par Dr. Dumoutier; texte par Emile Blanchard. Paris, 1854. 32 Untersuchungen uber Schadelformen. Von Dr. Joseph Engel, Prof., Prag, 1851. 33 Uber Sch'adelbildung zur festern Begriindung der Menschenrassen. Von Dr. A. Zeune. Berlin, 1846. 34 Grundziige einer neuen und wissenschaftlich begriindeten cranioscopie (Sch'adelehre) von Dr. C. G. Carus. Stuttgart, 1841. 35 Atlas der Cranioscopie oder Abbildungen der Schsedel- und Antlitzformen Beruehnrter oder sonst merkwuerdiger Personen von Dr. C. G. Cams. Leipzig, 1843. 36 De Cranii Conformatione. Dorpat, 1847. 37 Beitrage zur Entwickelung des Knochensystems. 38 Ueber den Primordialschadel. Zurich, 1846. 39 Tbeorie des Primordialschadels. (Zeitschrift fur Wissenschaftliche Zoologie. 2 Bd.) 40 Ueber den Cretinismus, namentlich in Franken und iiber pathologische Schadelformen. (Verhaudl. der physik. — medic. Gesellschaft in Wiirzburg, 1852, 2 Bd.) a De facie humana, Heidelbergse, 1812. — De Symmetria et Asymmetria organorum anim- alitatis, imprimis cranii, Marburgi, 1839. — Schadel abnormer Form in Geometrischen Abbil- dungen, von Dr. J. C. G. Lucse. Frank, am Main, 1855. 42 Uber die Schadel der Avaren, &c. Von L. J. Fitzinger. Wien., 1853. 43 Schsedel, Hirn und Seele des Menschen und der Thiere nach alter, Geschlecht und Race dargestellt nach neuen methoden und Untersuchungen von Emil Huschke. Jena, 1 854. 44 Information respecting the History, Condition, and Prospects of the Indian Tribes of the United States. By H. R. Schoolcraft. Part II. Philadelphia, 1852. 218 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS has been accomplished for this science in America, hut also the chief part of all the contributions which it has, from time to time, received from different sources. It is well known to the ethnolo- gical world, that at the time of his death (1851), he was slowly and carefully maturing his views upon the great leading questions of his favorite science, by researches of the most varied and extensive character. From the cranioscopical details which constitute so im- portant a feature in that elaborate work, the Crania Americana, he had beeu gradually and almost insensibly led to occupy a more comprehensive field — a field embracing ethnology in its physiolo- gical and archaeological aspects. The Crania JEgyptiaca was the forerunner of a contemplated series of philosophical generalizations in Anthropology, — the matured and positive conclusions of years of severe and cautious study. In this series, so long contemplated, so often delayed for critical examination, and at last so unexpectedly, and I may add, so unfortunately arrested, Dr. Morton fondly hoped to develope and clearly demonstrate the fundamental principles or elements of scientific ethnology. But Providence had ordered other- wise ; for at this critical juncture — so critical for the proper expo- sition of Dr. M.'s long treasured and anxiously examined views, as well as for the proper direction of the infant science — he was stricken down, and the rich mental gatherings of a life-time dissipated in a moment. 45 Through the munificent kindness of a number of our citizens, his magnificent collection of Human Crania, recently increased by the receipt of sixty-seven skulls from various sources, has been perma- nently deposited in the Museum of the Academy, 46 a silent but expressive witness of the scientific zeal, industry, and singleness of purpose of one who, to use the language of Mr. Davis, " has the rare merit, after the distinguished Gottingen Professor, of having by his genius laid the proper basis of this science, and by his labors raised upon this foundation the two first permanent and beautiful superstructures, in the Crania Americana, and the Crania JEgyptiaca." 47 Prior to his decease, Dr. M. had received about 100 crania, in addition to those mentioned in the third edition of his Catalogue. Since 1849, therefore, the collection has been augmented by the addition of 167 skulls. Very recently I have carefully inspected, re-arranged, and labelled it, and prepared for publication a new and corrected edition of the Catalogue. At present the collection em- braces 1035 crania, representing more than 150 different nations, 45 Unpublished Introduction to " Descriptions and Delineations of Skulls in the Mortonian Collection." 46 See Proceedings of the Academy, Vol. VI. pp. 321, 324. *' Crania Britannica, decade I., p. 1. OF THE RACES OF MEN. 219 tribes, and races. It occupies sixteen cases on the first gallery, on the south side of the lower room of the Museum. For convenience of study and examination, I have grouped it according to Race, Family, Tribe, &c, strictly adhering, however, to the classification of Dr. Morton. The crania are distributed as follows i 48 I. Caucasian Group. 1. Scandinavian Race. Norwegian 1 Swedish Peasants 7 Finland Swedes 2 Suderinanland Swedes 3 Ostrogoth 1 Turannic Swede 1 Cimbric Swedes..., 3 Swedish Finns 3 21 2. Finnish or Tchudic Race. True Finns 10 3. Suevic Race. Germans 11 Dutchman 1 Prussians 4 Burgundian 1 4. Anglo-Saxon. English.. 5. Anglo- American. 6. Celtic Race. Irish Celtic (?) heads from Catacombs of Paris, Celt (?) from the field of Waterloo 17 4 7. Sclavonic Race. Sclavonians 8. Pelasgic Race.* 9 Ancient Phoenician Ancient Roman Greek Circassians Armenians Parsees 4 1 13 2 Affghan 1 Grseco-Egyptians 23 39 9. Semitic Race. Arabs 5 Hebrews 8 Abyssinian 1 10. Berber Race. (T Guanche\ 14 1 11. Nilotic Race. Ancient Theban Egyptians 34 " Memphite " 17 " Abydos " 2 " Alexandrian" 3 Egyptians from Gizeh 16 Kens or Ancient Nubians 4 Ombite Egyptians 3 Maabdeh Egyptians 4 Miscellaneous 5 Fellahs 19 107 12. Indostanic Race. Ayras (?) 6 Thuggs 2 Bengalese 32 Uncertain 3 43 13. Indo-Chinese Race. Burmese 2 II. Mongolian Group. 1. Chinese Race. Chinese 11 Japanese 1 12 ie It is proper to observe, that the above table is not an attempt at scientific classification, but simply an arrangement adopted for convenience of study and examination. 49 Dr. Morton used the term Pelasgic too comprehensively. The Circassians, Armenians and Persians should not be placed in this group. 220 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS 2. Hyperborean Race. Burat Mongol 1 Kainschatkan 1 Kalmuck 1 Laplanders 4 Hybrid Laplander 1 Eskimo 6 14 III. Malay Group. 1. Malayan Race. Malays 24 Dyaks 2 26 2. Polynesian Race. Kanakas 7 New Zealanders 4 Marquesas 1 12 IV. American Group. 1. Barbarous Race, a. North Americans. Arickarees.. 3 Assinaboins 3 Chenouks 8 Oregonians 6 Cherokees 6 Chetimaches 2 Chippeways 2 Cotonays 3 Creeks 4 Dacotas 2 Hurons 4 Iroquois 3 Illinois 2 Klikatat 1 Lenapes 10 Mandans 7 Menominees 7 Miamis 12 Minetaris 4 Mohawks 3 Naas 2 Narragansets 10 Natchez 2 Naticks 5 Nisqually 1 Osages 2 Otoes ... 4 Ottawas 4 Ottigamies...,, 4 Pawnees 2 Fenobscots 2 Pottawatomies 4 Sauks 3 Seminoles 16 Shawnees 4 Shoshones 4 Upsarookas 2 Winnebagos 2 Yamassees 3 Californians 2 Miscellaneous 46 216 b. Central Americans. Maya 1 Fragments from Yucatan 2 3 c. South Americans. Araucanians 12 From Mounds 2 Charibs 3 Pat&gonians 3 Brazilian 7 27 2. Toltecan Race. a. Peruvian Family. Aricans 20 Pachacamac 104 Pisco 62 Santa 8 Lima 7 Callao 3 Miscellaneous 9 Elongated skulls from Titicaca, &c. ... 8 221 b. Mexican Family. Ancient Mexicans 24 Modern Mexicans 9 Lipans 2 35 V. Negro Group. 1. American born, 16 2. Native Africans, 88 3. Hovas, 2 4. Alforian Race. Australians 11 Oceanic Negroes 2 119 OF THE EACES OF MEN. 221 VI. Mixed Eaces. Copts 6 Negroid Egyptians 12 Nubians 4 Hispano-Peruvian 2 Negroid-Indian 3 Hispano-Indian 1 Malayo-Chinese 1 Mulattoes 2 VII. Lt/NATICS AND IDIOTS, VIII. Illustrative of Growth, Phrenological Skulls, Nation uncertain, Total, 30 18 7 2 11 1035 II. " Cranium, quippe quod omnium corporis partium nobilissimas includit, indolem ac proprietatem cseterorum organorum reprsesentare existimatur ; nam quidquid proprii varise illius partes prje se ferunt, hie parro spatio con- junctum, et liniamentis, quae extingui et deleri nunquam possunt, expressum reperitur. IUud adumbrationem exhibet imaginis, quam spectator peritus ex singulis partibus vivide sibi ante oculos fingere potest." — Hueck. In the human brain we find those characteristics which particu- larly distinguish man from the brute creation. The differences between the various races of men are fundamental differences in intellectual capacity, as well as in physical conformation. The brain is the organ or physical seat of the mind, and variations in its development are, as is well known, the constant accompani- ments of mental inequalities. Hence, in the variations in size, tex- ture, &c, of the encephalon, and the proportions of its different parts, we are necessarily led to seek in great measure for the causes which so widely and constantly dispart the numerous families, which, in the aggregate, constitute mankind. In accordance with its great importance and dignity, the brain has been carefully deposited in an irregular bony case, — the calvaria — to which are attached certain bony appendages for the lodgment of the organs of the senses, by which the brain, and through it the mind — the mental attribute of the living principle — is brought into relation with external nature. Now as the configuration of the brain is, in general, expressed by that of its osseous covering, and as the development of the facial skeleton affords an excellent indication of the size of the organs which it accommodates, it follows that in the size of the head and face, and their mutual relations, we find the best indi- cations of those mental and animal differences which, under all circumstances and from ante-historic times, have manifested them- relves as the dividing line between the Races of Men. Moreover, if the construction of each and every part of the fabric is in harmony 222 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS with, and to a certain extent represented in that of all other parts, 50 — as the laws of the philosophico-transcendental anatomy seem firmly to have established, — it will be evident that the cranium is the index, so to speak, of the entire economy ; for the relation between the cranium on the one hand, and the face, thorax, and abdominal organs, respectively, on the other, or, in other words, between the cerebral or intellectual lobes of the brain, and the sensory ganglia, and nerves, is the relation of mental powers to animal propensities, and exactly upon this relation depends the nature and character of the individual man, and the family group to which he naturally belongs. Examples of this fact are everywhere to be found, alike in the transitionary, as in the extreme specimens of the human series. Thus it is a general and well-marked truth, that in those inferior Races — the so-called prognathous — characterized by a narrow skull, receding forehead, and enormous anterior development of the max- illa, the mental is in entire abeyance to the animal ; so that their sensuality is only equalled by their stupidity, as one might readily infer from the ample accommodations for the organs of the senses. The pyramidal type is another inferior form, singularly analogous to the prognathous in certain respects, but differing from it in others hereafter to be mentioned. Races possessing this form of cranium, manifest corresponding peculiarities in intellectual power. Undoubtedly, then, the human cranium recommends itself to our earnest attention- as the "best epitome of man," — the individual in the concrete ; or, as Zeune has beautifully expressed it, " der Bliithe des ganzen organischen Leibes und Lebens ;" and notwithstanding the adaptation between it and the rest of the skeleton -=- an adapta- tion declaring itself in relations of size, function, nutritive, and developmental processes, &c. — we may study the cranium by and for itself, with reasonable hopes of success. As yet, the labors of the cranioscopist have given to anthropology comparatively few fundamental and well established facts. Of these, the most important, probably, as well as the best substantiated, is that of the permanency and non-transmutability of cranial form and characteristics. " There is, on the whole," says Lawrence, " an unde- niable, nay, a very remarkable constancy of character in the crania of different nations, contributing very essentially to national pecu- liarities of form, and corresponding exactly to the features which 60 " Tout etre organist forme un ensemble, un systeme unique et clos, dont les parties se correspondent mutueUment, et concourent a la meme action definitive par une reaction reciproque. Aucune de ces parties ne peut changer sans que les autres ne coangent aussi, et par consequent chacune d'elles prise separement indique et donne toutes les autres." Cuviek. Discours sur les Revolutions du Globe; ridigis par le Dr. Iloefer. Paris, 1850, p. 62. Of THE RACES OF MEN. 223 characterize such nations." 51 !Nor does this fact stand alone. It is associated with another which should never be lost sight of in all our speculations upon the unity or diversity, geographical origin and distribution, affiliation and antiquity of the races of men. I allude to that insensible gradation which appears to be the law of cranial forms, no less than of all the objects in nature. Erom the isolation and exclusive consideration of these facts, have resulted not a few erroneous assertions, which have tended to embarrass the science. Thus, it has been considered, in general, a matter of but little diffi- culty to discriminate between the crania of different races. But those who are accustomed to this kind of examination, know that this statement is true only for the standard or typical forms of very diverse, races, and that as soon as certain divergent forms of two allied races or families are compared, the difficulties become very apparent. On the other hand, it has been affirmed, that in any one nation it is easy to point out entirely dissimilar types of con- figuration. Thus the distinguished anatomist, Prof. M. J. Weber, misled apparently by the restricted and artificial classification of Blumenbach, arrives at the general conclusion that "there is no proper mark of a definite race-form of the cranium so firmly attached that it may not be found in some other race." 52 The assumption of the universality of certain ethnical forms, though countenanced by more than one writer, does not rest upon sufficient evidence to warrant its acceptance. Another prevalent but equally gratuitous notion is, that the more ancient the heads, the more they tend to approximate one primitive form or type. What this primi- tive model is. like, has not, as far as I can learn, been indicated. Again, a confusion highly detrimental to the philosophical status and scientific progress of Ethnology, has resulted from the unjustifiable assumption, that resemblances in cranial form and characteristics necessarily betoken, in a greater or less degree, congenital affilia- tions. It by no means follows, as some appear to have thought, that because widely and persistently discrepant forms are unrelated ab origine, — closely coincident forms are as exact indications of such primary relation. To say that the Polar man, — the Eskimo of America and the Samoyede of Asia, — should in all natural classifi- cation be associated, or at least placed in juxtaposition with certain dark races of the tropics, in consequence of well-marked cranial similiarities, is a fact as singular as it is true ; but to conclude from these similarities alone, that they are affiliated and have one common 51 Lectures, &c, p. 225. 52 Crania Britannica, p. 4. — Die Lehre von den Ur- und Racen-Formen der Sch'adel und Becken des Menschen, S. 5, 1830. 11 224 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS origin, is at once illogical and unwarrantable. Resemblances in physical conformation and in intellectual capacity, manners, and customs, growing out of, and dependent in great measure upon such conformation, are indications rather of a similarity of position in the great natural scale of the human family, than of identity of origin. To establish identity, proof of another kind is required. That positive identity of cranial form, structure and gentilitial cha- racters is the best evidence of identity of origin, or, at all events, of very close relationship, there can be no doubt. But identity must not be inferred from striking similarity. The confusion of terms has led to much error. Similarity in the features above alluded to, indicates merely an allied natural position, and nothing more. This distinc- tion is as important in cranioscopy as that made by the comparative anatomist between the analogies and homologies of the skeleton. Somebody has said that " when history is silent, language is evi- dence." The cranioscopist knows that oftentimes, when both history and language are silent, cranial forms become evidence. For the cranial similarities and differences above mentioned may be estimated with mathematical accuracy and precision, by weight, measurement, &c. Hence, while the language of an ante-historic people may be lost, the discovery of their skulls will afford us the means of deter- mining their rank or position in the human scale, &c. From consi- derations of this nature, we are led to recognise the existence of a craniological school in Ethnology, a craniological principle of classi- fication and research, and a craniological test of affinity or diversity. According to Prichard, Ethnology is, equally with Geology, a branch of Palaeontology. "Geology," says he, "is the archaeology of the globe, — Ethnology that of its human inhabitants." 53 Latham, com- menting upon this sentence, very appropriately observes, that "when Ethnology loses its palgeontological character, it loses half its scientific elements." 54 From this we learn the importance of osteology, espe- cially the cranial department, since it constitutes one of the surest, and often the only guide in identifying ancient populations. Dr. Latham, the well-known philologist, lays great stress upon the ethno- logical value of language, which he speaks of as " yielding in defi- nitude to no characteristic whatever." .... "Whatever maybe said against certain over-statements as to constancy, it is an undoubted fact, that identity of language is primd facie evidence of identity of origin." 55 Among the apophthegms appended to his work on the Varieties of Man, the same opinion occurs. — " In the way of physical 53 Anniversary Address, delivered before the Ethnological Society of London, in 1847. 5* Man and his Migrations, Amer. Edit. New York, 1852, p. 41. 55 Ibid, p. 35. OF THE RACES OF MEN. 225 characteristics, common conditions develop common points of con- formation. Hence, as elements of classification, physical characters are of less value than the philological moral ones." 56 There are reasons for dissenting from the opinion of this eminent philologist. "When we contemplate the mutability and destructibility of languages, as abundantly exemplified in the obliteration of the Etruscan dialect by the Roman-Latin ; the Celtiberian and Turdetan by the Latin and Spanish ; the Syriac by Arabic ; Celtic by the Latin and French ; the Celtic of Britain by the Saxon and English ; the Pelhevi and Zend by the Persian, and the Mauri tanian by Arabic; 57 when we reflect how the Epirotes and Siculi changed their language, without con- quest or colonization, into Creek, and how the ancient Pelasgi, all the primitive inhabitants of the Peloponnessus, and many of those of Arcadia and Attica, abandoned their own language and adopted that of the Hellenes ; M when we behold the Negroes of St. Domingo speaking the French tongue, the Bashkirs, of Finnish origin, speak- ing Turkish ; 59 and when, finally, as one instance of another and significant class of facts, we call to mind how the Carelians, in con- sequence of certain linguistic analogies, have been classed with the Finns, though descended from an entirely different race, who, at an early period, overran the region about Lake Ladoga, 60 — we are "disposed to believe with Humboldt" — I am using the words of Morton — " that we shall never be able to trace the affiliation of nations by a mere comparison of languages ; for this, after all, is but one of many clews by which that great problem is to be solved." 61 Surely anatomy aud physiology — those handmaids of the zoologist — are more powerful, and, in the very nature of things, better adapted to settle the question of the unity of man, to determine whether the human family is composed of several species, or of but one species comprising many varieties. Surely the human skeleton is more en- during and less mutable than the oldest laneuao-e. Instances are not wanting, as we have seen above, of a nation forgetting its own language in its admiration for the more perfect speech of another people. But, as far as I am aware, not a solitary instance can be adduced of a nation, genealogically pure, entirely changing its physical characters for those of another. Let us conclude then, with Bodi- chon, that Physiology is superior to Philology as an instrument of ethnological research. — " To throw light upon the question of origins, it is necessary to appeal to a science more precise, and founded on 56 Varieties of Man, p. 562. 5' Hamilton Smith, op. cit., p. 178. 58 Nicbuhr, Hist, of Rome, 1, 37. 59 Helwerzen, Annuaire des Mines de Russie, 1840, p. 84. 6° Haartman, Transactions of the Royal Society of Stockholm, for 1847. 61 Crania Americana, p. 18. 15 226 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS the nature of the object which we examine. This science is the Phy- siology of races, or, in other words, a knowledge of their moral and physical characters. Through Physiology has been established the existence of antediluvian beings, their genera, their species, and their varieties ; by it also we shall discover the origin of races of men, even the most mysterious. Through it we shall one day be able to classify populations as surely as we now class animals and plants : history, philology, annals, inscriptions, the monuments of arts and of religion, will be auxiliaries in these researches. Herein we consider its indications as motives of certitude, and its decisions as a criterion." 62 Anthropology has been involved in not a little confusion by certain injudicious departures from the well-tried zoological methods em- ployed by naturalists generally. But little difficulty seems to be experienced in the practical determination of species in the animal and vegetable worlds ; but as soon as the rules and specific distinc- tions here employed have been applied to man, exceptions have been taken at once, and attempts made to invalidate their appli- cability, by excluding man entirely from the pale of the animal kingdom, as if, in the latter, development, formation and deformation were controlled by laws different from these processes in the former. Barbancois regards man as " un type tout a part dans la creation, comme-le representant d'un regne particulier — le regne moral." So the celebrated Marcel de Serres says, " l'homme ne constitue dans la nature ni une espece, ni un genre, ni un ordre, il est a mi seul un regne, le rSgne humain." 13 Aristotle, the father of philosophical natural history, Pay, Brisson, Pennant, Vic dAzyr, Baubenton, Tiedemann, and others equally distinguished, have all unwisely at- tempted this disruption of nature. The futility of the arguments employed may be learned by reference to Swainson's Nat. Hist, and Classification of Quadrupeds. 61 But those who recognize the ani- mality of man, and place him accordingly at the head of the Mam- malia, are not exactly agreed as to the extent of isolation which should be claimed for him in this position, or, in other words, differ- ence of opinion exists as to the extent and scientific meaning of the gap which separates him from the highest brute. Linnaeus grouped Man, the SimiEe and Bats under the general division, Primates. 65 niiger, 66 Cuvier, 67 Lawrence, 68 and others, assign him a distinct order. 62 Etudes sur PAlge'rie, Alger, p. 18. 63 Voyage au Pole Sud. Anthropologic, de Dumoutier, par Blanchard. Paris, 1854, p. 18. e*Pp 8-10 65 He observes, " Nullum characterem hactenus eruere potui, unde Homo a Simia inter- noscatur." — Fauna Suecica. Preface, p. ii. 66 Prodomus Systematis Mammalium. 67 Regne Animal. 68 Op. cit. OF THE RACES OF MEN. 227 Van Ameinge considers Man the sole representative of a distinct and separate mammalian class, to which, he applies the term Psychical or Spiritual, in contradistinction to the Instinctive mammals. 69 As might be naturally expected frorii the above remarks, still less agree- ment is manifested in relation to the classification of the different races or tribes of men. This want of accordance arises from the difficulty of determining what characters are fundamental and typical, and what are not. Now, it should never be forgotten that an ethnical, like any other natural type, is an ideal creation, not a positive entity. It is analo- gous to the mean or average of a series of numbers. These numbers may all be but slightly different from each other, and yet none of them be exactly identical with the mean. In examining a number of objects presenting many peculiarities, the mind instinctively figures to itself an object possessing all these peculiarities. This object, this ideal image, gradually assumes the dignity and import- ance of a standard to which all other similar objects are referred, as greater or less approximations to the type, the approximation being dependent upon the degree of predominance of the peculiarities in question. If, on comparing any body with this imaginary standard — "this form which exists everywhere, and is nowhere to be found" — the points of resemblance are in number equal to or even less than the points of difference, then it is said to diverge from the type. It is a divergent form. IS aw, a type as it is manifested in nature is, for all practical purposes, fixed and immutable; our mental con- ception of it is necessarily a constantly varying one. The more numerous the individuals of the group, and the more extensive our examination, the more perfect will be our generalization, upon which, in fact, the type is based. The examination of but a few individuals of a group is apt to lead to an erroneous idea of the type. But a singular fact here claims our attention. Along with this increasing perfection of the typical idea comes a diminished confi- dence in its importance ; for the same observations which serve to establish the type, also lead us to perceive that the distance which separates one type from another is a plenum, and is not marked by gaps, but by transitionary forms — not transitionary in the sense of variations from certain persistent forms brought about by climatic conditions, &c, but transitionary forms ah origine and self-existent, presenting themselves unchanged as they were characterized by the Great First Cause, and inherently capable of those known and limited variations produced by intermarriage, &c. The elements e» An Investigation of the Theories of the Nat. History of Man, &c. New York, 1848, p. 72. 228 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS which establish a type serve to connect it insensibly with those of another. Hence the great difficulty experienced in attempting to classify the members of the Human Family. The discrepancy of opinion has extended not only to the number of divisions to be made, but also to the particular races which should be assigned to each division. Blumenbach long ago expressed this difficulty. We have only to examine the list of writers who have attempted the classification of Human Races, and observe how they differ in the number of their primary departments, to be convinced of the pre- matureness of the whole attempt, and the scanty scientific data upon which such very artificial divisions have been erected. It appears to me that much of the difficulty arises from the scanty information which we possess concerning the number of primaeval cranial types, the number of naturally divergent forms of each of these, and the degree of divergency permitted, and lastly, the tests by which to discriminate between forms naturally aberrant, and those hybrid results of blood-crossing. The study of divergent forms is of great importance, since in their varied but limited deviations from the type — like all exceptions to general rules — -they indicate the essentials of the type while demonstrating a serial, archetypal unity of the human family in keeping with the entire animal world. To speak, therefore, of " developing the limits of a variety," is simply to demonstrate the connections, relations, and persistence of those varieties. The diversities of cranial form presented by any nation or tribe should therefore be regarded as the radii, so to speak, by which that tribe is connected with the rest of the humanitarian series, whether living or extinct, or, in the course of future geolo- gical changes, yet to appear. It is well known that naturalists rely mainly upon form, color, proportions — the externals, in short. — to establish species. The illustrious Cuvier, taking higher ground, attempted to develope the laws of classification by a resort to the comparative method in ana- tomy. With the osteological branch of this method, as an instru- ment of research, he undertook his grand scheme of the restoration of the fossil world and the determination of its relation to the living zoology. His reliance upon internal structure in preference to external characters, was as much a matter of necessity as of choice, since of the palseontological objects of his study, the bony skeleton and the teeth alone remained from which to recompose the forms of the past animal world, and determine their species. In the course of his investigations a remarkable fact became evident — that in many genera of animals, species externally well chai'acterized, dif- fered scarcely at all in their bony frame-work. Regarding these OF THE RACES OF MEN. 229 slight differences — by such a practised eye certainly not over- looked — as trivial, and losing sight of the singular importance they derive from their historical permanency, he was led in the end to deny to comparative osteology the value he first assigned it. Thus, notwithstanding his great scientific labors, he left it unde- cided whether the fossil horse was specifically identical with the living or not. 70 On this point naturalists still differ in opinion. Whilst by the aid of comparative anatomy — for the cultivation of which he enjoyed unusual advantages — he was enabled to startle the world with the brilliant announcement that there had been several zoological creations, of which man was one, we find him at length hesitatingly denying to anatomical characters the power of determining species. But the question arises — a question already perceived and disposed of in the affirmative by some ethnologists — whether anatomical characters have not a higher signification than the mere determination of species ; whether, in fact, they are not generic. It would, indeed, appear, that while the external or peri- pheral form and appendages determine species, the internal organism establishes genera. But the genus must contain within itself and foreshadow the essential characters of the species ; there must be an adaptation between the peripheral conformation and central organic structure. As a very slight error committed in the first step of a long and complicated mathematical calculation magnifies itself at every subsequent step of the process, until a result is obtained very different from the true one, so a comparatively minute peculiarity in the osseous structure of an animal may repeat itself through the muscles, fascia, and integumentary covering, expressing itself at last as a characteristic, which, though it might be difficult to point out exactly, is seen to be an individual or specific mark by which the animal may be discriminated from other individuals or from allied species. And as the result of the supposed problem must always be the same, so long as the incorporated error is not elimi- nated, so the external peculiarity of the animal must ever remain the same, while the internal structure mark varies not. This constant and historically immutable relation between structure and form is in consonance with the law of the "correlation of forms," first sug- gested, I believe, by Cuvier, and by him used in such a masterly manner in the elucidation of the laws of zoology. "The importance to be attached to the zoological characters afforded by the slighter modifications of structure," writes Martin, " rises as we ascend in the scale of being. In the arrangement of ™ Diseours sur les Revolutions du Globe, p. 76. 230 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS mammalia and birds, for example, minutiae which, among the Inverte- brata, would be deemed of little note, become of decided value, and are no longer to be neglected. Even the modifications, however slight, of a common type, now become stamped with a value, the ratio of which increases as we advance from the lower to the higher orders. Hence, with respect to mammalia, the highest class of Vertebrata, every structural phase claims attention ; and, when we advance to the highest of the highest class, viz., Man, and the Quad- rumana, the naturalist lays a greater stress on minute grades and modifications of form, than he does when among the cetacea or the marsupials ; and hence, groups are separated upon characters thus derived, because they involve marked differences in the animal economy, and because it is felt that a modification, in itself of no great extent, leads to most important results. Carrying out the principle of an increase in the value of differential characters as we advance in the scale of being, it may be affirmed that, upon legiti- mate zoological grounds, the organic conformation of man, modelled, possibly, upon the same type as that of the chimpanzee or orang, but modified, with a view to fit him for the habits, manners, and, indeed, a totality of active existence, indicative of a destiny and purposes participated in neither by the chimpanzee nor any other animal, removes Man from the Quadrumana, not merely in a generic point of view, but from the pale of the Primates, to an exclusive situation. The zoological value of characters derived from struc- tural modifications is commensurate with the results which they involve ; let it then be shown that man, though a cheiropod (hand- footed), possesses structural modifications leading to most important results, and our views are at once justified." 71 It will thus be seen that anatomical differences are valuable to the zoologist more from their permanency, than from their magnitude. "A species," says Prof. Leidy, "is a mere convenient word with which naturalists empirically designate groups of organized beings possessing characters of comparative constancy, as far as historic experience has guided them in giving due weight to such con- stancy." 72 An organic form historically constant is, therefore, a simple and exact expression of a species. In this constancy of a form lies its typical importance as a standard or point of departure 71 A General Introduction to the Natural History of Mammiferous Animals, with a parti- cular -view of the Physical History of Man, &c. By W. C. S. Martin, F. L. S. London, 1841, p. 200. ? 2 Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Vol. VII. p. 201. — See also a letter from Prof. L. to Dr. Nott, of Mobile, published in the Appendix to Hotz's translation of Gobineau's work on the Inequality of Races, &c, p. 480. OF THE RACES OF MEN. 231 in all our attempts at classification and developing the laws of forma- tion. Tlie mere shape, volume, or configuration, is secondary. The polar, brown, and grizzly bears differ but little in their oste- ology ; the same is true of the horse, ass, and zebra, and of the lion, tiger, and panther. By most naturalists the horse and ass are referred to distinct species, — by Prof. Owen to distinct genera. The latter gentleman specifically separates a fossil from the recent horse, in consequence of a slight curvature in the teeth of the former. Accord- ing to Flourens, the dog and fox belong to different genera ; the dog and wolf to distinct species, as also the lion and tiger. 73 Now the crania of the horse and ass differ in their nasal bones only. The pupil of the dog is disc-shaped ; that of the fox, elongated. Says Knox : " The nasal bones of the ass differ constantly from those of the horse ; so do those of the lion and tiger. The distinction extends to the whole physiognomical character of the crania in these four species, and in all others. But so it is in man, chiefly in these very bones, and in the physiognomy of the skeleton of the face. For it is not in the comparative length or size merely of the nasal or maxil- lary bones that the cranium of the Bosjieman and the Australian differ from the other races of men, although these differences are no doubt as constant and real as are the anatomical differences of any two species ; they differ in every respect, and especially do they dis- play physiognomical distinction, which the experienced eye detects at once. When fossil man shall be discovered, he, also, will be proved to have belonged to a species distinct from any that now live. By the generic law I am about to establish, his affiliation with the existing races may and will be proved, first by the fact of his extinction, but still more by those slight anatomical differences, which, though seemingly unimportant, are not really so. His rela- tion to the present or living world will be the same as that of the extinct solid-ungular and earnivora to the living — generically identi- cal, specifically distinct." 74 Between the crania of the various races of men, the same slight, but constant, and therefore important, differences can be pointed out, in some instances even more marked and better characterized than those which are considered by naturalists of high distinction, as suffi- cient to form a basis upon which to establish species. It is true that no human race possesses a bone the more or less in the cranium, than the others ; but it is equally true that human crania differ, in some instances quite remarkably, in the size and proportions of their con- 's Op. cit., p. 111. " Introduction to Inquiries into the Philosophy of Zoology, by Kobt. Knox, M.D., &c, in London Lancet, Oct., 1855. 232 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS stitnent bones, and these differences are not accidental and fluctua- ting, but persistent. Thus, the massive, broad, and outward-shelving malar bones of the Polar man are unlike those of any other race. So, the superior maxillae of the Coast African is so unlike that of any other people, as to have become a standard of comparison for inferiority — a standard expressed by the word prognathous. Differ- ences in the nasal bones, in the size ol the frontal sinuses, in the prominence of the occiput, in the angle at which the parietal bones join each other, in the form and arrangement of the teeth, in the relation of head to face, in the relative situations of the great occi- pital foramen and the bony meatus, in the form of the skull, and the configuration of its base ; and, as the result of all these, in the physi- ognomy of the facial bones, exist, as I shall presently endeavor to show, and are perpetuated from one generation to another as con- stant and unaltered features. Cranial differentise, however slight, derive additional importance from their .relation to the physiognomical character of the skull as a whole, and daily observation shows this character to be more im- portant than is generally considered. The labors of Porta, Camper, Lebrun, Lavater, Bichat, Moreau de la Sarthe, and others, have given us the scientific elements of a physiognomy or physiology of the face, as those of Blumenbach and Morton have established a physiology of the cranium. Between the muscular and integumentary investi- titure of the face and head on the one hand, and the bony structure of these parts on the other, there is a decided adaptation. Whether the soft parts determine the form of the osseous frame-work, or the latter that of the former, does not so much concern us, at present, as the fact of adaptation. That this adaptation exists, there can scarcely be a doubt. " Tout dans la nature," beautifully and truthfully writes De la Sarthe, " est rapport et harmonie ; chaque apparence externe est le signe d'une propriety : chaque point de la superficie d'un corps annonce l'etat de sa profondeur et de sa structure." 75 In virtue of this harmony, we find the physiognomy of the skull expressing the true value of its osteologic peculiarities, even when these are so slight as to appear in themselves trivial and insignificant. Soemmer- ing, not perceiving the import of this relation, tells us that he could find no well-marked differences between the German, Swiss, French, Swedish and Russian skulls in his collection, leaving it to be inferred that none such existed. 76 At a later period, and from the same ' 5 Neuvieme Etude sur Lavater. 76 Lawrence informs us that his friend, Mr. Geo. Lewis, in a tour through France and Germany, observed that the lower and anterior part of the cranium is larger in the French, the upper and anterior in the Germans; and that the upper and posterior region is larger OF THE RACES OF MEN. 233 cause, Cuvier, while conducting his palasontological researches, more than once fell into an analogous error. From the foregoing remarks, it will be seen that it is a matter of mucin importance to be able to discriminate between typical or race- forms of crania, and those modifications of shape produced, to a certain extent, by age, sex, development, intermixture of races, arti- ficial deformations, &c. Unless these distinctions be observed, and due allowance made for them, it will be utterly impossible to deter- mine the number and character of the primitive types — an attempt already almost hopelessly beyond our power, in consequence of the ceaseless migrations and affiliations which have been going on amongst the races of men since the remotest antiquity. The modi- fications of cranial form, from these various causes, are so many associated elements, which must be individually isolated before we can determine the true value of each. In proportion as this isolation is complete, so will our results approximate the truth. It is very well known that the skulls of the lower animals undergo certain changes in conformation as they advance in age. In a limited degree, this appears to be true of man also ; though the extent of these changes, and the period at which they are most noticeable — whether during intra-uterine life, or subsequent to birth — are points not yet definitively settled. However, from the observations of Soemmering, Camper, Blumenbach, Loder and Ludwig, we learn that in very young children, even in infants at the moment of birth, the race-lineaments are generally but positively expressed. Blumen- bach, in his Decades, figures the head of a Jewess, aged five years, a Burat child, one and a half years, and a newly-born negro ; in each of these the ethnic characters of the race to which it belongs are distinctly seen. The Mortonian collection furnishes a number of examples confirmatory of this interesting and remarkable fact. Occasionally the tardy development of certain parts may give rise to apparent modifications, as indicated in the following passage from Dr. Gosse's highly interesting essay upon the artificial deformations of the skull. "II n'est pas meme rare, en Europe, de voir le front paraitre plus saillant chez un grand nombre d'enfants, en raison du faible developpement de la face. Toutefois, jusqu'a, l'age de dix a douze ans, il existe en general une predominance de la region occipi- tale qui parait se developper d'autant plus que l'intelligence est plus exercee. Ce n'est souvent que vers cette epoque de la vie que les os in the former than in the latter. (Op. cit, p. 239.) — Count Gobineau, in his work already alluded to, speaks of a certain enlargement on each side of the lower lip, which is found among the English and Germans. 234 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS propres du nez tendent a se relever davantage suivant les traits des individus ou des races." 77 Some physiologists have supposed that permanent modifications of cranial form are produced during severe and protracted accouche- ments. Gall, long ago, refuted this notion, and every accoucheur has, in fact, constant opportunities of satisfying himself of the untena- bility of this doctrine. It has more than once happened to me, as it necessarily does to every physician engaged in the practice of ob- stetrics, to witness a head, long compressed in a narrow pelvis, born with the nose greatly depressed, the forebead flattened, the parietal bones overriding each other, and the whole skull completely wire- drawn, so as to resemble some of the permanent deformations pic- tured in the books ; and yet, in a few days, the inherent elasticity of the bony case and its contained parts has sufficed to restore it to its natural form. But the great objection to this opinion lies in the fact of a conformity between the cranial and pelvic types of a particular race. Dr. Vrolick, following up the suggestions of Camper and some other observers, relative to certain peculiarities of the negro pelvis, has demonstrated the existence of a race-form for the pelvis as for the cranium. He has shown that the form of the head is adapted to the pelvic passage which it is compelled to traverse in the parturient act, and that the pelvis, like the skull, possesses its race-characters and sexual distinctions, sufficiently well marked, even at the infantile epoch. As in the zoological series, we find the cranium of the mon- key differing from that of the animals below it, and approximating the human type, so we find the pelvis pursuing the same gradation, from the Orang to the Bosjieman, from the Bosjieman to the Ethio- pian, from the Ethiopian to the Malay, and so on to the high caste "White races, where it attains its perfection, and is the farthest removed in form from that of the other mammiferse. I am aware that Weber has attempted to deny the value of these observations, by showing that, although certain pelvic forms occur more frequently in some races than in others, yet exceptions were found in the fact of the European conformation being occasionally encountered among other and very different races. " This is not proving much," as Be Gobi- neau acutely observes, " inasmuch as M. "Weber, in speaking of these exceptions, appears never to have entertained tbe idea, that their peculiar conformation could only be the result of a mixture of blood." 78 " Essai stir les Deformations Artificielles du Crane, Par L. A. Gosse, de Geneve, &c. Paris, 1855. Published originally as a contribution to the "Annales d' Hygiene Publique et de Medecine Legale," 2e seric, 1855, tomes III. et IV. >» Op. cit., t. 1, p. 193. OF THE RACES OF MEN. 285 In the study of cranial forms, sexual differences should not be overlooked. "The female skull," says Davis, "except in races equally distinguished by forms strikingly impressed, does not exhibit the gentilitial characters eminently." 79 It is well known to the ob- stetrician, that the male skull, at birth, is, on the average, larger than the female. A complete history of the development of the human brain and cranium, in the different races, would constitute one of the most valuable contributions to anthropology. Such a history alone can determine the true meaning of the various appearances which these parts assume in their transition from the ovum to the fully-developed typical character, and demonstrate their as yet mysterious relations to the innumerable forms of life which are scattered over the surface of the globe. To such a history must we look, also, for a solution of the question, as to whether the soft and pulpy brain models around itself its hard and resisting bony case, or, conversely, whether this latter gives shape to the former. During the first six weeks of embryonic life, the brain, clothed in its different envelopes, exists without any bony investment, being surrounded externally with an extremely thin, soft., and pliable carti- laginous membrane, in which ossification subsequently takes place. About the eighth week, as shown by the investigations of Gall, the ossific points appear in this membrane, sending out diverging radii in every direction. As this delicate cartilaginous layer is moulded nicely over the brain, the minute specks of calcareous matter, as they are deposited, must to some extent acquire the same form as the brain. Whether this be true or not, there is a manifest adaptation between the brain and cranium, the result of a harmony in growth, inseparably connected with the action of one developing principle in the human economy. From this fact, alone, we might fairly infer that differences in the volume and configuration of a number of crania are general indications of differences in the volume and configuration of their contained brains. One single fact, among many others, proves this admirable harmony. It is this : The process of ossification is at first most rapid in the bones composing the vault ; but presently ceasing here, it advances so rapidly in those of the base and inferior parts generally, that at birth the base is solid and incompressible, thus protecting from pressure the nervous centre of respiration, which is at this time firriier and better developed than the softer and less voluminous cerebral lobes. According to the embryologic investigations of M. de Serres, of all brains, that of the high-caste European is the most complex in ? 9 Op. cit., p. 5. 236 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS its organization. In attaining this high development, it passes suc- cessively through the forms which belong permanently to fishes, rep- tiles, birds, mammals, Negroes, Malays, Americans, and Mongolians. The bony structure undergoes similar alterations. "One of the earliest points where ossification commences is the lower jaw. This bone is therefore sooner completed than any other of the head, and acquires a predominance which it never loses in the Negro. During the soft, pliant state of the bones of the skull, the oblong form which they naturally assume approaches nearly the permanent shape of the American. At birth, the flattened face and broad, smooth forehead of the infant; the position of the eyes, rather towards the sides of the head, and the widened space between, represent the Mongolian form, which, in the Caucasian, is not obliterated but by degrees, as the child advances to maturity." Hamilton Smith, commenting upon these interesting researches, says: "Should the con- ditions of cerebral progress be more complete at birth in the Caucausian type, and be successively lower in the Mongolic and intermediate Malay and American, with the woolly- haired least developed of all, it would follow, according to the apparently general law of progression in animated nature, that both — or at least the last-mentioned — would be in the conditions which show a more ancient date of existence than the other, notwithstanding that both this and the Mongolic are so constituted that the spark of mental development can be received by them through contact with the higher Caucasian innervation ; thus appearing, in classified zoology, to constitute perhaps three species, originating at different epochs, or simultaneously in separate regions ; while, by the faculty of fusion which the last, or Caucasian, imparted to them, progression up to intellectual equality would manifest essential unity, and render all alike responsible beings, according to the degree of their existing capabilities — for this must be the ultimate condition for which Man is created." 80 From his own researches, Prof. Agassiz concludes that it is impos- sible, in the foetal state, to detect the anatomical marks which are characteristic of species. These specific marks he assures us become manifest as the animal, in the course of its development, approaches the adult state. In like manner, the evolution of the physical and mental peculiarities of the different races of men appears to com- mence at the moment of birth. Dr. Knox, in his recent communi- cations in the " London Lancet," already referred to, maintains almost the same opinion. He considers the embryo of any species of any natural family as the most perfect of forms, embracing within itself, during its phases of development, all the forms or species which that natural family can assume or has assumed in past time. " In the embryo and the young individual of any species of the natural family of the Salmonidae, for example," says he, "you will find the characteristics of the adult of all the species. The same, I believe, holds in man ; so that, were all the existing species of any family to be accidentally destroyed, saving one, in the embryos and young of that one will be found the elements of all the species ready to re- appear to repeople the waters and the earth, the forms they are to assume being dependent on, therefore determined by, the existing order of things. "With another order will arise a new series of species, also foreseen and provided for in the existing world." so Nat. Hist, of the Human Species, pp. 176-7. See also Serres' Anatomie Compared. OF THE RACES OF MEN. 237 If we carefully consider the development of the cranium, it will be seen that this development goes on between, and is modified by two systems of organs — externally the muscular, internally the nervous. The brain exerts a double influence, mechanically or passively by its weight, and actively by its growth. That the brain completely fills its bony case, is sufficiently well known from the fact of the impressions left upon the inner aspect of the cranium by the cerebral convolutions and vessels. Very slight allowance need be made for the thickness of the meninges. That the progressive development of the brain is really capable of exerting some force upon the cranial bones surrounding it, is shown in the records of cases of hypertrophy of that organ, where, upon post-mortem exami- nation, the calvaria being removed, the spongy mass has protruded from the opening and could not be replaced. That the bones are capable of yielding to a distending force acting from within out- wards, is shown in the cases of chronic hydrocephalus, where the ventricles are found full of water, the brain-tissue flattened out, and the bones greatly distorted. Such a force becomes perceptible in proportion to the degree of softness and pliancy of the bones. A check to its action will be found in the sutures and in the amount of resistance offered by the dura-mater. Now it must be obvious that as long as the sutures remain open, and the developmental activity of the brain continues, the head must enlarge. If all the sutures remain open, this development will be regular and in exact proportion to the activity of growth manifested by the different parts of the encephalon. When a suture closes, further development in that direction will in great measure terminate. Of this proposition Dr. Morton gives us the following example : "I have in my possession," says he, "the skull of a mulatto boy, who died at the age of eighteen years. In this instance, the sagittal suture is entirely wanting ; in conse- quence, the lateral expansion of the cranium hiis ceased in infancy, or at whatever period the suture became consolidated. Hence, also, the diameter between the parietal protube- rances is less than 4.5 inches, instead of 5, which last is the Negro average. The squamous sutures, however, are fully open, whence the skull has continued to expand in the upward direction, until it has reached the average vertical diameter of the Negro, or 5.5 inches. The coronal suture is also wanting, excepting some traces at its lateral termini ; and the result of this last deficiency is seen in the very inadequate development of the forehead, which is low and narrow, but elongated below, through the agency of the various cranio- facial sutures. The lambdoidal suture is perfect, thus permitting posterior elongation; and the growth in this direction, together with the full vertical diameter, has enabled the brain to attain the bulk of — ■ cubic inches, or about — less than the Negro average. I believe that the absence or partial development of the sutures may be a cause of idiocy by check- ing the growth of the brain, and thereby impairing or destroying its functions." 81 81 See a paper on the Size of the Brain in the Various Races and Families of .Man ; with Ethnological Remarks; by Samuel George Morton, M. D. : published in "Types of Man- kind," by Nott and Gliddon, Philadelphia, 1854, p. 303, note. See also Proceedings of Phila. Acad. Nat. Sci. for August, 1841. 238 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS From the Mortonian collection, other illustrations of this fact might be drawn ; but neither space nor time permits their introduction here. In the study of the sutures, considerations of a highly philosophical character are involved. Their history enables us to perceive why the cranium was not formed of one piece, and why there should be two frontal and two parietal bones, and only one occipital. Such an arrangement obviously allows the fullest development of the anterior and middle lobes of the cerebrum, — the organs, according to Carus, of intelligence, reflection, and judgment. 82 That the sutures are tutamina cerebri, that in the foetus they permit the cranial bones to overlap during parturition, and thus, by diminishing the size of the head in certain of its diameters, and producing anaesthesia, facilitate labor, curtailing its difficulties and diminishing its dangers to both mother and child, there can be no doubt. Such provisions are of high interest, as exhibiting the harmony of nature. But when we call to mind that the skull is a vertebra in its highest known state of development ; that the enclosed brain, as the organ of intellection, is the distinguishing mark of man ; that the development of the cranium goes on pari passu with that of the encephalon ; that the various degrees of human intelligence are definitely related to certain permanent skull-forms ; and that the cranial sutures, in conjunction with the ossific centres, are the guiding agents in the assumption of these forms — it will be evident that a higher and far more compre- hensive significance is attached to these bony interspaces. Again, no extended investigation has been instituted, as far as I am aware, to determine the period at which the different cranial sutures are closed in the various races of men. The importance of such an in- quiry becomes apparent, when we ask ourselves the following ques- tions : — 1. Does the cranium attain its fullest development in all the races at the same, or at different periods of life ? and 2. To what extent are race-forms of the cranium dependent upon the growth and modifications of the sutures ? "The most obvious use of the sutures," according to Dr. Morton, "is to subserve the process of growth, which they do by osseous depositions at their margins. Hence, one of these sutures is equivalent to the interrupted structure that exists between the shaft and epiphysis of a long bone in the growing state. The shaft grows in length chiefly by accre- tions at its extremities ; and the epiphysis, like the cranial suture, disappears when the perfect development is accomplished. Hence, we may infer that the skull ceases to expand whenever the sutures become consolidated with the proximate bones. In other words, the growth of the brain, whether in viviparous or in oviparous animals, is consentaneous with that of the skull, and neither can be developed without the presence of free sutures." 83 82 " Das besondere Organ des erkenuenden, vergleichenden und urtheilenden Geistesleben." — Symbolik der menschlichen Gestalt, von Dr. C. G. Carus, Leipzig, 1853. 83 See article on Size of the Brain, &c, quoted above, p. 303. OF THE RACES OF MEN. 239 From investigations of this nature, and from other considerations, Dr. M. concluded that the growth of the brain was arrested at the adult age, that the consolidation of the sutures was an indication of the full development of both cranium and brain, and that any in- crease or decrease in the size or weight of the brain after the adult period would not be likely to affect the internal capacity of the cra- nium, which, therefore, indicates the maximum size of the encephalon at the time of its greatest development. Combe, however, affirms that when the brain contracts in old age, the tabula vitrea of the cranium also contracts, so as to keep itself applied to its contents, the outer or fibrous table undergoing no change. 84 It is, to some extent, true that in the very aged, even when the skull-bones become consolidated into one piece, some changes may result from an undue activity of the absorbents, or some defect in the nutritive operations. Under such circumstances, the cranial bones may be thinned and altered slightly in form. Davis gives an example of this change, in the skull of an aged Chinese in his collection, in which the central area of the parietal bones is thinned and depressed over an extent equal to four square inches to about one-third of an inch deep in the central part. 85 Such changes, however, are too limited in their extent to demand more than a passing notice. The pressure of the brain, exerted through its weight, is felt mainly upon the base and inferior lateral parts. Prof. Engel, in a valuable monograph upon skull-forms, 86 particu- larly calls attention to the action of the muscles in determining these forms. He considers the influence of the occipito-frontalis as almost inappreciable, — so slight, indeed, that it may be neglected in our inquiries. The action of the temporal and pterygoid muscles and of the group attached to the occiput, though more evident, is still not worthy of much consideration. To the action of the musculus sterno-cleido-mastoideus, he assigns a greater value. " This muscle," says he, "tends to produce a downward displacement at the mastoid por- tion of the temporal bone, which will be the more considerable, as the lower point of its attach- ment — the sternum and clavicle — is able to offer much greater resistance than the upper. In addition to this, the unusual length of the muscle produces, by its contraction, more effect, and, hence, favors a greater displacement of the bones to which it is attached. The bone upon which it exerts its influence is also very loose in early life, and even during the first year of our existence, when extensive motions of the muscle already take place, it is not as firmly fixed as the other bones ; hence, it becomes probable that the influence of this muscle upon the position of the bones of the skull will be a demonstrable one. " It may, however, be admitted & priori, that in spite of all these favorable circumstances, 84 System of Phrenology, p. 83. 85 Cr. Brit., p. 6. See also Gall, " Sur les Fonctions du Cerveau," III, 53, 1825. ss Op. cit. 240 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS the displacement will not exceed a magnitude of one, or, at most, three millimetres. With this alone, we will, it is true, not yet explain that variety in the form of the skull which not only distinguishes one man from another, but has also been characterized as the type of progeny and race. Notwithstanding its seeming insignificance, however, this muscular action is a very important agent, and plays the principal part in the formation of the skull, although other circumstances of an auxiliary or restrictive nature must not be neglected — circumstances which may increase, diminish, or modify this displacement. " The effect of this muscular action is considerably increased by superadded conditions. The head rests upon the condyles of the occipital bone. Partly on account of muscular action, and partly from the pressure of the brain, the basal bones of the skull are exposed to a downward displacement : the condyloid portions of the occiput, alone, are not. This impossibility to change their position parallel with the displacement of the other basal bones, is equivalent to an upward pressure of the occipital condyles, and this must considerably increase the downward traction of the sterno-cleido-mastoideus. " The occipital and temporal regions, then, are subjected to a downward traction, while the condyles are pressed upward : moreover, the brain produces, upon all the basal bones except the condyles, a downward pressure corresponding to its height; at the partes condy- loidea, this downward pressure is obviated by the resistance of the vertebral column." Notwithstanding the significance of the facts thus far adduced, it has been boldly and unhesitatingly maintained that civilization — by which is meant the aggregate intellectual and moral influences of society — exerts a positive influence over the form and size of the cranium, modifying not only its individual, but also its race-charac- ters, to such an extent, indeed, as entirely to change the original type of structure. This doctrine finds its chief advocates among the writers of the phrenological school, though it is not wholly confined to them. Among its most recent supporters we find the Baron J. "W", de Muller, who, in a quarto pamphlet of 74 pages, 87 devotes a sec- tion to the consideration of the "Action de I' intelligence sur les formes de la tete:" "Nous espe>ons prouver," says he, "de meme que les formes du crane ont des rapports intimes avec le degre' de civilisation auquel un peuple est parvenu, et que par consequent elles non plus ne peuvent justifier une division en races des habitants de la terre, a moins de classer les hommes d'apres leur plus ou moins d'intelligence, et de justifier ainsi, au nom de la supr^matie de la raison, non-seulment tous les abus de l'esclavage,mais encore toutes les tyrannies individuelles." The subject-matter embodied in the above quotation, though pro- fessedly obscure, is beginning to assume a more certain character in consequence of the facts brought to light during the controversies between the Unitarians and Diversitarians in Ethnology — facts which intimately affect the great question of permanency of cranial types. Confronted with the facts presently to be brought forward, it will be seen that the doctrine of the mobility of cranial forms under the 87 Des Causes de la Coloration de la Peau et des differences dans les Formes du Crane, au point de vue de l'unite' du genre humain. Par le Baron J. W. de Muller. Stutt- gart, 1853. OF THE RACES OF MEN. 241 influence of education, &c, is by uo means a settled fact, as many of its advocates appear to think. " Speaking of the great races of mankind," very appropriately remarks Davis, "whether it be in the size of the brain, or whether in its quality, or whether it be, as the phrenologists maintain, in the development of its particular parts, each race is endowed with such special faculties of the mind, moral and intellectual, as to impart to it a distinct and definite position within which its powers and capabilities range. "We know of no valid evidence that can be brought forward for thinking this definite position can be varied in the mass. We may therefore take this further ground for questioning the assumed pliancy of the form of skull." The indefatigable traveller and "Directeur du Jardin Royal de Zoologie de Bruxelles," has condensed in a few pages, at once the best and most commonly used arguments to sustain the hypothesis which constitutes the starting-point of the above-mentioned article. It has appeared to me not inappropriate to devote a few words, in this hasty sketch, to the examination of the tenability of the two most important examples adduced by Baron M., whose brochure I subject to critical inquiry, simply because it is one of the most con- cise exponents of a generally-spread, but, as it appears to me, erro- neous, and therefore injurious view. And I am the more especially urged to this, since the question of the permanency or non-perma- nency of human types occupies the highest philosophical position in the entire field of Ethnographic inquiry. Its relations are, indeed, fundamental ; for, according as it is definitively settled in the affirma- tive or negative, will Ethnography — especially the cranioscopical branch — assume the dignity and certainty of a science, or be de- graded to the vague position of an interesting but merely speculative inquiry. "If the size of the brain," says Mr. Combe, in allusion to the labors of Morton, as published in Crania Americana, "and the proportions of its different parts, be the index to natural national character, the present work, which represents with great fidelity the skulls of the American tribes, will be an authentic record in whieb the philosopher may read the native aptitudes, dispositions, and mental force of these families of mankind. If this doctrine be unfounded, these skulls are mere facts in Natural History, present- ing no particular information as to the mental qualities of the people." If there be this permanency of cranial form in the great leading or typical stocks — if, in other words, Nature alters not, but ever truly and unchangeably represents that primitive Divine Idea, of which she is but the objective embodiment and indi- cation — then the labors of Blumenbach, Morton, Retzius, ISTilss n, 16 242 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS Davis, and other cranio scopists, have not been toilfully wrought out in vain ; if, however, this permanency is but a dream, if typical skull-forms vary in periods of time not greater than the historic, then all is confusion and uncertainty, and the labors of the craniolo- gist hopeless for good, alike without objects and without results. Now a moment's reflection will show that this question of perma- nency underlies and in great measure substitutes itself for the fiercely- vexed problem of the unity or diversity of human oiigin. "S'il est demontreV' says Gobineau, "que les races humaines sont, chacune, enferme'es dans une sorte d'individualite' d'ou rien ne les peut faire sortir que le melange, alors la doc- trine des Unitaires se trouve bien pressee et ne peut se soustraire a reeonnaitre que, du moment ou les types sont si eompletement he're'ditaires, si constants, si permanenis, en un mot, malgre' les climats et le temps, l'humanite' n'est pas moins completement et in4branla- blement partagee que si les distinctions spe'cifiques prenaient leur source dans une diversity primitive d'origine." 88 After citing the Barabra or Berberins of the Eile-valley, and the Jews, in proof of the proposition under consideration, our author proceeds to speak of the Turks in the following manner. "Les Turcs d'Europe et de 1'Asie mineure nous offrent une autre preuve que la forme caracteristique du crane peut se modifier completement dans le cours des siecles. Ce peuple nous prfeente le modele d'un type elliptique pur et ne se distingue rien de la masse des nations 6urope"ennes. Par contre, il differe tant avee les Turcs de TAsie centrale, que beaucoup d'e'crivains le placent au nombre des nations caucasiques, tandis qu'ils rattachent les Turcs d'Asie a la race mongole. Or, I'histoire demontre d'une maniere irrefutable que ces deux peuples appartiennent au groupe de lAsie septentrionale, avec lequel les Turcs de l'Orient conservent les relations les plus intimes, non-seulement au point de vue ge"ogra- pMque, mais par la concordance de tous les usages de la vie. La transformation du crane a eu lieu non chez les Turcs de l'Asie centrale, mais chez ceux de FEurope. Ceux-ci ont perdu peu a peu le type pyramidal de leurs peres et ils l'ont e'change' contre la plus belle des formes elliptiques. Or, tout en 6tant les reprtisentants par excellence de cette forme, ils sont aussi les consanguins les plus proches de ce peuple hideux aux yeux louches, qui mene paitre ses chevaux dans les steppes de la Tartarie Nous devons attribuer cette modification du crane aux ameliorations sociales, a la civilisation qui tend toujours a, <5qui- librer toutes les anomalies des formes faciales, a niveler toutes les protuberances du crane pyramidal ou prognatique et a les mener a la syme'trie du type de l'ellipse. Les Turcs orientaux sont Teste's ce qu'6taient les anciens Turcs ; place's sur le meme degrti inf6rieur de la civilisation, ils ont conserve le type des peuples nomades." The mode of argument here employed appears to be this. In the first place it is taken for granted that the Turks are of Asiatic origin ; secondly, in consequence of certain unimportant resemblances, they are assumed to be affiliated with the Laplanders and Ostiacs through what are erroneously supposed to be their Finnic or Tchudic branches ; and lastly, as relations of the Lapps, (?) it is inferred that they must have originally presented all the Mongolic characters in an eminent degree, and been remarkable for low statures, ugly features, &c. 88 Op. cit, 1. 1, p. 212. OF THE RAGES OF MEN. 243 These premises supposed to be established, a comparison is next instituted between the Turks of Europe and of Asia Minor, and a conclusion drawn adverse to permanency of cranial types. It is of vital importance to cranioscopy, that these arguments should be carefully sifted, and examined in detail. It has been re- cently shown that at so remote a period as the days of Abraham, numerous Gothic tribes occupied those boundless steppes of High Asia, which lie outstretched between the Sea of Aral and Katai, and between Thibet and Siberia. 89 From the Altai Mountains of this region appear to have descended, at this distant epoch, the Orghuse progenitors of the Turks. ISTow it is a note-worthy fact, that the Oriental writers, though familiar with the European standards of beauty, have filled their writings, even at a very early period, with the highest eulogies upon the form and features of the tribes inhabi- ting Turkestan. 'The descriptions they give of these tribes by no means apply to the true Mongol appearance, to be met with on the desert of Schamo. Haneberg describes Schafouz, the daughter of the Ehakan of the Turks, who lived in the early part of the sixth century, as the most beautiful woman of her time. 90 Alexander von Humboldt tells us that the monk Rubruquis, sent by St. Louis on an embassy to the Mongolian sovereign, spoke of the striking resem- blance which the Eastern monarch bore to the deceased M. Jean de Beaumont, in complexion, features, &c. " This physiognomical ob- servation," says Humboldt, " merits some attention, when we call to mind the fact, that the family of Tchinguiz were really of Turkish, not of Mogul origin." Further on, he remarks, "The absence of Mongolian features strikes us also in the portraits which we possess of the Baburides, the conquerors of India." 91 "The Atrak Turks," writes Hamilton Smith, "more especially the Osmanlis, differ from the other Toorkees, by their lofty stature, European features, abundant beards, and fair complexions, derived from their original extraction being Caucasian, of Yuchi race, or from an early intermixture with it, and with the numerous captives they were for ages incor- porating from Kashmere, Afghanistan, Persia, Syria, Natolia, Armenia, Greece, and eastern Europe. Both these conjectures may be true, because the Caucasian stock, wherever we find it, contrives to rise into power, from whatever source it may be drawn, and therefore, may in part have been pure before the nation left eastern Asia, while the subordinate hordes remained more or less Hyperborean in character ; as, in truth, the normal Toorkees about the lower Oxus still are. All have, however, a peculiar form of the posterior portion of the skull, which is less in depth than the European, and does not appear to be a result of the tight swathing of the turban. Osmanli Turks are a handsome race, and their chil- dren, in particular, are beautiful." 92 89 Consult, among other works, Humboldt's Asie Centrale, vol. II. ; Ritter's Erdhunde Asien, vol. II. ; and Lassen's Zeitschrifl fur die Kunde des Morgenlandes, vol. n. 90 Zeitschrifl fur die Kunde des Morgenlandes, vol. I., p. 187. 91 Asie Centrale,, vol. I., p. 248. See also Gobineau, Sur V InegaliU, $c, Chap. XI. 92 Op. cit. p. 327. 244 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS Now, the beautiful Osmaulis are the lineal descendants of the warlike Seldjuks, who, in the ninth century, suddenly made their appearance in Southern Asia, overthrew the empire of the Khalifs, and founded the states of Iran, Kerman, and Roum, or Iconium. History informs us that these Seldjuks were, by no means, careful about preserving the purity of their genealogy ; for it is not difficult to adduce instances of their chiefs intermarrying with Arabian and Christian women. In short, when we consider that, as a body, they were constantly engaged in extensive predatory excursions, during which they enjoyed almost unlimited opportunities for capturing slaves and amalgamating with them ; that in compliance with the invitation of Osman, the son of Ortogrhul, great numbers of the adventurous, the discontented, and the desperate, from all the sur- rounding nations, fled to his standard, and gradually swelled the ranks of the Osmanlis ; that at a later period, the thinning of their num- bers in war was avowedly provided for by the capture of slaves ; that in the ranks of the Janissaries, a military order instituted in the early part of the fourteenth century by Orkhan, one-fifth of all the European captives were enrolled ; that for two centuries and a half this body was entirely dependent for its renewal upon the Christian slaves captured in Poland, Germany, Italy, &c. ; that in the course of four centuries, at least half a million of European males derived from the above-mentioned sources, and by piracy along the Mediter- ranean, had been incorporated into the Turkish population ; — when we consider all these, and many other facts of a like nature, we are forced to conclude with the erudite Gobineau, that the history of so amalgamated a nation furnishes no arguments, either for or against the doctrine of permanency of type. Further on, and confirmatory of the above remarks, the reader will find some allusion to the special character of the Turkish cranium, and the marks which distinguish it from the Mongolian, Finnic, and other forms of the skull. The Magyars are also produced as an example of the mutability of cranial form. " Bien qu'ils ne le cedent a aucun peuple ni en beauty physique ni en deVeloppenient intellectuel, ils descendent, d'apres les indications de l'histoire et de la linguistique com- pared, de la grande race qui occupe 1'Asie septentrionale. lis sont du meme sang que les Samoiedes indolents, les Ostiacs stupides et dSbiles, les Lapons indomptables. II y a envi- ron urille ans, les codescendants de ces peuplades meprisees, les Magyars modernes, furent chassis par une invasion de Turcs bors de la Grande-Hongrie, pays avoisinant l'Oural, qu'ils habitaient a cette e'poque. A leur tour ils expulserent les races slaves des plaines fertiles de la Hongrie actuelle. Par cette migration, les Magyars ^cbangerent un des plus rudes climats de Fancien continent, une contre'e sauvage dans laquelle FOstiac etle Samoi'ede ne peuvent s'adonner a, la chasse que pendant quelques mois, contre un pays plus meri- dional, d'une luxuriante fertility. Ils furent entrainfe it se depouiller peu a peu de leurs OF THE RACES OF MEN. 245 moeurs grossieres et a se rapprocher de leurs voisins plus civilises. Apres uu millier d'an- n6es, la forme pyramidale de leur crane est devenue elliptique. L'hypothese d'un croise- ment general de races n'est pas admissible quand il s'agit des Magyars si fiers, yivant dans l'isolement le plus severe. La simple expatriation ne suffit pas non plus pour modifier la forme du crane. Le Lapon, issu du meme sang que le Magyar, a comme lui aussi change' de demeure ; il vit maintenant en Europe ; mais il y a conserve le type pyramidal de son crane avec sa vie de nomade sauvage." This asserted transformation of the Samoiede or Northern Asiatic type into the Hungarian, in the short space of eight hundred, or, at most, one thousand years, stands unparalleled in history. But we may ask, if the Magyar has thus changed the form of his head, why have not his habits and mode of life changed accordingly ? Why, after a residence of nearly one thousand years in Hungary, does he still withhold his hand from agricultural pursuits, and, depending for his support upon his herds, leave to the aboriginal Slovack popu- lation the task of cultivating the soil? Why does he jealously pre- serve his own language, and, though professing the same religion, refuse to intermingle with his Slavonian neighbors ? Can it be that the language, manners, and customs of a people are more durable than the hardest parts of their organism — the bony skeleton ? If the reader will consult the able essay of Gekando, upon the origin of the Hungarians, 93 he will find a simple explanation of these appa- rent difficulties. It is there shown by powerful philological argu- ments, and upon the authority of Greek and Arabian historians and Hungarian annalists, that the Magyars are a remnant of the warlike Huns, who in the fourth century spread such terror through Europe. Now, the Huns were by no means a pure Mongolic race, but, on the contrary, an exceedingly mixed people. In the veins of the so-called White Huns, who formed a portion of Attila's heterogeneous horde, Germanic blood flowed freely. " In the whole of the high region west of the Caspian," says Hamilton Smith, "to the Euxine and eastern coast of the Mediterranean as far as the Hellespont, it is difficult, if uot impossible, to separate distinctly the Finnic from the pure Germanic and Celtic nations." 94 Humboldt, in the Asie Centrale, alludes to the Khirghiz-Kasakes as a mixed race, and tells us that, in 569, Zemarch, the ambassador of Justinian H., received from the Turkish chief Dithouboul a present of a Khirghiz concubine who was partly white. He Gobineau considers the Hungarians to be White Suns of Germanic origin, and attributes to a slight intermix- ture with the Mongolian stock their somewhat angular and bony facial conformation. 95 93 Essai Historique sur FOrigine des Hongrois. Par A. De Gerando. Paris, 1844. See also Hamilton Smith's Nat. Hist, of Human Species, pp. 323, 325. <» Op. cit., p. 325. »5 Op. cit., p. 223. 246 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS The facts attesting the pertinacity with which the distinguishing physical characters of the different races of men maintain themselves through long periods of time, and iinder very varying conditions, are as numerous as they are striking. The Arabian type of men, as seen to-day upon the burning plains of Arabia, or in the fertile regions of Malabar, Coromandel, and the islands of the Indian Ocean, is identical with the representations upon the Egyptian monuments, where, also, we find figures of the prognathous ISTegro head, differing not a whit from that type as it now exists. From their original borne in Palestine, the Jews have been scattered abroad through countries differing most widely in climatic and geographical features, 96 and, in many instances, have departed from their primitive habits of life, yet under every sky, and in every latitude, they can be singled out from amidst other human types. In the streets of San Francisco or Lon- don, on the arid wastes of Arabia, and beneath a cloudless Italian sky, the pure unmixed Jew presents us with the same facial linea- ments, and the same configuration of skull. " J'ai eu occasion," writes Gobineau, " d' examiner un homme appartenant a cette der- niere categorie (Polish Jews). La coupe de son visage trahissait parfaitement son origine. Ses yeux surtout etaient inoubliables. Cet habitant du Nbrd, dont les aneetres directs vivaient, depuis plusieurs generations, dans la neige, semblait avoir ete bruni, de la veille, par les rayons du soleil Syrien." The Zingarri or Gypsies everywhere preserve their peculiar oriental physiognomy, although, according to Borrow, there is scarcely a part of the habitable world where they are not to be found ; their tents being alike pitched on the heaths of Brazil, and the ridges of the Himalayan hills ; and their language heard at Moscow and Madrid, in the streets of London and Stamboul. "Wherever they are found, their manners and cus- toms are virtually the same, though somewhat modified by circum- stances ; the language they speak amongst themselves, and of which they are particularly anxious to keep others in ignorance, is in all countries one and the same, but has been subjected more or less to modification; their countenances exhibit a decided family resem- blance, but are darker or fairer, according to the temperature of the cliruate, but invariably darker, at least in Europe, than the natives of the countries in which they dwell, for example, England and 96 We find them scattered along the entire African Coast, from Morocco to Egypt, and appearing in other parts of this continent, numbering, according to Weimar, some 504,000 souls. In Mesopotamia and Assyria, Asiatic Turkey, Arabia, Hindostan, China, Turkistan, the Province of Iran ; in Russia, Poland, European Turkey, Germany, Prussia, Netherlands, France, Italy, Great Britain, and America, they are numbered by thousands. OF THE RACES OF MEN. 247 Russia, Germany and Spain. 97 The physical characters of the present Assyrian nations identify them with those who anciently occupied the same geographical area, and who are figured on the monuments of Persepolis, and the has-reliefs of Khorsabad. "Notwithstanding the mixtures of race during two centuries," says Dr. Pickering, "no one has remarked a tendency to a deveiopment of a new race in the United States. In Arabia, where the mixtures are more complicated, and have been going on from time imme- morial, the result does not appear to have been different. On the Egyptian monuments, I was unable to detect any change in the races of the human family. Neither does written history afford evidence of the extinction of one physical race of men, or of the development of another previously unknown." 98 The population of Spain, like that of France, consists of several races ethnically distinct from each other. Erom these different strata, so to speak, of the Spanish people, have been derived the inhabitants of Central and South America. Of these settlers in the New "World, Humboldt thus speaks : " The Andalusians and Carrarians of Venezuela, the Mountaineers and Biscayans of Mexico, the Catalonians of Buenos Ayres, evince considerable differences in their aptitude for agriculture, for the mechanieal arts, for commerce, and for all objects connected with intel- lectual development. Each of these races has preserved in the New as in the Old World, the shades that constitute its national physiognomy ; its asperity or mildness of character ; its freedom from sordid feelings, or its excessive love of gain ; its social hospitality, or its taste for solitude In the inhabitants of Caraccas, Santa Fe", Quito, and Buenos Ayres, we still recognise the features that belong to the race of the first settlers." " A remarkable instance of this permanence of physical character is shown in the Maragatos or Moorish Goths, whom, Borrow informs us, are perhaps the most singular caste to be found amongst the chequered population of Spain. "They have," says he, "their own peculiar customs and dress, and never intermarry with the Spaniards There can be little doubt that they are a remnant of those Goths who sided with the Moors on their invasion of Spain It is evident that their blood has at no time mingled with that of the wild children of the desert : for scarcely amongst the hills of Norway would you find figures and faces more essentially Gothic than those of the Maragatos. They are strong athletic men, but loutish and heavy, and their features, though for the most part well formed, are vacant and devoid of expression. They are slow and plain of speech, and those eloquent and imaginative sallies, so common in the conversation of other Spaniards, seldom or never escape them; they have, moreover, a coarse, thick pronunciation, and when you hear them speak, you almost imagine that it is some German or English peasant attempting to express himself in the language of the Peninsula." 100 True to their Gothic character, they have managed to monopolize almost the entire commerce of one-half of Spain. They thus accumulate great wealth, and arc much better fed than the parsimonious Spaniard. Like men of a more northern clime, they are fond of spirituous liquors and rich meats. 97 The Zincali ; or, An Account of the Gypsies of Spain. By Geo. Borrow. New York, 1851, p. 8. 38 Races of Men. U. S. Exploring Expedition, vol. IX., 1848, p. 345. W Personal Narrative. i°° Bible in Spain, Chap. XXIII. 248 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS In another place, Borrow tells us that in the heart of Spain, he came across two villages — Villa Seca and Vargas — the respective inhabitants of which entertained for each other a deeply-rooted hos- tility — rarely speaking when they met, and never intermarrying. The people of Vargas — according to tradition, " Old Christians," — are light and fair ; those of Villa Seca — of Moorish origin — are par- ticularly dark complexioned. 101 Many examples similar to this can he pointed out, where a mountain ridge, a valley, or a narrow stream forms the only dividing line between races who differ from each other in language, religion, customs, physical and mental qualities, &c. This is particularly seen, according to Hamilton Smith, in the Keel- gherries, the Crimea, the Carpathians, the Pyrenees, the Alps, the Atlas, and even in the group of Northern South America. 102 "The Vincentine district," says a writer in the Edinburgh Review, "is, as every one knows, and has been for ages, an integral part of the Venetian dominions, professing the same religion, and governed by the same laws, as the other continental provinces of Venice ; yet the English character is not more different from the French, than that of the Vincentine from the Paduan ; while the contrast between the Vincentine and his other neighbor, the Veronese, is hardly less remarkable." 103 In a letter, dated United States Steamer John Hancock, Puget Sound, July 1st, 1856, and recently received from my friend and former school-mate, Dr. T. J. Turner, U. S.K, I find the following paragraph, which bears upon the subject under consideration : " On each side of the Straits of Juan de Fuca live very different tribes, and although the Straits are, on an average, about sixty miles wide, yet they are crossed and re-crossed again and again by canoes, and no admixtures of the varieties (races ?) has taken place." Among other instances of the persistence of human cranial forms, Dr. Nott figures, in Types of Mankind, two heads — an ancient Asiatic (probably a mountaineer of the Taurus chain), and a modern Kurd — which strongly resemble each other, though separated per- haps by centuries of time. A still better example of this perma- nence of type, and one which involves several peculiar and novel reflections as to the relation of the Scythse to the modern Suomi or Finns, and through these latter to the Caucasian, or Indo-Germanic forms in general, is found in the fact that the skull of a Tchude, " taken from one of the very ancient burial-places which are found near the workings of old mines in the mountainous parts of Siberia," and figured by Blumenbach, is exactly represented in Morton's col- lection by several modern Finnic heads. ™ Op. cit., chap. XLIII. 102 Op. cit., p. 174. "« No. 84, p. 459. OF THE RACES OF MEN. 249 "Plerasque nationes peculiare quid in capitis forma sibi vindicare con- stat." — Vesalius, De Corpor. Human. Fab. "Of all the peculiarities in the form of the bony fabric, those of the skull are the most striking and distinguishing. It is in the head that we find the varieties most strongly characteristic of different races." Prichard, Researches, I. 275. One of the most difficult problems in the whole range of cranio- scopy, is a systematic and accurate classification of cranial forms. The fewer the groups attempted to be made, the greater the diffi- culty ; since the gradation from one group to another is so insensible, as already intimated, that it is exceedingly perplexing to draw sharp and exact lines of demarcation between them. A moment's reflection will show that a comprehensive group must necessarily embrace many skulls which, though possessing in common certain features by which they are distinguished from those of other groups, will differ from each other, nevertheless, in as many minor but none the less pecu- liar characters. The difficulty is increased by the utter impossibility of pronouncing positively whether the varieties thus observed are coeval in point of time, as the " original diversity" doctrine main- tains; whether they are simply so many "developments" the one from the other, as the advocates of the Lamarkian system aver ; or, finally, whether, as the supporters of the " unity" dogma contend, they are all simple modifications of one primary type or specific form. Again, as each group or family of man consists of a number of races, and these, in turn, are made up of varieties and sub-varieties, in some instances almost innumerable, it will be evident that a true classification can only result from the careful study of a collection of crania so vast as to contain not only many individual representations of these races, varieties, &c, but also specimens illustrative of both the naturally divergent and hybrid forms. And here another obstacle presents itself. As a type is the ideal embodiment of a series of allied objects, and as the perfection of this type depends upon the number of the objects upon which it is based, the very necessity of a large number renders it no easy matter to determine what is typical and what is not; or, in other words, what are the respective values of the different characters presented by a skull. It has not yet been determined how far the physical identity of the individuals composing a nation is a proof of purity of race and the homogeneity of the nation. Neither is the law demonstrated, in obedience to which individual dissimilarities are produced by inter- 250 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS mixtures of allied races. The first effect of such intermixture is to disorder the homogeneity of type by the introduction of divergent forms. If the influx of the foreign element is suddenly arrested, these abnormal or accidental forms are absorbed into the primary type. If the introduction is continued over a long period, the homo- geneous aspect of the nation is destroyed, and the physical characters of the primary stock, together with those of the disturbing element, disappear, as the fusion proceeds to give rise to a hybrid race blend- ing the characters of both, and assuming a homogeneousness of its own, which, if the fusion were perfect, would very likely lead to the supposition of its being a pure form, especially if the history of these changes was not made known. A cranioscopist having the skulls of such a people in his cabinet, together with specimens of those of the primary stocks from which it sprung, could easily assign it a place in classification, between the other two, but would be puzzled not a little to determine whether it was a primary or secondary form, a pure race or uot. A resort to history would here be necessary, just as it is with the naturalist. As the latter, by studying the anatomi- cal peculiarities of an animal in conjunction with its history, esta- blishes its primordial character and durability, so the ethnographer, ascertaining the osteologic differentiae of the races of men, and con- trasting them with the records of remote, historic times, is enabled to point out the durability of certain types through all the vicissi- tudes of time and place. In this way, alone, can he discriminate primary typical forms from secondary or hybrid — a pure race from a mixed breed. The thoroughness of the fusion, and the time required to effect it, will depend very much upon the degree of difference between the parent stocks, and upon the relative numbers which are brought into contact. The more closely allied the groups, the more likely are they to fuse completely; the more widely separated, the less likelihood is there of a perfect intermixture. " The amalgamation of races, there are strong reasons for believing, depends chiefly on their original proximity — their likeness from the beginning. Where races are remote, their hybrid products are weak, infertile, short-lived, prone to disease, and perishable. Where they are primitively nearer in resemblance, there is still an inherent law operating and controlling their intermixture, by which the predominant blood overcomes that which is in minor proportion, and causes the offspring ultimately to revert to that side from which it was chiefly derived. As it is only where the resemblance of races is most intimate that moral antagonisms can be largely overcome, so it is in these cases alone that we may expect to meet with the physical attraction productive of perfect amalgamation ; nature, probably, still, at times, evincing her unsubdued resistance by the occurrence of families bearing the impress of one or the other of their original progenitors." 104 104 Crania Britannica, p. 8. OF THE RACES OF MEN. 251 The aboriginal tribes of Australia are among tbe lowest specimens of humanity — the farthest removed from tbe European. Now, ac- cording to Strzelecki, tbe women of tbese tribes are incapacitated from reproducing with males of tbeir own race, after they have once been impregnated by a European. 105 Dr. Thompson, however, ex- presses bis doubt of this statement, and denies its truth with regard to the New Zealand women. 106 " II est remarquable que, quoiqu'un grand nombre d'Europe'ens habitent maintenant dans les memes contre'es que les Andanienes, on ne mentionne pas encore P existence d'hybrides resultant de leur union. Cette circonstance est peut-gtre due a ce que la difference entre ces deux extremities de la s^rie humaine rend plus difficile la procreation des hybrides." 107 Here, then, are the elements of a theory, or rather the indications of an unknown physiological law, whose importance is self-evident, and whose elucidation connects itself with an allied series of pheno- mena. I allude to the instances in which the progeny of the female by a second husband resemble the first husband in physical appear- ance, temperament, constitutional disease, &c. From the above remarks, it will be readily inferred that every additional foreign element introduced into a nation will only serve to render a thorough fusion more and more difficult. Indeed, an almost incalculable time would be required to bring the blending stocks into equilibrium, and thus cause to disappear the innumerable hybrid forms or pseudo-types. As long as tbe blood of one citizen of such a nation differed in the degree of its mixture from that of another, diverse and probably long-forgotten forms would crop out in tbe most unaccountable manner, as indications of the past, and obstacles to the assumption of that perfectly homogeneous character which belongs to the pure stocks alone. To be assured of the truth of these propositions, we have but to examine with care the popula- tion of any large commercial city, as London, Constantinople, Cadiz, Sew York, &c. If, now, it be true, as Count de Gobineau maintains, in bis philo- sophical inquiry into the Cause of National Degeneracy, that a nation lives and flourishes only so long as the progressive and leading eth- nical element or principle, upon which it is based, is preserved in a vigorous state, and that the exhaustion of this principle is invariably accompanied with political death, then should the American states- man turn aside from the vapid and mischievous party-questions of the day — questions whose very littleness should permit them to pass 105 physical Description of New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land, London, 1845. 106 British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical Review for April, 1855. 107 Des Races Humaines, ou Elements d'Ethnographie. Par J. J. D'Omalius D'Halloy. Paris, 1845, p. 186. 252 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS unheeded — and earnestly compare the historical phases of our youth- ful Republic with those of the fallen Greek and Roman empires, and the already enfeebled English Commonwealth, that he may learn those unalterable laws of political reproduction, evolution, and decay, and thus, forewarned, provide intelligently for the amelioration of that disease whose seeds were planted when the Declaration of Inde- pendence was proclaimed, and whose deadly influences threaten, sooner or later, like the Lianes of a tropical forest, to suffocate the national tree over which they are silently spreading. Though war and slavery, those powerful agents in amalgamation, have been going on, without interruption, from the earliest recorded history of our race down to the present moment, yet certain primary types have maintained themselves, amidst every conflict, and under the most destructive influences, as vestiges or wrecks of the remotest times, and in virtue of a certain inherent and mutual antipathy, as old as the oldest varieties of our race. The instability of human hybrids is as remarkable as the permanency of the pure stocks. The area of the hybrid forms is in all cases limited, and their existence devoid of a self-sustaining power. "Where the mixed races are sub- jected to a modified climatic influence, they for a while appear to maintain themselves, and even extend their locality beyond their primary centres of creation ; but, sooner or later, they disappear, either through extermination, or absorption by the purer races, or in consequence of a mysterious degradation of vital energy. Neverthe- less, long after their obliteration, they leave their impress upon the conquering and exterminating races, in the shape of modifications of the skull, stature, habits, intellectual conditions, &c. In this in- stability, this inherent tendency to decay, we discover the great cheek to the assumption by the hybrid types of that homogeneity which, in all probability, once characterized the primeval groups of man. "As it is with individual life, so families, tribes, and nations, most likely even races, pass away. In debatable regions, their tenure is only provisional, until the typical form appears, when they are extinguished, or found to abandon all open territories, not positively assigned them by nature, to make room for those to whom they are genial. This effect is itself a criterion of an abnormal origin ; for a parent stock, a typical form of the present genus or species, perhaps with the sole exception of the now extinct Flatheads, is, we be- lieve, indestructible and ineffaceable. No change of food or circumstances can sweep away the tropical, woolly-haired man ; no event, short of a general cataclycis, can transfer his centre of existence to another ; nor can any known cause dislodge the beardless type from the primeval high North-Eastern region of Asia and its icy shores. The white or bearded form, particularly that section which has little or no admixture, and is therefore quite fair, can only live, not thrive, in the two extremes of temperature. It exists in them solely as a master race, and must be maintained therein by foreign influences ; and the intermediate regions, as we have seen, were in part yielded to the Mongolic on one side, and but tempo- OF THE RACES OF MEN. 253 rarily obtained, by extermination from the woolly-haired, on the other." 103 Hybrid forms cannot be regarded as characteristic of a new race ; amidst all the confusion of blood, "we look in vain for a new race. Nature asserts her dominion on all hands in a deterioration and degradation, the fatal and depopulating consequences of which it is appalling to con- template." 109 To the cranioscopist, the most interesting point, perhaps, in this whole inquiry, is the determination of the particular influence exerted by each parent stock upon the formation of the hybrid cranium. So much obscurity surrounds this question, however, and the facts concerning it are so scanty and conflicting, that I am compelled to forego its discussion in this place, and refer the reader to the writings of "Walker [Intermarriage ; or, Beauty, Health, and Intellect); Combe [The Constitution of Man); Blaine {Outlines of the Veterinary Art); Edwards (Des Caracteres Physiologiques des Races Surnames)) Harvey {Monthly Journal of Medical Science, Aug. 1854); Berard (Cours de Physiologic) ; and particularly, Lucas (Traite Philosophique et Physio- logique de V Seredite Naturelle). As already intimated, the attempted classifications of the human family are as numerous as they are various. Those based upon the form of the skull are perhaps the most reliable, since the skull is intimately connected with the intellectual organs, and resists, in a remarkable manner, the altering influences of climate. Among others, the most simple, though in some respects objectionable, is that of Prof. Retzius, who, in an essay upon the cranial forms of Northern Europe,' 10 divides all heads into Long (Dolichocephalce) and Short {Brachycephalcp). Each of these he again subdivides into Straight- Jaws (Orthognathy) and Prominent-Jaws (Prognaihcc). The races comprised in each of these divisions are seen in the accompanying scheme. T irl ] / Straight jaws 1 Celtic and Germanic tribes. ° \ Prominent jaws J Negroes, Australians, Oceanians, Caribs, Greenlanders, &c. Short heads / Straight jaws 1 Laplanders, Finns, Sclaves, Turks, Persians, &c. \ Prominent jaws / Tartars, Mongolians, Malays, Incas, Papuas, &c. Prof. Zetjne, after animadverting upon what he calls the " one-sided polarity" of this classification, adopts three main forms or types of skull for the Eastern, and three corresponding types for the "Western hemisphere, thus dividing mankind into six races, as is shown in the subjoined table : m 108 Hamilton Smith, op. cit., p. 175. 109 Davis, Cran. Brit., p. 7. 110 TJeber die Sch'adelformen der Nordbewohner. — Miiller's Archives, 1845, p. 84. 111 tiber Schiidelbildung, pp. 19, 20. 254 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS North. New World. Old World. I. High Skull. 4. Apalachian, 1. Caucasian, or Natchez Race. or Iran Race. II. Broad Skull. 5. Guianian, 2. Mongolian, or Carib Race. or Turan Race. III. Long Skull. 6. Peruvian, 3. Ethiopian, or Inca Race. or Sudan Race. South. A serious objection to this division exists in the fact that the so- called high skulls, in many important features, differ as much from each other, as they do from the broad and long skulls, and this is equally predicable of each of these last two varieties, as compared with the first. Moreover, the requirements of science discounte- nance all attempts at the indiscriminate arrangement of artificially deformed with natural skulls. Prichard divides all skulls into 1. The symmetrical or oval form, which is that of the European and Western Asiatic nations ; 2. The narrow and elongated or progna- thous skull, of which the most strongly marked specimen is perhaps the cranium of the Negro of the Gold Coast; 3. The broad and square-faced or pyramidal skull, which is that particularly of the Turanian nation. 112 "Want of space, alone, prevents reference to other systems. How- ever, regarding nature as an harmonious and indivisible whole, and believing with the venerable Humboldt, that it is impossible to recognize any typical sharpness of definition between the races ; 1I3 and with the eminent German physiologist, Johannes Muller, that it is incontestably more desirable to contrast the races by their con- stant and extreme forms ; lM and finally, inclining to the opinion so ably argued by Gerard," 5 and entertained by Knox, 116 and others, 112 Researches into the Physical History of Mankind. London, 1836. Vol. I. p. 281. 113 Cosmos : A Sketch of a Physical Description of the Universe. By Alexander Von Humboldt. Translated from the German by E. C. Otte\ New York, 1850. Vol. I. p. 356. 114 Handbuch der Physiologie des Menschen. Bd. II., s. 775. 115 Dictionnaire Universel d'Histoire Naturelle. Dirige' par M. Chas. d'Orbigny. Art. Espece, par Gerard ; t. 5eme. i 16 "In time there is probably no such thing as species; no absolutely new creations ever took place ; but as viewed by the limited mind of man, the question takes another aspect. As regards his individual existence, time is a short span ; a few centuries, or a few thousand years, more or less ; this is all he can grasp. Now, for that period at least, organic forms seem not to have changed. So far back as history goes, the species of ani- OF THE RACES OF MEN. 255 that species occupy no absolutely permanent place in nature's method, and that all specific distinctions are, therefore, fallacious — I have deemed it more judicious, in the present state of our science, to avoid any similar attempt at a classification, preferring to lay before the general reader a panoramic view of a few of the almost innu- merable cranial forme which the traveller meets with in making a tour of the surface of the earth. But, in order to avoid miscon- ceptions, a few preliminary remarks will be necessary before pro- ceeding with our proposed survey. If, to facilitate our progress, we divide the earth's surface into several regions or realms, the limits of each being determined by the geographical distribution of its peculiar organic forms, and represent each by a cranial form selected from among its most numerous and apparently indigenous inhabi- tants, we will obtain a series of typical or standard figures, similar to those constituting the second column of the extensive "Ethnographic Tableau" accompanying this work. With one exception, the crania figured in the tableau are contained in the Mortonian collection. Taken by means of the camera lucida, in the hands of the accom- plished Mrs. Gliddon, I can vouch for the general accuracy of the drawings, and their truthfulness to nature. The exception alluded to is a drawing of Schiller's skull (C), borrowed from the cranioscopic atlas of Carus. Forced by the arrangement of the Tableau to repre- sent- the entire European area by two crania instead of many, I have selected the above figure because it embraces both Gothic and Sclavonic characters, and may be taken therefore as a standard for Central and Eastern Europe in general ; while the more elongated Circassian skull (D) may be regarded as a not inappropriate repre- sentative of Southern and South-eastern Europe. Now it is quite evident that all attempts at representing the skull-forms of the numerous races of men by a few figures (as in the Tableau), must necessarily be imperfect, and consequently open to criticism. I wish the reader, therefore, distinctly to understand that the skulls figured in the Tableau are merely so many examples, each of a cranial type, more or less numerously represented, and prevailing over a greater or less extent of the particular geographical area to which it belongs. Each figure represents not the whole realm in which it is placed, but one only of the characteristic forms of that realm. The Negro head (E), for example, is not the standard of the entire African con- tinent, but a peculiar form found there, and nowhere else. To represent the whole of this continent, many heads would be required. mals, as we call them, have not changed; the races of men have been absolutely the same. They were distinct then for that period as at present." — Races of Men, p. 34. 256 THE CEAJSTIAL CHARACTERISTICS This is true of all the other realms. "With each of the nine figures (except that from Carus) the facial angle and internal capacity have heen given. The reader will observe, and perhaps with surprise, that the Eskimo and Kalmuck heads have the largest internal capacity, larger even than the European skulls ; while the Kal- muck possesses also the highest facial angle. Let him not be misled, however, by this accidental fact. Eor these measurements in this instance express individual peculiarities, rather than race- characters. Moreover, the heads in question have been selected entirely with reference to their external osteological characters. The facial angles given by Morton in his Catalogue should not be relied upon too implicitly, since they have been taken by means of an instrument which, in different, but equally careful hands, yields different results for the same head. To measure the facial angle with unerring mathematical precision, an accurate photo- graphic outline of the head in a lateral view should be first ob- tained ; upon this figure the facial and horizontal lines of Camper should next be drawn, and the angle then measured with a finely graduated protractor. To avoid any further allusion to the cranial capacity of the different races of men, I here subjoin the two fol- lowing tables, taken from my manuscript copy of the fourth edition of Morton's Catalogue. Table I. has been enlarged from that given on page viii. of the third edition, by the interpolation of forty measure- ments, with the effect of increasing the mean cranial capacity of the Teutonic Family, the Mongolian and American Groups by 1.5, 5, and 1.3 cubic inches respectively; and slightly diminishing that of the Negro Group. Table II. has been constructed from the measurements recorded in different parts of the Catalogue. (The letters "I. C." mean internal capacity.) OF THE RACES OF MEN. 257 TABLE I. — Showing the She of the Brain in cubic inches, as obtained from the internal mea- surement of 663 Crania of various Races and Families of Man. RACES AND FAMILIES. Modern Caucasian Group. Teutonic Family. Swedes Germans 1 Prussians / English . Anglo-Americans , True Finns . Tchudic Family. Native Irish , Celtic Family. Persians.. Armenians.. Circassians . Pelasgic Family. Arabs... Fellahs- Ayras.. Bengalees Semitic Family. Nilotic Family. Indosianic Family. Ancient Caucasian Gkoup. Pelasgic Family. Graeco-Egyptians , Nilotic Family. _ Egyptians Mongolian Group. Chinese Family Hyperborean Family Malay Group. Malayan Family Polynesian Family Peruvians . Mexicans.. American Group. Toltecan Family. Barbarous Tribes. Iroquois Lenape Cherokee , Shoshone\ &c Negro Group. American-born Negroes Native African Family Hottentot Family Alforian Family Australians Oceanic Negroes no. of skulls. 11 17 5 7 9 6 10 3 18 8 25 18 55 10 20 5 152 25 164 12 64 3 LARGEST I. C. SMALLEST I. C. 108.25 114 105 97 112.5 97 94 98 96 91 90 97 96 98 102 97 90.5 101 92 104 86 99 83 83 77 65 70 91 82 81.5 78 75 84 66 79 67 73 68 70 78.75 68 82 58 67 69 73 65 68 63 76 93 95 96 90 94.3 87 84 89 79 86 78 87 80 85 86 84.3 75.3 81.7 84 80.8 83.7 75.3 75 76.5 k93.5 .81.7 •87 -85 ■ 80.3 82.25 258 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS TABLE II. Amebican Crania. Barbarous Tribes. North Americans. Arickarees Assinaboins Chenouks Oregon Tribes Cherokees Chetimaches Chippeways Cotonay Creeks Dacota Hurons Iroquois Lenape Lipans Mandans Menominees Miamis Minetaris Mohawks Narragansets Osage Otoes Ottawas Ottigamies . ... Pawnees Penobscot Pottawatomies Sauks S'eminoles Shawnees Shoshones Upsarookas Winnebagos Tamassees Californians Miscellaneous, , Mound, Caves, Uncertain, &c. Central American. . . South Americans. Araucanians Brazilians Charib 11 No. of Skulls measured. 3 4 5 4 2 2 3 4 1 4 2 4 2 7 7 5 4 3 10 2 3 4 2 2 1 3 2 13 4 4 2 2 1 1 27 1 7 3 1 Mean I. 0. 76 90 79 82 88.7 79.5 91 86 88.7 90 81.5 96 79.5 91.5 83.5 84 86 86.5 84 81 82.5 85.6 81.7 93.5 74.5 80 91 90.7 84 89.6 80.7 94 89 70 87 84.8 91 76 73.6 89 Toltecan Race. Peruvian Family. Arica Pachacamac Pisco Santa Lima Miscellaneous Mexican Family. Tlahuica Azteck Oturaba Tacuba Otomie Chechemecan Tlascalan Pames .. ...... Miscellaneous Modern Mexicans.. No. of Skulls measured. 14 77 44 5 5 7 1 2 3 3 5 1 1 2 4 Mean\ I. C. 79 74.9 74 78 78 75.5 84 80.5 82.6 81.6 76.6 83 84 79.5 87 82.6 *^* If we take the collective races of America, civilized and savage, we find that the average size of the brain as measured in the whole series of 341 skulls, is but 80.3 cubic inches. OF THE RACES OF MEN. 259 Upon those outstretched desert wastes which skirt the Icy Sea — the frozen tundras of Siberia, and the barren lands of America — amidst the snowy islands and everlasting icebergs of the Polar Ocean itself, the human family presents us with a cranial form or type, to which the learned Prichard has very happily applied the term pyra- midal. Amongst all the Hyperboreans, whose life is one continued struggle with a stern and rugged nature, the central and far northern Eskimos present us with the most strongly marked specimens of this type. I have been induced, therefore, to select, as the standard or typical representative of Arctic Man, a well-characterized Eskimo cranium, procured by that zealous and intrepid navigator, Dr. E. K. Kane, during his first voyage to the North, and by him kindly placed, along with three other specimens, in the collection of our Academy. Through the kindness of Dr. I. I. Hayes and Dr. J. K. Kane, I have been' enabled to mature my studies of the pyramidal form over seven Eskimo skulls in all, a detailed account of which I hope shortly to be able to present to the ethnological public through another channel. The following brief resume of the characteristics of an Eskimo cra- nium will serve as a commentary upon the accompanying figures, which represent the front and lateral views of the head above men- tioned (No. 1558 of the Mortonian collection). The male Eskimo Fig. 11. Fig. 10. Lateral view of Cranium. Front view of same. Eskimo. ( From Dr. Kane's First Arctic Voyage. ) skull is large, long, narrow, pyramidal ; greatest breadth near the base; sagittal suture prominent and keel-like, in consequence of the angular junction of the parietal and two halves of the frontal bones ; proportion between length of head and height of face as 7 to 5 ; proportion between cranial and facial halves of the occipito-mental diameter as 4J to 5 ; attachment for the temporal muscle large ; zygomatic fossse deep and capacious ; mastoid processes thick and 2G0 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS prominent; glenoid cavity capacious, and adapted to considerable lateral motion of the condyles ; forehead flat and receding ; occiput full and salient ; face broad and lozenge-shaped, the greatest breadth being just below the orbits ; malar bones broad, high, and promi- nent, the external surface looking antero-laterally ; orbits large and straight ; zygomatic arches massive and widely separated ; length of the face one inch less than the breadth ; nasal bones flat, narrow, and united at an obtuse angle, sometimes lying in the same plane as the naso-maxillary processes ; superior maxilla massive and prognathous, its anterior surface flat and smooth ; superior alveolar margin oval ; inferior margin of anterior nares flat, smooth, inclining forwards and downwards ; inferior maxilla large, long, and triangular ; semi-lunar notch quite shallow ; angles of the jaw flared out, and chin promi- nent ; teeth large, and worn in such a manner as to present, in the upper jaw, an inclination from without inwards, upwards, and late- rally, and in the lower jaw, just the reverse ; antero-posterior diameter of cuspids greater than the transverse ; configuration of the basis cranii triangular, with the base of the triangle forward between the zygomse, the truncated apex looking posteriorly ; breadth of base about one-half tLe length ; shape of foramen magnum an irregular oval ; anterior margin of foramen magnum on a line with the poste- rior edge of the external meati. 117 The female cranium differs from the male in being smaller, lighter, and presenting a smoother surface and more delicate structure. The malar bones are less massive, the face not quite so broad, and the anterior surface of the superior maxilla concave rather than flat. With very slight and insigni- ficant variations, this type pre- vails along the whole American coast north of the 60th parallel, and from the Atlantic Ocean to Bhering's Straits, ranging through 140° of longitude, or over a tract of some 3500 miles. ISTor does it altogether stop here, as is shown in the accom- panying figure of a Tchuktchi skull — one of three, brought by Mr. E. M. Kern from the Island Arakamtchetchem, or Kayne, at Glassnappe Harbor, Lat. 64° Fig. 12. TCHDKTCHI. (N. Pacific Explor. Exp., U. S. Corvette " Vin- cennes," under Capt. Rodgers, V. S. N., 1856.) u ' From my unpublished " Descriptions and Delineations of Skulls in the Mortonian Col- lection." OF THE RACES OP MEN. 261 40' 1ST., Long. 172° 59' "W. of Greenwich — and by him kindly loaned to me for examination and study. The above island forms part of the western bank of Bhering's Straits. " The name of the village," writes Mr. Keen, " to which the burial-place belonged, whence the skulls were procured, is Yergnynne In stature, the (Tchuktchi) men are of good height, well built and active. The women are generally small, well made, and have exceedingly pretty hands and feet. Their mouths are generally large ; the upper lip is full and projecting, and the eyes long and narrow." 118 Leaving the Koriaks, and travelling southward, we next encounter the Kamschatkans, a once numerous, though now scanty and mise- rable race, occupying chiefly the southern portion of the peninsula which bears their name. It has been observed that this people, though presenting most of the physical characters common to the Polar tribes, are not strictly identical with the latter, as is shown in their moral and intellectual character. Stoller was led by their physical traits to class them among the Mongolians, while Prichard speaks of them as " a distinct race, divided into four tribes, who scarcely understand each other." 119 Dr. Morton appears to consider them as a hybrid people. " It must be admitted," says he, " that the southern Kamskatkans, in common with the southern tribes of Tun- gusians and Ostiaks, have so long mixed with the proximate Mongol- Tartar hordes, that it is, in some measure, arbitrary to class them definitively with either family, for their characters are obviously de- rived from both." 12 ° An attentive study of the cast of a Kamtskatkan cranium (ISTo. 725 of the Mortonian collection), and comparison with Plate LXH. of Blumenbach's Decades, leave little doubt in my mind of a sensible departure from the pyramidal type which predominates to the north. The cast in question was presented to Dr. Morton by Dr. 0. S. Fowler. It is long and flat, and presents quite a different proportion between the bi-temporal, longitudinal, and vertical dia- meters from what we find in the heads of the true Hyperboreans. The low, flat, and smooth forehead is devoid of the keel-like formation perceptible in the Eskimo. The carinated ridge makes its appear- ance along the middle and posterior part of the inter-parietal suture. The widest transverse diameter is near the superior edge of the tem- poral bone ; from this point the diameter contracts both above and below. As in the Eskimo, the occiput is full and prominent, as is also the posterior surface of the parietal bones, which surface, in the Eskimo, however, is flat. The forehead inclines upwards and back- 118 Letter to Mr. Geo. R. Gliddon, dated Washington, Oct. 16th, 1856. "» Nat. Hist, of Man, 3d Edition, p. 223. 120 Crania Americana, p. 52. 262 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS wards to a prominence in the middle of the inter-parietal suture, from which point it is rounded off posteriorly. The face forms a broad oval ; the orbits are large, deep, and have their transverse axes at right angles with the median line of the face. The malar bones, though large, are neither so prominent nor high as in the Eskimo. They are laterally compressed, more rounded, and less flared out at their inferior margin than in the Polar man. The anterior nares are flat and smooth, and the alveolar arch somewhat more prominent than in the typical Eskimo, as is shown by comparing them by the norma verticalis. Upon examining the basis cranii, we observe, at once, the globular fulness of the occipital region, and an alteration in the general configuration of the base, as compared with that of our Arctic standard. The greatest breadth is not confined to the zygomatic region, for lines drawn from the most prominent point of the zygomse to the most prominent point of the mastoid process, on either side, are parallel to each other. Did space permit, other dis- tinctions could readily be pointed out. From this description, coupled with the foregoing statements, it will be seen that the Kamtskatkans are either a distinct people, occu- pying the gap or transitionary ground between the Polar tribes and the Mongols ; or, they are the hybrid results of an intermixture of these two great groups ; or, finally, and to this opinion I incline, they constitute the greatest divergency of which the true Arctic type is capable. The cast above described being that of a female, and the only one, moreover, to which I can obtain access, I am unable to arrive at any more definite conclusion. Of the skulls of the Yukagiri, an obscure and very little known race, dwelling to the westward of the Koriaks, Morton's collection, unfortunately, contains not a single specimen ; nor can I find draw- ings of them in any of the many works which I have consulted. According to Prichard, as a pure race they are now all extinct, having been exterminated in their wars with the Tchuktchi and Koriaks. 