^^ K* ^^ %> A o ^o. \ ^^<^^ - .^" . ^^-^ ^'^'^* ' J" <*. ■ 'o^. 7 * * 0^ ^o '♦.TIT* ' ,A v-o^ oK ^^-^^^ >^ » . THE BUILDING OF A NATION THE GROWTH, PRESENT CONDITION AND RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES WITH A FORECAST OF THE FUTURE BY HENRY GANNETT CHIEF GEOGRAPHER OF THE GEOLOGICAL. SURVEY AND OF THE TENTH AND ELEVENTH CENSUSES ILLUSTRATED WITH MAPS, CHARTS AND DIAGRAMS NEW YORK, THE HENRY T. THOMAS COMPANY 1895 f I ^/^- / It.ii G^\ir. ()i*i->niuiri IH',1'1 riT IIICNKV T. 'I'llOMAM I'rcw of .1. .1. I.llllr A tability to navigation and to irrigation, of its coast line as it lends itself to the promotion of commerce, of its climate as it affects the distribution of the ]ieople, of its influence upon health, and of its latent resources hidden in the soil and rocks. All these collectively have had a tremendous influence upon the development of the American people. Our territory consists of two distinct parts, the smaller of which, the territory of Alaska, comprising five hundred and seventy thousand square miles, occupies the extreme northwest- ern portion of the continent. The great body of the country, including five-sixths of its area, and contaiiiing nine hundred and ninety-nine out of every thousand of its inhabitants, occu- pies the middle portion of the continent, stretching from latitude THl^: NATIONAL n03IAIN 5 twenty-five to forty-nine, and from the Atlantic ocean to the Pacific. Its area is 3,025,600 square miles, not greatly different from that of Canada or Australia, and not much less than that of all Europe. Our Coasts. — The eastern or Atlantic coast is a very broken one, abounding in harbors, several of them deep and large enough to float the navies of the world. The coast of Maine, New Hampshire, and Massachusetts is, for the most part, an intricate one, with many long, narrow, rugged points shelter- ing deep, fiord-like bays, and studded with thousands of rugged islands. In southern New England the character of the coast is very different, being low and sandy, with lines of reefs against which the waves of the Atlantic beat, enclosing on the shoreward side bays, lagoons, and swamps, out of which gently rises the mainland. This character of coast extends southward to Florida and around the Gulf of Mexico. The Pacific coast is of still another type. From Lower California noi'thward to Puget sound it is simple, containing only two or three indentations which can be called harbors. From the coast the land rises steeply into mountains and de- scends abruptly to great depths. The Strait of Fuca, on the northern extremity of our western coast, is a gap in the moun- tains which lets the water of the sea into a depression in the great valley between the Coast and Cascade ranges, forming an immense harbor, Puget sound, in which the merchant marine of all nations could be easily anchored. The Relief of the Country. — A correct idea of the relief of the country can be best obtained by considering first its broader outlines. It has two systems of uplift. The east- ernmost and smallest, known as the Appalachian system, runs from the northeast toward the southwest at a little distance back from the Atlantic coast, extending from Canada down into Alabama. The second and vastly greater system occupies most of the western half of the continent, extending from Colorado, New Mexico, Wyoming, and Montana, westward to the Pacific coast. Between the two mountain systems is a great valley, or depression, the southern and larger part of which is occuj^ied by the Mississippi river and its tributaries, while the northern 6 TRE BUILDING OF A NATION portion is drained by the system of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence. These are the broader features of the country. Let us now consider them somewliat more in detail. The Appalachian Mountain System. — In the north- eastern States tlie Appalachian mountain system is very irregu- lar, consisting of detached groups and short ridges. Among these are tbe broken hills of northwestern Maine, and the White mountains of New Hampshire, which, with the exception of a few summits in North Carolina, are the highest of the whole system. Among them is Mount Washington, which reaches an elevation of 6,291 feet. The Green mountains of Vermont, and the Adirondacks of northern New York, form part of this system. Passing into Pennsylvania, the system acquires a regularity which is unknown to the northward. It consists of two distinct parts, or members, the westernmost of whicli, known in this state as the Alleghany plateau, is a deeply eroded plateau with a well- defined escarpment, or cliff, on the southeast, and a gentle slope to the northwest. This plateau extends southwestward to Ala- bama, being known through the Virginias, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Alabama, as the Cumberland plateau. It presents everj^- where the same uniform front to the southeast, consisting of a cliff from one to two thousand feet in height, and a similarly uniform slope to the v/est and north. The Appalachian Valley. — The other member of this system lies southeast of the Cumberland plateau, and is known as the Appalachian valley. It is, in fact, a continuous valley, stretching from the Hudson river far into Alabama, with the general southwesterly trend of the mountain system. It is a region of extensive and complicated folding of strata, this fold- ing being coupled with enormous erosion, which has produced a succession of mountain ranges and ridges, long, narrow, and sinuous, trending parallel to the direction of the valley. Some of these ranges are of vast extent, stretching for hun- dreds of miles with scarcely a break; others form complicated loops, twists, and turns. The valley is terminated on the south- east by one of these ridges, known in Pennsylvania as South Mountain, and farther south as the Blue Ridge. It reaches an THE NATIONAL D03IAIN 7 elevation of twelve hundred feet at Harper's Ferry, and four thousand feet at the peaks of Otter in Virginia; while in North Carolina it widens out, and, in place of a single ridge, develops into a maze of high ranges, trending in various directions, and standing upon a base a thousand feet or more above sea level. In this region are the Black mountains, the highest peak of which. Mount Mitchell, has an altitude of six thousand seven hundred feet above the sea; also tlie Big Smoky mountains on the boundary line between Tennessee and North Carolina, many- peaks of which range between five and six thousand feet. The Alleghany-Cumberland plateau forms an important water divide. Through most of its course its escarpment separates streams flowing directly to the Atlantic, from those flowing westward into the Mississippi. Certain streams, however, and those the most powerful ones, have broken through this escarp- ment, some in one direction, some in another. For instance, the Susquehanna, of Pennsylvania, heads far back in the plateau and cuts through this escarpment in its course to the Atlantic. The Potomac likewise heads back in the highest part of the plateau. On the other hand, the Kanawha river, with its main branch. New river, heads in the Blue Ridge, and flowing westward cuts through the plateau, making a gorge from its summit nearly to sea level. The Tennessee drains the southern part of the great Appalachian vallev, and, collecting its waters, flows across the southern end of the plateau into the Ohio. The Atlantic Plain. — East of the Appalachian system, the country slopes directly to the low ground bordering the Atlantic. From New Jersey southward, this Atlantic plain is comparatively level and unbroken, excepting for the beds of the streams. In New England, however, the country is much more broken, deeply scored by streams, and built up by glacial deposits. The Mississippi Valley.— The great valley of the United States, speaking broadly, is a level expanse. In southern Ohio, however, the streams flowing into the Ohio river have eroded deep valleys. The Ozark Hills. — The northwestern part of Arkansas and southern Missouri are occupied by what are known collect- 8 THE BUILDING OF A NATION ively as the Ozark hills, a region which until recent years was almost a terra incognita. This region presents many points of similarity to the Appalachian. South of the Arkansas river in Arkansas, the Ozark hills consist of east and west ridges rudely parallel to one another, but crooked and winding in detail, with many spurs and offshoots. That part of the hills north of the Arkansas river in Arkansas and Missouri is, on the other hand, an eroded plateau, where the streams occupy deep gorges which they have excavated in its originally level surface. The Great Plains and the Cordilleran Plateau. — West of the Mississippi river the country gradually rises more and more rapidly, forming the eastward slope of a great elevated plateau, crowned by an interminable succession of mountain ranges extending from the middle of Colorado, New Mexico, and Wyoming, westward to the Pacific coast. This long slope of the plains, stretching for a thousand miles westward, and from the Rio Grande to the northern boundary of the country, with scarcely a break in its rolling expanse, is one of the grandest features of the continent. The mountain system, also, is on a commensurate scale, ex- tending from longitude one hundred and five degrees to the Pacific ocean, and from the Mexican boundary to that of Canada. Tt has a length from north to south of twelve hundred miles, and a breadth of a thousand miles. With its mountains, valleys, deserts, and plains, it comprises fully one-third of the area of the United States. This plateau reaches the greatest elevation near its eastern border in Colorado, where it is not far from ten thousand feet above sea level. From this summit it descends in all directions, to about four thousand feet in southern New Mexico and the same elevation in Montana on the British boundary. Descending toward the west, the plateau is four thousand feet in the valley of Great Salt lake, from whence it rises again to six thousand feet in central Nevada, and then sinks to the level of the Pacific. The Cordilleras of North America. — This plateau is crowned by a vast number of mountain ranges of various eleva- tions, the highest of them reaching nearly fifteen thousand feet. The system on our northern boundary is comparatively narrow, THE NATIONAL DOMAIN 9 extending from longitude one hundred and twelve to one hun- dred and twenty-four, thus having a breadth of only about five hundred miles. Southward, its eastern boundary extends rapidly to the eastward, giving the system its maximum breadth in Colorado. The easternmost ranges of this-system are commonly classified as the Rocky mountains, and these again may be further sub- divided into two parts, the northern and southern, which are separated from one another by a broad stretch of plateau. The southern Rocky mountain region comprises the ranges in south- ern Wyoming, Colorado, and New Mexico, and includes a series of ranges trending nearly north and south, and enclosing high mountain valleys which are called parks, the best known among them being the North, South, Middle, and San Luis parks, of Colorado. With the exception of the Sierra Nevada, the mountains in Colorado are the highest in the country, exclusive of Alaska. These ranges contain scores of peaks whose altitude exceeds fourteen thousand feet, with great areas of country lying above the limit of timber, v^hich in this state has the extreme altitude of eleven to twelve thousand feet. The easternmost of these ranges, the Front, Park, Sawatch, and Sangre de Cristo ranges, are broad and massive, while the Elk and San Juan mountains in the western portion of the group, are extremely rugged. The northern group of the Rocky mountains extends from the Wind River and Bighorn ranges in northern Wyoming, across western Montana and Idaho. They are by no means as high as those of the southern group, varying from thirteen thousand seven or eight hundred feet in the Wind River range, down to nine or ten thousand feet in the more northerly ranges. The Plateau Region. — The heart of this mountain region is drained by the Colorado river and its tributaries. Its drainage area is very pecidiar. Around its borders are high mountains, the Rocky mountains on the east, the Wind River range on the north, and the Wasatch on the west. From these ranges flow the little streams which make up the Colorado. Leaving the mountains, these streams enter a region of plateaus, great level expanses stretching farther than the eye can reach, without hill 10 THE BUILDING OF A NATION or valley, and with scarcely an undulation in tlie level surface. Where a plateau ends there is a line of abrupt cliffs descending hundreds or even thousands of feet, to the level of another and lower plateau. And so, passing awa}- from the mountains, one descends by a series of gigantic steps, a veritable giant's stair- case, from an elevation of twelve thousand feet to the sea level. These plateaus contciin no valleys. Instead of valleys there are canyons and gorges, with rocky, precipitous sides and narrow beds. In many places these canyons are so numerous as to reduce the plateau to a mere skeleton of narrow, winding, flat-topped ridges. Most of the canyons are dry nearly all the year, and in but few do the streams flow continuously. When the rain comes it is usually in the form of spasmodic showers. It falls in sheets, and flowing rapidly off the upper land, fills these canyons to a great depth. For a few hours, perhaps, they are rushing tor- rents, and then the beds of the canyons are left as dry and hot as before. This region is, on the whole, an arid one. The high plateaus are, however, green and fertile, covered with pines, spruces, and waving grasses, and bedecked with gayly painted flowers. But as one descends the aspect of nature changes. The spruces, aspens, and waving grasses disappear, and are replaced by the pinon pine and cedar; then by artemisia, which is suc- ceeded by the cactus, yucca, and mesquite; while finally, upon the lower plateaus, little if any vegetation exists. The lower plateaus of the Colorado are as completely a desert as any part of the Sahara. The Great Basin. — West of the basin of the Colorado is another peculiar region, in which, owing to deficient rainfall, no system of drainage has yet been developed. It is an inland basin, without drainage to either ocean. Though known as the Great Basin, it is in reality a group of many basins. At ordi- nar}^ seasons each of these basins is independent of every other. The streams flowing into them either sink into the soil or evap- orate to the thirsty atmosphere. On those rare occasions when the rain falls heavily, several of the basins may be connected one with another by temporary streams. The surface of the Great Basin is an alternation of broad valleys, deeply filled with sand and soil washed from their sides, and with sharp, THE NATIONAL DOMAIN H narrow, abrupt mountain ranges trending nearly north and south. Upon the east this basin is separated from the Colorado valley by the Wasatch range, and upon the west the Sierra Nevada separates it from the valley of California. The north- ern and southern boundaries are ill-defined, consisting in the main of gentle elevations in the midst of valleys. Salt Lake Basin. — The largest of the basins of which the Great Basin is composed, is that of Grreat Salt lake, which col- lects most of the streams flowing down the west wall of the Wasatch range, into this Dead Sea of America, where the water is evaporated and restored to the atmosphere. Another of these basins, which lies at the eastern foot of the Sierra Nevada, col- lects the waters flowing from that range and from the interior of the basin, in a series of lakes and swamps, whence it is evap- orated. These are known as the Carson and Humboldt sinks. Sierra Nevada. — The Sierra Nevada forms the west wall of the Great Basin. It is a broad, massive range, rising steeply on the east, and descending by long spurs to the valley of Cali- fornia on the west. Near the southern end it has its greatest altitude, nearly fifteen thousand feet, thus exceeding all other elevations in the country, with the exception of certain mountains in Alaska. Toward the north it diminishes in height, and disappears as a range near the gorge of Pitt river. Cascade Range. — Northward through Washington and Oregon, the line of elevation is continued by a volcanic plateau, upon which stand numerous extinct volcanoes, forming what is known as the Cascade range. Among these there are several peaks exceeding fourteen thousand feet in height, such as Shasta and Rainier. West of these ranges lies a great valley, stretching from Puget Sound to southern California. Though broken in north- ern California by mountain spurs, it is practically a continuous valley. It lies for the most part not far above sea level; it is well watered in the northern portion, but in the southern part it becomes arid. Between this valley and the Pacific lie a series of ranges, the Coast ranges, consisting mostly of long, parallel ridges, which, with the narrow valleys included between them, extend to the Pacific coast. 12 THE BUILDING OF A NATION This mountain region abounds in strange scenes. The forces of nature have liere been exerted upon a tremendous scale, building up mountains and eroding oanvons and gorges. In some places great floods of lava have been jioured out, and have IIowhhI over the hind, producing immense basalt plains and lava beds. At other points volcanic eruptions have built up moun- tain ))eaks. Nowhere have the forces of erosion been displayed upon such a magnificent scale, and nowhere are their results so easily and clearly read. The great canyons, cliffs, mesas, and buttes of the Colorado basin, are their work. Their crowning labor is the grand series of canyons of the Colorado, which, stretching for a thousand miles, culminates in the Grand Canyon, six thousand feet in depth and scores of miles in length. In some j)arts of this region the volcanic forces are still smoul- dering. A hot spring upon the summit of Mount Shasta, and smoke from other peaks in the Cascade range, bear witness that the intonial fires are not extinct. But it is in Yellowstone Park, the region where in times past the god of fire has held high carnival, that the most striking evidences of his reign are still seen. Over this region has been poured a Hood of molten rock. In it was buried the vegetation of the past, and in the midst of volcanic masses are now to be found trunks of trees changed to amethyst, opal, chalcedony, and quartz crystals. In this region there are hot springs and geysers, in such abundance and magnitude as to throw all others, the world over, completely in the shade. Those of Iceland and New Zealand are petty affairs in comparison. Over an area of nearly four thousand square miles hot springs are omnipresent They are found literally by the thousand, and are of all sizes, from a few inches aei'oss to areas of many acres. "Where Iceland has two or three active geysers, the Yellowstone Park has hundreds. The amount of boiling water poured out from the bowels of the earth is simply fabulous. The water of the Firehole river tlows hot from the Greyser Basins. Temperature. — The United States lies entirely within the temperate zone, and the mean annual temperature ranges from seventy-five tlegrees Fahrenheit down to forty degrees; the temperature, of course, diminishing northwai'd, and as THE NATIONAL DOMAIN 13 the altitude above the sea increases. The mean temperature of the hottest month, July, ranges from eighty-five down to sixty- five degrees, and that of the coldest month, January, from sixty- five degrees down to near the zero point. The maximum temperature rarely exceeds one hundred de- grees, while the minimum is sometimes fifty degrees below zero. In the eastern, well-watered part of the country, where the atmosphere is moist, and upon the northwestern coast where similar conditions prevail, the range of temperature between summer and winter and between day and night is not excessive. In the mountain region of the west, however, where the atmos- phere is dry, the range is often very great. It is in this region that excessively high and excessively low temperatures are occa- sionally experienced. At Yuma, near the mouth of the Colorado river, the temperature in summer often exceeds one hundred and fifteen degrees, and when it falls to one hundred degrees people put on their flannels. On the other hand, in Montana, minimum temperatures of minus fiftj'-two degrees have been repeatedly recorded ; although, on the whole, the climate of Montana is exceptionally mild, considering its latitude and altitude above sea level. Rainfall. — The rainfall of the United States differs widely in different parts of the country. Over the eastern half it is abundant. It diminishes upon the plains, and in the mountain regions of the west it is scanty. Over the northwest coast, again, it is more than abundant. The rainfall of tlie east is derived in the main from the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean sea. The south winds come to the Gulf coast laden with moisture, and, encountering a cool land, dc])osit it as rain. Moving northward, they become dryer, and the rainfall is consequently reduced. A similar action takes [)lacc upon the Atlantic coast, but the breadth of its area of operations is less. Thus we find along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, the heaviest rainfall of the eastern part of the United States. On the Gulf coast it reaches, and some- times exceeds, sixty inches per annum. Proceeding northward, the rainfall diminishes, and about the Great Lakes it is as low as thirty inches ; but here the diminution in rainfall is partly made up by the diminished evaporation, due to the colder climate. 14 THE BUILDING OF A NATION Passing westwanl up the slope of the Great Plains, the rain- fall diminishes, and jn the neighborhood of the one-hundredth meridian it commonly amounts to less than twenty inches. The rainfall within the mountain reerion as a rule ranges from ten inches upward, being greatest on the hioh mountains, whose altitude induces precipitation from the air currents, and lowest in the valleys and on the plateaus. The most arid part of the country is the Great Basin, whose rainfall rarely exceeds ten inches, and in many localities falls to four or tive. On the Pacitic coast a ditferent condition of things prevails. Here are found well-defined wet and dry seasons. Their wetness and dryness depend upon the latitude, the rainfall being much greater in the north than in the south. The annual rainfall at the Strait of Fuca has been as great as one hundred and twenty- five inches, while at San Diego it is often as low as five inches. This chauore in rainfall with the change of season and of latitude, is due to the relative temperatures of the sea and the land. Warm westerly winds from the Pacific reach the coast saturated with moisture. The temperature of these air currents does not vary much from summer to winter : but the tempera- ture of the land varies greatly, so that in winter the currents, upon reaching the coast, encounter a relatively cold land, which chills them and induces precipitation. The contrast between the temperatures of air currents and the land, increases as the latitude increases : consequently the precipitation increases northward and diminishes southward. After passing the Coast range and the great Pacific valley, these air currents encounter the peaks of the Cascade range and the Sierra Nevada. They are forced to great altitudes, are chilled, and shed upon the^e ranges all the moisture that is left in them, and in that desiccated condition they blow over the desert to the eastward as dry winds. Hence it is that the winter winds are dry in the western mountain regions. In the summer all this is changed. Then the land, with the exception of the highest mountains, is relatively warmer than the sea, and the moist air currents coming from the sea blow over the Coast ranges with little loss of moisture, and climb the Sierra and Cascades, upon which they deposit a greater amount : but THE NATIONAL DOMAIN 15 tliej still contain enough in their eastward progress to water with frequent showers the mountains and valleys of Colorado, New Mexico, and Texas. Hence it is that the summer season is the rainy season of these States. From the above brief outline it is easy to understand the impropriety of speaking of the climate of the United States, for the country contains within itself the widest possible variations of climate. It is one of the wettest and one of the dryest coun- tries on the globe, it is one of the hottest and one of the coldest ; and the folly of the assumption of European writers, that the so- called American climate is developing an American species of mankind, is made apparent when the facts are stated. Forests. — ^The eastern part of the United States, from the Mississippi to the Atlantic, including southern Missouri, Arkan- sas, and eastern Texas, is, on the whole, a forested region. Throughout this part of the country timber grows freely. It is true that portions of Illinois and adjacent States were prairies when settlement began; but, except where cultivated, they are fast growing up to woodland under the protective influences of man. It is said, too, that the Appalachian valley was also a prairie; but it is now covered with forests, except where cultivated. The western part of Washington and Oregon, and the western part of California, are also forested regions, and most of the mountain ranges of the west are wooded ; but the valleys, plains, and jilateaus of this region and the Great Plains, are devoid of tree growth. In all this region the rainfall is not sufficient to support trees, if we except two or three scrubby species which are pecu- liar to an arid climate. It is estimated that more than one- third of the area of the United States is at present covered with timber. This estimate takes account not only of the area naturally devoid of trees, but also of the areas which have been denuded for purposes of culti- vation and other requirements of civilization. GOVERNMENT The government of the United States is a pure democracy. It is in the most complete sense a government by the people, from the smallest political subdivision, the township, up to the national government. The machinerj^ of government is abso- lutely controlled by the people governed. It is therefore home rule pure and simple. Matters concerning the township, and the township onlj^, are controlled by the township government ; those conTjerning a group of townships are controlled by the county government. Matters which have a wider bearing and influence than the county are controlled by the state government, and in turn those of national importance and bearing are in the hands of the general government. Thus, speaking broadly, the powers and functions of the greater gov^ernments are restricted to matters of general importance and concern, and as far as is consistent with the general welfare, the powers of government are given to the minor units. Naturally enough, this distribution of power among the different units of government differs in different States, depending upon the stage of settlement, upon the charac- ter of the occupations of the people, and, to some extent, upon their traditions and social customs. Of the distribution of powers, more will be said later. To the foregoing it is scarcely necessary to add that, under this system of government, the individual enjoys the greatest freedom consistent with the due protection of the rights of others. To this large measure of individual freedom is due, in great part, the development of the strong, and at the same time adaptable, American type of mankind, which has already made this country facile princeps in ail the elements of national great- ness. GOVERNMENT 17 In each unit of government three elements are to be plainly recognized — the legislative, executive, and judicial. In the national and state governments, these are clearly distinguished by different sets of officers and related organizations. In county and township governments, the legislative and executive func- tions are often exercised by the same officers. The judicial function is everywhere distinctly differentiated from the others. GENERAL GOVERNMENT In the general government the President is the chief executive officer. Under the Constitution he must be a native of the United States, and must be at least thirty-five years of age at the time of his election. His term of service is four years, and he may be reelected ; but precedent has decreed that he shall be reelected only once. His election is effected by what the fathers designed to be a very judicious piece of machinery, but this has degenerated into a mere formality. The Constitution requires that the qualified voters shall choose electors, such electors being in the proportion of one for every senator and representative in Congress ; that the electors of each state thus chosen shall meet on a certain day within that state and vote for President and Vice-President, transmitting the result to Congress, which pub- licly declares it. It was intended that the electors should be men chosen for the purpose of sitting as a deliberative body, and selecting according to their judgment the men best fitted for these high offices. As a matter of fact, while this routine is carried out to the letter, the selection of candidates for the Presidency and Vice-Presidency is made beforehand by conventions of the great parties, and the party electors are pledged in the strongest pos- sible way to vote for the candidates of their respective parties and thus simply carry out the dictates of the party which elected them. Wooden men would answer the purpose equally well. A majority, not a plurality, of the electors decides the elec- tion, and when, as has happened on rare occasions, there is no choice by the electors, it goes to the House of Representatives, 2 18 THE BUILDING OF A NATION the members of which vote, not individually, but by states ; so that in this event each state, whatever the number of its delegation, has the same weight in electing the President as every other. Cabinet. — The President, upon assuming office, selects a number of advisers, known collectively as his Cabinet. These are as follows : Secretary of State, Secretary of the Treasury, Secretary of War, Attorney -General, Postmaster-General, Secre- tary of the Navy, Secretary of the Interior, and Secretary of Agriculture. These selections are subject to confirmation by the Senate. In case of the removal, death, or inability of both the President and Vice-President, these officials succeed to the Presi- dency in the order here given : first, the Secretary' of State; or, in case of his death, the Seeretarj^ of the Treasury, and so on. The members of the Cabinet, besides being the President's advisers, are executive heads of departments of government, the scope of their departments being indicated to a certain extent by their designations. Within these departments the work of government is further subdivided into bureaus, the heads of which are subordinate to the Cabinet officers ; and these bureaus, in turn, are separated into divisions and sections. The salary of the President is fifty thousand dollars a year ; that of the Vice- President and of members of the Cabinet, eight thousand dollars. Senate. — The legislative branch consists of two houses of Congress, known as the Senate and House of Eepresentatives. The former consists of two members elected from each state for a term of six years, so arranged that one-third of the body goes out of office every two years. A senator must be a resident of the state from which he is elected, and must be at least thirty years of age. The Vice-President is the presiding officer of the Senate. As there are now forty-four states in the Union, the number of senators is eighty-eight, and, being elected for terms of con- siderable length, they are not as closely in touch with their constituents as members of the House of Eepresentatives. They are more deliberative and less likely to be swayed by the impulse of the moment. The Senate is therefore regarded as the more conservative of the two legislative bodies. The com- pensation of a senator is five thousand dollars a year. House of Representatives. — The House of Eepresenta- GOVERNMENT 19 tives at present comprises three Inundred and thirty-six mem- bers, including the delegates from the territories who are permitted to participate in debates but have no vote. The representation from each state is proportioned to the number of inhabitants. Eepresentatives are elected for two years only. Each representative must be a resident of the district from whicli he is elected, and must be at least twenty-five years of age. This body chooses its own presiding officer, who is known as the Speaker, and in cases of contested elections decides upon its membership. Being the popular branch of the government — that is, the branch in closest touch with the people — it claims and as a rule maintains the right to originate business, and especially to propose the appropriation of funds from the Treasury. The salary of a representative is five