rt^ o « • . "^ sts.»^^ GREAT EVENTS IN THE HISTORY NORTH AID SOUTH AMEPJCA: FROM THE ALLEGED DISCOVERY OF THE CONTINENT, BY THE NORTHMEN, IN THE TENTH CENTURY, INAUGURATION OF ZACHARY TAYLOR, AS PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES, MARCH 5, 1849. BY CHARLES A. GOODRICH, AUTHOR OF "UNITED STATES' HISTORY," "LIVES OF THE SIGNERS OF THE DECLARATION OF AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE," &c., &0. ILLUSTRATED WITH UPWARDS OF TWO HUNDRED ENGRAVINGS, CHIEFLY FROM ORIGINAL DESIGNS, BY EMINENT ARTISTS. HARTFORD: PUBLISHED BY HOUSE & BROWN. 18 5 0. ENTERED, ACCORDING TO ACT OF CONGRESS, IN THE YEAR l&i9, BY CHARLES A. GOODRICH, m THE CLERK'S OFFICE OF THE DISTRICT COURT OF CONNECTICUT. FOUNDRY or PRESS OF S. ANnKUS AND SON, WALTEK S. Wir.LIAWS, HARTFORD. HARTFORD. En? PREFACE. The plan of the following work, whatever may be thought of its execution, will commend itself, it is beheved, to the taste and judgment of the public. It proceeds upon the principle of selection, being chiefly confined to the Great Events of American History, and which are treated of as distinct subjects. In these respects, the work differs from other historica Works on the same subject. The advantages of a work thus constructed, are too obvious to need specifi- cation. Yet, it may be remarked, that great events in history are like great objects in nature and art. It is the bolder features of a country — the more costly and imposing edifices of the city — the higher and more elaborate achieve- ments of art — upon which we delight to dwell. In like manner, great events attract our attention and interest our minds, because of their relations — because of the higher qualities of mind which, perhaps, gave them birth, and the striking and lasting changes which grow out of them. They serve as landmarks in our drift down the stream of time. We date from them. We refer to them. We measure between them. We compare them one with another — their causes, progress, influences; and, in so doing, our knowledge of men and things is advanced — our false opinions are corrected — our topics for interesting and profitable speculation and reflection greatly multiplied. A thorough perusal of a work thus constructed will secure, it is believed, a more competent and per- manent knowledge of the history of a country, than some half-dozen readings of that history, written on the ordinary plan. The principle of selection will render the work the more valuable to certain classes of persons — to those who, desirous of a competent knowledge of the history of their country, have but a limited time to devote to the study of it ; to the young, whose minds are apt to become wearied and perplexed with the number and details of minor events; and to those who wish to refresh their recollections, without the labor and loss of time incident to the perusal of works constructed on the common plan. Each of these classes will find their interests consulted in the work before them, while the general reader may profitably pro- ceed from the perusal of such a volume to those which describe events and details more minutely. 4 PREFACE. In regard to what constitute the ' Great Events of American History,' there may be some diversity of opinion. As to his selection, the author has not the vanity to suppose that it is the best that could be made. The journey has been a long one ; and surely, it were not strange, if some events had been magnified into an undue importance ; while those' of perhaps even higher consideration were neglected, either for want of a better judgment, or for want of more serious reflection. In the progress of the work, the author has endeavored to do justice to the original settlers of the United States, and their immediate descendants, by bringing into view their constant sense of their dependence upon God. It will be seen that our forefathers were men who feared God — who sought his blessing in all their great enterprises ; and when success crowned those enterprises, that they were ready to acknowledge His good hand which had been with them. In seasons of darkness, they fasted and prayed: in seasons of prosperity, they rejoiced and gave thanks. In these respects, our ancestors did, indeed, only their duty; but, it may well be urged upon the rising generation, which will soon take the management of the affairs of this already-mighty nation — and which is growing in population, wealth, and importance, every year — to imitate an example so just! so beauti- ful ! so impressive ! The author has briefly to add, that the work was begun some years since 5 but, until now, he has found no opportunity to complete it; nor should he, even at this date, have had that pleasure, but for the important aid of a highly valued literary friend, long favorably known to the public. Rev. Royal Robbins, of Berlin, Ct., to whom, in this place, he is happy to make his acknowledgments for valuable portions of the volume. CONTENTS. NORTH AMERICA.— UNITED STATES. • PAGE. INTRODUCTION, 13 I. — EARLY DISCOVERIES. I. Northmen. — Claims for the Northmen ; Voyages of Biarne, Leif; Thorwald, Thorfimi, Helge, and Finnboge, 19 II. Columbtis.—'R\n\\ and Education of Columbus ; Unsuccessful application to several European Courts ; Patronized by Isabella ; Sails from Palos ; Early Discontent of his Crew ; Expedients by which they are quieted ; Discovery of Land ; First appearance of the Natives ; Cuba and Hispan- iola discovered ; Columbus sets sail on his Return ; Incidents of the Voyage ; Marks of considera- tion bestowed upon hjin ; Second Voyage ; Further Discoveries ; Complaints against hun ; Tlnrd Voyage ; Discovery of the Continent ; Persecuted by Enemies ; Sent home in Chains ; Kindness of Isabella ; Fourth Voyage ; Return and Death, 26 in. Sebastian Cabot. — Discovery of the North American Continent by Sebastian Cabot, 45 II. — EARLY SETTLEMENTS I. VIRGINIA, OR SOUTHERN COLONY. Unsuccessful Attempts to settle America ; Expeditions of Sir Humphrey Gilbert ; Sir Walter Raleigh ; Sir Kicliard GrenvUle ; Sir John Wliite; First Permanent Settlement at Jamestown; Colonists early in Want ; Dissensions in their Councils ; Hostihty of the Indians ; Capture of Captain Smi'h ; Generous Conduct of Pocahontas ; Gloomy Conihtion of the Colony ; Timely amval of Assistance ; Returning Prosperity ; EstabUshment of a Provisional Government ; Introduction of Negio Slavery ; Cruel Massacre of the Colonists, 48 II. NEW ENGLAND, OR NORTHERN SETTLEMENTS. Plymouth ; Massachusetts ; Connecticut ; New Haven ; New Hampshire ; Rhode Island ; Maine ; Vermont — Character of the Early Settlers 61 III. MIDDLE AND SOUTHERN SETTLEMENTS. New York ; New Jersey ; Delaware ; Maryland ; N. Carolina ; S. Carolina ; Georgia ; Pennsylvania, 96 III. — INDIANS: THEIR TRIBES AND WARS. I. INDIAN TRIBES. General Division ; Tribes in the Central and Southern parts of New England ; Tribes in the North- em parts ; East of Lake Erie and South of Lake Ontario ; Southern Tribes, 104 II. ORIGIN OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS. Various Speculations on the subject ; Opinions of Voltaire, of Rev. Thos. Thorowgood, Dr. Boudinot, Roger WUhams, Hubbard, Thos. Morton, John Josselin, Cotton Mather, Dr. Mitchell, Dr. Swinton, 109 III. VIRGINIA INDIAN WARS. Early Troubles of the Enghsh with the Indians ; Power and Cruelty of Powhatan ; his apparent Friendship for the Colonists ; Treacherous Conduct ; Kindness of Pocahontas ; Inhuman Conduct of Lord De la War; Captivity of Pocahontas; Cruel Massacre of the Whites; Opecancanougli ; Troubles with Totopotomoi ; Anecdote of J ack-of-the-foather 113 IV. PLYMOUTH COLON,Y AND THE INDIAN^. Early Rencontre at Plymouth ; Friendly Intercourse established by means of Samoset ; Kindness of Squanto; Intercourse vnth Massasoit ; Contemplated Massacre defeated ; Caunbitant ; Ilobomok, 125 V. ENGLISH AND NARRAGANSETS. Territory of the Narragansets ; Canonicus their Sachem ; his made of Challenging the English to War ; Union proposed between the Pequods and Narragansets ; how Defeated ; Haughty Bearing of Miantonimoh; Accused of a Conspiracy against the Enghsh; Accusations repelled; Peace ooiicluded between him and Massachusetts; War between Uncas and Miantonimoh; the latter captured, and delivered to the English ; how disposed of; Character of Uncas ; Troubles with the Narragansets under Ninigret ; Expedition against him ; its Issue 142 CONTENTS. PAGE 153 VI. PEQUOD WAR. p^ tlSdTo^,!iM!''"''u; "'f'^Chara^^'-; S'^^cus; his Hatred of the En„^ish ; Cruelties prac- Sclnoffh'"; "'VM''^''"""''^'"^"'' Exp^Umon of Captain Mason; Surpnse and Destruction of the Fort ; Further Pi'osecution of the War ; Consequences resultmg froniit, . VII. Philip's war. ^^Z"^, l^^^'^ '^'^ '' '^*^"™'''«'- "f PMip ; General Spirit of Hostility amon„- the Indians ; Out- ureakatSwansey; Expedition under General Savage ; Expedition under Captain Church ; Perilous r, n r'h°" u '^' ! P'"''^ ' '''""'^^ ^"'""'^ °f ^''P'^''^ Hutchinson ; Second Expedition of Cap IKs^-iw T ,; T ^,""'"'°" "^ ^'""P- ^^""""^ ^' ^^''^P^; A""«>-« ">« ^^<-^ settlements of Massacliusetts; Treachery of the Nipmucks; Attack on Brookheld ; BloiHly Affair at Muddy ^rVh m'' ? Springfield; Attack on Hatfield; Outrages at Nonhampton ; Large Force raised by Ma^^ac liusetts Plymoutli, and Connecticut, against the Narragansets ; Phihp's Fortress at Kingston, Rhode Island; Destruction of it ; Lancaster destroyed ; other 'IWns burned- Fatal Affair at Pawtuxet nver, Rhode Island ; Stratagem ol Cape Cod rndians; Attacks on Rehoboth, ^„IZ! ? uT'^'^"-' '=^''P''d't'™°f Connecticut 'roops; Conanchet captured , Long Meadow attacked ; Hadley ; lortunes of Pluhp on the wane ; Successful Expedition at Connecticut-river Fal^; Attack on Hatfield; on Hadley; Remarkable Interposition of a Stranger at Hadley. sup- posed to be Goffe; Dechne of Philip's Power; Pursued by Captam Church; Death of Plulip^ Disastrous Effects of the War ;Phihp's Warriors ; Annawon; Reflections, . .' i6] VIII. WAR OF WILLIAM III. Combination of French and Indians against the Americans ; Burning of Schenectady ; Cause of it • Horrors attending ,t; Attack upon Salmon Falls and uponCasco; Results of Expeditions fitted out by New V ork and New England ; Reduction of Port Royal ; Atrocities which marked the War ■ Attack on Haverhill, Massachusetts; Heroic Conduct of Alls. Dustan; Peace ] 190 IX. QUEEN ANNE's WAR. ^t"' w if"^""" f.l^^^""" '" '^"""''''' ^^"^^ "P°" Deerfield; Captivity and Sufferings of Rev. Mr. Wilhams; Other Disasters of the War ; Peace ; Death of Queen Anne ; Accession of George 1. ? Contmued Sufferings of the Colonies of Massacliusetts and New Hampshire ; Peace concluded with the Indians at Boston. . . ' 200 X. WAR OF GEORGE II. War between England and France, 1744 ; French take Casco ; Effect of this Declaration of War upon the Indians; Attack upon the Great Meadows (now Putney); also, upon Ashuelot (now Keene); Expedition against Louisburg; Particulars of ,t; Surrender of it; Continuance of the War; \anous p aces assaulted; Savage Barbarities followmg the surrender of Fort Massachu- setts ; Peace declared, ... 208 XI. FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. Declaration of War between England and France; Causes of the War; Mode of conducting if Various Expeditiotis planned; Nova Scotia taken from the French; General Braddock's Signal ^^t'Ifrr°f'r"" T""' ^'"^"^ """^ ^"■' Frontenac; Expedition against Crown Point, Battle of Lake George; Campaign of 1756; IneflSciency of Lord Loudon; Loss of Fort; Oswego ; hidian Atrocities in Pe.msylvania ; Campaign of 1757 ; Massacre at Fort Willian. Henry • Exploits ot Colonel Trye; Captain John Burke and others ; Campaign of 1758 ; Capture of Louis- burg; Unsuccessful Expedition against Ticonderoga; Capture of Fort Frontenac ; FortduQuesne taken; Canipaign of 1759; Ticonderoga and Crown Point taken; Niagara captured; Siege and Capture of Quebec; Death of Wolfe and Montcalm; Fmal Surrender of the French Possessions in Canada to the Enghsh ; Peace of Paris, . . . ooo^=ioiii> 214 IV. — REVOLUTION. I. CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION. Objects proposed in the Settlement of America ; Forms of Government conducive to Independence • Influence of Expenses ; Colonies obliged to defend themselves, and to defray the Expenses of theii^ own Wars and those of the Mother-country; British system of Taxation conmienced- Writs of Assistance; Stamp Act; Formidable Opposition to it; Non-importation Act; Arrival'of British Forces; Boston Massacre; Destruction of the Gaspee ; Destruction of Tea- Boston Port Bill - Arrival of General Gage ; Ws Obnoxious Measures ; Meeting of Congress ; Preparations for War ■ Obstinacyof the Kmg and Parhament; Crisis arrives ; Determmation of the Colonists, . . . ! 238 II. EVENTS OF THE REVOLUTION. I. BaJlh of Lexniffton—Canse or Occasion of the Battle; British Detachment proceeds towards Concord ; Reaches Lexington ; First Blood shed ; Hancock and Adams ; Captain Wheeler and tire BntishOfticer; Stores destroyed ; the British hai-assed by the A mencai^; Retreat fomConcod Effect of this affair upon the Country; Proceedings of the JIassachusetts ProvmciLl C™„^ss ' 266 a. Baltle of Su„J:^r's mi-American Patriotism; American and British Forces; Fortifi'cation of Bm,ker's HiU; Attacked by British Ships; Asa Pollard, the First MartjT; Pr^o^ 0/ the CONTENTS. 7 PAGE British ; Warren ; Prescott's Injunction to his Troops ; British repnlsed with terrible slauifhter ; Second Attac^k ; Charlestown set on fire at the same time ; Second Repulse ; Putnam and Major Small ; Death of Colonel Gardiner ; Thrilling Incident ; Tliird Advance of the British ; Death of Major Pitcaim ; Aniencans in want of Ammunition ; Retreat ; Death of Warren ; Respective Losses ; Results of the Battle, 274 m. Washinglon, Commander-in-Chief. — Effects of the Battle of Bunker's Hill ; Meeting of Congress ; Appointment of a Coinmander-in-Cliief proposed; Difficulties in regard to a Selection ; Claims of Individuals ; Interview between Jolm and Samuel Adams ; Speech of the former ; Washington Nommated ; Unanimously Confinned ; Manifesto of Congress ; Pubhc Fast, 291 IV. Evacuation of Boston. — General Officers appomted ; Washington repairs to Cambridge; State of tlie Army ; Great Want of Gunpowder ; Sickness in the Camp ; Dorchester Heights fortified ; Proposal of the British General to attack the American Intrenchments ; Alters his plan, and evacuates Boston ; Embarkation of the British ; Waslungton enters the city 290 V. Indeimidence Declared. — Independence begun to be contemplated ; Causes which increased a desire for such an event ; Question of a Declaration of Independence enters the Colonial Assem- bUes ; Introduced to Congress by Richard Henry Lee ; Debated ; State of Parties in respect to it ; Measures adopted to secure a favorable vote ; Question taken, and Declaration adopted ; Signed ; the Great Act of the Revolution ; its Influence immediately perceptible ; Character of the Signers ; the Fourth of July, a time-honored and glorious day ; How it should be celebrated, 310 VI. Attack on Sttllivan's Island. — Invasion of Southern Colonies proposed ; Expedition dispatched ; Charleston its first Object ; Proceeduigs of its Citizens ; Sullivan's island Fortified ; Arrival of General Lee ; his Opinion of Fort Moultrie ; British Fleet arrives ; PreUniinary Movements ; Fort Moultrie attacked ; Remarkable Defence ; Action described ; Heroic Conduct of Sergeant Jasper ; Repulse of the British ; Respective Losses ; Liberahty of Governor Rutledge; Standards presented by Mrs. Elhot ; Death of Jasper 322 VII. Military Reverses : Loss of New York. — British take possession of Staten Island ; Strongly re- inforced; State of the American Anny; New York and Brooklyn occupied ; Battle of Brooklyn; Aniencans repulsed ; Long Island abandoned ; Remarkable retreat ; Gloomy State of the American Army ; Washington retreats to Harlem ; Movements of the British ; Wasliiiigton retires to Wliite Plains ; Loss of Fort Waslungton ; American Army pureued ; Retreats successively to New Bruns- wick, Princeton, and Trenton ; thence to the Pennsylvania side of the Delaware ; British go into Winter-quarters ; Capture of General Lee ; Prevalent Spirit of Despondency 338 Virt. Returning Prosperity: Battles of Trenton and. Princeton. — Reliance of the Patriots upon God for Success; PubUc Fast recommended by Congress; Offensive Operations decided upon ; Battle of Trenton; Washington victorious; Battle of Princeton; British repulsed; American Army at Alorristown ; British at Brunswick ; Prospects brightening, 344 DC Occupation of Philadelphia. — Position of the Armies ; British remove to New York ; Sail for the Chesapeake ; Advance towards Pliiladelphia ; American Army also move towards the same place ; Meet at Brandywine ; Battle ; Americans repulsed ; British enter Philadelphia ; Congress retire to Lancaster ; Battle of Germantown ; Americans retreat ; Ineffectual Attempts to force the British to evacuate Philadelphia 353 X. Surrender of Burgoyne. — British Project for securing the command of the Hudson between New York and Albany ; Intrusted to Generals Howe and Burgoyne ; the latter leaves Canada with a strong Force ; Invests and takes Crown Point and Ticonderoga ; Affair of Skenesborough ; Fort Edward abandoned ; Retreat of Americans to Stillwater ; Battle of Bennington ; General Gates supersedes General Schuyler ; Critical position of Burgoyne ; he advances upon Saratoga ; Battle ; Battle of Stillwater ; BurgojTie retreats, pursued by Gates ; Capitulates ; PubUc Rejoicings, . . . 360 XI. Progress of the War. — State of affairs in England ; Treaty with France ; Movements in the British Parliament ; Overtures to Congress ; Rejection of them ; Battle of Monmouth ; Disastrous Retreat of General Lee ; Fortunate Interposition of Washington ; his Rebuke of Lee ; Tremendous Battle; Sufferings of the Armies; Renewal of the Contest ; Midnight Retreat of the British army ; Subsequent Trial and Dismission of General Lee 378 Xn. Treacltery of Arnold. — The Vulture in the Hudson ; Midnight Adventure ; Benedict Arnold ; Repairs to Cambridge ; Expedition to Canada ; Created a Brigadier-general ; Grounds of Com- plaint ; Honorable Conduct in Connecticut ; Appointed to the command at Pliiladelpliia ; Charges preferred against him ; Reprimanded by Washington ; Plots agamst his Country ; Corraspondcnce with Sir H. Chnton ; Appointed to the command of West Point ; Interview with Andre ; Capture of Andre; Arrival of Washington; Escape of Arnold ; Developments of his Traitorous Intentions ; Trial and Condemnation of Andre ; Subsequent Incidents in tlie hfe of Arnold, 391 XIII. Conchuhnq Scenes of the Revolution. — Theatre of War changed to the South ; Siege of Savan- nah; Battle of Camden ; Battle of Cowpens ; Retreat; Subsequent Movements; Battles of Guil- ford, Kobkirk's Hill, Ninety-Six, and Eutaw Springs ; Yorktown ; Treaty of Peace ; Cessation of Hostilities; Army disbanded; Departure of the British ; Final Interview between Washington and his Officers ; Resigns his Commission ; ■ Retures to Mount Vernon 415 8 CONTENTS. PAGE. XIV. Naval Operatiom. — State of the Naval Affairs of the Colonies at the commencement of the Revolution ; First Naval Engagement ; Mcas\ires adopted by Congress to provide a Naval Arma- ment; Naval Officers appointed ; Vessels built ; Flag adopted; Success of American Privateering; Distinguished Naval Officers ; Character of Naval Commanders ; Particular Engagements : — Randolph and Yarmouth ; Raleigh and Druid ; Sub-marine Warfare , Le Bon Honmie Richard and Serapis ; Trumbull and Watt ; Alhance, Atalanta, and Trepassey ; Congress and Savage, . . 450 XV. Eminent Foreiyners connected with the Revolution. — George HI. King of England ; General Bur- goyne, Sir Henry Chnton, Colonel Barre, Charles Townshend, Lord Comwallis, Wilham Pitt, Mar- quis of Bute, George Grenville, Duke of Grafton, Lord North, Colonel Tarleton, Sir Peter Parker, Sir Wilham Meadows, Sir Guy Carlton, General Gage, Marquis ol Rockingham, Edmund Burke, Kosciusko, Pulaski, Baron de Kalb, Baron Steuben, Count Rocliambeau, Count D'Estaing, ... 488 v. — FEDERAL CONSTITUTION. Original Govenunents of the Colonies ; Union between them ; Plan proposed by Dr. Franklin ; First Congress ; Congress of '74 ; Confederation ; Defects of it ; Convention of States proposed by Vir- ginia ; Commissioners from five States meet at Annapohs ; Powers too limited to act ; Recommend a General Convention of States ; Delegates appointed ; Convention meets at Philadelphia ; Decides to form a new Constitution ; Draft prepared, discussed, and adopted ; Speech of Doctor Franklin ; Constitution signed ; Adopted by the several States ; Amendments ; States admitted since the adoption ; Remarks on the Constitution, ; 520 VI. — GEORGE WASHINGTON, PRESIDENT. A System of Revenue ; Regulation of Departments ; Amendments of the Constitution ; Estabhsh- ment of a Judiciary : Assumption of Debts ; Removal of the Seat of Government ; National Bank ; Indian War; Re-election of Washington ; Difficulties with France ; Insurrection in Pennsylvania ; Jay's Treaty ; Election of Mr. Adams ; Farewell Addiess 543 VII. — JOHN ADAMS, PRESIDENT. Difficulties with France ; Treaty with that Power ; Death of Washington ; Removal of the Seat of Government; Election of Mr. Jefferson, 571 VIII. — THOMAS JEFFERSON, PRESIDENT. Purchase of Louisiana ; War with Tripoh ; Murder of Hamilton ; Re-election of Jefferson; Conspi- racy and Trial of Burr ; Attack on the Chesapeake ; British Orders in Council ; Milan Decree ; Embargo ; Election of Mr. Madison ; Difficulties between France and England, 590 IX. — JAMES MADISON, PRESIDENT. Battle of Tippecanoe ; Early Session of Congress ; Declaration of W^ar ; Surrender of Hull ; Capture of the Gurriere ; Battle of Queenstown ; Capture of the Frohc ; of the Macedonian ; of the Java ; Battle of Frenchtown ; Capture of the Peacock ; Re-election of Mr. Madison ; Capture of York ; Siege of Fort Meigs ; Capture of the Argus ; Perry's Victory ; Battle of the Thames ; Creek War ; Battle of Chippewa and Bridgewater ; Capture of Wasliington City ; Engagement on Lake Cham- plain ; Battle of New Orleans ; Treaty of Ghent ; Close of Mr. Madison's Administration, . . .611 X. — JAMES MONROE, PRESIDENT. Tour of the President ; Admission of Missouri ; Provision for Indigent Officers, &c. ; Re-election of Mr. Monroe ; Seminole War ; Re\nsion of the Tai'iff ; Visit of Lafayette ; Review ot Mr. Monroe's Administration ; Election of Mr. Adams 656 XI. — JOHN QUINCY ADAMS, PRESIDENT. Controversy respecting the Creeks ; Proposed Mission to Panama ; Internal Improvements ; Fiftieth Aimiversary of Independence ; " American System ;" Election of General Jackson, 673 XII. — ANDREW JACKSON, PRESIDENT. Condition of the Country ; Georgia and the Cherokees ; Public Lands ; National Bank ; Internal Improvements ; Indian Hostilities ; Discontents in South Carolina ; Re-election of Andrew Jack- son ; Removal of tlie Deposites ; Death of Lafayette ; Deposite Act ; Seminole War ; Treasury Cucular ; Election of Mr. Van Buren ; Character of Jackson's Administration, 683 XIII. — MARTIN VAN BUREN, PRESIDENT. Measures respecting Banks ; Treasury Circular ; Continuance of Florida War ; Internal Improve- ments; Pubhc Expenses; Difficulties in Maine; Bolder Troubles; Changes of Pubhc Opmion ; Character of the Administration ; Election of Wilham H. Harrison, 701 XIV.— WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON, PRESIDENT, . 713 XV. — JOHN TYLER, PRESIDENT. Extra Session of Congi'ess ; Relations ■mth Great Britain ; Settlement of the North-eastern Bound- ary; Difficulties m Rhode Island ; Modification of the Tariff ; Biinlier's Hill Monument ; Treaties; Aimexation of Texas ; Presidential Canvass ; Chai'acter of Mr. Tyler's Adimnistration 716 CONTENTS. XVI. — JAMES K. POLK, PRESIDENT. page. Decease of General Jackson ; Admission of Texas; Division of Oregon; Mexican War; Siege of Fort Brown ; Battle of Palo Alto ; Battle of Resaca de la Palma ; Fall of Monterey ; Battle of Buena Vista; Capture of Vera Cruz ; Cerro Gordo; Progress of the Army ; Occupation of Mexico ; Treaty ; California and its Gold ; Election of General Taylor, 725 XVII. — ZACH ARY TAYLOR, PRESIDENT 755 BRITISH AMERICA, 757 I. CANADA. Discovery ; Settlement ; Capture of Quebec ; Death of Champlain ; Rehgious Enterprises ; War made by the Iroquois ; Accessions to the Colony ; Progress of the Colony ; Attempts of the English to Conquer Canada ; Condition of Canada in 1721 and 1722 ; General Prosperity of the Colony ; Refusal to join in the War of American Independence ; Consequences of American Independence to Canada ; Territorial Divisions and Constitution ; Dissensions after the close of the War of 1812 ; Disturbances and Insurrections, 759 II. NOVA SCOTIA. Limits; Conquest by the English ; Settlement; Annexation to the British Crown ; Policy of England in relation to the Country; Situation of the English Settlers ; English Treatment of the Acadians ; Slate of the Province during the Wars of the United States ; Results of the War of 1812, ... 781 III. NEW BRUNSWICK. Extent ; Physical Aspect and Soil ; Settlement and Progress ; Signal Calamity 787 IV. PRINCE Edward's island. Location, Surface, and CUmate ; Early Settlers ; Change of Possession ; Plans of Colonization ; Character of late Governors ; Inhabitants, 790 V. NEWFOUNDLAND. Location and Importance; Discovery and Settlement; French Hostihties; Renewal of War; Cliange of Administration ; Present Condition , 793 VI. Hudson's bay territory. Extent ; Discovery ; Settlement ; Contests with France ; Present State 797 RUSSIAN AMERICA, 80o MEXICO. Discovery ; Condition, anterior to the Spanish Conquest ; Invasion by Cortez ; Arrival of Cortez in the Mexican Capital ; Abdication of Montezuma ; Retreat of Cortez, and Return ; Fall of the City and Empire ; Fate of Cortez ; Extent of New Spain ; Introduction of the Catholic Religion ; Native Spanish Population, under the Colonial Government ; Classes of the Inhabitants ; Causes of the First Mexican Revolution; Commencement of the Revolution; Continuation of the War by the Patriot Chiefs ; Decline of the Revolution ; Invasion by Mina ; Revolution under Iturbiile ; Adoption of the Federal Constitution ; Prospenty of the years 1825 and 1826; Election of President in 1828; Usurpation of Bustamente ; Defence of the Federal Constitution; Santa Anna's Prtweed- ings ; Establishment of a Central Republic ; Attempts against the Central Government; Revolu- tion of 1811 ; Overthrow of Santa Anna's Govermnent, 802 GUATEMALA. Locality; Extent; Physical Character ; Discovery and Conquest ; Independence of the Country, . . 830 SOUTH AMERICA, I. NEW GRENADA. Extent and Physical Features ; Revolution of 1811 ; Formation of a Constitution ; Liberation of Quito ; Crisis of 1828 ; Separation of New Grenada, Venezuela, and Equator ; State of the Gov- ernment since the Separation, 833 II. VENEZUELA. Name. Physical Features, &c.; Discovery; State of the Country under the Spanish Dominion; Termination of the Spanish Dominion ; Condition since 837 10 CONTENTS, III. EQUATOR. PAGE. Name, Extent, and Physical Character ; Classes of the Inhabitants ; Subversion of the Spanish Authority ; Condition since the Spamsh Rule 841 IV. PERU. Locahty, Extent, and Physical Character ; Condition at the time of its Invasion by the Spaniards ; Conquest by Pizarro ; Condition of the Country after the Conquest ; Insurrection ; Revolutionary Movement ; Declaration of Independence ; Condition after the Expulsion of the Spaniards, . . . &t5 V. BOLIVIA. Name, Extent, and Physical Character ; Overthrow of the Spanish Power ; Proclamation of Inde- pendence ; Choice of Rulers under tlie New Constitution ; Present Condition, 855 VI. CHILI. Extent, Physical Features, and Climate ; Conquest by Almagro ; Revolution in the beginning of the Present Century ; Final Establishment of Independence ; Subsequent Condition, 858 VII. BUENOS AYRES. Name, . . Virginia, .... January 2, 1794, > Secretaries of State. Pennsylvania, . . . December 10, 1795 > . New York, . . . Connecticut, , Massachusetts, , Pennsylvania, . . Maryland, . . leCa,"' ni' \ ^--taries of Treasury. September 12, 1789, > January 2, 1795, ( Secretaries of War. January 27, 1796, ) September 26, 1789,^ November 7, 1791, > Postmasters General. February 25, 1795, > September 26, 1789, i January 27, 1794, \ Attorneys General. December 10, 1795) First Congress, . . 1789. Second do. . 1791. Third do. . 1793. Fourth do. . 1795. SPEAKERS OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. Frederick A. Muhlenberg, . . Pennsylvania, Jonathan Trumbull, . . . . Connecticut, . Frederick A. Mulilenberg, . . Pennsylvama, Jonathan Dayton, New Jersey, To the traveller whose lot has led him to traverse inhospit- able deserts — encounter fierce storms, and stem angry floods A M E R I CA N HISTORY. 543 — it is delightful, at length, to enter a region where such obstacles no longer impede his progress — where he breathes with freedom — where he pauses to repose and refresh him- self, without the anticipation of similar immediate toil and fatigue. It may not, indeed, be the end of his journey — and he may not know with certainty the future issue of that journey ; but the aspect is less forbidding — the prospect is even inviting — and he passes on, animated with the hope of still better things to come. Some such change we realize at the point at which we have arrived, in following down the great events of Ameri- can history. Casting an eye upon the scenes of the past, little besides toil, agitation, and conflict, are to be seen. The Pilgrim Fathers land on these western sliores. Immediately, a wide-spread wilderness is before them, and the task of clearing it is begun ; savage foes — subtle, secret, and sanguinary — prowl about their habitations, and for years agitate and distress them. The mother-country becomes involved in continental wars — America is the theatre of the contest, and American soldiers must fight her battles. But, like the palm-tree, the colonists rise under the burdens imposed on them. As they prosper and expand, England becomes jealous, and bears herself lordly towards ' them, in measures of oppression — in prohibitions and exac- tions. War ensues — a long and exhausting war ; their fields lie neglected; their cities are captured; their families are impoverished, and their sons are slain; but they conquer, and are free. But, as a nation, they have no sufficient bond of union — no efficient government to guide their future des- tiny in safety. National and state debts rest as an incubus upon their efforts, and no adequate power exists by which to provide for their liquidation. A convention meets: different plans are proposed — different constitutions are discussed. Obstacles to the adoption of any arise, which appear insurmountable, and the convention is on the eve of dissolving — leaving the problem still unsolved, whether human wisdom is adequate to devise a constitution which 544 GREAT EVENTS OF shall harmonize the conflicting interests of thirteen free and independent states. Once more Providence rallies to our aid — moving upon untractable spirits, as in days of yore the spirit had moved upon the troubled v^^aters, and now, as then, there "is a calm." Deliberations are resumed — asperities M^ear aw^ay — har- mony succeeds — the final vote is taken — a constitution is adopted, and sent abroad among the people of the states. But again the vv^aters become tumultuous — angry conflict is waged in almost every state-house in the land — hundreds and thousands lift up their voices against this constitution, and refuse to sanction it — ill-boding doubts swell up like clouds gathering from the sea, and for a time exclude all hope of a constitutional ratification. But another becalming influence from on high moves upon the mental mass ; jarring strifes are suspended — angry discord ceases — harmonious action succeeds — the constitu- tion is ratified, and George Washington is elected president of the United States ! On the ratification of the constitution, the attention of the people was at once directed to General Washington, as the first president of the United States. Communications, expressive of this general desire, were made to him. "We cannot," said Mr. Johnson, of Maryland, "do without you, and I and thousands more can explain to any body but yourself, why we cannot do without you." "I have ever thought," said Governeur Morris, "and have said, that you must be president; no other man can fill that office." In a letter on the subject, addressed to Washington by Colonel Hamilton, the latter said, "You will permit me to say, that it is indispensable you should lend yourself to its [the gov- ernment's] first operations." Washington had serious objections to becoming a candi- date. He sincerely wished for retirement. "It is my great and sole desire" — so he expressed himself to a friend, who had written him — "to live and die in peace and retirement on my own farm." AMERICAN HISTORY. 545 But the voice of the nation demanded a further sacrifice from the noble and disinterested patriot. He alone was believed to fill so preeminent a station in public opinion, that he might be placed at the head of the nation without exciting envy. He alone possessed the requisite confidence of the nation. By the constitution, the new government was to com- mence its operations on the 4th of March, 1789; but a quorum of representatives did not appear till the 1st, nor of senators till Monday, the 6th day of April. On this latter day, the president of the senate, elected for the purpose of counting the votes, declared to the senate, that the senate and house of representatives had met, and that he, in their presence, had opened and counted the votes for the electors for president and vice-president of the United States; whereby it appeared that George Washington was unanimously elected president. The following table exhibits the votes of the several electoral colleges: ELECTORAL VOTES FOR PRESIDENT AND VICE-PRESIDENT. ELECTION FOR THE FIRST TERM, COMMENCING MARCH 4, 1789, AND TERMINATING MARCH 3, 1793. e SB STATES New Hampshire, Massachusetts, . Connecticut, . New Jersej;, . . Pennsylvania, . Delaware, . . . Marj'land, . . Virginia, . . . South Carolina, Georgia, . . . S S3 Whole No. of electors, . Majority, .... 35 Whereupon, a certificate and letter— the one prepared by a committee of the senate, the other by its president — were communicated to General Washington, setting forth his election, and expressing the cordial wish, that so aus- 35 546 GREAT EVENTS OF picious a mark of public confidence would meet his approbation. This certificate and letter were received by Washington, at Mount Vernon, on the 4th of April. He doubtless appre- ciated the honor done him, and was grateful to the people for the confidence reposed in him; but he would have declined the office, had the convictions of duty allowed. That, however, was not permitted; and, yielding to the wishes of the nation, he took leave of Mount Vernon on the second day after receiving notice of his appointment, and proceeded to New York, at that time the seat of govern- ment — "bidding adieu," as he wrote in his diary, "to private life and domestic felicity; and, with a mind oppressed with more anxious and painful sensations than I have words to express." The state of the public business required his immediate presence at the seat of government; but the desire to see the first president of the United States — the zeal and enthu- siasm which were kindled up along the whole route he was lo take, rendered it impossible to proceed with haste. Crowds flocked around him, wherever he stopped; and corps of militia, and companies of the most respectable citizens, escorted him through their respective streets. On reaching New York, April 23d, he was received with due ceremony by the governor of that state, and conducted with military honors through an immense concourse of peo- ple, to the apartments provided for him. Here he received the salutations of foreign ministers, public bodies, political characters, and private citizens of distinction, who pressed around him to offer their congratulations, and to express their joy at seeing the man, who had the confidence of all, at the head of the American republic. On Thursday, the 30th of April, the new president was inaugurated. The oath of office was administered by the chancellor of the state of New York, in the presence of the senate and house of representatives, and an immense concourse of people, who attested their joy by loud and 548 GREAT EVENTS OF repeated acclamations. From the open gallery adjoining ihe senate-chamber, which had been the scene of this new but imposing scene, the assembly returned to the senate- chamber, where the president delivered an inaugural address; in which, after alluding to the "anxieties" occa- sioned by his election to the chief magistracy, and the fond hope he had indulged of spending the remainder of his days in the "retreat" to which he had retired, after years of military toil and strife, he proceeded in terms alike hon- orable to himself as a Christian and a patriot: "It would be peculiarly improper to omit, in this first official act, my fervent supplications to that Almighty Being who rules over the universe — who presides in the councils of nations — and whose providential aids can supply every human defect, that his benediction may consecrate to the liberties and happiness of the people of the United States, a govern- ment instituted by themselves for these essential purposes: and may enable every instrument employed in its adminis- tration to execute, with success, the functions allotted to his charge. In tendering this homage to the Great Author of every public and private good, I assure myself that it expresses your sentiments not less than my own; nor those of my fellow-citizens at large, less than either. No people can be bound to acknowledge and adore the invisible hand which conducts the affiiirs of men, more than the people of the United States. Every step by which they have advanced to the character of an independent nation, seems to have been distinguished by some token of providential agency; and in the important revolution just accomplished in the system of their united government, the tranquil deliberations, and voluntary consent of so many distinct communities, from which the event has resulted, cannot be compared with the means by which most governments have been established, without some return of pious grati- tude, along with an humble anticipation of the future bless- ings which the past seem to presage. These reflections, arising out of the present crisis, have forced themselves AMERICAN HISTORY. 549 too Strongly on my mind to be suppressed. You will join with me, I trust, in thinking that there are none, under the influence of which the proceedings of a new and free gov- ernment can more auspiciously commence." Such were the sentiments of the patriot — the sao-e — the Christian statesman, as he was about to enter upon the duties of an office, upon the faithful or unfliithful discharge of which, was to depend the perpetuity or speedy annihila- tion of a constitution of government, which had cost thou- sands of lives and millions of revenue — besides involvinof the happiness of unborn millions. Washington had sur- veyed the wide field of responsibility. He came to the high and sacred office reluctantly indeed, but in reliance upon that Divine arm which had been his stay in the dark and stormy days of the Revolution. Having put his hand to the plough, he was not the man to look back. Having passed the Rubicon, his march was forward. Immediately following the delivery of the above address, the president, with the members of both houses, attended divine service at St. Paul's chapel. Thus did Washington, and thus did the national assembly, commence the government with a devout recognition of its dependence upon Divine Provi- dence for success. Happy for the country, if the same spirit of piety, and the same acknowledgments to the Divine Author of all good, had descended to after years. The acts and events which signalized the administration of Washington relate to — A System of Revenue. Indian War. Regulation of Departments. Reelection of Washington. Amendments of the Constitution. Difficulties with France. Establishment of a Judiciary. Insurrection in Pennsylvania. Assumption of Debts. Jay's Treaty. Removal of the Seat of Government. Election of Mr. Adams. National Bank. Farewell Address. System of Revenue. — The first duty, under the federal constitution, to which congress was called, was to provide a revenue for the support of the government. For this 550 GREAT EVENTS OF purpose duties were laid on imported merchandize and on the tonnage of vessels; thus drawing into the national treasury funds, which had before been collected and appro- priated by the individual states. To counteract the com- mercial regulations of foreign nations, and encourage American shipping, higher tonnage duties were imposed on foreign than on American vessels, and ten per cent, less duty on goods imported in vessels belonging to the citizens of the United States than the same goods brought in those owned by foreigners. Regulation of Departments. — Three executive depart- ments were created, designed to aid the president in the management of the government. These were styled departments of war, of foreign affairs, and of the treasury. The heads of these departments were to be called secretaries, and to receive a salary of three thousand five hundred dollars. They were intended to constitute a council, to be consulted by the president at his pleasure; and their opinions, on all important questions, he was authorized to require in writing. In framing the acts establishing these departments, a question arose of serious magnitude, viz: "In what manner, and by whom, these important officers could be removed from office?" The constitution was explicit in regard to their appointment, giving the power of nominating to the president, and that of confirming or rejecting the nomina- tion to the senate ; but it was silent as to removal. Some few maintained that they could be removed only by impeachment; but the principal question was, "whether they were removable by the president alone, or by the president with the concurrence of the senate?" The debate on this question was long and animated. It was claimed, by one portion of the members, that as the senate had a voice in the appointment of these officers, they should have a voice in case of their removal; that such power entrusted to one man might be abused — if not b}- Washington, by some of his successors. AMERICAN HISTORY. 551 On the other hand, it was contended that, as it was made the duty of the president to see the laws faithfully executed, he ought to have the power of dismissing those agents who were unfaithful; otherwise, how, in many supposable cases, could he secure a faithful execution of the laws? It was further urged, that the mal-conduct of an officer might require his immediate dismission, before the senate — a body scattered over the states — could be convened. True, the power might be abused, and, in the hands of an ambitious man, perhaps would be; but such abuse would, in due time, be rebuked by the people, and the abuser of this delegated power, be displaced with dishonor. "The danger," said Mr. Madison, "consists in this: the president can displace from office a man whose merits require that he should be continued in it. What will be the motives which the presi- dent can feel for such abuse of his power, and tlie restraints to operate to prevent it? In the first place, he will be impeachable by this house, before the senate, for such an act of mal-administration; for I contend, that the wanton removal of meritorious officers, would subject him to impeachment, and removal from his own high trust." The difference of opinion on this great question, gave rise to warm and protracted debates. A majority of both houses, however, at length decided, that the power of removal is in the president alone. Several who had been members of the convention which framed the constitution, were, at this time, members of the house of representatives. Tliey were equally divided on the question — Mr. Madison and Mr. Baldwin, supporting the construction finally adopted by congress: Mr. Hamilton and Mr. Gerry, opposing it. Amendments of the Constitution. — The states of New York and Virginia, although they ratified the constitution, were solicitous to have certain amendments adopted, which, in separate memorials, they presented to congress, and urged that body to call another convention for their adop- tion. Congress, however, had no authority to call a con- 552 GREAT EVENTS OF vention. Mr. Madison submitted to the house several amendments, which, together with those presented by- several of the states, were referred to a committee, con- sisting of one member from each state. This committee, at length, reported several amendments; twelve of which, after various alterations, were agreed to by both branches of congress, and sent to the states. These amendments related to religion — keeping or bearing arms in time of war — quartering soldiers, citizens, &c., &c. Ten of these articles were at length ratified by the state legislatures, and became a part of the constitution. Establishment of a Judiciary. — "A national judiciary was also established during this session, consisting of a supreme court, circuit, and district courts. The bill for carrying this part of the constitution into effect, originated in the senate, and was drawn up by a committee, of which Mr. Ellsworth was chairman. The district courts were to consist of one judge in each state. The states were divided into circuits, in each of which, one of the judges of the supreme court, and the district judge of the state in which the court was held, constituted the circuit courts. In certain cases, this court had original jurisdiction, and also took cognizance of appeals from the district courts. The supreme court was composed of a chief justice and five associate judges, and was to hold two sessions annually, at the seat of government. This court had exclusive jurisdic- tion in certain cases, and appellative jurisdiction from the circuit courts, and also from the state courts, in cases where the validity of treaties, and the laws of the United States were drawn in question. This organization of the federal judiciary, has remained nearly the same to the present time, except for a short period, when a different system, relative to the circuit courts, was established, but which was soon abolished, and the old system restored."* John Jay was appointed chief justice; John Rutledge, James Wilson, Wil- * Pitkin. AMERICAN HISTORY. 553 liam Gushing, Robert H. Harrison, and John Blair, associate judges of the supreme court, and Edmund Randolph, attor- ney general.* * Never did a magistrate exercise power entrusted to him, with stricter fidelity than Washington. In respect to appointments to and removals from office, no man could be more conscientious. Private friendship exerted no influence, where the public good could not be subserved. A lofty patriotism swayed him. Even the enemies of Washington — they were never many — but the few who, at length, opposed the measures of his administration, had no occasion to cen- sure him for conferring office on men whose only claim was friendship, or political affinity to the president. The following anecdote will serve to illustrate the integrity of the first chief magistrate of the union — happy had it been for the country, and for the honor and reputation of some of his successors in that exalted office, had they followed, in this respect, the " footsteps of an illustrious predecessor."' " During his administration, an application was made to him by a gentleman who had been the friend and companion of the general throughout the whole course of the Revolutionary war, during which he had received, on various occasions, indubitable marks of his kindness and partiality. He had become, in the estimation, if not of himself, of his friends, in a degree necessary to the happiness of Washington, and had therefore, in their opinion, only to apply for the office, to receive it. It was a boon, which, while it would ensure compe- tency and ease to a friend, would bring that friend into frequent intercourse with his patron and former associate in arms. "For the same office, however, there was a competitor; but as he was decidedly hostile to the politics of Washington, and had made himself conspic- uous among the opposers of his administration, no serious apprehensions were felt from this quarter. Towards such a man — a well-known political enemy — Washington surely could feel under no obligations, and was not likely to prefer such a one to a personal friend and favorite. Every one acquainted with the pretensions of the two applicants, was at no loss to judge as to the president's decision, and the concurrent opinion was in favor of the friend and against his competitor. "Judge, then, the general surprise, when it was announced that the political opponent of Washington was appointed and the former associate of the general in the toils and deprivations of the camp, was left destitute and dejected. " When his decision was known, a mutual friend, who interested himself in the affair, ventured to remonstrate with the president on the injustice of his appointment. ' My friend,' replied this illustrious man, 'I receive with a cordial welcome ; he is welcome to my house, and welcome to my heart; but, with all his good qualities, he is not a man of business. His opponent, with all his political hostility to me, is a man of business. My private feelings have nothing to do in the case ! I arn not George Washington, but president of the United States. As George Washington, I would do this man any kindness in my power; but as president of the United States, I can do nothing.'" 554 GREAT EVENTS OP Assumption of Debts. — The second session of the first con- gress began on the 6th of January, 1790. At the close of the preceding session, the secretary of the treasury had been directed to prepare a plan for providing for the adequate support of the public credit, and to report the same at the next meeting of congress. On the 15th, in obedience to the foregoing requisition, Mr. Hamilton sub- mitted his report. Having dwelt with great ability upon the importance of a nation mamtaining the public credit, he proposed, as the means of supporting that of the United States, a system of assuming or funding not only the public debt, but also the state debts, and of making provision for the payment of the interest by taxes imposed on certain articles of luxury, and on spirits distilled within the United States. The debates on this report were exciting beyond prece- dent. While not much difference existed as to funding the foreign debt, a strong opposition arose, on the part of the democratic party, against discharging, in full, the domestic debt, and the assumption of the state debts. The federalists advocated the measure. The contest between the two rival parties was strong, spirited, and even virulent. The very foundations of the government were shaken ; and a writer has justly remarked, that to the differences which were then created, and the excitement which sprung up during the debates, may be ascribed "the origin of that violent spirit which for years arrayed one part of the American community against the other." The division of sentiment among the members of congress in relation to the full, or only a partial payment of the domes- tic debt, arose from this. A considerable proportion of the original holders of public securities had been compelled to sell them at greatly reduced prices — even as low as two or three shillings on the pound. These securities had been purchased by speculators, with the expectation of ultimately j-eceiving the full amount. "The federalists were with Hamilton, in favor of making no difference between the present and original holders of the continental bills, main AMERICAN HISTORY. 