121 Extending along the cheerless banks of the Lena, from the borders of the Frozen Ocean as far south as Alden, and occupying the country between the Kolyma and Yennisei, we find the Yakuts, or " isolated Turks," as Latham styles them, a people who, although surrounded by Hyperboreans, contrast remarkably with the latter in language, civilization, and physical conformation. These people constitute an interesting study for the cranioscopist. They are described as a pas- toral race, of industrious and accumulative habits, and manifesting a higher degree of civilization than their ichthyophagous Tungusian and Yukagyrian neighbors. In consonance with this higher condi- i 21 Op. cit, p. 223. OF THE RACES OF MEN. 263 tion, the skull, as shown in Tab. XV. of the Decades, differs decidedly from the prevailing pyramidal form of this region. The reader will at once observe, upon referring to that table, the nearly square con- tour of the head, approximating the Mongolian type, presently to be represented, the large and widely separated orbits, the full and pro- minent glabella, the ossa nasi narrow and curving to a point above, and the parietal bones projecting laterally. The descriptions given by Gmelin and Erman of the Yakuts are, to some extent, confirma- tory of the characters above indicated. The present remarkable locality of the Yakuts is undoubtedly not their original home. Their language is Turkish — intelligible in Constantinople — and their traditions, unlike those of their Arctic neighbors, point to the South. They afford a singular example of " a weak section of the human race pressed into an inhospitable climate by a stronger one." 122 Difficulties of classification have been raised upon certain slight physical resemblances between the Yakuts and the surrounding tribes. These resemblances may be regarded as the indirect results of the great Mongolic expansion, which, while it crowded the main body of the Turkish population to the South, allowed a small portion to escape to the North-East, in the inhospi- table region of the Lena, where, intermarriage, to some extent, soon followed. We may readily suppose that, in consequence of the numerical predominance of the aboriginal inhabitants of these re- gions over the new comers, the intermixture resulted in the latter assuming, to a certain extent, some of the physical characters of the former. But the language of the Yakuts, being more perfect than that of the Indigense, has maintained its supremacy. Upon the mountainous tract, comprised between the Yennesei River and the Okhotsk Sea in one direction, and the Arctic Ocean and Alden Mountains in the other, we encounter an interesting people, represented by the Tongus in the North and the Lamutes in the East. They possess a peculiar language, and, anterior to the sixteenth century, appear to have been a powerful race. In his physical description of the Tungusians, Pallas says that their faces are flatter and broader than the Mongolian, and more allied to the Samoiedes, who lie to the west of them. 123 In his Table XVI., Blu- menbach represents the cranium of a Northern or Reindeer Tungus. Though the characteristic breadth of face below the eyes is preserved, and with it, thereby, the lozenge-shaped face, yet Jhe general form of the head has undergone some modification. Blumenbach very briefly describes this head in the following terms : 122 Latham, Varieties of Man, p. 95. 123 Voyages en diverses Provinces, T. 6. 264 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS " The face flat, and very broad between the zygomatic arches ; the forehead depressed, and the nasal openings ample: the occiput remarkably prominent, so that the distance between the external occipital protuberance and the superior incisors is equal to nine inches." The Samoiedes present us with a conformation of the cranium approximating more closely to the Eskimo than any of the tribes just mentioned. They are conterminous with the Tungus of North- Eastern Asia, on the one hand, and the great Tchudic or TJgrian tribes of European Russia, on the other. Pallas says of them, " ils ont le visage plat, rond, et large." .... "lis ont de larges levres retrousees, le nez large et ouvert, peu de barbe, et les cheveux noirs et rudes." Tooke ascribes to them " a large head, flat nose and face, with the lower part of the face projecting outwards ; they have large mouths and ears, little black eyes, but wide eyelids, small lips, and little feet." 124 "Of all the tribes of Siberia," says Latham, "the Samoiedes are nearest to the Eskimo or Greenlanders in their phy- sical appearance." 125 Blumenbach tells us that a Samoiede cranium in his collection, bears a striking resemblance to the skulls of native Greenlanders, two of which are figured in the Decades. The resemblance is shown in the broad, flat face, depressed or flattened nose, and general shape or conformation of the skull. The nasal bones are long and narrow. This head is represented in Fig. 13, reduced from Tab. LIV. of Blumenbach's series. Of all the Northern or Arctic races of men, thus hastily passed in review, the Eskimo alone appear to exhibit the pyra- midal type of cranium in its greatest in- tensity. Viewed in conjunction with the following statements, this apparently isolated and accidental fact acquires a remarkable significance. — On the shores of Greenland and the banks of Hudson's Straits, along the Polar coast-line of America, and over the frozen tundras of Arctic Asia, on the desolate banks of the Lena and Indigirka, and among the deserted Isles of New Siberia — visited only at long intervals by the daring traders in fossil ivory — everywhere, in fact, throughout the Polar Arch, are found the same primitive graves and rude circles of stones, the same stone axes and fragments of whalebone rafters - Samoiede. (Decades, Tab. LIV.). •the ancient and mysterious 124 Russia, III., p. 12, quoted in Crania Americana, p. 51. 125 Varieties of Man, p. 267. OF THE RACES OF MEN. 265 vestiges of a people presenting, in general, the same physical charac- ters, speaking dialects radically the same, and differing but little in manners and customs — a people once numerous, hut now gradually hastening on to extinction. Arctic navigators speak of the diminish- ing numbers of the Eskimo, and Siberian hunters tell of the disap- pearance of entire tribes, such as the Omoki, " whose hearths were once more numerous on the banks of the Lena than the stars of an Arctic night." The earlier whalers who dared the northern waters of Baffin's Bay, often allude to the great numbers of the natives seen on the land in this region, and from the recent intrepid seekers of the ill-fated Sir John Franklin, we learn that the traces of these people increase in numbers with the latitude. Thus, according to Osborn, the northern shores of Barrow's Strait and Lancaster Sound bear numerous marks of human location, whereas, upon the southern side, they are comparatively scarce. He tells us, also, that from the estuary of the Coppermine to the Great Fish River, the Eskimo traces are less numerous than on the north shore of Barrow's Strait. 126 Again, the traditions of the Eskimo point to the north as their original home. Erasmus York spoke of his mother as having dwelt in the north ; while the inhabitants of Boothia told Boss that their fathers fished in northern waters, and described to him, with considerable accuracy, the shores of North Somerset. When Sacheuse told the natives of Prince Regent's Bay, that he came from a distant region to the south, they answered "That can- not be ; there is nothing but ice there." 127 So, the natives of North Baffin's Bay were ignorant of the existence of numerous individuals of their own race, living to the south of Melville's Bay. According to Egede and Crantz, the southern Eskimo of Greenland consider themselves of northern origin. Their traditions speak of remote regions to the north, and of beacons and landmarks set up as guides upon the frozen hills of that dreary laud. In connection with these facts, consider for a moment the unfavorable physical conditions to which the Eskimo is exposed. Guyot thus forcibly alludes to these conditions : "In the Frozen Regions," says he, "man contends with a niggardly and severe nature; it is a desperate struggle for life and death. With difficulty, by force of toil, he succeeds in providing a miserable support, which saves him from dying of hunger and hardship, during the tedious winters of that climate." And again, "The man of the Polar Regions is the beggar, overwhelmed with suffering, who, too happy if he but gain his daily bread, has no leisure to think of anything more exalted." 128 126 Arctic Journal; or, Eighteen Months in the Polar Regions. By Lieut. S. Osborn. 127 Ross's First Voyage to Baffin's Bay, p. 84. i 2 * Earth and Man. By Arnold Guyot, Boston, 1850, p. 270. 266 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS In this melancholy picture, nature is seen warring with herself. A people forced to protect themselves against the severity of an ex- cessive climate by the consumption of a highly carbonaceous and stimulant diet, which, sooner or later, begets plethora and its attend- ant hemorrhagic tendencies, can scarcely be regarded as a normal people, harmoniously adapted to the circumstances by which they are surrounded. Yet such is the condition of hyperborean man. But here a singular question presents itself. Have the Arctic tribes of men always been subjected to the inhospitable climate which, at the present day, characterizes the North ? Was there, in other words, a time when they enjoyed a climate as mild as that which surrounds their cranial analogues — the Hottentots — who roam the plains of Kafirland in temperate Southern Africa ? To the recent speculations of climatologists, concerning the distribution of tempe- rature about the pole, and the probable existence of an open Polar Sea ; to the observations of the physical geographer relative to the gradual and progressive upheaval of the Arctic coast, and the cli- matic changes which necessarily accompanied such alterations in the relation of land and water ; and, finally, to the facts and theories adduced by the geologist to account for the presence, in very high latitudes, of fossil remains, both animal and vegetable — whose living representatives thrive in tropical climates only, — must we look for a solution of the above curious question, which I introduce here merely as one of a connected series of facts and arguments which seem to indicate that the Eskimo are an exceedingly ancient people, whose dawn was probably ushered in by a temperate climate, but whose dissolution now approaches, amidst eternal ice and snow ; that the early migrations of these people have been from the north south- wards, from the islands of the Polar Sea to the continent and not from the mainland to the islands; and that the present geographical area of the Eskimo may be regarded as a primary centre of human distribution for the entire Polar Zone. To this subject I hope to return, in a more detailed manner, here- after. "We are now in Europe, upon the terra damnata, so graphically described by Linnseus, where the Laplander offers himself for our inspection, as the only European who in any way, represents the Arctic type of cranium. The exact position of the Lapps in classification, is still an open question. Prof. Agassiz classifies them with the Eskimos and Samoiedes. "Within the limits," says he, "of this (Arctic) fauna we meet a peculiar race of men, known in America under the name of Eskirnaux, and under the names of Laplanders, OF THE RACES OF MEN. 267 Samoiedes, and Tchuktshes in the north of Asia. This race, so well known since the voyage of Captain Cook, and the Arctic expeditions of England and Russia, differs alike from the Indians of North America, from the Whites of Europe, and the Mongols of Asia, to whom they are adjacent. The uniformity of their characters along the whole range of the Arctic seas forms one of the most striking resemblances which these people exhibit to the fauna with which they are so closely connected." 129 Prichard, relying upon philological evidence — a very unsafe guide when taken alone — maintains that the Lapps are Finns who have acquired Mongolian features from a long residence in Northern Europe. "On considere souvent les Lapons," observes D'Hallot, "comme appartenant h la famille finnoise, a. cause des rapports que l'on a observes entre leur langue et celle des Finnois ; mais les caracteres naturels de ces deux races sont si differents, qu'il me semble indispensable de les se'parer. D'un autre cot*;, tous les linguistes ne sont pas d'accord sur l'analogie de ces langues, et il est probable que les ressemblances se r^duisent a l'intro- duction, dans le langage des Lapons, d'un certain nombre de mots finnois; effet qui a ordinairement lieu quand un peuple sauvage se trouve en relation avec un peuple plus avanceV' 130 Latham arranges them, along with Finns, Magyars, Tungus, &c, under the head of Turanian Mongolidse. 131 Dr. Morton ohjects to this association of Lapps and Finns, and very appropriately inquires " how it happens that the people of Iceland, who are of the unmixed Teutonic race, have for six hundred years inhabited their polar region, as far north, indeed, as Lapland itself, without approxi- mating in the smallest degree to the Mongolian type, or losing an iota of their primitive Caucasian features?" 132 Indeed, the fact that the Lapps, at a remote period, lived in Sweden, and even as far south as Denmark, 133 in close juxtaposition with the Finns, is suffi- cient to account for any resemblances in physical characters, which may be detected between the two. According to Mr. Brooks, the Laplanders and Finns "have scarcely a single trait in common. The general physiognomy of the one is totally unlike that of the other ; and no one who has ever seen the two, could mistake a Fin- lander for a Laplander." 134 He proceeds to state that they differ in mental and moral characters ; in the diseases to which they are 129 Sketch of the Natural Provinces of the Animal World, and their relation to the dif- ferent Types of Man, in Types of Mankind, p. Ixi. 130 Des Races Humaines, &c, p. Ill, note. m Op. cit., p. 101. 132 On the Origin of the Human Species, Types of Mankind, p. 322. 133 ii ii s (i es Lapons) forment une petite peuplade Sparse dans la Laponie, mais il parait qu'ils ont 6t6 beaucoup plus developpfe, car on trouve dans la Suede et dans le Danemark des ossements d'hommes qui se rapprochent plus des Lapons que des Scandinavcs." D'Hallot, op. cit., p. 111. 134 x Winter in Lapland and Sweden. By Arthur de Capell Brooks, M. A., &c. Lon- don, 1827, pp. 536-7. 268 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS subject, and, according to Prof. Retzius, even the intestinal para- sitic worms of the two are unlike. 135 Hamilton Smith remarks that the " Finnic race repudiates in national pride all consanguinity with the Laplander." 136 Dr. Morton considers the Lapps as unquestion- ably Mongolian. Luke Burke, the able editor of the London Ethno- logical Journal, appears to adopt another view : " The Eskimaux, the Lapp, and the Samoide, are three entirely distinct beings. They represent each other . They consequently offer a host of resemblances ; but resemblances and affinity are often entirely distinct matters in zoology, though they are constantly con- founded, even in cases of the utmost importance The Lapp is entirely European, possessing a quite distinct constitution from the Eskimaux and the Samoide, and being very much higher than either in the human scale, though still by far the lowest portion of the European family. The Samoide is in all respects a Mongolidse. Indeed, he has the leading traits of the family even in excess." Is ' A critical examination of three Laplander crania, and two casts, contained in the collection of Dr. Morton, and a comparison of these with a Kalmuck head and a number of Finnic skulls, convince me that the Laplander cranium should be regarded as a sub-typical form, occupying the transitionary place between the pyramidal type of the true Hyperboreans on the one hand, and the globular- headed and square-faced Mongol on the other. Just as upon the shores of Eastern Asia, we behold the Arctic form passing through the Kamtsckatkan and the Southern Tungusian into the Central Asiatic type, so in the western part of the great Asio-European continent, we behold a similar transition through the Lapponic into the Tchudic and Scandinavian types — the most northern of the European. It is strictly true that the skulls of the Eskimo, Laplander, and 135 The following curious paragraph, relating to entozoal ethnology, I find in Prof. Owen's admirable Lectures on the Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of the Invertebrate Animals (2d edition, p. 67) : " The Taenia Solium is that which is most likely to fall under the notice of the British medical practitioner. It is the common species of tapeworm developed in the intestines of the natives of Great Britain ; and it is almost equally peculiar to the Dutch and Germans. The Swiss and Russians are as exclusively infested by the Bolhrioeephalus latus. In the city of Dantzig it has been remarked, that only the Taenia Solium occurs ; while at Kb'nigsberg, which borders upon Russia, the Bolhrioeephalus latus prevails. The inhabitants of the French provinces adjoining Switzerland are occasionally infested with both kinds of tapeworm. The natives of North Abyssinia are very subject to the Taenia Solium, as are also the Hottentots of South Africa. Such facts as to the prevalent species of tapeworm in different parts of the world, if duly collected by medical travellers, would form a body of evidence, not only of elminthological, but of ethnological interest. In the Bolhrioeephalus latus of some parts of Central Europe and of Switzerland we may perceive an indication of the course of those North-Eastern hordes which contributed to the sub- version of the Roman Empire ; and the Taenia Solium affords perhaps analogous evidence of the stream of population from the sources of the Nile southward to the Cape." 13S Op. cit., p. 321. 1S ' Charleston Medical Journal and Review, July 1856; pp. 446-7. OF THE RACES OF MEN. 269 Samoiede are not identical, in the fullest sense of the word. Neither are the localities of these people. The various portions of the so-called Arctic realm, of Agassiz, do not accord precisely in geographical and climatic conditions. Arctic America and Asia more closely resemble each other than they do Arctic Europe. The same thing is true, of the skulls, and of the organism generally, of their human inhabitants. A deeply indented sea-border ; direct and positive relations to the Gulf Stream which divides upon the Norwegian coast into two great cur- rents, bathes and tempers the whole north-western shore, and supplies an immense body of warm, humid air, which serves to ameliorate the otherwise extremely harsh and rugged climate ; a range of lofty moun- tains running parallel with the western coast, and acting as great con- densers of atmospheric vapor ; — such are the physical peculiarities which give to Lapland-Europe an organic physiognomy somewhat different from other sections of the Arctic realm. In this region the tree-limit obtains its highest northern position in lat. 70°-71° N., and if we trace this line eastward, on a physical chart, we will find that, under the influence of a continental climate, it recedes towards the Equator, until in Kamtsehatka it reaches the ocean in 58° N. latitude. So that while in a considerable portion of Lapland we find a wooded region, in Asia it will be observed that a large part of the country of the Samoiedes and Tungus, and the whole of that of the Koriaks, Yukagirs and Tchuktchi, lie to the north of the wooded zone. Upon the American continent, which is colder under the same parallels than the Asiatic — in consequence of the presence of a greater quan- tity of land in these high latitudes — the Eskimo live entirely in a treeless region. The distribution of the bread-plants in Northern America, Europe, and Asia, reveals to us similar irregularities. We need not be surprised, therefore, if, in harmony with these varying physical and organic conditions, we should find the Lapland cranium differing more from those of the Eskimo and Samoiede than these two do from each other. The skull here figured is reduced from Tab. XLIII. of the Decades. Blumen- bach describes it as "large in proportion to the stature of the body ; the form and appearance altogether such as prevail in the Mongolian variety ; the calvaria almost globose ; the zygomatic bones projecting outwards; the malar fossa, plane ; the fore- head broad; the chin slightly prominent Laplander. Fig. 14. 270 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS and acuminated ; the palatine arch level ; the fissure in the floor of the orbit very large." Turning our backs upon the Frozen Ocean, and tracing to their sources the three great rivers — the Obi, Yennisei, and Lena — which drain the slopes of Northern Asia, we gradually exchange the region of tundras and barren plains, for elevated steppes or table-lands, the region of the reindeer and dog for that of the horse and sheep, the region whose history is an utter blank for one which has witnessed such extensive commotions and displacements of the great nomadic races, who, probably, in unrecorded times, dwelt upon the central plateaux of Asia, before these had lost their insular character. Tra- velling thus southward, we further remark that a globular conforma- tion of the human skull replaces the long, narrow, pyramidal type of the North. In our attempt to exhibit a general view of the cranial forms or types of Central Asia, I deem it best to direct attention to the region of country which gives origin to the Yennisei, about Lake Baikal, and in the Greater Altai chain, south of the TJriangchai or Southern Samoiedes. For we here encounter, in the Kalkas and Mongolians proper of the desert of Shamo, a type of head which is distinct from that of the Hyperboreans, and to which the other great nomadic races are related, in a greater or less degree. I have selected, as the most fitting representative of this Asiatic type or form, the cranium of a Kalmuck (No. 1553 of the Mortonian Collection), sent to the Aca- demy by Mr. Cramer, of St. Petersburg, shortly after the decease of Dr. Morton. This skull is chosen as a standard for reference, on account of the " extent to which the Mongolian physiognomy is the type and sample of one of the most remarkable divisions of the human race." 138 Moreover, the Mongols possess the physical cha- racters of their race in the most eminent degree, 139 they are the most decidedly nomadic, and their history, under the guidance of Tchengiz- Khan and his immediate successors, constitutes a highly-important chapter in the history of the world ; and, finally, because they occupy the centre of a well-characterized and peculiar floral and faunal re- gion, extending from Japan on the east to the Caspian on the west. In the accompanying figure, the reader will observe that the cra- nium is nearly globular, while the forehead is broad, flat, and less receding than in the Eskimo and Kamtskatkan. Without being 138 Latham, Varieties of Man, p. 63. 139 " It is easy," says Pallas, " to distinguish, by the traits of physiognomy, the principal Asiatic nations, who rarely contract marriage except among their own people. There is none in which this distinction is so characterized as among the Mongols." See Prichard's Nat. Hist, of Man, p. 215. OF THE RACES OF MEN. 271 ridged or keel-like, the medium line K S- 15 - of the cranium forms a regular arch, the most prominent point of which is at the junction of the coronal and sagittal sutures. Behind and above the meatus, the head swells out into a globe or sphere, instead of tapering away postero-laterally towards the median line, as in the Eskimo cra- nia. This appearance is also well seen in the head figured by Blumen- bach. 140 He says of it, "habitus to- tius cranii quasi iiiflatus et tumidus." The eye at once detects the striking difference between the facial angle of this cranium and that of the Eskimo above figured. In the latter, the facial bones resemble a huge wedge lying in front of the head proper. This appearance, it is true, is somewhat dependent upon the obtuseness of the angle of the lower jaw, but mainly, as will be seen, upon the prominent chin and prognathous jaw. In the Kalmuck, the facial bones form a sort of oblong figure, and are by no means so prominent. The face is broad, flat, and square; the superciliary ridges are massive and prominent ; the orbits are large, and directed somewhat outwards ; the ossa nasi are broad and rather flat, forming an obtuse angle with each other ; the malar bones are large, strong, protuberant, and roughly marked. The impropriety of classifying the Eskimo, Samoiedes, &c, along with the Mongols — an error which pervades many of the books — is clearly manifested, I think, by the above figure and description. IT we apply the term Mongolian to the Eskimo, then we must seek some other epithet for the Kalmuck. The heads of the two races contrast strongly. The one is long and narrow, the face very broad, flat, and lozenge-shaped, and decidedly prognathous ; the other is globular, swelling out posteriorly, while the face is broad, fiat, and square. On the other hand, Prichard has very properly observed, that " the Mongolian race decidedly belongs to a variety of the human species, which is distinguished from Europeans by the shape of the skull." 141 Morton's collection contains, also, a cast of the skull of a Burat Mongol, 142 in which the above characters are readily distinguished. »o Table XIV. of the Decades. ™ Nat. Hist, of Man, p. 214. 112 The Bouriats, dwelling about Lake Baikal, manifest more aptitude for civilization than either the Kalmucks or the Mongols proper. Tchihatcheff informs us that the Russian Government employs, in frontier service, several regiments of these people, "who have been 272 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS These characters agree perfectly with, those represented in Tab. XXIX. of the Decades, and in Fischer's Osteological Dissertation. 10 The descriptions, given by travellers, of the Mongolic physiognomy, correspond very well with the foregoing observations upon the cranium. " The Mongols and Bouriats have so great a resemblance to them" (the Kalmucks), says Pallas, " both in their physiognomy, and in their manners and moral economy, that what- ever is related of one of these nations will apply as well to the others The charac- teristic traits in all the countenances of the Kalmucks, are eyes, of which the great angle, placed obliquely and downwards towards the nose, is but little open and fleshy ; eyebrows black, scanty, and forming a low arch ; a particular conformation of the nose, which is generally short, and flattened towards the forehead ; the bones of the cheek high ; the head and face very round. They have also the transparent cornea of the eye very brown ; lips thick and fleshy ; the chin short ; the teeth very white : they preserve them fine and sound until old age. They have all enormous ears, rather detached from the head." 144 Between the Caspian Sea on the west, and the Great Altai Moun- tains on the east, and between the parallel of Tobolsk on the north, and the head-waters of the Oxus on the south, lies a country, whose physical aspects are not more interesting to the geologist and the physical geographer, than are its human inhabitants to the ethno- grapher. In this region we are called upon to study an extensive steppe, intersected with lofty mountains, among which are the feeding springs of many large rivers. Over this steppe, and among these mountains, have wandered, from the remotest times, a distinct and peculiar type of people, who have played a most important part in the history of the world — a people who had established, centuries ago, a vast empire in the heart of Asia, having China for its eastern, and the Caspian Sea for its western border', and who, when pressed towards the south-west by their nomadic neighbors, the Mongols, in their turn fell, with devastating fury, upon Europe, and long held its eastern portions in subjection. I allude to the Turkish family, whose history would be replete with interest, even if it offered us but the single fact, that the Turks, like the Goths of Europe and the Barbarian Tribes of North America — races occupying, in their re- spective countries, about the same parallels of latitude — were selected at a former period, to break in upon the high, but at that time lethar- gic, civilization of a more southern clime. "In the Yakut country we find the most intense cold known in Asia ; in Pamer the greatest elevation above the sea-level ; in the south of Egypt, an inter-tropical degree of heat. Yet in all these countries we find the Turk." U5 well organized and disciplined after the European system. See his Voyage dans V Altai orientate, p. 190. 143 Dissertatio Osteologica de Modo quo Ossa se vicinis accommodant Partibus. Ludg. Bat. 1713, 4to., tab. 1. 144 Quoted from Prichard, op. cit., p. 215. 145 Latham, op. cit., p. 77. OF THE RACES OF MEN. 273 It is while studying the physical characters of this intei'esting people, that the cranioscopist, in view of the little attention which his favorite science has received, and the scanty materials, therefore, by which he is guided, is forced to exclaim, in the language of St. Augustine, "Mirantur homines altitudines montium, ingentes fluctus maris, altissimos lapsus numinum et oeeani ambitum et gyros siderum et relinquunt se ipsos, nee mirantur." Much discrepancy of opinion exists with regard to the origin, homogeneity, and characteristic physical conformation of the Turkish family. In consequence of the application of the term Tartar, their origin has been assigned to the tribes of Lake Bouyir, in East Mon- golia. Remusat, Klaporth, and Ritter regard them as descendants of the Hiong-lSTu, who, prior to the Christian Era, threatened to overrun and subjugate China with their mighty hordes. Pkichard is inclined to consider this opinion unquestionable. 146 D'Omalius D'Halloy classifies them along with the Finns and Magyars, as de- scendants or representatives of the ancient Scythse. 1 " Latham makes a remark which evinces a concurrence of opinion — " A large, perhaps a very large portion of the Scythse must have been Turk ; and if so, it is amongst the Turks that we must look for some of the wildest and fiercest of ancient conquerors." On a preceding page he ob- serves, "Practically, I consider that the Mongoliform physiognomy is the rule with the Turk, rather than the exception, and that the Turk of Turkey exhibits the exceptional character of his family."" 3 Much of this difference of opinion appears to result from the nota- ble fact that, in traversing the Turkish area, we encounter different types of countenance and of physical conformation generally. In the absence of an adequate collection of crania representing the numerous tribes composing this family — which collection would be of the greatest utility in deciding this mooted point — we are forced to adopt, by way of explanation, one or other of the three following suppositions : — Either the typical Mongolian of Eastern Asia passes, by certain natural transitionary forms, — displayed by the tribes of Turkish Asia — into the European type ; or, the Turk once possessed a peculiar form, standing midway between that of the European and Mongol, the intervening sub-types or forms having resulted from a double amalgamation on the part of the Turk ; or, lastly, we must recognise in the Mongolian form a primitive type, which, by amal- gamation with the European, has begotten the Turk. The second of these propositions appears to me the most tenable. However, as Dr. Morton's collection contains no skulls of the Turkish tribes, I i« Nat. Hist, of Man, p. 209. "' Des Races Humaines, p. 83. 1 48 Varieties of Man, pp. 78-9. 18 274 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS Fig. 16. have not the necessary data to arrive at a positive conclusion as to the existence of a primary and peculiar cranial type among the Turks. Nevertheless, if the reader will carefully inspect the accompanying figure of a Turkish cranium in the Blunienba- chian collection, and compare it with our Kalmuck standard, I deem it highly pro- bable that he will with me recognize for the Turkish region a sub-typical form, which, though closely related to the Mon- golic, differs from it mainly in possessing a more oval face, and a more decidedly globular skull. Blumenbach thus de- Ttok. scribes the head in his possession: " The cranium is nearly globular ; the foramen magnum is placed almost at the posterior end of the basis cranii, so that there seems to be no occiput ; the forehead broad ; the glabella prominent; the malar fossa? gently depressed, and the proportions of the face, upon the whole, symmetrical and elegant. The external occipital protuberance is but little developed ; the occipital condyles very large and convex ; the alveolar edge of the superior maxilla very short, so that just beneath the nose it scarcely equals in height the breadth of the little finger." Judging from the accounts of travellers, it would seem that among the most Eastern of the Turkish races, such as the Kirghis of Bal- kash and the irreclaimable nomades of the dreary plains of Turkistan, the Mongolic physiognomy more especially predominates. This, it will be recollected, is the region in which the Mongols proper and the Turks meet and overlap. The skull of a Kirghis, figured by Blumenbach (Tab. XLTI.) furnishes a good exemplification of the cranial form of this region. In a Don Cossack (Tab. IY.) the Mon- golian tendency is equally manifest. The Yakuts of the Lena, before described, and the Nbjai Tartars (judging from a figure in Hamilton Smith's work), also belong to this type. 149 South of the Kirghis are the Uzbecks, who, according to Lieut. Wood, resemble the former, but are better proportioned. The reader will obtain some general idea of the points of resemblance and difference between the Uzbecks and their Eastern conquerors/ by referring to the portrait of Sjah Mierza, an Uzbeck Tartar, in the "Ethnographic Tableau" illus- trating Mr. Gliddon's Chapter VI. Through the skulls of the Osmanli Turks and the Tartars of the Kasan — especially the latter — the Turkish head proper graduates «= Op. cit., plate 9, fig. 2. OF THE RACES OF MEN. 275 into the European form anciently civilized of the race. The high European forms so often seen among the Osmanlis are no longer pro- blematic. A knowledge of the hete- rogeneous additions accepted' by their Seldjukian ancestors, and already re- ferred to in sufficient detail, has served not a little to dissipate the mystery attached to this subject. Of the genea- logical impurity of the Turks I think there can be but little doubt. Their indiscriminate amalgamations are thus briefly hinted at by D'Halloy : Both these tribes are among the most Fig. 17. Tartar. "Tl parait," says he, "d'apres les portraits d'anciens peuples turos, que Ton a trouve's dans les historiens chinois, que ces peuples avaient originairement des cheveux roussatres, et que leurs yeux 6taient d'un gris verdatre ; mais ces caracteres se sont perdus, et main- tenant on remarque que les Turcs qui habitent au nord-est du Caucase, participent plus ou moins des caracteres des Mongols, et que ceux e^ablis au sud-ouest pr£sentent les formes de la race blanche d'une maniere trfe-prononce'e, mais avec des cheveux et des yeux noire ; circonstances qui s'expliquent par le melange avec les Mongols pour les premiers, et par celui avec les Perses et les Aranie'ens pour les seconds, d'autant plus que les Turcs, qui sont ge'ne'ralement polygames, ont beaucoup de gout pour les femmes (itrangeres." 15 ° Quite recently, Major Alexander Cunningham, of the Bengal Engineers, has given us an excellent account of the physical charac- ters of the Bhotiyahs, an interesting race occupying a considerable portion of Thibet and the Himalayan range of mountains. "The face of the Boti," says he, "is broad, flat, and square, with high cheek-bones, large mouth, and narrow forehead. The nose is broad and flat, and generally much turned up, with wide nostrils, and with little or no bridge. The eyes are small and narrrow, and the upper eyelids usually have a peculiar and angular form that is especially ugly. The eyes are nearly always black; but brown, and even blue eyes, are seen occasionally. The inner corners are drawn downwards by the tension of the skin over the large cheek-bones ; the eyelids are therefore not in one straight line, parallel to the mouth, as is the case with Europeans, but their lines meet in a highly obtuse angle pointing downwards. This gives an appearance of obliquity to the eyes themselves that is very disagreeable. The ears are prominent, very large, and very thick; they have also particularly long lobes, and are altogether about one-half larger than those of Europeans. The mouth is large, with full and somewhat prominent lips. The hair is black, coarse, and thick, and usually straight and crisp. Bushy heads of hair are sometimes seen, but I believe that the frizzly appear- ance is not due even in part to any natural tendency to curl, but solely to the tangled and thickly agglomerated matting of the hair consequent upon its never having been combed or washed from first to second childhood." 151 iM Op. cit., pp. 89, 90. 161 Ladak, Physical, Statistical, and Historical, with Notices of the Surrounding Countries, London, 1854, p. 296. 276 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS A Penjur of Lhassa is thus described by Hodgson : " Face moderately large, sub-ovoid, widest between angles of jaws, less between cheek-bones, which are prominent, bnt not very. Forehead rather low, and narrowing some- what upwards ; narrowed also transversely, and much less wide than the back of the head. Frontal sinus large, and brows heavy. Hair of eye-brows and lashes sufficient ; former not arched, but obliquely descendent towards the base of nose. Eyes of good size and shape, but the inner angle decidedly dipt, or inclined downwards, though the outer is not curved up. Iris a fine, deep, clear, chestnut-brown. Eyes wide apart, but well and distinctly separated by the basal ridge of nose, not well opened, cavity being filled with flesh. Nose sufficiently long, and well raised, even at base, straight, thick, and fleshy towards the end, with large wide nares, nearly round. Zygomte large and sabent, but moderately so. Angles of the jaws prominent, more so than zygomte, and face widest below the ears. Mouth moderate, well-formed, with well-made, closed lips, hiding the fine, regular, and no way prominent teeth. Upper lip long. Chin rather small, round, well formed, not retiring. Vertical line of the face very good, not at all bulging at the mouth, nor retiring below, and not much above, but more so there towards the roots of the hair. Jaws large. Ears mode- rate, well made, and not starting from the head. Head well formed and round, but longer H parte post than a parte ante, or in the frontal region; which is somewhat contracted cross- wise, and somewhat narrowed pyramidally upwards Mongolian cast of features decided, but not extremely so ; and expression intelligent and amiable." 152 Klaporth has shown that a general resemblance prevails between the languages of the Turk, Mongolian, and Tungusian. The fore- going remarks upon the cranial characters of these people, are, to some extent, confirmatory of the slight affinity here supposed to be indicated. The Turk and Mongol, however, appear to me to be more related to each other than to the Tungusian, whose cranial conformation must rather be regarded as transitionary from the pyramidal type. Indeed, the Tungusian tribes seem to connect the Chinese with the frozen Worth ; for, in a modified degree, the same differences which separate the true Hyperborean from the typical Mongol, also separate the Chinese from the latter. In other words, the Chinese nation, in the form of their heads, resembles the great Inuit family more than the Mongolian. This opinion is based upon the critical examination of eleven Chinese skulls, obtained from various sources, and now comprised in the Mortonian collection. If we compare together the lateral or profile view of the Eskimo (Fig. 10) with that of a Chinese (ISTo. 94 in Morton's'collection — the head of " one of seventeen pirates who attacked and took the French ship 'Le aSTavigateur,' in the China Sea"), it will be seen that they both present the same long, narrow form, appearing as if laterally compressed. In both the temporal ridge mounts up towards the vertex, and in both a large surface is presented for the attachment of the temporal muscle. In both the forehead is recedent, and the occiput prominent. But, while in the Eskimo (and this is a charac- 162 Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. xvii., part 2, p. 222. See also Prichard's Nat. Hist, of Man, edited by Edwin Norms, vol. I. p. 219. OF THE RACES OF MEN. 277 Chinese (No. 94). teristic feature) the greater portion Fl §- 18 - of the malar surface looks ante- riorly, thus giving the dispropor- tionate sub-orbital breadth to the face ; in the Chinese, on the con- trary, I find that the greater por- tion of this surface looks laterally, the zygomatic arches not being separated so widely. Hence, the greatest transverse diameter of the base of the Chinese cranium does not fall in the anterior re- gion between the zygomse, as we have seen to be the case in the Eskimo cranium. It should be observed, moreover, that the jaw is more rounded and less massive in the latter than in the former. In the Chinese, the chin is more acuminated ; but it is a curious fact that in both we have the same prognathous character of the upper jaw. "When we compare the two facially, we become aware that they differ, not only in breadth of face, but also in that particular element which helps to give to the face of the Eskimo its diamond or lozenge shape. In this latter, the forehead is flat, narrow, and triangular ; in the Chinese, a broader, less flat, and square forehead changes the character of the face, as is shown in all the specimens which I have examined, especially in ISTos. 426 and 427 of Morton's collection. Other features equally interesting I might point out, but my space does not permit, and, moreover, I hope to be able to return to this inquiiy in a future publication. On page 45 of the Crania Americana, I find the following description, from the pen of Dr. Morton : " The Chinese skull, so far as I can judge from the specimens that have come under my inspection, is oblong-oval in its general form ; the os frontis is narrow in proportion to the width of the face, and the vertex is prominent: the occiput is moderately flattened; 153 the face projects more than in the Caucasian, giving an angle of about seventy-five degrees; the teeth are nearly vertical, in which respect they differ essentially from those of the Malay ; and the orbits are of moderate dimensions and rounded." Blanchard thus alludes to the Chinese cranium : " Dans les cranes de Chinois, 154 la face vue par devant est allonge's ; elle n'a plus ces cotes paralleles que nous avons signaled dans les races oceaniques, elle s'amincit graduelle- ment vers le bas. Le coronal est large ; mesurf dans sa plus grande e'tendue, la largeur equivaut a peu pres a la hauteur, prise de I'origine des os nasaux a sa jonction avec les 153 This feature I cannot detect in any of the above-mentioned eleven skulls. 154 PI. 43 of Dumoutier'a Atlas. 278 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS parietaux sur la ligne mediane. Observe par devant, on voit clairement, que sans affeeter la forme vraiment pyramidale propre aux Polynesiens et un peu aux Malayo-Polynesieus, il se retrecit graduellement vers le sommet. Vu de profil, le front se montre en general assez rejete en arriere. Le maxillaire superieur est assez etroit et assez allonge ; le maxillaire inferieur est egalement etroit, comparativenient an developpement de la portion superieure de la tete. Les os maxillaires sont assez proeminents comme on peut s'en rendre compte aisdment en considerant une tete de Chinois par le profil. La region occipitale s'etend peu en arriere. Ces caracteres se voient nettement dans les tetes representees par M. Dumou- tier, et nous les avons retrouvds dans plusieurs sujets qui existent dans la collection anthro- pologique du Museum d'histoire naturelle de Paris. "Si nous comparons ces tetes de Chinois avec celles des habitants des Philippines, 155 les differences sont bien palpables, et pourtant il y a une grande analogie dans la forme gendrale, dans le contour coronal observe par devant. La face, chez les Chinois, est beau- coup plus allongee ; le front, vu de profil, est moins oblique, ce qui donne necessairement plus d'ampleur a, la partie autero-superieure de la tete ; les os niaxillaires sont aussi sensi- blement moins avancds : de la un angle facial un peu plus onvert. Enfin, dans tous les cas, la partie posterieure de la tete est un peu moins allongee. " De ces faits il resulte que la tete des Chinois, tres-analogue sons bien des rapports a, celle des Malais, en differe d'une facon notable et se rapproche d'autant du type europeen. Mais lorsq'on vient a. mettre en presence les cranes de Chinois et d'Europeens, c'est une difference bien autrement importante qui se manifeste devant des yeux exerces a, ce genre d'etude. Un naturaliste de la Hollande, M. Vander Hqsven, a deja indique plusieurs differences dans les proportions du crane. 156 Chez le Chinois, la face est plus longue que chez 1'Europeen, 15 ' Tangle facial est bien moins ouvert, le coronal deprime, sauf une ligne courbe presqne reguliere de la base au sommet, tandis que dans la tete de TEuropeen, le front est presqne droit et forme presque un coude au sommet, pour aller rejoindre les parietaux ; tout cela, sans doute, avec des nuances bien prononcees, mais ce qui n'en est pas moins encore tres-marque, quand on compare des tetes d'hommes de races aussi differentes. " En mettant en presence des tetes de Chinois et d'hommes de race semitique, il y a un peu plus de rapport, plus de rapport surtout dans la longueur de la face. Chez les Juifs, les Arabes, etc., cependant, si le frontal est plus rejete en arriere que chez les Europeens, quand on le considere par devant, on voit qu'il reste large au sommet, au lieu de se retreeir comme chez les Chinois. Dans les tetes de Chinois, les os nasaux sont moins saillants, les os maxillaires sont plus proeiuinents, la partie posterieure de la tete est moins oblongue. " Enfin les Chinois, d'apres tous les caracteres anthropologiques que nous pouvons observer, se montrent dans le genre humain comme un type bien earacterise et comme un type inferieur aux races europeennes et semitiques, ainsi que cela resulte d'un angle facial moins ouvert, d'une ampleur moins grande de la portion antero-superieure de la tete, et d'une saillie plus considerables des os maxillaires. Or comme il n'est pas douteux que l'ampleur de la partie antero-superieure de la tete ne soit un indice de superiorite, et le developpement des os maxillaires un indice d'inferiorite, l'anthropologiste doit classer la race chinoise comme inferieure aux races de l'Europe et de l'Orient. L'etude de l'histoire, des mceurs, des resultats intellectuels de ces peuples conduit absolument a la memo classification." 15s The Japanese are generally considered as belonging to the same type as the Chinese. The collection contains but one Japanese skull, presented by Dr. A. M. Lynch, TJ. S.E". The appearance of i 55 PI. 40 of Dumoutier's Atlas. 166 Annales des Sciences naturelles, 2" sdrie. m Dumoutier's Atlas, pi. 25, bis. 158 Op. cit., pp. 228-34. OF THE RACES OF MEN". 279 this cranium does not exactly Fig. 19. comport with the above state- ment. Knowing nothing of its history, and having no other for comparison, I simply annex a representation of it without fur- ther comment. 159 These observations, in the ag- gregate, conflict with the opinion of Pmchard, — an opinion sus- tained by many others — that "the Chinese, and the Koreans, and the Japanese belong to the same type of the human species as the nations of High Asia." He explains away the evident differences by a certain softening and mitigation of the Mongolian traits. Latham also calls the Chinese a "Mongol softened down." Such expressions are unfortunate; they lead to misconceptions which often seriously retard the progress of science, particularly its dif- fusion among the masses. 160 The Indo-Chinese nations, including the Mantchurian Tungus, or those south of the Alden, should be regarded as a distinct but closely allied type, a type bearing certain resemblances to the pyramidal form on the one hand, and the globular on the other, but positively separated from these two by certain slight but apparently constant differences. The Koreans, judging from the description of Siebold, exhibit the same type. "L' ensemble de leurs traits perte, en general, le caractere de la race Mongole; la largeur et la rudesse de la figure, la preeminence des pommettes, le de>eloppement des machoires, 159 " Les Japonais," says D'Halloy, " ont en g^neVal les caracteres mongoliques moins prononce"es que les Chinois, ce que l'on attribue a un melange avec d'autres peuple, peut- etre des Kouriliens, qui auraient habits le pays avant eux." Op. cit., p. 124. 160 Upon p. 235 of bis Nat. Hist, of Man, Prichard gives a profile view of a Chinese cranium, which, he says, "appears to differ but little from the European." Now if any one, at all familiar with European skull-forms, will take the trouble to inspect the figure in question, he will at once perceive how erroneous is the above statement. Every careful craniographer must object to such loose remarks. Again, upon the third and fourth plates of his work, he compares together the crania of a Congo negro, a Chetimache Indian of Louisiana, and a Chinese of Canton, and from the manifest resemblances between them, he ventures to assert that the characteristics of these widely-separated races cannot be relied upon as specific. In the Mortonian collection, so numerously represented in American and African skulls, and containing twelve Chinese crania, also, I cannot find a parallel instance of this similarity. I am forced to conclude, therefore, either that Dr. P. was mistaken as to the sources of these skulls, or that we should regard their similarity as one of those exceptional or aberrant examples, which occasionally arise to puzzle the cranioscopist in the present unsettled state of the science. 280 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS la forme e'crase'e de la racine nasale et les ailes 61argies du uez, la grandeur de la bonche, l'fipaisseur des levres, l'apparente obliquity des yeux, la chevelure roide, abondante, d'un noir bruDatre ou tirant sur le roux, 1'epaisseur des sourcils, la raret*; de la barbe, et enfin un teint couleur de froment, rouge jaunatre, les font reconnaitre, au premier abord, pour des naturels du nord et de FAsie. Ce type se retrouve ehez la plupart des Cortiens que nous avons vus, et ils conviennent eux memes que c'est celui qui distingue le niieux leur nation." He proceeds to express his conviction of the co-existence of two distinct types in this region. Of the tribes of the Trans-Gangetic or Indo-Chinese Peninsula, the Mortonian collection contains but one representative — a Cochin- Chinese from Turon Bay (ISTo. 1527) — which appears to me artiUcially deformed. I am therefore unable, at present, to arrive at any deter- mination of their cranial type. Finlayson describes these tribes in the following manner : " The face is remarkably broad and flat ; the cheek-bones prominent, large, spreading, and gently rounded ; the glabellum is flat, and unusually large ; the eyes are, in general, small ; the aperture of the eyelids, moderately linear in the Indo-Chinese nations and the Malays, is acutely so in the Chinese, bending upwards at its outer end ; the lower jaw is long, and remarkably full under the zygoma, so as to give to the countenance a square appearance ; the nose is rather small than flat, the alse not being distended in any uncommon degree; in a great number of Malays, it is largest towards its point; the mouth is large, and the lips thick ; the beard is remarkably scanty, consisting only of a few straggling hairs ; the forehead, though broad in a lateral direetion,'is in general narrow, and the hairy scalp comes down very low. The head is peculiar; the antero-posterior diameter being uncommonly short, the general form is rather cylindrical ; the occipital foramen is often placed so far back that from the crown to the nape of the neck is nearly a straight line. The top of the head is often very flat. The hair is thick, coarse, and lank ; its color is always black." 161 Dr. Rtjschenberger thus describes the Siamese : " The forehead is narrow at the superior part, the face between the cheek-bones broad, and the chin is again narrow, so that the whole contour is rather lozenge-shaped than oval. The eyes are remarkable for the upper lid being extended below the under one at the corner next to the nose ; but it is not elongated like that organ in the Chinese or Tartar races. The eyes are dark or black, and the white is dirty, or of a yellowish tint. The nostrils are broad, but the nose is not flattened, like that of the African. The mouth is not well formed, the lips projecting slightly ; and it is always disfigured, according to our notions of beauty, by the universal and disgusting habit of chewing areca-nut. The hair is jet black, renitent and coarse, almost bristly, and is worn in a tuft on the top of the head, about four inches in diameter, the rest being shaved or clipped very close. A few scattering hairs, which scarcely merit the name of beard, grow upon the chin and upper lip, and these they cus- tomarily pluck out. " The occipital portion of the head is nearly vertical, and, compared with the anterior and sincipital divisions, very small ; and I remarked, what I have not seen in any other than in some ancient Peruvian skulls from Pachacamac, that the lateral halves of the head are not symmetrical. In the region of firmness the skull is very prominent ; this is remark- ably true of the talapoins." 162 161 Embassy to Siam and Hue, p. 230. 162 \ Voyage Round the World ; including an Embassy to Muscat and Siam. By W. S. W Ruschenberger, M. D. Philada,, 1838, p 299. OF THE RACES OF MEN. 281 Neal [Residence in the Kingdom of Siam) assures us that the Siamese differ in their physical characters from all the surrounding nations. According to Morton, among the inhabitants of Cochin-China, or Annam, "the general form of the face is round, so that the two diameters are nearly equal. The forehead is short and broad, but the occipital portion of the head is more elongated than in the people of Siam. The chin is large and broad ; the beard grisly and thin, the hair copious, coarse, and black; the nose small, but well-' formed, and the lips moderately thick." Blanchard alludes to the inhabitants of Malacca, and the forms of their crania, in the following terms : "La population de Malacca, du reste, comme celle des lies de la Sonde, n'est pas homo- gene ; il y en a vine partie qui priSsente mie civilisation analogue a celle des Malais ; il y en a une autre, form6e de tribus incultes, qui habite les forets de l'inte'rieur du pays. Lea tetes des naturels de Malacca representees dans l'atlas de M. Dumoutier ne sauraient etre rapproche'es indifferemment de toutes celles que nous avons decrites des habitants de la Malaisie. "Vues par devant, ce sont des faces courtes comme chez tous les peuples des races malaises. Mais ici il n'y a pas cette ampleur du coronal et des parigtaux que nous avons signaled chez le naturel d'Amboine, represent*; dans notre atlas, ni chez le Bughis de Ouadjou, ni chez les naturels des Philippines. " Chez nos individus de Malacca, Ton observe aussi un plus grand developpement des os maxillaires, et Ton retrouve ainsi cette forme a cotes paralleles que nous avons vu si I16- quemment dans les types pre'ce'demment dticrits. " M. Dumoutier a place les tetes de naturels de Malacca sur la meme planche que lo naturel d'Amnoubang de Tile de Timor; nous ne croyous pas qu'il faille venir chercher ici une ressemblance bien grande. Dans la tete du Timorien, le front est plus bas et plus large vers le haut, la partie posterieure de la tete est plus allong^e, les maxillaires sont plus avanc^s, etc. "Ces hommes de Malacca ressemblent, au confraire. d'une maniere frappante, au Bughis de 1'Etat de Sidenring dont il a 6t& question plus haut. "C'estla meme face, courte, avec le coronal £troit, pen €1e\6, rejete' en arriere, dSprime au-dessus des arcades sourcilieres; seulement chez le Bughis il y a une tendance un pcu plus marquee a la forme pyramidale. Les apophyses zygomatiques sont de meme extre- mement saillantes ; le maxillaire supijrieur est large et court, sans i'etre autant que chez le naturel de Celebes, et le maxillaire infe"rieur est aussi fort large. Enfin chez les uns et les autres la region posterieure n'est que peu dtendue en arriere. "En rfcuine\ il n'est pas douteux que le Bughis represents dans l'atlas de M. Dumoutier et les individus de Malacca appartiennent a la meme race. Le fait que nous constatons ici devient une grande preuve a l'appui de l'opinion tres-re"pandue parmi les ethnogrnphes que les Bughis sont les descendants d'individus originaires du continent. Ce qui jette toujoui-s dans un grand embarras, e'est la diversity des types observes sur la plupart des points de la Malaisie et dans les divers endroits du continent indien." 163 The above descriptions evidently lead to the recognition of several varieties or sub-types of cranial form in the Indo-Chinese Peninsula, some of which are more or less related to the predominating type of 163 Op. cit., pp. 220-2. 282 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS Central Asia, while others approximate the Malayan, and through these the Polynesian forms. Indo-China may therefore be regarded as the transitionary or debatable ground between Asia and Polynesia. Concerning the skull-forms of the mysterious aboriginal tribes of this region, who here and there "crop out" above the prevailing type (the perplexing representatives of an earlier and perhaps primi- tive humanitarian epoch), I have nothing to say, being without the necessary material. Among these relics of a former time may be enumerated the savage Garo, or hill-tribes of South-west Assam, with their Negro characteristics ; the savage blacks of the Andam- man Isles ; and certain wild tribes dwelling to the north of Ava, and differing from the dominant population in language, religion, and physical characters. These, in common with the Bheels and Govand tribes of Guzerat, the Puharrees of Central, the Cohatars of Southern, and the Jauts of Western India, all seem to be the remnants of a once powerful and widely-spread people. Very few, if anj r , people are more varied in their physical charac- ters than the great Indostanic Family. Conquest and amalgamation have disguised and altered its primitive types in a remarkable degree. Only here and there, in the mountainous regions, do we catch a glimpse of these types. A portion of the aborigines appear to have been of a dark or quite black complexion. "In general, the face is oval, the nose straight or slightly aquiline, the mouth small, the teeth vertical and well-formed, and the chin rounded and generally dimpled. The eyes are black, bright, and expressive, the eyelashes long, and the brow thin and arched. The hair is long, black, and glossy, and the beard very thin. The head of the Hindoo is small in proportion to the body, elongated and narrow especially across the forehead, which is only moderately elevated." 16i The collection contains in all forty-three crania of the Indostanic Race. Among these skulls, at least two types can be distinguished. 1st. The fair-skinned Ayras, a conquering race, speaking a Sanscrit dialect, and occupying Ayra-Varta, which extends from the Vindya to the Himalaya Mountains, and from the Bay of Bengal to the Indian Ocean, and comprises the Mahrattas, and other once powerful tribes, who have so boldly and obstinately resisted the English arms. These tribes are of Persian origin. They migrated to India, accord- ing to M. Guigniaut, as early as 3101 b. c. 2d. The Bengalee, represented by thirty-five skulls. Dr. Morton considers these small- statured, feeble-minded, and timid people as an aboriginal race upon whom a foreign language has been imposed. Of the eight Ayra skulls in the collection, six are of the Brahmin 16i Crania Americana, p. 32. OF THE RACES OF MEN. 283 caste, and two are Thuggs. Fig. 20 — the skull of Sumboo-Sing, hanged at Calcutta for murder — very well represents this peculiar type. In the Anthropologic of Emile Blanchard, the reader will find an interesting comparison drawn between the Hindoo, Malay, and Micronesian forms of the cra- nium. I have already, in substance, ex- pressed the opinion that the cra- nium of the Lapp, in point of con- Hindu (1330). formation, must be regarded as constituting the connecting link between the types predominating in the Boreal Zone, and those encountered among the European or Indo-Germanic races. I have also ventured the opinion that, through the Osmanlis and the Khazan Tartars, the Mongolic form, character- izing the Asiatic realm, glided, by an easy transition, into the Euro- pean. But Asia graduates into Europe still more naturally, perhaps, through the races constituting the widely-spread Finnic or Tchudic family, which, at an epoch antedating the earliest records, occupied the country extending from Norway to the Yennisei, north of the 55th degree of latitude in Asia, and the 60th in Europe. I have now to state that, through the Affghan skull, the Indostanic blends with the Semitic foirn. Thus, then, it appears that, in pursuing our cra- nial investigations, it is immaterial what route we take in passing from the Asiatic into the so-called European or Caucasian area. Whether we journey from Hindustan through Affghanistan, seeking the table-lands of Iran ; or, setting out from the heart of Mongolia, traverse the Turkish region, and so enter Asia Minor ; or, penetrate from the North-East into Scandinavia, through the intervening Lapps and Finns, we meet with the same result — a type which is, in general, as unlike that of the great region just surveyed, as are the animal and vegetable forms of these two countries. The home of the so-called European, Caucasian, or White race, comprehends Europe, Africa north of the Saharan Desert, and South- western Asia. This extensive region may, for convenience of study, be divided into four provinces, of which the first, extending from Finnmark southward into the heart of Europe, is occupied by the Teutonic, Gothic, or Scythic family ; the second comprises Western and Southern Europe, and is inhabited by the Celtic family; the third, located in Eastern Europe, contains the great Shlavic group ; 284 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS while the fourth, or Africo-Asiatic, extends along the southern shore of the Mediterranean into Asia, as far east as Affghanistan, and is occupied by the expansive Semitic family. A closer and more criti- cal examination of these four divisions compels us to recognise for each a number of minor areas or limited districts, which, while they bear to each other a general family likeness, are also characterized by floral and faunal peculiarities, in harmony with certain cranial distinctions about to be noticed. When to the increasing number of naturally sub-typical forms are added the innumerable hybrid varieties resulting from the extensive migrations and endless intermixtures which, from remote times, have been going on in this region, it becomes evident that any attempt at a successful generalization of these forms must necessarily be at- tended with much difficulty. To grasp the idea of a European type is one thing; to select from a number of skulls one which shall embody the essentials of this idea, so as to serve for a standard, is quite another. In the consideration of European types, I commence with the Finns. Attempts have been made to associate the Ugrian family, in point of origin, with the nomadic races of Central Asia. But historically, no proof can be adduced that they ever dwelt as a body upon the plateaux of this latter region. They are not true nomades ; and, as far as I can learn, differ in physical characters from their neighbors. The only support to the opinion is a certain affinity of language. Anciently the Ugrian area extended from the Baltic into Trans- Uralian Siberia. The western extremity penetrated Europe, and was inhabited by the True Finns, whose relation to the Lapps I have al ready briefly alluded to. The eastern extremity mainly comprised the Ugrians or Jugorians. Between the two dwelt the Tchudas proper. Latham is disposed to bring the Samoiedes, Yenniseians, and Yukahiri into this area, thus carrying the Ugrians nearly to Bhering's Strait, and almost in contact with the Eskimo. 165 Ana- tomical characters not to be slighted, not to be explained away, are, however, against the attempt. Through the kindness of Prof. Retzius, of Stockholm, the Mor- tonian collection has been lately increased by the addition of nine specimens of the true Finnic stock. Of these heads, I find the largest internal capacity is 112-5, the smallest 81 - 5, and the mean, 95-3 cubic inches. From an examination of these skulls, the following brief description is derived : The regularly developed head has a square or 165 The Native Races of the Russian Empire. By R. G. Latham, M. D., &c, being vol. II. of the Ethnographical Library, conducted by E. Norris, Esq. London, 1854, pp. 12, 13. OF THE RACES OF MEN. 285 somewhat angularly round appear- ance. The antero-posterior dia- meter being comparatively short, it falls within the brachy-cephalic class of Retzius. The forehead is broad, though less expansive than in the true Germanic race. This frontal breadth, the lateral expan- sion of the parietalia, and the flat- ness of the os occipitis, give to the coronal region, when viewed per- pendicularly, a square, or rather slightly oblong appearance. The Fig. 21. Finn (1537). face is longer and less broad than in the Mongolian head, while the lower jaw is larger, and the chin more prominent. Hence, the lower part of the face is advanced, somewhat in the manner of the Scla- vonian face. The whole head is gather massive and rude in struc- ture, the bony prominences being strongly characterized, and the sutures well defined. The general configuration of the head is European, bearing certain resemblances, however, to the Mongolian on the one hand, and the Sclavonian on the other. I have already alluded to the great diversity of opinion relative to the affiliations of the Finns, and the position to which they should be assigned in ethnic classification. Malte-Brun distinguishes them from both the Sclavonians and Germans, but associates them with the Lapps. 166 Pinkerton coincides in this view, but is inclined to consider the Lapps a peculiar variety. 167 Burdach classes the Finns with the Sclaves and Lapps. 168 Bort de St. Vincent con- siders the Lapps, Samoiedes, and Tchuktchi as Hyperboreans, and recognizes in the Finns a variety of the Sclavonic race. 169 Htjece regards the Finns as a distinct people, differing from both the Euro- pean and Mongolian families. 170 "The Fin organization," writes Latham, "has generally been recognized as Mongol — though Mon- gol of the modified kind." 171 The original identity of the Finns and Lapps has been argued from certain linguistic affinities between the two races. Prichard considers the evidence of their consan- lro System of Universal Geography. Edinburgh, 1827. Vol. VT. p. 75. 1C ' Modern Geography. Philadelphia, 1804, Vol. I. pp. 383, 404. Walckenaee, the French translator and editor of this work, draws a strong line of distinction between the Finns and Lapps. Geographic Moderne. Paris, 1804, t. 3eme, p. 258, note. 168 Der Mensch, cited by Hueck. 169 L'Homme, Essai Zoologique sur le Genre Humaine. 3e edit., t. 1. 1.0 De Craniis Estonum, p. 11. 1.1 Native Races of the Russian Empire, p. 72. 286 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS guinity to be sufficiently well demonstrated, 172 and cites Leemius, G-tjnnerus, Porthan, Ihre, Rask, and others as advocates of this opinion. Opposed to this identity, however, are the well-marked physical differences observed by tiearly all the travellers who have visited these people. Linn-^us, long ago, pointed out, in the con- cise terms of the naturalist, the most prominent of these differences. " Fennones corpore toroso, capillis flavis prolixis, oeulorum iridibus fuscis. Lappones corpore parvo, capillis nigris, brevibus, rectis; oeulorum iridibus nigrescentibus." Very ingenious theories have been advanced to reconcile this assumed consanguinity with the anatomical differentiae above indicated. Thus Von Buch ascribes this difference to the fact, that of the two people, the Finns alone use hot baths and warm clothing. Long separation and exposure to different physical influences have also been deemed sufficient to account for the discrepancy. In consideration of the animated controversy which has been carried on by the learned concerning the relationship of the Lapp and the Finlander, it may be well to introduce here the carefully drawn description of an Esthonian skull, originally published in Latin by Dr. A. Hueck, of Dorpat. 173 There are reasons for con- sidering the Finnic type to be preserved in its greatest purity among the Esthonians. These people appear to be the indigence of Esthonia; at least, "no earlier population seems to have preceded them." 17 * "In the Esthonian race," says Dr. H., "the skull, though angular, is not very robust. A square form is most frequently observed, and even when it passes into an oval shape, which is often the case, it presents a well-defined appearance of angularity. A pyramidal or wedge-like figure (forma cuneata) is more rarely encountered, and it has never happened to me to observe a round Esthonian skull. "At first sight, the calvaria, when compared with the facial skeleton, appears large; and, if viewed from above or behind, square : for not only are the parietal bosses very prominent, but the occiput, in the region of the superior linea semicircularis, is strongly arched both posteriorly and towards the sides. The sinciput is a little less broad than the occiput; the forehead is plane, less gibbous than usual and low. The frontal breadth is only apparent, because the more projecting external orbitar process, with the equally prominent malar bones below, is continuous with the smoother posterior part of the semi- circular line of the os frontis. The temporal fossa is capacious, though not very deep, and is terminated anteriorly by the firm posterior margin of the frontal process of the malar bone, and externally by a sufficiently strong zygomatic arch, under which juts out in the posterior side the articular tubercle or crest, by which the zygomatic arch is continued above the external opening of the ear. Moreover, the condyloid processes of the occipital bone appear to me larger and more prominent than in the other skulls. On the other hand, 172 Researches, iii., 297. 173 De Craniis Estonum commentatio anthropologica qua viro illustrissimo Joanni Theo- doro Busgh, doctoris dignitatem impetratam gratulatur Ordo. Med. Univers. Dorpatensis, interprete Dr. Alexander Hueck, Dorpati Livonorum, 1838, 4to., pp. 7-10. 171 See Latham's Native Races of the Russian Empire, p. 75. OF THE RACES OF MEN. 287 the mastoid process, in all the (Esthonian) skulls which I have examined, is small and less rough ; the Kussian crania, on the contrary, excel in long and thick mastoid processes. Not more developed is the external occipital protuberance ; nor in general are the impres- sions of the muscles very conspicuous on the occipital bone. " Upon comparing the base of the skull, I have found no differences of greater moment. However, the internal occipital protuberance appears to me greater than usual ; the crucial lines are strongly characterized, and the transverse furrows deeper. While the ossa petrosa project considerably into the cranial cavity, the os occipitale, where it forms the inferior occipital fossa, is less convex ; hence, from this conformation, the space occupied by the cerebellum is manifestly narrowed. Nothing else is observable, except that the depressions in the anterior part of the cranium present a more angular form, and, finally, the jugular foramina appear to me larger than in the skulls of other races of men. " The facial part, compared with the calvaria, is small, broad, and low. The breadth (of the face) is produced, not so much by the development of the malar bones, as in skulls of the Mongolian variety, but rather by a greater prominence of the malar process of the superior maxilla. On this account, the inter-malar, compared with the frontal, diameter, appears much greater than in Europeans in general. Hence, the external orbital margins are flared out more, the distance between these margins is greater chan the breadth of fore- head, and the orbits themselves are wider. Therefore, the malar process of the maxillary bone, being thus rendered more prominent, the antrum Highmorianuni becomes necessarily more capacious. For a similar reason, the sphenoidal sinuses, also, are deeper than in German heads. And even the cells of the ethmoid are greater, and the paper-like lamina, which is ordinarily vertical, is rather arched in the Esthonians, and projects towards the orbit, blending gradually with the orbital surface of the body of the superior maxilla. The frontal sinuses are very large, which, in the external aspect, is indicated by a prominent glabella and projecting superciliary arches "The malar process of the upper maxilla is stronger than usual; on the other hand, the frontal and alveolar processes of the same bone are shorter ; hence, the whole face, from the naso-frontal suture to the alveolar margin, is shortened in length. This broad and lon- gitudinally contracted form of the face especially affects the form of the orbits, and gives to the 6kull of the Esthonians its most characteristic type. For, in comparison with their breadth, the orbits are low, and transversely oblong or almost square in shape. This ap- pearance depends upon the above-mentioned proportions of the superior maxilla, and is the more noticeable, because the supra-orbital margin descends lower under a very convex superciliary arch, and is less curved in shape, while, opposite to it, the infra-orbital margin also makes a very prominent edge. 1 ' 5 .... Antero-posteriorly, the orbit is somewhat deeper than in other skulls, and, on account of the contracted entrance (humilem introilum) appears to be deeper than it really is. " The root of the nose, above which the glabella projects considerably, is compressed and flat, and the nasal bones, but little arched, terminate in a pyriform aperture. The frontal process of the upper maxillary bone being shorter, and the alveolar process lower, and, at the same time, the body of the upper maxillary bone less broad than usual, the space sur- rounded by the teeth is necessarily narrower. The incisor teeth of the upper jaw are seldom perpendicular, but incline obliquely forwards, so that their alveolar edge, not formed as in other crania, at the angle of the foramen incisivum, merges gradually into the hard palate. The peculiar evolution of the organs inservient to mastication, gives rise to differ- ences even in the skull. For the whole surface of the temporal fossa is more exactly de- ro The prominence of the malar bones, the narrowness of the orbits, and the squareness of their margins, was also observed about Dorpat, by Isenflamm (Anatomische Untersuch- ungen. Erlangen, 1822, pp. 254-6). C. Seidlitz appears to have been the first to describe the form of the orbits accurately ; he has attempted to show that this form gave rise to two affections, common in this region — trichiasis and entropium. (Disserlatio lnauguralis de Prcecipuis Oculorum Morbis inter Eslhonos obviis Dorpati Livonorum, 1821.) 288 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS fined, not only by the semicircular line of the os frontis, hut also by a very prominent crest above the external meatus, into the posterior part of which the zygomatic processes are continued. Moreover, in nearly all the Esthonian skulls, the external pterygoid processes are very broad ; often the spinous process of the sphenoidal bone is, at the same time, so prolonged, that it coalesces with the posterior margin of the former process This conformation indicates a greater evolution of the external pterygoid muscle than in others less broad. This muscle being efficient, the lateral motion of the lower jaw is increased, in consequence of the smallness of the condyles as compared with the large glenoid cavity ; hence, the crowns of the teeth, already worn down in the young, are proofs of the posses- sion of the most powerful organs for masticating vegetable food. It only remains to be observed that, in the lower jaw, the ascending ramus is lower than in skulls of the Cauca- sian variety, the angle more obtuse, and the posterior part of the body of the jaw less broad, and the anterior part higher, and the chin itself rounded, and rarely angular." Such, according to Dr. Hueck, are the characters of the Esthonian skull — characters which, he further assures us, are more pronounced in proportion as these people are less mixed with others. He also expresses a belief in the possibility of tracing the Finns to their primitive sources, by a careful study of the heads found in ancient sepulchres of this region. From the foregoing descriptions the reader will readily perceive the differences between the Finnic and Mongolic types of skull. The Mongolian face is broad and high, the cheek-bones very robust, the malar fossa shallow, the nasal bones small and flat, teeth strong and straightly placed, bounding a large space ; the orbits are deep and less square. Oblique palpebral openings correspond to the formation of the facial bones, for the internal orbital process of the frontal bone descends more deeply than in the Caucasian variety, and the Estho- nians especially, whence the lachrymal bone and the entrance to the canal are lower down. The internal canthus being adjacent to this, is placed lower; hence the obliquity of the palpebral opening, so peculiar to the Mongolian. "We thus find nothing common to the Mongolian type and to the shape of the Esthonian skull except a certain squareness of figure which is not constant. It will thus be seen that the cranial type of the Laplander belongs to a lower order than that of the Finn, and that the former race falls properly within the limits of the Arctic form, while the latter leans decidedly towards the Lido-Germanic type, finding its relation to the latter through the Sclavonian rather than the true Scandinavian types. But inferiority of form is to some extent a natural indi- cation of priority of existence. We are thus led from cranial investi- gations alone to recognize the Lapps as the autochthones of North- western Europe, who at a very remote period have been overlaid by the encroaching Finn. This opinion is countenanced by the follow- ing facts. GrEUER assures us that the earliest historical accounts of OF THE RACES OF MEN". 289 the Lapps and Finns testify to their diversity and primitive separa- tion. Under the combined pressure of the Swedes and Norwegians on the west, and the Finns on the east, the Lapponic area has, from the dawn of history, been a receding one. Lapponic names for places are found in Finland, and, as already observed, human bones more like those of the Laplanders than the Scandinavians have been found in ancient cemeteries as far south as Denmark. Peter Hogstrom tells us that the Lapps maintain that their ancestors formerly had possession of all Sweden. We have it upon historical record, that so late as the fifteenth century Lapponic tribes were pushed out of Savolax and East Bothnia towards the north. Prof. S. Nilsson, of Lund, thinks that the southern parts of Sweden were formerly connected with Denmark and Germany, while the northern part of Scandinavia was covered with the sea ; that Scania received its post-diluvian flora from Germany ; and that as vegeta- tion increased, graminivorous animals came from the south, followed by the carnivora, and finally by man, who lived in the time of the Bos primigenius and Ursus Spelteus. In proof of the antiquity here assigned to Scandinavian man, he tells us that they have in Lund a skeleton of the Bos pierced with an arrow, and another of the Ursus, which was found in a peat-bog in Scania, under a gravel or stone deposit, along with implements of the chase. 176 From these imple- ments, he infers that these aborigines were a savage race of fishers and hunters. "The skulls of the aboriginal inhabitants found in these ancient barrows are short (brachy-cephalie of Retzius), "with prominent parietal tubers, and broad and flattened occi- put. It is worthy of remark, that the same form of cranium exists among several very 1,6 The reader will find some highly interesting and curious speculations upon the antiquity of British Man, in a paper entitled. On the Claims of the Gigantic Irish Deer to be considered as contemporary with Man, recently read (May, 1855), by Mr. H. Denny, before the Geological and Polytechnic Society of the West Riding of Yorkshire. " In my endeavor to trace the Megaceros down to the human era," says Mr. D., in concluding his paper, "I am by no means advocating the idea that they have, as species, been equally long inhabi- tants of this earth. On the contrary, I suppose that the last stragglers only, which escaped annihilation by physical changes and causes, may have continued to exist down to Man's first appearance on the British Isles ; and as precisely similar views regarding the extinction of the Dinornis in New Zealand have been advocated by Dr. Mantell in one of his last com- munications to the Geological Society, I shall make no apology in concluding with his remarks when speaking of the Moa-beds: — Both these ossiferous deposits, though but of yesterday in geological history, are of immense antiquity in relation to the human inhabi- tants of the country. I believe that ages, ere the advent of the Maoris, New Zealand was densely peopled by the stupendous bipeds whose fossil remains are the sole indications of their former existence. That the last of the species was exterminated by human agency, like the Dodo and Solitaire of the Mauritius, and the Gigantic Elk of Ireland, there can be no doubt; but, ere man began the work of destruction, it is not unphilosophical to assume that physical revolutions, inducing great changes in the relative distribution of the land 19 290 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS ancient people, such as the Iberians or Basques of the Pyrenees, the Lapps and Samoiedes, and the Pelasgi, traces of whom are still found in Greece. "Next in succession to this aboriginal race, subsisting by fishing and hunting, comes another with a cranium. of a more lengthened oval form, and prominent and narrow occiput. I think this second race to have been of Gothic extraction, to have first commenced the division of the land for agricultural purposes, and consequently to have had bloody strife with the former inhabitants "The third race which has inhabited Scandinavia came possibly from the North and East, and introduced bronze into the country ; the form of the skull is very different from that of the two former races. It is larger than the first, and broader than the second, and withal prominent at the sides. I consider this race to have been of Celtic origin." The fourth, or true Swea race, introduced into Sweden weapons and instruments of iron, and appear to have been the immediate ancestors of the present Swedes. With this race Swedish history fairly begins. 1 ' 7 Prof. Retzius, in the main, coincides with the opinion of Prof. Nilsson. He applies to the Lapps the term Turanic, and regards them as the relics of the true Scandinavian aborigines — a people who once occupied not only the southern part of Sweden, but also Denmark, Great Britain, Northern Germany, and France. He calls the Turanic skull, brachy-cephalic (short-head), and describes it as short and round, the occiput flattened, and the parietal protuberances quite prominent. 178 A cast of a Norwegian skull in the Mortonian Collection (No. 1260), is remarkable for its great size. It belongs to the dolicho- cephalic variety of Retzius. The fronto-parietal convexity is regular from side to side. The occipital region as a whole is quite promi- nent; but the basal portion of the occiput is fiat and parallel with the horizon when the head rests squarely upon the lower jaw. The glabella, superciliary ridges, and external angular processes of the os frontis are very rough and prominent, overhanging the orbits and inter-orbital space in such a manner as to give a very harsh and for- bidding expression to the face. The semi-circular ridges passing back from the external angular process, are quite elevated and sharp. The nasal bones are high and rather sharp at the line of junction ; orbits capacious ; malar bones of moderate size, and flattened antero- laterally ; superior maxilla rather small in comparison with the infe- rior, which is quite large, and much flared out at the angles. The facial angle is good, and the whole head strongly marked. According to Prof. Retzius, the Swedish cranium, as seen from above, presents an oval figure. Its greatest breadth is to its greatest and water in the South Pacific Ocean, may have so circumscribed the geographical limits of the Dinornis and Palapteryx, as to produce conditions that tended to diminish their numbers preparatory to their final annihilation." 1,7 Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, for 1847, p. 31. 178 See Muller's Archives, for 1849 p. 575. OF THE RACES OF MEN. 291 length as 1000 : 773. The external occipital protuberance is remark- ably prominent, so that the external auditory meatus appears to occupy a more advanced position than is really the case. A plane passing through the two meati, perpendicular to the long diameter of the cranium, cuts this diameter nearly in the middle. The face is long, but not very prominent, the inferior jaw well pronounced and massive, while the inter-orbital space is large, as is generally the case with the Northern races of men. From the skulls found in ancient tombs, we may infer that this form has not varied for at least 1000 years." 9 The Swedish form of skull, judging from the specimens in Mor- ton's Collection, bears a family resemblance to the Norwegian, and in several respects is not unlike the Anglo-Saxon head figured in the first decade of Crania Britannica. In the Anglo-Saxon, how- ever, the chin is more acuminated, and the maxillary rami longer. The chief points of resemblance about the calvaria, are the slightly elevated forehead, the rather flattened vertex, and the inclination of the parietalia downwards and backwards towards the occiput. This latter feature is also possessed by the Norwegian cast referred to above. In the skull of a Swedish woman of the thirteenth century (No. 1249 of the Mortonian Collection), the singularly protuberant occi- put projects far behind the foramen magnum. The skulls of an ancient Ostrogoth (No. 1255), and two ancient Cimbi'ic Swedes (Nos. 1550 and 1532), evidently belong to the same peculiar type. These four heads resemble each other as strongly as they differ from the remaining Swedes, Finns, Germans, and Kelts in the Collection. They call to mind the kumbe-kephalse, or boat-shaped skulls of Wilson. No. 1362, a cast of an ancient Cimbrian skull, from the Danish Island of Moen, presents the same elongated form. It differs from the four preceding skulls in being larger, more massive, and broader in the forehead. Nos. 117, 1258, and 1488 possess the true Swedish form as described above. Two Swedo-Finland skulls (Nos. 1545 and 1546) — marked in my manuscript catalogue as appertaining to " descendants of colonists who settled in Finland in the most remote times" — are broader, more angular, and less oval than the true Swedish form. The hori- zontal portion of the occiput is quite flat, and the occipital protube- rance prominent. Three Sudermanland Swedes have the same general form. Three Swedish Finns (mixed race) have a more squarely globular, and less 1,9 Ueber die Schadelformen der Nordbewohner in Miiller's Archiv., 1845. 292 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS oval cranium than the true Swedes. In the skull of a Turannic Swede (No. 121) the posterior region of the calvaria is broader, and does not slope away so much. In general configuration this cranium approaches the brachy-cephalic class of Rbtzius. A Danish skull figured by Nilsson, 180 after Eschricht, of Copen- hagen, resembles the Lapponic much more than the Norwegian or Swedish forms described above. The cranial types of Great Britain — the "islands set in the sea" — next claim our attention. The ethnology of the British Isles appears to be very closely con- nected with that of Scandinavia. According to Prof. Nilsson, the ancient inhabitants of Britain are identical with those of Norway and Sweden. 181 Reference to the views put forth by different ethno- graphers and archeologues reveals to us a remarkable degree of uncertainty respecting the cranial forms and general physical charac- ters of the primitive Britons. "It seems strange," says Dr. Prichard, "that such a subject as the physical character of the Celtic race should have been made a theme of controversy. Yet this has happened, and the dispute has turned, not only on the question, what characteristic traits belonged to the ancient Celtas, but, what are those of their descendants, the Welsh and the Scottish Gael?" 182 Again, he says — "The skulls found in old burial-places in Britain, which I have been enabled to examine, differ materially from the Grecian model. The amplitude of the anterior parts of the cranium is very much less, giving a comparatively small space for the anterior lobes of the brain. In this particular, the ancient inhabitants of Britain appear to have differed very considerably from the present. The latter, either as the result of many ages of greater intellectual cultivation, or from some other cause, have, as I am persuaded, much more capacious brain-cases than their forefathers." 183 In another place, he asks — " Was there anything peculiar in the conformation of the head in the British and Gaulish races ? I do not remember that any peculiarity of features has been observed by Roman writers in either Gauls or Britons. There are probably in existence sufficient means for deciding this inquiry, in the skulls found in old British cairns, or places of sepulture. I have seen about half-a-dozen skulls, found in different parts of England, in situations which rendered it highly probable that they belonged to ancient Britons. All these partook of one striking characteristic, viz., a remarkable narrowness of the forehead, compared with the occiput, giving a very small space for the anterior lobes of the brain, and allowing room for a large development of the posterior lobes. There are some modern English and Welsh heads to be seen of a similar form, but they are not numerous. It is to be hoped that such specimens of the craniology of our ancestors will not be suffered to fall into decay." 184 The hope here expressed, I may say, en passant, has at length met with an able response, in the Crania Britannica of Messrs. Davis 180 Skandinaviska Nordens Urinvfinare, ett forsb'k i comparativa Ethnographien af S. Nils- son, Phil. Dr., &c. Christianstad, 1838. I. H'aftel, Plate D, Fig. 10. 181 See his Letter to Dr. Davis, quoted in Crania Britannica, p. 17. 182 Researches into the Physical History of Mankind, 3d edition, vol. III. London, 1841, p. 189. las Ibid, 3d edit., vol. I., p. 305. 18 * Ibid, III., 199. OF THE RACES OF MEN. 293 and Thurnam, who have spiritedly undertaken to "rescue and perpe- tuate the faithful lineaments of a sufficient number of the skulls of the ancient races of Britain to preserve authentic data for the future." Mr. Wilde, a distinguished antiquary, calls the primitive Irish — those who, in the remo- test times, built the pyramidal sepulchres with stone passages — "globular-headed." The skulls found in the "Cromlechs," or sepulchral mounds of a later date, he assures us are " chiefly characterized by their extreme length from before backwards, or what is technically termed their antero-posterior diameter, and the flatness of their sides; and in this, and in most other respects, they correspond with the second form of head discovered in the Danish sepulchres." They also "present the same marked characters in their facial aspect, and the projecting occiput and prominent frontal sinuses, as the Danish" skulls. " The nose, in common with all the truly Irish heads I have examined, presents the most marked pecu- liarities, and evidently must have been very prominent, or what is usually termed aquiline. With this we have evidence of the teeth slightly projecting, and the chin square, well marked, and also prominent ; so that, on the whole, this race must have possessed peculiarly well- marked features, and an intelligent physiognomy. The forehead is low, but not retreating. The molar teeth are remarkably ground down upon their crowns, and the attachments of the temporal muscles are exceedingly well marked Now, we find similar conditions of head still existing among the modern inhabitants of this country, particularly beyond the Shannon, towards the west, where the dark or Fir-Bolg race may still be traced, as distinct from the more globular-headed, light-eyed, fair-haired Celtic people, who lie to the north- east of that river." In the " Kistaeven," a still later form of the ancient funereal recep- tacles, " the skull is much better proportioned, higher, more globular, and, in every respect, approaching more to the highest forms of the Indo-European variety of the Caucasian race." 185 From these interesting researches of Mr. Wilde, it appears quite evident that Ireland has, at different and distant periods, been peopled by at least two, if not three, distinct races, of which the first was characterized by a short, and the second by an elongated form of skull ; thus corresponding remarkably, in physical character and order of succession, to the early inhabitants of Scandinavia. Prof. Daniel Wilson, the learned general editor of the Canadian Journal, has recently demonstrated the existence in Scotland of two distinct primitive races, prior to the appearance of the true Celtse. He thus refers to the crania of these ancient people : " Fortunately, a few skulls from Scottish tumuli and cists are preserved in the Museums of the Scottish Antiquaries and of the Edinburgh Phrenological Society. A comparison of these with the specimens of crania drawn by Dr. Thurnam from examples found in an ancient tumular cemetery at Lamel Hill, near York, believed to be of the Anglo-Saxon period, abundantly proves an essential difference of races. 186 The latter, though belonging to the superior or dolicho-kephalic type, are small, very poorly developed, low and narrow in the forehead, and pyramidal in form. A striking feature of one type of crania from the Scottish barrows is a square compact form 185 Lecture on the Ethnology of the Ancient Irish. By W. R. Wilde, 1844. ™ Natural History of Man, p. 193. 294 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS "No. 7 [Figs. 22 and 23] was obtained from a cist discovered under a large cairn at Nether Urquhart, Fifeshire, in 1835. An account of the opening of several cairns and Fig. 22. Fig. 23. 'No. 7. Nethek TTrqtjhart Cairn.' tumuli in the same district is given by Lieutenant-Colonel Miller, in his ' Inquiry respecting the Site of the Battle of Mons Grampius.' 187 Some of them contained urns and burnt bones, ornaments of jet and shale, and the like early relics, while in others were found implements or weapons of iron. It is selected here as another example of the same class of crania. . . . The whole of these, more or less, nearly agree with the lengthened oval form described by Prof. Nilsson as the second race of the Scandinavian tumuli. They have mostly a singu- larly narrow and elongated occiput ; and with their comparatively low and narrow fore- head, might not inaptly be described by the familiar term boat-shaped. It is probable that further investigation will establish this as the type of a primitive, if not of the primeval native race. Though they approach in form to a superior type, falling under the first or dolicho-kephalic class of Prof. Retzius's arrangement, their capacity is generally small, and their development, for the most part, poor; so that there is nothing in their cranial characteristics inconsistent with such evidence as seems to assign to them the rude arts and extremely limited knowledge of the British Stone Period "The skull, of which the measurements are given in No. 10 [Figs. 24 and 25], is the same here referred to, presented to the Phrenological Museum by the Rev. Mr. Liddell. It Fig. 24, Fig. 25. "No. 10. Old Steeple, Montrose." is a very striking example of the British brachy-kephalic type ; square and compact in form, broad and short, but well balanced, and with a good frontal development. It no doubt pertained to some primitive chief, or arch-priest, sage, it may be, in council, and brave in war. The site of his place of sepulture has obviously been chosen for the same reasons which led to its selection at a later period for the erection of the belfry and beacon- 187 Archseol., Vol. IV., pp. 43, 44. OF THE RACES OF MEN. 295 tower of the old burgh. It is the most elevated spot in the neighborhood, and here his cist had been laid, and the memorial mound piled over it, -which doubtless remained untouched so long as his memory was cherished in the traditions of his people " Few as these examples are, they will probably be found, on further investigation, to belong to a race entirely distinct from those previously described. They correspond very nearly to the brachy-kephalic crania of the supposed primeval race of Scandinavia, described by Prof. Nilsson as short, with prominent parietal tubers, and broad and flattened occiput. In frontal development, however, they are decidedly superior to the previous class of crania, and such evidence as we possess seems to point to a very different succession of races to that which Scandinavian ethnologists now recognize in the primitive history of the north of Europe " So far as appears from the table of measurements, the following laws would seem to be indicated : ■ — In the primitive or elongated dolicho-kephalic type, for which the distinc- tive title of kumbe-kephalic is here suggested — the parietal diameter is remarkably small, being frequently exceeded by the vertical diameter ; in the second or brachy-kephalic class, the parietal diameter is the greater of the two ; in the Celtic crania they are nearly equal ; and in the medieval or true dolicho-kephalic heads, the parietal diameter is again found decidedly in excess ; while the preponderance or deficiency of the longitudinal in its rela- tive proportion to the other diameters, furnishes the most characteristic features referred to in the classification of the kumbe-kephalic, brachy-kephalic, Celtic, and dolicho-kephalic types. Not the least interesting indications which these results afford, both to the ethno- logist and the archaeologist, are the evidences of native primitive races in Scotland prior to the intrusion of the Celtse ; and also the probability of these races having succeeded each other in a different order from the primitive colonists of Scandinavia. Of the former fact, viz., the existence of primitive races prior to the Celta3, I think no doubt can be now enter- tained. Of the order of their succession, and their exact share in the changes and progressive development of the native arts which the archaeologist detects, we still stand in need of fur- ther proof. " The peculiar characteristic of the primeval Scottish type appears rather to be a narrow prolongation of the occiput in the region of the cerebellum, suggesting the term already- applied to them of boat-shaped, and for which the name of kumbe-kephalce may perhaps be conveniently employed to distinguish them from the higher type with which they are other- wise apt to be confounded " The peculiarity in the teeth of certain classes of ancient crania above referred to is of very general application, and has been observed as common even among British sailors. The cause is obvious, resulting from the similarity of food in both cases. The old Briton of the Anglo-Eoman period, and the Saxon both of England and the Scottish Lothians, had lived to a great extent on barley-bread, oaten cakes, parched peas, or the like fare, pro- ducing the same results on his teeth as the hard sea-biscuit does on those of the British sailor. Such, however, is not generally the case, and in no instance, indeed, to the same extent in the skulls found in the earlier British tumuli. In the Scottish examples described above, the teeth are mostly very perfect, and their crowns not at all worn down " The inferences to be drawn from such a comparison are of considerable value in the indications they afford of the domestic habits and social life of a race, the last survivor of which has mouldered underneath his green tumulus, perchance for centuries before the era of our earliest authentic chronicles. As a means of comparison this characteristic appearance of the teeth manifestly furnishes one means of discriminating between an early and a still earlier, if not primeval period, and though not in itself conclusive, it may be found of considerable value when taken in connection with the other and still more obvious peculiarities of the crania of the earliest barrows. We perceive from it, at least, that a very decided change took place in the common food of the country, from the period when the native Briton of the primeval period pursued the chase with the flint lance and arrow, and the spear of deer's horn, to that comparatively recent period when the Saxon marauders 296 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS began to effect settlements and build houses on the scenes where they had ravaged the vil- lages of the older British natives. The first class, we may infer, attempted little cultivation of the soil " Viewing Archaeology as one of the most essential means for the elucidation of primitive history, it has been employed here chiefly in an attempt to trace out the annals of our country prior to that comparatively recent medieval period at which the boldest of our his- torians have heretofore ventured to begin. The researches of the ethnologist carry us back somewhat beyond that epoch, and confirm many of those conclusions, especially in relation to the close affinity between the native arts and Celtic races of Scotland and Ireland, at which we have arrived by means of archasological evidence. . . . But we have found from many independent sources of evidence, that the primeval history of Britain must be sought for in the annals of older races than the Celtoe, and in the remains of a people of whom we have as yet no reason to believe that any philological traces are discoverable, though they probably do exist mingled with later dialects, and especially in the topographical nomen- clature, adopted and modified, but in all likelihood not entirely superseded by later colonists. With the earliest intelligible indices of that primeval colonization of the British Isles our archfeological records begin, mingling their dim historic annals with the last giant traces of elder worlds ; and, as an essentially independent element of historical research, they terminate at the point where the isolation of Scotland ceases by its being embraced into the unity of medieval Christendom." 188 Mr. Bateman, who has carefully examined the ancient barrows of North Derbyshire, describes the skulls found in the oldest of these — known as the Chambered Barrows — as being elongated and boat-shaped (kumbe-kephalic form of "Wilson). The crania of the succeeding two varieties of barrows are of the brachy- cephalic type, round and short, with prominent parietalia. In the barrows of the "iron age" — the most recent — he found the pre- vailing form to approximate the oval heads of the modern inhabi- tants of Derbyshire. 189 From the foregoing statements, a remarkable fact becomes evident. "While Retzius, ISTilsson, Eschricht, and Wilde are remarkably har- monious in ascribing the brachy-cephalic type to the earliest or Stone Period in Scandinavia, Denmark, and Ireland, we find Wilson and Bateman equally accordant in considering the kumbe-kephalse as the first men who trod the virgin soil of Caledonia and England. In the present state of antiquarian research, then, we are forced to conclude that the primitive inhabitants of Britain are identical with those of Sweden and Denmark, but that in different parts of these countries the order of their sequence has varied. Fig. 26 (see next page), reduced from a magnificent life-size litho- graph in Crania Britannica, represents a strongly-marked aboriginal British skull of the earliest period. " It was disinterred from the lowermost cist of a howl-shaped Barrow on Ballidon Moor." It !8S The Archaeology and Prehistoric Annals of Scotland ; Edinb. 1851 ; pp. 163-187, 695-6. 189 Journal of the British Archaeological Society, vol. VII. OF THE RACES OF MEN. 297 belongs to the brachy-cephalre of Ret- zius, and is regarded by Dr. Davis, who gives us the following description of it, as a typical example of the ancient British form. " This cranium possesses a rugged face, the hones of which are rough, angular, especially the lower jaw, and deeply impressed by strong mus- cular action. The space enclosed by the zygo- matic arch is rather large. It is the skull of a man of probably about forty-five years of age. The teeth, which are not remarkably large, must have been complete at the period of interment, Ancient Bkiton. except the two last molars of the upper jaw on the left side, which had previously perished by caries, their alveoli being wholly absorbed. Some of the molars still retain a thick coating of tartar; and the teeth altogether indicate the severe service to which they were subjected during life, for the crowns of almost all are worn down to a level surface, by the mastication of hard substances. The nasal bones, which had been fractured obliquely across the centre during the life of this primitive hun- ter, possibly in some encounter of the chase, and had united perfectly, with a slight bend to the right, are very prominent. The opening of the nostrils, moderate in size, is just an inch in diameter. The frontal sinuses are large, and project considerably over the nose. The frontal bone is not particularly remarkable either for its arched or receding form, but inclines to the latter. The parietal bones are regular, and do not present much lateral prominency. The occipital is somewhat full above the protuberance, which itself is strongly marked. The point of the chin is hollowed out, or depressed, in the middle, a not uncommon feature of the British skull, which may perhaps be taken as an indication of a dimple, a mark of beauty in the other sex. The profile of the calvarium presents a pretty uniform curvature, interrupted by a slight rising in the middle of the parietal bones, and the occipital protuberance. The outline of the vertical aspect is a tolerably regular oval. The entire cranium is of moderate density. ... Its most striking peculiarities are the rude character of the face, greatly heightened by the prominent frontal sinuses, and its moderate dimensions. It seems to have belonged to one whose struggle for life was severe, to conquer the denizens of the forest his chief skill, and whose food consisted of crude and coarse articles. Still there remain irrefragable evidences, even at this distant day, that his strife was a successful one, and that he became the lord of the wilderness ',' An ancient British skull (Fig. 27), from a chambered tumulus at Uley, Gloucestershire, figured and de- scribed in Crania Britannica, af- fords a good idea of the dolicho-ce- phalic or long-headed form above referred to. It "is the skull of a man of probably not less than sixty-five. The sutures are more or less grown together, and, in many places, completely obliterated. The cranium is of great thickness, especially in the upper part of the calvarium ; the parietal bones, in the situation of the tubers, Ancient British (from Uley). 298 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS being about four-tenths of an inch in thickness, and the frontal bone, around the eminences, not less than half an inch. The skull is of large capacity, and is remarkable for its length in proportion to its breadth, belonging decidedly to the dolicho-cephalic class of Retzius. The form is slightly deficient in symmetry. The forehead is narrow, contracted, and rather receding, but not low ; a sort of central ridge is to be traced along the summit of the cra- nium, which is most marked in front of the coronal suture, and falls away to a decidedly flat surface above each temporal ridge. The very pyramidal aspect thus given to the front view of the skull, is well shown in our figure. The' parietal tubers are moderately promi- nent. The occiput is full, prominent and rounded, and presents a strongly-marked trans- verse ridge. The squamous and mastoid portions of the temporal bones are rather small ; the external auditory openings are situated farther than usual within the posterior half of the skull. The frontal sinuses are very marked, and the glabella moderately prominent ; the nasal bones, of moderate size, project rather abruptly. The insertions of the muscles of mastication are strongly marked, but neither the upper nor lower jaw is so large, rugged, or angular as is often the case in skulls from ancient British tumuli. The malar bones are rather small, and the zygomata, though long, are not particularly prominent. The ascending branch of the lower jaw forms a somewhat obtuse angle with the body of that bone ; the chin is poorly developed ; the alveolar processes are short and small. In both jaws, most of the incisor and canine teeth are wanting, but have evidently fallen out since death. The molars and several of the bicuspids remain in their sockets. All the teeth are remarkably worn down, and the molars, especially those of the lower jaw, have almost entirely lost their crowns ; indeed, as respects the lower first molars, nothing but the fangs remain, round which abscesses had formed, leading to absorption and the formation of cavities in the alveolar process. The worn surfaces of the teeth are not flat and horizontal, but slope away obliquely, from without inwards, there being some tendency to concavity in the surfaces of the lower, and to convexity in those of the upper teeth. The former are more worn on the outer, the latter on the inner edge. Altogether, the condition is such as we must attribute to a rude people, subsisting in great measure on the products of the chase and other animal food — ill-provided with implements for its division, and bestowing little care on its prepara- tion — rather than to an agricultural tribe, living chiefly on corn and fruits. Such, we have reason to believe, was the condition of the early British tribes. 190 The state of these, at least, contrasts decidedly with that observed in Anglo-Saxon crania, in which, though the crowns of the teeth are often much reduced by attrition, the worn surfaces are, for the most part, remarkably horizontal." In the same work, the reader will find a well-executed lithograph of an Anglo-Saxon skull, which Dr. Thuknam is inclined to consider as belonging to the " lower rather than the upper rank of "West Saxon settlers." " The general form of the skull, viewed vertically," says Dr. T., " is an irregular length- ened oval, so that it belongs to the dolicho-cephalic class, but is not a well-marked example of that form. The general outline is smooth and gently undulating ; the forehead is poorly- developed, being narrow, and but moderately elevated. The parietal eminences are tolerably full and prominent. The temporal bones, and especially the mastoid processes, are small. The occipital bone is full and rounded, and has a considerable projection posteriorly. The frontal sinuses are slightly marked ; the nasal bones small, narrow, and but little recurved. The bones of the face are small, the malar bones slightly prominent. The alveolar processes 190 Caesar's words are, " Interiores plerique frumenta non serunt, sed lacte et came vivunt, pellibusque sunt vestiti." Lib. V., c. 14. Two or three centuries later, according to Dion Cassius, the condition of the northern Britons was similar; the Caledonians and Meatae had still no ploughed lands, but lived by pasturage and the chase. Xiphilon, lib. xxv., c. 12. OF THE RACES OF MEN. 299 of the superior maxillary bones (premaxiltaries) are prominent, and deviate so considerably from the upright form, as to place the skull rather in the prognathic than the orthognathic class. The ramus of the lower jaw forms an obtuse angle with the body of this bone. The chin is moderately full ." The so-called Anglo-Saxon race — a term which, for several reasons, ought to be discarded from ethnological nomenclature — is represented in the Mortonian collection by four skulls. No. 80 — the skull of an English convict, named Gwillym, — belongs to the dolicho-cephalic form, but is not strictly oval, being flattened posteriorly. In general configuration, it resembles the Northern or Gothic style of head. The face bears the Finnic stamp. No. 539 — the skull of James Moran, an Englishman, executed at Philadelphia for piracy and murder — is long, fiat on the top, and broad between the parietal bones. The posterior portion of the occiput is prominent, the basal surface is flat. The face resembles that of Nos. 1063 and 1064 — Germans of Tubingen — while the calvaria approaches, in its general outline, the kumbe-kephalic form above alluded to. No. 991 — an English soldier — belongs decidedly to the Cimbric type, briefly re- ferred to on p. 291. No. 59 — the skull of Pierce, a convict and can- nibal — is long and strictly oval. It resembles the Cimbric type. The Anglo-American Pace — another very objectionable term, which, as applied to our heterogeneous population, means everything and nothing — has but eight representatives in Morton's collection. Nos. 7 and 98 possess the angularly-round Germanic form. No. 24 — a woman, setat. 26 years — is intermediate in form between the German and Swedish types. No. 552 — a man, setat. 30 years — resembles the Norwegian described on page 290. No. 889 — a man, setat. 40 years — resembles 552 in the shape of the calvaria, but has a smaller face and less massive lower jaw. No. 1108 — a male skull — bears the Northern or Gothic form ; the face resembles that of the Tubingen Germans. 191 The Anglo-Saxon race, according to Morton, differs from the Teutonic in having a less spheroidal and more decidedly oval cranium. "I have not hitherto exerted myself to obtain crania of the Anglo-Saxon race, except in the instance of individuals who have been signalized by their crimes ; and this number is too small to be of much importance in a generalization like the present. Yet, since these skulls have been procured without any reference to their size, it is remarkable that five give an average of 96 cubic inches for the bulk of the brain; the smallest head measuring 91, and the largest 105 cubic inches. It is necessary, however, to observe, that these are all male crania; but, on the other hand, they pertained to the lowest class of society; and three of them died on the gallows for the crime of murder." 191 In arranging the Mortonian collection, I have excluded from the Anglo-Saxons the skull of a lunatic Englishman (No. 62) ; and from the Anglo-Americans, several skulls of lunatics, idiots, children, hydrocephalic cases, &c. This rule has been adopted throughout the whole collection. 300 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS " The Anglo-Americans — the lineal descendants of the Anglo-Saxons — conform in all their characteristics to the parent stock. They possess, in common with their English ancestors, and in consequence of their amalgamation, a more elongated head 192 than the unmixed Germans. The few crania in my possession have, without exception, been derived from the lowest and least cultivated portion of the community — malefactors, paupers, and lunatics. The largest brain has been 97 cubic inches ; the smallest 82 ; and the mean of 90 (nearly) accords with that of the collective Teutonic race. The sexes of these seven skulls are four male and three female." — (Morton). Fig. 28. Craniographers have not yet agreed upon the essential characters of the typical Keltic skull. According to Prichard, " Some remains found in Britain give reason to suspect that the Celtic inhabitants of this county (Britain) had in early times something of the Mongo- lian or Turanian form of the head." 193 Dr. Morton informs us that the Kelts of Brittany, Scotland, and Ireland — the descendants of the primitive Gael — "have the head rather elongated, and the forehead narrow and but slightly arched : the brow is low, straight, and bushy; the eyes and hair are light, the nose and mouth large, and the cheek- bones high. The general contour of the face is angular, and the expression harsh." 194 In a letter to Mr. Gliddon, he alludes to the Tokkari, a people frequently represented on the Egyptian monuments (Fig. 28), in the following terms: They "have strong Celtic features; as seen in the sharp face, the large and irregularly-formed nose, wide mouth, and a certain harshness of expression, which is characteristic of the same people in all their varied localities. Those who are fami- liar with the southern Highlanders (of Scot- land), may recognise a speaking resem- blance." 195 Prof. Ketzitjs places the Keltic cranium in his dolicho- cephalic class, and describes it as long, narrow, laterally compressed, and low in the forehead. Dr. Gustaf Kombst speaks of the Keltic skull as " elongated from front to back, moderate in breadth and length." 1% In a letter-to. Dr. Thurnam, one of the authors of Crania Britanniea, Prof. ISTilsson declares that nothing is more uncertain and vague than the so-called form of the Keltic cranium, for hardly two authors have the same opinion of it. 197 i92 i D e Corp. Fab. Human. 202 A. Keith Johnston's Physical Atlas of Natural Phenomena, 2d edit., p. 106. OF THE RACES OF MEN. 303 the thickness of the bones, and the great development of the upper and anterior parts of the German skull. 203 The reader will obtain a general idea of the Germanic cal- & . Fig. 30. varial type from the accompanying engraving (Fig. 30), representing the skull of the illustrious German poet, Frederick Schiller. It is reduced from Plate I. of Dr. Carus' "Atlas der Cranioscopie." 201 The authenticity of the drawing, the evident beauty of form and har- mony of proportion, the brilliant literary souvenirs inseparably at- tached to the memory of the au- SCHILLER. thor of the Robbers, and mend of Goethe, and especially the somewhat Sclavonic cast of the facial region, have induced me to adopt this skull, in preference to any of the heads contained in Morton's Collection, as the standard or typical representative, not so much of Teutonic as of Central and Eastern Europe, in general. Dr. Carus thus comments upon this Profit du Crane de Frederic de Schiller d'apres un pldtre rnoule : " Dans V ensemble, la proportionnalitS est, on ne peut plus heureuse et en parfaite har- monie avec les qualitfa d'un esprit Eminent, lesquelles durent sous tous les rapports, placer Schiller a, cote de Goethe. Chacune de trois vertebres du crane se trouve dans l'6tat du developpenient le plus beau et !e plus complet ; la vertfebrc m^diane est particuliferement grande, gracieusemente vout^e, finement modeled. Le front est essentiellement plus d&- veloppe' enlargeurque celui de Goethe,chez qui cependantil 6tait plus saillantau milieu. . . . L' occiput est egalement expressif, sans bosse ni protuberance; c'est surtout par une cer- taine formation i51e"gamment arrondie de toute la tete que l'ceil de l'observateur se sent agr^ablement captiveV' Of all the European crania in Morton's Collection, that of a Dutch- man approximates most closely what I conceive to be the true Ger- manic or Teutonic form. This skull is remarkable for possessing the large internal capacity of 114 cubic inches — the largest in the entire collection. The calvaria is very large ; the face rather small, delicate, well-formed, and tapering towards the chin. The frontal diameter or breadth between the temples, is 4J inches ; the greatest breadth between the parietal protuberances is 6-| inches ; the antero- posterior or longitudinal diameter is 7f inches ; the height, mea- 203 Traits de Phrenologie, Humaine et Compared. Par J. "Vimont. Paris, 1835, ii. 478. 204 Atlas der Cranioscopie, oder Abbildungen der Schajdel- und Antlitzformen Beruehmter oder sonst merkwuerdiger Personen, von Dr. C. G. Carus. Heft. I. Leipzig, 1843. The plates are accompanied with German and French text. 304 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS sured from the anterior edge of the foramen magnum, in a direct line to the sagittal suture, is 5jg inches. A certain angularity or squareness of the frontal and posterior bi-parietal regions, gives to this head the Teutonic form. The posterior or occipital region is flat and broad, and presents to the eye a somewhat pentagonal out- line. The temporal regions are full, the mastoid processes large, and the basis cranii nearly round. The outline of the coronal region resembles a triangle, truncated at the apex. This latter feature is also seen in one of the Finnic skulls (No. 1538). Sixteen skulls represent the Suevic or Germanic race in Morton's Collection. The form of No. 37 — the skull of a German woman — is round. No. 1063 — a German of Tubingen — exhibits the square form very decidedly. The occiput is flattened ; the face large and long. No. 1064 — also of Tubingen — has the Swedish or Northern, angular oval, a type distinct from the oval of Southern Europe, with which hasty observers are apt to confound it. It is a well-formed head, and in some respects resembles the Anglo-Saxon skull figured in Crania Britanniea. No. 1188 — also of Tubingen — resembles the preceding skull. No. 1189 (Tubingen) bears the Swedo-Finnic type. Nos. 1191— German of Frankfort — 1192 and 1193 — Prussians of Berlin — approximate the square form. Nos. 1187 (Frankfort), and 1065 (Prussian), present the Swedish type. No. 1066 (Prussian), is square, or angularly round. It will thus be seen, from the foregoing observations on the crania of the races of Northern, Central, and Western Europe, that we must distinguish for these regions several distinct cranial types — a Lap- ponic, a Finnic, a Norwegian, a Swedish, a Cimbric, a Germanic, an Anglo-Saxon, a Keltic, &c. ; that the modern Finn represents, in all probability, the ancient Tchudic or Scythic tribes ; that the Nor- wegian and Swedish are varieties of the same type ; that the Ger- manic form is intermediate between the Finn and Swede ; that the Anglo-Saxon skull is allied to the Swedish, its facial portion bearing, to some extent, the Finnic stamp ; that the Cimbric type is very ancient (more ancient, perhaps, than any of the forms just enume- rated, except the Lapponic), resembles the kumbe-kephalic, and represents a primitive humanitarian epoch ; that the Keltic type, if indeed any such exists, should be regarded as a variety of the Cimbric — ■ a low and early form ; and lastly, that the various types of skull to a certain extent approach, represent, and blend with each other in obedience to the great and, as yet, not properly understood law of gradation which seems to pervade and harmonize all natural forms, and in consequence, also, of the amalgamations which, within OF THE RACES OF MEN. 305 certain limits, must have accompanied the successive occupancy of this region by the races of men under consideration. In the following Table, the reader will find these races compared together in relation to their cranial capacities. TABLE III. European Crania. Finns. Swedes. Germans. Anglo- Saxons. Anglo-Ameri- cans. Kelts. ClMDRI. No. in No. in No. in No. in No. in No. in No. in Cata- i.e. Cata- I. a Cata- i.e. Cata- i.e. Cata- i.e. Cata- i.e. Cata- I. C. 1 logue. logue. logue. logue. logue. logue. logue. 1534 04.5 1486 00 706 94. 80 91 552 97 21 93 1255 80 1535 07.5 1545 107.5 1063 86. 539 92 890 01 42 97 1532 SO a 1536 112.5 1546 03.75 1188 85. 991 105 1108 05 52 82 1550 94 < 1537 84.25 1547 102. 11S0 78. 59 99 985 93 1538 105. 1548 94. 1191 95. 1186 77 1530 81.5 1540 108.25 1187 104. 1664 87.5 1540 88.5 434 114. 1541 00. 1065 92. 1066 80. Mean.. 05.34 100.75 92. 96.75 94.33 8S..25 84.66 1247 85. 1064 91. 7 83. IS 78. 1249 S3 3 1487 65. 1062 93. 24 82. M 1192 S2. 