thousand dollars a year. The work of Congress is carried on mainly by means of com- mittees. In the House of Eepresentatives there are in all fifty- seven standing committees for specific purposes, the members of which are chosen by the Speaker. To these committees are referred bills and measures presented to the House which fall within their respective provinces. In committee measures receive careful consideration, and, as a rule, the House accepts the committee's report. Under this method careful legislation is possible, while otherwise it would be impossible. A similar committee system prevails in the Senate; but there the com- mittee is a less powerful organization, and justlj" so, since the Senate is a smaller and more deliberative body, and moreover originates fewer measures. Judiciary. — The judiciary of the general government con- sists of three classes of courts : First, the Supreme Court of the United States, which sits in Washington, and is composed of a chief justice and eight associate justices, who are appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate ; their tenure of office is for life, unless impeached. Second, the United States circuit courts, which are held at various places throughout the country, and are presided over by individual members of the Supreme Court. Third, the United States district courts, over which preside district judges, who are also appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate. 20 THE BUILDING OF A NATION DISTRIBUTION OF POA¥ERS There has been a constant struggle ever since the organization of the government, as to the powers vested in the general government and those retained by the states. All the difficul- ties encountered by the fathers in attempting to form the federal government arose from this jealousy of centralization. With the exception of the war of the Rebellion, this has been a peaceful struggle, but none the less it has been constant and intense. However, the general government has steadily main- tained and extended its control over questions of common inter- est to all or several of the states. All matters connected with foreign relations, the coinage or printing of money, the postal system, the collection of revenue whether by customs or excise taxes, the taking of the decen- nial census, the administration of the public lands, the issuance of patents and copyrights, the lighting and protection of the coasts, and the public defense whether by land or sea, are in the hands of the general government. There are many other matters in which it shares the control jointly with the States. Through its Department of Agriculture and through its Sur- veys, it aids in the development of agricultural and mineral resources. It collects and furnishes information concerning the progress of education. It aids in the maintenance of the supply of food fishes, and of numerous agencies which assist in the col- lection and dissemination of scientific information. Executive Divisions. — The executive departments of the government are eight in number : The Department of State, which has jurisdiction over foreign affairs ; the Treasury Department, which has charge of all matters relating to the collection and disbursement of the revenues of the government; the War Department, which controls the army ; the Department of Justice, which prosecutes all government cases in the United States courts, and acts as the legal adviser of the Executive; the Post Office Department, which manages the transportation and distribution of the mails; the Navy Departmeot; the GOVERNMENT 21 Department of the Interior, which has general control over internal matters of administration, and which embraces a great variety of bureaus ; and, finally, the Department of Agriculture, which is primarily concerned in fostering that great branch of industry. Besides these, there are several bureaus or institu- tions which are not attached to any of the regular departments. Department of State. — This department, which is re- garded as first in rank, has jurisdiction over all matters con- nected with our foreign relations, including treaties in extradition of fugitives from justice and the granting of passports. It has control of the ministers to foreign countries and consuls in for- eign ports, and is the custodian of the Great Seal of the United States. It also publishes the laws and resolutions of Congress, amendments to the Constitution, executive orders and proclama- tions. The bureaus of this department are six in number; namely, the Bureau of Indexes and Archives, the Diplomatic Bureau, Consular Bureau, Bureau of Accounts, Bureau of Rolls and Library, and Bureau of Statistics. The duties of these sev- eral bureaus are indicated by their names. Treasury Department. — This is a large department, com- prising many bureaus and employing an army of clerks. The collection of the revenues is done under two bureaus, those of the Commissioners of Customs and of Internal Revenue. The dis- bursement of public funds is supervised by two comptrollers, who pass upon legal points connected therewith, and by six auditors, who examine the correctness and validit}^ of accounts. The Treas- urer has charge of the funds or deposits in the Treasury. The Register of the Treasury is the book-keeper of the United States. The Comptroller of the Currency has control over the national banks. The Mint Bureau supplies the coinage, and the Bureau of Engraving and Printing supplies the issues of paper money. Besides all these, which may be classified as executive bureaus, there are others, attached to the Treasury Department, of a scien- tific or semi-scientific nature. The construction of public build- ings throughout the United States is also controlled by one of its bureaus, presided over by the supervising architect. "The Treasury Department maintains a Bureau of Statistics, for the collection and publication of statistics of foreign trade 22 THE BUILDING OF A NATION and immigration. It also maintains a Life-Saving Service, the best in the world ; by this service much of our coast, inchiding the most important portions, is patrolled dav and night by par- ties fully equipped with the most modern appliances for saving life and property from shipwreck. It includes the Light House establishment, by which the entire coast and most of the naviga- ble rivers are lighted. It also controls the Coast and Geo- detic Survey, to which is intrusted the survey of thfe coast and the geodetic triangulation of the interior of the country. War DepaTtiiieiit. — A partial enumeration of the bureaus of which the departments are composed, with a slight account of the work carried on bv each, will illustrate the scope and great varietv of the functions of the general government. The War Department is divided into twelve bureaus, or sub-depart- ments, whose names in most cases describe their functions. They are: Army Headquarters, Adjutant General's office, Inspector- General's office, Judge-Advocate-General's office. Bureau of Sub- sistence, Quartermasters', Ordnance, Medical, and Pay Depart- ments, Engineers' Department, Department of Public Buildings and Grounds, and Office of Publication of War Eecords. Department of Justice. — This is a small department, whose functions, as stated above, are to advise the President and the heads of other departments upon legal points, and through assistant attorneys-general and United States district attorneys, to prosecute cases in the United States courts on behalf of the general government. Post Office Department.— The work of the Post Office Department is entirely of an executive character, and a state- ment of its operations is presented in a later portion of this work. Navy Department. — The Navy Department embraces a large number of bureaus and offices, among which are the follow- ing : Bureau of Ordnance, of Equipment, of Navigation, of Yards and Docks, of Provisions and Clothing, of Steam Engi- neering, of Medicine and Surgery, of Construction, of Inspection and Survey, and of Naval Intelligence. It contains a Hydro- graphic office, whose function is to supply charts to the navy, and for that juirpose it not only engraves and prints charts of GOVERNMENT 23 the coasts of foreign lands, but makes surveys with the same end in view. It contains also the Naval Observatory, one of the best equipped in the world, and the Nautical Almanac office, which prepares the American Nautical Almanac, for the use of the merchant marine as well as the navy. Department of the Interior. — The Department of the Interior was not created, but has grown. To it have been attached bureaus which did not fit elsewhere, and consequently it contains a great variety of them. It has control of the survey and dis- position of the public lauds, of the issuance of patents, of the granting of pensions, and of the relations of the government with the Indians, a bureau being assigned to each of these mat- ters. The Bureau of Education collects and publishes statistics of education throughout the country. The Geological Survey studies and reports upon the geology and mineral wealth of the national domain, and, incidentally, is preparing a topographic map thereof ; indeed, this great work, although an incidental, has for ten years been the principal work of the Geological Survey office. Finally, the Interior Department contains the Census office, a temporary bureau, constituted every ten years for the purpose of taking account of stock. Department of Agricvilture. — It is the function of the Department of Agriculture to aid and foster the agricul- tural industry. To this end it collects and disseminates statistics of crops. It searches for the means of protecting crops from disease and insect enemies. It tests the fitness of soils and climates for new products, it studies the forest resources, and thus in many ways it advances the interests of the farmer. To this Department is attached the Weather Bureau, whose prin- cipal function is to predict the weather. Other Departments and Bnreaus. — The Fish Com- mission, an independent bureau, exists for the purpose, prima- rily, of increasing the supply of food fishes. Incidentally it has contributed greatly to our knowledge of the life and habits of the denizens of the briny deep and of our lakes and rivers. The Interstate Commerce Commission is likewise unattached. It has jurisdiction over tlie railways of the country, under the laws ret(ulatino- interstate commerce. 24 THE BUILDING OF A NATION The Department or Bureau of Labor is an office for tbe col- lection and dissemination of statistics relating to labor, its com- pensation, hours, relation to capital, etc. Most of the civil employes of the United States are under the protection of a civil service law, whose chief provision is that appointments to the service can be made only as a result of competitive examination, free to all, with some slight restric- tions as to residence, etc. There is a commission, known as the Civil Service Commission, for conducting such examinations. Sinitlisoiiian Institution. — There is under the control of the government one institution of a peculiar character. Many years ago, Mr. James Smithson bequeathed a large sum of money to the United States for the increase and diffusion of knowledge. Partly with the income from this bequest, and partly by appropriation from the United States Treasury, the Smithsonian Institution has been founded and maintained, and to it have been added the National Museum, the Bureau of Ethnology, and the National Zoological Park. The work of this institution has been mainl}^ in pure science. Its uniform policy has been to aid original investigation, and, whenever practicable, to assist it to aid itself. Thus it supported the first tottering steps of the science of meteorology, and at last saw it recognized by the government in the form of the Weather Bureau. Similarly with fish culture, now supported in the Fish Commission. It deserves no small share of the credit of establishing the Geological Survey, the National Museum, and the Bureau of Ethnology. ORGANIZATION OF STATES The Union, which originally consisted of thirteen states, is now composed of forty-four states, five territories, and the fed- eral District of Columbia. The political organization of each state is very similar to that of the general government, the chief executive officer being the governor. The legislative func- tions are carried on by a legislature, which consists in each case of two houses. Each state has a judiciary of its own, for the O VERNMENT 25 purpose of interpreting and enforcing state laws. The govern- ment of the territories rests in part with the people of the ter- ritories, and in part with the general government. The Presi- dent appoints the territorial governors, while the people elect their legislatures. District of Columbia. — The District of Columbia, the seat of the national government, is the only portion of this great domain which is not in any respect under home rule. Strange to say, this, the capital of the greatest and freest Republic, is in its form of government an absolute mon- archy. Its executive consists of three commissioners, who are appointed by the President of the United States. Its laws are enacted by Congress, and its judiciary is appointed by the President. Therefore the people of the District have no voice in the management of their public affairs, beyond the privilege of protest and petition. As originally consti- tuted, the District of Columbia comprised an area ten miles square. The Virginia portion was ceded to the United States, July 16, 1790, and the Maryland portion, March 30, 1791. Subsequently, July 9, 1846, the Virginia portion was re-ceded to that state. The following is a list of the states and territories, with a brief account of their organization : Alabama. — Alabama territory was created from a part of Mississippi territory, March 8, 1817. Its limits were those of the present state, excepting that the thirty-first parallel was its southern boundarj^ It was admitted as a state, December 14, 1819. Alaska. — Alaska was obtained by purchase from the Russian government in 1867, for the sum of $7,200,000 in gold. It was given a territorial government, July 27, 1868. Arizona. — This territory was formed in part from the first Mexican purchase, and m ]:)art from the Gadsden purchase, by net of Congress, February 24, 1863. Arkansas. —Arkansas territory was created by act of March 2, 1819, from a part of the Louisiana purchase, then known as Missouri territory. It was admitted as a state with its present boundaries. June 15, 1836. 26 THE BUILDINO OF A NATION Cciliforiiia. — This state was admitted September 9, 1850, its area being taken from the territory acquired from Mexico by the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Colortiilo. — Colorado territory was created Februaiy 28, 1861, its area being taken partly from the Louisiana purchase, partly from the territory acquired from Mexico, and partly from the area purchased from Texas. It was admitted as a state, August 1, 1876. Coiiiiecticut. — One of the Thirteen Original States. It ratified the Constitution, January 9, 1788. Delaware. — One of the Thirteen Original States. It was the first to ratify the Constitution, having taken this step Janu- ary 7, 1787. Florida. — Florida territory was created March 30, 1822, from the area purchased from Spain three years previously. It was admitted as a state, March 3, 1845. Greorg'ia. — One of the Thirteen Original States. It adopted the Constitution, January 2, 1788. Idaho. — Idaho territory was formed March 3, 1863, from Oregon, which was acquired by prior settlement. It was ad- mitted as a state, July 3, 1890. Illinois. — The territory of Illinois was formed by act of February 3, 1809, from a part of the territory northwest of the Ohio river. It was admitted as a state, with its boundaries greatly reduced, December 3, 1818. Indiana. — Indiana territory was created May 7, 1800, from a part of Northwest territory. Its boundaries then enclosed a much greater area than those of the present state. December 11, 1816, it was admitted as a state, with its present bounda- ries. Indian Territory. — This is not in the proper sense a ter- ritory of the United States, but rather a group of Indian reser- vations, established from time to time as occasion has arisen. The area included in the present territory is a part of the original Louisiana purchase. Iowa. — Iowa territory was created July 3, 1838, when it included a much greater area than at present. Its area was embraced in the Louisiana purchase. March 3, 1845, it was GOVERNMENT 27 admitted as a state, and December 28, 1846, its northern and western boundaries were changed, giving to the state its present limits. Kansas. — The territory of Kansas was created Maj 30, 1854, its area being taken from that of the Louisiana purchase. January 29, 1861, it was admitted as a state, with its present limits. Kentucky. — Kentucky was admitted June 1, 1792, with its present limits, having been taken from the western portion of Virginia, Louisiana.— The territory of Orleans was created March 3, 1805, and comprised nearly the same area as the present state of Louisiana. April 30, 1812, this territory was admitted as a state, under the name of Louisiana, and in the same year its limits were extended to include the present area. Maine. — The ai-ea of the state of Maine was originally a part of Massachusetts, and was known as the District of Maine. It was detached from Massachusetts and admitted as a state, March 15, 1820. Maryland. — One of the Thirteen Original States. It adopted the Constitution, April 28, 1788. Massachusetts. — One of the Thirteen Original States. It adopted the Constitution, February 6, 1788. Michigan. — The territory of Michigan was formed June 30, 1805, its area being taken from what was originally the North- west territory. It was admitted as a state, January 26, 1837, with its boundaries considerably changed from those of the territory. Minnesota. — The territory of Minnesota was created March 3, 1849. Its ai-ea was derived in ))art from the old Northwest territory, and in part from the Louisiana purchase. It was admitted as a state. May 11, 1858, with its limits greatly re- duced. Mississippi. — The original territory of Mississippi, organ- ized April 7, 1798, was very different from the present state, and comprised an area in the southern part of the present states of Alabama and Mississippi. In 1804 this territory was enlarged to include almost the entire area of these two states. 28 THE BUILDING OF A XATION It was subsequently dimiuished by the formation of the territory of Alabama, and December 10. 1S17. it was admitteil as a state with its present boundaries. Missouri. — The original Missouri territory, as constituted bv act of April 30, 1S12. inclnded all the Louisiana purchase with the exception of the present state of Louisiana. One after another, states were carved from it. and August 10, 1S21, the state of Missouri was admittetl, with its boundaries the same as at present, excepting the western boundary, which was extended westward in 1836. 3Iontaiia. — Montana territory was created May 26, 1864, its area being originally part of the Louisiana purchase. It was admitted as a state. November 8, 1889. Nebraska. — The territory of Nebraska was organized under the act of May 80, 185J:, and originally comprised a large pro- portion of what was the Louisiana purchase. It was reduced by the formation of several states and territories, anil March 1, 1867. was admitted as a state. Nevada. — Nevada territory was created by act of March 2. 1861. from a part of the territory lii-st acquired from Mexico. Its original area was much less tliau at present. It was admitted as a state, October 31, 1864. with its eastern limits enlarged, and subsequently, in 1866. it was still further enlarged so as to in- clude the present area. New Hampshire. — One of the Thirteen Original States. It ratified the Constitution, June 21, 1788. New Jersey. — One of the Thirteen Original States. It ratified the Constitution, December 18, 1787. New Mexico. — The territory of New Mexico was created by act of December 13, 1850. Originally it included its pres- ent area, with the exception of that part of the Gadsden purchase which it now embraces. This was added by Congress. Decem- ber 30, 1853. New York. — One of the Thirteen Original States. It adopt- ed the Constitution. July 26, 178S. North Carolina.— One of the Thirteen Original States. It adopted the Cvmstitution, November 21. 1789. North Dakota.— The territorv of Dakota was created bv 00 VERNMENT 29 act of March 2, 1861, from a part of the original Louisiana purchase. From it several states have been formed, and the remainder was cut in two parts and these parts admitted as states, November 2, 1889, under the names North and South Dakota. Ohio. — Ohio was formed and admitted as a state, November 29, 1802, its area being taken from Northwest territory. In 1836 the northern boundary was slightly changed, a narrow strip of land being added. Oklahoma. — The territory of Oklahoma, originally a part of the Louisiana purchase, was formed May 2, 1890. Oregon. — The territory of Oregon was created by act of August 14, 1848, and originally included the present areas of Oregon, Washington, and Idaho, which were acquired by prior settlement, immediately after the purchase of Louisiana. It was admitted as a state, with its present boundaries, February 14, 1859. Peiiiisylvauia. — One of the Thirteen Original States. It adopted the Constitution, December 12, 1787. Rhode Island. — One of the Thirteen Original States. It was the last to adopt the Constitution, the act bearing date May 29, 1790. Sonth Carolina. — One of the Thirteen Original States. It adopted the Constitution, May 23, 1788. Sonth Dakota. — (See North Dakota.) Tennessee. — Tennessee was admitted as a state, with its present boundaries, June 1, 1796. Its area was taken from the territory south of the Ohio river. Texas. — This state, which in 1836 achieved its independence of Mexico, was admitted December 29, 1845. It tlien included a large territory subsequently sold to the United States, which now forms portions of New Mexico, Colorado, and Kansas. Utah. — Utah territory was created by act of September 9, 1850, and originally embraced, besides its own area, that of Nevada. Vermont. — This was the first state admitted to the Union after the adoption of the Constitution. The act of Congress bears date March 4, 1791. Its area was in dispute between New York, New Hampshire, and Massachusetts. 80 THE BUILDING OF A NATION Virginia.— One of the Thirteen Original States. It adopted the Constitution, June 25, 1788. Washing-ton.— The territory of Washington was created by act of March 2, 1853, from a part of Oregon territory. It originally included, besides its own area, that of Idaho. It was admitted as a state, with its present boundaries, November 11, 1889. West Virginia.— The state of West Virginia was set off from Virginia and admitted, June 19, 1863. Wisconsin. — The territory of Wisconsin was formed by act of June 3, 1836, from a part of the Northwest territory. It was admitted as a state, May 29, 1848, with its present bound- aries. Wyoming.— Wyoming territory was created, July 25, 1868, with its present area. It was admitted as a state, July 10, 1890. The following table presents the AREAS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES IN SQUARE MILES States and Tkrritokies Total. Alabama Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut . . Delaware District of Columbia Florida (ieorgia Idaho Illinois Indiana Indian Territory. . Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Mieliif,'an Minnesota Mississijipi Missouri Montana Nebraska Gross Water Land area surface surface 3,025,()00 55,600 2,970,000 52,250 710 51.540 113,020 100 112.920 5:ia50 805 .53,tl45 ]r>s,;^io 2,380 1.55,98(1 U«,'.)25 280 U«,(i451 4,i)'.K) 145 4.845 2,050 90 l.iKJOl 70 10 60 58,680 4,440 I>1,240 59,475 495 .58,9.^0 ai,800 510 W.2".KI 5(),()50 650 5(i,(l(Kl| 3(),350 440 a5.9U) 31,400 400 31.0(H) 50,025 550 ,55,475 82,080 380 H1,7(K) 40,4(X) 400 40.(MKli 48,7^0 3.300 4.5,4211' 33,040 3,145 29.895 12,210 2,350 9,8(K) 8,315 275 8,040 58,915 1,485 .57,430 8;i,365 4,160 79,205 46,810 470 46,340 69,415 680 68,7*5 14(i,080 770 14.5,310 77,510 670 7(i,S10 States and Territories Nevada New Hampshire, . . New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma* Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah \'ennont \irginia Wasliington West Virginia Wiseonsin \\ youiing Delaware Bay .... lijuitiin Bay and Lo«er N(.\v York Bay Gross area 110,700 9,305 7,815 122,.580 49,170 52,2.50 70,795 41,01)0 39,030 a ■ ■ 9 S O 7B 1 1 i : ; ! - ^^^^^^"*^ 1 ^^^^^^^^^^ ^^ \ 1 ' " ^^^^ ^^ 1 ^"^^^^ ^^ ! ANNUAL INTEREST CHARGE ^^^^ 1 ^^^^ The figures at the top of the 2^^^^^ scale represent mil- lions of dollars ^^"^^^ ^^^^^^^^^ ' ANNUAL INTEREST CHARGE PER CAPITA The figures at the top of the scale represent dollars THE NATIONAL DEBT, 1856 TO 1891 3G THE BUILD IXG OF A I^ AT ION tLe opening of the war in 1861 the national debt was $90,000,- 000. Fi'oni that date to 1866 tlie debt increased by enormous strides, and in the latter year it reached the overwhelming amount of $2,773,000,000, an average of $80 per capita of the population. Upon this there was due each year the sum of $148,000,000 in interest, or more than $4 per annum to each inhabitant. Witb the close of the war the nation set itself to paying off this enormous burden, and, aided by wise management of its finances and unexampled prosperitv, it has done this at a rate which the world had never before witnessed. In twenty-seven years it has reduced the debt by the sum of $1,938,000,000, or at the average rate per annum of over $72,000,000. It is now less than one-third what it was in 1866, and with the increase of population during the last part of tlie century, the burden upon each inhabitant has been reduced to $13. The interest has been reduced in a still greater proportion, as the credit of the government has risen with each additional pay- ment of principal, until now the total annual interest is less than $25,000,000, an average of less than forty cents to each inhabitant, or one-tenth of what it was in 1866. To-day the credit of the United States is the highest of all nations. Its four per cent, bonds, due in 1907, are selling at twenty-five per cent, above par ; while the three per cents., which were issued a few years ago and have since been taken up, wei'e sought for at par with the greatest avidity, and quoted in financial markets at a consid- erable premium. State Debts. — The debts of states aggregated, in 1890, $228,997,389, showing a reduction of twenty-three per cent, dur- ing the ten years preceding. The indebtedness of states, indi- vidually, is set forth in the map on Plate 2, and in the diagrams on pages 38 and 39. They show the widest possible diversity among the states in this regard. In the northern states there is apparently some thought of proportion between the amount of debt and the population and wealth, but in the southern states no such relation exists. This may be due to the origin of the debts of the southern states, and their mode of treating them. In many cases these debts were created by what were popularly known as " carpet GOVERNMENT 37 bag" governments, wliich had possession of the states for a period following the civil war, and sadly abused the respon- sibilities they had assumed, creating debt in the most reckless manner. In some cases these debts were repudiated by succeed- ing administrations, while in others they have been assumed by them and efforts are being made for their reduction. The diagram on page 38 shows that of all the states Virginia has by far the heaviest debt, while she is followed by six other southern states. The states least burdened with debt are mainly the newer ones of the far west. In most cases the debts of individual states have been reduced during the last decade, and in some instances this reduction has been enormous, when the size of the communities involved is taken into account. Thus Massachusetts has reduced her debt from $20,000,000 to $7,000,000; Pennsylvania, from nearly $14,000,000 to $4,000,000. In a few cases they have been increased, but the increase has generally occurred in states where values are increasing and to which population is flocking, and therefore the increase appears to be warranted. There is one case not in the list which requires a special explanation, that of the District of Columbia, whose debt is by far the largest in proportion to its population. This debt amounted in 1890 to $19,781,050, and the per capita debt was not less than $85.80. It was incurred in transforming the city of Washington from a straggling country village into a beautiful city. The work was done rapidly ^nd not in the most economical manner. The debt thus incurred, together with the interest, is shared b}^ the people of the District and by the United States government, in equal proportions. Properly speaking, therefore, only one-half of it should be chargeable against the District. Debts of Counties and Municipalities The debts of counties, which in 1S90 amounted to about $145,000,000, have increased slightly during the decade, though at a much less rate than the population. The debts of municipalities, which are j^roportionally large, especially in the case of the larger cities, have also increased slightly, being at the rate of less than six per cent., indicating a reduction of the per capita debt to a large extent. The muni- 38 THE BUILDING OF A NATION cipal debt is at present probably almost the same in amount as the national debt. The school district debt, while small in total amount, bas more than doubled during the decade. Indeed, this is the only fea- ture of the public debt of the country which has increased in proportion to the population. Va. Tenn. La. A /a. Mo. Ga. Ark. Ind. Md N.C. Mass Ohio S C. Mich. Texas Pa Conn Miss. Me. N H. Cal. N.Y. Wis. Minn. Ky- III. Kan. Fla. N.J. Del. S.D. N.M. Ariz. N.D. Colo. Nev. R I Wyo. Wash. Neb. Iowa Idaho W.Va. Mont. Vt. Ore. INDEBTEDNESS OF STATES IN 1890 The figures of the scale represent millions of dollars GOVERNMENT 39 Virginia Louisiana Arizona Tennessee Nevada Alabama Maryland Arkansas NewHampshire South Carolina Georgia New Mexico Delaware Wyoming Maine Connecticut North Carolina Missouri Indiana North Dakota Massachusetts Mississippi South Dakota Florida Idaho Michigan California Ohio Texas Minnesota Colorado Wisconsin Montana Rhodelsland Kentucky Washington Kansas Pennsylvania New Jersey Vermont New York Illinois Nebraska WestVirginia Iowa Oregon <° 1,2 14 16 13 STATE DEBT PER CAPITA IN 1890 The figures of the scale represent dollars 40 THE BUILDING OF A NATION BUDGET The income of the general government is derived almost entirely from two forms of taxation — customs duties on imported articles, and internal revenue from the taxation of spirits and tobacco. The receipts of the government for the year 1890 were $362,600,000, or $6.14 per capita of the population, of which $219,500,000 was derived from customs duties, $145,700,000 from internal revenue, and $4,000,000 from sales of public lands. The expenditures for that year amounted to $355,400,000, or $5.55 per capita of the pojiulation, distributed as follows: PRINCIPAL ITEMS OP EXPENDITUKP] Maintenance of the army $48,700,000 Maintenance of the navy ■ 26, 100,000 Support of Indian tribes 8,500,000 Pensions 124,400,000 Interest on the public debt 37,500,000 Miscellaneous, including civil expenses 110,000,000 It is popularly supposed that the cost of maintenance of the general government, in proportion to population, has steadily and gradually increased in recent years. This is not the case, as is shown by the following table, which gives the receipts and expenditures per capita for the past twenty years : RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURES PER CAPITA, 1873 TO 1891 Receipts per Payments per Receipts per Payments per Capitii Capita Capita Capita 1872 $9.22 $6.84 1882 $7.64 $4.89 1873 8.01 6.97 1883 7.37 4.90 1874 7.13 7.07 1884 6.27 4.39 1875 6.55 6.25 1885 5.67 4.56 1876 6.52 5.87 1886 5.76 4.15 1877 6.07 5.21 1887 6.20 4.47 1878 5.41 4.98 1888 6.33 4.33 1879 5.60 5.46 1889 6.01 4.38 1880 6.65 5 34 1890 6.44 4.75 1881 7.01 5.07 1891 6.14 5.55 GO VERNMENT 41 From the foregoing table it appears that daring the last ten years, from 1882 to 1892, neither tiie receipts nor the expenditures have been as great per capita as in the ten years between 1872 and 1882, and furthermore, that this reduction is not due alone to the reduction in the interest on the public debt, as that has been fully offset by the increase in the pensions. MILITARY FORCES The Reg:ulaT Army. — Situated as we are, with a broad ocean upon either side separating our country from any nation which could for a moment pretend to cope with us, we have little need of a standing army. Occasionally there is an Indian outbreak in the far west, and its services are required to quell the trouble and protect the settlers. Occasionally, too, a labor strike develops into a mob, and troops are called on to uphold the arm of the law ; but these are petty matters, and order is usually restored by the aid of one or two thousand men. The regular army is limited by law to 25,000 non-commis- sioned officers and privates. It contains in addition 2,169 officers, the number being considerably in excess of that required for commanding the troops, so as to admit of easy and rapid expansion should occasion arise. The following table shows the classification and disposition of tlie troops: CLASSIFICATION OF TUB REGULAR ARMY General staff Ordnance corps Engineer corps 10 regiments of cavalry. 