555 taining that the government ought not to interfere with transfers. The repubUcan party advocated the discrimina- tion; contending that it was unjust to the veterans of the Revolution, who had been obHged to receive this paper in Heu of gold and silver, and were afterwards compelled to part with it at a small part of its nominal value, now to be condemned to poverty, while the speculator was receiving the reward of their blood and service." The assumption of the state debts was also violently opposed. The advocates of assumption claimed that the debts incurred by the state, were not for their own benefit, but for the promotion of the common cause, and that there- fore it was right that the whole nation should be responsible. The debts of the states most active in the war, were the greatest : those of Massachusetts and Carolina amounted to ten millions and a half, while those of all the other states were not more than fifteen millions. Was it just to impose such a burden on the people of these two states? They had already been great sufferers in the privations they had endured and in the blood they had lost. On taking the vote in the house of representatives, these two plans of Mr. Hamilton were lost by a majority of two; and, for a season, there was little prospect that a just finan- cial system would be adopted, or that the respective parties could on any basis coalesce. But, fortunately, at this juncture, a question was exciting a deep interest, and with reference to which there was a wide difference, and deep feelings, between the northern and southern members, viz: The Removal of the Seat of Government. — The debates on this subject were almost as exciting as on the fiscal project of Hamilton. A compromise, however, was at length effected in regard to the permanent location of the seat of government — the more important, as it led to a fur- ther compromise in relation to the assumption of the state debts. It was understood that should the seat of government be fixed for ten years at Philadelphia, and afterwards at a 556 GREAT EVENTS OF place to be selected on the Potomac, some of the members of the house of representatives, from the Potomac, would withdraw their opposition to Mr. Hamilton. This was accordingly done, and his plans were adopted. The debt funded amounted to a little more than seventy-five millions of dollars, upon a part of which an interest of three per cent, was paid, and upon the remainder six per cent. National Bank. — During the third session of congress, Mr. Hamilton recommended the establishment of a national bank. To such an institution, the republican party were bitterly opposed, as aristocratical and unconstitutional. Besides, they considered banking institutions useless; the present bill, in several particulars, defective; but, more than all, it was maintained that the constitution had not vested the power in congress to charter a bank. The supporters of the measure, of course, held opposite doctrines, and were not less strenuous in maintaining them. The bill, however, at length passed both branches of the national legislature; but the different opinions entertained, and the asperity with which they had been expressed, led the president to give to the subject, as a constitutional question, more than ordinary attention. To aid him in his decision, he required opinions of his cabinet in writing. Mr. Jefferson and Mr. Randolph opposed — Mr. Hamilton and General Knox sanctioned the bill. After mature deliberation, the president became satis- fied of the constitutionality and utility of the bill ; upon which, he gave it his signature. "The capital stock of the bank was ten millions of dollars, two millions to be subscribed for the benefit of the United States, and the residue by individuals. One-fourth of the sums subscribed by individuals was to be paid in gold and silver, and three-fourths in the public debt. By the act of incorporation, it was to be a bank of discount as well as deposit; and its bills, which were payable in gold and silver on demand, were made receivable in all payments to the United States. The bank was located at Philadelphia, with AMERICAN HISTORY. 557 power in the directors to establish offices of discount and deposit only wherever they should think fit within the United States. "The duration of the charter was limited to the 4th of May, 1811; and the faith of the United States was pledged that, during that period, no other bank should be established under their authority. One of the fundamental articles of the incorporation was, that no loan should be made to the United States for more than one hundred thousand dollars; or to any particular state for more than fifty thousand ; or to any foreign prince or state, unless previously authorized by a law of the United States. The books were opened for subscription in July, 1791, and a much larger sum sub- scribed than was allowed by the charter; and the bank went into successful operation.* The establishment of a national bank, in connexion with the assumption of the state debts, contributed to the more complete organization of two great parties, which had their origin in difference of views regarding the constitution at the time of its adoption. Mr. Hamilton and Mr. Jefferson, both eminent for their talents, and each with his adherents, were now openly opposed on points which, as matters of policy, were deemed of vital importance. The former was viewed, not only as the author of the funding system, the bank, and other mea- sures, deemed either unconstitutional, or highly injurious to the public interest, but was charged with hostility to repub- lican principles and to state rights. Mr. Jefferson, on the other hand, was considered hostile to the constitution, and was accused of being opposed to the administration of which he was a member, and of taking measures to reduce the powers of the general government within too narrow limits. To Washington, this determined hostility of his two principal secretaries was truly afflicting; and the more so, when he found it so deep-rooted, as in no degree to yield to his affectionate remonstrance. * Pitkin. 558 G R EAT EVENTS OF Indian War. — While the public councils were engaged thus in matters of great national importance, the hostile movements of the Indian tribes on the frontier began to excite the anxious solicitude of all reflecting minds, espe- cially that of Washington himself. The Creeks at the South had been at war with Georgia; but in 1790, their chief, M'Gillivray, the son of a white man, had been induced to go to New York, and conclude a treaty. This terminated the war in that quarter; but pacific arrangements, which had been attempted by the president with the tribes on the north-western frontier, had proved ineffectual. The use of other means for their pacification, therefore, became indis- pensably necessary. In 1790, congress, at the solicitation of Washington, authorized the raising of about fifteen hundred men, of whom three hundred were regulars, and the remainder Pennsylvania and Kentucky militia. The command of these was given to General Harmar, a veteran officer of the Revolution, whose instructions required him to pene- trate to the Indian settlements on the Scioto and Wabash, and destroy them. In the execution of his commission, in October, General Harmar detached Colonel Harden with six hundred militia to reconnoitre the Indian settlements, and, if possible, to bring them to an engagement ; but the Indians, on the approach of the Americans, fired their principal villages, and fled to the woods. Thus foiled in his attempt to bring the Indians to action, Colonel Harden was a second time directed, with one hundred and eighty militia and thirty regulars, to spy out the position and intentions of the foe. Ten miles west of Chillicothe, sight was obtained of a con- siderable body of Indians; at which, the Kentucky militia suddenly became so alarmed as to flee. This evil example was soon after followed by the Pennsylvanians — thus leav- ing the thirty regulars to sustain an engagement with a greatly superior force. They displayed the greatest hero- ism; and maintained the action, until all but seven being AMERICAN HISTORY. 559 overpowered, the latter effected their escape, and rejoined the army at Chillicothe. The Indian settlements bordering on the Scioto were now destroyed; which having been accomplished, Colonel Harden was a third time detached with three hundred and sixty men, of whom sixty were regulars, under command of Major Wyllys. This force was attacked by a large body of Indians at the junction of the St. Joseph with the St. Mary. It was a most desperate contest. Here the militia retrieved their character; nor did they attempt to retreat till one hundred and nine men and officers lay dead on the field. Of the sixty regulars, only ten survived, and among the killed was their brave commander, Major Wyllys. Fol- lowing this reverse, the survivors of the detachments joined the army, and retired to Fort Washington. On the failure of General Harmar, Major General Arthur St. Clair, governor of the North-west territory, was appointed to succeed him. In 1791, at the head of two thousand men, the latter entered upon an expedition which had for its object the destruction of the Indian vil- lages on the Miami. On the 3d of November, the army had proceeded within twelve or fifteen miles of the Indian villages, at which point the General formed his forces in two lines — the first, under command of General Butler, composed the right wing, and lay with a creek immediately in front of them. The left wnng, under command of Colo- nel Drake, formed the second, and lay with an interval of some seventy yards between them and the first line. The militia occupied a post across the creek, a quarter of a mile in front. On the following day, before sunrise, just after the troops had been dismissed from the parade, an unexpected attack was made on the militia, who fled in the utmost confusion, and, in their flight, deranged the continental troops, who were in the act of forming. The officers exerted them- selves to the utmost to restore order; but were not entirely successful. The Indians fell upon them with savage impet- 560 GREAT EVENTS OF uosity. The action instantly became extremely warm. The continental troops fought with spirit and determina- tion; the Indians, with fearful desperation, advancing to the very mouth of the field-pieces. At length, perceiving that the only hope of victory lay in the use of the bayonet, an impetuous charge was made under Lieutenant-colonel Drake, and the enemy driven several hundred yards. But not being able to pursue the advan- tage gained, the Indians turned, and renewed the attack. Meanwhile, General Butler was mortally wounded, and the right wing broken, the artillerists killed, the guns seized, and the camp penetrated by the enemy. At this critical moment. Major Drake was ordered to charge with the bay- onet. This order he executed with great intrepidity and momentary success. But the American troops, failing to keep their ranks, and flocking together in crowds, were, in several cases, shot down with but feeble resistance. At length, perceiving that his officers had suffered greatly, and the remnant of his army became more and more confused. General St. Clair ordered a retreat. For some miles, the Indians followed; but, fortunately for the surviving Americans, they at length turned back, to plunder the camp of such articles as the former had been obliged to abandon. The routed troops now continued their flight to Fort Jefferson, a distance of about thirty miles, throwing away their arms on the road. At this place, leaving their wounded, the army continued its retreat to Fort Washington. The loss of the Americans was severe, amounting to thirty-eight commissioned officers killed, and five hundred and ninety-three non-commissioned officers and privates slain and missing. The wounded amounted to between two and three hundred officers and men, many of whom subsequently died. The loss of the Indians bore no com- parison, it is thought, to that of the Americans. This reverse was as unexpected as unfortunate; yet want of neither ability, zeal, nor intrepidity was ascribed to the AMERICAN HISTORY. 561 commander of the expedition, by a committee of congress, appointed to examine into the causes of its failure. The subsequent history of this war is brief. In conse- quence of an anticipated adjustment of existing difficulties with the Indians, they having consented to a conference in the spring of 1794, hostilities were for a time suspended. But the proposed negotiations failing, General Wayne, with nearly one thousand men, was sent into their country, to reduce them to subjection. He engaged them in a san- guinary battle on the 20th of August, 1794, on the banks of the Miami, which resulted in their utter rout, and which was followed by laying waste their whole country. By means^ of this victory over the Miamies, a general Indian war was doubtless prevented. On the 3d of August, a treaty was concluded at Greenville, which established peace between the United States and the Indian tribes, and restored peace and tranquillity to the frontier settlements. Reelection of 'Washington. — During the year 1792, as the time approached for the election of a chief magistrate, General Washington expressed his intention, to some of his most intimate friends, to decline a reelection. His age and increasing infirmities rendered his retirement from the cares of political life most desirable. In view of such retirement, he had prepared a farewell address to the peo- ple. But, through the persuasion of Jefferson, Hamilton, Randolph, and others, he was induced to forego his private wishes, and was unanimously reelected to the presidency. No such unanimity has since been manifested by the people of the United States, in relation to the choice of a chief magistrate ; nor is such unanimity likely again to exist. And most conclusively does it show, not merely the gratitude of the nation to the man who had stood foremost in times ol peril, but its deep and universal sense of the purity of his patriotism and the worth of his skill in moulding and shaping the government still in its infancy. Such harmony was alike honorable to the nation and to Washington. 36 562 GREAT EVENTS OF Mr. Adams was reelected vice-president. The following >s a statement of the votes of the several electoral colleges: D CO ^1 STATES. -5 M o >-. o ^ O ^«. V O sS.f . O 6 16 4 9 3 12 7 15 3 8 21 4 12 8 4 132 New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, Vermont, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia Kentucky, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Whole No. of electors, . . Majority, 67 132 77 Difficulties with France. — The reelection of Washington may be justly considered as among the most signal favors- conferred on the American people. A revolution in France was in progress, remarkable for the political changes it was affecting and the sanguinary scenes which marked it. Monarchy had been abolished, Louis XVI. had fallen by the guillotine, a republic had been proclaimed, and the national convention had made proclamation of war against England, Holland, and Spain. It was not unnatural that a people, who had themselves just thrown off the yoke, and were beginning to taste the sweets of liberty, as was the case with the Americans, should deeply sympathize with a nation which was engaged in a similar struggle for independence. From the com- mencement of the French Revolution, in 1789, not only the Americans, but the friends of liberty throughout the world, AMERICAN HISTORY. 563 were full of hope that the political condition of France might thereby be improved. And as that revolution pro- gressed, the interest deepened; and when, at length, the Republic was proclaimed, "the affection of the American nation to its ancient ally, became devotion." The enthu- siasm knew scarcely any bounds, and was frequently mani- fested in the most extravagant manner. Nor was it unnatural that the French people should look to America for her sympathy and aid, in so important an enterprise. They had, at a former period, helped her through her struggle for independence, and now, that they were embarked in a similar effort, could she withhold her cooperation and aid? They had reason to expect it, and were not long in adopting measures to secure it. The news of the declaration of war by Finance, against the powers already named, reached the United States in April, and with this intelligence arrived a new minister from the French republic, Mr. Genet. Both these circum- stances contributed to "increase to an extraordinary degree the excitement already existing in favor of France, and disposed a large portion of the nation to an actual coopera- tion with their ally against the enemy." Washington and his associates in power were friends to liberty, and were well-wishers to the cause of true freedom in France. But the Revolution was assuming a selfish and sanguinary character, which betokened any thing but the establishment of a free and enlightened constitutional gov- ernment. The most unbridled ambition for power was beginning to show itself, and reason and religion were apparently being deprived of their legitimate sway. In addition to this, the United States were in no situation to embark in angry conflict with Great Britain and other con- tinental powers. In such a conflict it was apparently the wish of France to involve the country, and, to a consid- erable portion of the American people — arising from their prejudices against Great Britain — such an event would not have been unacceptable. But Washington judged more 564 GREAT EVENTS OF wisely for the interests of the nation; and accordingly, on the 22d of April, issued his proclamation of neutrality. This neutral and pacific policy of the American govern- ment had, however, no apparent influence upon the new French minister. "Sanguine in his temperament, of uncon- trolled passions, excited to a degree of insanity by the new- born ideas which raged in France, possessed of the wildest dreams of national glory and aggrandizement — in a word, the very incarnation of Jacobinism, he was the fittest brand which the assembly could have selected to hurl into the magazine of political strife. His reception at Charleston, where he landed, was well fitted to encourage him. Public authorities, and private citizens, vied with each other in glorifying the representative of European democracy. On all sides he beheld the disposition he desired, and he did not delay in profiting by it. Vessels were at once fitted out and armed, men were enlisted, and commissions issued under her authority to cruise against the enemies of France." Similar demonstrations of regard were shown him in other places, as he proceeded towards Philadelphia, and the same arrogant and haughty spirit was manifested by him. Pursuing his design of involving the country in war, in despite of public executive prohibition, he issued commissions to capture, and to bring into American ports, the vessels belonging to countries with whom the French were at war. It is not necessary further to detail the conduct, nor the insolence of this infatuated man. Suffice it to add, that on the meeting of congress, December, 1793, the proclamation of neutrality was approved. Soon after, at the instance of Washington, Mr. Genet was recalled by the French govern- ment, which, at the same time, disapproved of his conduct. Insurrection in Pennsylvania. — The summer of 1794, was signalized by an insurrection in the western counties of Pennsylvania, commonly known as the "whiskey insur- rection." It had its origin in a dissatisfaction with a law AMERICAN HISTORY. 505 of congress, enacted in 1791, by which a duty was imposed upon spirits distilled in the United States. The inhabitants of that part of Pennsylvania were chiefly foreigners, and consequently were less disposed to submit to the taxation necessary to the support of government. Strong opposi- tion to the law was early manifested, and not a few outrages were committed upon the revenue officers while in the discharge of tlieir duty — such as "whipping, tarring, and branding." In consideration of these objections, in 1791-92, congress so modified the law, as to do away its most obnoxious features. But the law was now turned to party purposes, and the spirit of discontent was fostered and inflamed to an excessive degree. The consequence was, that outrages were renewed, and the wildest anarchy prevailed. In September, 1792, the president issued his proclamation against unlawful combinations, and legal measures were adopted against such as refused to pay the tax imposed, and also against the rioters. But these measures were of no practical effect. The president's message was disre- garded, and the violence and extent of the combination utterly prevented any enforcement of the law. The house of the collector of Fayette and Westmoreland, was, in November, 1793, entered at night by an armed party, and the officer forced, at the peril of his life, to surrender his commission and books. After many fruitless efflirts to appease the malcontents, the government decided that its officers should be protected, and the law, at all hazards, be sustained. Accordingly, in July, a number of writs were issued, and the marshal dis- patched to serve them. In the performance of this duty in Allegany county, he was fired upon. The following day, the house of the inspector. General Neville, in the neigh- borhood of Pittsburg, was assaulted — but the rioters were repulsed. On the 17th, the attack was renewed, and, though defended by a detachment from the garrison at Pittsburg, it was taken and burned. The marshal and inspector were 566 GREAT EVENTS OF obliged to flee for their lives. The effect of this transaction was electrical. The whole of western Pennsylvania was in a blaze. Ail order was at an end. All law was prostrate. It was now apparent that the interference of the general government would alone suffice to rule the storm. Neither the civil forces nor the local militia could be depended on. General Washington, therefore, on the 7th of August, m.ade a requisition upon the governor of Pennsylvania and the adjacent states for quotas of militia. Meanwhile, a procla- mation was issued to the insurgents to disperse, and a general amnesty promised on condition of a peaceable submission. These measures, however, had no effect. On the 25th of September, the army was ordered to proceed. On its approach, the principal leader fled. This removed the great obstacle to a pacification, and a general submission ensued on the arrival of the militia. Thus terminated a rebellion which, for a time, threatened the most disastrous consequences to the union. The enemies of the govern- ment were not unwilling that it should spread wider and wider; nor was foreign intrigue wanting to give it impulse. Through the forbearing policy of Washington, in the first instance, and his subsequent firm and decided measures, the insurrection was quelled. A number of arrests were made, and a few persons convicted. But all were at length pardoned. Jay's Treaty. — For some time, the relations subsisting between the United States and Great Britain had been far from amicable. The original difficulties arose from the non-execution of the treaty of peace — each nation charg- ing the other with the first infraction. The principal com- plaints were, on the one hand, the non-delivery of the ports held by the latter within the American lines, and the car- rying off" the slaves at the close of the war; on the other, the interposition, by the states, of legal impediments to the recovery of debts contracted before the war. Added to these sources of trouble. Great Britain was accused of AMERICAN HISTORY. 567 exciting the hostility of the Indians on our northern fron- tier, of impressing our seamen, and, still more recently, of capturing our neutral vessels, retaliatory upon France, which had set the example. For these reasons, a war between the United States and England was now a probable event. Nor were the friends of France slow in fanning the flame of discord. The latter, therefore, were greatly disappointed on learning that Great Britain had rescinded her orders in relation to the capture of neutral vessels. But it was a most fortunate circum- stance for the peace of the two countries. Immediatelji, Washington, perceiving that an opportunity was presented for a probable settlement of existing difficulties, on the 16th of April, nominated John Jay, then chief justice, as envoy extraordinary to the British court. On the 7th of March following, 1795, a treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation, concluded by Mr. Jay, arrived. On the 8th, it was submitted to the senate. The main feature of this treaty respected indemnity for unlawful captures, which was provided for, but no redress could be obtained for negroes carried away. The obstruc- tions to collecting debts were to cease, and the ports on the frontiers were to be evacuated by the 1st of June, 1796. Other stipulations were embraced, and the treaty was limited to twelve years. On the 24th of June, the senate advised the ratification of the treaty by a vote of exactly two-thirds. It was well known that the President was not entirely satisfied with it, but he had determined to ratify it, if advised by the senate. The cabinet was divided. The country was also divided. Even the friends of England were disappointed in its pro- visions; while her enemies were loud in their complaints and threats. Boston and the other cities passed condemnatory resolutions. In several cities, mobs threatened personal violence to the supporters of the treaty. Mr. Jay was burned in effigy; the British minister was insulted; and Mr. Hamilton was stoned at a public meeting. 568 GREAT EVENTS OF Contrary to the predictions of many, the treaty, thus ratified, settled the difficulties between the two countries, which were on the eve of war. It even proved advan- tageous to the United States. Election of Mr. Adams. — As the presidential term of Washington was now drawing to a close, he signified his intention to retire from the duties of public life. During his administration, the people had become divided into two great political parties ; at the head of one, was Mr. Adams ; |t the head of the other, Mr. Jefferson. The election was characterized by a zeal corresponding to the interest taken by the parties in their candidates, and their devotion to their respective political creeds. The^ election resulted in the choice of Mr. Adams, as may be seen in the following official canvass of the votes: ELECTION FOR THE THIRD TERM, COMMENCING MARCH 4, 1797, AND TERMINATING MARCH 3, 1801. 1 • |i o g li STATES. 1 1? c ■S.a .5 o pq £ II 1 o 1.1 i| 1° O d .s 1 .5 gz a n'c s ° &3 II ^ "^ r- r-' <. 72 = - '/l ~' y '^ 3 Tennessee, 3 3 4 Kentucky, 4 4 4 Georgia, 4 4 H South Carolina, . . . 8 H r2 North CaroUiia, . . . 1 a 1 6 3 1 1 21 Virginia, 1 20 1 1 16 3 1 u Marvland, 7 4 4 3 2 3 Delawiire, 3 3 15 Pennsylvania, .... 1 14 2 13 7 New Jersey 7 7 12 New Yorlt, 12 12 9 Connecticut 9 4 5 4 Rhode Island, .... 4 4 Ifi Massachusetts, . IH 13 1 2 4 Vermont, 4 4 6 New Hampshire, . . 6 6 139 WTiole No. of electors. . 71 68 59 30 15 1 11 5| 7| 2 3 1 2 1 1 2 Majority, ... 70 Farewell Address. — Washington's administration closed on the 3rd of March, 1797. Shortly before, he held his last formal levee. It was an occasion of deep, and even solemn interest. The distinguished of all parties and opin- ions were there — veterans of the revolution, "weather- AMERICAN HISTORY. 569 Stained and scarred" — statesmen, bent with the cares and weight of years spent in the service of their country — executive counsellors, who had stood by their chief, and aided in giving shape, union, and strength to the youthful republic — ministers from foreign governments, whose ven- eration approached that of his countrymen — and finally, a long line of private citizens, who admired and delighted to do honor to the man. They had convened, not for the last time to honor the president of the United States — the permanency of the republic was no longer problematical — a successor had been appointed, and hopes were reasonably entertained that the bonds of union between the several states would be strengthened in future years; but they had come to bid "farewell" to Washington — to him, to whose valor and wisdom the nation was preeminently indebted for its independence, and the prosperity of its government — in short, to "a soldier, without stain upon his arms — a ruler, without personal ambition — a citizen, of self-sacrificing patriotism — a man, pure, unblemished, and true in every relation he had filled — one, in short, to whom all ages should point as the testimony, that virtue and greatness had been and could be united." To Washington, the occasion was no less solemn and affecting. On retiring from the army, he had taken leave of officers and soldiers, expecting to spend his future days in the shade of his beloved Mount Vernon. Again he was seeking that happy and peaceful retreat, and was glad to be released from the cares and responsibilities of office; but when he looked round upon faces long familiar, and grasped the hands of those who had helped him in times of anxiety and doubt, Washington's heart was affected. It is said there were few smiles, but many tears seen during the reception. On leaving the seat of government, Washington pre- sented a token of regard to the principal officers of gov- ernment. His affection for them was sincere and abiding. Towards the entire American people, he bore the kindness 570 GREAT EVENTS OF and good-will of a father. He wished their happiness. He had spent years in their service, without emolument, and even at the sacrifice of a portion of his patrimony; but that was nothing, so long as he could see the government stable, and the republic "one -and indivisible." There was, perhaps, no one subject which had occupied Wash- ington's thoughts, more than the union of the states. And now that he was about to retire, he felt it to be befitting him to express his views on some subjects connected, as he thought, with the vital interests and the future glory of his country. These he embodied in a "Farewell Address," which, for purity of language, beauty of conception, and soundness of political sentiments, has never been equalled. It can never be read but to be admired. There are but two sentences which we shall cite from this address; but, in respect to the future glory and prosperity of our country, they are as the corner-stones to our national capitol: "The unity of government, which now constitutes you one people, is now dear to you. It is justly so; for it is the mainspring in the edifice of your real independence; the support of your tranquillity at home; your peace abroad; of your safety; of your prosperity; of that very liberty which you so highly prize." "Of all the dispositions and habits which lead to political prosperity, religion and morality are indispensable supports. In vain would that man claim the tribute of patriotism, who should labor to subvert these great pillars of human happi- ness — these firmest props of the duties of men and citizens." On other subjects connected with the future welfare of the country, he expressed opinions, of whose wisdom and practical value, revolving years have given ample proof Against the spirit of innovation upon the principles of the constitution, he gave solemn warning — against the spirit of party, when bitter and exclusive, he uttered his solemn remonstrance. Public credit should be maintained; public economy practiced ; and institutions for the education and improvement of the public mind, liberally endowed. AMERICAN HISTORY, 571 VII. JOHN ADAMS, PRESIDENT. INAUGURATED AT PHILADKLPHIA, MARCH 4, 1797. THOMAS JEFFERSON, VICE-PRESIDENT, Timothy Pickerine, John Marshtdl, . . Oliver Wolcott, . . Samuel Dexter, . , James M'Henry, Samuel Dexter, . . Roger Griswokl,. . Benjamin Stoddert, , Joseph Habersham, Charles Lee, . . HEADS OF THE DEPARTMENTS. . PennRylvania, Virginia, . . . Connecticut, Massachusetts, . Maryland, . Massachusetts, . Connecticut, Maryland, Georgia, . Virginia, . . (cnntimied m ofUrr). I c,p„rptaries of State . May 13, 1800, i ^ecre.anes oi auace. . . (confinvfd in office) ? geeretaries of Treasury. . Decemher 31, 1800, ) . . (rontinwd in offire),) . May 13, 1800, > Secretaries of War. . . Februarys, 1801,' . May 21, 1798, Secretary of the Navy. . . [continued in office), Postmaster General. , {cmtinued in office), Attorney General SPEAKERS OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. Jonathan Dayton, . . . Theodore Sedgwick,. . . New Jersey, . . . Fifth Congress, . . 1797. . Massachusetts,. . . Si.xth do. . . . 1799. On the 1 st of March, Washington, now about to retire from the presidency, addressed a 'communication to the I L': 572 GREAT EVENTS OF senate, desiring them to attend in their chamber, on Satur- day, the 4th, at ten o'clock, "to receive any communication which the new president might lay before them, touching their interests." In conformity with this summons, the senate assembled at the time and place appointed. The oath of office was administered by Mr. Bingham to Mr. Jefferson, the vice-president elect. The customary oath was next administered by the vice-president to the new senate; which preliminary forms being finished, the senate, preceded by their presiding officer, repaired to the chamber of the house of representatives, to witness the ceremonies of the inauguration of the new president. Mr. Adams entered, accompanied by the heads of depart- ments, the marshal of the district and his officers, and took his seat in the speaker's chair; the vice-president and secre- tary of the senate were seated in advance on his right, and the late speaker and clerk on the left; the justices of the supreme court sat before the president, and the foreign ministers and members of the house in their usual seats. The venerable Washington himself also appeared. As he entered, all eyes were turned towards him with admiration, and every heart beat with joy at the complacency and delight which he manifested at seeing another about to be clothed with the authority he had laid aside. In his inaugural address, Mr. Adams expressed his prefer- ence, upon principle, to a free republican government — his attachment to the constitution, of the United States — an impartial regard to the rights, interests, honor, and happi- ness of all the states of the Union, without preference to a Northern or Southern, an Eastern or Western position — a love of equal laws and exact justice — an inflexible deter- mination to maintain peace and inviolable faith with all nations — his regard for the institutions of religion, and the propagation of knowledge and virtue among all classes, &c,; and, finally, he invoked the care and blessing of that Almighty Being, who in all ages had been the Patron of order, the Fountain of justice, and the Protector of virtuous liberty. AMERICAN HISTORY. 573 Having concluded his address, the oath of office was administered by Chief Justice Ellsworth. Washington was the first to tender to the new president his heartfelt con- gratulations; which having done, he bade adieu to the seat of government, and hastened to the enjoyment of that peace and quiet which he had long desired, and which he now anticipated in his own beloved Mount Vernon. The condition of the country, on the accession of Mr. Adams, was highly prosperous. The constitution had been tested through the vicissitudes of eight years, and had stood, and continued to stand, as a monument of the political wis- dom of its framers. Fortunately, several of those sages had borne conspicuous stations in the government from the time of its organization. The president himself had been the president of the convention which formed the constitution. The true intent, therefore, of that instrument, both in its general and special provisions, had become well understood ; its great principles had been applied, and found to answer the most sanguine expectations of its patriotic projectors. In relation to particular measures, Washington had shown himself to be as skillful a statesman as he had proved him- self sagacious as a general. A credit had been established for the country, whose soundness no capitalist doubted — an immense floating debt had been funded in a manner perfectly satisfactory to the creditors, and a revenue had been secured sufficiently ample for the national demands. Funds also had been provided for the gradual extinction of the national debt ; a considerable portion of it had, indeed, been actually discharged, and that system devised which did in fact, in the lapse of some years, extinguish the whole. The agricultural and commercial thrift of the nation had been beyond all former example, and beyond all anticipa- tion. The numerous and powerful tribes of Indians at the West, had been taught by arms and by good faith to respect the United States, and to desire their friendship. The principal events which distinguished the administra- tion of Mr. Adams, were, 574 GREAT EVENTS OF Difficulties with France. Death of Washington. Treaty with that Power. Removal of the Seat of Government. Election of Mr. Jefferson. Difficulties with France. — The misunderstanding between France and the United States, which had commenced during the administration of Washington, not only extended into that of Mr. Adams, but, soon after his accession, assumed a still more formidable and even warlike aspect. The seditious conduct of Mr. Genet, the French minister, and his recall, were noticed when reciting the prominent events of Washington's administration. He was succeeded by Mr. Fauchet, who arrived in the United States in Feb- ruary, 1794. The conduct of this functionary, if less exceptionable than his predecessor, was by no means calculated to restore the harmony of the two governments. Fauchet, believing that a large party in the United States sympathized with him and his government, insulted the admin- istration by accusing them of partiality to the English, enmity to his nation, and indifference to the cause of liberty. With a desire to restore the peace of the two govern- ments. General Washington, in 1794, recalled Mr. Morris, our then minister to France, and appointed Mr. Monroe to succeed him, a gentleman belonging to the republican party, and, therefore, more acceptable to the French government, and the more likely to succeed in a satisfactory adjustment of existing difficulties. Mr. Monroe was received with distinguished consideration, and as an evidence of his kind reception, the flags of the two republics were entwined and suspended in the legislative hall. Mr. Adet soon after succeeded Mr. Fauchet. He brought with him the colors of France, which were presented to the government of the United States as a token of her sympathy and affection for her sister republic. But when the former discovered that the United States continued rigidly to main- tain their neutrality, her sympathy and aflfection suddenly declined. Measures were adopted highly injurious to American commerce. Her cruisers were let loose upon AMERICAN HISTORY. 575 our commerce, and hundreds of vessels pursuing a lawful trade were captured and confiscated. The favorable results anticipated from Mr. Monroe's embassy to France signally failed. Whether this failure proceeded from an impossibility of making terms with the French government, or from a want of firmness and decision on the part of Mr. Monroe, it may be difficult to decide. But, dissatisfied with the tardy and unsatisfactory manner in which the negotiation was conducted, the -president decided to recall Mr. Monroe. This was accordingly done, and Mr. Pinckney was appointed to succeed him. The object of Mr. Pinckney's mission was stated in his letter of credence to be "to maintain that good understand- ing which, from the commencement of the alliance, had subsisted between the two nations; and to efface unfavor- able impressions, banish suspicions, and restore that cordi- ality which was at once the evidence and pledge of a friendly union." The French directory, however, refused to acknowledge Mr. Pinckney in his official capacity; and, at length, by a written mandate, ordered him to quit the territory of the French republic. Intelligence of these facts having been communicated to Mr. Adams, he summoned congress by proclamation, to assemble on the 15th of May, when, in a fine and dignified speech, he stated the great and unprovoked outrages of the French government. He expressed, however, his wish for an accommodation, and his purpose of attempting it. Mean- while, he earnestly recommended the adoption of measures of defence. Accordingly, to prevent war, if practicable, Mr. Adams appointed three envoys extraordinary to the French repub- lic. General Pinckney, then at Amsterdam, whither he had retired on being ordered to leave France, Mr. Marshall and Mr. Gerry. These, also, the directory refused to receive. They were, however, addressed by persons verbally in- structed by Talleyrand, the minister of foreign relations, and invited to make proposals. In explicit terms, these 576 GREAT EVENTS OF unofficial agents demanded a large sum of money before any negotiations could be opened. To this insulting demand, a decided negative was given. A compliance was, never- theless, repeatedly urged, until, at length, the envoys refused to hold with them any further communications. These matters becoming known in America, excited gen- eral indignation. The spirit of party appeared to be extinct. "Millions for defence, not a cent for tribute," the language of Mr. Pinckney to the French government, resounded from every quarter of the Union. The treaty of alliance with France was declared by congress to be annulled ; and author- ity was given for capturing armed French vessels. Provision was made for raising a regular army, and in case events should render it expedient, for augmenting it. A direct tax and additional internal duties were laid. To the com- mand of the armies of the United States, President Adams, with the unanimous advice of the senate, appointed George Washington, with the rank of lieutenant-general and com- mander-in-chief. Washington reluctantly accepted the office, declaring, however, that he cordially approved the measures of the government. The first act of hostility between the two nations, appears to have been committed by the Insurgente, which captured the American schooner Retaliation, and carried her into Guadaloupe. Soon after, the Constellation, under the com- mand of Captain Truxton, went to sea, and in February, 1799, he encountered the Insurgente, which, after a close action of about an hour and a half, he compelled to strike. The rate of the Constellation was thirty-two guns; that of the Insurgente, forty. The former had three men wounded, one of whom shortly after died, and none killed; the latter had forty-one wounded, and twenty-nine killed. This victory, so brilliant and so decisive, with such a wonderful disparity of loss, gave great eclat to the victor and to the navy. Treaty with France. — The bold and decided tone of the Americans, added to their preparations for prosecuting a AMERICAN HISTORY. 577 war with vigor — and, perhaps, more than all, the success of the American navy in various engagements, had the desired effect. Overtures for renewing the negotiations were received from the French directory, which were immediately responded to by the president, by the appoint- ment of Oliver Ellsworth, chief justice of the United States, Patrick Henry,* then late governor of Virginia, and Wil- liam Vans Murray, minister at the Hague, envoys extraor- dinary for concluding a peace. On their arrival at Paris, they found the directory overthrown, and the government in the hands of Napoleon Buonaparte, as first consul. By him they were promptly received, and a treaty was concluded on the 30th of September, 1800 ; soon after which, the provisional army in America was, by order of congress, disbanded. Death of Washington. — The good and the great must die, and, at length, America was called to mourn the departure of the good and illustrious Washington. He did not live, much as he desired that event, to witness the restoration of peace. On Friday, December 13th, while attending to some improvements upon his estate, he was exposed to a light rain, which that same night induced an inflammatory affec- tion of the windpipe. In the morning his family physician, Dr. Craik, was called in; but the utmost exertions of medi- cal skill were applied in vain. Believing, from the com- mencement of his complaint, that it would prove fatal, Washington succeeded, though with difficulty, in expressing a desire that he might be permitted to die without being disquieted by unavailing attempts to rescue him from his fate. When no longer able to swallow, undressing himself, he retired to his bed, there to await his dissolution. To his friend and physician he said, with difficulty, "Doctor, I am dying, and have been dying for a long time; but I am not » Before the time of embarkation, Mr. Henry died, and Governor Davie was appointed in his place. 37 578 GREAT EVENTS OF afraid to die," Respiration became more and more con- tracted and imperfect, until half-past eleven on Saturday- night, when, retaining the full possession of his intellect, he expired without a struggle. Thus, in the sixty-eighth year of his age, died the "Father of his country." Intelligence of this event, as it rapidly spread, produced spontaneous, .deep, and unaffected grief, suspending every other thought, and absorbing every different feeling. Congress unanimously resolved upon a funeral procession in memory of Washington. On the appointed day the pro- cession moved from the legislative hall to the German Luthe- ran church, where an oration was delivered by General Lee, a representative from Virginia. The procession was grand and solemn; the oration, eloquent and impressive: through- out the Union, similar marks of affection were exhibited — the whole nation appeared in mourning. Funeral orations, commemorative'' of his virtues, were pronounced in almost every city and town, and many were the tears shed by young and old, as the excellencies of his character were portrayed, and the services which he had rendered in achieving the independence, and contributing to the happi- ness of his country, were reviewed. Washington deserved all the public honors which were paid him, and yet he needed none of them to add to the celebrity of his name, or the glory of his achievements. Wherever the story of his greatness, and of his patriotic services, has travelled, it has elicited the admiration and homage of mankind. Indeed, among civilized people of all countries, his name has become a household word, and is identified with all that is wise, and pious, and patriotic. By the aged warriors of our Western tribes — now indeed few and far between — he is still remembered as "our Father:" his name is familiar to the wandering Bedouin, and his fame has penetrated to the mountain fastnesses of the roving Tartar. And in all future time — at least while the Ameri- can republic has a name and a place on the earth — or while the record of her Revolution, and the establishment of her AMERICAN HISTORY. 579 government shall last — the name of Washington will be remembered with gratitude and joy. "His country is his monument, and her history his epitaph." The character of Washington has been so often portrayed, that we shall not deem it necessary to enter upon a formal review of it in these pages. It may be, perhaps, a more grateful service which we render, to garner up some "trib- utes" to his exalted worth, which have been paid him by some of the most distinguished men in other countries. Said Mr. Fox, in the British parliament, in a speech delivered during Washington's second presidential term: "Illustrious man! deriving less honor from the splendor of his situation than the dignity of his mind: before whom all borrowed greatness sinks into insignificance, and all the potentates of Europe (excepting the members of our own royal family) become little and contemptible!" — Said Napo- leon — a man jiot wont to lavish his praises — and yet a man who understood and could appreciate noble qualities existing in others — said Napoleon — "Washington is dead! The great man fought against tyranny; he established the lib- erty of his country. His memory will always be dear to the French people, as it will to all freemen of the two worlds." Byron has added his testimony to the excellency and glory of Washington — a tribute of praise which, it is said, he has no where in any of his writings paid to a British hero, not even to Wellington himself. "After taxing his misanthi'opy for the bitterest forms of speech, to be applied to the fallen Napoleon, and to mock at the fearful reverses of the PVench emperor's fortune, he, by some strange impulses, winds up his scorching lyric with these few lines:" " Where shall the weary eye repose When gazing on the great — Where neither guilty glory glows. Nor despicable state? Yes — one — the first — the last — the best — The Cincinnatus of the West, Bequeathed the name of Washington, To make men blush there was but one." 580 GREAT EVENTS OF Beautiful is the tribute — and as just as beautiful — which the -Professor of Modern History, in the English Univer- sity of Cambridge (William Smith, Esq.), pays to the sage of Mount Vernon. "Instances may be found," says he, "when perhaps it may be thought that he was decisive to a degree that partook of severity and harshness, or even more ; but how innumerable were the decisions which he had to make I How difficult and how important through the eventful series of twenty years of command in the cabinet or the field ! Let it be considered what it is to have the man- agement of a revolution and afterwards the maintenance of order. Where is the man that, in the history of our race, has ever succeeded in attempting successively the one and the other? The plaudits of his country were continually sounding in his ears, and neither the judgment or the vir- tues of the man were ever disturbed. Armies were led to the field with all the enterprise of a hero, jind then dis- missed with all the equanimity of a philosopher. Power was accepted — was exercised — was resigned precisely at the moment and in the way that patriotism directed. What- ever was the difficulty, the trial, the temptation, or the dan- ger, there stood the soldier and the citizen, eternally the same, without fear and without reproach, and there was the man who was not only at all times virtuous, but at all times wise. "As a ruler of mankind, he may be proposed as a model. Deeply impressed with the original rights of human nature, he never forgot that the end and aim of all just govern- ment was the happiness of the people, and he never exercised authority till he had first taken care to put himself clearly in the right. His candor, his patience, his love of justice, were unexampled; and this, though naturally he was not patient — much otherwise, highly irritable." "Of all great men" — such is the declaration of Mr. Guizot, one of the ministers of the late king of the French — "of all great men, Washington was the most virtuous and the most fortunate. In this world, God has no higher favors to bestow." AMERICAN HISTORY. 