3 a 1 s» 1 1193 so. 04.31 00.3 89.6 86.78 84.25 In the above Table, the reader will observe the high cranial capacities of the Swedes, Finns, and Germans ; he will also per- ceive that the Anglo-Saxons. and Anglo-Americans possess the same large average ; while the mean for the Kelts and Cimbri is several inches less. It is a curious fact, that in the column marked "Kelts," J*Tos. 21, 42, 52, and 985 exhibit the Gothic type, as before men- tioned (page 301), and have in general the high internal capacity of the Northern races ; while Nbs. 18, 1186, and 1564, which are of the Cimbric type, possess a lower internal capacity. The Table is not extensive enough to base upon this interesting fact any posi- tive conclusion ; but as far as this fact goes, it appears to me to confirm the suggestion already advanced, that the Cimbric and Keltic types of skull are closely allied, if not, indeed, identical. As the observant traveller, coming from the west, approaches the banks of the Vistula, he becomes aware of some modifications of the cranial type just described, — modifications which call to his mind 20 306 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS dim recollections of the Turk, the Tartar, and the Finn. In this region — the debatable ground upon which, from very remote periods, the Sclavonian and the German have overlapped and blended, — he encounters here and there certain transitionary forms, which prepare him for a change of type. Once beyond the Vistula and the Carpa- thians, in the country of the "Wend, the Slovaek, and the Magyar, he is called upon to study a form of head, whose geographical area — Sarmatia of the classical writers — extends from the region just indi- cated into central Asia, having the Great TJwalli for its northern, and the Euxine Sea and tribes of the Caucasus for its southern boundary. The dawn of history reveals this extensive tract occupied, as at the present day, by the Sclavonians, a great family, whom an able writer in the North British Review, for August, 1849, considers to be as much an aboriginal race of Eastern, as the Germans are of Central Europe. According to Prichard, this great people, who appear to be an aboriginal European branch of the ancient Scythse, " have the com- mon type of the Indo-Atlantic nations in general, and of the Indo- European family to which it belongs." m M. Edwards thus minutely describes the Sclavonic type : "The oontour of the head, viewed in front, approaches nearly to a square; the height surpasses a little the breadth ; the summit is sensibly flattened ; and the direction of the jaw is horizontal. The length of the nose is less than the distance from its base to the chin ; it is almost straight from the depression at its root, that is to say, without decided curvation ; but, if appreciable, it is slightly concave, so that the end has a tendency to turn up ; the inferior part is rather large, and the extremity rounded. The eyes, rather deep set, are perfectly on the same line ; and when they have any particular character, they are smaller than the proportion of the head would seem to indicate. The eyebrows are thin, and very near the eyes, particularly at the internal angle ; and from this point are often directed obliquely outwards. The mouth, which is not salient, has thin lips, and is much nearer to the nose than to the top of the chin. Another singular characteristic may be added, and which is very general; viz., their small beard, except on the upper lip. Such is the common type among the Poles, Silesians, Moravians, Bohemians, Sclavonic Hunga- rians, and it is very common among the Russians." 206 According to Prof. Retzius, the Sclavonic cranium is of an oval form, truncated posteriorly. Its greatest length is to its greatest breadth as 1000 : 888. The external auditory meati are posterior to the plane passing through the middle of the longitudinal diameter. The face is exactly like that of the Swedes. The Sclavonic Race is but poorly represented in the cranial collec- tion of the Academy. Besides the cast of a Sclavonian head from Morlack, in Dalmatia, it contains only the head of a woman from Olmutz in Moravia. "I record this deficiency in my collection," wrote Dr. Morton, a short time before his death, " in the hope that 205 Researches into the Physical History of Mankind, iii., 442. 206 Des Caracteres Physiologiques des Races Humaines. Par W. F. Edwards, 1829. OF THE RACES OF MEN. 507 SCLAVONIAN (1251). some person, interested in pursuits of this nature, may be induced to provide me with materials for making the requisite comparisons. My impression is, that the Sclavonian brain will prove much less voluminous than that of the Teutonic race." The Olmutzian head above alluded to (Fig. 31) very well repre- sents the skull-type of Eastern Europe. It presents the fol- lowing characters : — General form of the head globular, though wanting in symmetry, in consequence of the posterior portion of the right parietal bone being more fully devel- oped than the corresponding portion of the left; the calva- ria quite large in proportion to the face, and broadest poste- riorly between the parietal pro- tuberances; the forehead is high, and moderately broad ; the vertex presents a somewhat flat- tened appearance, in consequence of sloping downwards and back- wards towards the occiput ; the occipital region is also flat, and the breadth between the mastoid processes very great. The face is small and delicate, the nasal bones prominent, the orbits of moderate size, the malar bones flat and delicately rounded, and the zygomatic pro- cesses small and slender. The lower jaw is rather small, rounded at the angles, and quite acuminated at the symphysis. If classified according to its form, this head would find its place near to, if not between, the Kalmuck and Turkish types. Interlopers in the lands of the Slovack for 1000 years, and speaking a dialect of the Finnish language, the Magyars, or Hungarians, pre- sent us with ethnic peculiarities which, for several reasons, are worthy our close attention. Like the Yakuts of the Lena, they are a dislo- cated people. The displacements of the two races, however, have been in opposite directions. The physical characters, language, and traditions of the Yakuts indicate a more southern origin ; the cranial type and language of the Magyar point to the North. Edwards thus briefly describes what may be called the Hungarian type, in contra- distinction to the Slovack : " Head nearly round, forehead little developed, low, and bending ; the eyes placed obliquely, so that the external angle is elevated ; the nose short and flat ; mouth prominent and lips thick : neck very strong ; so that the back of the head appears flat, forming almost a straight, line with the nape ; beard weak and scattering ; stature small." 20 ' *>' Op. cit. 308 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS It is to be regretted that the Mortonian Collection contains not a single Hungarian skull. "Well-drawn descriptions of the crania of this nation would, in all probability, settle at once and forever the long-disputed question of their origin. I may say, in passing, how- ever, that the above description of Edwards rather tends to the sup- position that the Hungarians are cognate with the Finns. Upon the southern border of the lands of the Magyar we encounter the Wallachs, the probable descendants of the ancient Getre or Da- cians, and the only living representatives of the ancient Thracian race, whose area extended from the shores of the Mediterranean, northward beyond the Danube, and eastward into Asia Minor. Here the human type again varies, to such an extent, indeed, that Prichaed speaks of the "Wallachs as a people peculiar and distinct from all the other inhabitants of the countries on the Lower Danube. "The common Wallach," he continues, "as we are informed by a late traveller, differs in a decided manner from the Magyar or Hungarian, as well as from the Slaves and Germans who inhabit the borders of Hungary. They are generally below the middle height, thin, and slightly built. Their features are often finely shaped, their noses arched, their eyes dark, their hair long, black, and wavy; their countenances are often expressive of cunning and timidity. They seldom display the dull heavy look of the Slovak, and still more rarely the proud carriage of the Magyar. " Mr. Paget was struck by the resemblance which the present Wallachs bear to the sculptured figures of ancient Dacians to be seen on Trajan's Pillar, which are remarkable for long and flowing beards." 208 In the Bulgarians of the southern banks of the Danube, and the Albanians of the Venetian Gulf, we discover still other types, differ- ing alike from each other, and from the "Wallachian. Like the Basques of the Pyrenees, the Bretons of France, and the Gaels of Britain, the Albanians or Skippetars differ in language and physical characters from the races by which they are surrounded, and appear to be the remnant of a people who, if not identical with the myste- rious and much-debated Pelasgi, were, in all probability, their eotem- poraries. They differ decidedly from their Greek neighbors, being generally nearly six feet high, and strong and muscular in propor- tion. " They have oval faces, large mustachios, a ruddy color in their cheeks, a brisk, animated eye, a well-proportioned mouth, and line teeth. Their neck is long and thin, their chest broad; their legs are slender, with very little calf." 209 Neither time nor space permits me, nor does the Mortonian Col- lection contain the cranial material necessary, to illustrate the 208 Researches, &c, iii. p. 504. See, also, Paget's Travels in Hungary and Transylvania, vol. ii. p. 189, et seq. London, 1839. See ante, Pulszky's Chap., fig. 70, "Daoian." 209 Poqueville cited by Prichard. OF THE RACES OF MEN. 309 numerous and diversified types of skull which are now, as in the most ancient times, found scattered through the Grecian, Italian, and Iberian peninsulas of Europe — in fact, all along the shores of the Mediterranean. Tribe after tribe, race after race, nation after nation, appear successively to have occupied the soil of Europe, playing out their allotted part in the great Life-drama, and then sinking quietly into the oblivion of the dim, mysterious, and eternal Past, whose only records are vague traditions, and strange linguistic forms — whose sole monuments are rude mounds, and mouldering humatile bones. Here and there, we are called upon to contem- plate fragmentary and isolated communities, whose origin is lost in the night of time, and who for long ages have clung to a moun- tain range, to a valley, or a water-course, differing from the more modern but still ancient people about them, and slowly awaiting that annihilation which they instinctively feel is sure to come at last. As the Universe maintains its life and pristine vigor by an unending destruction, which is simply an incessant transmutation of its parts ; and as the health of individual man is preserved by the ceaseless molecular death and metamoi'phosis of the tissues, so the Human Family — the huge body humanitarian — is kept alive and strong upon the globe by the decay and death, from time to time, of its ethnic members. If these passive, stagnating parts were allowed to accumulate, the death of the whole would be inevitable. Thus hoary Nature, establishing in death the hidden springs of other forms and modes of life, maintains herself ever young and vigorous, and through apparent evil incessantly engenders good. It would be unpardonable, in this attempted survey of the cranial characteristics of the races of men, though ever so hurriedly made, if we omitted to notice the Greeks and Romans — respectively, the intellectual and physical masters of the world. In the Greek skull, we behold the emblem of exalted reason ; in the Roman, that of unparalleled military prowess. Not alone in the matchless forms which the inspired chisel of a Phidias and a Praxiteles has left us, may we study the Grecian type. Among the Speziotes of the Archi- pelago, and in various localities through the Morea — the area of the ancient Hellenes — these marble figures still find their living repre- sentatives ; thus attesting, at once the truthfulness of the artist, and the pertinacity with which nature ever clings to her typical forms. Nor need we resort to the Ducal Gallery at Florence, to obtain a correct idea of the Roman type, as embodied in the busts of the early Emperors of the Seven-hilled City. Travellers inform us, that this type, unchanged by the vicissitudes of time and circumstance, 310 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS still lives and moves in the "Trasteverini," or mob population of the Tiber. Dr. Morton thus describes the Greek physiognomy: " The forehead is high, expanded, and but little arched, so that it forms, with the straight and pointed nose, a nearly rectilinear outline. This conformation sometimes _, imparts an appearance of disproportion to the upper part of the face, which, however, is in a great measure counteracted by the largeness of the eye. The Greek face is a fine oval, and small in comparison to the voluminous head. The statues of the Olympian Jupiter, and the Apollo Belvidere (Fig. 32), convey an exact idea of the perfect Grecian countenance." 210 "In the Greek," says Martin, "the counte- nance has a more animated expression ; the eyes are large ; and the forehead advancing, produces a marked but elegant super-orbital margin, on which the eyebrows are delicately pencilled ; the nose, falling straight from the forehead, sometimes inclines to an aquiline form, and is often of rather more than moderate length ; the upper lip is short, and the mouth delicately moulded ; the lower jaw is not so large as to disturb the oval contour of the face, and the chin is prominent ; the general ex- pression, with less of sternness than in the Roman, has equal daring, and betokens intellectual exalta- Apollo Belvideke. tion." 211 Blumenbach describes a Greek skull — with one exception, the most beautiful head in his collection — in the following terms: "The Kg. 33. form of the calvaria sub-globular ; the fore- head most nobly arched ; the superior max- illary bones, just beneath the nasal aperture, joined in a plane almost perpendicular ; the malar bones even, and sloping moderately downwards." 2l2 Fig. 33, borrowed from the first volume of Prichard's Researches, repre- sents the skull of a Greek, named Constan- tine Demetriades, a native of Corfu, and for a long time a teacher of the Modern Greek lano-uas-e at Oxford. 213 The Mortonian Col- lection is indebted to Prof. Retzius for the cast of the skull of a young Greek, which in its general form and character very much resembles the above figure from Prichard. I find the calvaria well developed ; the frontal region expansive and prominent ; the facial line departs Gkeee »» Cran. Amer., p. 12. a 2 Becas Sexta, p. 6. 211 Man and Monkeys, p. 223. 213 Op. cit., p. xvii. OF THE RACES OF MEN. 311 but slightly from the perpendicular, and the facial angle consequently approaches a right angle. A small and regularly-formed face, devoid of asperities, harmonizes well with the general intellectual character of the head proper. The malar bones are small, flat, and smooth, with just enough lateral prominence to give to the face an oval out- line ; the alveolar margins of the maxillse are regularly arched, and the teeth perpendicular. Crossing the Gulf of Venice, we next encounter the Roman form of head — " a striking type," to use the language of Dr. Wiseman, " essentially the same, from the wreathed image of Seipio's tomb, to Trajan or Vespasian, consisting in a large and fiat head; a low and wide forehead ; a face, in childhood, heavy and round — later, broad and square ; a short and thick neck, and a stout and broad figure. ISTor need we go far to find their descendants ; they are to be found every day in the streets, principally among the burgesses, or middle class, the most invariable portion of any population." 214 Blumenbach presents us with the figure of the skull of a Roman praetorian soldier, and accompanies it with the following description : " General form very fine and symmetrical ; calvaria sub-globose, terminating anteriorly in a forehead elegantly smoothed ; glabella and superciliary arches moderately prominent ; nasal bones of a medium form, neither depressed nor aquiline ; cheek-bones descending gently from the lower and outer margin of the orbits, not protuberant as in Negroes, nor broadly expanded as in Mongols; jaws with, the alveolar arches and rows of teeth well- rounded ; external occipital protuberance very broad and prominent." 215 Sandifort figures a Roman skull, and speaks of the broad, smooth, and perpendicular foi'ehead ; the even vertex, rising at the posterior part ; the lateral globosity, and general oblong form. 216 According to Morton, " the Roman head differs from the Greek in having the forehead low and more arched, and the nose strongly aquiline, together with a marked depression of the nasal bones between the eyes." 217 Martin speaks of the Roman skull as well-formed, "the forehead remarkable rather for breadth than elevation ; eyes mode- rately large ; a raised and usually aquiline nose ; full and firmly moulded lips; a large lower jaw, and a prominent chin, distinguish the Roman ; and an expression in which pride, sternness, and daring are blended, complete the picture of 'broad-fronted Caesar.' " 218 Dr. Edwards, after critically examining the busts of the early Emperors, thus describes the Roman type of head : " The vertical diameter is short, and the face, consequently, broad. The flattened sum- mit of the cranium, and the almost horizontal lower margin of the jaw, cause the contour 214 Lectures on the Connection between Science and Revealed Religion, p. 152. 215 Decades, 4to, p. 7. HG Tabulse Craniorum diversarum Nationum, P. I. a ' Crania Americana, p. 13. 218 Man and Monkeys, p. 223. 312 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS of the head, as viewed in front, to approximate decidedly to a square. The lateral parts above the ears are protuberant; the forehead low; the nose truly aquiline. — the curvature beginning near the top and ending before reaching the point, the base being horizontal ; the chin is round, and the stature short." 219 Prof. Eetzius describes, in the following terms, a " Schadel ernes romischen Kriegers," taken from an ancient cemetery at York: " This skull is very large, in length as well as in breadth, though of the dolicho-cephalic (Iranian) form. It is broader above towards the vertex, than below towards the base. The arch of its upper or coronal surface and the vertex are somewhat flat; the circum- ference, seen from above, is a long, wedge-like oval, terminating posteriorly in a short, obtuse angle. Forehead broad, well arched, but rather low ; superciliary ridges small ; malar processes of the frontal bone small, not prominent ; no frontal protuberances ; temples rounded and projecting ; parietal protuberances large, forming lateral angles in a posterior view, and standing far apart; the semi-circular temporal ridge elevated towards the vertex ; occiput broad, rounded, the protuberance rather prominent ; the sagittal suture slightly depressed, especially in the posterior part; receptaculum cerebelli large, &c." 220 Dr. Thurnam figures and minutely describes, in Crania Britannica, the skull of Theodorianus, found in a Roman sarcophagus at York (the ancient Eburaeum), erected probably during the third cen- tury of our sera. He informs us that this skull (Fig. 34) is a very fine example of the an- cient Roman cranium ; that it is unusually capacious, its di- mensions being much above the average in almost every direc- tion; that the forehead, though low, is remarkable for breadth ; that the coronal surface presents an oval outline, and is notable for its great transverse diameter; that the parietal region is full and rounded ; the temporal fossse large ; the mastoid processes unusually large, broad, and prominent ; the occipital bone full and prominent, especially in its upper half; the frontal sinuses and the glabella full and large ; the nasal bones very large and broad, with a finely aquiline profile; the lachrymal bones and canals large; the face square and broad ; the superior maxillae somewhat unduly promi- nent along the alveolar margin, and thus giving a slightly prognathic character to the face ; the bony palate wide and deep, &c. 22! 219 Op. cit. 220 Kraniologisches von A. Retzius, in Mailer's Archiv fur Anat., Phys., &c. Jahr., 1849. p. 576. 221 Op. cit., p. (3). See, also, a paper "On the Crania of the Ancient Romans," read by Mr. J. B. Davis, before the British Association. Sept., 1855. Ancient Roman. OF THE RAGES OF MEN. 313 One of the long-vexed, but still unsolved problems of the histo- rian and the ethnologist, is the origin and affiliations of the ancient Etruscans. Whether they were emigrants from a foreigu land, as, with very few exceptions, the traditions of the ancients imply, or whether, as most modern writers contend, they are really indigence, is still an open question. Possessing a civilization stretching back to, perhaps, about 1000 years b. c, a cultivated literature and great phy- sical science, an elaborate religious system, whose machinery rivalled in complexity the colossal Theisms of Hindostan and Egypt, and an artistic development of a high, and in some respects peculiar order, they excelled all the early nations of Europe,, except the Greeks, when in their palmiest days. Their language was cognate with older forms of the Hellenic and Latin tongues ; but, judging from the figures represented upon the coverings of sarcophagi, in painted tombs, and on ceramic productions, their physical characters distinguished them effectually from the surrounding nations. According to Prof. K. 0. Miiller, the proportions observed in these figures indicate a race of small stature, with great heads ; short, thick arms, and a clumsy and inactive conformation of body, the " obesos et pingues Etruseos." They appear to have possessed large, round faces ; a thick and rather short nose, large eyes, a well-marked and prominent chin. 232 Ed- wards, however, speaks of observing among, the peasantry of Tus- cany (ancient Etruria), in the statues and busts of the Medici family, and in the bas-reliefs and effigies of the great men of the Florentine Republic, a type of head characterized by its length and narrowness, by a considerable frontal development, by a long, sharp-pointed, and arched nose. The Galerie Anthropolo- Fi S- 35 - ffique, at Paris, contains a " Crane etrusque donne par le Prince Charles Bonaparte," from a photograph of which the accompanying figure was reduced. The reader will ob- serve the peculiar conforma- tion of this skull; the rude massiveness of structure, the elevation of the frontal region, the flatness of the crown, and the downward inclination of the parietal bones towards the full and rounded occiput. Crane etru.sque. The 222 O. Miiller, Abhandlung der Berlin, Aknd. 1818 und 1819, cited by Prichard, in " Re- searches," &c, iii. 256: — but, see, on these philological and archaeological questions, M. Maury's Chap. I., and M. Pulszky's Chap. II., in this volume, ante. 314 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS description of Miiller coincides very well with the appearance of this skull. Fi s- 36 - In Fig. 36 the reader has before him another peculiar type — and a unique speci- men — of skull, that of the Ancient Phcenicians, the sea- wanderers (a name their habits suggest and justify), the bold navigators and commercial traders of antiquity, who, as early as the sixth century, b. c, had dared the waters of Phoenician, the Atlantic, and, perhaps, doubled the Cape of Good Hope in their fearless explorations ; and whose language, after being lost for nearly two thousand years, has lately been deciphered, and its long-hidden secrets revealed to the world. 223 "I received this highly interesting relic," says Dr. Morton, "from M. F. Fresnel, the distinguished French archaeologist and traveller [since deceased, February, 1856, at Bagdad, in the midst of Ninevite explorations], with the following memorandum, a. d. 1847: — 'Crane provenant des caves sepulchrales de Ben-Djemma, dans Vile de Malte. Ce crane parait avoir appartenu a un individu de la race qui, dans les temps les plus anciens, occupait la cote septentrionale de VAfrique, et les lies adjaeentes.' " 224 This cranium is the one alluded to in the interesting anecdote narrated by the late Dr. Patterson, in his graceful Memoir, as illustrating the wonderful power of discrimination, the taotus visus, acquired by Dr. Morton in his long and critical study of cranio- graphy. 225 From this circumstance, and from the many singular and interesting associations inseparably connected with its antiquity, its introduction here cannot fail to be received with a lively sense of interest by those engaged in these studies. It is in many respects a peculiar skull. In a profile view, the eye quickly notices the remarkable length of the occipito-mental diameter. This feature gives to the whole head an elongated appearance, which is much heightened by the general narrowness of the calvaria, the backward slope of the occipital region, and the strong prognathous tendency of the maxillas. The contour of the coronal region is a long oval, which recalls to the mind the kumbe-kephalic form of Wilson. The moderately well-developed forehead is notable for its regularity. In its form and general characters the face is sui generis. It may 22 3 See Pulszky's Chap. I., p. 129-137, ante. 224 See Morton's Catalogue of Skulls of Man and the Inferior Animals. No. 1352. 225 See Types of Mankind, p. xl. Philada., 1849. OF THE RACES OF MEN. 315 not inaptly be compared to a double wedge, for tbe facial bones are not only inclined downwards and remarkably forward, thus tapering towards tbe chin, bnt also in consequence of tbe flatness of tbe malar bones and tbe inferior maxillary rami they appear laterally compressed, sloping gently, on both sides, from behind forwards, towards the median line. The lower jaw is large, and much thrown forwards. The slope of the superior maxilla forms an angle with tbe horizon of about 45°. Notwithstanding this inclination of the maxilla, the incisor teeth are so curved as to be nearly vertical. Hence the prognathism of the jaws is quite peculiar, differing, as it does, from that of the Eskimo cranium already alluded to, and from the true African skulls presently to be noticed. In the consideration of European types, we pass next to the sup- posed primeval home of the human family. In the mountainous but fertile region of tbe Caucasus, extending from the Euxine to the Caspian Seas, dwell numerous tribes, speaking mutually unintelli- gible languages, and differing in physical characters. From this region were the harems of the Turk and Persian supplied with those beautiful Georgian and Circassian females, who have, to no small extent, imparted their physical excellence to the former people. Some idea of the multiplicity of languages spoken in this small area may be obtained from a fact mentioned by Pliny, that at Dioscurias, a small sea-port town, the ancient commerce with the Greeks and Romans was carried on through the intervention of one hundred and thirty interpreters. This Caucasian group of races, comprising the Circassian or Kabar- dian race, the Absne or Abassians, tbe Oseti or Iron, the Mizjeji, the Lesgians, and the Georgians, is classed by Latham, singularly enough, with the Mongoliclse. In alluding to their physical conformation, he speaks of them as "modified Mongols," although he confesses his inability to answer the patent physiological objections to such an arrangement — objections based upon the symmetry of shape and delicacy of complexion on the part of the Georgians and Circassians. "The really scientific portion of these anatomical reasons" (for connecting the above group with the European nations), says he, "consists in a single fact, which was as follows: — Blumenbach had a solitary Georgian skull, and that solitary Georgian skull was the finest in his collection, that of a Greek being the next. Hence, it was taken as the type of the skull of the more organized divisions of our species. More than this, it gave its name to the type, and introduced the term Caucasian. Never has a single head done more harm to science than was done in the way of posthumous mischief, by the head of this well-shaped female from Georgia. I do not say that it was not a fair sample of all Georgian skulls. It might or might not be. I only lay before critics the amount of induction that they have gone upon." 226 226 The Varieties of Man, pp. 105, 111, 108. The attention of the reader is directed to the following paragraph, descriptive of the Georgian cranium referred to above. "The form of this head is of such distinguished elegance, that it attracts the attention of all who 316 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS Circassian (764). Fig- 37. Now Morton's Collection con- tains four well-marked Circas- sian heads, — two male and two female, — which, although they do not strictly coincide in struc- ture and configuration with the Georgian skull, nevertheless ap- proximate more decidedly the Japhetic or European form than the Mongolian, as will be seen by the annexed cut and descrip- tion of one of these crania, that of a man, setat. 40 years, and exhibiting an internal capacity of 90 cubic inches. The calvaria is well developed and regularly arched, and in size considerably exceeds the face. The proportions between the vertical, transverse, and lon- gitudinal diameters are such as to convey to the eye an impression of harmony and regularity of structure. The high and broad fore- head forms with the parietal region a continuous and symmetrical convexity. The occiput is full and prominent. The face is strongly marked ; the orbits moderate in size ; the nasal bones prominent ; the malar bones small and rounded ; the teeth vertical ; the maxillae of medium size, and the chin prominent. The fulness of the face, its oval contour, and general want of angularity, decidedly separate this head from the Mongolian type, as represented by the Kalmuck skull already figured and described. Did space permit, other differ- ences could readily be pointed out. These characters accord very well with the descriptions of these people, given us by different travellers. The Circassians who call themselves Attighe or Adige (Zychi of the Greeks and Latins, Tcher- kess of the Russians) have always been celebrated for their personal charms. Mr. Spencer says that, among the ISTottahaizi tribe, every individual he saw was decidedly handsome. 227 " The men," says visit the collection in which it is contained. The vertical and frontal regions form a large and smooth convexity, which is a little flattened at the temples ; the forehead is high and broad, and carried forwards perpendicularly over the face. The cheek-bones are small, descending from the outer side of the orbit, and gently turned back. The superciliary ridges run together at the root of the nose, and are smoothly continued into the bridge of that organ, which forms an elegant and finely-turned arch. The alveolar processes are softly rounded, and the chin is full and prominent. In the whole structure, there is nothing rough or harsh, nothing disagreeably projecting. Hence, it occupies a middle place between the two opposite extremes, of the Mongolian variety, in which the face is flattened, and expanded laterally ; and the Ethiopian, in which the forehead is contracted, and the jaws also are narrow and elongated anteriorly." — Lawrence, op. cit., p. 228. 221 Travels in Circassia, ii., 245. OF THE RACES OF MEN. 317 Pallas, " especially among the higher classes, are mostly of a tall stature, thin form, but Herculean structure. They are very slender about the loins, have small feet, and uncommon strength in their arms. They possess, in general, a truly Roman and martial appear- ance. The women are not uniformly Circassian beauties, but are, for the most part, well formed, have a white skin, dark-brown or black hair, and regular features I have met with a greater number of beauties among them than in any other unpolished nation." 228 Says Klaproth, — " They have brown hair and eyes, long faces, thin, straight noses, and elegant forms." ^ "Their profile approaches nearest the Grecian model," writes Morton, " and falls little short of the beau-ideal of classic sculpture." 230 The Abassians, probably autochthones of the north-west Caucasus, — " are distin- guished from all the neighbouring nations by their narrow faces, by the figure of their heads, which are compressed on both sides, by the shortness of the lower part of the face, by their prominent noses and dark-brown hair." 231 From all accounts, the Georgians, "a people of European features and form," are but little, if at all, inferior to the Circassians in physical endowments. According to Reineggs, the Georgian women are even more beautiful than the Circassians. 232 "Le sang de Georgie," says Chardin, "est le plus beau de l'Orient, et je puis dire, du monde. Je n'ai pas remarque un visage laid en ce pays-M, parmi l'un et 1' autre sexe, mais j'y en ai vu d'ange- liques." 233 The extreme south-eastern section of the European ethnic area, occupying mainly the table-land of Iran, is represented in the Mor- tonian Collection by six Armenian, two Persian, and one Aflghan skull. A general family resemblance pervades all these crania. They are all, with one exception, remarkable for the smallness of the face, and shortness of head. In the Armenian skull, the forehead is narrow but well formed, the convexity expanding upwards and back- wards towards the parietal protuberances, and laterally towards the temporal bones. The greatest transverse diameter is between the parietal bosses. This feature, combined with the flatness of the oc- ciput, gives to the coronal region an outline somewhat resembling a triangle with all three angles truncated, and the base of the triangle looking posteriorly. In fact, the whole form of the calvaria is such as to impress the mind of the observer with a sense of squareness 228 Travels in Southern Provinces of the Russian Empire, I. 398. 229 Travels in Caucasian Countries. 230 Crania Americana, p. 8. m Klaproth, Caucasus, p. 257. 232 Allgemeine historische-topographische Beschreibung des Knukasus. 233 Voyages en Perse, I., 171. 318 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS and angularity. The dimensions of the orbits are moderate ; the malar bones small, flat, and retreating; the zygomatic processes slender, and the general expression of the face resembling that of the Circassians, from which latter it differs in being shorter. The Per- sian head is less angular, the frontal region broader, the occiput fuller, and the malar bones larger. The lower jaw is small and rather round. The Affghan skull — that of a boy, aged about six- teen years — resembles, in several respects, the Hindoo type already described. The Syro-Arabian or Semitic race, comprising the Arabians, As- syrians, Chaldseans, Hebrews, and cognate tribes, also falls within the European area. " The physical conformation of the Arabs proper," says Morton, " is not very unlike that of their neighbors, the Circassians, although, especially in the women, it possesses much less of the beautiful. . . . The Arab face is a somewhat elongated oval, with a delicately-pointed chin, and a high forehead. Their eyes are large, dark, and full of vivacity ; their eye-brows are finely arched ; the nose is narrow and gently aquiline, the lips thin, and the mouth small and expressive." 234 In another place, he says : " The head (of the southern or peninsular Arabs) is, moreover, comparatively small, and the forehead rather narrow and sensibly receding ; to which may often be added a meagre and angular figure, 235 long, slender limbs, and large knees." 236 Mr. Frazer thus describes the physiognomy of the genuine Arabs. " The countenance was generally long and thin ; the forehead moderately high, with a rounded protuberance near its top ; the nose aquiline ; the mouth and chin receding, giving to the line of the profile a cir- cular rather than a straight character; the eye deep set under the brow, dark, and bright." 237 According to De Pages, the Arabs of the desert between Bassora and Damascus have a large, ardent, black eye, a long face, features high and regular, and, as the result of the whole, a physiognomy peculiarly stern and severe." 238 The famous Baron Larret asserts that the skulls of the Arabians display " a most perfect development of all the internal organs, as well as of those which belong to the senses Independently of the elevation of the vault of the cranium, and its almost spherical form, the surface of the jaws is of great extent, and lies in a straight or perpendicular line ; the orbits, likewise, are wider than they are 234 Cran. Americana, p. 18. 235 "Tontes leurs formes sont anguleuses," says Denon; "leur barbe courte et & meches pointues." Voyage en Egypte, I., p. 92. 236 Cran. JEgyptiaca, p. 47. 237 Narrative of a Journey in Khorasan. 238 Travels round the World. OF THE RACES OF MEN. 319 usually seen in the crania of Europeans, and they are somewhat less inclined backwards ; the alveolar arches are of moderate size, and they are well supplied with very white and regular teeth ; the canines, especially, project but little. The Arabs eat little, and seldom of animal food. We are also convinced that the bones of the cranium are thinner in the Arab than in other races, and more dense in proportion to their size, which is proved by their greater transpa- rency." 239 The reader will obtain some idea of the Arabian cranial type from the subjoined figure, representing several Bedawees of the Isthmus of Suez (Nos. 766-770, of the Mortonian Collection.) Fig. 38. Akabs (B^dawes of Isthmus). Figs. 39 and 40 represent the profile and facial views of an ancient Assyrian skull, obtained, by Dr. Layakd, from an ancient mound, Fig. 39. Fig. 40. Ancient Assteian. and now deposited in the British Museum. The representations here given are reductions from natural-size drawings sent to Dr. ISTott by Mr. J. B. Davis, of Shelton, Staffordshire, who, in an 2S 9 Comptes Rendus, t. 6, p. 774. THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS accompanying letter, vouches for their general accuracy and faith- fulness to nature. " This skull," says Dr. Nott, "isTery interesting, in several points of view. Its immense size confirms history by showing that none but a high ' Caucasian' race could have achieved so much greatness. The measurements taken from the drawing are — Longitudinal diameter, 7J inches. Transverse " 5f " Vertical " 5£ " " It is probable that the parietal diameter is larger than the measurement here given ; because, possessor of only front and profile views, I think these may not express fairly the posterior parts of the head. There are but two heads in Morton's whole Egyptian series of equal size, and these are 'Pelasgic;' nor more than two equally large throughout his American series. Daniel Webster's head measured — longitudinal diameter, 7-J inches; transverse, 5| ; vertical, 5 J : and comparison will show that the Assyrian head is but a fraction the smaller of the two. 240 " This Assyrian head, moreover, is remarkable for its close resemblance to several of Morton's Egyptian series, classed under the ' Pelasgic form.' It thus adds another powerful confirmation to the fact this volume ('Types of Mankind') establishes, viz., that the Egyptians, at all monumental times, were a mixed people, and in all historical ages were much amalgamated with Chaldaic races. Any one, familiar with crania, who will compare this Assyrian head with the beautiful Egyptian series lithographed in the Crania JEgypliaca, cannot fail to be struck with its resemblance to many of the latter, even more forcibly than anatomists will, through our small, if accurate, wood-cuts." Kg. 41. The familiar Hebraic type is very well shown in Fig. 41 (No. 842 of the Mortonian Collection), representing a mummied cranium, taken from an Egyptian sepulchre. " This head," writes Morton, "possesses great in- terest, on account of its decided He- brew features, of which many ex- amples are extant on the monu- ments" (of Egypt). The fragmentary colossal head from Kouyunjik (Fig. 42, on next page), affords an excel- lent idea of the higher and more ancient Chaldaeic type. I hasten to complete the consideration of Caucasian types by refer- ring briefly to the peculiarities presented by Egyptian crania. Dr. 210 But even the head of Webster is surpassed by the skull of a German baker, in the Museum of the University of Louisville, which Prof. T. G. Richardson, with the assistance of Prof. B. Silliman, Jr., found to possess the extraordinary internal capacity of 125.77 cubic inches, and to present the following external measurements : Occipitofrontal, or longitudinal diameter 8J- inches. Bi-parietal, or transverse diameter 6J Vertical diameter , 6i Circumference 23 J Over the vertex, between the centres of the auditory meatuses... 14f See Elements of Human Anatomy. By T. G. Richardson, M. D. Philada., 1854, p. 167. OF THE RACES OF MEN. 321 Morton's severely learned and ac- Fi s- 42. curate labors in this field are too well known to the scientific world to render necessary in this place any lengthened craniographic description of the exceedingly ancient and highly civilized occupants of the classic Nilo- tic a Tellus. Premising that the popu- lation of Egypt, even in very remote times, was exceedingly mixed, that the ancient sepulchres of the Nile contain Negroid as well as Caucasian crania, and that, among the latter, Morton distinguished three distinct forms or varieties — the Egyptian pro- per, the Pelasgic, and Semitic, — I proceed to give the reader some idea of the first two of these varieties, by means of the following concise exfracts and expressive illustrations, taken at random from Crania ^Egyptiaca. " The Egyptian form differs from the Pelasgic in having a narrow and more receding forehead, while, the face being more prominent, the facial angle is consequently less. The nose is straight or aqui- line, the face angular, the features often sharp, and the hair uniformly long, soft, and curling The subjoined wood-cut (Eig. 43) Fie. 43. Fi« fifii flitfli "-■:■, Fig. 45. Fig. 46. 21 322 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS illustrates a remarkable head, which may serve as a type of the genu- ine Egyptian conformation. The long oval cranium, the receding forehead, gently aquiline nose, and retracted chin, together with the marked distance between the nose and mouth, and the long, smooth hair, are all characteristic of the monumental Egyptian," and well shown in Eigs. 44, 45, 46 (retro). " To this we may add, that the most deficient part of the Egyptian skull is the coronal region, which is extremely low, while the posterior chamber is remarkably full and prominent." The Pelasgic form is represented in Eig. 47 — "A beautifully- formed head, with a forehead high, full, and nearly vertical, a good coronal region, and largely developed occiput. The nasal bones are long and straight, and the whole facial structure delicately proportioned. Age between 30 and 35 years. Internal capacity 88 cubic inches; facial angle 81°. Pelasgic form," — and in Eig. 48, — "Head Fig. 47. Fig. 48. Fig. 49. of a woman of thirty, of a fault- less Caucasian mould. The hair, which is in profusion, is of a dark brown tint, and delicately curled. Pelasgic form." Eig. 49, originally delineated in Napoleon's Description de VEgypte, admirably illustrates the Egyptian type or configuration. Of the Eellahs of Lower Egypt, the lineal descendants of the ancient rural Egyptians, an excellent idea may be obtained from, the engrav- ing on next page (Fig. 50), representing five skulls of this people. " The skull of the Fellah is strikingly like that of the ancient Egyp- tian. It is long, narrow, somewhat flattened on the sides, and very prominent in the occiput. The coronal region is low, the forehead moderately receding, the nasal bones long and nearly straight, the cheek-bones small, the maxillary region slightly prognathous, and the whole cranial structure thin and delicate. But, notwithstanding OF THE RACES OF MEN. Fig. 50. 323 these resemblances between the Fellah and Egyptian skulls, the latter possess what may be called an osteological expression peculiar to themselves, and not seen in the Fellah." According to Pruner, the skull of the Fellah is broader and thicker than that of the Arab. 241 Fig. 51 represents a Coptic cranium, which Morton describes as "elongated, narrow, but Y 51 otherwise mediately de- veloped in front, with great breadth and fulness in the whole posterior re- gion. The nasal bones, though prominent, are broad, short, and concave, and the upper jaw is everted. There is also a remarkable distance be- tween the eyes." 242 Turn we now to the consideration of the human skull-types cha- racterizing the so-called African Realm — a region cut off, as it were, from the rest of the world by the vast Saharan Desert, once the bed of an ancient ocean, but now constituting a natural line of demarca- tion between the organic worlds of Europe and Africa. A glance at a large chart or map of the African continent, as at present known to us, reveals the various races or nations of this part of the world, distributed in a somewhat triangular manner. The apex of this triangle, composed of the Hottentot family, coin- cides with the southern extremity of the continent ; the two sides are represented by the tribes of the western and eastern coasts ; while the base, skirting the sands of Sahara, and stretching from 241 Die Ueberbleibsel der altagyptischen Menschenra9e. Von Dr. Franz Pruner, Miinchen, 1846, p. 13. 242 Crania iEgyptiaca, p. 57. 324 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS the Atlantic Ocean to the Red Sea, north of the Mountains of the Moon, is composed of numerous and diversified tribes, who, under the influences of Arabian, Berber, and other foreign immigrations, have assumed, in general, a higher character than those of the South African family. This triangular area of African types incloses a terra incognita, towards which the ethnologist already looks for remarkable revelations. 243 It would require many pages to describe the cranial characters of the numerous indigenous and exotic tribes — some exceedingly ancient, and some quite modern — which the traveller beholds in journeying from Cape Verde to Abyssinia, thence to the Cape of Good Hope, and so to the point of departure on the western coast. A very brief representation, therefore, of some of the principal cranial types must here suffice. Bltjmenbach has already commented upon the number and diversity of African skull-forms. He figures six African heads in the Decades, all differing from each other in frontal development, prominence of the maxilla?, configuration of chin, &c. This diversity of form is still better shown by the African heads contained in the Mortonian Collection ; from which series I select, as the peculiar type of Africa, not the highest, but a specimen of the lowest form — that of the woolly-haired, prognathous man, the true Negro (Eig. 52, on next page). In doing so, I but follow the example of Lawrence, and the advice of Muller, Zeune, and others. That the head here figured 243 At a meeting of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, held October 16th, 1855, " Mr. Cassin announced, that M. Duchaillu was about to return to Western Africa, for the purpose, exclusively, of geographical exploration, and the collection of objects of Natural History. Arrangements have been made to secure, for the cabinet of this Society, the collections of Birds especially, and also of some other objects. Mr. Cassin explained the general design of the Expedition, -which was to pass from Cape Lopez, 1° S. latitude, towards the supposed source of the Congo River, with the intention of attempting to reach its source. Mr. Duchaillu has already penetrated farther into the interior of this part of Africa than any other white man. The coast is unknown farther inland than from twenty to twenty-five miles, except to slavers, there having been no exploration of that part of Africa. M. Duchaillu had been on the Rivers Moonda and Mouni, had traced the latter to its source, and had ascertained the existence of high mountains, probably a con- tinuation or spur of the Atlas range, and much further south than is to be found in any published maps. Another fact ascertained by him, is the existence of a very populous nation, of marked Negro character, known as the Powein Nation, which he estimates at from five to seven millions. Their country extends across from the sources of the Moonda, probably to the sources of the Nile, and the nation is probably that mentioned by Bruce, as occasionally descending the Nile. It is a warlike and cannibal nation, engaged in agri- culture, not wandering, resembling in this respect the Ashantees and Dahomeys. It dis- plays the highest degree of civilization yet observed among the true Negroes, presenting an analogy to the Feejees, among the Oceanic nations. M. Duchaillu possesses peculiar advantages as an explorer. He has lived long in the country, is entirely acclimated, speaks well two of the languages, and understands thoroughly the Negro character. He proposes to proceed merely with convoys of natives from each tribe successively to the next." OF THE KACES OF MEN. 325 (No. 983 of the Collection) is Fig. 52. neither an unusual nor exagge- rated form, is rendered evident by comparing it with the Creole Negro given in the first volume of Prichard's laborious Researches into the Physical History of Man- kind, with the drawings of Sandi- fort, 244 and Camper, 245 or with the skull represented on Plate VIII. Negko. of Lawrence' 's Lectures. Indeed, this latter drawing presents a more degraded form than the accom- panying figure. The general typical resemblance, however, is so great, that I transcribe, without hesitation and for self-evident rea- sons, the following description by Lawrence : " The front of the head, including the forehead and face, is compressed laterally, and considerably elongated towards the front; hence the length of the whole skull, from the teeth to the occiput, is considerable. It forms, in this respect, the strongest contrast to that globular shape which some of the Caucasian races present, and which is very remark- able in the Turk. — The capacity of the cranium is reduced, particularly in its front part. . . . The face, on the contrary, is enlarged. The frontal bone is shorter, and, as well as the parietal, less excavated and less capacious than in the European ; the temporal ridge mounts higher, and the space which it includes is much more considerable. The front of the skull seems compressed into a narrow keel-like form between the two powerful temporal muscles, which rise nearly to the highest part of the head ; and has a compressed figure, which is not equally marked in the entire head, on account of the thickness of the muscles. Instead of the ample swell of the forehead and vertex, which rises between and completely surmounts the comparatively weak temporal muscles of the European, we often see only a small space left between the two temporal ridges in the Ethiopian. — The fora- men magnum is larger, and lies farther back in the head ; the other openings for the passage of the nerves are larger. — The bony substance is denser and harder ; the sides of the skull thicker, and the whole weight consequently more considerable. — The bony apparatus employed in mastication, and in forming receptacles for the organs of sense, is larger, stronger, and more advantageously constructed for powerful effect, than in the races where more extensive use of experience and reason, and greater civilization, supply the place of animal strength. — If the bones of the face in the Negro were taken as a basis, and a cranium were added to them of the same relative magnitude which it possesses in the European, a receptacle for the brain would be required much larger than in the latter case. However, we find it considerably smaller. Thus the intellectual part is lessened, the ani- mal organs are enlarged: proportions are produced just opposite to those which are found in the Grecian ideal model. . . . The narrow, low, and slanting forehead, and the elonga- tion of the jaws into a kind of muzzle, give to this head an animal character, which cannot escape the most cursory examination. ... It is sufficiently obvious, that on a vertical «* Museum Acad. Lugd. Batav., t. 1, tab. 3. 245 Dissertat sur les Varietfe Naturelles, &c, tab. I., fig. 3. — Since writing the above, a number of human crania and casts, formerly belonging to Dr. Harlan's Collection, have been presented to the Academy, by Mr. Harlan. Among these, is the cast of a Mozambique skull, closely resembling the heads above alluded to. 326 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS antero-posterior section of the head, the area of the face will be more considerable in pro- portion to that of the cranium, in such a skull, than in the fine European forms. — The larger and stronger jaws require more powerful muscles. The temporal fossa is much larger ; the ridge which bounds it rises higher on the skull, and is more strongly marked, than in the European. The thickness of the muscular mass may be estimated from the bony arch, within which it descends to the lower jaw. The zygoma is larger, stronger, and more capacious in the Negro ; the cheek-bones project remarkably, and are very strong, broad, and thick: hence they afford space for the attachment of powerful mas- seters. — The orbits, and particularly their external apertures, are capacious. — Both entrances to the nose are more ample, the cavity itself considerably more capacious, the plates and windings of the ethmoid bone more complicated, the cribriform lamella more extensive, than in the European. The ossa nasi are flat and short, instead of forming the bridge-like convexity which we see in the European. They run together above into an acute angle, which makes them considerably resemble the single triangular nasal bone of the monkey. . . . The superior maxillary bone is remarkably prolonged in front ; its alveo- lar portion and the included incisor teeth are oblique, instead of being perpendicular, as in the European. The nasal spine at the entrance of the nose is either inconsiderable, or entirely deficient. The palatine arch is longer and more elliptical. The alveolar edge of the lower jaw stands forward, like that of the upper ; and this part in both is narrow, elongated, and elliptical. The chin, instead of projecting equally with the teeth, as it does in the European, recedes considerably like that of the monkey. — The characters of the Ethiopian variety, as observed in the genuine Negro tribes, may be thus summed up : 1. Narrow and depressed forehead ; the entire cranium contracted anteriorly : the cavity less, both in its circumference and transverse measurements. 2. Occipital foramen and condyles placed farther back. 3. Large space for the temporal muscles. 4. Great development of the face. 5. Prominence of the jaws altogether, and particularly of their alveolar margins and teeth ; consequent obliquity of the facial line. 6. Superior incisors slanting. 7. Chin receding. 8. Very large and strong zygomatic arch projecting towards the front. 9. Large nasal cavity. 10. Small and flattened ossa nasi, sometimes consoli- dated, and running into a point above. — In all the particulars just enumerated, the Negro structure approximates unequivocally to that of the Monkey. It not only differs from the Caucasian model, but is distinguished from it in two respects ; the intellectual characters are reduced, the animal features enlarged, and exaggerated. In such a skull as that repre- sented in the eighth plate, wkick, indeed, has been particularly selected, because it is strongly characterized, no person, however little conversant with natural history or physiology, could fail to recognize a decided approach to the animal form. This inferiority of organization is attended with corresponding inferiority of faculties ; which may be proved, not so much by the unfortunate beings who are degraded by slavery, as by every fact in the past history and present condition of Africa." 246 Thus much for the cranial physique of the genuine tropical Negro. The tribes oi "Western Africa present us with higher forms of the skull, and less degraded physical and intellectual traits. These tribes, divided by a recent writer and zealous missionary, the Rev. J. L. Wilson, into the Senegambians, and the Northern and Southern Guineans, 247 for the most part dwell in small isolated communities, each composed of a few villages, and having an aggregate population varying from two to thirty thousand. Even the kingdoms of Ashantee "« Op. cit., pp. 242, 3, 4-6. 2 J ? Ethnographic View of Western Africa. OF THE RACES OF MEN. 827 and Dahomey, the largest political organizations of Western Africa, are not superior in population and extent of territory to some of the smaller European kingdoms. According to Wilson, the inhabitants of this region have fixed habitations, cultivate the soil, have herds of domestic animals, and have made very considerable progress in most of the mechanic arts. That the various tribes differ remarkably from each other in physiognomical characters, will be seen from the following condensed notice of some of the principal families. The Mandingoes, a commercial people occupying the country in which the Niger takes its rise, extending through the kingdoms of Bambouk, Bambara, and Wuli, and, in smaller or larger groups, cover- ing all the country from Jalakonda to the sea-coast, are described by Wilson as "men of tall stature, slender, but well-proportioned, black complexion, and woolly hair, but with much more regular features than belong to the true Negro." According to Goldberry, they resemble more the blacks of India, than those of Africa. 248 " The appearance of the Mandingoes," says Major Laing, "is engaging; their features are regular and open ; their persons well-formed and comely, averaging a height rather above the common." The Fulahs inhabit Fuladu, north-west of Manding, the region between the sources of the Senegal and Niger, and the three large Senegambian provinces, Futa-Torro, Futa-Bondu, and Futa-Jallon, extending also towards the heart of Soudan. The origin and purity of this peculiar people have been much discussed. Linguistically and physically, they are distinct from the surrounding tribes over whom they rule. They deny their Negro origin, and consider them- selves a mixed race. However, " their physical type of character is too permanent, and of too long standing, to admit of the idea of an intermixture. In all mixed races, there is a strong and constant tendency to one or the other of the parent types, and it is difficult to point out a mixed breed that has held an intermediate character for any considerable time, especially when it has been entirely cut off from the sources whence it derived its being. But the Fulahs are now, in all their physical characteristics, just what they have been for many centuries. And it would seem, therefore, that their com- plexion, and other physical traits, entitle them to as distinct and independent a national character as either the Arab or Negro, from the union of which it is supposed that they have received their origin." 219 Goldberry informs us that the color of their skin is a kind of reddish black; their countenances are regular, and their hair is longer, and not so woolly, as that of the common Negroes ; 243 Travels in Africa, Vol. I. p. 74. •» Wilson, op. cit, p. 7. 328 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS their language is altogether different from that of the nations hy whom they are surrounded — it is more elegant and sonorous." 250 Mollien, relying upon traditions extant about the Senegal, thinks that the Fulahs migrated along with the Jalofs from North Africa, whence they were expelled by the Moors." 251 D'Eichthal assigns them a Malayan origin; 252 but the inquiries of Hodgson negative this opinion. 253 The Jalofs, a compact and limited people, occupying all the maritime districts of Senegambia, as well as a large part of the interior, number one million souls, who are distributed into four sections, — those of Cayor, Sin, Salem, and Brenk. They are the most northern, as well as the most comely, of all the west-coast Negroes, and, according to Goldberry, are robust and well-made ; their features are regular ; their color a deep and transparent black ; hair crisped and woolly ; nose rather round ; lips thick. 254 The Vai family, comprising the Timanis, Bulloms, Deys, Condoes, Golahs, and Mendas, is one of the principal families of North Guinea. They " are very black, of slender frames, but with large and well-formed heads, and of a decidedly intellectual cast of countenance." The Manou, or Kroo family, comprises the Bassas, Fish, Kroo proper, Sestos, Grebo, Drewin, and St. Andrew's people, tribes occupying the Liberian coast, between the Bassa and St. Andrew's rivers. " The person of the Kruman is large, square-built, and remarkably erect. He has an open and manly countenance, and his gait is impressively dignified and independent. His head, however, is small and peaked, and is not indicative of high intellectual capa- city." The Quaquas, with dark complexions, and very large, round heads; the Asbantees, of the Inta or Amina family, presenting more decided Negro characteristics than the other tribes of this region ; the Dahomey family ; and finally, the Benin tribes, a very black race of savages, inhabiting the country between Lagos and the Kamerun Mountains, complete our rapid glance at the people of Northern Guinea. The above-mentioned families are represented in the Mortonian Collection, by skulls of the Mina, Dey, Grebo, Bassa, Golah, Pessah, Kroo, and Eboe tribes. The Golah skull (No. 1093), is remarkable for its massiveness and density. The calvaria is well-formed, expanding from the frontal *o Op. cit, Vol. I. p. 72. ffil Voyages en Afrique, t. I. et II. 262 Histoire et Origine des Foulahs on Fellans. Par Gustave d'Eichthal — in Memoires de la SoeiSte' Ethnologique, t. I. 253 Notes on Northern Africa, the Sahara and Soudan. By Wm, B. Hodgson. New York, 1844. »* Op. cit., pp. 74-75. OF THE RACES OF MEN. 329 region back towards the occiput, which is flat and shelving. The two halves of the os frontis form a double inclined plane, whose summit coincides with the sagittal suture. The basis cranii is full and round, and the mastoid processes large ; nasal bones flat, and falling in below the glabella; orbits large, and widely separated; malar bones laterally prominent. This latter feature, in conjunction with the double inclination of the os frontis, gives to the head a pyramidal form. The superior maxilla is distinctly everted at the alveolar margin. Another head of the same tribe is longer and narrower, and, in consequence of the flatness of the malar bones, has less of the pyramidal form. — The calvaria of a Pessah skull (No. 1095) is oblong in figure ; the forehead flat, and receding ; super- ciliary ridges ponderous; malar bones large and flat; upper jaw everted ; lower jaw retracted, occiput protuberant. In a Kroo head (jSTo. 1098), I find the forehead broad and high ; the calvaria regu- larly arched, and having its greatest diameter between the anterior and inferior parts of the parietalia ; the occipital region flat and shelving downwards and forwards to a small foramen magnum; mastoid processes large ; face very broad ; malar bones shelving slightly like those of the Eskimo ; inter-orbital space very large ; upper jaw slightly everted ; teeth rather small, and vertical ; zygo- matic fossse deep. In another Kroo skull, the vertex is flat, the forehead recedent, and the jaws more prognathous. The calvaria of a Dey skull is narrow in front and broad posteriorly, with a flat vertex ; face small, regular, and compact, and, were it not for the projection of the superior alveolus, might be considered as almost European. The skull of an Eboe (E"o. 1102), presents characters similar to those just detailed. It does not coincide with the physical descriptions of these people recorded by Oldfield in the London Medical and Surgical Journal (October, 1835), and by Edwards in his History of the West Indies, but is chiefly remarkable for the great obliquity of the orbital opening, and the unusual smallness of the mastoid processes. Between JSTorth and South Guinea, the Kamerun Mountains appear to form a natural ethnographic line of division, rising as they do some fourteen thousand feet above the sea-level, and pre- senting upon their northern aspect the Old Kabardian language, and upon their southern, the Duali — two dialects which, according to Mr. "Wilson, are as different from each other, with the exception of a few words that they have borrowed by frequent inter-communi- cation, as any two dialects that might be selected from the remotest parts of the country. All along the coast, from the Kamerun to the Cape of Good Hope, an extraordinary diversity of physical type pre- 330 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS vails among the inhabitants. Thus, in the Gabun alone, Wilsok distinguishes at least five very marked types. "1. There is the Jewish type, where the profile is strikingly Jewish, the complexion either a pale or reddish brown, the head well-formed, figure slender, but well-formed, and the hair nearly as woolly as that of the pure Neoro. 2. There is another, tbat may be regarded as the Fulah type, where the stature is of middle size, complexion a dark brown, the face oval, and features regular, the hair in some cases crisp or woolly, and in others soft and even silky. 3. The Kaffir type, where the frame is large and strong, the complexion a reddish-brown, the lips thick, but not turned out, the nose somewhat dilated, but not flat like the Negro, the hands and feet well-formed, but the hair is crisp or woolly. 4. A type corresponding to the description given of the Kamerun and Corisco men, and in some cases showing a decided approximation to the features of the Somaulis, represented in Prichard's work on the physical history of Man. 5. What may be regarded as an approximation to the true Negro type, the most striking instance of which we have ever seen, is that of a man by the name of Toko, whose likeness is to be found in the Day-Star, for 1847. But even this shows a much better formed head, and a more intelligent countenance, than belongs to the pure Negro." 255 In a Benguella skull in the Collection (No. 421), the forehead is broad and capacious, the calvarial arch full and regular, the posterior region appeal's elongated in consequence of the angle formed by the junction of a large Wormian piece and the occiput proper; face regu- lar, superior maxillse prognathous. A Mozambique skull (No. 423), resembles in form that of the Benguella and Kroos. In another Mozambique head (No. 1245), however, the forehead is narrower and higher. A cast of a Mozambique skull, recently added to the Collection, presents an exceedingly low and degraded form. Three Hottentot heads are long, compressed anteriorly ; foreheads low ; the whole face small and prognathous, the slope, from the glabella to the upper alveolus, being continuous ; the occipital region protube- rant. Only one. of these heads approximates the pyramidal form. Two Kaffir skulls are characterized by high, peaked foreheads ; the sagittal suture marked by a prominent ridge, and the calvaria pyra- midal in form. Two Hova skulls have the base long and narrow, the vertex flat, the orbits narrow and high, and the superior maxillaj prominent. The reader will obtain some idea of the different cranial forms of Africa, by glancing at the annexed cuts (Figs. 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58), 255 Op. oit, p. 19. OF THE RACES OF MEN. 331 taken from the works of Morton, Prichard, and Martin, and representing a few of both the higher and lower conformations of the skull. Fig. 53. Fig. 54. Kaffir. Ashantee. Fig. 55. Fig. 56. Bushman. Fig. 57. Creole Negro. Mummied Negress. Passing from Africa to America by the way of the Canary Isles, we encounter a peculiar type or form of skull — that of the ancient Guanches, who inhabited these Isles before they fell into the posses- sion of the Spaniards. The annexed cut (Fig. 59, on next page,) shows that this type is neither African nor American, but appertains THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS GUANCHE. rather to the "Caucasian" family, as sug- gested by Cuvier, in his observations upon the Venus Eottentotte. 256 This opinion is con- firmed by a Guanche skull in the Mortonian Collection. Through Crania Americana, it has long been known to the scientific world that a remarkable sameness of osteological cha- racter pervades all the American tribes from Hudson's Bay to Terra del Fuego. It is equally well known, that the researches of Humboldt and Gallatin have demonstrated a conformity not less remarkable in the language and artistic tendencies of these numerous and widely-scattered abo- rigines. Dr. Morton divides the American race into two great families — the Toltecan, possessing a very ancient demi-civilization, and the Barbarous tribes. The latter, he sub-divides into the Appa- lachian, Brazilian, Patagonian, and Fuegian branches. The Appa- lachians are characterized by a rounded head ; large, salient, and aquiline nose ; dark-brown and very slightly oblique eyes ; large and straight mouth, with nearly vertical teeth; the whole face triangular. The physical traits of the . Brazilian group differ but little from those of the Appalachian. A larger and more expanded nose, and larger mouths and lips, seem to constitute the only dif- ference. Tall statures, fine forms, and indomitable courage distin- guish the Patagonian group. The Fuegians bave large heads, broad faces, small eyes, clumsy bodies, large chests, and ill-shaped legs. As the cranial type or standard representative of these American JBarbaroi, I have selected the head of a Cotonay, or Black-foot chief, named the "Bloody Hand" (Fig. 60). It is from the upper Missouri, and was presented by J. J. Audubon, Esq. (jSTo. 1227 of the Collection). The following extract from the Crania Americana will serve to give the rea- der a general idea of the cranial pecu- liarities of the American type, while a comparison with the subjoined fig- ures will show how extensively this type has been distributed over our continent. " After examining a great number of skulls, I find that the nations east of the Alleghany Mountains, together with the cognate tribes, Fig. 60. COTONAY. 266 Memoires du Museum d'Histoire naturelle, t. iii. OF THE RACES OF MEN. 333 have the head more elongated than any other Americans. This remark applies especially to the great Lenape stock, the Iroquois, and the Cherokees. To the west of the Mississippi, we again meet with the elongated head in the Mandans, Ricaras, Assinaboins, and some other tribes. Yet even in these instances, the characteristic truncation of the occiput is more or less obvious, while many nations east of the Eocky Mountains have the rounded head so characteristic of the race, as the Osages, Ottoes, Missouris, Dacotas, and numerous others. The same conformation is common in Florida ; but some of these nations are evidently of the Toltecan family, as both their characters and traditions testify. The head of the Charibs, as well of the Antilles as of Terra Firma, are also naturally rounded ; and we trace this character, so far as we have had opportunity for exami- nation, through the nations east of the Andes, the Patagonians and the tribes of Chili. In fact, the flatness of the occipital portion of the cranium will probably be found to characterize a greater or less number of individuals in every existing tribe, from Terra del Fuego to the Canadas. 257 If these skulls be viewed from behind, we observe the occipital outline to be moderately curved outwards, wide at the 257 It is pleasing to observe the unabated energy and zeal which the Professor of History and English Literature in University College, Toronto (already, as we have seen, celebrated for his archaeological and ethnological researches in Scotland), still bestows upon his favorite study, in his new Canadian home. In a recent No. of the Canadian Journal of Industry, Science, and Art (November, 1856), of which he is the editorial head, the reader will find, from his pen, an interesting account of the Discovery of Indian Remains in Canada West. From this article I select the following paragraph, from its bearing upon the sub- ject-matter presented in the text above: "No indications," says Prof. W., "have yet been noticed of a race in Canada corresponding to the Braehy-cephalic or square-headed mound- builders of the Mississippi, although such an approximation to that type undoubtedly prevails throughout this continent as, to a considerable extent, to bear out the conclusions of Dr. Morton, that a conformity of organization is obvious in the osteological structure of the whole American population, extending from the southern Fuegians, to the Indians shirting the Arctic Esquimaux. But such an approximation — and it is unquestionably no more — still leaves open many important questions relative to the area and race of the ancient mound-builders. On our northern shores of the great chain of lakes, crania of the more recent braehy-cephalic type have unquestionably been repeatedly found in compara- tively modern native graves. Such, however, are the exception, and not the rule. The prevailing type, so far as my present experience extends, presents a very marked predomi- nance of the longitudinal over the parietal and vertical diameter; while, even in the exceptional cases, the braehy-cephalic characteristics fall far short of those so markedly distinguishing the ancient crania, the distinctive features of which some observers have affirmed them to exhibit. In point of archaeological evidence of ancient occupation, more- over, our northern sepulchral disclosures have hitherto revealed little that is calculated to add to our definite knowledge of the past, although the traces of ancient metallurgic arts suggest the probability of such evidence being found. The discovery of distinct proofs of the ancient extension of the race of the mound-builders into these northern and eastern regions, would furnish an addition of no slight importance to our materials for the primeval history of the Great Lake districts embracing Canada West." 334 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS occipital protuberances, and full from those points to the opening of the ear. From the parietal protuberances there is a slightly curved slope to the vertex, producing a conical, or rather a wedge- shaped outline. Humboldt has remarked, that ' there is no race on the globe in which the frontal bone is so much pressed backwards, and in which the forehead is so small.' ^ It must be observed, how- ever, that the lowness of the forehead is in some measure compen- sated by its breadth, which is generally considerable. The flat forehead was esteemed beautiful among a vast number of tribes ; and this fancy has been the principal incentive to the moulding of the head by art. Although the orbital cavities are large, the eyes themselves are smaller than in Europeans ; and Fresier asserts that the Puelche women he saw in Chili were absolutely hideous from the smallness of their eyes. The latter are also deeply set or sunk in the head ; an appearance which is much increased by the low and prominent frontal ridges "What has been said of the bony orbits obtains with surprising uniformity ; thus the superior margin is but slightly curved, while the inferior may be compared to an inverted arch. The lateral margins form curves rather mediate between the other two. This fact is the more interesting on account of the contrast it presents to the oblong orbit and parallel margins observable in the Malay. The latter conformation, however, is sometimes seen in the American, but chiefly in those skulls which have been altered by pressure to the frontal bone. — The nose con- stitutes one of the strongest and most uniform features of the Indian countenance ; it mostly presents the decidedly arched form, without being strictly aquiline, and still more rarely flat. -»- The nasal cavities correspond to the size of the nose itself; and the remarkable acuteness of smell possessed by the American Indian has been attributed to the great expansion of the olfactory membrane. But the perfection of this sense, like that of hearing among the same people, is perhaps chiefly to be attributed to its constant and as- siduous cultivation. The cheek-bones are large and prominent, and incline rapidly towards the lower jaw, giving the face an angular conforma- tion. The upper jaw is often elongated, and Head of the famous Sao much inclined outwards, but the teeth are for chief, "Black Hawk." , . __. n . , , the most part vertical. The lower jaw is broad and ponderous, and truncated in front. The teeth are also very large, and seldom decayed ; for among the many that remain in the skulls in my possession, very few present any marks of disease, 2M Monuments, t. I., p. 158. OF THE RACES OF MEN". 335 although they are often much worn down by attrition in the masti- cation of hard substances." The Peruvian skull " is remarkable for its small size, and also, as just observed, for its quadrangular form. The occiput is greatly compressed, sometimes absolutely vertical ; the sides are swelled out, and the forehead is somewhat elevated, but very retreating. The capacity of the cavity of the cranium, derived from the measure- ment of many specimens of the pure Inca race, shows a singularly small cerebral mass for an intelligent and civilized people. These heads are remarkable not only for their smallness, but also for their irregularity ; for in the whole series in my possession, there is but one that can be called symmetrical. This irregularity chiefly con- sists in the greater projection of the occiput to one side than the other, showing in some instances a surprising degree of deformity. As this condition is as often observed on one side as the other, it is not to be attributed to the intentional application of mechanical force ; on the contrary, it is to a certain degree common to the whole American race, and is sometimes no doubt increased by the manner in which the child is placed in the cradle." From the preceding paragraph, it will be seen that Dr. Morton considered the asymmetry of the Peruvian head to be congenital. In a subsequent essay he concluded that this deformity was the result of pressure artificially applied. 259 According to Rivero and Tschudi, this deformity can be demonstrated upon the mummied foetus. It must, therefore, be regarded as the natural form of a primeval race. This opinion is confirmed by the following extract from a letter of Dr. Lund, of Copenhagen, addressed to the His- torical and Geographical Society of Brazil, concerning some organic remains discovered in the calcareous rocks in the Province of Minas Geraes, Brazil. "We know," says he, "that the human figures found sculptured in the ancient monu- ments of Mexico represent, for the greater part, a singular conformation of head, — being entirely without forehead — the cranium retreating backwards immediately above the super- ciliary arch. This anomaly, which is generally attributed to an artificial disfiguration of the head, or the taste of the artist, now admits a more natural explanation ; it being now proved, by these authentic documents, that there really existed on this continent a race exhibiting this anomalous conformation." 260 Many curious facts might be mentioned in this connection, show- ing that not a few of the artificial deformations of the head witnessed in certain races of men, are in reality imitations of once natural types. "We know," says Amedee Thieert, "that the Huns used artificial means for giving Mongolian physiognomy to their children; they flattened the nose with firmly-strained 259 Ethnography and Archaeology of the American Aborigines. Silliman's Journal, November, 1846. 260 This letter was translated by Lieut. Strain, U. S. N, and a synopsis of it published in the Proceedings of the Philada. Acad. Nat. Sciences, February, 1844. oob THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS linen ribbons, and pressed the head to make the cheek-bones projecting. What could be the reasonable cause of this barbarous custom, if not the effort to approach a form, -which, among the Huns, was held in greater regard — in a word, the aristocratic race? The pur- pose quoted by the Roman authors, to get the helmet better fixed on the head, is scarcely credible. It seems more probable, that when the Mongols were masters of the Huns, the Mongolian physiognomy was the prize attached to aristocratic distinctions; they conse- quently tried to approach this form, and considered it an honor thus to deform themselves, in order to resemble the reigning nation. This is most likely the cause of those unnatural deformations which historical writers so particularly describe." 261 This opinion is also entertained by Profs. Hetzitjs 262 and Esch- richt. 263 Zeune thus expresses his views upon this interesting subject: "Though some naturalists presume that the flatness of the Huanca skull and the height of the Natchez skull are produced by artificial pressure when young, yet Camper contends against this idea, on page 37 of his 'Natural Difference in Faces,' translated by Sommerino, as does also Catlin in his 'North American Indians,' and I am of the opinion that if there did not already exist a disposition to these forms in nature, the different nations could never have conceived the idea of carrying it to extremes." The following extract from a letter addressed to Dr. J. H. B. McClel- lan, by Mr. George Gibbs, Indian Agent, dated Fort Vancouver, Ore- gon, December 17, 1855, will be read with interest in this connection : " Let me point out to you one thing to be noted as regards skulls from this part of the country, which was brought to my notice by an article in Schoolcraft's book. I forget by whom. Among ten figures given, are Chinook skulls unflattened. Skulls from the region where that practice prevails, which are in the natural state, are those of slaves, and though possibly born among the Chinooks, or other adjacent tribes, are of alien races. The cha- racteristics must not be assumed therefore from these. The practice prevails, generally, from the mouth of the Columbia to the Dalles, about 180 miles, and from the Straits of Fuca on the north to Coos Bay, between the 42d and 43d parallel south. Northward of the Straits it diminishes gradually to a mere slight compression, finally confined to women, and abandoned entirely north of Milbank Sound. So east of the Cascade Mountains, it dies out in like manner. Slaves are usually brought from the south — I should rather say were, for the foreign slave trade has ceased, though not the domestic (I am not talking of home poli- tics) — and the Klamath and Shaste tribes of California probably furnished many for this country, while captives from here were taken still north, and from Puget's Sound as far as the Russian possessions. The children of slaves were not allowed to flatten the skull, and therefore these round heads indicate, not the liberty-loving Puritan of the west, but the serf. I mention this, because in minute comparisons it is proper to take all precautions to insure genuineness. Skulls taken from large cemeteries, or from sepulchres of whatever form erected with care, may be deemed authentic, saving always the chance of intermar- riage with distinct tribes, which is usual, because the bodies of slaves are left neglected in the woods ; the Chinooks, for instance, preferring to buy wives from the Chihalis or Cowlitz, tribes of Sehlish origin. If I get time to finish my general report this winter, you will find 261 Quoted by Prof. Retzius from Burckhardt's German translation of Thierry's work, "Attila Schilderungen aus der Geschichte des fiinften Jahrhunderts, Leipzig, 1852." See a paper "On artificially formed Skulls from the Ancient World," by Prof. Retzius, in Pro- ceedings of Philada. Acad. Nat. Sciences, for September, 1855. 262 Phrenologien bedomd fran en Anatomisk standpunkt. Af Prof. A Retzius. 263 Angaaende Betydningen af Hjerneskallens og hele Hovedets Formforskjellighed. (Skand. Naturf. S'allsk. Fordhandl.) OF THE RACES OF MEN. 33/ further details, supposing always you are not tired of these. I have never been able to get an authenticated skull of a -white half-breed. These also are never flattened, the pride of intercourse in the mother preserving to the child the attributes of the superior race." 2Si Figs. 62, 63, 64, and 65, following, represent, respectively, the head of a Creek chief, in the possession of Dr. ISTott, of Mobile ; the skull of a Sioux or Dacota warrior (No. 605) ; the skull of a Seminole Fig. 62. Fig. 63. Seminole Waekiok. Fig. 66. Dacota Warrior. Fig. 65. Ancient Mound-builder. Fig. 67. Peruvians. S6 * See Proceedings of Philada. Acad. Nat. Sciences, March, 1856. 22 338 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS warrior, slain at the battle of St. Josephs, in June, 1836 (No. 604) ; and the cranium of an ancient mound-builder (ISTo. 1512), " found by Dr. Davis and Mr. Squier, in a mound in the Scioto Valley, Ohio, and described and figured by them in their Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley, PI. XL VII. and XL VIII. The general form of the Peruvian skull is shown in Figs. 66 and 67 (retro). The cranial types of Oceanica still remain to be discussed. With my limits already overswelled, I can but allude in the briefest man- ner to a few of the more important and striking skull-forms of this vast region, which has been anthropologically divided by Jacqui- jf OT 26o j n ^ three great sections, viz. : 1. Australia, comprehending New Holland and Tasmania, or Van Diemen's Land ; 2. Polynesia, embracing Micronesia and Melanesia, or, in other words, the islands of the Pacific Ocean, from the west coast of America to the Philip- pines and the Moluccas ; and 3. Malaysia, comprising the Sunda, Philippine, and Molucca islands — the East Indies, or Indian Archi- pelago of the geographer. According to Prichard, the numerous types of this immense region differ decidedly from each other, and also from those of the old and new world. Jacquinot, however, affirms that the Polyne- sians do not differ sensibly from the American tribes. 2116 Blanchard also speaks of" une grand analogie entre les peuples de la Polynesie et ceux de l'Amerique." 267 The correctness of this opinion Dr. Nott positively denies, resting his negation upon a comparison of the skulls of the two races. 268 Blumenbach, Desmoulins, and Pickering assure us that the Polynesians belong to the Malay stock. Such an affilia- tion Crawfurd clearly disproves. Jacquinot thus characterizes the Polynesian race : " Skin tawny, of a yellow color washed with bistre, more or less deep ; very light in some, almost brown in others. Hair black, bushy, smooth, and sometimes frizzled. Eyes black, more split than open, not at all oblique. Nose long, straight, sometimes aquiline or straight; nos- trils large and open, which makes it sometimes look flat, especially in women and children ; in them, also, the lips, which in general are long and curved, are slightly prominent. Teeth fine, incisors 283 Voyage au Pole Sud, Zoologie, t. 2. Observations sur les Races Huinaines de PAinenque Meridionale et de l'Oc^anie. a* Op. cit. w Voyage au Pole Sud, Anthropologic ; Texte, p. 68. In the same paragraph, however, he says, "Nous pensons qu'il existe entre eux des caracteres distinctifs, des caracteres appr^ciables dans la forme du crane." 268 Types of Mankind, p. 438. OF THE RACES OF MEN. 339 Fig. 68. large. Cheek-bones large, not salient ; enlarging tlie face, which, nevertheless, is longer than wide." This description is confirmed by most of the travellers who have visited the region tinder consideration. " All voyagers, however," says Morton, " have noticed the great disparity that exists between the plebeians and the aristocratic class, as respects stature, features, and complexion. The privileged order is much fairer and much taller than the other ; their heads are better developed, and their profile shows more regular features, including the arched and aquiline nose." 269 A slight examination of the skulls in the Mortonian Collection representing this race, is sufficient to show, that while a general resemblance of cranial forms prevails throughout this region, yet considerable variations in type can be readily pointed out. A glance at the beautiful plates of Dumoutier's " Atlas" serves to confirm this conclusion. The head of a Kanaka, of the Sandwich Islands, — a race of people " the most docile and imitative, and perhaps also the most easy of in- struction, of all the Polynesians" — appears to me to afford a good idea of the general cranial type of Poly- nesia. The head (Fig. 68) is elon- gated; the forehead recedent; the face long and oval; the breadth between the orbits considerable; the alveolar margin of the supe- rior maxillary slightly prominent; the lower jaw large and regularly rounded. The breadth and shortness of the base and the peculiar flatness of the sub-occipital region give to the whole head an elon- gated or drawn-out appearance. This peculiarity of the basi-occipital portion of the head is still better shown in Figs. 69 and 70, on next page, which represent the cranium of a Sandwich Islander, who died in the Marine Hospital at Mobile, while under the care of Drs. Levert and Mastin. " This skull," says Dr. Nott, "was presented to Agassiz and myself for examination, without being apprised of its history. Notwithstand- ing there was something in its form which appeared unnatural, yet it resembled, more than any other race, the Polynesian; and as such we did not hesitate to class it. It turned out afterwards that we were right ; and that our embarrassment had been produced by an Sandwich Islander. 208 Crania Americana, p. 59. 340 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS Fig. 69. Fig. 70. Sandwich Islander. Vertical View of Same. artificial flattening of the occiput; which process the Islander, while at the hospital, had told Drs. Levert and Mastin, was habitual in his family. The profile view betrays less protube- rance of brain behind, and the vertical view more compression of occiput, than belongs generally to his race ; but still there remains enough of cranial characteristics to mark his Polynesian origin ; even were not the man's history preserved, to attest the gross depravity of his animal propensities." Fj 71 Fig. 71, reduced from Plate 32 of Du- moutier's Atlas, represents the head of a native of Mawi, one of the small islands of the Sandwich group. This head appears to me to possess a somewhat higher de- velopment than is seen in the two pre- ceding figures. The skull of a cannibal, in the Mortonian Collection (No. 1531), from Christina Island — one of the Marquesas — exhibits a nar- row, dolicho-cephalic form; the frontal re- gion flat and narrow ; tbe posterior region broad and ponderous ; the face massive and roughly marked ; the superior maxilla more everted than in the Sandwich Islander ; altogether a low and brutal form, though the internal capacity is as high as 90.5 cubic inches. This head re- sembles in several respects the skull of a man of the Tais tribe (ISTukahiva), figured by Dumoutier on his 29th Plate. It differs from the latter in having a somewhat re- tracted lower jaw ; a feature which approxi- mates it to the Malay head figured below. Fig. 72 repi'esents one of a collection o'f Nukahivan. crania brought by Dumoutier from the Sandwich Islander. Fig. 72. OF THE EACES OF MEN. 341 ancient ossuaries in the Island of ISTukahiva. Blanchakd has care- fully studied this collection, and also a series of Marquesau crania in the " Galerie Anthropologique du Museum d'Histoire JSaturelle." He informs us that — " Comparativement aux cranes des Europeens, ceux des naturels des lies Marquises se montrent beaucoup plus retrecis et plus arrondis vers le sommet. Le frontal fait non- seulement en arriere, mais aussi sur les cote's. Cet os est ainsi arrondi et n'offre en aucune facon ce m^plat general qu'on observe ordinairement dans les tetes des Europeens, avec des nuances a, la verite tres-notables. "En mesurant la hauteur du crane des Noukahiviens du bord inferieur du maxillaire supe"rieur a Tangle de la derniere molaire ou depuis l'apophyse mastoi'dienne jusqu'au bord median du coronal a son insertion avec les parietaux. et comparant cette mesure avec celle de l'epaisseur du crane prise de la partie la plus avancee du frontal a l'origine de l'occi- pital, nous avons trouve chez plusieurs sujets que cette hauteur etait a peine inferieure a l'epaisseur. Chez un pins grand nombre cependant, nous avons trouve la largeur du crane, consider par le cote, d'environ un huitieme superieure a la hauteur, et m§me un peu plus, chez deux ou trois individus. De ce cote" il y a done des differences individuelle's assez prononc^es. " Le coronal dans sa plus grande largeur, prise d'une suture a l'autre, s'est montre d'une etendue sensiblement moindre avec de trfes-iegeres variations, que la hauteur prise de l'ori- gine des os nasaux a, la suture mediane des parietaux. Un crane de femme seul nous a fourni ces deux mesures £gales. " La distance de l'apophyse mastoi'dienne ^ l'extre'mite' de la machoire superieure s'est trouve"e, chez tous les cranes de Kanaques, egale a l'espace compris entre le bord externa des deux os jugaux pris a leur insertion avec l'os frontal. " Dans ce type enfin on constate encore une preeminence bien prononcfe des apophyses zygomatiques une forte saillie des os maxillaires et une forme ovalaire dans la base du crane, l'occipital etant sensiblement att^nue en arriere. " Les tetes de femmes pr&entent les memes caracteres que les tetes d'hommes, les memes rapports entre les proportions de la boite cranienne, de l'os frontal, etc., avec les os de la face un peu moins saillants." In Fig. 73 (skull of a Taitian woman), Fig. 73. the reader has before him the cranial type of the Society Islands. "Nous remarquons," says' Blanchakd, "la menie forme ge'ne'rale de la tete que chez les naturels des iles Marquises ; e'est e"galement une forme pyramidale, plus prononce'e encore que nous ne l'avons vu partout ailleurs dans la t6te d'homme qui porte sur la planche les nuine"ros 1 et 2 ; mais ici l'allongement general de cette tete nous fait croire a, une particularity tout a fait individuelle. Memes rapports entre la hauteur et la Taitian. longueur du crane que chez les Kanaques, et cependant, vue par le profil, la tete nous parait plus arrondie chez les Tai'tiens, les parie'taux nous semblent moins de'prime's en arriere. Sous le rapport des proportions de l'os frontal, comme chez les precedents, nous avons constate un peu moins de largeur que de hauteur. La saillie des os maxillaires nous parait aussi plus prononcee chez le Taitien que chez le Noukahivien. Ceci est tres-marque dans la tete de femme portant sur la planche XXX les numeros 3 et 4. Si l'on mesure la longueur comprise enti'e l'apophyse mastoi'dienne et l'extremite du maxillaire supfirieur, on verra, en portant cette mesure sur l'espace compris THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS Fig. 74. Tonga Islander. entre les os jugaux & leur insertion, qu'elle est manifestement superieure a celle que nous avoDS reconnue sur de nombreux cranes de naturels des lies Marquises. Cette difference est aussi tres-sensible dans le crane d'enfant qui, sur la memo planche, porte les numeros 5 et 6." Dumoutier figures, in his beautiful Atlas, several crania from Tongataboo and Vavao, of which I select one (Fig. 74), that of a Tonga Islander, to represent the skull- type of the Friendly Islands. According to Blanchard, these crania resemble, in their general form or type, those of the Mangareviens, Taitians, and other Polyne- sians. He assures us that the proportions of the calvaria, the prominence of the zygo- matic arches, and the maxillary bones, ap- pear to be the same in all. Viewed in front, the head of the Tongans partakes of the pyramidal form more decidedly than the skulls of the other Polynesians. The coro- nal region is also a little longer. "Si le caractere," says Rlanchard, "observe' ici sur quelques individus appartient a la plus grande masse des habitants de l'archipel des Amis, il deviendra Evident qu'il existe un caractere anthropologique pour distinguer les Tongans de leurs Toisins de Test, et que ce caractere traduit une superiority relative d'intelligence." A higher form of the skull than the Tongan, is seen in Fig. 75, which represents the head of a Feejee Islander, in the Collection of the Royal College of Surgeons, London. It is thus described by Martin : " The forehead is small, and laterally compressed, the space occupied by the temporal muscle being quite flat ; but the centre of each parietal bone is boldly and abruptly convex ; the top of the head, or coronal arch, is ridge-like, with a slope down- ward on each side ; the cheek-bones are large and deep ; the upper margin of the orbits is smooth ; and the frontal sinuses are but slightly indicated ; the orbits are large, and rather circular ; the nasal bones are short and depressed, and the nasal ori- fice is of remarkable width and extent, as is that of the posterior nares also; the alveolar ridge of the superior maxillary bone projects moderately ; the lower jaw is very thick and deep ; the posterior angle is rounded, and the base of the ramus arched, so that the posterior angle and the chin do not touch a plane ; the basilar process of the occipital bone is less inclined upward than in five or six European skulls examined at the same time : the coronal suture only impinges on the sphenoid bone by a quarter of an inch. From the middle of the occipital condyle to the alveolar ridge between the two middle incisors, the measurement is four inches and three-eighths ; the posterior development of the cranium, beyond the middle of the condyle, three inches and three-eighths." Fig. 75. Feejee Islander. OF THE RACES OF MEN. 34J Malicolo. Fig. 76 represents the head of a native of Mali- Fi s- 76 - oolo, one of the ISTew Hebrides. As we journey westward toward Australia, we find the human cranial type changing again in the inhabitants of the Vitian Archipelago. A glance at the figures on plate 33 of Dumotjtier's Atlas, shows at once that the Vitian skulls differ to some extent from those of the other Polynesian races already noticed. The cranium of the former is more elongated posteriorly, and the maxillary bones are more salient ; the forehead is lower and more recedent, so that, viewed in front, the head has less of the pyra- midal form. Blanchard has pointed out considerable differences in the dimensions of the Vitian, as compared with the other Polynesian skulls. He also compares together African and Polynesian crania, and observes that if these two great groups resemble each other in certain characters, they differ not the less remarkably in others. It is obviously impossible for me, in this place, to give an elaborate description of the various skull-forms of the Polynesian realm. Such a description, in the hands of Blanchard, has already grown into an octavo volume of nearly three hundred pages. Let it suffice, there- fore, to say, that the traveller, as he visits in succession the numerous groups of islands composing the Polynesian realm, is constantly con- fronted with interesting and instructive modifications of the funda- mental type of this realm. The Malay conformation next claims our attention. From the heads of this race in the Mortonian Collection, I select ~No. 47, as the representative of this widely-diffused and peculiar type. "The skull of the Malay" (Fig. 77), says Mobton, "presents the following characters: the forehead is low, moderately prominent, and arched ; the occiput is much compressed, and often projecting at its upper and lateral parts; the orbits are oblique, oblong, and remarkably quadrangular, the upper and lower margins being almost straight and parallel ; the nasal bones are broad and flattened, or even concave ; the cheek-bones are high and expanded ; the jaws are greatly projected ; and the upper jaw, together with the teeth, is much inclined outwards, and often nearly horizontal. The teeth are by nature remarkably fine, but are almost uniformly filed away in front, to enable them to imbibe the color of the betel-nut, which renders them black and unsightly. — The facial angle is less than in the Mongol and Chinese ; for the average, derived from a measurement of thirteen perfect skulls in my possession, gives about seventy-three degrees." 2, ° Fig. 77. Malay. 2,0 Crania Americana, p. 56. 344 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS The exceedingly low and degraded Australian type is shown in the following engravings. Fig. 78 (No. 1327 of the Collection) repre- sents the skull of a native of Port St. Philip, New South Wales. "This skull," says Moeton, "is the nearest approach to the orang type that I have seen." It is a truly animal head. The forehead is exceedingly flat and recedent, while the prognathism of the superior maxillary almost degenerates into a muzzle. The alveolar arch, Fig. 78. Fig. 79. Australian of Poet St. Philip. Australian. Fig. 80. Fig. 81. New Hollander. Native of Timor. instead of being round or oval in outline, is nearly square. The whole head is elongated and depressed along the coronal region, the basis cranii flat, and the mastoid processes very large and roughly formed. The immense orbits are overhung by ponderous superciliary ridges. This latter feature is still more evident in No. 1451 of the Collection, which, though varying somewhat in type, presents in general the same brutal appearance. Fig.79, from Pbichaed's "Researches," represents OF THE RACES OF MEN. 345 the skull of an Australian savage, which is in the museum of the Col- lege of Surgeons. It somewhat resemhles Fig. 54 in its general form. The longitudinal ridge running from the forehead to the occiput, which is frequently ohserved in Australian skulls, is conspicuous in this. The ridge formed by the frontal sinuses is likewise prominent, and there is a deep notch over the nasal processes of the frontal bone. These characters are very strongly marked in the skulls of the Oceanic nations, as in those of the New Zealanders and Taitians. 271 Figs. 80 and 81 — from Dumoutier's "Atlas" — represent respectively a native of Bate Raffle, on the coast of New Holland, and a native of Amnoubang, in the Isle of Timor. According to Capt. Wilees, the " cast of the (Australian) face is between the African and the Malay ; the forehead unusually nar- row and high ; the eyes small, black, and deep-set ; the nose much depressed at the upper part, between the eyes, and widened at the base, which is done in infancy by the mother, the natural shape being of an aquiline form ; the cheek-bones are high, the mouth large, and furnished with strong, well-set teeth ; the chin frequently retreats ; the neck is thin and short." " The general characters of the Australian skull," writes Martin, "consist in their narrowness, or lateral compression, and in the ridge-like form of the coronal arch ; the sides of which, however, are less roof-like, or flattened, than those of the Tasmanian skull. . . . The superciliary ridge projects greatly, giving a scowling expression to the orbits, and reminding us of some of the larger Apes ; the nasal bones, which are exceedingly short and depressed, sink abruptly, forming a notch at their union with the frontal bone, which projects over them; the forehead is low and retreating; and the external orbitary process of the temporal bone is very bold and projecting, while the space occupied by the temporal muscle is strongly marked ; the orbits are irregularly quadrate ; the cheek-bones are prominent ; the face is flat, and seems as if crushed below the frontal bone ; the external nasal orifice, and that of the posterior nares, are very ample ; the coronal suture terminates as in the skull of the Feejee Islander; the lower jaw is more acute at its angle than in the skull just alluded to, but it is arched upward at the chin." 272 In conclusion, I place before the reader six figures, representing Tasmanian, New-Guinean, and Alforian skulls. They are takeu from the works of Du Perry, Prichard, Martin, and Dumoutier, and are introduced here, not only to complete our survey of cranial 2 » Op. cit., Vol. I., p. 299. » 2 Man and Monkeys, p. 312. 346 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS forms, but also to exhibit a few of those inferior types through which the human family, in obedience to a grand and deeply underlying law of organic unity, seeks to connect itself with the great animal series of which it is the undoubted head and front. Fig. 82. Fig. 83. Tasmanian, from Western Coast of Van Diemen's Land. (Royal Col- lege of Surgeons, London.) Fig. 84. Tasmanian (Dumoutier's Atlas). Fig. 85. Tasmanian (Prichard's Researches). Tasmanian (Dumoutier's Atlas). Fig. 87. Fig. 86. New Guinean (Dumoutier's Atlas). Alfourou-Endamene (Martin's Man and Monkeys). OF THE RACES OF MEN". 347 Here our rapid panoramic survey of the diversified cranial charac- teristics of the human family must terminate. In this survey, having no theory to establish or defend, I have carefully and impartially pre- sented the facts as I have found them, for the most part, indelibly traced upon the specimens in the vast Mortonian Collection. Nor have I depended upon this Collection alone, as will appear from the frequent references to and quotations from the more important of the numerous works which constitute the literature of my subject. This method has been adopted, as affording the best idea of the past his- tory, progress, and present condition of craniographic research, and its claims to be considered as one of the natural sciences. By such a procedure, moreover, the reader has gradually become acquainted, as it were, with the zealous and indefatigable workers in this field, whose names are intimately associated with many of the facts dis- cussed in this essay. Feelings of professional pride prompt me, in this place, to refer particularly to two of these laborers, who, with careful hands, have materially assisted in building an Ethnologic edifice, whose fair proportions will yet delight and astonish the world. The researches of Pkichaed and Mokton constitute right noble columns guarding the entrance into this edifice. Recog- nizing, at an early period of their professional career, the scientific claims of medicine — claims seldom perceived by the mass — their expansive minds led them steadily onward, beyond the crowded middle-walks of their calling. Both were physicians, in the primi- tive sense of the word — medical naturalists, whose broad and com- prehensive views shed a lustre over the healing art. There is a singular propriety in thus coupling the labors and lives of these two philosophers. Their patient, unresting industry and strong determinative will enabled them to prove conclusively to the world, as indeed Hunter and others had already done, that, to a consider- able extent, scientific investigation is not only compatible with the active daily duties of the physician, but in reality, by inculcating close and accurate habits of observation, very often becomes a guarantee of success in the performance of those duties. As con- firmatory of this, hear what their respective biographers have said of them: "Dr. Prichard applied himself," says Dr. Hodgkin, "with as much zeal to the practice, as he had done to the study of his profession. He established a dispensary. He became physician to some of the principal medical institutions of Bristol. Me had not only a large practice in his oivn neighborhood, hut was often called to distant consultations. Notwithstanding the engrossing nature of these occupations, he found time to prepare and deliver lectures 348 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS on Physiology and Medicine, and wrote an essay on Fever, and one on Epilepsy, and subsequently a larger work on Nervous Diseases." 273 All this, it will be recollected, in addition to his laborious Researches into the Physical History of Mankind, upon which is based his fame as an Ethnologist. Of Dr. Morton, Prof. Chas. D. Meigs thus writes: " His medical practice was increasing up to the time of his death. He had the good sense and prudence to maintain his active and visible connection with his profession, while striving in the race for fame as a philosopher. He had early begun to make his now celebrated collection of crania, with great labor and toil, and inconvenient cost. He investigated organic remains : he explained problems in zoologj* and ethnology ; he diligently attended the sick ; he published valuable treatises on consumption, on the science of anatomy, and on the practice of physic. He served the city gratuitously, as physician to the Almshouse Hospital, and delivered courses of lectures at the Pennsylvania Medical College, where he was Professor of Anatomy. All these things were done by a man whose family was large, and chargeable upon his funds, derivable in chief from his exertions as a physician." 27 * Such were the manifold and onerous duties amidst which Dr. Morton composed and published his two brilliant cranio- logical works, and numerous detached papers on ethnography, hy- bridity, and allied subjects. Though the lives of these two men present several interesting parallels, and though their labors were steadily directed towards the same great object, yet they sought that object through different channels of research. With laborious hands, Prichard gathered from the records of travel, and from numerous philological and archaeological works in various languages, an immense mass of material, which he carefully and learnedly digested. With equal industry and perseverance, Morton gathered from the receptacles of the dead, all over the world, those bony records which he studied with such untiring zeal and discrimination. Prichard, the erudite scholar, gave to the natural history of man a philosophico-literary cha- racter; Morton, the philosophical naturalist, stamped it with the seal of the natural sciences. To the ethnological student, the published la- bors of these savants will long continue a shining and a guiding light ; while the world at large cannot fail to find, in the history of theii lives, noble lessons of the power of ceaseless and indefatigable labor. Aware of the extreme caution necessary in arriving at conclusions in so grave a study as that which has just occupied our attention through so many pages, and knowing that every erroneous inference must either directly or indirectly retard the advancement of Ethno- 2 » 3 Biographical Sketch, &c, Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, Vol. XLVII. p. 205. 2 ' 4 Memoir, &c, read before Philada. Acad. Nat. Sciences, November 6, 1851. OF THE RACES OF MEN. 349 graphy, I have preferred, occasionally, to suggest what appeared to rae a legitimate induction, rather than to pronounce positively and authoritatively upon the facts presented. In the same cautious man- ner, the following propositions are placed before the reader, as more or less clearly derivable from the foregoing facts and arguments. 1. That cranial characters constitute an enduring, natural, and therefore strictly reliable basis upon which to establish a true classi- fication of the races of men. 2. That the value of such characters is determined by their con- stancy, rather than by their magnitude. 3. That these characters constitute, in the aggregate, typical forms of crania. 4. That historical and monumental records, and the remains found in ossuaries, mounds, &c, indicate a remarkable persistence of these forms. 5. That this persistence through time, as viewed from a zoological stand-point, renders it difficult, if indeed possible, to assign to the leading cranial types any other than specific values. 6. That, in the present state of our knowledge, however, we are by no means certain that such types were primitively distinct. 275 The historical period is too short to determine the question of original unity or diversity of cranial forms. Moreover, this question loses its importance in the presence of a still higher one — the original unity or diversity of all organic forms. 7. That diversity of cranial types does not necessarily imply diversity of origin. Neither do strong resemblances between such types infal- libly indicate a common parentage. Such resemblances merely express similarity of position in the human series. 276 27a " Those who have studied the natural history of man," says Prof. Draper, in his recent admirable work on the 'Conditions and Course of the Life of Man,' "have occupied themselves too completely with the idea of fixity in the aspect of human families, and have treated of them as though they were perfectly and definitely distinct, or in a condition of equilibrium. They have described them as they are found in the various countries of the globe, and since these descriptions remain correct during a long time, the general inference of an invariability has gathered strength, until some writers are to be found who suppose that there have been as many separate creations of man as there are races which can be distinguished from each other. We are perpetually mistaking the slow movements of Nature for absolute rest. We compound temporary equilibration with final equilibrium." This paragraph I find in Chapter VII., which is as singularly unhappy in its craniological conclusions, as the leading idea of the work, though not novel, is grand and philosophical. If the above language of Dr. D. is meant to be applied to geological periods of time, it is probably correct ; if it extends not beyond the historical epoch, it is without the support of facts. 276 " S'il n'y a qu'une seule race muable," writes J. E. Cornat (de Kochefort), " c'est-a- dire pouvant avoir des vari6te"s, il n'y a eu a la genese primitive qu'un seul pere et qu'une seule mere (Tune meme espece. S'il y a plusieurs races immuiables. il y a eu a la genese primitive plusieurs especes de peres et rle mires. Toute la question est done renferme'e dans la mutabilile ou dans I'immutabilite des races, pour arriver a la connaissance du nombre des 350 THE CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS 8. That each well-marked cranial type admits of certain variations in its individual characters, which variations constitute divergent forms. 9. That these divergent forms must not he confounded with hybrid types. Both, it is true, are produced by modifications in the mode of action of the developing principle ; in the former, however, these modifications depend upon climatic conditions, in the latter they result from race-amalgamation. 10. That reasons exist for considering some, at least, of the so- called artificial deformations as strictly natural types, representing very early humanitarian epochs. 11. That a regular system of gradation seems to underlie and har- monize the various cranial forms of the human family. 12. That these forms appear to he pre-represented or anticipated in the various types of skull exhibited by different genera and species of monkeys. 13. That if we regard artificial deformations as the forced imita- tions of once natural types, and upon this ground admit them in our systems of classification, as some writers have done, then the per- plexing gaps which seem to break the animal chain by disparting man and monkeys — the group which stands nearest to man — will to a certain extent be filled intelligibly. espeees primitives." [Elements de Morphologic Humaine, 2de partie, p. 116; Paris, 1850.) The general immobility of race-characters and specific forms is pretty well determined for the historic period. But in this period a remarkable equilibrium of physical conditions has been maintained. In the ante-historic epoch, the question of the mobility or immo- bility of cranial, in common with all organic forms, must be studied over a wider time- latitude, and nnder altered physical circumstances. If now we recall the great physio- logical fact, that under the influence of the vital principle, organic matter assumes a definite, though infinitely diversified form (the organic cell and its developmental modi- fications), and that this form constitutes the medium through which all the active pheno- mena of life are manifested, and if we, furthermore, reflect upon the mass of evidence which strongly tends to correlate, if not, indeed, to identify the vital with the physical forces, then it will appear that the study of specific forms, when carried through great geological cycles, is, in reality, a study, not so much of parentage, as of the functional or dynamical energy of physical conditions. The question of what constitutes species is by no means necessarily connected with that of parentage. Naturalists, measuring nature by limited periods of time, have too often fallen into the error of regarding specific sameness as a mark of common origin. Very philosophically observes Dr. Leidt : " Naturalists have not yet systematized that knowledge through which they practically estimate the value of characters determining a species. What maybe viewed as distinct snb-genera by one, will be considered as only distinct species by another, and a third may view both as varieties or races. In the use of these words, or rather in the attempt to define them, we go too far when we associate them with the nature of the origin of the beings in question. We know nothing whatever in relation to the origin of living beings, and even we cannot positively deny that life connected with some form was not co-eternal with time, space, and matter, and that all living beings have not successively and divergingly ascended from the lowest types." [Description of Remains of Extinct Mammalia. Journal Acad. Nat. Sciences, N. S., iii. 167.) OF THE RACES OF MEN. 351 14. That typical forms of crania increase in number as we go from the poles to the equator. 15. That the lower forms are found in the regions of excessive cold and excessive heat; the higher occupying the middle temperate region. 16. That cranial forms are inseparably connected with the physics of the globe. The entire arctic zone is characterized by a remarkable uniformity or sameness of climatic condition and animal distribution. The stunted plants exhibit but few specific forms ; and where the cold is most intense and most prolonged, this uniformity is most evident. Here, also, the human cranial type is least varied. Bending his steps southward, and traversing the temperate Asio-European continent, the observant traveller becomes aware of a gradual increase in the light and heat of the sun ; and accompanying this increase, he beholds a peculiar and much more diversified flora and fauna. At every step, organic forms multiply around him, and monotony slowly gives place to variety ; a variety, moreover, in which a remarkable system of resemblance or representation is preserved. "The temperate zone," says Agassiz, "is not characterized, like the arctic, by one and the same fauna; it does not form, as the arctic does, one continuous zoological zone around the globe." And, again, he says : " The geographical distribution of animals in this zone, forms several closely connected, but distinct com- binations." Now, we have already seen that the globular, cranial type of this region is more varied than the pyramidal form of the extreme North. The Kalmuck or true Mongolian, the Tartar, Chinese, Japanese, and Turkish types of skull are all, to a certain extent, related, and yet are all readily distinguishable from each other. Each of these groups, again, presents several cranial va- rieties. So, among the barbarous aborigines of North America, notwithstanding the general osteologic assimilation of their crania, important tribal distinctions can be readily pointed out. It is inte- resting also to remark, that in the Turkish area, we are to look for the traces of transition from the Mongolian to the European forms — a fact singularly in keeping with the statement of Agassiz, that the Caspian fauna partakes partly of the Asiatic, and partly of the European zoological character. It is a general and very well-known fact — first noticed by Buffbn — that the fauna and flora of the old world are not specifically iden- tical with the fauna and flora of the new. Their relationship is manifested in an interesting system of representation, or as Schouw expresses it, of geographical repetition according to climate. To a certain extent, human cranial forms appear also to fall within the limits of this system. As far as my own opportunities for exami- 352 CRANIAL CHARACTERISTICS. nation have gone, I have not been able to find a single aboriginal American type of skull which, in all its essential details, could be regarded as strictly identical with any in Europe, Asia, Africa, or Australia. The closest approximation between the two hemi- spheres, in this respect, is to be found in the Arctic region ; and it is precisely in this region that the organic species of the two worlds resemble each other most closely. The massive, heavy skulls of northern temperate Asia and Europe are represented in America by those of the Barbarous tribes — decidedly different, but allied forms. So the comparatively small-headed Peruvians repre- sent the equally small-headed Hindoos, while the American Indian type, according to Lieut. Habersham, again repeats itself in a most curious manner in the Island of Formosa. It would thus appear, that upon the same general principles, of which Humboldt availed himself in dividing the surface of the earth into isothermic zones, or that Latreille followed in laying clown his iusect-realms, or that guided Forbes in the construction of homoiozoic belts of marine life, the ethnographer may establish, with equal pro- priety, hcmoiokephalic zones or realms of meu, whose limits, though far from being sharply defined, are nevertheless sufficiently well- marked to show that nature's idea of localization and representation appertains to man, as to all the numerous and varied forms of life. "When, at length, our traveller reaches the tropics, he there, under the calorific and luminous influence of a powerful sun, beholds animal and vegetable life revelling in a multiplicity of forms. Human cranial types constitute no exception to this statement. In the African and Polynesian regions of the sun, the races or tribes of men, differing from each other in physical characters, are, as we have already seen, quite numerous. The same appears to be true also, though in a less marked degree, in northern South America. Finally, then, in view of all these leading facts, whose details would here be obviously misplaced, may we not conclude that cranial forms are definitely related to geographical locality, and its attendant climatic conditions : and may we not, furthermore, suspect that the unity of such forms should be sought neither in a uniformity of structural plan, nor in the successive development of higher from lower types, nor even in the organic cell, the primordial expression of the animal and the plant, but in that pervading physical principle whose plastic energy attains its maximum in the regions overlying the thermometric equa- tor, and under whose controlling influence all matter — both organic and inorganic — assumes a regular and definite form ? J. A. M. Philadelphia, No. 597 Lombard St. ACCLIMATION, ETC. CHAPTEE IV. ACCLIMATION ; OR, THE COMPARATIVE INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE, ENDEMIC AND EPIDEMIC DISEASES, ON THE RACES OF MAN. BY J. C. NOIT, M.D. In the preceding chapters, man has been viewed from opposite stand-points ; and each new group of facts would seem to lead more and more directly to the conclusion, that certain distinct types of the human family are as ancient and as permanent as the Faunas and Floras which surround them. "We propose, in the present chapter, to investigate the subject of Acclimation; that is to say, of Races, in their relations to Climate, Endemic and Epidemic Diseases ; and if it should be made to appear that each type of mankind, like a species of animals or plants, has its appropriate climate or station, and that it cannot by any process, however gradual, or in any number of generations, become fully habituated to those of opposite character, another strong confirma- tion will be added to the conclusion above alluded to. The study of the physical history of man is beset by numerous difficulties, such as embarrass no other department of Zoology. Man has not only a physical, but a moral nature ; the latter forming an important element in the investigation, and exerting a powerful influence over his physical structure. Inasmuch as we are now seeking to ascertain all those agencies which can in any way modify the physical condition of individuals or races, we shall, for conve- nience, include, under the general term of Climate, 1 geographical 1 This is a loose definition, but we have no word in our language sufficiently comprehen- sive to answer our purpose. The French employ the term milieu, which covers the ground fully. The milieu (middle) in which an animal or plant is placed, includes every modifying influence belonging to the locality. The reader will therefore excuse me for using an old word in a new and arbitrary sense. 28 354 acclimation; or, the influence op position, habits, social condition, moral influences; in short, every combination of circumstances that can change the constitution of man. The subject of Climate may be divided, and treated under two distinct heads, viz. — -Physical Climate and Medical Climate. The consideration of the former appertains more particularly to the naturalist, whose province it is to treat of botanical and zoological geography, or the geographical distribution of animals and plants. Followed out in all its bearings, this department has been made, by Prichard and others, to include the whole physical history of man, and to explain all the diversities of type seen in the human family. The latter, or Medical Climate, refers to climate in its effects on the body, whether in preventing, causing, or curing diseases ; and it is this branch of the subject which will mainly engage our attention at present, although we shall be obliged incidentally to trench upon the other. Our limits forbid the examination in detail, to any extent, of the effects of Physical Climate; but, fortunately, knowledge in this department has so greatly advanced of late years, as to permit us to pass over, as well settled among naturalists, certain points which formerly consumed a large share of time. It was long taught, for example, that types were constantly changing and new ones form- ing, under the influence of existing causes ; but we may now assume, without the fear of contradiction from a naturalist, that, within his- torical times, no example can be adduced of the transformation of one type of man into another, or of the origination of a new type. Writers still living have boldly attributed to climate almost illimi- table influence on man. Numerous citations have been given, from credulous travellers, showing examples of white men transformed by a tropical sun into negroes ; of negroes blanched into Caucasians ; of Jews changed into Hindoos, Africans, American Indians, and what not. In short, the whole human family has been derived (as well as all the animals of the earth) from Noah's ark, which landed on Mount Ararat some 4000 years ago. Such crude ideas obstinately maintained their ground, in spite of science, until it was proven beyond dispute, from the venerable monuments of Egypt, that the races of men, of all colors, now seen around the Mediterranean, inhabited the same countries, with their present physical characteristics, fully 5000 years ago ; that is, long before the birth of either Moses, Noah, or even Adam — were we to believe in the chronology of Archbishop Usher. Nor did these various races exist merely as scattered individuals in those early times, but as nations, warring with each other. Since these discove- CLIMATE A]STD DISEASES ON MAN. 35-5 ries, we hear, among the well informed, no more abont the influence of existing climates in transforming races. 