5 regiments of artillery. 25 regiments of infantry Indian scouts, etc Commissioned Non commissioned Officers Officers and Privates 400 58 450 113 500 432 6,050 289 3,675 877 12,125 2,200 25,000 Org'aiiized Militia. — In addition to the regular army, most of the states maintain a militia force, as an aid to the civil 42 THE BUILDING OF A NATION authorities in case of need. This militia is under the direct authority of the governor of the state, and can be called out at his discretion. The following table shows the strength of the organized militia of the several states: DISTRIBUTIOX OP ORGANIZED STATE MILITTA Alabama 2, 76fi Arizona 288 Arkansas 2,322 California 4.227 Colorado 781 Connecticut. ... 3,089 Delaware ... 606 District of Columbia 984 Florida 1.C03 Georgia 3,0G7 Idaho ■ 313 Illinois 3,651 Indiana 1,972 Iowa 2.558 Kansas 3, 143 Kentucky 1,120 Louisiana. ... 1,653 Maine 987 Maryland 1,934 Massachusetts 5,365 Michigan 2,341 Minnesota 1,803 Mississippi 2,828 Missouri 1.579 Montana 616 Nebraska 1,956 Nevada 533 New Hampshire 1,000 New Jersey 3,377 New Mexico 752 New York 13,063 North Carolina 1,982 North Dakota 431 Ohio 4.706 Oregon 1,243 Pennsylvania 8,120 Rhode Island 1,875 South Carolina 4,906 South Dakota 421 Tennessee 1,607 Texas 3,162 Vermont 711 Virginia 2,746 Washington 1,015 West Virginia 872 Wisconsin 2.238 Wyoming ... 298 The total organized militia numbers 104,477, of which 9,099 are commissioned officers, and 95,378 non-commissioned officers and privates. The forces are classified as follows: CLASSIFICATION OF THE MILITIA Infantry 86,570 Cavalry 4,574 Artillery 4.234 Potential Militia. — The potential militia includes all males between the ages of eighteen and forty-five years. In 1890 this class numbered 13,230,168, of which it is estimated that two-thirds might be made available in the event of war; in 1880 it numbered 10,231,239, showing an increase of 29.31 per cent., which is much larger than that of the total population. GOVERNMENT 43 This is due to the excessive immigration of the preceding decade, as is proven by the fact that the increase in the native born militia from 1880 to 1890 is approximately equal to the increase among the native born of the total population — viz., 26.04 per cent. — while the increase of the foreign born militia is not less than 48.10 per cent. The native born militia number 10,424,086, or 78.79 per cent. of the whole number, and the foreign born 2,806,082, or 21.21 per cent. This may be contrasted with similar elements of the total population, of which 85.23 per cent, were native born, and 14.77 were foreign born. Of the total potential militia, 68.01 per cent, or more than two-thirds, were native whites, while 73.03 per cent, of the total population were native whites. Of the militia, 10.78 per cent, were colored, and of the total population 12.20 per cent, were colored. Of the total militia a little more than one-half — namely, 51.20 per cent. — were whites of native extraction (that is, native whites of native parentage), while 48.80 were foreign born, native born of foreign parentage, or colored. The following table shows the proportion of the potential militia in each of the five divisions of the countrv, in 1890, contrasted with similar proportions of the total population : PROPORTIONS OP POTENTIAL MILITIA AND POPULATION Militia Population North Atlantic Division , 28.71 12.23 36.55 15.58 6.93 27.79 South Atlantic Division 14.14 North Central Division 35 71 South Central Division 17.52 Western Division 4.84 Thus it will be seen that in the northern and western states the proportion of potential militia is greater than that of the population, showing a preponderance of the mature male ele- ment; while in the southern states the proportion of militia is less than that of the population, showing the reverse. 44 THE BUILDING OF A NATION THE NAVY Next to that of its industrial achievements, the naval history of the United States has been its most brilliant record. From the time of John Paul Jones to the civil war, the navy has played more than its part in our difficulties. The outbreak of the civil war found the navy in a neglected condition. We had few war-ships, and fewer still in condition for service. But with marvelous rapidity we built a navy, and at the close of the war we ranked among the first of the powers of the world upon the sea. More than that, by our bold- ness of invention we revolutionized the building and fighting of war-ships. The war being over, the navy was rapidly reduced, until eight years ago little was left of our magnificent fleet, and that little had been distanced in the march of progi-ess. We were left practically defenseless against a naval power. Then we com- menced to restore the navy by the construction of new and modern types of vessels, and will soon have ample protection for our seaports, and strength to spare for offensive operations. Of armored and protected vessels, w^e have now twenty-two completed and sixteen in process of building, including a num- ber of monitors which are undergoing reconstruction. The displacement of these ships ranges from 1,875 to 10,231 tons, and their horse-power from 840 to 21,000. Their speed ranges from 6 to 21 knots per hour. Of unarmored vessels, twenty-five have been built and six are under construction. Their displacements range from 420 to 4,413 tons, and their speed from 8 to 23 knots. Besides these, a number of torpedo boats and dynamite cruisers have been con- structed, and there are stdl several sailing vessels in commission. The present naval force consists of 726 officers, 8,250 enlisted men and boys, and a marine corps of 2,177 officers and men. Here again, as in the case of the regular army, is seen a great disproportion of officers, to admit of rapid and efficient expan- sion of the force in case of war. GOVERNMENT 45 PENSIONS rt has remained for the United States to prove the fallacy of the claim that " republics are ungrateful." Certainly in its treatment of the veterans of the late civil war the government has proved itself the most generous on which the sun ever shone. Since the close of the war the pension laws have been amended many times, each amendment making them more and more liberal. Money has been poured out like water upon the country's defenders. More money is paid out annually to its pensioners than is expended by many of the great nations of Europe upon their armaments. Regarded purely as an investment, without considering its sentimental aspect, this money has been wisely spent; although, perhaps, the time is approaching when it will become necessary to call a halt. Surely a nation which has provided so munificently for its defenders in the past, cannot fail of defenders sliould necessity arise in the future. The money expended thus far for pensions since 1861, is fSl, 418,000,000. This vast sum would far more than pay off the balance of the national debt. In the year 1892 alone, $141,000,000 was thus disbursed. The number of invalid pen- sioners upon the rolls was 536,821, and the number of widows and orphans was 139,339. The total number of pensioners was 876,068. PUBLIC LANDS When the United States had shaken off the yoke of the mother countr3^ the territory of which it found itself possessed was limited on the west by the Mississippi River, and on the south by the thirty-first parallel of latitude, practically the northern boundary of Florida ; the limits on the nortli and east being about the same as at present. The area contained within these limits is estimated at 827,844 square miles. Besides the thirteen 46 THE BUILDING OF A NATION original states, this area comprised a large tract known as the Northwest territory, over which the claims of several of the states extended, these claims overlapping one another in the most perplexing manner. State Cessions. — As a simple method of settling these complicated claims, the states transferred their interests in this territory to the general government, and thus the government became a large land-owner. The territory so ceded now consti- tutes the states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, and the eastern part of Minnesota. Again, in the south the state of Georgia laid claim to the present area of Alabama and Mississippi, which it also ceded to the general government, in consideration of $6,200,000. At that time nearly all of it was an uninhabited wilderness, only a trifling part being owned by individuals. The states of Kentucky and Tennessee were constituted respectively from parts of Virginia and North Carolina, and none of their lands ever belonged to the general government. Annexation of Territory. — At various times additions have been made to the territory of the United States by treaty and purchase. These are set forth in the following table, and are represented on the map, Plate 3. COST AND AREA OP ACQUIRED TERRITORY Date Area Cost 1803 Louisiana purchase 1,171,931 square miles. $12,000,000 1831 Florida purchase 59,268 " " 5,000,000 1845 Annexation of Texas 375,239 " " 1848 Mexican cession 545,783 " " 15,000,000 1853 Gadsden purchase 45,535 " " 10,000.000 1867 Purchase of Alaska 570,000 " " 7,200,000 In the statement of area of the Louisiana purchase is included the area of Oregon territory, comprising the present states of Washington, Oregon, and Idaho. This region was acquired, however, not as a part of the Louisiana purchase, which ex- tended only to the summit of the Rocky mountains in Montana ; but as a direct and almost immediate result of it by occupation and settlement. GOVERNMENT 47 All the above additions to our territory increased the public lands owned by the general government, excepting in the case of Texas. That state, which had achieved its independence of Mexico, voluntarily joined the sisterhood of states and retained control of its public lands, with the exception of certain areas in the north and west which it sold to the United States for the sum of $16,000,000; these now form parts of New Mexico, Col- orado, and Kansas. Within the areas thus added to the country were, taken col- lectively, considerable bodies of land owned by private parties, including grants which had been made by the Mexican or Span- ish government to individuals. All lands thus held in fee simple were of course retained under such ownership, but the balance of the territory, forming vastly the greater proportion of it, became the property of the government. The rules to be observed by the government in the disposal of its empire, early commanded the attention of legislators. A liberal and enlightened policy was soon developed ; though accompanied perhaps by certain abuses, it has proved, on the whole, a most beneficial one for the people of the country. Method of Survey. — The land was first cut up into parcels convenient for sale or other form of disposal, and the plan adopted early in the present century has been pursued up to the present time with but slight changes. It consists essentially in a subdivision of the land into tracts six miles on a side, known as townships ; the subdivision of each of these townships into sections, each approximately one nule on a side; and the further subdivision of these sections into quarter sections, or even smaller fractions. The north and south lines of the townships are theo- retically true meridians, and hence, while six miles apart at the jjoints of beginning, they converge northward. At a distance of twenty-four or thirty-six miles a fresh start is made, and these lines are again set at intervals of six miles; the line along which this fresh start is made is known as a correction line. The section lines are set one mile apart on the south line of each township, and the shortage in the breadth of the township is thrown entirely into the western tier of sections. These surveys have been initiated at various points in the 48 THE BUILDING OF A NATION country, independently of one another, the first step being to select an initial point and to run through that point a north and south line known as a principal meridian, and an east and west line known as a base line. The townships are numbered north or south from tlie base line to which they appertain; and the ranges, as the north and south tiers of townships are called, are numbered east or west from the principal meridian. To a resident of any of the Land Office states, i. e., those states in whicli there is or has been public land, these methods of de- scription are as familiar as the alphabet ; and the statement that one owns the northwest quarter of section 23, in township 10 north, range 15 west of the sixth principal meridian, defines that square half mile with precision and much more clearly than a statement of the latitude and longitude of the place would convey. In this way the government has subdivided nearly all of its possessions. Out of a total area of public lands, excluding Alaska, of 1,440,000,000 acres, there remained uusurveyed in 1890, 460,- 000,000 acres. This consisted, with the exception of certain Indian reservations, of tracts of desert and mountain land, which under present conditions of climate and altitude are practically uninhabitable. Methods of Disposal. — The idea of disposing of the public land for the purpose of making pecuniary profit, was early abandoned ; instead thereof the purpose of all legisla- tion, excepting perhaps the earliest, has been to use the public land as a means of inducing the spread of settlement and the development of the country. In legislation concerning the disposal of land to private in- dividuals, whatever the terms, one provision has always existed, to wit, that title should pass from the government to actual settlers. This provision forms the characteristic feature of the various preemption, homestead, timber claim, and desert land acts. Under the preemption acts, a man was permitted to settle upon the public land, laying claim to a quarter section, and after keeping it a certain length of time he obtained a patent for it, upon the payment of $1.25 per acre. GOVERNMENT 49 For many years this was the only general law under which title to the public lands could be secured by individuals. Later a homestead law was enacted ; under its provisions an actual settler, after occupying a quarter section for a certain term of years, obtained a patent therefor at no further expense than the fees of the Land Office. Moreover, the fact that he had homesteaded a claim did not prevent him from taking up an adjoining claim, so that under the laws a hondfide settler could thus obtain two quarter sections by paying for one of them. Still later, when the desirability of tree-planting upon the plains and deserts became apparent, what is known as the Timber Culture Act was passed, which enabled a settler to ob- tain a third quarter section, upon furnishing proof that he had planted and maintained for a certain term of years upon this quarter section a certain number of trees. In recent years another act, known as the Desert Land Act, has still farther increased the ability of the settler to avail him- self of the public land. This act, which is intended to apply only to those regions in which the rainfall is insufficient for farming, provides in effect that any settler may take up a full section, 640 acres, of desert land, provided he conducts water to it and puts it under irrigation. Amount Alienated. — The total area of the public land in all the states and territories, excluding Alaska, was approxi- mately 1,440,000,000 acres. Of this area the United States had, up to June 30, 1892, alienated by means of grants, patents, etc., 873,000,000 acres; leaving 567,000,000 acres, or much less than one-half. Of the area thus alienated, the principal items are: DISPOSITION MADE OP PUBLIC LANDS Homesteads i;:50,000,000 acres. Cash sales 224,000.000 " Railway land grants patented 79,000,000 " Swamp lands to States 70,000,000 " Land bounties for military services 61,000,000 " Of the remainder still left in the hands of the government, estimated at 567,000,000 acres, a large part, say 100,000,000 acres, consists of Indian reservations. Another large part, esti- 4 50 THE BUILDING OF A NATION mated at 103,000,000 acres, has been granted to railroads, but has not jet been patented to them ; while yet another consider- able area, impossible to estimate, has been filed upon as home- stead, preemption, or timber culture claims, the titles for which have not vet passed. With trifling exceptions the public lands that are desir- able to tbe agriculturist have now passed from the possession of the government into private hands. Those which remain are mountainous or arid lands, not suitable under present conditions for the support of population. The wave of westward migra- tion will ere long cease for want of a motive, and perhaps a reflex wave may be substituted, and abandoned farms in the east again be occupied. POPULATION Early Settlemeuts. — Original settlements within our territory were effected mainly under charters granted by the English government. Many charters were given which were without effect so far as settlement was concerned, and these it is unnecessary to mention. Again, some settlements were made by Europeans other than English, in defiance of the English claims to the territory, but these were afterward conquered and annexed. The first permanent settlement made upon our soil was at Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607, under a charter of James I., of Eng- land, granting to one of the so-called Virginia companies a strip of land, extending along the sea-coast from the 34th to the 41st parallel of latitude. At the same time a charter was given to a second company, of a strip extending along the sea-coast from the 38th to the 45th parallel ; but under this charter no attempt at colonization was made. The company possessing this char- ter was reorganized in 1620, under the name of the Plymouth Company, and obtained a new charter granting to it the land between the 40tli and 48th parallels, and extending from the Atlantic to the South Sea, as the Pacific Ocean was then called. Under this charter the Plymouth colony was started in 1620, and under a sub-grant from the Plymouth Company, the Massa- chusetts colony was established, the first settlers coming over in 1628. From these colonies, by the aid of sub-grants of territory, settlements were effected in Maine, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Connecticut ; besides being extended over the sea- board of Massachusetts, and far into the interior of the State, Later, changes were made in the charters of all these New Eng- land colonies, bringing each of them directly under the crown of England. 62 THE BUILD IN a OF A NATION New York was first colonized bj the Dutch, who settled upon Manhattan island in 1623-24, under a claim based on a right of discovery by Hendrick Hudson. The settlements thus begun grew rapidly, and remained in the hands of the Dutch until 1664, when they were taken hy the English. They were recap- tured by the Dutch in 1673, but in 1674 were restored to the English by treaty. Settlements in New Jersey were made at Elizabeth in 1664, but prior to that the Dutch had spread slightly from Manhattan island into that state. The settlement of Pennsylvania commenced in 1681, under a charter granted in that year to William Penn, whose enlight- ened policy toward the Indians saved his people from many of the ills suffered by other colonies, and this one grew with great rapidity from the stai't. The settlement of Maryland was com- menced by a colony planted at St. Mary in 1634, under a charter issued two years previously to Lord Baltimore. The permanent settlement of the Carolinas was begun by extension from Vir- ginia. In 1664 colonists from Barbadoes settled at Clarendon, on the Cape Fear river, and six years after a colony was formed on the Ashley river. The settlement of Georgia commenced much later ; the first colony was started by Oglethorpe at Savan- nah in 1733, under a charter granted by the crown the previous year, and spread slowly up the Savannah river and to the neigh- boring islands on the coast- Statistics concerning the growth of the colonies prior to the first census in 1790, are wanting. Our only knowledge as to the population is derived from estimates, and the best are those given by Bancroft, which are sunnnarized in the following table: ESTIMATED POPULATION PRIOR TO 1790 Tear Wliite Black Total 1688 200,000 1,040,000 1.165.000 1.385.000 1,850.000 2,383,000 220.000 260.000 310,000 462.000 562,000 200,000 1750 1754 1760 1770 1780 1,260.000 1,425.000 1.695,000 2,312,000 2,945,000 POPULATION- 53 Thus, at the outbreak of the Revolution the population of the colonies was probably not far from 2,500,000, of which it is estimated that 2,00(.»,000 were whites and 500,000 blacks. Increase of Population. — The first census of the United States was taken in 1790. From that time to the present a cen- sus has been taken every ten years. For a century, therefore, we have a trustworthy record of our numbers. Starting a hun- dred years ago with 3,929,214 inhabitants, we have advanced with such tremendous strides that 62,622,250 was the constitu- tional ])opulation of the country, June 1, 1890, as returned bv the last census. This did not include the inhabitants of Alaska or the Indian territory, nor did it embrace Indians still remain- ing in tribal relations or living upon reservations. Including all these classes, the number of human beings within the limits of the country, was about 63,000,000. POPULATION AND RATE OP INCREASE BY DECADES Census Years Population Per cent, of Increase 1790 3,929.214 5,308,483 7,239,881 9,633,822 12,800,020 17,009,453 23,191,870 31,443,321 88,558,371 50.155,783 62,622,250 1800 35 10 1810 36 38 1820 1830 33.07 33 55 1840 32 67 1850 35 87 1860 35 58 1870 22 63 1880 30 08 1890 24 86 The above table shows the constitutional population as returned at each census during the past century, with the per- centage of increase during each decennial period. Although the pofjulation as returned by the census of 1S70 is known to have been incorrect to a considerable extent, it is here given as returned; and the rates of increase between 1860 and 1870, and between 1870 and 1880, since they were computed from it, are also necessarily incorrect, being too small in the fonner case, and too large in the latter. 54 THE BUILDING OF A NATION It will be seen that the rate of increase in the early decades, when it was dependent almost entirely upon natural causes, ran from 32 to 36 per cent., generally diminishing as the population increased. Between 1840 and 1850 the natural increase was reinforced by a heavy immigration, and accordingly the rate advanced decidedly at that time ; since then it has diminished rapidly, as the full effect of immigration in reducing natural increase has become felt. In the first twenty-five years the population doubled ; in the second twenty-five years it doubled again, the population in 1840 being four times that in 1790. But in recent years the rate of increase lias diminished. Instead of doubling in the last quarter of a century, as it did in the first twenty-five years of our history, it has required thirty years, the population in 1890 being almost exactly double that in 1860. MILLIONS OF INHABITANTS 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 30 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 CHINA INDIA.... , RUSSIA , UNITED STATES.... GERMANY. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. JAPAN FRANCE UNITED KINGDOM. ITALY PRUSSIA TURKEY SPAIN BRAZIL MEXICO COREA BELGIUM BAVARIA.... SWEDEN PORTUGAL NETHERLANDS.... COLOMBIA SAXONY SWITZERLAND CHILE PERU. VENEZUELA. GREECE DENMARK WURTEMBERG NORWAY BADEN GUATEMALA ECUADOR ---- BOLIVIA URUGUAY SALVADOR HONDURAS PARAGUAY NICARAGUA-. COSTA RICA \ POPULATION OF COUNTRIES OF THE GLOBE IN 1890 POPULATION 55 These rates of increase are extremely large as compared with those of European nations; many times larger than the rate of France, several times larger than that of Great Britain, and greatly in excess of that of Germany, Indeed, in rapidity of growth, no other civilized nation has ever approached this coun- try. While the United States has doubled its population in the last thirty years. France during the same period has increased but 3 per cent.. Great Britain and Ireland but 29 per cent,, and Prussia but 62 per cent. Since 1797 Prussia has increased in population from 8,700,000 to 30,000,000, while the population of this country has increased from 4,000,000 or 5,000,000 to 62,- 622,250; nor is this tremendous advance due in any great degree to immigration, since in all probability, as is shown later, the ear- lier rates of increase would iiave been nearly maintained by the excess of births over deaths had there been no immigration. TOTAL POPULATION BY STATES IN 1890 States and Tekeitobies The United States . . North Atlantic Division. Maine New Hampshire. . . . Vermont Massachusetts Rhode Island Connecticut New York New Jersey Pennsylvania South Atlantic Division. . . Delaware Maryland District of Columl)ia. . Virginia West Virginia North Carolina South Carolina Georgia Florida North Central Division Ohio Indiana Illinois Michigan Population 02.622,250! 17,401.545 ,080 ,580| ,422 1943 ,506 .58! ,853! ,983 ,014! 661, 376, 332, ,288, 345, 746, ,991 ,444, ,258, 8,857,920: 3,672,316 2,192,404 3,826.351 2,093,889 Wisconsin ', 1,686,880 168,493 1,042,390 230,392 1,655,980 762,794 1,617,947 1,151,149 1,837,353 391,422 22.362,279 States and Territories Minnesota Iowa Missouri North Dakota South Dakota Nebraska Kansas South Central Division. . Kentucky Tennessee Alabama Mississippi ........ Louisiana Texas Oklahoma Arkansas Western Division Montana Wyoming Colorado New Mexico Arizona Utah Nevada Idaho Washington Oregon California Population 1,301,826 1,911,896 2,679,184 182,719 328,808 1,058,910 1,427,096 10,972. 1,858, 1,767. 1,513, 1,289, 1,118, 2,235, 61, 1,128, 893 635 518 017 600 587 523 834 179 3,027,613 132, 60, 412, 153, 59, 207, 45, 84, 349. 313, 1,208, 159 705 198 593 620 905 761 335 390 767 130 o6 THE BUILDIXG OF A NATION Population of States.— The preceding table shows the total population of each state, and of each group of states, in 1S90. arranged in geographical order: and tlie following diagram presents the same facts, the states being arranged in the order of their population, with the smallest at the top. HUNDREDS OF THOUSANDS NEVADA ARIZONA OKLAHOMA... WYOMING.... IDAHO MONTANA NEW MEXICO DELAWARE... NORTH DAKOTA UTAH.... DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. OREGON SOUTH DAKOTA VERMONT RHODE ISLAND WASHINGTON NEW HAMPSHIRE FLORIDA COLORADO... MAINE CONNECflCuf WEST VIRGINIA MARYLAND NEBRASKA LOUISIANA ARKANSAS SOUTH CAROLINA CALIFORNIA MISSISSIPPI MINNESOTA KANSAS NEW JERSEY ALABAMA NORTH CAROLINA VIRGINIA WISCONSIN TENNESSEE GEORGIA KENTUCKY IOWA MICHIGAN_ INDIANA MASSACHUSETTS TEXAS MISSOURI OHIO ILLINOIS PENNSYLVANIA NEW YORK POPULATION OF EACH STATE AND TERRITORY IN 1890 Kate of Increase of Popnlation of States.— The next table shows the percentage of increase of each state, and each group of states, during each ten year period, from the time of the formation of the state. POPULATION 57 PERCENTAGE OF INCREASE OP POPULATION, BY DECADES States and Territories 1880 to 1890 1870 to 1880 1860 to 1870 1850 to 1860 1840 to 1850 1830 to 1840 1820 to 1830 1810 to 1820 1800 to 1810 1790 to 1800 The United States . . . 34.86 30.08 32.63 35.58 35.87 32.67 33.55 33 07 36.38 35.10 North Atlantic Division 19.95 17.96 16.09 22.81 27.60 21.99 27.22 24.95 32.29 33.92 1.87 8.51 0.04 25.57 24.94 19.84 18.00 27.74 22.77 16.59 14.93 11.49 29.71 9.48 23.34 15.59 15.63 19.14 45.24 28.78 3.51 9.01 0.52 22.35 27.23 15.86 15.97 24.83 21.61 29.79 «0.22 a2.38 4.90 18.38 24.47 16.80 12.94 34.83 21.19 9.11 7.74 2.55 0.31 23.79 18.35 24.10 25.29 37.27 25.71 14.65 16.22 11.74 7.59 34.81 35.57 19.62 27.52 31.14 34.09 19.20 25.62 5.66 4.02 20.85 11.97 4.13 20.60 16.. 36 27.87 7.67 a3.92 10.37 18.94 16.68 17.09 8.19 39.83 15.64 28.71 19.11 30.42 13.78 8.29 10.83 7.91 5.04 43.07 12.98 29.31 14.43 50.74 16. (J4 41.06 11.63 11.30 4.. 36 62.81 16.30 34.49 16.99 57 16 New Hampshire Vermont 29.58 80 82 Massachusetts Rhode Island 11.63 0.43 5 49 73 19 14 67 Pennsylvania South Atlantic Division 38.67 23.47 17.27 19.73 34.87 23.46 39.92 30.65 41.10 30.24 43.54 33.76 11.41 13.66 75.41 4.44 22.60 17.84 45.26 12.29 17.22 24.04 18.24 14.67 1.74 5.14 9.74 2.34 5.. 50 9.74 20.. 57 13.73 0.10 7.04 37.53 9.29 13.07 11.42 70.46 10.72 8 76 Maryland 82 District of Columbia. Virginia 17'74 West Virginia North Carolina South Carolina 7.93 0.27 12.00 33.70 42.70 14.22 5.27 16.67 60.59 68.35 15.35 12.47 31.07 60.52 61.23 2.09 2.27' 33.78 56.86 108.11 15.. 52 15.60 51.57 15.00 21.11 35.08 16.19 20.12 55.17 21.43 38.75 97 08 Florida North Central Division. 87.49 192.99 474.77 Ohio 14.83 10.82 24.32 27.92 28.23 66.74 17.68 23.56 ]• 278.41 134.06 43.27 23.02 19.99 17.71 21.18 .38.25 24.73 77.. 57 36.06 25.93 853.23 267.83 173.35 38.62 13.92 24.45 48.36 58.06 35.93 155.61 76.91 45.62 193.18 326.45 2.39.91 11.54 18.14 36.63 101.06 88.38 I'M. 06 2,730.72 251.13 73.30 30.33 44.11 78.81 87.34 886.88 62.01 99.94 202.44 570.90 61.35 133.07 185.42 260.97 151.90 .500.24 349 13 408.67 3;B4.67 Illinois Michigan 84.06 Wisconsin Minnesota Iowa 345.85 77.75 Missouri 173.19 111.03 219.29 North Dakota South Dakota Nebraska Kansas South Central Division. 34.05 42.24 46.72 51.91 72.89 134.09 206.68 12.73 14.60 19.84 13.96 19.01 40.44 24.81 22.55 26.63 36.68 29.. 31 94.45 14.31 13.40 3.40 4.63 2.67 35.48 17.64 10.68 24.96 30.47 36.74 184.21 25.98 20.92 30.62 61.46 46.92 13.36 21.60 90.86 174.96 63.. 35 21.94 61.29 142.01 81.08 41.08 38.77 61.53 83.98 147.84 199.90 195.88 Alabama Mississippi 86.97 99.75 355.95 Louisiana Texas Oklahoma Arkansas 40.58 71.27 65.65 78.46 11.26 60.02 107.46 246.15 115.12 221.09 113.17 Western Division Montana 237.49 192.01 90.14 128.00 Wyoming :::::: :::::: Colorado 112.12 3sr 47 16.30 New Mexico 2s.4r, 47.43 44.42 *26..51 158.77 365.13 70.. 53 39.72 30.14 318.72 65.88 46. .54 117.41 213.57 92.22 54. :w *1.76 51.94 Arizona Utah 115.49 519.67 106 ! 62 73.30 47.44 25.3.89 Nevada Idaho Washington Oregon 294.65 California 310.37 * Decrease. 58 THE BUILDING OF A NATION The thirteen original states, which comprise practically the North Atlantic and South Atlantic divisions, were at the time of the first census, in 1790, to a large extent settled communities, and their rates of increase in the early decades were in no case very great, while in certain cases they were very small indeed. From the beginning of the century these states have been the source of supply of a great westward migration. Their chil- dren have peopled the Mississippi valley, the lake region, and the vast territory farther west. Indeed, for nearly a century these eastern states have been the hive from which millions have swarmed westward to subdue the plains and deserts. In the North Atlantic states these enormous drafts have been largely made good in numbers, especially during the past forty years, by foreign immigration, which has to a great extent re- placed the original stock. This is not the case, however, with the South Atlantic states, which thus far have received no foreign immigration, owing partly to climatic conditions and partly to the presence of the colored race, with which the foreign element either cannot or will not compete. In the Central and Western states the rate of increase, which in the first stage of settlement was excessively large, has diminished greatly as the population has become denser. Considerations Affecting Increase.