58 1 A writer in the Edinburgh Review, expresses himself in terms equally honorable to the American Fabius: "If pro- found sagacity, unshaken steadiness of purpose, the entire subjugation of all the passions, which carry havoc through ordinary minds, and oftentimes lay waste the fairest pros- pects of greatness — nay the discipline of those feelings that are wont to lull or seduce genius, and to mar and to cloud over the aspect of virtue herself — joined with, or rather leading to, the most absolute self-denial, the most habitual and exclusive devotion to principle — if these things can constitute a great character, without either quickness of apprehension or resources of information, or circumventive powers, or any brilliant quality that might dazzle the vul- gar — then Washington was the greatest man that ever lived in this world, uninspired by divine wisdom, and unsustained by supernatural virtue" To the foregoing, we may add an extract from the elo- quent peroration of Lord Brougham, in his masterly essay on "Public Characters." "This is the consummate glory of the great American; a triumphant warrior, where the most sanguine had a right to despair; a successful ruler, in all the difficulties of a course wholly untried; but a war- rior, whose sword only left its sheath when the first law of our nature commanded it to be drawn ; and a ruler who, having tasted of supreme power, greatly and unostenta- tiously desired that the cup might pass fi-om him, nor would he suffer more to wet his lips than the most solemn and sacred duty to his country and his God required." "It will be the duty of the historian and the sage in all ages to omit no occasion of commemorating this illustrious man; and until time shall be no more, will a test of the progress which our race has made in wisdom and in virtue be derived from the veneration paid to the immortal name of Washington !" Such were some of the attributes, the virtues, the ser- vices of Washington, and such the tribute paid to his great- ness, his worth, and his unequalled glory, as a man, a 582 GREAT EVENTS OF military chieftain, and a ruler. More might be added, but it is unnecessary, unless it be, that Washington was a Christian. Every where — in seasons of trial, peril, and almost of hopeless despondency — he placed his reliance upon that Great Being who holds in his hand the fate of men and of nations. His hopes for his country were founded more on the righteousness of her cause, and on the blessing of Heaven, than on the number or strength of his army. Of his religion, he made no parade — of his virtues, no boast — but he was ever more true to the dictates of piety, and observant of the forms and institutions of the Gospel. And it was this reliance upon that Gospel, which enabled him to say, in the closing moments of life, "I am not afraid to die." In conclusion, we may add, in the highly laudatory and just language of another, "Washington stands almost alone in the world. He occupies a region where there are, unhappily for mankind, but few inhabitants. The Grecian biographer could easily find parallels for Alexander and Csesar; but, were he living now, he would meet with great difficulty in selecting one for Washington, There seems to be an elevation of moral excellence, which, though possible to attain to, few ever approach. As, in ascending the lofty peaks of the Andes, we at length arrive at a line where vegetation ceases, and the principle of life seems extinct; so, in the gradations of human character, there is an eleva- tion which is never attained by mortal man. A few have approached it, but none nearer than Washington. "He is eminently conspicuous as one of the great bene- factors of the human race; for he not only gave liberty to millions, but his name now stands, and will for ever stand, a noble example to high and low. He is a great work of the Almighty Artist, which none can study without receiving purer ideas and more lofty conceptions of the grace and beauty of the human character. He is one that all may copy at different distances, and whom none can contem- plate without receiving lasting and salutary impressions of AMERICAN HISTORY. 583 the sterling value, the inexpressible beauty of piety, integ- rity, coui"age, and patriotism, associated with a clear, vigor- ous, and v^^ell-poised intellect. "Pure and widely disseminated as is the fame of this great and good man, it is yet in its infancy. It is every day taking deeper root in the hearts of his countrymen and the estimation of strangers, and spreading its branches wider and wider to the air and the skies. He is already become the saint of liberty, which has gathered new honors by being associated with his name; and when men aspire to free nations, they must take him for their model. It is, then, not without ample reason that the suffrages of man- kind have combined to place Washington at the head of his race. If we estimate him by the examples recorded in his- tory, he stands without a parallel in the virtues exhibited, and the most unprecedented consequences resulting from their exercise. The whole world was the theatre of his actions, and all mankind are destined to partake, sooner or later, in their results. He is the hero of a new species; he had no model. Will he have any imitators? Time, which bears the thousands and thousands of common cut-throats to the ocean of oblivion, only adds new lustre to his fame, new fame to his example, and new strength to the reveren- tial affection of all good men. What a glorious fame is his, to be acquired without guilt, and enjoyed without envy! to be cherished by millions living, hundreds of millions yet unborn! Let the children of my country prove themselves worthy of his virtues, his labors, his sacrifices, by rever- encing his name, and imitating his piety, integrity, industry, fortitude, patience, forbearance, and patriotism. So shall they become fitted to enjoy the blessings of freedom and the bounties of Heaven."* Removal of the Seat of Government. — In the year 1800, the seat of government, agreeably to a law passed by con- * Pauldinff's Life of Washington. 584 GREAT EVENTS OF gress in 1790, was removed to Washington, in the District of Columbia. This territory, ten miles square, had been granted to the general government by the states of Virginia and Maryland. Public buildings had been erected, and in November of this year, congress, for the first time, held their session in that place. After congratulating the people of the United States on the assembling of congress, on the prospect of a residence not to be changed, the president said: "It would be unbecoming the representatives of this nation to assemble, for the first time, in this solemn temple, without looking up to the Supreme Ruler of the universe, and imploring his blessing. May this territory be the residence of virtue and happiness! In this city, may that piety and virtue, that wisdom and magnanimity, that con- stancy and self-government, which adorned the great char- acter whose name it bears, be for ever held in veneration. Here, and throughout our country, may simple manners, pure morals, and true religion, flourish for ever." Election of Mr. Jefferson. — At this period, a presiden- tial election recurred. From the time of the adoption of the constitution, the republican party had been gradually gathering strength, and, in anticipation of success, great preparations were made by them to elect their candidates, Mr. Jefferson and Mr. Burr. The candidates of the fed- eral party were Mr. Adams and General Pinckney. Unfortunately for the federal party, the administration of Mr. Adams had not been generally acceptable. "In the early part of it, the acts by which the army and navy were strengthened, and eighty thousand of the militia subjected to his order, were represented, by the republicans, as proofs that, however he might have been a friend to the constitution of his country, he now either wished to subvert it, or was led blindfold into the views of those who did. The repub- licans scrupled the policy of a war with France, and denied the necessity, even in case of such a war, of a large land force. They believed that spirits were at work to produce AMERICAN HISTORY. 585 this war, or to make the most of a disturbance, in order to lull the people, while they raised an army, which they intended as the instrument of subverting the republican, and establishing a monarchical government." These insinuations — or, more properly, charges — were doubtless utterly groundless; but they served to bring Mr. Adams' administration into disrepute, and to strengthen the republican party, which were boastful of their superior regard to the constitution, and friendship to the rights and liberty of the people. Other measures of the administration served to increase the party odium against it, and, in the sequel, to overthrow it. We allude particularly to two acts of congress — the ALIEN and SEDITION LAWS, of July, 1798. The alien law empowered the president "to order all such aliens as he should judge dangerous to the peace and safety of the United States, or should have reasonable grounds to suspect were concerned in any treasonable or secret madlinations against the government thereof, to depart out of the territory of the United States, within such time as should be expressed in such order." In case of disobedience, such aliens, on conviction before the circuit or district courts of the United States, were subjected to imprisonment for not more than three years, and incapaci- tated from becoming citizens. The subsequent law, respect- ing alien enemies, enabled the president, on a declaration of war, to cause the subjects of the belligerent nation "to be apprehended, restrained, secured, and removed as alien enemies." Under both these acts, they were permitted to remove their property, and under the latter, if not charge- able with crimes against the United States, to defend themselves. Of the two measures, the sedition act was by far the most unpopular. "The other," says Mr. Tucker, "was con- demned by most Americans, like the stork in the fable, for the society in which he was found, and for the sake of soothing the great class of foreigners who were not yet 586 GREAT EVENTS OF naturalized, the greater part of whom, particularly the Irish and French, were attached to the republican party."* The sedition law, in some of its pi'ovisions, went still further. It imposed fine and imprisonment for unlawfully- combining and conspiring with intent to oppose the measures of government, when directed by the proper authority: for impeding the operation of any law of the United States; intimidating an officer from the performance of his duty, or counselling or advising, with similar intent, insurrections, riots, or unlawful combinations. It also imposed similar, but lighter penalties, for the publication of false, scandalous, and malicious writings against the government of the United States, either -house of congress, or the president, with intent to bring them into contempt, &c. The act was limited to two years. Such were the measures which at this most critical period of our history were adopted, when the United States, if not carrying on, were undergoing a war with France; and when the country swarmed with secret spi«s and agents These laws have been condemned, and President Adams and his government severely censured for having secured their enactment. They were denounced at the time by the republican party in no measured terms. They were claimed to be unnecessary, cruel, and despotic. But, while it is not our province to enter into a justifica- tion of these laws, it may be proper to say, by way of palliation, to use the language of another, "that the laws themselves sprung from existing facts, and self-preservation demanded that the power of providing for the public safety, vested in every government by the very objects of govern- ment, should now be used."f The sedition law was never enforced, except against a few — Callender was one — an alien and a fugitive from justice, who would have overthrown the government, in his zeal to build up the republican party. * Life of Jefferson, vol. ii. p. 45. t Gibbs' Memoirs of the Administrations of Washington and John Adams. AMERICAN HISTORY. 587 The necessity for the laws regardhig aliens, was more apparent. The Frenchmen in the United States, at that era, were estimated at thirty thousand. Many of them were associated together in clubs, which had for their object the furtherance of French interests. The number of British subjects was still greater. Other foreigners were numer- ous, and all were attached to France. They were restless, feverish, factious. Whatever may be thought of the expe- diency or justice of the law in question, no reasonable doubt can be entertained of the necessity of some restrictive mea- sures in a time of such excitement as then prevailed. And yet it must be admitted that no man was actuated by a loftier patriotism than Mr. Adams; nor was any one ever more ready to make sacrifices for his country's good. It is sometimes urged that he was vain, self-willed, impulsive. But these imperfections were relieved by noble virtues. His political opponent — the man who supplanted him — declared that he was the ablest advocate of independence. In days when others desponded, he hoped. The acts secured the object sought — they secured, if not the peace, the safety of the country; for even while they were in the process of enactment, not a few of the more "notorious of the incendiaries" left the country. But they largely contributed to the overthrow of the existing admin- istration, and the triumph of the democratic party. As the constitution then existed, each elector gave his vote for two persons, without designating which was to be president — the one having the largest number being entitled to the presidency, and the other to the vice-presidency. Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr were the two candidates of the republican party. Each of these having seventy- three votes, it devolved upon the house of representatives to decide between them. The federal party having been defeated in respect to their candidates, sided with the friends of Colonel Burr, in opposition to Mr. Jefferson. As this was the first time that the election of a president had thus devolved upon the house of representatives, a 588 GREAT EVENTS OF general interest was taken in the subject. But that interest was greatly increased by the then existing state of political parties. On the arrival of the time for the election, it was decided that, after the balloting had commenced, no adjournment should be had until a choice was made — that during the balloting, the doors of the house should be closed — that the delegation from each state should be seated together — that the latter should first ballot among themselves, and that duplicates of these ballots should be made, and placed in separate boxes. When all the states had thus voted, the ballot-boxes were to be carried by the sergeant-at-arms to two separate tables. The ballots were then to be counted by tellers, eight in number, at each table. When counted, the reports were to be announced from each table; if these reports agreed, they were to be accepted, as the true votes of the states; but, if they dif- fered, a new balloting was to be made. On Wednesday, the 11th of February, 1801, the balloting commenced. On the first ballot, eight states voted for Mr. Jefferson, six states for Mr. Burr, and the votes of two states were divided. Unexpectedly, no choice was effected during the first day, and an adjournment became necessary. The balloting was continued on the following day, and, indeed, until Tuesday, the 17th of February, when the thirty-fifth ballot, as had all the previous ballots, resulted the same as the first. The excitement of members, and of citizens attracted from various parts of the country to see the issue of a novel political contest, had now become intense. Every possible influence was exerted by the respective parties. Mr. Nicholson, of Maryland, being too unwell to sit during the protracted ballotings, had a bed prepared for him in one of the committee-rooms, to which the ballot-box was carried by the tellers on the part of the state. For several days, the members ate little, and slept still less. At length, however, the long contest was termi- nated by the thirty-sixth ballot, which resulted in the election of Mr. Jefferson — ten states having voted for him, AMERICAN HISTORY. 589 four for Mr. Burr, and two in blank. The following table exhibits the final result: ^ a STATES. . o 6 16 4 9 4 12 7 15 3 10 21 4 12 3 8 4 138 New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, Vermont, New York New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, Kentucky, North Carolina, Tennessee, South Carolina, Georgia, V/hole No. of electors, . Majority, 70 12 12 65 64 590 GREAT EVENTS OF VIII. THOMAS JEFFERSON, PRESIDENT INAUGURATED AT WASHINGTON, MARCH 4, 1801. AARON BURR AND GEORGE CLINTON, VICE-PRESIDENTS. James Madison, HEADS OF THE Virginia, Samuel Dexter, ... . JIassachusetts, Albert GaUatin, Pennsylvania, . Henry Dearborn, Massachusetts, Benjamin Stoddert, .... Maryland, . . Robert Smith, Maryland, . . Joseph Habersham, .... Georgia, . . . Gideon Granger, Connecticut, . Levi Lincoln, Massachusetts,. John Breckenridge, .... Kentucky, . . Caesar A. Rodney, Delaware, . . DEPARTMENTS. . March 5, 1801, Secretary of State. . (continued in office), J cpprotaries of Treasury . January 26, 1802,^*'"='^^''"''^ °' ireasuiy. . March 5, 1801, Secretary of War. . {conUmwxlm office), ) Secretaries of the Navy. . January 26, 1802, 5 ' . {continued in office),^^^^^^^^^^ General. . January 26, 1802,5 , . March 5, 1801, > ■ . December 23, 1805, f Attorneys General. . January 20, 1807, > Seventh Congress, . 1801. . Eighth do. . . 1803. Nmth do.. . . 1805. Tenth do. . . 1807. SPEAKERS OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. Nathaniel Macon, North Carolina, Joseph B. Vamum, .... Massachusetts, Nathaniel Macon, North Carohna, Joseph B. Vamum, .... Massachusetts, Mr. Jefferson was inducted into office, with the usuai imposing ceremonies, on the 4th of March, 1801 ; on which AMERICAN HISTORY. 591 occasion, deviating from the example of his predecessors, he transmitted to congress a written message, instead of delivering a speech in person — a practice which has been followed by his successors in the presidential chair, without an exception. This message was a remarkable document, inasmuch as it set forth the "essential principles" of our government in the narrowest compass, and with great clearness and pre- cision of language. These were, "Equal and exact justice to all men, of whatever state or persuasion, religious or political; peace, commerce, and honest friendship with all nations, entangling alliances with none; the support of the state governments, in all their rights, as the most competent administrations for our domestic concerns, and the surest bulwarks against anti-republican tendencies; the preserva- tion of the general government, in its whole constitutional vigor, as the sheet-anchor of our peace at home and safety abroad; a jealous care of the right of election by the people, a mild and safe corrective of abuses, which are lopped by the sword of revolution, where peaceable remedies are unprovided; absolute acquiescence in the decisions of the majority, the vital principle of republics, from which there is no appeal but to force, the vital principle and immediate parent of despotism ; a well-disciplined militia, our best reliance in peace, and for the first moments of war, till regulars may relieve them; the supremacy of the civil over the military authority; economy in the public expense, that labor may be lightly burdened; the honest payment of our debts, and sacred preservation of the public faith; encour- agement of agriculture, and of commerce as its handmaid; the diffusion of information, and arraignment of all abuses at the bar of the public reason ; freedom of religion, freedom of the press, and freedom of person, under the protection of the habeas corpus; and trial by juries impartially selected. These principles form the bright constellation which has gone before us, and guided our steps through an age of revolution and reformation." 592 GREAT EVENTS OF The leading events in the presidential career of Mr. Jefferson, will require us to notice the — ■ Purchase of Louisiana. Attack on the Chesapeake. War with TripoH. British Orders in Council. Murder of HamiUon. Milan Decree. Reelection of Jefferson. Embargo. Conspiracy and Trial of Burr. Election of Mr. Madison. Difficulties between France and England. Purchase of Louisiana. — By the treaty of 1783, the Mississippi was made the western boundary of the United States, from its source to the thirty-first degree of latitude, and following this line to the St. Mary's. By a treaty of the same date, the Floridas were ceded to Spain, without any specific boundaries. This omission led to a contro- versy between the United States and Spain, which nearly terminated in hostilities. By a treaty with Spain, however, in 1795, boundary lines were amicably settled, and New Orleans was granted to American citizens as a place of deposit for their effects for three years and longer, unless some other place of equal importance should be assigned. No other place being assigned within that time. New Orleans continued to be used as before. In 1800, a secret treaty was signed at Paris, by the plenipotentiaries of France and Spain, by which Louisiana was guarantied to France, and, in 1801, the cession was actually made. At the same time, the Spanish intendant of Louisiana was instructed to make arrangements to deliver the country to the French commissioners. Upon receiving intelligence of this intended transfer, great sensi- bility prevailed in congress, and a proposition was made to occupy the place by force; but, after an animated discus- sion, the project was relinquished, and negotiations with France were commenced by Mr. Jefferson, for the purchase of the whole country of Louisiana, which ended in an agreement to that effect, signed at Paris, April 30th, 1803, by which the United States were to pay to France fifteen millions of dollars. Early in December, 1803, the commis- AMERICAN HISTORY. 593 sioners of Spain delivered possession to France; and, on the 20th of the same month, the authorities of France duly- transferred the country to the United States. War with Tripoli. — In his message to Congress, in 1801, Mr. Jefferson spoke of the relations of the United States with all nations as pacific, except with Tripoli, the least considerable of the Barbary states. This power had made demands, the most unjust, upon the American govern- ment, and had threatened war, because that government had failed to comply with those demands before a given day. Thus threatened, the president had sent out Commodore Dale with a squadron of two ships and a sloop-of-war, to blockade the harbor of Tripoli, by which piratical cruisers should be prevented from making depredations upon Amer- ican commerce. In 1803, it became necessary to add to this Mediterra- nean force. Accordingly, a squadron of seven sail was ordered, of which Commodore Preble was put in command. In October, the frigate Philadelphia, forty-four. Captain Bainbridge, while in eager pursuit of a small vessel, grounded in the harbor of Tripoli, and, in this situation, was compelled to surrender. The officers became pris- oners, and the crew slaves. In this emergency, Stephen Decatur, then a lieutenant under Commodore Preble, pro- posed a plan for recapturing or destroying the Philadelphia. The American squadron was at that time lying at Syracuse. Agreeably to the plan proposed. Lieutenant Decatur, in the ketch Inti'epid, four guns and seventy-five men, pro- ceeded, under the escort of the Syren, Captain Stewart, to the harbor of Tripoli. The Philadelphia lay within half gun-shot of the bashaw's castle, and was guarded by several cruisers and gun-boats. The Intrepid entered the harbor alone, about eight o'clock in the evening, and suc- ceeded in getting near the Philadelphia, between ten and eleven o'clock, without having awakened suspicion of her hostile designs. This vessel had been captured from the 38 594 GREAT EVENTS OF Tripolitans, and, assuming on this occasion her former national appearance, was permitted to warp alongside. The moment the vessel came in contact, Decatur and his followers leaped on board, and soon overwhelmed the crew. Twenty Tripolitans were killed. All the sur- rounding batteries being opened upon the Philadelphia, she was immediately set on fire; when, a favoring breeze springing up, the Intrepid extricated herself from her prey, and sailed triumphantly out of the harbor. In July, 1804, Commodore Preble having concentrated his forces before Tripoli, opened a tremendous fire of shot and shells, which was as promptly returned by the Tripoli- tan batteries and shipping. At the same time, two divisions of gun-boats — the first under the command of Captain Somers, the second under Lieutenant Stephen Decatur — advanced -against those of the enemy. Lieutenant Decatur, bearing down upon one of superior force, soon carried her by boarding; when, taking his prize in tow, he grappled with another, and, in like manner, transferred the fight to the enemy's deck. In the fierce encounter which followed this second attack. Lieutenant Decatur, having broken his sword, closed with the Turkish commander, and, both falling in the struggle, gave him a mortal wound with a pistol-shot, just as the Turk was raising his dirk to plunge it into his breast. Lieutenant Trippe, of Lieutenant Decatur's squadron, had boarded a third large gun-boat, with only one midshipman and nine men, when his boat fell off", and left him to wage the unequal fight of eleven against thirty-six. Courage and resolution, however, obliged the numerous foe to yield, with the loss of fourteen killed and seven wounded. Lieutenant Trippe received eleven sabre wounds, and had three of his party wounded, but none killed. On the 4th of September, Commodore Preble determined lo send a fire-ship into the enemy's harbor. For this service, the Intrepid was fitted out, being filled with powder, shells, and other combustible materials. Captain Somers con- AMERICAN HISTORY. 595 ducted the enterprise, having for his associates Lieutenants Wadsworth and Israel, all volunteers. At eight o'clock in the evening, she stood into the harbor, with a moderate breeze. Several shots were fired at her from the batteries. She had nearly gained her place of destination, when she exploded, without having made any of the signals, previ- ously concerted, to show that the crew was safe. Night hung over the dreadful catastrophe, and left the whole squadron a prey to the most dreadful anxiety. Doubt, however, was at length turned into certainty. She had prematurely blown up, destroying one of the enemy's gun-boats, and shattering several others. Commo- dore Preble, in his account, says, that he was led to believe that those boats were detached from the enemy's flotilla to intercept the ketch, and, without suspecting her character, had suddenly boarded her, when the gallant Somers and the heroes of his party, observing the other three boats sur- rounding them, and no prospect of escape, determined to put a match to the train leading directly to the magazine; and, he adds, that his "conjectures respecting this affair are founded on a resolution which Captain Somers and Lieu- tenants Wadsworth and Israel had formed, never to be taken by the enemy, and never to suflfer him to get posses- sion of the powder on board the Intrepid." The reigning bashaw of Tripoli, at this time, was an usurper, while the lawful one and an older brother, Hamet Caramelli, was at Tunis in exile. At the commencement of the war, William Eaton, then American consul at Tunis, becoming acquainted with Hamet, concerted an expedition to expel the usurper, and restore the rightful heir to the throne. To such an enterprise, the sanction of the Amer- ican government being necessary, General Eaton repaired to the United States, and "laid his plan before our govern- ment; but they, thinking the scheme altogether too roman- tic, yet not wishing wholly to discourage it, made him agent for the government ; he sailed with the fleet for the Mediterranean, and proceeding to Alexandria, prevailed en 596 GREAT EVENTS OF the viceroy of Egypt to suffer him to have an interview with the exiled bey. They met near Grand Cairo, and entered into a convention for the purpose of attacking Tripoli. Eaton was to be commander-in-chief of the land forces. Their army consisted of a few American sailors, a small company of artillery, a few straggling Greeks, the servants of Hamet Bashaw, and some camel-drivers. With this motley band, Eaton dashed across the desert in the most noble style, fearless of all difficulties. Here he was joined by a few Arabian cavalry, and, after suffering every hardship, arising from hunger and a scorching sun, the party reached Bomba, where they found the Argus and Hornet, under the command of Captain Hull. The army, of nearly four hundred, continued their march to Derne. On the 25th of April, 1804, they encamped on an eminence which commanded the place, and forthwith demanded a surrender. The inhabitants of Derne treated the summons with contempt. A furious assault was the consequence, and the place was carried after a short but desperate action. Unfortunately for Eaton's projects, at this time he received intelligence that the American commissioners in the fleet had made peace with the bashaw then in power. It was stipulated, that Eaton should evacuate Derne, and repair to the fleet; and that a mutual delivery of prisoners should take place, among whom was Captain Bainbridge, with the officers and crew of the Philadelphia; and, as the bashaw had a balance of more than two hundred prisoners in his favor, he was to receive sixty thousand dollars. Hamet Bashaw accompanied Eaton to the United States, with a few of his followers, while the i-emainder of the army fled to the mountains. The commissioners acknowl- edged that Eaton's success prepared the way for the treaty of peace. Moreover, the president of the United States, in a message to congress, spoke highly of his services; and the citizens every where hailed him as worthy of a place in the lists of chivalry; but, during his after-life, he ever felt that injustice was done him by his countrymen, although AMERICAN HISTORY. 597 Massachusetts made him a grant of ten thousand acres of land as a reward for his services. Murder of Hamilton. — On the 12th of July, 1804, Gen- eral Alexander Hamilton died in the city of New York, in consequence of a wound received the day previous, in a duel fought by him with Aaron Burr. In February, 1804, Colonel Burr was nominated as a candidate for the office of governor of New York. Judge Morgan Lewis was the opposing and successful candidate. The contest was violent, and even "acrimonious." The majority of the democratic party supported Judge Lewis; a respectable minority favored the election of Colonel Burr. Similar divisions existed among the federal party. Hamilton and his immediate political friends were strong in their opposition to Burr. In the contest, the press was enlisted. Violent, and even libellous articles, were daily published. In the progress of this warfare, a letter, written by Dr. Charles D. Cooper to Colonel Burr, was published, in which, among other matters, there occurred the following clause: "I could detail to you a still more despicable opin- ion, which General Hamilton has expressed of Mr. Burr." At the request of Colonel Burr, Judge Van Ness called upon General Hamilton, and demanded an explanation. A few days following, the latter replied by letter, in which, after expressing his embarrassment in attempting to meet a charge so indefinite, he said: "I stand ready to avow or disavow, promptly and explicitly, any precise or definite opinion which I may be charged with having declared of any gentleman. More than this cannot fitly be expected from me; and, especially, it cannot be reasonably asked that I shall enter into any explanation upon a basis so vague as that you have adopted. I trust, on reflection, you will see the matter in the same light with me." Colonel Burr was not satisfied, and from this date, June 20th, the correspondence, thus begun, was continued to the 3d of July, when it was definitely arranged that a meet- 598 GREAT EVENTS OF ing should take place between them on the morning of the 11th, at Weehawk, on the Jersey shore, at seven o'clock A. M. That meeting took place. They fought at ten paces distance. The fire of Colonel Burr took effect, and General Hamilton fell. The ball passed through the liver and dia- phragm, and lodged in the vertebra. From the first, it was apparent that the w^ound wsls mortal, and of this, Hamilton was sensible. On the day following, he expired. The seconds in this most unfortunate and criminal affair were Mr. Pendleton, the friend of Mr. Hamilton, and Judge Van Ness, the friend of Burr. By the former, it was claimed that General Hamilton did not fire first, nor at all at Colonel Burr. Several circumstances corroborated this statement. In a paper, left by Hamilton, in antici- pation of his interview with Burr, he writes: "I have resolved, if our interview is conducted in the usual man- ner, and it pleases God to give me the opportunity, to reserve and throw away my first fire, and I have thought of even reserving my second fire, and thus give a double opportunity to Colonel Burr to pause and reflect." Dr. Hosack, his attendant physician on the ground, accompa- nied him on his return across the Hudson to New York. On their way, Hamilton, observing the pistol which he had used lying in the boat, said: "Take care of that pistol; it is undischarged, and still cocked; it may go off, and do harm. Pendleton knows that I did not intend to fire at him." "Yes," said Pendleton; "I have already made Dr. Hosack acquainted with your determination." It may be further added, and to the dishonor of Hamilton it should be added — and perhaps as a solemn dissuasive against a practice at war with reason, revelation, and all the dear and important relations of life — that he accepted the challenge, and repaired to that duelling-ground, con- trary to the convictions of conscience and duty. In the paper already alluded to, he writes: "My religious and moral principles are strongly opposed to the practice of AMERICAN HISTORY. 599 duelling, and it would ever give me pain to be obliged to shed the blood of a fellows-creature in a private combat forbidden by the laws." — In an interview with him, a few hours before he expired, and as he was about to part with him, the late Dr. Mason said to him, "I have one request to make." He asked "what it was?" The doctor replied, that "whatever might be the issue of his affliction, he would give his testimony against the practice of duelling." — "I will," said he; "I have done it. If that^^ — evidently antici- pating the event — "if that be the issue, you will find it in writing. If it please God that I recover, I shall do it in a manner which will effectually put me out of its reach in future." Nothing scarcely could exceed the indignation of the public against the murderer of Hamilton. From that fatal hour, he was shunned by all classes, and for years roamed abroad, a fugitive from the land in which. he was once hon- ored. Forgetting all party distinctions and animosities, the people in various parts of the land united in demonstrations of respect for the memory of Hamilton, and sincere sorrow at his untimely fall. Next to Washington, no man was, perhaps, more respected; nor since the departure of the Father of his country to another world, was the loss of one more deeply or widely deplored. Hamilton had occupied a conspicuous place for years in the army and under the government. In the former capacity, he had stood by the side of Washington. He loved military life, and, as a soldier and a patriot, deserved well of his country. From his views on several subjects connected with the organization of the government, and especially the management of the finances of the country, many dissented. Yet, it cannot be denied, that the policy he advised, resulted in the prosperity of the country. He was a strong partisan in his time, and tenacious of his opinions. There were contemporary with him others of a similar stamp, yet widely different from him in their political views. 600 GREAT EVENTS OF But, aside from his political career, Hamilton was a dis- tinguished man — possessed of a lofty and comprehensive mind. At the bar, with men of learning and experience, he was, perhaps, without a rival. "His eloquence combined the nervousness and copious elegance of the Greek and Roman schools." ■ It was truthfully said of him, what was beautifully said of another: " Incorrupta fides — nudaque Veritas, Quaiido uUum inveniet parem? . Multis ille quidem flebilis occidit." Reelection of Mr. Jefferson. — In 1805, Mr. Jefferson was elected a second time to the office of president. The elec- toral votes were one hundred and seventy-six, of v/hich he received one hundred and sixty-two. George Clinton was chosen vice-president. The following is the official canvass of the votes: s 2 « Sec fc p STATES. PRESIDENT. .SO Ph . . m . o O VICE-PRESIDENT. S o .S ^ o ^ •5 & CO S 7 19 4 9 6 19 8 20 3 11 24 14 10 6 5 176 New Hampshire, Massachusetts, . Rhode Island, . Connecticut, Vermont, . New York, . New Jersey, . "Pennsylvania, . Delaware,. . . Maryland, . . Virginia, . . . North Carolina, South Carolina, . Georgia, . . . Tennessee, . . Kentucky, . , Ohio, . . . . 7 19 4 G 19 8 20 9 24 14 10 6 Whole No. of electors, . Majority, .... 89 162 14 7 19 4 6 19 8 20 9 24 14 10 6 5 162 14 AMERICAN HISTORY. 601 Conspiracy and Trial of Burr. — In the spring of 1807, Colonel Aaron Burr was arrested on the Tombigbee river, Mississippi territory, on a charge of treason against the United States; and was conveyed to Richmond, Virginia, for trial. Other arrests were made of persons supposed to be concerned with him in his treasonable scheme — among them were Generals Adair and Dayton, Blannerhasset, Swartwout, Alexander, Smith, Bollman, Ogden, &c. Burr and Blannerhasset alone were brought to trial. The trial of the former took place in May, 1807, before the circuit court of the United States, Judge Marshall presiding. No indictment was found by the grand jury until the 25th of June, when two bills were presented against Burr — one for treason, the other for a misdemeanor. On the 30th of June, he was committed to the penitentiary for safe keeping until the 3d day of August. From the 5th until the 17th of August, the court was engaged in obtaining a jury and dis- cussing points of law. On that day, the treason case was opened, and an examination of witnesses on the part of the government commenced. On the 1st of September, the case was given to the jury, and as no overt act was proved asrainst Colonel Burr to sustain the charge of treason com- mitted within the state of Virginia, the jury rendered a verdict of "Not guilty." On the 9th of September, a jury was empanneled to try Colonel Burr on the indictment for misdemeanor, which consisted of seven counts; the substance of which was, that Aaron Burr did set on foot a military enterprise, to be carried on against the territory of a foreign prince, viz: the province of Mexico, which was within the territory of the king of Spain, with whom the United States were at peace. After proceeding in the trial at some length, the district attorney himself moved that the jury should be discharged — the evidence of the guilt of the accused not appearing, sufficient. To a discharge of the jury without the rendition of a verdict, Burr objected ; whereupon the jury retired, and soon returned with a verdict of "Not guilty." 602 GREAT EVENTS OF The distinguished talents of Colonel Burr, his well-known cunning and intrigue, and the eminent station he had occu- pied in the United States, together with the grave charges against him of a contemplated dismemberment of the Union, with other projects — all combined to attach interest and importance to his trial. In his message to congress, devel- oping the designs of Burr, as the government' understood them. President Jefferson accused him of designing to revolutionize the territory west of -the Alleganies, and of establishing an independent government, of which New Orleans was to be the capital, and himself the chief. In addition to this project. Colonel Burr, it was alleged, had formed another, which, in case of the failure of the first, might be carried on independent of it, viz: an attack on Mexico, and an establishment of an empire there. To serve as a pretext for all his preparations, and an allurement for such followers as really wished to acquire settlements in that country, it was stated that a third object was provided — the settlement of the pretended purchase of a tract of land on the Washita, claimed by a Baron Bastrop. Such were the plans of Burr, according to intelligence communicated from time to time to the government of the United States. On the belief of the guilt of Burr, or through utter hostility to him, Jefferson acted; and with an evident design to prevent his escape, he succeeded in procuring the passage of a bill in the senate for suspending the writ of habeas corpus; but it was rejected by the house, by the strong vote of one hundred and thirteen to nineteen. Burr, to his dying day, denied any intention of dismem- bering the Union; but avowed the projects which did not involve the charge of treason. "In his latter days," says his biographer, "Colonel Burr had no longer any motive for concealment; nor did he evince the least desire to suppress the facts in relation to any of his acts, even where the pro- mulgation of those facts was calculated to effect his moral character. According to his representation, repeated at a time, and under circumstances the most solemn and impres- AMERICAN HISTORY. G03 sive, (Burr at this time was expected to survive but a short time,) his views were twofold, viz: Fiist, The revolutionizing of Mexico; and, Second, A settlement on what was known as the Bastrop lands." It is further added by his biographer, that "during the years 1806 and 1807, Herman Blannerhasset kept a private journal, in which are recorded the principal incidents arising out of his connexion with Colonel Burr. Portions of it are interesting and amusing. The entries confirm the particular statements of Truxton, Bollman,* and others, and repudiate the idea of treasonable designs. It appears that in Decem- ber, 1805, Blennerhasset addressed a letter to Colonel Burr, expressing a wish to participate in any speculation in the Western country that might present itself to Burr. A Spanish war was hourly anticipated, and Blennerhasset proposed to join Burr in any expedition that might be undertaken against the Spanish dominions. "In August, 1806, in consequence of this overture. Burr visited Blannerhasset at his home on the Ohio, and the next day rode with him to Marietta, and then separated, Burr being on his way to Chilicothe. From Marietta to Blannerhasset's was about fifteen miles. Some time after, Burr returned to Blannerhasset, to whom he said that an expulsion of the Spaniards from the American territory, or an invasion of Mexico, would be pleasing to the administra- tion, if it could be accomplished without an open, formal war, which would be avoided as long as possible, from parsimony on the one hand, and the dread of France on the other." We have thus given such a statement of this subject as our limits permit, and as seems due to the respective par- ties engaged in it. Different opinions will doubtless be entertained with reference to Burr's real designs. That he * Commodore Truxton and Doctor Bollman testified before the court, that they were both intimate with Colonel Burr; that in their conversation with him, there had been no reserve ; and that they had never heard him speak of a dis- solution of the Union. 604 GREAT EVENTS OF contemplated the dismemberment of the Union, and the founding of an empire, of which New Orleans was to be the centre, and himself the head, will be questioned by some. That he was capable of devising such a project, and would have accomplished it, if in his power, no one acquainted with the deep designing character of the mur- derer of Hamilton, can doubt. With exalted talents — with an early education and parental counsel, as liberal and ■watchful as ever, perhaps, fell to the lot of mortal to enjoy — with the favor and patronage of a people, seldom so gener- ously conferred, or so long and uniformly enjoyed — Burr proved himself a selfish, unprincipled man. One thing is certain, and this he admitted — that he designed the inva- sion and overthrow of the Mexican government, and the erection of an independent power in its place. And to further his views, he induced not a few, by "inuendoes and otherwise," to believe that his arrangements for the accomplishment of this were with the knowledge, if not the approbation, of the United States' government. France and England, 1806. — A contest between these two powers, which had been waging for some time, and which had involved the whole of Europe, began now seriously to affect the commercial interests of America. It being the obvious policy of the latter to preserve a strict neutrality in respect to these belligerent powers, every act of the American government had respect to maintaining the same. Being neutral, her vessels carried from port to port the productions of France and her dependent king- doms; and also to the ports of those kingdoms, the manu- factures of England, bringing, by means of this "carrying trade," vast wealth to the nation. These advantages were, however, too great to be long enjoyed unmolested. Amer- ican ships, carrying to Europe the produce of French colo- nies, were captured by British cruisers, and condemned by their courts as lawful prizes; and now, several European Dorts, under the control of France, were, by British orders AMERICAN HISTORY. 605 in council. May 16, 1806, declared to be in a state of blockade, although not invested with a British fleet; and American vessels, attempting to enter those ports, were also captured and condemned. France and her allies suffered from these proceedings, but far less than the United States. By way of retaliation, in November of the same year, Buonaparte issued a decree at Berlin, declaring the British islands to be in a state of blockade, and of course authori- zing the capture and condemnation of all neutral vessels attempting to trade with them. Thus, from the retaliatory measures of these two rival powers, the commerce of the United States was seriously injured. Although the relations of Great Britain and America were at this time ostensibly pacific, yet there existed, and had long existed, a claim on the part of Great Britain, and a pretence under that claim, which was denied by the sev- eral presidents during their administrations. This was what was denominated "the right of search" — founded upon the English principle, that no act of a subject can change his allegiance to the government under which he was born. Upon this principle, Great Britain, soon after the peace of 1783, claimed the right to board and search neutral vessels, and take therefrom all British seamen found therein. In the exercise of this pretended right, citizens of the United States had been seized, and, being trans- ported to a distant part of the world, had been compelled to perform the degrading part of British sailors. Notwith- standing the remonstrances of Washington^ Adams, and Jefferson, the odious practice was still continued, and every year was adding to its aggravations. Attach on the Chesapeake. — At length, an event occurred, growing out of this pretended "right of search," which roused the indignation of the American people. A British armed ship, called the Melampus, while lying in Hampton roads, lost, by desertion, several of her crew, viz: William Ware, Daniel Martin, John Strachan, John 606 GREAT EVENTS OF Little, and Ambrose Watts. Not long after, the first three offered themselves for enlistment on boai'd the Chesapeake, then at Norfolk, Virginia, preparing for the Mediterranean. The British consul at Norfolk, being apprised of this circumstance, v^^rote a letter to the American naval officer, requesting these men to be returned. With this request the officer refusing to comply, the British agent requested an order from government for their surrender. An exam- ination, however, into the characters and claims of the men in question, resulted in proof that Ware, Martin, and Strachan, were natives of America. The two former had protections, or notarial certificates of their being Ameri- can citizens. Strachan had no protection, but asserted that he lost it previously to his escape. Such being the circumstances of the men, the government refused to surrender them. On the 22d of June, the Chesapeake weighed anchor, and proceeded to sea. She passed the British ships Bellona and Melampus, lying in Lynnhaven bay. There were two ships lying off Cape Henry, one of which, the Leopard, Captain Humphreys, weighed anchor, and, in a few hours, came alongside the Chesapeake. A British officer immediately came on board, and demanded the deserters. To this, Captain Barron replied, that he did not know of any being there, and that his duty forbade him to allow of any muster of his crew, except by their own officers. During this interview, Barron, noticing some proceedings of a hostile nature on board the adverse ship, gave orders, on the departure of the officer, to clear his gun-deck, and, after some time, directed his men to their quarters secretly, and without beat of drum; still, however, without any serious apprehensions of an attack. Before these orders could be executed, the Leopard com- menced a heavy fire, which proved very destructive. In thirty minutes, the hull, rigging, and spars of the Chesa- peake were greatly damaged; three men were killed and AMERICAN HISTORY. 607 sixteen wounded; among the latter, was the the captain himself. Such was the previous disorder, that, during this time, the utmost exertions were insufficient to prepare the ship for action, and the captain thought proper to strike his colors. The British captain refused to accept the surrender of the Chesapeake, but took from her crew Ware, Martin, and Strachan, the three men formerly demanded as desert- ers, and a fourth, John Wilson, claimed as a runaway from a merchant ship. "On receiving information of this outrage, the president, by proclamation, interdicted the harbors and waters of the United States to all armed British vessels, forbade inter- course with them, and ordered a sufficient force for the protection of Norfolk, and such other preparations as the occasion appeared to require. An armed vessel of the United States was dispatched, with instructions to the American minister at London, to call on the British gov- ernment for the satisfaction and security which the outrage required." Pursuant to these instructions, Mr. Monroe, then minister resident at the court of St. James, demanded reparation; and, as an essential part of that reparation, security against future impressments from American ships. But Mr. Can- ning, the British minister, objected to uniting these subjects, and Mr. Monroe not being authorized to treat them sepa- rately, Mr. Rose was dispatched, by the English government, as envoy extraordinary to the United States, to adjust the difficulty which had arisen on account of the Chesapeake.