2 No one who has studied the natural history of man will he dis- posed to deny the great modifying influence of both physical and moral causes ; but the questions arise as to the nature and extent of the changes produced. Has any one type been transformed into another ? or has a new one originated since the living types of the animal kingdom were called into existence ? That the modifying influence of climate is great, nay, quite as great, on man, as on many of the inferior animals, we possess the evidence around us every day in our cities. By way of illustration, the Jewish race might be cited, being the one most widely spread, the longest and most generally known. Whenever the word Jew is pronounced, a peculiar type is at once called up to the mind's eye ; and wherever, in the four quarters of the globe, surrounded by other races, the descendants of Abraham are encountered, this type at once stands out in bold relief. In each one of the synagogues of our large cities (in the United States), may be seen congregated, every Saturday, Israelites from various nationalities of the earth. Nevertheless, although they differ notably in stature, form, com- plexion, hair, shape and size of head, presenting in fact infinite varieties, yet, when of pure Hebrew blood, they all revolve around a common type, which identifies their race. It should be remarked, in passing, that the Jewish, though com- paratively a pure race, is notwithstanding much adulterated by inter-marriages with Gentiles during all ages, from the time of Abraham to the present. It is true that we often see individuals worshipping at their shrines who are wanting in the true lineaments of the race ; but this may be always explained by the admixture of foreign blood, or through conversions of other types to Judaism. 3 It has been clearly shown that the Jewish type can be followed up through the stream of time backward from the present day to the IV. Dynasty of Egypt (a period of more than 5000 years), where it stands face to face with that of the Egyptian and other races. This type, too, is abundantly and beautifully delineated amid the ruins of Nineveh and Babylon, back to ages coetaneous with the Hebrew monarchy.* 2 The unity party have been obliged, since these discoveries in Egypt, to abandon all scientific deductions, or reasoning from facts, and to fall back upon a miraculous transfor- mation of one race into many ; which metamorphosis is supposed to have occurred prior to the foundation of the Egyptian, Chinese, and Hindoo empires. 3 See " Types of Mankind," Chap. IV., "Physical History of the Jews." * Ibid. Also, Layard's Nineveh. ?>56 acclimation; or, the influence of All races of men, like animals, possess a certain degree of consti- tutional pliability, which enables them to bear great changes of temperature or latitude ; and those races that are indigenous to temperate climates, having a wide thermometrical range, support best the extremes of other latitudes, whether hot or cold. Hence such races might be regarded almost as cosmopolites. In accordance with this idea, the Jews, who were originally scattered between 30° and 40° north latitude (where they were subjected to considerable heat in summer and cold in winter), were already well prepared to become acclimated to far greater extremes of temperature in other latitudes. The inhabitants of the Arctic, also, as well as those of the Tropics, have a certain pliancy of constitution ; but, while the Jew and other inhabitants of the middle latitudes may migrate 30 degrees south, or 30 degrees north, with comparative impunity, the Eskimau on the one extreme, or the Negro, Hindoo, and Malay on the other, have no power to withstand the vicissitudes of climate encountered in traversing the 70 degrees of latitude between Green- land and the equator. Each race has its prescribed salubrious limits. The fair races of Northern Europe, below the Arctic zone, of which the Anglo-Saxons are impure descendants, will serve as another illustration. These races are now -scattered over most parts of the habitable globe ; and, in many instances, they have undergone far greater physical changes than the Jews. The climates, for instance, of Jamaica, Louisiana, and India, are to them much more extreme than to the Jewish race. The Israelite may be recognized any- where ; but not so with the Scandinavian and his descendants in the tropics. The latter becomes tanned, emaciated, debilitated ; his countenance, energy, everything undergoes a change : and were we not familiar, from daily observation, with these effects of climate upon northern races, we should not suspect the original ancestry of many of the present inhabitants of hot climates. In these cases we behold, not simply a healthful modification of the physical and intellectual man, but a positively morbid degradation. The pure white man carried into the tropic deteriorates both in mind and body; the average duration of his life is lessened; and, without fresh importations, his race would in time become extinct. When, however, his descendants are taken back to their native climes, they revert to the healthful standard of their original types : the latter may have been distorted, but can never be lost, except in death. [This fact may be familiarly exemplified by the habits of English sojourners {colonists they cannot be termed) now scattered through- out Hindostan and the Indian Archipelago, on both sides of Africa a few hundred miles north of the Cape, along the southern shores CLIMATE AND DISEASES ON MAN. 357 of the Mediterranean, in the West Indies, South America, and else- where. Such emigrants are, moreover, out of all proportion, athletic adults before quitting their birth-place; who set forth with the intention, and are ever cheered by the hope, of returning home the moment their ambition is realized. Few, notwithstanding, come back to their native land with constitutions unimpaired; but, in no cases do those English whose means are not absolutely insignificant, attempt to rear up their children in any of the above tropical regions. If they do so, parents mourn over the graves of lost offspring, or sigh on beholding the sickly appearance of the sur- viving: of the latter, an adult generation, especially amongst the females, suffering under hourly-increasing morbific influence, is destined to succumb far within the average limits of longevity that would have been accorded to them by a life-insurance actuary, had they grown up in Europe. On the contrary, every sacrifice is made, under the name of "education," to send them homeward, in order that they may become constitutionally retempered, before they are once more exposed to such deleterious intertropical influences. So true is this rule, that, on the authority of a friend of Mr. Gliddon's, Major General Bagnold, of the Hon. East India Company's Service — a veteran who now, with his family, in London, practically carries into effect half a century of Oriental experiences — we know that the oldest purely-English regiment in India, the "Bombay Tufts," not- withstanding that marriages with British females are encouraged, has never been able, from the time of Charles H. to the present hour, to rear, from births in the corps, boys enough to supply its drummers and fifers. The same rule holds good with the Dutch in Batavia and other Indian islands. Their children, when of pure blood, in health are weakly; when half-caste, worse. Where, however, as frequently happens in our Gulf States, such half-caste is produced by the union of South {dark) Europeans with negresses or squaws, a hardier animal appears to be the result. Hear Desjobbrt : "Le Francais s'acclimate-t-il? ses enfans s elevent-ils en Algerie? We speak of Frenchmen, and not of those Spanish, Italian, and Maltese populations which, coming from a country more analogous in climate [and heing in type dark races, also], bear better than our fellow- countrymen the influence of the African climate. " Algerian colonists have always confounded, under the same name of colony, every establishment of Europeans out of Europe. They have not reflected that, in climates different from those of Europe, he [the European] labors but little in body. He more frequently commands, administrates, or follows mercantile pursuits in the cities [not in the country]. " French and English races labor in Canada, in the northern parts of the United States, and in New Holland; but, in the Southern States of the Union, at the Antilles, Guayanas, 358 acclimation; or, the influence of and the isles of Mauritius and Bourbon, it is the [exotic] blacks who work ; in India, it is the Hindoo. " Spaniards, it is true, do labor a little at Cuba and at Porto Eico. But they had inha- bited, in Europe, a hotter climate than the French and English. [For the same reason, joined to their dark race, our white fishermen, in the bayous from Charleston, S. C, to Galveston, Texas, are the only men who, with comparative security, ply their vocation the whole year round: and they are Spaniards, Portuguese, Maltese, or else mulattos.] They work also a little in America, especially when the altitude of the soil makes up for the latitude of the country, as in Mexico and Peru ; or when the climate is far more temperate, as in Buenos Ayres ; and even then, this labor cannot be compared to the work performed in France and in England [and north of " Mason and Dixon's line"]. At the Philippines, it is the native that labors. "The Dutchman works not out of Europe: at Java, it is the Malay; at Guyana, it is the black who labors. " The Portuguese never labors in India. In Brazil and at Guyana it is the black who works for him;" [in Central America, it is the Carib, the Toltecan Indian, or the half- caste.] 5 In Egypt, no European nor Turk risks his own person as an agriculturist: the labor is performed there, as in Mesopotamia, by the indigenous Fellah. At Madagascar the Frenchman, as in Sierra Leone the Englishman, dies off if he attempts it. In Algeria, the French are beginning to find out that, unless the Arab or the Kabyle will plough the fields for them, colonization is hopeless. 6 And, lastly, were not this fact of the non-acclimation of white races, a few degrees north and south of the equinoctial line, now recognized by experience, why should Coolies from India and Malayana, as well as Chinese "apprentices," be eagerly contracted for at Bourbon, the Mauritius, the West Indies, and in Southern America ? The truth of these propositions will be investigated hereinafter.] The negro, too, obeys the law of climate. Unlike the white man, 6 Desjobert, L'Algerie, Paris, 1847, pp. 6, 7, and 26, notes. "Nous ne comptons ici les hommes morts dans les hopitaux [i. e. 71 per 1000, in 1846 alone!], et nons ne parlons pas de ceux qui, reTormgs, vont mourir dans lenrs families. Nous ne parlons pas non plus de ceux tu6s par le feu de l'ennemi : ils sont peu nombreux. Nous perdons par an, en Afrique, environ 200 hommes. " Nous avons perdu en 1846 116 " " A la prise de Constantine.., 100 " " A la bataille d'Isly 27 " " AlaSmalah 9 " " ' Tout homme faible qu'on envoie en Afrique est un homme perdu.' — Marechai Bugeaud, discours du 19 fevrier, 1838." 6 See Discours prononce par M. Desjobert (Representative in the Assemblee Rationale), Paris, 1850; Idem, Documents Statistiques sur VAlgerie, 1851; Boudin, Hisioire Statistique de la Colonisation et de la Population en Algerie, Paris, 1853, passim. It is with much disappointment that I am compelled to go to press with these evidences of the non-acclimation of races, without having received a copy of the work which Dr. Boudin has in press (Traite de Geographie et de Siatistique Medicates, 2 vols. 8vo., at Bail- lifere's, Paris). Mr. Gliddon tells me that he perused some of its proof-sheets at the author's house, in Oct., 1855. CLIMATE AND DISEASES ON MAN. 359 his complexion undergoes no change by climate. While the white man is darkened by the tropical sun, the negro is never blanched in the slightest degree by a residence in northern latitudes. Like the quadrumana of the tropics, he is inevitably killed by cold ; but it never changes his hair, complexion, skeleton, nor size and shape of brain. 7 We do not propose, however, to enter into this discussion here. Our object is simply to call attention to the independence of existing types, of all climatic causes now in operation. While naturalists have been accumulating so much useful infor- mation concerning the history, durability, &c, of species in the animal kingdom, they leave us still in utter darkness as to the time or manner of their origin. Our actual Flora and Fauna extend, it is now ascertained, many thousand years beyond the chronologies taught in our schools to children ; but whether man and his asso- ciates have existed ten or one hundred thousand years, we have no data for determining. Lepsius tells us that he regards even the records of the early (Hid and FVth) dynasties of Egypt, as a part of the modern history of man. That organized beings have existed on earth (in the language of the great geologist Lyell) "millions of ages," no naturalist of our day will doubt; and although our knowledge is not sufficiently complete to enable us to follow Nature's great chain, link by link, yet it appears probable that there has been an ascending series, commencing with the simplest forms and ending with man. Geolo- gists have arranged the materials which compose the crust of the earth into igneous and sedimentary. The first, as the name implies, are formed by the action of heat under superincumbent pressure, and are composed of an aggregate of crystalline particles, without any order or stratification. Sedimentary rocks are composed of the fragments of older rocks, worn down by the action of the elements, and deposited in the ocean, whence, by pressure, heat, and chemical agency, they are re-formed into new masses, assuming a stratified and more or less slaty structure. To say nothing of subdivisions, the whole series have been divided into igneous rocks, primary stratified formations, secondary forma- tions, tertiary formations, and diluvial formations. In the first two divisions we find no traces of life, animal or vegetable ; in the se- condary we find numerous plants, mollusks, reptiles, and fishes ; and, ' The negro races are peculiarly liable to consumption out of the tropics, or even within them. They are never agriculturists, either in Egypt or in Barbary : nevertheless, in both countries, negroes are the shortest lived of the population. Monkeys suffer to a great extent with the same disease, in the Garden of Plants, at Paris. Nowhere in North Europe or in our Northern States, can the Orang-utan live. 360 acclimation; or, the influence op when we reach the tertiary, we find the shell animals approaching nearer, in specific forms, to existing species, than those of previous formations ; and along with these are skeletons of birds and mam- malia, including quadrupeds and quadrumana. The geological epoch of man has yet to be determined : it is certain that the investi- gations of each succeeding year tend to throw it further back in time ; nor are there wanting good authorities who would not be surprised to find his remains in the tertiary, where the quadrumana have been recently, and for the first time, discovered. A discussion of such difficulty and magnitude as the theory of progressive development, would be out of place here ; but this idea seems to have taken possession of many of our leading authorities. Nor, at first sight, would it seem that the long-mooted question of the origin of species could properly find a place in an essay on Medical Qlimate; yet all these subjects have points of contact, which render it difficult to isolate them. Our object being to study the influence of climates and their diseases on races, we assuredly, d priori, should expect species and mere varieties to be influenced in different degrees. Natural history teaches us that the white and black races, for example, are distinct species. We should, therefore, regard their origin as independent of climate; and if we can show that these races are not affected in like manner by diseases, we fortify the conclusion to which natural history has led us. Well-ascertained varieties of a given species, however widely scattered, may exchange habitations with comparative impunity ; while, on the contrary, as a general rule, each species of a genus has its prescribed geographical range. The species, for example, of the reindeer and the white bear, in the. Arctic, can no more exchange places with the deer and bear of the Tropics, than can the Esquimau with the tropical Negro. Such facts as these, then, clearly show how deeply our subject implicates the investigation of species and varieties. A great diversity of opinion has existed with regard to the origin of species, but we shall allude only to two of the more prominent. Of the first school, Cuvier may be regarded as the most distinguished authority. He contends that the geological history of the earth should be divided into distinct periods, each of which is complete in itself; that there has been, since the dawn of life, a succession of distinct creations and destructions; and that the organized beings of one epoch have no direct connection, by way of descent, with those of the preceding. According to this theory, the species of animals and plants now scattered over the face of the earth are primordial forms, the result of a special creation ; which have endured without CLIMATE AND DISEASES ON MAN. 361 material change to the present, and which ivill endure unchanged until their allotted term of existence has expired. The opposing school may he represented by Geoffroy St. Hilaire, the contemporary of Cuvier. It is contended by his followers that there has been but one creation, and no cessation of life, since the first organized beings were brought into existence ; that, by a law of progressive development or evolution, in accordance with new climatic influences, brought into action, from time to time, by changes in the physical condition of the globe, the living beings of one period have given origin to those which follow; and so on through the whole chain, from the earliest and simplest forms to the last and most complex. Moreover, that what we term species remains permanent as long as the physical conditions which produced them remain unchanged. Some of this school go so far as to assert that no such tiling as "species" exists; that Nature creates only indivi- duals, no two animals or plants being exactly alike, and the species of each genus running together so closely as to leave their bounda- ries difficult, and often impossible, to define. They further contend, that transformations of species are incessantly going on around us, though so slowly as not to be easily recognized, in the atom of time which has been consumed so far by the human family. Those who contend that all the races of men are of common origin, must, in spite of themselves, fall into these heterodox opinions of Lamarck, Oken, and St. Hilaire ; because the races of men differ quite as much, anatomically and physiologically, as do the species of other genera in the animal kingdom — the Equidte, the Ursines, Felines, &c. Professor Owen himself cannot point out greater differences between the lion, tiger, and panther, or the dog, fox, wolf, and jackal, than those between the White Man, Negro, and Mongol. According to the above doctrine, not only are the individuals of our present Fauna and Flora direct descendants of the fossil world, but they are probably destined to be the ancestry of others still more perfect. The climatic influences now at work, it is supposed, will be changed, and development take up its line of march and cany on the great plan of the Creator. Thus, man himself is to be the progenitor of beings far more perfect than himself; and it must be confessed that there is no small room for improvement. But there is no good reason why we should enter the lists with these dispu- tants, as the two schools unite at a point which meets all the requi- sitions of our present investigation. The term species is, at best, but a conventional one, without a fixed definition ; and is used by both parties to designate certain groups of forms closely resembling 362 acclimation; or, the influence of each other, that have been permanent as far back as our means of investigation reach, and which will endure as long as the Faunas and Floras of which they form a part. Our declared object is to ascertain what influence the climates of our day exert over existing forms, and especially over those of the human family. It should be borne in mind that each species has its own physiological and pathological laws, which give it its specific character ; and each species must, therefore, be made a special study. Too much reliance has been placed upon analogies; since no one animal should be taken as an analogue for another. Not only are they variously affected by climate, food, &c, but also by morbific influences. These remarks apply with their greatest force to man, who is widely separated from the lower animals in many things, and more particularly his diseases. The " Societe Zoologique d' Acclima- tion" of Paris, is composed of some of the most scientific men of France, with I. Geoffroy St. Hilaire at its head ; and to them each new species is a new study : they look to time and observation alone for their knowledge. "When a new quadruped, bird, or plant, is brought to France, no one pretends to foretell the exact influence of the new climate upon it ; and it has been ascertained that two species, brought from the same habitat, may be very differently affected. One may become habituated to a wide geographical range, while another only to a very limited one. So it is with the species of man — each must be made a separate study, in connection with both Physical and Medical Climate. It does not at all advance our knowledge of man to tell us that pigs, poultry, horses, cattle, sheep, goats, dogs, &c, may be carried all over the world, may become habituated to all climates, and everywhere change their forms or colors. A race of men does not anywhere, in a few generations, like pigs, become white, brown, black, gray, or spotted ; nor do the pigs, when they accompany man to the Tropics, become affected with dyspepsia, intermittent and yellow fever. It has been the fashion, for want of argument, to obscure the natural history of man, not by a few, but by volumes of these analogies. Let us ask, on the other hand, when and where have the people of the' north become habituated to the climate of the Tropics, or those of the Tropics been able to live in the north ? We have no records to show that a race of one extreme has ever been acclimated to the opposite; and as long as a race preserves its peculiar physiological structure and laws, it must to some extent be peculiarly affected by morbific influences. 8 8 It is far from being proved that our dogs, horses, cattle, and other domestic animals, are of common origin. The reader is referred to "Types of Mankind" and the Appendix CLIMATE AND DISEASES ON MAN. 363 In considering the climates of the Tropics and the adjacent warm climates, it is necessary to divide Medical Climate into non-malarial and malarial. By a non-malarial climate, we wish to designate one which is characterized by temperature, moisture or dryness, greater or less changeableness, &c. ; in short, all the characteristics of what is understood by the word "climate," independently of local morbific influences. By malarial climates, we mean those in which malarial emanations are superadded to the above conditions. The two climates are familiar to every one, and often exist withiu a mile of each other. In our Southern States, we have our high healthy "pine or sand-hills," bordering the rich alluvial lands of our rivers. On the low lands, in many places, the most deadly malarial fevers prevail in summer and autumn, while in the sandy lands there is an entire exemption from all diseases of this class ; and our cotton planters every summer seek these retreats for health. Not only in these more temperate regions of the United States is this proximity of the two climates observed, but also in Bengal and other parts of India, in the islands of the Indian Ocean, at Cape Colony, the West India islands, &c. Mobile and its vicinity afford as good an illus- tration of these climates as can be desired. This town is situated at the mouth of the Mobile river, in latitude 30° 40" north, on the margin of a plain, that extends five miles to the foot of the sand- hills, and which is interspersed with ravines and marshes. The sand-hills rise to the height of from one to three hundred feet, and extend many miles. Now the thermometer, barometer, and hygro- meter, indicate no appreciable difference in the climates of the hills and the plain, except that the latter is rather more damp ; and yet the two localities differ immensely in point of salubrity. Let us suppose that a thousand inhabitants of Great Britain or Germany should be landed at Mobile about the month of May, and one-third placed on the hills, one-third in the town, and the remainder in the fenny lands around the latter, and ask what would be the result at the end of six months. The first third would complain much of heat, would perspire enormously, become enervated ; but no one would perhaps be seriously sick, and probably none would die from the effects of the climate. The second third, or those in the city, if it happened to be a year of epidemic yellow fever, would, to say the least, be decimated, or even one-half might die, while the resi- dent acclimated population were enjoying perfect health. The re- maining portion, or those in the fenny district, would escape yellow fever, but would, most of them, be attacked with intermittent and of "Moral and Intellectual Diversity of Races" — in Hotz's translation of De Gobineau, (Philadelphia, 1855) — for a fnll examination of this point. 364 acclimation; or, the influence of remittent fevers, bowel affections, and all forms of malarial or marsh diseases : fewer would die than of those in the city, hut a large proportion would come out with broken-down constitutions. Yellow fever sometimes extends for two or three miles around the city ; but if it does, it always commences in the latter. Here, then, we have three distinct medical climates actually within sight of each other. This is by no means a peculiarity of one locality, but thousands of similar examples may be cited in warm climates. Charleston, South Carolina, its suburbs, and Sullivan's Island, in the harbor near the city, give us another example quite as pertinent as that of Mobile. In our cotton-growing States, the malarial climate is by no means confined to the low and marshy districts ; on the contrary, in the high, undulating lands throughout this extensive region, wherever there is fertility of soil, the population is subjected more or less to malarial diseases. These remarks apply, as will be seen further on, more particularly to the white population, the negroes being com- paratively exempt from all the endemic diseases of the South. 9 The tropical climate of Africa, so far as known to us, differs widely from the same parallels in other parts of the globe : it has no won-malarial climate. Dr. Livingstone "has been struck down by African fever upwards of thirty times," in sixteen years. 10 But let us go a little more into details, and examine a few of the races of man, in connection with non-malarial climates. The Anglo- Saxon is the most migrating and colonizing race of the present day, and may be selected for illustration. Place an Englishman in the most healthful part of Bengal or Jamaica, where malarial fevers are unknown, and although he may be subjected to no attack of acute disease, may, as we are told, become acclimated, and may live with a tolerable degree of health his threescore and ten years ; yet, he soon ceases to be the same individual, and his descendants degenerate. He complains bitterly of the heat, becomes tanned; his plump, plethoric frame is attenuated ; his blood loses fibrine and red globules ; both body and mind become sluggish ; gray hairs and other marks of premature age appear — a man of 40 looks fifty years old — the average duration of life is shortened (as shown by life-insurance tables); and the race in time would be exterminated, if cut off from fresh supplies of immigrants. The same facts hold in our Southern 9 A medical friend (Dr. Gordon) who has had much experience in the diseases of the interior of Alabama, South Carolina, and Louisiana, has been so kind as to look over these sheets for me, and assures me that I have used language much too strong with regard to the exemption of negroes. He says they are quite as liable as the whites, according to his observations, to intermittents and dysentery. 10 "London Chronicle," Dec. 15, 1856. CLIMATE AND DISEASES ON MAN. 365 States, though in a less degree ; and the effect is in proportion to the high range of temperature. We here have short winters, which do not exist in the Tropics ; and the wear and tear of long summers are by them, to a great extent, counterbalanced. The English army surgeons tell us that Englishmen do not become acclimated in India: length of residence affords no immunity, but, on the contrary, the mortality among officers and troops is greatest among those who remain longest in the climate. 11 Tbere is no reason to believe that the Anglo-Saxon can ever be transformed into a Hindoo. We have already given reasons why Jews become acclimated, in hot latitudes, with more facility than races further north; but even these cannot be changed from their original type by ages of residence in foreign climes. There is a little colony of Jews at Cranganor, in Malabar, near Cochin, who have resided there more than 1000 years, and who have preserved the Jewish type unchanged. There is in the same neighborhood a settlement of what are called black Jews, but who are of Hindoo blood. 12 Tbere are also in India the Parsees, who have been almost as long in the country as the Jews, and still do not approximate to the Hindoos in type. Way, more, in India itself we see, in the different castes, the most opposite complexions, which have remained independent of climate several thousand years. Unlike the Anglo- Saxons, the Jews seem to bear up well against that climate. The colonists of warm countries nowhere present the same vigoi of constitution as the population of Great Britain or Germany; and although they may escape attacks of fever, they are annoyed by many minor ills, which make them a physic-taking and shorter-lived people. Knox asserts that the Germanic races would die out in America if left alone ; and though I am not disposed to go to his extremes, I do not believe that even our 3sTew England States are so well adapted to those races as the temperate zone of Europe, from which history derives them. There is, unquestionably, an acclimation, though imperfect, against moderately high temperature ; and it is equally true, that persons who have gone through this process, and more especially their children, when grown up, are less liable to violent attacks of our marsh fevers, when exposed to them, than fresh immigrants from the north. The latter are more plethoric, their systems more in- flammable ; and although not more liable to be attacked by these endemics than natives, they expeiience them, when attacked, in a 11 Johnson on Tropical Climates, London, 1841, p. 56. 12 See, for details, "Types of Mankind" by Nott & Glidbon, chapter "Physical History of the Jews." 366 acclimation; or, the influence of more violent and dangerous form. The latter fact holds good of yellow, as well as of remittent fever. Dr. Boudin, in his "Lettres sur l'Algerie," after establishing the persistent influence of marsh malaria on French and English colo- nists, continues thus : "Reste a examiner 1'influence exercee sur le chiffre des deces par le sejour dans les locality de l'Algerie, non sujeltes aux emanations paludeennes, mais se distinguant de la France uniquement par une temperature eievee. A deTaut de documents assez nombreux vecueillis en Algerie meme, nous invoquerons les faits relatifs a, deux possessions anglaises ayant la plus grande analogie thermome'trique avec notre possession africaine; nous voulons parler: 1°, du Cap de Bonne-Esperance ; 2°, de Malte: Tun et l'autre proverbialement exempted de l' to fH It o a a «ii ill cm a O _o D ^ S.a o ce- rt AGES. "sIm IS — ft d CO >> o en o o © 3 o a> Cm O 12 <= «S O. P 1846 349 14 4 3 34 68 15 9 2 1847 330 1 4 5 32 70 21 6 2 1848 310 3 3 6 25 56 25 5 2 1849 369- 17 7 10 i 29 75 20 9 4 124 1850 482 7 3 12 40 91 23 6 1 1851 533 33 3 13 44 118 26 10 10 ]852 721 688 30 20 13 3 30 18 i 54 53 138 138 39 25 13 12 7 3 309 1853 1854 756 42 5 14 15 55 140 40 13 4 612 1855 686 41 4 10 ... 56 118 34 18 3 Among the causes of death, we have selected only those which belong particularly to the climate, and those which press most on the blacks. It appears that very few died from bowel complaints or marsh fevers ; nor do the whites here suffer much more from any of these, except yellow fever. Fifteen of the colored people died one year from yellow fever ; but, doubtless, they were mostly mulattoes. A good many die from marasmus — most of which cases are scrofula ; but the term is often used without a veiy definite mean- ing ; and we have, therefore, not put it in the above table. Trismus nascentium and tetanus form a veiy large item — an average of 42 per annum ; being about 7 to 1, compared to the whites. The great- est outlet of life will be found in the organs of respiration. The ratio of these, to deaths from all causes, is, among the colored popu- lation, 19.3 per cent.; and, among the whites, the deaths from dis- eases of the respiratory organs give a ratio of 17.8 per cent. It should be remarked, that the mortality from this class of diseases, among whites, in the tables of Charleston, is really greater than it should be ; for many persons come from the North to Charleston, to remain either permanently or for a short time, on account of weak lungs or actual phthisis, and die there — thus giving a percentage of deaths, from this cause, larger than would be accounted for by local causes. The colored population, on the contrary, is a native and fixed class. This colored population, too, suffers more than the whites from typhus and all epidemic diseases, except yellow fever. But one of the most remarkable features in this table, is the great longevity of the blacks. While the whites, in a nearly equal aggre- gate of population, give but 15 deaths between 90 and 100, and but CLIMATE AND DISEASES GN IAN. 391 1 death above 100 years, the blacks, for the same period of ten years, give 101 deaths between 90 and 100 years of age, and 38 deaths over 100 years ! There have been many disputes about the comparative longevity of races ; but all the statistics of our Southern States would seem to prove, that the negroes are the longest-lived race in the world ; and if a longevity of any other race can be shown, equal to the blacks of Charleston^ we have been unable to find the statistics. On a review of the tables of mortality from Charleston, it will be seen that the average mortality of the colored population, for the last ten years, is 1 in 43.6 — about the same ratio as the eighteen previous years. "When it is remembered that this is exclusively a laboring class, and including a considerable proportion of free colored population, it cannot but excite our wonder. It proves two points : 1. That the black races assimilate readily to our climate ; 2. That they are here in a more favorable condition than any laboring class in the world. It should, perhaps, be remarked, that, in a warm climate, a pauper population and laboring class do not suffer from the want of protection against cold and its diseases ; which, at the North, cause, among these classes, a large proportion of their mor- tality. Even in the sickliest parts of our Southern States, there are more examples of longevity, among the whites, than are seen in cold climates ; for the reason, I presume, that the feebleness of age offers little resistance to the rigor of northern climates. This, however, does not prove that the average duration of life is greater South than North. 34 We have, thus far, called attention almost exclusively to two extremes of the human family, viz., the white and black races j and, except incidentally, have said little about the intermediate races, and the influence of the climate and diseases of America upon them. We now propose to take a glance at these points ; and must express our regret, at the outset, that our statistics and other means of in- formation here become much less satisfactory. We are not, how- ever, wanting in facts to show, that the element of race here, as elsewhere, plays a conspicuous part. We have already alluded to the fact, that the negroes are almost entirely exempt froni the influence of yellow fever; and, at one time, supposed that the susceptibility to this disease was nearly in direct ratio to the fairness of complexion ; but this idea, as we shall see, requires modification. 24 If the city of Charleston gives so low a rate of mortality as 1 in 43.6 for the blacks and mulattoes, it is presumable that the rural districts throughout the South will give a much lower rate than in towns. Negroes surfer much less from consumption in the country than in towns. 392 ACCLIMATION; OR, THE INFLUENCE OF It is perfectly true, as respects the mixed progeny of the blacks and whites; for it is admitted everywhere, at the South, that the susceptibility of this class is in direct ratio to the infusion of white blood ; but the American Indians of the table-lands, as the Mexi- cans, and the mixed bloods of Sjmniards and Mexicans, are infinitely more liable to yellow fever, than mulattoes of any grade. This law of color would seem to apply to African and Asiatic races, but not to the aboriginal races of America. The following extract, from a document of the highest authority, will, I am sure, be read with peculiar interest, in this connection. 25 "Of all protections, that of complexion was paramount. When the ships' crews "were disabled by sickness (and that was in the majority of instances), their places were supplied by negro sailors and laborers. On board many vessels, black labor alone was to be seen employed : yet, among these laborers and stevedores, a case of yellow fever was never seen. If to the table of thirteen months' admissions to the hospital, already given, be added a classified census of the population of the colony, information is given which enables us to arrive at something like precise knowledge on this subject. (See table, infra, page 394.) " From this table, it would appear that the liability of the white races to yellow fever, aa compared with the dark, is as 13.19 per cent, to -00004. But this would be rather an over- estimate of the risks of the whites ; for, although the calculation is correct for one day, it is not for the whole thirteen months. During the year 1852, 7670 seamen, the crews of vessels, arrived at the port of Georgetown. If we add one-twelfth to this sum, it will make a total of 8309, estimated all as white, who, for a longer or shorter period, were exposed to the endemic influence. This number should be added to that of the white population exposed, and the percentage of liability will be as follows: whites, 8'436; darks, '00004. This computation is irrespective of the effects of residence on the constitution. But the numbers afforded by the census returns are sufficiently great and detailed to authorize a purer and more ultimate analysis of the effects of complexion, or, in other words, cutaneous organization, on the liability to yellow fever among the population of the colony. We find that, of 7890 African (black) immigrants, none contracted yellow fever. " Of 9278 West India islanders (black and mulatto), 15, or -16 per cent, contracted yellow fever; of 10,978 Madras and Calcutta coolies (black, but fine-haired), 42, or -38 per cent, contracted yellow fever; 10,291 Portuguese immigrants (white), 698, or 6-2 per cent, contracted yellow fever. " From the foregoing, the importance of the skin, or that constitution of the body which is associated with varieties of the dermal covering, in the etiology of yellow fever, is at once apparent." The proportion of white to the dark races, according to our author, was 14,726 to 127,276 ; while the admissions to the public hospitals, for yellow fever, were 1947 of the former to 59 of the latter. He puts down the Portuguese as whites — whereas, they are by no means a fair-skinned race, compared with the Anglo-Saxons and other white races ; and their mortality corresponded with their complexion : it was intermediate between the two extremes. 23 Daniel Blair, M. D., Surgeon-General of British Guiana, Report on the first eighteen months of the fourth Yellow Fever Epidemic of the British Guiana. See British and Foreign lied. Chir. Rev., January and April Nos., 1855. CLIMATE AND DISEASES ON MAN. 393 Dr. J. Mendizabel writes me: "The coolies are, in this place (Vera Cruz), as well as in the West Indies, exempt from yellow fever." From all the information we are able to procure, it seems clear that the Chinese, in Cuba, are much less liable to fever than Euro- peans ; but there are no statistics on this point which will enable us to deal in figures. The same difficulty exists with regard to statistics for the Mexican races ; but it is certainty the impression of the best-informed physi- cians in that country, with whom we have corresponded, that the pure-blooded'Mexicans suffer more from yellow fever than either the pure-blood Spaniards, or the mixed bloods. It is asserted, also, that the cross-breeds of negroes and Mexicans are liable to this disease just in proportion to the blood of the latter race — as is the case with the cross-breeds of whites and negroes. Yellow fever, with perhaps few exceptions, has a preference for the races of men in proportion to the lightness of complexion — showing its greatest affinity for the pure white, and least for the jet black. 26 It is remarkable that the plague prefers the reverse course — as the following extract, from the best of all authorities on the subject, will prove. " The plague, in Egypt, attacks the different races of men ; but all are not equally susceptible. Thus, in all (he epidemics, the negro race suffers most ; after these, the Berbers or Nubians; then the Arabs of Hedjaz and Yemen; then the Europeans; and, among these, especially the Maltese, Greeks, and Turks, and generally the inhabitants of South Europe" ! " A reference to Dr. De la Roches' ample statistics of mortality from yellow fever, will show, beyond dispute, that, of the number attacked, the highest ratio of mortality is almost invariably among the pure white races — as the Germans, Anglo-Saxons, &c. This has been accounted for by the fact, that they come from cold latitudes ; and it bas grown into an axiom, that the further north the race, the more liable it is to yellow fever. Now, it is easily shown that this position is not tenable : the contrary is proven, by observations on the Mexican races. There is scarcely any part of the country of Mexico, which is, to any extent, populated, that can be called cold ; and yet the Mexicans from the table-lands are, perhaps, little less liable to yellow fever than Germans ; and their own writers assert that they are quite as much so. 26 As far as we can obtain facts, the dark European, Asiatic, and African races, all show less susceptibility to yellow fever than the strictly white; and the red man of America, if an exception, we believe is the only one. It is as vain to attempt to explain his suscepti- bility, as it is the exemption of negroes and mulattoes: it is a physiological law of race. « A. B. Clot-Bey, Be la Pcste, 1840, p. 7; and Coup d'CEil sur la Peste, 1851. 394 acclimation; or, the influence of " Mexico is divided, as respects climate, into the tierras calientes, or hot regions, the tierras templadas, or temperate regions, and the tierras frias, or cold regions. The first include the low grounds, or those under 2000 feet of elevation. The mean temperature of the first region, between the Tropics, is about 77° Fahr. ; being 14° to 16° above the mean temperature of Naples. The tierras templadas, which are of comparatively limited extent, occupy the slope of the mountain chains, and extend from 2500 to 5000 feet of elevation. The mean heat of the year is from 68° to 70° Fahr. ; and the extremes of heat and cold are here equally unknown. The tierras frias, or cold regions, include all the vast plains elevated 5000 feet and upwards above the level of the sea. In the city of Mexico, at an elevation of 7400 feet, the thermometer has sometimes fallen below the freezing point. This, however, is of rare occurrence; and the winters there are usually as mild as in Naples. In the coldest season, the mean heat of the day varies from 55° to 70°. The mean temperature of the city is about 64°, and that of the table-lands generally about 62°; being nearly equal to that of Rome." 28 With regard to the great susceptibility of Mexicans of the table- lands, and even those of Metamoras, and other places in the low- lands, when for the first time exposed, we need only refer the reader to the " Report of the Sanitary Commission of New Orleans on the Epidemic Yellow Fever of 1853," where ample testimony will be found. The report of Dr. McWilliam, on the celebrated epidemic of yellow fever at Boa Vista, in 1845, will be found interesting, in this connection ; and is remarkable for its minute detail and accuracy. He " The inhabitants consist chiefly of dark mulattoes, of various grades of European intermixture ; free and enslaved negroes ; with a small proportion of Europeans, princi- pally Portuguese and English. "Rate of Mortality from Yellow Fever in Porto Sal Ray. EUROPE AKS. Portuguese. — Number exposed to the fever 53 " " attacked with fever 47 " " died " 25 " Ratio of deaths in the population 1 in 2-1 " " number attacked 1 " 1-8 English, including two Americans, exposed to the fever 11 " Number attacked 8 " " died 7 " Ratio of deaths in population 1 in 1-6 " " number attacked 1 " 1-1 French. — Number exposed to fever 2 " " attacked by fever 2 Spaniards. — Number exposed, and not attacked 2 28 McCulloch's Geographical Dictionary. CLIMATE AISTD DISEASES ON" MAN. 395 NATIVE POPULATION. Free 666 Slaves 249 Total 915 Died, 65 free and 3 slaves 68 Eatio of deaths in native population 1 in 134" In this table, it will be seen that the ratio of deaths increased as the complexion darkened. Most of the deaths among the native population were among the mulattoes, and not blacks. The Spanish and Portuguese population, who are dark compared with Anglo-Saxons, suffer severely from yellow fever ; but do not, it seems, of those attacked, die in as great a ratio as the fairer races. They are very generally attacked in their towns, in consequence of crowded population, bad ventilation, and filthy habits. One of the ablest statisticians of the day shows, by figures, that yellow fever, in the Antilles (where English and French are the principal fair races), does not attack so large a portion of the popu- lation ; but is much more fatal there than in Spain. In the latter country, on the other hand, he says, almost the whole population of towns are attacked ; but the mortality is much less, in proportion to the number of cases. He attributes this universality of attack to the crowded population and filth of the Spanish towns, and to there being no acclimated population where the disease has been most fatal. Yellow fever is endemic in the Antilles, and only occasional in Spain. 29 It is remarkable that these circumstances make no difference in the susceptibility of the negro : he always sleeps in badly ventilated apartments ; is always filthy ; and, in the hottest weather, will lie down and sleep, with a tropical sun pouring down upon his bare 29 Moreau de Jonnes, Monographe de la Fievre Jaune, &c. pp. 312-13. In these new questions of the liability to, or exemption from, local morbific influence, of distinct types of man, we possess as yet but few statistics. Every authentic example, therefore, becomes interesting. I find the following in Domont D'Ueville ( Voyage de la Corvette L' Astrolabe, executee pendant les annees 1826-9, Paris, 1830, " Hisloire du Voyage," V., pp. 120 seqq.). The island of Vanikoro, "Archipel de la Pe>ouse," where this great navigator perished, is inhabited exclusively by black Oceanians, who there enjoy perfect health. Yet, so deadly is the climate, that the natives of the adjacent island of Tlkopia, who belong to the cinnamon-colored and distinct Polynesian race, taken thither as inter- preters by D'Urville, never ventured to sleep ashore, in dread of the malarial poison which ever proved fatal to themselves, however congenial to the blacks, Capt. Dillon's crew, previously, as well as D'Urville's French crew, suffered terribly from the effects of their short anchorage there. This pathological fact is another to the many proofs, collected in our volume, that the black race of Oceanica is absolutely unconnected by blood with the Polynesians proper. See portraits of " Vanikoro-islander" and " Tikopia-islander" (Nos. 39, 40, of our Ethnographic Tableau, infra), for evidence of their absolute difference of type. 396 ACCLIMATION; OR, THE INFLUENCE OF head, during the day ; and, in the hottest night, will sleep with his head enveloped in a filthy blanket, to keep the musquitoes from annoying him ; and yet is exempt from yellow fever, while it is raging around him. Rio Janeiro has a population of 100,000 whites, and 200,000 blacks and mixed bloods. The former are mostly Portuguese ; and it is difficult to explain their exemption from yellow fever, in the epidemic of 1849-50 (which has continued its march northwards, and so ravaged the seaports and other towns of the United States since) — I say it is difficult to explain the exemption, on any other ground than that of race. Not more than 3 or 4 per cent, of the Brazilians attacked, died; while 29 per cent, of the seamen (foreigners) died. It has been repeatedly asserted, that yellow fever never appeared in Rio previously to this date ; but it is exceedingly questionable whether it has not occurred there in a mild form, but with so little mortality as not to create alarm. Yellow fever does unquestionably occur in all grades. We published, some years ago, in the "Charles- ton Medical Journal," a sketch of the epidemic which prevailed in Mobile in 1847 — of so mild a grade as not to prove fatal probably in more than 2 per cent, of those attacked. A reference to the "Report of the New Orleans Sanitary Commission," will show that, according to the concurrent testimony of the leading physicians of Rio, the fevers of that city had assumed an extraordinary type for several years previously to the epidemic of 1849-50 ; and that many of the cases differed in no way from yellow fever : even black vomit was seen in some cases. It is presumable, therefore, that the popu- lation had been undergoing acclimation against this disease, for several years, without knowing it. Our observation has satisfied us, that the dark-skinned Spaniards, Portuguese, and other south Eu- ropeans, as well as the Jews, are more easily and thoroughly accli- mated against yellow fever, than the fairer races. 50 It has been stoutly maintained, by many writers, that intermittent, remittent, and yellow fever, are but grades of the same disease; and as the first two forms are endemic, at Rio, the escape of the inhabi- tants from yellow fever, in the late epidemic, has been accounted for by acclimation through those marsh fevers. I will not, however, stop to argue with any one who contends for the identity of marsh and yellow fevers, in our present day: if their wow-identity be not now proven, it is vain to attempt to establish the non-identity of any two diseases. That very epidemic continued its march, during 30 The reader is referred to Report of the New Orleans Sanitary Commission, for much valuable information about Rio Janeiro. CLIMATE AND DISEASES ON MAN". 397 five years, from Rio to New York; and ravaged hundreds of places where remittent fevers were more common and more violent than in Rio. • To say nothing of countries further south, all the region from New Orleans to Norfolk is dotted with malarial towns, in which yellow fever has prevailed with terrible fatality. The following extract is from one of the most competent authori- ties, on this subject, in the United States : " The immunity of the African race from yellow fever is a problem unsolved ; but of the highest import in physiology and etiology. Whether this immunity be owing to color, or to an unknown transmissible and indestructible modification of the constitution, originally derived from the climate of Africa, or from anatomical conformation or physiological law, peculiar to the race, is not easy to determine. It does not appear that yellow fever prevails under an African sun; although the epidemic of New Orleans, in 1853, came well nigh getting the name 'African yellow fever,' 'African plague:' it was for weeks so called. Although non-creolized negroes are not exempt from yellow fever, yet they suffer little from it, and rarely die. On the other hand, they are the most liable to suffer from cholera" [and typhoid fever. — J. C. N.] "As an example of the susceptibility of this race, take the year 1841: among 1800 deaths from yellow fever, there were but three deaths among the blacks, two having been children; or 1 in GOO, or 1 in 14,000 of the whole population." 31 The Doctor goes on to show "that the same immunity from death, in this disease, is enjoyed by the black race throughout the yellow- fever zone." The investigations of Dr. Dowler (and there is no one more com- petent to examine a historical point of this kind) lead him to the conclusion, that yellow fever is not an African disease. If this be true, it is a very strong argument in favor of specific distinctness of the negro race. We have abundant evidence, in the "United States, that no exposure to high temperature or marsh effluvia can protect an individual against the cause of yellow fever. The white races who have been exposed to a tropical sun, and lost much of their primitive plethora and vigor, are, as a general rule, less violently attacked by yellow fever ; but the negro gains his fullest vigor under a tropical sun, and is everywhere exempt from this disease. 32 31 Bennet Dowlek, M. D., " Tableau of the Yellow Fever of 1853, with topographical, chronological, and historical sketches of the Epidemics of New Orleans, since their origin in 1796." 32 The works of M. le Dr. Boudin — now M^decin en chef de 1'Hopital Militaire du Roule, Paris, so well known as a distinguished army physician, at home, in Greece, and in Algeria, are the first, so far as we know, in any language, that approach this question of races, in relation to climate, with a truly philosophical spirit. He kindly sent us, several years ago, the following essays, the titles of which will show the range of his investigations: — "Etudes de G6ologie Me'dicales, &c." — "Etudes de Pathologie ComparcSe, &c." — " fitudes de Geo- graphic Medicales, &c." — "Lettres sur l'Algerie" — "Statistique de la population et de la colonisation en Algfirie" — "Statistique de la mortality des Armies." We have, in our essay, made frequent use of these volumes, from notes we had taken while reading them ; and should have made more direct reference to them, if we had had 398 ACCLIMATION; OR, THE INFLUENCE OF But it is time to bring this chapter to a close. It was stated, at the beginning, that our leading object was to study man in his rela- tions to what we defined Medical Qlimate; and we have adhered as the originals at hand ; but some of them, unfortunately, had been loaned out, and did not reach us in time. In these essays, the reader -will find a mass of very important statistical matter, bearing on the influence of climates on races, &c. He confirms all our assertions with regard to the comparative exemption of negroes from malarial diseases, and their greater liability to typhoid and lung diseases, as well as cholera. He further shows the interesting fact, that the Jews exhibit a peculiar physiology and pathology ; with other singular data, from which my space and subject only permit me to condense a few vital statistics illustrative of the present enormous increase of the "chosen people." In 1840, the Jews in Prussia numbered 190,000. They had increased by 50,000 (35 per cent.) since the census of 1822 The Christians, in the same kingdom, in 1822, were, 11,519,000.; and, in 1840, 14,734,000 (only 18 per cent, of augmentation). During these eighteen years, births among the Jews exceeded deaths by 29 per 100; and, among the Christians, only 21. "The increase of the Jewish population is the more remarkable, because, between 1822 and 1840, some 22,000 Prussian Jews embraced Christianity, whilst there was no instance wherein a Christian had accepted Judaism." In Prussia, "out of 100,000 individuals, are reckoned: CHRISTIAN. JEWISH. Marriages 893 719 Births 4001 8546 Deaths, still-born comprised 2961 2161" the increase being due to excess of births over deaths, among the Jews. Besides, the Jews are longer lived : — their women do not work in factories, nor labor whilst nursing ; so that, upon 100,000 infants, we find "CHRISTIANS. JEWS. Still-born 3,569 2,524 Died in the first year 17,413 12,935" Again, the men are rarely sailors, miners, &c. They are sober. They marry young. Upon 100,000, the Christians bring forth 280 illegitimate children ; the Jews only 67. The proportion of boys is greater among the Israelites. They are subject to cutaneous and ophthalmic diseases, since the times of Tacitus, and of Moses ; but are wonderfully exempt from heavier scourges — from plague, in 1336; from typhus, in 1505 and 1824; from intermittent fevers, at Rome, in 1691; from dysentery, at Nimegue, in 1736. Croup is rare among their children ; and, at Posen, where Shlaves have the plica Polonica as 1 in 33, and Germans as 1 in 65, the Jews only suffer as 1 in 88. They have more old men and more children than Christians ; and their health is every- where better — owing, in part, to race preserving itself pure through intermarriage ; and especially to the hygiene enjoined upon them by their religion. ♦ Tacitus, when the Jews were exiled to Sardinia, wrote "Et si ob gravitatem cceli inte- riissent, vile damnum!" — and again, "Profana illis omnia quse apud nos sana; rursum concessa apud illos quse nobis incesta." On which Dr. Boudin observes: 33 "This saying of the great historian is at least as true at the physical as at the moral-order point of view. The more one studies the Jewish race, the more one perceives it subjected to patho- logical laws which, in the double aspect of aptitude and immunities, establish a broad line of demarcation between it and the populations amid which it happens to dwell." 83 £twUs stattitiques sur les lois de Ja Population, Paris, 1849, pp. 24-6. CLIMATE AND DISEASES ON" MAN. 399 closely to the plan as the complex nature of the subject would permit. After the train of facts adduced, it will hardly be denied that the historical races — those whose migrations have brought them within the range of investigation— have their appropriate geographical ranges, beyond which they cannot go with impunity ; and there is ample ground for the belief, that the sam.e general law applies equally to all other races that have not yet been subjected to statis- tical scrutiny. Nor could any other result have been rationally looked for, by one who reflects on the wonderful harmony that per- vades the infinite works of Nature ; and which is nowhere more beautifully illustrated, than in the adaptation of animals and plants to climate, as exhibited in the innumerable Faunas and Floras of the earth. Viewed anatomically and zoologically, man is but an animal; and governed by the same organic laws as other animals. He has more intelligence than others; combines a moral with his physical nature; and is more impressible than others by surrounding influences. Although boasting of reason, as the prerogative that distinguishes him, he is, in many respects, the most unreasonable of all animals. While civilization, in its progress, represses the gross vices of bar- barism, and brings the refinements of music, poetry, the fine arts, together with the precepts of a purer religion, it almost balances the account by luxury, insincerity, political, social, and trading vices, which follow its march everywhere. If the ancient Britons and Kelts be fairly balanced against the modern Anglo-Saxons, Yankees, and Gauls, it will be hard to say in which scale the most true virtue will be found. Fashion, in our day, has substituted moral for phy- sical cruelty. The ancient barbarians plundered, and cut each others' throats. Civilized man now passes his life in scandal and the tricks of trade. Look around, now-a-days, at the so-called civilized nations of the earth, and ask what they have been doing for the last half century ? We see man everywhere, not only warring against laws, voluntarily imposed upon himself for his own good, but bidding defiance to the laws of God, both natural and revealed. He is the most destructive of all animals. Not satisfied with wantonly destroy- ing, for amusement, the animals and plants around him, his greatest glory lies in blowing out the brains of his fellow-man ; nay, more, his chief delight is to destroy his own soul and body by vice and luxury. Nor does his rebellious and restless spirit suffer him to be content with a limited field of action : he forsakes the land of his birth, with all its associations, and all the comforts which earth can give, to colonize foreign lands — where he knows full well that a thousand 400 ACCLIMATION; OR, THE INFLUENCE OF hardships must await him, and with the certainty of risking his life in climates that nature never intended him for. One generation never profits hy the experience of another, nor the child by that of its parents. "Who will undertake to estimate the amount of human life sacrificed, since the discovery of Columbus, by attempts to colonize tropical climates ? Naturalists have divided the earth into zoological realms — each possessing an infinite variety of animals and plants, peculiar to it ; but this is not the place for details on this head. To the reader who is not familiar with researches of this kind, we may venture a few plain remarks. When the continent of America was discovered (with a few exceptions in the Arctic Circle, where the continents nearly touch), its quadrupeds, birds, reptiles, fishes, insects, plants, all were different species from those found in the Old World. Hence the conclusion, that the whole Fauna and Flora of America were here created. If we go on to compare other great divisions of the world, such as Asia, Europe, Africa, Australia, Polynesia, the same general law holds throughout: each division possesses its peculiar animals and plants, having no connection by descent with others ; and each group forming a grand and harmonious zoological province. The question naturally arises — Does man form an exception to this universal law? Can he, by any evidence, human or otherwise, be thus separated from the organic world ? We think not. In each one of these natural realms, we find a type of man, whose history is lost in antiquity; and whose physical characters, language, habits, and instincts, are peculiar; — whose organization is in harmony with the station in which he is placed, and who cannot be transferred to an opposite climate without destruction. Recent researches enable us to trace back many of those types of man, with the same characteristics that mark them now, at least 4000 years. In Egypt alone, as proven by her monuments, were seen, in those early times, through the agency of wars and com- merce, Egyptians, Berbers, Nubians, Abyssinians, Negroes, Ionians, Jews, Assyrians, Tartars, and others, — with the same lineaments they now present, and obeying, no doubt, the same physiological and pathological laws. In fact, so well defined were the races in the time of the early Pharaohs, that the Egyptians had already classified them into red, white, yellow, and black ; and each of the types, then as now, formed a link in a distinct Fauna. 34 Let us now ask the reader to reflect on the long chain of facts presented in this and the preceding chapters, and calmly decide whether we are justified in drawing the following conclusions : 84 See Types of Mankind; aiid M. Pulszky's chap. II, infra. CLIMATE AND DISEASES ON MAN. 401 1. That the earth is naturally divided into zoological realms — each possessing a climate, Fauna, and Flora, exclusively its own. 2. That the Fauna of each realm originated in that realm, and that it has no consanguinity with other Faunas. 3. That each realm possesses a group of human races, which, though not identical in physical and intellectual characters, are closely allied with one another, and are disconnected from all other races. We may cite, as examples, the white races of Europe, the Mongols of Asia, the Macks of Africa, and the aborigines of America. 4. That the types of man, belonging to these realms, antedate all human records, by thousands of years ; and are as ancient as the Faunas of which each forms an original element. 5. That the types of man are separated by specific characters, as well marked and as permanent as those which designate the species of other genera. 6. That the climates of the earth may be divided into physical and medical ; and that each species of man, having its own physio- logical and pathological laws, is peculiarly affected by both climates. 7. That no race of man can be regarded as cosmopolite ; but that those races which are indigenous to latitudes intermediate between the equator and poles, approach nearer to cosmopolitism than those of the Arctic or the Torrid Zone. 8. That the assertion, that any one race ever has, or ever can be, assimilated to all physical or all medical climates, is a hypothesis unsustained by a single historical fact, and opposed to the teachings of natural history. J. C. KT. 26 402 THE MONOGENISTS AND CHAPTER V. the MONOGENISTS and the POLYGENISTS: BEING AN EXPOSITION OP THE DOCTRINES OF SCHOOLS PROFESSING TO SUSTAIN DOGMATICALLT the UNITY or the DIVERSITY OF HUMAN RACES; WITH AN INQUIRY INTO THE ANTIQUITY OP MANKIND UPON EARTH, VIEWED CHRONOLOGICALLY, HISTORICALLY, AND PAL^EONTOLOGICALLY. BY GEO. R. GLIDDON. " He is the freeman whom the Truth makes free, And all are slaves beside." COWPER. INTRODUCTORY. " Les recherches geographiques sur le siege primordial, ou, comme on dit, sur le berceau de l'espece humaine, ont dans le fait un carac- tere purement niythique. 'Nous ne connaissons,' dit Guillaume de Humboldt, dans un travail encore inedit sur la diversity des langues et des peuples, ' nous ne connaissons ni historiquement, ni par ancune tradition certaine, un moment ou l'espece humaine n'ait pas ete separee en groupes de peuples. Si cet etat de cboses a existe des l'origine, ou s'il s'est produit plus tard, c'est ce qu'on ne saurait decider par l'bistoire. Des legendes isolees se retrouvant sur des points tres-divers du globe, sans communication apparente, sont en contradiction avec la premiere hypothese, et font descendre le genre bumain tout entier d'un couple unique. Cette tradition est si repandue, qu'on l'a quelquefois regardee comme un antique souvenir des hommes. Mais cette circonstance meme prouverait plutot qu'il n'y a la aucune transmission reelle d'un fait, aucun fondement vrai- ment bistorique, et que c'est tout simplement l'identite de la eoncep- THE POLYGENISTS. 403 tion humaine, qui partout a conduit les homrues a nne explication semblable d'un phenomene identique. Un grand nornbre de mythes, sans liaison historique les uns avec les autres, doivent ainsi leur ressemblance et leur origine a la parite des imaginations ou des reflexions de 1' esprit bumain. Ce qui montre encore dans la tradi- tion dont il s'agit le caractere manifeste de la fiction, c'est qu'elle pretend expliquer un phenomeue en debors de toute experience, celui de la premiere origine de l'espece bumaine, d'une maniere conforme a l'experience de nos jours ; la maniere, par exemple, dont, k une epoque ou le genre humain tout entier comptait deja des milliers d'annees d'existence, une ile deserte.ou un vallon isole dans les montagnes peut avoir ete peuple. En vain la pensee se plongc- rait dans la meditation du probleme de cette premiere origine : l'bomme est si etroitement lie a, son espece et au temps, que Ton ne saurait concevoir un etre bumain venant au monde sans une famille deja existante, et sans un passe. Cette question done ne pouvant etre resolue ni par la voie du raisonnement ni par celle de l'experi- ence, faut-il penser que l'etat primitif, tel que nous le decrit une pretendue tradition, est reellement bistorique, ou bien que l'espece bumaine, des son principe, couvrit la terre en forme de peuplades ? C'est ce que la science des langnes ne saurait decider par elle-meme, comme elle ne doit point non plus cbercher une solution ailleurs pour en tirer des eclaireissements sur les problemes qui l'occupent.' " 1 Sucb is the language, and these are the mature opinions, of two brothers, than whom the world's history presents none more illus- trious. Here the ultimate results of Wilbelm von Humboldt, among the most acute philologists of his generation, stand endorsed by that "Nestor of science," Alexander von Humboldt, whose immortal labors in physical investigation stretch over nearly three cycles of ordinary human vitality. I subscribe unreservedly to every syllable contained in the above citation. According to my individual view, this paragraph condenses the "ne-pl us-ultra" of human ratiocination upon mankind's origines. With this conviction, I proceed to set forth the accident through which it prefaces my contribution to our new work upon anthro- pology. My excellent and learned friend M. Gustave d'Eichthal — so long Secretary of the parental Societe Ethnologique de Paris, and author 1 Alexandre de Humboldt, " COSMOS. Essai d'une Description Physique du Monde" — traduit par H. Fate. 1". partie, Paris, Gide & O., 1846, in 8vo., pp. 425-7. I refer to the first French edition : the copy now used having been obtained by me at Paris, on its first week's issue. — G. R. G. 404 THE MONOGENISTS AND of many erudite papers — amidst all kinds of scientific facilities for which I feel proud to acknowledge myself dehtor to himself and many of his colleagues (MM. D'Avezac and Alfred Maury espe- cially), favored me, during my fourth sojourn in France, 1854-5, with a set of their Society's "Bulletins." Reperusing lately their instructive debate on the problem — " What are the distinctive characteristics of the white and black races ? What are the conditions of association between these races?" 2 I was led to open an antecedent ISTo. ; 3 wherein, after alluding to Cosmos — "M. Vivien (de Saint-Martin) observes how, in the extract quoted from M. de Humboldt, that which this illustrious writer terms the native unity of the human species, does not seem to imply, as might be thought, the idea of descent from a single pair. M. de Humboldt himself, it is true, does not declare himself, as respects this, in a manner altogether explicit. But the opinion of those eminent men upon whose authority he relies, and of whom he cites the words, is, on the contrary, expressed in the most formal manner. " ' Human races, says Johannes Miiller, 4 in his ' Physiology of Man,' are the (diverse) forms of a single species, whose unions remain fruitful, and which perpetuate themselves through genera- tion. They are not species of one genus ; because, if they were, upon crossing 5 they would become sterile. But, to know whether existing races of man descend from one or from many primitive men — this is that which cannot be discovered by experience.' ' M. Vivien continues with extracts from the paragraph that heads ' my essay. Certain typographical lacuna, however, induced a refer- ence to Humboldt's complete work ; and the readiest accessible at the moment happened to be Otte's English translation, "from the German." 6 2 Bulletin de la Soc. Elhnol. de Paris, Tome I*., anne'e 1847 ; " Stances du 23 avril au 9 juillet," p. 59 seqq. — (Vide ante, Pulszky's chapter, pp. 188-192) 3 Id., ann^e 1846, pp. 74-6. * Physiol, des Menschen, Bd. II, S. 768, 772-4:— and Kosmos, Fr. ed., I, p. 425, and p. 578, note 38. Compare Sabine's translation of this passage (I, p. 352-3) with Otte's (I, p. 354). 5 This doctrine now seems to be a non-sequilur, .after Morton's researches upon hybridity. Conf., as the first document, " Hybridily in animals and plants, considered in reference to the question of the Unity of the Human Species" — Amer. Jour, of Science and Arts, vol. Ill, 2d series, 1847. The substance of Morton's later publications, in the "Charleston Medical Journal," may be consulted in "Types of Mankind," 1854, pp. 372, 410: and they have since been enlarged, by Dk. Nott, in Hotz's translation (Moral and Intellectual Diversity of Races, Philadelphia, 12mo., 1856: Appendix B, pp. 473-504) of part of the first volume of De Goeineau. « Cosmos: a Sketch of a Physical Description of the Universe. Harpers' American ed., New York, 1850, I, pp. 354-5 THE POL YGENISTS. 405 To my surprise, several passages (sometimes in the letter, but oftener in the spirit) did not correspond with the extracts quoted by M.Vivien de Saint-Martin, from the French edition of "Cosmos." To the latter I turned. A glance changed surprise into suspicion, which further collation soon confirmed. Having thereby become considerably enlightened, myself, upon the animus and the literary fidelity with which foreign scientific works are "done into English," for the book-trade of Great Britain and the United States of Ame- rica ; and inasmuch as sundry theological naturalists, in this country, have latterly been making very free with Humboldt's honored name, — estimated as their authority "par excellence" on the descent of all the diversified types of mankind from "Adam and Eve ;" it may be gratifying to their finer feelings, no less than to their nice apprecia- tion of critical probity, to demonstrate the singular orthodoxy of the savant whom we all venerate in common. Already, in 1846, when transmitting from Paris, to the late Dr. Morton, one of the earliest copies of the French edition of "Cosmos," I accompanied it with regrets that the twice-used expression — " la distinction desolante des races superieurs et des races inferieurs" 7 — should have sanctioned the irrelevant introduction of (what others construe as) morbid sentimentalism into studies which Morton and his school were striving to restrict within the positive domain of science. How completely Morton disapproved of this unlucky term, has been happily shown by his biographer — our lamented colleague, Dr. Henry S. Patterson. 8 But, whilst fully respecting Baron de Humboldt's unqualified opinion — on a doctrine which- other great authorities either oppose or hold to be at least moot, viz., the unity of mankind — I was not prepared for so much of that which Carlyle styles " flunkeyism" towards Anglo-Saxon popular credu- lity (so manfully denounced by Dr. Robert Knox 9 ), which both of the English translations of "Cosmos" exhibit. In the first place, let us open that one which "was undertaken in compliance with the wish of Baron von Humboldt." I0 The possessor 7 Cosmos, Fr. ed., p. 430; repeated p. 579, note 42. 8 Types of Mankind, " Memoir of Samuel George Morton," p. li-liii. 9 Of Edinburgh — The Races of Men: a Fragment. Philadelphia edition, 12mo, 1850, pp. 11-2, 19, 37, 65, 247-54, 292— one might say passim. Allowance made for the age, ten to fifteen years ago, -when the MSS. seem to have been written ; and divesting his work of much rash assertion, hasty composition, and some national or personal eccentricities, its author can safely boast that it contains more truth upon ethnology than any book of its size in the English tongue. 10 Cosmos, &c. "Translated under the superintendence of Lieut.-Col. Edward Sabine, R.A., For. Sec. R. S.;" London, Murray, 2d ed., 8vo, 1847; I, "Editor's Preface; and, for the omission complained of, p. 353 — after the word 'experience' (438)." 406 THE MONOGENISTS AND of the German original, or of Faye's French version, will hunt in vain for the long and noble paragraph above quoted ! It is simply expunged: probably not to shock the conservatism of the Royal Society. Promotion might have been stopped, long ago, by the "lords spiritual and temporal," had an officer in H. M. Service dared even to translate such heretical opinions as those avowed by the brothers Humboldt: the "For. Sec." would have soon ceased to be Secretary at all, to any Royal Society. In the second, we refer to Otte's translation ; " learning from his preface — " The present volumes differ from those of Mrs. Sabine in having all the foreign measures converted into English terms, in being published at considerably less than one-third of the price, and in being a translation of the entire work; for I have not conceived myself justified in omitting passages, simply because they might be deemed slightly obnoxious to our national prejudices." Fair enough this seems. That which routine and expectancies naturally forbade the official to do, "into English," might, one would suppose, be honestly performed by a private individual. Nevertheless, upon verification, we discover this to be, also, as Talleyrand once observed to Castlereagh, "une tres forte supposition!" By paraphrasis and periphrasis, through dextrous substitutions of milder terms, and a happy adoption of equivocal interpretations, Mr. Otte has effaced the precision of his author's language ; obscuring thereby both of the Humboldts' scientific deductions so effectually, that their suppo- sititiously-joint advocacy of "all mankind's descent from Adam and Eve," meets everywhere with the gratitude and applause of wondering theologers ! To render this evident, I have chosen the French translation, above cited, as an appropriate epigraph and introduction to the subjects developed in the present chapter. At foot, the reader will find Otte's English 12 rendering of the German text ; which is like- " Id., — "Translated from the German, by E. C. Ott£," and before cited. Harpers' New York edition, 1850. I wonder whether it is the same, textually, asBoHN's; which doubt inclination does not now prompt me to take some trouble in verifying. 12 Extract from Otte's Cosmos, Amer. ed., pp. 354-5:— " Geographical investigations regarding the ancient seat, the so-called cradle of the human race, are not devoid of a mythical character. 'We do not know,' says Wilhelm von Hum- boldt, in an unpublished work On the Varieties of Languages and Nations, ' either from history or from authentic tradition, any period of time in which the human race has not been divided into social groups. Whether the gregarious condition was original, or of subsequent occurrence, we have no historic evidence to show. The separate mythical relations found to exist independently of one another, in different parts of the earth, appear to refute the first hypothesis ; and concur in ascribing the generation of the whole human race to the union of one pair. The general prevalence of this myth has caused it to be regarded as a traditionary record transmitted from the primitive man to his descend- THE POLYGENISTS. 407 wise subjoined. Unfortunately, want of familiarity with the latter tongue precludes personal comparison of this translation with the original; but, for the accuracy of its French interpretation, we ants. But this very circumstance seems rather to prove that it has no historical founda- tion, but has simply arisen from an identity in the mode of intellectual conception, which has everywhere led man to adopt the same conclusion regarding identical phenomena ; in the same manner as many myths have doubtless arisen, not from any historical connection existing between them, but from an identity in human thought and imagination. Another evidence in favor of the purely mythical nature of this belief, is afforded by the fact that the first origin of mankind — a phenomenon which is wholly beyond the sphere of experi- ence — is explained in perfect conformity with existing views, being considered on the principle of the colonization of some desert island or remote mountainous valley, at a period when mankind had already existed for thousands of years. It is in vain that we direct our thoughts to the solution of the great problem of the first origin, since man is too intimately associated with his own race, and with the relations of time, to conceive of the existence of an individual independently of a preceding generation and ago. A solution of those difficult questions, which can not be determined by inductive reasoning or by expe- rience — whether the belief in this presumed traditional condition be actually based on historical evidence, or whether mankind inhabited the earth in gregarious associations from the origin of the race — -cannot, therefore, be determined from philological data ; and yet its elucidation ought not to be sought for from other sources.' " "Die geographischen Forschungen fiber den alten Sitz, die sogennante Wiege des Menschengeschlechts haben in der That einen rein mythisclien Charakter. ' Wir kennen,' sagt Wilhelm von Humboldt in einer noch ungedruckten Arbeit fiber die Verschiedenheit der Sprachen und Volker, ' geschichtlich oder audi nur durch irgend sichere Ueberlieferung keinen Zeitpunkt, in welchem das Menschengeschlecht nicht in Volkerhaufen getrennt gewesen ware. Ob dieser Zustand der urspriingliche war oder erst sp'ater entstand, l'aszt sich daher geschichtlich nicht entscheiden. Einzelne, an sehr verschiedeuen Punkten der Erde, ohne irgend sichtbaren Zusammenhang, wiederkehrende Sagen verneinen die erstere Annahme, und lassen das ganze Menschengeschlecht von Einem Menschenpaare abstammen. Die weite Verbreitung dieser Sage hat sie bisweilen fur eine Urerinnerung der Menschheit halten lassen. Gerade dieser Umstand aber beweist vielmehr dasz ihr keine Ueberlieferung und nichts geschichtliches zum Grunde lag, sondern nur die Gleichheit der menschlichen Vorstellungsweise zu derselben Erklarung der gleichen Erscheinung fiihrte : wie gewisz viele Mythen, ohne geschichtlichen Zusammenhang, blosz aus der Gleichheit des menschlichen Dichtens und Grfibelns entstanden. Jene Sage tr'agt auch darin ganz das Gepr'age menschlicher Erfindung, dasz sie die auszer aller Erfahrung liegende Erscheinung des ersten Entstehens des Menschengeschlechts auf eine innerhalb heutiger Erfahrung liegende Weise, und so erkl'aren will, wie in Zeiten, wo das ganze Menschengeschlecht schon Jahrtausende hindurch bestanden hatte, eine wiiste Insel oder ein abgesondertes Gebirgsthal mag bevolkert worden sein. Vergeblich wfirde sich das Nachdenken in das Problem jener ersten Entstehung verticft haben, da der Mensch so an sein Geschlecht und an die Zeit gebunden ist, dasz sich ein Einzelner ohne vorhandenes Geschlecht und ohne Vergangenheit gar nicht in menschlichem Dasein fassen liiszt. Ob also in dieser weder auf dem Wege der Gedanken noch der Erfahrung zu entscheidenden Frage wirklich jener angeblich traditionelle Zustand der geschichtliche war, oder oh das Menschengeschlecht von seinem Beginnen an volkerweise den Erbdoden bewohnte ? darf die Sprachkunde weder aus sich bestimmen, noch, die Entscheidung anderswoher nohmond, zum Erklarungsgrunde fur sich brauchen wollen.' " ("Kosmos. Entwurf einer physichen Weltheschreibung," von Alexander von Hum- boldt. Funfte Lieferung, Stuttgurd und Tubingen, pp. 381-2.) 408 THE MONOGENISTS AND possess the highest voucher. M. Faye states: 13 "Another part, relative to the great question of human races, has been translated by M. Guigniaut, Member of the Institute. This question was foreign to my habitual studies : moreover, it has been treated, in the German work, with such superiority of views and of style, that M. fie Humboldt had to seek, among his friends, the man most capable of giving its equivalent to French readers. M. de Humboldt naturally addressed himself to M. Guigniaut; and this savant has been pleased to undertake the translation of the last ten pages of the text, as well as of the corresponding notes." Consequently, besides the guarantee for exactitude afforded by the name of the erudite translator of Creuzer's Symbolik, it may be taken for granted that, whatever the German original may or may not say," Baron von Humboldt, to whom the French edition was peculiarly an offspring of love, endorses the latter without reservation. It only remains now for me to retranslate M. Guigniaut's French into our own language, in order that the reader may seize the MM. de Humboldts' point of view. To facilitate his appreciation, I mark with bold type those expressions requiring particular atten- tion ; and, furthermore, insert, between brackets and in italics, such deductions as appear to me legitimately to be evolved from them. " Geographical researches on the primordial seat, or, as it is said, upon the cradle of the human species, possess in fact a character purely mythic. 'We do not know,' says "William de Humboldt, in a work as yet inedited, upon the diversity of languages and of peo- ples, ' we do not know, either historically, or through any [zvhat- soever] certain tradition, a moment when the human species was not already separated into groups of peoples. [Hebrew literature, in common with all others, is thus rejected, being equally unhistorical as the rest.'] Whether this state of things has existed from the origin [say, beginning'], or whether it was produced later, is what cannot be decided through history. Some isolated legends being re-en- countered upon very diverse points of the globe, without apparent communication, stand in contradiction to the first hypothesis, and make the entire human genus descend from a single pair [as, for 13 Cosmos, Ft. ed., "Avertissement du Traducteur," p. ii. 14 Comparative experience of German authors and their translators teaches me to be particular. Compare, for instance, CheV. Bunsen's JEgyptens slelle in der Weltgechichte, with what is called, in English, its translation! As is usual with political composition in these United States, one version of the same document is printed for the North, and another, very different, for the South ; so, in like manner, that which suits the masculine stomachs of German men of science becomes diluted, until its real flavor is gone, before it is offered to the more sensitive palates of the British and Anglo-American "reading public." THE POLYGE NIST S. 409 example, in the ancient look called " Genesis."] This tradition is so widely spread, that it has sometimes been regarded as an antique remembrance of men. But this circumstance itself would rather prove that there is not therein any real transmission of a fact, any- soever truly-historical foundation ; and that it is simply the iden- tity of human conception, which everywhere leads mankind to a similar explanation of an identical phenomenon. A great number of myths, without historical link [say, connection - ] between the ones and the others, owe in this manner their resemblance and their origin to the parity of the imaginations or of the reflections of the human mind. That which shows still more, in the tradition of which we are treating, the manifest character of fiction [Old and New Testament narratives included, of course] is, that it claims to explain a phenomenon beyond all human experience, that of the first origin of the human species, in a manner conformable to the experience of our own day ; the manner, for instance, in which, at an epoch when the whole human genus counted already thousands of years of existence, a desert island, or a valley isolated amid mountains, may have been peopled. Vainly would thought dive into the meditation of this first origin : man is so closely bound to his species and to time, that one cannot conceive [such a thing as] an human being coming into the world without a family already existing, and without a past [antecedent, i. e. to such man's advent]. This question, therefore, not being resolvable either by a process of reasoning or through that of experience, must it be considered that the primitive state, such as a pretended [alluding to the Biblical, necessarily] tradition describes to us, is really historical — or else, that the human species, from its commencement, covered the earth in the form of peoples ? 15 This is that which the science of languages cannot decide [as theologers suppose!] by itself, as [in like manner] it ought not either to seek for a solution elsewhere, 16 in order to draw thence elucidations of those problems which occupy it." 15 « Peuplades" corresponds, therefore, at the Humboldts' united point of view, with Prof. Agassiz's doctrine (Christian Examiner, Boston, July, 1850) that — Men must have originated in "nations:" adopted and enlarged upon by Dr. Nott and myself in "Types of Mankind," pp. 73-9. Two years of subsequent and exclusive devotion to this study, in France, England, and this country, have satisfied my own mind upon its absolute truth. 16 Something of the same nature, viz., that comparative philology should confine its investigations within its legitimate sphere, has been set forth as a precept, if violated in practice, in that extraordinary chapter, entitled " Ethnology v. Phonology," contributed by Prof. Max-Miiller to Chev. Bunsen's still more extraordinary and most ponderous work [Christianity and Mankind: their beginnings and prospects: in 7 volumes! See vol. iii., "Outlines of the Philosophy of Universal History, applied to Language and Religion, pp. 352, 48G, &c.) There was really no need that the erudite Chevalier should warn his readers (p. 21) that " Comte's Positivism has no place in the philosophy of history," understood a la 410 THE MONOGENISTS AND We can now appreciate the philosophic tone in which the Hum- bolclts use such terms as myths, fiction, and pretended tradition, in reference to every account purporting to give us the origin of man- kind — Semitic narrations inclusive. On the real authority of the latter, they doubtless held the same views as their great country- man, Ideler : " Traditiones semiticEe, quae in lihris Veteris Testamenti deposit* sunt et conservatse, haud quaquam sufficiunt, quippe quia recentioris sunt originis, ornni fabularum genere refertse et nimis arcto terrarum tractu circumscripta?, prretereaque tarn indoles Hebraeoruni nationi propria quam diversorum, qui singulos libros composuerunt, aucto- rum manifestum consilium doctrinam theocratic* a sacerdotum cor- pore quasi repraesentatas condendi efFecerunt, ut verse historian princi- pia multis in locis aperte negligerentur." 17 In common with their equally-renowned German contemporary, Lepsitjs, each, in his inquiries into the origin of humanity, "leaves aside the theological point of view, which has nothing to do with science." 18 "The paradisiacal myth," observes Prof. Tucn, 19 "has been generally more profoundly understood by philosophers than by theologians. Kant 20 and Schiller 21 have employed the Scripture document in elucidating physiological inquiries on the progressive development of mankind: both of these philosophers correctly remark, that the myth does not represent a debasement or sinking down from original perfection to imperfection — not a victory of sensuality over reason; but, on the contrary, it manifests the ad- Bunsen : nor could one have credited a\ priori that his learned contributor is the same person who wrote that excellent work, " The Languages of the Seat of War" (London, 2d ed., 1855.) I am not singular either in this opinion. A philologist of far severer and profounder training than the above-named scholars, M. Eknest Renan, of the Bibliotheque Imperiale, lias already remarked: "As for the ideas recently put forth by M. Max-Miiller (dans les Outlines de M. Bunsen, t. I, p. 263 et suiv. 473 et suiv.) upon the division of tongues into three families, Semitic, Arian, Touranian — this last containing everything which is neither Arian nor Semitic ! — and about the original unity of these three families, it is difficult to see in them anything else than an act of complaisance towards views that are not his own ; and one likes to believe that the learned editor of the Rig- Veda would regret that a work so little worthy of him should be too seriously discussed" (Histoire et Sysleme compart des Langues Semitiques, "Ouvrage eouronne° par l'Institut," l re partie, Paris, 1855, p. 466). 17 Heemapion, sive Rudimenta Hieroglyphicce Veterum JEgyptiorum Literatures. Pare prior, Lipsioe, 4to, 1841 ; p. 3 of Introduction. 18 Types of Mankind, p. 233. 19 Kommenlar iiber die Genesis, p. 61 : cited in "Introduction to the Book of Genesis, &c." from the German of Dr. Petek von Bohlen ; edited by James Heywoop, M. P., F. R. S. ; London, 1855; II, p. 78. 20 " Muthmasslicher Anfang des Menschengeschlects (Probable Beginning of the Human Race): Berliner Monatschrift, 1786, S l . 1."— Ibid. 21 '• Etwas iiber die erste Menschengesellschafl (On the First Human Society) : SiimmtHche Werke, 1825, Band 16 — Heyicood's Von Bohlen." THE POLYGENISTS. 411 vancement of man from a state of comparative rudeness to freedom and civilization. The historical individuality of Adam is no longer maintained'; he becomes the general representative of humanity." "It is strange," continues Dohm, "that such pains have been taken to trace to the Jews not only the origin of all the ideas of science and religion which are found among eastern nations, but even the commencement of every possible variety of usage, custom, and ceremony. The small and circumscribed people of the Hebrews, who were generally despised, and who never maintained any inter- course with other nations, by trade or by conquest, by religious missionaries or by philosophical travellers, are supposed, according to the dreams of certain learned men, to have supplied all Asia, and from thence the whole world, with religion, philosophy, and laws, and even with manners and morals" — not to mention Ethnography ! But, in Lutheran Germany, where thorough Hebraical scholarship has liberated the public mind from the thraldom of ignorant priest- craft, these reasonings are familiar to every reader of a "Kosmos for the People:" 22 " Nothing remains but to embrace the opinion, that the distinct characteristics of the human race were imprinted at all times ; or that, in general, mankind does not descend from one man and one woman, from Adam and Eve, but from several human pairs ; and to answer this question was already our purpose in the present chapter. But many of my readers will now say, that God, in the Bible, has created only one human pair. Perfectly correct. I reply to this only, that God did not write the Bible, but that Moses may have written the Pentateuch ; and that whether he actually did write (these five books), scholars do not know themselves. But we know, quite cer- tainly, that plants and animals were created at the same time, and not in several days of creation. We know, very positively, that, without -the sun, no day or night interchanges ; and that the sun was not created on the fourth, but on the first day. As certainly do we know, that neither plants nor animals could have lived pre- viously to that creation of the sun ; that the beasts, the worms, and the reptiles, were not created later than the birds ; and that Adam and Eve were not alone the first human beings upon earth." " The Semitic race," holds the latest and ablest historian of their language, Renan, 23 "is recognized almost uniquely through its nega- tive characteristics : it has neither mythology [of its own] nor epopee, neither science nor philosophy, neither fiction nor plastic arts, nor 22 Giebel, Gesckichte des Weltalls der Erde und Hirer Bewohner; Ein Kosmos furs Volke; Leipzig, 1851. 23 Histoire des Langues Simitiques (supra, note 16), p. 16, 25-6. 412 THE MONOGENISTS AND civil life." " The Semitic tongues appear to ns, from ante-historical times, cantonned in the same regions where we see them spoken even at this day, and whence they have never issued, except through Phoenician colonies and the Mussulman invasion : I mean in that peninsular space shut in at the north by the mountains of Armenia, and at the east by the mountains which bound the basin of the Tigris. "So family of tongues has travelled less, nor radiated less exteriorly : one would search in vain, beyond the southwest of Asia, for a well-marked trace of an ante-historical sojourn of the Shemites. The antique memorials of geography and of history, contained in the first pages of Genesis — pages that we have a right to regard as the common archives of the Shemitic race — can only furnish us with some conjectures about the migrations that preceded the entry of the Shemites into the region in which one would feel tempted, at first glance, to believe them to be autochthones. " The Shemites, in fact, are, without contradiction, the race which has preserved the most distinct recollection of its origins. ISTobility among them consisting uniquely in descent by straight line from the patriarch or chief of the tribe, nowhere are genealogies so much prized, — nowhere are possessed of these any so long and so authentic. Genealogy is the essential form of all primitive histories among the Shemites (miSin)- The Toledoth of the Hebrews, notwithstanding their gaps, their contradictions, and the different re-handlings which they have suffered, are certainly those historical documents that cause us to approach nearest to the origin of humanity. Whence the remarkable fact, that other races, having lost their own primitive remembrances {souvenirs), have discovered nothing better to do than to hitch themselves on to Semitic recollections : so that the origins recounted in Genesis have become, in general opinion, the origins of mankind [at large !]. " These particular recollections of the Semitic race, which about the first eleven chapters of Genesis inclose, divide themselves into two very distinct parts. During the antediluvian phase, it is a fabulous geography, to which it is very difficult to attach a positive meaning : they are fictive genealogies, of which the degrees are filled, either by the names of ancient heroes, and perhaps by some divinities that are to be found among the other Semitic populations ; or by words expressive of ideas, and of which the signification was no longer perceived. They are fragments of confused recollections, wherein dreams are mixed up with realities, very nearly as in the remembrances of early infancy. [It is impossible to display more penetration than M. Ewald has towards interpreting these antique pages. (G-esehichte des Volkes Israel; I, p. 309 et suiv.) I must say, THE POLYGENISTS. 413 however, that, in my opinion, M. Ewalcl yields a great deal too much to the temptation cf comparing the Hebraso-Semitic origines with Indo-Arian cosmogonies.]" Certainly the most philosophic of Semitic historians, the sage Ebn Khaldun, 24 has remarked, on national characteristics: "It is a curious circumstance, that the majority of the learned among the Muslims belonged to a foreign race: — very few persons of Arabian descent having obtained distinction in the sciences connected with the Law, or in those based upon human reason ; and yet the promulgator of the Law was an Arab, and the Kur'an, that source of so many sciences, an Arabic book." But perhaps the best-qualified living historiographer of Palestine, no less than the one most versed in the literature of his co-religionists, M. Munk, declares, in respect to the first chapter of Genesis : " This cosmogony is of an infantile simplicity. One must not see in it anything but a poem, — containing, indeed, some germs of science, but wherein imagination outbalances reflection ; and which it would be erroneous to judge from a scientific point of view." 23 Finally, the most rigorous amongst archaeologists whom this gene- ration has admired, viz., Letronne, registered his sentiments on popular misconceptions of Hebrew literature, in the subjoined language : " There was a time, and this time is not yet very far from ourselves, in which all the sciences were compelled to find their origin in the Bible. It was the unique basis upon which they were permitted to rise ; and narrow limits had been fixed to their expansion. The astronomer, indeed, was allowed to observe the stars and to make almanacs ; but under the condition that the earth should remain at the centre of the universe, and that the sky should continue to be a solid vault, interspersed with luminous points : the cosmographer might draw up charts ; but he was obliged to lay down the principle that the earth was a plane surface, miraculously suspended in space, and held up by the will of God. If some theologers, less ignorant (than the majority), permitted the earth to assume a round form, it was under express stipulation that there should be no antipodes. The natural history of animals was bound to speak of the reproduction of those which had been saved in the Ark : history and ethnography 24 Prolegomena; cited by MacGdckin de Slane in the Introd. of his translation of Ebn Khallikan's Kildb Wafeeat el-Adyean (Biographical Dictionary) — Oriental Translation Fund, London, 1843 ; II, p. i. 25 Palestine, Univ. Pittor., Paris, 1845; p. 426: — compare Types of Mankind, pp. 561-6; and also Pott (Moses und David keine Geologen, Berlin, 1799, pp. 35-47), who proved, 1st, that Genesis I contains no revelation ; 2d, still less a revelation of geological facts ; 3d, in no manner a revelation made to Adam or to Moses. 414 THE MONOGENISTS AND had for common basis the dispersion, over the surface of the earth, of the family of Noah. " The sciences had, therefore, their point of departure fixed and determinate ; and around each of them was traced a circle, out of which it was forbidden to them to issue, under pain of falling instantly beneath the dread censure of theologers, — who always possessed, at the service of their notions, whether good or bad, three irresistible arguments, viz., persecution, imprisonment, or the stake." 26 Thus, then, the doctrine above advocated by the Humboldts is supported, at the present hour, by the most brilliant scholarship of the European continent — as might easily be proved through quota- tions from a hundred recent works. Into parliamentary-stifled England, even, the light is beginning to penetrate. For instance, the erudition of Mr. Samuel Sharpe none will contest. ■ To his Hellenic learning we owe the most critically-accurate translation of the New Testament 27 our language possesses : to him, also, Egypto- logy, among other great services, is indebted for the best "History of Egypt" 28 derived from classical sources. His remarks "on the Book of Genesis"* 3 bear directly on the subject before us : "We have no account of when this first of the Hebrew books was written, nor by whom. It has been called one of the books of Moses ; and some small part of it may have been written by that great lawgiver and leader of the Israelites. But it is the work of various authors and various ages. The larger part, in its present form, seems to have been written when the people dwelt in Canaan and were ruled over by judges, when Ephraim and Manasseh were chief among the tribes. But the author may have had older writings to guide him in his history. It is evident, also, in numerous places, that other writers, far more modern, have not scrupled to make their own additions. We must divide it into several portions, and each portion will best explain itself." Still more recently, an English biblical scholar, of no mean pre- tensions — whose gentlemanly temper and pleasant style inspire regrets that one so truthful should be compelled, owing to the dreary atmosphere of national prejudices which surrounds him, to 26 "On the cosmographical Opinions of the Fathers of the Church, compared with the philosophical Doctrines of Greece" — Revue des Deux Mondes (3 me serie), Paris, 1834; I, p. 602. 27 The New Testament translated from Griesbach's Text. London, 12rno, Moxon, 3d ed., 1850. «* London, 8vo, Moxon, 1846. 29 Sharpe, Historic Notes on the Books of the Old and New Testaments; London, 12mo., Moxon, 1854; p. 6. THE POLYGENISTS. 415 fight, in the cause of plurality of human origins and of diversity of races, with his visor down — has put forth a volume 30 that augurs well for ethnological progress in Great Britain. The method of argu- ment, and the majority of facts advanced, will be new, however, only to the mere reader of English, — two hundred years having elapsed since Peyrerius 31 started a controversy which, on the conti- nent, has been prolific enough, down to Fabre d'Olivet and his pupil Raffinesque, 32 and still later to Klee. 33 More recently still, we find an apposite passage in Dr. August Zeune : 3i "It is known that, after the uprooting of the several Antilles by the Spaniards, Spanish ghostly divines palliated the introduction of negro slaves, for the purpose of working the mines, by the assumption that negroes, as the descendants of Ham (that is to say, the black), who was accursed 3S by his father ISToah; because Ham is named in a holy record as 'slave of all slaves among his brethren.' * * * A well-known natu- ralist, now deceased, held the wondrous opinion that Ham, after his father had cursed him, became black from grief; and was the {stamm- vater) lineal progenitor of the negroes. Which of the three sons of Noah became Kalmucks ? Genesis indicates three (Menschenschop- fungen) races, at a much earlier day, in the children of Adam, of the Elohirn, and of the Nephilim, &c. ; so that Adam appears merely as the stem-father of the Iranian race, because Paradise also points to Armenia [quoting Schiller, uber die erste Menschengesellschaft nach der Mosaichen Urkunde~\. * * * Inasmuch as, however, according to the assertion of an admired dramatist, it has not yet occurred to any- body to sustain that all figs have sprung from a solitary primitive fig, even as little can any one admit the whole of mankind to be derived (abstammen) lineally from a single human pair. Wherever the con- ditions for life were found, there life has sprung forth." * * * Did the limited size of the present work permit (its previous space being engrossed by contributions of higher order than polemical dis- cussions upon the scientific value, in anthropology, of a single nation's 80 Anonymous — The Genesis of the Earth and of Man: "A critical examination of the Hebrew and Greek Scriptures, chiefly with a view to the solution of the question, whether the Varieties of the Human Species be of more than one origin," &c. Edited by Reginald Stuart Poole, M. R. S. L., &c. Edinburgh, 12mo, Black, 1856. 31 Prm-Adamilce, sive ezercitatio super Versibus XII ra0 , XIII"™, el XIV 10 , capitis quinti Epis- tolce D. Pauli ad Romanos, 1655. 32 Langue Hebra'ique resliluee, Paris, 4to, 1815; "Cosmogonie de Moyse," pp. 55-8, 177-8.3, 211-12: — and American Nations. 33 Le Deluge, &c, Paris, 18mo, 1847; Chapter III, pp. 192-204. 34 Uber Schadelbildung zur festern Begriindang der Menschenrassen, Berlin, 4to, 1846; pp. 2-4 35 Similar anti-scriptural notions, so far as the Hebrew text is concerned, are entertained by Dr. Ward, Natural Hist, of Mankind (Society for promoting Christian knowledge), Lon- don, 12mo, 1849, p. 195. Compare Types of Mankind, voce KNAaN, pp. 495-8. 416 THE MONOGENISTS AND literature), I would endeavor, whilst striving to emulate our anony- mous author's charity and good taste, to lay before his acumen proofs that, with motives most laudable and utility unquestionable, he has tried to reconcile two things which surpass reconciliation ; and, therefore, that his praiseworthy labors will, unhappily, satisfy nei- ther the exigencies of natural science, on the one hand, nor those of rigid Hebraism, of the modern school, on the other. Yet, as a spe- cimen of his propositions, I cannot refrain from the extract of a passage or two. 36 " The narrative with which the Bible commences, ending with the third verse of the second chapter, is distinguished from that which immediately follows it, as the latter narrative also is from the third, not merely by the name given therein to Deity, but in several other respects. Its most remarkable characteristic is this : that it altoge- ther consists of a description of events which could not have been witnessed by any human being. [This is precisely the view above taken by the Humboldts.] Every one, therefore, who admits the truth of the Bible, whatever be his opinion of some other portions of it, must hold this narrative to be a revelation. "Now, we find that revelations of this kind, of which the subjects are events, were generally conveyed in representations to the sight; and hence, by the safest and most legitimate mode of judging, by comparing Scripture with Scripture [a sort of reasoning within a circle], we are led to the conclusion, that the narrative under our consideration is most probably the relation of a revelation by means of a vision, or rather a series of visions." * * * "The passages in the Bible which are commonly regarded as deciding the question re- specting the unity of the origin of the human species, demand a reverential caution of this kind [i. e., 'until we have weighed all the circumstances of the case' — antecedent paragraph~\ in him who examines them : for while these apparently indicate the origination of all mankind from a single pair of ancestors, there are others which apparently imply the existence of human beings not the offspring of Adam." * * * "If we regard Adam as the first of all mankind, this general view of the origin and development of lan- guage (Chev r . Bunsen's), supposing it to be admitted, obliges us to reduce a great part of the history of the book of Genesis to the category of faulty and vague traditions, as we have before ob- served." * * * BTow, with every deference, before exhibiting such contradictions to the eyes of the simple believer, and deducing therefrom several distinct lineages of the first men, would it not be the most prudent 36 Genesis of Hie Earth, &c. (supra); pp. 1-2, 11-2, 19, 43-4, and 181-2. THE POLYGENISTS. 417 and natural step, on the part of archaeologists, to ascertain previously the relative age, writer, and peculiarities, of each given document ? I cannot find that our author has taken these precautions ; but I read, — "the existence of pre-Adamites, without a revelation, is surely less wonderful than the fact that there have been, and still are, post- Adamites without it." * * * "These passages, though reconcilable with the general opinion respecting the origination of all mankind, seem rather to indicate the existence of nations not of the same race as the descendants of Adam, and not destroyed by the flood, and the partition of the lands of the former among certain colonies of the latter ; and an argument in favor of this inference may be drawn from the fact that the appellation here rendered 'the nations' ('haggoylm'), in other instances, which are very numerous, gene- rally, and perhaps always, denotes the nations exclusive of the people of God, or of the Israelites ; wherefore it is often rendered, in the authorized version, 'the Gentiles' and 'the heathen.' If so, we may suppose that the confusion of tongues was a consequence, not the cause, of the dispersion from Babel. The whole of the tenth chapter of Genesis seems to be parenthetic." "Parenthetically," as applied to Xth Genesis, is an adverb which, so far as my limited reading of English biblical criticism extends, first occurs in a little work in some slight degree connected with my former studies. 36 It is gratifying to find its correctness now endorsed; and still more to perceive, that the admission of the aboriginal plu- rality of Human Races, sustained here in America by the Mortonian school, compels English scholars so to modify their interpretations of king James' version, as to make the diversity-doetvme harmonize with the Scriptures — or vice versa. For my own part, I congratulate both author and editor on their ingenious and ingenuous method of smoothing a pathway for the eventual recognition, in England, of our common polygenistic views. Orthodox in treatment, if passably heretical in issues — suaviter in modo, fortiter in re — " The Genesis of the Earth and of Man " will percolate unobtrusively into the Scottish as well as the English mind; inevitably and speedily awakening echoes, of surpassing benefit to Ethnology, which books of heavier calibre could not hope to rouse up, amid such intellectual conditions, in a century ! Its publishers, therefore, need not sigh with Byron, "For through a needle it easier for a camel is To pass, than this small cant-o into families." 36 Olia Mgypliaca, London, 8vo., Madden, 1849; p. 141: — reprinted from Luke Bukkk's Ethnological Journal, London, 1848-9; and enlarged upon in Types of Mankind, Philadel- phia and London, 4to. and 8vo., 1854; pp. 466-556. s 27 418 THE MONOGENISTS AND My final corroboration of the Hnmboldts' doctrine has to be drawn from the antipodes. Strange ! Whilst amid the civilizations of Eu- rope and America no independent Ethnologic serial has hitherto been able to survive, far less to remunerate its editor, mankind's most "proper study" has found, for some ten years, asylum and patronage at Singapore ! 37 The merit is due to the genius, acquirements, and enterprise of an individual. If each of the eight zoological realms over which Agassiz distributes the various groups of mankind could boast of possessing its Mr. Logan, English science would not have to deplore the continued absence of that true spirit of ethnological investigation, coupled with perfect knowledge of the instruments to be employed, in nearly all but the Malayan. "Ethnology, in its etj'mological and narrowest sense, 38 is" — accord- ing to Logan's judgment — " the science of nations. It investigates the characteristics and history of the various tribes of man. The time seems to be already come when we may venture to define it more comprehensively as the science of the Human Race. From the investigation of the peculiarities and histories of particular tribes it rises to the conception of mankind as one race, and combining the truth which it gathers from every tribe, presents the whole as the science of the ethnic development of man. Those who may consider it premature to unite all nations in the idea of one race, can still accept the definition as indicating the science that results from a comparison of nations and their developments. Whether all men are descended from one stock or not, may be placed apart as an enquiry by itself, for those who think it worth while to pursue it in the present state of our knowledge. All are agreed that man is of one kind. If the millions who now people the earth had some hundreds of progenitors instead of a single pair, the science which the defini- tion comprises will remain unaffected." * * * * " I may state here, once for all, that ethnology can only be pur- sued as a scientific study by viewing the Hebraic religious develop- ment, and the Hebrew records, in their human aspect ; that is, as entering into the ethnic development of the Aramaean race and of the world. The supernatural element, and all the discussions respect- ing the limits of inspiration and the methods of interpretation, belong to theological science, and amongst all the discordant systems of the- " The Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia, 1847-56; edited by J. R. Logian, Singapore. 88 Journ. of the East. Indian Archip., vol. iv., 1850; "The Ethnology of the Indian Ar- chipelago ; embracing inquiries into the continental relations of the Indo-Pacific Islanders;" pp. 262, 263 note: and vol. vi., 1852 ; p. 678-9. THE POLTGENISTS. 419 ology, that can only be true which is in harmony with the truths established by the observation of God's works." ****** " There is a deep-rooted source of error in Bunsen's ethnic specu- lations, 39 as in those of many other German philosophers, the Schlegels amongst them. It is assumed that the ethnology of the ancient Hebrews, as preserved in their sacred books, is a full reflec- tion of that of the world. I have, in another place, protested against this resumption, in ethnology, of the system that has im- peded the progress of eveiy branch of knowledge in succession, from Astronomy to Geology, that of endeavoring to bind down the human mind to the science of the ancient Hebrews. There has been no divine revelation of Ethnology any more than of Geology, Zoology, or any other purely-mundane science. " We might as justly refuse to recognize the existence of plants, animals, and planets, that are not mentioned in the Bible, as base our Ethnology on that of a people who were perhaps the least ethnologic of all great civilized nations that have existed. It is obvious that any ethnic science that does not embrace every tribe and language in the world must be needlessly imperfect, and that an exclusion of large sections of the human race must render it grossly so. Now it is certain that the Hebrews were ignorant of 39 Alluding probably to the Chevalier's paper, "On the results of recent Egyptian re- searches," &c. — Three linguistic Dissertations ; Report of the British Assoc, for the Adv. of Science for 1847; London, 8vo., 1848: — because the Outlines of the Philosophy of Universal History (supra, note 16), 1854, could not have arrived at Singapore four years previously. And, while on this subject, let me repudiate the preposterously-misnamed Turanian theory, as applied to the Aborigines of America ! Conceding, to the learned Egyptologist and classi- cal scholar, the highest admiration for his acquirements in such arduous studies, it would have been prudent in him, perhaps, by withholding an endorsement of Schoolcraft's History of the Indian Tribes of North America (already five volumes, elephant quarto !), not to have exposed himself to the charge of discussing themes upon which he possesses little or no knowledge himself, and his authority, save in the capacity of recorder of the habits of such living tribes as official peregrinations afforded, but a trifle more. Chev. Bunsen labors under singular delusion, if he considers that this "great national work" [Outlines, II, pp. 111-13), carries any weight among men of science in this country. Americans feel proud, that their Legislature should have generously voted "$80,856.50" (cost of the first three volumes alone! see the North American Review, Boston, 1853, Art. XI, on Parts I, II, and III, p. 246), towards the promotion of knowledge ; Philadelphia may justly boast of the beautiful typography, splendid paper, and superb mechanical execution, of the work ; and it likewise contains several contributions of a high order from distinguished men: but I will frankly state, from personal acquaintance with scientific sentiment, during fifteen years that I have visited the best-educated States in the Union, that, in the opinion of those qualified to judge, a twenty-five-cent pamphlet could easily condense all the knowledge paraded, in these five big volumes, by its industrious author. With this respectful hint to Chev. Bunsen and Prof. Max-Muller, I postpone specifications to a more suitable occa- sion ; because, at present, with regard to this and other Washingtonian literary institutions, Nunquam concessa moveri Camarina (Virgil, Mn., Ill, 701). 420 THE MONOGENISTS AND the very existence, not only of the extensive outlying provinces of America and Asianesia, but of the great mass of the tribes of the old world. They do not appear to have cultivated a knowledge of any non-Semitic language, and consequently their ethnic notions respecting some adjacent non-Semitic tribes must have been very obscure and erroneous. It may be doubted whether their know- ledge of the Africans extended beyond the Egyptians, and their southern Miotic neighbors, the Ethiopians. The European nations were unknown to them, save through some vague impressions respecting the sea-board tribes of the S. and ~W. coasts, received from the reticinent Phoenicians. Their knowledge of the numerous nations of northern, middle, and eastern Asia, was partial and obscure. They do not appear to have had a suspicion of the existence of the great civilized peoples of the East, the Arians and the Chinese, and they were as profoundly ignorant of the Dravirians, as they were of the Germans and the ancient British. 40 Nothing can more conclusively show the extremely narrow and isolated character of their ethnology, and their rigid seclusion from time immemorial in the Semitic civilization, than the fact that they had entirely lost, and had been unable by their observations to recover, the idea of barbarism. In this respect, their ethnology is far below that, not only of Herodotus and Manu, but of other Semitic nations; such as the Arabs, the Phoenicians, and, in all probability, the Babylonians, at least in their more civilized and commercial era. It is therefore surprising to see a writer like Bunsen founding his ethnology on that of Moses, which can only be correct as a partial picture of the races of S. E. Asia, and 1ST. E. Africa, as known to the Hebrews." « Types of Mankind, Part II, pp. 466-556; with its "Genealogical Tableau" of Xth Genesis, its "Map of the World as known to" the genesiacal writer; thoroughly confirmed the deductions here drawn by Mr. Logan : and every fresh archaeologist who examines this hoary document arrives at the same conclusions. I would now refer to researches unseen by me, or unpublished, when I projected my MSS. for the above work, at Mobile, in 1852. 1st, Renan, Hist, des Langues Semitiques (supra), 1855, pp. 27-74, and 449-63: — 2d, Beegmann, Les peuples primitives de la race de Jafete. Esquisse ethno-genealogique et historique. Colmar, 8vo., 1853, p. 64: — 3d, Rawlinson, Notes on the Early History of Babylonia; London, 8vo., 1854, pp. 1-2, note: — 4th, Heywood's Von Bohlen, (supra, note 19), Introd. to the Booh of Genesis, London, 1855; II, pp. 210-54: — and 5th, as the most important, because devoted exclusively to analysis of this subject; August Knobel, Hie Volkerlafel der Genesis. Elhnographische Untersuchungen ; Giessen, 8vo., 1850. I was not aware of this masterly book, until many months after the publication of my own studies in " Types of Mankind." It was subsequently indicated to me at Paris, by my valued friend M. Renan. With no small gratification, I afterwards discovered that Dr. Knobel's results and my own were always similar, often identical. Compare pp. 9, 13, 137-7, 167, 170, 339-52, for particular instances, with the same points discussed in "Types." THE POLYGENISTS. 421 Such are some of the true principles for embracing, in these in- quiries, Hebrew ethnography, as an inestimable, but, in reality, a very minor part of the World's ethnology : at the same time that, through the above extracts, we perceive but a small portion of the uncertainties and perils, that beset this new and ill- appreciated study. — "And yet," indignantly, but most righteously exclaims Luke Burke, " And yet this is the science on which every man is competent to pass an opinion with oracular emphasis ; the science to which missionaries dictate laws, and which pious believers find written out, ready to their hands, in the book of Genesis. The science, in a word, which a whole tribe of comparative philologists, with a fatuity almost inconceivable, have coolly withdrawn from the control of zoology, and settled to their own infinite satisfaction, as per catalogue of barbarian vocabularies." The really learned are perplexed with doubt, or appalled with difficulty : the true naturalist approaches with diffidence, or states his opinion without dogmatism or tenacity ; but the theologian is perfectly at home, and has arranged every thing long ago. The land is his by right Divine, his own peculiar appanage ; and with the authority of a master he peremptorily decides, that a science, to which even the distant future will scarcely be able to do proper justice, shall receive its laws and inspirations from the remote and ridiculous past." 42 Having thus fortified what I deem to be the " ultima ratio," above put forth on Human Origins, by the brothers Humboldt conjointly, it may be interesting to dissect some sentences of that magnificent paragraph ; in order that we may not unwittingly ascribe to Wil- helm, the philologist, the more decided opinions of his brother Alex- ander, whose universality of science precludes special classification. And first, it seems ominous to the "Unity-doctrine, that the most brilliant philologer of his day should have left a manuscript, " On the Diversity of Languages and of Nations." This manuscript, however, being unpublished, no positive deduc- tion can be drawn from its mere title ; but the treatise must possess some elements distinguishing it from the elder work, long honored by the scientific world : "Uber die Verschiedenheit der menschlichen Sprachbaues;" On the Diversity of Structure of Human Languages, — contained in Wilhelm von Humboldt's researches into the "Kawi- 41 This applies especially to an inexhaustible, learned, and laborious ethnological "cata- logue-maker," Dr. Latham. Vide the Brighton Examiner, October 2, 1855 — for a critique by Mr. Luke Burke, of "Dr. Latham's Lecture on 'Ethnology.'" 42 Charleston Medical Journal and Review, Charleston, S. C, vol. XI, No. 4, July 1856 — ■ "Strictures," &c, by Luke Burke, Esq., Editor of the London Ethnological Journal — pp. 457-8. 422 THE MONOGENISTS AND tongue, in the island of Java;" 43 elsewhere cited in Cosmos. One of these passages is noteworthy, not only for the law it enunciates, but also for the variety of rendering it has received: German Original. 14 — -"Die Sprache umschlingt mehr, als sonst etwas im Menschen, das ganze Geschlecht. Gerade in ihrer volkertrennenden Eigenschaft vereinigt sie durch das Wechselverst'andnisz frenidartiger Rede die Verschiedenheit der Individualitaten, ohne ihrer Eigenthiimlichkeit Eintrag zu rhun. (A. a 0. S. 427.) " Sabine's Translation. 