— It is a well- recognized general law governing the matter, that unless dis- turbed by extraneous causes, such as wars, pestilence, immigra- tion, emigration, change of occupations, and so on, increase of population goes on at a constantly diminishing rate. The opera- tion of this law in the United States has been disturbed in recent years by the civil war, which not only destroyed a vast number of lives, but decreased the birth rate materially during its progress. Again, the war was followed by an increased birth rate, as is invariably the case under like circumstances, and to an extent that it is impossible to estimate, since its effects are very complicated. Within the United States, too, there is an enormous move- ment of population, which is mainly conducted westward along parallels of latitude. This also interferes with the operation of the law of increase in individual states and sections of the coun- POPULATION 59 try. Moreover, changes in occnpations and industries have affected in the past and are now affecting the rate of increase and the operation of this general law. Tn the settlement of a region, the ruling occupations of the people usually follow one another in a certain order, depending largely upon the density of settlement. Thus, after the pioneers, hunters, trappers, and prospectors, follow the graziers and cattle men, who support themselves from the products of large herds of cattle and sheep, and naturally require great areas of country for their support. As the population becomes less sparse and land for grazing purposes is no longer to be had, the farmer, who derives his living from smaller areas of land, gradually takes the place of the grazier. Under ordinary circumstances, the limit of density of a purely agricultural community is in tarn ultimately reached, and as that limit is approached, manufac- tures acquire more and more prominence ; and since this class of industries requires limited space and a close association of people, cities spring up and grow with the increase of manufac- turing. As a community passes from one to another of these stages, and especially as it passes from the agricultural to the manufac- turing stage, there is generally a considerable reduction in the rate of increase. Indeed, the growth of population in certain cases has for a time stopped entirely; to go on, however, at an increasing rate when the new class of industries had been estab- lished. Thus we find that southern New England, New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania have passed the agricultural stage; their principal industries are now trade and manufactures, and they are growing at a rate much more rapid than a quarter of a century ago, when they were beginning to emerge from the agricultural stage. On the other hand, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Iowa have nearly reached the limit of agricultural settle- ment, and are now developing manufacturing industries ; but the latter have not yet reached a stage sufficiently advanced to induce a rapid increase of population. Thus the growth of a state consists in a series of waves representing the rate of increase of its population, the summit of each wave being coin- cident with the maximum development of a group of industries, 60 THE BUILDING OF A NATION and each depression between two waves marking the period of change fi'oin industry to industry. The northeastern states are primarily manufacturing centers, and as a necessary result of this preponderance of the manu- facturing element, there is a corresponding preponderance of urban population. Consequently, more than half the po|)ulation is grouped in cities. Agriculture is the primary industry of the Upper Mississippi valley and the Lake states, but in many of them manufactures are now acquiring prominence. The indus- tries of the southern states are almost entirely agricultural, while in the western states and territories the leading industries are grazing, agriculture, and mining. Keceiit Changes. — Maine and Vermont are practically at a standstill as regards increase of population ; New Hampshire has passed the lowest point of its rate of increase and is now making rapid, strides, owing to the stimulus of manufacturing industries. The other northeastern states are increasing rapidly, more so than for several decades. Among the southern states, comparison of the growth during the past decade with the growth of those immediately preceding, is practically impossible, because the omissions of the census of 1870 vitiate the results. As nearly as can be judged, these states are holding their own ; while certain of them, notably Florida, Texas, and Arkansas, are growing rapidly. Of the North Central states, Ohio, Indiana, and Iowa show a decided reduction in the rate of increase, and this is true of Illinois also, if the city of Chicago be not considered. Michigan, in spite of its extensive frontier, has not advanced as rapidly as hitherto; while Wisconsin has added to its rate of increase, Missouri has nearly maintained its former rate, and Minnesota has not lost materially. The Plains states. North and South Dakota, Nebraska, and Kansas, have had a very rapid growth during the past decade, although the rate of increase as expressed in percentages has diminished. A succession of rainy seasons in the early part of the decade attracted hundreds of thousands of settlers to their fertile plains, and the states filled up rapidly, reaching their POPULATION 61 maximum in 1887-88, when they had a population in excess of that given by the census of 1890, three years later. Then followed a series of dry seasons in which the rainfall was insufficient for the needs of crops, and the discouraged settlers retreated eastward in large numbers. The state cen- suses of Kansas taken in 1885, 1886, 1887, 1888, 1889, showed an increase up to 1888, and from that time a diminution of over 90,000. It is probable that there has been a similar movement in the Dakotas and Nebraska, since their state censuses, taken in 1885, gave a population very nearly as great as that returned by the census of 1890. The states and territories of the Western division skow rather violent oscillations in population, due to the discoveries and the exhaustion of mines in various parts of this region. Thus Montana has had a tremendous growth, owing primarily to the discovery of the mines at Butte, which have not only attracted a considerable population to that neighborhood, but have in- duced the building of railways and the settlement of agricul- tural regions. Wyoming also has grown with unusual rapidity, and this without the stimulus of mines, its increase being due to the opening up of rich agricultural regions in the northern part of the state, near the foot of the Bighorn mountains. The growth of Colorado in the last decade has been in its agri- cultural regions and in its cities, while the mining regions have suffered a positive decline ; the last census but one was taken on the top wave of a mining excitement occasioned by the Lead- ville discoveries. The growth in New Mexico, Arizona, and Utah has been comparatively slow; while Nevada, owing to the exhaustion of the Comstock and other mines, has suffered a loss of population during the decade amounting to more than one- third its numbers. Idaho has filled up rapidly, the increase being mainly in the northern part of the state, where rich agricultural lands, requir- ing little irrigation, have invited settlers. Washington has had an exceedingly rapid growth, due entirely to agricultural and commercial interests. The increase of settlement has been mainly in the eastern part and in the valley of Puget sound. Oregon also has filled up rapidly, the increase being mainly in 62 THE BCILDIXG OF A NATION the Willamette valley ; and, finally, California has maintained a steady rate of increase, its development of agricultural and commercial interests having much more than offset the losses from the exhanstion of its mines. Relative Standing- of States. — In 1790 Virginia was the most populous State in the Union, and it continued at the head of the list for three decades, when New York came to the front and has since remained first in population. In 1790, and also in 1800, Pennsylvania occupied the second position ; in 1810 this position was taken by New York, and in 1820 by Virginia. In 1830 Pennsylvania resumed the second position, and has held it continuously since that time. The third position was occupied in 1790 by North Carolina, in 1800 by New York, in 1810 and 1820 by Pennsylvania, and in 1S80 by Virginia: while between 18-±0 and 1880 it was held by Ohio. In 1890 Illinois in her upward progress reached and secured third place. DENSITY OF POPULATION The following table gives the area of the country, and the average number of inhabitants to the square mile, at the date of each census : AREA AXD DENSITY OF POPULATIOX AT EACH CENSUS Census Years Area Density 1790 827.844 827.844 1.999.775 1.999.775 2.059,043 3,059,043 2,980.959 3.025,000 3,603.884 3.603.884 3,603.884 4.75 1800 6.41 1810 3.62 1820 4.82 1830 " 1840 1850 6.25 8.29 7.78 I860 10.39 1870 10.70 1880 13.93 1890 17.37 This table shows that in spite of successive acquisitions of territory, which have increased our domain from 827,844 to POPULATION 63 8,603,884 square miles, the density of population has increased within the century from 4.75 to 17.37 inhabitants per square mile. This increase is also strikingly shown in the annexed diagram • NUMBER OF INHABITANTS PER SQUARt MILt 10 12 14 1790.. 1800_.. 1810._. 1820... 1830... 1840... 1850... 1860... 1870... 1880_. 1 890_. 16 18 DENSITY OF TOTAL POPULATION AT EACH CENSUS The diagram on page 64, showing the density of population of various countries in 1890, is inserted for purposes of comparison. It will be seen that the United States is a comparatively sparsely settled country, being exceeded in density of popula- tion by every country of Europe, excepting Eussia and Nor- way. Extent of Settlement. — In order to distinguish between settled and unsettled areas, it is necessary to adopt a certain arbitrary definition. Accordinglv we will regard as settled those areas having two or more inhabitants to a square mile, and, conversely, those areas having a smaller number of inhabi- tants will be regarded as unsettled. Under this definition, let us watch the spread of settlement as its advancing wave has swept across the continent. At the end of each decade opportunity is given to wi^tness the progress made. 64 THE BVILDINO OF A NATION 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 SAXONY BELGIUM NETHERLANDS UNITED KINGDOlVI. CHINA BADEN JAPAN WURTEMBERG ITALY -. GERMANY INDIA PRUSSIA BAVARIA FRANCE , SWITZERLAND AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. DENMARK COREA PORTUGAL SALVADOR SPAIN GREECE GUATEMALA SWEDEN TURKEY UNITED STATES.... NORWAY MEXICO RUSSIA.... ECUADOR. COSTA RICA COLOMBIA CHILE HONDURAS URUGUAY NICARAGUA PERU BRAZIL VENEZUELA PARAGUAY NUMBER OF INHABITANTS PER SQUARE MILE IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES IN 1890 The maps on Plate 4 represent the status of settlement at the beginning and at the end of the centurv. The colored portions show tlie settled area of the country at each date, respectively. In 1790 settlement stretched continuously along the Atlantic coast from Maine to Georgia, and occupied the greater part of the Atlantic plain. At several points it reached feebly west- ward, up the Mohawk river in New York, and down the Appa- lachian valley in east Tennessee; while in northern Kentucky, in the neighborhood of Cincinnati, quite a body of settlement appeared, isolated from the rest. Each decade has seen the frontier line pushed westward, crossing the Appalachians, stretching gradually across the great valley of the Mississi{)pi, and climbing the plains beyond. With every succeeding census there were new isolated bodies THE BUILDING OF A NATION PLATE 4 THE SETTLED AREA IN 1790 THE SETTLED AREA IN 1890 POPULATION 65 of settlement beyond the frontier, at points where the exceeding fertilit}' of the soil, facilities for Indian trading, or valuable mines, had atti'acted the pioneers. These centers have grown and spread until their margins have touched the main frontier line and they have become merged in the great body of popula- tion. In two or three cases settlements that grew up under foreign powers, have fallen under our jurisdiction by the acqui- sition of territory. Among these are the old French-Spanish settlements of southern Louisiana, the American-Spanish settle- ments in Texas, and the Spanish settlements of New Mexico, Arizona, and California. In 1860 settlements of magnitude first appeared in the Rocky mountains and on the Pacilic coast. Those in California con- sisted of gold-hunters, and those in Utah of Mormons. In 1870 they had spread widely. To the gold-hunters of California had been added thousands of farmers who were subduing the broad acres of the Sacramento valley. The Mormons had increased and multiplied, and gold-hunters had spread into Idaho and Montana. Settlement in 1890. — The last decade has witnessed an unprecedented development of the public domain. With the exception of a few isolated areas of small extent, the eastern half of the United States had long ago been subjugated, and the extension of settleuient has been confined practically to the far west, which has been the scene of tremendous changes during the decade. Ten years ago there was a well-defined frontier line stretching down the plains not far from the 100th meridian, the limit of settlement being here a degree or two east, and there a degree or two west of this line ; while beyond it were scattered and iso- lated bodies of settlement — some of them, it is true, of consider- able extent. During ten years this frontier line moved west- ward, while the isolated bodies of settlement have spread out east and west, north and south, and joined themselves together, and in turn have been joined by the advancing frontier line; so that to-day there is in this region no longer a frontier line, bat rather a continuous body of settlement, interspersed by a few unoccupied areas, like islands, some large, some small, which 5 66 THE BUILDING OF A NATION either by reason of their elevation and consequent rigorous climate, or the absence of water for irrigation, have thus far been passed b}'' in the selective development of the great west. The Settled Area. — The following table presents the total settled area and the unsettled area at the date of each cen- sus, with the proportion which the settled area bears to the total area of the country : SETTLED AND UNSETTLED AREA AT EACH CENSUS Census Ybars Total area of settle- ment ; 3 or more to the square mile Unsettled area Proportion of settled to total area 1790 239.935 305,708 407,945 508,717 632,717 807,292 979,249 1,194,754 1,272.239 1.569.570 1,947,285 587,909 522,136 1,591.830 1,491.058 1,426.326 1.251,751 2,001,710 1,831,746 2,331,645 2,034,314 1,656,599 291 1800 37^ 20,'? m% 35;? 44^ 1810 1820 1880 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 54^ Thus it is shown that, under the definition given, the set- tled area in 1790 comprised nearly one-third of the total area of the United States, and that, in spite of the enormous addi- tions which have increased the national domain to nearly four and a half times its original area, the proportion of settled area has increased within a century, until at present it exceeds one- half of the total area, including Alaska. Excluding this terri- tory of 570,000 square miles, nearly two-thirds of the total area of the country is now classed as settled. This table shows also that except in very few cases the settled area has constantly and rapidly increased; but by no means at a uniform rate, or at rates proportional to the increase of popu- lation. To illustrate these facts, the following table is appended, showing in juxtaposition the rates of increase of the settled area and of the population : POPULATION 67 RATES OP INCREASE OF SETTLED AREA" AND OF POPULATION Decade Per Cent. 3F Increase Settled Area Population 17!»0-1800 27.41 33.44 24.70 24.38 27.59 21 30 23.01 6.49 23.37 24.06 35 . 10 1800-1810 30.38 1810-1820 33 . 07 1820-1830 33.i55 1830-1840 32.67 1840-1850 35.87 1850-1860 35.58 1800-1870 22.63 1870-1880 30.08 1880-18U0 24.86 At the last census the populatioa was nearly sixteen times as great as at the first census, while during the century the settled area has increased only about eightfold. On the whole, the increase of population has been twice as rapid as that of settled area. Density of Population by Groups. — Let us now glance at the distribution of the population more in detail, and dis- cover tho.se areas which are densely settled and those which are sparseh^ settled, using the following classification — it being understood that all cities of 8,000 inhabitants or upwards have been separated from the remainder of the population and dropped from consideration : CLASSIFICATION OF SETTLED AREA (a) Les.s than 2 inhabitants to a .square mile. (6) 2 to 6 inhabitants to a square mile. (c) 6 to 18 inliabitants to a square mile. (d) 18 to 45 inhabitants to a square mile. (e) 45 to 90 inhabitants to a square inile. (J) More than 90 inhabitants to a square mile. The first of the above groups, (a), that in which the population averages less than two inhabitants to a square mile, is regarded as unsettled country. These limits define in a general way the prevalence of differ-. 68 THE BUILDING OF A NATION ent groups of industries. Grnmp (5), two to six to a square mile, indicates a population mainly occupied with the grazing indus- try ; or, at best, a widely scattered fanning population. Group (c) indicates a farming population with a systematic cultivation of the soil, but in rather an early stage of settlement, or in an unproductive region. Group {d) indicates a highly successful agricultural stage, while in some localities the commencement of the manufacturing stage has arrived. Generally speaking, agriculture is not so highly developed in this country as to afford employment and support to a popula- tion greater than forty-five to a square mile. The last two groups, therefore, (e) and (/), where the density of population is forty-five inhabitants or more to a square mile, appear only as commerce and manufactures are developed, and personal and professional services are therefore in demand. The following table gives the area included at the time of each census, in each of the five groups which collectively com- prise the settled area : AREA IN SQUARE MILES OF THE DIFFERENT CLASSES OP SETTLEMENT B C n E F Census 2 to 6 to a square mile 6 to 18 to a square mile 18 to 45 to a square mile 45 to 90 to a square mile 90 and over to a square mile 1790 83,436 81,010 116,629 140,827 151,460 183,607 233.697 260,866 245.897 384.820 592,037 83,346 123,267 154,419 177,153 225,894 291,819 294,698 353,341 363,475 373,890 393,943 59,282 82,504 108,155 150,390 186,503 241,587 338,796 431,601 470,529 554,300 701,845 13,051 17,734 27,499 39,004 65,446 84,451 100,794 134,722 174,036 231,410 235,148 820 1800 1,193 1810 1,248 1820 1,348 1830 .... 1840 1850 3,414 5,828 11,264 1860 1870 14,224 18,302 1880 25.150 1890 24,812 Density of Population of States. — The table on page 69 gives the number of inhabitants of each state, and group of states, per square mile, in 1890 : POPULATION m POPULATION PER SQUARE MILE, BY STATES, IN 1890 States and Territories States and Territories The United States 21.3 Wisconsin 31 (exckidiiig Alaska). . North Atlantic Division. . . 16.4 34.5 39.0 107.4 Iowa Missouri North Dakota South Dakota Nebraska 2.6 4.3 13.8 Maine New Hampshire Vermont 22.1 41.8 36.4 278.5 318.4 150.4 126.0 193.0 116.9 33.0 Kansas 17.5 Massachusetts Rhode Island . *. South Central Division Kentucky Tennessee . 18.9 New York 46 5 New Jersey 42.3 Pennsylvania South Atlantic Division . . . Alabama 29.4 Mississippi Louisiana Texas 27.8 24.6 8.5 1 6 Delaware 86.0 105.7 3,839.8 41.3 31.0 33.3 38.2 31.2 7.2 29.7 Oklahoma Arkansas Maryland 21 3 District of Columbia . Virginia Western Division 2 G Montana North Carolina 0.9 South Carolina Wvoming 6 Georgia Colorado New Mexico Arizona 4.0 Florida 1.3 0.5 North Central Division. . . Utah 2 5 4 Ohio 90.1 61 68.3 36.5 Idaho AVashington 1 Indiana 5 2 Illinois Oregon 3.3 Michigan California 7.7 This table shows that, with the exception of the District of Columbia, which is to all intents and purposes a municipality, the most densely settled state is Ehode Island, with three hun- dred and eighteen inhabitants per square mile, and following that is Massachusetts, with two hundred and seventy-eight per square mile. In these states the density of population is as great as in many of the most thickly settled European coun- tries. Indeed, the entire North Atlantic Division, which is preeminently the manufacturing section, has a dense popula- tion, the average being more than one hundred inhabitants to the square mile. 70 THE BUILDING OF A NATION The South Atlantic and South Central Divisions, which are preeminently farming regions, are much less densely peopled ; and the scattered character of the population of the western states and territories, with their mixed industries, which con- sist largely of grazing and mining with some agriculture, is illustrated by its low density. The density of population of each state in 1890, is graph- ically shown by the following diagram and also by the map, Plate 5. 2.5 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 RHODE ISLAND MASSACHUSETTS NEW JERSEY CONNECTICUT NEW YORK PENNSYLVANIA MARYLAND OHIO DELAWARE ILLINOIS... INDIANA KENTUCKY TENNESSEE NEW HAMPSHIRE VIRGINIA MISSOURI SOUTH CAROLINA MICHIGAN VERMONT IOWA NORTH CAROLINA GEORGIA WISCONSIN WEST VIRGINIA ALABAMA MISSISSIPPI LOUISIANA MAINE ARKANSAS KANSAS MINNESOTA NEBRASKA TEXAS CALIFORNIA FLORIDA WASHINGTON SOUTH DAKOTA COLORADO OREGON NORTH DAKOTA UTAH OKLAHOMA NEW MEXICO IDAHO ARIZONA NUMBER OF INHABITANTS PER SQUARE MILE IN 1890 POPULATION 71 CENTER OF POPULATION The center of population is the center of gravity of the inhab- itants of the country ; each person being supposed to have the same weight, and to press downwards with a foi'ce proportional to his distance from this center. The movement of the center of population from decade to decade expresses the net resultant of all the movements of population which have taken place. The following table, and the map on page 73, show its position at each census from the beginning : POSITION OF THE CENTER OF POPULATION Census Yeak North Latitude West Longitude 1790 39° 10.5' 39° i6.r 39° 11.5' 39° 5.7' 38° 57.9' 39° 2.0' 38° 59.0' 39° 0.4' .39° 12.0' 39° 4.1' 39° 11.9' 76° 11.2' 1800 76° 56.5' 1810 77° 37 2' 1820 78° 33.0' 1830 79° 16.9' 1840 80° 18.0' 18.50 81° 19.0' 1860 82° 48.8' 1870 83° 35.7' 1880 84° 39.7' 1890 85° 32.9' Movements of the Center. — In 1790 the center of population was about twenty-three miles east of Baltimore, Maryland. During the next decade it moved almost due west to a point about eighteen miles west of Baltimore, the westward movement being about forty-one miles. Between 1800 and 1810 it moved thirty-six miles to the westward and made a little southing, being then, in ISIO, about forty miles northwest by west from Washington. The southward movement during this decade was probably due to the annexation of Louisiana, which added quite a body of population in the vicinity of New Orleans. Between 1810 and 1820 it moved fifty miles to the westward and again slightly southward, being found in 1820 about sixteen 72 THE BUILDIXG OF A XATIOX miles north of Woodstock. Virginia. The southward component of its motion was probably due to the extension of settlement in Mississippi. Alabama, and eastern Georgia. Between 1S20 and 1830 it moved thirtv-nine miles to the westward and again slightly south wapi. to a jx)int about nineteen miles west south- west of Moorefield. West Virginia. This southward movement was due to the accession of Florida and to the rapid extension of settlements in Mississippi Louis- iana, and Arkansas. Between 1830 and 1840 its westward movement amounted to lifty-five miles, while, instead of bearing southward, it bore slightly northward to a point sixteen miles south of Clarksburg. West Virginia, the extension of settleoaent in Michigan and Wisconsin having apparently overbalanced that in the far south. Between 1840 and 1S50 it again made fifty- five miles of westing and turned slightly southward, being found at a point twenty-three miles southeast of Parkersburg, West Virginia. The change to the southward was probably due to the annexation of Texas, which embraced a considerable popu- lation. From 1850 to 1860 it moved eighty-one miles to the westward and turned slightly northward, reaching a point twenty miles south of Chillicothe, Ohia From 1860 to 1870 it moved west- ward forty-two miles, besides making a considerable northing, being in 1870 forty-eight miles east by north of Cincinnati Ohio. This northing was doubtless due in part to the waste and de- struction attendant on the civil war at the south, and in part to the rapid extension of settlement in the northwest, and. further- more, to the omissions of the census of 1870. In 1S80 the center had returned southward to nearly the same latitude it occupied in 1S6erature. — The fol- lowing table shows the proportional parts of the total population, the foreign born, and the colored, living at the date of the last census within the designated belts of temperature. The popu- lation at each census is supposed to be one hundred, and the proportional parts are expressed in percentages thereof. Each temperature belt comprises five degrees. DISTRIBUTION OP POPULATION AS TO MEAN ANNUAL TEMPERATURE Degrees op Temperature Total Foreign Colored Below 40° 1.65 8.18 37.42 31.58 13.78 9.87 6.28 1.21 .03 3.43 14.43 40.94 31.25 6.04 1.27 1.49 1.03 .12 04 40° to 45° 21 45° to 50° 2 16 50° to 55° 10 20 55° to 60° 24 16 60° to 65° 36 43 65° to 70° 23.57 70° to 75° 3.15 Above 75° 08 POPULATION 83 Thus it appears that more than half the population live where the mean annual temperature ranges from 45 to 55 degrees. Nearly three-fourths live between 45 and 60, and between 40 and 70 degrees practicallj the entire population is found. The foreign population live under colder conditions than the total population. Forty per cent, are found where the tempera- ture averages between 45 and 50 degrees, and between 40 and 55 degrees are found nearly 87 per cent, of the entire foreign ele- ment, while at the higher temperatures the proportion of this element is trifling. On the other hand, the colored population are found under con- ditions of temperature much higher than either the total popu- lation or the foreign born. The maximum proportion — namely, 36 per cent. — live between the temperatures of 60 and 65 degrees, while between 65 and 70 degrees are no less than 84 per cent, of the entire colored element. Where the maximum of the for- eign element is found, there exists but two per cent, of the colored. The average annual temperature of the territory of the United States, excluding Alaska from consideration, is 53 degrees. The average aniiual temperature under which the people of the country live, taking into account the density of settlement, is practically the same. The average temperature under whicli the foreign born ele- ment exist is 5 degrees lower — namely, 48 degrees — whilst that under which the colored people live is 61 degrees, being 8 degrees higher than that of the total population, and no less than 13 degrees higher than that of the foreign element. Distribution under Rainfall Conditions. — The amount of rainfall has a direct influence upon most industries, and especially upon agriculture, in which the majority of the po]:)ulation are occupied. Where the rainfall ranges from 30 to 50 inches annually, there, other things being equal, the condi- tions are most favorable for the agricultural industry, and within that range of annual rainfall is found, as was to have been expected, the greater portion of the population. Indeed, nearly three-fourths of the population occupy this region, as shown in the following table : 84 THE BUILDING OF A NATION DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION AS TO MEAN ANNUAL RAINFALL Inches of Rainfall Below 10. 10 to 20.. 20 to 30. . 30 to 40.. 40 to 50. . 50 to 60 , 60 to 70.. Above 70 Total Foreign .30 .55 2.61 3.98 6.04 10.32 34.11 41.64 39.40 41.08 16.16 1.56 1.27 .75 .06 .12 Colored .03 .23 .39 5.15 31.49 59.99 2.73 In the region where the rainfall is greater than 20 inches, are found 97 per cent, of all the inhabitants, the remaining 8 per cent, being scattered over the region where irrigation is re- quired. The average annual rainfall on tlie surface of the United States, excluding Alaska, is 26,7 inches. The average rainfall with reference to the population, deduced by giving a weight to each area of country in proportion to the number of its inhabi- tants, was, in 1870, 42.5 inches. In 1880 it had diminished to 42 inches, and in 1890 to 41.4 inches, this progressive diminu- tion being caused by the settlement of the great plains and the arid regions of the west. The distribution of the foreign born with respect to rainfall conditions does not differ materially from that of tlie total pop- ulation. On the wliole, the foreigners inhabit a slightly dryer climate. Nearly all of them live where the rainfall ranges from 30 to 50 inches annually. The habitat of the colored people with reference to rainfall conditions is more characteristic than that of the foreign born. They affect regions having a greater rainfall than either the for- eign element or the total population. The maximum proportion of this element — namely, 60 per cent. — is found where the rain- fall ranges from 50 to 60 inches, and between 40 and 60 inches are over nine-tenths of all the colored. Distribution in Altitude. — The distribution of the popu- lation with its elements, in altitude above sea level, is another POPULATION 85 matter of geographic interest. In the following table is given the proportion of the population and of its elements, expressed in percentages of the total, found living in 1890 at various eleva- tions ranging from sea level to more than ten thousand feet : DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION AS TO ALTITUDE to 100 100 to 500 500 to 1,000 1,000 to 1,500 1.500 to 2,000 2,000 to 3,000 3,000 to 4,000 4,000 to 5,000 5,000 to 6,000 6.000 to 7,000 7,000 to 8,000 8,000 to 9,000 9,000 to 10,000 Above 10,000 10.59 22.10 38.24 15.10 3.76 1 84 .61 .47 .78 .26 .16 .07 .06 .02 Foreign Born Colored 25.08 22.86 14.28 47.34 37.84 24.31 14.92 3.74 3.44 .80 1.29 .58 .52 .20 .62 .05 1.23 .08 .37 .03 .18 .01 .10 .11 .03 From this table it appears that the great body of the popula- tion, indeed more than three-fourths of them, live at elevations less than one thousand feet above the level of the sea, and that more than nine-tenths of them are found below the contour of fifteen hundred feet. At greater elevations the population is scattering. The distribution of the foreign born in this respect does not differ materially from that of the total population. A much larger proportion is found below one hundred feet than in the ca.>^e of the total population, while below one thousand feet and fifteen hundred feet the proportions are very nearly the same. The chief characteristic of the colored element is its indisposi- tion to seek great altitudes ; 23 per cent, are found below one hundred feet, 68 per cent, below five hundred feet, and no less than 94 per cent, below one thousand feet; while above eight thousand feet no measurable number are found. The average elevation of the United States, excluding Alaska, 86 THE BUILDING OF A NATION is estimated at about two thousand five hundred feet. The average elevation at whici] all the inhabitants live is seven hun- dred and eighty-eight feet. That of the foreign element is some- what greater, being eight hundred and ninety feet, while the colored population live much nearer the sea level, their mean elevation being only four hundred and twenty-seven feet, a fact which serves to emphasize the tendency of this element toward the low, hot sections of the country. Size of Families. — The average size of families has dimin- ished continuously since 1850, when statistics on this point were first obtained by the census. The following little table shows the average number of persons per famil}- at each census since that date: SIZE OP FAMILIES AT EACH CENSUS CENSUS TEAR PERSONS PER FAMILY 1850 5.55 1860 5.28 1870 5.09 1880 5.04 1890 4.93 The family has diminished in average size, from 5.55 persons in 1850 to 4.93 persons in 1890, a diminution of over eleven per cent, in the past forty years. In 1890 the smallest families were found in uoi'thern New England, where the number of children has steadily diminished, and in the states and te-rritories of the far west, where, owing to the unsettled conditions, the proportion of women and children is small. The average family of the southern states, although diminishing in size, is still much larger than in other parts of the country. This is due in no small degree to the large pro- portion of the colored in these states, among which the birth- rate is exceptionally great. The families of the whites in the south are also larger than the average of the country, indeed quite as large as in the north central states, where the large pro- portion of Germans, Norwegians, and Swedes, with their large families, increases the average of this group of states. This distribution is shown in the following diagram : POPULATION 87 1 TEXAS ) 1 PERS 2 ONS 3 \ £ > VIRGINIA ^^^^_ ^^^ WEST VIRGINIA ^^ UTAH ^^^ MISSISSIPPI L__ TENNESSEE ^^^ ARKANSAS ^ ALABAMA ^^ NORTH CAROLINA ^ MINNESOTA ^ DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA LOUISIANA GEORGIA ^ MARYLAND ^ SOUTH CAROLINA NEBRASKA MISSOURI WISCONSIN WYOMING PENNSYLVANIA WASHINGTON CALIFORNIA ILLINOIS IOWA OREGON COLORADO ^"^"" FLORIDA DELAWARE MONTANA ^^^^ KANSAS NORTH DAKOTA "' INDIANA ^"'" NEW JERSEY OHIO SOUTH DAKOTA ^^^ MASSACHUSETTS IDAHO RHODE ISLAND MICHIGAN NEW YORK ^^ CONNECTICUT NEVADA ^^ ARIZONA MAINE ^^ VERMONT NEW MEXICO ^ NEW HAMPSHIRE 1 1 ^ AVERAGE NUMBER OF PERSONS TO A FAMILY IN 1890 THE BUILDING OF A NATION SEX Of the total population in 1890, 32.067,880 were males and 30,554,370 were females. The following table shows the propor- tion which the number of each sex bore to the total population at each census, from 1850 to 1890 : PROPORTION OP THE SEXES, 1850 TO 1890 Census Years Sex Male Female 1890 Per cent. 51.21 50.88 50.56 51.16 51.04 Per cent. 48.79 1880 49.12 1870 49 44 1860 48.84 1850 48.96 From this it appears that the proportion of males has been in excess of females continuously since 1850, and that this propor- tion has tended to increase, but that such tendency received a set-back during the civil war, from which it is now recovering. Distribution of the Sexes in European Countries. — Under normal conditions the numbers of the two sexes are very nearly equal, the preponderance, if any, being in favor of the female. This is true among the nations of Europe, and is illustrated in the following table showing the proportions of the sexes in the population of the countries named : PROPORTIONS OF THE SEXES IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES Percen TAGE OP Males Females United Kingdom 48.54 48.91 48.75 48.94 49.43 49.04 48.44 47.90 51 46 Austria 51 09 Denmark 51 25 Germany 51 06 Netherlands 50 58 Spain 50 96 Sweden 51 56 Norway 52 10 POPULATION 89 In every one of these countries females are in excess, the proportion ranging from 50.58 to 52.10. The preponderance of males in the United States is doubtless due to immigration, of which males constitute a decided majority. Of the European countries mentioned in the foregoing table, the excess of females in the United Kingdom, Denmark, Germany, Sweden, and Norway may be accounted for by the emigration from these countries ; but in the cases of Austria, the Netherlands, and Spain there has been little either of immigration or emigration, and therefore the figures given for them present the result of comparatively undisturbed natural increase. Distribution of the Sexes by States. — The following table shows the proportions of males and females in each state, and in each group of states, in 1890. This is illustrated also by the map, Plate 7, facing page 88. PERCENTAGE OP THE SEXES TO TOTAL POPULATION IN 1890 States and Territories The rnited States . . North Atlantic Division . Maine New Hampshire. . . . Vermont Massachusetts Rhode Island Connecticut New York New Jersey Pennsylvania South Atlantic Division Delaware Maryland District of Columbia Virginia West Virginia North Carolina ... . South Carolina Georgia Florida North Central Division . Ohio Indiana Illinois Michigan Males Females 51.21 48.79 49.87 50.13 50.31 49.69 49.55 50.45 50.94 49.06 48.58 51.42 48.63 51.37 49.52 50. 