* * This unhappy difficulty was not finally adjusted till 1811. Mr. Rose reached America December 25th. But, having no authority to negotiate until the president should recall his proclamation of July 2d, and the president declining to accede to such a preliminary, the negotiations, for the time, closed. In November, 1811, the British minister communicated to the secretary of state, that the attack on the Chesapeake was unauthorized by his majesty's government; that the officer at that time in command on the American coast, had been recalled ; that the men, taken from the Chesapeake, should be restored, and that suitable pecuniary provision should be made for those who 008 GREAT EVENTS OF Orders in Council. — In November, Great Britain issued her orders in council, which measure she declared to be in relahation of the French decree of November, 1806. By these orders, all neutral nations w^ere prohibited from trading with France or her allies, excepting upon the payment of a tribute to England. Milan Decree. — Scarcely had the news of the adoption of the above orders reached Milan, where Buonaparte then was, than he issued, December 17th, a retaliatory decree, called the "Milan Decree," which confiscated any and every vessel found in any of his ports, which had allowed herself to be searched by an English ship, or had paid the tribute demanded. Embargo. — Congress -had been summoned, by procla- mation of the president, to meet as early as the 27th of October. The wanton attack upon the Chesapeake had filled the country with indignation — all parties felt the national honor insulted; forgetting, for the time, political jealousies and animosities, all concurred in demanding sat- isfaction for the outrage. There were other subjects, also, which, in the opinion of the executive, required the thoughtful consideration of the national legislature. The conduct of the continental bel- ligerents was preying upon the vital interests of America. Great Britain was asserting rights which could never be allowed, and assuming a lofty tone which would excite no other feelings but indignation. In view of the circumstances of the country, the presi- dent recommended to congress to lay an embargo — by which measure he designed to detain seamen, ships, and merchandise in port, to preserve them from the dangers to which they were exposed on the ocean; but the higher suffered in the attack, and for the families of the seamen that fell. To these propositions the president acceded. But the question, touching the right of search, was left undecided. AMERICAN HISTORY. 609 motive for recommending such a measure, probably, was the hope of thereby inducing — coercing, w6 might with more truth say — the belligerent powers to respect the laws of nations. In accordance with the recommendation of the president, an embargo was laid. This measure was not without its commercial and polit- ical effects. The large shipping interest then in the United States was locked up by means of it, and vessels abroad, which were obliged to come in, could go out no more. To the New England states, which were preemi- nently commercial, the embargo was highly obnoxious. They believed the measure both impolitic and oppressive. A rapid change in the political opinions of the people of New England was the consequence. A large majority, embracing many who had supported the administration, now united with the federal party, and opposed its mea- sures with zeal. Thus pressed by public sentiment, the government felt the necessity of repealing the embargo, which it was the more willing to do, from the consideration that it had failed to effect its principal object; but, at the same time, another law was passed, prohibiting all inter- course with France and Great Britain for one year. "Pro- vision was made in this law, that, should either of the hostile nations revoke her edict, so that the neutral com- merce of the United States should be no longer violated, the president should immediately make it known by procla- mation, and, from that time, the non-intercourse law should cease to be enforced as it regarded that nation." Election of Mr. Madison. — In this critical posture of affairs, the period having again arrived for the election of president, Mr. Jefferson signified his determination to follow and confirm the example of Washington, by retiring to pri- vate life at the expiration of his second term. "Never did a prisoner," said he, "released from his chains, feel such relief as I shall, on shaking off the shackles of power. I thank God for the opportunity of retiring from them with- 39 610 GREAT EVENTS OF out censure, and carrying with me the most constant proofs of public approbation. I leave every thing in the hands of men so able to take care of them, that, if we are destined to meet misfortunes, it will be because no human wisdom could avert them." James Madison was chosen his suc- cessor, and George Clinton reelected vice-president. The following table presents the result of the official canvass: IH PRESIDENT. VICE-PRESIDENT. ^B C c ^ >; cd c ^ r;" - - n ^ gUJ o . o ^ 5? C ° '^ O . c .!= }-• m c- 2 KJ o STATES. -t3 !ti M>1 ■S & w 5 1- »■;> ."„^ ?r^ ^> m> -Jffi \r^ a o 2"^ a o 1-1 1^ e4 7 New Hampshire, . . 7 7 19 Massachusetts, . 19 19 4 Rhode Island, . . . 4 4 9 Connecticut, . . . 9 9 6 Vermont, .... 6 6 19 New York, . . . 13 6 13 3 3 8 New Jersey, . . . 8 8 20 Pennsylvania, . . 20 20 3 Delaware, . . . 3 3 11 Maryland, . . . 9 2 9 2 24 Virginia, 24 24 14 North Carolina, . . U 3 11 3 10 ?outh Carolina, . . 10 10 6 Georgia, .... 6 6 7 Kentucky, .... 7 7 5 Tennessee, . . . 5 5 3 Ohio, 3 3 175 Whole No. of electors, Majority, ... 88 122 6 47 113 3 3 9 47 AMERICAN HISTORY. 611 IX. JAMES MADISON, PRESIDENT 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 l\\\liaLii;=====s==i!^^ilj 1 1 INAUGURATED AT WASHINGTON, MARCH 4, 1809. GEORGE CLINTON AND ELBRIDGE GERRY, VICE-PRESIDENTS HEADS OF THE DEPARTMENTS. Robert Smith, Maryland, James Monroe Virginia, Albert Gallatin, . . . George W. Camnhell, Alexander J. Dallas, . Pennsylvania, Tennessee, . Pennsylvania, William Eustis, Massachusetts, John Armstrong, New York, . James Monroe,. Virginia,. . . William H. Crawford, . . . Georgia, . . Paul Hamilton, South Carolina, William Jones Pennsylvania; Benjamin W. Crowninsliield, . Massachusetts, Gideon Granger, Connecticut, Return J. Meigs, Ohio, .... Ciesar A. Rodney, Delaware, . Wi.liam Pinkney, Maryland, . . Richard Rusli, Pennsylvania, March 6, 1809, < November 25, 1811, ! Secretaries of State. Secretaries of War. . (contimied in office), i . Februarys, 1814,/ Secretaries of Treasury. . October 6, 18U,> . March 7, 1809, ) . January 13, 1813, . September 27, IBU, . March 3, 1815, ) . March 7, 1809, > . January 12, 1813, > Secretaries of the Navy- December 17, 1814, > . ■ March T^ '" Im; \ Postmasters General. . (conlinued in office), ) . December 11, 18)1, > Attorneys General . February 10, 1814, > SPEAKERS OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. Joseph B. Vanium Massachusetts, Henry Clay, Kentucky, . . Heniy Clay, Kentucky, . . Lar.^don Clieves, South Carolina, Henry Clay, Kentucky, . . . Eleventli Congress, . 1809 Tweinh do. . ISll. . Tlurteenth do. . I 13. Thirteenth do. . 18U. . Fourteenth do. . . 1815. 612 GREAT EVENTS OF In his address, delivered on the occasion of his inaugura- tion, Mr. Madison alluded to "the present situation of the world as without a parallel, and that of the United States ds full of difficulties." The two leading powers of Europe, France and England, were still engaged in arraying against each other commercial edicts, which tended directly to destroy the commerce of nations disposed to pursue a neutral policy. The United States, moreover, were suffer- ing by means of restrictions upon their commerce, imposed by the federal government. The condition of the people, especially the commercial portion of it, was gloomy and depressing. A vast amount of capital, invested in shipping, was lying idle, and rapidly diminishing m value. Neither the embargo nor non-intercourse had had the effect to induce either of the belligerent powers to pause in their wanton and unjust restrictions and decrees. On the contrary, their obnoxious measures were growing oppressive every month. The patience of the United States' government was nearly exhausted. Every thing betokened a speedy resort to arms. The principal events and measures which subsequently signalized the administration of Mr. Madison, were as follows: Battle of Tippecanoe, Capture of York, Early Session of Congress, Seige of Fort Meigs, Declaration of War, Perry's Victory, Surrender of Hull, Battle of the Thames, Capture of tlie Guerriere, Creek War, Battle of Queenstown, Battle of Chippewa and Capture of the Frolic, Bridgewater, Capture of the Macedonian, Capture of Washington, Capture of the Java, Engagement on Battle of Frenchtown, Lake Champlain, Capture of the Peacock, Battle of New Orleans, Reelection of Mr. Madison, Treaty of Ghent, Close of Mr. Madison's Administration. Battle of Tippecanoe. — This battle, fought on the 7th of November, 1811, was doubtless one of the most spirited and best-fought actions recorded in the annals of Indian warfare. AMERICAN HISTORV. 613 For several years, the Indian tribes on our Western fron- tier had exhibited a restless and hostile spirit, engendered by the intrigues of two twin-brothers of the Shawnee tribe, Tecumseh, the Crouching Panther, and 01-li-wa-chi-ca, the Open Door, generally known as the Prophet. The former was a bold and skillful warrior, sagacious in council, and formidable in battle; the latter was cunning, cruel, cowardly, and treacherous. Qne important object of these brothers, was to form a general combination of the north-western and south-western Indians, for the purpose of preventing the whites from extending their settlements west of those already existing, and perhaps of recovering the valley of the Mississippi — a territory which, from its great fertility, they naturally and strongly desired to possess. The plans of the brothers were, from time to time, com- niunicated to General Harrison, then governor of the north- west territory, by his confidential advisers; and, for several years, by his forbearance and wise policy, he was enabled to counteract those plans, without exciting their jealousy or increasing their hostility. In September, 1809, General Harrison held a council at Fort Wayne, where he negotiated a treaty with the Miamies and several other Indian tribes, by which they sold to the United States a large tract of country on both sides of the Wabash, extending up that river more than sixty miles above Vincennes. At the time this treaty was negotiated, Tecumseh was ab- absent, but his brother, the Prophet, who was present, made objection to it ; but, on the return of the former, he expressed great dissatisfaction, and even threatened to put to death those chiefs who had signed the treaty. From this time, no efforts of General Harrison availed to pacify the brothers, or to quiet the restless and hostile feelings of their followers. At length, the Indians proceeded to the perpe- tration of deeds of depredation and murder; the white population of the frontier became excited and alarmed. In 614 GREAT EVENTS OF this state of things, General Harrison, by order of the presi- dent, assembled five hundred of the mihtia and volunteers of Indiana, and with these, increased by a regiment of United States' infantry, consisting of three hundred and fifty men, and a small but gallant body of volunteers from Kentucky, took post at Fort Harrison, sixty miles above Vincennes; whence, not long after, he proceeded, October 28th, 1811, to the Prophet's town. At the distance of nine or ten miles, the army encamped on the evening of the 5th of November. On the following day, the army proceeded towards the town in the order of battle; and when arrived within a short distance, they were met by a deputation of the Prophet's counsellors. "They were sent," they said, "to ascertain why an army was advancing upon them, and to avert, if possible, approaching hostilities. This was the wish of the Prophet himself." A suspension of hostilitigs was agreed upon, for the purpose of an interview between the governor and chiefs, to be held the following day. "The ensuing night was dark and cloudy. The moon rose late, and soon after midnight there commenced a light fall of drizzling rain. The night, however, passed without interruption, and the governor and his aids rose at a quar- ter to four, and were sitting in conversation before a fire. It was still dark, as the light of the moon was shadowed by heavy and lowering clouds. At this moment, an attack by the Indians was commenced. They had stealthily crept up near the sentries, with the intention of rushing upon them, and killing them before they could give the alarm. But, fortunately, one of them discovered an Indian creeping towards him through the grass, and fired at him. This was immediately followed by the Indian yell, and a furious charge upon the left flank. The camp-fires were immedi- ately extinguished, as their light only served to expose our men to the deadly aim of the Indians. Upon the first alarm, the governor mounted his horse, and proceeded to the point of attack; and, finding the line there much weakened, he AMERICAN HISTORY, G15 ordered two companies from the centre and rear line to march to their support. About this time, the gallant Colo- nel Daviess, of Kentucky, in attempting to dislodge some Indians concealed behind some trees, was shot down, beincr pierced with three balls, either of which would have proved fatal. His men I'epulsed the Indians several times, and finally succeeded in carrying him into the camp. Colonel Isaac White, of Indiana, another brave officer, who served as a volunteer under Colonel Daviess, likewise fell in this sanguinary charge. About the same time, Colonel Owen, aid to Governor Harrison, was also killed. ^^?lfFE€AU©^« "The battle was now maintained in every direction with desperate valor. The Indians advanced and retreated by a rattling noise, made with deer-hoofs. They fought with great enthusiasm, and seemed determined to conquer. "When the day dawned, the left flank, the most assail- able part of the encampment, was reinforced by four com- panies, drawn from the rear and centre; the right flank was strengthened by two companies; the dragoons were mounted, and, supported by them, a simultaneous charge 616 GREAT EVENTS OF was made upon the enemy on both flanks; and so vigorous and determined was the attack, that the enemy gave way on all sides. The Indians, on the left flank, were driven into a swamp, impenetrable to cavalry, while those on the right were put to flight with great loss, and this severely-con- tested victory was at last gained by our gallant troops."* The Indians engaged in this battle were supposed to amount to one thousand. They were led by three dis- tino-uished warriors — White Loomstone Eater, and Winne- fjiac — the last a Potawattomie chief, who had made great professions of friendship to General Harrison himself. Tecumseh was not present at the battle, being on a visit to more southern tribes, the object of which was supposed to be to enlist them in a common cause against the United States. As for the Prophet, he took no active part in the engage- ment, but employed himself in chanting a war-song from a neighboring eminence. When it was announced to him that the tide was setting strongly against his warriors, and that they were falling on every side, his only response was "to fight on, and that they would soon see the fulfillment of all his predictions." A melancholy duty followed the battle — that of burying their brave companions, who had fallen on the field. This done, and the wounded provided for, the army took up their march from the scene of carnage, and returned to Vin- cennes. The results of the engagement were important. The haughty and discontented spirit of the Indians was humbled, and the plan which they had devised, and which had nearly ripened to maturity, of attacking and destroy- ing the scattered border settlements, was defeated. Early Session of Congress. — On the 5th of November, 1811, President Madison summoned a meeting of congress. His message indicating an apprehension of hostilities with Great Britain, the committee of foreign relations in the house of representatives reported resolutions for filling up * Life of William Henry Harrison. AMERICAN HISTORY. . G17 the ranks of the army ; for raising an additional force of ten thousand men; for authorizing the president to accept the services of fifty thousand volunteers, and for ordering out the militia when he should judge it necessary; for repairing the navy, and for authorizing the arming of mei'- chantmen in self-defence. A bill from the senate, for raising twenty-five thousand men, after much discussion, was also agreed to by the house. Declaration of War. — Preparations in anticipation of war were now industriously urged; yet the hope was still cherished, until May in the following year, that a change of policy in Europe would render unnecessary an appeal to arms. Towards the close of that season, the Hornet arrived from London, bringing information that no prospect existed uf a favorable change. On the 1st of June, the president sent a message to congress, recounting the wrongs received from Great Britain, and submitting the question, whether the United States should continue to endure them, or resort to war? The message was considered with closed doors. On the 18th, an act was passed, declaring war against Great Britain; soon after which, the president issued his proclamation making public announcement of the same. Surrender of Hull. — At the time of the declaration of war, General Hull was at Dayton, in Ohio, with a small American force, destined for Detroit. This having been subsequently increased to two thousand five hundred men, on the 12th of July he crossed into Canada, and taking post at Sandwich, issued from that place a proclamation, couched in bold and imposing language. By means of it, the Indians were awed into neutrality, and the Canadians, favorable to the American cause, either remained quietly at home or joined his ranks. On the 1st of August, intelligence was received by the American general of the fall of the fortress at Mackinaw 618 GREAT EVENTS OF on the 17lh of July. Until the moment of a demand to surrender, no intelligence had been received by the garri- son of the declaration of- war. This event justly filled Hull with surprise and consiternation, as he had now no means of checking the incursions of the restless hordes of northern savages. On the 5th of August, a council of war was held, to deliberate upon the expediency of attacking the fortress of Maiden; but as the artillery had not arrived, it was decided to wait two days, and then proceed with or without it, as the case might be. Meanwhile, however, communications were received from Generals Porter and Hall, who commanded on the Niagara frontier, that the enemy were leaving their posts in that quarter, and were concentrating their forces at Maiden. At the same time, Hull was informed that he could not depend upon assistance from General Dearborn, the commander-in-chief, although the latter had been directed by the government to invade Canada from Niag- ara, and cooperate with Hull. Under all the aspects of the case, although his delayed artillery had arrived, Hull issued orders, on the afternoon of the 7th, for his army to return to Detroit. An order to the officers and army so unexpected as this — at a moment when they were anticipating a victory and the honors due from it — was like a thunderbolt upon them. The murmurs of the volunteers and regular troops were loud. They upbraided their commander with pusillanimity, and even treachery. On the 14th, a British force, under command of General Brock, the most active and able of the British command- ers in Canada, took a position opposite Detroit, where they proceeded to erect batteries. On the 15th, he sent a flag, bearing a summons to the American general to surren- der, in which he says: "It is far from my intention to join in a war of extermination, but you must be aware that the numerous body of Indians, who have attached themselves AMERICAN HISTORY. 619 to my troops, will be beyond my control the moment the contest commences." To this, General Hull answered: "I have no other reply to make, than that I am prepared to meet any force which may be at your disposal," &c. Gen- eral Brock immediately opened his batteries upon the town and fort, and several persons within the fort were killed. The fire was returned by the Americans with some effect. On the morning of the 16th, the British crossed the river, and landing, under cover of their ships, at Spring Wells, three miles below Detroit, commenced their march towards the fort. Hull, it was evident, was perplexed and agitated. At first, his army was drawn up in order of battle without the fort, his artillery advantageously planted, and his troops impatiently waiting the approach of the enemy. At length, when the British were within five hundred yards of their lines, most suddenly and unexpectedly an order from Gen- eral Hull was received, directing them "to retire imme- diately to the fort." No sooner were the troops in the fort, than they were further directed to stack their arms — immediately after which, a white flag was suspended from the walls, in token of submission. A British ofiicer rode up to ascertain the cause, for this surrender was no less unexpected to the assailants. A capitulation was agreed to, without even stipulating the terms. Words are wanting to express the feelings of the Americans, in being thus compelled to sur- render to an inferior force, without firing a gun, when they were firmly convinced that that force was in their power. The British took immediate possession of the fort, with all the public property it contained; among which were forty barrels of powder, four hundred rounds of fixed twenty- four-pound shot, one hundred thousand ball cartridges, two thousand five hundred stand of arms, twenty-five pieces of iron cannon and eight of brass, the greater number of which had been captured by the Americans during the revolutionary war. Besides this great amount of warlike 620 GREAT EVENTS OF Stores, the whole territory, forts and garrisons were also delivered up. In his official dispatch, General Hull labored to free his conduct from censure, by bringing into view the inferiority of his force, compared with that of the enemy; and, also, the dangers which threatened him from numerous western tribes of Indians. But whether the views which induced this surrender were in reahty justly founded or not, the public mind was altogether unprepared for an occurrence at once so disastrous and mortifying. Some time after, having been exchanged, Hull was arraigned before a court-martial, of which General Dear- born was president. By this tribunal, he was acquitted of treason, but sentenced to death for cowardice and unofficer- like conduct. In consideration, however, of his revolu- tionary services, and the recommendation of the court, the president remitted the punishment of death, but deprived him of all military command. Constitution and Guerriere. — While defeat and disgrace were attending the American arms on the land, the ocean was the theatre of bold and successful achievement on the part of the American navy. On the 19th of August, three days after the disgraceful surrender of Detroit, the Consti- tution achieved a splendid victory over the Guerriere. On the 2d of August, the Constitution put to sea. On the 19th, a vessel hove in sight, which proved to be the Guerriere, and the Constitution bore down upon her. "At first, it was the intention of Captain Hull to bring her to close action immediately; but, on coming within gun-shot, she gave a broadside, and filled away; then wore, giving a broadside on the other tack, but without effect. They now continued wearing and manoeuvring on both sides, for three-quarters of an hour, the Guerriere attempting to take a raking posi- tion; but, failing in this, she bore up, and run with her top- sail and jib on the quarter. The Constitution, perceiving this, made sail to come up with her. Captain Hull, with AMERICAN HISTORY. 621 admirable coolness, received the enemy's fire without returning it. The enemy, mistaking this conduct on the part of the American commander for want of skill, con- tinued to pour out his broadsides with a view to cripple his antagonist. From the Constitution, not a gun had been fired. Already had an officer twice come on deck, with information that several of the men had been killed, at their guns. The gallant crew, burning with impatience, silently awaited the orders of their commander. The moment so long looked for, at last arrived. Sailing- master Aylwin having seconded the views of the captain with admirable skill, in bringing the vessel exactly to the station intended, orders were given at five minutes before five P. M., to fire broadside after broadside, in quick suc- cession. The crew instantly discovered the whole plan, and entered into it with all the spirit that the circumstances were calculated to inspire. Never was any firing so dread- ful. For fifteen minutes the vivid lightning of the Constitu- tion's guns continued one blaze, and their thunder roared with scarce an intermission. The enemy's mizen-mast had gone by the board, and he stood exposed to a raking fire which swept his decks. The Guerriere had now become unmanageable; her hull, rigging, and sails, dreadfully torn; when the Constitution attempted to lay her on board. At this moment. Lieutenant Bush, in attempting to throw his marines on board, was killed by a musket-ball, and the enemy shot ahead, but could not be brought before the wind. A raking fire now continued for fifteen minutes longer, when his main-mast and fore-mast went, taking with them every spar excepting the bowsprit. On seeing this, the firing ceased, and at twenty-five minutes past five, she surrendered. "In thirty minutes" says Captain Hull, "after we got" fairly alongside of the enemy, she surren- dered, and had not a spar standing, and her hull, above and below water, so shattered, that a few more broadsides must have carried her down." The Guerriere was so much damaged, as to render it impossible to bring her in; she 622 GREAT EVENTS OF was therefore set fire to the next day, and blown up. The damage sustained by the Constitution was comparatively of so little consequence, that she actually made ready for action when a vessel appeared in sight the next day. The loss on board the Guerriere, was fifteen killed and sixty- three wounded: on the side of the Constitution, seven killed and seven wounded. It is pleasing to observe, that even the British commander, on this occasion, bore testimony to the humanity and generosity with which he was treated by the victors. The American frigate was superior in force by a few guns, but this difference bore no comparison to the disparity of the conflict. The Guerriere was thought to be a match for any vessel of her class, and had been ranked among the largest in the British navy. The Con- stitution arrived at Boston on the 28th of August, having captured several merchant vessels."* The victory thus achieved was of incalculable importance to the Americans. If unexpected and surprising to them, it was still more so to the English. On the ocean, the latter claimed supremacy; and their successes in respect to other nations seemed to justify their proud pretensions. Indeed, whatever might be the result of the contest on the land, it had scarcely occurred to the English, that the Americans could, in any equal engagement on the water, become the victors. Nor had the Americans themselves confident hope of any signal success. But this beginning diffused a general joy throughout the nation, as well it might, and excited anticipations which,, if high, were destined to be more than realized. Battle of Queenstown. — For the purpose of invading Can- ada, an army of about five thousand New York militia had been collected on the Niagara frontier. Of these. General Stephen Van Rensselaer, of Albany, an officer of great merit, had the command. His head-quarters were at Lew- Breckenridge's History of the War. # AMERICAN HISTORY. 623 iston, on the river Niagara, opposite to which was Queens- town, a fortified British post. Several hundred regular troops were also attached to his command. The militia displaying great eagerness to attack the enemyj the general determined to give them an opportunity by crossing over to Queenstown. On the morning of the 13th, the army having been reinforced by three hundred regulars, under Colonel Christie, the passage of the Niagara was made. One division of the troops was commanded by Colonel Solomon Van Rensselaer; the other, was the division of Colonel Christie. These were to be followed by Colonel Fenwick's artillery, and the residue of the army. The first party which effected a landing, was that of Colonels Van Rensselaer and Christie, about four o'clock in the morning. On landing, the detachments were formed by order of Colonel Van Rensselaer, (Colonel Christie not having crossed with his men,) for the purpose of storming the heights of Queenstown. At this critical moment, the American troops were attacked on either flank, during which the brave Colonel Van Rensselaer received four severe wounds, which were then supposed to be mortal. The command now devolved upon Captain Wool, the senior officer of the regular troops, who, although sorely wounded,. repaired to Van Rensselaer, and volunteered for any service which might relieve the troops of the latter. Colonel Van Rensselaer directed the storming of the British battery upon the heights. Wool immediately conducted his force silently and circuitoiisly, leaving the battery to his right, until he had passed it, and attained an eminence which commanded it. The British, finding that resistance would not avail them any thing, left it to the Americans, and retreated down the heights of Queenstown. Elated with their success, the Americans had fiillen into disorder, when suddenly they beheld the intrepid Brock advancing at the head of a reinforcement of about three hundred men from Fort George. In a moment of alarm, 624 GREAT EVENTS OF an officer raised a white flag, in token of surrender, but which Wool indignantly pulled down. To keep the enemy at bay, until he could form his men, he dispatched a body of sixty men, who advanced, but retreated without firing a gun. The British followed, and drove the Americans to the brink of the precipice. One soldier, who was about to descend. Wool ordered to be shot; but, as the musket was levelling, he returned. Thus prohibiting either surrender or retreat, and being ably seconded by his officers. Wool rallied, and led on his troops to the attack. The British, in their turn, gave way, and retreated down the hill. Brock, in attempting to rally them amidst a galling fire from the Americans, was mortally wounded. His party no longer attempted resistance, but fled in disorder. The Americans were now congratulating themselves on their success, when, unexpectedly, they were attacked by a body of British and Indians, amounting to one thousand, under General Sheaffe, who had followed the energetic Brock from Fort George. The battle becoming warm, and the Americans being hard pressed, General Van Rensselaer recrossed the Niagara, for the purpose of bringing over the militia, who were on the opposite bank. But their ardor had abated. The sight of the wounded, and the groans of the dying, who most unfortunately had been carried in boats to the American side, had served to destroy all their courage. They could not be persuaded to cross, although their gallant general besought them with tears. Two thousand and five hundred of the militia, quite sufficient to have maintained the works which had been taken, remained idle and cowardly spectators of this most interesting scene. For this conduct, they found an excuse in the unconstitutionality of obliging militia to enter a foreign territory for the purpose of aggressive war. Thus the day was lost, and the troops, who had fought so nobly, had fought in vain, and were obliged, at length, -to surren- der. Sixty were killed, one hundred wounded, and seven hundred made prisoners. AMERICAN HISTORY. 625 Wasp and Frolic. — On the 13lh of October, the Ameri- can sloop-of-war Wasp, mounting sixteen thirty-two-pound carronades, two long twelves, with one hundred and thirty men, left the Delaware on a cruise. On the nio-ht of the 17th, several sail were discovered, which, in the morning, proved to be English merchantmen from Hondu- ras, under convoy of a brig and two ships, armed with sixteen guns each. The brig shortened sail, with an evident disposition for an engagement. Meanwhile, the Wasp having prepared for action, ranged close up on the starboard side of the enemy, receiving her broadside at the distance of some sixty yards, and deliver- ing her own. From this moment, the action became unre- mitted. The fire of the Frolic, for so she proved to be, was to that of the Wasp, as three to two; but with this remarkable difference, that while the former uniformly fired as she rose, the sea being rough, the latter as uniformly fired when she sunk. And the consequence was, that the shot of the Frolic were either lost, or only touched the rig- ging of the Wasp, while those from the latter struck the hull of her antagonist. In the brief space of five minutes, the maintop-mast of the Wasp was shot away, and, falling down with the main- top-sail yard across the larboard fore and foretop-sail, ren- dered her head yards unmanageable during the rest of the action. Soon after, her gaff and mizen-gallant-masts were shot away. Perceiving the desolating effect of the enemy's fire upon his spars and riggmg. Captain Jones at first decided to board; but, soon after, finding his ship in a favorable posi- tion to rake, he directed k fresh broadside to be delivered. The vessels had gradually approached, and were now so near, that in loading some of the guns of the Wasp, the rammers hit against the bows of her antagonist, and the men of the Frolic could no longer be kept at their quarters forward. The discharge of one or two carronades swept the enemy's decks. The impetuosity of the Wasp's crew 40 626 GREAT EVENTS OF could be no longer restrained, and they began to leap into the rigging, and from thence on to the bowsprit of the brig. In this movement, however, they were preceded by Mr. Biddle, the first lieutenant. On reaching the deck, judge his surprise, only three officers and a seaman at the wheel were to be seen! The bodies of the slain were lying here and there, and the deck was slippery with blood. The colors were still flying, there being no seaman to pull them down. This grateful service was performed by iMr. Biddle himself. The officers now stepped forward, and surrendered their swords in submission. Thus, in forty- three minutes, possession was taken of the Frolic, after one of the most bloody conflicts recorded in naval history. The Frolic was commanded by Captain Whinyates. She mounted on her main deck sixteen thirty-two-pound car- ronades, four long guns, differently stated to be sixes, nines, and twelves, with two twelve-pound carronades on a top- gallant forecastle. The Wasp had five killed and five wounded. Her hull sustained but trifling injury. The loss of the Frolic was seventy or eighty in wounded and killed. Both these vessels were captured the same day by the Poictiers, seventy-four, and taken to Bermuda. This and other naval victories, while they served to animate and gratify the whole American people, were humbling to the pride of Great Britain. She had made her boast that she would drive our "bits of striped bunting" from the ocean; but she found herself mistaken; nor was a committee of investigation able to solve the mystery, except that the American frigates were seventy-fours in disguise ! United States and Macedonian. — The capture of the Frolic was almost immediately succeeded by the capture, oflT the Western Isles, October 25th, of the British frigate Macedonian, mounting forty-nine carriage-guns, by the American frigate United States, forty-four guns. The for- mer was commanded by Captain John S. Carden; the latter by Captain Stephen Decatur. AMERICAN HISTORY. 627 The engagement, from its commencement, lasted for nearly an hour and a half — the early part being occupied in firing long-shot; but it was terminated in a very short period, after the vessels came into close action. For a time, the advantage of position was with the Macedonian ; but, notwithstanding this, the fire of the Americans was so superior, that, in a brief space, the mizen-mast, fore and maintop-mast, and main-yard of the enemy, were cut down; besides receiving not less than one hundred round shot in her hull. 01 her crew, three hundred in number, thirty- six were killed, and sixty-eight wounded. The damage sustained by the United States was com- paratively small. She lost one of her top-gallant-masts, received some wounds in her spars, had a good deal of rig- ging cut, but was hulled only a few times. Of her officers and crew, five were killed and seven wounded. The manner m which the brave Decatur received Cap- tain Garden on board the United States did him great honor When the latter presented his sword, as in such cases is usual, the former assured him that "he could not think of taking the sword of an officer who had defended his ship so gallantly, but he should be happy to take him by the hand." The United States, after the action, was in a condition to pursue her course; but, desirous of securing a prize so val- uable as the Macedonian, Captain Decatur determined to make the attempt, notwithstanding her disabled state. Accordingly, having made such repairs upon her as cir- cumstances allowed, the two ships made the best of their way to the United States. The Macedonian was a fine ship of her class. She was smaller, of lighter armament, and had fewer men than the United States; but the disproportion between the force of the two vessels was much less than between the execution. The reputation of Captain Decatur, already high, was added to by the manner in which the Macedonian was cap- 625 GREAT EVENTS OF tured; and another testimony was added to the skill and bravery of the naval officers of the United States. If such warfare must be — yet it is gloomy to think of it among rational and immortal beings, made of one blood, and having one common destiny — it may not be criminal, per- haps, to desire that our country's cause should be crowned with success, if that cause be just. Constitution and Java. — The naval campaign of 1812 closed with another American victory, equal in brilliancy to any which had preceded. On the 29th of December, a few leagues west of St. Salvador, on the coast of Brazil, the Constitution, now under command of Commodore Bainbridge, descried the British frigate Java, forty-nine guns, and four hundred men, commanded by Captain Lam- bert. Both vessels, for some time, manoeuvred to obtain a position that would enable them to rake, or avoid being raked. In the early part of the engagement, the wheel of the Constitution was shot away. Commodore Bainbridge determined to close with the British vessel, notwithstanding, in so doing, he should expose his ship to be several times raked. He ordered the fore and main-sails to be set, and luffed up close to the enemy, in such a manner that his jib- boom got foul of the Constitution's mizen-rigging. About three o'clock, the head of the British vessel's bowsprit and jib-boom were shot away; and, in the space of an hour, her fore-mast was shot away by the board, her main-top- mast just above the cap, her gaff and spanker-boom, and her main-mast nearly by the board. About four o'clock, the fire of the British vessel being completely silenced, and her colors in the main rigging being down, she was supposed to have struck. The courses of the Constitution were now hauled on board, to shoot ahead, in order to repair her rigging, which was very much cut. The British vessel was left a complete wreck. Her flag was soon after discovered to be still flying. The Constitu- tion, however, hove to, to repair some of her damages AMERICAN II I S 'I' O R Y , 629 About a quarter of an hour after, the main-mast of the British vessel went by the board. About three-quarters of an hour after four, the Constitution wore, and stood for the British vessel, and got close athwart her bows, in a very effectual position for raking, when she prudently struck her flag. The Constitution had nine men killed and twentv-five wounded; the Java had sixty killed and one hundred and twenty wounded. Captain Lambert was mortally wounded. i®llStWlt^®M"'*k SAl'J^^ The great distance from the United States, and the dis- abled state of the Java, forbade every idea of attempting to bring her to the United States. No alternative was therefore left but to burn her, which was done, after the prisoners and their baggage were removed to the Constitu- tion. They were all landed at St. Salvador, and paroled. The commander of the Java, Captain Lambert, died soon after he was put on shore. Lieutenant Aylwm, of the Constitution, was severely wounded during the action. When the boarders were called to repel l)oarders, he mounted the quarter-deck ham- mock-cloth, and, in the act of firing his pistol at the enemy, 630 GREAT EVENTS OF received a ball through his shoulder. Notwithstanding the severity of his wound, he continued at his post until the enemy struck. He died, however, on the 28th of January, at sea. Close of the Campaign of 1812. — The naval victories, which have been noticed, were peculiarly gratifying to the Americans; the more so, from the humiliating fact that, on the land, not a single achievement had been made worthy the American valor. Not one victory had been gained which lasted — nor one foot of territory acquired, of which possession was retained. But the navy 'had triumphed. The victories gained, were by that class of citizens whose rights had been violated ; and over a nation, whose long- continued success had led them to consider themselves lords of the sea. Many British merchantmen were also captured, both by the American navy and by privateers. The num- ber of prizes, made during the first seven months of the war, exceeded five hundred. Campaign of 1813. — The scene of the campaign of 1813, comprehended the whole northern frontier of the United States. The army of the West, under General Harrison, was stationed near the head oi Lake Erie; the army of the centre, under General Dearborn, between Lakes Ontario and Erie; and the army of the North, under General Hampton, occupied the shores of Lake Champlain. The invasion of Canada was the grand project of the campaign. The British forces in Canada were under the general command of Sir George Prevost. The defence of the Upper Provinces was committed to Colonels Procter and Vincent; that of the Lower Provinces was entrusted to General Sheaffe. * Battle of Frenchtown. — Michigan, of which Detroit was the pronainent town, was still in possession of the. British. The citizens of the western country, being anxious to AMERICAN HISTORY. 631 regain possession of it, General Harrison determined to undertake a winter campaign, having the reconquest of that territory in view. Accordingly, General Winchester, with about eight hundred men, principally from the most respectable families in Kentucky, was directed to proceed in advance of the main army. Learning, during his march, that a party of British were stationed at Frenchtown, situ- ated on the river Raisin, twenty-six miles from Detroit, he attacked and dispersed them. The Americans encamped near the field of battle, a part of them being protected by close garden pickets. " Although near an enemy's post, but little precaution was taken to prevent a surprise. Early in the morning of the 22d of January, they were attacked by a large force of British and Indians; the former commanded by Colonel Procter, the latter by the chiefs Round-head and i^plit-log. The troops on the open field were thrown into disorder. Gen- eral Winchester and other officers made an ineflfectual attempt to rally them. They fled, but while attempting to escape, were mostly killed by the Indians. The general and Colonel Lewis were made prisoners. "The troops behind the pickets maintained the contest with undaunted bravery. At length, Colonel Procter assured General Winchester, that if the remainder of the Americans would immediately surrender, they should be protected from massacre; but otherwise, he would set fire to the village, and would not be responsible for the conduct of the savages. Intimidated by this threat. General Win- chester sent an order to the troops to surrender. "Colonel Procter, leavmg the wounded without a guard, marched immediately back to Maiden. The Indians accom- panied them a few miles, but returned early the next morn- ing. Deeds of horror followed: the wounded officers were dragged from the houses, killed, and scalped in the streets. The buildings were set on fire. Some who attempted tc escape, were forced back into the flames. Others were put to death by the tomahawk, and left shockingly mangled in 632 GREAT EVENTS OF the highway. The infamy of this butchery should not fall upon the perpetrators alone. It must rest equally upon those who instigated them to hostility, by whose side they fought, who were able, and were bound by a solemn engage- ment to restrain them."* "By this bloody tragedy," observes Mr. Breckenridge, "all Kentucky was literally in mourning; for the soldiers thus massacred, tortured, burned, or denied the common rites of sepulture, were of the most respectable families of the state; many of them young men of fortune and property, with numerous friends and relatives. The remains of these brave youth lay on the ground, beat by the storms of heaven, and exposed to the beasts of the forest, until the ensuing autumn, when their friends and relatives ventured to gather up their bleaching bones, and consigned them to the tomb. Hornet and Peacock. — The day following the tragical affair of Frenchtovvn, a signal naval battle was fought gfF South America, between the Hornet, Captain Lawrence, and the Peacock, Captain Peake. "In less than fifteen minutes the Peacock struck her colors, displaying at the same time a signal of distress. The victors hastened to the relief of the vanquished; but the Peacock sank before all her crew could be removed, carrying down nine British seamen, and three brave and generous Americans. "Of all our naval victories,"' remarks a writer, "this is the one which the Americans recollect with most pleasure." Not that there was more glory in the achievment, but there was such high- souled generosity, such unwonted effort, such risk of life to save the crew of the conquered ship, as rarely, if ever, before occurred. Her guns were thrown overboard — her shot-holes plugged — every thing done — but she went down, and some noble hearts with her. And, then, as if what had been done were not enough, to crown the whole, the crew of the Hornet divided their clothes with the prisoners. * Hale's History of the United States. AMERICAN HISTORY. 633 On his return to the United States, Captain Lawrence was promoted to the command of the frigate Chesapeake, then in the harbor of Boston. For several weeks the British frigate Shannon, of equal force, had been cruising before that port; and Captain Broke, her commander, had announced his wish to meet, in single combat, an American frigate. Inflamed by this challenge. Captain Lawrence, although his crew was just enlisted, set sail on the 1st of June to seek the Shannon. Towards evening of the same day they met, and instantly engaged with unexampled fury. In a very few minutes, and in quick succession, the sailing-master of the Chesapeake was killed, Captain Lawrence and three lieutenants were severely wounded, her rigging was so cut to pieces that she fell on board the Shannon; Captain Law- rence received a second and mortal wound, and was carried below; at this instant, Captain Broke, at the head of his marines, gallantly boarded the Chesapeake, when resistance ceased, and the American flag was struck by the British. Of the crew of the Shannon, twenty-four were killed and fifty-*ix wounded. Of that of the Chesapeake, forty-eight were killed and nearly one hundred wounded. This unex- pected defeat impelled the Americans to seek for circum- stances consoling to their pride, and, in the journals of the day, many such were stated to have preceded and attended the action. The youthful and intrepid Lawrence was lamented with sorrow — deep, sincere, and lasting. When carried below, he was asked if the colors should be struck: "No," he replied; "they shall wave while I live!" Delirious from excess of suffering, he continued to exclaim, "Don't give up the ship!" — -an expression consecrated by his coun- trymen. He uttered but few other words during the four days that he survived his defeat." Reelection of Mr. Madison. — The period for the elec- tion of president of the United States having again arrived, Mr. Madison was a second time placed at the head of the nation, and Elbridge Gerry chosen vice-president. 634 GREAT EVENTS OF They were inaugurated on the 4th day of March, 1813 The following table exhibits the result of the electoral vote: 0) 2 Sec -2 S c p STATES. PRESIDENT. O I- OJ VICE-PRESID T. -3 a o V ttOh 22 4 9 8 29 8 25 4 11 25 15 11 8 12 8 7 3 217 New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, Vermont, New York, New Jersey Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Ohio, Louisiana, Whole No. of electors, . . . Majority, 109 25 6 25 15 11 8 12 8 7 3 128 22 4 9 29 89 25 6 25 15 11 8 12 8 7 3 131 7 20 4 9 29 86 Capture of York. — York, the capital of Upper Canada, was, at this time, the great depository of British military stores for the western posts, and hence its capture was deemed an object of great importance, besides that it would be the means of thwarting the plans of the enemy. With this object in view, about the middle of April, Gen- eral Dearborn issued orders to General Pike to embark on board a flotilla, with seventeen hundred men, and proceed to its reduction. "The force of the enemy, under the command of Gen- eral Sheaffe, consisted of seven hundred and fifty regulars, and five hundred Indians, besides a body of grenadiers and a corps of Glengary fencibles. These troops had collected AMERICAN HISTORY. 635 near the place of debarkation, which was nearly a mile and a half from the fort. Major Forsyth was the first who landed. General Pike soon followed with the remainder of the troops. After a severe contest of half an hour, the enemy retreated to their works. The Americans followed; they had destroyed one battery, and were now within sixty yards of the main works, when the sudden and tremendous explosion of a magazine near by filled the air in every direc- tion with huge stones and fragments of wood, which caused a dreadful havoc among the troops. One hundred of the Americans and forty of the British were killed. General Pike fell mortally wounded. Finding resistance unavailing, General Sheaffe, with the British regulars, retreated towards Kingston, leaving the commanding officer of the militia to make the best terms in his power. The brief outlines of a ca])itulation were soon agreed on, and the Americans took possession of the town. The brave Pike survived but a few hours; and, like Wolfe at Quebec, drew his last breath amidst the cheering shouts of victory. His dying head reposed upon the banner that had lately floated over the fortress which his valor had aided to conquer. "General Dearborn now took command of the troops. The loss of the British was ninety killed, two hundred wounded, and three hundred prisoners, besides five hundred militia, released upon parole. A great quantity of stores was likewise found here, as York was the naval and military depot for Upper Canada. General Sheaflfe's baggage and papers fell into the hands of the Americans. "On the 8th of May, General Dearborn evacuated the capital of Upper Canada: and having crossed the lake, for the purpose of leaving the wounded at Sackett's Harbor, again set sail, and disembarked his troops at Niagara."* Siege of Fort Meigs. — General Harrison was marching to the support of General Winchester, when the tidings of the defeat and massacre at Frenchtown reached him. As * Willard's Republic. 