45 — "Language, more than any other faculty, binds mankind together. Diversities of idiom produce, indeed, to a certain extent, separation between nations ; but the necessity of mutual understanding occasions the acquirement of foreign languages, and reunites men without destroying national peculiarity." Otte's Translation. 46 — "Language, more than any other attribute of mankind, binds together the whole human race. By its idiomatic properties, it certainly seems to separate nations ; but the reciprocal understanding of foreign languages connects men together, on the other hand, without injuring individual national characteristics." Guigniaut's Translation. 4 ' — " Le langage, plus qu'aucune autre faculty de 1'homme, forme un faisceau de l'espece humaine tout entlere. E semble, au premier abord, se'parer les peuples comme les idiomes ; mais c'est justement la necessity de s' entendre re'ciproque- ment dans une langue etrangere qui rapproche les individualite's, en laissant a, chacune son originality propre." That the organs of speech enahle mankind to interchange their thoughts, is one of those truisms to question which would be absurd. Speech is an inherent attribute of the "genus homo ;" just as mewing is to the feline, and barking to the canine : hut it does not follow that, because a Lapp might by some chance acquire G-uarani, a Tasmanian English, an Arab Korean, a Mandingo Madjar, an Esqui- mau Tamul, or, what is more possible, that a thorough-bred Israeli- tish emigrant from ancient Chaldea (his own national tongue being forgotten) might now be found speaking any one of these tongues as his own vernacular, — it does not follow, I repeat, either that humanity is indivisible into groups of men linguistically, as well as physically and geographically, distinct in origin ; or that "Wilhelm von Humboldt thought so : any more than because u felis catus Angorensis" of Turkish Angora "mews" like "felis brevieaudata" of Japanese Nippon, and both these animals like "felis domestica ccerulia" of Siberian Tobolsk, 48 that these three cats are necessarily 43 Ueber die Kawi-Sprache auf der Insel Java, Berlin, 4to, 1836. Cardinal Wiseman fre- quently quotes it eulogistically in his Connection between Science and revealed Religion. 44 Op. cit. {supra, p. 407), p. 493. 45 Supra (note 10) — Cosmos, I, p. cxv, note 443. 46 Supra (note 6) — Cosmos, I, p. 359, note. 47 Supra (note 1) — Cosmos, I, pp. 579-80, note 43. 48 Not being myself a zoologist, it may be well to shield assertions, on this cai-question, with the authority of one who is. Prof. S. S. Haldeman remarks: "Thus, the cat mummies of Egypt were said to be identical with the modern Felis domestica ; and such was the general opinion, until the discovery, of Dr. Riippell, of the genuine analogue of the embalmed species, in the Felis maniculata of Noubia. I believe Professor Bell to be THE POLTGENISTS. 423 of the same blood lineage, identical species, or proximate geogra- phical origin: notwithstanding that, amongst other "philosophical aphorisms," Bunsen — with whom philology and ethnology are syno- nymes through which we shall recover, some day, the one primeval language spoken by the first pair, who are now accounted to be "beatorum in coelis" — declares, "that physiological inquiry [one, as we all know, completely outside of the range of his high education and various studies], although it can never arrive by itself at any conclusive result, still decidedly inclines, on the whole, towards the theory of the unity of the human race."! 49 I have no hopes, in view of his eai'ly education and present time of life, that the accom- plished Chevalier will ever modify such orthodox opinion ; but readers of the present volume may perhaps discover some reasons for differing from it. But, even under the supposition that Wilhelm von Humboldt, in his now-past generation, when writing " on the Diversity of Lan- guages and Peoples," may have speculated upon the possibility of reducing both into one original stock, it will remain equally certain, that, in such assumed conclusion, he was biassed by no dogmatical respect for myths, fiction, or pretended teadition (ubi supra) ; and furthermore that, if he grounded his results on the " Kawi Sprache," he inadvertently built upon a quicksand ; as subsequent researches have established. Amongst scientific travellers and enlightened Orientalists of Eng- land, the venerable author of the "History of the Indian Archipe- lago " has long stood in the foremost rank. His speciality of inves- tigation occupied — " a period of more than forty years, twelve of which were passed in countries of which the Malay is the vernacular or the popular language, and ten in the compilation of materials ;" — of which a recent 50 "Dissertation" embodies not merely the pre- cious ethnographical issue ; but, through his method of analysis and depth of logic, superadded to vast practical knowledge of his theme — combined with sterling common sense, its author has produced what, in my individual opinion, must become the model text-book, correct in deciding that Felis domestica can neither be referred to this species, nor to the Felis catus found wild in the forests of Europe." {Recent Freshwater Mollusca, which are common to North America and Europe, Boston Jour, of Nat. Hist., Jan. 1844, pp. 6-7.) 48 Outlines (supra, p. 102), I, p. 46. " Multse terricoiis linguae, coelestibus una," is another way of stating such axiom. How did this last writer know that people do talk one language in heaven? Can he show us whether the "dead" have speech at all? During some gene- rations, the Sorbonne, at Paris, discussed, in schoolboys' themes, a coherent enigma, viz., An sancti resurgant cum intestinis — not a less difficult problem for such youths' pedagogues ! 50 A Grammar and Dictionary of the Malay Language, with a preliminary Dissertation ; 2 vols. 8vo., London, 1852. Our citations are from I. pp. 35-6, 128-9. 424 THE MONOGENISTS AND to sincere students of comparative philology. Here science feels itself relieved from verbal transcendentalism, so sublime that it is meaningless, in Avhich the hybrid school of Anglo-German ethnolo- gists delights : and this volume, at any rate, does not " teach gram- mar as if there were no language, geography as if there were no earth." Mr. Crawfurd, — unlike some of his English contemporaries who, grouping into little catalogues all the tongues known or un- known upon earth, of which it is materially impossible that any one man's brain, or lifetime, could gather even the rudiments, proclaim that " philology proves the unity" of human origins — Mr. Crawfurd thoroughly understands his subject, and writes so that even ourselves can understand him. " There exists in Java, as in Northern and Southern India, in Cey- lon, in Birma, and Siam, an ancient recondite language, but it is not, as in those countries, any longer the language of law and religion, but a mere dead tongue. This language goes under the name of Kawi, a word which means 'narrative,' or 'tale,' and is not the spe- cific name of any national tongue. Most probably it is a corruption of the Sanscrit kavya, ' a narration.' In Java there are found many inscriptions, both on brass and stone, the great majority of which, on examination, are found to consist of various ancient modifications of the present written character." *******<< Some writers have supposed the Kawi to be a foreign tongue, introduced into Java at some unknown epoch, but there is no ground for this notion, as its general accordance with the ordinary language plainly shows. Independent of its being the language of inscriptions, it is, also, that of the most remarkable literary productions of the Javanese, among which, the most celebrated is the Bratayuda, or ' war of the descend- ants of Barat,' a kind of abstract of the Hindu Mahabarat." * * * (probable date, about a. d. 1195). In it, "near 80 parts in 100, or four-fifths of the Kawi, are modern Javanese." ***** ""When, therefore, it is considered that the Kawi is no longer the language of law or religion, but merely a dead language, it is not difficult to understand how it comes to be so little understood ; while, in deci- phering inscriptions, the difficulty is enhanced by an obsolete cha- racter." * * * * "Kawi is only an antiquated Javanese." " The illustrious philosopher, linguist, and statesman, the late Ba- ron William Humboldt, has, in his large work on the Kawi of Java, expressed the opinion that the Tagala of the Philippines is the most perfect living specimen of that Malayan tongue, which, with other writers, he fancies to have been the parental stock from which all the other tongues of the brown race in the Eastern Archipelago, the Philippines, the islands of the Pacific, and even the language of Ala- THE FOLTGENISTS. 425 dagascar, have sprung. I cannot help thinking that this hypothesis, maintained with much ingenuity, must have originated in this emi- nent scholar s practical unacquaintance ivith any one language of the many which came under his consideration ; and that, had he possessed the necessary knowledge, the mere running over the pages of any Philippine dictionary would have satisfied him of the error of his theory. I conclude, then, by expressing my conviction that, as far as the evidence yielded by a comparison of the Tagala, Bisaya, and Pampanga languages with the Malay and Javanese goes, there is no more ground for believing that the Philippine and Malayan languages have a common origin, than for concluding that Spanish and Portu- guese are Semitic languages, because they contain a few hundred words of Arabic, or that the Welsh and Irish are of Latin origin, because they contain a good many words of Latin ; or that Italian is of Gothic origin, because it contains a far greater number of words of Teutonic origin than any Philippine language does of Malay and Javanese." 51 How Crawfurd disposes of the Malayan tongues, segregating this group victoriously from all others, has been previously indicated in M. Maury's chapter, [ante. pp. 79-80]. Our purpose is answered by publishing, in the said chapter, proofs that linguistic science has pro- gressed considerably since 1836, when the disquisition on the "Kawi- sprache" was written ; and that, while to Wilhelm von Humboldt is gratefully accorded the highest position in philology as it stood 20 years ago, it is injustice to the memory of a great man to quote his authority as tantamount to a finality, when he himself (were he now alive) would have kept pace with the latest discoveries in science, as when, — to his honor be it recognized — -he was the first qualified critic, out of France, to welcome and promote Champollion-le-Jeune's hieroglyphical decipherings ; 52 unappalled himself, if others were not, at the storm which ignorance and superstition everywhere had raised against the immortal Frenchman. It is to the surviving brother that Ideler dedicates his work — "Alexandra ab Humboldt, German orum quotquot fuere, sunt, erunt- que decori sacrum." In his own person, the nonogenerian patriarch 61 See also The Westminster Review, No. xviii, April, 1856; London ed., Art. iii. on "Types of Mankind;" pp. 373-5. In thanking the reviewer for the fairness of his critique upon our work, let me point out two oversights contained in his obliging article: 1st. — (p. 361) Prof. Agassiz never created a " Hottentot" realm ; but merely included a Hottentot Fauna in his "African" realm (see Types, p. lxxvii.) : 2d. — (p. 367) by referring, as I have done, to Morton's Illustrated System of Human Anatomy (p. 151), he will find that the Doctor wrote "a climate as cold as Ireland," not Iceland: so that there remains no "double mis take," except the pair above committed by the reviewer. 52 Ideler, Hermapion (supra, note 17) ; chap. XXXI, " Lettre de M. le Baron Guillaume de Humboldt a M. Champollion." 426 THE MONOGENISTS AND of science seems likely to realize Flouren's proposed law, 53 viz : that the true length of human life should not fall below one hundred years : and certainly there lives no man to whom mankind owe a more fer- vent tribute of good wishes. Others are better qualified than the present writer to show how ceaselessly Baron Alexander de Hum- boldt steps onward, day by day, as leader in multitudinous fields of Natural Science ; but should Egyptology be taken as the criterion of his ever-progressing knowledge, then we need, in order to plant some pickets along tbe route, but to re-open his Cosmos?* and to peruse some of Lepsius's 55 and Brugsch's writings. 56 Nevertheless, supposing that we take a step backwards of some 47 years from this day, when Baron de Humboldt stood already at the meridian of his glorious life, and open the beautiful Introduction with which, in 1810, he prefaced the "Vues des Cordilleras, 57 we perceive how, at that day — one generation and a half ago, — he felt overjoyed at having then lived to witness the appearance of the great French work, the "Description de l'Egypte," fruit of Napoleon Bonaparte's eastern campaigns of 1778-1800, — which grand folios, except for architectural designs of ancient, and excellent views and disquisitions of modern Egypt, have, since Champollion's era, 1822- 32, become, arehseologically speaking, almost so much waste paper. Yet, at that time (to most men under fifty, in this our XLXth century, remote day), Alexander von Humboldt had already arrived at the following philosophical conclusions about the " unity of the human species." "Le problem e de la premiere population de l'Amerique n'est plus du ressort de l'histoire, que les questions sur l'origine des plantes et des animaux et sur la distribution des germes organiques ne sont du ressort des science naturelles. L'histoire, en remontant aux epoques les plus reculees [which, in A. D. 1810, meant only to about 1000 years before Christ; inasmuch as those revelations, on some 8000 years pre- viously to the latter era, derived since from the petroglyphs of the Nile, the Euphrates, and the Tigris, had not been dreamed of, much less com- menced'], nous montre presque toutes les parties du globe occupees par des hommes qui se croient aborigines, parce qu'ils ignorent leur filiation. Au milieu d'une multitude de peuples qui se sont 53 De la Longimlc Surname et de la quantite de Vie sur le globe; Paris, 12mo, 1855, p. 86, viz: that the natural length of animal life is frve times the time it takes to "unite the bones with their epiphyses;" which process, in man, takes effect at about 20 years of age. M OiWs Transl., II, pp. 124-8. K Briefe aus JEgypien, JEthiopien, §c, Berlin, 1852; "Vorwort." 66 Reiseberichte aus JEgypien, Berlin, 1855; "Vorwort;" and Grammalica Demotica, 1855. 6' Hcmboldt et Bomplakd, Voyage, Atlas Pittoresque, Paris, folio, 1810. THE POL YGEISTISTS. 427 succedes et meles les uns aux autres, il est impossible de reconnoitre avec exactitude la premiere base de la population, cette couclie primitive au dela de laquelle commence le domaine des traditions cosmogoniques. "Les nations de l'Amerique, a l'exception de celles qui avoisinent le cercle polaire, forment une seule race caraeterisee par la conforma- tion du crane, par la couleur de la peau, par l'extreme rarete de la barbe, et par des cbeveux plats et lisses. La race americaine a des rapports tres-sensibles avec celle des peuples mongoles qui renferme les descendans des Hiong-nu, connus jadis sous le nom de Huns, les Kalkas, les Kalmucks, et les Bourattes. Des observations recentes ont meme prouve que non seulement les babitants a, Unalaska, mais aitssi plusieurs peuplades de l'Amerique meridionale, indiquent par des caracteres ostCologiques de la tete, un passage de la race americaine [not across the Pacific nor the Atlantic, but in physiological gradation], a. la race mongole. Lorsqu'on aura mieux etudie les bommes bruns de l'Afrique et cet essaim de peuples qui babitent 1'interieure et le nord-est de l'Asie, que des voyageurs systematiques designent vague- ment sous les noms de Tartars et de Tscboucles, les races cancasienne, mongole, americaine [this last group of humanity was explored 30 years later, and to Baron de Humboldt's satisfaction, 58 by Morton, in his "Crania Americana"], malaye et negre paroitront moins isolees [Morton's school now think the contrary established], et Ton recomioitra, dans cette grande famille du genre bumain, un seul type organique modifie par des circonstances qui nous resteront peut-etre a jamais inconnues." * * * "JSTous ne connaissons jusqu'ici aueun idiome de l'Amerique qui, plus que les autres, semble se lier a un des groupes nombreux de langue asiatiques, africaines, on europeennes." 59 Indeed, as tbe same illustrious writer says elsewbere, 60 these dis- cussions, which we call neiv, "sur l'unite de l'espece humaine et de ses deviations d'un type primitif," and about the peopling of America, agitated the minds of its first Spanish historians, Acosta, Oviedo, G-arcia, &c, — on all which consult the learned compendium of Dr. McCulloh. 61 As a final illustration of tbe eagle-eye with which Humboldt seizes each discoveiy of physical science as it is made, the German and French editions of Kosmos itself furnish a happy instance. The first 63 See the Baron's congratulatory letter to Dr. Morton, in Types of Mankind, pp. xxxiv-v. 69 Vues des Cordilleras, pp. vii-viii, x. 60 JSxamen critique de I'histoire de la Qeographie du Nouveau Continent el des progris de V Aslronomie naulique aux 15 me et 16 me siecles, Paris, 1836, I, "Considerations," pp. 5, G. 61 Researches, Philosophical and Antiquarian, concerning the Aboriginal History of America, Baltimore, 1829, "Introduction," and passim. 428 THE MONOGENISTS AND volume of the former appeared in Germany during April, 1843. "II fut considere (says M. Faye,) 62 comme l'expression fidele de 1'etat des sciences physiques." In that year but 11 planets were known to astronomers. But, by 1846, on the issue of the French version, M. Hencke, of Driessen, having discovered another, it became incumbent upon its translator to count 12 : — "Mais les appreciations de M. de Humboldt n'en ont recu aucune atteinte ; au contraire, cette decou- verte leur apporte une force nouvelle, une verification de plus." How many more have turned up since, I do not know. Prof. Riddell already enumerated " thirty- eight known asteroids, 63 at New Orleans in February 1856. Can any one suppose that Baron de Humboldt, residing in the centre of royal science at Potsdam, is not at this hour more precisely informed ? Consequently, if my individual convictions happen to differ from the ethnological doctrine of Baron de Humboldt, I wish critics to compre- hend that I am fully aware of the enormous disparity existing between our respective mental capacities and attainments ; and whilst, on my side, the consciousness of his superiority serves to increase my admi- ration, I cannot but congratulate myself that, — however other great authorities may be found to agree with, or to contradict him, on the question of human monogenism or polygenism — in rejecting "myths," "fiction," and "pretended tradition," I find myself merely and implicitly following in the wake of Alexander von Humboldt. So high, indeed, is my individual reverence for the authority of Humboldt, that, in the present essay, my part chiefly confines itself to setting forth his ethnological opinions in juxtaposition to other great men's; leaving the unprejudiced reader to form his own judg- ment, as to the side on which scientific truth holds the preponde- rance. With the ethics, said to be involved in such problem, I do not particularly concern myself: my own notions in this matter being similar to those of my lamented collaborator Dr. Henry S. Patterson f* viz : that, inasmuch as the religious dogma of man- kind's Unity of origin has never yet instigated the different races of men to act toward each other like "brothers," it might still occur, in a distant future, that, wben the antagonistic doctrine of Diversity shall be recognized as attesting one of Nature's organic laws, such change of theory may possibly superinduce some altera- tion of practice; and then that men of distinct lineages may become, as I desire, more really-humane in their mutual intercourse. If under the monogenistic hypothesis, mankind cannot well be worse off 62 Cosmos, Tr. e South Wales and Van Diemen's Land, London, 8vo, 1845; pp. 346-7: — -Jacquinot, Zoologie, II, p. 109: — Knox, Races, p. 190. 111 Quor et Gtaimarb, Voy. de I' Astrolabe, 1826-9; Zoologie, Paris, 8vo, 1830; I, p. 46: — D'Omalius d'Halloy, Des Races Surnames, 1845 ; p. 186. THE POLYGENISTS. 443 not merely to produce an intermediate race, but to leave more than one or two adult specimens of their repugnant unions ; nor are there reports either of hybrids, resulting from the mixture of Europeans with the Andamanes of the hay of Bengal: — then, in the ultra-tropi- cal parts of America, as well as in its southern or tropical States, mulattoes, produced by intercourse between exotic Europeans of the white race, with equally-exotic African females of the black, die out, unless recrossed by one or other of the parental stocks, in three or four generations: 112 — then, in Egypt, the Memlooks, or "Ghuz," originally male slaves 113 of the Uzbek, Ouigour and Mongol races, and afterwards kept up by incessant importations of European, Turkish, Circassian, and other white boys (intermixed with negro slaves), were not only unable to rear half-caste children to recruit their squadrons ; — but, whilst their blood-stains are scarcely yet obliterated on the battlements of the Cairine-Citadel since their slaughter in 1811, not a trace survives of their promiscuous philo- gamy among the Fellah population of the Nile : — then, in Algeria, the Moorish [Mauri), or Mauresque 114 inhabitants of seaboard cities, [in a climate which, except in depressed agricultural localities (where the 3Ioors do not reside), is like that of southern Spain] unstrength- ened (as of yore in the piratical clays when Christian captives of all shades, and negro prisoners of every hue, thronged their slave- bazaars) by the perpetual influx of new and vigorous blood, — are dying off at a fearful rate 115 through the inexorable laws of hybridity ; at the same time that, after twenty-five years of experimental agri- 112 Nott, Natural Hist, of the Caucasian and Negro Races, Mobile, 1844; pp. 16-7, 19, 28. 30-5 -.—Biblical and Physical Hist, of Man ; New York, 1849 ; pp. 30-47. 113 Klapeoth, Tableaux de VAsie, Paris, 1826, pp. 121-2. Ebn Khaledoon, Histoire des Berberes et des Dynasties Musulmanes de V Afrique Septentrionale, Transl. de Slane, Alger, 1851, II, p. 49 — and Note from Quatremere (Mem. sitr I'Eggpte, II, p. 356). 114 Carette, Exploration Scientifique de V Algerie, 1840-2, Paris, 1853; III, pp. 306-10, for intermixture of Races, &c. Pascal-Duprat, Essai Historique sur les Races anciennes el modernes de V Afrique Septentrionale, Paris, 1845; pp. 217, 240-64: — but the best definition of the varied inhabitants of that part of Barbary may be seen in Rozet (Voyage dans la Regence d' Alger, Paris, 1833), who, among the "sept varifitfa d'hommes bien distinctes les vines des autres ; les Berblres, les Maures, les negres, les Arabes, les Tares et les Koulouglis," clearly strikes out the mixed populace of Maures (Moors): and proves, as well their hy- bridity, as the misconceptions (Shakspeare's Othello to wit) prevalent about their name "Moor" (II, pp. 1-3, 51-2). On the opposite side, consult Bertherand, Medecine el Hygiene des Arabes, Paris, 1855; pp. 174, 556. 115 Boudin, Hisloire Slatistique de la colonisation et de la Population en Algerie, Paris, 1853 ; pp. 5, 21, 30: — See also Knox (Races of Men, pp. 197-210), who acknowledges that he derives his information from a former publication of the highest authority in these ques- tions, my honored friend, M. le Dr. Boudin, Me'decin en Chef de l'Hopital Militaire du Roule, Paris (Lettres sur V Algerie, 1848). I await with great expectations, having seen some of its proof-sheets at Paris, Dr. Boudin's Traile de Stalislique et de Geographic medicales (now "sous presse chez Bailliere"), for complete establishment of all these positions. 444 THE MONOGENISTS AND culture, civil, military, and convict, through which myriads of colonists have perished, it has become a settled fact in the Imperial administration that, as tillers of the soil, Frenchmen can never colonize Barhary ; 116 [like the English in Hindostan, the Dutch in Malayana, the Spaniards in South America, and the Portuguese in Africa, France must employ native labor — that of the indigenous "adscripti glebse," viz., the Berber race, or its exotic congener the Arab] : — and then, finally, not to burthen the page with illustrations that every country in the world can supply, if history, which means experience (the only test recognized by Miiller, Leidy, and by archae- ology), be taken as a criterion, we have yet to learn whether the greatest nations have not developed themselves through the union of proximate "species," and the most deplorable arisen through that of remote ones. To explain my conception, two references will at present suffice : first, to our last publication, 117 for Dr. ISTott's definition of ethnic sub- divisions of ' species ;' and next, to the work of our learned friend Count A. de Gobineau ; 11S from whom — however I may differ in trifles relating to his fundamental theory of the Arian origin of all civili- zation, or to his classifications of Xth Genesis — ethnology, in his three chapters on the Romans, derives one of the most masterly elucida- tions ever penned by any historian. Nor is this eulogium merely a prejudice of my own ; three of the best-informed and critical scholars of England, to whom I lent M. de Gobineau's volumes, coinciding entirely in such hearty acknowledgment. The following specimen will be new to the general reader : — " But there appeared once, in the history of decaying peoples, a man strenuously indignant at the debasement of his nation ; dis- cerning with eagle eye, through the mists of false prosperity, the abyss toward which a general demoralization was dragging the com- monwealth; and who, master of all the means for action, — birth, riches, talents, personal standing, high appointments — found him- self, at the same time, robust in sanguinary nature, and determined not to shrink from the use of any resource. This surgeon — this butcher, if you please — this august scoundrel, if you like it better — this Titan — showed himself in Rome at the moment when the re- public, drunk with crimes, with dominion, and with triumphal us Desjobekt, L'Algerie, 1847; pp. 5-8, 23-29:— Id. Discours in the Assemble Na- tionale Legislative, Session de 1850, pp. 8-18 : — Id., Documents Statistiques sur VAlgerie, 1851, pp. 3-5. Dr. Nott has enlarged upon these new facts in his Chap. IV, ante. U' Types of Mankind, pp. 81, 407-10. us Essai sur V Inegalile des Races Humaines, 1855; III, Chap. V, VI, VII; especially pp. 274-7. THE POL YGENISTS. 445 exhaustion, gnawed by the leprosy of every vice, was rolling itself over and over towards an abyss. He was Lucius Cornelius Stlla. * * * "At the end of a long career, after efforts of which the measure of intensity is the violence accumulated, Sylla, despairing of the future — melancholy, worn out, discouraged — abdicated of his own accord the dictator's hatchet ; and, resigning himself to live unoccu- pied in the midst of that patrician or plebeian populace which still shuddered at sight of him, he proved, at least, that he was not a mere vulgar and ambitious politician; and that, having recognized the inanity of his hopes, he cared not to preserve a sterile power. * * * " There really existed no chance of his success. The populace he wished to bring back to the manners and discipline of the olden time, resembled in nothing that republican people who had practised them. To convince oneself, it suffices to compare the ethnic elements of the days of Cincinnatus [b. c. 460] with those existing at the epoch when the great dictator lived [b. c. 188-81]. Time of Cincinnatps. Time of Stlla. 1 Sabines, in majority ; ■I EUiiscans, a few; ItaliotSy a few. Sabines, Samnites, SabeRians, Sicilies, _ Hellenes, a few. 1st. Intermixed majority of white and yellow [dark] races ; 2d. Very feeble Semitic Im- migration. Jtalwts, crossed with Hellenic blood. ltcdwts. Greelcs of Magna Qracia, and from Sicily; Hellenists of Asia; Shemites of Asia ; Shemites of Africa; t Shemites of Spain. 1st. Majority Semiti- cized; 2d. Minority Arian : 3d. Extreme subdivi- sion of the yellow [dark] principle." It is impossible to bring back into the same frame-work two nations which, under the same name, resemble each other so little," very correctly observes M. de Gobineau : and I will only add that, when ethnologists apply this excellent method of analysis to every nation, — especially to these United States of America — they will obtain practical results undreamed of by literary historians, who, believing in the "Unity of the human Species," have neither any idea of these amalgamations of distinct races, nor of their natural, and therefore inevitable, consequences for good or evil. Again reverting to our questions as to the word "species," after stripping away sophistries that encumber such vague term, let me ask, — does any one pretend, when races are called by their intelli- gible names, that carnal intercourse between an Eskimo and a Ne- gress ever originated what we understand by a Greek, — between a Dane and a Dyak, an Arab, — between a Tungousian and an Israelite, 446 THE MONOGENISTS AND a New Zealander, — or between a Botocudo and a Tasmanian, a Bfant- chou Tartar, a Lapp, a BecJwuana, or perchance a Kelt ? In every one of these imaginary, and, anciently, geographically-impossible unions, each fecund act of coition could produce but a "half-breed;" intermediate, that is, between any two races. One feels ashamed, now that transformation of one " species " of animal into another through the exploded power of metamorphosis, in former days of ignorance attributed to climate, is rejected, as contrary to experience, by all living naturalists (even the theological) — one really blushes to descend to such common-place methods of illustration ; but the neces- sity is imperious in view of the amount of perversion and mediaeval credulity still passing currently as regards the study of Man. A.nd when Blumenbach 119 and Ism. Geoffroy St. Hilaire, 130 Btjr- dach 121 and Lucas, 122 Berard 123 and Girou de Buzareingues, 124 Walker 125 and Chevreull, 126 Flourens 127 and Morton, 128 Vogt 129 and Priaulx, 130 pile up instances' (among mammifera alone), whereby the so-called laws of "species," and often too of "genera," are set at naught by contradictory facts, is it not folly in ethnologists to go on wasting their time about the encyclopaedic meaning of an Anglicized foreign bisyllable, which every true naturalist of the pre- sent day is forced to qualify with explanatory adjectives, according to his individual acceptation of its sense ? Voltaire pithily remarks — " Ce qu'on peut expliquer de vingt manieres differentes ne merite d'etre explique d'aucune:" — and for myself, I have long ago dis- carded its use in ethnography, — substituting " Type" when I intend to designate men whose physical appearance stands in strongest con- trast to that of others (ex. gr. Swedes and Negritos, Chaymas and Georgians, Kourilians and Mandaras, Taitians and Yakuts) ; or "Race" where the distinction is not so strongly characterized (as between Italians and Greeks, Jews and Arabs, Malgaches and Ma- 119 De Generis ffumani varielate nativa, 1781 ; pp. 7-11. 120 Bisloire ginHrah et particulate des Anomalies de V Organisation, Paris, 1832 ; i. pp. 221-6. ' M Traite de Physiologie, trad. Jourdan, Paris; 2d vol. 1838, pp. 182-5, 261-70. ' 122 Traite" philosophique et physiologique de V Se'redite Nalurelle, Paris, 1847; i. pp. 193-209; ii. pp. 177-329. 123 Cours de Physiologie, Paris, 1850-55. »» De la Generation, Paris, 8to., 1828; pp. 124-132, 307-8. 125 On Intermarriage, London, 8vo. 1838 ; — and Physiognomy founded on Physiology, 1834. 126 Journal des Savants, Juin, 1846; p. 357. 12J De la Longiviti Eumaine, Paris, 1855; pp. 106-161. 128 Nott, in Types of Mankind, chap. xii. and p. 724, notes, cites all important papers of Dr. Morton. 129 Carl Vogt, Hohlerglaube .und Wissenschaft, Wiessen, 1855; pp. 59-67. 130 Osmond de Beauvoir Priaxjlx, Quaisliones Mosaicce, London, 1842 — on "breeding in and in," pp. 471-83. THE POLYGENISTS. 447 lays) ; 131 but in no case do I affirm by employment of such terms, whilst in most cases doubting, with the illustrious Humboldts, the common pedigree of any two of such types, or races, back to a mythic single pair called "Adam and Eve." "Hence, then," I accept Marcel de Serres's rule, disputing only the accuracy of the facts through which he would endeavor to elimi- nate mankind from its action — " generation ought, it seems, to be considered as the type of species, and the only foundation upon which it can be established in a certain and rational manner :" 132 guarding it with the language of the learned Colonel Hamilton Smith, 133 viz : — that, " if no better argument, or more decisive fact can be adduced, than that axiom which declares, that ' fertile offspring constitute the proof of identity of species,' we may be permitted to reply, that as this maxim does not repose upon unexceptionable facts, it deserves to be held solely in the light of a criterion, more convenient in syste- matic classification than absolutely correct." Should these views meet with favor among fellow-students in the Mortonian school of ethnology, it will become (save and except for their always meritorious collection of facts) almost a work of super- erogation to inquire what individual of former sustainers of the " unity of the human species" deserves to be classified under the letter B. Thus Camper, 134 Lacepede, 135 Lesson, 136 or Griffith, 137 — each a mas- ter in mammalogy, without reference to their copyists innumerable, — are maintainers of human unity of species on zoological grounds ; as are likewise Walchnaer, 138 Haller, 139 Pitta, 140 "Wagner, 141 Bakker, 142 131 See Blanchaed, in Dumoutier's Anthropologic, Paris, 1854, pp. 18-9. 132 Essaisur les Cavernes a Ossements, Paris, 8vo., 3d ed., 1838; pp. 234, 268, 398. 133 Natural History of the Human Species; Edinburgh, 12mo., 1848; p. 21 : — compare Des- moulins (Races Humaines, pp. 194-7), for certain limits of this law of generation. 134 (Euvrcs de Pierre Camper qui out pour objet VHisioire Nalurelle, la Physiologic el VAna- tomie comparee, Paris, 8vo., 1803; ii. p. 453. 1 35 Hisloire Nalurelle de P Homme, Paris, 18mo., 1821 ; p. 183. 136 Zoologie, Paris, 1826, 4to. ; i. p. 34 — in Duperrey, Voy. de la Coquille, 1822-5: also, Ibid. Races Humaines, in Complement des (Euvres de Buffon, Paris, 1828; i. p. 44. 137 Translation of Cuvier's Animal Kingdom, London, 4to., 1827; i. Introd. p. xi. ; and "Supplemental History of Man," p. 178, seq. 138 Essai sur Phistoire de PEspece humaine, Paris, 8vo., 1798, p. 10; — and Cosmologie, ou Description gener ale de la Terre, Paris, 8vo. 1816; pp. 159-61. 139 Elem. Physiol., p. vii. lib. xxviii. \ xxii. 140 Influence of Climate on the Human Species and on the varieties of Man arising from it, Lon- don, 8vo., 1812; p. 16. 141 Nalurgeschichte des Menschen Handbuch der popularen anthropologic, Hempten, 8vo., 1831 ; ii. pp. 323-243. 142 Natuur-en Geschiedkundig Onderzoek aangaande den Oorspronkenlijkcn stam van het Men- schelifk Geslachl, Haarlem, 8vo., 1810, p. 176. 448 THE MONOGENISTS AND Serres, 143 Herder, Carpenter, and many other writers, of more or less note, upon physiological. To these, although his proper locus standi should be under the letter A, may be added Dr. Hall, 144 the learned editor of Bonn's London edition of Pickering's Races of Man. 145 An eminent and far-travelled naturalist, accustomed to observe facts and weigh evidence equitably, the latter has maintained strict neu- trality in describing the " eleven races of men " seen by himself : and the best proof of the high value attached to Dr. Pickering's opinion, no less than of his impartiality, is, that passages of his work have been cited by Morton in support of diversity, and by others of the unity of mankind. There is a third hypothesis to which it is still more difficult to assign a place. Emanating from the schools of transcendental ana- tomy, none but embryologists are competent to discuss its mani- festations. Posited in the language of Dr. Knox, 146 its logical conse- quences would certainly demonstrate an unity of human origins ; but upon principles, it strikes me, more disagreeable to theologers than even the establishment of diversity itself! "'There is but one animal,' said Geoffroy, 'not many;' and to this vast and philosophic view, the mind of Cuvier himself, towards the close of life, gradually approached. It is, no doubt, a correct one. Applied to man, the doctrine amounts to this, — Mankind is of one family, one origin. In every embryo is the type of all the races of 148 Le Moniteur, Paris, 3 Fev., 1855; Feuilleton, "Museum d'histoire naturelle — Cours d'Anthropologie de M. Serres" — " M. Serres a declare tout d'abord ses convictions en ce qui touche Vuniti humaine. II y croit fermement, et s'indigne (!) parfois contre eeux qui osent elever la-dessus 1' ombre d'une doute." This virtuous indignation sits well on the author of Analomie comparee du Cerveau dans les 4 classes des Animaux Verlebres (Paris, 1824 — see At- las, p. 40, figs. 264, 266; and PI. xiv., figs. 264-6), who, under the head, which he was unable to procure, of an " encepbale du lion (felis leo)" drawn a fourth of its size, actually substituted that of a cat ; as some of his malicious colleagues of the Academic des Sciences proved in public session ! i« "An Analytical Synopsis of the Natural History of Man" — London, 12mo., 1851 ; pp. xxvii-xliii — being a sort of rifacimento of "Interesting Facts connected with the Animal Kingdom ; with some remarks on the Unity of our Species " (London, 8vo., 1841 ; pp. 93- 102 ; indeed, passim to p. 206) : — which appropriately ends with a saying of '-the preacher, ' The black man is God's image like ourselves [!] though carved in ebony.' " Does he really mean what he says ? Has he ever thought of the converse of this anti- quated Jewish proposition (Gen. i. 26) ? If so, we part company in conceptions of Creative Power (see "Types," p. 564): and I leave our preacher to translate a French commentary — " ' Dieu crea Vhomme selon son image,' et Vkomme le lui a bien rejidu!" 145 United States Exploring Expedition, vol. ix., Boston, 4to., 1848. us Races of Men, Phil, ed., 1850; pp. 297-8. For the contrary argument, see Notiveau Discours sur les Revolutions du Globe, par Aj. de Gr. et P. (translators of Lyell's Principles of Geology), Paris, 1836 ; ii. pp. 36-47 — " De la permanence des Especes, en d'autres termes, jusqu'a quel point les especes peuvent-elles etre modinees?" THE POLYGENISTS. 449 men ; the circumstances determining these various races of men, as they now, and have existed, are as yet unknown ; but they exist, no doubt, and must be physical; regulated by secondary laws, not changing, slowly or suddenly, the existing order of things. The idea of new creations, or of any creation saving that of living matter, is wholly inadmissible. * * * In conclusion : the permanent varieties of men, permanent at least seemingly during the historic period, originate in laws elucidated in part by embryology, by the laws of the unity of organization, in a word, by the great laws of transcendental anatomy." Between Dr. Knox's embryonic suggestions, and the " develop- ment theory" espoused by a previous defender of unity, m it is not easy to strike the line of demarcation. Certain, however, is it that this brilliant writer, whatever may have been his success, in supplementary editions of his daring book, while repelling assaults upon his accuracy in. other fields of speculative science, broke down hopelessly when he treated on mankind, — the authorities cited by him being sufficient testimony that his reading on ethnology was exceedingly limited; and, still more unfortunately, it is patent that through assumption of a single origin for all the races of men, he makes humanity itself an exception to the so-called law of organic development which his antecedent pages, with singular ingenuity, had endeavored to establish. His "unity" becomes, in consequence, a non-sequitur ; whereas (without committing myself to any opinion on a theory which Agassiz 149 pronounced to be "contrary to all the modern results of science"), had the author of "Vestiges" sought, in palseontological discoveries and in historical inductions, for evidences that sundry inferior races of men preceded, in epoch, the superior, I will not say that he could, eleven years ago, have proved a new pro- position, of which science, even yet, has only caught some glimmer- ings ; but he would, at all events, have satisfied the requirements of consistency. Yet another monogenistic point of view has been recently pre- sented,— to myself, however, not very intelligible. " I do not, there- fore," 150 writes Dr. Draper, " contemplate the human race as consist- 148 Vestiges of Creation, New York ed., 1845; "Hypothesis of the Development of the Vegetable and Animal kingdoms;" and, for man, pp. 223-32, compared "with p. 177. 149 Types of Mankind, " The natural provinces of the Animal World, and their relation to the different types of Man," p. Ixxvi: — republished in substance by Mr. James Hey wood, M. P., F. R. S. ; as an Appendix to vol. II, of his translation of Von Bohlen's Genesis, 1855, and with the usual mistake of " Hottentot realm" instead of " Hottentot fauna" (p. 278). I have already given a previous instance of this particular oversight in our reviewers (supra, note 108) ; as we proceed, many others will be indicated. iso Human Physiology, New York, 1856, pp. 565-6. 29 450 THE MONOGENISTS AND ing of varieties, much less of distinct species ; but rather as offering numberless representations of the different forms which an ideal type can be made to assume under exposure to different conditions. I believe that that ideal type may still be recognised, even in cases that offer, when compared together, complete discordances ; and that, if such an illustration be permissible, it is like a general expression in algebra, which gives rise to different results, according as we assign different values to its quantities ; yet, in every one of these results, the original expression exists." My own aspirations, tempered by dear-bought experience in human speculation on the unknown, no longer rise, nevertheless, above the historical stand-point ; and, therefore, with regard to the third cate- gory, before propounded, viz. : " C. — Unity as a moral or metaphy- sical doctrine," — I feel, with Jefferson, "a decent respect for the opinions of mankind," 151 and, consequently, place before the reader their humanitarian sentiments rather than my own. And here it is that the soul-inspiring thoughts of the Humboldts — which truly "puisent leur charme dans la profondeur des senti- ments," 152 basing their high moral value on their touching elo- quence — rival St. Paul's eulogia of "love," 153 in boundless charity towards all mankind. " Without doubt," says Alexander von Hum- boldt, " there are families of peoples more susceptible of culture, more civilized, more enlightened ; but there are none more noble than others. All are equally made for liberty, for that liberty which, in a state of society but little advanced, appertains only to the individual ; but which, among those nations called to the enjoyment of veritable political institutions [under the royal House of Brandenburgh ?] is the right of the whole community." iSt Then "the idea of humanity" is beautifully developed by his bro- ther William — " This is what tends to break down those barriers which prejudices and interested motives of every kind have erected between men, and to cause humanity to be looked upon in its ensem- ble, without distinction of religion, of nation, of color, as one great brotherhood, as a single body, marching towards one and the same goal, the free development of the moral forces. 155 * * * Rooted in the 151 The Declaration of Independence of the United States of America, A. D. MDCCLXXVI. ™ Cosmos, Fr. ed., I, p. 431. 153 Not " charity," which is copied from the caritas of St. Jerome's Vulgate; but the Greek original dyinri. — Shaiu>e's New Testament, from Griesbach's text; pp. 323-4. — 1st Up. to the Corinthians, XIII, 1-13. 154 Cosmos, Fr. ed. (supra, note 1) ; I, p. 430. 155 Ibid, pp. 430-1; Sabine translates, from the German, "the free development of their moral faculties" (I, p. 356) : Otte renders, " the unrestrained development of their physical powers" (I, p. 358) — sic! The original text is in W. von H.'s Kawi-sprache, III, p. 426. THE POLYGENISTS 451 depths of human nature, commanded at the same time by its most sublime instincts, this beneficent and fraternal union of the whole species becomes one of the grand ideas which preside over the history of humanity." Possibly in the future. I cannot find the practice of such "idea" by any nation but old Okeanic Utopians in the past, I have resided years in Africa, Europe, and America, months in Asia ; and indivi- dual experience only enhances, to my mind, the virtue of this law through its exceptions. A more sternly-philosophical explanation of the moral unity of mankind is that put forth by Agassiz. It somehow accords more closely with my reason ; not less, I am fain to hope, with my social aspirations than the prelauded citation from Cosmos. " "We have a right to consider the questions growing out of men's physical relations as merely scientific questions, and to investigate them without reference to either politics or religion. " There are two distinct questions involved in the subject which we have under discussion, — the Unity of Mankind, and the Diversity of Origin of the Human Races. These are two distinct questions, having almost no connection with each other, but they are con- stantly confounded as if they were but one. * * * "Are men, even if the diversity of their origin is established, to be considered as all belonging to one species, or are we to conclude that there are several different species among them? The writer has been in this respect strangely misunderstood. Because he has at one time said that mankind constitutes one species, and at another time has said that men did not originate from one common stock, he has been represented as contradicting himself, as stating at one time one thing, and at another time another. He would, therefore, insist upon this distinction, that the unity of species does not involve a unity of origin, and that a diversity of origin does not involve a plurality of species. Moreover, what we should now consider as the characteristic of species is something very different from what has formerly been so considered. As soon as it was ascertained that animals differ so widely, it was found that what constitutes a species in certain types is something very different from what constitutes a species in other types, and that facts which prove an identity of species in some animals do not prove an identity or plurality in another group. * * * " The immediate conclusion from these facts, however, is the dis- tinction we have made above, that to acknowledge a unity in man- kind, to show that such a unity exists, is not to admit that men have a common origin, nor to grant that such a conclusion may be justly 452 THE MONOGENISTS AND derived from sucn premises. "We maintain, therefore, that the unity of mankind does not imply a community of origin for men ; we believe, on the contrary, that a higher view of this unity of mankind can be taken than that which is derived from a mere sensual con- nection, — that we need not search for the highest bond of humanity in a mere animal function, whereby we are most closely related to the brutes. * * * " Such is the foundation of a unity between men truly worthy of their nature, such is the foundation of those sympathies which will enable them to bestow upon each other, in all parts of the world, the name of brethren, as they are brethren in God, brethren in humanity, though their origin, to say the least, is lost in the darkness of the beginning of the world. * * * "We maintain, that, like all other organized beings, mankind cannot have originated in single individuals, but must have been created in that numeric harmony which is characteristic of each species ; men must have originated in nations, as the bees have ori- ginated in swarms, and as the different social plants have at first covered the extensive tracts over which they naturally spread. * * * " We have seen what important, what prominent reasons there are for us to acknowledge the unity of mankind. But this unity does not exclude diversity. Diversity is the complement of unity; foi unity does not mean oneness, or singleness, but a plurality in which there are many points of resemblance, of agreement, of identity. This diversity in unity is the fundamental law of nature. It can be traced through all the departments of nature, — in the largest divisions which we acknowledge among natural phenomena, as well as in those which are circumscribed within the most narrow limits. It is even the law of development of the animals belonging to the same species. And this diversity in unity becomes gradually more and more prominent throughout organized beings, as we rise from their lowest to their highest forms. * * * "Those who contend for the unity of the human race, on the ground of a common descent from a single pair, labor under a strange delusion, when they believe that their argument is favorable to the idea of a moral government of the world, and of the direct intervention of Providence in the development of mankind. Uncon- sciously, they advocate a greater and more extensive influence in the production of those peculiarities by physical agencies, than by the Deity himself. If their views were true, God had less to do directly with the production of the diversity which exists in nature, in the vege- table as well as in the animal kingdom, and in the human race, than THE POLYGENISTS. 453 climatic conditions, and the diversity of food upon which these beings subsist." l56 I am wholly at a loss in what category — whether under letter A, or B, or C, or anywhere else — to place the very learned Dr. Latham (with whose books ethnographers are of course familiar) ; chiefly because of his well-known habit of commencing a paragraph with an asserted fact, the value of which he generally manages to undo at its close. From the best of his numerous ethnological "catalogues raisonnes," I cull an illustration through which the reader may be able to understand my meaning, even should he fail, perhaps, in precisely comprehending the Doctor's: " If we now look back upon the ground that has been gone over, we shall find that the evidence of the human family having origi- nated in one particular spot, and having diffused itself from thence to the very extremities of the earth, is by no means conclusive. Still less is it certain that that particular spot has been ascertained. The present writer believes that it was somewhere in intertropical Asia [a long way, consequently, from Mount Ararat !], and that it was the single locality of a single pair [Adam and Eve?] — without, however, professing to have found it. Even this centre [of the author's belief] is only hypothetical — near, indeed, to the point which he looks upon as the starting point of the human migration, but by no means identical with it." [!] ,57 Sometimes one finds that a thorough monogenist allows, uncon- sciously perhaps, an observation to escape him, which shows how impressions, derived from Calvinistic primary tuition, become irre- concilable, in his mature age, to the man of science. "The data of Genesis," holds Hollard, 153 "commentated upon by a poor science, devoid of criticism and ill-disciplined, led the way for those rare thinkers who, during the middle ages, attempted to under- stand Nature. Too commonly the commentary bewildered the text. Of all conceptions dating from that period [a very long one, and not yet ended], what has had, and must have had, the greatest success, is the doctrine of the chain of beings, — formulated, in these terms, by Father Meremberg : " Nullus hiatus, nulla fr actio, nulla dispersio formarum, invicem con- nexse sunt velut annulus annulo. In great favor among the naturalists of 'la renaissance,' this doctrine was professed with eclat by Charles Bonnet, at the end of last century ; and this philosopher attached to it the idea of a palingenesiac evolution of Nature. It would have 156 Aoassiz, " The Diversity of origin of Human Races," Christian Examiner and Religious Miscellany, Boston, 1850, XLIX, Art. viii, pp. 110, 113, 118-9, 120, 128, 133, 131. 151 Latham, Man and his Migrations, London, 12mo, 1851 ; p. 248. " 8 De VHomme, Paris, 1853, pp. 13-4. 454 THE MONOGENISTS AND greatly scandalized the partisans of the chain of beings had somebody taught them that, owing to their conception of Nature, they would one day shake hands with the greatest enemies of the Christian religion. This conception is, in fact, far more within the logic of pantheism than that of our (notre) [Genevese] religious dogma. " To represent the three realms of nature, as if forming but one long series of rings linked one with another, a succession of terms which leave no interval between them — so greatly do the nuances melt, and transform themselves, the ones into the others — is, whether one wishes it or repudiates it, whether one knows it or be ignorant of it, to enter into the spirit of systems which substitute, for the thought of a Providential Creation, that of an animate Nature (as Aristotle conceived it), — a Nature which, in its ascenscional effort, would traverse all the imaginable terms of a continuous progression. " True or false, — and this is neither yet the moment for absolving nor for condemning it — the doctrine, which I have just characterized, must have been heartily welcomed by those naturalists who pro- fessed, openly, the autonomy of Nature." I need not beg Dr. Henry Hollard's pardon for classifying his anthropology under letter A ; but some sort of an apology seems due to the reader for my stereotypical inadvertence, through which a learned Protestant Helvetian happens to find his pious sen- timents misplaced in that part of this work consecrated to the letter C. A third conception may be gathered from passages of the vast work of Gustave Klemm. 159 My excellent friend, Dr. L. A. Gosse, of Geneva, 160 pointed them out to me during our joint studies at the Museum d'Histoire Naturelle : " It is tolerably indifferent whether mankind come down from one pair or from many pairs ; whether some first parents were separately created in America, in Africa, in Asia, and in Europe ; or whether the population of all these regions draws its origin from a single couple : but what is certain is, that there have existed on this earth passive races prior to the active races, and that these primitive races had multiplied considerably before the apparition of the latter." He enlarges upon the distinctions between such active and passive 159 Allegemeine Cultur-Oeschichle der Menschheit ; 1843-52, Leipzig, 8vo., 10 vols.; I. pp. 196, 210. 160 Honorably and widely known in medical sciences, Dr. Gosse, whilst favoring me, at Paris, 1854—5, with indices to knowledge, as well as infinite other proofs of his generous heart, published his erudite Ussai sur les Deformations Artificielles du Crane. Our collaborator, Dr. J. Aitken Meigs, having undertaken its analysis, I gladly leave to him a subject on which the nature of my studies excludes valid opinion. TliE POLYGENISTS. 455 races ; deeming these last to have been the darker in complexion, and inferior in conformation, and in their rapidity of growth to have resembled the precocity of the female sex. Hence, Klemm concludes that — "In studying the manners, usages, monuments, industry, or- ganization, traditions, creeds, and history of different peoples, I have become induced to admit, that all humanity which forms a whole, like man himself, is separated into two halves, corresponding with each other, one active and one passive, the one masculine and the other feminine." This theory, novel to most readers of English, may, like other theories, be true or false, according to the sense in which the words active and passive, applied to ethnic peculiarities, are comprehended by those who employ them. To me their application is not clear, unless qualified by stronger adjectives ; implying the recognition of superior and of inferior races : and, in such sense, M. d'Eichthal's conception of the difference between the White and the Negro types is curious and interesting : 161 " Thus, gentlemen, the debate, although concentrated upon the African question, conducts us to this first conclusion, established, ex- plicitly or implicitly, by the defenders themselves of the two extreme opinions, viz : that the African negro race has attained its present civili- zation through the influence of the ivhite race, notably from the Arabs : that, in order to raise itself to a higher civilization, it has need of a new initiation, imparted by this same race: that, to the ivhite race, consequently, belongs the initiative in the development of a common civilization. It is very remarkable that Bitter, at the end of his work on the Geo- graphy of Africa, casting what he calls a retrospective glance over the history of this continent, arrives precisely at the same conclusion ; which he expresses furthermore in terms of high philosophical bear- ing: — 'Must it be,' asks the learned geographer, 'that civilization is to be brought from the exterior and inoculated, so to say, upon the inhabitants of the Soodan (Negro-land), because, to judge accord- ing to the entire development of history, the others are called upon to give, and these to receive?' " Such is, in fact, the abstract expression of the normal relation between the black race and the white race ; the one is passive, the other active in respect to it. * * * ' The black shows himself to us as civilizable [domesticable ?], but without the initiative faculty in point of civilization.' " * * * " Thus, in the most intimate of their associa- tions [sexual intercourse between white males and black females], these two races preserve the character which we have recognized in 161 Bulletin de la SociM Ethnologique de Paris, Tome 1", Annfie 1847 ; pp. 69-70, 77, 205, 232-4, 239-241. 456 THE MONOGENISTS AND the ensemble of their destinies. The white race is Man; the black race is Woman. ~Ho formula can so well express the reciprocal cha- racteristics and the law of association between the two races. It suf- fices moreover to explain how one of these races has been able to be initiator, the other initiated ; the one active, and the other passive ; without its following that this relationship carries with it, as has been maintained, at least for the future, on the one side superiority, on the other inferiority." To the debate itself I must refer for a controversy conducted on all sides with rare ability and scientific decorum ; my own views find- ing expression, generally, in the ethnological arguments of M. Cour- tet de ITsle ; to be cited hereinafter. Enough has now been set forth on the unity side of the question ; and the reader can henceforward classify any less important monogenists than those herein enume- rated, into category A, B, or C, as best suits his appreciation of their merits. Inter alia, the ultimate philosophical results of the celebrated Academician and Professor, Flourens, whose microscopic examina- tion of the human skin in different races, supposed by complacent clergymen to have established an infallible recipe for proving the lineal descent of all mankind from "Adam and Eve," has led them, in England and America, almost to account him one of themselves. An English version, however literal, fails to do justice to the piety and logic of the French original. " All these necessary conditions, so admirably combined and pre- pared for the precise moment when life was to appear, prove God, and one sole God. They could not, seemingly, have been two. If they had been two, they would not have so well understood each other — Us ne se seraient pas si Men entendus.' nez Hitherto, the weight of authorities quoted has been altogether on the affirmative side : the polygenists, as yet, have scarcely had a voice on the negative. To them the next section will be devoted : audi alteram partem; commencing with Berard, 163 Professor of Physi- ology, — "I cannot suppose that a mind disengaged from prejudices, and from hinderances which certain extra-scientific considerations might interpose to liberty of thought, can entertain doubts upon the primitive plurality of human types." To the many diversitarian authorities whose language has been cited in Types of Mankind, coupled with the variety of polygenistic facts accumulated in that work and the present, there would seem little reason to add corroborative testimony, were it not for the sake 162 De la Longevity Humaine, Paris, 12mo., 1855, p. 238. 163 Couts de Physiologic, Paris, 8vo., 1850, 1, p. 463. THE POLYGENISTS. 457 of showing how the advocates of this new school are rising up on every side, as if in derision of theocratical impediments. I will, therefore, merely select two whose conclusions are arrived at hy rea- soning from different starting-points. Dr. Prosper Lucas shall he the first, as one who has studied humanity closest in its generative laws. 164 " The psychological diversity of races is, as we have said, as tho- roughly demonstrated as their physiological ; and this diversity bears upon all the forms of human dynamism. All the races, in a word, although partaking of the attributes of one and the same 'species,' present them under a form and at a degree which are properties of each of them : each one of them has its own type of sensoriety, its type of character, its type of intelligence, its type of activity. ISTow, there is not a single one in which generation does not delevope sud- den anomalies of the natural, and wherein we cannot observe, as in the physical form of its existence, different and spontaneous transi- tions of the moral type of one race into the moral type of another." M. Blanchard is our second, no less than the expression of a duplex authority, — his own, and Dr. Dumoutier's; whose anthropo- logical experiences were derived, as shown by his splendid Atlas, 165 from accurate attention to the various types of men he beheld while circumnavigating the globe with Dumont d'Urville, and whose poly- genistic opinions were frequently elicited at the meetings of the So- ciete Ethnologique de Paris. 166 " Speaking for ourselves, it is not sufficient to admit that there are, either a certain number of races, or several distinct species ; it becoming necessary to ascend still higher. In order that the ques- tion should be clearly posited, we will say at once that, to our eyes, there exist different species of men ; that these species, very proxi- mate to each other, form a natural genus; and that these species were created in the very countries in which we find them at present. En resume, the creation of mankind must have taken place upon an infinitude of points on the globe, and not upon a single point whence they have spread themselves, little by little, over all the surface of the earth. * * * " Through all the reasons that we have just rapidly set forth, we have acquired the conviction, that the human genus is a veritable genus, in the sense attached to this word by naturalists, and that this genus comprises several species. 164 Heredite Nalurelle, i. pp. 160-1. 165 Voyage au Pole Sud, Anthropologic, Atlas, fol., Paris, 1846; cited in Types of Mankind, pp. 438, &o. 166 Bulletins, 1846-7. 458 THE MONOGENISTS AND " These species must have heen necessarily created each one in the country in which it was destined to perpetuate itself; and hence then, we must admit, at the origin, a considerable number of foci (souches). * * * "We think, with DuGliS (Traite die Physiologie), that mankind comprehends a great number of species ; but, by what signs these species can be defined in an indubitable manner, no one, in the present state [of science], can tell, if he abstains from comparing only the most dissimilar." 167 But, by way of parenthesis, as explanatory of a passing comment on "Vestiges of Creation," and of a remark by Klemm {supra, pp. 454-5), that inferior human races seem in antiquity to have pre- ceded the superior, there are data which here may find place. 16 ' Blanchard, Voyage au Pole Sud, corvettes V Astrolabe el la Zelee, 1837-40, — Anlhropo- logie, par M. le Docteur Dumoutier, Paris, 1854, pp. 19, 45, 46. In corroboration of what a far-travelled Doctor, M. Dumoutieb, says above, and else- where, in regard to the creation of a distinct species of man for each zoological country; no less than to fortify the positions sustained by my collaborator Dr. Nott (ante, Chapter IV, p. 547), as to the non-acclimation of races, and the non-cosmopolitism of man ; I sub- join an extract from a work by our mutual friend Dr. Boudin, which Dr. Nott had mislaid when his MS. was sent to the printer: "For a long time there has been ascribed to man the faculty of adapting himself to every climate, and the power of establishing his residence upon all points of the globe. Such credence, reposing upon no kind of experimental basis whatever, could merely consti- tute but a simple hypothesis ; against which, now-a-days, facts, as authentic as numerous, protest. Perhaps the partisans of cosmopolitism had been in too great a hurry to lend to a fraction of humanity, represented, by what it has been agreed upon to call, the 'Cauca- sian' race, that which may very well not belong save to the ensemble of mankind ; — perhaps, too, they had not sufficiently discriminated the laboring and agricultural man, from the mere transitory excursionist." Thus, in order to prove his position, Boudin cites, amongst other examples, — how, in Egypt, the austral negroes are, and the Caucasian Memlooks were, unable to raise up even a third generation, — how, in Corsica, French families vanish beneath Italian surnames. Where are the descendants of Romans, or Vandals, or Greeks, in Africa? In modern Arabia (1830), after Mohammed Ali had got clear of the Morea- war, 18,000 Arnaoots (Albanians) were soon reduced to some 400 men. At Gibraltar (1817), a negro regiment was almost annihilated by consumption. In 1841, during three weeks on the Niger, 130 Europeans out of 145 caught African fever, and 40 succumbed; whilst, out of 158 negro sailors, only 11 were affected, and none died. In 1809, the British Walchereen expedition failed, in the Netherlands, through one kind of marsh fever; about the same period that, at St. Domingo, 20 French Generals, and 15,000 rank and file, died in two months by another malarial disease. Of 30,000 to 32,000 Frenchmen, but some 8000 survived exposure to that Antillian island ; while the Dominicanized African negro, Toussaint l'Ouverture, re-transported to Europe, was perishing from the chill of his prison in France. (Pathologie compare'e, Paris, 1849, pp. 1-4). Again, "already the facts acquired by science establish, in a manner irrevocable, that the diverse races, which constitute the great family of humanity, obey especial laws, under the triple aspect of birth, mortality, and pathological aptitudes." France uses negro soldiers at Guyana and Senegal ; England employs, like the Eomans of old, the natives of each colony, to perform arduous military works- — confining (cceteris paribus) for all hard labor, tropical soldiers to the Tropics, and extra-tropically-born soldiery to servile duty, THE POLYGENISTS. 459 PART II. Great and multifarious are the changes in palaeontology, as in other sciences, since Georges Cuvier wrote: " That which astounds is, that amongst all these Mammifers, of which the greater part possess now-a-days their congeners in hot countries, there has not been a single Quadrumane ; that there has not been gathered a single bone, a single tooth of a Monkey, were they but some bones or some teeth of monkeys, of now-lost species." 168 Barely five years after the decease, in 1832, of this grand natu- ralist, fossil Simiae turned up, during 1837, in France and in Hind- ostan ! In eighteen subsequent years of exploration, many more have been discovered ; enumerated in the subjoined works' 69 as genus Hapcile, 2 species ; Gallithrix primsevus Protopithecus, 2 ; Cebus, 1 ; found in South America : — Macacus eocoenus, Pitheeus antiquus, 2 species, &c. ; in England, France, or in the Sub-Himalayan range. Wagner had previously indicated the existence of other fossil monkeys in Greece ; but early in the present year, M. Gaudry reports to the Academie des Sciences, his having exhumed, at the "gite fossilifere de Pikermi," 170 specimens of Mesopithecus major and Mesopithecus pentelicus ; mixed up with remains of hyaena, mastodon, rhinoceros, hog, hippotherium, bos-marathonicus, giraffe, and probably of birds. Geologists can now determine the relative epochas of each speci- men, according to the formations in which the several genera of such fossil monkeys appear; but De Blainville states that, while these of Brazil are more recent, being met with in the diluvium of caverns, — "those of India and Europe lie in a medium tertiary fresh-water deposit, and consequently are of an age long anterior to only where the climate accords with that of their race and birth-place. At Sierra Leone, the mortality of negroes, compared to that of whites, is as 30 to 483 ; i. e. as 1 against 16! {Physiologie el Pathologic comparers des Races humaines, pp. 1-7). 168 Discours sur les Revolutions de la surface du Globe, Paris, 1830, 6th ed., p. 351. 169 Marcel de Serkes, Essai sur les Cavernes a Osseme?ils, Paris, 8vo, 3d ed., 1838; pp. 226-7: — De Blainville, Osteographie, " Mammiferes-Priniates," Paris, 4to, 1841; pp. 49- 66: — D'Oreigny, Diet. Univ. a" Hist. Nat. ; Paris, 1847; X, pp 669-70, "Quadrumanes fossiles:" — Heck, Iconographic Encyclopedia, transl. Baird, New York, 1851; II, pp. 492- 8: — Gervais-, Trois rignes de la Nature, Mammiferes, I e partie, Paris, 1854; pp. 12-13. 170 Letter to M. Elie de Beaumont; Alhenwum Francais, 1 Mars, 1856; pp. 167. 400 THE MONOGENISTS AND the last catastrophe, which is supposed to have given the present shape to our seas and our continents." This is confirmed by a curious observation of Marcel de Serres, 171 that while, as yet, monkeys have been found " only on the ancient continent in the fossil state, it is uniquely in the humatile state they have been recognized on the new." It is, therefore, no longer contestable, that fossil monkeys exist, and in abundance. Other genera, without question, will be dis- covered in the ratio that portions of the earth, and by far the most extensive, become accessible to the geologist's hammer. Those barbarous regions which living anthropoid monkeys now inhabit — viz. : Guinea, Congo, and Loango, where the Chimpanzee [Troglo- dytes niger); the Gaboon river-lands, where the G-orilla Crina; and the forests of Borneo and Sumatra, where two, or even three [supra, Agassizs' letter], species of the Orang-utan (Satyrus rufus, and Satyrus bicolor); are found 172 — being at present wholly inaccessible to geological investigation, it is premature to affirm or deny the existence of such anthropomorphous grades, as the above, between the "genus Homo" or bimanes, and those lower genera of quadru- manes already known to palaeontology, in the fossil state. Such a discovery would fortify, although its absence does not affect, the propositions I am about to submit. Leaving aside De Lamark's much-abused development-theory, 173 all naturalists agree that, whether in the incommensurable cycles of geological time anterior to our planet's present condition, or during the chronologically-indefinable period that mankind have been its later occupants, there is a manifest progression of organism upwards from the Eadiata to the Articulata, from these to the Mollusca, and again from these last to the Vertebrata. 174 At the summit of verte- brated animals, after ascending once more through the Fishes, the Reptiles, the Birds, and the Mammifers, stands Man, himself the highest of the mammalian division — "sole representative of his genus" if Prof. Owen pleases, but composed, -notwithstanding, of many distinct types, each subdivisible into many races. Now, whether we look up or down the tableau of living nature, or drag out of the rocky bowels of our earth the whole series of fossil animals known to palaeontology, nearest to mankind, among marn- 171 Cosmogonie de Mo'ise compare'es aux fails ge'ologiques, Paris, 8vo, 2d ed., 1841 ; I, pp. 162-7. 172 Chenu, Encyclopedic d'Histoire Naturelle, vol. " Quadrumanes," Primates; pp. 30-52. 173 Generously explained by Haldeman, Recent Freshwater Mollusca (supra), pp. 6-8. 174 See the Regne Animal de M. le Baron Cuvier, dispose en Tableaux methodiques par I. Aohille Comte, Paris, fol. 1840; 1st Plate, "Introduction." THE POLYGERISTS. 461 malia, in every feature of organization, spring up the Monkeys in bold relief; as Man's closest sequence in the descending scale of zoo- logical gradation; and, likewise, so far as science yet has ascertained, as one of Man's immediate precursors in the ascending line of our planet's chronology. Each of these two points, however, requires some elucidation, in order to eschew deductions that are not mine. For the first, one reference will explain the view I concur in ; it is G-ervais's. 175 " We know nothing well except through comparison, and, in order to compare objects correctly, one must begin by placing them near together. This is not to say that Man is a Monkey, and still less that a Monkey is a Man, even degraded; because, upon studying with care the one and the other, it will be recognized without diffi- culty that if Man resembles the highest animals [the Primates], through the totality of his organization, he differs from them above all in the details ; and that, even more endowed than the greater number of these in almost every respect, he surpasses them essen- tially by the very perfection of his structure. His brain, as well as his intelligence, assigns him a rank apart. He is indeed, as Ovid says, Sanctius his animal, mentisque capaoius altse. It is well known, on the other hand, that, to Linnseus and his con- temporaries, the limits of genus were much less narrowed than they are for naturalists of our day. The generic union of Man and of other \sic\ Monkeys would be, therefore, at the present state of science, entirely contrary to the rules of classification. * * * "(Monkeys) are easily recognized by their organization, of which the principal traits accord with those that the human genus displays in such an elevated degree of perfection. Their brain and their other deeply-placed organs; their exterior appearance, and, especially, the form of then' head ; the position and number of their teats ; their thumbs at the superior members, more frequently than not opposable to the other fingers ; their station approaching more and more the vertical, but without ever reaching it completely; and a certain community of intel- lectual aptitudes; everything, in these animals, announces an incon- testable resemblance with Man, and a superiority as regards other quadrupeds. Albeit, this similitude diminishes in proportion as one descends through the series of genera that compose the family of Monkeys ; and, whilst ever preserving the fundamental traits of the group to which they belong, the lowest species [the Ouistites, for in- stance] show by their intelligence as much as by their brain, in their 175 Hist. Nat. des MammiferZs, pp. 49, and 7-8. 462 THE MONOGENISTS AND shapes as well as in the structure of their principal organs, an evident inferiority, if one compares them with the Primates., and beyond all with Man." Science, therefore, at the present hour, ceases to go back to the long-exploded and (considering the epoch of its advocates) over-sati- rized notions of Monboddo, Rousseau, or Moscati. 176 Such historical theory only continues to afford pabulum for homily- writers, who, groping still amidst Auguste Comte's 177 sub-metaphysical strata, imagine, not perhaps unreasonably, that some of their readers have learned nothing since the XVLTIth century. Even in the time of Voltaire — to whom men merely seemed to be so many monkeys without tails — of the apparently tail-less quadrumana (Orang, Chim- panzee, and Gorilla), but one species (except, of course, Tyson's Chimpanzee, 1698, 178 and Buffbn's, 1740) was known to France ; and that one, the Orang-utan, — belonging to the prince of Orange, 1776 — too imperfectly for him to perceive, between the " lord of creation" and his caricature, a still closer analogy: or, again, for the immortal bugbear of pseudo-pietists to comprehend that, if the absence of such exterior appendage in the above three primates does not the more constitute a true "monkey," neither does its presence, in the several authentic examples cited by Lucas, 179 the less consti- tute a true "man." So that, while man, as "the sole representative of his genus," possesses no tail, there are individual instances that bring the case much nearer home than the interesting fact for which the latest English partisan of successive transformations 1S0 en- countered obloquy ; viz. : that " the bones of a caudal extremity exist, in an undeveloped state, in the os coccygis of the human subject." Why, if such " deviations" as that melancholy case of the "porcupine family," or those worn-out specimens of " sexidigital individuals," 176 Zimmerman, Zool. geog., p. 194. 1,7 Cours de Philosophic Positive, Paris, 1830; I, pp. 3-5. 178 Martin, Man and Monkeys, London, 8vo., 1841 ; pp. 379 and 402. 179 Heredite Nalurelle, I, pp. 319-20 :— referring to Serres, and to Is. Geof. Saint Hilaire. "Le deVeloppement congenial de cet appendice (a tail) se lie en effet au rapport tres-con- stant, qu'il (Serres) a demontre', entre revolution de la moelle epiniere et celle de la queue. La moelle epiniere se prolonge, dans l'origine, jusqu'a l'extrtjmite' du canal vertebral, chez tous les animaux de la classe ou il existe, et tous, a cette e"poque de la vie embryonaire, se trouvent ainsi munis d'une queue plus ou moins longue selon qu'ulterieurement, et d'apres les especes, le prolongement de la moelle se maintient ou se retire, l'axe vertebral est ou n'est pas pourvu d'un appendice caudal. * * * Et il arrive ainsi quelquefois (says I. G. St. Hilaire) que la moelle epiniere, conservant sa premiere disposition, s'e'tende encore, chez rbomme, au moment de la naissance, jusqu'a l'extre'mite' du coccyx. Dans ce cas, la colonne vertebrale reste termine'e par nne queue." 180 Vestiges of Creation, 1st New York edition, 12mo, p. 148. In speaking of "apparently tail-less monkeys," it may be well to refer to the skeletons of Orang-satyrus, Troglodytes niger, and Gorilla Gina, in Gervais, op. tit., pp. 14, 26, 32. THE POL YGENIST S. 463 have been paraded by every monogenist, from Zimmerman 18 ' to Pri- chard, 183 in proof of how a new race of men might, according to them, originate — why, I repeat, do they not observe consistency of argu- ment, whilst always violating their own law of "species"' — i.e., per- manency of normal type — and allow that a Parisian saddler, 183 or the late Mr. Barber of Inverness, 181 might and ought to have procreated entire generations of new human "species" with tails ? Partial is the unity-school to natural analogies, accusing polygenists of tendency to disregard them. Our " chart of Monkeys," further on, will at least show that I am not obnoxious to this grave charge. In the interim, there are but two living savans, that I am aware of — the one a naturalist and courageous voyager; 185 the other, if not exactly an archaeologist, a much more famous champion of ortho- doxy, 186 — who believe in the existence, past or present, of whole nations decorated with tails. The former, when at Bahia, heard, from the veracious lips of imported Haoussa negroes, of the " Niams- Niams, m oil hommes a queue;" who still whisk their tails in Africa, about thirteen days' journey from Kano (not far from that Island 181 Op. cit., p. 172. 182 Researches into the Physical History of Man, 1st edition, 1813; pp. 72-5: — In the 2d edition (op. cit., 1826, I, pp. 204-7), Prichard found out that the "porcupine family" was flourishing in its 3d generation ! 183 Lucas, op. cit., I, pp. 137-8, 320-2. Instances of homines caudali: the celebrated corsair Cruvillier de la Cioutat, of a negro named Mohammed, of a French officer, of M. de Barsabar and his sister, and, lastly, of an attorney at Aix, surnamed Berard, whose tail had (as in the case Schenckii Monslror. hist, memorab., II, 34) the curly shape of a pig's. 181 Compare Monboddo, Of the Origin and Progress of Language, Edinburgh, 8vo, 2d ed., 1774; I, pp. 258-69, for the men with long tails at Nicobar! But the following is less apochryphal: "And I could produce legal evidence, by witnesses yet living, of a man in Inverness, one Barber, a teacher of mathematics, who had a tail, about half a foot long, which he carefully concealed during his life ; but was discovered after bis death, which happened about twenty years ago." (P. 262, note.) 185 De Castelnau, in Bulletin de la Societe de Geographic, Paris, Juillet, 1851, p. 26. Camels, it is well known, were not introduced into Africa until Ptolemaic times (Types of Mankind, pp. 254, 511-13, 729). Those seen by M. de Castelnau's narrator, close by "les hommes a queue," must have been stray-aways from Tuarik, Foolah, or Arab encampments; be- cause no Negro race has ever perceived the value of this animal, nor adopted its use, although for centuries employed against them by their surrounding oppressors ; thus allow- ing a stupid repugnance to testify to their own intellectual inferiority (Conferre d'Eichthal, Eisl. et Origine des Foulahs, Paris, 8vo., 1841 ; pp. 259-60, note). >» Paravet, op. cit., 1852, pp. 34, 501. m These "Niams-Niams" are fabulous (like the Yahoo enemies of the virtuous Houy- hnhnms) African cannibals, by different Negro tribes "severally called Bcmrem, Lemlem, Demdern, Yemyem, or N'yumn'um" (W. Desbokotjgh Cooley, Negro-land of the Arabs, 1841 ; pp. 112, 135: Gijddoh, Oiia JEgypliaca, London, 1849; p. 125, note). Since this was written, I hear that M. Tremaux, the latest explorer of the upper Nile (with Brun-Rollet, a Sardinian merchant at Khartoom), has, still more recently, exploded the notion of "la hommei & queue" in that region also. 464 THE MONOGENISTS AND visited by Mr. Gulliver, in his "Voyage to the Houyhnhnms") ; where our naturalist's informants had also beheld "wild camels." The latter, senior among "MM. les Membres de l'lnstitut," as well as free from any sins but Sinology, happening to meet in Paris with a negro of singular conformation, compares him with perfectly authentic block-printed plates of ancient foreign nations in Mongolia, known to Chinese encyclopedists before an Encyclopxdia, or even a geogra- phical dictionary, had been struck off in Europe. A copy of this work, the Sau Tsai Too Hwyy, is in the possession of my valued col- league M. Pauthier, the historian of China ; with whom I have en- joyed a laugh over its numerous designs of men with tails, while he read me the text ; which, being in Chinese ideographics, does not strictly fall within Voltaire's malicious definition — "Les dictionnaires geographiques ne sont qire des erreurs par ordre alphabetique." Mr. Birch was so kind, subsequently, as to show me another copy in the library of the British Museum. 168 For the second proposition, viz : that, in palaeontology, monkeys appear to be the forerunners of man, a more serious tone of analysis must be adopted. "We have seen how Cuvier, at his demise in 1832, did not antici- pate the discovery, made five years later, of fossil monkeys ; which has since established, in several gradations of genera and of epoch, a link between extinct quadrumanes and living bimanes. Inasmuch as that great Naturalist, correct in his deductions from the data known to him, committed an error, as it turned out afterwards, about fossil 188 This is one of the Sinie authorities (as quoted, that is, by De Gtjignes) just referred to by an eloquent divine, at Hope Chapel, New York, in his 2d lecture on "The Ethnology of America," wherein he proves that our American Indians are only a colony, "450 and 500" A.D., of Hindostanic Budhists, since run wild! (New York Herald, Feb. 6, 1857.) In order to remove at once any latent suspicion that, at the present day, erudition is necessary to know every piece of nonsense that has been written on the ante-Columbian colonization of America from any part of the world — Chinese, Tartar, Japanese, Israelitish, Norwegian, Irish, Welsh, Gaulish, Hi'spanian, Polish, Polynesian, Phoenician, Atalantic, &c, &c. — let me refer critics, who may be acquainted only with French, to " Recherches sur les Antiquite's de l'Arnerique du Nord et de PAmerique du Sud, et sur la population primitive de ces deux continents, par M. D. B. Warden," formerly the very learned U. S. Consul at Paris, — in the folio Anliquiles Mezicaines (see Pulszky's Chap. II, p. 183, ante). Humboldt had written long previously — "It cannot be doubted, that the greater part of the nations of America belong to a race of men, who, isolated ever since the infancy of the world from the rest of mankind [and how, during such infancy, could the fathers of American Indians come here from Mount Ararat?], exhibit, in the natural diversity of language, in their features, and the conformation of their skull, incontestable proofs of an early and complete separation." (Researches concerning the Institutions and Monuments of the ancient Inhabitants of America, London, 1814, I, pp. 249-50.) Through the 3d Lecture (New York Herald, Feb. 9, 1857), I perceive how, even at this date, it is not yet known, in New York, that the comicalities about the god "Votan" alias "Ballani," are merely the pious inventions of an illiterate Jesuit priest ! On whom hereafter. THE POLTGENISTS 465 monkeys, may lie not have also made another in regard to fossil man ? His convictions were : 189 " There is not either any man [among these fossil-bones] : all the hones of our species that have been collected with those of which we have spoken found themselves therein accidentally, and their num- ber is moreover exceedingly small ; which would not assuredly have been the case if men had made establishments in the countries inha- bited by these animals. Where then at that time was mankind ?" We cannot answer decisively, as yet — " with those monkeys, to be sure, whose fossil and humatile remains, unrevealed to Cuvier, have been since discovered ;" but this much we can do, — show that while, on the one hand, later researches have vastly extended Cuvier's nar- row estimate of the antiquity of mankind upon earth ; on the other, the gradations of epoch and of species, from the tertiary deposits where fossil simiee are found in Europe, upwards to recent formations in which, according to a preceding remark of Marcel de Serres, those humatile monkeys have turned up in America, there is a gradual pro- gression of "species" that brings these last nearly to specific identity with some of those simiee platyrhinm living in Brazilian forests at the present day. We can do more. After obtaining an almost unbroken chain of osteological samples, from living species of callithrix and pithecus in Sduth America, back to Lund's callithrix primosvus and protopithicus of humatile Brazilian deposits, and thence upwards through the various extinct genera of simiee catarrhinee found in a true fossil state in Europe and Hindostan; we are enabled, upon turning round and looking at the ascending scale of relative antiquity in human remains, — from the Egyptian pyramid to the Belgian and Austrian bone- caverns, from Scandinavian and Celtic barrows to the vestiges of man's industry extant in French diluvial drift, and from the old Ca- ribsean semi-fossilized skeletons of Guadaloupe, coupled with the Brazilian semi-fossilized crania (Lund) 190 as well as with the semi- fossilized human jaws of Florida (Agassiz, in "Types"), — to esta- blish, for man's antiquity, two points, parallel in some degree with what has been done for that of the simiee, viz : 1st, That the exist- ence of mankind on earth is carried back at least to the humatile stage of osseous antiquity on both old and new continents ; and 2d, that, by strange and significant coincidence, like the genera callithrix and pithecus, the living species and the dead, in Monkeys, all huma- tile specimens of Man in America correspond, in race, with the same 189 Discours sur les Revolutions, pp. 351-2, and 131-9. 190 "Notice sur les ossements humaines fossiles, trouvfe ilans line Caverne du Br&il" — Bulletin de la Soc. K. des Antiquaires du Nord, 1845-9, pp. 49-77.. 30 466 THE MONOGENISTS AND aboriginal Indian group still living on this continent. Such is what will be attempted in the following pages. But, before proceeding, we must rid ourselves of some precon- ceived encumbrances about chronology ; because "there are persons in America * * * ; persons whose intellects or fancies are employed in the contemplation of complicated and obscure theories of human origin, existence, and development — denying the very chronology which binds man to G-od, and links communities together by indisso- luble moral obligations." "Pretty considerable" performances for Mr. Schoolcraft's " chronology" ! 191 Our national Didymus and XAAKENTEPOS — he, too, of brazen bowels, in literary fabrication — believing that "the heavens and the earth" were created exactly at six o'clock on Sunday morning. (1st day), in the month of September, at the equinox of the year b. c. 4004, m would be much distressed if he knew what his only patron- izer's (Chevalier Bunsen's) opinion is, viz. — " That a concurrence of facts and of traditions demands, for the iNbaehian period, about ten millennia before our era ; and, for the beginning of our race, another ten thousand years, or very little more." 193 The startling era claimed, in 1845, by Bunsen, for Egypt's first Pharaoh, Menes, b. c. 3643, sinks into absolute insignificance before the 20,000 years now insisted upon by him for man's terrestrial existence. Palaeontologists of the Mortonian school will cheerfully accept Bunsen's chronological extension, notwithstanding their in- ability to comprehend the process by which the learned German obtains that definite cipher, or the reason why the human period should not be prolonged a few myriads of years more. Brought down nearer to our generation it cannot, without violating all rea- sonable induction regarding the ante-monumental state of Egypt ; m no less than from the remote era assigned by Prof. Agassiz 195 to the conglomerate, brought to his cabinet from Florida, inclosing human "jaws with perfect teeth, and portions of a foot." 191 Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes of the United States, Philadelphia, elephant 4to, 1854 — " Ethnographical researches concerning the Red Man in America ;" Fourth Report, p. ix. 182 Rev. Dr. Lightfoot, Harmony of the Foure Evangelistes, London, 1644 ; Part I, last page. 1st, Compare Basnage [Hist, and Religion of the Jews, pp. 107-8), on the disputations between the Carai'tes (lileralists) and the Rabbinists (traditionists), whether the world was created in March or in September : 2d, — if it be desired to ascertain on what grounds the rabbis make the 1st Sept. the day of creation, the solution is R. Jacoub's Baal Halurim (printed at Venice, 1540) ; who proves it through the Kabbala on the first word of Genesis, BeReSAITA — because, on transposing letters, Aleph is equivalent to "first," and be tisri means "in September"! (Richard Simon, op. cit., I, p. 882.) 193 Outlines of the Philosophy of History, London, 1854 ; II, p. 12. 194 Types of Mankind, pp. 687-9. 1 95 Op. cit., pp. 352-3. THE POLTGENISTS. 467 "With respect to Nilotic alluvials, my suggestion of geological researches 196 has heen wrought out, since 1851, by an old Egyptian colleague, Hikekyan-Bey, one of Seid Pasha's civil engineers, with effective government aid, at Heliopolis and Memphis, under direc- tion of Mr. Leonard Horner, of the Royal Society, 197 which placed a liberal grant of money at this gentleman's disposal. Father-in-law of Sir Charles Lyell, and father of the accomplished ladies who translated Lepsius's Briefe aus JEgypten, ^thiojrien, &c., 198 no one could be more qualified for the undertaking, — particulars concerning which may be also read in Brugsch, 199 who visited Metraheni while the works and surveys were going on. The royal names dis-interred are given by him ; and they belong to the XlXth-XXth dynasties, or the 15th-12th century b. c. ; but the depth, beneath the surface, at which they were found, indicates a much more remote antiquity for the accumulation of soil below them. During my recent sojourn in London, Mr. Horner, among other courtesies, was pleased to show rne the interesting specimens collected, and to favor me with an insight into the probable results. These were to appear in a later number of the Royal Society's Transactions. They will establish an unexpected antiquity for the Nile's deposits ; especially as Mr. Hor- ner, with Lepsius and all of us, takes the Xllth Dynasty at about 2300 before Christ; which, as he correctly observes, "according to the marginal chronology printed in the latest editions of our Bibles, is about 300 years before the death of Noah." 2 " Again, to the ante-Abrahamic age of the same XHth dynasty, more than 4000 years backwards from our own day, belong those eighteen hieroglyphical inscriptions, recording, upon the rocks near Samneh, for a period of about fifty years, " the height to which the river rose in the several years of which they bear the date. Inde- pendently of the novelty of these inscriptions, which are very short, they possess great value in enabling us to compare the ancient ele- vations of the waters of the Nile with those of our time ; for the oldest of these records dates back to a period of 2200 years before the Christian era. Thus, the measurements I have made with the great- est care, and which at this place were taken with comparative facility, have given the remarkable result, that the average rise of the Nile, 196 Otia JEgyptiaca, 1849, pp. 67-8. M ' Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, vol. exlv, Part I, London, 4to, 1855; pp. 105-38. 198 Letters from Egypt, &c. — revised by the author ; and translated by Leonora and Joanna B. Horner; London, 12mo, 1853. 199 Reiseberichle aus jEgypten (1853-4), Leipzig, 8vo, 1855; pp. 62-79. 200 "Mr. Horner on the Alluvial Land of Egypt," op. cit., p. 123. 468 THE MONOGENISTS AND 4000 years ago, was 7 metres, 30 cent, (or about 24 English feet) higher than it is at the present day." * * * "It explains a fact that had previously surprised me, viz : that in all the valley of Nubia, the level of the soil upon both shores, although it consists entirely of alluvium deposited by the Nile, is much more elevated than at the highest level of the river in the best year of modern inundation." 201 I have a distinct recollection of localities in Lower Nubia, — ex- plored with Mr. A. C. Harris during our shooting excursions as far as "Wadee Haifa (2d cataract), in 1839^40 — where the alluvium, deposited by the Nile anciently, upon the rock, was at great distance from, and at a higher level than, inundations at this day : hut the phenomenon merely excited surprise ; nor, until Chev. Lepsius dis- covered the inscriptions at Samneh, was an unaccountable circum- stance, now of great value in geology as well as chronology, either important or explicable. Eighteen years later, it helps to mark degrees of time on Nature's calendar; and, conjointly with the hiero- glyphs of Manetho's Xllth dynasty, cut at Samneh, to fix a date for the ante-Noachian existence of civilized humanity upon earth. Adjacent to these inscriptions stand the coetaneous fortifications of Samneh, built with great military skill and on an immense scale, by these Pharaohs of the Xllth dynasty, as their frontier bulwark of the south against the attacks of Nubian hordes. M. de Vogue, a competent judge, has re-explored the localities ; 202 confirming in every respect the anterior discovery of Chev. Lepsius. Geological investigation of Egypt, therefore, begins to furnish abundant elbow-room for Plato's long disregarded assertion, put into the Greek month of a native Egyptian priest too ! — "And the annals even of our own city [Sais] have been preserved 8000 years in our sacred writing. I will briefly describe the laws and most illustrious actions of those States which have existed 9000 years." 203 — "And you will, by observing, discover, that what have been painted and sculptured there [in Egypt] 10,000 years ago, — and I say 10,000 years, not as a word, but a fact, — are neither more beau- »' Lepsius, letter to Dr. S. G. Morton, "Philse, Sept. 15, 1844;" Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, Jan. 21, 1845: — See references to Lepsius's later works, in Types of Mankind, p. 692 ; and, for faithful copies of the inscriptions them- selves, the Prussian Denkmiiler, Abth. iv., Bd, 2, Bl. 137, 139, 151. 202 " Les fortifications antiques a Samneh (Nubie) " — Bulletin Archeologique de VAthenceum Francai.i, Paris, Sept., 1855; pp. 81-4, PI. v. Mr. Osburn's romantic inference, about the connection between these works and Joseph's seven years of famine, merely proves that this learned, if volcanic, Coptologist is no geologist (Monumental History of Egypt, London, 8vo., 1854; ii. pp. 35, 132-9. 203 "The Timseus," Plato's works, Davis transl. (Bohn) London, 1849, vi., p. 327. THE POL YGENIST S. 469 tiful, nor more ugly, than those turned out of hand at the present day, but are worked off according to the same art." 204 In his romance of Atlantis, Plato makes the Egyptian priest say to Solon, that the Athenian commonwealth had been created first by Minerva, and " one thousand years later she founded ours ; and this government established amongst us dates, according to our sacred books, from eight thousand years." Referring to Henri Martin 205 for annihilation of this Platonic myth as an historical document, the pas- sage merely serves to display Plato's conception of the world's anti- quity. Farcy 2 " 6 follows him up with a ruinous critique of "Atlan- tis " as applicable to its ridiculous attribution to the population of America. Humboldt, 207 more good-natured, while treating Atlantis as mythic, seems inclined to hope the story may be true. Still, in no case, do Plato's theories help us to a sound chronology. His 1 0,000 years for man in Egypt are but the half of the " 20,000 " now required, — 23 centuries after Plato, by Bunsen, for the exist- ence of mankind upon our planet's superficies ; and thus, as I have long sustained, 206 we have finally got beyond all biblical or any other chronology. Indeed, the most rigorous curtailer of Egyptian annals, my erudite friend Mr. Samuel Sharpe, states the case (except that his date for Osirtesen seems too contracted) exactly as all hierolo- gists of the present day understand Egypt's position in the world's history : " For how many years, or rather thousands of years, this globe had already been the dwelling-place of man, and the arts of life had been growing under his inventive industry, is uncertain ; we can hope to know very little of our race and its other discoveries before the in- vention of letters. But in the reign of Osirtesen the carved writing, by means of figures of men, animals, plants, and other natural and artificial objects, was far from new. We are left to imagine the number of centuries [anterior to the Pyramids'] that must have passed 204 "The Laws," Burges transl., op. cti., 1852, v. p. 50. 205 ]£tudes sur le Time'e de Plalon, Paris, 1841, "Atlantide:" — Types of Mankind, pp. 594, 718, 728. 206 Antiguite's Mexicaines, before cited, ii. pp. 41-55. 207 "Le recit de Platon offrirait moins de difficulty chi-onologique, 1'intervalle de 210 ans entre la vieillesse de Solon et celle de Platon e'tant rempli par trois generations de la descend- ance de Dropide"s, si, par une alteration sans doute blamable du texte, c'etait celui-ci etnon Solon qui racontait a Critias, le grand-pere de Pinterlocuteur, ce qu'il avait appris, par Solon, de la catastrophe de 1' Atlantide. * * * Platon, pour donner plus d'importance a son recit, aurait pu introduire tous ces faits dans un roman historique, et sa parents avcc Solon favorisait la probability de la fiction." (Examen Critique de Vhistoire de la Geographic, &c, before quoted, "Considerations," i. pp. 167-73.) a» Otia JEgpliaea, pp. 41-2 ; 61-8 : and Types of Mankind, 683-9. 470 THE MONOGESTISTS AND since this mode of writing first came into use, when the characters were used for the objects only." 209 Mr. Birch, living dispassionately in the midst of temptations, aug- mented hourly by the increasing copiousness of his materials, adheres, with admirable fortitude, to the non-recognition of any arithmetical system of chronology. His last and invaluable pr&cis of Egyptian hieroglyphs 210 contains no allusion to this " vexata qusestio ;" but we may look forward to a history of Egypt, reconstructed by himself exclusively from archselogical monuments, that, according to my view, will ground Xilotic history upon a more stable basis than ever- fluctuating ciphers. In the meanwhile, a thorough revision of the astronomical data contained in hieroglyphical inscriptions, — data that, utterly misconstrued in object as well as import, for the last half- century, have provoked endless disputations — has at length enabled M. Biot 211 to fix three lifetimes of Pharaohs by three several instances wherein "the festival of Sothis (Syrius, the dog-star)," is recorded on monuments of the XVHth and XXth dynasties. The first occurred about B. c. 1440, during the reign of Thotmes III; the second about b. c. 1300, under Ramses HI; and the third under Ramses VH, about b. c. 1240. Precious to science as are these new facts, I doubt whether the destruction of false hypotheses is not more so ; and the removal of further hallucinations about pharaonic observation of the " Sothic Period" is one of countless reasons for gratitude to Biot. 212 After reading his criticism of Grseco-Roman postulates, one recognizes how "It becomes easy to see that the idea of an heliacal Thoth, as if it had been really observed at Memphis, under conditions that would make it correspond, day by day, with that of Antoninus, after the revolution of 1461 vague years, is a pure fiction :" at the same time that, to imagine Menophres, which is but a Greek translation of the nome (province) of Memphis, to have been a King, becomes, likewise, "a chimera." ! More popular, though not less interesting, is the beautiful " Deter- mination of the Vernal Equinox of 1852, effected in Egypt, according to observations of the rising and setting of the sun in the alignement of the southern and northern faces of the great Pyramid of Memphis, a» History of Egypt, London, 2d ed., 1852 ; i. p. 13. 210 Crystal Palace Library, London, 12mo, Bradbury and Evana, 1856. Possessing only the proof-sheets, kindly given to me by my friend Mr. Birch, in advance of publication, I cannot supply its definitive title. 211 Memoires de V Academic des Sciences, Tome XXIV, 1853. 212 Recherches de quelgues Dales Absolues qui peuvent se conclure des dates vagues sur les Monumens Egyptians, Paris, 4to, 1853; pp. 16-17. THE POLTGENISTS. 471 by M. Mariette." 2 ' 3 It explains how naturally this vaunted "wisdom of the Egyptians" (Acts vii, 22) reduces itself to simple "rules of thumb," still practised daily by the unlettered Fellaheen along the Nile; and proves also "que les prejuges du savoir une fois etablis sont durs a detruire. C'est une sorte d'ignorance petrifiee." This aphorism of M. Biot applies with singular force to chronolo- gers of the old school, among whom, however, must not be ranked Prof. Orcurti, 214 one of the Egyptologists attached to the Museum of Turin, where the liberal principles of Sardinia allow free utterance to opinion. He likewise advocates tbe longest chronology: — "Hence [the ChampollionistsJ establish that Egyptian chronology must be studied at its direct fountains, independently of the chronological data of the Bible (I mean for the epoch anterior to the XVHIth dynasty); inasmuch as, there not being a fixed and established chro- nology of Hebrew annals, reason insists that we should avail our- selves of that liberty which the [Catholic] Church concedes to us for using anysoever chronological system." * * * "Beyond this period [the XHth dynasty which, with De Rouge, he fixes about 2900 b. c], we do not care to prosecute the tedious task of adding ciphers that are only conjectural ;" and, like myself, 215 Orcurti rejects the con- temporaneousness of any Egyptian dynasties ; holding that, — "all the ingenuity of Bunsen availed naught in causing a system to be accepted which is in contradiction with the historians and the monu- ments." It is partly for this reason, and partly for another to be given anon, that I will not weary readers with an analysis of the 2d vol. (1853) of Chev. Bunsen's anglicised " Egypt's Place in the World's History," in which the author's enormous erudition rivals his wonderful dex- terity in making his own ciphers harmonize with each other rather than with the monuments. Neither is it worth the labor to point out the whimsicalities of the "Monumental History of Egypt" (1854), by Mr. Osburn a scholar that, apart from his unquestionable skill in deciphering inscriptions, coupled with a good knowledge of Copt- ology, seems to hanker after the character of Homer's Margites, who knew a great many things, but all of them wrong.™ 213 Biot, Journal des Savants, May, June, July, 1855; p. 29, &c: and Idem. "Surles restes de l'Aneienne Uranographie dgyptienne que l'on pourrait reHrouver aujourd'hui chez les Arabes qui habitent l'int€rieur de l'Egypte" — op. cit. Aug. 1855. See especially Dk Roug£, " Noms 6gyptiens des Planetes," — Bui. Archeol., Athen Francois, Mara-Avril, 1856. 214 Calalogo illustrato dei Monumenti Egizii del R. Museo di Torino, Turin, 8vo, 1852 ; pp. 47, 51, 57. a 5 Types of Mankind, pp. 677, 683. 216 Bentlet's Phalaris, Dyce's ed., London, 8vo, 1836; II, p. 11; from Alcib. II of Plato, Op. Ill, 116, ed. 1826. 472 THE MONOGENISTS AND Even for the only true synchronism, yet proved, between Egyptian monuments and Hebrew records, viz : the conquest of Jerusalem by Shishak; 217 a latitude of some 15 years must be allowed, as shown by the following table. 218 Ch ampollio n-Figea c, Letronne, Lenormanty Wilkinson, Bunsen, De Rouge, Banicchi, B. C. 971. 980. 981. 978. 982. 973. 989. There being absolutely nothing, heretofore discovered, in the hiero- glyphics, relative to any preceding relations between the Israelites and the Egyptians, we are reduced to the vague process of chronolo- gical parallels for conjecturing under what particular "Pharaoh" (king), occurred the Exodus, or Joseph's ministry, or Abraham's visit ; and inasmuch as neither on the Egyptian, nor on the Jewish side, can arithmetical precision 219 be attained beyond Solomon's age, or about 1000 b. c, we may now, after 34 years of incessant scrutiny since Champollion's "Precis," give up further illusion tbat any closer synchronism between Moses and the "Pharaoh" who was not drowned in the Red Sea, 22 " than the one very plausibly arrived at by Lepsius, 221 and adopted by Viscount E. de Rouge, 222 will ever be wrought out. After showing the probability that Moses must have succeeded the reign of a Ramses (Exod, I, 11 — "Raamses "), and that the Exode probably took place while Menephthah, son of Ramses II, was on the throne, De Rouge now confirms an assertion made by me, ever since I acquired some knowledge of hieroglyphics (in Egypt, 1839- 41), — and advanced in the face of then-preponderating hopes rather than testimony to the contrary, that — "we have not found, upon the monuments, the trace of these first relations of the Israelites with Egypt." They never will be found ; and this for reasons which a critical examination of the ages and writers of the book called "Exo- dus" would conclusively explain. " Chronology," continues De Rouge, "presents too many uncer- tainties, as much in Egyptian history as in the Bible, and especially when an endeavor is made to measure the period of the Judges, for one to be able, a priori and through a simple comparison of dates, to define under what king took place the exit from Egypt. The difficulty is still greater when it concerns the patriarch Joseph, m Gliddon, Chapters on Early Egyptian History, Archwology, ire, 1st ed., New York, 1843; 15th ed., Philadelphia, 1854; pp. 2, 3. 218 Orcurti, op. cit. p. 50. 219 Types of Mankind, pp. G88, 706, 714. 220 Wilkinson, Man. and Cast, of the Ancient Egyptians, London, 1837; I. pp. 54-5. 221 Chronologie der jEgypter, Berlin, 4to, 1st part, 1849; pp. 358-63. 222 Consei-vator of the Imperial Museum at the Louvre — Notice Sommaire des Monument liyypliens du Mus6e du Louvre, Paris, 18mo, 1855; pp. 14, 15, 22-3. THE POLYGENISTS. 473 because the length of the time of servitude in Egypt is itself the object of numerous controversies." * * * "As we have said, the synchronism of Moses with Ramses II [XlXth dynasty], so precious at the historical point of view, gives us insufficient light for chrono- logy ; because the duration of the time of the Judges of Israel is not known in a very certain manner. We shall remain within the limit of the probable on placing Seti I about 1500 [b. c], and the com- mencement of the XVIIIth dynasty toward the 18th century. But it would be by no means astonishing if we deceived oui'selves two hundred years in the estimate, so greatly are the documents vitiated in history or incomplete upon the monuments. " We have thus mounted up to the moment of the expulsion of the Shepherds \_Hyksos~] : here we shall not even undertake any further calculation. The texts do not accord as to the time which the occupation of Egypt by these terrible guests lasted, and the monuments are silent in this respect. That time was long ; several dynasties succeeded each other before the deliverance : this is all that we know about it. We are not better edified concerning the length of the first empire, and we possess no reasonable means of measuring the age of the pyramids, those witnesses of the grandeur of the primitive Egj'ptians. If nevertheless we recall to mind, that the generations which constructed them are separated from our vulgar era, first by the eighteen centuries of the second Egyptian empire, next by the very long period of the Asiatic inva- sion, and lastly by several numerous and powerful dyuasties that have bequeathed to us some monuments of their passage, the hoary antiquity of the pyramids, maugre inability to calculate it exactly, will lose nothing of its majesty in the eyes of the historian." From this rapid sketch of the unanimity of opinion as to the his- toric and prehistoric periods of human life in Egypt (oldest of histo- rical countries) towards which scientific men in France, Italy, Ger- many, and England, are now converging, the reader will appreciate the correctness of the view taken by me, and supported with other citations, in Types of Mankind. It merely shows how different minds, reasoning without prejudice upon the same common stock of data, necessarily arrive at similar conclusions. But M. de Rouge's refe- rence to the difficulties of adjusting the chronology of the Book of Judjes induces a glance at its new and likely solution proposed by Mr. Samuel Sharpe. 223 The obstacles to previous settlement of the succession of Israel's 223 Historic notes on the Books of the Old and New Testaments (supra, note 29) pp. 40-6. 474 THE MONOGENISTS AND Judges are familiar to possessors of Cahen, 224 De Wette, 235 Munk, 228 Righellini, 227 or Palfrey. 223 Hitherto, as Basnage 229 remarks, owing to superstitions of modern European origin upon the exaggerated antiquity of their literature, the Jews " have been the librarians of God, and ours too :" nor are they only bigoted Talmudists who still maintain, " that he who sins against Moses may be forgiven, but he that contradicts the Doctors deserves death." There are plenty of teachers extant who, without the faith or the Hebraism of old Solo- mon Jarchi (Raschi), would with him declare, that — "if a Rabbi should teach that the left hand is the right, and the right the left, we are bound to believe him." 230 But, for the purpose in hand, which is to show how Mr. Sharpe re-arranges the discrepant Book of Judges, it suffices to repeat the exhortation of St. Jerome, — "Relege omnes et Veteris et Ebvi Testam-enti libros, et tantam annorum reperies dissonantiam et numerum inter Juclam et Israel, id est, inter regnum utr unique confusum, ut hujusce-modi hasrere quaestionibus, non tarn studiosi, quam otiosi hominis esse videatur:" 231 not forgets ting either, how the father of Catholic biblical criticism, P£re Simon de l'Oratoire, eschews — ■" the punctilios of chrouologists ; that contain more vowels than consonants, and which it would be more incom- modious to harmonize than the different clocks of a large city. * * Impossible to make an exact chronology through the Books of Sacred Scripture such as they are at this day." "Albeit," writes Munk, 232 "it is impossible to present an historical tableau of the epoch of the Shophetim. The Book of Judges, which is the only one we can consult about that epoch, is not a book of his- tory. Every thing in it is recounted in an unstitched manner, and the events succeed each other with rigorous sequence and without chronological order. It is a collection of detached traditions about the times of the Shophetim, composed probably upon ancient poems and upon popular legends that celebrated the glory of these heroes. This collection, which dates from the first ages of the monarchy, had for object, as it appears, to encourage the new government to com- wi La Bible, Traduction Nouvelle, "Schophetim," vol. vii. ; Paris, 1846. 225 Crit. and Hist. Introduction to the Canon. Scrip, of the Old Testament, Boston, transl. Parker, 1843; ii. pp. 196-8. ™ Palestine, Paris, 1845; pp. 230-1, 441. 22 ' Examen de la Religion Chre'tienne el de la Religion Juive. Paris, 8to., 1834; iii. p. 560. 228 Academical Lectures on the Jewish Scriptures, Boston, 8vo., 1840; ii. pp. 208-35. 229 History and Religion of the Jews, transl. Taylor, London, fol. 1708; pp. 344, 170. 230 Mackat, Progress of the Intellect, London, 8vo., 1850; p. 14. 231 Episl. ad Vital. — Kichakd Simon, Hisloire Critique du Vieux Testament, Amsterdam, 4to., 1685; i. pp. 38, 350, 204-8. 232 Palestine, p. 231. THE POLTGENISTS. 475 plete the work begun by Joshua, and to show to the people all the advantages of hereditary royalty. For this purpose, it sufficed to show, by a series of examples, what had been the disorders to which the Hebrews delivered themselves up, during the clays of the repub- lic ; what had been the evil consequences which the (loving) weak- ness of the Hebrews towards the Canaanites had caused, and how the temporary power of one alone had always preserved them from total ruin. One must not, therefore, think to establish with exact- ness the chronological order of facts and the epoch of each judge. Savants have given themselves, in this respect, useless trouble, and all their efforts have completely failed. It will suffice to say that the ciphers which we find in the Book of Judges, and in the first book of Samuel, yield us, from the death of Joshua to the commencement of the reign of Saiil, the sum total of 500 years ; which would make, since the exode from Egypt, 565 years ; whereas, the first book of Kings counts but 480 years from the going out of Egypt down to the foundation of the Temple under Solomon. According to this, one must suppose [with Mr. Sharpe] that several of the Shophetim governed simultaneously in different countries. In the incertitude of the dates, and in the absence of historical sources, we must con- tent ourselves by here giving a summary of the traditions contained in the Book of Judges, to afford a general tableau of the state of the Hebrews during that period, without pretending to establish a chro- nological succession." The great merit of Mr. Sharpe's restoration to accordance of the dislocated fragments contained in Judges is its simplicity ; and sim- plicity, so far from being an index to a primeval stage of human intellect, is always an expression of modern philosophical science. " To determine the chronology, we must have regard to the geo- graphy; and we shall see that the wars here mentioned do not always belong to the whole of the Israelites ;" that is, they often occurred simultaneously, and not, as generally supposed by the old chronologers, consecutively — different points of Palestine being ruled over by different judges at the same time. " The whole argu- ment will be made more clear by the following Chronological Table : 476 THE MONOGENISTS AND S O H t— I P P3 O o «i a m a > p ix C5 H 85 P O o CS ■SP5 3 a. E - o ^3 -rP f^P CD PC P o5 I c3 ; >» : o : ■^ : - J3 zn • * fl> cd : :- O =1 "a -5 o THE POL YGENI ST S. 477 Mr. Sharpe hence infers, that " the Book of Judges ends in the year b. c. 1100, and begins with Joshua's death, about b. c. 1250 ; and the Exodus took place about b. c. 1300. In this way, from the Exodus to the building of the Temple, in the fourth year of Solomon's reign, is 289 years. If, instead of considering the periods of time in part contemporaneous, we had added them all together [as did the unknown writers of Kings'], we should have had about the 480 years mentioned in 1 Kings vi, 1. But the above calculation is fully confirmed by the genealogies," &c. In the topographical and coetaneous tabulation of these judges, few students will disagree with the learned author ; but, in a later portion of his valuable work, Mr. Sharpe himself indicates the vagueness inherent in all these Jewish attempts at restoring their lost chronology: 233 "The events, indeed, in the history, from the Exodus to Solomon's death, can hardly occupy more than three centuries, if we observe that the times mentioned are mostly in round numbers of forty years each, which we are at liberty to consider indefinite, and only to mean several years." Thus, if, on the one hand, new evidences from the monuments and the alluvial deposits of the Nile constrain Egyptologists to claim, for man's occupation of that valley, epochas so far beyond all historic chronology (and no other deserves the name), as to eliminate the subject, henceforward, from any computation of the contradic- tory elements contained in Hebrew, Samaritan, Greek, or Latin, biblical codices : on the other, the parallel advance in Scriptural exegesis has curtailed to rational limits the preposterous antiquity formerly claimed for the Israelitish nation. Whether Usher (in the margin of king James's version) takes, with Marsan, 480 years as the interval between the exode and Solomon's temple ; or Bossuet, 488 ; or Buret de Longchamps, 495 ; or Pezron, 837; has now become a matter of no consecmence. " Three centuries," a little more or less, is the average between Mr. Sharpe's estimate and that of Lepsius, at about 314-322 years. 234 To reach nearer than that supputation is a hopeless task, upon existing MSS. of the Old Testament, — each one being faulty. Since it has been discovered that, before Rabbi Hillel, son of Juda, the Jews had made no scientific attempts (whatever the Alexandrian Greeks may have done) to establish a "chronology" for their own nation, no further dependence can be placed upon Hebrew numera- tion. Hillel died about 310-12 ; and in such repute was his autho- 233 Historic Notes, p. 82. Lepsius's argument to the same effect is cited in Types of Man- hind, pp. 706-12. *" Ckronologie der jfigypter, I, 335-7. 478 THE MONOGENISTS AND rity held, that St. Epiphanius claims his previous conversion 235 from Judaism! Hillel, continues Basnage, did three things which ren- dered him famous among Jews and Christians. One of them was : "It was that he fixed the epocha from the Creation of the World, and reckoned the years from them. Different epochas were made use of before. The departure from Egypt was the sera of some ; the Law given at Sinai was that of others : one reckoned the years from the Dedication of the Temple ; another from the return out of captivity: some dated from Alexander the Great's entering into Jerusalem, which they looked upon as a considerable event to the Republick. But since the Gremara was finished, they began to reckon the years from the Creation of the world ; and we are told that it was Hillel who established this epocha, and transmitted it to posterity (for it is still observed); and, according to his calculation, Jesus Christ was born in the year 3760." * * * The Jews sustained, however, that "Jesus Christ is not the Messiah, since he came above 200 years before the end of the fourth millennium :" * * * on which Basnage comments that "Jesus Christ ought to be lorn in the year 3910" ! "Varise opiniones de numero annorum a creatione ad nativitatem Christi : et quid de fine mundi sentiendam," — is a statement illustrated by Gaffarelli 336 with a list of more than twenty authorities, from Paulus Forosemproniensis down to Malvenda, in which the dates for the Creation range from b. c. 3760 to 6310 ! " Ex quibus concluditur, nee dies neque annos a creatione ad Christum absque peculiar! reve- latione sciri posse." To the above, his translator obligingly adds five more estimates of the year of the Nativity, — between a. m. 3837 and a. m. 3970 : marvelling, with Clemens Alexandrinus (lib. I, Strom. B), at the existence of persons, in his time, who (not per- ceiving exactly, with our acuter national Didymus, how chronology "binds man to God") attempt precision in determining Jesus's birth — "Sunt qui curiosius non solum annum sed diem addunt!" And this erudite father of the Church was living (a. d. 192-217) barely two centuries after the occurrence of this the greatest (among ourselves) event of events. Mosheim 237 honestly concedes that the year of Christ "has not been hitherto fixed with certainty;" but adopts, as "most probable," "the year of Rome 748 or 749 (Matt, iii, 2; John i, 22; &c.):" in- 385 Basnage (supra, note 229), pp. 157-9: — conf. also Maokat, Progress of the Intellect, II, pp. 307-15. 236 Curiositatce lnauditos de figuris Persarum Talismanias, Horoscopo Patriarcharum et Characleribus Ccelestibus; Latine-opera, M. Gregorii Michaelis; Hamburgi, 1676; cap. II, pp. 7, 44-8, 180-2. 337-40. 235 Ecclesiastical History, transl. Maclaire; 1st American ed., Philadelphia, 1797; I, p. 52. THE POLYGENISTS. 479 forming us, in a note, that "the learned John Albert Fabricius has collected all the opinions of the learned concerning the year of Christ's birth." To his work I turn: 238 although the question be not even settled at this day ! m Under the head of "Minutiae in chronologicis minus consectandse," Fabricius enlarges upon the uncertainties of chronology; backing assertion with citations of 141 different epochs assigned to Christ's nativity by about 283 authorities, who begin at A. M. 3616 and end at a. m. 6484, for this all-important event. Then, for those who "Christum natum consent" in An. Urbis cond. (the year of the building of Rome), they range between 720 and 756 a. u. c. If, more particular, we ask — "Quo mense natus Christus?" a table is presented to our sight in which different computators have agreed upon the 6th January, or the 10th idem, or February, or March, or the 19-20th April, or the 20th May, or June "XI Kal. Julias," or July, or August "sub finem mensis," or September "die XVSeptem- bris, Jo. Lightfootus ad Lucee II, 7," or October "sub init.," or the 6th November, or the 18th of the same, or, lastly, the 25th December — "ex communi Graecse et Latinse Ecclesise traditione." Fabricius adds this singular coincidence — " Pulchre observarunt Yiri docti a Romanis die VIII Cal. Januarii sive XXV Decembris celebratum diem natalem Solis invicti, initium nempe periodi annuae et brumam: eamque solennitatem a Christianis opportune trans- latam ad Natalem Solis Justitise." RaoubRochette, 240 in his erudite inquiries into the Phoenician god Melkarth, as an incarnation of the Sun at the Winter Solstice — a subject greatly developed by Lanci 241 — has carried these Roman analogies back to a much earlier period in Canaan. He says — "We know, through a precise testimony in the ancient annals of Tyre, the principal festivity of Melkarth, at Tyre, was called his re-birth or his awakening, tyepSis (Joseph., Antiq. Jud., VIII, 5, 3) ; and that it was celebrated by means of a pyre, whereupon the god was supposed to regain, through the aid of fire, a new life (N"onnus, Dionysiaca, XL, 236 Bibliographia Antiquaria, sive Introductio in notitiam Scriptorum, qui antiquates Mebraicas, Grcecas, Eomanas, et Christianas scriptis illustraverunt ; 2d ed., Hamburgh, 4to, 1716; pp. 185-7, 193-8, 842-3, 344. 239 See De Saulct, " Sur la date de la naissance et de la mort du Christ," — controverted by Alfred Maury, "Sur la date de la naissance du Christ" (Athenmum Francais, 1855, pp. 485-6, 513-4). 240 Me'moires 2 Letronne, La Croix Ansee (gypiienne (Me'm. de l'Acad. des Inscrip., 2d part) — "tirage a part," Paris, 1846; pp. 24-26: citing textually, Rufinus II, c. 26 and 29 — Sozomen, Hist, eccles. VII, 15, p. 725 B — and Socrates, V, 17, p. 276, A. B. Conf. also, De Potter, Hisloire du Ohristianisme. THE POLTGENISTS. . 