4S 49.63 50.37 49.89 50.11 50.71 49.29 49.88 50.12 50.79 49.21 49.47 50.53 47.56 52.44 49.78 50.22 51.17 48.83 49.39 50.61 49.72 50.28 50.07 49.93 51.59 48.41 51.85 48.15 50.53 49.47 51.01 48.99 .51.55 48.45 52.14 47.86 States and Territories Wisconsin Minnesota Iowa Missouri North Dakota South I)akota Nebraska , Kansas , South Central Division Kentucky Tennessee Alabama , Mississippi Louisiana , Texas Oklahoma Arkansas Western Division Montana Wyoming Colorado New Mexico Arizona Utah Nevada Idaho Washington Oregon California Males 51.87 53.41 52.01 51.70 55.60 54.82 54.10 52.70 50.98 50.72 50.44 50.06 50.38 50.01 52.45 56.17 51.92 58.88 66.50 64.81 59.50 &1.07 61.34 .53.13 6:^.84 60.78 62.27 57.95 57.95 Females 48.13 46.59 47.99 48.. 30 44.40 45.18 45.90 47.30 49.02 49.28 49.. 56 49.94 49.63 49.99 47.55 43.83 48.08 41.12 .33.50 35.19 40.50 45.93 &3.66 46.87 36.16 39.22 37.73 42.05 42.05 Various states show a wide range in the proportion of the sexes. In the states bordering on the Atlantic, with the exception of 90 THE BUILDING OF A NATION Maine, Vermont, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Georgia, and Florida, females are in excess ; this excess is greatest in the District of Columbia, where thej constitute no less than 52,44 per cent, of the population, and next greatest in Massachusetts, where the corresponding proportion is 51.42 per cent. In all the other states males are in excess ; and, speaking broadly, the excess of males increases with the longitude, nntil in the states and ter- ritories of the far west, where settlement commenced more recently, the proportion of females is smallest. Thus in Mon- tana there are two males to one female, and in Wyoming the proportion of males is nearly as great. This condition of things is easy of explanation. The Atlan- tic states constitute an old and settled region, from wliich for many decades a stream of emigration has flowed westward, and this stream has consisted mainly of males. To a certain extent their place has been taken by foreign immigration ; otherwise the disproportion of the sexes on the Atlantic border would be greater than it is. The manufacturing centers of the northeast- ern states have attracted large numbers of female as well as male operatives, and thus have tended to maintain the dispro- portion of the former sex. RACES Out of a total population in 1890 of 62,622,250, there were 7,470,040 of negro or mixed blood, 107,745 Chinese, 2,039 Japanese, and 58,806 Indians enumerated as of the constitu- tional population. Persons of negro blood were classified according to shades of color, as follows : Blacks, 6,337,980 ; mulattoes, 956,989; quadroons, 105,135; and octoroons, 69,- 936. It is needless to say that these latter figures are utterly worthless and misleading. It is not to be supposed for a moment that six-sevenths of the colored race are of unmixed negro blood, or that the mulattoes number less than a million. As for the quadroons and octoroons, the numbers given are too absurdly small to require comment. The Africans present the spectacle of an inferior race existing in close juxtaposition with the whites, and, since the early part POPULATION 91 of tlie century, unaided by additions to their numbers from abroad. For seventy years they existed in a state of slavery ; for the last thirty, more or less, in a state of freedom, Tt is most interesting to watch the progress of this race and compare it with that of the whites. History of the Races. — Throwing together all these classes of colored, the population is made up of 87.8 per cent, of whites, and 12.2 per cent, of colored. Ten years before there were 6,580,793 colored persons in the country, and the propor- tion of the two races was 86.54 per cent, white, and 13.12 per cent, colored. The following table shows the number of white and colored during the past century as returned by the censuses: WHITE AND COLORED POPULATION AT EACH CENSUS Census Years White Colored 1790 3,172,006 4,306,446 5,862,073 7,862,166 10,537,378 14,195,805 19,553,068 26,922,537 33,589,377 43,402,970 54,983,968 757,208 1800 1,002,037 1810 1,377,808 1820 1830 1,771,656 2,328,642 1840 2,873,648 1850 1800 3,638,808 4,441,830 1870 1880 1890 4,880.009 6,580,793 7,038,282 The annexed table, derived from the above, shows the pro- portions of the two races, given in percentages of the total, at each census during the past century : PROPORTION OF WHITE AND COLORED BY DECADES Census Years White Colored 1790 Per cent. 80.73 81.13 80.97 81.61 81.90 83.17 84.31 85.62 87.11 86.54 87.80 Per cent. 19.27 1800 18.87 1810 19.03 1820 18.39 1830 18.10 1840 16.83 1850 15.69 1800 14.13 1870 12.65 1880 13.12 1890 12.20 92 TEE BUILDING OF A NATION Relative Dimiiuitioii of the Colored Element. — It appears from the foregoing table that in this period of one hundred years the proportion of whites has increased from 80.73 to 87.80 percent., and that the colored people have correspond- ingly diminished from 19.27 to 12.20 per cent In 1790 the first census showed that the colored race formed nearly one-fifth of the population. In 18-10, after a lapse of fifty years, during which time the country had received practically no increase from immigration, the proportion of colored had fallen to about one- sixth of the whole. In the next half century, ending with 1890, during which the white race had received great additions from immigration, that proportion had fallen to less than one- eighth of the whole population. The present proportion of the colored element is less than two-thirds what it was at the beginning of the century. Indeed, the results of each census show a diminution in the proportion of colored, with the excep- tion of the third and tenth censuses, and the latter was undoubtedly due to the deficient enumeration of the censas preceding. The annexed table and the diagram on page 93 give the percentages of increase of the two races : INCREASE OF WHITE AXD COLORED, BY DECADES Decades Pekcentage OP IXCKEASE White Colored 1790-1800 35.76 36.18 34.12 34.03 34.72 37.74 37.69 24.76 29.91 26.68 32.38 1800-1810 37.46 1810-1820 28.57 1820-1830 31.41 1830-1840 23.28 1840-1850 26.61 1850-1860 22.06 1860-1870 - 9.86 1870-1880 .... -» 34.85 1880-1890 13.11 This table shows that with two exceptions, one of which is due to the faulty enumeration in 1870, the rate of in- crease of the white element has been greater than that of the POPULATION 93 colored element, while during the past ten years the increase has been apparently more than twice as rapid. Throughout our history the colored race has almost continuously lost ground in proportion to the white. Although the birth rate of the colored race is decidedly larger than that of the whites, its death rate, as is shown by the mortality records of large southern cities, is still greater, being little less on an average than double the death rate of the whites. o O o o o 3 y \ k= \ ^ ^ \ -?e— =\^ 4d \ =\= =f= \ 3r- -i= — ^ w — 1 te — RATE OF INCREASE-WHITE AND COLORED The relative rate of increase of the colored people has been, especially since the war, a matter of great interest. The exag- gerated rate which was given to it between 1870 and 1880, because of the omissions of the census of 1870, aroused much anxiety concerning the future of the two races. In spite of the known weakness of the evidence — for at that time the faulty character of the ninth census had been fully established — the matter created wide-spread uneasiness, and various projects 94 THE BUILD IXG OF A NATION were suggested for averting the evils threatened bv the expected numerical preponderance of the colored race. It is now appar- ent that all this anxiety was unwnrranted. The facts developed bv the returns of the eleventh census fully corroborate the past history of the race and fit in with the probabilities of the case. During the seventy years following 1790, while the colored race was in a condition of slavery, its increase was much less rapid than that of the whites, and in this tiuie the proportion of the colored element diminished from 19.27 per cent, of the total population to 14.13 per cent. With- in the past thirty years, during most of "which period it has been in a state of freedom, it has still further diminished, the propor- tion having fallen from 14.13 to 12.20 per cent. The country is now much more interested in preserving the laboring population of the south than in getting rid of it. The colored element is not only increasing less rapidly than the whites in the country at large, but in nearlj' every state, as will be seen hereafter; and in all probability the relative rates of increase of the two races in the southern states will differ more and more widely, as time goes on and the industries of these states change from an agricultural to a manufacturing character and thus attract the foreign labor element. In the border states and in the Appalachian mountains manufacturing industries are rapidly developing, and in these regions foreign born labor is encroaching. This movement threatens to become of great importance in the near future. The question has been asked, '" Has the condition of slavery or of freedom proved the most favorable to the numerical in- crease of the colored people? " The figures of the census give a ready answer. Their increase has been more rapid under conditions of freedom. In the thirty years preceding 1860, they increased 48 per cent., while in the following thirty years, during only twenty-seven of which they were free, and which included the disturbed period of the civil war and of recon- struction, they increased not less than 68 per cent. Distribution of the Races by States. — The following table shows the white and colored population in 1890 b}' states and groups of states : POPULATION 95 WHITE AND COLORED POPULATION IN 1890 States and Tekritories The United States. North Atlantic Division. . Maine New Hampshire. Vermont Massachusetts. .. Rhode Island... Connecticut New York Nt'W Jersey Pennsylvania.,. . South Atlantic Division. .. Delaware Maryland District of Columbia. Virginia West Virginia North Carolina South Carolina Georgia Florida 'North Central Division. Ohio Indiana Illinois Michigan White Colored 54,983,890 7,638,360 17,121,981 279,564 659,263 1,823 37.5,840 690 331,418 1,004 2,215,373 23,570 337,859 7,647 733,438 12,820 5,923,952 73,901 1,396,581 48,352 5,148,2.57 109,757 5,592,149 3,265,771 140,066 28,427 82(i,4'.)3 215,897 154,695 75,697 1,020,122 635,858 730,077 32,717 1,0.55,.382 562,565 462,008 689,141 978.357 858,999 224,949 166,473 21,911,927 450,352 3,584,805 87,511 2,146,736 45,668 3.768.472 57,879 2,072,884 21,005 States and Territories Wisconsin .... Minnesota Iowa Missouri North Dakota. South Dakota. Nebraska Kansas South Central Division. Kentucky. . Tennessee . . Alabama. . . Mississippi. Louisiana. . . Texas Oklahoma.. Arkansas. . . Western Division. Montana Wj'ouiing Colorado New Mexico. Arizona Utah Nevada Idaho ... Washington . Oregon California White 1,680,473 1,296,159 1,901,086 2.528.458 182,123 327,290 1,046,888 1,376,553 7,487,576 1,. '590,462 1,336,63' 833,718 .544,851 558,395 1.745,935 58,826 818,752 2.870,257 127,271 .59,275 404,468 142,719 .55,.580 205.899 39,084 82,018 340,513 301,7.58 1,111,672 Colored 6,407 5,667 10,810 150,726 ,596 1,518 12,022 50,543 3,485,317 268,173 430,881 679,299 744,749 .560,192 489,588 3,008 309,427 157,356 4,888 1,4.30 7,730 10,874 4.040 2,006 6,677 2,367 8,877 12,009 96,458 The maps on Plate 8, facing page 96, give the number of col- ored persons to a square mile in each state, in 1890, and also tlie proportion of colored to total population. In the South Atlantic and South Central states are found no less than 88 per cent., or seven-eighths of the entire coloi'ed ele- ment of the country. In these states, as a whole, the colored form very nearly one-third of the entire population, while in several of them they greatly exceed this proportion. In Louis- iana they constitute just about one-half the inhabitants, and in Mississippi and South Carolina, nearly three-fifths of the popu- lation are colored. In every state on the Atlantic and Gulf coast, from Virginia to Louisiana, more than one-third of the inhabitants are colored. The following table shows the proportion, expressed in per- centages, of the colored element to the total population at each census in the southern states, where it is of importance: 96 THE BUILDING OF A NATION PERCENTAGE OP COLORED {a) TO TOTAL POPULATION States and Territories South Atlantic Division. . . Delaware Maryland District of Columbia. . Virginia West Virginia North Carolina South Carolina Georgia Florida South Central Division Kentucky . . Tennessee. . AlaJbama . . . Mississippi . Louisiana . . Texas Oklahoma . Arkansas. .. 1890 36.83 31.71 14.42 24.. 37 44.84 57.58 49.99 21.84 4.81 27.40 ;«.7l .33.78 1870 37.8'; 1800 38.3^ 34.25 16.46 47.53 57.47 51.46 24.71 26.25 10.82 25.61 47.69 .53.65 50.10 .30.97 25.22 35.34 20.44 25.. 50 45.40 55.28 49.49 :».2' 25.55 1850 39.71 34.65 22.49 24.. 52 44.73 51.24 ,50.65 27.54 22.73 1840 34.53 24.. 31 22.74 43.26 52.33 .55.04 20.91 30.08 1820 41.60 24.01 36.12 31.55 43.38 34.38 .52.77 44.41 27.20 1810 40.41 23.82 38.22 m.07 43.41 32.24 48.40 42.40 20.24 17.52 42.94 55.18 1800 .37.60 17.49 18.. 59 13.16 1790 .36.37 21.64 34.74 40.86 26.81 43.72 35.93 14.92 17.03 10.59 a Persons of African descent only. In the Soath Atlantic states tlie colored race comprised in 1790, 36.3Y per cent., and a century later it formed 36.87 per cent, of the entire population, the proportion at the beginning and ending of the century being almost identical. During this period, however, it has oscillated within wide limits, increasing up to 1830, when it was 41.95 per cent., and then diminishing to its present proportion. In the South Central states, on the other hand, the proportion at the beginning of the century was small, for the reason that these states were first settled mainly by whites. As their settlement progressed, however, the pro- portion of colored people increased, reaching its maximum in 1860, when it was 35.36 per cent. From that time it has dimin- ished, and now stands at 31.76. Taking the south as a whole, the proportion of the colored element increased up to 1810 or 1850, while since that date it has diminished. The above statement regarding these groups of states, holds good in the case of individual states. Thus in Delaware the proportion of the colored element increased up to 1840 and then diminished. In Maryland the maximum was reached in 1810, and during the past eighty years there has been a proportional THE BUILDING OF A NATION PLATE 8 NUMBER OF COLORED PERSONS TO A SQUARE MILE IN 1890 PROPORTION OF COLORED TO TOTAL POPULATION IN 1890 POPULATION 97 diminution. The colored element of the District of Columbia also reached a maximum proportion in 1810, and from that point diminished until the opening of the civil war. During the war the colored j)eople flocked to the capital for protection, and the proportion increased until it reached about one-third of the entire populaticjn. For the |)ast twenty years it has continued to hold practically this proportion. In Virginia the maximum was reached in 1820 and has since diminished. In Kentucky the maximum was reached in 1840. All these are border states, and all show a similar history. In the states farther south, the proportion of the colored population continued to increase until a much more recent date. Thus, in North and South Carolina, Georgia and Ten- nessee, it inci'eased until 1880, and only during the past decade has the proportion suffered any diminution. In Alabama the corner was turned in 1870, while in Mississippi and Arkansas the proportion has continued to increase to the present time. In Louisiana tne maximum was reached in 1880. In Texas and Florida, which have received within the past twenty years con- siderable immigration, both from the north and from foreign countries, the proportion of the colored race has notably dimin- ished. The table and the foregoing statements show that there has been a perceptible southward movement of the colored race. This movement was pointed out long ago by Judge Tourgee, in his " Appeal to Caesar ; " but he greatly exaggerated its extent, and failed to take into account the fact that the rate of increase of the race as a whole was much less than that of the whites, which is a vital point. Indeed, the greater rate of increase of the whites has overcome the increase of blacks, not only in the border states, but also in the southern states where this massing Is taking place. The following table gives the proportion of the entire colored element which at each census was contained in each of the five divisions of the country, and serves to emphasize still more strongly what has been previously pointed out — that an increase is found only in the far southern states, and that the main move- ment of that element has been southward: 98 THE BUILDING OF A NATION PROPORTION OF THE COLORED ELEMENT AT EACH CENSUS Census Years North Atlantic Division Soutli Atlantic Division Nortli Central Division South Central Division Western Division 1890 1880 3.66 3.46 3.65 3.46 4.12 4.95 5.38 6.25 7.42 8.29 8.90 42.75 43.59 44.65 45.56 51.14 55.59 65.67 71.88 78 45 85.79 88.94 5.90 5.96 5.69 4.35 3.73 3.41 1.78 1.03 0.51 0.07 45.63 44.69 44.40 45.12 40.98 36.35 27.17 20.84 13.62 5.85 2.16 2.06 2.30 1870 1860 1.61 1.51 1850 0.03 1840 1830 1820 1810 1800 1790 THE CHINESE The immigration of Chinese commenced in 1S54, and con- timied with an annual average of 4,000 to 5,000 for fifteen years. About 1869 or 1870, the annual increase became more rapid> and aroused considerable alarm, especially upon the Pacific coast. The agitation thus produced brought about the passage in 1882 of the Chinese Exclusion Act, which has practically put a stop to the immigration of that element. The total number of Chinese immigrants from the beginning was 290,655. The following figures show the number of Chinese found in the country at the date of each census: THE CHINESE POPULATION, BY DECADES 1850 758 1860 35,565 1870 63,042 1880 104,468 1890 100.462 As will be seen, the number increased with considerable rapidity up to 1880. Since that time the increase has been only about two thousand, showing that the Exclusion Act has practically put a stop to their immigration. In 1880 the Chinese were contained almost entirely in Cali- fornia and Nevada, with a few in the other Pacific coast states. POPULATION 99 In 1S90, while the great majority of them were still living upon tije coast, they were much more scattered, some being found in nearly every state in the Union. THE INDIANS When the whites settled upon the Atlantic coast, they found the country sparsely inhabited by red men. It is impossible to estimate the number who lived at that time within the present limits of the United States. They were formerly supposed to have been extremely numerous, but recent investigations have indicated that their number was probably never much larger than at present. They were for the most part nomadic, but their ranges were limited by the confines of neighboring hostile tribes. Certain of them were sedentary, such as the Moki and Pueblo Indians. They were grouped in tribes, differing widely in numbers and in power. Socially their status ranged from savagery to barbarism. Intertribal wars were frequent. Although it is scarcely fair to say that the normal condition of the Indians was one of warfare, still their code of morals reflected that condition very forcibly. For instance, it was regarded as right to steal from or to kill a member of a neighboring tribe, while similar offences against members of their own tribe were wrong. The Indian tribes of this country may be broadly divided, according to language, into the following classes: Algonquin, Iroquois, Muskogee, Sioux, Caddo, Kiowa, Shoshone, Athabas- can, Yuma, and Pima, besides numerous smaller subdivisions which it is not necessary to enumerate. Of these the Algon- quins inhabited New England and the northeastern part of the Mississippi Valley. The Iroquois, or the Six Nations, ranged over New York, much of Pennsylvania, and the southern Appa- lachian region. The Muskogees, including the Cherokees and Creeks, occupied the Gulf states east of the Mississippi. The Sioux, including the Dakotas, Cheyennes, and Arapahoes, ranged over the Great Plains. The Caddoes were found mainly in eastern Texas ; while the Shoshones, including the tribe of 100 THE BUILDING OF A NATION that name, the Bannocks, and other allied tribes, were scattered over the Great Basin, Colorado, and central Texas. A branch of 'the Athabascans, who are mainly northern Indians, was found far from the bodj" of this stock, in Arizona, New Mexico, and western Texas, where they are known to-day as Apaches. The Pinias are found in southern Arizona, the Yumas in western Arizona and southern California, and the Kiowas in southern Nebraska and southeastern Wyoming. As the whites have spread over the country, the advancing wave of civilization has driven these Indians westward before its front, so that to-day most of them are found far from their original homes. Treatiuent of the Indians. — The policy of the govern- ment toward the Indian tribes, as a rule, has been that of a protectorate. It has treated with the tribes as one power might with another under its jurisdiction. As land has been required for the use of settlers, the government has, in most cases, pur- chased it from the tribes, the payments commonly taking the form of annuities. In this way the Indians have been gradu- ally dispossessed of the enormous areas over which they formerly ranged, and now such of them as still remain under tribal organizations are confined to reservations. The Indian population of the United States in 1890, as appears from the returns of the census, was 2-19,273. There were then living upon reservations 216,706 Indians. The reser- vations have a total area of 98,145,788 acres, thus giving to each Indian about 450 acres. Of the Indians upon reservations, 133,382, or nearly two-thirds, are supported wholly or partially by the general government. The remainder, while under the control of the government, are self-supporting, and all are self- governing. First in importance of those not supported by the government are what are known as the five civilized tribes — namelj', the Cherokees, Chickasaws, Choctaws, Creeks, and Seminoles — com- prising a total number of 52.065, who occupy reservations which practically comprise Indian territcn-y. These Indians have made great progress in civilization. Most of them are educated, live in houses, and maintain forms of government quite similar POPULATION 101 to those of states. There are also the Pueblos of New Mexico, numbering 8,278 ; the remnant of the Six Nations now living on reservations in New York, and now numbering 5,304; and the Cherokees of North Carolina, numbering 2,885. The latter are located upon a reservation in a mountainous sec- tion of the state, where thej have reached a degree of civili- zation that compares favorably with that of the neighboring whites. For the support of Indians during the year 1892, the general government appropriated tlie sum of $11,150,578, equivalent to about $84 per head of those supported. The work of civilizing the Indians has been greatly ham- pered by this policy of supporting them, and thus removing all incentive to labor. Indeed, those who have had their wants supplied have made little or no advance in civilization. Such progress as has been made has been confined almost entirely to the Indians who have had little or no assistance from the government, but have been thrown upon their own resources. Indeed, the history of the Indians who have been fed and clothed by the government, forms a striking illustration of the probable effect upon mankind of the application of the Bellamy theories. The situation is precisely such as Mr. Bellamy advo- cates — every man entitled to support from the State and receiv- ing it. There is little likelihood that the white man, under similar circumstances, would behave better than the red man has done. Within the last few years the policy in regard to ration Indians — the name applied to those supported by the govern- ment — has been so modified, in the case of a number of tribes, that lands have been allotted in severalty, and rations have been issued only to those Indians who work the land, thus giving them a motive for working. Altogether the outlook for the civilization of the Indians is brighter at present than ever befora 102 THE BUILDING OF A NATION NATIVITY It has often been stated that the strongest and most virile nations are the composite ones, those made up from a mixture of blood. If this be true, we should easily distance all others, ancient or modern, since the blood of immigrants from every countrj^ of Europe, from the Mediterranean to the Arctic, to say nothing of the negroes, Chiuese, and Indians within our borders, bids fair to make of us the most thoroughly composite nation that ever existed. Of a total population of 62,622,250, the eleventh census reported that 9,249,547 were of foreign, and 53,372,703 of native birth. Of the persons of native birth 7,638,360 were colored, including those of African blood, Chinese, Japanese, and " con- stitutional Indians," leaving as native whites 45,862,023. The following table shows the nativity of the population at each census since and including that of 1850 : NATIVITY OP THE POPULATION, 1850 TO 1890 Census Years Native Native White Foreign 1850 20.947,274 27,304,624 32,991.142 40,475,840 53,372,703 17,273,804 22,862,794 28,111,133 36,895,047 45,862,023 2,244,602 I860 4,138,697 1870 1880 1890 5,567,229 6,679,943 9,249,547 In the next table are given the proportions which each of these elements of the population bore to the total at each census : RATIO OF NATIVE AND FOREIGN POPULATION, 1850 TO 1890 Census Years Native Native White Foreign 1850 90.32 86.84 85.56 86.68 85.23 73.24 78.46 72.91 73.56 73.24 9.68 1860 13.16 1870 14.44 1880 13.32 1890 14.77 POPULATION 103 Thus it appears that the proportion of foreign birth, which was 9.68 per cent, of the population in 1850, rose in ten years to 13.16 per cent., and since then has more than retained this pro- portion, being in 1890 14.77 per cent. IMMIGRATION During the early decades of our history immigration was slight. The attractions offered to Europeans were not suffi- ciently great at that early stage of our development to induce them to undergo the expense and hardships of a voyage across the Atlantic. Prior to 1820 immigration was trifling in amount, and it was not until the succession of famines in Ireland, between 1840 and 1860, coupled with political troubles in Germany, that immigration upon a large scale set in. During the past forty or forty-five years, however, there has been a migration of peoples across the Atlantic to these shores, the equal of which in an}^ quarter the world had probably never seen before. Immigra- tion statistics were first obtained in 1820, and have been kept continuously since that time. The total number of immigrants in the seventy years which have since elapsed is not less than 15,376,986. The following table shows the accessions to its pop- ulation by immigration which this country has received in each ten year period since 1820 : IMMIGRATION, 1821 TO 1890, BY DECADES 1831-1830 143,439 1831-1840 599,125 1841-1850 1,713,251 1851-1860 2,579,580 1861-1870 2,282,787 1871-1880 2;812,191 1881-1890 5,246,613 Total 15,376,986 Of this enormous number it will be seen that more than one- third have arrived during the past ten years, almost double the number which came between 1870 and 1880, and more than double that of any preceding decade. The next table shows 104 THE BUILDING OF A NATION the immigratiou, by decades, fi'oin the countries wbeace it was mainly derived: PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS OF THE IMMIGRATION Xationai.ity 1821 to 18:i0 18ol to 1840 1841 to 1850 1851 to 18(i0 1861 to 1870 1871 to 1880 1881 to 1890 Canada Iivlanil b Eiiijlaiul and Wales 2.277 .50]724 32.167 2.912 91 169 91 13.624 307.381 73.143 2.667 1,201 1,06:3 646 41,723 780,719 363,:i;« 3.712 13.{ 45,575 1,412 1.870 434.626 77,363 8,251 9.2;il 951,667 76,358 10,789 307.309 1.4.52.it70 50.464 53,701 a Five years only. b Including Great Britain, not specified. Fi'ora this it appears that, of tlie total immigration, 40.5 per cent,, or more than two-tifths, have been derived from the United Kino-dom, the maioritv of which came from IreLand, and 2S.3 per cent, from Germany. The United Kingdom and Germany together have supplied over two-thirds of the entire immigra- tion to the United States, while the other countries have sev- erally contributed but a trifling proportion. The character of the immigration has changed greatl}" since the beginning. In the late forties and early fifties it was mainly composed of Irish. Later the German element assumed promi- nence; while in recent years, mainly during the past decade, other and far less desirable elements have increased with great rapiditv. Thus it will be seen by the table that nearly all the Ilnngarians, Italians, Kussians, and Poles have ai-rived since 1S80. This unpleasant picture is relieved to some extent by the immigration of Norwegians and Swedes, than whom no more desirable element has joined us; but altogether the changes wrought in the character of the foreign influx during the past ten or fifteen years have tended to lower the standard of Ameri- can citizenship, and to make it a serious question whether steps should not be takeu to limit immigration henceforth. The diagram on page 106 is interesting as showing by compan- POPULATION 105 son the constituents of the total immigration and the immigration between 1880 and 1890. Distribution of tlie Foreign Born. — The maps on J'late 9, facing page 106, portray the distribution of the foreign born over the country, expressed in the number to a square mile and in percentages of the total population, state by state. It will be seen that the home of this element is in the north and west. The foreign born have never invaded the south to com- pete in labor with the colored element. Indeed, the northern and western states are found to contain no less than ninety-six per cent, of the entire foreign born element of the country. The following table shows the number of native and foreign born, by states and groups of states, in 1S90: NATIVE AND FOREIGN BORN POPULATION IN 1890 States and Territories The United States., North Atlantic Division. Maine New Hampsliiii' . . . . Vermont Massaeiuisetts Rhode Island Connecticut New York New Jersey Pennsylvania South Atlantic Division. Delaware . . Maryland District of Columbia Virginia West Virginia North Carolina South Carolina Georgia Florida North Central Division. Ohio Indiana Illinois Michigan Native Foreign | 53,372,703 9,249,547 1.3,513,461 3,888,084 582,125 78,961 .304,190 72,340 288,3;J4 44,088 1,. 