636 GREAT EVENTS OF he could now be of no service to that general, he took post at a place called the Rapids, on the south side of the Mau- mee, a river flowing into the west end of Lake Erie, where he erected a fort, which he named Fort Meigs, in honor of the governor of Ohio. The erection of this fortification was by no means agree- able to the British, and a plan was early laid to capture and destroy it. On the 26th of April, a large party of British and Indians, combined, made their appearance on the oppo- site side of the river; and, on the morning of the 26th, the Indians were conveyed over in boats, and surrounded the fort in every direction. On the 29th, the siege began, all intercourse with other posts being cut off". During the preceding night, the British had thrown up a mound, on which to plant their guns, and behind which they could secure themselves from the fire of the Americans. Next day, several of the Americans were wounded ; and General Harrison himself, being continually exposed, had several narrow escapes. On the following day, the enemy fired two hundred and fifty-six times from their batteries. The Americans fired less rapidly, but with greater effect. A bullet struck the seat on which General Harrison was sitting, and at the same time a volunteer was wounded, as he stood directly opposite to him. In this manner, several days passed; during which, Gen- eral Harrison and his soldiers displayed the utmost coolness and determination. They were resolved to surrender only when they could fight no longer — when ammunition failed, or food and water could no longer be obtained. At this critical juncture, intelligence was received that General Clay, with twelve hundred men, was hastening to their relief He was already but a few miles up the river, and an officer was immediately dispatched, directing him to land one-half of his force on the opposite side, for the pur- pose of forcing the enemy's batteries and spiking his cannon. The gallant Colonel Dudley was deputed to execute this AMERICAN HISTORY. 637 order; but, unfortunately, his troops pursued the retreating enemy until, suddenly, a party of Indians, under command of the celebrated Tecumseh, rose from ambush upon them. The slaughter was terrible. The brave Colonel Dudley was among the killed, and more than five hundred of his detachment were taken prisoners. The other part of Gen- eral Clay's troops were more fortunate. And yet, lured by a party of Indians, whom they wished to destroy, they pro- ceeded into the woods, where they would have been cut off, had not General Harrison dispatched a company of cavalry to cover their retreat. At length, the British gave up the contest. Although they had made many prisoners, this did not aid them, in relation to the fort. The 8th of May brought an end to the toils of the Americans in the fort of Camp Meigs. An exchange of prisoners took place, and on the morning of the 9th, the enemy commenced their retreat. Thus did Harrison sustain, in effect, a siege of twelve days; during which, the enemy had fired eighteen hundred shells and cannon-balls, besides keeping up an almost continual dis- charge of small arms. The loss of each was about equal. Perry's Victory. — During the summer, by the exertions of Commodore Perry, an American squadron had been fitted out on Lake Erie. It consisted of nine small vessels, car- rying fifty-four guns. A British squadron had also been built and equipped, under the superintendence of Commo- dore Barclay. It consisted of six vessels, mounting sixty- three guns. Commodore Perry, immediately sailing, offered battle to his adversary; and on the 10th of September the British commander left the harbor of Maiden, to accept the offer. In a few hours, the wmd shifted, giving the Ameri- cans the advantage. Perry, forming the line of battle, hoisted his fllag, on which was inscribed the words of the dying Lawrence, "Don't give up the ship!" Loud huzzas from all the vessels proclaimed the animation which this motto inspired. About noon, the firing commenced; after 638 GREAT EVENTS- OF a short action, two of the British vessels surrendered; and the rest of the American squadron now joining in the battle, the victory was rendered decisive and complete. The British loss was forty-one killed and ninety-four wounded. The American loss was twenty-seven killed and ninety-six wounded; of which number, twenty-one were killed and sixty wounded on board the flag-ship Lawrence, whose whole complement of able-bodied men, before the action, was about one hundred. The commodore gave intelligence of the victory to General Harrison in these words: "We have met the enemy, and they are ours. Two ships, two brigs, one schooner, and one sloop." Battle of the Thames. — By means of the victory of Com- modore Perry, the Americans became masters of Lake Erie, but the territory of Michigan, which had been surrendered by Hull, was still in possession of Colonel Procter. The next movements of General Harrison were therefore against the British and Indians at Detroit and Maiden. General Harrison had previously assembled a portion of the Ohio AMERICAN HISTORY, G39 militia on the Sandusky river; and on the 7th of September four thousand from Kentucky, the flower of the state, with Governor Shelby at their head, arrived at his camp. With the cooperation of the fleet, it was determined to proceed at once to Maiden, On the 27th, the troops were received on board, and reached Maiden on the same day; but the British had, in the mean time, destroyed the fort and public stores, and had retreated along the Thames towards the Moravian villages, together with Tecumseh's Indians, con- sisting of twelve or fifteen hundred. It was now resolved to proceed in pursuit of Procter. On the 5th of October, a severe action occurred between the two armies at the river Thames, by which the British army fell into the hands of the Americans. In this battle, Tecumseh was killed, and the Indians fled. The British loss was nineteen regulars killed, fifty wounded, and about six hundred prisoners. The American loss, in killed and wounded, amounted to upwards of fifty. Procter made his escape down the Thames. On the 29th of September, the Americans took possession 640 GREAT EVENTS OF of Detroit, which, on the approach of Harrison's army, had been abandoned by the British. Creek War. — While affairs were proceeding at the North, the public attention was arrested by hostilities commenced by the Creek Indians. They had been visited by Tecum- seh, who had persuaded them that the Great Spirit required them to unite in an attempt to extirpate the whites. In the fall of 1812, a sanguinary war had been waged by the Creeks and Seminoles, against the frontier inhabitants of Georgia. At the head of two thousand five hundred volun- teers from Tennessee, General Jackson had marched into their country, and compelled them to desist; but, soon after his return, their animosity burst forth with increased and fatal violence. Dreading their cruelty, some three hundred men, women, and children, took refuge in Fort Mimms. Here, at noon-day, on the 30th of August, they were sur- prised by a party of six hundred Indians, who, from the fort, drove the people into the houses which it inclosed. To these they set fire. Seventeen only of the refugees escaped to carry the horrid tidings to the neighboring stations. But the whites resolved on vengeance. General Jackson, at the head of three thousand five hundred militia of Tennessee, again took up his march into the southern wilderness. A detachment, under General Coffee, encoun- tering at Tallushatchie a body of Indians, a sanguinary conflict ensued. The latter fought with desperation, neither giving nor receiving quarter, until nearly every warrior had perished. Yet still, the spirit of the Creeks remained unsub- dued. With no little sagacity and skill, they selected and fortified another position on the Tallapoosa, called by them- selves Tohopeka, and by whites Horse-shoe Bend. Here nearly a thousand warriors, animated with a fierce and determined resolution, were collected. Three thousand men, commanded by General Jackson, marched to attack this post. To prevent escape, a detachment under General Coffee encircled the Bend. The main bodv advanced to AMERICAN HISTORY. 641 the fortress, and for a few minutes the opposing forces were engaged muzzle to muzzle at the port-holes; but at length, the troops leaping over the walls, mingled in furious com- bat with the savages. When the Indians, fleeing to the river, beheld the troops on the opposite bank, they returned, and fought with increased fury and desperation. Six hun- dred warriors were killed ; four only yielded themselves prisoners; the remaining three hundred escaped. Of the whites, fifty-five were killed and one hundred and forty-six wounded. It was deemed probable that further resistance would be made by the Indians at a place called the Hickory- ground; but, on General Jackson's arriving thither in April, 1814, the principal chiefs came out to meet him, and among them was Weatherford, a half-blood, distinguished equally for Creek Chiefe surrendering to General Jackson. his talents and cruelty. "I am in your power," said he; "do with me what you please. I have done the white people all the harm I could. I have fought them, and fought them bravely. There was a time v/hen I had a choice; I have none now; even hope is ended. Once, I could animate my 41 G42 GREAT EVENTS OF warriors; but I cannot animate the dead. They can no longer hear my voice ; their bones are at Tallushatchie, Talladega, Emuckfav^, and Tohopeka. While there was a chance of success, I never supplicated peace; but my people are gone, and I now ask it for my nation and myself." Peace was concluded, and General Jackson and his troops enjoyed an honorable but short repose.* Battles of Chippewa and Bridgewater. — In the beginning of July, General Brown crossed the Niagara with about three thousand men, and took possession without opposition of Fort Erie. In a strong position at Chippewa, a few miles distant, was intrenched an equal number of British troops, commanded by General Riall. On the 4th, General Brown approached their works; and the next day, on the plains of Chippewa, an obstinate and sanguinary battle was fought, which compelled the British to retire to their intrench- ments. In this action, which was fought with great judg- ment and coolness on both sides, the loss of the Americans was about four hundred men ; that of the British was upwards of five hundred. Soon afterwards. General Riall, abandoning his works, retired to the heights of Burlington. Here Lieutenant-general Drummond, with a large reinforce- ment, joined him, and, assuming the command, led back the army towards the American camp. On the 25th was fought the battle of Bridgewater, which began at four in the after- noon, and continued till midnight. After a desperate conflict, the British troops were withdrawn, and the Americans left in possession of the field. The loss on both sides was severe, and nearly equal. Generals Brown and Scott having both been severely wounded, the command devolved upon Gen- eral Ripley. He remained a few hours upon the hill, col- lected the wounded, and then retired unmolested to the camp. This battle was fought near the cataract of Niagara, whose roar was silenced by the thunder of cannon and the din of arms, but was distinctly heard during the pauses of * Hinton. AMERICAN HISTORY. G43 the fight. The American general found his force so much weakened, that he deemed it prudent again to occupy Fort Erie. On the 4th of August, it was invested by General Drummond with five thousand troops. In the night, between the 14th and 15th, the besiegers made a daring assault upon the fort, which was repelled with conspicuous gallantry by the garrison, the former being more than nine hundred men, the latter but eighty-four. The siege was still continued. On the 2d of September, General Brown having recovered from his wounds, threw himself into the fort, and took com- mand of the garrison. For their fate, great anxiety was felt by the nation, which was, however, in some degree removed, by the march from Plattsburgh of five thousand men to their relief After an hour of close fighting, they entered the fort, having killed, wounded, and taken one thousand of the British, The loss of the Americans was also considerable, amounting to more than five hundred. On the 2 1st of September, the forty-ninth day of the siege. General Drummond withdrew his forces. Capture of Washington, — About the middle of August, a British squadron of between fifty and sixty sail, arrived in the Chesapeake, with troops destined for the attack of Washington, the capital of the United States. A body of five thousand of them having landed, an action was fought at Bladensburgh, six miles from Washington. General Winder commanded the American force ; Commodore Barney the flotilla. The British were commanded by Major-general Ross and Rear-admiral Cockburn. The Americans were repulsed, and General Ross, at the head of about seven hundred men, took possession of Washing- ton, and burned the capitol, the president's house, and public offices, the arsenal, the navy yard, and the bridge over the Potomac. The loss of the British in this expedition, was nearly a thousand men in killed, wounded, and missing; the loss of the Americans was ten or twelve killed, and thirty or forty wounded. Commodore Barney's horse was 644 GREAT EVENTS OF killed under him, and himself wounded in the thigh, and taken prisoner; but he was paroled on the field of battle for his bravery. After the capture of Washington, the British army reembarked on board the fleet in the Patuxent, and Admi- ral Cockburn moved down that river, and proceeded up the Chesapeake. On the 29th of August, the corporation of Alexandria submitted to articles of capitulation, and the city was delivered up to the British. On the 11th of Sep- tember, the British admiral appeared at the mouth of the Patapsco, fourteen miles from Baltimore, with a fleet of ships of war and transports, amounting to fifty sail. The next day, six thousand troops were landed at North point, and commenced their march towards the city. In this march, when the foremost ranks were harassed by a brisk fire from a wood. Major-general Ross was mortally wounded, A battle was fought on this day. The Ameri- can forces, the militia, and the inhabitants of Baltimore, made a gallant defence, but were compelled to retreat; the British, however, abandoning the attempt to get possession of the city, retired to their shipping during the night of the 13th of September. Engagement on Lake Champlain. — Towards the close of the winter of 1814, the troops under General Wilkinson removed from their winter-quarters at French Mills, and took station opposite Plattsburgh. At this time. General Izard assumed the command.' During the summer, the troops were reduced, by various detachments, to fifteen hun- dred. Moreover, the defences here were mostly in a state of dilapidation, and the stores and ordinances in great disorder. It was while troops and fortifications were in this state, that intelligence was received that Sir George Prevost, governor-general of Canada, was on his march, at the head of fourteen hundred men, well-disciplined, with ample stores and a numerous train of artillery. In addition, the British had a respectable naval force on the lake, amount- AMERICAN HISTORY. 645 ing to ninety-five guns and one thousand and fifty men. To cope with this combined, and vastly superior force, the Americans had the troops ah-eady named, and a flotilla carrying eighty-six guns and eight hundred and twenty- six men. On the 3d of September, Sir George Provost, having taken possession ofChampIain, proceeded to occupy Platts- burgh. But, instead of making the most of his advantage, the British general contented himself with erecting works, by which to annoy the Americans — thus giving the latter opportunity to strengthen themselves, and to summon from New York and Vermont a considerable force to their aid. At the moment, the delay of the British was not understood, but in a few days it was explained by the appearance of the British squadron, which was observed bearing down in order of battle. It consisted of the frigate Confiance, car- rying thirty-nine guns ; twenty-seven of which were twenty- four pounders; the brig Linnet, of sixteen guns; the sloops Chub and Finch, each carrying eleven guns; thirteen gal- lies, five of two guns, and the remainder of one gun. Com- modore McDonough, commanding the American squadron, lay at this time at anchor in Plattsburgh bay. His fleet consisted of the Saratoga, of twenty-six guns, eight of which were long twenty- four pounders; the Eagle, twenty guns; the Ticonderoga, seventeen guns; the Preble, seven, and twenty gallies, six of which carried two, and the remainder one gun each. One of this squadi'on had been constructed in eighteen days, from timber cut for this pur- pose, standing on the shore of the lake. At about nine o'clock, the British commander. Captain Downie, anchored in line abreast the American squadron, about three hundred yards distant — the Confiance taking a position opposite the Saratoga — the Linnet, opposite the Eagle— the British galleys and one of the sloops, opposite the Ticonderoga, Preble, and left division of the American galleys— the other sloop was opposed to the right division. The action now opened, and at the same time an engage- 646 GREAT EVENTS OF ment commenced on the land, between the forces under General McComb and Sir George Prevost. The fate of the day depended chiefly on the result of the engagement between the two large vessels. For two hours, this contest was waged, with great skill and bravery, between these two; but the greater weight of the enemy's battery seemed to incline the scale of victory. By this time, the guns of the Saratoga, on the starboard side, had been either dis- mounted or rendered unmanageable: nor was the condi- tion of the Confiance much better. The fortune of the day now depended upon a difficult manoeuvre — to change the position of the vessels, so as to bring their larboard sides into action. In this, the Saratoga succeeded, while the attempt on the part of the Confiance failed. The explo- sions of the former, on wheeling, now became tremendous, and a short and successful work was made of it. In eighteen minutes, the Saratoga announced her surrender. Meanwhile, the Linnet had struck to the Eagle. Three of the galleys were sunk; the rest escaped. With the excep- tion of the latter, the entire squadron was captured. It was a most sanguinary and disastrous contest. The Sara- toga had received in her hull fifty-five I'ound shot; the Confiance, one hundred and five. Twice the Saratoga was set on fire by hot shot. The time occupied in the action was two hours and twenty mmutes. Captain Downie, of the Confiance, was killed, with forty-nine of his men, and sixty wounded. The Saratoga lost twenty-eight killed and twenty-nine wounded. The total loss of the American squadron amounted to fifty-two killed and fifty-eight wounded. The loss of the British was eighty-four killed, one hundred and ten wounded, and eight hundred and fifty-six prisoners. This engagement took place in sight of the two armies. But they were not idle spectators of the exciting scene. They also became engaged, and, during the naval conflict, the noise of cannon, bombs, rockets responded to the explo- sions on the water. Three desperate efforts were made by AMERICAN HISTORY. 647 the British to cross over, and storm the American works. Other modes of attack were resorted to, but repulse and defeat followed each and every one of them. On the loss of the squadron, which was as painful as unexpected, the efforts of the British relaxed; but the firing was still keot up, and continued till night, when the siege was raised, and the artillery withdrawn. During the night, Prevost with- drew his forces and retired. Thus failed a project for which liberal prepartions had been made, and of whose success, the highest hopes had been indulged. Thus Sir George Prevost was taught, that not then, nor there, whatever he might do at some future day, could he display British colors as a token of triumph. The "star-spangled banner" must still wave on the waters of Champlain; and our national flag still float over the for- tifications of Plattsburgh. Battle of New Orleans. — In the spring of 1814, General Jackson was appointed a major-general in the army of the United States, and assigned to the protection of the city of New Orleans, and the circumjacent territory. To this duty he addressed himself with a promptitude and resolu- tion characteristic of the man, and commensurate with the preparations which, it was supposed, the British had made to subdue it. On the 1st day of December, the general reached New Orleans, and, on the 4th, rumor was rife that a hostile fleet was already wending its way along the coast. On the 6th, this rumor was confirmed. Admiral Cochrane and Sir George Cockburn, after the burning of Washington, and subsequent retreat down the Chesapeake, were now direct- ing their course towards New Orleans. The expedition was formidable, consisting of more than eighty sail, which were still to be reinforced; on board the transports were some eleven thousand troops, "veteran heroes of the Pen- insula," ardent for the attack— commanded by four generals of great experience — two admirals, and twelve thousand 648 GREAT EVENTS OF seamen and marines, with fire-ships, rockets, ammunition, and artillery in abundance. The inhabitants of New Orleans were, at this time, sup- posed to be not less than thirty thousand — a number quite sufficient, under ordinary circumstances, to furnish adequate assistance. But they were chiefly of French and Spanish extraction. By the purchase of Louisiana, they had recently become citizens of the United States; but the sympathies and patriotism of some had not followed their transfer. In addition, the city had few, if any defences; arms, ammu- nition, troops — all were wanting. In circumstances like these. General Jackson assumed command of the city. He saw the danger which impended ; he saw the importance of power amid the conflicting ele- ■ ments. He has sometimes been censured for his despotic bearing during these scenes of turmoil and confusion. But we must not judge too severely. He felt the emergency, and did not hesitate to proclaim martial law, as, in his view, the only means of safety and protection to the city. The force which General Jackson had brought with him from Mobile, amounted to only about fifteen Imndred men, and consisted of Coffee's Tennessee volunteers. Hind's com- pany of cavalry, and the seventh and forty-fourth regiments. To these were added three hundred city volunteers, and a battalion of men of color, two hundred, making a total, with the troops in garrison at Fort St. Philips, of only twenty-five hundred men. This force was so obviously inadequate, that General Jackson made every eflx»rt to supply the deficiency; and in this, he was seconded by the executive of Kentucky, Tennessee, and Louisiana. But their patriotic exertions were, in a great measure, unavail- ing; there being, at no time, of Louisianians, in the army of General Jackson, more than nine hundred, and still less from any other state. The naval force, stationed at New Orleans, consisted of six gun-boats and several smaller ves- sels, under command of Commodore Daniel T. Pattei'son. Soon after reaching New Orleans, General Jackson pro- AMERICAN HISTORY. 649 ceeded to examine the various fortified points below the city, and gave directions for strengthening them as his means allowed. On the 9th, he returned to the city, whence he proceeded on a similar tour of inspection to the lakes. Contrary to all expectation, the British armament, instead of coming up the Mississippi, entered the lakes which connect with the gulf, and, on the 23d of December, commenced landing their forces on the narrow strip of land bordering the river. Before reaching this point, how- ever, an engagement had taken place between the gun- boats and a large British force, which had resulted in the capture of the former. It was a spirited action of some two hours, and the Americans surrendered only when the enemy had gained their decks, and overpowered them by numbers. The whole number of guns in the American vessels was twenty-three, and of men one hundred and eighty-three. The British had forty-five boats, forty-three pieces of cannon, and twelve hundred men. The loss of the Americans was very small, while that of the British was not less than three hundred, including several officers, killed and wounded. The invading army, it was now certain, was at hand. Indeed, they had effected a landing; they were on the banks of the Mississippi, only nine miles from the city. This, as we have stated, was on the 23d of December. General Jackson had decided, in case of their landing, to attack them the first possible moment. "Feeble as my force is," said he, "I am resolved to assail the enemy on his first landing, and perish sooner than he shall reach the city:" a resolution which he now proceeded to fulfill with all the energy in his power. That same night was the time appointed. A little before dark, the American troops arri^red in view of the enemy. They were, at this time, about two thou- sand strong, but afterwards reinforced to the number of one thousand more. Among the vessels, which had escaped the British, was one of considerable size, called the Caro- 650 GREAT EVENTS OF line. With this, Commodore Patterson was to drop down the river, a-nchor in front of the British, and commence the attack, which should be a signal for a general assault. A British officer, who was present during the scene, thus describes the dismay of the British troops, when first the Caroline opened her appalling fire upon them. "The day passed without any alarm, and, the darkness having set in, the fires were made to blaze with increased splendor; our evening meal was eaten, and we prepared to sleep. But about half-past seven o'clock, the attention of several individuals was drawn to a large vessel, which seemed to be stealing up the river till she came opposite to our camp, when her anchor was dropped, and the sails lei- surely furled. We hailed her, but she gave no answer. This forboded no good. Soon after, we heard some one cry, in a commanding voice, 'Give them this for the honor of America!' and they did give it to us. Explosion after explosion burst upon us, and showers of grape swept down numbers in the camp. "Nor to this dreadful storm of fire had we any thing to oppose. Our artillery was too light to bring into competi- tion with an adversary so powerful. Our only alternative was to shelter the men, as much as possible, from this iron hail; and our only shelter was to hasten under the dyke ["levee"]. There we lay for an hour, unable to move from our ground, or offer any opposition ; when the sound of musketry, at some distance, called our attention towards the pickets, and warned us to prepare for a closer and more desperate strife. Soon after, our apprehensions were real- ized. A semi-circular blaze of musketry burst upon us. We were surrounded." The assailants were Coffee's brig- ade of six hundred dismounted riflemen. The further details of proceedings that night, we must omit. For two hours, such warfare was carried on as the darkness allowed. The American troops did not exceed two thousand ; the force of the enemy reached, at length, four or five thousand. The Americans were not the AMERICAN HISTORY. 651 victors, nor were they vanquished. They retired in safety, w^ith a loss of but twenty-four killed, one hundred and fif- teen wounded, and seventy-four made prisoners. The loss of the British was not less than four hundred in killed, wounded, and prisoners. Among the Americans killed were two valiant officers — Colonel Lauderdale and Lieu- tenant McClelland. This action was probably the salva- tion of New Orleans. From that hour, the Americans had more confidence; the British less. On the 4th of January, the long-expected reinforcement from Kentucky, amounting to two thousand two hundred and fifty, under command of Major-general Thomas, reached New Orleans, but the great advantage, anticipated from this additional force, failed of being realized. Not more than five hundred of them were supplied with muskets fit for service; for the remainder, none could possibly be furnished. For several days longer, the armies continued in view of each other, but comparatively inactive. Preparations, how- ever, were making. The clouds were gathering. The storm was approaching. At length, the 8th of January arrived; a day rendered memorable by the victory achieved by the Americans over a British force greatly superior, and in every possible way prepared for the contest. On the morning of the 8th, signals, intended to produce concert in the enemy's movements, were descried. Sky- rockets shot up. Preparations, as if for immediate action, were observed. And thus it proved. The important day had arrived, and operations were commenced on the part of the British, by showers of bombs and balls upon the American line: while congreve-rockets, in multitudes, went whizzing through the air. The two divisions, under com- mand of Sir Edward Packenham in person, and supported by Generals Keane and Gibbs, now moved forward. A dense fog enabled them to approach within a short distance of the American intrenchments without being discovered. Their march was dignified — their step, firm — their bearing. 652 GREAT EVENTS OF lofty. Meanwhile, all was silence among the Americans behind the parapets. The guns were loaded^ — the matches were ready — all were waiting, with breathless anxiety, for the word of command. Jackson stood an intent observer of the scene. He watched every movement — weighed every circumstance — measured the lessening distance. They had reached the critical spot to which the guns were pointed — the voice of Jackson was heard, as in tones of thunder, "Fire!" and, in an instant, such a storm of death rolled over the astonished British, as was scarcely ever before witnessed. The front ranks were mowed down, and their advance arrested. At this critical juncture. Sir Edward Packenham threw himself in front of the aston- ished columns, and urged them on. But at that instant, he fell mortally wounded, and, nearly at the same time. Gen- erals Gibbs and Keane were borne from the field, danger- ously wounded. The troops now fled. In their flight, they were met by General Lambert, on the advance with a reserve force, and urged once more to renew the attack; but his commands were unheeded. AMERICAN HISTORY. G53 There were, indeed, other attempts made upon the American works in other quarters, and they were partially successful ; but, in the sequel, the British were every whero repulsed — the American flag waved in triumph — the city of New Orleans was safe — and, that night, joy and glad- ness were in every family. The American effective force, at the time, on the left bank, was three thousand seven hundred; that of the enemy, at least nine thousand, and, by some authorities, they were reckoned still more numerous. The killed, wounded, and prisoners, as ascertained on the day after the battle, by Colonel Hayne, the inspector-general, was two thousand six hundred. General Lambert's report to Lord Bathurst, stated it to be two thousand and seventy. Among the killed was the commander-in-chief, and Major-general Gibbs, who died of 'his wounds the following day; besides many other valuable officers. The loss of the Americans, in killed and wounded, was but thirteen. It is certainly surprising that generals so distinguished for their sagacity, and so experienced in military tactics, as were the British, should have hazarded such an assault. It seems probable that the enterprise was one of great magnitude and danger, in their view; but warranted by the circum- stances in which they were placed. But, on the other hand, the Americans were entitled to all possible praise. Their bravery and zeal were conspicuous through the entire contest. It was fortunate that their commander was possessed of great courage and equal skill. General Jack- son acquired greater reputation, on this occasion, than he had gained at any previous period of his life, distinguished as his military fame had become. To the benevolent heart, there will ever be connected with this battle one sad, sad reflection. The carnage of that day — the groans, sorrows, sufferings caused by that conflict — might have been spared. Peace between the two nations had actually been agreed upon. Oh! could some breeze have wafted the intelligence to these Western shores 654 GREAT EVENTS OF ere the dawn of that 8th of January, 1815, what streams of blood had been stayed! how many precious hves would have been spared! what despair and destitution averted from famiUes and individuals! Treaty of Ghent. — The brilliant successes of the Amer- icans were duly appreciated, and joy and exultation per- vaded the nation. Tidings of peace soon followed. A negotiation, which had been opened at Ghent in the Neth- erlands, towards the close of 1814, between the American commissioners, J. Q. Adams, Bayard, Clay, Russel, and Gallatin, and the British commissioners, Gambier, Goul- burn, and Adams, resulted in a treaty of peace, which was signed on the 24th of December. It immediately received the approbation of the prince regent, and was ratified by the president and senate on the 18th day of February. This was a welcome event to all parties. Among a por- tion of the people, the war had never been popular. A large debt had been contracted, and the commerce of the country had greatly suffered. .There was a general joy that the war had terminated ; yet some were disposed to inquire, what object had been gained? It was true, the credit of the country in respect to military skill, but espe- cially as to naval tact, had been greatly increased. An arrogant, invading foe had been driven from our shore. Our national honor vindicated — but, in the end, the treaty negotiated and ratified was silent as to the subjects for which the war was professedly declared. It provided only for the suspension of hostilities — the exchange of prisoners — the restoration of territories and possessions obtained by the contending powers during the war — the adjustment of unsettled boundaries — and for a combined effort to effect the entire abolition of traffic in slaves. But, notwithstand- ing several important omissions, the treaty was joyfully received, and the various classes of society once more besran to turn their attention to their accustomed trades and occupations. AMERICAN HISTORY, 655 Close of Mr. Madisori's Administration. — The remain- der of Mr. Madison's administration was mariced by few events or measures of national importance. Yet, we may briefly notice the conclusion of a treaty, conducted at Algiers, with the dey of Algiers, by William Shaler and Commodore Stephen Decatur, on the 30th of June, 1815 — a "convention by which to regulate the commerce between the territories of the United States and of his Britannic Majesty," concluded at London, July 3 — and the incorpora- tion of a national bank, with a capital of thirty-five mil- lions of dollars. February 12th, the electoral votes for Mr. Madison's successor were counted in the presence of both houses of congress, when it appeared that Mr. Monroe was elected by a large majority. The following is a summary of the votes: o u IS 1i PRESIDENT 1 VICE- PRESIDENT. STATES. 0? 2 d to > o i-i ^ o -a . 11 a V § i CO tS ^1 t= "*- P<*- C t— C t^ o <— ■ ^- E o C3 Q 4= O O c o J= o o "5 ° 8 New Hampshire, . . 8 8 22 Massachusetts, . . 22 22 4 Rhode Island, . . . 4 4 9 Connecticut, . 9 5 4 8 Vermont, .... 8 8 29 New York, . . . 29 29 8 New .Jersey, 8 8 25 Pennsylvania, . . 25 25 3 Delaware, .... 3 3 8 Maryland, . . . 8 8 25 Virginia, 25 25 15 North Carolina, . . 15 15 n South Carolina, . . 11 11 8 Georgia, .... 8 8 12 Kentucky, .... 12 12 8 Tennessee, . . . 8 8 8 Ohio, 8 8 3 Louisiana,. 3 3 3 Indiana, 3 3 217 Whole No. of electors. Majority, . . .109 183 34 183 1 22 5 4 3 656 GREAT EVENTS OF X. JAMES MONROE, PRESIDENT INAUGURATED AT WASHINGTON, MARCH 4, 1817. DANIEL D. TOMPKINS, VICE-PRESIDENT. HEADS OF THE John Q. Adams, Massachusetts, . , William H. Crawford, Georgia, . Isaac Shelby, Kentucky, . . John C. Calhoun, South CaroUiia, Benjamin W. Crowninshield, . Massachusetts, Smith Thompson, New York, . . Samuel L. Southard, . . . New Jersey, . Return J. Meigs, Ohio, .... John M'Lean Ohio, . . . . Richard Rush, Pennsylvania, Wilham Wirt, Virginia, . . DEPARTMENTS. , . March 6, 1817, Secretary of State. . March 5, 1S17, Secretary of Treasury. . March 5, 1817,) Op™pf.,rips nf Wir . December 15, 1917^ ^ Secretaries ot War. . {contimwd in office), ) . November 30, 1818,/ Secretaries of the Navy. . December 9, 1823, > .• 'orcSTstsf];! Attorneys General SPEAKERS OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. Henry Clay Kentucky Fifteenth Conarress, . 1817. Henry Clay, Kentucky, .... Sixteenth do. . . 1819. John W. Taylor, New York, .... Sixteenth do. . . . 1820. Philip P. Barbour, .... Virginia, .... Seventeenth do. . . 1821. Henry Clay, . . . Kentucky, .... Eighteenth do. . . . 1823. The elevation of Mr. Monroe to the presidency was an event highly auspicious to the interests of the nation. Be- AMERICAN HISTORY. 657 sides having been employed for many years in high and responsible stations under the government, he possessed a sound and discriminating judgment, and a remarkably calm and quiet temperament. In not a few of the qualities of his mind, he resembled Washington, and, like that great and good man, apparently had the true interests of his country in view in the acts and measures of his adminis- tration. He may be said to be fortunate in respect to the time and circumstances of his accession to the presidency. A war, of whose justice and expediency a respectable por- tion of the country had strong doubts — and as to which, therefore, loud and even angry debate had existed, both in congress and throughout the country — that war had termi- nated, and the asperities growing out of different views entertained of it, were fast subsiding. Commerce, too, was beginning to revive, and the manufacturers were hoping for more auspicious days. In every department of industry, there was the commencement of activity; and, although the country had suffered too long and too seriously to regain at once her former prosperity, hopes of better times were indulged, and great confidence was reposed in the wise and prudent counsels of the new president. A review of the principal measures and events during the presidency of Mr. Monroe, will require us to notice the following topics : Tour of the President, Revision of the Tariff, Admission of Missouri, Visit of Lafayette, Provision for indigent officers, &c., Review of Mr. Monroe's Reelection of Mr. Monroe, Administration, Seminole War, Election of "Mr. Adams. Tour of the President. — This took place in the summer and autumn following Mr. Monroe's inauguration, and extended through the Northern and Eastern states of the Union. It was an auspicious measure, and contributed, no doubt, in a degree, to his popularity. He had in view, the better discharge of his duty as president, in superintending 42 658 GREAT EVENTS OF the works of public defence, and most probably the cultiva- tion of friendly feelings wi^h the great mass of the people. These objects w^ere happily accomplished. The works of public defence, which he wished personally to inspect or to provide for, were the fortifications of the sea-coast and inland frontiers, naval docks, and the navy itself For all these objects, congress had made liberal appropriations, and by personal observation, he sought the means of guiding his judgment as to the best mode of promoting the interests thus committed to his care. Reception of Mr. Monroe at New York. The president made two other visits of a similar kind, during his first term, viz: one in the summer of the follow- ing year, and the other in the summer of 1819. The former was to the Chesapeake bay and the country lying on its shores. The other was to the Southern and South-western states of the Union. In the course of a few weeks he visited Charleston, Savannah, and Augusta, as also the Cherokee nation, Nashville, Louisville, and other places. The same national objects commanded his attention as AMERICAN HISTORY. 659 during his other tours, and the same spirit of courtesy and deference was manifested towards him. Admission of Missouri. — In another place, (p. 538,) we have had occasion to notice the periods at which the several states, formed since the adoption of the Federal Constitution, have been admitted into the Union, and Mis- souri among them; but, as in respect to this state, there were new and peculiar considerations involved, it is deemed important to speak of them in this place more at large. — The proposition to admit Missouri into the Union, was con- sidered at the same time with Maine; but, although congress passed the act of admission for both at once, it was condi- tional in regard to Missouri. A clause in the constitution of this state, requiring the legislature to enact a law "to prevent free negroes and mulattoes from coming to and settling in the state," was obnoxious to a majority of the members of congress. After a long debate in that body, it was decided that Missouri should be admitted, on the con- dition that no laws should be passed, by which any free citizens of the United States should be prevented from enjoying the rights to which they were entitled by the constitution of the United States. There had previously been a long and exciting debate in congress, on the subject of the restriction of slavery in the bill admitting Missouri. The bill for admitting that terri- tory, contained a provision prohibiting slavery within the new state; but, having passed the house of representatives, it was arrested in the senate. Strong sectional parties, in reference to this subject, appeared, not only in congress, but throughout the country. It was deemed imminently a time of danger to the general interests of the nation and the Union itself The dissolution of the general government seemed to be threatened. That the pernicious system of involuntary servitude should be further extended, seemed to be abhorrent to the minds of most of the wise and good. On the other hand, the rights of the slave-holding states were 660 GREAT EVENTS OF thought by themselves, at least, to be invaded. Accordingly, members of congress from the non-slave-holding states, stren- uously advocated the restriction; while members from the slave-holding portion of the country as strenuously opposed it. The long and earnest debates on the subject, were con- cluded, only by the parties accepting a. compromise, in consequence of which, slavery was to be tolerated in Mis- souri, but forbidden in all that part of Louisiana as ceded by France, lying north of thirty-six degrees thirty min- utes north latitude, except so much as was embraced within the limits of the state. The vote in the house of representatives was several times given for excluding slavery; but the senate disagreed, and would not yield to the house. When the house yielded, at length, to the opinion of the senate, it was by a majority o^ four only, in favor of the bill, omitting the clause of exclusion, and con- taining that of the interdiction of slavery elsewhere, as already defined. The compromise happily averted what- ever danger there might have been to the union of the states. When Missouri, by a solemn act of her legislature, had accepted the fundamental condition imposed by Congress, that she would not authorize the passage of any laws exclu- ding citizens of other states from enjoying the privileges to which they were entitled by the constitution of the United States, she was declared a member of the Union. This occurred August 10th, 1821. Provision for indigent Officers and Soldiers. — In 1818, a law was passed by congress, granting pensions to the surviving officers and soldiers of the Revolutionary war, which included all who had served nine months in the con- tinental army at any period of the war, provided it was at one term of enlistment. Another act of congress, following at the expiration of two years, modified, and in some degree restricted this law, by confining the pension to those who "Vvere in destitute circumstances. Still, under this condition, the number who received the bounty, or rather the justice AMERICAN HISTORY. 661 of their country, was very large, not less than thirteen thousand having experienced the grateful relief. Through the inability of the government, soon after the war, these soldiers who had so largely contributed to the liberties of their country, had never been duly compensated. They now received a welcome, though late remuneration. Reelection of Mr. Monroe.— In March, 1821, Mr. Mon- roe entered upon his second term of office, having been reelected president by nearly an unanimous vote. Mr. Tompkins was also continued in the vice-presidency. The following table exhibits the vote of the several electoral colleges: 2 . PRESIDENT 1 VICE- PRESIDENT. ys 502 (0 IS 5 ^ N CO ^£ 1) ^ STATES. 5 .S m> < g 3 & '0 ^ 3 s % <- c <*- Q-— JS "*- -C t*. '? <*- ^,^ .a^o •s '^ S " 1-1 *-i Q a) iii f the territory by force. It was in contempla- tion, howfver, on the part of the federal executive, to resort to force t) prevent these proceedings on the part of Georgia, 676 GREAT EVENTS OF The danger of a collision, at one time, appeared to be imminent. The national executive, nevertheless, by his prompt and ngilant measures, passed through the crisis with safety, and effected successfully the object in view. A treaty, wh-ch had been made with a party of the Indians just before Mr. Adams entered upon his office, by which all the Cretk lands in Georgia and Alabama were ceded to the Unitea States, and which had been sanctioned by the senate on tht last day of the session, was virtually set aside. Upon a mn'e dispassionate consideration, it had Removal of the Creek Indians. appeared not to have been executed in good faith, and accordingly a new treaty was concluded \t Washington, through great effort on the part of the puljic authorities. This was entered into with the chiefs of the treek tribe, in March, 1826. It stipulated for the payment of a large sum to the *tribe, and to guaranty the lands no, expressly ceded by them. Congress sanctioned the tresty and its stipulations, though the members from Georgia ^xoressed their dissent on record. The conduct of Mr. Alams, in AMERICAN HISTORY. 677 this difficult and perplexing affair, was approved very gen- erally in congress, and throughout the country. Proposed Mission to the Congress at Panama. — The president having been invited to send commissioners to the congress of Panama, which had for its object the cementing of the friendly relations of all the independent states of America, saw fit to accept the invitation. Having nomi- nated Richard C. Anderson and John Sergeant, as minis- ters on the part of the United States, and William B. Rochester, of New York, as secretary, he presented these names to the senate for confirmation. This step awakened a spirit of animosity against the president, and a long and angry debate ensued ; but the nominations were eventually confirmed, and the necessary appropriations voted. Mea- sures were soon taken to carry this policy into effect, and directions were sent to Mr. Anderson, who was then in Columbia, to attend the congress, which was to be convened in the beginning of summer. But he was cut down by a malignant fever before he could reach the place. Mr. Sergeant was prevented from going, on account of the lateness of the period at which his appointment was made. This failure of representation at the congress, on the part of the United States, was, by many, deemed auspi- cious, as the relations and interests of the country might otherwise have been compromitted; but others thought dif- ferently, and believed that a conference of the kind might issue in the adoption of a friendly and enlightened policy between the parties. Internal Improvements. — In 1826, a proposition was made in congress to expend a sum of money for repairing and extending the Cumberland road. An act had been passed long before, during Mr. Jefferson's second presi- dential term, for making a road from Cumberland, in the state of Maryland, or near that place, and on the north bank of the Potomac river, to the river Ohio. Hence the 678 GREAT EVENTS Ot" name of the road. After having been commenced, money was appropriated, at different periods, to finish and repair the road. It was considered of great national advantage and convenience, inasmuch as it furnished a commodious way from the Atlantic slope to the Ohio river and to the great valley of the Mississippi. To the proposition above alluded to for an additional sum of money, opposition was made at the present time. The amount asked was eighty thousand dollars, for repairs and also for its continuance farther west; for it was consid- ered as proper to extend it to a remoter point, as to have made it to the Ohio river. The sum was named in a gen- eral appropriation bill. Many were opposed, on account of their doiabts respecting the authority of congress to expend money for such objects. Others, however, who were reluctant to vote money for internal improvements on general principles, were in favor of the appropriation in this instance, as it would be of great public utility, and as the road, in order to be used with facility, must be repaired. "The vote, at this time, for an appropriation to repair the Cumberland road, indicated the views of members of con- gress on the subject of internal improvements; for it was long discussed, and several members went fully into the constitutionality of this and several measures. In the sen- ate, the votes were twenty-three in favor and fifteen against the appropriation. And, in the house of repre- sentatives, they were ninety-two to sixty-three. And, at the same session, congress authorized the executive to sub- scribe, on the part of the government, for shares in the Dis- mal Swamp canal, so called, within the state of Virginia, to the amount of sixty thousand dollars; which was a direct recognition of the power of congress to construct works for the public convenience. An act was also passed for a survey in Florida, with a view to construct a canal across the peninsula, from the Atlantic to the Gulf of Mexico."* * Bradford's History of the Federal Government. AMERICAN HISTORY. 679 The Fiftieth Anniversary of American Independence. — This was a day long to be remembered in the annals of the nation. The exultation of feeling throughout the country, that we had reached in safety the fiftieth anniversary of our independence, was great. The day was every where cele- brated with more than the usual demonstrations of joy. But the most striking feature of the occasion, was the simulta- neous deaths of two ex-presidents of the United States, John Adams and Thomas Jefferson. The coincidence in their departure from life was certainly remarkable, more especially as having occurred at that particular juncture. It would seem to have been a providential dispensation, designed to answer some important purpose; perhaps to awaken the great principles of political freedom and equal rights, to the maintenance of which the lives of both were consecrated. They had both — and equally, perhaps — acted a most conspicuous part on the theatre of the world, and especially in the affairs of American independence. "Both had been presidents, both had lived to great age, both were early patriots, and both were distinguished and ever honored by their immediate agency in the act of inde- pendence. It cannot but seem striking and extraordinary, that these two should live to see the fiftieth year from the date of that act; that they should complete that year, and that then, on the day which had fast linked for ever their own fame with their country's glory, the heavens should open to receive them both at once. As their lives them- selves were the gifts of Providence, who is not willing to recognize in their happy termination, as well as in their long continuance, proofs that our country and its benefac- tors are objects of his care?" Although they belonged to different schools in politics, and were separated, for a time, by the party distinctions which prevailed soon after the constitution went into ope- ration, yet they seemed to have coalesced very much in views and feelings in the latter portion of their lives. Friendly letters, of great interest, passed between them, 680 GREAT' EVENTS OF which were given to the public at the time. But the coin- cidences or parallel circumstances attending these distin- guished men are not yet exhausted. "They belonged to the same profession, and had pursued its studies and its practice, for unequal lengths of time indeed, but with dili- gence and effect. Both were learned and able lawyers. They were natives and inhabitants respectively of those two of the colonies, which, at the Revolution, were the •largest and most powerful, and which, naturally, had a lead in the political affairs of the times. When the colonies became, in some degree, united, by the assembling of the general congress, they were brought to act together in its deliberations, not indeed at the same time, but both at early periods. Each had already manifested his attachment to the cause of the country, as well as his ability to maintain it, by pointed addresses, public speeches, extensive corres- pondence, and whatever other mode could be adopted for the purpose of exposing the encroachments of the British parliament, and animating the people to manly resistance. Both were not only decided, but early friends of indepen- dence. While others yet doubted, they were resolved; where others hesitated, they pressed forward. They were both members of the committee for preparing the Declara- tion of Independence; they constituted the sub-committee, appointed by the other members to make the draft. They left their seats in congress, being called to other public employments, at periods not remote from each other, although one of them returned to it, afterwards, for a short time. Neither of them was of the assembly of great men which formed the present constitution, and neither was at any time member of congress under its provisions. Both have been public ministers abroad, both vice-presidents, and both presidents." These coincidences were surprisingly completed, as already mentioned, by their simultaneous deaths, and that on the anniversary of liberty. Introduction of the "A?nerican System.