491 Egypt. The last catalogue of the Louvre museum 273 enumerates but few of these uncounted treasures. Science must wait patiently for their co-ordination by their discoverer, when France publishes his folio Monuments. Meanwhile, as De Saulcy says — "The names of a dozen new Pharaohs have been found; and the 400 principal steles, that are now deposited in the Louvre, are like 400 pages of a book written 3000 years ago, which reveal to us a multitude of details, heretofore unknown, about the life and the religion of ancient Egypt. Furthermore, art itself has to put in her claims for a share in the rich booty of M. Mariette ; and I limit myself to citing, among other monuments, an admirable statue of a sitting Scribe, dating certainly 4000 years before the Christian era, and which is a chef-d' 'oeuvre of the plastic art." This Scribe is fac-simile-ed in our frontispiece, with other contem- poraneous associates from the same tomb (Vth dynasty) in plates LT to VIII of this present volume. They are due to the complaisance of my friends MM. Deveria and Salzmann (author of those unsur- passable jrfwtograplis of Palestine), who, with the sanction of MM.De Rouge and Mariette, kindly brought their instruments to revivify, at the Louvre, the specimens first offered to the American public in this work. M. Pulszky's practised eye has already assigned them a proper place in the history of iconographic art (Chapter II, pp. 109-116, ante). But Mariette must speak for himself. 274 "I estimate," says the explorer, "that the diggings at the Sera- peum of Memphis have led to the discovery of about 7000 monu- ments. " But all these monuments are not relative to the same object, that is to say to the worship of the God adored in the Serapeum. Built in a necropolis more ancient than itself, the Serapeum held within its enclosure some old tombs which the piety of Egyptians had respected. Nearly all its walls were, besides, formed of stones bor- rowed from edifices already demolished. * * * The clearing out of the Serapeum has, therefore, really had for result the discovery of the 7000 monuments already mentioned. But the monography of Serapis does not count upon more than about 3000 ; — a very respect- able cipher, if one recollects that few questions of antiquity have ever reached us under the escort of a similar number of original documents. * * * It is not, then, a treatise upon Serapis that must be required from the little essay of which I am tracing the lines. If 273 Notice Sommaire (supra, note 222). 2 ' 4 "Renseignements sur les 64 Apis trouve's dans les souterrains du Serapeum" — Bulletin Archeulogique de V Athenceum Francais, Paris, May-Nov. 1855; Articles I to V. 492 THE MONOGENISTS AND it be accorded to me some day to render a detailed account of the operations of which the Serapeum was the theatre, I will endeavor to show and to define the Serapis whom the classifying and interpre- tation of the texts fonnd in the temple of this god have revealed to us. It will then be seen what Serapis really was. It will be seen how Serapis was a god of Egyptian origin, as ancient as Apis, seeing that after all he is but Apis dead. It will be seen how the Serapis of the,. Greeks is only another amalgamated Grteco-Egyptian god ; and how these two divinities have lived at Memphis in two distinct Serapeums, in each other's presence, without ever being confounded." "It is known that the Serapeum is situate, not at Memphis, but in the burial-ground of Memphis ; and that this temple was entirely built for the tomb of Apis. The Serapeum is merely, therefore, according to the definition of Plutarch and of Saint Clemens- Alex- andrinus, the sepulchral monument of Apis; or rather the Serapeum is the temple of Apis dead, who, in consequence, must be distin- guished from the temple of Apis living, that Herodotus has described, and which Psametichus embellished with the colossi of Osiris. Apis had, then, properly speaking, two temples ; one which he inhabited under the name of Apis during his lifetime, the other wherein he reposed after his death under the name of Osorapis" — corrupted by Greeks and Romans into Serapis. " By way of resume, the explanations which I have just given have already had for result to show us : — 1st. — That the Serapeum is but the mausoleum of Apis ; and thus that the principal god of the Serapeum, that is to say, Serapis, is but Apis dead; 2d. — That there had been at Memphis two Serapeums; one founded by Amenophis HT. \_Memnon — XVIIth dynasty, 15th cen- tury b. c], in which the worship of the god of the ancient Pharaohs preserved itself intact down to the Roman emperors [3d century after C] : the other, inaugurated a short time after the advent of the Greek dynasty at Memphis, and in which the Alexandrian Serapis, result of a bifurcation [i. e. a separation of religious doctrine] ope- rated under Soter I. [about B. c. 310], was more especially adored ; 3d. — That the clearing out of the only one of these temples that has been explored, has produced 7000 monuments ; among which the monography of Serapis can merely claim the 3000 objects that, by their origin, are relative to this god ; 4th. — That these 3000 objects come almost all from the tomb of Apis properly so-called ; and hence that the collection of the Louvre possesses a funereal and Egyptian character, quite different from that THE POLYGENISTS. 493 which it would seem a collection, drawn entirely out of the temple of Serapis, ought to assume ; 5th. — Finally, that this tomb had been violated and sacked ; but that, notwithstanding, the principal divisions of the monument and the nature of the objects gathered from it have permitted the proxi- mate re-construction of the ancient state of the localities, and to establish, in a manner more or less certain, the existence of a mini- mum of 64 Apises" — that is, of the hieroglyphic records, and some remains, of at least 64 embalmed bulls dedicated to, and once buried in this sanctuary of, the god Apis. Mariette then proceeds to catalogue, by epoch and circumstances, the succession of these divine animals, in the most detailed and in- teresting manner; for which I must refer to the luminous papers themselves. Space confines my remarks to but one point bearing on chronology. Ancient writers cited by him 275 — all, however, disciples of the later Alexandria^schools — affirm that the lifetime of the sacred bull Apis was restricted to 25 years ; at the expiration of which the quadruped deity was put to death by theocratic law, and a canonical successor sought for and installed. This custom becoming assimilated to the periodical conjunction, every 25 years, of the solar and lunar motions, on the same day and at the same celestial points, had led to modern astronomical suggestion of a famous cycle, called "the period of Apis." Nevertheless, the two ideas are proved by Mariette to be wholly distinct ; the luni-solar cycle of 25 years being used as far back as Claudius Ptolemy (about a. d. 150) in his tables ; and the supposed application of this cycle to Apis being derived from an inci- dental and misapprehended remark of Plutarch, that — "multiplied by itself, the number 5 produces a square equal to the number of the Egyptian letters and to that of the years lived by Apis." 276 Did the Pharaonic Egyptians, in limiting, according to later Gre- cian accounts, the life of Apis to 25 years, recognize therein the luni- solar cycle in vogue among astronomers of the Alexandria-school ? If they did, a most useful implement is at once found by which to fix an infinitude of points in Egyptian chronology. Alas ! The fune- bral tablets demonstrate that some Apises died a natural death before the 25 years were completed, and that others lived " 26 years," and "26 years and 28 days," or "25 years and 17 days." " Hence the argument is positive. Our Apises die at all ages ; and 2 '5 Pliny, viii. 46: — Solincs, c. 32: — Ammianus Marcel., sxii. 14, 7: — Plutarch, Dt c. 56 ; &c, &o. z ' 6 See also the authorities in Lepsius, Tiber den Apiskreis, Leipzig, 1853: — and Chrono- jie der JEgypter, i. pp. 160-1. 494 THE MONOGENISTS AND it is evident that if each end of a luni-solar cycle of 25 years Lad coincided with a death of Apis, the monuments would have already told us something about it. On the contrary, they prove to us that our Apises were subject to the common law at the will of destiny, without caring for the moon or its position in the sky relative to the sun. The period of Apis seems to me definitively buried." Thus, day by day, as Egyptology advances, we discover that many of the scientific, theological, and philosophical notions, in most works of modern scholars (as yet unaware that hieroglyphics are translated) attributed to the simple and practical denizens of the Nile, are the posterior creations of Grseco-Judaico-Roman intellects at Alexandria — more than a millennium after the whole economy of the Egyptian mind had reached its maximum of development. Definite cyclic chronology — they had none ! Their long papyric registries of reigns [Turin papyrus, for instance), their unnumbered petroglyphs recording dates, are marked with the civil year (of 365 days), month, and day, of each monarch's reign ; but without refe- rence to any historical era, or to any astronomical cycle. " Sothic periods," — "Apis-periods," and all other periods, are but the for- mulas through which Ptolemaic Alexandrians tried, after Manetho (b. c. 260) — what we are still attempting, 2000 years later — to syste- matize for Grecian readers the chronology of a primitive, unsophisti- cated, people who, content with the annual registry of events by the reigns of their kings — as here we might date in a given year of such a President, or in England they do in such a year of Victoria — were satisfied with this world as they found it created, never troubling their brains about the date of its creation. Religious dogmas — they had many ; but the Funereal Ritual™ or Booh of the Bead, now that we know its fanciful and almost childish contents, is more interesting to the Free-mason 273 than to any other reader, — except as phases of the human mind, and also for its ines- timable value to the philologist. There is naught in it about cos- mogony ; nor, have we any genuine Egyptian tradition of their origin earlier than what little was learned by Herodotus in the 5th century b. c. — viz: that Egyptians reported themselves to be autochthones.™ Diodorus's and all other notions on the subject are merely echoes of the foreign Alexandria-school. 2 ' 7 Bruosch, Sa'i an Sinsin, sive Liber metempsychosis veterum Egyptiorum a duabus papyris funeribus hieraticis, Berolini, 4to, 1851 ; pp. 1-2. 2W Lepsius, Todtenbuch du ^Egypler, Leipzig, 4to, 1842 : — In speaking of acquaintance with the doctrines of the Ritual, I would especially thank Mr. Birch for his generosity in furnishing me, long ago, with an autograph synopsis of each chapter and with translations of its more interesting columns. sw Herod. THE POLTGENISTS. 495 Philosophy — the very word is Greek!™ It might, therefore, be wise for future writers, if they do not choose to avail themselves of the correct information accessible only in works of the living Champollionists, when writing about the world's history, to give Egypt no place in it ; lest, by relying too much on the absurd anachronisms of Alexandrine Greeks, they should expose the ignorance of two parties. Meanwhile, Egyptian chronology is being rebuilt stone by stone, inscription by inscription, epoch by epoch. Already the structure, in the hands of Lepsius, rears its head with Menes at 3983 years before our vulgar era ; and if a skeptic should desire to behold the constructive process in its perfection, I would refer him to Mariette's restoration of the XXJLLd, or Bubastite dynasty™ — b. c. 10th and 9th centuries — for the nee plus ultra of archaeological science in our time. Having now laid before the reader a sufficient epitome of facts and recent authorities to support those presented in our former work, I am free to state that, in common with my contemporaries, I recog- nize no chronology whatever anterior to the Old Empire, or the pyra- midal period of Egypt ; neither can I find solid grounds for annual computation anywhere prior to about 2850 years backwards from this year — the LXXXth of the Independence of these United States; nor, for centennary, in the oldest civilized country, — the lower valley of the Nile — for times anterior to the XVTIth dynasty, assumed at about the 16th-18th centuries B. c. Under this view, to which archseologists with other scientific men are fast approaching, we have "ample room and verge enough," for carrying-human antiquity upon earth to any extent that geology and natural history combine to permit. The former science, at present, restricts the possibility to the alluvials and the diluvial drift; the latter, perhaps, warrants our taking a little more " elbow room." Either boundary will suffice for the continuation of our inquiries into tumular remains of primordial humanity, and their relations to the ascending series of man's precursors, the fossil and humatile simise. 280 "Pythagoras was the first man who invented that word" *IAOSOOS, philosopher ; Bentley, Phalaris, Dyce's ed., London, 8to, 1836; I, p. 271. 281 Bulletin Archeologique (supra, note 274) — "tirage a part," Nov. 1855; pp. 5-14, and Tableau genealogique. [A recent obliging letter from Paris informs me that " M. Mariette a fait paraitre une dissertation sur la mere d'Apis, dans laquelle il e'tablit que les Egyptiens avaient sur la mere d'Apis des idees fort analogues a. celles que les Catholiques ont sur la Vierge Marie, et oil il retrouve notamment le dogme de rimmaeulee conception." This I have not yet received. When I do, it will be interesting to compare it with the masterly Sermon preche dans le Temple de VOratoire, le 12 Novembre, 1854 (Paris), on "Un Dogme Nouveau con- cernant la Vierge Marie," by Athanase Coqtierel.] 496 THE MONOGENISTS AND PART III. Have fossil human bones been found ? The chapter entitled " Geology and Palaeontology in connection with human Origins," contributed by Dr. Usher to our preceding work, answers affirma- tively; and well-informed critics 282 have conceded that his argument is sufficiently powerful to arrest unhesitating acceptance of Cuvier's denial, now more than a quarter of a century old. The subsequent discovery of fossil simise, equally unforeseen by the great naturalist, in Europe, Asia, and America, has put a new face on the matter : "In fact," wrote Morton in 1851, 283 "I consider geology to have already decided tbis question in the affirmative." So does Prof. Agassiz. 284 Now, either fossil remains of man have been discovered, or they have not. Archaeology no longer permitting us to trammel human antiquity by any chronological limits, — having, to speak outright, before my eyes neither fear of an imaginary date of " creation," nor of a hypo- thetical "deluge" — I approach this inquiry with indifference as to the result, so long as errors may be exploded, or truth elicited: and, to begin, it strikes me that here again, as above argued in regard to " species," much ink might have been spared by previously settling the signification of the term "fossil." I know 285 the alleged criteria by which really fossilized bones are determined ; and have inspected, often, palasontological collections of all epochas in Paris, London, and at our Philadelpbian Academy of Natural Sciences. On every side I read and hear doubts expressed as to whether fossil man exists; yet, when opening standard geological works, 286 I encounter, re- peatedly, "fossil human skeleton" in the same breath with "fossil monkeys;" and then ascertain elsewhere (ubi supra) that the latter 282 Paul be Remusat, Revue des Deux Mondes, 1 Oct. 1854, p. 205: — D'Eiohthal, Bulletin de la Societe de Geographie, Annie 1855, Jan. and Feb., p. 59 : — Maury, Athenaeum Frangais, 12 Aout, 1854; p. 741 ; Riqollot, Me'moire sur des Instruments en Silex, &c, Amiens, 8to, 1854; pp. 19, 20. 283 Types of Mankind, p. 326 — "Morton's ined. MSS.": — Hamilton Smith, Nat. Hist, of the human Species, pp. 99-102. 28* Op. cit., p. 352. "5 Op. cit., p. 346. 286 Mantell, Petrifactions and their Teachings, British Museum, London, 12mo, 1851 ; pp. 464, 483 ;— Ibid., Wonders of Geology, London, 12mo, 6th ed., 1848; I, pp. 86-90, 258-9;— Ibid., Medals of Creation, London, 12mo, 1844; pp. 861-3: — Martin, Natural History of Mammiferous Animals, Man and Monkeys, London, 8vo, 1841 ; pp. 332-6, 354-7. Sir Charles Ltell (Principles of Geology, London, 8th ed., 1850; pp. 142, 734), however, makes clear distinctions between " Guadaloupe skeletons" and "fossil monkeys." THE POL YGENISTS. 497 are found in Europe back to the tertiary deposits, — one feels inclined to ask, how a single adjective comes to designate two osseous states denied to "be identical? "II n'y plus que les Anglais, ou l'ecole de Londres," says Boue, 287 " qui s'ecartent souvent du langage clas- sique. Comme on juge l'education d'un individu par son parler, de meme on peut etre tente de prendre le style du geologue comme thermometre de son savoir." It is, indeed, through popular currency of a word which, used exoterically when talking with theologers, implies that man is recent, in the biblical sense ; or, when esoterically employed among scientific men, means that man is very ancient in ethnological, alluvial, botani- cal, and other senses, — that the real question of human antiquity upon earth has been obfuscated. Thus, every one knows that the presence of " animal matter, and all their phosphate of lime" (Lyell) in the Guadaloupe skeletons at the British Museum, no less than in the G-alerie a" Anthropologic of the Museum at Paris, combine with other data to invalidate their anti- quity ; but, on the other hand, the presence of animal matter — even to "the marrow itself — sometimes preserved in the state of a fatty substance, burning with a light flame" 238 — does not the more bring the Irish fossil elk (Elaphus hibernicus) within the limits of chrono- logy, nor make the human body, bones, and implements, fouud with this extinct quadruped, the less ancient. As a contemporary 289 with mastodons, mammoths, and carnivora of the caves and ossuaries in the ascending scale of time, and with man in the descending, this Irish fossil stag links the elder and the old stages of the mammiferous series, amid which mankind possess a place, uncertain as to epoch, but certain as to fact. 290 JSTor is this fossil Hibernian stag (or elk, which, Hamilton Smith says, lived as late as the 8th century), the only instance of the extinc- tion of " genera " and " species " since man has occupied our chiliad- times-transforming planet. I refer not to Elephas primigenius, or to rhinoceros tichorinus ; neither to ursus or canis speleeus, nor to bos pris- cus, equus, and many other genera 291 among which human remains occur : if their coetaneousness is recognized by some, it is contested by others ; so here the cases may be left open : but such examples as 567 Voyage Geolog., I, p. 419: — Ainsworth, Researches in Assyria, &c, London, 8vo, 1838; p. 12. 288 Op. cit. : — Mantei.l's Address to the Archaeological Institute at Oxford, 1850. 289 Alfred Matjry, Des Ossemens Humains el des Ouvrages de main d'Hommes enfouis dans les roches et les couches de la lerre, pour servir & eclairer les rapports de V Archiologie el la Geo- logic, Paris, 8vo, 1852; pp. 34-40. 290 See what Dr. Meigs has quoted from a late paper by Mr. Denny (supra, p. 289). 291 Hamilton Smith, op. cit., pp. 95-6. 32 498 THE MOKOGEKISTS AND by the most rigorous opponents of man's antiquity — Elie de Beau- mont, Buckland, Brogniart, Lyell, Owen, and other illustrious palae- ontologists — are accepted. Since Roman days, bos longifrovs no longer roams the British isles ; even if bos aurochs may yet have escaped the yager's bullet in Lithuanian thickets. Man and the moa (dinornis giganteus) were formerly at war in New Zealand : the dodo vanished, during the 16th century, from Tristan d'Acunha ; leaving but a skull and a foot (if memory serves) to authenticate its portrait in the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford. So too has tl e dronte expired at the Mauritius. Of the cpinornis we know not whether living natives of Madagascar — that unaccountable island to which, Commersan (Bougainville's naturalist) happily says, "Nature seems to have withdrawn, as to a sanctuary, therein to work upon other models than those which she had mastered elsewhere" — still feast on its colossal eggs. And, taking again our oldest historical country, and the one with which I happen to be somewhat ac- quainted, where, in Egypt, is now the ibis religiosa, 202 of yore as common as Guinea-hens with us ? Who but an unconquerable botanist, amid the fens of Meuzaleh, could point out the cyperus papyrus ; or any where along the Lower Nile discover an indigenous faba JEgypti- aca ? Yet the former was once the main instrument of Pharaonic civilization ; being with the latter, the "primitive nutriment of man," and symbolizing "the first origin of things." 293 Six hundred years have passed since Abd-el-Lateef deplored the extinction of the little clump of sacred perseas languishing then at Shoobra-shabieh. Where, before his day, there had been thousands, now curiosity doubts over but one sample — in my time, withering in the garden of the Greek patriarch at Cairo. Emblem of Thoth, minister of Osiris, guardian of the plummet in the mystical scales of Amenthi, the cynocephalus hamadryas, if still an unruly denizen of Abyssinia, Arabia, and Per- sia, no more steals in Egypt the sycamore fig : ^ hippopotami have fled up to Dongola ; and wary crocodiles are not shot at lower down than the tomb of Moorad-bey, last of the brave, at Girge. Like the wolf in England, or his dog in Erin, one genus is extinct ; the other all but so : or else, as within the territories of our vast Republic — compared to which 295 "the domains of the House of Hapsburg are but a patch on the earth's surface" — the native rattlesnake flees before the im- ported hog, the bison disappears before the face of starving Indians ; 292 During 15 years of a sportsman's life in Egypt, 1 never saw one alive. My old friend Mr. Harris has latterly been more fortunate. Cf. Proceedings of the Acad, of Nat. Sciences, Philadelphia, 1850. 293 Herodotus, ii. 92 : — Hobus Apollo, i. 30 : — Gliddon, Otia JEgyptiaca, p. 59. 294 Rosellini, Monumenii, for the plates. ■ ffl5 Webster to Hulzeman, 1851. THE POLT6ENISTS. 499 and these last relies of succumbing savagism are melting away before whiskey, Bowie-knives, and Colt-revolvers; so parallely, in many branches — botanical, zoological, and human — -of Natural His- tory, the Author of Nature, within historical recollection, has ever vindicated her eternal and relentless law of "formation, generation, dissolution." 296 The tableau of osseous and industrial vestiges of bimanes met with over the world, supplied by Marcel de Serres, 279 brings down fossil discovery to some twenty years ago. Much of what has been done since, particularly in America, is summed up by our collaborator Usher. My comments, therefore, may be restricted, after indicating fresher materials, to these and some few amongst the elder facts. Nomenclature, as above shown, being passably vague, it may be well to come to an understanding with the reader upon the senses of some words in our terminology; taking M. de Serres for our guide. 298 " These (geological) formations having, then, been wrought by phenomena of an order totally different from the tertiary, one must necessarily designate, under a particular name, those organic remains found in them. At first, it had been proposed to give to these debris the name of sub-fossils, so as thereby to indicate their newness, rela- tively to the true fossils. Preferable it has, notwithstanding, seemed to us, to designate them under the term of humatiles z 299 a denomi- nation derived from the Latin word humatus, of which the meaning is nearly the same as that of fossilis ; with this difference, that the former expresses the idea of a body buried in an accidental rather than in a natural manner." It must be allowed that the last sentence somewhat establishes " a distinction without a difference;" but I presume M. Serres to 296 R. Payne Knight, Inquiry into the Symbolic Language of Ancient Art and Mythology, London, 8vo , 1818; pp. 25, 107, 112, 180-1, 190, &c. : — but especially in. his Account of the Remains of the Worship of Priapus, lately existing at lsermia, Naples; in "two Letters to Sir Jos. Bankes and Sir Wm. Hamilton, London, 4to., 1786 ; pp. 107-22. 297 Essai sur Us Cavernes (supra, note 132), pp. 194-7. 298 Op. cit., p. 216: — see tables illustrative of the chemical composition of humatile and of fossil bones, p. 93. 299 Ogilvie, Imperial Dictionary, English, technological and scientific, Glasgow, 4to, 1853 ; I., pp. 944-6: — (Humus, soil) "Humus, a term synonymous with mould" — "Humate: a compound formed by the union of humus with a salifiable basis. The humus of soils is considered to unite chiefly with ammonia, forming a humate of that substance." — p. 790, (Fossil, fossilis, from fodio, fossus, to dig,) "more commonly the petrified forms of plants and animals, which occur in the strata that compose the surface of our globe" — II., p. 286, "Organic remains." I have not met, however, with the form "humatile" in works written in our language. 500 THE MONOGENISTS AND understand, by accidental, disturbances of a more recent and local character, such as earthquakes, volcanoes, ruptures of mountain barriers, terrestrial subsidences, inundations of rivers, &c. ; and by natural, those earlier commotions, cataclysms, and disruptions, known in geological history. Klee 300 remarks — "One would con- ceive a false idea of fossils, if it were thought that, they were always remains of organic bodies, of petrified animals or vege- tables. A fossil is oftenest nothing more than the mineral filling the space originally occupied by an organic body, vegetable or mineral, of which the hard parts have been successively penetrated and replaced by mineral substances. Sometimes this substitution is made with such precision, that these last have altogether taken the structure and form of the parts annihilated ; which has given to the mineral a striking resemblance to the organic body destroyed." In the following observations, however, by the term "fossil" are meant only such bones as those truly fossilized ; ex. gr., those of the megalosaurus, palceotherium, megalonyx, iguanodon, &c, &c. By " bu- raatile," we understand bones which, not having been subjected to those conditions that incommensurable periods of geological time have alone supplied, are necessarily more recent — containing more or less animal matter, phosphate of lime, and so forth; according to their own relative ages, various ingredients, and several gradations of condition. With "petrifactions," of course we have nothing to do ; because they are of all epochs — fossil as well as humatile — and can be made in stalactite caves, such as those of Derbyshire or of Kentucky ; or manufactured by chemical procedures at any moment ; not to speak of the lost art of the Florentine, Segato. 301 With this definition, let the query be repeated — Are human fossil remains extant? I have not yet seen Prof. Agassiz's Floridian "jaws and portions of a foot;" but, so far as literary or oral instruction extends, I can find but one human fossil. Our Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences is its possessor, viz., Dr. Dickeson's "trouvaille" of the fragment of a pelvis at Natchez. Dr. Usher 302 pleads for its authen- ticity as a fossil ; which condition neither human art, nor any process short of Nature's geological periods, can, 'tis said, fabricate. Sir Charles Lyell, acknowledging the bone itself to be a fossil, suggests that this same os innominatum may have fallen down, from a recent 300 Le Deluge, Considerations geologiques el hisioriques sur les derniers cataclysms du Globe, Paris, 18mo., 1847. 301 Harlan's translation of Gannal's History of Embalming, Philadelphia, 8vo., 1840; p. 255. s» 2 Types of Mankind, pp. 344, 349. THE POLTGENISTS. 501 Indian grave-yard, among anterior fossilized relics of extinct genera discovered with it, — some of which, together with the human fossil, may at any time be beheld in the first case of vertebrated remains in the lower room of the museum of our Academy. " Componere lites," iu matters of science, or for the increase of knowledge, wherein agitation really becomes the life and soul of progress, is a thing repug- nant to my instincts. It remains (constat), therefore, that there is but one human fossil bone in the world ; and that the causes of its fossilification, not its fossilized state, are disputed. This, thus far unique, instance eliminated from the argument — all human remains hitherto discovered in alluvials, caverns, or osseous strata, are humatilb ; and so are Lund's callithrix primmvus and protopithecus, with other past simiadse found in South America, of which the genus is not merely identical with the simise platyrhinse belonging to this continent, and wholly wanting elsewhere, but, what is extremely noteworthy, their "species" is very nearly the same 303 as that of each of their succedaneums skipping about Bra- zilian forests at the present hour. There is a solidarity, a homo- geneity here, of circumstances between monkeys and man, not to be contemptuously overlooked. Thus much established, is it, I would ask, through mere fortui- tous accident that the Guadaloupe human skeletons, equally huma- tile with Lund's American simice, should, by Mantell, 304 be assimi- lated to the Peruvian, or Carib, indigenous races of America, seeing that they present " similar craniological development ?" or that Moultrie, 305 finds in the skull of one of them, brought by M. L'He- minier to Charleston, S. C, " all the characteristics which mark the American race in general?" Must we attribute, as Bunsen has it, to "the devil, or his pulchinello, accident," 306 a coincidence, that, in the same deposits with humatile American simise, Lund should discover skulls of humatile American man; 307 "differing in nothing from the acknowledged type ?" Or, finally, is mere chance the cause that, on this continent, by naturalists now recognized to be the oldest in age, if among the newest in name, there should be 303 i i Referable to four modifications of the existing types of quadrumana" — says Mantell ( Wonders of Geology, ubi supra, I, pp. 258-9). *» Op. cit., I, pp. 86-90. 305 Morton, Physical type of the American Indians. 306 Philosophy of Universal History, (supra, note 16) I, p. 4. 307 Morton, (Types of Mankind, pp. 293, 350), Proceedings Acad. Nat. Soc, 1844: — Lund himself (Leltre A M.Rafn, 28 Mars, 1844 — apud Klee, Le Deluge, p. 328) says — "La race d'hommes qui a vecu dans cette partie du monde, dans son antiquity la plus re'cule'e, e"tait, quant a son type general, la meme qui l'habitait au temps de sa d par les Europeans." 502 THE MONOGENISTS AND found, in addition to Mantell's and Moultrie's humatile Caribs or Peruvians, as well as to Lund's humatile Brazilian crania, 1st — Meigs's humatile South- American human hones; 308 2d — Agassiz's Floridian " fossil remains" of human jaws and foot, embedded in a conglomerate at least "10,000 years" old; 309 and 3d — Dickeson's fossil fragment of a human pelvis ; unique, as such, in the world ? It is true that, except in the above chronological estimate of Prof. Agassiz (which falls very far below the geological realities of coral- formed Florida), the antiquity of these specimens eludes measure- ment; but, the continent of America is older than that of Europe, where Chev. Bunsen (ubi supra) insists upon more than 20,000 years since the advent of a single human pair upon earth. It is, likewise, infinitely more ancient than the Nilotic -alluvials of Egypt ; where, as before shown, our monuments go back, at the lowest figures (IUd dynasty), some 53 centuries ; without yielding any chronological boundary to anterior human occupancy. Hence, upon these pre- mises, there exists no arithmetical limit to human existence in America ; while it is a remarkable feature among the circumstances, that, here, humatile men and humatile simise occupy the same ooetaneous "platform" — the former always Indians, the latter ever platyrhinw ; both being, as to their "province of creation," Ameri- cans, and American only — neither types having yet turned up else- where. And, in this comparison of simple facts, nothing has' been said about the possible antiquity of the "mounds of the West; 31 " nor in respect to those antique monuments, concerning which the- same qualified explorer is clearing away mystifications, in Central America. Being modern, in comparison with palsBontological sub- jects, the latter may be touched upon in a subsequent place. Such, in brief, is the antiquarian state of matters on the cis- At- lantic side. As successor in various geological phenomena, Europe beckons for some trans- Atlantic inquiries. Pictet, 311 after giviug a succinct account of researches upon fossil- ized human bones, concludes : "1st. Man did not establish himself in Europe at the commence- ment of the diluvian epoch, &c. * * * " 2d. Some migrations probably took place during the course of this diluvian period. The first men who penetrated into Europe per- 308 Now in the Acad. Nat. Soc. — Cf. Meigs, Account of some human bones, &c. — Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc, Philadelphia, 1830; III, pp. 286-91. 309 Types of Mankind, p. 352. 310 Sqdieb, Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley ; 1848, 4to, pp. 304—306 : Types of Mankind, pp. 287-8. 311 Traite de PaUontologie, Paris, 8yo, 2d edition, 1853 ; pp. 145-54, 154. THE POLYGENISTS. 503 baps still saw the cavern-bears, tbe elepbants, and tbe contempora- neous (animal) population. Some among tbem were victims of tbe same inundations." Ten years of reflection upon newer evidences bad led this judi- cious palaeontologist to consider the coetaneousness of mankind, in Europe, with some extinct genera of mammifers (ursus spelseus, &c), less improbable than when he first published in 1844. " Nevertheless," with Maury, 312 " let us not hasten to conclude. The study of ethnology tends to make us think that, at first, the human race was very sparsely sown upon the globe. Its numerical strength has not ceased to increase from the most ancient historical times ; whilst, for many animal races, the progression has been in- verse. At the time when civilization was yet unborn, when, con- strained to live by the chase and by fishing, man wandered as does still the North American Indian, or the indigenous native of Aus- tralia, a thousand destructive causes tended towards his destruction, and tbe difficulty of subsisting rendered increase of population very slow. [The great development of population begins but with the domestication of herbivorous animals 313 and the culture of cereals.] If the first infancy of humanity, which was of very many thousands of years, corresponds to the tertiary period, there can then have ex- isted but a very restricted number of tribes, spread over perhaps those parts of Asia which the geologist has not sufficiently explored. * * * Let us here remember that geologists comprise, under the name of tertiary, all tbe layers (couches) which have been deposited since the last secondary formation, that of the chalk. The tertiary systems serve, in consequence, as points of junction between tbe present animal kingdom and the animal kingdom past. For, the most ancient eocene deposits contain remains but of a little number of secondary species, and these species comprise a great number of genera still existing, associated with particular types." In confirmation of which we may refer to M. de Serres's remark, 314 that our domestic animals scarcely exist at all in tertiary deposits, although they abound in the later cave and diluvial ; whereiu, being found with human remains, it seems probable that man bad already reduced some of them to domesticity. So, again, in the caverns of Gard, there are two distinct epochs of humatile man ; first, the lower 812 Op. cil. (supra, note 289), pp. 42, 40: — Leonhard (apud Klee, Deluge, pp. 323-6), sustains the coetaneousness of man with extinct genera of animals in European caverns, ■with several examples. 313 See also my remarks on the evidences of early domestication of Egyptian animals, in Types of Mankind, pp. 413-14. »« Op. cit. (supra, note 132), pp. 61-2, 149. 504 THE MONOGENISTS AND stratum, when, he appears to have been a comrade of the extinct ursus spelseus ; and, subsequently, the upper, when he was contempo- rary with present living genera. We come now to fresh corroborations of Boucher de Perthes's dis- coveries of human industrial remains in French diluvial drift, cited by Usher. 315 They were considered sufficiently important by the Academie des Sciences to warrant Dr. Rigollot' s nomination as corres- pondent of the Institute. Unhappily, this took place on the 4th of January, 1855, the day of his demise : but his work survives. 316 In company with M. Buteux, Member of the French Geological Society, and M. E. Hebert, Professor of Geology at the superior normal school of Paris, Dr. Rigollot explored the new excavations at St. Acheul and St. Roch;- — the former contributing a "Note sur les ter- rains au sud d' Amiens," wherein he says — "The banks of silex and of soil which cover them [these remains] are considered as diluvian by nearly all geologists; but, according to eminent savans, the authors of the geological map of France, they form part of medium or upper tertiary lands." 317 "Thus it is well established," adds Rigollot, 318 " and I repeat it, the objects which we are going to describe, are found neither in the argilo-sandy mud (Union), or brick-earth that forms the upper stratum ; nor in the intermediary beds of clay more or less pure, of sands and small pebbles, of which a precise notion may be had from the detailed sections joined to this memoir; but they are met with, exclusively, in the true diluvium; that is to say, in the deposit which contains the remains of animal species of the epoch that immedi- ately preceded the cataclysm through which they were destroyed. There cannot be the slightest doubt in this respect." These organic remains consist of succinea amphibia, helix rotundata, elephas primige- nius, rhinoceros tichorinus, cervus somonensis, bos priscus, equus (smaller than the common horse), catillus Cuvieri, and cardium hippopeum. Among these, some 400 industrial relics were found, during six months — in majority of silex, wrought in the same style with singu- lar skill — some apparently hatchets, others poniards, knives, trian- gular cones ; besides little perforated globes, seemingly beads for necklaces and bracelets, generally of calcareous stone, rarely of flint. Finally, these vestiges of primordial humanity were unaccompanied by any remains of pottery, or other manufactures of Gaulish later times and art. 315 Types of Mankind, pp. 353-72. 316 Rigollot, Memoire sur des Instruments en Silex trouves a St. Acheul, pris (P Amiens, et conside'res sous les rapports geologique et archeologique, Amiens, 8vo., 1854; with 7 plates. 317 Op. cit., pp. 32-3. 318 Op. cit., p. 14, and passim. THE POLYGENISTS. 505 Until such, well-attested facts be overthrown (how, it yet cannot be conceived), science must accept the existence of mankind in Eu- rope during ages anterior to that cataclysm which rolled reliquiae of their handicraft, together with bones of now-extinct genera, amidst the general "tohu ve bohu " of French diluvial drift. .Of what race were the men 319 whose manufactures were thus de- stroyed ? Certainly not Caribs, Peruvians, or Brazilians, we might answer a priori. The humatile vestiges of such belong exclusively to the American continent ; together with platyrhine simise of their com- mon zoological province. In the tertiary formations of Europe only fossil catarrhine monkeys are found ; of which, later species, now living, have receded into Asia and Africa. It would have been a violation of the usual homogeneity, well established, 320 between ex- tinct genera and those now alive upon each continent, were we to find types of humatile man incompatible, in craniological organism, with the existence of quadrumana in their midst. That is to say, monkeys in Asia and Africa now reside within the same zones (See Chart of Monkeys further on) as the lower indigenous races of man- kind,— negroes, Hottentots, Audamanes, and various inferior Hindos- tanic and Malayan grades : and one might reason (a priori always) that, in primordial Europe, as was the case in primordial America, and as are the analogous conditions of present Africa and Asia, fos- sil remains of quadrumana should, in some degree, harmonize with a lower type of humatile bimanes than those now living there, since their precursors, the monkeys, have abandoned the European conti- nent. My valued friend Mr. Kenneth R. H. Mackenzie (translator of Lepsius's Letters from Egypt, and author of many works), to whose extensive range of literary knowledge I have been often indebted for information, read me some passages of a late German work. 321 Among them is this remark — "In 1833, there were actually found in the caverns of Engis and Engihoul, near Liege (Luttich), in the limestone rock, even human bones and crania, which indeed belonged to the negro race." Supposing no exaggeration, or error, in this strange circumstance, it would be analogous to the now-altered geographical distribution 319 Observe the language of Prof. Agassiz (svpra, " Prefatory Remarks"). 320 Cf. the remarks of De Strzelecki (Phys. Description of N. S. Wales and Van Diemen's Land, 1845) on- the organic remains of New Holland, or Australia, yielding only fossils • of Marsupials, and other animals peculiar to that zoological province. 321 Ethnologic, Anthropologic, und Staals-Philosophie ; Ester thiel, " Anthropognosie," Mar- burg. 1851 ; p. 40: — referring to Schmerling's Recherches for authority. 506 THE MONOGENISTS AND of negro-races and the monkey-tribes ; neither of which have inha- bited Europe ■ since her history dawns, but both being now-a-days fellow-residents, from incalculable ages, in Africa. That the human crania referred to must offer some singularly prognathous features, is evident from the following comments of Marcel de Serres : 322 " The (human) heads discovered in divers localities of Germany (in caves, or in ancient diluvial deposits) have nothing in common with those of the present inhabitants of this country. Their con- formation is remarkable, in that it offers a considerable flattening of the forehead, similar to that which exists among all savages who have adopted the custom of compressing this part of the head. Thus, certain of these skulls, and for instance those found in the environs of Baden in Austria, presented strong analogies with those of African or negro races ; at the same time that those from the banks of the Rhine and the Danube offered some great resemblances with the crania of Caribs or with those of the ancient inhabitants of Chili and Peru." Those at Liege " approach the Ethiopian type. It suffices, in order to convince one's self of this, to remark the frontal region of their cranium, which is triangular, and not semi-circular as it is in the Caucasian race. Thus, according to these facts, the transportation of the numerous debris of animals observed in these subterranean cavities, must have been contemporaneous with the existence of this principal variety of mankind, which had not before been encountered anywhere at the humatile stage." " These events [the filling up of caverns with remains of extinct and living genera] are so recent, that, according to the observations of M. Schmerling, one meets, in the caves of Belgium, with human remains of the Ethiopian race, mixed and confounded with debris of animals whose races seem to be altogether lost. (This observation confirms, otherwise, that made by M. Boue, in the environs of Ba- den, in Austria. This naturalist there discovered, in the diluvial deposits, human crania which offered the greatest analogies with those of African or negro races). Thus, at the epoch of the filling up of these caverns, not only did man exist, but some great varieties of the human species must already have been produced. "Perhaps those who reject the unity of the human species may wish to invoke this fact in favor of their system ; because it seems to prove that the different races of our species remount to the very high- est antiquity. But, whilst admitting this conclusion to be exact, one must not leave out of sight that the question of the unity of the » 22 Op. cit., (supra, note 132) p. 223. THE POLYGENISTS. 507 human genus depends, before all, upon the sense that is attached to the word species." The latest account of verifications is that of M. Victor Motschoul- sky, 32;) who visited Liege, where, at the University, Prof. Spring showed him these human pakeontological relics, described previously by Schmerling. They had been discovered in the caves of Gouflbn- taines and of Chauquiere, in the neighborhood of Liege and Angers. " They are composed of different pieces of the skull, of teeth and hands of man mingled with remains of the ursus spelseus, some pieces of hyena, of large felis, of stag, horse, &c. The pieces of human skull show that the forehead was very short and much inclined ; which, according to Gall's phrenology, would make one suppose an individual and a race such as middle Europe never had, at least since historical times. On this occasion, M. Spring observed to me that the discovery of Schmerling was not isolated ; and that subsequently, he himself had found many more analogous pieces in a cavern situ- ate between ISTamur and Dijon. This cave is called le trou Chauvau, and is found at 200 feet above the surface of the water of the Meuse, in calcareous rock. The bottom presents an enormous heap of bones of large ruminants, carnivora, and of man, in a limestone softened by infiltration. In the earth, all these objects are soft and extremely friable ; they are compressible and break very easily ; but exposed to the air they soon harden, and present a complete calcareous petrifac- tion. It seems that this cavern contains a great number ; and with minute and regular researches, one would certainly get out of it human crania and perfect skeletons. The samples which I saw, at M. Spring's, present two upper parts of a skull, jaws with teeth, and several bones of hands and legs. One of these skulls, according to the opinion of this savant, seems to have belonged to a child of seven years, and the other to one of twelve. The form of these crania approaches more that of negroes, and not at all to present European races. The lower jaw is squarer and broader, the inferior edge more rounded, and not salient as in our European races: the occipital bone is higher ; the lateral sides of the skull much more flattened and more compressed than in any of those of our living races. In the same palseontological formation are found a flint hatchet and a few arrow- heads," &c. The latter circumstance, but for subsequent discoveries of Boucher, Bigollot, and the Abbeville-geologists, might have been adduced in order to lessen the antiquity of these humatile remains ; but being 323 Exlraii da Bulletin de la Societe Imperiale des Naturalises de Moscou, Tome xxiv. 1851 ; — Letter to the Secretary, dated "Liege, ce 16 Fevrier, 1851 ;" pp. 32-4. I owe communi- cation of this pamphlet to my friend Dr. John Leconte, of our Acad. Nat. Sci. Philada. 508 THE MONOGENISTS AND also exhumed from the diluvial drift, rude flint instruments are no longer criteria for depressing the age of bones found with them. Primordial man was everywhere a hunter: his teeth and stomach are those of an omnivorous genus : his instincts still continue to be essentially bellicose. This is confirmed, whilst I am writing, by the following interest- ing account of proceedings among men of science in England — which is inserted as received : "A paper has also been read, in this section, by Mr. Vivian, of Torquay, on "the earliest traces of human remains in Kent's Cavern, especially flint-knives and arrow-heads, beneath the stalagmitic floor." The peculiar interest of this subject consisted in its being the link between geology and antiquities; and the certainty afforded, by the condition in which the remains are found, of their relative age, — the successive deposits being sealed up in situ by the droppings of carbonate of lime, which assume the form of stalagmite. The sources from which the statements in the paper were obtained, were principally the original manuscript memoir of the late Rev. J. M'Enery, F. G. S., which is deplored by Professor Owen, in his Fossil Mammalia, and by other writers, as lost to science; but which has been recovered by Mr. Vivian, and was produced before the section : also the report of the sub-committee of the Torquay Natural Society, and his own researches. "We have not space for the interesting statements contained in the paper, or the extracts which were read from the manuscript, beyond the following brief summary of Mr. Vivian's conclusions, which were mainly in accordance with those of Mr. M'Enery. The cavern is situated beneath a hill, about a mile from Torquay and Babbecombe, extending to a circuit of about 700 yards. It was first occupied by the bear (ursus spelseus) and extinct hyena, the remains of which, the bones of elephants, rhinoceros, deer, &c, upon which they preyed, were strewn upon the rocky floor. By some violent and transitory convulsion, a vast amount of the soil of the surround- ing country was injected into the cavern, carrying with it the bones, and burying them in its inmost recesses. Immediately upon its subsidence, the cavern appears to have been occupied by human inhabitants, whose rude flint instruments are found upon the mud beneath the stalagmite. A period then succeeded, during which the cavern was not inhabited until about half of the floor was deposited, when a streak containing burnt wood and the bones of the wild boar and badger was deposited; and again the cave was unoccupied, either by men or animals, — the remaining portion of the stalagmite being, both above and below, pure and unstained by soil or any foreign THE POLYGENISTS. 509 matter. Above the floor have been found remains of Celtic, early British and Roman remains, together with those of more modern date. Among the inscriptions is one of interest as connected with the landing of William III. on the opposite side of the bay: 'W. Hodges, of Ireland, 1688.' " In the discussion which followed, and in which Sir Henry Eaw- linson, the Secretary of the Ethnological Society, and others, took part, the position of the flints beneath the stalagmite seemed to be admitted, although contrary to the generally received opinion of the most eminent geologists, — thus carrying back the first occupation of Devon to very high antiquity, but not such as to be at variance with Scriptural chronology : [!] the deposit of stalagmite being shown to have been much more rapid at those periods when the cavern was not inhabited, by the greater discharge of carbonic acid gas. Without attempting to affix with any certainty more than a relative date to these several points, or forming a Scriptural interpretation upon natural phenomena, which, as Bacon remarked, too often produces merely a false religion and a fantastic philosophy, Mr. Vivian sug- gested that there was reason for believing that the introduction of the mud was occasioned, not by the comparatively tranquil Mosaic Deluge, which spared the olive and allowed the ark to float without miraculous interposition, but by the greater convulsion alluded to in the first chapter [I presume this to be a misprint, for no Hebraist can find such coincidence in the Text] of Genesis, which destroyed the pre-existing races of animals — most of those in this cavern being of extinct species — and prepared the earth for man and his contem- poraries." 324 There is yet another rather recent rumor of certain discoveries, reported by Professor Karnat, of human skulls mingled with osseous vestiges of the mammoth period, 325 in the Suabian Alps ; but I have not been able to obtain details. Nevertheless, whilst the antiquity of man in Europe begins to be borne out on all sides, it is to be regretted that these so-called negroid crania do not yet appear to have been scrutinized by special cranioscopists ; who would proba- bly detect, in their prognathous conformation, not a negro type, but that of some races of man of lower intellectual grade than occupy Europe at this day. In the scale of progression, monkeys should, in Europe also, have been precursors (as they were in America) of inferior races of mankind ; such as those we still encounter being confined within the same tropical zones now-a-days co-inhabited by the simiadce. 324 London "Times," Aug. 12, 1858 — Brit. Assoc. Adv. Science, Cheltenham, Aug. 9. 825 Proceedings of the German Scientific A ssocialion ;' held at Tubingen, 1854. 510 THE MONOGENISTS AND It was not, however, from ratiocination upon such data, which are later sequences of palseontological revelations obtained only since 1837, that the greatest champion of the "unity of the human species" (at whose equivocal dictum trembling orthodoxy clutches like sinking mariners at their last plank) draws his conclusion that our first parents were of the negro type ; indeed, logically speaking, that "Adam and Eve" must have appertained to that same "bevy of black angels (caught) as they were winging their way to some island of purity and bliss here upon earth, and reduced from their heavenly state, by the most diabolical cruelties and oppressions, to one of degradation, misery, and servitude." 326 In 1813, Dr. Prichard wrote: 327 "If there be any truth in the above remarks, it must be concluded that the process of Nature in the human species is the transmutation of the characteristics of the negro into those of the European, or the evolution of white varieties in black races of men. * * * This leads us to the inference that the primitive stock of men were negroes, which has every appearance of truth. * * * On the whole, there are reasons which lead us to adopt the conclusion that the primitive stock of men were probably negroes ; and I know of no argument to be set on the other side." With regard to Prichard's now-forgotten view, that " the process of Nature" is the "transmutation" of species, nothing can be less historically founded. To the facts established in our former work, 328 and others in this essay, I would here add the authority of the ablest polygenist, no less than one among eminent comparative anato- mists of the Doctor's time, viz., Desmoulins : 329 " The species of the same genus, and with stronger reason those of different genera, are therefore unalterable throughout all those influences which hereto- fore were regarded as the ever-producing and ever-altering causes of them. It is, then, the permanence of type, under contrary influences, which constitutes the species. That which is called 'varieties' bears only upon differences of size and color: they are but the accidental subdivisions of the species." Confirming it by a later authority, Courtet de ITsle, 330 who after citing, like Morton, 826 Bledsoe, Liberty and Slavery, Philadelphia, 12mo, 1S56; p. 54. Dr. Livingstone, however, according to newspaper report, has since found such angelic negroes in the centre of Africa. "Nous verrons." 327 Researches into the Physical History of Man, London, 8vo, 1st ed., 1813; pp. 233-9. This curious chapter is expunged from all later editions of his works ; nor did the learned Doctor ever refer, in them, to his early theory ! s*s Types of Mankind, pp. 56, 81, 84, 465. 329 Jlistoire Naturelle des Races Humaines du nord-est de VEurope, de I'Asie boreale, el de VAfrique australe, Paris, 8vo, 1826; p. 194. 830 Tableau Ethnographique (supra, note 1 in Chap. II), pp. 9-10, 67-76; PI. 26, 27, 31, 32. THEPOLTGENISTS. 511 Hott, and myself, the testimony of Egyptian monuments to prove that types have not altered in 4000 years, continues : " These facts are, to my eyes, of the utmost importance, because they tend to fix the opinion of those who might he tempted to believe that races undergo, in the course of ages, such modifications as that the negro, for instance, might be derived from the white man. All inductions drawn from archaeology give to this opinion the most splintering denial. The idea of the permanence of races is justified by all known facts. Now, remarkable circumstance ! in order that one could admit the variability of types, it would require that, for three or four thousand years, if not a radical change in races, at least a tendency towards change, should have been observed; whereas the facts, far from demonstrating any tendency of this kind, prove, on the contrary, that the races of to-day are perfectly identical with those of by-gone ages." Discarding, therefore, as non-proven, such deduction as the exist- ence of negro races in early Europe, there are other circumstances which favor the probability that, even subsequently to humatile man, inferior types of humanity preceded the immigration into (or rather, perhaps, inferential occupancy of) Scandinavia, Germany, France, Spain, and Italy, by high-caste Indo-Germanic races. See philological inductions of Maury [supra, p. 43]. I have read somewhere, though my note of the work is mislaid, that Prof. Eetzius has met, in the peat-bogs and oldest sepulchres of Northern Europe, with skeletons of a Mongolic or hyperborean (Lapp ?) type, of an age anterior to the cairns and barrows wherein he and Nilsson, 331 recognize those of oraehy-kephalie and dolicho-kephalic races — these last being, to some extent, precursors of the historical Norsemen, Danes, Swedes, Jutes, Saxons, &c, scattered along the western Baltic coasts. De Gobineau, 332 notwithstanding some slight inadvertences due to velocity of thought and composition, joined to the use of the term "finnique" (Finnish) in senses which I fancy to be historically un- tenable, 333 has certainly brought out some startling phenomena on the "primitive populations of Europe." To his brilliant pages I must refer for sketches of early Thracians, Illyrians, Etruscans, lheres, Galls, and Italiots. They are painted by a master-hand. 331 Skandinaviska Nordens Urinvanare, &c, Christianstad, 4to, 1838; PI. J), pp. 1-13. 332 lnigalilc des Races Humaines, Paris, 8vo, 1855 ; III, passim, Chapters I-IV, and pp. 2, 19, 28. 333 As Uralians in geographical origin, no Finns could have been in primitive France. Cf. the authorities in Desmoulins, Races Humaines, pp. 53-5, 154: — also, Kxapb'oth, Tableaux, p. 234. 512 THE MONOGENISTS AND ' The upshot is, that, in common with Gerard, 334 another polygenist, progressive ethnology must, sooner or later, face the question, — whether primordial Europe was not inhabited by some indigenous Europeans ; long before the historical advance, westwards (whence?), of those three groups of proximate races denominated Celtic, Teu- tonic, and Sclavonian? De Brotonne 335 had prepared us for the conjecture, that the above triple migration had overlapped, as it were, a pre-existent population. Kombst and Keith Johnston 336 have beautifully illustrated the secondary formations of humanity in the British Isles; of which Wilson 337 indicates much material for inqui- ries into the primary. Mr. Thomas Wright, 338 and other distinguished antiquaries in England, by determining the cemeteries and artistic vestiges of the Anglo-Saxon period, facilitate our apprehension of other remains to these anterior or posterior; while M. Alfred Maury 339 suggests, to national archaeologists, the true processes through which to recover and harmonize multitudinous fragments of some ante-historical races of France. Reasoning by analogy, it would (now that we are beginning to understand better some of the ancient superpositions of immigrant, or Allophylian, races, in other continents, upon aboriginal popula- tions of the soil) become somewhat exceptional were Europe not to present exemplifications of that which, elsewhere, is rising to the dignity of a law. The Qagots, the Coliberts of Bas-Poitou, the Ohuatas of Majorca, the Marans of Auvergne, the Oiseliers of the duchy of Bouillon, the Cacous of Paray, the Jews of Gevaudan, &c., whose prolonged existence, and sometimes whose historical derivation, are discussed with so much erudition by Michel, 340 prove, that all exuviae of such unstoried races of man are, as yet, neither obliterated nor fully enumerated ; even in the World's most archseo- logically-prepense community. Vain, at the same time, must be any effort to search for such 334 Bistoire des Races Primitives de VEurope, depuis leur formation jusqu'a leur rencontre- dans la Gaule, Bruxelles, 12mo, 1849; p. 389. 333 Filiations et Migrations des Peuples, Paris, 8vo, 1837. 336 Physical Atlas, new ed., Edinburgh, fol., 1855; PI. 33, and pp. 109-110, "Ethno- graphic Map of Great Britain and Ireland." 337 Archozology and Prehistoric Annals of Scotland, Edinburgh, 8vo, 1851 ; pp. 168-87, 695-9. 338 Anglo-Saxon Antiquities (Memoirs of the Hist. Soc. of Lancashire and Cheshire), Liverpool, 8vo, 1855 ; pp. 38-9. 339 Questions relatives & I' Ethnologic Anciennc de la France, (Extrait de l'Annuaire de la Socie'te' Imperiale des Antiquaries de France pour 1852), Paris, 18mo, 1853; pp. 22, 40-1. 340 Bistoire des Races Maudites de la France et de VEspagne, Paris, 8vo, 1847 : 2 vols. passim. See also Priohakd, Nat. Bist. of Man, 1855; I, pp. 258-74; for other "Abo- rigines." THE POLYGENISTS. 513 petty relics of lost nations in the terse nomenclature, or within the geographical area covered by, the Xth chapter of G-enesis. rlo ethnic indications, in this ancient ehorograph, carry us, northwards or westwards, beyond the coasts of the Euxine, Archipelago, and Mediterranean (not even occidentally as far as Italy ; except in the doubtful location of Tarshish, TRESIS, — Tartessus in Spain ? or Tarsus in Cilicia? 341 A document which, at every explanatory gloss and in its local tendency of sentiment, betrays Ohaldcean authorship ; and whose utmost antiquity of compilation cannot, without violating exegetical rules, be fixed earlier than Assyria's empire at the apogee of its might — being, I think, a sort of catalogue of Shalmanassar's, or similar monarch's, satrapies — would be rejected, at this enlight- ened day, as apochryphal, did it exhibit phenomena foreign to its natural horizon of knowledge. But it does not. Taking its first editorship at between- the 7th and 10th centuries b. c, its principles of projection are in accordance with historical circumstances ; which certainly were not Mosaic. "It is thus," observes Courtet de ITsle, 342 "that Moses could not have spoken of Turkish, Mongol, or Toungouse populations, which in his time were still concealed from view in the most oriental part of Asia. The Chinese, especially, constituted already a very ancient society, at the time to which the date of the Hebrew books may be referred; but, at no epoch whatever, do the traditions of Western Asia embrace events relating to the Chinese." The same touchstone is applied by this skilful polygenist to the Coraeans, hyperboreans, Americans and negroes; about whom he says — "In the posterity of KTham [which is merely Shame, Egypt] are particularly comprised the indigenous populations of the southern part of the ancient world: it is a swarthy (noirdtre) race, which it would be erroneous to com- pound with the negro type. Everything, in fact, attests that negroes are not contained in the genealogy of Moses." If, by way of example, for ethnic supeipositions of higher types over an autochthonous group of races, we appeal to Hindostan, Prichard's own chart, 343 together with the posthumous edition of his 341 Types of Mankind, pp. 477-9: — Barker, Lares and Penates, Cilicia and its Governors, London, 8vo, 1853; pp. 210-11. The determination of Tartessus, as Tarshish whence apes (Kophlm, II Kings, X, 22) were exported, cannot be decided through Zoology. De Blain- ville (Osteographie, pp. 28-49) considers the species to have been the Pithecus ruber of Ethiopia : in which case Tarshish must have lain, like Ophir, down the Eed Sea. Gervais (Mammiferes, p. 76) prefers the magot of Barbary; and removes the difficulty I suggested (op. cit. 479) of "cocks and hens," by proposing ostriches. Quatremere (Me'moire sur le Pays d'Ophir, Mem. de l'Acad., Paris, 1845, pp. 862-75) thinks they were perroouets. 942 Tableau ethnographique du Genre Humain, Paris, 8vo, 1849; pp. 73-4, 69. 343 Six ethnographical Maps, with a sheet of Letterpress, London, fol., 1843 ; Plate 1st, "Asia," Nos. 10, " Aboriginal mountain-tribes of India." 33 514 THE MONOGENIST S AND last work, 344 furnishes many instances of surviving aborigines. These have been more copiously and critically examined by Lieutenant- General Briggs, 345 whose conclusions are the following : " 1. That the Hindus [i. e. the Aryian, or white people's immigra- tions] entered India from a foreign country, and that they found it pre-occupied by inhabitants. 2. That by slow degrees they possessed themselves of the whole of the soil, reducing to serfage those they could retain upon it. 3. That they brought with them the Sanscrit language, a tongue different from that of the aborigines. 4. That they introduced into the country municipal institutions. 5. That the aborigines differ in every respect from the Hindus. 6. Lastly ; that the aborigines throughout India are derived from one common source." Allowing this last conclusion to be correct, it becomes positive that the source of this aboriginal group of races in Hindostan must be radically distinct from that of the later Sanscritic intruders, — whose earliest monuments, the Vedas, trace them backwards to Sogdiana, Bactriana and Persia, as their own primordial homesteads, where their characteristics seem to blend into races of the Arian group. Briggs enumerates, among extant indigenous tribes of India : — The Bengies in Bengal, " Tirhus in Tirhut, " Koles in Kolywara and Kolwan, " Malas in Malda and Malpur, " Domes in Domapur, &c. &c, " Mirs in Mirwara, " Bhils in Bhilwara and Bhilwan, " Mahars in Maha Rastra (Mahratta), " Mans in Mandesa, " Gonds in Gondwara or Gondwana, " Garrows in Bhagalpur, " Sonthals in Cattack, " Bhars in Gorakpur, " Chtris in Ghazipur, the Dhanuks in Behar, " Dhers in Sagor, " Minas in Amblr, " Ramusis in Telingana, " Bedars in Dekhan, " Cherumars in Malabar, " Curumbas in Canara, " Vedars in Travancore, " Marawas at the South, " Kallars in Tinevelly, " Pullars in Tanjore, " Patties in Arcot, " Chenchis in Mysore, " Chenciwars of Telingana : s*4 Natural History of Man (supra, note 172,) I, pp. 248-57. 845 Two lectures on the aboriginal race of India, as distinguished from the Sanscritic or Hindu Race — R. Asiatic Soc. , London, 8vo, 1852 ; pp. 6. — Compare A Sketch of Assam, with some account of the Hill Tribes, by an officer; London, 8vo, 1847, passim, for many other abori- gines on the confines of Indo-China ; — and Hooker (Himalayan Journals, London, 8vo, 1854; I, pp. 127-41), for the Lepchas &c, and (II, pp. 14) for the Harrum-mos and others. For the affinities or divergencies of Dravirian idioms in relation to other groups of tongues, the reader will be unable to find more masterly elucidations than in my friend M. Maury's Chapter I, pp. 52-5, 74-6, 84, ante. THE POLYGENISTS. 515 besides the Kamiwars, Yelmiwars, Barki, Dondassi, Bandipote, Talliar, and others. This arid catalogue of names indicates the number and variety of these seemingly-proximate races. "With the exception of, here and there, more or less defective, sketches of a Garrow, a Tuda, a Naga, a Siahpush, a Bhot'iya, or a Ceylonese, I have seen no authentic portaits of Hindostanic aborigines whence ideas about their several characteristics can be obtained. As for their crania, "ce n'est pas le genre" among Anglo-Indians to preserve, for science, those they cut off; such men as Hodgson of ISTepaul, and Cunningham of Ladak, 346 being honorable exceptions. A succinct resume of aboriginal families of mankind known to exist within the "East Indian Realm" of zoology, has been compiled from the latest sources, with his usual ability, by Maury. 347 Space restricts me to reiteration of the lament, over the ethnological supineness of those who ought to fill scientific collectorships in India, implied in his remarks : — "These indigenous tribes, of which the debris still wander in the north-west of America, those insular septs that navigators have encountered in Polynesia, Oceanica, and Indian Archipelago — of such, Asia even at this day yet offers us the pendants. At an ancient epoch, which it is im- possible rigorously to assign, the centre and the south of this part of the world were inhabited by those savage races that Hindoo civili- zation has pushed away before it, and which Chinese society has ejected toward the southern extremities of its empire. It is in the almost impenetrable defiles, which separate Hindostan from Thibet and from China, wherein these disinherited populations have sought refuge. There they subsist still ; and there they will continue to subsist until English colonization [as in the pending case of the Santals, 1855-6] shall have forever blotted them out from the soil. It is with races of men as with races of animals, which Providence creates, and afterwards abandons to destruction. * * * Who can count how many races have already disappeared ; what populations, of which we ignore the history, the very existence, have quitted our globe, without leaving on it their name, at least, for a trace !" Only since 1850, through Arnaud and Vayssiere, 348 have we heard of the Akhdam (servants) of Southern Arabia ; probably last degraded relics of the aboriginal Cushite, or Himyarite, stock; to be added to 346 Lad&k, physical, statistical and "historical, with notices of the surrounding countries, London, 8vo, 1854; pp. 285-312; Plates 10-11, 13-18, 22-24. 347 Les Populations Primitives du Nord de V Hindouslan — Extrait du Bulletin de la Sociele de Geographic; Paris, 1854; p. 39. M8 " Les Akhdam de l'Y Voyage of E. M. S. Herald, 1845-51, London, 8vo, 1853; I, p. 302. 361 Deformations artificielles dn Crane, p. 126. THE POLTGENISTS. 519 p. 154) : ' They felt,' says he, ' that this ineffaceable mark would for- ever distinguish them from the African race, who were being sold as slaves in islands inhabited by the whites.' " Heureuz le peuple dont VMstoire est ennuyeuse, might not, perhaps, be applied by Montesquieu to the wretched peoples referred to ; but fear lest its point should be directed to the above excerpta compels me to finish with a clew to the philosophy of these complicated amal- gamations. It is from the pen of one who, as regards American archaeology in general, and Central American ethnology in particular, has no rival amidst his many admiring friends at the present hour. 362 "Anthropological science has determined the existence of two laws, of vital importance in their application to men and nations. " First. That in all cases where a free amalgamation takes place between two different stocks, unrestrained by what is sometimes called prejudice, but which is, in fact, a natural instinct, the result is the final absolute absorption of one into the other. This absorption is more rapid as the races or families thus brought in contact approxi- mate in type, and in proportion as one or the other preponderate in numbers ; that is to say, Nature perpetuates no human hybrids, as, for instance, a permanent race of mulattoes. " Second. That all violations of the natural distinctions of race, or of those instincts which were designed to perpetuate the superior races in their purity, invariably entail the most deplorable results, affecting the bodies, intellects, and moral perceptions of the nations who are thus blind to the wise designs of Nature, and unmindful of her laws. In other words, the offspring of such combinations or amalgamations are not only generally deficient in physical constitu- tion, in intellect, and in moral restraint, but to a degree which often contrasts unfavorably with any of the original stocks. " In no respect are these deficiencies more obvious than in matters affecting government. "We need only point to the anarchical states of Spanish America to verify the truth of the propositions laid down. In Central and South America, and Mexico, we find a people not only demoralized from the unrestrained association of different races, but also the superior stocks becoming gradually absorbed into the lower, and their institutions disappearing under the relative barba- rism of which the latter are the exponents." 362 Squier, op. cit., pp. 54-8. See, for the same argument, that the present fall of the Spanish race in America is to be chiefly ascribed to their proclivity (as a dark type) to amal- gamate with any race still darker — D'Halloy (Races Humaines, pp. 44-5). "We meet indeed," well says Davis, "with confusion of blood on a great scale, but look in vain for a new race. Nature asserts her dominion on all hands in a deterioration and degradation, the fatal and depopulating consequences of which it is appalling to contemplate." (Crania Bri- tannica, p. 7, note.) 520 THE MONOGENISTS AND With reluctance I must terminate these digressional notices of human autochthones in different zoological realms. " The ancients," well remarks Courtet de l'lsle, 363 " unanimously professed belief in autochthones. * * * Now, this principle of indigenousness, consecrated among animals and plants, 364 was entirely equivalent, among the Greeks, to the principle which the plurality of races establishes at the present day." It is traceable in Homer, Hesiod, and Hippocrates. Ephorus of Cyme sustained it when he divided mankind into four races, according to the four points of the compass ; and Aristotle held it where he adopts three types, " Scythians, Egyptians, and Thracians." The writer of Xth Genesis 365 had previously spread out his nations, cities, tribes, and countries, into a tripartite ethnieo- geographical distribution, symbolized by "Shem,Ham, and Japheth;" which arrangement Knobel 366 agrees with me in denominating the yellow, the swarthy, and the white types. The Egyptians, centuries previously, had already divided mankind, as known to them, into four — the red, the yellow, the white, and the black races ; calling themselves, as men of the red or honorable color, by the term "rotu," ReT, race "par excellence:" 367 and, about nine centuries subsequently, four nations— Lydian (Japethic), Scythian (not alluded to in Xth Genesis), Negro (African, and also excluded from that chart), and Chaldsean (Semitic) — were carved on the rock-hewn sepulchre of Darius : 36S while Linnaeus, 3500 years after the Diospo- litan ethnographer, at first tried to classify human natural divisions into four, according to the four quarters of the globe. Wholly omitted as such things are in the last edition of Prichard, the anthropologist, in lieu of the preceding facts on hybridity, is favored with any quantity of "sentiment;" 369 — mostly thrown away, their ethnological bases being mostly false. Until science has stridden over the threshold in these new inquiries of the Mortonian school, we may say of sentiment what Father Richard Simon's Car- dinal 370 replied to an anxious theologer — "Questo e buono per la Predica." 363 Tableau Elhnographique, p. 67. 364 See particularly, as the latest enunciation of zoological science, the addresses of Prof. Agassiz before the American Association for the Advancement of Science, at Albany, — reported in the New York Herald, 26, 27, 28 Aug., 1856. 365 Types of Mankind, Part II, passim. »* Die Volkertafel der Genesis, Giessen, 8vo, 1850; p. 13. as? Types of Mankind, pp. 84-86, 247-9; wood-cuts, figs. 1, 162, 163, 164, 165:— to which add, De Rouge, Tombeau d'Aahmes, chef des Nautonniers, Paris, 4to, 1851 ; pp. 41-2, 56: — and Brugsch, Reiseberichte, Berlin, 8vo, 1855; p. 331. 368 Pulszkt, ante, Chap. II, p. 150, fig. 35. 339 Nat. History of Man, 1S55 ; II, pp. 657-714. 370 Hist. crit. de I'Aneien Testament. THE POLYGENISTS. 521 "0 ye mitred heads! lay not Approving hands on skulls that cannot teach, And will not learn." (Cowpek.) Probably autochthones, certainly aboriginal, were the men of prognathous and otherwise inferior type whose humatile crania, in the caverns and diluvium of Europe, instigated my excursus in quest of parallels. Of these, however, I have seen none of the true Bel- gian or Austrian specimens : those pointed out to me in the magni- ficent G-alerie d' Anthropologic at the Jardin des Plantes, by my friends MM. Jacquard and Rousseau, being, with one exception, ancient Gaulish, Keltic, or Etruscan. I obtained photographic copies of the most interesting, together with that of the exceptional skull marked "Craue (Gard)— Type oelte. M. Serres." These 371 1 had the pleasure of passing on, in London, to the cabinet of our obliging colleague Mr. J. Barnard Davis, of Shelton, Staff.; in whose hands, as joint author of Omnia Britannica, they may become really available to science, through comparisons with the wide range of cognate British skulls now undergoing his and Dr. Thurnham's critical analyses. As a specimen, merely, of the high scientific tone adopted by these gen- tlemen, I cannot refrain from reproducing their opening sentences on the Historical Ethnology of Britain. 372 " It is now generally admitted that the plants and animals which cover the surface of the globe are to be regarded as forming groups, each having a specific centre, from and around which, within limits determined by natural laws as to climate, temperature, &c, the several species have been diffused. The plants and animals com- posing the flora and fauna of the British Islands are, however, not peculiar to them, but are almost without exception identical with those of different parts of the continent of Europe ; and thus the existence of a specific centre for the isolated area of these islands, or, in other words, any special creation of plants and animals within their limits, cannot with any probability be admitted. " The late distinguished Professor E. Forbes, by a remarkably happy example of philosophical induction, has shown that the terrestrial animals and flowering plants now inhabiting these islands must have migrated hither over continuous land, which in the course of subsequent geological changes was destroyed ; and that this diffusion by migration occupied extended periods of time, having various climatal conditions, before, during and after, the 311 Reduced copies of some of them have attracted Dr. Meigs's notice in his Chapter III, figs. 29, 35. S' 2 Crania Britannica, Decade I, London, 4to, 1856; p. 44. Cf. Meigs's Chap. Ill, p. 301, fig. 29, ante — for the cranioscopical indicia so far attained. 522 THE MONOGENISTS AND great Glacial epoch. The characteristic and all the universally distributed plants and animals of these islands, belong to the Cen- tral European fauna and flora, or great Germanic type. But in addition to this, the prevailing, it is shown that there are the remains of no fewer than four other floras occupying more or less limited areas in Britain, and each having its specific centre in some part of the continent of Europe. Three of these belong to more southern, the fourth to a more northern latitude or isotherme. The most ancient of our floras, Professor Forbes considers to be only peculiar to the west and south-west of Ireland, and which is shown to be identical with that of the north of Spain ; a geological union or Close approximation with which country seems to be the only method of explaining the presence of so characteristic a flora, including the hardier Saxifrages and Heaths of the Asturias, and such plants as Arabis ciliata, Pinguicula grandiflora, and Arbutus unedo. The iso- lation of this West Irish flora, or Asturian type, probably took place by the destruction of the intermediate land in the glacial period. No traces of any associated fauna remain." M. Maury's philological inductions (supra) equally corroborate the view that certain inferior and indigenous races of man, in pre-historic Albion as well as in primordial ISTorth-western Europe, were suc- ceeded by conquering tribes of the "great Germanic type." PART IV. We may now reconsider some of the practical issues of this in- quiry. It has been shown, 1st, that in America, humatile men and huma- tile monkeys occupy the same palseontological zones ; — 2d, that, whilst all such remains of man are exclusively of the American Indian type, the monkeys called Hapale, Cebus, Callithrix, &c, are equally " terrse geniti" of this continent; no bimane or quadrumane examples of identical " species" of either being found, fossil, humatile, or living, out of it ; — 3d, that, in their respective epochs of existence, both, with the slightest modifications of so-termed "species" on the monkeys' side, have existed from the geological period of Lund's Brazilian caves, coupled with the extinct genera of animals dis- covered in them, down to the present day, contemporaneous; — 4th, that, finally, permanence of type, as well for humanity as for simiadse, is firmly established in both genera, from the hour in which we are THE POLTGENISTS. 523 living, back to a vastly remote, if not incalculable, era of unrecorded time. Now, were some ethnologist to inquire of any naturalist whether he believed that genus Hapdle, Oebus, or CallitJirix, had clambered round from Mesopotamia, via Bhering's Straits, to Peru ; or had swum across the Atlantic from Africa to Brazil, if not, perchance, athwart the Pacific from Borneo to Chili, as one alternative ; or, whether American simice were created in America, as the other : I presume such naturalist might, without committal, respond to this query by propounding another to the ethnologist, viz. : "Don't you think that, whichever way American man came to this continent, it was along the identical route by which American monkeys had pio- neered the track for him ?" For myself, I cannot find out how either came. Here both are, and have been, from the earliest ante-historical period we may guess at. Whenever an ethnographer will obligingly point out to me any given primordial link, between human autochthones of the Old World and aborigines of the New, that archaeological criticism is unable to shatter, I may trouble a naturalist to acquaint me with some mode by which old CallitJirix primsevus protopithecus, of Brazil, held inter- course anciently with his elder DryopitJiecus Fontani of France. This is the name just fixed by M. Lartet, — the first discoverer of fossil simice m twenty years ago, and five years after Cuvier's decease, — to a new species of anthropoid monkey exhumed by M. Fontan, from a bank of marly-clay, at Saint-Gaudens (Haute- Garonne) near the Pyrenees. 374 It was about the same time last month 375 1 commenced that part of my present MS. which enumerated {ante, p. 459) the different fossil monkeys hitherto disinterred ; and the coincidence of M. Fontan's unforeseen exhumation of a larger and higher type, in Europe too, than any before known, is so gratifying, that I prefer to let what I had then written stand, and to avail myself here of M. Lartet's most opportune improvements. It is to our collaborator Prof. Joseph Leidy, that I owe communication of the "tirage a part" sent to him last mail by M. Lartet. "The pieces of this monkey," explains Lartet, "that M. Fontan has charged me to present in his name to the Academy, consist in two halves of a lower jaw broken at their ascending rami, added to 3.3 Df. Blainville, Oste'ographie. 3.4 Lartet, Note sur un grand Singe fossile qui se rallache au group des Singes supe'rieurs — Entrait des Comptes rendus des Seances de V Academic des Sciences ; Paris, tome xliii. ; 28th July, 1856; with a plate, pp. 1-6. 375 I am -writing at Philadelphia, on this 28th August, 1856. 524 THE MONOGENISTS AND a fragment of the anterior face of this jaw in which the incisors were planted. There was fotind at the same time a humerus epiphysized at its two extremities." He remarks on the teeth also,- — "This would be a process of dentition intermediate between that of man and of living monkeys, except the Gibbon Siamang, in which I have observed the same circumstances of dentition as in our fossil monkey. (This gives me an opportunity to remember that the Gibbons, and in particular the Gibbon Siamang, placed generally by zoologists in the last rank of the tribe of Simians, or Superior Monkeys, furnish not- withstanding, through their skeleton, a totality of characteristics approaching very much more considerably the human type than one can find in the Orang, or even in the Chimpanzee.)" " In risumi, the new fossil monkey comes evidently to place itself, with some superior characters at certain points of view, in the group of the Simians, which already comprises the Chimpanzee, the Orang, the Gorilla, the Gibbons, and the little fossil Monkey of Sausan [Plio- pithecus antiquus, Gerv.). It differs from all these monkeys through some dental details ; and, more manifestly still, by the very-apparent shortening of the face. The reduced size of the incisors being allied with great development of the molars indicates a regimen essentially frugiverous. The little that is known, furthermore, of the bony structure of the limbs, denotes more of agility than muscular energy. One would be, therefore, thus induced to suppose that this Mon- key, of very large size, lived habitually upon trees, as do the Gibbons of the present epoch. In consequence I will propose to designate it by the generic name of Dryopithecus (from drus, tree, oak [found like- wise amongst the lignites of the same Pyrensean region], and pithe- kos, monkey). In dedicating it as species to the enlightened natu- ralist to whom palaeontology is indebted for this important acquisi- tion, it would be the Dryopithecus Fontani. " Six fossil monkeys, then, are henceforward to be counted in Eu- rope, viz : two in England, the Macacus eocenus, Owen, and the Maca- cus pliocenus, id. ; three in France, the Pliopithecus antiquus, the Dryo- pithecus Fontani, and the Semnopithecus monspessulanus, which is probably the same as the Pithecus maritimus of M. de Christol. Lastly, the monkey of Pikermi, in Greece, named by M. A. Wagner Mezopithecus pentelicus. M. Gaudry and I propose, in our Memoir on the fossil bones of Pikermi, which will be soon presented to the Academy, to attach this monkey to the group of Semnopitheci, under the name of Semnopithecus pentelicus." Bones of the Macrotherium, Rhinoceros, Dicrocerus elegans, &c, were also collected at the same spot, by M. Fontan, and in the same medium tertiary (miocene) deposits. THE POLTGENISTS. 525 Thus, in one short month since this essay was commenced, advan- cing science has added another grand link to the chain of organic remains which now connects the faunse of the past old world with those of the present. Already, from the previously known fossil Gibbon, not a far remove from human likeness, we have mounted up, in the graduated scale of organization, to the level of the highest living anthropomorphous apes (Orang-utan,™ Chimpanzee, and Go- rilla), through this precious discovery of Bryopithecus Fontani. It will opportunely exemplify how prepared really-scientific men are now, all over the woiid, for these revelations from " the Book of Nature — which cannot lie," to present here an extract from the ad- dress of my friend Pkof. Riddell, delivered at New Orleans, on the 25th Feb., 1856 — some six months before M. Lartet announced at Paris this astounding " confirmation." " I must allude in very general terms to the recent progress of Geology. The philosophical views of Lyell, respecting the dyna- mical causes that have produced the geological aspect of our planet during the lapse of past ages, are gaining more and more fully the assent of the cultivators of this science. Instead of evoking, as a probable cause, the agency of imaginary cataclysms, or general and sudden convulsions of nature, to explain the origin of mountain upheavals, terrene depressions, the petrifaction of organic remains, the extinction of successive races of animals and plants, the indura- tion, crystallization, and disintegration of rock strata, Mr. Lyell alleges that we have reason to suppose all these, and more, have resulted from the long-continued agency of such dynamic causes as continue to manifest their action at the present time. In some in- stances, the effects produced are hardly appreciable during the brief period of human life ; but we should remember that the stately hun- dred years, which is rarely approached, and still more rarely exceeded by man, when used as a measure for the probable duration of those vast periods of time occupied in the production and modification of the numerous successive geological strata, with their mineral con- tents and organic remains, becomes, to our limited comprehension, a mere infinitesimal ; a quantity too small to have assigned to it any sensible value in comparison. " The recent period, so called, now in progress, contains the relics of animals and plants, of species essentially identical with those now flourishing. It has been estimated, from data carefully obtained and 3,6 In Malay, "Orang" means only man, and is prefixed to proper names of all nations; " Utan," signifying wild, designates the " Orang-utan" as the wild man, which Cbawfckd (Malay Grammar and Dictionary, II, p. 123) spells " Orang-utang," — its true Malayan name being " Miyas." Still (p. 198), " Utan" is given as the synonym for wild, wilderness. 526 THE MONOGENISTS AND unobjectionable, that our Mississippi delta, south of the latitude ot Baton Rouge, pertaining, of course, to the recent period, has occu- pied no less a time than 120,000 years in its formation. The parti- culars of this computation I need not now trouble you with. " It is a very common occurrence that sweeping assertions are made in palaeontology, based upon negative data. That is, because certain classes or genera of organic remains have not yet been found in the older fossiliferous strata, therefore they did not then exist on the face of the earth or in its waters. I think this practice is prolific in false induction in science. The present tenants of our globe comprise per- haps 500,000 species of animals and plants. The organic species preceding these, in former ages, were in all ages probably just about as numerous. Palaeontologists have brought to light, from about 20 different and successive fossiliferous formations, about 20,000 species of remains, nine-tenths of wbich, as from the nature of the case we might expect, are of marine and aquatic origin. Now, the plants and animals whose remains characterize these 20 formations, while flourishing in their respective ages, were probably, in each of the 20 cases, as numerous in species as those contemporary with us. Aver- aging the known fossils to the formations, each of the twenty would have 1000 species, which is only l-500th of what may fairly be sup- posed to have existed. Admitting this reasoning as valid, two or three instructive conclusions would flow from it. 1st. That doubt- less many species of animals and plants have heretofore existed as well as at present, that from their habitat and habit were rarely or ever likely to be preserved as organic remains. 2d. There is no pro- bability that geologists are as yet acquainted with all, or even with a fiftieth part of the organic remains entombed in the various forma- tions constituting what may be called the rind of our globe. 3d. Assume at perfect random any one species, as for instance an animal analogous to the Ourang-Outang, the probability is 500 times greater that such an animal existed at any geological age, also assumed at random, than that his remains will, in our day, be found by geologists in the cor- responding formations." 377 Fossil man, of some inferior grade, is now the only thing wanting to complete the palaeontological series in Europe, in order at once to exhibit bimanes and quadrumanes in parallel fossil development ; and thereby to plant the genera Simiadse and the genus Homo on one and the same archaeological platform. Let us hope ! "We actually hold in our hands the short end of the thread, through the progna- s " Annual Address read before the New Orleans Academy of Sciences, Feb. 25th, 1856, by Prop. J. L. Riddell, University of Louisiana, President of the Academy, p. 4. [Interca- lated in my MS., at Philadelphia, 25th Jan. 1857.] THE POLTGENIST S. 527 thous crania of inferior human races discovered, in the humatile phase, over Belgium and Austria. Science now lacks but one, only one, little fact more to terminate forever the question — "have human fossil remains been found ?" Again, I say, there is margin for hope ! May be, that it is neither in Europe nor in America that fossil humanity is to be sought for. Perhaps, after all, the malicious aphorism whispered by Mephis- topheles to Goethe in "Faust," that if humanity advances, it is spi- rally — might some day turn out to be as true in geographical palfe- ontology as it is often in ethics, and oftener in inventions. Not a tenth part of Asia, not a twentieth part of Africa, has as yet been explored by the geological pick-axe ; the inlands of Borneo, Sumatra, New Guinea, have not yet been trodden by the white man's foot, far less open to the palseontologist. It is to scientific mining and to I'ail-road operations, conducted only by the most civilized races of the world, that, within the present quarter-century, the earth begins to yield up her dead, and display her riches in organic remains. When the iron net-work, such as the "peace of Paris" already stimu- lates, is spread from the Neva to the Amour, from Trebizond to Cal- cutta, from Jerusalem to Aden, from Cape Town to Lake TTniamesi, 378 and from Algiers to the Senegambia, perchance to the Gaboon river, we shall doubtless possess many more fossil monkeys, and (why not ?) a fossil man. Upon the principle of representation in the successive series of the faunas of each zoological zone, it should be about Borneo ■ that we may expect to dig up fossil analogues of Orangs and Dyaks ; about Guinea and Loango those of Troglodytes niger and of Gtorilla-gina, no less than of some human precursors of present negro races. And yet, up to this day, ten years after their discovery, not a living specimen m9 far less a fossil sample, owing to inaccessibility of their habitats, has been procurable, even of the Gorilla, through French or other colonists at the Gaboon ! Here, I may be allowed a digression, — not altogether irrelevant, because it aids to clear up doubts as to the earliest contact of the Saracenic Arabs, after their conquest of Barbary in the 7th century of our era, with Negro nations ; whom Arabian camels, then intro- duced on a large scale into northern Africa, first enabled the S78 Petermann, Miliheilungen aus Justus Perthes' Geographischer Anstall, &c, Gotha, 4to, 1856; pp. 13-32; and his "Skizze einer Karte * * * des See's von Uniamesi;" — which later explorers seem to doubt. 8,9 Is. Geoefroy St. Hilaire and Dureau he la Malle, in Annates des Sciences Nalurelles, Paris, III* se"rie, XVI, pp. 154-217. a 528 THE MONOGENISTS AND Prophet's victorious " goum-s" [Arabic for "levies" — literally get- ups\ to reach athwart the Sahara-deserts. It will also show how invaluable to ethnography are French translations of long-disre- garded Semitic historians, not merely those of the chosen Israelitish stock. Besides, the work is little known to the " reading public." Ebn Khaledoon (or Khaldun) x — the most erudite, philosophic, and unfortunate, 381 Arabian writer in Barbary during the 4th and 5th century — tells us how, "the Molathemeen [wearers of the "litham," muffler, for the double object of keeping off sun and dust in the desert, and of hiding the face from enemies — law of the Dakheyl~], m a people of Sanhadjian [Berber] race, inhabited the sterile region that stretches away into the midst of the sandy desert [Sahara]. From immemorial time — from very many centuries prior to Islamism — they had continued to traverse that region where they found everything that sufficed for their wants. Keeping themselves thus far removed from the 'Tell' [Arabice hill, i.e., Mount Atlas], and from the cultivated country, they replaced its productions by the milk and flesh of their camels. Avoiding civilized countries, they had habituated themselves to isolation ; and, brave as ferocious, they had never bent beneath the yoke of foreign dominion." In short, these Sanhadjians are the perfect types of old Roman Numi- dians, and modern Touariks, — except, in religion, the adoption of Islam for Africanized-Punic fetishism — in language, a great many Arabic words of civilization absorbed into their Berber speech — in zoology, the camel for the horse — in arms, the match-lock for the bow. Such, too, were a cognate tribe, the Lemtouna. "When the Lemtouna had subjugated the desert-regions, they carried war amidst negro nations, in order to constrain these to become Mussulmans [just as we, now-a-days, through missionaries, are trying to make Christians of all peoples who are not — in most cases, amongst inferior types of man, only hastening their ultimate obliteration]. A large portion of the Blacks then embraced Islam ; 380 Histoire des Berberes el des Dynasties Musulmanes de VAfrique Seplentrionah, translated from the Arabic by the Baeon de Slane, for account of the "Ministere de la Guerre;" vol. I, Algiers, 1847 ; vol. II, 1851. My exeerpta are taken chiefly from I, pp. 36-7, 53, 184-5; — II, pp. 64-70, 104-5, 106. The history commences with the Arab conquest of Barbary in the 7th century, and ends during the 14th. 381 Zeyd-abd-eb.-Rahman Ebn Ehaledoon was born at Tunis in 1332. After greatly distinguishing himself at the courts of Barbaresque princes, he became Grand Qadee (Judge) of Cairo under Ed-Dclher-Barqooq in 1384 ; when the vessel, in which his family had embarked on their way to him, sunk, — "Thus, one single blow deprived me for ever of riches, happiness, and children." He died in 1406. 382 Lavakd, Nineveh and Babylon, 2d Exped., 1853, p. 317: — Feesnel (Arabes avant V Tslamisme, Paris, 1836, p. 36), shows how it was only at the ancient Arabian fair of Oukash, abolished in first century Hedjra, that hostile tribes could meet unmvffled. THE POLYGENISTS. 529 but the remainder dispensed with it, by paying the capitation-tax [equally satisfactory to the Saracenic missionary, who good naturedly permitted those anti-Mohammedan back-sliders, or recusants, to 'compound (always in cash) for sins they were inclined to, by damning those they had no mind to']." Telagaguin, their king, was grandsire of Aboo-Bekr-ebn-Omar, who commanded the Elmoravidian empire. His successor Tiloutan conquered the Soudan, "marching surrounded by 100,000 dromedary- riders mounted upon Maharie of pure blood ;" and died in Hedjra 222 = a. d. 837. Another historian says that, in the 4th century Hedjra, Obeyd-Allan had 100,000 'camels, and subdued 23 negro kings. The Lemtouna even reached the Senegal. "We know," comments De Slane, " that this river continued, for a long time, to separate the Berber from the negro race. 383 In the year 1446, when the Portuguese were making their first explorations of the western coast of Africa, the tribes of the Assanhagi [Zanaga, Sanhadja] inhabited the northern bank of the Senegal ; and the Yalof, or Wolof, that is to say, the Blacks, occupied the other. We must observe that ' Senegal ' is an alteration of the [Berber] word Asnaguen, or Zenaguen, plural of Zanag '; that is to say, the Sanhaja " — one of the great branches of the quinquegentani Berberi. 3 ^ Ebn Khaledoon continues — " As for those who remained in the desert, nothing has changed their manner of being, and, even to-day, they remain divided and disunited [as they continue now, 1000 years later]. * * * They [the Berber tribes] form a species of cordon along the frontier of the land of the Blacks, — a cordon which stretches itself parallely to that which the Arabs form upon the frontier of the two Moghrebs and of Ifrikia" i 385 — thus demarcating in his time, with 383 See Raffenel ( Voyages dans VAfrique occidentale, comprenant V exploration du Senegal, &c, 1843-4, Paris, 1846), for the best description of these Senegalian nations. 3« Otia, "Berber Tribes," p. 146:— Types, pp. 510-26. 385 Says Ebn Khaledoon — " Because it must not be thought that the Arab nomades had inhabited this country in ancient times. It was only towards the middle of the 5th cen- tury of the Hedjra that Africa was invaded by bands of the tribes of Hillah and that of So- leym," — and then not further west than the Cyrenaica. No Arab settlers were [aside from the Saracen soldiery] in Barbary prior to this immigration, — except in the confused Ye- menite legends of "Tobba, an Arabian king, who gave his name to Ifrikia ; * * * * And the reason was because the Berber race then occupied the country, and prevented the other peoples to fix themselves in it." Now, this name Ifrikia, borrowed from the "Africa" of the Latins, possessed, like " Libya," a more restricted geographical extension formerly than in modern days. Indeed, nmong the Arabs even now, Ifrikia does not mean "Africa," but only the tract of country from Cape Barca to Tunis, not even so far west as Algeria. Owing to ignorance of this fact, and Frenchmen's poor acquaintance then with Arabic, the General who concluded the "Treaty of Tafna" with el-Hadj Abd-el-Qader, committed more diplomatic mistakes, in one line (the cause of all the troubles France had with this gallant chieftain till she cap- 34 530 THE MONOGENISTS AND the greatest perspicacity, the same relative topographical positions in which the indigenous Atlantic Berbers, the exotic Arabs, and the negro races, stand towards each other at this day. Perfectly clear also were this learned Arab's ethnic views about the distinctness of negro nations from either Berbers or Arabs. His "History of the kings of the negro peoples \_Soodan, i. e. the Blacks]' begins thus : " This portion of the human species that is composed of negro populations has, for dwelling-place, the countries of the second climate and of the first [His geography being that of Edreesee, who, like the Greeks, imagined that the African conti- nent prolonged itself towards the east ; in order to form the southern limit of the Indian and China Seas]. * * * They occupy these terri- tories in all their width, from the Occident to the orient. * * * The negro species subdivides itself into several races, tribes, and ramifi- cations; of which the best known, in the last, are the Zendj (natives of Zanzibar and Mozambique), the Halasha (Abyssinians), and the Nouba (Nubians)." He describes some nineteen peoples of the black race; and relates two curious facts showing the danger of arming negroes as soldiers : — 1st, how in Hedjra 252 = A. d. 866, the Zendj " slaves " revolted at Basra (Bassora, on the Euphrates) : — 2nd, how in Hedjra 468, the corps of Turkish Memlooks, in the service of El-Mostansek, had many sanguinary engagements, at Cairo, with the negro "slave" troops belonging to the same Khalif. The Ketamians (i. e. Berber, or Moghrabee, mercenaries) ranged themselves on the side of the Memlooks; and, in one of their conflicts, 40,000 of their black adver- saries were slaughtered. The same troubles recurred during my own time in Egypt, when Mohammed Ali imagined that he could form a regular army of negro soldiers, imported as slaves from the Belad-es-Soodan along the Upper Nile. Out of some 12,000 who tured-him, and in time sent him to Brussa, and afterwards, where he resides now, to Da- mascus) than any Plenipotentiary ever perpetrated before ! Without the Arabic text it cannot be made very clear, but here it is from Pascal Duprat (Op. cit., pp. 291-2). The words run: — "el Ameer Aed-el-Qadek yi&ref hukrn Soollanat Fransa fi Afrikeeya" — sup- posed by the French protocol-maker to mean, " le Prince Abd-el-Kader reconnait le gou- vernement du Eoi des Francais en Afrique." Nothing of the kind ! The astute Shemite overreached the Dragoman (interpreter) in the two main points, — 1st, by getting himself recognized as an Ameer, prince, when he was previously but a mere hadjee, pilgrim to Mecca ; and 2nd, by recognizing French sovereignty, not in Algeria at all, but away to the eastward (where neither party had any rights) in Tunis, Tripoli, &c. ! This is the literal sense — "the prince Abd-el-Qader knows the government of a king of France in Afrikeeya /" Russia for a century, France for twenty-five years, England for some twenty-five months, and the United States Executive not even yet — have comprehended that diplomatists ought to be at least acquainted with the vernacular of those countries to which, at enormous cost, and frequent inutility, they are commissioned. THE POLYGENISTS. 5dl were drilled in Upper Egypt, 1823-5, all those who did not die of consumption before the expeditions 386 sailed to the Morea (1824-5), 386 " Haud obliviscendum " by his first-born is all that need here accompany reference to my Father, — who unostentatiously manumitted, at Alexandria, every one of our slaves, between the years 1821 and 1827. This is a fact I desire to speak upon. John Gliddon — born at Exeter, Devonshire, 28th February, 1784 — left England in 1811, was a known Mediterranean merchant at Malta for seven years ; and thence settling in Egypt with his family (August, 1818), became not unknown for influential position and generous deeds during the apogee of Mohammed Ali's career ; especially whilst holding, from 1832 to 1844, the honorary incumbency of the U. S; Consulship, first at Alexandria and subsequently at Cairo. He died at Malta-Mnneena — 3d July, 1844. [I say "honorary" U. S. Consul, for the especial purpose of contradicting, once and for- ever, one of many other falsehoods printed last summer, viz: " Our first Consul- General in Egypt was a Yorkshireman, who owed the station to missionary patronage. He received 82000 a year, and was free to continue his own vocation as a merchant." The anonymous, though by myself unmistakeable, signature of a " Traveler " more noto- rious for ubiquity than for veraciousness or discretion, — taken in conjunction with the coincidence that his lies found utterance in a "daily" whose head manager and editorial principles are too vile for durable advertisement from my own pen — render it merely neces- sary here to record that, in the North American (Philadelphia, February 10, 1847), may be found a "Letter" of mine, setting forth, then as now, all relations of Gum>ox-prenomina with the various administrations of the United States during my lifetime, so far. Speaking merely as an ethnologist, I myself have only read or heard of, and never cared about, what executive may have happened to strut, quadrennially, over the Washingtonian platforms. Each of us felt proud to serve the United Slates; none of us being ever minions of a faction. The pending Congressional committee of investigation into "Lobby" membership (amply commented on in the New York Herald, Dec. 1856-Feb. 1857), absolves me from adding my experiences of political probity in "Uncle Sam's" domain. I will, therefore, merely challenge contradiction, at the United States' State Department, of these facts, viz : that my Father for 1 2, myself for 8, my brother William for 2, my brother-in-law Alexander Tod for 6, and all of us during 17 years that we upheld gratuitously the honor of the flag in Egypt, ever received compensation, personally, in a single United States' "red cent." We have severally been the mere channels of payment (less than $500 a year at Alexandria, during perhaps 17, — and far less than another $500 per annum at Cairo during 3 years), to native employe's whom the State Department's " printed regulations " compelled us to maintain and stipend for the United States' service in that Pashalic. On the contrary, there hang on file, at the State Department (as mentioned in the North American aforesaid), documents to prove that, were equity in Congress not notoriously measured by the ratio of discounts to intermedia, "Uncle Sam" really owes, and ought to pay, my Father's estate something over $2000 at this moment, interests for 20 years exclusive, — which claim, now as formerly, I hereby abandon to the fate of "Amy Darden's horse."] We landed in Egypt before the " Emancipation Act," which has ruined the British West Indies, was passed ; wherefore my Father then considered it no sin to purchase, for domes- tication, such slaves as suited our family requirements. The first was, 1819, Falima — nurse to my lamented brother Charles (died suddenly of cholera at Dacca, Bengal, 27th Nov. 1840) — a reddish-black Galla-girl, rivalling the Venus de Medicis in form and strikingly in face, — -but with long, soft, wavy hair, small mouth; in short, no negress. She was freed and married out in 1821, dying shortly after of the plague. The next were, 1822, Falima and Seyda, Dar-foor negresses, and a fine negro boy named Murgian (i. e. .Wargaritus, coral). The former two were emancipated, dowried and married out in 1823, owing to the departure of my mother to place three of us at school in England. The latter, after being taught reading and writing, baptized and vaccinated, underwent, at the age of puberty, 532 THE M N G E N I S T S AND none came back (1828), except a few miserable sukkat Mies (invalided veterans) wbo, for a few years, lingered as bousebold guards about tbe hareem-door of Ibrabeem Pasba at Kasr-ed-Doobara, until tbe plague of 1835 (" quseque ipse miserima vidi") swept tbem off. together witb almost all tbe negro slaves and Nubians (Baralera), then in Lower Egypt. 387 During five months that (1828-9) I so- journed at Navarino and Modon, skeletons of some of these unfor- tunates, recognizable by tatters of their uniforms, frequently fell (in continual rides and shooting excursions) in my way, while graves of the remainder lay alongside the Modon road for miles. If the opinions of those alone qualified to decide be taken, all the families of Atalantic, or Gsetulian, stock are terrce-geniti. 388 " The Berbers," says De Slane, " autochthonous people of northern Africa, are the same race that is now designated by the name of KaUles. This word, which signifies ' clan' [in Arabic, plural that constitutional change from intelligence and gentleness to stupid ferocity which, in Egypt, prevents everybody, but Turkish officials who possess soldiery, from keeping adult negro male slaves in households. Murgian abjured Christ and turned Muslim, became too res- tive for mild control, — and finally (1824), becoming infatuated with a Nizhm-jezeed regiment of negroes about to embark for the war in the Morea, my father gave him his liberty. He sailed and, like his comrades, never came back. Four more negro girls were purchased on my mother's return to Alexandria (1825) ; but, being absent in England myself at that time, I do not recollect the names of 3, and they were already free and married off on my return in June, 1827, — as was the fourth, Barbara, in July of the same year. Her place was re-filled by a Christian white slave, bought ont of compassion from the Turkish soldiery, in the basaar, when hundreds of Greek captives were ravished from the Morea, to become, in portion, rescued, through Count de St. Leger and Captain Coddrington, 1828; as, indeed, two others were by myself at Cairo in 1832, and sent home. Our lady's maid, Pasquala, free from the hour she touched my father's threshhold, married out in 1828; and thus in that year ended our family connection with slavery ; although a silly tourist (Dr. Holt Yates), hospitably entertained by my father at Alexandria in 1828-9, has fabricated for his book an affecting tale about the influence of an "Abyssinian slave girl" over one of my sisters ! In justice to my parents' memory I ought to state that, in common with others at that emancipation-period, they then renounced the further possession of slaves "for conscience' sake;" — sentiments in which I never have participated; because I consider it a far more philanthropic act (whatever "Exeter-hall" may think of it), to rescue by purchase any human being — especially semi-wild negroes, when their humanization is the natural conse- quence — from the brutal clutches of the gellilb (slave-fetcher), than either to abandon him or her amid the horrors of an Oriental slave-mart, or to let him or her run the risk of not obtaining a better master. " So then," as St. Paul (Ep. to the Romans, XIV, 12, — Sharpe's N. T., p. 303) has clearly expressed it, " each of us shall give account of himself to God ;" nor is the Father account- able, in this case, for a difference of ethical opinions in his son. 387 There is a note of mine on this subject in my friend Dr. Barton's Report of the Sani- tary Commission of New Orleans, 1854. See also Nott's Chap. IV, p. 393, ante. 388 For all former authorities, see Gliddon, Otia ^Egyptiaca, 1849, "Excursus on the origin of some of the Berber tribes of Nubia and Libya," pp. 116-46: — and Types of Mankind, 1854, pp. 180-1, 204-10, 510 "Ludlm," to 526. THE POLTGENISTS. -533 KabciiT], has not been employed to designate the Berbers earlier than about three centuries. The introduction of this distorted meaning must probably be attributed to the Turks," 389 — who entered Algiers under Barbarossa at the beginning of the 16th century. Inasmuch as great confusion prevails yet in the minds of other- wise well-informed ethnographers upon Berber subjects, and my object being now to separate these races of the Hamitic type of mankind, entirely from any affinity with more austral negro nations, unknown to the Berbers before the introduction of camels 390 — a few extracts from the French "Exploration scientifique de l'Alge- rie" 391 are here introduced. The uplands and the aborigines of Berberia (true name for Barbary) are likened by Carette, in their geological phenomena and their human vicissitudes, to an Archipelago subject to rising and falling tides: — "the scarped islands are the mountainous masses; the flat islands are the Oases ; 3M the secular tides are the invasions. All these islands represent different groups of the same nation ; whereas the wave that bathes them is by turns Phoenician, Roman, Vandal, Greek, Arab, Turkish," — and, at this moment, French. All these have carried away some Berber, and left some foreign words. Nevertheless, the old lingua Atlantica is still recoverable ; at the same time (as I have elsewhere indicated) all its words of moral and intellectual civilization, altogether wanting in Berber, have been absorbed from the Arabic, — from which the Berber vocabulary and grammatical construction, by monogenists supposed to be " Syro- Arabian," is now proved to be absolutely distinct. Under the head of "Distinctive characteristics of the Berber tongue," our Author points out that the strongest difference between the Arabs and the Kabciil of Mt. Atlas lies in their languages — "c'est M surtout qui en fait deux nations distinctes." Arabic words, when adopted by Berbers, undergo great changes, and these people understand as little of an Arabic discourse as a French one; at the same time that it is easier for an Arab to acquire French than 389 Op. cil., preface, p. 1. 390 Amply confirmed, from the latest sources, by Vivien de St. Martin, " L'Exploration scientifique de l'Afrique centrale," Revue Contemporaine, Paris, 15th Sept. 1855, pp. 435-6. 391 "Pendant les Annies 1840, 1841, 1842, publige par ordre du Gouvernement, et avee le concours d'un Commission Aeadgmique," 4to, many vols., 1848-53, Paris, Imprim^rie nationale (now imp^riale). My selections are made chiefly from Carette, Eludes sur la Kabilie proprement dite (I, pp. 13, 20-33) — Precis historique (pp. 447-62) — and Recherches sur VOrigine et les migrations des Principales Tribus de l'Afrique Septentrionule, et parliculiere- ment de V Algerie (III, pp. 13-25, 27-55, 301-6, 441, 476). 392 Lucidly explained from the accounts of Richardson, Barth, Overweg, and Voqel, as regards the Tripoli tan route over the Sahara, by St. Martin, op. cit., pp. 430-6, 440-6. 534 THE MONOGENISTS AND Kabaylee : whilst the Kahyle mountaineer, in bringing his produce to market, has much more need of Arabic than an Algerian Arab has of Berber. 393 "Albeit, there exist whole tribes who present the bilingual cha- racter. But, among such septs the principal localities almost always bear names of Berber origin ; which seems to announce that, upon these different points, the Kabail had originally possessed the soil. The existence of these double -languaged populations expresses, therefore, nothing else than the transition between the primitive stratum, formed out of the Kabyle element, and the alluvial stratum, formed out of the Arabic element. * * * " Two incontestable facts are the following, viz : prior even to the most ancient of invasions [the Pnnico-Canaanitish ?], there existed, along this part of the African coast, a people and an idiom differing from all those peoples, and from all those idioms, which were to succeed each other during 2000 years; and that, now-a-days, the last [French] invasion finds again, in this country, a people and an idiom different from all those which preceded it." The well-known "monument of Dugga" contained 7 lines in Phoenician, and 7 others in an unknown writing. After the French occupation (1830), abundant bilingual inscriptions were found, — sometimes Latin, at others Punic ; but ever accompanied by the same unintelligible characters. The Berber alphabet, observed by Oudnet in 1822, advanced by De Saulct in 1844, and recovered by Brissonnet in 1845, has aided to unfold a great fact, viz : " the examination of these documents leaves no doubt as to the close relationship that exists between the idiom of these antique inscrip- tions and that other idiom now being spoken from the Egyptian Oasis of Seewah (westwards) to the shore of the Ocean, and (south- wards) from the Mediterranean to the confines of the Soodan (negro-lands). Hence the secular filiation of the Libyan tongue has revealed itself, — a tongue poor and simple, of which the type has perpetuated itself in the present idiom of the Kabail, athwart the course of ages and the vicissitudes of revolutions; without any other parchment than the surface of desert-rocks, without any other means of conservation than the vis inertise of tradition ; — now known by the several names of Berber, CJiaweeya, or Kabyle; which becomes a dialect called Lar'oua in parts of the Sahara, and Shil- heeya on the Atlas range. 393 For the topographical distribution of these clans, see the excellent " Carte de l'Algerie divisee par Tribus," by Cakette and Warniek, Paris, 1846: — also, Wilhelm Ober. Muller, Atlas ethno-geographique, " Les pays et les peuples * * * de la Berberie dans leur gtat actuel," Paris and Leipzig (Brockhaus and Avernarius). THE POLTGENISTS. 535 " The different names under which this idiom presents itself are recognized in a common appellative, as if forming hranches of one and the same trunk. The word Berber comprises equally the Kabail of the littoral, the Chaweeya of the south-east, the Shilheeya of Mo- rocco, the Beni-M'zab, and the Touariks : and, in the same manner that, all these dialects offer but slight differences among themselves, leaving no doubt whatever as to their community of origin, so the peoples that make use of them must be regarded as the scattered members of one and the same family." On the Jurjura plateaux there is a tribe still called (beni, Arabic for "sons") Beni-Kebila; another on the Aures is (owlad, = " children ") Oued-Shelih, ov Shil- heeya; and a third, Beni-Berber : and thus, without break in the chain of nomenclature, we can now ascend, — in the same language, race, and country — from the T-Amazirg, or Amazirg-T, or " Free-men," name given by this people to themselves, 394 through the Mazee-eh of Arab authors, to the G-entes Mazicse of the Romans, — and thence, finally to the Maj-usj of Herodotus, in whose day they were /3ap^apoi ; that is to say, not barbarians etymologically, but these same old Ber- beroi, our "Berbers." From the earliest times, when they were the " Jow-country " and the " nme-5ow-countries " of Egyptian hieroglyphics of the XTTth dynasty, 22 centuries b. c, through the period when they had become the Misulani, Saboubares, and quinquegentani of Latin writers, these Berbers have ever been the same " unconquerable Moors {Mauri) ;" to such degree, that their highland fastnesses amid the Atlas were designated as " mons ferratus " by the Boman legions, and " el- adoowa" (the inimical) by the later Saracenic lancers — "(Gens) torva, ferox, procax, verbosa, rebellis." 395 My above allusion to the familiar hieroglyphics for Libyan nations prompts reference to new inquiries that have just arisen as to the question — How far did the pharaonic Egyptians push their conquests into "Western Africa ? Manetho 396 says that Menes (1st dynasty, b. c. 40 centuries) gained glory from his foreign wars ; and that under !Ne- cherochis (Hid dynasty), not very long after, the "Libyans were defeated by the Egyptians :" but, until recently, no corroborative tes- timonies had been suspected, even, in Barbary itself. The first dis- covery of such monumental analogy was made by the daring travel- 394 Hodgson (of Savannah, Ga.), cited in Gliddon, Otia JEgyptiaca, pp. 117-29. 395 As GtBBON somewhere says of the Armoricans : or, in the more explicit Castilian of a wrathy old Spanish writer, not partial to Mussulmans, Hsdo, — " Moros, Alarbes, Ca- bayles, y algunos Turcos, todos gente puerca, suzia, torpe, indomita, inhavil, inhumana, bestial ; y por tanto, tuvo por cierto razon el que da pocos anos aca acustumbro llamar a esta tierra Barbaria" (Pascal Duprat, Afrique Seplentrionale, 1845, p. 65, note). 396 Text in Bcnsen, Egypt* Place, i pp. 611, 615. 536 THE MONOGENISTS AND lers, Richardson, Barth, and Overweg, 397 in 1850 ; at a mountain-pass called Wadee Taldja, about nine days' journey after leaving Mour- zook, the capital of Eezzan. Here is the account, in the words of M. Vivien de Saint-Martin : — "A little before reaching the descent we have just described, at the bottom of the valley through which one arrives at it, our travel- lers made a singular discovery. They found some figures engraved in deep cuttings upon the face of the rock [a very Egyptian method of recording conquests, as at "Wadee Magara, near Mt. Sinai, by steles]- The ancient people of the East loved thus to sculpture, upon the granite, warlike or religious scenes : there exist tableaux of this nature in Assyria and in Media, in Phoenicia and Asia Minor. Those which our explorers have discovered at the entrance of the [Sahara] desert have a peculiar character. They form several dis- tinct tableaux, of which two are above all remarkable. One offers an allegorical scene, the other represents a scene of pastoral, life. In the first, one beholds two personages, one with the head of a bird, and the other with a bull's, both armed with buckler and bow, and seemingly combating for the possession of a bull : the other shows a group of bulls that appear descending towards a spring to slake their thirst. The first of these two tablets has a character altogether Egyp- tian ; and the ensemble of these sculptures is very superior to what the nomad inhabitants of the north of Africa could now execute [See Pulszky's Chap. II. , pp. 188-192, on " TJnartistical Eaces "]. The men of the neighborhood, moreover, attribute them to an unknown people who, they say, possessed the country long before them. Barth copied with care the two principal tablets, and he sent his drawings, accompanied with a detailed notice, to the learned Egyp- tologist of London, Mr. Birch ; who will doubtless make them the object of a serious study. According to the very competent judg- ment of the traveller, the sculptures of Wadee Telissareh [name of the place where they are found] bear in themselves the stamp of incontestable antiquity. One is struck, furthermore, by a character- istic circumstance, viz : the absence of the camel, which always holds nowadays the first place in the clumsy sketches [as at Mt. Sinai] traced, here and there, by present tribes upon other rocks in divers parts of the desert. It is now recognized that the camel was intro- duced into Africa by the first Arab conquerors of the Khalifate [this is not exact — say rather about the 1st century e. c], during the VLTth century of our era : more anciently the only caravan beasts of bur- then, between the maritime zone and ISTigritia, were the ox and the 39 ' Gumprecht, Barth und Overwegs Untersuchungs-Reise nach dem Tschad-See, Berlin, 1852; — as cited by Saint-Martin, (supra, note 390) pp. 434-5. THE POLYGENISTS. 537 horse. Strabo relates (lib. xvii.) how the Maurusians [only a dialec- tic mutation of JPharusians, the PTyRSIM 398 of Xth Genesis], in order to traverse the desert, suspended water-skins under the bellies of their horses. Among several tribes of the Sahara, the ox is still used as a beast of transportation and carriage. Richardson saw a great number of them in a caravan that had just crossed a part of the Soodan." A sight of Earth's copy would suffice to establish whether a breath of Egyptian art passed over the sculpture ; but this narration is all I can now learn about it. Isolate iu itself, this fact scarcely attracted my attention before ; but here come some fresher coincidences of real Egyptian monuments, still further west in Barbary, that shed some plausibility upon these (by myself unseen) petroglyphs. An Egyp- tian black-granite royal statue, broken, 'tis true, beating inscriptions with the name of Thotmes I (XVIIth dynasty, 16th century b. a), has turned up at Cherchel, in Algeria ; 3 " and a Phoenico-Egyptian scarabaeus, brought from the same locality, is now in Paris. 400 Now, as the cited scholars both coincide, those monuments may have been carried thither either by Phoenician traders, or by later Roman dilet- tanti. Neither of them proves anything for pharaonic conquests in Africa ; but we have lived to see, in the case of Egyptian conquests in Assyria, such positive evidence grow out of the smallest, and, at first, most dubious indication, that I feel tempted to add another, inedited, fact (long unthought of in my portfolio) to the chain of posts — epoclias left aside — now existing between ancient Egypt and old Mauritania. On the 26th Dec, 1842, my revered friend, the late Hon. John Pickering: — a most scientific philologist — of Boston, gave me an impression 401 of a fragment of true Egyptian greenish-basalt stone, inscribed with some sixteen or eighteen pure hieroglyphical charac- ters (without cartouche, but broken from a statue, part of an arm being on its reverse, in good relievo). This was said to have been picked up on the ruins of Carthage, by an officer of the U. S. Navy, during the Tripolitan war; and brought directly to this country, 398 Types of Mankind, pp. 518-20. 399 Greene, Bulletin Archeologique de I 'Athenceum Francois, May, 1858, pp. 38-9. 400 Francois Lenormant, op. oil., June, pp. 46-7. 