581, 806 6.57.107 239,201 106,365 562,7.50 183,.508 4,426,803 1,.571,050 1,11.5,9.58 328,975 4,412,294 845,720, 8,649,414 208,.506 155,332 13,161 1 948,094 94,296, 211,622 18,770 1,637.606 18,374 1 743,911 18,883 1,614,245 3,702 1,144,879 6,270 1,825,235 12,118 368,490 22,9.32 18,303.053 4,059,226 3,213,023 459,293 2,046,199 146,205 2,984,892 841,459 1,550,009 543,880 States and Territories Wisconsin Minnesota Iowa Missouri North Dakota South Dakota Nebraska Kansas South Central Division Kentucky Tennessee . Alabama Mississippi Louisiana Texas Oklahoma Arkansas Western Division Montana Wyoming Colorado New Mexico Arizona Utah Nevada Idaho Washington Oregon California Native 1,167,681 8:W,470 1,. 587,82 2,444,315 101,258 237,753 856,368 1,279,2.58 10,(i51,085 1,799,279 1,747,489 1,498,240 1,281,64« 1 ,068,8.53 2,082,56 59,094 1,113,915 2,856,703 89,063 45,792 .328,208 142,334 40,825 1.54,841 31,0.55 66,929 2.59,.385 2,56,4.50 841.821 Foreign .519.199 4fi7,356 324,069 234,K69 81,461 91.0.55 202.542 147,8138 321,808 59,3.56 20,029 14,777 7,9.52 49,7;}4 152,956 2,740 14,264 770,910 43,096 14.913 83,990 11.259 18,795 .5:3.064 14,706 17,4.56 90.005 57,317 366,309 The next table gives the proportion which these elements bore to the total population, by states and groups of states, in 1890 : 106 THE BUILDING OF A NATION PERCENTAGE OP NATIVE AND FOREIGN BORN TO TOTAL POPULATION, 1890 States and Territories The United States North Atlantic Division. Maine New Hampshire Vermont Massachusetts. .. Rhode Ishmd . . Connecticut New York New Jersey Pennsylvania... Soutli Atlantic Division. Delaware Marvland...' District of Columbia Virginia West Virginia North Carolina South Carolina .... Georgia Florida North Central Division . Ohio , Indiana . . Illinois , . . Michigan. 1890 Native 85.23 77.66 Foreign 06 79 74 65 ,23 .40 .81 77.23 83.92 97.65 92.19 90.95 91.85 98.89 97.52 99.77 99.46 99.34 94.14 81.84 14.7'; 87.49 93.33 77.99 74.03 22.34 11.94 19.21 13.26 29.35 30.77 24.60 26.19 22.77 16!08 2.35 7.81 9.05 8.15 1.11 2.48 0.23 0..'>4 0.66 5.86 18.16 12.51 6.67 22.01 25.97 States and Territories Wisconsin Minnesota Iowa Missouri North Dakota South Dakota Nebraska .... Kansas Montima Wyoming Colorado New Mex Arizona Utah Nevada Idaho ... . Washington Oregon California RUSSIA & POLAND FRANCE ITALY AUSTRIAHUN6ARY NORWAY, SWEDEN & DENMARK GREAT BRITAIN IRELAND GERMANY THE BUILDING OF A NATION PLATE 9 NUMBER OF FOREIGN BORN TO A SQUARE MILE IN 189D PROPORTION OF FOREIGN BORN TO TOTAL POPULATION IN 1890 POPULATION 107 This table shows also the distribution of the foreign born element. In the North Atlantic states nearly one-fourth of the inhabitants are of foreign birth; the proportion ranging among the states, individually, from 11.90 per cent, in Maine to 30.69 per cent, in Rhode Island, while Massachusetts has 29.19 per cent., and in Connecticut and New York about one-fourth of the inhabitants are of foreign birth. In the Noi'th Central states the proportion of the foreign born is 18.13, while in individual states the range is very wide, extending from QASQ per cent, in Indiana to 44.52 per cent, in North Dakota. More than a third of the inhabitants of Minnesota are of foreign birth, and nearly one-third of those of Wisconsin, while in Michigan and South Dakota more than a fourth are foreign born. In the Western states, as a whole, the proportion of the for- eign born is 22.22, ranging in individual states from 7.07 in New Mexico, to 30.52 in Montana. In many of these states the proportion of foreign born is not far from one-fourth. The South Atlantic states, on the other hand, contain an average of but 2.2S per cent, of foreign born, and the South Cen- tral states but 2.90 per cent. The state having the smallest proportion of inhabitants of foreign birth is North Carolina, where it is but 0.23 of one per cent., or about one person in four hundred. The following table shows the percentage of the whole foreign element in each of these five groups of states, at each census: PERCENTAGE OE^ THE FOREIGN ELEMENT, 1850-1890 Censtis Year North Atlantic Division Soutli Atlantic Division North Cwitral Division South Ccntial Division Western Division 1890 42.04 42.13 45.28 48.90 59.06 2.25 2!61 3.00 3.93 4.67 43 . 90 43 07 41.90 37.29 28.98 3.48 4.10 4.19 . 5.55 6.09 8 33 1880 7 49 1870 5 G3 1860 4.33 1850 1.20 It appears from this table tbat the Northeastern and North Central states contained in 1890 not less than 85.94 per cent, of 108 THE BUILDINO OF A NATION the entire foreign element, and adding the Western states and territories, 96,27 per cent, are accounted for, leaving only about one-twenty-fifth of the entire foreign element for the Southern states. Coiistitiioiits of tlie Foreigii Born Element. — What are the principal nativities composing this element of the foreign born? First and foremost are the Germans, numbering nearly three millions, or thirty per cent, of all. Next in order are the natives of Ireland, numbering nearly two millions, and consti- tuting one-fifth of the entire number. Then come the British with a million and a quarter, followed by the natives of Canada and of the Scandinavian countries, with nearly a million each. The ]5ritish, Irish, and Canadiaus together number four and one-tenth millions, constituting about two-fifths of the entire element of foreign birth. These, with the Germans and Scan- dinavians, constitute not less than five-sixths of the foreign born. From these imposing figures there is a sudden drop to the Italians and Russians, each of whom number about one hundred and eighty-two thousand, the Poles one hundred and forty-seven thousand, and so on. The exact data as to these and all other nationalities of importance, are set forth in the follow- ing table, and graphically in the diagram on page 109, showing the nativities of the foreign born population in 1890. FOREIGN BORN BY PRINCIPAL NATIONALITIES, 1890 Germany 2,784.894 Ireland 1,871,468 Ensxland, Scotland, and Wales 1,251 ,397 Norway, Sweden, and Denmark 933,249 Canada and Newfoundland 980,941 Italy 182,580 Russia 182,045 Poland 147,440 Austria 123,271 Bohemia 118,106 France 113,174 Switzerland 104,069 China 100,462 Hungary 62,435 POPULATION 109 HUNGARIANS SWISS FRENCH BOHEMIANS DANES POLES ITALIANS RUSSIANS SWEDES NORWEGIANS CANADIANS BRITISH IRISH GERMANS 1 ■ ■ 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 1 I 1 ■ p ■ R F ■ N O 1 c FIE ■ P Al 2^ . CONSTITUENTS OF THE 1 BORN IN 1890 ■ ■ ■ 1 ■ ■ ■ ■ . ■1 ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ J ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ , ■ ■ ■ ■ 1 ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ T J. ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 1 ■ 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 1 ■ ■^ ■ 1 r MNoj. ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ f ■ 1 ■ ■ History of the Several Elements.— What has been the history of these several nativities of the foreign element in the past? This is summarized in the tersest possible form by the following table, and is also graphically presented in the diagrams, Plate 10, facing page 110. In the table the strength of the delegation from each country is represented by the propor- tion which its numbers bore to the total population at each census from 1850 to 1890. In the diagram the total number of the foreign born at each census is represented by the area of the circle, while the number of each nationality is represented by the various sectors into which it is divided. 110 THE BUILDING OF A NATION PERCENTAGES OF TOTAL POPULATION 1850 1.63 4.15 3.52 .23 .64 .08 .01 ".hh 1800 1870 1.99 4.81 4.38 .30 1.38 .63 .04 .01 .03 .08 .10 .20 .17 1880 1890 Great Brittain Ireland 1.87 5.12 4.06 .35 .79 .23 .03 .01 .02 .08 '!i7 .11 1.83 3.70 3.92 .21 1.43 .88 .09 .07 .10 .08 .17 .17 .31 3.00 3.00 Germany 4.45 France .18 Canada 1.56 Norway. Sweden, and Denmark Italy..! ... 1.49 .29 .29 Poland .23 Austria .20 Bohemia Switzerland .19 .17 China .17 Hungary .... .10 In 1850 two-fifths of the entire foreign element was composed of Irish, which far ontnnmbered any other nationality ; Germany was second and Great Britain third ; while of the nationalities of southern Europe now coming hither in considerable and rapidly increasing numbers, there were practically none at that time. In 1860, while Ireland still held the lead, Germany had nar- rowed the gap between them considerably ; the proportion of British had increased also; while generally those nations whose contributions were small had increased in numbers, such as France, British America, and the Scandinavian countries. At this time natives of Russia, Poland, and Austria first appeared; and the Italians, who in 1850 were present in trifling numbers, had trebled proportionally in i860. In 1870 the Irish still occupied the leading position, but Germany had yet further narrowed the gap between them ; the British had also gained slightly, while the Canadians and Scan- dinavians had increased their numbers greatly ; the colonists from southern Europe liad made little progress, scarcely more than holding their proportion. In 1880 the Germans and Irish had changed positions, the Germans becoming the leading nationality ; the British had slightly lost in proportion ; the Canadians and Scandinavians had gained somewhat; while the Italians, Russians, Poles, and Bohemians had made great proportional gains. THE BUILDING OF A NATION PLATE 10 loon 1840 Nathe White- _ _ I I Colored .^HHI Natiue White of Foreign Parents I j Foreign Born \ tmu't^-.-^'il Natim White of Natiue Parents Ia^=i55s| ELEMENTS OF THE POPULATION AT EACH CENSUS 1890 1860 1850 Irish I?Kf=^J British L '^.'"J Scandinaulan . ^ German i - — I I Canadian | 1 Other Foreign Countri^;s_^t NATIONALITIES OF THE FOREIGN BORN, 1850 TO 1890 POPULATION 111 In 1890 the Germans had widened the gap between their proportion and that of the Irish, their total being nearly fifty per cent, greater, while the proportion of the Irish had greatly declined from its maximum in 1860 ; the British and Cana- dians had gained slightly ; while the Scandinavians had nearly doubled their proportion, and the Italians, Poles, and Austrians had trebled their proportion to the total population. In this census the Hungarians appeared in small numbers. How are the people of these different nationalities distributed over the country? The series of maps. Plates 11, 12, and 13, facing page 112, shows this distribution of the British, Germans and Austrians, Canadians, Irisli, and Scandinavians, expressed in the form of a proportion between their numbers and the total population of the various states. It is shown also in the table on page 112, which presents the proportion that the number of each of these leading nationalities bears to the total number of the foreign born in each of the northern and western states, and in each group thereof, where the foreign born are of numerical importance. From this table it will be seen that the Canadians form nearly two-thirds of the foreign element of Maine and New Hampshire, more than half that of Vermont, and nearly a third that of Massachusetts. In Michigan they form a third of the foreign born, and more than one-fourth that of North Dakota. The Irish are not so concentrated. In no state do they con- stitute half the foreign element. The proportion is largest in Conuecticut. In that state, and also in Massachusetts and Rhode Island, they number more than a third of the foreign born, and in New York and New Jersey they approach one- third. The British are still more widely scattered. In none of the northern states do they constitute even one-fourth of the foreign element. Their highest proportion is in Ehode Island and Pennsylvania. The Germans occupy the North Central states in force. In Ohio, Indiana, Wisconsin, and Missouri, they outnumber all other elements. In New York, New Jersey, Illinois, Iowa, Nebraska, and Kansas, they form between one-third and one- half of the foreign element. 112 THE BUILDING OF A NATION PROPORTION OF DIFFERENT NATIONALITIES TO THE TOTAL FOREIGN POPULATION IN 1890 States and Territories Canadians Irish English, Scotch, and Welsh GerinaniS and Anstrians Norwegians. Swedes, and Danes The United States 10.61 20.23 13.52 33.73 10.09 North Atlantic Division . 12.61 31.92 15 88 25.93 3.06 Maine 65.96 64.04 56.72 31.59 26.27 11.56 5.93 1.43 1.44 9.89 14.49 20.59 22.25 39.55 36.61 42 42 80.76 30.73 28.83 10.68 12.39 9.33 14.08 15.21 24.54 14.82 11.96 17.64 23.12 10.55 1.56 2.50 2.35 4.74 3.48 16.69 35.21 37.57 30.93 43.91 3.44 New Hampshire . . . Vermont ]\Iassachusetts Rhode Island Connecticut 2.11 2.19 3.45 3.60 6.55 New York New Jersey Pennsylvania North Central Division . . 3.75 2.57 2.79 17.47 Ohio Indiana. Illinois Michigan Wisconsin Minnesota Iowa 3.60 3.39 4.69 33.35 6.39 9.32 5 39 15.27 14 24 14.78 7.18 6.42 5.99 11.52 17.44 3.64 5.24 7.88 10.74 13.69 16.16 10.29 11.29 12.55 6.44 4.61 11.58 10.70 6.41 8.11 9.63 17.67 18.43 55.37 62.14 43.48 31.88 54.51 27.65 43.97 58.09 12.09 23.25 39.88 36.77 19.64 .92 3.78 15.31 7.63 19.31 46.05 23.48 Missouri 3.63 3.18 North Dakota South Dakota Nebraska 28.311 10.43 5.98 8.04 9.79 43.01 34.45 22.89 Kansas 14.90 Western Division ...... 12.18 Montana Wyoming Colorado New Mexico Arizona Utah Nevada Idaho Washington Oregon 20.98 8.81 10.89 6.05 3.90 2.30 11.30 10.26 19.34 11.27 7.12 15.43 12.74 14.71 8 58 6.23 3.86 17.99 10.98 8.67 8.53 17.24 20.39 33.95 24.80 16.13 8.09 50.46 18.50 26.07 16.71 14.47 12.74 16.67 16.17 23.15 15.90 7.83 7.22 14.57 15.25 20.43 27.44 20.85 14.88 15.98 14.53 2.18 2.17 31.79 4.86 20.08 23.79 12.80 California 6.11 The Scandinavians are highly concentrated, being found mainly in Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, the Dakotas, and THE BUlLDlNd OF A NATION PLATE 1 1 PROPORTION OF BRITISH TO TOTAL POPULATION IN 1890 PROPORTION OF GERMANS AND AUSTRI ANS TO TOTAL POPULATION IN 1890 THE BUILDING OF A NATION PLATE 12 ^ T~~~»^ V \ ''is"'" /Woa/7- 1 ^yo. i ~T — — ~ 1 COLO. ' S.DAK./45 LwlS.^ I IOWA \ NEBR. \ / H^ \ OHIO 1ND.\ 1 \ W ILL. MO. \ KANS. ^\ ) '^'^|^. 1 ^M. 1 ^ OK LA. r' ^ JiND. 1 r^TEH. 1 ARK./ -6 u(n —Jmiss. ALaA Gfr \ "t TEXAS Hs: ^ PROPORTION OF CANADIANS TO TOTAL POPULATION IN 1890 PROPORTION OF IRISH TO TOTAL POPULATION IN 1890 TIIK I'.ril.hISC Oh' A .WATIOiS' PLATE 13 PROPORTION OF SCANDINAVIANS TO TOTAL POPULATION IN 1890 PROPORTION OF NATIVE WHITES OF NATIVE PARENTAGE TO ALL WHITES IN 1-190 1 POPULATION 113 Nebraska. The highest proportion is in Minnesota, where they number not much less tban half the total foreign ele- ment. From the maj)S it will be seen that the Canadians are found mainly in northern New England, Michigan, Minnesota, and North Dakota, closely hugging the uorthern l^order. The Irish are settled mainly in New England and New York, compara- tively few having wandered westward. The Germans are found from New York westward, and in the greatest body in Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin. The Scandinavians have settled as far north as they could and yet remain within our jurisdiction, principally in Wisconsin, Minnesota, and the Da- kotas; while the British are scattered widely over the northern states. These people are guided largely by temperature in the selec- tion of their homes. Those from northern Europe and Canada settle in the far north. The Germans, coming from a more tem- perate climate, have settled mainly south of them, as have also the Irish. The Foreijj^n Eh^ment in Cities. — What is the dis- tribution of the foreign element as between urban ami rural life? Generally speaking, the f(jreign population flocks to the cities in far greater proportion than the native born. In 1890 the twenty-eight largest cities of the country contained a population of about 9,700,000, or nearly 1.5 per cent, of the total population of the country. The foreign born element of these cities corn- prised a little over 3,000,000, or almost exactly one-third of the total foreign born of the country. Putting it in another way. nearly one-third of the population of these cities is foreign born, while in the country at large only about one-sixth of it is foreign born. These cities contain, therefore, double their quota of the foreign born element. Thus much concerning the foreign element of our cities, col- lectively. When analyzed, it presents results even more inter- esting. Not only are the foreign born as a class found in the large cities in undne proportion, but there is no contributing nationality of which this is not true. Every nationality repre- sented contributes an undue proportion of its numbers to swell e 114 TIIK lU'TLDTXa OF A XATION our great cities. While but 14 percent of the native element of the countrv is found in these great cities, the Canadians con- tribute 10 per cent, of their number, the Norwegians, Swedes, and Danes 18 per ccnit., tlie British 2-1 per cent, the Germans 89 per cent, the Irish -12 pei" cent, the Bohemians 4() ]ier cent, the Bok^s -49 jier cent., and the Italians and Bussians each 51 per cent. Thus moi-o iIkih half the whole nundHM* of the two last- named nationalities found in iho country are congregated in these twentv-eight cities. Hence it afipears that the most objecticMiable elements of the foi'cign-born j)opulation have Hocked in the greatest proportion to our large cities, where thev are in a position to do the most harm by corruittion and violence. In New York city alone an^ found 190,000 Irish, one-tentli of all in the United States; and 210,000 Germans, one-thirteenth of ;dl in the United States, It contains one-fifth of all the Bus- sians and more than one-fifth of all the Italians in the c^>untry. Over one-fourth of the total population of the metropolis is made up of persons born in Ireland or Germnny. In Chicago there are 100,000 Germans, constituting nearly one-sixth of the population of that city. It contains one-sixth of all the B(des and more than one-tifth of all the Bohemians of the country. C)ne-sixth of the population of ]>ostou is com- posetl of Irish, aiul more than one-fourth of the }>opulation of Milwaukee is of German birth. Ooc'iipatioiis of the Foreig:ii Bom. — As to occupa- tions, it may be stated broadly that the foreign born element is engaged in avocations lower in character than those of the native element, principally in such as involve skilkxl and unskilled labor ; whereas the [U'oportion in the learned profes- siiMis is mnch less relative to their numbers than is the case with the native element While in 1880 the foreign horn constituted about one-seventh of the population, it was fouml that of law- yei's, clergymen, physicians, and teachers, there were about eleven native born to one foreign born ; on the other hand, among servants there was one foreign born to a little uK^re than three native born. Among unskilled laborers, the foreign born were in the proportion of one to two native boru ; while of POPULATTON 115 skillofl laborers, such as blacksmiths, shoemakers, and carpenters, the proportion was also as one to two, and foreign born miners exceeded in total number the native born. Illiteracy of tln^ Foi'cij^ii IJorii. — This flood of immi- gration has produce! otlior results upon tlio population beyond the mere additions to our numbers and tli',- admixture of blood. It has lowered the average intelligence and morality of the com- munity. The illiterate of the northern states arc mainly foreign born, the proportion of illiterates among them being four times as great as among the native!^. Again, tTic criminals of foreign birth in the northern states are double their duo pro])ortion, as compared with the native born. Effc'ct of liiiini^Tiiiioii upon Njitiiml Iiicrense. — Another result of importance has been produced. It is a well- known law of population, that in a broad, general way, as the population increases the rate of increase diminishes. This is un a|)plication of the Malthusian doctrine. Now, it matters not in the least how this density of population is brought about, whether by natural increase or by immigration, the result is the same — the country is fdled with people, they become more or less crowded, and the rate of natural increase is reduced thereby. The United States is composed of tv^o sections, the north and the south, which are sharply distinguished from one another in this regard. While the one of them has, throughout its history, depended upon natural increase for its increment of population, the other has had enormous accessions from abroad. What has been the history of the native element in these two sections, as contrasted with one another? This question is one of interest and importance. In order to answer it intelligently and conclusively, and also for the j>ur- j)ose of ascertaining approximately the effect of immigration uj)on our rate of increase in [)opulation, a comparison is made, in the diagram on page 116, between the rates of increase of the native and white elements of the northern and southern states respectively, for each decade, the u[)right bars at the bottom of the diagram showing the immigration from 1830 to 1890. I 116 TIIK nrTLDING OF A NATION RATES OF INCREASE OF ALU WHITES AND OF THE NATIVE ELEMENT OF THE NORTH AND OF ALL WHITES OF THE SOUTH POPULATION 117 The southern states — including in that designation all />f the states east of the plains and south of Mason and Dixon's line, the Ohio river, and the southern boundary of Missouri and Kansas — have received practically no immigration. The states north of this line and east of the plains contain 86 per cent, of the foreign element, the remainder Ixjing mainly in the states and territories of the far west. The rates of increase of the whites of the southern states, which are not complicated by immigration, are represented by the dotted line of the diagram; anfl, while exhibiting some oscil- lations, they show a general but not a great diminution from the beginning of our history to the end. Between 1790 and 1840 the white population of these states increased 239 per cent. In other words, the population of 1840 was 3.39 times that of 1790. In the succeeding fifty years the population of these states increased 204 per cent.; that is, their population in 1890 was 3.04 times as great as in 1840, the rate having thus diminished by only 35 per cent. On the other hand, how is it with the northern states? In the first fifty years, during which there was practicalh* no immigration, the rate of increase in each decade was considerably greater than in the southern states, and altogether during this half century the white [)opulation of these noi'thern states increased 389 per cent.; that is, in 1840 the population was 4.89 times as great as in 1790. Between 1840 and 1890, after separating from the white jjopulation of these states the immi- grants and their natural increase, and thus leaving only the native element, the rate of increase of the latter is seen to diminish remarkably. Instead (jf ranging from 34 up to 41 per cent, as it did in the first half century, the rates of increase by decades become 23, 20, 15, 16, and 10; while the rate of increase for this entire half century was but 112 per cent., the population in 1890 being but 2.12 times as great as that of 1840. This sudden and astonishingly rapid reduction of the rate in the north, taking place at the same time with the appearance of the flood of immigration, can be attributed to no other cause. The rate of increase of the north is shown by the full line ; the broken line — which commences at 1840 and runs up to 1890 — 118 Tin: nriLniso of a natiox iHMim tho rate of iiu'iwisr (*f the native clomont alone, wliilc the I'lill line, eontinuing on to 181H), represents the rate of inerease of tho cntiro pojnilation of the noi'th, inehuling the foreign element. llenee it is safe to eoneUule tiiat the i-ate of our natural inerease has been greatly reilueed bv the Hood of inunigration. Bv alk)wing the poor and tippressed of Kuro|>e \o tind homes in this eonntrv, we ha\e substituted iheni for owv own llesh and blood. If there had been no immigration, the rate o{ natural increase whieh }ire\ailed before immigration eonmuMieed would have been mneh nioi-e nearly maintained, and owv numbers would be almost as great as at present. The sudden and rapid reduetion oi owy rate of nauii'al inerease at the north during the past fortv vears is surelv due to this llood oi immigration, anarents' characteristics; measurably they are Irish, Germans, and Scan- POJ'CLATION 119 dinaviaris Htill. Tt is interesting, therefore, to observe to what extent oar population is eonij>os(;(J, not (;ri]y of the foreign born, but of the children of the foreign born. In 1870 statistics were obtained for the first time concerning th(; nativity of [)arents, and the results we-re tabulated and pub- lished, and in 1890 similar data were ohtained. In J 870 the numhcr of pf-rsons of foreign parentage, including those of for- eign };irth, was 11,892,015, The number of inhaldtants of native f-xtraction at this time was, therefore, 2f5,O^JO,.'JoO, and the number of whites of native extraction, 21,760,347, In 1890 the numbr;r oi persons whose parents were foreign born, was 20,26;i», 902. The native born of native parents numbered 42,358,848, and of these the whites numbered 34,720,066. In 1870 the foreign boni, added to those of native birth but foreign par- entage, comprised practically all of the foreign blood in the country. Only twenty-two or twenty-three years had elapsed since immigration upon a considerable scale had commenced, and it is not at all probable that there were in the country any appreciaV)le number of [persons of foreign extraction in the second generation. Nearly all the remainder of the population had bee-n here for a series of generations, so long as to have })ecome distinctively American. Therefore, we may treat that element of oiii- population which in 1870 was of foreign parent- age, as com[jrising the entire element of foreign extraction. In 1890, forty-two or forty-three years after immigration began, the conditions were measurably changed. There were at that time, undoubtedly, a considerable number — probably quite 5,000,000 — of persons of foreign extraction in the .second gen- eration. In 1870 this element of foreign extraction comprised 31 per cent, of the entire population, and in 1890 the same element comprised 32 percent. The element of native extraction in 1870 comprised 69 per cent, and in 1890, 68 per cent. The whites of native extraction comprised, both in 1870 and 1890, 56 per cent, of the entire population, or considerably more than one-half. The distriVjution of the native born of native parentage, is illustrated in the lower map on Plate 13, facing page 112, and in the table on page 120. In the northern states east of the 120 THE BUILDINO OF A NATION plains, -45 per cent., or nearly onc-lialf of the inhabitants, are either foreign born or the children of foreigners. In Massachu- setts they aggregate 56 per cent. ; in Rhode Island, 58 percent. ; in Connecticut, 50 per cent.; in New York, 56 per cent. ; and in New Jersey, 48 per cent.; bnt the heaviest proportion is found in the northwestern states. In Wisconsin and Minnesota three- fonrths of tlie people are either foreign born or the children of foreign born, and in the new state of North Dakota four-fifths of the people are of iininediate foreign extraction ; only one- fifth of the inhabitants of the latter state are of American stock. The constituents of the population of states in 1890 are shown graphically by the diagram, Plate 14. PROPORTION OF WHITE POPULATION OF NATIVE AND FOREIGN PARENTAGE 1890 States and Tkkri- TOIllES 1890 States and Tkiuu- TOKIES Native Whites of Native Parents Having one or botli Parents Foreign Native Whites of Native Parents Having one or both Parents Foreign The UuiU'd Stiitos . . . l^r cent. 62.49 Per cent. 37.51 Wisconsin Per cent. 25.86 3:^.99 55.97 73.42 20.55 38.87 56.76 72.09 88.97 Per cent. 74.14 7(!.01 North Atlantic nivisioii.. .51.93 48.07 Iowa 44.03 26.58 North Dalvolii Soutli Dalvolii 7') 45 76.86 67.48 67.96 4;i.l3 40.71 48.71 42.. 55 49.89 62.90 90.62 78.07 (i9.73 69.37 95.75 91.80 98.97 96.. 36 96.77 84.91 iJ5.91 2;i.i4 32.52 32.04 .56.87 59.29 .51.29 57.45 50.11 37.10 9.38 21.93 80.27 30.63 4.25 8.20 1.03 3.(i4 15.09 44.09 61.13 New Hampshire Vermont Nebrasica Kansas South Central Division. . . Kentucky Tennessee Alabama Alississippi Louisiana Texas 4:^.24 27.91 11.03 88.46 96.02 95.53 95.50 73.98 80.69 87.64 95.38 .51 .83 11.54 New Jersey I'emisylvania South Atlantic Division.. 3.98 4.47 4.50 26.02 19.31 12.36 4.62 District of Coliinihia . . . Virginia Western Division 48.17 West Virginia 43.99 51.16 59.87 83.60 43.34 33.25 87.83 55.35 54.49 67.59 44.77 56.01 48.84 40.13 Floriila New Mexico 16.40 .56.66 Utah 66.75 62.17 Ohio 65.12 79.10 49.96 44.27 34.88 20 iK) .50. tM 55.73 44.65 Indiana Washington Oregon 45.51 ;i2.41 55.23 THE BUirJUNa OF A NATION PLATE 14 NORTH DAKOTA MINNESOTA WISCONSIN NEVADA UTAH LOUISIANA SOUTH CAROLINA SOUTH DAKOTA RHODE ISLAND MISSISSIPPI ARIZONA CALIFORNIA NEW YORK MONTANA MASSACHUSETTS MICHIGAN DISTRICTOF COLUMBIA CONNECTICUT NEW JERSEY. FLORIDA ILLINOIS WYOMING GEORGIA ALABAMA WASHINGTON IDAHO MARYLAND IOWA NEBRASKA COLORADO VIRGINIA PENNSYLVANIA TEXAS OHIO NORTH CAROLINA DELAWARE OREGON NEW HAMPSHIRE VERMONT ARKANSAS MISSOURI KANSAS T2NNESSEE KENTUCKY MAINE INDIANA [JEW MEXICO OKLAHOMA WEST VIRGINIA PERCENTAGES OF TOTAL POPULATION 20 30 40 50 6,0 70 80 Nathe White of Nathe Parent^}. Native White of Foreign Parent CONSTITUENTS OF THE POPULATION OF THE STATES IN 1890 POPULATION 121 In our great cities the situation is even more startling, as will be seen by the diagram on Plate 15, facing page 122, and in the following table, which gives the percentage of native, foreign, and coloi'ed, to the total population. CONSTITUENTS OP THE POPULATION OP THE GREAT CITIES Cities Native of Native Parents Native of Foreign Parents Foreign Colored Milwaukee , . . New York 13 18 21 21 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 27 29 30 30 30 31 33 36 37 39 40 43 47 49 51 54 55 48 38 50 38 27 43 36 38 40 42 45 41 37 33 40 30 37 30 36 30 29 21 26 12 23 21 23 19 39 42 23 40 42 35 40 37 33 26 24 32 31 35 30 14 30 37 25 30 15 35 16 8 25 24 14 15 2 Chicago Detroit San Pranciseo Buffalo 1 10 St. Paul 1 Cleveland 1 Jersey City 2 St. Louis 6 C'ineinnati 4 Brooklyn Pittsburg 3 Boston 2 Rochester New Orleans 26 Newai'k 2 Minneapolis Alloglieny 3 Providence Louisville 3 27 Philadelphia 4 Baltimore 15 33 Omaha 3 4 Indianapolis 9 11 Thus, in Boston the native element constitutes but 30 per cent. ; in Brooklyn, 28 per cent. ; in Buffalo, 22 per cent. ; while New York, with only 18 per cent, is practically a foreign city so far as- its population is concerned. Chicago contains a native element of but 20 per cent., and Detroit of but 21 per cent.; while among the great cities Milwaukee stands at tlie head (or foot), with a native element of but 13 per cent. The most extreme case, however, appears to be that of the little city of Ishpeming, in the heart of the iron region of Michigan, a city 122 THE BUILDING OF A NATION of some 11,000 people, of vvliieh (miIy () per eent. are native born of native parents ; the remainder, 94 per cent., being foreign born or the children of foreign born. Tlie following table shows the proportion in which the ele- ment of foreign birth of the great cities is made up as regards nationality, the total foreign elcMuont of each city being re- garded as constituting 100 per cent. : rKOPOKTION OF THE PRINCIPAL RLEIMENTS OP FOREIGN BIRTH TO THE TOTAL FOREIGN BORN, IN CITIES n >. -B-='l s s c .' an -^ C3 § ■3.^ 03 a .— i (5 Cities 9 ir 4 5 4 1 "3 i2 1 1 1 Milwaiiki'c (iO 59 22 19 G •> 1 1 1 1 G BiiltimoiH' 57 54 51 21 24 21 7 9 17 o 3 1 1 1 1 Allcjihenv Buflfiilo 48 48 44 13 24 IG 10 13 15 12 1 15 i i 16 1 3 Rochester Di'lroit. . . '. 4;^ 41 9 14 12 15 23 5 i 1 1 11 Clevelainl Brooklyn 3(5 32 13 2 (> T <^liieas;o 3« l(i 9 5 IG 2 G I'itlsburf; 34 29 20 1 1 3 New Orleans 33 23 (i 1 1 11 33 31 31 30 11 38 8 15 1 9 4 1 32 1 8 1 1 1 2 St. Paul Washinirton 2 .lersev Cilv 30 42 14 2 2 1 3 Kansas (.'itv 29 22 15 8 11 3 3 I'liilailelpliiii 28 41 18 1 1 3 3 24 21 12 17 10 20 G 10 32 17 2 2 8 2 Denver 2 San Francisco 21 24 11 3 5 1 4 13 G 45 6 12 13 24 5G 3 3 1 Boston 3 Providence 4 49 25 11 4 2 4 From this table it appears that more than two-thirds of the foreign element of Cincinnati and Milwaukee are Germans. In Cincinnati one-sixth are Irisli ; the Germans forming the majority of the foreign element, not only in these two cities, but also in Louisville, Baltimore, St. Louis, Indianapolis, and Allegheny. The German is the leading foreign element in nine- teen out of these twenty-eight cities, and stands secimd in seven more. Thus in twenty -six out of the twenty-eight cities em- THE BUILD fNG OF A NATION PLATE 15 MILWAUKEE PERCENTAGES OF TOTAL POPULATION 20 30 40 50 f50 70 dO 90 100 1 NEWYORK 1 1^ ' ' J CHICAGO DETROIT.... 1 ^m ' SAN FRANCISCO... H^^L^^ i — m BUFFALO * — , ^^ ST. PAUL 1 ^ i 1 ^ CLEVELAND 1 1 1 ^ JERSEY CITY ! '1 — \ — ^i i ST. LOUIS 1 i 1 ^m CINCINNATI . \ 1 Ht^ BROOKLYN 1 ' PITTSBURG _... ^^^^^^ ^^ \ \ \ m BOSTON ROCHESTER n. NEW ORLEANS \ .ji..i{ j NEWARK, — 1 — h^^^_ — \ - , ! MINNEAPOLIS z 1 M ALLEGHENY I : i PROVIDENCE ^■■K- ' LOUISVILLE ^ ^* PHILADELPHIA 1 ^ "^""^ ^" BALTIMORE ^* WASHINGTON "l* ^"" OMAHA... ■ 1 d "" DENVER 1 1 ■ 1 ■ INDIANAPOLIS ■ 1 '" ^ KANSAS CITY 1 1 1 -^ ■■--1 ^^ Native of Native Parents __ Native of Foreign Parents. 