^' — The phrase AMERICAN HISTORY. 681 "American System" was given to tlie policy advocated by many, of protecting, by impost duties, the manufactures of the country against foreign competition. It began to be employed during the administration of Mr. Adams. Addi- tional duties were sought by the friends of manufactures on woolen goods, and a bill for that purpose passed both houses of congress, in the months of April and May, 1827. The measure, however, seemed not to be satisfactory to the country at large. "The president was in favor of affording protection to domestic manufactures generally, and of woolens particularly, which, at this time, was the leading question in political economy, so far as the federal government was believed to have authority to interfere. But he was also friendly to extensive enterprises in com- merce and navigation, and expressed no opinion in support of the ultra doctrines of the manufacturers." Election of General Jackson.— The administration of Mr. Adams encountered strong and determined opposition. The circumstance of his rival, General Jackson, having had a larger popular vote than himself, and having, in con- gress, only a small majority, when elected to office, seemed, in the view of the democratic party, quite sufficient to justify a more than usual distrust of his administration, from its beginning. Mr. Adams was watched with singular vigilance, and every advantage taken to render his acts unpopular. It was early charged against him, that a cor- rupt bargain had been made with Mr. Clay, his secretary of state. The Panama mission was represented as a mear sure weak and injudicious. And, moreover, it was charged that his administration was wasteful and extravagant. Of the falsity and injustice of these charges, it is now unnecessary to speak. They were a part of an organized system of opposition, and designed to prevent the reelec- tion of Mr. Adams, and secure that of General Jackson. In this design, the friends of the latter succeeded, the vote of the electors for president affording a victory to his sup- -- -- — ...._.... 1 682 GREAT EVENTS OF porters, as gratifying as the defeat of the friends of the former was mortifying. PRESIDENT. 1 1 VICE -PRESIDI :nt. -2 **- Sec o u -2 ^ STATES. 1 it -Si: ca Oh ■5.3 'el ;2 M s p •rz Wri _=-- <='^ jr -^ ^ 5*-! 3 45 c o "o o -5 o ■ .a o ^' 12; < 1-! o 1-1 Oi, 9 Maine, 1 8 1 8 8 New Hampshire, . . . 8 8 15 Massachusetts, .... 15 15 4 Rhode Island, .... 4 4 8 Connecticut, .... 8 8 / Vermont, 7 7 36 New York, 20 16 20 16 8 New Jersey, 8 8 28 Pennsylvania, .... 28 28 3 Delaware, 3 3 11 Maryland, 5 6 5 6 24 Virginia, 24 24 15 North Carohna, . . . 15 15 11 South Carolina, .... 11 11 9 Georgia, 9 2 7 14 Kentucky, 14 14 11 Tennessee, 11 11 16 Ohio, 16 16 5 Louisiana, 5 5 3 Mississippi, 3 3 5 Indiana, 5 5 3 Illinois, 3 3 5 Alahama, 5 5 3 Miossuri, 3 I 3 261 Whole No. of electors, . Majority, .... 131 178 83 171 83 7 V i#^^^^9B K 1 -f^^^S jiiBl^3Lj iiii iiM niiidl^^raiH i '^^^^"^^^r/i^^^^^^^^^^^lHBaKBKSlHSlW ^^^^^S^^^^^^^^^^^^^ AMERICAN HISTORY, 683 XII. ANDREW JACKSON, PRESIDENT. INAUGURATED AT WASHINGTON, MARCH 4, 1829. JOHN C. CALHOUN AND MARTIN VAN BUREN, Vice-Presidents HEADS OF THE DEPARTMENTS. Martin Van Buren, New York, .... March 6, 1829, Kdward Livmsston, .... Louisiana, .... January 12, 1832, 1,0ms M'Lane, Delaware May 29, 1833, John Forsyth, Georgia, June 27, 1834, , Samuel D. Ingham, Pennsylvania, . . . March 6, 1829, ] Louis M'Lane, Delaware, .... January 13, 1832, WiUiam J. Duane, Pennsylvania, . . . May 29, 1833, I Roger B. Taney, Maryland, . . (appointed in the recess : I negatived by the Senate.) Levi Woodbury, New Hampshire, . . January 27, 1831, J John H.Eaton, Tennessee March 9, 1829.) <, , • -War Lewis Cass Ohio, December 30, jsaijoecretanes ol war. Secretaries of State. Secretaries of Treasury. John Branch, North Carolina, Levi Woodbury, ...... New Hampshire, Mahlon Dickerson, .... New Jersey, . WiUiam T. Barry, Kentucky, . . Amos Kendall, Kentucky, . . lohn M. Berrien, Georgia, . . . Roger B. Taney Maryland, . . Beiyamin F. Butler, . . New York, . . March 9, 1829, > December 27, 18;?1, , Secretaries of the Navy. June 30, 1831, > March 9, March 15, 183()' S Post™3sters General. March 9, 1829, > December 27, 1831, > Attorneys General June 21, 1834,) SPEAKERS OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. Andrew Stevenson, Virginia, . .Andrew Stevenson, A'jr!.nnia, . Andrew Stevenson Virginia. . John Bell, Tennessee, James K. Polk Tennessee, . Twenty-first Congress, . , Twenty-second do. . . Twenty-third do. . . Twenty-fourth do. . . Twenty-fifth do. , . 1829. . 1831. . 1833. . 1834. . 1835. 684 GREAT EVENTS OF In his inaugural address, General Jackson exhibited, in comprehensive terms, his views in regard to the administra- tion of the government. He spoke of the limitations and extent of executive power — the peace and friendship to be cultivated with foreign powers — the respect due to the rights of the separate states — the solicitude to be exercised in the management of the public revenue — the equal foster- ing care of the general government in respect to agriculture, commerce, and manufactures — the necessity of reform, and the correction of certain abuses — the attention to be sfiven to internal improvement and the diffusion of knowledge — the policy to be observed towards the Indian tribes within our borders — and other similar topics. He expressed, also, the diffidence he felt on assuming the high and responsible station to which he had been elevated, and the reverence with which he regarded the examples of public virtue left us by his illustrious predecessors; hoping at the same time to receive instruction and aid from the coordinate branches of the government, and the indulgence and support of his fellow-citizens in general. It was a brief and terse address, and manifested, the characteristic decision and fearlessness of the man. A sketch of the more prominent measures and events of General Jackson's administration will require us to notice the following topics, viz: Condition of the Country, Reelection of Andrew Jackson, Georgia and the Cherokees, Removal of Deposites, Public Lands, Death of Lafayette, National Bank, Deposite Act, Internal Improvements, Seminole War, Indian Hostilities, Treasury Circular, Discontents in South Carolina, Election of Mr. Van Buren, Character of .Tackson's Administration. Condition of the Country. — A high degree of prosperity was enjoyed in the United States at this era. The adminis- tration of General Jackson's predecessor had been crowned with signal success. Circumstances, however, connected AMERICAN HISTORY. 685 with the election of Mr, Adams were seized upon as a ground of attack; and, in the eye of many, all that he after- wards did, as the executive of the nation, was unnaturally colored or distorted. But the results showed that his admin- istration had been conducted with wisdom, integrity, and vigor. During the whole course of it, uninterrupted peace had "been enjoyed ; our commercial relations had been gradu- ally extended; and, in many instances, the claims of Amer- ican citizens upon foreign governments had been prosecuted with success. At home, the marks of an able administration were exhibited, in the increased activity imparted to the legitimate powers of the federal government for the devel- opment of the resources of the country, and the increase of its wealth and respectability. Georgia and the Cherokees. — The president, in his mes- sage on the 8th of December, 1829, had presented, at con- siderable length, his views in regard to the disposal of the Indian tribes within the limits of the United States. He recommended their removal beyond the boundary of the different states, but without compulsion, to such territory west of the Mississippi, as congress might set apart for their use. In this, he wished to avoid the difiRculties arising from the treaties between the United States and these Indians, and the opposing claims of the states within whose limits the Indians resided. This was one of the most embarrass- ing subjects which demanded the attention of the new administration. It was especially applicable to the relation which the Cherokees, a powerful tribe within the limits of Georgia, sustained to the general government. Treaties had been made with this tribe, from time to time, ever since the adoption of the federal constitution. In these treaties, the protection of the United States was promised them, arid the territory they inhabited was acknowledged to be theirs. But the government had also acknowledged the limits of Georgia, and had agreed to extinguish the Indian title whenever it could be peaceably effected. 686 GREAT EVENTS OP Georgia, in her anxiety to secure the Indian territory, had passed laws from time to time, with reference to that object, claiming exclusive civil and criminal jurisdiction over the Indians. In this state of things, the new administration came in, and the views of the president coinciding with those of the state of Georgia, a change was made in her mode of procedure. She was allowed, with the approba- tion of the general government, to extend her laws over the Cherokees, and to consider the treaties of the United States with them, guaranteeing their territory, as unconstitutional and void. In conformity to the president's proposal of removing the Indians, as already alluded to, a bill was submitted to both houses of congress, in February, 1830, authorizing the presi- dent to set apart such portion as he should deem necessary of the public territory west of the Mississippi, to be divided into districts, for the permanent residence of the emigrating Indians. The bill underwent a thorough and spirited debate, and was finally passed by both houses, by a small majority. The laws of Georgia had come into direct conflict with those of the United States, but this bill seemed to release the president from the duty of enforcing the acts of the latter, and observing the faith of treaties, as it was also in agreement with his determination not to regard either, in reference to a sovereign state. Encouraged by the acts of the government and the views of the president, Georgia proceeded to assert entire sovereignty over the Indians within its limits, issued writs of the state courts against the residents in the Indian territories, and tried the Cherokees before the tribunals of the state. At length, even the mis- sionaries of the American board, residing and laboring among them, were arrested, tried, condemned and impris- oned, for refusing to obtain a permit from the government of Georgia to reside within the territory, or to take an oath of allegiance to the state. And, to consummate their high- handed proceedings, the decision of the supreme judicial tribunal of the United States, pronouncing the acts of the AMERICAN HISTORY. G87 Georgia legislature null and void, being unconstitutional, was resisted by the state. What might have ensued from this condition of affairs, had the general government under- taken to enforce the decision of the supreme court of the nation, as it would have been its imperious duty, it is need- less to say. The missionaries relieved Georgia from the dreaded calamity, by informing the governor that they had instructed their counsel to prosecute the case no further. Soon after this, the missionaries were set at liberty. Notwithstanding all the stringent measures of Georgia, the Cherokees were determined to remain in the land of their fathers. But at length, in 1835, a few of their chiefs were induced to sign a treaty for the sale of their lands and a removal west of the Mississippi. Although this treaty was opposed by a majority of the Cherokees, and the terms afterwards decided upon at Washington rejected, yet, as the state of Georgia was determined in its hostility, and they could expect no protection, according to the new doc- trine, from the general government, they finally decided upon a removal; but it was not until the close of the year 1838, that the task of emigration was completed. Public Lands. — Questions pertaining to the public lands were earnestly debated at this period. These lands form an immense domain, and lie on both sides of the Mississippi, though much the larger portion lies on the west of that river. Applying the Georgia doctrine, in reference to the sovereignty of the state over all land within its limits, some of the new states, formed out of the public domain, set up a claim to the property in the soil of all lands not owned by individuals, as an element of sovereignty. The mode of disposing of these lands, was complained of in other states, and attempts were made to throw doubt on the validity of the title of the general government to that portion within the limits of states. A resolution of Mr. Foot, of Connecticut, on this subject, gave rise to animated discussion in the senate, on the 29th of 688 GREAT EVENTS OF December, 1829. In the course of the debate, Mr. Hayne, of South Carolina, introduced the subject of state rights, and contended that the several states within which the public lands were situated, should have the entire control and jurisdiction over them. Mr. Webster, of Massachu- setts, replied to Mr. Hayne in one of the most eloquent and effective speeches ever delivered in congress, and contended that on subjects fully committed to the government by the constitution, its powers were absolute, exclusive, and unlim- ited; that no state, nor even a number of states, might justly interfere in such cases; and that the public lands not expressly ceded to a particular state, were solely and abso- lutely at the disposal of the United States' government. This speech destroyed, for a time, the hopes of the advocates of the novel doctrine of nullification; yet the views of Mr. Hayne, respecting state rights and powers, continued to be entertained by a large portion of the people of the Southern states. No particular law resulted from this able and pro- longed discussion. National Bank. — In anticipation of a request for the renewal of the charter of the United States' bank, the presi- dent, in his message to congress, had expressed opinions adverse to that measure. But the standing committees of the senate and house, to which that portion of his message referred, made reports in opposition to the president's views. The friends of the administration formed a majority in both committees, and it was readily perceived how little harmony of action there was likely to be, on that subject, between the president and the party which had brought him into power. About four years anterior to the expiration of the existing charter, that is, in December, 1832, a memorial was pre- sented to congress from the president and directors of the United States' bank, for a renewal of its charter. This memorial was referred to a select committee, which, on the 13th of March following, reported in its favor, recommend- ing only some limitations to the power of issuing notes and AMERICAN HISTORY. 689 holding real property; also, the payment of a bonus of one million five hundred thousand dollars. After long debates, and various amendments, a bill for this purpose was carried in the senate by a vote of tw^enty-eight to twenty, and in the house by a vote of one hundred and seven to eighty- five; but, being on the 4th of July sent to the president, it was returned to the senate on the 10th of July with an absolute veto, which, not being opposed by two-thirds, decided the fate of the bank. Internal Improvements. — The policy of the government from an early period, though not from the beginning, had favored works of internal improvement, so that it seemed to be settled as a feature of each successive administration, from Mr. Jefferson to the present period. From General Jackson's own votes, while he was a member of the sen- ate, it might reasonably be inferred that the same policy would be coincident with his views as president. But such was found not to be the fact. The question of internal improvements by the general government, was earnestly discussed at the first session of the twenty-first congress, and a bill was passed in the house, by a vote of one hun- dred and two to thirty-five, in the senate by twenty-four to eighteen, authorizing a subscription to the stock of the Maysville and Lexington road company, in Kentucky. The bill thus passed by so large a majority, was sent to the president for his approval. After retaining it eight days, he returned it to the house, on the 27th of May, 1830, with his objections. The reading of this veto message produced much excite- ment in congress. Many of the friends of the president from Pennsylvania and from the Western states, had con- fidently looked for his approbation of the bill. Their surprise and disappointment were equally great. The question being taken upon the passage of the bill, notwith- standing the objections of the president, the vote stood, yeas ninety-six, nays ninety-four. Two-thirds of the house not 44 690 GREATEVENT30F agreeing to pass the bill, it was rejected, though a majority of the house refused to sustain the objections of the president. Indian Hostilities. — The year 1832 was distinguished by a series of Indian hostilities, commonly known as "Black Hawk's War," from the name of the celebrated Indian chief, who was the leader of the Sac and Fox Indians in these hostilities. These tribes, together with the Winne- bagoes, had, for a considerable time, manifested a restless disposition, and appeared evidently disposed to commence hostilities, as opportunity might offer. They had joined the British in the war of 1812, and inflicted much injury on the Americans. Encouraged by the friendship of the British, as well as incited by their own warlike propensities, the Sacs and Foxes claimed the right of occupying a part of the country upon Rock river, even after it had been sold to the citizens of the United States, and the latter had made settlements upon it. In attempting to assert this right, frequent collisions ensued ; and, as no persuasions on the part of the agents of the government could induce them to be quiet, and confine themselves to their own country on the west of the Mississippi, measures were taken to compel them to desist from their aggressions. As early as 1831, a considerable detachment of the army, and also of the militia of Illinois, was called into the field; upon which, the Indians agreed to confine themselves within their own proper limits. In a short time, however, this arrangement was violated by a party of these Indians, in an outrage committed upon a band of friendly Menomonies, in the very vicinity of Fort Crawford. Twenty-five persons were wantonly killed and many wounded, while encamped in the village of Prairie du Chien, under the protection of our flag. It was felt by the government, that this aggression could not be passed over without the infliction of a due chastisement; as all was at stake, in regard to the friendly Indians and the frontier settlements in that quarter. Accordingly, the department ordered General Atkinson, on the 7th of March, AMERICAN HISTORY. 691 1832, to ascend the Mississippi with the disposable regular troops at Jefferson barracks, and to strengthen the frontiers; orders were also given for the reoccupation of Chicago. In the prosecution of his instructions, General Atkinson proceeded to the Indian country, where, after various skir- mishes, and several more serious engagements, the Sacs and Foxes, under the direction of Black Hawk, fled beyond the Mississippi. On the 28th and 29th of July, General Atkinson crossed with his army to the north side of the Wisconsin, at Helena, in pursuit of the enemy. After a most difficult and forced march, over steep mountains and through deep ravines, on the 5th day of March, the enemy was announced by one of the scouts. A suitable disposi- tion was made of the American forces, with a view to prevent the escape of any of the foe, and the firing com- menced, as the different portions of the army came in contact with him. The battle lasted upwards of three hours. About fifty of his women and children were taken prisoners, and many were killed in the battle. When the Indians were driven to the bank of the Mississippi, some hundreds of the men, women, and children plunged into the river, and hoped, by diving, to escape the bullets. Very few, however, escaped — the American sharp-shooter is nearly infallible in his aim. Black Hawk, in the midst of the battle, escaped, and went up the river. The savages, after this defeat, became convinced of the impossibility of contending, with success, against the American arms. No further serious resistance was offered on their part, and the war soon closed by the capture of Black Hawk, who was delivered up to the American commander, by two Winnebagoes, on the 27th of August. He was well treated and much noticed in the United States. Discontent in South Carolina. — The year 1832 was distinguished also by discontents in the Southern portion of the country, particularly in South Carolina, arising from 692 GREAT EVENTS OF the tariff of 1828. That tariff had been shghtly modified by an act of congress, in the summer of 1832. But the small and partial reduction of duties thus secured, did not diminish, but rather served to increase the opposition to the American System, then so called. By this system vv^as meant the policy of high duties on imports, for the protec- tion of domestic manufactures. In South Carolina, it was resolved, a few months after the passage of the law of July, 1832, by the legislature, that the present law, and that of 1828, were infractions of the constitution, or exceeded the power given to the federal government by that compact, and were, therefore, null and void; and that the execution of those acts, within the state, was to be prevented, even by force, if necessary. And the requisite measures were taken to enforce this resolution. An issue was thus brought on between the state and federal government, that imperiously demanded attention. The very existence of the government depended on the decision of the president. South Carolina had set at defiance the supreme authority of the Union, and declared that no umpire should be admitted to decide between the contending parties. In such an exigency, the president felt that there was no room for hesitation. The difficulty must be met, not only to save the Union from dismemberment, or the loss of one of its constituent parts, but to protect those citizens of South Carolina, who still adhered to the Union, from the horrors of civil discord. The president, with his personal courage and indomitable will, as also clothed with the irresistible power of the Union, determined to throw himself into the breach, and to enforce the revenue acts with an entire disregard to the pretended rights of sover- eignty, which were assumed by the state of South Carolina. To carry the determination of the government into effect, all the disposable military force was ordered to assemble at Charleston, and a sloop-of-war was sent to that port to protect the federal officers, in case of necessity, in the execution of their duties. On the 10th of December, the AMERICAN HISTORY. 693 proclamation of the president was issued, plainly and forci- bly stating the nature of the American government, and the supremacy of the federal authorities in all matters intrusted to their care. At the same time, in this docu- ment, he exhorted the citizens of South Carolina not to persist in a course which must bring upon their state the force of the confederacy, and expose the Union to the hazard of a dissolution. The proclamation of General Jackson was a noble pro- duction. It was hailed with delight throughout the country, as well by his political opponents, as by his friends. "Per- haps no document has emanated from the executive depart- ment of the government, which has been more generally approved, both in regard to the style in which it was written, and the doctrines asserted and maintained, since the farewell address of the first president. It contains no speculative opinions, no new theories; it speaks the facts of history, in the language of the constitution, and in the spirit which we, of a later generation, may suppose animated its framers." The president, on this momentous occasion, was nobly supported by the leaders of the opposition party in congress, with Mr. Webster at their head. The force of public opinion was irresistible — South Carolina was compelled to shrink before it. No I'esistance was actually made to the enforcement of the laws they had nullified, and, conse- quently, no coercive measures were necessary on the part of the general government to maintain its authority. The objectionable laws were somewhat modified in the session of 1833, by what was termed "the compromise act," pro- posed by Mr. Clay; and South Carolina, though she has steadfastly adhered to her theories, has been contented not to reduce them to practice. Reelection of General Jackson. — In the autumn of 1832, the electors of the country were again convened in their respective places of residence for the choice of a president. 694 GREAT EVENTS OF The two principal candidates were General Jackson and Henry Clay. The friends of Mr. Calhoun, in South Caro- lina, where the tariff question had already produced a bitter feeling of hostility to the government, remained almost entirely aloof from the contest. The anti-masonic party in the Northern states, which had been recently formed, supported William Wirt, of Maryland. The oppo- nents of General Jackson were strongly opposed to his reelection, and made great exertions to defeat it; but the returns from the electoral colleges exhibited a large majority in his favor. The following is the official result of the electoral vote: 2 STATES. PRESIDENT. VICE-PRESIDENT. a 6 S o .2 ^> EC P* m o a o .2 'S M c ^ o ■ ^ o 1 s C to E o <: K 1-5 ^ s I-! ^ K <1 10 Maine, . . . 10 10 7 New Hampshire, 7 7 14 Massachusetts, 14 14 4 Rhode Island, . 4 4 8 Connecticut, . 8 8 7 Vermont, . . 7 7 42 New York, . 42 42 8 New Jersey, . 8 8 30 Pennsylvania, 30 30 3 Delaware, . . 3 3 10 Maryland, . . 3 5 3 5 23 Virginia,. . 23 23 15 North Carolina, 15 15 11 South Carolina, 11 11 11 Georgia,. . . 11 11 15 Kentucky,. . 15 15 15 Tennessee, . . 15 15 ai Ohio, . . . 21 21 5 Louisiana, . . 5 5 4 Mississippi, . . 4 4 y Indiana, . . 9 9 5 Illinois, . . . 5 5 7 Alabama, . . 7 7 4 Missouri, . . 4 4 288 No. of electors, Majority, . 145 219 49 11 7 189 49 30 11 7 AMERICAN HISTORY. 695 Removal of the Deposites. — The law of 1816, which created the United States' bank, required that the public moneys should be deposited in that bank, subject to be removed only by the secretary of the treasury, and requir- ing him, in that case, to present his reasons for removing them to congress. Congress had already refused to author- ize the removal of the deposites, and the president was now resolved to effect it on his own responsibility. The new secretary of the treasury, William J. Duane (for there had been some recent changes in the cabinet), refusing to act in this matter, and resigning his office, the attorney-general, Roger B. Taney, was appointed in his place. Mr. Taney immediately issued the necessary orders for the removal of the deposites from the United States' bank; a measure which resulted from the president's determination to break off all connection between the government and the bank. At the coming session of congress, 2d of December, 1833, one of the first acts of the senate was the adoption of a resolution, by a vote of twenty-six to twenty, declaring "that the president, in his late executive proceedings, in relation to the public revenue, had assumed upon himself authority and power not conferred by the constitution and laws, but in derogation of both." This resolution remained on the journal until January 15, 1837, when it was formally expunged by order of the senate. The act of the president, and the measures taken by the United States' bank, occasioned much embarrassment throughout the mercantile community, during the years 1834 and 1835. Committees, appointed by the merchants, mechanics, and tradesmen of the principal commercial cities, solicited the president to replace the government deposites in the United States' bank. But he resisted every solicitation. Many petitions were sent to congress on the same subject. The senate favorably received them; but ♦.he house saw fit to sustain the president in this measure. Death of Lafayette. — This illustrious man and benefactor 696 GREAT EVENTS OF of America, died at his residence, La Grange, in France, on the 20th of May, 1834. This event was announced to congress on the 21st of June, in a message from the presi- dent. The character, services, and sacrifices of Lafayette, as an apostle of liberty and lover of mankind, were spoken of in appropriate terms of commendation in the president's communication. A joint select committee, of both houses, reported a series of resolutions, among which, one went to request the president to address a letter of condolence to the survivors in his family, and another to appoint John Quincy Adams to deliver, at the next session of congress, an oration on the life and character of the illustrious man. In due time, Mr. Adams pronounced his eulogy, in which the character and actions of Lafayette were drawn in a masterly manner. Deposits Act. — The deposite or distribution act was passed by congress in 1835. The president had given it his "reluctant approval," with the apprehension of evil con- sequences flowing from it. In a message to the subsequent congress, he speaks of it as merely an act for the deposite of the surplus moneys of the United States in the state treasuries, for safe keeping, until wanted for the service of the general government — but that it had been spoken of as Si gift, would be so considered, and might be so used. The manifestation of the president's feelings, in regard to this act and its disadvantages, was not calculated to relieve the minds of some, as to what he might attempt, in order to defeat its execution, or to prevent a future similar measure. This apprehension was subsequently strengthened by cer- tain circumstances, which, however, need here no specific mention. There was at least an apparent effort to obtain control over the government funds, so as to divert them from the channel directed by the act of congress. Seminole War. — The Seminole Indians of Florida, near the close of the year 1835, commenced hostilities against AMERICAN HISTORY. 697 the settlements of the whites in their neighborhood. To this, they were incited by the attempt of the government to remove the Indians to lands west of the Mississippi, in accordance with the treaty of Payne's Landing, executed in 1&32. That treaty, however, the Indians denied to be justly binding upon them, and they. naturally felt a strong reluctance to quit their homes for ever. Micanopy, the king of the Seminoles, was opposed to the removal; and Osceola, their most noted warrior, said he "wished to rest in the land of his fathers, and his children to sleep by his side." Osceola was cruelly put in irons by General Thompson, the government agent, who was displeased by the preten- sions of the chieftain, and his remonstrances against the governmental proceedings. He, however, obtained his liberty, at length, by dissembling his displeasure, and gave his confirmation to the treaty of removal. The whites were thus lulled into security; and, while they were expecting the delivery of the cattle and horses of the Indians, according to the treaty, the latter were already commencing the work of devastation and death. At this time. Major Dade was dispatched from Fort Brooke, at the head of Tampa Bay, with upwards of an hundred men, to the assistance of General Clinch, stationed at Fort Drane, in the interior of Florida. The latter was supposed to be in imminent danger. Dade had proceeded only about half the distance, when he was suddenly attacked by the enemy, and he and all, except four of his men, were killed, and these four, terribly mangled, after- wards died of their wounds. At the time of this massacre, Osceola, with a small band of warriors, was lurking in the vicinity of Fort King, about sixty-five miles south-west from St. Augustine. Here General Thompson and a few friends were dining at a store near the fort, when Osceola and his band surprised them by a sudden discharge of musketry, and five out of nine were killed. The general was one of the slain, his 698 ^ GREAT EVENTS OF body having been pierced by fifteen bullets. The Indian chief and his party then rushed in, scalped the dead, and retreated before they could be fired upon from the fort. There v^^ere other engagements about this time between the Americans and the savages; and subsequently, upon the junction of several of -the Creek towns and tribes with the Seminoles in the war, murders and devastations became frequent. The Indians obtained possession of many of the southern mail routes in Georgia and Alabama, attacked steamboats, destroyed stages, burned a number of towns, and compelled thousands of the whites, who had settled in their territory, to abandon their homes. A strong force, however, of confederate whites and friendly Indians, having been sent against them, and several of the hostile chiefs having been captured, the Creeks submitted, and, during the summer of 1836, several thousands of them were trans- ported west of the Mississippi. In October of the same year, Governor Call took com- mand of the American forces in Florida, and marched into the interior with nearly two thousand men. At the Wahoo swamp, not far from Dade's battle-ground, five hundred and fifty of his troops attacked a large number of the enemy, who, after a fierce contest of nearly half an hour, were dis- persed, with the loss of twenty warriors left dead on the field. In a second engagement, the Americans lost nine men killed and sixteen wounded. The combats of the whites and Indians in Florida, at this period, seem to have been attended with much loss of life on both sides. Treasury Circular. — An important circular, in relation to the funds which should be received in payment for the public lands, was issued from the ti.^sury department on the 11th of July, 1836. The purport of the circular was, to instruct the receivers of the public money, after the 15th day of August next ensuing, to receive in payment of the public lands nothing except gold and silver, and in the proper places, Virginia land scrip, in accordance with the AMERICAN HISTORY. 699 directions of the existing laws. In order to secure the faithful execution of the requirements of the circular, all receivers were strictly prohibited from accepting, for land sold, any draft, certificate, or other evidence of money or deposite, though for specie, unless signed by the treasurer of the United States, in conformity to the act of April 25th, 1820. At the next following session of congress, the president, in his message, was pleased to represent this specie circular as having produced many salutary consequences, contrary to the views of a large portion of the citizens of the United States, who believed that the embarrassment and disturb- ance of the currency, so severely felt, were, in a great measure, owing to the operation of that circular. ^ Character of General Jacksori's Administration. — It is hardly to be anticipated, perhaps, that a full and impartial estimate of General Jackson's administration, can be formed during the present generation. There were many strong points in it, and these are apt to call forth strong corres- pondent feelings, whether of approbation or dislike. Men differ, and may honestly differ, in regard to the propriety of his conduct and the wisdom of his measures. That he was honest, as a ruler, will not be at all doubted. That he was self-willed, and determined to have his own way, will scarcely less admit of a question. Still, it is not too much to hope, that the services he rendered to his country, connected though they be with the stern and high-handed measures adopted by his indomitable will, may be cherished with gratitude and respect. As a statesman, he had clear views, and, in some instances, a sort of prophetic foresight. When he had once determined upon a particular course, where any important principle was involved, he could not be made to swerve from what he conceived to be just and right. As the element of fear seemed not to be in him, he never shrunk from the dis- charge of any public duty, and was always ready to avow 700 GREAT EVENTS OF any act of his administration, as in the instance of removal of the public deposites through his secretary, and unshrink- ingly to abide the consequences. Election of Martin Van Buren. — Genei'al Jackson, in his last annual message, signified his intention, at the expiration of his term, to retire to private life. At the democratic con- vention for nominating a successor, Mr. Van Buren received a decided majority. The votes of the electoral colleges, counted February 8th, 1837, showed the following result: 73 n STATES. PRESIDENT. VICE-PRESIDENT. a i/ . CQ O c p a 1> 0) ■9 " E '- Si's o ^ 1 1 o c 10 bfl o a o ^> J= o o 10 Maine, . . . 10 . 7 14 New Hampshire, Massachusetts, 7 14 7 14 4 Rhode Island, . 4 4 8 Connecticut, . 8 8 7 Vermont, 7 7 42 New York, . 42 42 8 New Jersey, . 8 8 30 3 Pennsylvania, Delaware, . 30 3 30 3 10 23 Maryland, . . Virginia,. . . 23 10 10 23 15 North Carolina, 15 15 11 South Carolina, 11 11 11 Georgia,. . 11 11 15 Kentucky,. . 15 15 15 Tennessee, . . 15 15 21 Ohio, . . . 21 21 5 Louisiana, . . 5 5 4 9 Mississippi, . . Indiana, . . 4 9 4 9 5 Illinois, . . . 5 5 7 Alabama, . . 7 7 4 Missouri, . . 4 4 3 Arkansas, . . 3 3 3 Michigan, . . 3 3 294 No. of electors. 170 73 26 14 11 147 77 47 23 Majority, . 148 ' ' 1 ' ' 1 1 AMERICAN HISTORY. 701 XIII. MARTIN VAN BUREN, PRESIDENT. INAUGURATED AT WASHINGTON, MARCH 4, 1837. RICHARD M. JOHNSON, VICE-PRESIDENT. HEADS OF THE Jolin Forsyth, Georgia, . . . Levi Woodbury, New Hampshire, Joel R. Poinsett, South Carohna, Mahlon Diokerson, .... New Jersey, . . James K. Paulding, .... New York, . . Amos Kendall, Kentucky, . . Jolm M. Njles, Connecticut, . . Benjamin F. Butler New York, . . Felix Grundy, Tennessee, . . DEPARTMENTS. . . (continued in office), . (continued in office), . . March 7, 1837, . {continued in office), \ . .June 30, 1838,5 . (contimied in office), ) . . May 25, 1840,^ . {continued in office), } . . September 1, 1838,5 Secretary of State. Secretary of rreasory Secretary of War. Secretaries of the Navy. Postmasters General. Attorneys General. SPEAKERS OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. James K. Polk, .... Tennessee Twenty-sixth Congress, . 1837. R. M. T. Hunter, .... Virginia, Twenty-seventh do. . . 1839. Prior to the elevation of Mr. Van Buren to the presi- dency, he had been long in public life, and had been hon- ored with several offices in his native state and under the general government. His talents, learning, and experience, though not greater than those of many others of his coun- trymen, were generally allowed to be adequate to his 702 GREAT EVENTS OF station. He had not, indeed, like all his predecessors^ been connected more or less with the scenes of the Revo- lution, for he was born in the concluding year of the war. But, in the swiftly revolving years, it was evident that the time must soon come, when others than the men of '76 would be called to the helm of government. New men, and those not of the Anglo-American stock, must partici- pate, as agreeable to the will of our mixed community, in guiding the ship of state which the fathers launched forth on the sea of experiment. Such was the case in respect to Mr. Van Buren, and such must it be hereafter, so far as regards men of ante-revolutionary birth. Whether our future presidents will continue to be guided by the spirit and example of the sages and heroes of the Revolution, remains to be seen. In developing the administration of Mr. Van Buren, the following topics will be noticed: Measures respecting Banks, Difficulties in Maine, Treasury Circular, Border Troubles, Continuance of Florida War, Changes of Public opinion, Internal Improvements, Character of the Administration, Public Expenses, Election of William H. Harrison. Measures respecting Banks, ^'C. — The embarrassments in trade, consequent on the discontinuance of the Bank of the United States, issued in a great and disastrous diminu- tion of the revenue. In this state of things, the administra- tion found it necessary to resort to large loans. The people, as was to be expected, soon began to suffer in their private enterprises, and the country throughout wore a gloomy aspect, in respect to its pecuniary affairs and gen- eral prosperity. This condition of things arose to a great height, in the year 1837, and continued for some time after- wards. "Over trading, or the unusual amount of importa- tions, was one cause to which this unprosperous state of the country was imputed. But it was also attributed to the discontinuance of the national bank, and to the repeated attempts of the administration to destroy its influence. AMERICAN HISTORY. 703 Several petitions, from different commercial towns and cities, with very numerous subscribers, were presented to the president, requesting an early session of congress. The president delayed, for some time, to act on the peti- tions; but the distress increasing, and other petitions being addressed to him, he issued a proclamation for convening the national legislature in the month of September." In his message, the president proposed what his oppo- nents termed the "sub-treasury scheme." He held out very little hope of relief to the people from the govern- ment. His opinion was, that the government could do little more than take care of itself — that the class or classes of the community who had suffered, could alone supply a remedy, by a more prudent and limited course of enter- prise and trade. These, and similar suggestions, seemed little calculated to satisfy a large portion of the people, especially as the government had destroyed one important means of benefit and facility to the merchants, and, through them, to all the other classes of citizens. Following the suggestions of Mr. Van Buren, congress passed an act authorizing the issue of treasury notes, to the amount of ten millions of dollars, for the immediate wants of the government. "This was no other than a loan, except in name. The notes were made negotiable, and thus became, in fact, merely paper money; with no better credit, for there was no greater capital, or certainty of payment, than there had been in the national bank. The like amount" of treasury notes was authorized in 1838, and again in 1839, but a part of former issues had been redeemed." The sub-treasury scheme, which the president had pro- posed in his message, did not succeed at that time. The measure was opposed not only by the adverse political party, but by his democratic friends who were concerned in banks, and it was, at that period, very unpopular. This portion of the democratic party separated from the admin- istration, and were known as conservatives. They eventu- 704 GREAT EVENTS OF ally fell into the ranks of the old opposition, or as it was (and is still) termed, "the whig party." The subject of the sub-treasury was postponed. At the opening of the ses- sion of congress, in the following December, as may be remarked in anticipation, Mr. Van Buren again pressed the measure, which now seemed to be his favorite; but, though carried in the senate, it was defeated in the house. In a spirit of perseverance, he was enabled to effect the object, through his political friends, at the next session, when, on the 4lh of July, 1840, the bill received his signature. The extra session of congress seemed to satisfy neither party. The friends of the administration viewed the causes of the depression of business and the consequent distress, to be overaction in business, arising from exclusive issues of bank paper, and other facilities for the acquirement and enlargement of credit; the contraction of a large foreign debt, investment in unproductive lands, and vast internal improvements; and they naturally wished the separation of the government from the banks, in which project they were for the present disappointed. The opponents of the administration traced the causes of the pecuniary difficul- ties of the country to the veto of the national bank ; the removal of the deposites, with the earnest injunction of the secretary of the treasury upon the banks to enlarge their accommodations; the gold bill and the demand of gold for the foreign indemnities ; the imperfect execution of the deposite law; and the treasury order of July, 1836: and they naturally desired some modification or counteraction of these measures by legislative interference. Disappoint- ment was felt among the mass of the people, that the gov- ernment had taken care of itself, while their plans must be impeded, and the labors of industry go unrewarded. Issue of the Treasury Circular. — This was a communi- cation from the secretary of the treasury to the several collectors and receivers of the public money, containing instructions in respect to the safe keeping of the same. AMEHICAN HISTORY. 705 The instructions were as follows: "Congress having ad- journed without making any additional provisions for the security and safe keeping of the public money, it is obvious that, in the present state of the laws and of the banks, an unusual responsibility devolves upon those who collect the revenues of the general government. The president expects that exertions, corresponding to the occasion, will cheerfully be made by every officer, and that no effort will be spared to have all the laws, as well as the regulations and instructions of the treasury department, scrupulously enforced. Accuracy in your accounts, punctuality in your returns, promptness in your deposites and payments, and entire forbearance to use any part of the public funds for private purposes, will, it is hoped, characterize the whole class of collecting offices hereafter. In the present condi- tion of things, if any departure should unfortunately occur, it will be much regretted; and, however unpleasant the task, an exemplary and severe notice of the irregularity will become necessary, in order to secure the great public interests involved in this subject. The duty on the part of public officers to abstain from the employment of the public moneys for private advantage, is so apparent, that no excuse whatever for it can be deemed admissible." Continuance of the JVar in Florida. — The war in Florida continued to be prosecuted during the adminis- tration of President Van Buren. Large sums of money were expended in maintaining it. Three millions and a half of dollars had been appropriated on its account, during the years 1836 and 1837, under General Jackson; and at the extra session in October, 1837, one million and six hun- dred thousand dollars were appropriated; and in 1838, the expenses for supporting the war in that quarter against the Indians, amounted to as large a sum as in either of the two preceding years. "When the difficulty arose with these Indians, President Jackson supposed that it would be soon terminated. And no one, at that time, had any reason to 45 706 GREAT EVENTS OF suppose it would continue for years, and have cost the gov- ernment eight or ten millions. Other measures than those of force, would probably have terminated the difficulty at an early period. It would certainly have saved many valu- able lives now lost to the country, and been far more satis- factory to the friends of humanity throughout the Union." Internal Improvements. — During Mr. Van Buren's admin- istration, large sums were appropriated for internal improve- ments, although the president was generally opposed to the policy. The expenditures were, however, for purposes which the advocates of state rights, for the most part, believed to be legitimate, such as repairs on the Cumber- land road and its continuance through the states of Indiana and Illinois; for light-houses, life-boats, buoys, and monuments, in behalf of the interests of navigation. In reference to these objects, there was always far more agreement among the different parties in congress, than in reference to any thing that seemed less essential to the nation's benefit. Public Expenses. — The expenses of the government had been increasing to a considerable extent, from year to year. During the year 1837 and 1838, they amounted to nearly thirty-two millions each. The number of public agents was greatly multiplied, and the compensation for their services was, in many cases, greatly increased. The federal officei's into whose hands moneys were placed, fre- quently appropriated them for improper purposes, and thus loss ensued. Extra services were often charged, through some pretext, and thus the compensation allowed by law was largely exceeded. The public printing for congress, and for the departments under the executive, occasioned a large and frequently a needless expenditure, as it was found, in many cases, that the work could have been performed at a far cheaper rate. Such was the tendency of high party feeling towards an abuse of government patronage. AMERICAN HISTORY. 