401 Mislaid among old papers, I have no leisure now to search for it ; hut, from an entry made at the time in my " Analecta iEgyptiaca," I can state that its dimensions were about, length 7 inches, breadth 4J, and thickness 2. The hieroglyphics, intaglio, style Saitic, are cut on a sort of jamb or plinth. Until production of my copy, let me terminate with a note made on its reception: — " If it does not go in support of the conquests of the Pharaohs in Barbary, it proves intercourse, at least, with Carthage" — that is, if found at Carthage, for which I fear all proofs are now, after so many years, obliterated. 538 THE MONOGENISTS AND where, when I saw it, the relic was in the possession of Mr. George Folsom, at Boston. From this archaeological digression, let us return to Barbaresque ethnography. In the words of Ebn Ejhaledoon, M. Carette observes — " That which is beyond doubt is, that, many centuries before Islamism, the Berbers were known in the countries they inhabit; and that they have always formed, with tbeir numerous ramifications, a nation entirely distinct from every other." Adopting for himself the only natural theory, that the Berbers were created for Berberia, Carette continues: — "Thus, it is an Arab writer, and the most judicious of the whole of them, that has himself done justice to all the tattle invented by his co-religionists, 402 and who reduces all the system of Berber genealogy to two facts, viz. : the biblical datum, which his quality of Mussulman obliged him to admit ; and the local tradition that he had been able to collect himself." The following tables specify the state of Berber actualities. " The Kabail lie at the north,".. " The Shilloohs and the Berbers f Shillouhs, stand at the south — the first- j named west, the latter east." [Berbers, "The Chaweeya are at the cen- tre." Tongues and Dialects. KtWUiea, ( Inhabit " the northern region ol 1 the Barbaresque continent." Slrilheeya, "1 t Lar'oua, \ Zendtcta, Shawefya, . Shillouhs. f Inhabit " the southern portion 1 of the empire of Morocco." Inhabit the south part of Algeria, Tunis, Tripoli, and Saharan deserts. Inhabit the ocean coast in Cen- tral Morocco, the northerly section of the Atlas ohain, and, in Algeria, the zones of " landes" and the mountain- ous interior. Arab origin. Berber origin. Total. ,800,000 7,500,000 12,300,000. In 3 centuries the true Arab population has scarcely changed. Population. XVIth century 4,650,000 XlXth " 4,800,000 To render more perspicuous these ethnic subdivisions of a group of races hitherto very imperfectly discussed by Anglo-Saxon ethno- logists, I append, from another good authority, long resident profes- sionally in military Algerian service, 403 a curious specification of their several characteristics. 402 Types of Mankind, p. 512. 403 Bertherand, Medicine et Hygiene des Arabes, Paris, 1855, p. 173. The same observer adds, when describing hair in the physical characteristics of these three types (p. 181) : "Les Arabes sont ge'ne'ralment bruns, les Saharaonis blonds ou mieux chatain-clair, les Kabyles chatain: quelques-unes de lenrs tribus comptent des families en tierement blondes." Equally good specifications are in Pascal Duprat (op. cit.) passim. THE POLTGENISTS. 539 BERTHERAND'S division of the present native inhabitants op ALGERIA. The " Kabttjb," (Correctly, Berber,) Inhabits the mountains (Atlas). The Arab, (Originally Asiatic,) Inhabits the "Tell," hillocks, and marshy plains. Lives on cereals, melons, couscous (flour -pellets), and little meat. Tends to numerous markets; pos- Owns no fondooqs ; comes above sesses fondooqs (farms); cultivates all to the Arab's marts, having few cereals himself; works at mining; makes honey ; traffics in fruits. The " Sahara vn," (Man of the Sahara,) Inhabits the Oases, and sandy lands of the south. Eats many oily cakes, and fruits. Dates and milk. the cereals; has varied merchan- dize, — coffee, sugar, soap, Ac. Robbery abundant. Occupies a country little wooded. Filthy; often in need of water. Has horses, herds of cattle, cows; flocks of sheep and goats. Dwells in tents. Bilioso-lymphatie ; women. large- bellied Agriculturist; laboring on the land winter and summer. Intelligence — very ordinary. Crimes abundant. Country full of forests. Has always water. Possesses chiefly mules. Resides in goorbi (mud hovels); hands ever in splash. Bilioso-sanguineous ; women tall and well made. Arboriculturist ; works during the fruit-harvest. Intelligence — applied to arts and industry. Always in motion about the "Tell;" has no fondooqs ; sells hi3 dates; is generally poor. Above all, a plunderer. Has no wood except in the Oases. Tolerably dirty ; often in want of water, even for legal (Muslim) ablutions. Owns camels and horses. Lives in camel-hair tabernacles; earth-houses in the Oases. Bilioso-nervous; pretty women. Horticulturist ; gathers dates ; passes life in caravans. Great facility of conception — very lively imagination. "It is to be remarked, that the Koolooglees m [now fast running out], product of unions between indigenous females and the Turks [no longer encroaching colonists in Algeria since the Gallic occupa- tion], are the strongest, the most intelligent [naturally so, because, under the name " Turk" is included what little now remains there of European captives, Circassian memlooks, &c] : an important question as regards the fusion, — on which certainly depends the implantation of the French nation in Algeria." Inasmuch, however, as my purpose is merely to direct ethnological attention towards analysis of the several primitive stocks, out of which the present Algerian population is compounded, I need now only interpose a "caveat" in respect to the opinions of Dr. Berth e- rand, and before him of Dr. Bodichon, 405 as to the ulterior benefits, by both of these skilful authors supposed likely to become the 404 In their Frenchified cognomen, philologists "will be inclined to recognize the Osmanlee- Turkish radical "oGLu," that is to say "son," — as in the Laz-oglus of Nubia. Pascal Duprat (Afrique Septentrionale, 1845, pp. 238-9), while showing that it is as often pro- nounced Courogli as Goulogli, derives it from the Turkish kooleh-oglu, " son of a slave:" to which may be added from Rozet (Regence d' Alger, 1833, II, pp. 272-92), that these Kool- ooglees, nevertheless, are not half-breeds between Turks and Christian white female cap- tives, "but children born from native Mauresque women married to Turks." 4 °s Types of Mankind, pp. 106-7, 110, 374. 540 THE MONOGENISTS AND future sequences of amalgamation between "types" so often repug- nant, and amid "races" not less (in zoological, geographical, and historical, phenomena) diverse. Thus then, Ebn Khaledoon recognized the same three distinct types of man we find about North-western Africa now, viz., the Berbers, the Arabs, and the negroes south of the Sahara. He demar- cates the Berbers as follows : " Now the real fact which dispenses with all hypotheses, is this : the Berbers are the children of Canaan, son of Ham, son of Noah ; as we have already enunciated it, when speaking of the gi*and divisions of the human species. Their grandfather was named Mazyh [the Masici of the Latins, and the Mazues of the Greeks] ; their brothers were the Gergesians (Aghrikeeh); the Philistines, children of Casluhim [here he likewise takes the Hebrew plural for the Shillouhs to be a man !], son' of Misraim, son of Cham, were their relations. * * * One must admit [he adds peremptorily] no other opinion than ours." "Wiser than some modern ethnographers, our A.rab author wholly rejects Berber "pretensions to Arabian origin: pretensions that I regard as ill-founded; because the situation of the places which these tribes inhabit, and an examination of the language spoken by them, establish sufficiently that they have nothing in common with the Arabs. I except only the Sanhadja and the Ketama (but God knows if this be true !), who, as the Arab genealogists say themselves, appertain to this nation, — an opinion that accords with my own." The Berbers apostatized from Islam twelve times : nor was this religion implanted among them before Tarec (a Berber chief, who crossed over to Gibraltar, gebel-Tarec, "hill of Tarec," a. d. 711) went to Spain. " These chiefs bore with them a great number of Berber sheykhs and warriors, in order to combat the infidels. After the conquest of Spain, these auxiliaries fixed themselves there ; and, since then, the Berbers of the Moghreb have remained faithful to Islamism, and have lost their old habit of apostasy." A portion of the Berbers, previously to that, had embraced Judaism; but "Idrees the First, descendant of El-Hassan, son of El-Hassan (grandson of Mohammed), having come into the Moghreb, caused to disappear from this country the very last vestige of these religions [Christian, Jewish, and pagan], and put an end to the independence of these tribes. "We believe that we have cited a series of facts which prove that the Berbers have always been a people, powerful, redoubtable, brave, and numerous : a true people, like so many others in this world, such as the Arabs, the Persians, the Greeks, and the Bomans. Such THE POLYGENISTS. 541 was, in fact, the Berber race. * * * From the Moghreb-el-aksa [extremest west] as far as Tripoli ; or, to speak more exactly, as far as Alexandria ; and from the Roman sea [Mediterranean] as far as the country of the blacks, the whole of this region has been inha- bited by the Berber race ; and this from an epoch of which neither the anterior events nor even the beginning are known," — wrote Ebn Khaledoon, five centuries before the science of Ethnology even possessed a name. So much being settled, I proceed to indicate points of geogra- phical contact between the Berber and the true negro races ; ob- serving only, that the possession of dromedaries and camels has — since the 1st century b. c. as the earliest, and since the Vllth a. d. as the best historical date for any large scale — spread the Berber tribes in a semi-circle over all the northern confines of the Beldd-es-Sooddn, countries of the blacks. 406 It is from the name of the tribe Aourtka that Carette, very reason- ably, derives the name of "Africa;" and it is also at the oases Ouaregla, Temacin, and Tuggurt, — grouped into one appellative, Ouad-Rir (Moghrabee for Owldd-Righ) — that mixture of Atlantic races and tongues with Arabian chiefly takes place. "High" mean- ing "separation;" " Ouad-Righ" signifies "the sons of the Righ" or of separation. " The Arabs come from the tribes [Bedawees] ; the Berbers pass as originating fi'om the soil. It is, on the other hand, easy to recog- nize them ; because the Arabs have the skin tanned like men of the white race who have sojourned long in southern countries ; whereas the Ruar'a, properly so called, or autochthonous inhabitants, have the skin nearly as black as the negroes, and some few the traits of the black race. Albeit, they differ still essentially from the Nigritian peoples ; and, in the country itself, they can never be confounded. I have seen many Rouar'a [new French spelling for Roudgha~] Berbers very much resembling the negro, and yet who would have considered it an insult to be confounded with the race of slaves. [Amalgamation with negresses explains these exceptional cases.] They characterize their color by no other epithet than Khamri, which signifies 'brown' [or reddish, always the Egyptian color for the Hamitic stock]. 407 "The autochthonous population of the 'children of Righ' (sepa- ration) mark, therefore, the transition of the color and the features 406 D'Escayrac de Lautcre (Le Desert el le Soudd.n, Paris, 1854) has written one of the best books on this subject; but, having lost my copy, I am unable to quote an enterprising traveller who knows those regions so well. 407 Types of Mankind, pp. 533 : — Otia JSgy-pliacu, p. 134. 542 THE MONOGENISTS AND between the white race and the black race. It is not the tint, more or less bronzed, of the white populations of the south of Europe : it is a color altogether different, and which belongs to them, — much nearer to black than to white. Nevertheless, they have, of the black race, neither the fiat nose nor the thick lips, any more than the woolly hair; although, however, these traits are not those of the white race. "It is an intermediary race, half-way between ; attached, at one and the same time, to the two extreme races to which it approximates and which it separates." Such, finally, is a precis of Berber ques- tions at the present hour; which cuts them loose, as another type of man, from all other races of humanity, — excepting as concerns their Hamitic source and their linguistic affinities, on which M. Maury (supra, p. 142-3) has sufficiently cleared up obscurities. In common with the Hebrews, the Egyptians, the Chinese, the American abo- rigines, and some others whose earliest locum tenens has not yet been quite so sharply trenched in ethnology, the Berbers represent an especial and independent group of proximate races ; being the real human component of what Agassiz 408 has so conclusively determined, in zoological distribution, as the "North African fauna" of the "European realm," — populations to whom the appellative Atalan- tidse [the root of which is certainly Berber — a name for part of Mt. Atlas 409 ] would, etyniologicalty, geographically, and historically, be appropriate for convenience of ethnic classification. The next step ought to take us to the basin of the Senegal, where this river constitutes the dividing line between these Atalantidse with their Arab companions, and those true negro races whose habitat has never voluntarily lain to the north of it. Of course, before the camel reached Barbary, neither the Berbers nor the Arabs could have traversed the Saharran wastes to hunt the negroes ; nor the latter have come across it northwards for the mere satisfaction of becoming enslaved by those superior types of man. To do so properly, one should begin with the first discovery of this river by Europeans, about the XTVth century, and trace through the works of Rochefort (1643), Gaby (1689), Labat (1728), Adan- son (1757), Golberry (1787), La Barthe (1785), Durand (1802), Mollien (1818), Matthews (1787), and Laing (1825), the progress of knowledge as regards its now varied inhabitants. Only in three of the above travels have I been able to do it ; but deficiencies are 408 Types of Mankind, p. lxxviii, and "Map." 409 See, on the probable derivation of " Antilia" (Antilles) from Atlantis, the charming and erndite disquisition of D'Avezac, Les lies Fanlasliques de £ Oce"an Occidental au Moyen- Age, Paris, 1845, p. 27. THE POLYGENISTS. 543 tolerably well made up in the excellent work of Raefenel. 410 Under the specific designations, — each people being also subdivided into tribes, of Maures (Arabs), FoulaJis, Sarracolets, Bambaras, Mandingos, and Yoloffs — this accurate observer manifests their distinctions of type and character; proving, moreover, that the white man's intel- ligence merges into ISTigritian brutality in the same ratio that, step by step, one travels- south from the Sahara into negro-land ; and that the color of the human skin is darkened by race-character, not by imaginary "climate;" because, the Semitic Arab, who has been there about six centuries, is no blacker than his ancestors or contem- poraries were, or are now, in Arabia itself. 411 Luke Burke's argu- ment 4 ' 2 bears out my assertion ; and I have since beheld, in the G-alerie Anthropologique at Paris, the beautifully colored portraits of all the races alluded to. " Let lis now pass on to Africa. Here we find the negro races occupying some of the most torrid regions, but not exclusively. Arab races have been living in the midst of them for thousands of years, and yet they are only brown. Some of them, indeed, are nearly fair ; for their blood has been repeatedly mixed with that of northern tribes ; and, where such is the case, we find that the climate does no more than simply tan or freckle such parts as are generally exposed to the light. Still farther to the south, — farther even than the true region of the negroes — extend the tribes of the Gralla, who have of late years conquered a large portion of Abyssinia. These have for ages occupied the plains of Central Africa, almost under the equator; aud yet they are, at the utmost, brown, and many of them comparatively fair. But, more than this, there are nomadic families of the Tawrick race, who have wandered from an unknown period among the burning sands of the great desert itself, and still retain their fair complexions. They are, indeed, no more affected by this torrid region than most Europeans would be after a residence there of a few months. "We have already spoken, in a former chapter, of the Kabyles of the Auress mountains in Algiers, — one tribe of whom have not merely a fair and ruddy complexion, but also hair of a deep yellow. 410 Op. cit., Atlas, colored likeness of "Maure de Se"n6gal;" — who might be well con- trasted with another good portrait from the Abyssinian side of Africa, " Djellab marchand d'esclaves du Cordofand," in the Revue de I'Orient, Paris, 1854, PI. 31. 411 Exploration du Senegal, depuis St. Louis jusqu^A la Faleme, au deld de Bakel ; de la Faleme, depuis son embouchure jusqu'd. Sansandig ; des mines d'or de Kenieba, dans le Bam- bouk ; des pays de Galam, Bondou, el Woolli; et de Gamble, depuis Baracounda jusqu'il V Ocean, during 1843-4; Paris, 1846, 8vo, with folio atlas. 412 Ethnological Journal, London, No. 2, July, 1848, — "Varieties of Complexion in the Human Race," p. 76-7. 544 THE MONOGENISTS AND Dr. Shaw, the traveller from whom we quoted, gives a still more decided testimony against the theory of climate, in speaking of the Moorish women. His words are : ' The greatest part of the Moorish women would he reckoned beauties even in Great Britain, as their children certainly have the fairest complexion of any nation whatever. The boys, indeed, by wearing only the tiara, are exposed so much to the sun that they soon acquire the swarthiness of the Arab ; but the girls, keeping more at home, preserve their beauty till they are thirty, at which time they are usually past child-bearing.' — (Travels in Barbary and the Levant, fol. 1738, p. 120.) Here we perceive the true effects of climate on the fair races : a temporary darkening of the parts exposed to the sun, the children of people so darkened born perfectly fair! Who can tell the number of ages that the Moors have inhabited the north of Africa ? "Who can say that their present region is not their original country ? And yet here they are still, a perfectly fair race. " Southern Africa also presents us with many striking illustrations of the fallacy of the theory of climate. We shall content ourselves with citing two of the most remarkable, viz., those presented by the physical peculiarities of the Hottentots and Bosjesmans. These two races have been considered as one ; but only by those who believe in the great modifying power of circumstances. They are evidently distinct. The Bosjesmans are pigmies; the Hottentots, where pure, tall and large. Persons of intermediate stature are, of course, met with; because two races so much alike in most respects, residing near each other, must necessarily have intermarried in the course of ages ; but there is no conceivable reason why, except as distinct races, the one should be active, restless, comparatively brave, and of a stature seldom exceeding four feet nine inches, while the other is tall, large, timid, and exceedingly sluggish. In most other respects their organization is similar ; and they differ from all other portions of mankind in the nature of the hair and in two remarkable pecu- liarities in the female structure. They are in the midst of races widely differing from them, — negroes on the one hand and Caffres on the other ; both black, while the Hottentots and Bosjesmans are simply of a light yellowish brown. How can these facts be accounted for except as differences of race ?" A view of some curious analogies, a propos of the Gaboon river- land, may here be given. The chart (further on), illustrative of the distribution of the simiadse in their relation to that of some inferior types of man, with the text accompanying, suggests a few hints to ethnographers. Among them THE POLTGENISTS. 545 is the fact, that the highest living species of Monkeys occupy pre- cisely those zoological provinces where nourish the lowest races of mankind. It is well known, that all negroes found in Algeria (where their lives are also curtailed, as in Egypt, by an uncongenial climate), are brought over the Sahara, by the inland caravan-trade, chiefly from the neighborhood of the Niger and Senegal rivers. This shall be made evident in elucidating the Saharran fauna of the African realm on our Tableau. From the Senegal, G-ambian, Joliba, and other streams, as well as from around Lake Tchad and its affluents, there is, and has been, ever since the Arabian camel was introduced; about the 1st century b. c., 4]3 'a ceaseless flow of nigritian captives to the 413 Desmoulins, op. cit., Memoire sur la Patrie du Chameau a line Basse, et sur Vepoque de son introduction en Afrique; pp. 359-88: — I am acquainted with the objections raised by Quatremere (Memoires de VAcad. Roy. des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres, XV., Paris, 1845; pp. 393-5. — ) ; but Egyptological reasons, by him disregarded, lead me to deem them incon- clusive. A word here about "Camels." Mention was made (Types of Mankind, p. 729, note 610), of a MS. memoir of my own, entitled "Remarks on the introduction of Camels and Drome- daries, for Army-Transportation, Carriage of Mails, and Military Field-service, into the States and Territories lying south and west of the Mississippi, between the Atlantic and Pacific coasts — presented to the War-Department, Washington, Oct. 1851 :" — and dedicated to the Hon. Jeff. Davis, then U. S. Senator, — who had previously, at my instigation (Nat. Intelligencer, Wash., D. C, 27 March, 1851), introduced a camel-bill into Congress. It is known to everybody in this country that the United States Transport " Supply" has already made two trips, one to Alexandria, and the other to Smyrna, and brought over to Texas some 80 of these animals, in good condition. The undertaking could not fail to be successful, — 1st, because the ship was commanded by my old friend (welcomed " chez moi" at Cairo as far back as 1835), Lieut. David Porter, U. S. N. ; — and 2d, because the War Department has merely carried out (with but one solitary exception) every detail — down to the most minute — of my "Remarks" aforesaid, in regard to the importation of these animals. Following the maxim — " je reprends ma propri^te' oil je la trouve" — I claim here the credit of chalking out the lines upon which these Camels reached America ; confident that if (and I hardly think such contingency possible after the instruction the party in charge had from myself), there should be any failure in developing the unbounded utility of these quadrupeds after their landing, such eventuality can proceed solely through United States' official mis- management. Meanwhile, I presume my above-mentioned MS. has become mislaid at the War Depart- ment; because I see that Mr. Marsh, in his very nice little work (Boston, 1856), on the " Camel," whilst gratefully acknowledging the various documents on the subject lent him by the War Department, with honorable mention of the Authors of each paper, has nowhere alluded, either to myself (who planned the whole affair for them in writing, 1851-6), or to my said "Remarks." Now, whether my MS. (bound in red morocco, too) be or be not in existence at the War Department, it so happens that, knowing perfectly well the sort of principles current at Washington — -District Columbia, — I had taken 3 precautions to ensure preservation of my ideas therein ; 1st, by having a fac-simile copy made by the hands of a third party before transmitting the original from Pittsburg, Pa., to the Department; 2d, by securing suflicient collateral evidence of my connection with that Institution from first to last ; and 3d, by preserving, in a patent Salamander safe, my MS. copy, with every scrap of correspondence 35 546 THE MONOGENISTS AND slave-marts of Timboctoo, Mourzook, and other oases ; whence they become distributed, by Touarik and Arab gellabs, throughout Maroc- chine, Algerian, Tunisian and Tripolitan, territories. Now, the various negro populations of the above-named rivers are by no means the most austral nations represented in these cities' local slave-markets ; because such distinct stations are, in their turn, re-filled by caravans from the interior; whose " exploitation" of nigritian prisoners stretches backwards to Ashantee, Benin, Dahomey, Adamoua, &c. : whither again converge endless radiations of still more inland slaves, whose hunted-grounds reach southwards to an unknown extent, but cer- tainly as far as Congo. The consequence is, that in Algeria, as at Cairo, numberless varieties of negroes, from many countries, are represented, in human slave-basaars. Among these, a peculiar type is frequently seen even now, but was far more abundant prior to the abolition of that piratical Deyship, by the French in 1830. Of this race I clearly remember two huge and ferocious specimens working about Mohammed Ali's arsenal at Alexandria for a long time, between 1827 and 1835; when I think they must have succumbed to the great plague of the latter year. They had been landed from the crews of an Algerine frigate and a corvette that, sent as quota to the Pasha's squadrons against the Greeks, rotted their hulks out in our western harbor, after the fall of theii quondam owner at Algiers. Witness for years, and once assistant retributor, of the brutality of these two Algerine negroes, their phy- siognomies are ineffaceable from my memory ; being besides totallj distinct from any negro race brought down the Mle to Cairo. It was, therefore, with satisfaction that I lately recognized the fea- tures of my old acquaintances, in two plates, wholly distinct in ori- gin, representing the same type abiding in French Algeria : with the only difference that the men I knew were almost black in color. The profile of one is fac-simile-ed in No. 26 of our Tableau under the name of " Saharran-negro ;" partly because this individual, or his parents, must have been brought across the great desert, and partly between myself and others, — from Dec. 1850, at Philadelphia, down to June 1856, at Paris — relative to this grand experiment of naturalizing the Arabian camel, amidst its homogeneous climatic and other conditions, in the south-western States and Territories of the United States on this continent. I hope soon to have a little more leisure than just at this moment ; when it will afford me great pleasure, the public much entertainment, and the Honorable Mr. Marsh peculiar gratification, to show how easy it was to " see through a millstone, after somebody had made a hole in it," as concerns the successful importation of these Camels — no less than this gentleman's astounding mesmeric clairvoyance in guessing at every fact and idea, contained in that fac-simile copy of my "Remarks" aforesaid, during the period that it lay locked up in a patent Salamander safe. Philadelphia, 10th February, 1857. — G. R. G., "(for- merly) United States Consul at Cairo." THE FOLTGENISTS. 547 because numerous historical analogies lead me to infer, that it is towards Senegal that his typical family should be sought for. Its original colored drawing, much larger in size, being one of about forty beautifully-executed portraits taken on the spot by the Commis- sion scientifique d' Alger ie, is now suspended in the Gf-alerie Anlhropo- logique of the Parisian Museum. Published by the Chief of that ex- pedition, the late Bory de Saint- Vincent, 414 my copy has been traced upon stone directly from Bory de St. Vincent's plate, in my posses- sion. He thus briefly describes this head's history : — "ISTo. III., finally, is the Ethiopian type. This head was that of a bandit native of the Soodiin [negro-land], killed in the Sahel [At- lantic slopes towards the Sahara], where one of the sabre-cuts with which he was smitten shows, over the left parietal, how much more considerable the thickness of the bones of the cranium is in negroes than in other men. * * * "In disposing," proceeds our author, "the bony cases [skulls] that I present to the Academy, upon the same plane one after another, we are first struck by the manner in which, on starting from the At- lantic type [or Berber, see a semplar gradation in our Tableau, ~Ho. 22], wherein the facial angle is almost a right one, the gradual pro- minence of the upper jaw becomes considerable. This elongation is such in the Ethiopian, that the resemblance of his skeleton to that of the large monkeys becomes striking [ubi supra'] : at the base of a sufficiently-high, but laterally compressed frontal region, the supra- orbital ridges project almost as considerably as those of a middle- aged Orang. Other bony prominences, not less marked, crown the temporal region at the attachments of the temporal muscles ; a very pronounced depression exists at the root of the nose, of which the bones proper are also the shortest, and so disposed forwards that their situation becomes nearly horizontal. Certain airs of animality result from this osteological ensemble ; and, the facial traits not being less strange, the breadth of the nose with its widely-open wings, and the prodigious thickness of the lips, whose lower one seems to be quasi-pendent, impress upon this Ethiopian's profile the aspect of a sort of muzzle." Following this famed anthropologist's suggestion, I now submit, to the reader's inspection, four wood-cuts (A, B, C, D, on next page). Few remarks suffice to establish authenticity." The palpable ana- 414 Sur V Anthropologic de VAfrique Francaise (read at the Academic des Sciences, 30 June, 1845) — extract from the Mac/asm de Zoologie, d'Analomie compare'e et de PaUontologie ; Paris, Oct. 1845; pp. 13-4; and Plate Mammiferes, PI. 61, figs. "No. III. Type Ethio- picn." Bory de St. Vincent is the well-known polygenist; author of V Homme (Homo). Essai zoologique sur le Genre Ilumain ; of which I am only acquainted with the 2d odition; Paris, 2 toIs. 18mo., 1827. 548 TEE MONOGENISTS AND logies and dissimilitudes, between an inferior type of mankind and a superior type of monkey, require no comment. A. B. Three-quarter view of another Algerine negr< " Biskree." 415 Front view of our Saharran-negro. Com- pare his tinted profile in No. 26 of our " Ethnographic Tableau," — from B. de St. V.'s plate. D. Gorilla- Gina, Is. Geoff. Troglodytes- Tshego, — Duv. (Three-quarter yiew.) 416 Same animal. (Front view. ) 415 Galerie Eoyale de Costumes, folio, colored, Paris (Aubert & C ie ., Place de la Bourse, No. 29) ; "Porteur a Alger," PI. 15. 416 Annales des Sciences Naturclles, 3 m « Eerie, Zoologie, Paris, 1851 ; xvi. PI. VII., figs. 1, 3; and pp. 154-92. — Cf. also. Duveknot, Comples rendus de I'Acad. des Sciences, 1853; xsxvi. pp. 924-36. THE POLYGENISTS. 549 Fig. B — as above stated, is the front view of the " Saharran Negro " of whom our Tableau, No. 26, gives the profile. The color of the original is a livid tawny black, chiefly due to drainage of blood after decapitation ; for it was drawn on the field of the skirmish. By com- parison with the profile, its Simian expression will be the better per- ceived. Fig. A — has.no history, beyond the reference that his name was "Biskry," and that he happened to be a "Porter at Algiers :" but nomenclature identifies the route by which he, or his progenitors, reached A lgeria, in the Oasis of Biskra.™ I infer that this was his nick-name (soubriquet) ; because, in Arabic as in Hebrew, 418 the suffix ye, ee (iod), to a geographical appellative indicates the " being of," or, "belonging to" a locality; so that our Biskree, from Biskra, means in English the Biskr-ian. Hence we learn the road of his transit over the Sahara. In the original plate the color of his skin is a blackish-red brown ; and we know that almost every shade, from a dirty yellow to a full ebony, is to be met with among aborigines of Africa — on which hereinafter. I have purposely chosen this sample, which is wholly independent of Bory de St. Vincent's, to substantiate the existence of such par- ticular types in North-western Africa. Thirty-three years have passed since, as a boy, I saw the bronze " Mori " (Moors) in the Ar- senal of Leghorn. I stand corrected if this man is not one of the same types. Figs. C and D — are front and profile heads of the specimen, as yet unique, of a perfect adult Gorilla ; which, preserved in spirits, was sent to the Parisian Museum d'ffistoire Naturelle, in 1852, from the Gaboon River, by Dr. Franquet. If hypercriticism 419 should object to renewed selection of extreme** 1 m Prisse d'Avennes's Revue Orimtale el Algerienne, Paris, 8vo., 1852; i. — Pkax, "Com- munications entre l'Algerie et le Senegal, " pp. 275-95, and Map: — also Campmas, "Oasis de Biskra ;" pp. 296-303. 418 Types of Mankind, pp. 531-2. 419 The London Athenaeum (June 17, 1854), in reviewing our last work, did cot like the contrasts afforded by placing the Apollo Belvidere, an African negro, and a Chimpanzee, on the same plate. It was shown in the next number (Athenceum, June 24), that they were copied from the accurate designs of an English artist — "William Harvey, the pupil of Be- wick." 420 Luke Bukke (Ethnological Journal, London, New Series, No. 1, Jan. 1854; p. 88) happily says — "The best means of treating man properly is to treat him as we do the most clearly-defined portions of general zoology. Should we not, for instance, better promote our knowledge of the dog, by carefully noting the most aberrant of his forms, than by any selection of average skulls ? And why should it not be so with man also ? We would, therefore, take the liberty of suggesting to all engaged in pursuits of this kind, that the best mode of consulting the interests of science is to think less of averages and more of individualities." 550 THE MONOGENISTS AND samples for proper illustration of a zoological subject; and perad- venture exclaim that a decollated negro, upon whose features are stamped the last agonies of violent death, is not a fit exponent of the type I call " Saharran-negro " until its natural province be made known, my rejoinder would be simply this: — our Biskreean, from the same regions and in " species " identical, seems to have been in full blossom when his portrait was taken at Algiers ; and, on the other hand, I claim that some allowance of similar kind ought, in fairness, to be made in behalf of 'a poor homicided Cforilla, whose facial expression alcohol has doubtless distorted and contracted. Surgeons and physicians, when elaborating facts in their medical publications, habitually leave aside "sentiment" as merely obstruc- tive to knowledge. It is time, I think, that ethnographers should imitate such example. The disquisition accompanying our Monkey-chart explains some geographical coincidences between species of the simiadse and some races of mankind ; but, by way of anticipation, it is remarkable that this type of anthropomorphous apes actually dwells in Africa not a thousand miles from the region inhabited by the above type of negro. But there are still lower forms of the negro type precisely in those regions around the Bight of Benin where the two highest species of African anthropoidse, viz., the G-orilla and the Chimpanzee, overlap each other in geographical distribution. The best of authorities on the latter subject, Prof. Jeffries Wyman, of Harvard University, 421 wrote long ago : "Whilst it is thus easy to demonstrate the wide separation be- tween the anthropoid and the human races, to assign a true position to the former among themselves is a more difficult task. Mr. Owen, in his earlier memoir, regarded the T. niger as making the nearest approach to man; but the more recently discovered T. gorilla, he is now induced to believe, approaches still nearer ; and regards it as 'the most anthropoid of the known brutes.' This inference is derived from the study of the crania alone, without any reference to the rest of the skeleton. "After a careful examination of the memoir just referred to, I am forced to the conclusion that the preponderance of evidence is un- equivocally opposed to the opinion there recorded ; and, after placing side by side the different anatomical peculiarities of the two species, there seems to be no alternative but to regard the chimpanzee as holding the highest place in the brute creation." 421 Crania of the Euge-ena (Troglodytes gorilla, Savage) from Gaboon, Africa, read before the Boston Society of Natural History, Oct. 3, 1849; — from the American Journal of Science and Arts, 2d series, vol. ix ; p. 9. THE P0LT6ENISTS. 551 On the other hand, Prof. Agassiz remarked, in our former work'; 422 "The chimpanzee and gorilla do not differ more one from the other than the Mandingo and the Guinea negro : they together do not differ more from the orang than the Malay or white man differs from the negro:" — and again, in the present [" see Pref. Rem."] : "A comparison of the full and beautifully illustrated descriptions which Owen has published, of the skeleton and especially of the skulls of these species of orangs, with the descriptions and illustrations of the different races of man, to be found in almost every work on this subject, shows that the orangs differ from one another in the same manner as the races of men do ; so much so that, if these orangs are different species, the different races of men which inhabit the same countries, the Malays and the Negrillos, must be considered also as distinct species." For evidence that, in the same west-African localities, there exist inferior grades of negroes, lower than anywhere else known, there is an unexceptionable and recent authority, in a good ethnologist, the missionaiy Wilson, 423 who describes these "degenerate branches" — a sort of negro-gypsies — with great unction and precision. But we possess still later information, and from a daring and reliable naturalist, M. Duchaillu, — deservedly lauded in Dr. Meigs's chapter [supra, p. 324, note 243]. I was present at that meeting of our Academy, and fortunate enough to hear Mr. Cassin read Du- chaillu's long and very matter-of-fact report. Au interesting discus- sion then arose, opened by some critical comments of Mr. Parker Foulke, among the members present ; whence two facts were elicited : 1st, that, near Cape Lopez, Duchaillu had shot both Gorilla and Chimpanzee, the skins, &c, of which are on their way to the Aca- demy; and, 2d, that he had just visited (his letter bears date Oct., 1856), up the Muni river, north of the Gaboon, two extraordinary negro-tribes, viz., the Pauein (whom Wilson calls the "Pangwee" — ■ different from the M'pongwee) and the Oshebo, whose habitats are divided by that stream. As Mr. Foulke observed, they are the first historical instance of cannibalism elevated into marketing traffic ; for the Pauein do not eat their own dead, but exchange them, across this river, for the carcases of the Oshebo! M. Duchaillu quietly observes that he could n't eat meat in that country. 422 Types of Mankind, p. lxxv. 123 Anonymous, "Ethnographic View of Western Africa," a pamphlet of 34 pages, New York, 1856 ; p. 23. It is from Dr. Meigs's chapter (supra, p. 326) that I learn the name of this clever writer; who inadvertently quotes, as if he had found, in the excellent works of Mr. W. B. Hodgson, what he can find nowhere else than in my Olia JEgypliaca, and in onr Types of Mankind. 552 THE MONOGENISTS AND Now, whilst these lowest tribes of negro man-eaters dwell in the same zoological province as the black Gorillas and Chimpanzees, is it, I would ask, through fortuitous accident that, where the red orangs of the East Indian Archipelago roam the jungle, there sbould exist a cannibalism almost parallel, although not mercantile, — as shown in the reddish B'hattas, &c, who, some years ago, devoured two English missionaries, amongst other instances ? It is to be remarked, however, tbat, as voyagers observe, can- nibalism in Polynesia, and also in New Zealand, 424 does not seem so much to have been an instinctive craving among Maori nations, as to have gradually grown into a habit of luxurious feeding among nautical wanderers who, in their vicissitudes of navigation, from island to island, were often compelled to eat each other. 435 It is time to arrest the course of these remarks; the object of which chiefly is, to eliminate from further discussion some objections that the unavoidable brevity of the ensuing sections will compel me to pass by unnoticed. Confined within some 200 pages, my contri- bution to the present volume must fall very far short of the materials collected for its elaboration. I apprehend, nevertheless, that readers of the preceding commentary are now prepared for the assertion that a current phrase, "the unity of tbe human species," if it possess any real meaning, leaves us in utter darkness as to the scientific question of mankind's lineal derivation from a single pair ; or as to its counter theory, the plurality of origin from many pairs, situate in different geographical centres, and possibly formed at different epochas of creation or of evolution. Chronology we have found to be a "broken reed" for any event anterior, say, to the 15th century b. c. : so that there exists no positive limit, determinable by ciphers, to human antiquity upon earth, save such as palaeontology — a science commenced by Lister in England, Blumenbach in Germany, and founded on true principles by Cuvier in France — may in the future discover. To talk of years, or hundreds of them, in the actual state *" "Ces abominable coquins!"— as the gallant Capitaine Laplace (Voyage aulour du Monde, &c, sur la corvette la "Favorite" 1830-2, Paris, 8vo, text, 1835, IV, pp. 8-51) indignantly exclaims, after witnessing the morality of their women and the human repasts of the men. The same pages give an excellent idea, too, of the missionaries in that remote island. 425 "It will probably be found, on further examination, however, that, with the exception of the disgusting practice of cannibalism, the black color, with crisped hair, common to all, there are as many points of difference between the [Negrillos] different islanders of the group, as between any two races in the Pacific," says Ekskine (Journal of a Cruise, &c, in R. M. S. " Havannah," London, 8vo, 1853, p. 16). He confirms also Laplace on mission- aries; as does Du Petit Thcars ( Voy. autour du Monde, &c, frigate la "Venus," 1836-9, Paris, 8vo, text, 1843; I, pp 317-36; II, p. 373; TV, pp. 70-88); not to mention Mojren- hout (Isles du Grand Ocean, Paris, 8vo, 1837; I, pp. 216-357; II, pp. 283-322, 515). THE POLYGENISTS. 553 of this science, is simply absurd, — a mere illustration of what Greg 426 properly stigmatizes as "the humiliating subterfuges resorted to, by men of science, to show that their discoveries are not at variance with any text of Scripture." Other conclusions the reader will draw for himself. On the majority of these problems my own opinions assumed definite shape between 1845 and 1850; but, inasmuch as it is custo- mary for authors to utter, at some time or other, their individual "profession of faith," I may here be permitted to recall, as mine, some passages of the third lecture on "Egyptian Archaeology," de- livered 427 in my last course at this city, more than six years ago. They have since remained inedited; and the only value I attach to them accrues from the circumstance that, written at the suggestion of my honored friend the late Samuel George Morton, they have become to me a memento of past interchanges of thought with one of the noblest of men. " Creative Power has veiled, equally, from human ken the origin " of man and his end. If any argument were required to impress "upon my mind the beneficence of the Creator towards his crea- " tures 428 — -any fact, that in the brain of a human being of cultivated "intelligence, and which, whispered to each of us in the 'still, small " voice ' of conscience, proves the goodness of Deity, not merely to " mankind, but to all animate substances created by his will, — it is, " that, like every other animal, Man knows not the hour of his birth " or of his death ; can discover, by no process of retrospective ratio- 's cination, the moment when he entered this life ; nor ascertain, by " anticipation, the precise instant when he is to depart from it. " An example will illustrate my meaning : " Leaving aside, in this question, those traditionary legends of our "respective infancies, which, in themselves, may be true — although "received, as inevitably they must be, on the "ipse dixit" of others, "to us these accounts of the cradle and nursery are not certain,*® — " each individual's memory can carry his personal history back to the 426 Creed of Christendom, pp. 2, 45-51. i 2 ' Philadelphia, Chinese Museum, 6th January, 1851: — "North American and Gazette," Jan. 7. 428 Beyond all works, that of my venerable friend, M. Hercule Straus-Durckheim {Theologie de la Nature, Paris, 3 vols. 8vo, 1852) contains the ablest demonstration of Crea- tive wisdom and benevolence through the science of comparative physiology, in which the author of " Anatomie descriptive and comparative du Chat," is known by naturalists to be an unsurpassed adept. 429 Vico, Scienza Nuova (translated by " PAuteur de l'Essai sur la formation du Dogme Catholique," Paris, 12mo, 1844; pp. 41-4) — Axioms IX-XVI; on the distinction between the " true," and the "certain." 554 THE MONOGENISTS AND "period when logical inductions, from facts aquired by himself in " maturity, can determine that he must have been about four or five " years old. Some persons' memories can recede farther, and recol- " lect events coetaneous with their second year of infancy. Beyond " that, all is blank to personal reminiscence. Wow, it is from this " fact — a commonplace one, if you please — that Creative benevolence " resiles as a sequence : because, human science might possibly attain " to such perfection (arguing her future triumphs from her present " conquests over the past), that, could an individual determine the " precise instant when his body had been quickened by the spark of " life, he might, as a chance-like possibility, be able to deduce from "it also, beforehand, the moment of his decease. Hope of life in this " world, beyond such given point, being thereby extinguished in his "breast, every stimulus to exertion, moral or intellectual, would " vanish with it ; and such man would rapidly sink, through mere " physical indulgences, to the level of the brute. That misshapen "precursor of astronomical science, Astrology, — which, originating " at least 2500 years ago 430 in Chaldaic Magianism, sat, for centuries, " like a nightmare upon the torpid intelligence of our own ' middle "ages' — really dared, with Promethean boldness, to cast man's " horoscope, and to determine the instants of his nativity and death, " through deceptive manipulations of an astrolabe : but this hoary "imposture, with its Egyptian sister, Alchemy, and their cousin " Vaticination, deludes now-a-days no educated and sane mind. 431 " Why do I weary your intelligence with such truisms ? Simply, " in order to posite before it one syllogistic deduction, as an incontro- " vertible point of departure in strictly-archreological inquiries into " human origines, viz : that, inasmuch as the beneficent Creator has " shrouded, from each individual man, knowledge of his personal " beginning and his end ; and, as all Nations are but aggregations of " individuals, it is, ergo, absolutely impossible to fix, chronologically " speaking, the eras at which primeval Nations, whose existence is " antecedent to the human art of writing, severally were born. " Geology, offspring of the XTXth century, can define on the "rocky calendar of the earth's revolutions, the particular stratum " when humanity was not : but, the intervals of solar time existing " between such stratification and our erroneous year 432 Anno Domini 430 De Rouge, "Noms 6gyptiennes des Planetes," Bulletin Archeologique de VAlhenceum Francais, Mars, 1850 — shows how the system was developed in Demotic times. 431 " The science of the Aruspices was so eminently absurd, that Cato, the Censor, used to say he wondered how one Aruspes could look at another without laughing out:"-^ McCulloh, Impartial Exposition of the Evidences and Doctrines of the Christian Religion, Baltimore, 8vo, 1836 ; p. 65. 132 Types of Mankind, pp. 665-7 ; and supra, p. 479. THE POLTGENISTS. 555 1851, cannot be expressed by arithmetic; is attainable through no known rule of geometry ; and, to the time-measurer, presents no element beyond incalculable and incomprehensible cycles of gloom — the depths of which, like those of the ocean, his plummet can- not fathom. " What ultimate goal remains, then, for our aspirations in pursuit of knowledge about 'the beginning of all things,' when the initial point — modern, in contrast with invertebrata, or more inform ves- tiges of Nature's incipient handicraft, discerned in the ' old red sandstone' — of mankind's first appearance on this planet lies beyond the reach of our contemporaries' solution ; and, according to my view, of human mental capability, past, present, or to come? What can the Historian hope to achieve through disinterment, from the sepulchre of by-gone centuries, of such fragments of hu- manity's infantine life as, preserved fortuitously down to our time, archaeology now collects for his examination ? " In the minds of many colleagues in Egyptology, whose philoso- phical results it becomes my province to lay before you ; if we will consent to figure to imagination's eye the aggregate histories of the earth's nations as if these were embodied pictorially into one man — that is, were we to personify humanity in general by one indivi- dual in particular, — the world's history, like the lifetime of a per- son, will classify itself naturally into something like the following order : presupposing always that we symbolize our idea of the pend- ing XlXth century, by the figure of a man in the prime of life, fast approaching the acme of physical, mental, and moral, perfection — say, with the old physicians, that we take him at his 'grand cli- macteric ' 433 of five times seven years, the thirty-fifth of his age. " Inquiring next of our symbolic man his individual history, we find that, without effort, his memory will tabulate backwards the events of his manhood, twelvemonth by twelvemonth, for fourteen years, to his traditionary twenty-first birthday ; when he attained legal rights among his fellows. He will equally well narrate the incidents of the preceding seven years, during which he had served apprenticeship, finished a collegiate education, or otherwise deve- loped, in this interval of adolescence, the faculties allotted to his share : but he will candidly acknowledge how little he then knew of the great world he was preparing for, and how completely sub- sequent initiation into the higher mysteries of manly life had altered the preconceptions of his noviciate. Seven years still farther back, from the fourteenth of his age, his recollections will carry him ; and 433 Floubens, Long evile (vide supra, note 162): — Lucas, Heredilc, I, pp. 254-84. 556 THE MONOGEKISTS AND " schoolboy-days are vividly stamped upon the leaflets of memory. "Youth, however, merges insensibly into childhood; but beyond his " seventh year even the child's remembrance fades away into infancy. " Here and there some circumstance, more or less important in his " awakening history, flashes like a meteor, or flits like an ignis fatuus, " across his mind. Of its positive occurrence he is morally sure ; of " its date in relation to his own age at the time, onwards perhaps " from his third birthday, he knows nothing ; except what he may " attain through inductive reasoning guided by the reports of others " — his own self-accredited reminiscence of the event being more fre- " quently than not, but the reflex of what may have been told him, "in after life, by witnesses or logopceists. 434 His cradle-hours ante- " date his own memory : their incidents he has gathered from domes- " tic traditions, or infers them by later observation of nursery-eco- " nomy with other babies. Ask him now — ' When were you born?' " Our man knows not. He accepts his first birthday upon faith, ' the "evidence of things unseen ;' 435 its epoch he receives upon hearsay. " The accounts he has heard of his infantile life, from nativity to his " second or third year, may be true enough ; but, to himself, they are " anything rather than certainties. " Now, ■ the life of nations is long, and their traditions are liable " to alteration ; but that which memory is to individual man, history "is to mankind in general.' 436 Viewing our Cosmic man, then, as " the symbol of the history of all humanity ; and sweeping our tele- " scopes over the world's monumental and documentary chronicles "extant at this day; at what age of humanity's life do the petro- " gtyp QS 0J? the oldest historical nation, the Egyptians, first present "themselves to the archaeologist? — that is, was the earliest known "civilization of the Nile's denizens, as now attested by the most " ancient stone-records at Memphis, infantile, puerile, adolescent, or "adult? At which of the five stages of seven years, mystically " assumed by the old philosophers to be preliminaries of their ' great "climacteric,' do we encounter the first Egyptian, at the Hid Mem- " phite dynasty, taken with Lepsius about the 35th century B. c, " or some 5300 years backward from our present hour ? " You will find, after examination of the plates 437 before you, which 434 Maury, LegendSs Pieuses du Moyen-Age, Paris, 8vo., 1843; pp. 239, 252-3, 261-77. 435 "A conviction of things unseen;" Paul, Epistle to the Hebrews, si. 1 :— Shaepe's New Testament, p. 406. 436 De Brotonne, Filiations et Migrations des Peuples. 431 Lepsius, Denhmaler a.us JEgypten, Abth. I, B. 1-40 ; or thereabouts, which, with other tableaux, were suspended in front of the audience. Cf., also, some deductions from their study, developed in the same lecture, in Types of Mankind, pp. 412-4: and add now endless confirmations resulting through Mariette's later discoveries (supra, p. 489-94). THE POLYGENISTS. 557 " are authentic copies of the oldest sculptures of man now known "upon earth, that neither infancy nor childhood is represented by " these most ancient of records, hardly even adolescence ; but that the " first Egyptian beheld on these archaic hieroglyphs, leaps at a bound " from out of the night of unnumbered generations antecedent to his "day, a full-grown, if a young, man — endowed with a civilization " already so advanced 5300 years ago, that it requires an eye most " experienced in Nilotic art to detect differences of style between " these primordial sculptures of the Hid, IVth, and Vth dynasties, " and those of the more florid Diospolitan, or Augustan, period of " the XVIIth and XVTHth dynasties, carved twenty centuries later, " and during Mosaic times in Egypt !" Such a practised eye is the gift of our erudite collaborator M. Pulszky ; and to his paper (ante, Chapter IE), I beg leave to refer the reader for accurate details ; closing, for myself, further definitions of chronology with the philosophical comment of A. "W. von Schlegel : m " Time has conveyed to us many kinds of chronology : it is the business of historical criticism to distinguish between them and to estimate their value. The astronomical chronology changes purely theoretic cycles into historical periods ; the mythical makes its way supported by obscure genealogical tables ; the hypothetic is an inven- tion of either ancient or modern chronographers ; and, lastly, the documentary rests upon the parallel uninterrupted demarcation of events, according to a settled reckoning of years. The last alone deserves to be called 'chronology' in the strictest sense; it begins, however, much later than is commonly supposed. Had this been duly consi- dered, we might have dispensed with many an air-built system." Egypt, oldest of historical lands, representing, therefore, but the " middle ages" of mankind's development upon earth, typified by our cosmic man, arrived at one-third of the "three-score and ten years," imagined by Hebrew writers to be the average of post-Mosaic 439 human longevity, it follows that, at the Hid dynasty, say 5300 years ago, the Egyptians at least, among, very likely, other oriental nations whose annals are lost, had long before passed through their periods of adolescence, childhood, and infancy. If we reflect that, since the fall of Grecian culture — itself built upon thousands of years of ex- perience acquired by preceding Eastern nationalities already, during the palmy day of Hellas, in their superannuation or decrepitude — it has required some 2000 years of knowledge accumulated upon knowledge, of inventions heaped upon discoveries, for our civiliza- 438 Darstellung der JEyyptischen Mylhologie * * * -and Chronologie (Prichard's) Vorrede, Bonn, 1837 ; pp. xliv-1. 439 Types of Mankind, pp. 706-12. 558 THE MONOGENISTS AND tion to reach the noon of this XlXth century ; what longer extent of time must, I ask, "be allowed for the Egyptians to have attained to that social development attested by the kingly pyramids, princely and aristocratic tombs of the IVth Memphite dynasty, 440 when, — unlike ourselves, who have improved the patrimony, by them, their contem- poraries, and successors, bequeathed to us — they seem to have begun life without precedents : and, consequently, having had to grope through their anterior stages of adolescence, childhood, and infancy, before reaching the manhood of their first monumental recognition by us, must have found each civilizing acquirement the more arduous, exactly in the ratio as, retroceding in antiquity, their national life approximated to its nursery. Yet the Egyptians dwelt upon purely alluvial land, bounded on either side by rocky deserts ; and the river itself betokens, at every period of its flow into the Mediterranean, the ever-tranquil operation of the same laws that constitute its organism at the present day. " Linked, through its perennial rise at the summer solstice, with the astronomical revolutions of the divine Orb of day at the acme of his ardent power, and most glorious effulgence, — marked, in the sky's cerulean blue, during the period of its increase, by the heliacal ascent of Sirius, — each monthly phenomenon of the deified river was consecrated by sempiternal correspondencies in the heavens ; at the same time that, to the mind of the devout Egyptian, Hapimoou, the numerous waters, "Father of the Gods in Senem," 441 appeared to be the most ancient of divinities, in his capapity of progenitor of the celestial Amun, himself " a great God, king of the Gods ;" who, through a mythical association with Nouf, was the " Father of the Fathers of the Gods, period of periods of years." In fact, as the benign inundations of the river necessarily preceded, in point of date, the formation of the alluvium, the Nile seemed, to the first human wanderers on its sedgy banks, to be the physical parent of all things good and beneficent. "Exalted, in the sacred papyrus Booh of the Bead, to the heavenly abodes of Elysian beatitude, the Celestial Nile was supposed to re- generate, by lustration, the souls of the departed Egyptians, and to fertilize, by irrigation, the gardens of happiness tilled by their im- mortal spirits, in Amenthi ; during the same time that, on earth, the Terrestrial Nile, by its depositions of alluvion created, while its waters inundated, a country so famed among Eastern Nations for its boundless fecundity, as to be compared (in Gen. xiii, 10,) to the 440 It is taken for granted that Lepsius's Denkmaler, the only compendium of documents coetaneous with these primitive times, is known, at least, to the doubting critic. *" Birch, Gallery of Antiquities, part II, pp. 25, 10, 2 ; and PI. XIII. THE POLYGENISTS. 559 " Garden of leKOuall, like the land of Mitzeaim:" — 44 that is, the two Muss'r-s, the two Egypts, upper and lower ; or else, Mitzrites, the Egyptians ; over which the androgynous Hapimoou crowned with the Lotus and Papyrus tiaras, in his duplex character of the Southern and the Northern Niles, annually spread out the prolific mould and the nourishing liquid, through which he was at once the Creator and the Nurse of Egypt. "Thus, renowned from immemorial ages as the gift of the Nile, Egypt issues from the womb of primordial time armed cap-a-pie, like Minerva, with a civilization already perfected at the very earliest epoch of her history, hieroglyphed on the monuments of the Illd and IVth dynasties, prior to the 35th century before the Christian era. But, the River itself, — origin, vital principle, and motive cause of that wondrous civilization, has flowed on unceasingly at the foot of the Pyramids ; its Sources a marvel, an enigma, an unfathomable mystery, to above one-hundred-and-sixty consecutive human genera- tions, which have 'lived, moved, and had a being' since the lime- stone cliffs of Memphis were first quarried into tombs." 443 Hence it is legitimately to be inferred, that those geological cata- clysms and volcanic dislocations which, in Europe, filled caverns and ossuaries with bones of extinct genera mingled with those of man, and rolled silex-implements of human industry into French diluvial drift (supra), occurred at an age anterior to the settled quiet- ness of Miotic economy ; because, a few decades of feet, caused by such convulsions, added to the historical level of Mediterranean waters, would have left abundant marks around the Memphite pyra- mids ; whereas, nothing of the kind is to be seen there, or elsewhere, throughout monumental Egypt. 444 It becomes, therefore, next to positive, as a corollary to the pre- ceding chain of facts, that man's presence, also (judging from the rudeness of his silex-arts) then in his childhood's phase, must, in Europe, antedate even human infancy on the Nile's alluvium. What vistas of antiquity ! Archaeology, having herein sufficiently blown away the historical fogs and scud that, in nautical phrase, obstructed his vision, now cheerfully resigns a clean spyglass into the hands of the palaeontologist. 442 Nash, "On the origin and derivation of the term Copt, and the name of Egypt;" Burke's Ethnological Journal, April, 1849; pp. 490-496: — Types of Mankind, pp. 493-5. 443 Gliddon, Handbook to the Nile, London, 8vo, Madden, 1849; pp. 34-5. 444 See Lepsius, Chronologie, I, p. 24 — how Herodotus and Plato say the Egyptians had never heard of the Hebrew flood. SCO THE MONOGEKISTS AND PART V. " Adam, ante mortem ejus, convocavit omnes filios suos, qui grant in numero XV milia virorum absque mulieribus." (Vita Ade ct Eve, Anon., A. D. 1460). «= According to the Hebrew and the Samaritan Texts, 446 Adam was only 130 years old at the birth of Seth, his third son ; according to the Septuagint Version, and to Josephus, his age was then 230.*" In either case, the precise year is fixed by Archbishop Usher at b. c. 3874. 448 "And the days of Adam after he had begotten Seth were 445 Philomneste, p. 37. 446 Rev. E. B. Elliott, A. M., Horce Apocalyptical, London, 8vo, 1846; IV, p. 254: — Hat- wood's Von Boiilen, Introduction to Genesis, II, pp. 97-9. 447 King James's version, Genesis, V, 3, 4, 5. 448 We have seen (supra, note 263) that Tubal-Cain is the God-Vulcan; and now in Seth it is easy to recognize, through Josephus (Antiq. Jud., I, 2, &c), and the dialectic mutation of S into T aspirated, the God TeT of the Egyptians, "author of letters" (Bunsen, Egypt's Place, I, pp. 393-5), otherwise Tautus, or Tholh; not to be any longer confounded, as he has been by some, with SET or Typhon. See the argument of Alfred Maury ("Personage de la Mort," Revue Archeologique, 15 Aout, 1847, pp. 325-6). It had been formerly indicated ( Types of Mankind, p. 562) that the mother of Seth, before she was named Eve (i. e. " KAiUaH, because she was the mother of all living," KAala; Gen. Ill, 20) had been called AiSAaH, ISE, or Isis, who was famed as " the universal mother." It has been likewise shown pre- viously (Types of Mankind, p. 544), why the patriarch Enos is only the "God of the vulgar." If etymologies are to be sanctioned in the explanation of primitive myths, the above four examples of Vulcan, Thoih, Isis, and Enos, now identified among the antediluvian progenitors of mankind, will be found more susceptible of historic and palasographical justification than the learned Mr. Osburn's unique discoveries (Monumental History of Egypt, London, 1854, I, pp. 239-40, 245, 339-44) of Adam, Noah, Ham, and Mizraim, in Egyptian hieroglyphics ! Not merely (p. 222) are " Scripture Patriarchs identified with Egyptian Deities," but, in his ingenious and pious book, the very " names of Goddesses recorded upon the monuments," are declared to be "those of the wives of the patriarchs;" although this excellent critic allows that " they are not preserved in the Bible." To the same class, engendered by a similar monomania for "confirmations," in defiance of reason and historical truth, belongs the alleged discovery of the name and exploits of Moses in contemporaneous hieratic scrolls (Rev. D. J. Heath, M. A., The Exodus Papyri, London, 1855), — as if the English translation itself, utterly foreign to ancient or modern Egyptian ideas, did not sufficiently betray an Englishman's imposition during the present century! As for the Rev. C. Fokster's last (A Harmony of Primceval Alphabets), wherein there is not a single hieroglyphic drawn with even childish correctness, nor a solitary pho- netic value exact, they fall (together with his Himyaritic, Sinaic, and Assyrian interpretations, &c.) into a simpler category, — that of downright imposture. The self-deceptions, or per- haps "canards," of M. Barrois (Dactylogie et Language Primitif reslitule d'apres les Monu- ments, Paris, 4to, 1850), have hoaxed even His Holiness the Pontiff (Lecture litterale des Hieroglyphes el des Cuneiformes, Paris, 4to, 1853 ; p. 36) : but being harmless pasquinades of a gentleman who pays liberally for the publication of his own books, as well as for any clever cheat (Pulszky's paper, supra, note 17, Chap. II) that "Chevaliers d'industrie" may foist upon his credulity, they really become sublime, viewed in comparison with some of the instances of fraud or hallucination above cited. THE POL YGENIST S. 561 eight hundred [LXX, 700] years ; and lie begat sons and daughters ; — and all the days that Adam lived were nine hundred and thirty years ; and he died :" leaving a rather large family, if we credit the biography, above cited, that his children numbered 15000 men besides the ivomen. From what sources his second biographer gathered these statistics does not appear, any more than whence the so-called Mosaic compiler obtained the other Adamic particulars recorded in Genesis. The earlier biography, assuming Archbishop Usher's dates to be in- contestable, must have been written (Deuter. XXXI, 9, 26,) about b. c. 1451; or some 1623 years after Adam's decease, — an event which, taking place 930 years after the Creation, ascertained to be b. c. 4004, occurred in b. c. 3074. The author of the " Life of Adam and Eve " lived, it is true, in a. d. 1460, or 4534 years after Adam's death ; but any one who believes that anecdotes of the protopatriarch's long life could have been preserved, for incorporation into the PentSteuch, during 1623 years, cannot reasonably deny extension of the same possibility (1451 + 1460) for 2911 years longer.™ "We need not be astonished either at the number of Adam and Eve's children during 800 years ; because, while, on the one hand, Cardinal Wiseman 450 and the Rev. J. Pye Smith 451 teach how physical causes were in more vehement operation before the " Flood" than after; on the other, the multiplication of the Jews in Egypt, during the 430, or 400, or 215, years of their sojourn, when post-diluvial physical causes were precisely the same as at present, is equally formidable, and possesses equal claims upon credence. Jacob and his family, in number 70, 453 or 75, persons, settle in the land of Goshen ; and their descendants issue forth "about 600,000 men on foot, without the children, and a mixed multitude" 453 — or GouM-AaRaB, Arab levy or horde. Commentators vary in their estimates of the number of souls, from 1,800,000 to 3,000,000; nor is the duration of the sojourn itself at all settled ; 454 but the latter point is unimportant to my present argument. So is also the disproportionate area in Eastern lower In making these assertions upon my own responsibility, there are two courses left open to the reader who cares about verification; 1st, to inquire of the hierologists in charge of the Paris, Berlin, London, or Turin Museums, whether they do not support these repudia- tions ; or 2d, to defray the printing expenses of a thorough analysis of each work by myself, although I think "le jeu ne vaut pas la chandelle." 449 I am merely following, with a little more minuteness, the orthodox example of Dr. H all ) Analytical Synopsis, London ed. of Pickering's Races, 1851, p. xxxv. 450 Connection between Science and Revealed Religion. 451 Relation between the Holy Scriptures and Geological Science, 3d. ed. , London, 12mo, 1843; pp. 185, 243, 301, 340. 452 Genesis, XLVI, 27: — Cahen, La Bible, trad. nouv. I, pp. 162-4, notes. 4 Anquetil du Perron, Zend-Avesta, Paris, 4to, 1771 ; I. Part 1, pp. 16, 20, 26; II. preface, p. 348 seq. : — compare, for significations of "Airan," St. Martin, Memoires hislo- riques sur V Arminie, Paris, 1818; I. pp. 271-8. 471 Ouselet, Travels, 3;c. in Persia, London, 4to, 1819; I. Preface, p. viii., and note 5 — "upon an average thirty different readings in every page." 566 THE MONOGENISTS AND sia." 472 Hence it becomes obvious tbat the Persian poet, like the Chaldasan chorographer of Xth Genesis, in all his ethnic personifica- tions, anthropomorphosized a country currently known as "Turan" into an ideal king Tiir. His translator observes that, ancient Scythia embraced the whole of Turan, which appellative was but an early synonym for Turkestan ; in this, coinciding with Dubeux. 473 The same legend, slightly varied, reaches us through Mirkavend, 474 who died about Hedjra 903=a. d. 1498, viz : that Tur received Turkestin as his patrimony from Feridoon, and then conspired with Seleem to murder their brother Tradj, king of Iran-Shehr : alluding doubtless, through an Oriental allegory of three men, to simultaneous attacks of Semitic and Scythic invaders upon the lion-standard of Persia. Being Persian designations, "Iran and Touran" must receive solution through Arian etymologies ; 475 and these are furnished in one paragraph by Bbrgmanh, 476 who as a favored pupil of Eugene Burnouf inspires every confidence. "Thus, in the same manner that the Hindoos, particularly at the sacerdotal point of view of the Brahmans, called their country by the name of Aryd (Honorable), or of Arydvartta (Honorable country), in opposition to the heretical countries named Turya (Persian Utt-dryd, 472 The Shah-Nameh of Firdausi, Transl. Atkinson, London, 1832; pp. 50, 161-2, and p. 519, note: — of. Rlapkoth " Histoire de l'Anoienne Perse, d'apres Firdoussi," in which the age of the 2d (Kai'anian) dynasty is taken at s. c. 803, and the 1st (Pishdadian) as com- mencing 3342 years previously ! Tableaux, pp. 3-4, 5-22. 473 Perse, Univ. Pittor., p. 225. 474 Mikkhond, History of the Early Kings of Persia, transl. Shea, London, 8vo, 1832, pp. 138-86. 475 1 incline to think, notwithstanding, that the enigma of the well-known andro-leontine and andro-taurine sphinxes of Persepolis, and possibly also those of earlier Assyria, can be, in part, explained through Iran and Touran, as understood in three languages, Arian, Se- mitic, and Scythic ; corresponding to the three forms of Achsemenian cuneatics, and to the triple medley of three types of man, Arabian, Persian, and Turkish, in the same countries at this day. Thus, in the first class of tongues, IR-an, as Zion-land "par excellence" (always the heraldic symbol of Persia, and blended into her monarch's names in the form of " sheer' n contrasts with TOUR-an, Bull-land ; which, on the one side, is found in A-TUR, Ashour, As- syria, — and on the other applies to the ancient zoological conditions of Mawaranuhar, &c. where wild cattle were enormously abundant, whence Tour became the figurative emblem of barbarous 7V7--kish races ? But, with an indication that, in Scythic tongues, IR means also man, a curious inquiry, that could be justified only through many pages of elucidation, is submitted to the consideration of fellow-students of archaeology. 476 Les Peuples Primitifs de la Race de Iaph&te : JBsquisse Ethnogenialogique et hisiorique ; Colmar, 8vo., 1853; p. 17: — Cf. Max Muilek's note in Bunsen, Three Linguistic Disserta- tions, 1848, p. 296. De Saulct, I find, read "Iran, de l'Iran" upon the inscriptions copied by the unfortu- nate Schulz, at Lake Van, 10 years ago (Secherches sur Vecriture Cuneiforme Assyrienne, Paris, 1848, p. 26): whilst a writer in the London Literary Gazette (1852, p. 610) said that he deciphered "Lordship of Irak and Iran" as well as "Lordship of Turan," on bricks in the British Museum. I have heard of no confirmation of the latter statement. THE POLYGENISTS. 567 Outside of Aria, or Tu-dryd, Separated from Aria), and that they termed themselves Aryds as opposed to Mletchas (Feebles, Barbarians, Heretics ; ep. Heb. Gfoyim, Peoples, Strangers, Arabic el-aadjim, "Wretches, Barbarous), so likewise the Persians \Pahlavas — Sanscrit paraeus, Gr. pelekus, hatchet ; Pahlavdn = hatchet-bearers] designated themselves Aries or Artaes (Gentiles, Herodot. VII. 61) : and, in imitation of the Zend names Airydo, and of Tu-irya or An-airyao- danghdvo (Country not-honorable), they also gave the name Ariana (Gr. Ariane), and later that of Iran, to all countries situate between the. Tigris and the Indus, and between the Oxus and the Indian Ocean, because they were inhabited by orthodox Arians, worship- pers of Ormuzd (Zend. Ahuro mazddo, Great genius of the sun) ; whereas the misbelieving lands to the north and east, which were held to be the abode of Ahriman (Zend. Agra-mainyus), were called Anirdn (rJon-Iran) or Turdn (Ultra-Iran)." The antiquity of the word Tour an being thus brought down to recent post-Christian times in all books wherein it occurs, — -its signi- fication being imbued with the theological xenolasia of Mazdseans and Brahmans, and naturally restricted in application to Scythic hordes immediately contiguous to Aria, or Ariana — modern ethno- logy has no more right to extend its area all over the world, than to classify the xanthous Gaul of Cassar's time with the melanie Tamou- lian of the present Dekhan, together with red-headed Highlanders and raven-locked Wakabees, under the other false term " Cauca- sian." Indeed, before agreeing with Prof. Max Miiller (whose autho- rity is unquestionably the highest for its use), in tolerating the cor- rupted myths of Sheeite Persia as historical ; or talk of the " de- scendants of Tur" as if such metaphorical personage had really been father of those "Turanian tribes" which — since spread broadcast over the earth through this hypothesis — are now said to speak only " Tu- ranian languages," I should feel warranted in accepting, as a legiti- mate basis for ethnic nomenclature, that exquisite travesty of a lost book of Diodorus ; wherein the Greek text makes it evident, " How Britain, son of Jupiter and Paint, peopled the island [of England] ; but some say that Briton was indigenous, and Paint (Aiog xai Xpw/jwu) his daughter: — how Briton received Roman as his guest," &c. ; m or else, in considering Hiawatha a true portraiture of the thoughts and feelings of an American savage, instead of seeing in it merely the romantic ideal of a great Anglo-Saxon poet. 1,7 Pkof. Henry Malden, "On pragmatized legends in History — Fragments from the Vlllth book of Diodorus, concerning Britain and her colonies" — Trans. Philol. Soc, Lon- don, Nov. 1854; pp. 217-28. For pious forgeries in quoting and rendering Diodorus's text, compare Miot's expose in Bibliolheque Hislorique, Paris, 1834; pp. 189-90, 429. 568 THE MONOGENISTS AND Touran possesses no historical sense but that of non-Persian (Ani- ranian) ethnologically : none but that of Turkestan geographically. It were as reasonable to divide Asiatic and European humanity into Semitic, British (for Avian), and non-British (for everybody else not compressible into such Procrustean bed), as to classify all these mul- tiform nations into Semitic, Arian (i. e. Persian) and Turanian ; when this last adjective suits, strictly speaking, no human group of families but the Turkish. Nevertheless, like Shakspeare's "word 'occupy,' which was an excellent good word before it was ill-sorted," m " Touranian" may still do some effective service in specifying, whenever their ethnic rela- tions become sufficiently cleared up, 479 the ancient inhabitants of countries now termed Turkestan : but, because " agglutination" happens to be their linguistic attribute, in common even with Hebrew (Semitic), and Sanscrit (Arian), and all human speech in its earlier formations: or because "in them the conjugation and the declension can still be taken to pieces," preserving all the while the radical syllable of the discourse, 480 — it does seem to me, that to classify, on such grounds alone, the transplanted and now prodi- giously-intermixed descendants of Hioung-nou, Sian-pi, San-miao or Miao-tse, Tata, Yue-tchi, Ting-lings, Geou-gen, Thiu-kiu, and other indigenous races (every one according to physiological descriptions distinct from the rest) known in ancient Asia to the Chinese, 4 " 1 under such a misnomer as "Turanian;" to forget that primitive and indefinable Scythia has vomited forth upon Europe men of absolutely different stocks and unfixed derivations — Huns, white and nearly black, Kliazars, Awars, Comans, Alains, &c. — or finally, to connect, through one omnific name, Samoyeds with Athapascans (if not also with Toltecs and Botocudos !), hybrid Osmanlees with pure A'inos, Madjars with Telingas, 482 — these are aberrations from common sense 478 Henry IV, 2d part, Act II, scene 4. * n For the real difficulties, slurred over by English ethnographers, see Klaproth and Desmoulins. 480 Incomparably well indicated by the Turkish verb "sev-mek;" Max-Muller, op. cit., pp. 111-4. 481 The most copious account of these nations, compiled from the best sources, is in Jardot, Revolutions des Peuples de I'Asie Moyenne, Paris, 2 vols. 8vo, 1839. The Arabs, let me here mention, did not reach Chinese vicinities, through navigation, before the 9th century (Maury, "Examen de la route que suivaient, au IX e siecle de notre ere, les Arabes et les Persans pour aller en Chine" — Bulletin de la Soc. de Geographie, Avril, 1846). 482 Physical amalgamation -with higher types, than any branch of the Turkish family was in the days of Alp Arslan, has transmuted his mongrel descendants residing around the Mediterranean, Archipelago, and Black Sea, to such an amazing extent that it is difficult to describe what a real Turk (and I have lived where thousands of all grades reside) should be. That the present Caucasianized Osmanlee is not the same animal now that his fore- fathers were only in the 12th century, is easily proved. Benjamin de Tudela — speaking THE POLYGENISTS. 569 into which Bunsen's endorsement of Prichard's " Touranian" has led an amazing number of worthy monogenists on this side of the water ; hut which Prof. Max-Muller himself never contemplated in adopting this unlucky term : for the very learned philologist ex- cludes the Chinese, 4113 and doubtless withholds other An-Arian types of mankind from his Turanian arrangement. It appears to be the unavoidable fate of every human science to pass through a phase of empiricism. Each one, at some time or other, is regarded as a sort of universal panacea competent to heal all controversial sores. Such, at this moment, throughout Anglo- Saxondom, is the popular opinion concerning "Philology:" last refuge for alarmed protestant monogenism, — at the very time that Continental scholarship has stepped into a higher sphere of linguistic philosophy, which already recognizes the total inadequacy of philo- logy (or other science) to solve the dilemma whether humanity originates in one human pair, or has emanated from a plurality of zoological centres. Philology, instead of being ethnology, is only one instrument, if even a most precious one, out of many other tools indispensable in ethnological researches. The powers of the science termed "la linguistique" are not infinite, even supposing that correct knowledge had as yet been obtained of even one-half the tongues spoken over the earth ; or that it were within the capacity of one man to become sufficiently acquainted with the grammatical characteristics of the remainder. We do not even possess a complete catalogue of the names of all tongues ! 4&4 Yet, "What studious man is there," inquires Le Clerc, "whose imagination has not been caught straying from conjecture to conjecture, from century to century, in search of the debris of a forgotten tongue ; of those relics of words that are but the fragments of the history of Nations ?" JS5 Eichhoff eloquently continues the idea — "The sciences of Philology and History ever march in concert, and the one lends its support to the other ; because the life of Nations manifests itself in their language, the faithful representative of their vicissitudes. Where national chronology stops short, where the thread of tradition is broken, the antique genealogy of words that have survived the reign of empires of Tartar flat-noses — narrates, "The king of Persia being enraged at the Turks, who have two holes in the midst of their face instead of a nose, for having plundered his kingdom, resolved to pursue them." (Basnage, Hist, of the Jews, p. 473). 483 Op. cil., pp. 86, 95-6. I refer to this admirable work in preference to " Phonology" in Bunsen's Outlines, because the latter has been disposed of by Renan (supra, note 16). 481 Adelung (Catalogue, St. Petersburg, 1820, p. 185) counted 3,064 languages: Balbi enumerated 860 languages and 5000 dialects. The greatest linguist on record, Cardinal Mezzofanti, was acquainted, it is said, with but 52. 185 Olia JEgyptiaca, p. 12. 570 THE MONOGEBISTS AND comes in to shed light upon the very cradle of humanity, and to consecrate the memory of generations long since engulphed in the quicksands of time." Thus much is certainly within the competency of "philology;" and we may concede to it also the faculty,, where the historic elements for comparison exist — as in the range of Indo-ger- manic, Semitic, and some few other well-studied groups of tongues — of ascertaining relationships of intercourse between widely-separate families of man ; but not always, as it is fashionable now to claim, and which I will presently show to be absurd, of a community of origin between two given races physiologically and geographically distinct. Again, no tongue is permanent. More than 150 years ago, Richard Bentley, perhaps the greatest critic of his age, 486 exemplified this axiom while unmasking the Greek forgeries of Alexandrian sophists. " Every living language, like the perspiring bodies of living creatures, is in perpetual motion and alteration ; some words go off, and become obsolete ; others are taken in, and by degrees grow into common use ; or the same word is inverted in a new sense and notion, which in tract of time makes as observable a change in the air and features of a language, as age makes in the lines and mien of a face. All are sensible of this in their own native tongues, where continual use makes a man a critic." But, at the same time that this is the law deduced from the historical evidences of written languages, its action is enormously accelerated among petty barbarous tribes, such as a few Asiatic, many African, several American, and still more frequently among the Malayan, and Oceanico-Australian races. Here, mere linguistic land-marks are as often completely effaced as re-established ; while the typical characteristics of the race endure, and therefore can alone serve as bases for ethnic classification. Yet we read every day in some shape or other : " The decision of the Academy (of St. Petersburg, 40 years ago) was, however, quite unreserved upon this point ; for it maintains its conviction, after a long research, that all languages are to be considered as dialects (of one) now lost." 487 This enunciation of an eminent Cardinal, although dating some 20 years back, is still quoted and re-quoted by thankful imbecility which, on any other point of doc- trine, would shudder at Romanist authority. And it excites Homeric smiles among those who happen to know the estimation in which Egyptologists now hold M. de Goulianoff's Archeologie egyptienne and Acrologie, to see his report to the Russian Academy used as a dog- matical finality to further linguistic advancement! In England he 486 Dissertations upon the Epistles of Pkalaris, Themislocles, Socrates, Euripides, and upon the Fables of JEsop (1699); Dyce's ed., London, 8vo, 1836; II, p. 1. 487 Wiseman, Connection, &c, 2d ed., 8vo, London, 1842 ; pp. 68-9. , THE POLTGENISTS. 571 has been succeeded by a school which discards the term "race" alto- gether ; because its Oracle, after an amazing number of contradict- ory propositions, has latterly stated 488 how "he believes that all the varieties of man are referable to a single species," as per catalogue, Luke Burke judiciously comments, of barbarian vocabularies. One recipe, for attaining expeditiously a conclusion so devoutly wished, is simple enough. It is the following: — 1st, to start with king James's version of Genesis, Chapter IV, verse 25 : — 2d, to jump over 4730 years that an Archbishop says have elapsed from that day to this, and take the population descended from "Adam and Eve" to be now exactly 1,216,670,000 : m — 3d, to invent a sort of frame-work (say "escritoire") containing precisely 9 pigeon-holes: — 4th, to label them Monosyllabic, Turanian, Caucasian (alias Dioscurian, said to be the same thing), Persian, Indian, Oceanic, American, African, and European : — 5th, disregarding such trifles as history, anatomy, or physiological distinctions, to squeeze all humanity, " as per vocabu- lary," into these 9 compartments: — 6th, to chant "te Deum" over the whole performance; — and lastly, 7th, to baptize as infidels those who disbelieve the "unity of the human species" to be proved by any such hocus-pocus, or arbitrary methods of establishing that of which Science, at the present day, owing to insufficiency of materials, humbly confesses herself to be ignorant ; whilst she indignantly re- pudiates, as impertinent and mendacious, the suppression of all facts that are too three-cornered to be jammed into the 9 pigeon-holes afore- said. Such, in sober sadness, is the effect produced upon the minds of unbiassed anthropologists, by this unscientific system. They can- not, for the life of them, as concerns real ethnology, where the theo- loger sees in each of these 9 pigeon-holes a wondrous " confirmation," perceive in the whole arrangement anything more than a reflex of the mind of their ingenious inventor. What true philological science has achieved, in the 6th year after the middle of our XlXth century, may be studied in M. Alfred Maury's Chapter I of this volume. Its results do not appear to favor monogenistic theories of human lan- guage. It is with the express object of avoiding this, or any other unnatural system, that my "Ethnographic Tableau" has been prepared. Typo- graphical exigencies compel an appearance, I must allow, of arbitrary classification : but no definitive bar to progress is intended by its arrangement; and I shall be proud to follow any better that impartial inquiries into Nature's laws may in the future elicit. Such as this 488 London Athenaeum, June 17, 1854. 489 Ravenstein, Descriptive Notes, and Ethnographical Map of the World, London, 185-4 ; pp. 2-4. 572 THE MONOGENISTS AND "Tableau" may be, it is the result of years of labor and comparison ; and the ingenuous critic, in view of the mechanical difficulties of its execution, together with those of condensing so many different sub- jects into limited spaces, may peradventure look upon it favorably, under these circumstances. We resume. It seems reconcilable with the theory, — now univer- sally accepted by naturalists as demonstrated through botany, herpe- tology, entomology, zoology, &c, of the original distribution of animate creatures in centres, zones, or provinces of Creation — that each one of the various primitive forms of human speech arose within that geographical centre where the particular group of men inheriting its time-developed, or now-corrupted dialects, was created. One can furthermore perceive that the law of gradation — in physical characteris- tics from one group of mankind to another, when restored to their ear- liest historical sites — to some extent holds good upon surveying their languages: that is to say, abstraction made of known migrations and intermixtures among races, each grand type of humanity with its typical idioms of speech, can be carried back, more or less approxi- mately, to the cradle of its traditionary origin. Thus, for instance, when, in America, we behold an Israelite, it requires no effort of imagination to trace his ethnic pedigree backwards across the At- lantic to Europe, and thence to Palestine ; whence history, combined with the analogies of his race-character, and formerly special tongue, accompanies him to Arpha-kasd, Chaldfean Orfa, 490 in the neighbor- hood of which lay the birth-place of the Abrahamidse. Beyond that ultimatum, positive science hazards no opinion. The theologer alone knows how or why Abraham's ancestry got among those hills instead of beginning amid the Himalayan, Cordilleran, Pyrenean, or other mountain ranges. In this connection, however differing from many uncritical sur- mises of their learned author, I must do Chesney the justice to say, that his inquiries into the geographical site of the fabled " garden of delight," — Eden of the Chaldees, Hadenlche of Zoroaster, and Paradise of the Persians — have cleared up, beyond any other writer, the diffi- culties of identifying what, in king James's version, 491 is a river which, after " it was parted, (and) became into four heads." The eminent chief of the "Euphrates Expedition" possessed, more than any preceding traveller over the same localities, the scientific requirements for their study ; and his careful observations have re- stored to rational geography, — not indeed a mythos, which even 490 Types of Mankind, pp. 636-7; and " Genealogical Tableau of Xth Genesis." < 91 Genesis, II, 10; — compare Renan, Op. tit., pp. 449-56. THE POLYGENISTS. 573 Origen 492 considered it "idiotic" to take in other than an allegorical sense, but a tract of country satisfying all the topographical exigenda of the brief poetic legend. " At the head of the fertile valleys of the Halys, Aras, Tigris, and Euphrates," as Chesney demonstrates through a beautiful map, 493 " we find, as might be expected, the highest moun- tains which were known for a great many centuries after the Flood ; and in this lofty region are the sources of the four great streams above mentioned, which flow through Eden in directions tending towards the four cardinal points." Hence all mystery vanishes through the identification of a lovely province in Armenia, whence the adjacent sources of four rivers stream forth — viz.: the Halys (Phison) northwards to the Black Sea ; the Araxes (Gihon) eastwards to the Caspian ; the Tigris (Hiddehel, as our translators foolishly spell Ha-DiKLe, the-Digle ; ed-Didjle, of the present Mesopotamiaus) flow- ing southwards, and the Euphrates (Phrat) westwards, until, bending towards each other, these two rivers unite and fall into the Persian Gulf through the Shut-el-arab. Being almost the only people whose geographical origin can now be determined within a few leagues of space, it may be well to strengthen this assertion from other quarters; after remarking that the starting-place of the Abrahamidse (or high-landers), before they became Hebrews ( Yonderers, subsequently to journeying westward beyond the Euphrates), falls naturally within the zoological province allotted by Agassiz 494 to the Syro-Iranian fauna of the European realm. Mackay 495 has thrown together some of the best German authorities on the "mythical geography of Paradise," which substantiate these and my former remarks on Arpha-kasd. "Among the places locally distinguished by the name of Eden was a hill district of northern Assyria or Media, called Eden in Thelasar (2 Kings xix, 12; JEzek. xxvii, 23 — Gesen. Lex. p. 60, 1117 ; Winer, B. W. B., I, 380 ; H, 704). This Thelasar or Ellasar (Gen. xiv) is conterminous with Ptolemy's 'Arrapachitis (meaning either 'Chaklfean fortress,' Ewald, Geschiehte, I, 333 ; or, 'Aryapaks- chata,' bordering upon Arya or Iran, Von Bohlen, Genesis, 137), and with the plain of the ancient city Rages or Ragau (Judith, I, 6, 15), where the Assyrian monarch overcame the Median king Arphaxad. Rai, in several Asiatic tongues, was a name for Paradise (Von Bohlen, 492 Peri-Archon, lib. IV, c. 2 ; Huet, Origeniana, p. 167. 493 The Expedition for the survey of the Rivers Euphrates and Tigris (1835-7) ; London, 1850, I, pp. 266-80 : II, 1-60 ; and " Map of the countries situate between the rivers Nile and fndus." 49i "Provinces of the Animal World" — Types of Mankind, pp. Ixvii-iii, Ixxviii, and map; also, pp. 112-15, 116-17. »s Progress of the Intellect, London, 8vo, 1850; 1, pp. 39-44. 574 THE MONOGENISTS AND Genesis, 27), and both Eai and Arphaxad, or ArrapacMtis, occur in the personal genealogy of Heber (Reu is Ragan in the Septuagint). It has been ingeniously surmised tbat the genealogy from Shem to Abrabam is in part significant of geographical localities, or successive stations occupied by the Hebrews in the progress of migration from Borne point in the north-east of Asia, from which tradition extended in a divergent circle as from the mythical Eerieya of the Zend-avesta (Ewald, Geschichte Israel, 316, 333, 336). In Hebrew tradition, as in that of the Indians and Persians, this region was immemorially sacred." ~No scholar at all acquainted with the biblical exegesis pretends any longer to recognize, in the misspelled name Arphaxad (copied by the English translators from the Greek version^, an indi- vidual personage, but merely a geographical name ARP7ja-KaSD. Tbus Bunsen: 496 "Arpakhskad (the men of Arrapakhitis), after having gone in the person of Eber into Mesopotamia, pass in the person of Abraham into Palestine (Canaan). * * * ISTow, as to Arpakshad or Arrapakhitis, we know from Ptolemy that their country was situated between Armenia and Assyria, on the southern slopes of the Gordy- sean mountains, overhanging Assyria. This, therefore, we may con- sider as one starting-point. * * * Why should such a geographical origin not be expressed geographically, and why should it be mis- interpreted ?" But, although it may be still impossible to fix the earliest cradles of other races with the same precision, and within an equally-small area, as the Jewish, history enables us to eliminate a great many others from consideration when we treat of the zoological province they have latterly occupied as aliens through transplantation. Thus, for example, every German in America is immediately restored to northern Europe ; every negro to Africa ; and if a Chinese, a Malay, or other type of man, be encountered anywhere outside of the geo- graphical boundary of his race, he is instantly placed back in it by educated reason. Hence, through this natural, almost instinctive process, in which history, philology and physiology, must co-operate, each type of mankind can be restored to its original centre, if not perhaps strictly of creation, at least to that of its earliest historical occupancy ; beyond which point human knowledge stands at fault : but none of these sciences, by any possibility, carries back a negro to the Caucasus, traces a Kelt to the Andes, refers a Jew to the Altai, transfers a Pawnee to the Alps, a Yukagir to the mountains of the Moon, or an Australian to Mount Ararat, as the respective birth- 496 Christianity and Mankind, their beginning and prospects, London, 8vo, 1854: III, p. 179, 180, 191. Cf. also Gesenii Thesaurus, Lipsise, 18^9; I, p. 153; voce tpx- THE POLTGENISTS. 575 places of these persons. Thauraaturgy alone claims to perform such miracles ; ethnology ignores them altogether. "When each type of man is thus replaced in the natural province of his origin, we can, by taking a map of the earth, indicate in colors several centres, within and around each of which the group of humanity traced to it seems — the theological point of view being, in this discussion, left aside as obsolete — aboriginally to have clustered. Their number I do not pretend to guess at ; there may be 3, 5, 7, or 8, though less, I think, than a dozen primitive centres ; but, under such aspects, which limited space now precludes my justifying by argument or examples, it will probably be found (by those who for their own instruction may choose to test the problem as patiently as curiosity has led me to do for mine), that history, comparative physi- ology and philology, will harmonize completely with the zoological theory of several centres, and prove Prof. Agassiz's view to be irre- fragable, viz : that mankind and certain mammalia were originally subject to the same laws of distribution. To apply this doctrine to languages : A given number of such natural provinces being experimentally determined through induc- tion, and then marked off by colored spots, each representing a typical group of homogeneous languages, upon a Mercator's chart ; 497 if each one of these groups be taken separately as a point of departure in the eccentrical radiations of its own master-tongue, it will then be recognized, with the ingenious traveller Waldeek, 498 that languages may be compared to circles ; the primitive, or aboriginal, speech forming in each the centre. The farther such tongue advances towards the circumference, the more it loses in originality ; the tangent, that is to say, the point at which it encounters another language (radiating likewise from its own circle) is the place where it begins to undergo alterations, and commences the formation of a mixed idiom. By and by, a third language, also in process of spiral giration outwards upon its own axis, intersects either one of the two preceding or the point of union betwixt both. Under such circumstances, it will be seen (and might be represented on the Map in shades of color) that the " copia verborum" always, and the grammatical construction frequently, of 49 ' Among attempts made at an "Ethnographical Map of the World," according to reli- gious belief, occupations, &c, I would particularly commend Ravenstein's large sheet (Reynolds, Strand, London) ; but all these represent the distribution of mankind at the present day ; whereas my conception refers to that of different human types at the earliest historical point of view (parallel with Egyptian pyramids 5000 years ago). Such a map has not been published yet; owing chiefly, I think, to a prevalent dogma, that, inasmuch as all humanity commenced upon Mount Ararat, any other system would be too profane for remunerative sales. 498 Voyage Pillor. el Archeol. in Yucatan, Paris, folio, 1837 ; p. 24. 576 THE MONOGENISTS AND three distinct languages, thereby become more or less interblended. Again, in course of time, some elements of a fourth, a fifth, or even of more, languages, originating in other centres, may be infiltrated into, or superimposed upon, this tripartite basis at certain points. Now, to analyze the component parts of this mass, and to carry back each organically-diverse tongue to its pristine centre, is the true office of antiquarian philology ; and herein consists the most glorious applica- tion of this science, regarded as the handmaiden, not the mistress, of "Ethnology," which term ought to represent the judicious union of all sciences bearing upon the study of Man. By way of exemplifying that such fusions have really taken place among languages, I would instance the Constantinopolitan Turkish, or present Osmanlee dialect- Originally Altaic in geographical deri- vation, the Turkish type, barred by the Himalayan range from much influence over Hindostan, and (save in the desperate alternative of flight or extermination undergone by what remains of Turkish among the hybrid Yakuts) shrinking from that Siberian cold which consti- tutes the mundane happiness of the Arctic-men (Samoyeds, Tchut- chis, Eskimaux, &c), radiated towards China on the east and Media on the west. Driven away from the flowery empire after prolonged onslaughts, the Turkish hordes — bringing with them, as their only trophies, a few Chinese words in their vocabulary, and some Chinese women in their harems — struggled for many ages in efforts to cross the Arian, or Persian, barrier, which arrested their march towards Europe. At such epochs was it that, in Persic history, the Turks were first called Aniranians, and latterly Turanians ; during all these periods of encampment, never failing to add Mongolian, Seythic, and Arian, females to the Chinese that already garnished their tented seraglios. They absorbed abundant Persian vocables into their speech in the interim ; and, through amalgamation with higher types (essentially Caucasian), their homely features began to acquire Eu- ropean proportion. Finally, as Osmanlees, we find them making Istambool their terrestrial paradise — the fairest of Arabia's, Cireas- sia's, and Hellas's daughters becoming their "spolia opima" for four centuries ; thereby polishing the Turkish form to such degree, that even the Bostanjees (gardeners), and Cayikjees (boatmen), of modern Byzantium now frequently rival Alcibiades in personal beauty. By way, however, of polygamic re-vindication, the politics of 1854-6 guarantee, at least for the next generation, further improvements at Galata and Scutari ; only, this time, the manly cohorts of Britain, France, and Sardinia, by reversing the gender, have secured Ottoman melioration through the female line ; and sculpture looks forward hopefully to a liberal supply from Turkey of torsi for Apollos. THE POLTGENISTS. 577 "Pari passu " with Turkish improvements in the physique, owing to amalgamation with higher races, has run the history of their lan- guage. Of yore in Asia as barbarous and limited in vocabulary as an Eskimo's, the Osmanlee speech has become in euphony most beautiful ; and through its inherent capacity of expansion, aided by absorption of foreign roots, unbounded; because upon a given mono- syllable, stolen no matter whence, the Turkish verb can agglutinate just what sense it pleases. Thus, supposing that recent contact with English hospitals should have impressed upon the Ottoman ear the syllable "sick," as relic of the valetudinarian's phrase "I am sick," the Turk can immediately, through the form sick-mek, by adding ish, obtain a reciprocal verb sick-ish-mek, "to be sick with one another;" or extend it even to siek-ish-dir-il-mek, " to be brought to be sick with one another;" and so oil through thirty-six forms of conjuga- tion; 499 in which the alien monosyllable "sick" will henceforward continue to play as great a part, while Turks endure, as if it had been native Turanian. The Ottomans, therefore, exhibit in their present speech all the historical radiations from their Altaic centre. At first exclusively Turanian, their language contracted some Sinie peculiarities ; and then so many Arian (Persian) vocables and inflexions, — followed, after their conversion to Islamism, by such an abundance of Semitic (Arabic) roots — that the more a polite speaker introduces Persian and Arabic into his discourse, the higher is an Osmanlee diplomatist's estimation of such person's culture. 500 The modern Persian language presents a similar superposition of Turanian and Semitic forms upon an Arian tongue. This principle of primitive centres of speech has been victoriously proved for Semitic languages by Eenan, and for Malayan by Craw- furd ; and it is even exemplified in our bastard English tongue, although its chief absorptions are Indo-Germanic, except in foreign substantives imported by commercial intercourse from other centres all over the world; as may be seen in De Vere's 501 capital book. Another method, not altogether new and somewhat defective in technical illustration, has just been proposed by Dr. David F. Wein- land (before the American Association for the advancement of Sci- 499 Max Mullek, op. cit.. pp. 111-4; and Holdermann's Grammaire Turque, Constanti- nople, 1730, pp. 25-8. 500 Recollection of Baron de Tott's work, read when I began a slight study of Turkish at Cairo, 1832-4, su B f;ests reference to some very happy illustrations of this mixture of three tongues given by Vim ; but I no longer possess, nor know where to find, his book for citation. 501 Outlines of Compar Hive Philology, New York, 1853. 37 578 THE MONOGENISTS AND ence, 502 " on the names of Animals with reference to Ethnology"), for tracking back the name of a given animal to its primitive zoological province, and hence deducing the nation that first occupied such centre. There is not the slightest doubt of its logical correctness, and I lament that space is now lacking to corroborate it by other exam- ples ; but my brief philological digression, save on one point, must be closed ; and with the less regret because our able collaborator, M. Alfred Maury, has covered the philological ground of ethnology in Chapter I. of this volume. The facts most obnoxious to the modern evangelical hypothesis of the unity of all languages, and which philological monogenism, with conspiring unanimity, either slurs over, or suppresses, lie in those numerous cases where the type of man, now found speaking a given language, bears no relation physically, or through its geographical origin, to the speech which, derived from a totally-distinct centre, it employed as its vernacular. Thus, as a ready instance, negroes transported to America from Africa (their own African idioms being wholly lost within two generations) have spoken Dutch in New York State, German in Pennsylvania, Swedish in Delaware, Euglish from Maine to Louisiana; where, in a single city, New Orleans, they still converse in French, Spanish, or English, according to the domestic language of their proprietors. Continuing through the Antilles, among which, on different islands, French, Danish, Span- ish, English dialects, and even Irish with the brogue,^ 3 are tortured by negro voices in the absence of any colloquial African tongue, we find them speaking Caribsean dialects along the Mosquito shores, Portuguese in Brazilian cities, and the lingoa geral, m or current Indian idioms of the country, throughout South America. In parallel manner, all along Barbary, Egypt, and Syria, imported negroes talk only in Arabic; while in Asia Minor, and in the Morea, I have met with many wholly ignorant of any language but Turkish in the former case, and Greek in the latter. Here, then, are familiar instances where human faunas of the African realm would, by the mere philologer reasoning upon a few vocabularies, be assigned to the Indogermanic, the Semitic, or the Turanian groups of known Asiatic origin! Against such "petitiones principii," Desmoulins 502 Reported in New York Herald, Aug. 26th, 1856; and perhaps as regards foreign pro- per names incorrectly. 503 Types of Mankind, p. 723. 604 Aug. de St. Hilaire, Voyages dans les provinces de Rio de Janeiro el de Minas Geraes, Paris, 8vo, 1830; I, pp. 424-6; II, 49-57: — Rdoendas, Voy. Pittor. dans le Bresil, Paris, 1833 ; II, pp. 3, 27-34. THE POLTGENISTS. -579 was the first to raise his voice; 505 followed by Morton, 506 D'Avezac, 607 Pickering, 508 and others ; but inasmuch as some ethnographers do not appear to have laid sufficient stress on the multitude of these contradictions inherent in the mere philological school, I will enu- merate a few of the more striking instances, beginning with the oldest historical nation, that of Egypt. The Fellah of the present day has recovered the type of his primitive ancestry {vide supra, pi. I and II, and p. 109) ; yet his language has become Arabic instead of the ancient Hamitic, which, in the ratio of its antiquity, frees itself from Shemite influence. 509 The Jews, spread over the world, their primitive Aramasen tongue and its successor the Hebrew being colloquially forgotten, adopt as their own the language of every race among whom they happen to sojourn ; yet, owing to intermarriage exclusively among their own race, their true type has been preserved independently of such transplantations — I allude to that of more or less sallow complexion, black hair and eyes, aquiline nose, and high but receding forehead. Nevertheless, it would be an illusion to suppose that, even since the cessation of intermixture with Canaanites, Persians, and Greeks, down to their expulsion from Palestine after the fall of Jerusalem, the Israelites have been able to avoid mingling their blood with that of other races, to the extent which rabbinical superstition may claim or that Christians habitually concede. This is accounted for in the vicissitudes of their history during our middle ages ; and is mainly owing to the proselyting furor of the Inquisition. On the one hand, forced conversions, in Spain and Portugal especially, often compelled Hebrews to dissimulate their repugnance to Gentile unions, as well as to disguise their secret adherence to Judaism ; and this, sometimes, with such consummate skill that, in 1665, the Christian Patriarch of Jerusalem was discovered to have been a Jew all his life ! 510 On the other, polygamy was ever free to the Israel- ite, 511 until abandoned throughout Europe in submission to Catholic laws. The historical instances are so numerous of modern Jewish alliances with Gentiles, that it would require many pages to illus- 505 Races Humaines, pp. 366-50. M6 "Inedited MSS.," Types of Mankind, pp. 311, 322-3: — Ghddon, Olia JEgyptiaca, pp. 78-9. s°» Bulletin de la Soc. de Oeographie, XIV, 1840; p. 228. «e Races, pp. 277-8. H» Birch, Crystal Palace Hand-book, 1856; pp. 249-52. 5W Basnaoe, Hisl. and Relig. of the Jews, fol. London, 1708 ; p. 705. To Basnage, who may justly be termed the continuer of Josephus, I must refer the reader for proofs of all my assertions. mi Op. cil., pp. 469-70. 580 THE MONOGENISTS AND trate them fully ; but their result is, that the votaries of Judaism may be divided into two broadly-marked and distinct types, viz : the one above mentioned, and another distinguished by lank and tall frame, «lear blue eye, very white and freckled skin, and yellow- reddish hair. Not merely in Barbary, Arabia, Bokhara, Hindostan and China, have numberless converts to Judaism mingled their blood with the pure Abrahamic stock ; but, at several periods of temporary pros- perity, and in various parts of Europe also, during the middle ages, Indo-germanic and Sclavonian families, adopting Mosaic institutes, freely intermixed with Israelites ; and hence, through amalgamation, arise all noticeable divergencies from the well-known standard type. Poland seems to be the focus of this fusion of Jews with the German and Sarmatian races ; 512 but some descendants of these multifarious unions, exiled from Spain, form at this day large classes in Algeria ; and, whilst they are rare in Egypt and Syria, I can attest their fre- quency at Rhodes, Smyrna, and Constantinople. But, as a special instance of the false deductions that would be drawn from them (were philology not to be controlled by physiological criteria combined with history), while at Rhodes and Smyrna the outdoor language of these Israelites is Greek, and at Constantinople Turkish, — their domestic speech is Spanish, and their literature in the same tongue printed with Hebrew letters ! The rationale is, they descend from the Jews driven out of Spain during the XVIth century, where they must have absorbed a goodly poi'tion of Gothic, or perhaps Vandal, blood prior to their exode. Indeed, upon surveying the infinitude of diverse languages, habits, dresses, and contradictory institutions, contracted by the Jewish type in every country of the earth, and the consequent clashings of each national synagogue upon points of reli- gious doctrine among Khahhamim educated in different countries, should wealth ever enable Europeanized Jews to re-purchase Jerusa- lem, and to collect their brethren there from all regions of the earth, I much fear the result would be but a repetition of the " confusion "of Babel." Apart from identity of physical conformation, subject to the exceptions above noticed, there could be but one test (and that latterly made doubtful) 513 through which such incongruous elements could fraternize; and like a Council at Ephesus, this Sanhedrim 612 Bokt de St. Vincent, Anthropologic de VAfrique Fran$aise, 1845, pp. 12, 15, 17-8: — Rozet, Voyage dans la Regence d' Alger, Paris 4to, 1833; II, pp. 210-35. The learned author of Genesis of the Earth and of Man (1856, pp. 69, 123) supposes that the frequency of these fair-skinned yellow-haired Jews in the East " has not been mentioned by any writer." Here are two witnesses in the meanwhile. 513 Beetherand (Medecine el Hygiene des Arabes, Paris, 1855; p. 313, note), on changes in Circumcision. THE POLYGENISTS. 581 would soon dissolve in uproar, affording to Gentiles a spectacle similar to, and edifying as, that of the Conventicle of Dordrecht : " Dordrachi Synodus nodus. Chorus integer seger. Conventus ventus, Sessio stramen, Amen." Very singular is it, nevertheless, that the people whose xenolasia, or hatred to foreigners, has been so instinctive since their post-Baby- lonian history, should have become in language the most cosmopo- litan. Thus Josephus says, that they who learned many tongues were not esteemed in Judea ; and Origen testifies that, in his time, the Jews did not trouble themselves about Grecians or their tenets. In the Mishna, Jewish children are forbidden to acquire Greek. 614 " The postille, annexed to the text of the Misnah, contains a maledic- tion, pronounced against him who keeps a hog, or teaches his son G-reeh; as if it was equally impure to feed an unclean beast, and to give men a good education :" but exile forced the Rabbis to relax such inhibitions, during the 11th century, after R. Solomon of Bar- celona; and now it would be difficult to define Israelitish character- istics more aptly than by " Judaismus polyglottus," did not the ori- ginal Abrahamic type, — owing to a recognized law in breeding, that the many, effacing by degrees the few, invariably return to their normal physique — vindicate its right to be called the purest, cceteris paribus, of all nations upon earth. Again, among Shemitish examples, there are multitudes of pure- blooded Arabs in Affghanistan and Bokhara, few of whom except their Moolahs preserve their Arabian dialect ; ™ but have adopted the alien idioms of the country, whilst preserving their Arabic phy- sique during about 1000 years. In Asia, these metamorphoses of tongue coupled with preservation of type are innumerable. There are white Kalmuks (Telenggout) in Siberia, whose physiognomy is wholly Mongol : but speaking Turkish, they are evidently a Mongo- lian family which, losing its own tongue, has adopted a Turkish dia- lect. 516 If one were to attempt a specification of the hybrid grada- 611 Basnage, pp. 405, 608-9. A very singular question, bearing upon cranioscopy, is asked in the old Talmud (Sckabbas), viz.: "Quare sunt capita Babyloniorum rotunda [MeGeLGiLOTV] ?" — Joh. Buxtorfi p., Lexicon Chaldaicum Talm. H Rabbin., 1629, p. 1435. The fact, is (supra, Chap. II, figs. 39, 40), they are round. 615 Khanikoff, Bokhara, its Amir and People, transl. De Bode, London, 8vo., 1845; pp. 67-80: — Malcolm, History of Persia, London, 4to., 1815; p. 277: — Morier, Second Jour- ney through Persia, London, 4to., 1818; i. pp. 47-8. On the absurdity of Jews being the ancestors of the Tadjiks of Bokhara, or the Pushtaneh of Cabul, read Kennedy, Question of the supposed Lost Tribes of Israel, London, 8vo, 1855, p. 51. 516 Klaproth, Magazin Asiatique, No. I. : — See all kinds of similar transpositions between race and tongue in Desmoulins, passim. 582 THE MONOGENISTS AND tions in blood and languages that exist around the circumferences of Arctic, Ouralian, Altaic, Thibetan, Daourian, and other stocks, wherein one race has exchanged its language, whilst more or less perpetuating its own race-character, a volume of citations would barely cover the contradictory instances ; but the exactitude of a competent authority's, 517 Count John Potocki's, experience would be thoroughly confirmed: — "but I also encounter [at Astrakan] new difficulties. I behold men with flat faces, who seem to belong to the same people; but these men speak different languages. On the other hand, men with dissimilar features express themselves in the same idiom ; and all pretend to be the veritable Tatars of Tchinghiz- khan !" The same phenomena, upon contrasting ancient and modern times especially, meet the eye everywhere in Europe. "For example," says Potocki, 518 whilst laying down an admirable series of rules for unravelling these complex meshes wherein the tongue con- tradicts the race, or vice versa, "the Tatars of Lithuania have pre- served their little eyes and their religion ; but they have lost their language, and no longer speak anything but Polish : at the same time that Latham, 519 in whose excellent compilation other instances occur, establishes that — "a. There is a considerable amount of Dgrian blood amongst certain populations whose speech is Sclavonic. b. There is a considerable amount of Sclavonic blood among certain populations whose speech is German." Haartman 520 has shown that the Carelians, hitherto classed as Finns, belonged to a totally dis- tinct family, whose lost language " has been superseded by the Fin- nic:" ISTiebuhr 521 proves that the Epirots "changed their language, without conquest or colonization, into Greek:" Maury indicates the diversities of races and tongues now becoming absorbed into French, whilst still preserving distinctive marks of separate race-charac- ters: 522 Keith Johnston's exquisite "Ethnographic Map of Great Bri- tain and Ireland," with its letter-press, 523 exhibits how pre-Xeltic, Celtic, and Teutonic differences of blood and languages are gradu- ally merging themselves into a common vernacular, the English; although the original distinctions of race still survive countless inter- 617 Voyage dans les Steps de I'Astraian et du Caucase. Eistoire Primitif des Peuples qui ont habile anciennement ces Contre'es: Nouveau Periple du Pont Euxin — with notes by Klaproth ; Paris, 8vo., 1829; ii. p. 52: — See Reckbekg (Les Peuples de la Russie, Paris, fol. ; Discoura preliminaire, pp. 3, 6-13) for the various families occupying the Russian Empire = ninety- nine nations. sis Op. til., i. p. 12. 519 Native Races of the Russian Empire, London, I2mo., 1854; p. 23. 5M> Transactions of the R. Soc. of Stockholm, 1847. 1 5=1 History of Rome, i. p. 37. j " Morton s medited MSS -" 622 Ethnologic Ancie'nne de la France, Paris, 18mo., 1853, pp. 22-32. 523 Physical Atlas, fol. 1855, PI. 33. THE POLTGENISTS. 583 marriages : and Pickering, 524 struck with linguistic anomalies beheld in the eleven races discerned by him in his voyage round the world, at tbe same time that he furnishes other illustrations, judiciously ob- serves — "Although languages indicate national affiliation, their actual distribution is, to a certain extent, independent of physical race. Confusion has sometimes arisen, from not giving due atten- tion to this circumstance ; and indeed, the extension, or the impart- ing of languages, is a subject which has received very little attention. Writers sometimes reason as if nations went about in masses, the strong overcoming the weak, and imposing at once their customs, religion, and languages on the vanquished;" when the contrary has been more frequently exemplified : and he shows that in the cases of Africans transplanted involuntarily to the United States, Hayti, and St. Vincent, " we have three examples, where one physical race of men has succeeded to the languages and institutions of another." In general, the fusion between languages originating from different centres, is parallel with amalgamations between races of distinct stocks brought together from widely separated countries. Among familiar examples, wherein English thus struggles for mastery (apart from Malta against Italian- Arabic, and in the Ionian Islands against Venitianized Greek), may be mentioned Pitcairn's Islanders (by this time probably moved on to Van Diemen's Land), whither the "Bounty's" mutineers, carrying off Polynesian females, formed a race of half-castes : the small, if prolific, family at Tristan d'Acunha, compounded between nigritian women from St. Helena and British marines; — and the amalgamizing tendency of colonists at New Zealand, 525 which introduces a third element of hybridity amid a people that, at the time of their earliest relations with Europeans, were already (strange to say) composed of two different stocks ; the one fair, and unquestionably Polynesian ; the other black, either Harfoorian or Papuan ; whose union had produced various shades of mulattoes, — to the astonishment of Crozet, 526 when he saw "trois especes d'hommes, des blancs, des noirs, et des basanes ou jaunes," at Cook's Port of Islands. Some day, perhaps, a philologer, who disregards history and race-character, will establish perfect unity among Pitcairn, Tristan d'Acunha, and New Zealand, humanity, on the ground of their natives speaking English ! Thus, one might travel onward, by the aid of literary sources, from » M United Slates Explor. Exped., 1848, fol., IX, pp. 277-9. 625 Angas, New Zealand illustrated, London, fol., 1846. 5K Nouvtau Voyage a la Mer du Sud, with Capt. Marion in the " Mascarin" and " Castries," Paris, 8vo, 1783; pp. 51-2, 137-8: — confirmed by Chamisso, in Kotzebue's Voy. of Disco- very into the South Sea, &c. ; tranl. Lloyd, London, 8vo, 1821 ; III, p. 290. The Tonga Islanders afford a parallel illustration. 584 THE MONOGENISTS AND country to country, all over the world (as indeed my notes can show that I have done) to prove that there is scarcely any spot remaining now where amalgamation between different races has not taken place ; and, consequently, where philology, if applied without know- ledge of these physical facts, must often lead to egregious error. I must content myself, however, with succinct references, under each of the 54 heads of our "Ethnographic Tableau," to authorities, through which an inquirer can satisfy himself upon the truth of this assertion. The converse of our proposition will, moreover, substan- tiate its correctness, viz. : that, wherever there has been no amalga- mation of races, a type will perpetuate its language and its blood, irrespectively of climatic influences. Many islands and peninsulas would furnish illustrations in different regions of the earth, but none more fortified with such historical guarantees, and for so long a period as thirty generations, as hyperborean Iceland. Sixty-five years, that is about a. d. 795, before its re-discovery by the Norwegian Floke in 861, Iceland had been occasionally visited by Irish anchorites from the Feroe Isles ; 527 the latter being known to the learned monks of Ireland prior to 725. Colonization of the former island by Scandinavians commenced as early as 862 ; 528 and thither flocked the Northmen in such numbers from Halogaland, Drontherrn, Nordenfield, Nommedalen, &c, together with some cognate families from Sweden, Scotland, the Hebrides, and Ireland, that, by 920, the country was already populous ; and the first historical census of 1100 showed about " 3860 principal heads of families." Unspeakable disasters from plagues, volcanoes, famines, and diminutions of tem- perature, have been their lot; especially when cut off from their last Greenland offshoots™ by the ice, during 1406-8. During nearly 1000 years pure-blooded Northmen have withstood, remote from the rest of the world, Iceland's inhospitable climate, and, free from amalgamation with any other race, as a consequence, still speak the old Norse as purely as Ingolfr, the first actual settler in 862. 6M Nevertheless, imbued, since their forcible conversion, 981-1000, with biblical traditions, even these Icelanders have hitched their genealo- gies on to the Semitic chart called Xth Genesis ! Jon Arason, bishop 421 Letronne, Recherches geographiques el critiques sur le Lime "de Mensura orbis Terrse," compose en Irelande, au commencement du 9 me siecle par Dicuil ; Paris, 1814; pp. 131—46. 658 Xavier Maemier, " Histoire de l'Islande," Voyage de la Commission Seienlifique du Nord, Corvette "Recherche," en Islande el au Groenland (1835-6); Paris, 8vo, 1840; pp. 12-191. 529 Scokesbt, Journal of Northern Whale Fishery and West Greenland, Edinburgh, 8vo, 1823 ; and Gaimard, " Histoire du Voyage de la Recherche," Paris, 1838; I, p. 3. 630 Marmier, "Litterature Islandaise," op. cit., p. 7:- — Bunsen, Discourse on Ethnology British Assoc, for the Adv. of Science, in "Three linguistic Dissertations," London, 1848; pp. 278-9. THE POLYGENISTS. 585 of Iceland towards the end of the 15th century, although the son of a peasant, "caused his genealogy to mount up in a straight line to the first kings of Denmark, and even to Adam. * * * It comes down from Adam to Noah, from Noah to Japhet, to Jafre, Jothum, Cyprus, Crete, Saturn, Jupiter, to Darius. At the 23d degree, we find Priam ; at the 25th, Throar, whom we call Thor, says the chroni- cler ; at the 42d, Voden or Odin ; then come the first kings of Den- mark; and, at the 85th, appears the name of this bishop!" 531 In such a desolate country, amid wintry darkness extending to 21 hours per diern, time must have been wearisome. Sympathy bids us respect the fables of a school-loving people, who, " simplex munditiis," composed the Edda, besides a multitude of Sagas, — generally about as historical as good Bishop Arason's pedigree. 