3 Foreign _ I Colored CONSTITUENTS OF THE POPULATION OF THE GREAT CITIES IN 1890 POPULATION 123 braced in this table, the Germans are either the best or the next best represented. The Irish form a plurality in six cities only, but stand second in fifteen. The Scandinavians — including the Norwegians, Swedes, and Danes — are more numerous than any otiicr foreign nationality in the cities of St. Paul, Minneapolis, and Omaha, and stand second in this regard in Denver, The Italians are somewhat prominent in New Ork-ans, being exceeded in num- bers only by the Germans and Irish. Many other intei'esting features are brought out in this table, especially concerning the habitat of the people from the south of Europe. Suminary.— The attempt has Vjeen made to sum up, in the diagram on Plate 16, facing page 12'!, many of the facts con- cerning the population. This consists in an effort to show the growth of each element of the population for a century, with its status at the end of the century. The breadth of the diagram opposite the years is pro]jortional to the population at that date, and the breadth of the various subdivisions is proportional to the numbers of the three ele- ments — colored, native, and foreign. The immigration of each decade is indicated by the additions between the dates. The separation between the elements of native and foreign blood is, of course, only an approximation. A tentative separation was made, under the assumption that the rate of natural increase of the foreign element was equal to that of the native element. Under this assumption the separation was carried forward to 1870, where, as explained above, a definite separation was made by the census enumeration. This gave a correction which showed that the natural increase of the foreign element had been more rapid than that of the native element. Accordinglv the earlier results were corrected, and the rates of increase of the foreign and of the native elements, thus deduced, were pro- jected forward to 1890. The diagram at tiie bottom shows the present status of the population as regards colored, native, and foreign blood, classifying the last by the leading nationali- ties. From this showing it appears that the present composition of the population is somewhat as follows: 124 THE BUILDING OF A NATION COMPOSITION OF THE POPULATION, 1890 Colored 7.500,000 White of native extraction 30,000,000 White of foreign extraction 25,000, 000 The principal elements of the latter are: German 6,800.000 Irish 6,500.000 British 4,000,000 Canadians 1,600.000 Swedes and Norwegians 1,000,000 Hungarians 500.000 Italians 500.000 Total 20.000,000 The remainder of the 25,000,000 is distributed among various nationalities in small numbers. The white element of native extraction is apparently in the minority to-day in this conntry, being exceeded in number by the sum of the foreign element and the colored. British blood, however, is still largely in the ascendant; for b}" adding to the native element the 4,000,000 of Britisli and 6,500,000 of Irish, we get 40,500,000, about two- thirds of the entire population, and three-fourths of the entire white popidation of the country. POTENTIAL VOTERS The number of potential voters — that is, males above the age of twenty-one— was, in 1890, 16,940,311 ; in 1880 the number was 12,830,349. The increase during the ten years intervening was at the rate of 32.03 per cent, which was far in excess of that of population; as in the case of the militia, this was doubt- less due to the excessive immigration of the decade, which consisted in large jM-oportion of adult males. 'The potential voters formed, in 1890, 27.05 per cent, of the population. In 1880 the same class constituted 25.58 per cent., showing a nota- ble increase in the proportion. Of the potential voting strength of the nation, 12,591,852, or 74.33 per cent, were native born, and 4,348,459, or 25.67 per cent, were foreign born. The corresponding figures regarding THE BUILDING OF A NATION PLATE 16 1790 1800 18.10 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1580 1890 >^^ io'*?--? POPULATION AT EACH CENSUS CLASSIFIED BY RACE AND NATIVITY POPULATION 125 the total population, are 85.23 native born and 14.77 foreign born. This brings out forcibly the great dis[)roportion which the voting strength of the foreign element bears to the total of that element. Of the total number, 10,957,496, or 64.68 per cent., were native whites, and 1,740,455, or only 10.27 per cent., were col- ored. The native whites of native parents, or, as nearly as may be, the whites of native extraction, constitute but 52 per cent, of the voting strength of the nation, nearly one-half of the possible voters being either foreign born, native born of foreign parents, or colored. Like the corresponding element of the total population, the strength of the native element is in the south, while in the northwest it is in many states outnumbered, and in a few states greatly outnumbered, by the element of foreign extraction. Thus, in North Dakota the white voters of native extraction form but 21.20 per cent., of the total possible voters. In Minnesota the corresponding proportion is 23.06 per cent. ; in Wisconsin, 22.24 per cent. In each of these cases more than three- fourths of the voting strength of the state is of foreign extraction. The following table shows the proportion of the potential voting strength contained in each division of the United States, contrasted with the corresponding proportion of the total population : PROPORTION OP POTENTIAL VOTERS AND OP TOTAL POPULATION Percentage of Voters Percentage of Population Northeast division 29.85 11.89 86.62 14.88 6.81 27.79 Southeast division North Central division 14.14 85.71 South Central division 17.52 Western division ■ 4.84 As in the case of the potential militia, it will be seen that in the northern and western groups of states, the potential voting strength is disproportionately large as compared with the total population, while the reverse is true as to the southern groups. 126 TEE BUILDING OF A NATION ALIENS The number of adult males of foreign birth in 1890 was 4,348,459. Of this number 2,546,037, or 58.55 per cent, have been naturalized, and 236,069, or 5.43 per cent., have taken out first papers. Thus it appears that nearly two-thirds of the pos- sible voters among our foreign born, have either acquired citi- zenship or have taken the preliminary steps toward that end ; i, 160,214, or 26.68 per cent., are returned as aliens; while the remainder, constituting 9.34 per cent., furnish no information regarding citizenship. PROPORTION OF ALIENS TO TOTAL POPULATION IN 1890 The distribution of the aliens is a matter of much interest. It is illustrated on the above map. Since the foreign born element is of slight importance in the Southern states, the question of its citizenship is of still less interest and may there fore be dropped from discussion ; it is in the Northern and Western states only that the foreign element is of importance. In the North Atlantic division more than a third of the foreign POPULATION 127 born males of voting age — to be exact, 34.43 per cent. — are aliens ; in Maine the proportion is no less than 44.51 per cent. ; in New Hampshire, 50.05 per cent. ; in Rhode Island, 49.78 per cent. This large proportion in the New England states is probably due in great measure to the irruption of the French- Canadians, most of whom have come over the border as an alien people with no intention of forming a part of our body politic. The proportion of aliens in the North Central division is, on the other band, comparatively small, being but 18.78 per cent. The largest proportion among these states is in North Dakota, where it is 26.53 per cent. ; while in Minnesota it is 16.85 per cent., and in Wisconsin 15.49 per cent. These, it will be remembered, are the three states in which the foreign born element and the element of foreign extraction" are greatest. The proportion of aliens in the western division is 32.09 per cent. It is greatest in Arizona, where it is 48.17 per cent, and least in Colorado, where it is but 23.89 per cent. In Utah, where the element of foreign extraction constitutes two-thirds of the population, the proportion of the foreign born males of voting age who are aliens is but 25.51 per cent. ILLITERACY For the statistics of illiteracy we are dependent upon the census, and unfortunately, these are among the last statistics to be compiled from the schedules. Thus, while most of the other matter has been digested and is before the public, the sta- tistics of illiteracy for 1890 are not yet available, and we are thrown back upon those for 1880. With these ligures, coupled with our information concerning the movement of population and of social conditions, it is possible to form a very close estimate of the condition and distribution of illiteracy at the present time. We know that in the ten years that have elapsed the school system of the Southern states has been greatly improved, both for whites and blacks, and that the enrollment and attendance have increased ; hence it may safely be inferred that through- 128 '/'///■-' nriLnixa of a yATiox out the south tlio jiroportiou of illitoracv, both of white and cok">reil, has been rinliu'ed, and j>robabl_v to a considerable ex- tent. In the north, on tlie other hand, we cannot oxjuvt to lind any l'a\-orabK> ehan<;e. The schools ot the ni>rth ha\'e improved, but the enrollment and atten^huiec liave diminished, and con- sequent Iv we mav \ook (ov an inei-ease in the )>ro}iortion of illiterates in this part of the country. It is scarcely necessary to explain that this condition of thinus in the north is due to the unprecedented inmiigraiion <^f ihe last decade, which has brought not only hirue numbers of loreigners, bnt foreigners of a lower class in all respects than e\er before. It is probable that the net result of all these fact(>rs upon the illiteracy of the country, will slunv but trilling change as a whole. With this preface let us see what the statistics of the tenth census had to show rcganling the illiteracy of the population. The census asks two questions on this subject : " Can he read ? " and "Can he write?" Either of these is a sullicient test of elementary education, and so it will be unnecessary to give the answers to b>ith. \iOt us therefoi'c consider only the second of these intci'rogatories : *• Can he write ? '' In 18S() To per cent, of the population were of the age of ten years and upward. Taking the I'ountrv at large, including all sections, all races and all nativities, 17 per cent., or very nearly one-sixth, of those of the age o( ten and over wei'C unable to write. Oi the whites, only 9A percent, were unable to write; and dividing the number into those of native and of foreign birth, the proportions of those unable to write were respectively 8.7 and 12 })er cent. Of the colored element, not less than 70 per cent, were unable to fashion letters. As regards sex, there appears to have been slightly nuu-e illiteracy among females than among males, particularly with the colored race. The geographical distribution of illiteracy dilfers widely in different parts of the country, especially wdien the results are analyzed by race and nativity. The inai">s on Plates 17 and 18 show the geographical distribution (^f illiteracy among the total population, the native whites, the colored, and the foreign born. In the south generally, not only among the colored people but among the wdiites also, the proportion of illiteracy was high, Till': lillLDISd OF A NATION PLATE 17 / COLO. S.DAK. I WIS.'yH i 1.) y TO NEBR, Y ^ 5p/0\/ KAN8, W ILL. \UU.\ MO.\ ^.^.X^ OK LA. I-I JittO. it- 40'^ TEXAS \ tTenn? iii^f^ "\ PROPORTION OF PERSONS WHO CAN NOT WRITE, TO POPULATION, TEN YEARS OF AGE OR OVER IN 1880 J 4 \ ^our L / '^^K / s^ — J- ( ^ \ 1 erl COLO \ ) ''^'/e 1 A / ^- 1 N.M. S.DAK. (> wis.fr/ r' L ^^ 1 'mIOH.\ 'V^Oi'^ |!-io 1 \ iowaN — ^i-v-/<y/ KANS. 1 OKLA. fJ TEXAS PROPORTION OF NATIVE WHITES WHO CANNOT WRITE, TO ALL NATIVE WHITES OFTEN YEARS OFAGE OR OVER IN 1880 THE BUILDING OF A NATION PLATE 18 PROPORTION OF COLORED PERSONS WHO CANNOT WRITE. TO ALL COLORED TEN YEARS OF AGE OR OVER IN 1880 PROPORTION OF FOREIGN BORN WHO CANNOT WRITE, TO ALL FOREIGN BORN TEN YEARS OF AGE OR OVER IN 1880 I POPULATION 129 doubtless owing in great part to the absence of piil)lic schools in that section except during the fifteen years preceding the tenth census. In the South Atlantic and South Central states, taken as a whole, the proportion of those unable to write was 40 per cent. ; of colored it was 75 per cent., and of whites 20.8 per cent. In the North Atlantic and Northern Central states there was but little illiteracy among the native born, the pro[)ortion to the inhabitants of ten years of age and over being but 4 per cent.; while among the foreign born it was more than three times as great, being 12.^ per cent. Thus, the illiterate element of the north in 1880 was the foreign born element, as it doubtless is at present. Illiteracy is not, however, uniformly distributed among the foreign born, being much greater at the east tlian at the west. In the North Central states the proportions of illiteracy among the native whites, and among the foreign born, were respectively 4.9 and 8.8 per cent., while in the northeastern states the like proportions were 2.8 and 15.4 per cent., respectively. In New England the proportions were still more sharply con- trasted. Of the native whites, only 1.3 per cent, were unable to write, while of the foreign born no less than 21.4 per cent, were deficient in this regard. It is probable that the greater propor- tion of ignorance among the foreign born of the eastern than of the western states, was due partly to the difference in the nativi- ties represented in these two sections of the country. In the northeastern states there were many French-Canadians, who are not only ignorant, but refuse to avail themselves of the facilities for education afforded by the public schools. In these states are found also the great majority of the Irish immigrants, who are measurably in a similar condition. Moreover, the poor and less enterprising of the immigrants, those who are content to remain where they are dropped upon our shores, or who, lacking the means to reach the interior, remained in the seaboard cities, have thus increased the proportion of illiterates of the eastern states. 9 130 THE BUILDII^G OF A NATION EDUCATION Public Schools. — Even as long ago as colonial times, the New England colonies recognized the need of education as an essential to good citizenship, and provided the means of acquir- ing it at public cost. The system of public schools which orig- inated in New England, was carried by her sons wherever they migrated. Thus the system grew np with the Northern Central and Western states. In the Southern states, on the other hand, the public school system, now universal, is of comparatively recent introduction. Before the civil war, there were few public schools in the south, the system having been developed in those states since that struggle. The public schools are supported mainly by direct taxation, which in many states is laid for that express purpose. More- over, in most of the states there are school funds, derived from various sources, the income from which is thus ap|)lied. One prominent source of these funds consists of the public lands donated by the general govermncnt to the states iu aid of educa- tion. In each of the states in which public lands existed, the United States has thus given the sixteenth, and in most of them also the thirty-sixth section of each township for this purpose, and from the sale of these lands large funds have been created. Besides the public school system, now in full operation in every state and territory, certain religious organizations, partic- ularly the Lutheran and Catholic churches, maintain separate schools, and, furthermore, there are large numbers of private schools, which, strange as it nuiy appear, are well supported. The public school system embraces, in all cities, high schools which carry forward the education of the young to the point of fitting them to enter colleges and professional schools. Throughout the south separate schools are maintained for the white and colored races. Eiirolliiieiit. — The total number of children enrolled in schools, in 1890, was 14,219,571. The total number of children of school age, which is arbitrarily assumed at from live to seven- f POPULA TTON 131 teen years inclusive, was 18,543,200, or nearly 30 per cent, of the population. The school onrollrncnt was 75 per cent, of the children of scliool age. The attendance at school was about two-thirds of the enrollment. Therefore it appears that about one-half of the total number of children of school age attended school. Of the total number of children enrolled in all schools, 12,728,- 417, or about nine-tenths of the whole, were enrolled in the public schools ; 753,972 were enrolled in private schools, and 737,182 in parochial schools. The upper map on Plate 19, facing page 132, shows the j)ro- portion, by states, which the enrollment in schools of all kinrls bears to the number of children of school age. It shows that the highest [)roportion of enrollment is at the north, and the lowest at the south, as was to have been expected. In Kansas, Iowa, Maine, and Vermont more than nine-tenths of all children of school age are enrolled in the schools. The banner state in this regard is Kansas, which enrolls not less than 94 per cent. of her children, while Maine and Iowa each enroll 98 per cent. The converse of this picture is seen at the south. Arkansas enrolls but 58 per cent, of her children, and South Carolina but 52 per cent., while of all the states Louisiana stands at the foot, with but 40 per cent. Strangely enough the purely rural state of Mississippi, with an immense colored population, enrolls not less than 79 percent, of her children, or nearly double the pro- portion of the adjoining state of Louisiana. Expenditure. — In the public schools the total number of teachers, in 1890, was 363,935; of these a little more than one- third were males, and a little less than two-thirds females. The total expenditure on account of the public schools was $140,277,- 484, being at the average rate of $17 for each pu|)il in average attendance. The lower map on Plate 10, facing page 132, shows the average amount (;xj)cnded per pupil enrolled, in different parts of the country. The amount thus expended in the several states ranged from about $2 in Alabama to $25 in Colorado. Throughout the south generally the amount expended was small, the highest expenditure in any state being $7 per capita, in Texas. 132 THE BUILDING OF A NATION Of all the Northern states Maine expends the least per pupil enrolled, the amount being only $7. In the upper Mississippi valley and in the lake states the amount ranges from $10 to $14. Generally speaking, the rate of expenditure in the western states is very high, exceeding $20 per capita in Montana, "Wyoming, Colorado, Nevada, and California. The only eastern state in which the rate exceeded $20, was Massachu- setts. A comparison of the statistics of enrollment in the public schools of the country in 1890, with similar figures for lv^80, is highly suggestive of the ill effects of immigration upon the com- munity. While in the ten years between 1880 and 1890 the whole number of children enrolled in the public schools of the country, as a whole, increased more rapidly than the population, it appears, when these figures are analyzed, that this increase has been effected almost entirely in the Southern states ; while in the northern states east of the Great Plains, with the single excep- tion of Rhode Island, the increase of enrollment has not been as great as that of population. In every northern state east of the plains, with this one exception, fewer children are now enrolled in the public schools, in proportion to the population, than ten years ago. This situation is developed by the tirst map on Plate 19. Considering the advanced position of the northern states in matters relating to the education of the young, this result can be attributed to no other cause than the swarm of foreign ignorance let loose upon us. The following is a summary statement of the colleges and professional schools throughout the country, and the attendance thereat : COLLEGES AND PROFESSIONAL SCHOOLS, AND ATTENDANCE students. CoUejjes . . (\>lk\iios for woinon Tlioological schools, Law schools Medical schools. . . 118.581 24.851 7,058 4,518 15,484 THE BUILDING OF A NATION PLATE 19 PROPORTION OF ENROLLMENT IN ALL SCHOOLS, TO CHILDREN OF SCHOOL AGE IN 1890 EXPENDITURE IN DOLLARS, PER CAPITA.OF CHILDREN ENROLLED IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS IN 1890 POPULATION 133 OCCUPATIONS For our conceptions of the occupations of the people we are dependent, as in the case of illiteracy, upon the statistics of the tenth census, which portrayed the situation as it existed in 1880. It is modified by certain considerations of which we are able to take cognizance, such as the character and extent of the immigration, and the known course of development in certain branches of industry. Let us first look at the situation as it existed in 1880. The census takes account only of those occupations which can be classified as gainful ; i. c, those at which men and women labor for a pecuniary reward. The occupations of housewives, of children attending school, etc., do not come into this category. In 1880, out of a population of 50,000,000, 17,400,000 persons were engaged in gainful occupations. This was 34.8 per cent, of the whole number; in other words, a little more than one- third of the entire population were breadwinners. Classifying these breadwinners by sex, it will be seen that about 85 percent, were males and 15 per cent, females. The census separates occupations into four great general classes, according to the character of the industries : First, Those which relate to agriculture, including farmers, planters, cattle raisers, nurserymen, farm laborers, etc. Second, Professional and Personal Services, which includes all persons performing personal services of whatever grade or degree, from the highest professional character down to that of domestic servants and bootblacks. Were the two classes, pro- fessional and personal, separated one from another, the classes would have a definite meaning. Third, Trade and Transportation. Here again are two classes which should be distinguished. Merchants and dealers, with their clerks, salesmen, etc., can be easily separated from the employes of the agencies of transportation, such as railroads, water craft, etc. Fourth, Manufactures and Mining. This is a sufficiently dis- tinctive group, although it includes not only skilled workmen but unskilled laborers. 134 THE BUILDING OF A NATION This classilication tells very little eoiu'orning the inimbcv of breadwinners in the various stations of life, siuec eaeh o-roiip iiu'luiles persons in all statious, from the highest to the lowest. It is a elassilicatioii based upon product rather than upon occupation. The following little table shows the jn'oportion which each one of these classes bears to the total number of breadwinners : DISTUIUUTION OF TUIKADWTNXERS BY CLASSES AgHcultiiiv 44 jHM- ooiit. Profosisional ami porsoiial sorvit-os 'J4 '" " Trado and Iransiiortalion 10 " IManiirai'turos 'J'J •' The pro})ortion of persons engaged in agriculture is constantly diminisliing, while that of the other three classes is as con- stantly increasing, and it is probable that within a generation the jn'oportion of those engaged in manufactures and mining will become tlie ruling class. The following table shows by states, and groups of states, tlie ]n\>portioii which tlu>se engaged in gainful occupations bear to the total jiopulatitm, and the proportion which the number of workers in each of these four classes bear to the total number of workers in each state. The maps on Plate 20 show the distribution of those engaged in agriculture, and in manufacturing and mining, expressed in terms of the proportions which their numbers bear to the total number of wage-earners, PKOPORTTON OF TTIE NU1M15ER OF PERSONS IN THE UNITED STATES ENGAGED IN EACH CLASS OF OCCUPATIONS ^=3 Sf'c S ^||-s. "a « S 55 3jS i 3 ss g"2 i^S 3^x-=i = 3 o o-z c_ c C 4J aO States and Tkuiutoi!iks fc'l til ziil ■£ =.= s 1^1 roportion in Profe Bonal St 8onB occ roportion in Trad tation t< cupied Proportion in Maiiii ical and to all pe a. a, Oh 10 The United States 35 44 24 23 Alabama 39 1 t 15 3 5 Vri/oiia 55 32 15 83 37 9 15 4 33 Arkansas 4 California 44 21 32 15 32 Colorado 53 13 25 15 47 THE BUILDING OF A NATION PLATE 20 PROPORTION OF PERSONS ENGAGED IN AGRICULTURE TO ALL WAGE EARNERS IN 1880 PROPORTION OF PERSONS ENGAGED IN MANUFACTURI NG AND MINING TO ALL WAGE EARNERS IN 1880 POPULATION 135 PROPORTION OF THE NUMBER OP PERSONS IN THE UNITED STATES ENGAGED IN EACH CLASS OF OCCUPATIONS— ^o«^m*^^Ty< >^P^r^' >'^^>^°''% ^5^Tr>!^ ^eQ^oe^ Diuorced | !\ Widouied | i Married \ . | Single IDLE AND EMPLOYED EDUCATION I \ llliterata \ [ Can read only | j Cg/i read and write HABITS TRADE I I Mechanic THE PRISONERS OF THE UNITED STATES IN 1890 I POPULA TION 157 RACE AND NATIVITY OP PRISONERS AND OP POPULATION Proportion of all Population White native of native parents 26 55 White native of foreign parents 19 18 Foreign born 19 15 Colored 30 13 Unknown The relations of the number of prisoners to the various ele- ments of the population, is expressed in different form in the following table : NUMBER OF PRISONERS OF EACH CLASS IN 10,000 INHABITANTS Total 13 White natives of native parents 6 Wliite natives of foreign parents 13 Foreign born 17 Colored .']2 These figures show that the proportion of criminals among whites of native extraction is very small ; that the proportion of criminals of native birth, but of foreign parentage, is more than twice as great as among those of native extraction ; that the pro- portion of criminals of foreign birth is nearly three times as great as among those of native extraction, and much greater than that of native birth but foreign extraction. It shows, further- more, that the proportion of colored criminals is far greater than that of any other element, being more than double the propor- tion of the whites, and more than five times that of the whites of native extraction. It is the colored and foreign elements that burden our courts and fill our jails. Could they but be elimi- nated from our population, the millennium would be near. In the diagram on Plate 27, facing page 156, are illustrated other facts concerning the social condition of the prisoners. It will be noted that the majority of prisoners were unmarried, that the proportion of the widowed and divorced was very small, and that two-thirds of them were employed when the crimes were com- 158 THE BUILDING OF A NATION mitted. In the matter of education, it appears, taking the whole group together, that about one-fourtli were illiterate; of the native born the proportion was very much less, while of the for- eign born about one-fifth were unable to read or write ; of the colored clement, considerably more than one-balf were illiterates. Ecgarding the use of intoxicating liquors, it will be seen that more than one-half of each element were moderate drinkers, and that but a comparatively small proportion were drunkards. Three-fourths of all prisoners had no trade ; the proportion is less in the case of the whites, particularly those of foreign extrac- tion. In the case of the colored element, probably nine-tenths were without any well-defined means of earning a livelihood. PAUPERISM The amouut of pauperism is a function of two elements : first, the poverty of the masses ; and, second, the provision for its relief. The more elaborate and complete this provision, the greater the amount of pauperism. In the United States the abundance of work and its ample remuneration keep down the numbers of the destitute ; while, on the other hand, no such provisions exist here for the support of those who are willing to accept support, as are found in most European countries. It is true that almshouses are maintained by most of the New England towns and by many of the counties elsewhere, and that there are many charitable organizations of one sort or another ; but altogether the provision for the support of the needy is in no way comparable with that of older countries. Our available statistics relate only to indoor paupers ; i. e., those supported in almshouses. No figures are given for those receiving casual aid or outdoor relief. In 1890 the number of paupers in almshouses was 73,045, or 12 in every 10,000 of the population. The number of males was slightly in excess of females, a fact for which it is difficult to account. The following table shows the distribution of pau- pers by race and nativity, this proportion being expressed in terms of the number in 10,000 of each element of the popula- tion : POPULATION 159 DISTRIBUTION OF PAUPERS BY RACE AND NATIVITY Total 12 White 12 White, natives of native parentage ., 9 White natives of foreign parentage 9 Foreign born 30 Colored 9 Thus it appears that the proportion of all these elements is equal, with the exception of the foreign born, which is more than three times as great, a fact that speaks volumes in favor of the restriction of immigration. CONJUGAL CONDITION The last census furnishes, for the first time, the statistics of the single, married, widowed, and divorced. These are classi- fied bj sex, race, general nativity and nativity of parents, and by age. Of the total population 59.29 per cent, were single, 35.66 per cent, married, 4.74 per cent, widowed, and 0.19 per cent, di- vorced. Analyzing the figures by sex, it is seen that of males 62.20 per cent, were single, while of females there were only 56.24 per cent, single. The proportions of married were : males, 34.94 per cent, and females 36.41 per cent, the latter being slightly the greater. Of widowed the proportion of males was but 2.54 per cent, while of females it was not less than 7.05 per cent, show- ing that a much greater proportion of widowers remarry than of widows. Of the divorced, the proportion of males was 0.15 per cent, and of females 0.24 per cent, showing that divorced men remarry more freely than divorced women. The classification by race and nativity develops many inter- esting features. This is, in a measure, a broad classification by station in life, and the facts brought out by it throw light upon the conjugal condition of different social classes. Native whites of native parentage, when taken as a whole. 