707 Difficulties in the State of Maine. — The North-eastern boundary had long been a source of difficulty between the United States and England. The question had seemed on the eve of a decision by arms between the British authori- ties in New Brunswick and the state of Maine. Armed bands had been sent out on both sides to the territory in dispute. General Scott had been sent to the scene of con- tention by the president, and the affair, through the general's exertions, was, for the time, quieted, yet not settled. The danger attending this state of things, induced Mr. Van Buren, on the 26th of February, 1839, to communicate to congress a message on this subject, which resulted in an act of congress, giving the president additional power for the defence of the country, in certain cases, against invasion, or any attempt on the part of Great Britain to exercise exclusive jurisdiction over the disputed territory. He was authorized, in this event, to accept the services of any number of volunteers, not exceeding fifty thousand. The sum often millions was appropriated for the president to employ in executing the provisions of this act. At the same time, an appropriation was made for the sending of a special minister to England, should it be expedient in the opinion of the president. The Border Troubles on the Northern Frontier. — The Canada rebellion, so called, which broke out during the years 1837 and 1838, strongly enlisted the sympathies of many of the Americans, especially in the northern parts of the states of New York and Vermont. They viewed it as the sacred cause of liberty and human rights. The consequence was, that they assumed the name of patriots, and formed secret associations, which they called Hunter's Lodges, with the object of rendering assistance to the insurgents in their efforts to establish independence in Canada. "In the prosecution of this well-meant, but illegal inter- ference in the concerns of a foreign power, a daring party of adventurers took possession of Navy island, a small spot 708 GREAT EVENTS OF of ground, containing about three hundred and fifty acres, and situated in the Niagara river, about two miles above the falls, and lying within the jurisdiction of Upper Canada. It was fortified so strongly by the adventurers, as to resist an attack upon it by Sir James Head, the commander of the British forces. The president of the United States and the governor of the state of New York both issued procla- mations, enjoining upon the inhabitants of the frontier to observe a strict neutrality. "Notwithstanding these injunctions, arms and ammuni- tion were procured, either by purchase or by stealth, and kept for the use of the insurgents. The party upon Navy island fired upon the opposite shore of Canada, and boats were destroyed by the force of their shot. The persons who were in possession of the island, amounting to seven hundred, were fully supplied with provisions, and had col- lected twenty pieces of cannon. "These measures, on the part of the Americans, pro- duced great excitement among the provincial authorities in Canada. A small steamboat, called the Caroline, was hired by the insurgents, to ply between Navy Island and Schlos- ser, on the American shore, in order to furnish the islanders with the means of carrying on the war. It began to run on the morning of the 29th of December, and, during the evening of that day, a detachment of one hundred and fifty armed men from the Canada side, in five boats, with muffled oars, proceeded to Schlosser, drove the men who were on board the Caroline ashore, cut her loose from her fastenings to the wharf, and, setting the boat on fire, let her float over the falls. In this enterprise, a man by the name of Durfee was killed ; and it is said that one or two more were left in the steamboat when she went over the cataract."* The Americans, in their turn, were greatly excited, and the threatened serious consequences to the peace existing *'Willard's History of the United States. AMERICAN HISTORY. 709 between our government and that of Great Britain, were, with difficulty averted. The president, however, by pro- Blinung of the Caroline. clamation and other measures, succeeded, at length, in checking the belligerent movements of our people on the frontier. Changes of Opinion among the People. — Although the president, during his visit to his native state in the summer of 1839, for the first time since his inauguration, was every where greeted with enthusiasm by his political friends, and with great personal respect by his opponents, yet it was evident that the political horizon wore a different aspect from what it formerly had done. The derangement of the currency and prostration of trade, attributed by many to the mal-administration of government, had caused great political changes. Of the representatives in the twenty- sixth congress, there were one hundred and nineteen dem ocrats and one hundred and eighteen whigs, leaving out of view five representatives from New Jersey, whose seats 710 GREAT EVENTS OF were contested. After several fierce debates, tlie demo- cratic members from this state were admitted. Mr. Van Buren, in 1840, being a candidate for reelection, failed to carry the suffrages of the people. The great political changes, from causes already intimated, as shown in the state elections, gave, at the outset, but little hope of his success. Character of the Administration. — Mr. Van Buren's administration, which closed on the 3rd of March, 1841, was an exciting one; and its character, even at this day, cannot, in all respects, be properly estimated. The verdict of posterity will be given with more justice than that of the present generation, in respect to its real benefit to the country. The great event of his administration, as has been remarked, by which it "will hereafter be known and desisrnated, is the divorce of bank and state in the fiscal affairs of the federal government, and the return, after half a century of deviation, to the original design of the consti- tution." The caution, however, which history must neces- sarily observe on this subject, is well exhibited in the following remarks: "The full results of the peculiar and experimental policy of President Jackson and President Van Buren, respecting banks and the currency, in their influence on the condition of the country, for good or for evil, for succeeding years, cannot be correctly estimated. The immediate conse- quences were a general disturbance of the trade and monetary affairs of the nation, and an unprecedented check to the accustomed pursuits of a people so enterprising in their spirit, and so desirous of improving their condition, as are the citizens of the United States. The sub-treasury scheme also gave alarm to the friends of the constitution generally, and to men of settled republican sentiments, who perceived in it a deviation from the essential elements of liberty recognized in the constitution, and a weakness of the responsibility of public agents, who should always be AMERICAN HISTORY. 711 controlled by the authority of law. They knew that power was corrupting; that it was necessary to impose checks on those who were clothed with political authority, and to make them constantly amenable to their constituents. The developments and effects of this fearful experiment, must be left for narration to a distant day. The only just hope of the perpetuity and future purity of the republic, rest on the intelligence and virtue of the people, and on their wisdom in the choice of men for places of public trust; who, like Washington, shall make the constitution their guide, and, under the controlling influence of its doc- trines and requisitions, shall seek to preserve the integrity of the Union, and the rights and welfare of individuals." Canvass for the Presidency. — Unusual efforts had been put forth in the election of Mr. Van Buren's successor. Never before had greater activity been manifested by the leading political parties of the nation. The country had been convulsed with the strife for many months. The whole political press had exerted its utmost influences on the one side or the other, and that, in many instances, in the most unscrupulous manner. Considerations of great interest and importance were urged by the respective parties; much truth was uttered and widely disseminated, but more false- hood and detraction. Popular meetings — in numbers, char- acter, and enthusiasm, never before assembled on the American soil for this or any other purpose — were held towards the conclusion of the political contest in every state, and in almost every county. The most distinguished men in the nation addressed thousands and tens of thousands, by night and by day. Said an eminent statesman, on one occa- sion, "If, on the occurrence of our presidential elections in future, our contests must be so severe, so early begun, and so long continued, human nature will fail. The energies of man are not equal to the conflict." The question, which had been actually determined before, was officially decided on the 10th of February, 1841, when the ceremony of 712 GREAT EVENTS OF counting and announcing tiie votes of the electoral colleges for president and vice-president took place. The result was as follows: 10 7 14 4 8 7 42 8 30 3 10 23 15 11 11 15 15 21 5 4 9 5 7 4 3 3 294 STATES. Maine, New Hampshire, .... Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, Vermont, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia North Carolina, .... South Carolina, .... Georgia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Ohio, Louisiana, Mississippi, Indiana, Illinois, Alabama, Missouri, Arkansas, Michigan, Whole No. of electors, . . Majority, 148 PRESIDENT pa ^ rJO 234 23 11 60 VICE-PRESIDENT. 234 d c ■> 22 48 11 11 P-l !> . c 03 H AMERICAN HISTORY. 713 XIV. WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON, PRESIDENT. INAUGURATED AT WASHINGTON, MARCH 4, 1841. JOHN TYLER, VICE-PRESIDENT. HEADS OF THE DEPARTMENTS. Daniel Webster, Massachusetts, . . . March 5, 1841, Secretary of State. Thomas Ewing, Ohio, . , . , March 5, 1841, Secretary of Treasury. John Bell, Tennessee, .... March 5, 1841, Secretary of War. George E, Badger, .... North Carolina, . . March 5, 1841, Secretary of the Navy. Francis Granger New York, .... March 6, 1841, Postmaster General. J.J.Crittenden, Kentucky,. . . . March 5, 1841, Attorney General. SPEAKERS OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. John White Kentucky, .... Twenty-eighth Congress, . 1841. John W. Jones Virginia, Twenty-iunlh do. . . 1843. The unwonted efforts put forth in the presidential can- vass, had prepared a majority of the people for an unusual exultation of feeling on the accession of General Harrison; but, in the providence of God, that exultation was destined to be transitory. Just one month from the day of his inau- guration, after a brief sickness, he died. The nation, it 714 AMERICAN HISTORY. may well be believed, was surprised by this most unex- pected calamity. It was difficult to conceive that the recent august spectacle of his introduction into the highest office in the gift of his countrymen, should be so nearly associated with his funeral honors. The loss seemed severe, in proportion to the expectations that had been indulged. A suitable commemoration of the distressing event was observed throughout the United States, by public bodies, and especially by Christian worshiping assemblies. Political opponents, in many instances, were not slow to render homage to the memory of the deceased president. There had been time for no particular develop- ment of principles or course of policy, on the part of the administration. The cabinet had been formed, and things were proceeding prosperously, and the future was full of promises, when this bereavement came to quench the hopes of millions. This brief notice of a brief administration maybe closed by an extract from the circular issued by the members of the cabinet, immediately after the president's decease, and which alludes to his dying, as well as his living example: "The people of the United States, overwhelmed, like our- selves, by an event so unexpected and so melancholy, will derive consolation from knowing that his death was calm and resigned, as his life had been patriotic, useful, and dis- tinguished; and that the last utterance of his lips expressed a firm desire for the perpetuity of the constitution,* and the preservation of its true principles. In death, as in life, the happiness of his country was uppermost in his thoughts." Upon the demise of General Harrison, Mr. Tyler, the vice-president, in accordance with the provisions of the constitution, as they were construed by himself, and were acquiesced in by the nation, became president of the United States. * His last words were, as if addressing his successor, " Sir, I wish you to understand the principles of the government. I want them carried out. I ask nothing more." AMERICAN HISTORY. 715 XV. JOHN TYLER, PRESIDENT. ASSUMED THE GOVERNMENT APRIL 4, 1841 [The cabinet of General Harrison continued in office under Mr. Tyler till September, when they all resigned, excepting Mr. Webster, who remained till the 8th of May, 1843, when the department of state was temporarily filled by the attorney general, Hugh S. Legare.] BEADS OF THE DEPARTMENTS. Abel P. Upshur, Virginia, . . . John C. Calhoun, South Carolina, Walter Forward, Pennsylvania, . John C. Spencer, New York, . . George M. Bibb, Kentucky, . . John C Spencer, New York, . . James M. Porter, Pennsylvania, . William WiUdns, Pennsylvania, . Abel P. Upshur Virginia, . . . Pavid Hensliaw, Massachusetts, , Thomas W. Gilmer, .... Virginia, . . . Jolin Y. Mason, Virginia, . . January 2, March 6, 1S44,; 1814, ! Secretanes of State. , September 13, 1841,^ March 3, 1843, < Secretaries of Treasury. , June 15, 1844, > December 20, 1(541, i . March 8, 1843,' Secretaries of War. February 15, 1844, ) September 13, 1841, ) July 24. 1843, February 15, 1844, March 14, 1844, Secretanes of the Navy. Charles A. Wickliffe, Kentucky, .... September 13, 1841, Postmaster GeneraL Hujjh S. Legare, South Carolina, John Nelson Maryland, . . John Y. Mason, Vu-^nia, . . September 13, 1841, > Januarj-2, 1844,> Attorneys GeneraL March 5, 1845, > 716 GREAT EVENTS OF The bereavement which the nation had experienced, seemed to demand from it a solemn recognition of the Divine Providence in the sad event. Accordingly, Mr. Tyler very properly appointed a day of public humiliation, fasting, and prayer, to be observed throughout the land, in token of its sense of the Divine judgment, and, as a means of securing the continuance of the Divine favor. This was well received, and the day was religiously observed through- out our widely-extended country. In the room of an inaugural address. President Tyler made an official declaration, in a published document, of the principles and general course of policy which he intended should mark his administration. These, as sum- marily expressed, were generally satisfactory to his politi- cal friends. The principal measures and events of President Tyler's administration will be noticed in the following order: Extra Session of Congress, Celebration of Bunker's hill Monument, Relations with Great Britain, Treaties, Settlement of the N. E. Boundary, Annexation of Texas, Difficulties in Rhode Island, Character of Mr. Tyler's Administrat'n, Modification of the Tariff, Presidential Canvass. Extra Session of Congress. — A few days before his death. General Harrison had issued his proclamation for an extra session of congress, to be held on the 31st of May, 1841, principally on account of the condition of the revenue and finances of the country. These were suffering, in consequence of the character of the events that had taken place. The revenue was insufficient to support the gov- ernment, and the currency of the country was greatly disordered. Congress assembled, in conformity to the pro- clamation, and engaged in the grave and urgent business to which their attention had been called. Several important acts were passed at this session, among which were — the establishment of a uniform sys- tem of bankruptcy, a measure which seemed imperiously required for the relief of more than half a million of debt- AMERICAN HISTORY. 717 ors, who otherwise had no prospect of paying their debts — a bill providing for the distribution of the net proceeds of the public lands among the states, according to their respective population on the federal representative scale — also, the repeal of the sub-treasury law, which had been adopted towards the close of Mr. Van Buren's administra- tion — and an act ij7iposing duties of twenty per cent, on the value of all articles of import not expressly excepted therein. Congress, at this time, passed a bill having in view the estabHshment of a national bank, which, however, Mr. Tyler saw fit to veto, notwithstanding, in his first message, he had recommended a bank of some kind. The bill, which the president set aside, chiefly, as he alleged, from his doubts as to its accordance with the constitution, con- tained, in the view of its framers, a corftpromise sufficient to overcome his constitutional objections to a bank. But having, in bis veto-message, shadowed forth a fiscal agent, such as was believed he might approve, a bill, in agreement therewith, was framed and adopted ; yet this also he vetoed ; and there not being a constitutional majority in its favor, it was lost. This was a result, in both cases, sufficiently mortifying to the political party which had raised him to power. To the friends of a national bank, the disap- pointment was extreme. Great excitement prevailed, and all of Mr. Tyler's cabinet, except Mr. Webster, resigned. Relations with Great Britain. — A communication was made to the American government, on the part of that of Great Britain, as announced by the president in his message of the 6th of December, 1841, respecting the destruction of the steamboat Caroline. That affair, it was alleged, was undertaken by orders from the authorities of the British government. Under this sanction, the release of Alexander McLeod, a British subject, who had been indicted for the murder of an American citizen, on that occasion, was demanded by the English authorities. It 718 GREAT EVENTS OF happened, however, favorably for the peace of the two countries, that McLeod had previously been tried in the state of New York, and acquitted. The excitement and anxiety, among all parties, had been intense during the trial, and the result was awaited, with no little foreboding, on the part of the peaceably disposed. It was now only left that the affair of the Caroline should, in some way, be adjusted by negotiation. Settlement of the North-eastern Boundary. — The import- ant event of defining and agreeing upon the North-eastern boundary of the United States, took place in 1842. The treaty made with England on this subject, was ratified by the senate on the 20th of August, of that year. The proper boundary, between the United States and the British possessions in that quarter, had long been a matter of serious controversy and difficulty. The claims of either country conflicted with those of the other — bitter feelings were engendered among the inhabitants dwelling on the borders, and disturbances not unfrequently took place between them, so that the peaceful relations of the two powers were, to some extent, constantly endangered. It was fortunate for the country, that Mr. Webster was still a member of the cabinet, and brought the weight of his char- acter and official station to bear upon this question. It was also fortunate for England that she sent so conciliating and able a negotiator as Lord Ashburton, to treat on the sub- ject. In the spirit of kindness and compromise, the matter was discussed, and, at length, settled between them — the president, at the same time cooperating in endeavors to the same effect. That the states of Maine and Massachusetts, who were interested in the division to be made between the countries, might be satisfied, their respective legislatures appointed several gentlemen as commissioners on the occasion. The treaty was duly ratified on the part of both powers, in the lat- ter part of 1842, with the public proclamation of the same by AMERICAN HISTORY. 719 the president; and thus ended a harassing controversy of fifty years' standing. Difficulties in Rhode Island. — From a state of things which existed in Rhode Island at this time (1842), the most serious consequences were feared, in respect to that commonwealth, if not to the Union at large. In attempts to set aside the ancient charter of the state, the mode of adopting a new constitution became a matter of contro- versy among the people. A portion of them proceeded, in a manner unauthorized by the laws of the state, in erecting the fabric of the government. This portion of the citizens, called the "suffrage party," actually formed and adopted a constitution of their own, made choice of Thomas W. Dorr as governor, and elected a legislature. This was aside from the government which was already existing in the state. That being administered I'egularly at the same time, and another portion of the citizens, called the "law and order party," upholding it; a conflict, as to authority, necessarily ensued between the two parties. The law and order party had chosen their governor, Samuel W. King, at the appointed period, and both parties met to transact the business usually attended to at the meeting of legisla- tive bodies. "The legally organized party then took active measures to put down what was denominated the rebellion. Great commotion ensued, and several arrests were made. Dorr left the state, but soon returning, his followers assembled under arms, and a bloody struggle appeared inevitable. The insurgents, however, dispersed on the appearance of the government forces, and Dorr, to avoid arrest, fled from the state. "In June, however, the insurgents again made their appearance under arms, and were joined by Dorr. The whole state was now placed under martial law, and a large body of armed men was sent against the insurgents, who dispersed without any effectual resistance. Dorr again 720 GREAT EVENTS OF fled; but returning, after a few months, was arrested, tried for treason, convicted, and sentenced to be imprisoned during life. In the mean time, a constitution for the state had been adopted, according to the prescribed forms of law. In June, 1845, Dorr was released, although he had refused to accept a pardon on condition of taking the oath of allegiance to the state government." Modification of the Tariff. — A well-regulated tariff was believed, by many, to be the only measure by which the financial disorders and stagnation in business, so character- istic of the times, could be remedied. Accordingly, before the adjournment of the second session of the twenty-seventh congress (August 31st, 1842), a bill modifying, in some important particulars, the existing tariff, passed both houses of congress, and received the signature of the president. The first bill introduced and passed, was vetoed by Mr. Tyler; and, for a time, the friends of the measure indulged in painful apprehensions as to the final issue. An unwonted hostility had been manifested, on the part of a powerful party, to any modification of the law on this subject, and every step of its progress had been most earnestly and bitterly contested. But the imperious necessity of the measure, the wants of the national treasury, and the suffer- ing condition of the various branches of industry, induced congress to yield to the prejudices of the executive. Accordingly, such alterations were made in the bill vetoed as comported with the president's views, and it was returned with his signature. Celebration of the Bunker s hill Monument. — "In June, 1843, was celebrated, with great pomp and appropriate ceremonies, the completion of the Bunker's hill monument. This great public work had met with numerous delays; but, having at length received its topmost stone, the 17th of June, the anniversary of the battle, was assigned to cele- brate the event. The president and several members of AMERICAN HISTORY. 72 1 his cabinet honored the celebration. A multitude, of all classes, and from various parts of the country, were present. An oration was pronounced by Mr. Webster on the occa- sion. The pageant was grand and imposing, and calcu- lated to exalt, in the hearts of assembled thousands, the virtues and patriotism of the men who had, in by-gone years, moistened the soil on which the monument stands with their richest blood. A sad event, however, followed fast upon the festivities of the day — this was the sudden decease of Mr. Legare, the recently-appointed secretary of state. He had followed the president to witness the celebration; but sudden sickness fell upon him, and he died at his lodgings, in Boston, on the morning after the celebration." Treaties. — The treaty with Great Britain, fixing a bound- ary line between^ the United States and Canada, has already been elsewhere mentioned. But in addition to that subject, the treaty at that time formed also stipulated, that each nation should maintain on the coast of Africa a naval force, of vessels sufficient to carry, in all, not less than eighty guns ; to be independent of each other, but to act in concert for the suppression of the slave trade. By another article of the treaty, it was stipulated that fugitives from justice, found in either country, should be delivered up by the two gov- ernments respectively, upon complaint, and upon what should be deemed sufficient evidence to sustain the charge. A treaty between the United States and the Chinese Empire, was ratified by a unanimous vote of the senate, during the second session of the twenty-eighth congress. The treaty was concluded by Caleb Cushing and Tsying, on the 3d of July, 1844. It placed our relations with China on a new footing, and under auspices highly favorable to the commerce and other interests of this country. Some months previous to this time, a treaty had been negotiated with Texas, respecting the annexation of that republic, as a territory, to the United States. The annun- 46 722 GREAT EVENTS OF ciation of such a treaty, was made to congress in April, 1844, by a special message from the president, and excited much surprise throughout the country, and awakened great anxiety in the minds of those who were opposed to the measure. They viewed it as involving an extension of slavery, and a probable war with Mexico, as she still laid claim to Texas as a portion of her rightful domain. The senate, however, rejected the treaty, and thus frustrated Mr. Tyler's designs at that period. • Joint Resolution for the Annexation of Texas. — The rejection of the treaty with Texas, before mentioned, seemed not to discourage the president from attempting the annexation of that country to the United States, in vio- lation, as many believed, of the constitution. According to his wishes, and it is supposed at his suggestion, a joint reso- lution* for annexation was introduced into congress, and passed the house of representatives, January 23d, 1845, by a vote of one hundred and eighteen to one hundred and one. In the senate, the resolution underwent several important amendments, particularly one by Mr. Walker, involving the alternative of negotiation at the option of the president, which, having been concurred in by the house, received the sanction of the executive, and thus the way was prepared for the annexation of the country in question. "As these measures, in regard to the admission of Texas, were adopted at the close of the session of congress, it was expected that Mr. Tyler would leave it to his successor to consummate the wishes of congress, and it was also under- stood that Mr. Polk had determined to negotiate a treaty * To this resolution there were three conditions — the 1st was, that Texas should adopt a constitution, and lay it before congress on or before the 1st day of January, 1846. 2. That all muies, minerals, fortifications, arms, navy, &c., should be ceded to the United States. 3. That new states might hereafter be formed out of the said territory. The amendment of Mr. Walker allowed the president of the United States, instead of proceeding to submit the foregoing resolutions to the republic of Texas, as an overture on the part of the United States for admission, to negotiate with that repubhc. AMERICAN HISTORY. 723 with Texas, under the alternative offered by Mr. Walker's amendment. President Tyler, however, determined to forestall the action of his successor, and hence dispatched an express to communicate to Texas, that he had decided to invite Texas into the Union, under the provisions of the resolutions as they passed the house of representatives, without the exercise of farther treaty-making power." Character of Mr. Tyler's Administration. — "Of the character of Mr. Tyler's administration, and his personal relations thereto, it is yet too early to speak. His inde- pendent course in vetoing the bank bills and other measures, greatly exasperated the party who had elevated him to office, and he was denounced as a traitor; while his equally independent course in opposing General Jackson in his measures against the United States' bank, and also his alli- ance with the whigs during Mr. Van Buren's administration, denied him the confidence of the democrats. He himself said, 'I appeal from the vituperation of the present day to the pen of impartial history, in the full confidence that neither my motives nor my acts will bear the interpretation which has, for sinister purposes, been placed upon them.' As an executive of the people's will, he exhibited all the necessary vigor of a chief magistrate. 'Nor is it to be denied,' says one of his political opponents, 'that the foreign relations of the United States were ably managed during his presidential term, and that he generally surrounded him- self with able counsellors in his cabinet.' " Presidential Canvass. — Mr. Tyler's presidential term expired on the 4th of March, 1845, and he was not reelected, nor indeed was he a candidate for reelection, except for a short period. The candidates of the two great political parties were now Henry Clay, of Kentucky, and James K. Polk, of Tennessee. These had been nominated by the respective conventions of the parties, which had assembled in the city of Baltimore, one on the 1st, and the other on 724 GREAT EVENTS OF the 17th of May, 1844. The strife and the efforts of the adherents of the respective candidates were eager and persevering. The issue, for some time, appeared to be doubtful ; but the close of the canvass shovi^ed that the democratic nom.inee had been elected. The following table exhibits the result of the official count in the presence of both houses of congress, February 12th: 2 PRESIDENT. 1 VICE-PRESIDENT. 002 >> a, ^ — *> a o o cs STATES. ^ c .Pi a to S o 1"^ c <_ o w- ^-B 3 Us D O u o iz, a •o H 9 Maine, 9 9 6 New Hampshire, . . . 6 6 12 Massachusetts, .... 12 I 12 4 Rhode Island, .... 4 4 6 Connecticut, .... 6 6 6 Vermont, 6 6 36 New York, 36 36 7 New Jersey, 7 7 26 Pennsylvania, .... 26 26 3 Delaware, 3 3 8 Maryland, 8 8 17 Virginia, 17 17 11 North Carolina, . . . 11 11 9 South Carolina, .... 9 9 10 Georgia, 10 10 12 Kentucky, 12 12 13 Tennessee, 13 13 23 Ohio, 23 23 6 Louisiana, 6 6 6 Mississippi, 6 6 12 Indiana, 12 12 9 Illinois, 9 9 9 Alabama, 9 9 7 1 Missouri, 7 7 3 Arkansas, 3 3 5 Michigan, 5 5 275 Whole No. of electors, . 170 105 170 105 Majority, .... 1381 AMERICAN HISTORY. 725 XVI. JAMES K. POLK, PRESIDENT. INAUGURATED AT "WASHINGTON, MARCH 4, 1845. GEORGE M. DALLAS, VICE-PRESIDENT. HEADS OF THE DEPARTMENTS. James Buchanan, .«. . . .Pennsylvania, . . . March 5, 1845, Secretary of State. Robert J. Walker, .... Mississippi, .... March 5, 1845, Secretary of Treasury. William L. Marcy, New York, .... March 5, 1845, Secretary of War. Gp'>rce Ban^oft, Massachusetts, . . March 10, 1845,3 g^arigs ^ffhe Navy John Y. Mason, Virgima, September 9, 1846,5 Cave Johnson, Tennessee, .... March 5, 1845, Postmaster General. John Y, Mason, Virginia, .... March 5, latS, > Natlian Clifrord, Maine, December 23, 1846, > Attorneys General. Isaac Toucey, Comiecticut, . . . June 21, 1848,' SPEAKERS OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. John W, Davis Indiana Twenfy-ninth Congress, . . 1845. Robert C. Wmtlirop, . . Massachusetts, . . Thirtieth do. . . 1847. The election of Mr. Polk to the presidency was not very strongly anticipated by the democratic party; for besides the great popularity of his rival, Mr. Clay, he had received the nomination of the Baltimore Convention, held in May 726 GREAT EVENTS OF of the previous year, not as the first choice of that body, but because of its inabiUty to harmonize on another candi- date. Before the meeting of the convention, Mr. Van Burea was expected to be the prominent candidate; but his avowed opposition to the annexation of Texas, added to other sources of dissatisfaction, induced the convention to abandon him, and to select a candidate in the person of James K. Polk, whose political views were supposed to be more in accord- ance with those of the democratic party, especially at the South. During the first seven ballotings of the convention, Mr. Polk did not receive a single vote ; on the eighth ballot- ing, but forty-four; while on the ninth, he received every vote of the convention, amounting to two hundred and sixty-six in number. On the occurrence of the election, despite the efforts which were made in favor of the whig candidate, he was elected by a strong majority. On the occasion of his induction into office, Mr. Polk, following usage, delivered an address, explanatory of the principles which would guide him in the administration of the government. These were so nearly identical with those expressed by his predecessors, that we deem it unnecessary to detail them. It may be stated, however, that he expressed himself opposed to a national bank — to a tariff for protection only; but was strongly in favor of the annexation of Texas, and was satisfied of our "clear and unquestionable title to Oregon." In official action, he pledged himself to adminis- ter the government for the whole people, irrespective of the party by which he was elected. The events and measures which signalized the adminis- tration of Mr. Polk were — Decease of General Jackson, Battle of Buena Vista, Admission of Texas, Capture of Vera Cruz, Division of Oregon, Cerro Gordo, Mexican War, Progress of the Army, Siege of Fort Brown, Occupation of Mexico, Battle of Palo Alto, Treaty, Battle of Resaca de la Palma, California and its Gold, Fall of Monterey, Election of General Taylor. AMERICAN HISTORY. 727 Decease of General Jackson. — A short time previous to the termination of his presidential career, General Jack- son was attacked with a severe hemorrhage of the lungs. He recovered, however, sufficiently to be present at the inauguration of his successor. On his arrival at the Her- mitage, he was weak and infirm; but relaxation from arduous duties, added to the attention of friends, at length restored him to comparative health. His lungs, however, were from this time feeble, if not positively diseased. But, for several months prior to his decease, his health became visibly worse. He was constantly cheered, how- ever, by the visits of his old and attached personal friends; and the consolations of religion were a never-failing solace to his heart. "General Jackson continued to grow more feeble until the 8th day of June, 1845. Early in the morning of that day he swooned, and, for some time, was supposed to be dead. On reviving from the swoon, he became conscious that the spark of life was nearly extinguished, and, expect- ing to die before another sun would set, he sent for his family and connections to come and receive his dying benediction. His remarks, it is said, were full of affection and Christian resignation. His mind retained its vigor to the last, and his dying moments, even more than his earlier years, exhibited its highest intellectual light. His death took place on the evening of the 8th of June, in the seventy- ninth year of his age. By his request, Dr. Edgar, of the Presbyterian church, preached his funeral sermon."* General Jackson was, doubtless, no ordinary man. For many years, he occupied a prominent place in the affairs of his country. Whatever may have been thought of the wisdom or constitutionality of some of his measures, all united in awarding to him the merit of honesty, and a true desire to promote the welfare of the nation. That he was ardent, sometimes rash, and withal precipitate in his mea- * Life of Andrew Jackson, by John S. Jenkins. 728 GREAT EVENTS OF sures, and then determined, may be admitted, without any meditated wrong to his reputation. But when death laid him in the grave, poHtical differences were forgotten, and poHtical opponents united in paying a high and well-mer- ited tribute to his memory. Admission of Texas. — We have already had occasion to refer (p. 721) to the joint-resolution of congress, of the 23d of January, 1845, for the annexation of Texas to the United States. The conditions prescribed by that reso- lution were subsequently accepted by Texas, and, in his first annual message to congress, Mr. Polk informed that body that nothing remained to consummate that annexation but the passage of an act by congress, admitting her into the Union upon an equal footing with the original states. To such a strange and summary process of admitting states, there were loud and strong remonstrances. The unconstitutionality of the measure was urged ; but more, the probable increased disturbance of our relations with Mex- ico, which still claimed the jurisdiction, whether justly or not, over a considerable part of the territory. Besides, it was contended that the direct effect would be to extend the oppressions and curses of slavery. Neither argument nor remonstrance, however, served to induce the president or his supporters to pause. They pretended to foresee great and signal blessings as the necessary result of thus extending the free institutions of the United States. And, accordingly, it was, upon the recommendation of the president, resolved by congress to admit Texas upon an equal footing with the original states. And the grant was made to her, which had not before been made since the adoption of the federal constitution, to allow her two representatives, while her population was insufficient to entitle her to one, except under the specific provision of the constitution, that each state shall have, at least, one representative. In consequence of these measures, in relation to Texas, AMERICAN HISTORY. 729 by the American government, and at an early stage of them, the Mexican minister demanded his passports; and, at a subsequent date, the American minister, Mr. SHdell, was refused a reception and recognition, as such, by the Mexican government. Thus, as had been predicted by the opposers of annexation, a serious misunderstanding, w^hich already existed between the United States and Mexico, in relation to the conduct of the latter touching other matters, was rendered still more serious, and was rapidly tending, it was plainly perceptible, to open hostilities between the two powers. While such was the position of our relations with Mexico — the horizon becoming daily more obscure, and clouds, portentous of evil, were rising higher and higher — a single act of the president precipitated the war which many had predicted, but which all saw reason to deplore. This was an order issued to General Taylor to break up his encamp- ment at Corpus Christi, and, passing the Neuces, to concen- trate his forces on the left bank of the Rio del Norte. Division of Oregon^ — Prior to the introduction of Mr. Polk into office, several attempts had been made by the governments of the United States and Great Britain to settle, by negotiations, questions in dispute between them, as to the proprietorship and occupation of Oregon — all of which had failed. These negotiations were conducted at London, in the years 1818, 1824, and 1826; the first two, under the administration of Mr. Monroe; the last, under that of Mr. Adams. The negotiations of 1818 having failed to accomplish its object, it was agreed, October 20th of that year, that, to the citizens of each nation, the har- bors, bays, &c., should be open for ten years. The nego- tiations of 1824, left this agreement untouched, as did those of 1826; but, August 6th, 1827, it was further agreed, that it should be competent for either party, after October 20lh, 1828, to annul this convention, by giving to the other twelve months' notice. 730 GREAT EVENTS OF Subsequently, negotiations were resumed. In 1844, the British plenipotentiaries offered to divide the Oregon terri- tory by the forty-ninth parallel of latitude, leaving the navigation of Columbia river free to both nations. This proposition was immediately rejected by the American minister; whereupon, he was invited by the British min- ister to make a proposition in return. At this stage of the negotiation, Mr. Polk took the presi- dential chair; and, anxious to settle the question, he made the same offer which had been made by the British min- ister, excepting the free navigation of the Columbia river. This proposition being unacceptable, further negotiations terminated. On the meeting of congress, in December, 1845, the president recommended that the notice required by the convention of August, 1827, should be given to Great Britain, which, at the expiration of a year, would bring the question to an issue. The subject, thus brought to the notice of congress, excited the highest possible interest. The friends of the executive, and perhaps others, were strongly in favor of giving the required notice, while serious apprehensions were entertained by many, that the practical effect of such a measure would be a war between the two nations. At length, the question was settled by the adoption of a resolution in accordance with the executive recommendation. In the house, the vote on the resolution was one hundred and forty-two to forty-six; in the senate, forty-two to ten. The official notice, thus directed, was given by the pres- ident to her majesty Queen Victoria, on the 28th of April, 1846. Before the delivery of this notice, however, the British minister at Washington had received instructions to submit to the American government a new and further proposition for a partition of the territory in dispute. In a special and confidential communication to the senate on the 10th of June, the president informed congress that such a proposition had been made, and requested their AMERICAN HISTORY. 731 advice. At the same time, he reiterated the views expressed in his annual message, that no compromise, which the United States ought to accept, could be effected ; that our title to the whole of Oregon was maintained by irrefragable arguments, and that the claim could not be abandoned, without a sacrifice of both national honor and interests. Such was the tenor of the president's communi- cation. But he solicited advice. In a resolution, adopted thirty-eight to twelve, the senate advised the president to accept the proposal of the British government, which he accordingly did; and, on the 16th of June, a convention or treaty, settling boundaries, &c., in relation to Oregon, was communicated by the president to the senate, by the latter of which it was ratified, forty-one to fourteen. The amicable settlement of such a question, which had long subsisted between the two governments — which had employed, time after time, and for a series of years, some of the most distinguished statesmen on both sides the water — which had given birth to warm and excited feelings, and to warm and contentious words — which had become more embarrassing the longer negotiations were continued, and which, it was agreed on both sides, was fast ripening into open rupture and collision — the amicable settlement of such a question, was a subject worthy of congratulation in both hemispheres. If the terms of the treaty were not so favor- able to the American nation as might have been obtained, they were such as the friends of peace and good under- standing were willing to accept; and, as it was admitted that the treaty was consummated through the wisdom and firmness of the senate, that body received, as it was enti- tled to receive, the thanks of the nation. Mexican War. — In compliance with the order of the president, already noticed (p. 729), General Taylor arrived, with the "army of occupation," on the 28th of March, before Matamoras. On the same day, the Mexican general, Ampudia, warned General Taylor to withdraw his forces 732 GREAT EVENTS OF beyond the Nueces, which notification was repeated by General Arista, on the 24th of April, who, at that date, superseded Ampudia. On the same day, a rumor pre- vailed that the enemy were crossing the river, above and below the American camp. To ascertain the truth of this rumor. Captain Kei', with a squadron of dragoons, was directed to reconnoitre between the camp and the mouth of the river; while another squadron, consisting of sixty- three dragoons, under Captain Thornton, was sent above for the same object. The former returned without having seen or heard of a hostile corps. But the party under Captain Thornton was suddenly surrounded by a large Surprise of Captain Thornton and Party. body of Mexican infantry and cavalry, made prisoners, and taken to Matamoras. Captain Thornton himself effected an escape by an extraordinary leap of his horse, which, however, subsequently fell with and injured him. In endeavoring to return to the camp, he was taken a few miles from it, and joined his men, as a prisoner, at Mata- moras. This was the first actual fight of the war, and AMERICAN HISTORY. 733 was the occasion of great exultation on the part of the Mexicans. Siege of Fort Brown. — While these events were trans- piring, intelligence was received by General Taylor that Point Isabel, the harbor on the Texas coast nearest the mouth of the Rio Grande, and where all his military stores were deposited, was about being assailed, and that all communication with that important post might soon be interrupted. This intelligence decided General Taylor at once to take up his line of march for the Point, and to open a communication between that and Fort Brown. Arrange- ments were accordingly made. Fort Brown was so nearly completed, that under a competent garrison it might pru- dently be left. Major Jacob Brown, after whom the fort was named, was put in command of it, and the seventh regiment of infantry and two companies of artillery were assigned as. the garrison. These arrangements having been completed, General Taylor, with the main body of the army, commenced his march towards Point Isabel. It was a hazardous, but necessary movement. Of the number, position, and plans of the enemy he was profoundly ignorant. The Mexican General, Arista, mistook this movement of General Taylor towards Point Isabel for a precipitate retreat, and imme- diately dispatched a courier extraordinary to Mexico, announcing the fact. In the opinion of some, he was better informed, but "wished, for ulterior purposes, to create such an impression among the Mexican soldiers and the Mexican government." But whatever might have been his igno- rance, he soon had an opportunity to inform himself of the real object of the movement, and therefore set about endeavoring to destroy Fort Brown. For two days following the departure of the army, Fort Brown remained unmolested; but, on the third morning, the Mexicans opened upon it with a battery of seven guns, killing Sergeant Weigard, but otherwise effecting no mate- 734 GREAT EVENTS OF rial injury. On leaving the fort, General Taylor had instructed Major Brown, in case the Mexicans surrounded it, to give him information by firing the eighteen-pounders at stated intervals. The contingency having occurred, the critical condition of the fort v^^as thus communicated to General Taylor, who made instant preparations to return toils relief. Meanwhile, the bombardment was renewed; during which. Major Brown was mortally wounded, and was succeeded in command by Captain Hawkins. On the 7th and 8th, the bombardment was continued; but about two o'clock it ceased, when was heard, in the direc- tion of Point Isabel, a heavy cannonading. It was the presage of relief, as Captain Hawkins inferred from it that, in whatever contest General Taylor was engaged, he was urging his return. And so it proved. Towards the close of the day, intelligence was received that the Americans had "met the enemy," and had driven them back towards Matamoras. Battle of Palo Alto. — General Taylor had heard the sig- nal-guns at Fort Brown; and, on the evening of the 7th, left Point Isabel with a force of about two thousand one hun- dred men, with a large train of provisions and military stores. At the distance of seven miles, he encamped, resuming his march early on the morning of the 8th. In their progress, they at length reached a broad prairie, bounded by Palo Alto, a thick grove of dwarfish trees. On either side of the American army were ponds of water, and beyond them, chapparal. Upon this prairie, a large body of Mex- icans were drawn up in battle array. No time was lost in the requisite preparations, on the part of the Americans, and soon a cannonading was commenced on either side, which for two hours rent the air with its thunders. In the firing of the Mexicans there was little precision, their mis- siles almost invariably passing over the American lines, while the discharges from the American guns marked their courses with carnage and death. AMERICAN HISTORY. 735 At the expiration of two hours, the Mexican batteries began to slacken, and, at length, ceased altogether. They were unable longer to withstand the terrible and destructive fire of Ringgold's, Churchill's, Duncan's, and Ridgeley's guns, and began to fall back, for the purpose of forming a new line of battle under cover of the smoke. The Amer- icans also formed a new line. At the expiration of an hour, the action was renewed by our artillery, which was even more destructive than before. As night was now drawing on, the Mexicans, bent on one last and most vig- orous effort, poured in upon Ringgold's battery a literal tempest of balls. Captain Page fell, mortally wounded, a cannon-ball having carried away the whole of his lower- jaw; and the brave Ringgold, nearly at the same time, had both legs shot away by a cannon-ball, which passed through his horse. On the 11th, he died at Point Isabel. With great spirit and determination did Arista and his army maintain the contest; but it was in vain. They were at length driven from the field in hopeless disorder. Night put an end to the contest; and the wearied and exhausted victors sank upon the field, where they chanced to be, glad to find opportunity to rest from toil so severe. The force of General Taylor did not exceed two thousand three hundred; that of Arista consisted of six thousand infantry, with seven pieces of artillery, and eight hundred cavalry. The loss of the Americans was but four men killed — three officers — and thirty-seven wounded. Two hundred Mexicans were killed; four hundred wounded. Some estimate their loss in killed, wounded, and missing, little short of one thousand. Resaca de la Pahna. — At two o'clock, on the following day, the American army moved from the field of victory, at Palo Alto, towards Fort Brown. Towards evening, what was their surprise when, on approaching a ravine, called Resaca de la Palma, or the Dry River of Palma, they discovered the Mexican army occupying this exceedingly -736 GREAT EVENTS OF well-selected spot, and drawn up in battle array. A vigor- ous action immediately ensued. The Mexican artillery became engaged with Ridgeley's battery, as the latter moved up the ravine. Generals La Vega and Requena superintended the former, and the effect of the firing soon began to be severely felt along the American lines. To dislodge them, became indispensable to the safety of the Americans. The execution of this duty was assigned to Captain May, whose celebrated charge now took place. "I will do it," said May; and, turning to his troops, he rose in his stirrups, pointed to the guns before them, now pour- ing forth their terrific explosions, and exclaimed, "Remem- ber your regiment! men, follow!" He struck his charger, Charge of Captain May. and bounded on before them, while a deafening cheer answered his call; and immediately the whole were dash- ing towards the cannons' mouths. May outstripped them — ■ fortunately, wonderfully did he escape, and wonderful was it that so many of his squadron escaped, exposed, as they were, to a fire which swept fearfully along the very line AMERICAN HISTORY. 