532 Icelanders, however, may challenge the rest of mankind to exhibit another nation upon which a thousand years have entailed neither change of race nor alteration of speech. Their high-caste Scandi- navian features, abundantly figured in portraits by Gaimard, 5JJ equally attest the purity of their blood and permanence of type, despite their long position on the Arctic circle, — where, according to alleged climatic action upon the human frame, and Bishop Ara- son's genealogical tables aforesaid, they ought to have beeome either Lapps or Eskimo ! Let it not be said, in behalf of the monogenistic view, that, in proportion as one recedes into antiquity, fewer languages and fewer races are encountered. At the age of the writer of Xth Genesis, within the very limited superficies embraced within his geography, 534 the 79 nations, tribes, cities, and countries, enumerated by him, were already divided "after their tongues." The existence of no others was known to him, else more would have been recorded. Even in a fractional part of the world, just at the edge of the above map's circumference, Herodotus tells us that, in the twelve cities of Ionia alone, four distinct tongues were spoken ; and how Grecian traders, between the Volga and the Uralian range, carried with them no less than seven interpreters ; whilst Polybius narrates that Carthagi- nian mercenaries in Spain, during a mutiny, vociferated their demands in ten different languages. Yet, to all these chroniclers, three fourths 531 Marmier, "Histoire," p. 323: — Compare some of the Arab genealogies collected by Chesney;— Op. cit., I, appendices, Tables 1-4. 632 Ellesmere, Guide to Northern Archceology, by the R. Soc. of Northern Antiquaries of Copenhagen, London, 8vo, 1848, pp. 83-91. 633 Harsher, Op. cit. From it I have selected the simple fisherman, Petur Olafsen ; No. 14 of our Tableau : but the work contains larger likenesses of men more illustrious, perhaps, though not more typical. 5 s4 Types of Mankind, pp. 549-50, Ethnol. Tableau, and Map. 586 THE MONOGENISTS AND of the earth's surface were utterly unknown ! A glance over the annals, or monuments, of these three fourths, will prove that the major portion of their human inhabitants, like other genera of their mammalia, must have existed contemporaneously. Our last volume, combined with the great enhancement of authentic examples con- tributed by our erudite coadjutor Mr. Pulszky to this, ought to satisfy unbiassed doubters that it is not through the mere love of opposition that polygenists claim a right to demand some things more reasonable than dogmatic denial, before "the unity of the human species" can be accepted by science. There occurs yet another contingency that, in various countries, has had a certain influence in disturbing the natural order of some tongues, and which philologists should not altogether ignore. It is where, as in the French " argots," in the English " slangs," or in the Arabic dialect of the Awalem, a new idiom is invented. Of such, Oriental history presents us with many curious examples, and Euro- pean even to the forgery of a pretended language. Thus, in China, as mentioned in our former work, the Mandchou Tartar dynasty coined five thousand new words which they forced upon their sub- jects, as Champollion-Figeac says, "d'emblee et par ordonnance." Again, at Owyhee, about 1800, His Majesty Tamaahmaah invented a new language, in commemoration of the birth of a son ; but, accord- ing to Kotzebue, this prince happening to die, the people resumed their old one. There are many English colonies where, at this day, judicial proceedings in court, as at Malta and Corfu, can only be carried on in English ; and the strongest bulwark of the Ottoman rule, — now extinguishing itself in the exact ratio that, through amal- gamation, the pure Turanian blood ebbs away — was that uncom- promising instinct which forbade Turks to respect any language but the Turkish. Now, I do not mean to aver that, in any of these eases, counterfeits cannot be detected ; or that true philology is unable to discover the genuine stock from which such invention may have issued, so to say, by the ring of the metal. I am merely calling attention to very common circumstances through which the tongue spoken frequently contradicts the type of its speaker. But, to close this argument: It may be advanced by transcendental philology, that all these distinct tongues are comprehended within its laws ; that is to say, whether a transplanted negro in America speaks Cherokee, a Jew expatriated to Singapore adopts Malay, or a Chi- nese brought up at Berlin converses in German, that, nevertheless, these languages — American, Malayan, and Teutonic — that each individual has acquired; together with those idioms — African, Hebrew, and Sinic — which every individual has forgotten, are all THE POLYGENISTS. 587 comprised within the classification "Arian, Semitic, and Turanian," as understood by the Bunsen-school ; and furthermore that, like unity in trinity, these three classes are reducible into one primeval speech. Denying the competency of any man living, in the actual state of science, to be considered a "philologist" if he enunciate such a doctrine, I must again refer to M. Maury's Chapter I. in the present volume for proofs that the truth lies in the contrary statement. Although the subject of " chronology" may be here a little out of place, still, in support of preceding remarks {supra, pp. 466, 469], the reader will not object to my intercalating the substance of Chevalier Bunsen's latest publication (JEgyptens Stelle, V tes Buches, 5 te Ab- theilung, pp. 342-59), in the only space of this volume where such new and interesting matter can be introduced. I am not aware that the work itself has yet reached this country, but owe what follows to the considerate kindness of our collaborator Mr. Pulszkt, through a private letter received here whilst finally correcting "revises." CHEVALIER BUNSEN'S CHEONOLOGY. Years before Christ. Origin op Mankind. 20,000 Flood in Northern Asia — Emigration of the Arians from the valley of the Oxus and Jaxartes, and of the Shemites from the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates — between 10,000 and 11,000 Egyptian nomes (provinces) under republican form 10,000 But, the use of hieroglyphical writing already probable at about 12,000 End of the republican phase in Egypt 9,086 Bttis the Theban, 1st Priest-king 9,085 End of the Priest-kings 7,231 [About this time Nimeod, and a Turanian empire in Mesopotamia, &c] Elective kings in Egypt, from 7,230 to 5,414 Hereditary Kings in Upper and Lower Egypt, — a double empire from 5,413 to 3,624 Menes, king of united Egypt B.C. 3623 Great Chaldtean empire begins in Babylonia Zokoastek, between 3500 and Foundation of Babylon Tyrian chronology begins ... Exodus of the Israelites < Semiramis 1273 to Solomon's era &o. &c. 3784 3000 3250 2760 1320 1200 1017 588 THE ilONOGENISTS AND CONCLUSIONS. PROTESTANT. Acts xvii, 26. Textus revisus, A. d. 1857. " iirotViv « i% ivo.c wav Uwg avfycliiiuv " fecitque ex uno omne (homine) xaroixsTv iiri tiavrds irpotfoiirou t% genus hominum inhabitare yns" ■ supra universam faciem ter- r£e _"535 CATHOLIC. " ifolrtsev 5<; alone in Cod. Alex, and Vat. Cantab. Laud., and Cantab. Laud., Elzivir ed. 1624, and Iren^us, add the word "blood."] 536 H KALNH AIAGHKH. Novum Testamentum Greece et Latine. In Antiquis Tesiibus Textum Versionis Vulgatm Latince indagavit Lectionesque variantes Stephani et Griesbacckii notavit V. S. Venerabili Jager in consilium adhibito Constantinv/s Tischendorf (Editio DD. Affre Archiepiscopo Parisiensi dicata) : — Paris, 1842, p. 225. [Readings: — "St. [Stephen] Gb. [Greisbach], lvos ai/iarog jrav Wfas et Ini nav Trptfutdn'Oi'."] 537 Harwood's Neio Testament (without points), London, 12mo, 1776, I, p. 342. 538 Scholz, Novum Testamentum Greecee, Lipsiee, 1836, IT, p. 67. 539 Bibliorum Sacrorum Vulgatee Versionis editio, Paris, 4to (Didot), 1785, p. 405. 540 La Sainte Bible, traduite sur la Vulgate, par Le Maistre de Sact, Paris ed., 1849, Nouv. Test. p. 148. 541 L a Sainte Bible, — revue sur les originaux et retouche* dans le langage, par David Martin, Ministre du Saint-Evangile, a Utrecht; Paris (Didot), 1839 — Nouv. Test., p. 178. 542 "The Holy Bible, translated from the Latin Vulgate"— Old Testament, Doway, 1609; New Testament, Rheims, 1582 (approved by the most reverend Doctor Troy, R. C. A. D.), — Dublin, 4to, 1816, p. 193. 543 Whitbt, Paraphrase and Commentary on the New Testament, London, 4to, 6th ed., 1744; 1, p. 694. 544 Purver, New and Literal Translation, &c, with notes, London, 8vo, 1764, II, p. 171. 545 Sharpe, The New Testament translated from GriesbacWs Text, London, 12mo, 2d ed., p. 257. 546 "The English Hexapla, exhibiting the sis important English Translations of the New Testament Scriptures," London, 4to, 1841, voce "Acts xvii, 26." [Have been collated for Texts and Versions; and examined for Variants, Commentaries, and Notes — Le Jay's Polyglotte, Paris, fol., 1645, "Acta Apostolorum," V, part 2d, p. 120: — Walton's Biblia Polyglotta, Oxford, fol., 1657, V, pp. 588-9: — Greisbachii Novum Testamentum, Cantabrigise, 8vo, 1809, p. 329: — Id., Paris, 18mo, p. 338: — Wetstein and Griesbach's N. Test., London, 12mo, 1808, sub voce: — Adam Clarke's Bible, N. Test., London, 1836, I, p. 855: — Albert Barnes's "Notes, explanatory and practical, on the New Testament" {Cobbin's reprint), London, 4to, 1848, p. 485: — Scott's Bible, III, p. 335: — Henry's Bible, III, p. 613: — "Society for promoting Christian Knowledge's" Bible, "cum privilegio," Oxford, 4to, 1817, II, sub voce: — Bloomfield, "Greek Testament, with English notes," London, 4to, 1843, 5th ed., p. 639: — Alford, "The Greek Testament: with a critically revised Text," &c, Cambridge, 8vo, 1854, II, pp. 180-1: — &c, &c, &c] 590 THE MONOGElSriSTS AND Whatever may be, out of England, the general estimation in which her Universities are held for Hebraical scholarship, none will dare say that the country, which gave birth to a Bentley and a Porteus, has, in solid Greek learning, ever lacked a man to stand, like Jonadab the son of Rechab, "before (IeHOuaH) for ever.' The difference between the last century and the present, in English Hellenic studies, seems chiefly to lie in the fact that, having ex- hausted extant literary sources in Grecian drama and philosophy, the critical apparatus derived from those honored pursuits is now becoming intensely directed towards the verbal restoration of the original books composing the New Testament; and the names of Davidson, Alford, Sharpe, and Tregelles, are the well-known representatives of this new school, in different phases of its ten- dency. The first-mentioned, speaking of the Palestinic period some 1800 years ago, allows : " The age was one of illiterate simplicity. The apostles themselves were from the humblest ranks of society. Their abilities and education were tolerably alike. * * * The age was illiterate. They belonged, for the most part, to a class of society unpractised in the art of writing." 547 The second frankly avows: "I do not hesitate to say that [verbal inspiration] being thus applied, its effect will be to destroy altogether the credibility of our Evange- lists." 518 The third published, last year, that most useful little book, Notes introductory to the New Testament. And the fourth uses the following language: "It is a cause for thankfulness that the common Greek text [of the New Testament] is no worse than it is ; but it is a cause for humiliation (and with sober sadness do I write the word) that Christian translators have not acted with a more large-souled and intelligent honesty." 549 The foregoing remarks arise from the imperative necessity of 547 Introduction to the New Testament, &c, London, 1848, I, pp. 408, 417. Jo. Lamius (De erudilione Apostolorum. Liber singularis in quo multa quce ad primilivorum Christianorum liieras, doctrinas, scripta, placita, sludia, eondilionem, censum, mores, el rilus attinent, exponun- tur et illustrantur : editio altera, 4to, Florentise, anno MDCCLXVI, "Censorious permitten- tibus," pp. 477-991), — publishing in Italy when the Italian Catholic mind had not yet endured a "Francesco," a "Maffei," or a "Boniba," — had long previously established apostolic incapacity in the republic of letters. As one among the "workies" — and I say it with pride — to tread down, and keep down, what embers of intolerance may yet smoke in my adopted country, I can join in gratulation with citizens of our republic of America — mais (ici) nous avons change 1 tout cela." 648 Greek Testament: with a critically revised Text, &c, London, 1854; I, Prolegomena, p. 20. Alford (II, p. 181) expressly cautions us to read Acts xvii, 26 — "Not, 'hath made of one blood,' &c, as E. V. but 'caused evert nation of men (sprung) of one blood,' &c. See Matt, v, 32, Mark vii, 37." 549 Account of the Printed Text of the Greek New Testament, London, 1855, p. 267. THE POL YGEISTI ST S. 591 vindicating, once for all, in ethnological discussion, the accuracy of my colleague's and my own observations in the joint volume which preceded the present." 660 Those assertions having been flatly contradicted, Dr. JSTott, 551 when resuming the subject, stated, "The word blood is an interpola- tion, and not to be found in the original texts. The word blood has been rejected by the Catholic Church, from the time of St. Jerome to the present hour. The text of Tischendorf is regarded, I believe, generally as the most accurate Greek text known, and in this the word ' blood ' does not appear. I have at hand a long list of authori- ties to the same effect ; but as it is presumed no competent authority will call our assertion in question, it is needless to cite them. The verse above alluded to in Acts should, therefore, read : — " 'And hath made of one all races (genus) of men,' &c. " The word blood is a gloss ; and we have just as much right to interpolate one form, one substance, one nature, one responsibility, or anything else, as blood." Many incompetent authorities, nevertheless, still continuing to question my collaborator's correctness, I feel it incumbent upon my- self to prove that he was perfectly right. I hope the foregoing array of texts and references, among which is Tischendorf's much-prized authority, will obviate future discussion of others amongst them- selves. It will forever with myself. But, so swiftly does archaeological criticism advance on the Euro- pean continent, that even Tischendorf 's Text now falls — although in this particular, verse, by leaving out "blood," the highest Catholic Hellenism (as it generally does) coincides with that employed in the "rational method" — behind the age of Lachmann's ; whose Text heads the list, justly eulogized by Tregelles 653 in these words: — "The first Greek Testament, since the invention of printing, edited wholly on ancient authority, irrespective of modern traditions, is due to Chakles Lachmann." It becomes, in consequence, evident to the reader that scientific arguments (in England at last, as they have ever been on the conti- nent), in which texts of the Greek Scriptures are involved, are neither carried on, at the present day, upon the obsolete English Version of 650 Types of Mankind, Chap. XV, "Biblical Ethnography: — Section E. — Terms, Universal and Specific" — pp. 558-9. 651 The Moral and Intellectual Diversity of Races, &c. — from the French of Count A. de Gobi- neau — by H. Hotz ; Philadelphia, J. B. Lippincott & Co., 12mo, 1856 ; appendix C, p. 512. 652 Op. cit., p. 113: See also the same author's admirable "Lecture on the Historic evi- dence of the authorship and transmission of the Books of the New Testament," London, 12mo, 1852, passim. 592 THE MONOGENISTS AND king James, nor upon the antiquated "textus receptus" of the old printed Greek exemplar; — but are henceforward to be made exclu- sively upon a Textus revisus that pending researches are combining to establish — some of the slighter difficulties in regard to which are manifested above in the various readings of one line of the Greek "Good Tidings." And, in order to substantiate what I have just said, that Romanist learning frequently agrees with the most rigidly exegetical, a quotation from the commentary of Bishop Kenrick 553 will, in these United States, not fail to be respected : — Text, Acts XVII, 26 — "And He hath made of one all mankind." Note, on MSS. and traditions, " 5. G. P. ' of one blood.' The Vulgate reading is conformable to the Alexan- drian and three other Manuscripts, as also to that used by Clement of Alex- andria. The Coptic version agrees with it." Those who desire to pursue speculative guesses as to how, why, when, and by whom, the word alamos {blood) crept into the Text, will readily find, amid the works cited (supra, note 546), some very learned and ingenious explanations, and more commentaries inexpressibly silly. ISTone, however, can be discovered that satisfy, at one and the same time, the exigenda of archagological, palseographical, and eth- nological criticism. As to the first requirement: It was shown from Hennel 554 that the passage in question was not autographed by St. Paul himself, but proceeds from his secretary — the writer of Acts — probably author of the Hid Gospel, supposed to be "St. Luke." The learned and Reverend Lord Arthur Hervey judiciously remarks: — " There is also a peculiar difficulty in dealing with the Scriptures in such mat- ters, from our ignorance of the precise limits of inspiration, and of the degree of control exercised by the Holy Spirit over the writers, compilers, and editors of the sacred books, in such matters as history, science, and the like. * * * It certainly does not seem to have been the purpose of inspiration to teach miraculously any arts or sciences, and therefore it should not be deemed more derogatory to the inspi- ration of St. Paul or St. Luke, that they were not beyond the most learned of their contemporaries in the science of chronology, than it would be were we to discover that St. Paul came short of modern skill in the art of tent-making, or that St. Luke had not all the phy- siological knowledge attained by the most eminent physicians of our 653 Acts of the Apostles, New York, 8vo, 1851, p. 111. 65* Types of Mankind, p. 559. THE POLTGENISTS. 593 time." 555 "When, therefore, as in four out of the five new-school com- mentators just cited, we behold really learned and strictly orthodox Churchmen, our contemporaries, making such honest admissions, a "Protestant dissenter" like myself, — whose education has been derived from totally different pursuits, in lands altogether foreign to their insular associations — may legitimately re-examine Pauline subjects from the archaeological stand-point alone. Hence, the only really historical fact deducible from all the above quotations is, that the Greek word "blood," not being in the MS. used by Clemens Alex- andrinus (a. d. 192-217), but occurring in that studied by Iren^us (a. d. 140-202), the intercalation was already made within say 1 50 years after the unknown year of the demise of St. Luke. Now, any one who has inspected ancient Greek manuscripts and epigraphy (I myself have only seen a few decades), knows very well that, in the most archaic, the words run on, without divisions, in the same line " continua serie." Of the ancient Apostolic books extant we possess none written earlier that the 5th-6th centuries of our era, 556 — that is, about 200 years later than Clemens and Irenseus, or some 350 posterior to St. Luke ; and in the two most antique codices, LXX Alexandrinus and Vaticanus, the word ai'fiaro; does not recur. No one either will pretend that St. Luke took down St. Paul's speech at the time; or that the Evangelist used stenographic processes, — any more than claim that the "reporter" at Athens adopted Morse's magnetic telegraph. Hence, neither the credibility of St. Paul, nor that of St. Luke, is involved in our debate. The simplest and most rational method of explaining why this word "blood" crept into the later Greek Texts, — into the Latin it never did — is seen upon reflecting how, some early Christian anchorite, devoutly poi'ing over his MS. of Acts, had his attention arrested, whilst reading "and hath made of one," by a natural and impulsive query — "owe/ one what?" As a memento, he noted "aifAai-os" on the margin of his exemplar ; but unaccompanied by a note of interrogation " ? " — because such interjectional signs were not then invented. Within a generation or two afterwards, but before Irengeus, some amanuensis, transcribing our anchorite's much-worn codex into less archaic calligraphy and orthography, meeting with ai>are-historic ages may have done iu changing one type itfto another? — to a simple rule of three: If 5000 years, as proved by every possible testimony, have done nothing, how much will any time do ? "Nothing," wrote Quoy and Gaimard, 5 ' 4 the accurate observers who sailed round the world with Dumont d'Urville (1826-9), " better proves the difficulty that zoology presents, when one's object is to well characterize a species, or a variety of species, than the diversity of human races, admitted by naturalists. How, indeed, can distinctions, oftentimes so fugacious, become settled upon solid bases ! When, in correct zoology, one would determine a species, it is by uniting the greatest possible number of individuals that some certainty may be attained. How, then, catch all those delicate hues constituting that which is called fades, through notes, drawings, and recollections weakened by the distances one has tra- versed, and by the absence of the individuals one has to compare ? In order to obtain posi- tive results, it would be, therefore, necessary to do that which is, so to say, impossible ; viz. : unite a great number of individuals of these varieties, for the purpose of comparing them together ; and to cause oil-portraits to be made as perfect likenesses, in order to indicate the precise shade of the physiognomy. This has not as yet been done in a satisfactory manner, and any attempt to do it would encounter considerable difficulties during the rapidity of a nautical voyage." Many of the obstacles, deplored thirty years ago by such qualified judges, to collecting an adequate series of ethnological likenesses, continue in force at the present day ; but the photographic meliora- tions which Daguerre's wonderful discovery has latterly received, combined with the dexterous application of colored plaster-casts to the human bust, have already removed the more serious impediments to future mechanical exactitude. To Dumoutier 575 unquestionably belongs the merit of first practising, on a large scale, this method of permanently securing faithful copies of Oceanic and Australian types. Blanchard's comments on this superb collection are worthy of careful perusal. " The physiognomies, of the inhabitants of localities visited by explorers, have been often represented, through the aid of drawing, in accounts of voyages; but, in all, one may affirm it, these representations are imperfect. H there be, now and then, any which approximate to the truth, it is, so to say, always^ impossible to verify them. The anthropologist can, 574 Voyage de la Corvette V Astrolabe ; Zoologie, Paris, 8vo, 1830; I, chap. 1, "Del'Homme;" p. 15. " s Voyage de V Astrolabe el de la Zelie ; Alias, Anthropologic, Paris, fol., 1845—50; Text in 8vo, 1854, by Blanchabd. Cf. Bulletin de la Soc. Ethnol. de Paris, 1847, I, pp. 284-5, 289-90. The original casts, exactly colored, but representing chiefly Melanian and Poly- nesian races, now adorn the Galerie Anthropologique at the Jardin des Plantes. My wife had only time to copy the tints given to each bust VARIOUS GROUPS OF HUMANITY. 607 therefore, have no confidence in them. He must renounce their employment in determining the characteristics of races; in a word, he cannot utilize them. "Artists habituated to draw unceasingly the European type, 576 are unskilful, in the greater number of cases, in tracing the portrait and the true physiognomy of an American savage, or of a Polynesian Islander. They tend irresistibly to give him, more or less, the expression of those European faces which they are accustomed to reproduce through the art of design. Hence proceed all those likenesses of native races, from different parts of the world, that ordinarily resemble Europeans accoutred in a queer costume, and besmeared (barbouilles) with yellow, brown, black. M. Dumoutier has better understood what was necessary to be done in order to give an exact knowledge of the facial traits, and of the general form of the head, amongst those tribes he has observed. " In each locality, he was at great pains to persuade some individuals to allow themselves to be moulded [in plaster], and we must believe that he well knew how to come about it. He has succeeded in bringing back a great number of casts taken upon inhabitants of the majority of places touched at by the corvettes Astrolabe and Zelee. M. Dumoutier has thus gathered a collection of busts of the highest interest, the greater portion of which are now placed in the ' galerie anthropologique du Museum d'histoire naturelle de Paris.' " After showing, nevertheless, that material difficulties in the execu- tion of casts render even them somewhat faulty, by closing the eyes and distorting features, — and recommending that a daguerreotype should always accompany each head — Blanchard again remarks: " Hitherto, anthropological museums being very inconsiderable, one has been obliged to resign one's self to comparisons too restricted for their results to be seriously generalized. These comparisons, furthermore, reduce themselves to very small affairs. At the scientific point, it is not allowable to dwell upon such variable impressions of tourists ; and yet, thi6, even until now, is the principal stock of anthropology." 5 " 576 Strolling one day (April, 1849), with my friend Dr. Boudin, through the Jardin des Tuilleries, he drew my attention to a marble statue, "all standing naked in the open air," of Apollo (I think) ; "dont," as he observed, "les cuisses ont du negre," — at the same time that the upper part of the body is magnificent. This incongruity, however, received expla- nation through an odd circumstance ; viz. : that the Parisian statuary commissioned to exe- cute the work, — wishing to save his own pocket, and not being able to procure, at the price, a white man sufficiently well made-up to stand for a "torso" in his studio — hired a fine- looking negro-valet, then at Paris, as the cheaper alternative. Upon the latter's splendid bust he set, indeed, Phoebus's sublime head, but ... he forgot the legs ! In the same manner, subsequently (Oct., 1855), at the picture-gallery of the Exposition TJniverselle, my well-be- loved cousin, Miss C. J. Gliddon, pointed out to me a couple of paintings, by an English artist, of scenes in Spain, — for richness of coloring and accuracy of costume unsurpassable ; but, spite of beards or coquettish veils, each male or female face betrayed an English country-bumpkin. Again, I have seen Chinese colored sketches, of English officers and ladies walking about Macao during the war of 1841-2, exquisitely done ; save that their eyes were all oblique, while their "Caucasian" features were lost in the Sinico-Mongol. But for possession of my old comrade M. Prisse's "Oriental Album" I should have been unable to indicate to the reader, — through any works known to me about the very peoples I know best — a faithful likeness of an Arab ; and even this falls short of the most beautiful of all, viz., the portrait of the glorious and ill-starred Abdallah-ebn-Soohood, Prince of the heroic Wah'abees (Mengin, I'Sgypte sous le Gouv. de Mohammed Aly, Paris, 1823, II, p. 142). The octavo text I happen to have ; but the folio Atlas lies still with my library — and other things — somewhere in Egypt. So much in confirmation of M. Pulszky's four propositions [supra, pp. 96-97]. 577 Op. cit., pp. 7-8, 47. 608 DISTINCTIONS OBSERVABLE AMONG If such are the lamentations of an ethnologist in the centre of science, at Paris, how unreasonable it would be to expect ampler collections of iconographic materials, illustrative of human types, elsewbere ? The iconoplastic inspiration of Dumoutier has been since applied, by M. de Froberville, 678 with increased accuracy as regards colora- tion, to African races at Bourbon and Mauritius. Of sixty beautiful casts, representing an astonishing variety of Mozambique negroes, I was favored by this learned ethnologist with a sight of several ; and I am free to state that they opened a new world of light to me as regards African populations on the eastern coast. Unfortunately these fac-similes are still inedited. On the other hand, plaster- moulding inevitably effaces the expression of the eye ; 679 but this defect can now be counterbalanced through photography ; nowhere employed with such thorough appreciation of anthropological exi- genda as by MM. Deveria, Rousseau, and Jacquart, at the Mu- seum d'Histoire Naturelle. Compared to this Gallery, — save only the department of craniology, in which it is surpassed by the Mortonian collection at Philadelphia 580 — all other collections known to my per- sonal observation, or through report, sink into insignificance. Ske- letons, skulls, anatomical preparations ; casts of entire figures, busts, and heads, colored and uncolored, of an immense number of nations ; oil and water-colored portraits, daguerreotypes, photographs, of indi- viduals from all parts of the world ; not forgetting those exquisite colored models of Russian races, presented by Prince Dernidoff, — all these, and other items by far too various for emimeration, already render the G-alerie Anthropologique (as might have been inferred where French science directs) one of the glories of Paris, no less than foremost in the world's ethnology. In fact, such an admirable system has there been laid down, susceptible of indefinite expansion, that with very trifling aid from the imperial government, Paris might contain, amidst her thousand attractions to the student, as well as to 578 "Rapport sur les races negres de lAfrique orientale an sud de FiSquateur, observers par M. de Feoberville — Comptes rendus des seances de V Academic des Sciences, xxx, 3 Juin, 1850 — "tirage a, part" 14 pages: — and Bulletin de la Soc. Ethnol. de Paris, 1846; i. pp. 89-90 ; and elsewhere in the Bulletins de la Soc. de Geographic This gentleman told me that the method he had employed was, to gum square bits of paper on the skin of each individual whose cast he had previously taken, and then to cause his artist to color them until the hue disappeared in that of the " torso" himself. Transferring thence this colored paper to the plaster-cast, the same process yielded a perfect copy of such person's cuticular coloration. 579 See an example in M. DAvezac's " Y^bou," exquisitely moulded though it was by the care of De Blainville, in our "Ethnographic Tableau," No. 27. 580 There are, however, admirable materials, forming the nucleus of what might become a great anthropological museum, in the London Royal College of Surgeons. VARIOUS GROUPS OF HUMANITY. 609 persons of education and leisure, every desideratum in anthropology. An appropriation of not more than 100,000 francs to the Galerie Anthropologique, coupled with official instructions to her consuls, chiefs of expeditions, governors, and naval commanders, scattered over the world, to collect — at national expense — colored photographs (front, back, and profile) of all types of man, male and female, within their several reach, — and executed upon an uniform scale, according to rules for measurements, &c, such as none but French administrative experiences know so well how to give — these two ordinances, "pure and simple," are, now, all that is required to make France, within five or ten years, as supreme in ethnology as she is in every other science. No other government in the world will perform this service towards the study of man ; because the two or three others (that may have the power) do not possess, amid the personnel of their Execu- tives, men of education sufficiently refined to appreciate " ethno- logy" — its true political value, or its eventual humanitarian influences. To such Cabinets, of cast-iron mould, appeal is useless, owing to their intellectual conditions; to others, like cultivated Sardinia for instance, its achievement would be almost impossible. If imperial centraliza- tion in France does not accomplish for Mankind that which has been done everywhere in behalf of beetles, snakes, bats, and tadpoles, gene- rations must yet pass away before, through any amount of private enterprise, those materials can be collected, in one spot, that might afford a comprehensive insight into this planet's human occupants. Such are the disheartening convictions which general experience, gathered eastward and westward during former years, followed by some five exclusively devoted to ethnological inquiries, have forced upon me involuntarily. Mortifying to my aspirations as the acknow- ledgment may be, a brief sketch of the precursory steps taken to accomplish our "Ethnographic Tableau," such as it is, will be the best comment upon its difficulties of realization. It was my conception, when setting out for Europe, with the object of gathering materials for the present volume, to prepare a Map of the world, colored somewhat upon the plan of Prof. Agas- siz's suggestion, 581 in size of about four folio sheets ; containing the most exact colored -portraits of races procurable, drawn to an uniform scale, and each placed geographically in situ. Copiously supplied, beyond any others in this country, as is our Academy of Natural Sciences with works upon every department of Natural History, and among them many containing excellent human iconographic specimens, they were wholly inadequate to the execution of my 581 Types of Mankind, p. lxxviii, and Map. 610 DISTINCTIONS OBSERVABLE AMONG plan : but I supposed that European libraries migbt easily make up the deficiency. Procuring a large skeleton chart, and coloring it into zoological realms and fauna?, I made a preliminary list of about 150 human families whose likenesses were desirable. Their names, written on differently-colored pieces of paper, an inch square, were then pasted upon this map, each one in its geographical locality, to stand as mnemonics for the portraits to be afterwards inserted. Through the politeness of the late M. Ducos, Minister for ISTaval Affairs, the choice library of the Ministere de la Marine, together with the vast repository of the Depot de la Marine, were freely opened to my visits ; and here, Bajot 583 in hand, my bibliographical explorations commenced. The Bibliothlques Imperiale, de I'Institut, and du Jardin des Plantes, were equally accessible through the kind- ness of friends, during eight months' stay at Paris ; and, for eight months subsequently, I resumed my old seat in that paradise of a bibliophilos, owing to the incomparable facilities readers obtain there, the British Museum Library. Altogether I worked in the midst of such resources for about twelve months of time, — always aided, when necessary, by my "Wife's enthusiastic help — guided throughout by considerate indices from distinguished savans ; during which period thousands of volumes were subjected to scrutiny, hun- dreds yielding materials either for my wife's pencil or my own note- books. In fact, no literary means were lacking for the attainment of my object; no efforts spared towards realizing it. Having, in consequence, acquired practical knowledge of the probable range of ethnographic materials accumulated at the present day, I can now speak of their deficiencies with more confidence. Alas ! they are great indeed ! It was not long, however, before my casting about, at Paris, ended in the renunciation of an ethnographic map of the nature above sketched ; owing to the frequency of lacunae, impossible to be filled up, in the pictorial gradations of humanity spread over the earth. Inaccurate designs of many races, false colorations of most, un- authentic exceptions to exactness throughout the remainder, reduced the number of reliable portraits to a very small number in published works. To the ethnographer some otherwise valuable books, perfect as to costumes of nations, are wholly unavailable 663 as regards facial 682 Catalogue particulier des Livres de Ge'ographie ei de Voyages qui se irouvent dans les Biblioihiques du Department de la Marine et des Colonies; Paris, Imprimerie Royale, 8vo, 1840; vol. III. 633 Such, for instance, as Georgi's Beschreibung aller Nationum des Russichen Reiehs, St. Petersburg, 1776; also republished in smaller edition at Leipzig, 1783; and in four vols. London, without plates, 1780: — Reckbbekg, Les Peuplcs de la Russie, &c, with 94 plates VABIOUS GROUPS OF HUMANITY. 611 iconography, — the Artists, naturally ignorant of physiognomical diversity beyond the small circle of races within their personal cognizances, having given European features to every variety of man ; so that, according to each designer's country, all nations are made to assume French, English, or German faces; often with as little regard to foreign human nature as we find in Tailors' or Modistes' show-plates of the newest fashions ! Some of the best descriptive works contain plates too small for reliance ; in general uncolored, or else tinted without regard to exactness; at the same time that of whole families of mankind there are no representations whatever. It is, in fact, rare to meet with colored plates of races worthy of confidence, before the beginning of this century : not that I would disparage the efforts made by Cook, La Perouse, Krusenstern, and other voyagers, to furnish good copper-plates of several distant tribes of men met with in their daring circumnavigations. But the man essentially imbued with a sort of instinctive presenti- ment of the importance of human iconography, and to whose single pencil we still owe more varied representations of mankind over the earth than to any individual before or since, without question was Choris. 584 Chosen artist to the second Russian voyage round the world under Ottoe von Kotzebue in the "R.urick" 585 — 1815-18 — favored by a liberal and scientific commander, and aided by a skilful naturalist, Adelbert de Chamisso, Choris really availed himself of glo- rious opportunities (so frequently deemed unimportant in later mari- time expeditions, — compared to the triumphant collection of "new species " among oysters, butterflies, or parsleys), and may be right- fully styled the father of those ethnological portrait-painters who, like Lesueur, have so skilfully illustrated the voyages of Peron (under Baudin) Duperrey, De Freycinet, D'Urville, Gaimard, and others. It is to Choris's, more than to any other man's labors, that the works of Prichard, and Cuvier, as the learned copyists frequently point out, owe their iconographic interest : and here it may be conveniently stated that, in our Tableau, I have endeavored, as far as possible, to of costumes. Many other works, equally defective ethnographically, if excellent for na- tional costumes, are in the "King's Library," British Museum. Even some works of the great French Navigators — -such as D'Entrecastraux, 1800; De Bougainville, 1837; Laplace, 1835; Du Petit Thuars, 1841 — are almost valueless to human iconography, however meritorious and important in descriptions, and precious in other branches of natural history. 584 Voyage Pittoresque autour du Monde, avec des Portraits de Sauvages d 'Amerique, d'Asie, aVAfrique, et des lies du Grand Ocean; Paris, Didot, folio, 1822. Of this work I have used four copies at diiferent libraries, two of them uncolored : and, as regards the coloration of the other two, one varied materially from the other in tints. 685 Yoyage of discovery into the South Sea, &c, transl. Lloyd, London, 3 vols. 8vo., 1821. 612 DISTINCTIONS OBSEKYABLE AMONG avoid repeating likenesses published by either authority, except when none so good were accessible elsewhere. Even then, in most cases, my copies are taken from, or have been compared with the original engravings, as the reference under each head indicates. Compelled to relinquish, owing to absence of sufficient materials, my first idea of an ethnographic map, the next best substitute was suggested by J. Achille Compte's folio sheet ; ^ which, considering that it is now twenty-five years old, was the ablest condensation of its day. Its errors have been indicated by Jacquinot; and, besides it gives undue preponderance to Oceanic types when other parts of the world possess equal claims for representation. " One sees a black of Vanikoro drawn as the type of the Polynesian brown race ; below it, another native of Vanikoro represents the Malay branch. Natives of New-Ireland serve at one and the same time for the type of the Polynesian race and for the black Oceanic race I" 597 Without copy- ing any of the heads published by so good an authority, I have in part availed myself of Compte's columnar arrangement and nomen- clature, in the third letter-press column of our Tableau. Among the various desiderata towards exactness in ethnic icono- graphy, rank two necessities: — 1st, that the same portrait should at least be photographed both in front view and -profile; 2d, that these photographs should not be restricted to the male sex, but that their females should always accompany them ; inasmuch as, from the rape of the Sabines down to Captain Bligh's mutineers, — among Turks universally, as well as in instances of American nations cited by Mc- Culloh 588 — the women of a given nation often differ totally in type from their masculine possessors. Of this last contingency there exist countless instances, met with even in our own every-day experiences. The advantage of adding a back view of each individual has been shown by Debret ; m and it is the rule followed, where possible, by M. Rousseau. 590 One universal savant, 591 and one equally-universal comparative anatomist, 592 feel the importance of the first requirement. 586 Races Humaines, distributes en un Tableau Me'thodique, "adopts par le Conseil royal de l'lnstruction Publique;" Paris, 1840: — being PI. I. of his Regne Animal, 1832. 587 Jacquinot, Eludes sur VHistoire Naturelle de V Homme ; These pour le Doctorat en Me- dicine, Paris, 4to., 1848; p. 117. 588 Researches, Philosophical and Antiquarian, concerning the Aboriginal History of America, Baltimore, 8vo., 1829; pp. 34-5, &c. See a spirited sketch of the, rape of a white woman, by "Pehuenches," in Po3ppig's Reise in Chili, &c, Atlas fol., 1835, PI. 7. 589 Voyage Piltoresque au Bresil, ii. pp. 114-5, PI. xii. 590 At the Jardin des Plantes; as in several photographs of Hottentots, &c, I owe to his complaisance. 591 Alfred Maury, Questions relatives <2 V Ethnologic, ancienne de la France — Extrait de l'An- nuaire de la Soc. Imp. des Antiquaires de France pour 1852 — Paris, 18mo., 1853 ; pp. 9-10. 592 Straus-Durckheim, Theohgie de la Nature, Paris, 8vo., 1852; III, note xxx, Races humaines ; pp. 318-9, 324. VARIOUS GROUPS OF HUMANITY. 613 The former presses French antiquaries with the following language — " In the portraits that we demand from our correspondents, they should adhere both to giving front views, so as to enable the physi- ognomy to be judged; and profile, in order to show the direction of the lines of the face, the disposal of the forehead, the facial angle, the degree of hollowness of the eye in relation to the 'arcade souci- liere,' the prominence of the chin. It is certain that these details of the countenance, in appearance insignificant, exert a great influence upon the ensemble of the features. By way of example, we would instigate remark that the cavity at the root of the nose, in relation to the slope of the forehead, is of itself a characteristic that distinguishes certain races from others. The Greeks, to judge by the statues they have left us, did not represent this cavity; so pronounced, on the contrary, in sundry of our own provinces. Some physiologists have attributed this character to mixture with the Germanic race, in which it is observed in considerably high degree. There are lines, even some simple wrinkles, that stamp a given physiognomy with its national impress. The Shlavic race notably distinguishes itself, ordi- narily, among men more than thirty years old, by a furrow which cuts the whole cheek in a quasi-vertical sense." The subjoined authority stands so high among comparative anato- mists, that its weight, in support of the polygenistic view, deserves attention. Straus-Durckheim says: " In treating this subject [Human Races], as it ought to be, simply as a question of pure zoology, and upon applying to it the same principles as to the determination of other species of animals belonging to one genus, one arrives, in fact, at really recognizing rnauy very distinct human species, of which the number cannot yet be fixed ; on one account, because the interior of the continents of Africa, Australia, and even of America, is not sufficiently known ; and on another, that we do not possess even sufficient data about the distinctive characters of a large number already known "We are acquainted indeed with a few races, such as the Caucasian and the Negro; but many others are very poorly indicated, even by Ethnographers, to such a degree that every- thing remains still to be done. " The greater number of travellers who, until now, have gone over distant countries in which exist races of men more or less distinct, have indeed brought back some drawings ; and, in these later times, even busts moulded upon nature ; but more frequently they have confined themselves to giving the portraits of the Chiefs about whom they spoke in relating their voyages ; or else, they have represented a few common individuals, some taken at random, and the others on account of whatever may have been extraordinary in their phy- siognomy; whereas it is precisely the portraits of those who present the most vulgar [or normal] faces and forms among each people which it is essential to make known ; their features oifering, through this very circumstance, the true characteristics of their races, inasmuch as best resembling the greater number of individuals. * * * " Now, these various 614 DISTINCTIONS OBSERVABLE AMONG directions of the divers parts of the head, -which it would be so important to know well in order to determine the differences that exist between human species, cannot be thoroughly indicated except in portraits done exactly in profile ; in the same manner that the exact proportions of width cannot be properly given save through portraits in full front view ; and this is precisely that which one does not find but very exceptionally in ethnographio works, in which heads are generally represented at three-quarter view ; with the intention of making known at one and the same time the proportions of all parts, whereas through sach arrangement they satisfy nothing ; the three-quarters not permitting any proportion to be exactly caught, every feature becoming foreshortened to the beholder." With full consciousness of these requirements, I had hoped that, through the multitude of works consulted, some kind of uniformity, as regards front and profile views of the same head, might have been achieved for a certain number of races. Here again disappointment was the issue. Aside from Dumoutier's Anthropologic wherein chiefly Oceanic busts are thus figured, there are not a dozen instances 593 where pains have been taken to supply this radical necessity in eth- nology. There are not, out of these, more than half the number colored; nor, finally, as illustrative of the poverty of ethnographical resources, out of a collection of some 400 heads of races procured, was it possible, on reducing the number even to 54 specimens, to avoid including some faces (such as ISTos. 11, 13, 20, 30, 34, &c.) drawn at three-quarters, under the penalty of either a blank in the series or of filling the place with a less characteristic sample. And yet, with an intrepidity which ignorance of these simple facts may explain, but can never justify, whole volumes have been written to prove "the unity of the human species," — when science does not possess half the requisite materials for ethnographic comparisons, and at the very day that the best naturalists will frankly and honestly tell you how, t he historical evidences (only scientific criteria) of permanency of type being excluded, they feel rather uncertain where "species" is to be found in any department of zoology. Polygenism no less than monogenism, as regards humanity's origination, depends, therefore, like all similar zoological questions, upon history — itself a science essentially human. The whole controversy concerning the unity or the diversity of mankind's "species" is consequently bounded by a circle, of which, after all, human history can but vaguely indicate the circumference; and the only ultimate result obtained from the an- alysis of such arguments resolves itself, as in all circular arguments, into a question of probabilities. The brothers Humboldt (ubi supra) reject, as ante-historical, all myths, fiction, and tradition, that pretend to explain the origin of mankind. Perfectly coinciding with these 593 My portfolio embraces them all, I believe, from the publications of Cuvier, Pe"ron, D'Orbigny, D'Avezac, De Middendorf, Siebold, and two or three others. VARIOUS GROUPS OF HUMANITY. 615 luminaries of our XlXth century in such repudiation of the only criterion of "species" which real history is powerless to elucidate, belief and unbelief, as to polygenism or monogenism, seem to me equally speculative, equally abortive, in a matter utterly beyond the research of human history, — as this term is understood during the present solar revolution, ecclesiastically styled a. d. 1857. I roughly estimate the amount of iconographic stock, available to ethnology and contained in published works, at about 600 portraits. Of these not more than half are colored, many of them not reliably ; whilst a large proportion of those uncolored are more or less defec- •tive. In this estimate, European nations of the three types, — Teutonic, Celtic and Sclavonic — are of course excluded ; because biographical, historical and other publications, aside from portrait-galleries, furnish abundance to illustrate these the most civilized races of the world. Some American, portions of African, perhaps all the Australian, the greater number of Polynesian, certain Malayan, Indo-Chinese, Chinese, Japanese, &c, are well represented ; but vast iconographic blanks in the varied nationalities of Asia and Africa still remain among "terras incognitse," ethnologically speaking far more than even geographically. For instance, where has there been published a reliable colored portrait of a Yukag'ir ? where that of a true Berber f mi Central Arabian tribes have no authentic representative, save in the likeness of Abd- Allah ebn Souhood, the Wah'abee ; 595 and so on of whole nations in other regions. Indeed, by way of testing the accuracy of this statement, let the reader take the third column of our "Tableau," wherein an attempt has been made, chiefly through descriptions, to group mankind physiologically. Sixty-five distinguishable families, out of perhaps hundreds unmentioned, are there enumerated. Let him only try to find for each of these a reliable colored portrait, suit- able to ethnology (Hamilton Smith, Prichard and Latham, inclusive), — his first difficulty will be to settle the difference iconographically between a "Lapp" and a "Finn." I have failed in my efforts to obtain one of the former ; of the latter (!Nb. 7) I am by no means certain. 596 According to modern statisticians, the population of the world is calculated to exceed 1200 millions. About 600, more or less available, ethnological portraits are the limit of my estimate of public icono- 594 Those (about 40, I think) procured by the Exploration scientifique en Algerie are inedited. Very beautiful they are, in the Parisian Galerie Anthropologique. It will be noted that I use the terms " reliable colored portraits" accessible through publications. The treasures contained in private portfolios do not, of course, enter into this category, being inaccessible. 695 Mengin, Op. cit. (supra, note 576). 696 See what Dr. Meigs says (Chap. Ill, pp. 267-70, ante). 616 DISTINCTIONS OBSERVABLE AMONG graphical property, bearing upon types of man — Europeans hardly included — now in existence. This enables ethnography at the present advanced day to boast, that she possesses about half an indi- vidual per million to represent all Mankind ! whereas, out of 216 known species of Monkeys, there are not a dozen of which naturalists do not possess exact and elegant delineations. And yet, steeped in the slough of our common ignorance, it is pretended to give us systems vindicating the "unity of the human species." Under all these lamentable deficiencies, my attempt reduces itself to an exhibition of 54 of the best characterized ethnographic portraits condensible into a "Tableau." Their number [fifty-four) is purely accidental. No cabalistic enigma underlies its selection, which was superinduced merely by the mechanical eligibilities considered requi- site by our publishers. What may have been the labor incurred to present even so small a number at one view, may be inferred through the Table of References. Such as it is, the reader will find nothing yet published comparable to it for attempted accuracy ; at the same time that none can be more alive than myself to its defects, nor will be more happy to hail the publication of something better within the limited price of this present volume. Had not this last inexorable condition been part of our publishing arrangements, my own port- folio and note-books could have supplied for every row (except for the Australian realm, which seems tolerably complete in 6 specimens) 18 different heads, each typical of a race, in lieu of only 6 ; and then, through 132 colored portraits, a commencement might have been made to portray, at one view, the earth's known inhabitants ; leaving to future collectors the task of adding other types, in the ratio either of their discovery or of their acquisition, to ethnic icono- graphy. With these remarks, the "Tableau" is submitted to liberal criticism ; which will perceive the reason why so many essential and well-known types are unavoidably excluded, in the fact that 132 distinct things cannot be compressed into a space adapted to 54. A FEW CLOSING OBSERVATIONS. Notwithstanding that perfectly-traced fac-similes, and sometimes the original plates and photographs themselves, were placed in the hands of the best lithographic establishment in this city, rigid comparison with a few of the originals referred to in the explanatory text, will prove what has been previously deplored regarding ethno- logical portraits generally, viz., that a merely artistic eye, untrained in this new "specialite" of art, is unable even to copy with absolute correctness. A draughtsman, accustomed to draw solely European VARIOUS GROUPS OF HUMANITY. 617 faces, cannot, without long practice and a peculiar instinct for race- iconography, seize, on so small a scale as such drawings must he made, the delicate distinctions between ethnic lineaments perceived by the eye of an anthropologist. In consequence, it has happened in our Tableau, that, through infinitesimal touches of his pencil, there are few heads (in the eyes especially) which have not been more or less Uuropeanized by the artist. These defects are herein irre- mediable ; nor would I call attention to them, but to meet a possible (nay, very probable) charge, that these portraits have been tampered with in order to favor Dr. Nott's and my common polygenistic views: whereas, on the contrary, the truth is, that artistic execution, by softening down diversities of feature, palpable in the originals, seems unconsciously to have labored rather to gratify the yearnings and bonhomie of philanthropists and monogenists. In respect to the coloring, also, although to each face I have ap- pended authority for its hue, much allowance should be made for a book the price of which, to the American subscriber, must not exceed $5. The colorist (who has performed her part extremely well) had to give 53 distinct tints to 54 (the Tasmanians, ISTos. 53, 54, being one color) different faces, — each, too, restricted to one stroke of her brush. To have attempted the coloration of eyes, hair, or dress, would have made this volume cost half as much again. Never- theless, I have deposited with our publishers one standard and completely-colored copy, critically executed by my wife, and they tell me that any one desirous of possessing our "Ethnographic Tableau," perfectly colored, varnished, and mounted upon rollers, can obtain such copy on application to them, and paying the expense thereof. As for the wood-cuts, — in our present, no less than in our former volume — I am free to say, that the only extenuation, for often- stupid deviations from perfectly-drawn originals, lies simply in the fact, that where (owing to bibliothecal deficiencies in a given spot of our yet new and youthful American republic) the plates them- selves could not be furnished to the engraver, my wife's pencil-marks on the box-wood "blocks" having been rubbed more or less in our travels, — or, by carelessness, after their delivery to the wood-cutter — "pencils," under such circumstances, are treacherous and slip- pery. Hence our collaborators, Messrs. Pulszky and Meigs, I am sure, will be charitable enough to overlook any accidental drawbacks to the attainment of that correctness, which was equally desired by Mrs. Gliddon, Dr. Nott, and myself. The reader will also, I trust, be so considerate as to overlook such blemishes in the artistic, cranioscopic, and typograpical exactitude of our book. 618 EXPLANATIONS OF THE TABLEAU. ON THE ETHNOGRAPHIC TABLEAU, EXHIBITINQ SPECIMENS OF VARIOUS RACES OF MANKIND. Adopting entirely, for my own part, Prof. Agassiz's zoological dis- tribution of animals into REALMS, — subdivided into Faunae — I bad prepared prefatory observations on eacb of tbe former, whicb lack of space now obliges me to reduce to a minimum consistent witb per- spicacity. So many have been tbe mistakes committed (even by good scbolars), as regards tbe honored Professor's meaning, in the terms "Realms" and " Faunse," 597 that the reader's attention is again especially invited to the " Sketch of the Natural Provinces of the Animal World, and their relation to the different Types of Man ;" which, with its tableau and map, forms a prominent feature in Kbit's and my Types of Man- hind. It is upon such inferred knowledge, on the reader's part, that our "Ethnographic Tableau" has been projected. The first column of letter-press contains Prof. Agassiz's "Geographical distribution:" — the second Dr. Meigs's " Cranioscopic examples:" — the third my 597 1. A. D'Abbadie (Observations sur VOuvrage intitule: Types of Mankind, par MM. Noil and Gliddon — Bulletin de la Soc. de Geographic, No. 55, Juillet, Paris, 1855, p. 41) — "M. Agassiz adniet huit types humains primitifs." Refuted by M. A. Mauky, in the same Jour- nal (pp. 46-51). 2. Heywood (translation of Von Bohlen's Inlrod. to the Book of Genesis, London, 8vo, 1855; II, appendix 2, p. 278) — "Hottentot realm;" instead of fauna. 3. A writer (Charleston Medical Journal, 1855 — " An Examination of Prof. Agassiz's Sketch," &c.) confounds realms with fauna in a manner that, shows he does not even eompi-ehend termino- logy [e.g., "Mongolian realm" (p. 36) — "Prof. A. has formed two realms in Africa;" "Hottentot realm" (p. 37] : but inasmuch as this would-be naturalist duly received a quietus at the hands of Luke Bur.ee (Charleston Med. Journ., July, 1856, Art. I), he may remain dropped where he was long ago, by Morton and by myself (Types of Mankind, pp. lvi and 628, note 210). 4. Cull (Address to the Ethnological Society of London, 1854, p. 8) — "5. The Negro realm. 6. The Hottentot realm." No such classes occur in Prof. Agassiz's paper. 5. Anon. (Westminster Review, No. XVIII, April, 1856; Art. Ill, p. 364) — "eight realms, * * * Hottentot," as one of them, in lieu of fauna. 6. Anon. (London Athenaeum, June 17, 1854, Review) — [Prof. Agassiz] "divides mankind into eight types, each of which has its realm, with its peculiar animal inhabitants. They are as follows : — 1. Arctic ; — 2. Mongol ; — 3. European; — 4. American; — 5. African; — 6. Hottentot; — 7. Malayan; — 8. Austra- lian," &c. EXPLANATIONS OF THE TABLEAU. 619 individual conception of "Mankind, grouped physiologically:" — and the fourth a synopsis, by myself, of the "Linguistic distinctions" deducible from M. Alfred Maury's Chapter I, in the present volume. I proceed to succinct remarks on the "Realms" themselves; fol- lowing each by specification of the sources whence each human por- trait has been derived. Precision is the only goal attempted to be reached by this tinted-Tableau's compiler: and the primary fact that will be acquired by its inspector, at first glance, will be the destruc- tion of any hypotheses he may have formed concerning the alleged action of solar influence (as per Latitude and Longitude) upon Na- ture's aboriginal coloration of the human skin [any greater than upon that of the simice — see Monkey-chart] among her "types" and "races" of the genus Homo. I. ARCTIC REALM. (Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.) The newest — and by far the best — definitions known to me of the several characteristics of the human inhabitants of the Hyperborean zone, being already supplied by our collabo- rator Dr. Meigs [supra, Chapter III, pp. 156, 168), I will not detract from the merit of this first utterance of special studies on the Polar region, which he has been prosecuting for some time by doing more than inviting re-perusal of his remarks ; coupled with reference to that excellent little compendium — "Productions of 'Zones,' illustrated and described" (10 Plates and 10 pamphlets, 18mo — published by Myers & Co., London, 1854). REFERENCES AND EXPLANATIONS. No. 1. — ESKIMO. [" TaWccdiktceeta, Eskimaux of Igloolik :" — Parry, 2d Voyage, " Fury and Hecla;" London, 1824, p. 391.] Colored from Ross, Voy. Baffin's Bay — "Arctic Highlander — Ervick, Native of Prince Regent's Bay." Compare Martin, Nat. Eisl. of Man and Monkeys, London, 1841, p. 278, fig. 213. No. 2. — TCH TJTKTCHI. [Inedikd, — from my friend Mr. Edward M. Kern, artist in the recent Voyage of the U. S. Corvette " Vincennes," Capt. Bodgers, to the North Pacific, 1853-6. See the remarks of Dr. Meigs (supra, Chapter III) on Fig. 12.] Compare Desmoulins, Races Surnames, 1826; PI. I, from Choeis: — Hooper (Tents of the Tuski, London, 8vo, 1853) gives plates too small for reliance; but observes, " Tchouski, Tchuktche, Tchutski, Tchekto, and similar appellations, I believe to have arisen from the word Tuski, meaning a confederation or bro- therhood." He divides them into "the Reindeer Tuski," and "the fishing, or alien Tuski" — "two distinct races, or, at least, branches, * * * differing in language, appearance, and many details of dress and occupation (p. 34)." 620 EXPLANATIONS OF THE TABLEAU. No. 3. — KOEIAK. [" Inhabitants of Kotzebue Sound :" — De Kotzebue, Voy. of Discovery, N. E. Passage., in Russian S. " Rurick," 1815-18 ; transl. Lloyd, London, 1S21 ; I, Pi. 1.] Compare Beechey ( Voyage to the Northern Ocean and Beering's Strait, Lon- don, 4to, 1831, 1, p. 250 seq., II, pp. 567-76), who, in describing the Esquimaux, eastern and western, says, " both people being descended from the same stock." No. 4. — ALEOTJTIAN. [" Habitant des lies Aleoutiennes :" — Choris, Voyage Pittoresque autour du Monde (1815-1S) ; Paris, fol., 1822, PI. Ill, 6"= livraison.] Compare " a man of Kadiak" (PI. YI, in Martin Saurr's Account of a Geog. . and Aslronom. Exped. to the Northern Parts of Russia, by Comm. J. Billings, 1785-94; London, 4to, 1802.) No. 5.— AINO. [" Naturel de la cote septentrionale de Jesso :" — De Krusenstern, Voyage autour du Monde, 1803-6, in the Russian S. " Nadiejeda and Neva" — transl. Eyries, Paris, 1821 ; Atlas 4to, PI. XV, 1 : col- lated with PI. LXXIX, of the Russian folio original, St. Petersburg, 1813.] Colored, " teint brun verdatre foncey according to Desmoulins (op. cit., pp. 165, 286). De Krusenstern (II, pp. 89-90, 98-9) considers the hairiness of these A'inos to have been exaggerated, and says their color is " teint brunfonce et presque noir." Upon showing our colored head, No. 5, to my friend Lieut. Habersham, he tells me that it does very well. Already (vide supra, " Prefatory Remarks"), I have been enabled, through his kindness and zeal for science, to present a wood-cut exhibiting the true characteristics of a race so little known as these A'inos. Here is Lieut. Habersham's description : — " The hairy endowments of these people are by no means so extensive as some early writers lead one to suppose. As a general rule, they shave the front of the head d, la Japanese, and though the remaining hair is undoubtedly very thick and coarse, yet it is also very straight, and owes its bushy appearance to the simple fact of constant scratching and seldom combing. This remaining hair they part in the middle, and allow to grow within an inch of the shoulder. The prevailing hue is black, but it often possesses a brownish cast, and these exceptions cannot be owing to the sun, as it is but reasonable to suppose that they suffer a like exposure from infancy up. Like the hair, their beard is bushy, and from the same causes. It is generally black, but often brownish, and seldom exceeds five or six inches in length. I only saw one case where it reached more than half-way to the waist ; and here the owner was evidently proud of its great length, as he had it twisted into innumerable small ringlets, well greased, and kept in something like order. His hair, however, was as bushy as that of any other. As this individual was evidently the most "hairy Kurile" of the party, we selected him as the one most likely to substantiate the assertion of Broughton in regard to "their bodies being almost universally covered with long, black hair." He readily bared his arms and shoulders for inspection, and (if I except a tuft of hair on each shoulder-blade, of the size of one's hand) we found his body to be no more hairy than that of several of our own men. The existence of those two tufts of hair caused us to examine several others, which examina- tions established his as an isolated case. "Their beard, which grows well up under the rather retreating eye, their bushy brows, and generally wild appearance and expression of countenance, give them a most savage look, singularly at variance with their mild, almost cringing, manners. "When drinking, they have a habit of lifting the hanging mustache over the nose, and it was this practice, I suppose, which caused an early writer to say, "their beards are so long as to require lifting up." Though undoubt- edly below the middle height as a general rule, I still saw several who would be EXPLANATIONS OF THE TABLEAU. 621 called quite large men in any country; and, though the average height be not more than "five feet two or four inches," they make up the difference in an abundance of muscle. They are a well-formed race, with the usual powers of endurance accorded to savages, indicated in their expansive chests and swelling muscles. Their features partake more of the European cast than any other. They are generally regular, some even noble, while all are devoid of that expres- sion of treacherous cunning which stands out in such bold relief from the faces of their masters — the Japanese and Northern Chinese. I cannot but agree with La Perouse as to their superiority over those nations. * * * "The Ainos are unpleasantly remarkable as a people in two respects, — viz. : the primitive nature of their costume, and their extreme filthiness of person. I doubt if an Ainu ever washes ; hence the existence of vermin in everything that pertains to them, as well as a great variety of cutaneous diseases, for which they appear to have few or no remedies. There is another side to the picture, however, and it is a bright one. Their moral and social qualities, as exhibited both in their intercourse with each other and with strangers, are beautiful to behold. * * * "I cannot account for Broughton's assertion in regard to their being of "a light copper-color," unless he referred to a few isolated cases. As I have pre- viously remarked, we saw several hundred men, women, and children, and these were all of a dark brotvnish-black, with one exception ; which exception was a male adult, strongly suspected of being a half-breed." {Op. cit., pp. 311—14.) No. 6. — SAMOYEDE. [" GovyrUa, Kanin-Samojeden :" — De Middendorf, Die Samojeden in St. Petersburg, PI. XIV. (Yide Bulletin de la Sac. Eihnologique. de Paris, 1847, 1, pp. 259, 295-7, 300-7 ; and St. Petersburg Zcitung, 1847, Nos. 77, 78.] Colored from Prince Demidoff's collection in the Galerie Anthropologique, Jar- din des Plantes, Paris, 1855. Compare Desmoulins, op. cit., pp. 261-6: — Latham, Native Races of the Rus- sian Empire, London, 1854, pp. 112-21: — Max-Muller, Languages of the Seat of War, London, 1855 ; 2d ed., pp. 118-23. II. ASIATIC REALM, (Nos. 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12.) "Asia Polyglotta" (Elaproth, Sprach Atlas, Paris, fol., 1823; and Atlas of his Tableaux historiques de I'Asie, Paris, fol., 1826; — with their perspicuous maps of Asia at different periods, for all sources — )" seems likely to become "Asia Polygenea," whenever anthropo- logy shall possess, about her multiform human occupants, either the accurate data now acquired for elucidating the Egyptians,the Arabs, the Hebrews, the Berbers, and the Chinese, — or the precise knowledge gained in her inferior departments of zoology. Almost every- thing known about Asiatic ethnography is contained within the present and our former work, taking in view the references accompanying any statement in both. REFERENCES AND EXPLANATIONS. No. 7.— KAMTSCHADAU3. [Pbichard, Natural Bist. of Man, London, 1855: ed. Norris; i. p. 224, PI. ix.— from CilOEIS.] On these I have nothing to add to Dr. Meigs's remarks in Chapter III. 622 EXPLANATIONS OF THE TABLEAU. No. 8. — St. LAURENT-ISLANDER. [ChoriSj op. cit, liv. 7°., PI. xvi.; from Behring'a Straits, American side.] Von Langsdorff (Voy. and Travels, London, 4to. 1813, II, pp. 31, 111-12) Doctor to Kotzebue, says of the Oonalaskans, " a sort of middle race between the Mongol-Tartars and the North Americans " — and of the Koluschians, "they do not appear to have the least affinity with the Mongol race:" — skin, when clean, nearly fair. No. 9. — TARTAR. ["Chef Tartare :" — De Erusenstern, op. cit., PI. xvii. ; — corrected by Russian original, Tab. lxxxii.] Colored by descriptions of the ancient "Ou-Sioun," "Ting-Lings," &c, according to Chinese historians cited by Klaproth ( Tableaux hist, de VAsie, pp. 123-5, 162, &c.) Compare Desmodiins, op. cit., pp. 74-5, 80, 87, 163; — and other authorities in Jardot {Revolutions des Peuples de VAsie Moyenne, Paris, 1839; ii.), "Tab- leau synoptique, chronologique et par Race." De Erusenstern (transl. Ey- ries, 1821, ii. pp. 208-11, 222-6), at the peninsula of Sakhalin (Map, PI. 28), coast of Tartary — narrates how the Tartars, of whom the above is a chief, had driven out and extirpated the "aborigines, or Ai'nos," and were a totally dis- tinct race. For Tartar ethnography around the Black Sea, consult Hommaire be Hell (Les Slippesde la mer Caspienne, Paris, 3 vols., 1845) passim. No. 10. — CHINESE. ["Un Chinois" — Barrow, Voyage en Chine (with Macartney), transl. Castera, Paris, 1805; Atlas, 4to., PI. iv.; and i. pp. 77-82.] There are many forms of Chinamen, on which I have no space to enlarge ; but this is a good normal type. No. 11. — KALMUK. [Derivation uncertain.] Colored from Hamilton Smith, Nat. Hist, of the Human Species, Edinburgh, 1848; "Swarthy Kalmucks, Elenth," PI. 28, p. 462. Compare Martin, op. cit., pp. 271-3, fig. 207: — Cuvier, Atlas, Mammifires. The best descriptions are in a work by an anonymous hut very correct com- piler ( Voyages chez te Peuples Kalmoucks et les Tartares, avec 23 figures et 2 cartes geographiques, Berne, 1792, 8vo., — p. 169 in particular). After indi- cating the clear distinctions, in types and tongues, between the various races of Caspian Asia, he quotes La Motrate's surprise, " d'avoir trouve\ presque sous le meme climat, et dans le meme air, les Circassiens, le plus beau peuple du monde, au milieu des Noghaiens et des Kalmoucks, qui sont de vrais monstres de laideur." No. 12. — TTJDA. ["A man of the Tuda race ;" Nilagiri Hills, — Museum Royal Asiatic Society : Prichard, Researches into the Physical History of Manldnd: — and Nat. Hist, of Man, 1855, PI. xi. p. 353-4.] On all these Dravidian tribes, see Maury's Chap. I., pp. fi2-5 ; and my Chap- ter V., pp. 612-13. The best descriptions are in Sketch of Assam (supra, note 345 514) ; but the colored portraits are too small. EXPLANATIONS OF THE TABLEAU. 623 III. EUROPEAN REALM. (Nos. 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18,-19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24.) The profound author of " Civil Liberty and Self Government " — ablest exponent of human rights as understood in our XlXth century by Anglo-Saxons — has expressed the embarrass- ments of nomenclature in the following note : — " I ask permission to draw the attention of the scholar to a subject which appears to me important. 1 have used the term Western History, yet it is so indistinct that I must ex- plain what is meant by it. It ought not to be so. I mean by western history, the history of all historically active, non-Asiatic nations and tribes — the history of the Europeans and their descendants in other parts of the world. In the grouping and division of comprehen- sive subjects, clearness depends in a great measure upon the distinctness of well-chosen terms. Many students of civilization have probably felt with me the desirableness of a con- cise term, which should comprehend within the bounds of one word, capable of furnishing us with an acceptable adjective, the whole of the western Caucasian portion of mankind — the Europeans and all their descendants in whatever part of the world, in America, Austra- lia, Africa, India, the Indian Archipelago and the Pacific Islands. It is an idea which con- stantly recurs, and makes the necessity of a proper and brief term daily felt. Bacon said that "the wise question is half the science," and may we not add that a wise division and apt terminology is its completion? In my private papers I use the term Occidental, in a sufficiently natural contradistinction to Oriental. But Occidental, like Western, indicates geographical position ; nor did I feel otherwise authorized to use it here. Europides, would not be readily accepted either. Japhethian would comprehend more tribes than we wish to designate. That some term or other must soon be adopted seems to me clear, and I am ready to accept any expressive name formed in the spirit and according to the taste of our language. The chemist and natural historian are not the only ones that stand in need of distinct names for their subjects, but they are less exacting than scholars." — Op. cit., Phi- ladelphia, 8vo., 1853, i. pp. 30-1. Soon after the issue of "Types of Mankind," a pleasant rencontre here with Prof. Fran- cis Lieber led to conversation between us, wherein it was remarked, that the name of a mythic daughter of an ante-historic king of Phoenicia (Agenor), — transported by Jupiter in the form of a natatory milk-white bull to the Isle of Candia — which, as Eitkopa, had not yet become applied geographically to "Europe" in the times of Homer, should have given birth to an adjective — "European" — that (like Caucasian, Turanian, &c, supra, note 460) now designates, as if they were an ethnic unit, types of man historically originating in three distinct Realms (Arctic, Asiatic, and European properly so-called), and races as essentially diverse from each other as the Faunae of these Realms themselves : at the same time that, as Bochart [Phaleg, IV. 33) long ago perceived, such nations differ entirely from the men of a fourth Realm — "quia Europoza Africanos candore faciei multum superant." Prof. Lieber was so good as to leave with me (13th July, 1854) a memorandum embody- ing the result of our conference : — " P. S. I may add that I have thought of the following names, all of which seem poor to me — Japhelians (includes too much) ; Dysi- Caucasians (bad) ; Bupero- Caucasians (poor) ; Europa- Caucasians (poorer). 624 EXPLANATIONS OF THE TABLEAU. " I really think Europidians is the least objectionable, although I own it would induce people, at first glance, to suppose that it includes the descendants of Europeans only, whereas the name ought to include Europeans and all their descendants. F. L." Such are the difficulties. I do not propose to resolve them : but would inquire of fellow- ethnologists — inasmuch as we now know that, in primordial Europe, there once existed (prior to the tripartite Celtic, Indo-Gerinan, and Shlavic, immigrations), men whose silcx- instruments lie entombed in French diluvial drift, men whose humatile vestiges are found in ossuaries and bone-caverns, men who in Anglia and in Scandinavia preceded the Kelt ; just as there are still living, in modern Europe, their Basque and Albanian, amid other, successors — whether it might not be convenient to adopt Prof. Lieber's term " Europidians" (or, Europidce), by way of distinguishing such primary human stratifications from the secondary, now comprised in the current word "Europeans" ? REFERENCES AND EXPLANATIONS. No. 13. — FINN. f" Jannes Holm," Norway Laplander: — Hamilton Smith, op. cit., PI. XXX., p. 463; "The diminu- tive Laplander of Norway, similarly marked with Finnic interunion" — compare pp. 318-20.J '"Dan and Angul, says the venerable historian Saxo-Grammaticus, were brothers: 1 " — that is to say, the Danes and the English descend from one ances- try. Angelm, whence the Angles came to Anglia, lies in Denmark proper; and the Jutes, Jutlanders, came over to England with the Saxons." (Elt.es- mere, op. cit. (supra, note 532) p. 1 : — Also, for " Norman names," consult Me- moires de la Soc. R. des Antiquaries du Nord, Copenhagen, 8vo., 1852.) [See p. 434, ante.] " With regard to externals," says the translator of Geoegi (Russia, or a com- plete Historical account of all the Nations which compose that empire, London, 8vo., 1780, i. p. 37, 45), "the Finns differ nothing from the Laplanders" — being flat against the observations of Capell Brooks! But the separation of the Finns from the Laplanders is supposed to have taken place in the 13th cen- tury, after the forcible conversion of the former to Christianity. However, the very best work on all the Russian peoples is Count Chables de Rech- berg's (Les Peuples de la Russie, &c. — with 94 figures, Paris, 2 vols, fol., — with- out date, but during the reign of Nicholas). He says (i. p. 6), " How many nations, how many religions, how many tongues, what varied customs in this immense State ! Let its diverse habitants be compared, and what distances between their forms, their manner of living, their costumes, their tongues, their opinions ! "What a difference, for instance, betwixt the Livonian and the Kal- mouk, betwixt the Russ and the Samoiede, betwixt the Finn and the Caucasian, betwixt the Aleutian and the Cossack! What divers degrees of civilization, from the Samoiede, who merely, so to say, vegetates in his smoky hut, to the affluent inhabitant of St. Petersburg or of Moscow, who expresses himself in the language of Voltaire almost equally to a Parisian!" He enumerates 99 races, grouped into five types. It must be from this work's suggestions that Prince Demidoff created that beautiful series of colored casts of Russian races now in the Galerie Anthropologique. No. 14. — ICELANDER. ["Pe'fcur Olaffsen. Pecheur de Rekiavik : — Gaimard, Voy. en Maude ei en Givcnlande, Corvette " Recherche " (1S35-6), Paris, 1840 ; fol. Atlas hist., I.] Colored by descriptions. Vide supra, Chap. V., pp. 584-5. No. 15. — BARON CUTTER. [From lithograph of his portrait by Maurin.) EXPLANATIONS OF THE TABLEAU. 625 " George Cuvier, the first of all descriptive anatomists, and the scientific man who first, after Aristotle, applied the art of anatomy to general science, was born on the 23d of August, 1769, at Montbeliard, a small and originally a German town, but long since incorporated within the French territories. He was a native of Wirtemberg, a German in fact, and not a Frenchman in any sense of the term, saving a political one. The family came originally from a village of the Jura, bearing the same name, of Swiss origin therefore, and a native of the country which gave birth to Agassiz. In personal appearance he much resembled a Dane, or North German, to which race he really belonged. Cuvier then was a German, a man of the German race, an adopted son of France, but not a Celtic man [nor a Keli], not a Frenchman. In character he was in fact the antithesis of their race, and how he assorted and consorted with them it is difficult to say. Calm, systematic, a lover of the most perfect order, methodical beyond all men I have ever seen, collective and accumulative in a sci- entific point of view, his destinies called him to play a grand part in the midst of a non-accumulative race, a race with whom order is the exception, disorder the rule. But his place was in the Academy, into which neither dema- gogues nor priests can enter. Around him sat La Place, Arago, Gay-Lussac, Humboldt, Ampere, Lamarck, Geoffroy. This was his security, these his coad- jutors, this the audience which Cuvier, the Saxon, and therefore the Protestant, habitually addressed. It was whilst conversing with him one day in his library, which opened into the Museum of Comparative Anatomy, a museum which he formed, that the full value of his position forced itself upon me. This was, I think, during the winter of 1821 or '22. A memoir had been discussed a day or two before at the Academy : I remarked to him that the views advocated in that memoir could not fail to be adopted by all unprejudiced men (hommes suns prejuges) in France. ' And how many men sans prejuges may there be in France V was his reply. " ' There must,' I said, 'be many, there must be thousands.' " 'Reduce the number to forty, and you will be nearer the truth,' was the remarkable observation of my illustrious friend. I mused and thought." — (R. Knox, M. D., F. R. S. E., Great Artists and Great Anatomists, London, 12mo. 1852, pp. 18-19. No. 16.— BULGARIAN. ["Famille Bulgare:" — Gajmard (Commission Scientifique du Nord), Toy. au Spitaburg, Laponte, 4c, (1838-40) ; Atlas Pittor., 66"=. liv."| See excellent "Portraits-types Turcs et Grees de la Roume'lie," with others of Circassians, Kurds, &c, in Hommaire de Hell ( Voyage en Turquie et en Perse, Paris, 1854, Atlas fol., Pis. viii., liii., xlviii. : and, for everything else here needful, D'Ohsson Tableau general de V Empire Ottoman, Paris, fol., 1790- 1820; II, pp. 136-7; Plates 63-74.) No. 17.-GREEK. [" Palicar [guerilla], lies de PArehipel. Grec:— Galerk Royale de Costumes, Aubert k C' e ., Paris, fol., PI. 8.] On this face, M. Pulszky comments, in a private letter to me, that this man is a Sclavonian. I agree with him ; but such is the normal type of Moreots at the present day. No. 18.— CAUCASIAN. [" Prince Kasbek (Oss6ti§) :"— Gagarine, Costumes du Caucase, Paris, fol. 3852.] I mean, as the highest type of the " Men of Mt. Caucasus" (supra, Chap. V note 460). I have no space to enlarge upon this mountain's multiform inha- bitants. 40 G26 EXPLANATIONS OP THE TABLEAU. No. 19. — SYRIAN. [" Habitant de Bethleem (Palestine) :"— Galerie Royale de Costumes, PI. 2.] A most characteristical type of people I know well. No. 20.— ARAB. [" Azerai Arab, near CosseyT :" — by Prisse d'Avennes, in Jtfadden's Oriental Album, London, fol., . 1846, PI. 8.] " Voila les Arabes-Bedouins. * * * * We have enlarged somewhat in detail on this race, because, in the midst of this hybrid population of Syria, — of this confused mixture of Greeks, Jews, Turks, Barbaresques, Armenians, Franks, [i. e. Europeans'], Maronites, Drnzes, and Moghrabees — it is the only people that oifers a special and homogeneous character, the only one whose ethno- graphy can be attached to primitive traditions, and to the history of the first ages " (Taylor & Reybadd, La Syrie, VEgypte, la Palestine, et la Judee, Paris, fol. 1839, i. p. 125.) Ho. 21. — FELLAH. \Inediled — modern Egyptian peasant: — Prisse d'Avennes's portfolio, Paris, 1855.] Compare the ancient and the modern type, as before exhibited [supra, Plates I, II) ; and commented on by Pulszky (Chapter II), and by myself in "Prefa- tory Remarks." No. 22. — BERBER. [" Troupes d' Abd-el-Kader :" — Galerie Royale de Obstumes, PI. 1-] Compare Cuvier, Atlas, Mammiferes : — Bort de St. Vincent, Anthropologic de VAfrique Francaise (Mag. de Zool., Paris, 1845), PI. 60, No. II. See, also, my Chapter V, pp. 527-43. No. 29. — UZBEK-TATAR. [" SjaJi mierza, geweezen Cancellier in Golconda:" — from M. Pnlszky's collection of forty-seven East-Indian portraits, by native artists ; with Dutch MS. catalogue, " Namen der Perzoonen wien Conterfytsels in dit boekje Staan met aannyzing htinnen qualiteyteh," No. 35.] No. 24.— AFFGHAN. ["A de Cabul -"—Galerie Royale de Costumes, PI. 6.] Types of Mankind, pp. 118-24 ; and against the latest Affghano-Jewish theories of Rose and of Forster,— besides noting the colored portraits of Douraunees in Mountstuart Elphinstone's Cabul — set the following affirma- tions from Kennedy. The Affghans, "originally a Turkish or Moghul nation, but that at present they are a mixed race, consisting of the inhabitants of Ghaur, the Turkish tribe of Khilji [swords?], and the Perso-Indian tribes dwelling between the eastern branches of the Hindu Kush and the upper parts of the Indus." (Op. cit., p. 6, — supra, V, note 515; citing Leech, in Proceed. Geog. Soc. of Bombay, 1838.) IV. AFRICAN REALM. (Nos. 19, 20, 21, 23, 24.) If "polyglotta" was so felicitously applied to the Asiatic world by Klaproth, and equally-well since [supra, Chapter I, p. 61.] to the African by Koelle, in regard to the languages spoken over more than half the terrestrial superficies of our globe, another EXPLANATIONS OF THK TABLEAU. 627 designation, — that of "multicolor" — might, with propriety, be given to the human abori- gines of that African continent, wherein, betwixt the Tropic of Cancer and that of Capri- corn, the human skin possesses more shades and hues — totally independent of any imagined climatologic influences — than in any given area within the rest of this earth. To the evi- dences of this fact (new to general readers, who fancy that a woolly-headed "negro" must necessarily be black) accumulated, for southern Africa in Prichard's last volume, and for western in a pamphlet before cited (supra, Chap. Ill, p. 224; Chap.V,p.551), — whilst in the Parisian galerie anthropologique abundant colored casts, paintings, and photographs, illus- trate all three regions — the magnificent plastic collection of M. de Froberville (supra p. 608) will, when published, furnish for eastern Africa singularly unanticipated corroborations. On the Mozambique coasts alone, amid the nations grouped together, by this minutely- accurate observer, under the designation " Ostro-Negro" — amid whom the Mkuas are the most polychrome — nature's palette has supplied pigments of such innumerable tints that, only sixty colored casts have yielded 4 distinct nigritian types, subdivided into about 31 " varie'te's." In our Ethnographic Tableau, Nos. 27 and 28 represent two of these tints; and in our Monkey-chart, figs. F, C, and D, indicate three more. REFERENCES AND EXPLANATIONS. No. 25. — ABABDEE. ["Abd-el-Amid elrAbbadi — 40 ans^des montagnes a. 3 lieues de Coss&yr :" Lefebvre, Voyage en Abyssinia (1839^10), Paris, Atlas fol., 3.] Knowing these people through long years of observation, I chose this as an admirable representation of their normal type ; which the reader can contrast with an equally good Bisharree — as the next austral gradation along the Nile, eastern desert (Types of Mankind, p. 203, fig. 120). See Valentia ( Voy. and Travels, India, &c, London, 4to, 1802-6, II, p. 289) for another good profile of a Bisharree — drawn by my boyhood's friend and manhood's admi- ration, the late Consul-General Henry Salt. No. 26. — SAHARA-NEGRO. [" Type Ethiopien (Negre) :" — Bort de St. Vincent, Anthropologic de PAfriqw Francaise, Magaain de Zoologie, 4c, Oct. 1845 ; Mammiferes, PI. 6, No. Ill ; p. 13.] Compare (supra, Chapter V, wood-cut B), front-view of the same head; to- gether with the profile of the Gorilla, same page, wood-cut C. No. 27.— YEB00-NEGRO. ("Oclil-Fekout-Dt', natif de Yebou (Age d'environ 42 ans) :" — D'Avegac, Notice sur le Pays et le Peuple des YCbous (Memoires de la Society Ethnologique) ; Paris, Svo, 1839 ; Plate, and pp. 21- 4, 45-6.] Colored to represent an ordinary negro ; but the true hue is said to be " un noir brun." See De Froberville, "sur la persistance des characteres typiques du negre" (Bulletin de Soc. de Elhnol. de Paris, 1847, pp. 256-7). No. 28. — MOZAMBIQUE-NEGRO. [" Negre de la CSte de Mozambique :" — copied in Brazil by Choris, op. cit., 1'* liv., PI. III.] Colored to represent one of the various shades of the M'koua nation, in the inedited collection of 60 plaster casts of Africans brought from Bourbon and Mauritius by M. de Froberville (Paris, 1855). Vide "Rapport sur les races negres de l'Afrique Orientale au sud de ]'e"quateur, observers par M. de Fro- berville;" Comptes rendus des seances de V ' Acadfmie des Sciences, XXX, 3 juin, 1850; tirage a part, pp. 11-14: — also, "Analyse d'un Memoire de M. Eugeno de Froberville," in Bulletin de la Societe Ethnologique de Paris, ann^e 1846, I, pp. 89-99 : — and Bulletins de la Societe de Geographie. 628 EXPLANATIONS OF THE TABLEAU. No. 29. — CAEFK. [" Umbambu (young Zulu in dancing costume) :" — Q. French Anqas, Kafirs Illustrated, London, fol., 1849.] For good descriptions — less tinctured with "Exeter Hall" philanthropy than current English reports — see Delgoeque [Voyage dans VAfrique Auslrale — " Cafres Amazoulous et Makatisses," Paris, 1847, 2 vols. 8vo) ; who has likewise exhibited these nations in their true light, in "Note sur lcs Cafres" [Bulletin Soc. de Ethnologique de Paris, 1847, pp. 132—48). Contrast Louis Alberti [Description physique et kislorique des Cafres, Am- sterdam, 8vo, 1811, p. 29), and Le Vaillaxt, [2d Voy. dans VInlerieur de VAfrique, Paris, 1783-5, II, PI. XXI, in, pp. 33-189), with Lichtenstein (Travels in South Africa, London, 4to, 1812), who overthrows Barrow's Sinico- Hottentot predilections, whilst substantiating, ad pugnandum, this last natu- ralist's deductions. Patterson's Narrative (London, 1789), Sparrman's Cap de Bonne Esperance (Paris, 1787), and Salt's Abyssinia (London, 1814) furnish ample materials for Polygenists. No. 30. — HOTTENTOT. [Portrait of a Hottentot, aged " 52 ana — costume naturel — a en 10 enfans" — exhibited at Paris, 1854^5 ; photographed by M. L. Roossead — Galerie Anthropologique du Museum cTHistoire NatureUe : — vide infra, pp. 608], My friend, Mr. J. Barnard Davis, having shown me the two full-size colored casts of "Bushmen," male and female, in the Royal College of Surgeons, I am free to say that they differ as much from anything human I ever saw, as a pure Laconian greyhound does from a "pug." Colored from PI. 24 of Peron, Voy. et Decouv. aux Terres Australes (Baudin's). Excellent drawings, showing the gradations of feature in Hottentots, Kaffrs, Bosjesmans, Booshwanas, &c. in Daniell (Sketches representing the Native Tribes, Animals and Scenery of Southern Africa, London, 4to, 1 820) ; who, speaking of the female Hottentot, adds (p. 29) that, when young she is symmetrical, but "gradually degenerates into those deformities which are too well known to require a particular mention." No. I assert that these peculiarities — which incontestably prove the Hotten- tots to be a distinct " species" — are not only little known, but that the facts have been suppressed — and by Cuvier himself — in order not to alarm Monoge- nists! The subject (see Types of Mankind, p. 431, wood-cut 276) is not fitted for elucidation in a popular work like the present ; but the President of our Academy of Nat. Sciences, Mr. Ord, possesses the suppressed plates (which he has kindly shown me), and knows where the original colored drawings made at the Cape by Peron and Lestieur are preserved. [See Ord, " Memoir of Charles Alex. Lesueur," — Silliman's Journal, 2d series, 1849, VIII, pp. 204-5, 210: — and take note that, of the plates beautifully engraved for the "Voyage aux Terres Australes," 4 (exhibiting the "Tablier" with amazing minuteness, and at all ages,) were suppressed, by Cuvier's order, in the 1st ed. 1816, and in the 2d, 1831 ; because the livr" of Mr. Ord's unique copy has 28 (1 with 2 figures) ; whereas that published by Arthus Bertrand contains only 25 plates.] A more disgraceful case of unscientific pandering to the " Unity of the human species" can nowhere be found. Polygenists will, notwithstanding, get at these truths some day ; and, in the interim, can gather an osteological difference between Hottentots and other "species" from Knox (Races, Philad. ed., 1850, pp. 152, 157) ; as well as read the comments of Viret (Hist. Nat. du Genre Humain, Paris, 1824, I, pp. 224, 244-53). It is to the injudicious observations of John Barrow (French translation by EXPLANATIONS OF THE TABLEAU. 629 CastSra, Voyage en Chine, Paris, 1805, I, pp. 77-82, PI. IV, Atlas,) — and to his alone — that a notion has got abroad that the Chinese and the Hottentots re- semble each other! Pickering (Races, 4to, p. 219), forty years later, frankly states, "I am not sure that I have seen Hottentots of pure race." AMERICAN REALM. (Nos. 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42.) To ourselves in America this being naturally the most interesting, we may devote to its consideration a few more paragraphs than space admitted for the others. "In fine, our own conclusion, long ago deduced from a patient examination of the facts thus briefly and inadequately stated, is, that the A merican race is essentially separate and peculiar, whether we regard it in its physical, its moral, or its intellectual relations. To us there are no direct or obvious links between the people of the old world and the new; for, even admitting the seeming analogies to which we have alluded, these are so few in number and evidently so casual as not to invalidate the main position ; and even should it be hereafter shown, that the arts, sciences, and religion of America can be traced to an exotic source, I maintain that the organic characters of the people themselves, through all their endless ramifications of tribes and nations, prove them to belong to one and the same race, and that this race is distinct- from all others" (Morton, Distinctive Characteristics of the Aboriginal Race of America, Philadelphia, 8vo, 2d ed., 1844, pp. 35-6). The Spanish Conquistadores had long ago remarked that " he who has seen one tribe of Indians, has seen all:" but, it must be also remembered that Ulloa, who first uses this sentence, was speaking of Central and South American aborigines ; and not of the Northern, or Barbarous (as distinguished from Toltecan), races, — with whom he was wholly un- acquainted. " The half-clad Fuegian, shrinking from his dreary winter, has the same characteristic lineaments, though in an exaggerated degree, as the Indians of the tropical plains ; and these, again, resemble the tribes which inhabit the region west of the Rocky Mountains — those of the great Valley of the Mississippi, and those, again, which skirt the Eskimaux on the North. All possess alike the long, lank, black hair, the brown or cinnamon-colored skin, the heavy brow, the dull and sleepy eye, the full and compressed lips, and the salient, but dilated nose. . . . The same conformity of organization is not less obvious in the osteo- logical structure of these people, as seen in the square or rounded head, the flattened or vertical occiput, the large quadrangular orbits, and the low, receding forehead. . . . Mere exceptions to a general rule do not alter the peculiar physiognomy of the Indian, which is as undeviatingly characteristic as that of the Negro ; for whether we see him in the athletic Charib or the stunted Chayma, in the dark Californian or the fair Borroa, he is an Indian still, and cannot be mistaken for a being of any other race" (Mokton, Op. cit., pp. 4-5: — Types of Mankind, p. 439). While lately at Paris, my friend M. Maury favored me with the loan of a book, then just issued from the press of (Cberbuliez) Geneva, — by M. F. de Rougemont (Le peuple primitif, sa religion, son histoire el sa civilisation, 2 vols. 8vo, 1855). As learned as the works of Count de Gibelin, De Pauw, De Gotgnes, De Fouemont, Bailly, Warburton, or Dupois, it far surpasses that of Faber (Origin of Pagan Idolatry) in the immensity of its geographical range and the variety of its literary sources. Having been, in due course of time, reviewed by M. Maury himself (Athenmum Francois, 6 Octobre 1855), some passages of his article, bearing upon the literary character of our earliest post-Columbian authori- ties for American history, are here introduced. 630 EXPLANATIONS OF THE TABLEAU. "M. Fre'de'ric de Rougemont accepts without hesitation the contents of the Old Testa- ment; avoiding to distinguish between the moral and religious part, and the purely his- torical and geographical part, — between the divine part and the human part. In his eyes, one and the same character of inspiration consecrates all the pages of the holy book; and the rdle of the critic reduces itself to that of a commentator. * * * "I shall not undertake to discuss the principles upon which M. de Rougemont scaffolds his edifice. I will restrict myself to consigning here one observation, viz : that, although Protestantism is the school of free inquiry, there exist in its bosom some persons who, in matters of biblical exegesis and criticism, show themselves much less liberal and less bold than the Catholics are themselves. Inasmuch as the Protestants feel the lack of an authority, and as that of a traditional dogmatic tuition is wanting to them, they cling with earnestness to a book which is the only authority to them remaining, "and they will not issue from a literal and narrow interpretation. This system greatly injures the advance- ment of a multitude of sciences, — such as ethnology, chronology, geology, &c. — that have need of liberty and independence. " In order to proceed in a method truly scientific, it is necessary to clear the table (/aire table rase) of everything which has no scientific value, and consequently of everything that is not conformable to reason. Sufficient is it to say, that the domain of faith and the domain of science are altogether distinct; nor can they be confounded without compro- mising the dignity and the role as well of the one as of the other. But, on the opposite hand, science, when she stands upon her own ground, cannot, without self-abnegation, admit that to be demonstrated and certain which is only so in respect to sentiment. The fault of M. de Rougemont is, to have constantly mingled the two methods ; no less than to have believed that he could, at one and the same time, satisfy purely-scientific opinions and religious convictions. " It has happened to the author of this book what had occurred to the first missionaries who went forth to preach the gospel among savages. Pre-occupied with the thought of re-finding, in the tales and gross imaginations of such septs, some remembrances of the pristine fatherland whence these believed themselves to have issued, the missionaries have modified, often unknowingly, often intentionally likewise, the recitals they had heard, in order to invest them with a more biblical color. They have transformed into serious and connected traditions that which was but the instantaneous and capricious creation of a savage poet inspired through their own discourses; and it is such stuff which they have presented to us as the seculary reminiscences of the savages whom they were evangelizing. Indeed, these infantile stories did not often ascend to an epoch more ancient than the missionaries from whom we receive them, — and already the influence of the ideas preached by them, of the facts by themselves taught to their catechumens, made itself felt within the very narrow circle of the conceptions of these tribes. In this manner, the apostles of Christ only retook, under another form, that which they themselves had sown ; and they registered, as ancient traditions, that which was naught but the fantastic envelope given to their own teaching. This is what has incontestably occurred, — notably on the discovery of Amerioa, and more recently in the islands of the Indian Archipelago and of Polynesia. It suffices to cast one's eye upon the first accounts that the Spaniards composed about the religion and the usages of the Indians, in order to convince oneself that the former con- stantly mixed up their own beliefs with the fables which they gathered here and there amongst the savages." After proving his positions — for Mexico, through D. Andres Gonzales Baecia, Fran- cisco Lopez de Gomara, Juan de Torquemada, Father Lafitau, Gaecilasso de la Vega, and D. Fernando d'Alva-Ixtitxochitl — for New Zealand, through Sie Geoeqe Geev, [Dunmore Lang], J. C. Polack, Diefenbach, and Mozeenhout — and for Peru, through the Jesuit Pedro Jose de Ariaga, subjected to the recent scalpel of T. G. Muller [Geschichte der Amerikanischen JJrreligionen) — M. Maury glances over the ultra-biblical notions of ancient Egypt, Greece, and Hindostan ; and lastly touches upon the traditions of the Hebrews : EXPLANATIONS OF THE TABLEAU. 631 "That which comes against the suppositions of our author is, — the very trifling development which the dogma of a future state, and of demons, had taken among the Israelites ; whereas we see it serving as a basis to the great polytheistic religions of antiquity. If the biblical tradition had been the foundation of pagan beliefs, how comes it that that which was to itself the most foreign should have played amid them the prin- cipal part ? And, on the other hand, one would be compelled to recognize that these heathen nations have been more faithful depositaries of the primitive gospel than the elect-people itself, — because Christianity has adopted those dogmatical data which the Greeks and the Egyptians knew a great deal better than the Hebrews. Our author really feels the difficulty; and it is in vain that he tries to parry the objection accruing from it against his system. " There is, however, one point upon which I will not combat M. de Eougemont, and which will give me an occasion to conclude this polemic — perhaps a little too prolonged — with a treaty of peace. The Swiss writer respects in all religions their dignity, and that which may be called, up to a certain point, their truth. They are, indeed, the ones as well as the others, the expression of the gratitude of man towards his Creator, towards Nature, whose benefits sustain his existence. They constitute the more or less naive shape which thought puts on whilst meditating upon our destinies; and, as such, they have the right to be seriously studied ; as such, they must find place in the history of that which is the noblest of our being. Beneath those errors, — natural fruits of credulity and fear — that encircle human belief, there lives a profound and instinctive sentiment which is bound up with all our good instincts, whensoever it be suitably directed and restrained : — this sentiment is that of the soul feeling its weakness, which has need of the support of the mysterious Being whence it proceeds. This sentiment consoles and strengthens : it is the refuge of the honest man, and the motive-power of the most sublime sacrifices. Science, far from combating it, bows before it. She accepts it as a fact as evident as the most evident of physical and historical facts. M. de Rougemont feels these truths with more force than any man, because it is the excess of this sentiment that leads him astray. He wishes, like the ancient Gnostics, to behold but the rays of which the luminous portion becomes enfeebled in the ratio that they remove themselves farther from the Divine focus whence they emanate ; but, whatever may be said about it, matter has also had its part to play in these creeds and these superstitions, — and the majority were born upon a soil that had not been warmed by the gentle light with which he is illumined." Finally, those who may care about knowing what is now, in France and Germany, the scientific stand-point as concerns such words as "Creation," "Deluge," "Ark," and other Semitico-Christian traditions, have merely to turn over the leaves, for about 80 instances, sub vocibus, of Didot's Encyclopedic Moderne, last edition. REFERENCES AND EXPLANATIONS. No. 31. — KUTCHIN-INDIAN. [" Kulcha-Kutchin warrior (Loucheux- Indians of Mackenzie) :" — Richardson, Arctic Searching Expedition (1848-50), London, 1851 ; I, p. 381.] For instinctive hatreds between the indigenous Indian races and the Arctic Eskimo, compare Hearne (Northern Ocean, London, 1769-72, Chap. VI), Hooper (Tuski, pp. 272-5), and Richardson (Op. cit., I, pp. 377-402). No. 32. — STONE-INDIAN. IStone-lndian (near Cumberland House:" — Franklin, Toy. to Polar Sea, London, 1823, p. 104.1 " The 'Tinne" [as the Eskimos term the Indians], or Chippewyans = Indians, stretch across the continent of America, meeting the Eskimos on the east, and the Kutchin on the west of the Rocky mountains (Richardson, op. cit., II, pp. 1-59). No two types are more distinct than American Indians and the Arctic men. 632 EXPLANATIONS OF THE TABLEAU. No. 33. — OTTOE-INDIAN. ["Wali-ro-nee-sah, the Surrounder, an Ottoe-chief:" — Pkichabd, Nat. Hist, of Han, 1855; II, p. 547 (from Catlin), PI. LIU. No. 34. — YUCATAN- INDIAN. [" Indien Contrebandier de l'Interieur :" — Waldeck, Voyage PUtor. ei Archeol. dans la Province de Yucatan (Amerique Cenlrale), 1834-6; Paris, fol. 1S37; PI. V.] Unfortunately, the plates in Richard Schomburgk (Reisen in British Guiana, Leipzig, fol. 1835; I, p. 429; II, p. 42) are uncolored; whilst " Essetamaissu Wapisiana" is Europeanized. There are, however, excellent descriptions of the colors, &c, in Kobt. H. Schomburgk's beautiful work [Twelve Views in British Guiana, fol., 1841, pp. 30-1). No. 35. — BOEOUA-INDIAN. [Debret, Voyage PUlor. au Bresil, Paris, fol., 1835 ; PI. 29, fig. 8.] Colored from descriptions in De Castelnau — (Expedition dans les parties centrales de V Amerique du Sud, Paris, 1843-51, "Vues et Scenes," pp. 6-14), compared with a tint obtained at the Galerie Anthropologique. Morton called them "the fair Borroa." Von Schwege (Brasilien die Neue Welt, Brunswick, 8vo, 1830, pp. 215-44), D'Orbignt (Amerique meridionale, Paris, 1846; Atlas, Plates 1-13), Prince Max. of Wied-Neuwied (Travels in Brazil, London, fol. 1820, pp. 311-12, pi. xvii, on " Botocudos"), Debret (Bresil, Paris, fol., 1835, II, pp. 2 seqq.), Aug. de St. Hilaire (Rio de Janeiro et de Minos Geraes, Paris, 8vo, 1830, I, pp. 424-6; II, pp. 48-231) — not to mention my friend M. Ferdinand de St. Denis, Librarian of the " Bibliotheque de St. Genevieve," who has critically summed up the whole of these authorities in his various publications — may, perhaps, arrest the attention of some reader, before he voluntarily concedes that monogenistic views on human "species" are things yet scientifically esta- blished. No. 36. — FUEGIAN. [" Tapoo Tekeenica — Pecheray-marj :" — Fitzroy, Surveying Voy. of " Adventure" and "Beagle'" (1826-39); London, 1829, n, p. 141. Colored from descriptions in Idem; and in D'Orbigny's "L'Homme Ame>i- cain." VI. POLYNESIAN REALM. (Nos. 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42.) "Oce'anie," in Dumont d'Urville's ethnic map (Voyage dela Corvette VAslrolahe, 1826-9; Paris, folio Atlas, 1833: — 8vo Text, II, pp. 610-30), is luminously depicted in four colors, viz : Malaisie in blue, Micronesie, in green, ilelanesie in yellow, and Polynesie in pink. Only the three last named subdivisions comprehend the human faunae of our "Polynesian" Realm. What their respective contrasts are, is, in our Tableau, inadequately illustrated in one line of portraits. What the greatest of modern circumnavigator's opinions were, on the types of mankind so thoroughly studied by himself, may be gathered from three paragraphs. "It is now-a-days almost averred that the Alfourous of Timor, of Ceram and Bourou ; the Negritos del monte, or Aetas, of Mindanao; the Indios of the Philippines; the Ygolotes of Luzon ; the Negrillos of Borneo ; the blacks of Formosa, of the Andamans, of Sumatra, EXPLANATIONS OF THE TABLEAU. 633 of Malacca, and those of Cochin-Chiua, called Hoys or Kemoys, — appertain to this same primitive race of Melanesians [black-islanders] who must have been the first occupiers of Oceania. " We do not hesitate to believe that the Polynesians arrived from the west and even from Asia [an ' opinion'] ; but we do not at all believe that they are the descendants of the present Hindoos. They had probably a common origin with them ; but the two nations had been already separated for a long time, when one of them went to people Oceania. " The same holds good as regards the consequences which different voyagers have drawn from the relations observed between the Polynesians and the Malays. Without any doubt, these two nations had of yore some intercourse. Lengthened studies have caused us to discover about 60 words which are evidently common between the two tongues; and that is sufficient to attest some ancient communications. But, there is too much difference in the physiological ' rapports ' for one to be able to suppose that Polynesians could be merely a Malayan colony." REFERENCES AND EXPLANATIONS. No. 37. — NEW ZEALANDER. [" Touri, chef de la Nouvelle Zelande :" — Doperret, Yoy. autour du Monde, " Coquille " (1822-5) . Paris, 1826, folio Atlas, No. 47.] It should be remembered that the contracted skin, in tatooed New Zealand faces, proceeds from the cicatrices accruing from such process. No. 38. — SAMOA-ISLANDER. ['• Man of the Samoan Islands :" — Prichard, op. ctt., II, PI. XXvm, p. 451.] Erskine [Cruise, II. M. S. Savannah, London, 8vo, 1853) gives the most recent and the best accounts of the commingling of diiferent blood in the west- ern Pacific; since those of Quoy and Gaimakd (Zoologie, "Astrolabe," 1830, I, pp. 15-57), and of Lesson and Garnot (Zoologie, "Coquille," Paris, 1826, I, pp. 8-116). No. 39. — TIKOPIA-ISLANDER. [" Naturel de Ticopia :" — D'Urvllle, Toy. " Astrolabe," PI. 177 ; V, pp. 109-14]. Colored from Idem, PI. 185. See Nott's Chapter IV (supra, note 29) for the fact that these fair Islanders of the true Maori race cannot acclimate themselves on an adjacent island of the same Archipelago, whereon the aboriginal Blacks flourish. No. 40. — VANIKORO-ISLANDER. [" Mainglw de Manovg :" — D' Urville, op. cit., PI. 176, T, p. 155]. On this island, in 1788, were wrecked two French frigates, and, amidst these people, with all the gallant Frenchmen, perished La Peuouse — whose immortal name ennobles this archipelago. The accounts of Captain Dillon, and of Dumont d'Urville — who himself, after braving unharmed the perils of the sea in three voyages round the world, was burnt up in a rail-car at Meudon, together with his wife and son — furnish all particulars. No. 41. — TANA-ISLANDER. [" Man of Tana, New Hebrides :" — Erskine, Cruise, that fulfils every necessary requirement. His present habitat — Arabia, and perhaps Persia — is the nearest in geo- graphical approximation to Mount Ararat; and we know that he lived thereabouts, near Mesopotamia, as far back as b. c. 885 ; because his effigy is sculptured on the Obelisk of Nirnrood, 625 assigned by Rawlinson to that date, under the reign of Jehu. 626 I propose, there- fore, that a male and female "pair" of the "species" Cynocephalus Ramadryas [No. 27] be henceforward recognized as the anthropoid analogues of "Noah, Shem, Ham and Japheth ;" and that it must be from these two individuals that, owing to transplantation, together with the combined action of aliment and climate, the 54 monkeys represented on our chart have originated. It is, notwithstanding, sufficiently strange, that, under such circumstances, this "primordial organic type" of monkey should have so highly improved in G-uinea and in Malayana as to become Gorillas and Chimpanzees, Orangs and Gibbons; whereas, on the contrary, the descendants of "Adam and Eve" have, in the same localities, actually deteriorated into the most degraded and abject forms of humanity. 62i See above, Chapter V, pp. 572-3. 622 The Kopiiim, apes [supra, V, note 341], are not mentioned in Hebrew writings until the recent manipulation of Kings and Chronicles by the Esdraic school. Being always "un- clean " to the Israelites and Mussulmans, however dear to the Brahmans, monkeys must ' have been taken into the Ark "two and two" (Genesis, VII, 9); and not "by sevens" (ibid., verse 2). 623 They are celebrated for their agility, and are the only " species " trained in the Levant for gymnastic and dancing exhibitions. 624 Supra sub voce: — Ainsworth (Researches in Assyria, Babylonia and Chaldma, London, 8vo, 1838, p. 37) observes, "The monkey, whose country begins about 38° N. lat., is un- known in Assyria and Babylonia; but it is not certain if it is not an extinct animal, for an able Hebrew scholar has stated to me, that the doleful creatures which are prophetically announced as tenanting fallen Babylon, ought to be read as monkeys or baboons." 625 Latakd's folio Monuments, 1849; and his Nineveh and its Remains, 1848; contain accurate copies of this monument. For the archaeology of various monkeys, see De Blain- vtlle (Osteographie, pp. 28-49), and Gervais (op. cit., pp. 107-8). 626 Types of Mankind, pp. 701-2. 650 EXPLANATIONS OF THE TABLEAU". In bidding farewell to the reader, I would invite his attention to one more singularity, and to one now established fact, suggested by inspection of this Monkey-chart, viz : — 1. That, within the black circumvallating line which surrounds the zone occupied by the simise, no "civilization" — except possibly in Central America and Peru — has ever been spontaneously developed since historical times. Europe, since the ages of fossil remains (supra, Chapter V, pp. 52-3 -4), has not contained any monkeys, save a few apes imported from the African side to skip about Gibraltar rock. The line runs south of Carthage, Cyrene, Egypt-proper, Palestine, Mesopotamia, Ariana, and China. We know that Hindostanic "civilization" was due exclusively to immigrant Aryas ; and that of Malayana, primarily to the migratory sequences of the latter, and secondarily to the Muslim Arabs. 2. That the most superior types of Monkeys are found to be indigenous exactly where we encounter races of some of the most inferior types of Men. G. R. G. Philadelphia, February, 1857. ALPHABETICAL LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS. 651 LIST OP SUBSCRIBERS. S. Thayer Abert, Esq., "Washington, D. 0. Adelphia Club, New Orleans, La. Prof. L. Agassiz, Cambridge, Mass. Manuel Aleman, Esq., Mexico. Alexander & White, Booksellers, Memphis, Tcnn.(6) J. J. Alford, Esq., New Orleans, La. W. P. Alison, Esq., M. D., Edinburgh. Hon. Philip Allen, Providence, R. I. Geo. S. D. Anderson, Esq., Alexandria. La. Wm. H. Anderson, M. D., Mobile, Ala. J. W. Angel, M. D., Charleston, S. C. Hon. H. B. Anthony, Providence, R. I. D. Appleton & Co., Booksellers, New York (12 copies). Robert B. Armistead, Esq., Mobile, Ala. 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Millspaugh, Esq., St. Louis, Mo. The Dean of St. Paul's (Dr. H. H. Milman), Eng. J. B. Mitchell, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. M. Monro, Esq., London. Jno. W. Moore, Bookseller, Philadelphia (2 copies). Thos. Moore, Esq., Schuylkill Falls, Pa. Thos. H. Morris, Esq., Baltimore, Md. Prof. W. B. Morrow, M.D., Memphis, Tenn. P. A. Morse, Esq., New Orleans. Robt. P. Morton, Esq., Germantown, Pa. Mrs. Samuel George Morton, Germantown, Pa. Thos. Geo. Morton, M.D., Philadelphia, Pa. Alex. Moseley, Esq., Richmond, Va. J. M. Moss & Bro., Booksellers, Philadelphia, Pa. (5) Prof. James Moultrie, M. D., Charleston, S. C. Wm. Mure, Esq., H.B.M. Consul, New Orleans. Dr. Max Miiller, Taylorian Professor, Oxford, Eng. Jennings Murphy, Esq., Mobile, Ala. (2 copies.) The H. Lord Murray, Edinburgh. G. A. Myers, Esq., Richmond, Va. W. II. Myers, Esq., Loudonville, 0. W. Nelson, Esq., Edinburgh. Alexander Nesbitt, Esq., London. J. West Nevins, Esq., New York. New Orleans Club, per R. H. Chilton, Esq., New Or- leans. J. P. Nichol, Esq., Prof, of Astronomy, Glasgow (2). Miss Nightingale, Embley, Hants, Eng. B. M. Norman, Bookseller, New Orleans, La. (10 c.) Edwin Norris, Esq., F.R.S., F.R.A.S-, London. Prof. Gustavus A. Nott, M. D., XJniv. of La., New Or- leans. Robert W. Ogden, Esq., New Orleans, La. Samuel Ogdin, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. Jno. W. O'Neill, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. Edward Padelford, Esq., Savannah, Ga. W. B. Page, M. D., Philadelphia. I. II. & John Parke;-, Booksellers, Oxford, Eng. (3 c.) Parry & M'Millau, Booksellers, Philadelphia, Pa. (10) Edward Patterson, Esq., Baltimore, Md. Robert Patterson, Esq., U. S. Mint, Philadelphia. Geo. Pattison & Co., Booksellers, Memphis, Tenn, (5) Monsieur G. Pauthier, Paris. Abraham Payne, Esq., Providence, R. I. St. George Peachy, Esq., Richmond, Va. Miss Mary Pearsall, Germantown, Pa. Jno. Penington & Son, Booksellers, Philadelphia (5). Hanson Penn, M.D., Bladensburg, Md. Penn Mutual Insurance Co., Philadelphia. J. Pennington, Esq., Baltimore, Md. Hon. John Perkins, Jr., Ashwood, La. E. W. Perry, Esq., Richmond, Va. Thomas M. Peters, Esq., Moulton, Ala. R. E. Peterson, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. T. B. Peterson, Bookseller, Philadelphia, Pa. (10 c.) Gen. Rohles Pezuela, Mexican Minister, Washington, D. C. J. G. Phillimore, Esq., M. P., London. Hon. Henry M. Phillips, Philadelphia, Pa. James Phillips, Esq., Washington, D. C. Wm. W. L. Phillips, Esq., Trenton, N. J. ALPHABETICAL LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS. 655 Phinney & Co., Booksellers, Buffalo, N. Y. (10 copies.) Martin Pickett, Esq., Mobile, Ala. Hon. Albert Pike, Little Rock, Ark. James Pilians, Esq., Prof, of Humanity, Edinburgh. John Pitman, M.D., Memphis, Tenn. J. N. Piatt, Esq., New York. George Poe, Esq., Georgetown, D. C. Geo. F. Pollard, M.D., Montgomery, Ala. M. Polock, Bookseller, Philadelphia, Pa. (2 copies.) William 0. Pond, Esq., Mobile, Ala. James Potter, Esq., Savannah, Ga. Philip Poullain, Esq., Savannah, Geo. Thomas II. Powers, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. "William S. Price, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. Providence Athenasum. Providence, R. I. Public Library, Boston, Mass. Isaac Pugh, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. G. P. Putman & Co., Publishers, New York (20 c.) John Raig, Esq.. Philadelphia, Pa. B. Howard Rand, M. D., Philadelphia, Pa. Randall & Williams, Booksellers, Mobile, Ala, (10 c.) Rev. Wm. Porter Ray. Lafayette, Ind. James B. Read, M. D., Savannah, Ga. J. Rehn, Esq.. Philadelphia, Pa. John K. Reid, Esq., New Orleans, La. A. R. Reinagle, Esq., Oxford, England. *Monsieur Ernest Renan, Biblioth. Imp., Paris. Wm. Rhett, Esq., Charleston, S. C. A. Henry Rhind, Esq., Sibster, near Wick, N. B. R. C. Richardson, M. D., Natchitoches, La. Prof. John Leonard Riddell, M.D., Univ. of La., New Orleaus. Geo. W. Riggs, Esq., Washington, D. C. Rising Star Groupe, Greenville, 0. W. Lea Roberts, Esq., New York. F. M. Robertson, M. D., Charleston, S. C. Hon. Judge Jno. B. Robertson, New Orleans, La. (2) T. G. Robertson, Bookseller, Hagerstown, Md. (3 c.) H, Robinson, Esq., Mobile, Ala. C. M. Robison, Esq., London. Thomas W. Robison, Esq., Kingston, C. W. Col. W. S. Rockwell, Milledgeville, Ga. Wm. B. Rodman, Esq., Washington, N. C. John Rodgers, Esq., U. S. N., Washington, D. C. George Rogers, Esq., M. D., Clifton, Bristol, Eng. Prof. Henry D. Rogers, Boston, Mass. Edward Romilly, Esq., Audit. Office, London. Howell Rose, Esq., Wetumpka, Ala. Andrew M. Ross. Esq., Savannah, Ga. Dr. R. Roth, Prof, of Sanscrit, Canterbury, Eng. James Rush, M. D., Philadelphia, Pa. Mrs. James Rush, Philadelphia, Pa. Russell &. Jones, Booksellers, Charleston, S. C. (25 c.) J. Rutherford Russell, Esq., M. D., Leamington, Eng. (2 copies.) Charles Ryan, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. The R. H. Sir Edward Ryan, Kensington, Eng. (2 c.) Jose Salazar, Esq., Mexico. *Monsieur Aug. Salzmann, Paris. W. S. Sargenson, Esq., Pall Mall, London. B. F. Shaw, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. Philip T. Schley, Esq., Savannah, Ga. Howard Schott, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. Rudolph Schramm, Esq., London. Mrs. Salis Schwabe, Manchester, Eng. (2 copies.) H. W. Schwartz, Esq., New Orleans, La. Charles Scott, Esq., Trentoo, N. J. Thomas J. Scott, Esq., Montgomery, Ala. W. E. Screven, Esq., Riceboro, Ga. Alexander S. Semmes, M. D., Washington, D. C. Prof. George Sexton, M. P., Lambeth, Eng. Lemuel Shattuck, Esq., Boston, Mass. J. W. Shepherd, Esq., Montgomery, Ala. Charles Sherry, Jr., Esq., Bristol, R. I. Miss Lydia Shore, Meersbrook, near Sheffield, Eng. Nathl. B. Shurtleff, M. D-, Boston, Mass. E. H. Sievelling, Esq., M. D., London. Franc. Simenez, Esq., Mexico. W. Gilmore Simms, Esq., Woodlands, S. C. C. TT. Slater, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. John Slavens. Esq., Portland Mills, Ind. L. Slusser, M. D., Canal Fulton, 0. J. C. Small, Esq., Toronto, C. W. J. S. Small, Esq., Charleston, S. C. D. S. Smalley, Esq., West Roxbury, Mass. A. A. Smets, Esq., Savannah, Ga. Smith, English &, Co., Booksellers, Philadelphia (5). David C. Smith, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. Howard Smith, M. D., New Orleans, La. J. B. Smith, Esq., M. P., London. J. Gay Smith, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. John Smith, Esq., Wilkesbarre, Pa. Joseph P. Smith, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. Lloyd P. Smith, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. Stark. B. Smith, M. D., Windsor, N. C. Madame Smyth, London. Jas. Solly, Esq., Toll End, Tipton, Eng. Mrs. Speir, London. Osborn Springfield, Esq.,Catton, near Norwich, Eng Hon. E. Geo. Squier, Fonseca, Honduras. Thomas Jefferson Staley, Esq., Savannah, Ga. T. 0. Stark, Esq., New Orleans, La, Holmes Steele, M. D., Savannah, Ga. Albert Steiu, Esq., Mobile, Ala. Lewis H. Steiner, M. D., Baltimore, Md. John Stoddard, Esq., Savannah, Ga. *M. le Dr. Here. Straus-Durckheim, Jardin des Plantes, Paris. Stringer & Townsend, Booksellers, New York (10 c.) T. W. Strong, Esq., New York. George Sutton, M.D., Aurora, Ind. Samuel Swan, Esq., Montgomery, Ala. J. A. Symonds, Esq., M. D., Clifton, Bristol, Eng. Rev. Edward Taggart, Wildwood, Hampstead, Eng. Benjamin Tanner, Esq., Baltimore, Md. Rev. John James Tayler, LondOD. A. K. Taylor, Esq., Memphis, Tenn. Franck Taylor, Bookseller, Washington, D. C. (10 e.) Henry Taylor, Bookseller, Baltimore, Md. (25 copies.) J. K. Tefft, Esq., Savannah, Ga. W. H. Tegarden. Esq., New Orleans, La. J. C. Thompson, Esq., Mobile, Ala. Samuel Thompson, M. D., Albion, HI. John Thorn, M. D., Baltimore, Md. Ticknor & Co., Booksellers, Boston, Mass. (12 copies.) Alexander Tod, Esq., Egypt. Hon. R. Toombs, U. S. SeDate, Washington, D. C. D. Torrey, Esq., Davenport, Iowa. H. R. Troup, M. D., Darien, Ga. D. H. Tucker, M. D., Richmond, Ya. J. C. Turner, Dr. D. S., Mobile, Ala. T. I. Turner, M.D., U.S.N., Philadelphia, Pa, Prof Wm. W. Turner, Washington, D. C. 656 ALPHABETICAL LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS. J. Knight Uhler, M. B., Schuylkill Falls, Pa. Wm. M. Uhler, M. B., Philadelphia, Pa. J. E. Ulhorn, Esq., New Orleans, La. Wilkins Updike, Esq., Kingston, R. I. Prof. Gilb. S. Yance, M. B., Univ. of La., New Orleans. Henry Yanderlinder, Esq., New Orleans, La. "William S. Yaux, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. F. F. Walgamuth, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. Sir Joshua Walmsley, M. P., London. J. Mason Warren, M. B., Boston, Mass. James S. Waters, Bookseller, Baltimore, Md. (10 c.) A. I. Watson, Esq., U. S. N., Washington, D. C. Hewett C. Watson, Esq., Thames Ditton, Surrey, Eng. John G. Wayt, M.B., Richmond, Ya, Thomas H. Webb, M. D., Boston, Mass. Prof. J. C. P. Wederstrandt, M.B., Univ. of La., New Orleans. Wm. Weightman, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. J. R. Welsh, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. Mrs. C. E. Weyman, Brooklyn, N. Y. Wm. W. Wbite, Esq., Concrete, Texas. James S. Wbitney, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. Jacob B. Wbittemore, M.B., Chester. N. H. Morris S. Wickersham, Esq., Philadelphia. Pa. Prof. George B. Wilber, M. D., Mineral Point, Wis. W. C. Wilde, Esq., New Orleans, La. Wiley & Halsted, Booksellers, New York (12 copies). Wm. Wilkins, Esq., Charleston, S. C. Robt. B. Wilkinson, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. W. A. Wilkinson, Esq., M. P., London. Mark W 7 ilJcox, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. G. Clinton Williams, Esq., Washington, B.C. W. Thorne Williams, Bookseller, Savannah, Ga. (25) Prof. Bank Wilson, LL.B.,Univ. Coll., Toronto, C. W. Thos. B. Wilson, M. B., Philadelphia, Pa. (2 copies.) Wm. Winthrop, Esq., Lcndon. lion. W. H. W 7 itte, Philadelphia, Pa. (2 copies.) Francis Wood, Esq., New Orleans. Prof, Geo. B. W T ood, M. B., Philadelphia. H. B. Woodfall, Esq., London. James Woodhouse & Co., Booksellers, Richmond, Ya (10 copies.) S. W. Woodhouse, M. B., Fort Belaware, Bel. J. J. Woodward, Esq., West Philadelphia, Pa. S. M. Woolston, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. Thos. H. Wynne, Esq., Richmond, Ya. J. A. Yates, Esq., London. James Yates, Esq., M. A., F. R. S., Highgate, Eng. The Misses Yates, Liverpool, Eog. Richard V. Yates, Esq., Liverpool, Eng. Easton Yonge, M.B., Savannah, G a. W. B. Zeiber, Bookseller, Philadelphia, Pa. (5 copies.) ADDITIONAL NAMES. Andrew H. Armour & Co., Booksellers, Toronto, C. W. (4 copies.) Charles A. Brown, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. Thomas Hartley, Esq., Philadelphia, Pa. Henry Steegman, Esq., New York. R. M. Smith, M.B., Athens, Ga. (2 copies.) THE END. N LE A? '09 1 Date Due St^*— fi atpt.jc i r $ 9 PRINTED IN U. S. A. Hi * L*Z*'