160 THE BUILDING OF A NATION form the highest social class of the community, as measured bv education, occupations, and freedom from pauperism and crime. The native born of foreign parentage occupy, as a whole, the second place, while the foreign born and the colored form the lowest class. The native whites of native parentage, and the colored, have the normal proportions of children and mature persons. The native whites of foreign parentage, and the foreign born, on the other hand, contain abnormal proportions of these classes. Among the first the proportion of children is very large; or, to put it in another way, the proportion of mature persons is very small, because the parents are of foreign birth. With the foreign born the reverse is the case ; the proportion of children is very small, because the immigration is mainly of mature persons. These facts affect greatly the proportions of single, married, widowed, and divorced. Of the native whites of native parent- age, 59.76 per cent, were single, 35.41 per cent, were married, 4.46 per cent, were widowed, and 0.21 per cent, were divorced. Among the native whites of foreign parentage the corresponding proportions were 76.79 per cent, 21.48 per cent., 1.63 per cent, and 0.10 per cent., respectively ; while among the foreign born they were 32.75 per cent, 57.95 per cent, 8.91 per cent, and 0.20 per cent, respectively. The classification of the population by sex and groups of ages also develops many features of interest For example, of the males under 15 years of age, the proportion of married is inappre- ciable, while of females about one in ten thousand were married. Between the ages of 15 and 20, one-half of one per cent, of the males and one per cent of the females were married. At ages above 20 the proportion of married increased rapidly. Between 20 and 25, nearly one-fifth of the males and nearly one-half of the females were married, while for the next five years the propor- tions had increased to nearly one-half of the former and nearly three-fourths of the latter. Between 30 and 35, three-fourths of the males and four-fifths of the females were married. At ages between 35 and 45, the proportion of married of the sexes was nearly equal, about four-fifths of them being married. From this point the proportion of married females diminished, owing to the POPULATION 161 increase of widows, while that of married males went on increas- ing, and reached its maximum at between 45 and 55 years. At ages over 65, only a little more than one-third of the females were found to be married, while the proportion of widows exceeded it. At these ages the proportion of married men was seventy per cent. The proportion of widows exceeded that of widowers at all ages. The native whites of native parentage married younger and in greater proportion than the native whites of foreign parentage or the foreign born. Furthermore, there was among them a smaller proportion of widowed, owing, probably, to the smaller death rate. The colored married earlier and in greater proportion than the whites, and the proportion of widowed was greater among them ; owing, again, to the greater death rate. What has Vjeen stated above shows that marriage among the higher classes of society is not less universal than among the lower, but rather the reverse, and thus disposes of another pop- ular tradition. Further proof of this is afforded by a study of the geographi- cal distribution of the married. Among the native whites of native parentage, the greatest proportion of married is found in the oldest and most thickly settled section of the country, viz., the northeastern states, and the smallest proportion at the south. Divorce. — Among the aggregate population the proportion of divorced to married people was 0.54 per cent. ; in other words, there was found one divorced person to 186 married persons. The proportions differed with different classes, as follows: Na- tive white of native parentage, 1 to 164; native white of foreigTi parentage, 1 to 200 ; foreign born, 1 to 294 ; and colored, 1 to 152. The proportion among the total population ranges widely in different parts of the country, being least in the southeastern states, where it was but 1 to 322 ; next in the northeastern states, where it was 1 to 263. Next in order were the south central states, where the proportion was 1 to 182 ; then the north central states, with 1 to 150; and, finally, the western states, where it reached not less than 1 to 88. Of course a part 11 162 THE BUILDING OF A NATION of this difference in geographical distribution is due to the migration of divorced persons, but another part must be due to a difference in the laws regulating divorce in different states. A comparison of divorce statistics of the great cities vsrith those of the country at large shows that, on the whole, there were fewer divorces in cities than in the country, in proportion to married people. AGRICULTURE For statistics of agriculture we are dependent primarily upon the census. Througli its agency we are enabled to ol)tain every tenth year a reasonably faithful picture of the condition of this great industry. Basing its work upon the census reports, the statistical office of the Department of Agriculture furnishes estimates each year of the state of the leading crops. Naturallj^ enough, these esti- mates are much more reliable in the early years of the decade than in the later ones. The statistics of the last census were for the crops of the year 1889. The tabulation of the results has been completed for cer- tain leading crops only, such as the cereals, cotton, wool, tobacco, and sugar, and the general statistics of agriculture, the principal among which are those relating to areas, numbers, and values of farms, the extent of improved land, and total value of agricul- tural products. These figures are sufficient for a clear presenta- tion of the condition and growth of this industry. Relative Iini>ortance of Agriculture. — Considering the number of persons employed and supported, agriculture is still, as it has always been, the leading industry of the United States. In 1880 forty-four per cent, of all tlie inhabitants en- gaged in gainful occupations were devoted to agriculture, and probably at the present time the proportion, while less, has not greatly diminished. Certainly two-fifths of all those engaged in gainful occupations are concerned in the cultivation of the soil, and a corresponding proportion of the total population is sup- ported by their labor. But if the value of product, instead of persons occupied, be considered, a different proportion will be found. The value of all agricultural products in ISSO was $2,213,000,000. In 1890 it had increased to $2,460,000,000, being at the rate of only a 164 THE BUILDING OF A NATION little more than eleven per cent., a rate very much less than the rate of increase of population. As stated elsewhere, the estimated net value of manufact- ures in 1890 was a trifle over $4,000,000,000, being no less than thirty-three per cent, greater than the product of agriculture. Ten years before, the net product of manufactures was $1,973,- 000,000, being slightly less than that of agriculture. If these estimates are correct, manufactures have, during the past dec- ade, passed agriculture in importance, as measured by value of product. For a graphic com))arison of the proportions of the leading industries in 1890, see diagram, Plate 28. General Statistics. — In 1880 the number of farms was, in round numbers, 4,000.000. In 1890 it was 4,565,000, having increased during the decade at the rate of fourteen per cent. This, which is also much less than the rate of increase of popu- lation, indicates that the accessions to our numbers during the past decade have been, in the main, additions to the ranks of other avocations. The value of farms in 1880, including all improvements, was, in round numbers, $10,200,000,000. In 1890 this item had grown to $13,276,000,000, showing a rate of increase of thirty per cent, an increase greater than that of the number of farms, thus showing a decided advance in the average value of farms. Farming tools and machinery had a value in 1880 of a trifle over $400,000,000. The same item had a value in 1890 of $494,000,000, or nearly twenty-four per cent, greater. Hence the capital invested in agriculture in 1890 was not less than $13,770,000,000; and this capital produced a return in that year, of $2,460,000,000, or less than eighteen per cent, upon the capital. Since 1850, when agricultural statistics were obtained for the first time, the average size of farms has been diminishing, having decreased from 203 acres in 1850, to 134 in 1880. During the last decade the average size has slightly increased, being in 1890 137 acres. In 1880 the extent of cultivated or " improved " land, as the census designated it, was 285,000,000 acres. Ten years later this had increased to 358,000,000 acres, or about 560,000 square miles. THE BUILDING OF A NATION PLATE 28 RELATIVE VALUE OF THE INDUSTRIES OF THE UNITED STATES, IN 1890 THE BUILDING OF A NATION PLATE 29 1850 1860 1870 1880 The areas of the circles represent the area of the eountry; the red portions the cultivated land, and the blue portions the uncultivated land. PROPORTION OF CULTIVATED LAND TO TOTAL AREA OF THE COUNTRY AGRICULTURE 165 In other words, in 1890 a trifle more than one-fifth of the total area of the country, excluding Alaska, was under cultivation. The following table and diagram, together with the diagram on Plate 29, facing page 164, summarizes the statistics npon these subjects for the past forty years : VALUE, NUMBER, AND SIZE OF FARMS, AND VALUE OF PRODUCTS, BY DECADES Value of farms, implements and machinery (millions of dollars) Number of farms Average size of farms (acres). Cultivated land (millions of acres) Value of products (millions of dollars) 1850 3,434 1,449,078 203 113 1860 6,891 2,044,077 199 163 1870 7,700 2,659,985 153 189 1880 1890 10,604 13,770 4.008,907 4,564,641 134 137 285 2.213 358 2,460 1850- I860.. 1870. 1880. 1890_ 1850. 1860. 1870. 1880- 1890 BILLIONS OF DOLLARS 4 5 6 7 1.2 13 VALUE OF FARMS, IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 5 MILLIONS 1850 J 2 \ 1860 1870. 1880 1890 1 1 r^^ r^n ^^nT NUMBER Of FARMS 100 200 ACRES AVERAGE SIZE OF FARMS. 1850 TO 1890 166 THE BUILDING OF A NATION Improved Land. — Tlie proportion between the cultivated land and the total area of each state, follows quite closely the density of population of the states, except in the case of those most densely populated. It is affected, liowever, quite appreci- ably by the topography of the state; the level prairie states, such as Illinois and Iowa, having a higher proportion than the adjacent more broken ones. This proportion is shown by the map on Plate 30. In the states and territories of the Rocky mountain region, with the exception of those of the Pacific coast and Colorado, scarcely one acre in a hundred is cultivated. In Oregon, Wasliington, Colorado, Florida, and North and South Dakota, less than one acre in twenty of the total area is improved. In the southern states the proportion ranges from twelve per cent, in Texas to sixty-one per cent, in Delaware, the proportion increasing north- ward and eastward. The maximum of land under cultivation is reached in the prairie region. In Illinois and Iowa nearly three-fourths of the total area is cultivated, in Ohio more than two-thirds, and in Indiana three-fifths. In the North Atlantic states about two-fifths of the land is under cultivation, although in Maine this proportion drops to less than one-sixth of the area. Tobacco. — Tobacco is produced to a greater or less extent in forty-two states and territories; in most of them, however, only in small quantity for local consumption. In seventeen states only is it produced in commercial quantity. A large pro- portion of the supply, nearly one-half the crop of the entire country, comes from Kentucky. This stale, with Virginia, Ohio, North Carolina. Tennessee, and Pennsylvania, produced in 1889 over 400.000,000 pounds, out of a total production of 488,225,896 pounds, or not less than eighty-two per cent. In proportion to its area Connecticut also is a heavy producer of tobacco, its production in 1889 reaching nearly 9,000,000 pounds ; while that of Wisconsin, although the state lies very far north and has a correspondingly severe climate, reached more than 19,000,000 pounds. The relative importance of the various states in the production of tobacco is shown by the map on the next page. AGRICULTURE 167 YIELD OF TOBACCO, IN POUNDS, PER SQUARE MILE OFTOTAL AREA IN 1889 Wheat. — This is the most important of the cereal crops; important not only to the United States, but to the world at large, inasmuch as the United States forms the principal source of wheat supply for those countries that are unable to supply themselves. The wheat crop of the United States in the year 1889 was 468,000,000 bushels; in 1890, 899,000,000 bushels; in 1891, 612,000,000 bushels; and in 1892, 519,000,000 bushels. The year 1891 was an exceedingly prosperous one for the northern farmers; not only were their cereal crops enormous, but the price was high, owing to a shortage of the crops in Europe. This great yield was produced mainly in the northern states of the Mississippi valley. New England has long since ceased the attempt to supply herself with wheat. The cotton states depend upon their northern neighbors for their supply, but the northern central states produce enough for themselves and have to spare for the rest of the world. The greatest diversity exists in the yield of wheat per acre; a diversity attributable mainly to the degree of care used in cultivation. Thus the small supply raised in the northeastern 1(38 THE BUTLDiya OF A XATION States sbows a heavv yield per acre, ranging from fifteen to nine- teen bushels. In the older of the northern central states, where the farms are subdivided inti> small holdings, the yield is almost equallv large, ranging rn>m fourteen to sixteen bushels; while in the Dakotas, where land is cheap and wholesale methods prevail, and where the aim is to get the greatest possible yield with" the least amount of labor, without regard to area, the yield per acre is small, being but nine bushels in North Dakota and but seven in South Dakota. In that part of the west where the land requires irrigation, and where for this reason the hoKlings are comparatively small and cultivation closer, the yield is large, running as high as twenty-two bushels yicv acre in Nevada and Colorado, and twenty-four in Montana. The other extreme is found in certain of the cotton states, the average yield in South Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama being but five bushels per acre. The production of wheat per square mile and the yield per acre, are illustrated by the maps on Plate 31. The United States is by far the largest wheat producing country of the globe. In 1891 it produced 612,000,000 bushels, while India produced only 235,000.000 bushels, France 231,000,- 000 bushels, Kussia 186,000.000 bushels, Hungary 119.000.000 bushels, and Italy 102,000,000 bushels. Corn. — Indian corn is cultivated to an enormous extent in the United States, and its cultivation is very widespread. From Florida and Texas to Minnesota, and from Maine to California, lields of maize greet the eye on every hand. The production of the country in 1889 exceeded two thousand million bushels — 2,121,798,728, to be exact. This was an unusually heavy crop. In 1890 it fell to 1, -190,000,000 bushels; in 1891 it rose to 2,060,000,000, and it fell again in 1892 to 1,628,000,000 bushels. While cultivation of corn is thus widespread, it is of the great- est importance in those states which occupy a middle position in point of latitude — that is. in New Jersey and Maryland, and westward through Kansas and Nebraska to the Pacific coast — and is of the least consequence in the states of the extreme north and of the extreme south. In the latter states it is supplanted to a considerable extent by cotton, and, on the other hand, the climate of the extreme northern states THE BUILD IN(1 OF A NATION PLATE 31 PRODUCTION OF WHEAT, IN BUSHELS, PER SQUARE MILE OFTOTAL AREA IN 1330 YIELD OF WHEAT PER ACRE, IN BUSHELS, IN 1889 THE BUILDING OF A NATION PLATE 32 PRODUCTION, IN BUSHELS, OF INDIAN CORN PER SQUARE MILE OF TOTAL AREA IN 1889 YIELD, IN BUSHELS, OF CORN PER ACRE IN 1889 I THE BUILDING OF A NATION PLATE 33 XJ K^,^^^ h^^^"' /r- '^^*'**»— ,. _ 7 — ^ '^ r\ A^oo, / .V Momt^ ^^«^?^>?. - 4/ '^4/yQ ^ 1 '^yo. 1 I COLO. S-DAK. \oOO L WIS. y Hq^ 1 \ MV1\CH NEBR. \ /^/^b b% _^ ^{ ILL. IND. KANS. MO- 1 lyL \^ Afii^^ ' N.M. K _ 1 — fl+f^^^^^^^ /-xFLaA ? OK LA. pi ?- 1 r^TER. 'J^^ -N TEXAS ^'- kWf^. j- — I — "T^ MISS. ALA.V v^ \\ A y Vk \ ^ Vi ^ PRODUCTION, IN BUSHELS, OF OATS PER SQUARE MILE OF TOTAL AREA IN 1889 r^ r^^^^""---^ p^^-^saTTT^ ----^_ A /\_ / \ i™=r iW^^ 1 ^^~~— -^__ Cr^,^ Lt^ / I / 'WO/VT-. / '^■°'^'^- 1 ^^^^ / "'^^^o, I V /— — ___\minn./''^^^ , r^ /^l/ y^>^ / ° / / s.dakTi Lwis-f^ / ^ X^^ViW^ ( /^^^^"^"^r^ Wyo, / l~Qv^O WCH.\ Y^_J ( IOWA ^ NEBR. \ ^ ^^S' irjo^''^' / COLO. r H ILL. ND.\ J ^^ KANS. MO.X \ \r 1 ■ -r-L ^ ■Q:"'?^^ ""^^^ \^ ) APt\Z / OKLA. H \ " 1 ' ^^5^-^-y — x# N-M. _^pJTER. ARK. / " \ ^7\ S-'j' ^^ Vlr^ TEXAS \ / le\s tip aTLa^^ GA- y \\ \ \ j LA. ^ U>-^^_W^LA.V 1 A |\ V. r^ y— )la. I. \ V "\ / Vi \J NUMBER OF TONS OF HAY RAISED PER SQUARE MILE OF TOTAL AREA IN 1888 NUMBER OF BUSHELS OF POTATOES RAISED PER SQUARE MILE OFTOTAL AREA IN 1888 AGRICULTURE lg9 is too severe to permit its cultivation upon an extensive scale. The yield of this crop per acre cultivated, is also greatest in the middle tier of states. It is large in New England and also in New Yoriv, on account of the thorougli cultivation practiced there. At the south it is small, as a rule, mainly because of careless cultivation or exhausted soil. The corn crop is used directly as food to a lai-gc extent, especially at the south ; and it contributes indirectly to the food supply, to a still larger extent, by being fed to cattle and liogs. The importance of this crop, and the yield per acre, are illus- trated by the maps on Plate 32, facing page 168. Oats. — The production of oats has increased greatly of late years, partly at the expense of wheat and the minor cereals, such as barley and rye. In 1889 the total })roduct far exceeded that of wheat, amounting to 809,000,000 bushels. In 1890 it dimin- ished greatly, being but 524,000,000 bushels. It increased in 1891 to 738,000,000 bushels, and dropped again to 661,000,000 bushels in 1892. Being a hardy crop, it is raised almost exclu- sively in the northern states, from New England to the plains, and to the greatest extent in the states bordering the Great Lakes and in the prairie states. The same states show also the greatest yield per acre culti- vated, ranging as high as thirty-nine bushels in Iowa. The yield is high in New England, and very low in the southern states. The importance of the crop and the yield per acre are shown by the maps on Plate 33, facing page 168. The other cereals are of minor importance. The production of rye in 1889 was 428,421,413 bushels ; of barley, 79,334,381 bushels; and of buckwheat, 12,107,785 bushels. These are all hardy crops, and are produced mainly in the northern part of the country. Cotton. — The culture of cotton is confined to the region lying south of the Potomac, the Ohio and the Missouri rivers. Within this area the principal region of production, where the crop acquires its greatest prominence, is. in the Carolinas, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, and Arkansas. Cotton holds a very high rank among agricultural products, 170 THE BUILDING OF A NATION in absolute money value and in relative importance to the otber crops in the region where it is cultivated. The crop of 1892 was the largest ever raised, reaching a total of not less than 9,038,707 bales; in 1891 it was 8,655,518 bales, and in 1890 7,313,726 bales, as appears from the estimates of the Department of Agriculture. According to the census returns, the crop of 1889 consisted of 7,434,687 bales, which was somewhat below the average of pre- ceding years. This product was distributed as follows among the contributing states, arranged in the order of production: YIELD OP COTTON IX 1889, BY STATES States Bales States Bales Texas i,470,;r);{ 1,191,919 1,154,406 915,414 746,798 69l,4'J:5 (!59,58;5 ;536.245 Tennessee 189,072 57 928 Georgia Florida Missouri Mississippi 14,461 5,375 873 425 Alabiuna . . Soutli Carolina Arkansas Virginia Kentueky (Oklahoma Ijouisiana 212 7,434,687 It will be seen that Texas, chiefly because of its enormous area, pi'oduces a larger amount of cotton than any other state. Next in rank are Georgia and Mississippi, in which, most emphatically, cotton is king. In the border states, Missouri, Virginia, Kentucky, etc., this crop is of very little importance. The entire value of the cotton crop of 1889 is estimated at $375,- 000,000. The accompanying maps, on Plate 34, facing page 168. show, first, the relative importance of the cotton crop to the state, as indicated by the production in bales, compared with the area of the state in square miles; and, second, the production of cotton to the acre, expressed in fractions of a bale, which may perhaps be taken to indicate the relative fertility of the soil and the thoroughness of cultivation. The latter subject was discussed by Professor Hilgard in his report of the tenth census, and he showed that in the eastern THE BUILDING OF A NATION PLATE 36 '^ OATS ^^ / ^.x / \ \ / \ 1 yd # \ A, "? ■\ O / "J > O 1- >\ / < o\ / 1- ^\ P o\ Ley PROPORTIONAL VALUE OF THE PRINCIPAL PRODUCTS OF AGRICULTURE IN 1889 AGRICULTUIIE l7l and western cotton states the yield per acre cu]tiva.ted was greater than in the middle states of that region. The reason he assio'ned was, that in the eastern states cultivation had been going on so long that it had become necessary to fertilize the fields, which had largely restored them to their original fertility. In the middle states of this region the process of depleting the soil had gone on to a considerable extent, but renewal by means of fertilizing bad not yet commenced; while in the western states the soil was still, to a great extent, in its originally fertile condi- tion, not having been impoverished by continuous cultivation. Hay. — Among agricultural products hay is not generally credited with the high rank it deserves. It is one of the most valnable of all crops. In 1888 the product amounted to 47,000,000 tons, and was valued at $408,000,000. It is too bulky an article to bear long distance transportation, even when compressed ; therefore it is chiefly consumed where grown, and is at last disposed of mainly in the form of beef, mutton, and pork. The bulk of the crop is raised in the North Atlantic and north central states, but little comparatively being produced at the south or west. The greatest quantity, in ])roportion to area, is raised in Connecticut and New York, followed closely by Iowa and Illinois. This distribution is brought out by the upper map on Plate 35, facing page 168, showing the number of tons raised per square mile of total area. Potatoes. — The Irishman's staple is a cosmopolite, being cultivated in every state of the Union, but in the northern states much more extensively than at the south and west, as appears by the lower map on Plate 35, facing page 168. The production is greatest in the thickly settled states of the North Atlantic group, in several of which it exceeds five hundred bushels per square mile of area. In 1888 the total product of this vegetable was 202,000,000 bushels, valued at $81,000,000. The diagram on Plate 36, facing page 170, shows the relative importance of a number of the principal crops in 1889. Live Stock on Farms and Ranches. — The total num- ber of farm animals in 1892 was 169,100,000, and their value was $2,461,000,000. The number and the value of each class are set forth in the following table : 172 THE BUILDING OF A NATION NUMBER AND VALUE OF FARM ANIMALS IN 1892 Number Value Horses 15,500,000 3,300,000 16,400,000 37,600,000 44,900,000 53,400,000 !|1, 008,000,000 Mules 175,000.000 Cows Other cattle 351,000,000 570,000.000 Sheep Swine 116,000,000 341,000.000 169,100,000 $2, 461, 000, 000 Thus it appears that each farm possesses, on an average, about three and one half horses or mules, eleven head of cattle, nine sheep, and ten and one-half swine ; or, altogether, thirty-four head of live stock, valued at about five hundred dollars. Distribution of Live Stock. — The maps on Plates 37 and 38 illustrate the distribution of horses and mules, cattle (including milch cows), sheep, and swine, on farms and ranches, expressed in the number of each class per square mile of area. This distribution follows in a broad way that of the rural popu- lation, with certain distinctive features. Horses and mules arc most abundant in the northern states, and diminish southward, while at the west they are compai'atively few in number. They are most al)undant in proportion to area, in the prairie states, ranging from twenty-three per square mile in Illinois and Iowa, to twenty in Indiana, Cattle are distributed in much the same way, as a rule, but the proportion is greater at the west, relatively, than in the case of horses, the number being swollen by the immense herds on the western ranges, as in the case of Texas, where there are thirty cattle to the square mile. The maximum is reached in Iowa, with over seventy to the square mile. The distribution of sheep shows several marked differences from that of cattle. The densest sheep population is found in Ohio, where there are one hundred and nine to a square mile, nearly three times as many as in any other state ; while at the south the number dwindles to six, five, and two to a square mile. In certain western states the great herds bring up the THE BUILDING OF A NATION PLATE 37 NUMBER OF HORSES AND MULES PER SQUARE MILE IN 1892 --^^T^;— Wyo. / I COLO. N.M. s.DAK. I S^liV H0^20 f^'''AH /a ARi^ ( IOWA \ V^ r-^-^\ s^c>/ OKLA. A JiNO. pJTER. V ILL. INU.l •) ARK. / 1 \q\ 1 Lss. alaA ga. ^ \x ^^ TEXAS 20-40 ^-^^ ^ NUMBER OF CATTLE PER SQUARE MILE IN 1892 i 77//; I'.IILhISa ()F A XATIOX PLATE 38 NUMBER OF SHEEP PER SQUARE MILE IN 1892 NUMBER OF HOGS PER SQUARE MILE IN 1892 I AGRICULTURE I73 density to quite large figures, in spite of the sparse population. Thus in California there are twenty-six, in Oregon twenty-five, in New Mexico and Utah twentj'-four, and in Texas nineteen, to a square mile. In the raising of pork New England and the west scarcely figure at all. The northern states of the Mississippi valley are the most densely populated with hogs. Iowa has one hundred and twenty-seven to a square mile, Illinois eighty-five, Indiana seventy, and. Ohio sixty-nine. Thence southward the number decreases, the razor-backs of Mississippi, Georgia, and Alabama numbering twentj'-eight to the square mile. Irrigation. — In the states and territories of the Cordilleran region, with the exception of western Washington and Oregon and northwestern California, the rainfall is generally insufficient for the needs of agriculture, and throughout this region irriga- tion is commonly practiced. This area, in which the farmer is dependent mainly upon the streams for a water supply, comprises about one and one-fourth million square miles, or two-fifths of the area of the United. States, excluding Alaska. The possible water supply from this source, supposing it to be entirely utilized and with the utmost economy, cannot, it is estimated, supply more than one-tenth of the land, only a small part of that which, aside from the question of water supply, is arable. In this region irrigation, although practiced for many years, is still in its infancy. Only one-half of one per cent, of the area is under irrigation. With few exceptions, no attempts have yet been made to store the waters of the spring floods. Wasteful systems of irrigation have grown up, due to the want of broad, intelligent plans at the outset; and an enormous waste of water goes on, owing to badly devised forms of contract between the water companies and the farmers. The usual agreement is to supply water for the irrigation of a certain number of acres, not to supply a certain amount of water, to be applied by the farmer to as many or as few acres as he may judge best. A contract calling for a given quantity of water would infallibly lead to great economy in its use, and to an increase in its duty. This " duty," by which is understood the number of acres irrigated by a flow throughout the season of one cubic foot of water per 174 THE BUILDING OF A NATION second, ranges widely at the west, from thirty or forty up to one thousand acres, depending upon the crop, the soil, the rainfall, and the experience and economy of the irrigator. The duty has been commonly assumed at one hundred acres, as an aver- age ; but as irrigation has developed, the duty has risen, and it seems probable that an average of two hundred acres will soon be reached. The following table shows the area irrigated in each state and territory, with the proportion which it bears to the total area of the state. From this it appears that Colorado leads, with one and one-third per ceat., and that California is second, with one per cent. IRRIGATED AREA AND TOTAL AREA COMPARED Arizona. . . . California. . . Colorado . . . . Idaho Montana . . . . Nevada . . . . . New Mexico Oregon Utah Wasliington . Wyoming . . . Total . . . 3,564,416 Area Irrigated Acres Per cent, of total area of State 65,821 0.09 1,004,233 1.01 890.735 1.34 317,005 0.40 850,583 0.88 334,403 0.82 91,745 0.12 177.944 0.39 363,473 0.50 48,799 0.23 339,676 0.87 0.50 The average first cost of irrigation works is $8.15 ]>er acre. To this must be added the cost of bringing the land under culti- vation, which is placed at $12.12. The average yearly expense of maintaining the works is $1.07 per acre. The average value of irrigated lands is $83.28 per acre, and the value of the product in 1889 was $1-4.89 per acre. Thus it appears that, since the land costs practically nothing, the business of constructing irrigation works anil placing land under irrigation is, on the whole, a very profitable one. More- AGRICULTURE 175 over, it is argued that these western lands, though requiring irrigation, are more profitable for the farmer than eastern lands which are blessed with an ample rainfall. The cost of prepar- ing the latter for the plow is enhanced not only by the necessity of clearing the forest from them, but also by that of fertilizing them, a necessity from which the western farmer is relieved, since the irrigation water constantly supplies fertilizing ma- terial. Artesian wells are used as sources of water supply for irriga- tion in certain parts of the west, especially for valuable crops, such as those of vineyards and market gardens. Altogether there are nearly four thousand such wells in use, irrigating fifty-two thousand acres, an average of about thirteen acres per well. This method is expensive, its cost averaging nearly twenty dollars per acre, and owing partly to the expense and partly to the necessarily limited supply of underground water, it cannot become an important source of supply. MANUFACTURES ALTHoraiT it is well known tliat the United States is far alicad of other countries in respect of tlie agricultural industry, and that its mineral ])roduct greatly exceeds that of any other, it is not so generally known that this is also the leading manu- facturing nation of the globe. The impression prevails that our manufacturing industries, as compared with those of the mother country, are in an infantile stage and require careful nursing to enable them to retain the breath of life; therefore, it will doubtless surprise the majority of people to know that as a manufacturing nation the United States is far in the lead. According to Mulhall, its manufactures exceed those of the mother country in the proportion of seven to four, and are increasing at a rate which, if maintained for a quarter of a century, will make the United States as important a source of supply for numufactured articles as it is now of agricultural products. (TC'iieral Statistics. — Manufactures have had a very rapid development. The first statistics of this branch of industry were obtained in 1850, when it was found that the capital invested was slightly more than half a billion of dollars. In 1890, forty years later, the invested capital exceeded six billions. Wages had increased from two hundred and thirty-seven mil- lions to two billions of dollars. The material used increased from live hundred and lifty-five millions to nearly five billions of dollars, the gross value of the product from a trifle over a billion to nearly nine and four-tenths billions, and the net value of the product from four hundred and sixty-four millions to four and f(mr-tenths billions. The figures for each census are given in the following table, expressed in millions of dollars, and in thousands of hands employed. MANUFA C TURES 111 STATISTICS OP MANUFACTURES FROM 1850 TO 1890, BY DECADES Year Capital Hands Wages Material Gross Product Net Product 1850 i,cn 1,693 2.7S0 6,180 957 1,311 3,055 2,739 4,665 337 379 500 948 2,000 555 1,031 3,000 3,397 5.000 1,019 1,886 3,384 5,370 9,400 464 1860 855 1870* ],884 1,973 4,400 1880 1890 * The figures for 1870 have been reduced to gold. The figures for 1890 are only approximate, being deduced from statistics covering about one-lialf of tbe entire capital, wages, material, and product. It is improba1)le, however, that the final statistics will rnateriallj change the results, or the con- clusions derived from them. The rapid development of manufacturing industries is in obedience to economic laws already alluded to. The country is rapidly filling up, especially in the northeastern states, and as the population becomes more and more dense, it passes the point at which it can be sustained by the cultivation of the soil. Other forms of industry, especially those requiring the aggre- gation of people, become necessary; and hence we find that all through this part of the country the people are leaving the plow for the shop. They are making things instead of raising things. In the northeastern states agriculture has made little progress during the past quarter of a century, while manufactures have made enormous strides. Moreover, the field of manufactures is increasing year by year. The frontier of the manufacturing industry is spreading westward and southward. In the ten years just passed, the south has made enormous strides in manu- factures. The bulk of the increase in the cotton manufacturing industry has taken place in the southern states where the cotton is raised. The manufacture of iron and steel is also increasing in that section with wonderful rapidity. Another Pennsylvania is growing up in the mountains south of Mason and Dixon's line, and in the iron industry will soon rival if not surpass that great state. 12 178 THE BriLDIXG OF A NATION The preceding table. wliii'Ii ^ivi^s a summarv oi the principal items relating to numuraetnres for the past forty years, is full of information concerning this great industry. A few deductions from it will ]M-ove of interest Coupled with the enormous extension of manufacturing industries has been a rapid concen- tration of them. The number of establisliments has not in- creased as rapidly, by any means, as the manufacturing capital, for the average capital of each factory' has grown from $4,000 in 1850 to about $15,000 in 1890, as appears from tlic following table : AVERAGE CAPITAL INVESTED IN EACH ESTABLISHMENT 1850 14.000 1800 T.'^H)0 1870 ().8(K) 1880 11.000 1890 15.000 The average yearly wages of cmplo^'es have also increased almost eY EMPLOY^ AND IJY CAPITAL Employes Capital 1850 ] HOO 51 44 36 48 45 49 56 64 52 55 1870 1 SHO 18'JO A c