737 they were pursuing. Some, indeed, there met an untimely fate — seven men, among whom were the brave and noble- hearted Inge and Sacket. Terrific as was the scene, May and his followers pressed on. As they approached the battery, at a single bound, May's horse cleared it. The horses of a few others were equal to the leap, and their impetus carried them beyond the guns. Wheeling again, they drove the gunners off, and Captain Graham, and Lieutenants Pleasantson and Winship, with others, coming up, were masters of the battery. General La Vega was made prisoner. The American infantry now charged the Mexican line; for a time, the latter fought desperately, and sustained themselves with stubborn bravery; but, at length, yielding to necessity, they precipitately fled from the field. In this battle, only the outlines of which we give, the Americans captured eight pieces of artillery, several stand- ards, large military stores, and several hundred prisoners. The loss of the Americans, in both these actions, was three oflicers and forty men killed. Besides the officers already named, was Lieutenant Cochrane. Thirteen officers and one hundred men were wounded. The Mexican loss was one hundred and fifty-four officers and men killed ; two hundred and five wounded; missing, one hundred and fifty-six. General Taylor, following the battle, continued his march to Fort Brown; and, on the 18th, took possessron of Matamoras, the Mexican settlement opposite. Fall of Monterey. — Following the occupation of Mata- moras, preparations were made, by order of the govern- ment, for an advance into the interior of Mexico. During these preparations, which occupied the space of three months, several Mexican villages, Reinosa, Wier, Revilla, and Camargo, were taken possession of This last place, situated about one hundred and eighty miles above the mouth of the Rio Grande, was selected as a depot of sup- plies; and to this point, the several divisions of General Taylor's army were at length concentrated. The first of 47 738 GREAT EVENTS OF these divisions, two thousand and eighty, was commanded by General Twiggs; the second, one thousand seven hun- dred and eighty, by General Worth; the third, two thou- sand eight hundred and ten, by General Butler. On the 19th of September, these several divisions reached a place called Walnut Springs, distant from Monterey three miles. The capture of this city was now the imme- diate object in view. It was a strongly-fortified place, with a competent garrison under command of General Ampudia. On the evening of the 19th, a reconnoisance of the fortifi- cations was made; and, on the following day, the attack was commenced by the division of General Worth. On the 21st, the attack was renewed, and two fortified heights were taken; the guns of one of which was turned upon the bishop's palace, which had been rendered exceed- ingly strong. On the 22d, other heights, above the bishop's palace, were carried, and, soon after, the palace itself. As these fortifications, in a measure, commanded the city, the enemy, on the night of the 22d, evacuated all his defences in- the lower part. On the morning of the 23d, the streets of the upper part of the city became the scene of action. Here the battle raged. All that day the firing was kept up; the American troops proceeded from house to house — from square to square — the Mexicans resisting them at every step. The carnage was frightful. Early on the 24th, Ampudia prepared to evacuate the town; a suspension of hostiHties was, therefore, arranged till twelve o'clock; during which, at the request of Ampu- dia, General Taylor had an interview with him, which resulted in a capitulation ; placing the town and materials of war, with certain exceptions, in the possession of the American general. The city was found to be of great strength. There were mounted forty-two pieces of cannon. The Mexican force consisted of seven thousand troops of the line and two or three thousand irregulars. The American force was four hundred and twenty-five officers, and six thousand AMERICAN HISTORY. 739 two hundred and twenty men. The artillery was one ten- inch mortar, two twenty-four pound howitzers, and four light field batteries, of four guns each. The American loss was twelve officers and one hundred and eight men killed; thirty-one officers and three hundred and thirty-seven men wounded. The loss of the Mexicans was still more considerable. An armistice was allowed by General Taylor, of eight weeks, subject to be revoked by. either government. On receiving intelligence of the armis- tice and its conditions, the American government, it is said, directed its termination. The Mexican army was per- mitted to retire, and marched out with the honors of war. Victory at Buena Vista. — For some months following the occupation of Monterey, General Taylor was variously employed; during which time, with what he had already achieved, the conquest of the provinces of New Mexico, New Leon, Coahuila, and Tamaulipas, in the Mexican republic, had been effected. As an advance still farther into the interior of Mexico was ordered by the government, General Worth, with his division, had some time previously been sent forward to take the pass at Saltillo, fifty miles west of Monterey. To this point, leaving a force of one thousand five hundred men to garrison Monterey, General Taylor directed his course on the 31st of January, and, on the 2d of February, reached Saltillo. His effective force at this time was about five thousand. On the 4th of February, he advanced upon Agua Nueva, a strong position on the road leading from Saltillo to San Luis; at which place intelligence was received, on the 21st, that Santa Anna, the Mexican general-in-chief, with an army exceeding twenty thousand men, was on the advance. Finding his present position, at Agua Nueva, less favorable for a conflict with a force so overwhelming, he fell back upon Buena Vista, a strong mountain-pass, eleven miles nearer Saltillo. Of the five thousand troops, of which his army was composed, less 740 GREAT EVENTS OF than five hundred were regulars ; while, on the other hand, the army of Santa Anna consisted of the flov^^er of the Mexican nation. The odds were fearful, being more than four to one. At length, on the 22d of February, the Mexican army bore down upon General Taylor, whose troops, now formed in order of battle, calmly awaited the approach of the Mexi- .can host. Halting his army at some little distance, Santa Anna sent a summons to Gfeneral Taylor to surrender; to which the hero of Palo Alto very politely, but laconically replied, "I beg leave to say, that I decline acceding to your request." Still, the enemy forbore, for a time, an attack, evidently waiting the arrival of his rear columns. But on the morn- ing of the 23d, the conflict between the armies began. A full description of the battle would occupy pages. Few engagements were ever entered upon when the forces were so unequal in numbers. That victory should declare for Taylor and his five thousand troops, is the wonder and admiration of all military men. But while all due praise is accorded to the infantry and the few cavalry engaged, the most effectual work was accomplished by the artillery. The American artillery cannot probably be excelled. x\t one moment — a most critical and anxious moment it was — when it seemed nearly impossible but that the Mexican army should overpower — if by no other means, by the force of numbers — Captain Bragg was ordered to take a particular position with his battery, the Mexican line being but a few yards from the muzzle of his pieces. The first discharge of the cannister caused the enemy — probably advancing as they were — to pause and hesitate; while a second and third discharge drove them back in disorder; and, in the words of General Taylor, "saved the day." That night — it was a night intensely cold — the American soldiers were compelled to bivouac without fires, expecting that the morning would renew the conflict. During the night, the wounded were removed to Saitillo. The follow- AMERICAN HISTORY. 741 ing day, prisoners were exchanged, the dead were collected and buried ; and it may be added, that the Mexican wounded, left upon the field by Santa Anna, were sent to Saltillo, and comfortably provided for. The loss of the Americans during the action was, killed, two hundred and sixty-seven; wounded, four hundred and fifty-six; missing, twenty-three. The Mexican loss in killed and wounded was supposed to amount to two thousand — five hundred of whom were left upon the field of battle. "Our loss," says General Taylor in his official dispatch, "has been especially severe in officers, twenty-eight having been killed upon the field. We have to lament the death of Captain George Lincoln, assistant adjutant-general, serving in the staff of General Wool — a young officer of high bearing and approved gallantry, who fell early in action. No loss falls more heavily upon the army in the field than that of Colonels Hardin and McKee, and Lieutenant-colonel Clay. Possessing in a remarkable degree the confidence of their commands, and the last two having enjoyed the advantage of a military education, I had looked particularly to them for support, in case we met the enemy. I need not say, that their zeal in engaging the enemy, and the cool and steadfast courage with which they maintained their posi- tions during the day, fully realized my hopes, and caused me to feel yet more sensibly their untimely loss.'' The annals of American warfare probably do not furnish a more remarkable victory than this of Buena Vista, whether we consider the inequality of the forces engaged — the char- acter of the forces, being nearly all volunteers on the Ameri- can side, and regular troops on the other — or the decisive nature of the victory itself. Most remarkable were the coolness and gallantry displayed ; but it must be remem- bered that that coolness and gallantry were, in no slight degree, the result of those qualities which so eminently dis- tinguished the commanding areneral himself Capture of Vera Cruz. — Events connected with the 742 GREAT EVENTS OF prosecution of the war, will require us in the next place to speak of transactions in another quarter of that agitated and long-distracted country. Some two hundred miles south-easterly of the capital, on the Gulf of Mexico, is situated the city of Vera Cruz — a place of considerable mercantile importance, and nearly opposite to which is a small island, on which stands the castle of San Juan d'Ulloa, a fortress long celebrated for its impregnable strength. The reduction of this fortress, and the capture of this most important maratime town belonging to Mexico, had for some time engaged the attention of the American government. For a time, the well-known strength of the fortress, and the danger arising from the vomito, of garrisoning that and the city, in case of their reduction, strongly operated against the enterprise. But their importance to the final and more speedy termination of the war, at length decided the presi- dent and his advisers to hazard the expedition. It being impracticable to withdraw General Taylor from the theatre of his signal victories, the enterprise was intrusted to the long-tried and accomplished General Scott. In obedience to his orders. General Scott left Washington on the 24th of November, on this great and doubtful enter- prise. On the 1st of January, he reached the Rio Grande. The troops destined for this expedition, among whom was a considerable portion of the army under General Taylor, were directed to rendezvous at Lesbos, an island about one hun- dred and twenty-five miles north-west of Vera Cruz. From this point, the army was transported to the west of the island of Sacrificios. The landing of the troops having been effected without direct opposition, although the guns and castles of the city kept up a constant firing with round shot and thirteen-inch shells, the several divisions of the army took their respective positions for the purpose of investment and siege. Soon after the commencement of the siege, a "norther" prevailed, which rendered it impossible to land heavy ord- AMERICAN HISTORY. 743 nance. On the 17th, a pause occun-ed in the storm, and ten mortars, four twenty-four-pound guns, and some howitzers were landed. On the night of the 18th, the trenches were opened, and — engineers, with sappers and miners, leading the way — the army gradually closed in nearer the city. On the 22d of March — seven of the ten-inch mortars being in battery, and other works in progress — General Scott summoned the governor of Vera Cruz to surrender the city. This he refused. On the return of the flag, the mortar-battery, at a distance of eight hundred yards from the city, opened its fire, and continued to fire during the day and night. On the 24th, the batteries were I'einforced with twenty- four pounders and Paixhan guns. On the 25th, all the batteries were in "awful activity." Terrible was the scene! The darkness of the night was illuminated with blazino- shells circling through the air. The roar of artillery, and the heavy fall of descending shot, were heard throughout the streets of the besieged city. The roofs of buildino-s were on fire. The domes of churches reverberated with fearful explosions. The sea was reddened with the broad- sides of ships. The castle of San Juan returned from its heavy batteries the fire, the light, the smoke, the noise of battle. Such was the sublime and awfully-terrible scene, as beheld from the trenches of the army, from the 22d to the 25th of March. Early on the morning of the 26th, General Landers, on whom the command had been devolved by General Morales, made overtures of surrender. Late on the night of the 27th, the articles of capitulation were signed and exchanged. On the 29th, the official dispatch of General Scott announced that the flag of the United States floated over the walls of Vera Cruz and the castle of San Juan d'Ulloa. The regular siege of the city had continued from the day of investment, the 12th of March, to the day the articles of capitulation were signed, the 27th; making a period o*^ fif- teen days, in which active, continuous, vigorous operations 744 GREAT EVENTS OF were carried on. During this time, our army had thrown three thousand ten-inch shells, two hundred howitzer shells, one thousand Paixhan shot, and two thousand five hundred round shot, weighing, in the whole, about half a million pounds! Most effective and most terrible was the disaster and destruction they caused within the walls of the city, whose ruins and whose mournuig attested both the energy and the sadness of war." The American Army in Vera Cruz. The surrender of the city almost necessarily led to the surrender of the castle. By the terms of capitulation, five thousand prisoners were surrendered on parole, and nearly five hundred pieces of fine artillery were taken. The number of killed and wounded, on the American side, was comparatively small. The principal officers killed were Captains Alburtis and Vinton. The destruction of life fell heavily upon the Mexicans, and especially upon the citizens of Vera Cruz, many of whose females and children found their death from shells falling and bursting in the city. This, however painful it was, was unavoidable, inasmuch AMERICAN HISTORY. 745 as many, who had ample time to leave the city before the bombardment commenced, failed to take advantage of that opportunity. The fall of Vera Cruz and its neighboring fortress was the result of cool and determined bravery, but more, per- haps, of scientific skill and wise calculation. The castle had long been considered impregnable, and, by many, its reduction was deemed little short of presumption. Cerro Gordo. — The victories of Palo Alto, Monterey, and Buena Vista, under General Taylor, followed, as they were, by the capture of Vera Cruz, and the fall of that Mexican Gibraltar, San Juan d'Ulloa, although terribly disastrous to the Mexicans, had not served to conquer them. Nothing short of the loss of their capital, it was apparent, could subdue them; and the occupation of that now became the one great and controlling object of the commander-in- chief. Preparations were accordingly made to march upon the city of Mexico, by the way of Jalapa, Perote, and Puebla, a distance of about three hundred miles. On the 12th of April, the American army had reached the neighborhood of Cerro Gordo, a mountain-pass, sixty miles from Vera Cruz. Here Santa Anna had collected about fifteen thousand men, and had made every possible preparation to resist the progress of the Americans. He had fortified several eminences, formidable by nature, but now still more formidable by the batteries, which he had planted. Perceiving that a front attack of these works would be hazardous in the extreme. General Scott directed a road to be opened around Cerro Gordo, which would enable the army to ascend the mountain, and gain the rear of the Mexican works. This was a masterly movement — the work of indescribable toil; but when accomplished, it was apparent to the Mexicans that their fate was sealed. The consequence was, that one position after another was obliged to yield, until, at length, but one remained — the 746 GREAT EVENTS OF fortress of Cerro Gordo, the highest and most formidable. Tlie storming of this was intrusted to Colonel . Harney, supported from various points by Twiggs, Shields, and Pillow. It was a desperate enterprise, but at length it was Colonel Harney at Cerro Gordo. accomplished. Sergeant Henry had the honor of hauling down the national standard of Mexico. Of the gallant conduct of Colonel Harney, General Scott was an imme- diate witness. When all was effected, approaching the colonel, between whom and himself there had been some coolness, he thus addressed him: "Colonel Harney, I can- not adequately express my admiration of your gallant achievement, but, at the proper time, I shall take great pleasure in thanking you in proper terms." The result of the victory was, three thousand prisoners; forty-three pieces of brass artillery, manufactured at Seville; five thousand stands of arms; and the five Generals Pen- son, Jarrero, La Vega, Noriega, and Obando. Meanwhile, the Mexican commander-in-chief addressed himself to his own personal safety. In company with AMERICAN HISTORY. 747 Generals Canalizo and Almonte, and some six thousand men, he made his escape. But he was so hotly pursued, that he was obliged to leave his carriage, and mount a mule which was attached to it. Nor was there time to unharness the animal, but he was detached by summarily cutting the harness. The carriage was of course aban- doned; and in it, or near it, was found Santa Anna's cork leg, which, in the haste of the moment, had fallen off, and to restore which there was now no time. And still more, his dinner, which had been prepared, was discovered in his carriage uneaten; and which, after the pursuit was ended, served as a grateful repast to the several hungry and weary American officers. Progress of the Army. — Baffled in his attempt to arrest the march of the American army, Santa Anna had no other course but to retreat, as we have related. The way was now open to the American troops, who advanced upon Perote; which having garrisoned, they proceeded to the ancient city of Puebla, in the Spanish tongue Puehla de los Angelas, the city of angels. Here, for several weeks, the army rested, waiting for reinforcements, the troops being deemed entirely inadequate for so formidable an undertak- ing as that of marching on the capital. At length, the anticipated forces having arrived, preparations were made to advance. On the 6th of August, 1847, the army con- sisted as follows: Scott's force at Puebla, 7,000 Cadwallader's brigade, ---------- 1,400 Pillow's brigade, 1,800 Pierce's corps brigade, ---------- 2,409 Garrison at Puebla, under Colonel Childs, ----- 1,400 Total arrived at Puebla, - - - - 14,009 Deduct from this the garrison at Puebla, including sick, 3,261 Total marched from Puebla, - - - - 10,748 This army was arranged in four divisions, with a cavalry brigade. This brigade was under the command of Colonel 748 GREAT EVENTS OF Harney. General Worth commanded the first division; General Twiggs the second ; General Pillow the third ; and General Quitman the fourth. At length, on the 7th of August, the second division, under General Twiggs, commenced its march, followed on the 8th, 9th, and 10th, by the other divisions. No opposing foe impeded their progress. On the 17th, the army was concentrated at San Augustine, about ten miles south of Mexico, on the Acapulco road leading to the city. From this point, the Americans were destined to meet with the most formidable resistance. Every possible preparation had been made by Santa Anna to prevent their access to and occupation of the city. On the 20th, the drama opened, and, on that day, several distinct and severe engagements occurred between the Mexicans and the sev- Battle of Churubusco. eral divisions of the American army, the principal of which were the battles of Contreras and Churubusco. In these engagements, thirty-two thousand Mexicans were engaged, and were defeated, and even routed. Three thousand AMERICAN HISTORY. 749 prisoners were made, including eight generals and two hundred and five other officers. Four thousand, of all ranks, were killed and wounded; thirty-seven field-pieces captured, besides large stores of ammunition. An easy access to the city now presented itself, and, but for a single circumstance, the victorious Americans would doubtless have occupied it that same evening, or early on the ensuing morning. Some time previously, the president of the United States, desirous of ending the war, had deputed a commissioner, Nicholas P. Trist, Esq., to proceed from Washington to Mexico, there, if possible, to effect a treaty with that gov- ernment. The present was deemed a fit moment, ere the victors entered the city; and, in order to avoid a forcible entry, to propose an adjustment of difficulties. Accordingly, the commander-in-chief decided to pause, and await the action of its councils. On the 21st, an armistice was agreed upon. This was followed by consultations between Mr. Trist and Mexican commissioners, in relation to the terms of peace. These, however, failed ; and infractions of the armistice having occurred, the conflict was resumed. On the 8th, the two armies were engaged in a severe action at Molinos del Rey. In this action, Santa Anna com- manded in person. It continued two hours, and was attended with great loss on both sides, but resulted in the triumph of the American arms. There remained yet one formidable obstacle to the entrance of the city. This was the fortress of Chepultepec — a natural and isolated mount of great elevation, strongly fortified at its base and on its acclivities and heights. On the morning of the 12th, the bombardment and cannonade of this fortress was commenced, and was continued on the 13lh. The Mexicans resisted with stubborn obstinacy, and, at length, yielded only by dire necessity. The officer who had the honor of striking the Mexican flag from the walls, and planting the American standard, was Major Seymour, of the New England regiment, soon after he had AMERICAN HISTORY, 751 succeeded the gallant Colonel Ransom, who fell while lead- ing his troops up the heights of Chepultepec. Such was their position on the night of the 13th. On the following day, the victorious army entered the ailcient and still proud, but now subjugated city of the Aztecs — a place celebrated for its wealth and magnificence — for its public squares and public palaces — its churches and other beautiful structures — from the very discovery of the coun- try. At the capture of Mexico, the effective force of Gen- eral Scott did not exceed six thousand. The Army crossing the National Bridge near Cerro Gordo. Treaty. — The occupation of Mexico, by the American army, essentially terminated the war. A few other engage- ments, between detachments of the armies, occurred at subsequent dates; but the fate of the capital crushed the hopes and paralyzed the efforts of the Mexicans. In this posture of affairs, Mr. Trist renewed his proposal for a treaty between the two republics. At length, this desirable object was effected, and "a treaty of peac^e, friendship, and settlement," was signed at Guadalupe Hidalgo. On its 752 GREAT EVENTS OF being submitted to the senate of the United States by the president, a long and exciting debate ensued. But, at length, after important amendments, it was ratified by a constitu- tional majority. To facilitate its ratification by the Mexi- can government, and to explain the modifications vs^hich it had undergone, the Hon. Mr. Sevier and Hon. Nathan Clifford were dispatched to Mexico. On their arrival at the city of Querataro, on the 25th of May, they found that the house of deputies had already sanctioned the treaty, and, on that day, it was adopted by the Mexican senate by a vote of thirty-three to five. By this treaty, Upper California and New Mexico were ceded to the United States. The latter paying to the former fifteen millions of dollars, in four annual instalments, and assuming such debts as were due by Mexico to American citizens, not exceeding three millions and a quarter of dollars. Califomians. California and its Gold. — The territories of New Mexico and Upper California, were known at the time of their cession to be sufficiently large for a great empire. But, by AMERICAN HISTORY. 753 many, they were considered of comparatively little value to the United States, excepting the bay of San Francisco, on the Pacific, as a place of harbor for our ships. But, since their acquisition,California has become, from its mineral wealth,' especially its gold, an object of great interest and attraction. The whole civilized world has been astonished by the reports which have been put in circulation respecting its golden treasures, and thousands upon thousands have set forth for this western El Dorado. California is separated into two divisions by a range of mountains, called the Sierra Nevada, or Snowy Mountains, which stretches along the coast at the general distance of one hundred and fifty miles from it. West of this range are the valleys of San Joaquin and the Sacramento, which are watered by rivers of the same name. They rise at opposite ends of these valleys, and at length meet and enter the bay ol Francisco together. The greatest point of interest in this newly-acquired territory, is the valley of the Sacramento, which is distinguished by its gold deposites or "jo/acers," as they are called. The recent discovery of the existence of gold in this region was accidental. In enlarging the race-way of a water-wheel, connected with a saw-mill just erected by a Mr. Marshall for Captain Sutter, by letting in a strong current of water, a considerable quantity of earth was car- ried to the foot of the race. Not long after, Mr. Marshall discovered some glittering particles in this earth, which, on further inspection, proved to be virgin gold. Further explorations ensued, and deposites have been found to exist in various portions of this valley for several hundred miles. Election of General Taylor. — The administration of Mr. Polk was signalized by many interesting and important events. Yet, it cannot be said to have been popular, even with the party to which he owed his elevation. Towards the close of his term, few, if any, seriously advocated his reelec- tion. At a democratic convention, held in Baltimore May 21st, 1848, Lewis Cass, of Michigan, was nominated for the 48 754 GREAT EVENTS OF presidency, and General W. O. Butler, of Kentucky, for the vice-presidency. The candidates proposed by a whig con- vention held at Philadelphia, June 7th, were General Zachary Taylor, of Louisiana, and Millard Fillmore, of New York. Subsequently, a free-soil convention assembled at Utica, and nominated Martin Van Buren. The votes of the several electoral colleges resulted as follows: E P STATES. PRESIDENT. E-'S S >A VICE-PRESIDENT. s -^ 3 3 » 3 • u 9 6 12 4 6 6 36 7 26 3 8 17 11 9 10 12 13 23 6 6 12 9 9 7 3 5 3 4 4 4 290 Maine, New Hampshire, . . . Massachusetts, .... Rhode Island, .... Connecticut, .... Vermont, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, .... Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, . . . South Carolina, .... Georgia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Ohio, Louisiana, Mississippi, Indiana, Illinois Alabama, Missouri, Arkansas, Michigan, Florida, Texas, ....... Iowa, V^isconsin, Whole No. of electors, . Majority, .... 146 12 4 6 6 36 7 26 3 11 10 12 13 17 9 23 6 12 9 9 7 3 5 4 4 4 163 .127 12 4 6 6 36 7 26 3 11 10 12 13 163 17 9 23 6 12 9 9 7 3 5 4 4 4 127 AMERICAN HISTORY. 755 XVII. ZACHARY TAYLOR, PRESIDENT. BT. ^.i„: ._ „.„^.„.._..,^., INAUGURATED AT WASHINGTON, MARCH 5, 1849. MILLARD FILLMORE, VICE-PRESIDENT. HEADS OF THE DEPARTMENTS. John M. Clayton, Delaware, .... March 6, 1&49, Secretary of State. William M. Meredith, . . . Pennsylvania, . . . March 6, 1849, Secretary of the Treasury. Tnomas Ewing Ohio, March 6, 1849, Sec'ry of Home Department.* George W. Crawford, . . . Georgia, . . . . March 6, 1849, Secretary of War. William B. Preston, .... Virginia, March 6, 1849, Secretary of the Navy. Jacob Collamar, Vermont March 6, 1S49, Postmaster GenferaL Reverdy Johnson, Maryland, .... March 6, 1849, Attorney General. * A new office, embracing certain portions of business heretofore transacted in the Departments of State, Treasury, &c. It was an occasion of great rejoicing on Monday, the 5th of March, when the hero ot Buena Vista stood on that spot at the eastern portico of the national capitol, where had stood Jefferson, Madison, and others, and baring his head, took the oath prescribed, to support the constitution, which was administered to him by Chief Justice Taney. 756 GREAT EVENTS OF The inaugural address of General Taylor, like all his official communications to government while in the field, was brief — shorter than any similar address by any other president, except Mr. Madison's. To a majority of the people, it proved quite satisfactory, and even in England was pronounced an eloquent production. Previous to his election. General Taylor had declined all pledges, excepting the assurance to the nation, that he would never be the president of a party, but should endeavor, if elected, to bring back the government to the spirit of the constitution, as understood and administered by Washington. Other pledges than this, he now declined, standing, as he did, before God and the nation; but this pledge he was ready to renew. "In the discharge of these duties," said he, "my guide will be the constitution, which I this day swear to 'preserve, protect, and defend.' For the interpretation of that instrument, I shall look to the decisions of the judicial tribunals established by its authority, and to the practice of the government under the earliest presidents, who had so large a share in its formation. "Chosen by the body of the people, under the assurance that my administration would be devoted to the welfare of the whole country, and not to the support of any particular section or merely local interests, I, this day, renew the declarations I have heretofore made, and proclaim my fixed determination to maintain, to the extent of my ability, the government in its original purity, and to adopt, as the basis of my public policy, those great republican doctrines which constitute the strength of our* national existence." The ceremonies of the inauguration being over. General Taylor entered upon the duties of his office, respected for his private worth and public services, with many supplica- tions, on the part of the pious and the patriotic, that his official course might, in its issues, prove as beneficial to his country as was Washington's, which he had presented to himself as the model of his administration. AMERICAN HISTORY. 757 BRITISH AMERICA. GENERAL REMARKS. British America embraces not far from one equal half of the North American continent. The whole area amounts to about four millions of square miles. The Arctic ocean bounds it on the north, and the Atlantic on the east. The southern boundary is the St. Lawrence, and the extended chain of lakes as far westward as the Lake of the Woods, whence the dividing line between the British possessions and the United States follows the forty-ninth parallel of latitude westward to the Strait of Fuca, and thence along its channel south-west to the Pacific ocean. On the west, British America is bounded in part by the ocean, and in part by the line of the one hundred and forty-first degree of west longitude. 758 GREAT EVENTS OF The greater portion of this immense region is a waste, uninhabited, the home of wild beasts, and the seat of eternal snow and ice. It possesses httle value, except the skins and furs which are taken from the animals that rove there. The settlements are few, even in those parts that have been reduced into provinces, and these embrace but an incon- siderable portion of the whole region. It has not been thought important to establish regular governments in all the provinces, so called. Such govern- ments are established only in the Canadas, Nova Scotia and Cape Breton, New Brunswick, Prince Edward's Island, and Newfoundland. The Canadas consist of Upper and Lower, or Canada West and Canada East, and embrace the principal amount of the population and productive resources of that whole northern world. Canada East is a country of some considerable extent, measuring about two hundred thousand square miles, but mostly hilly and rocky, and unproductive, except on the borders of the St. Lawrence. Canada West contains an area of one hundred and fifty thousand square miles, if its western boundary, as is gener- ally considered, extends no farther than to the heads of the streams which fall into Lake Superior. The climate of Canada West, or Upper Canada, is less severe than that of Lower Canada. It has also some quite productive soil. AMERICAN HISTORY. 759 I. CANADA.* Discovert — Settlement — Capture of Quebec — Death of Champlain — Religious Enterprises — War made by the Iroquois — Accessions to the Colony — Progress of the Colony — Attempts of the English to Conquer Canada — Condition of Canada in 1721 and 1722 — General Prosperity of the Colony — Refusal to join in the War of American Independence — Conse- quences of American Independence to Canada — Territorial Divisions and Constitution — Dissensions after the close of the war of 1812 — Disturbances and Insurrections. Discovery. — Jacques Carter, of St. Malo, in France, is the acknowledged discoverer of Canada. He was a distin- guished mariner, and was solicited by the French to con- duct a voyage to Newfoundland. This he undertook with two small vessels, of only twenty tons burden each. On the 10th of May, 1534, he saw the shores of that island, and steering to the south along the coast, landed at a harbor which he named St. Catharine's. Thence, proceeding westward and northward, he entered the Gulf of St. Law- rence and the mouth of the river of the same name; but the unfavorableness of the weather, and the lateness of the season, induced him to return to France. He, however, first took possession of the country in the name of his king. During the following year, he was invested with the command of three ships of larger size, and well equipped with all sorts of supplies; and making a second voyage to Newfoundland, he entered the gulf on the day of St. Law- rence. Hence, it is supposed, is the name of the gulf and of the river. This voyage was not completed till he reached, in a pinnace and two boats, the present site of Montreal on the St. Lawrence river. This was then the principal Indian settlement, named Hochelaga, where the natives received him with great kindness. He took formal * For the principal events of Canadian history during the French and Indian war — the invasion of Canada by the United Colonies, in 1775, and by the United States in 1812-15 — the reader is referred to the prior portions of the volume, where these events are detailed. 760 GREAT EVENTS OF possession of the country in the name of his sovereign, and returned home in the spring of the following year, 1536. Voyages of discovery were made successively by Rober- val, Pontgrave, and Champlain, down to the beginning of the seventeenth century ; but of these, no particular notice need be given. Settlements. — The important city of Quebec was founded by Champlain, in 1608. On the 13th of July of that year, he fixed on a most commanding promontory, on the north side of the River St. Lawrence, for the site of his settle- ment. The choice of such a spot for "the capital of a great trans-Atlantic empire, does him immortal honor." Here he remained through the winter, but, as soon as the season admitted, he resumed his voyage up the river. At a distance of twenty-five leagues above Quebec, he met a Champlain's Interview with the Al^onquins. band belonging to the celebrated nation of the Algonquins, whom he agreed to join in their wars against the Iroquois. In this step, he committed a fatal error. It was the means AMERICAN HISTORY. 761 of bringing upon the French settlements, in Canada, all the calamities of savage warfare for nearly a hundred years. He was, however, successful at that time in an engagement with the Iroquois. A few years after the settlement of Quebec, viz., in 1011, Montreal was founded. Champlain, who had in the mean tin'ie returned to France once and again, visited America that year, arriving at a place of rendezvous appointed for another warlike expedition. Not finding the Indians, he employed his time in selecting a spot for a new settlement, higher up the river than Quebec. Carefully examining the region, he fixed upon ground in the vicinity of an eminence which he called Mount Royal; and it would seem from the prosperity which has since attended the place, under the name of Montreal, that his choice has been amply justified. After sowing grain on a cleared spot of some extent, he inclosed it with a wooden wall. Champlain explored the River Ottawa, and many other parts of the country, while he remained in it. In consequence of expeditions from France, at various times, a few other settlements were formed; but the colony, though bearing the imposing name of New France, was in a condition of extreme weakness, and seemed to be viewed with indifference, both by the mother-country and England. CajHure of Quebec. — The growth of this place was very inconsiderable for many years; but it early became a mark for the assaults of an enemy. Hostilities having commenced with England, two French subjects, David and Louis Kirk, entering the service of that country, equipped a squadron, which sailed to the mouth of the St. Lawrence, captured several vessels, and intercepted the communica- tion between the mother-country and the colony. In July, 1629, Sir David Kirk summoned Quebec — a summons which was followed by a surrender of the place, the invaded party being promised honorable conditions, and allowed to depart with their arms, clothes, and baggage. 762 * GREATEVENTSOF The request of a ship to convey them dii*ectly home was not granted, but they were promised a commodious passage by way of England. In consequence of the adjustment of difficulties between the two countries, the place was at length restored ; and Canada, with Cape Breton and Acadia, was confirmed to France. The final treaty, however, was not signed till the 29th March, 1632. Death of Champlain. — Champlain, as the founder of the most important places in New France, was for a long time the life and soul of the colony. His energy, scientific accomplishments, and popularity, seemed to be most inti- mately connected with the prosperity, and even existence of the colony. In 1633, he was appointed governor, and sailed with a squadron, carrying all necessary supplies, to Canada, where, on his arrival, he found most of his former colonists. A greater prosperity now attended the affairs of New France. Means were employed for maintaining harmony among the inhabitants, and methods devised for introducing into the colony only persons of unexceptionable character. But the end of his enterprising career was now come. He perished in the year 1636, having been drowned in the lake which bears his name. His death was, of course, a severe misfortune to Canada, and the loss could not well be repaired. M. de Montmagny was appointed his successor, and appeared to have commanded the general respect of the native inhabitants. But the colony was in a critical condition, and he could act only on the defensive, in the hostilities in which they were disposed from time to time to engage. Owing to the policy of the court at home, of continuing no governor in power longer than three years, Montmagny was displaced at the end of that time by the appointment of another governor. This system, however, was ill-suited to a settlement like that of Canada, where an intimate local knowledge, and a peculiar mixture of firm- ness and address, were necessary to deal with tumultuary AMERICAN HISTORY. 763 tribes whom they were too feeble to subdue. Ailleboust, his successor, is said to have been a man of probity, but he indifferently possessed the energy required in so difficult a situation. The Iroquois now became peculiarly turbulent, and, as will soon be seen, brought dreadful calamities on the whites. Religious Enterprises. — Catholic missionaries had not merely formed establishments at Quebec and Montreal, but had also penetrated into the domains of the savages. These religionists certainly gave full proof of sincerity in their work, as they renounced all the comforts of civilized life, and exposed themselves to every species of hardship and danger. The religious "establishments did little for the immediate improvement of the colony, yet as points of possession, occupied by persons whose avocations were professedly holy and useful, they laid ^the foundation on which arose the superstructure of those morals and habits that still and will long characterize the Gallo-Canadians." As to the effect of the Catholic missions on the native tribes, it is to be observed, they undoubtedly reclaimed their votaries from many savage habits, and trained them up to some degree of order and industry. The tribe found to be the most docile and susceptible of improvement, was that of the Hurons; and their great numbers presented a wide field for religious effort. More than three thousand of them are recorded to have received baptism at one time, though only a portion of the number probably retained even the profession of Christianity. The general effect produced was in a degree favorable, and softened some- what the aspect of this wild region. The main object was to unite the Indians in villages. Of these, several were formed, the principal of which were Sillery, or St. Joseph, and St. Mary. War made by the Iroquois. — In 1648, the Iroquois, as already intimated, were resolved on renewing the war; for 764 GREAT EVENTS OF what cause, if for any, does not now appear. Their move- ments were rapid and fatal. The village of Sillery was occupied by four hundred families, and was accordingly a tempting object to the savages. In a time of profound peace, and while the missionary was celebrating the most solemn ordinances of religion, the shriek was suddenly heard, "We are murdered!" The enemy had commenced an indiscriminate massacre, without distinction of sex or age. The women fled for safety into the depths of the forest; but the infants whom they carried in their arms betrayed them by their crying, and mother and suckling were alike butch- ered. The assailants, at length, fell upon the priest, and after each in succession had struck him a blow, they threw him into the flames.* Extermination of the Hiirons. By this onset, the Hurons were wholly routed; their country, which had for some time reposed in peace and security, became a scene of devastation and blood. Flee- * Murray's British America. AMERICAN HISTORY. 7G5 ing for refuge in every direction, a few subsequently united with their invaders, but the greater number sought safety among the Chippewas of Lake Superior. A small rem- nant of about three hundred were able to secure the pro- tection of the French at Quebec. Here, they were viewed only as objects of charity; and though, as such, consider- able exertions were put forth in their behalf, yet the whole number could not be accommodated. Numbers were exposed to cold and hunger, until a station could be formed for them, which was named Sillery, after their former chief settlement. In consequence of the successes of the Iro- quois, the French were chiefly confined to the three forts of Quebec, Three Rivers, and Montreal, For a number of years, a sad state of things existed in the colony. The French had been compelled to accept of humiliating terms of peace, and even by these means, only partially secured the boon. The Iroquois continually extended their domin- ion, conquering one tribe of their fellow-savages after another, and even insulting the French in their fortified posts. The latter, from fear or weakness, were compelled to witness the destruction of their allies. They were themselves, in a great measure, safe in their fortresses, for these the enemy had no adequate skill to besiege. Accessions to the Colony. — It had been represented to Louis XIV., who had lately ascended the throne, that his government was exposing the French name to contempt, through neglect of his fine American province, and tame subjection to Indian ravages. He was sufficiently bent upon aggrandizement not willingly to incur such a reproach ; and accordingly troops were dispatched from France, and the French power was at once considerably augmented in the province. The Marquis de Tracy was sent out at this time, 1665, in the joint character of viceroy and lieutenant- general. Besides the soldiers, a considerable number of settlers, including artisans, with horses and cattle, were conveyed with him to Canada. He was able to overcome 766 GREAT EVENTS OP and repress the savages, and increase the fortifications and defences of the country. The population was more than doubled by means of the immigration. Progress of the Colony. — After M. de Tracy, the gov- ernment was administered successively by M. de Courcelles, Count Frontenac, M. de la Barre, Denonville, and Count Frontenac the second time, down to the year 1698. Under the first-named governor, the French power was gradually extended to the interior of Canada and the upper parts of the River St. Lawrence. A settlement of Hurons was established on the island of Michilimackinack, a situation very favorable to the fur-trade, and a site for a fort was selected at Cataraqui, on Lake Ontario, a position of importance for trade and defence. Count Frontenac, imme- diately upon his accession, caused the fort to be completed. He conducted the affairs of the colony with spirit and energy during a period of ten years, but he was too inde- pendent in his administration to suit a jealous court at home. His successor, M. de la Barre, not fulfilling the expectations of the government, was soon recalled, and the Marquis Denonville appointed in his room. The measures of this governor were not at all well advised ; his treachery to the natives brought him into difficulty; he obtained only an empty victory over them, and, towards the conclusion of his administration, the very existence of the colony was threatened. At this period, 1689, Frontenac was recalled to the government. It was hoped that his experience would teach him to avoid the errors of his former adminis- tration, while his decision, energy, and fascinating manners, were deemed of vital importance to the welfare of the settlement. Frontenac, anxious to justify to the world the choice made of him, the second time, to administer the affairs of Canada, determined at once on several bold projects. As his own country and England were now at war, and as England relied much on the aid of her provinces of the AMERICAN HISTORY. 767 south, he resolved on attacking the latter. Accordingly, he fitted out three expeditions; one against New York, a second against New Hampshire, and a third against the province of Maine. The fatal attack upon Corlear, or Schenectady, detailed in another part of this work, was the result of the first expedition. The burning of Salmon Falls, on the borders of New Hampshire, proceeded from the second expedition. The third destroyed the settlement of Casco, in Maine. The atrocities of the French and their savage allies soon aroused the Northern colonies. New York and New Ens- land, to take vengeance on the foe. The English deter- mined to strike a blow which might at once deprive him of all his possessions. Two expeditions were prepared; one by sea, from Boston, against Quebec; the other by land, from New York, against Montreal. The first was com- manded by Sir William Phipps, a native of New England, of humble birth, who had raised himself by his talents to a high station. Both expeditions failed as to their ultimate object; but Sir William captured all the French posts in Acadia and Newfoundland, with several on the St. Law- rence; and it is not without reason supposed that Quebec itself would have fallen, had not the English commander too hastily considered the enterprise as hopeless. He made a very considerable effort, but did not persevere. The French, Golden says, returned fervent thanks to Providence for having, by a special interposition, deprived their enemies of common sense. Montreal was saved only after a most strenuous resistance. The French, under the administration of Frontenac, sus- tained themselves, and generally held their own against the attacks of the English and the Indians. Peace, at length, having taken place between France and England, negotia- tions were entered into for closing the provincial war and exchanging prisoners; but before the negotiations were concluded, Frontenac died. This event occurred on the 29th day of November, 1698, and may be said to have 768 GREAT EVENTS OF constituted an era in the Canadian history, as by his energy and talents he had retrieved the affairs of the settlement, and raised it into a powerful and flourishing state. De Calli^res, the successor of Frontenac, finally effected the negotiations in 1700. Attempts by the English to Conquer Canada. — The first serious attempt to bring the French province of Canada under the English sway, and its failure, have already been chronicled. Other efforts were subsequently put forth with this object in view, as soon as the parent countries had again taken up arms on account of the Spanish succession. Canada, in this instance, was left to her own resources, as Louis XIV. had been entirely unsuccessful in his European wars, and could afford her no aid. She was at this time, also, able to repel her invaders, or was providentially delivered from their attack. De Vaudreuil, who was then governor, in contemplation of a formidable attack, sought to dissipate it by an offensive movement. He sent out a detachment of two hundred men, which, after a long march, succeeded in storming and destroying Haverhill, a frontier village; though, while returning, they fell into an ambuscade. Thirty of their number were killed; but having beaten off their assailants, the remainder reached Montreal in safety. In 1709, the English left New York for Canada with a force of two thousand men, joined by an equal number of savages. But after they had erected a chain of posts from New York, and had occupied, in great force, Lakes George and Cbamplain, circumstances occurred which defeated the. project. The savages, who were the Iroquois, failed them from prudential considerations; and a pestilential disease happening among the English troops, the enterprise was abandoned, after their canoes and forts were burned to ashes. The succeeding year, the English prepared a new and greater armament. General Nicholson arrived at Boston with a considerable squadron and fresh forces were AMERICAN HISTORY. 709 expected, which, with those already in the country, were to be employed in two joint expeditions, by sea against Quebec, and by land against Montreal. But it happened, to the signal relief of the French, that the squadron was wrecked near the mouth of the St. Lawrence, a circum- stance which prevented also the land forces, that were already on the march, from proceeding farther. The treaty at Utrecht, which took place on the 30th of March, 1713, put an end, for many years, to their armaments for the reduction of Canada. The long interval proved to be a season of prosperity to this French domain in the New World. Condition of Canada in 1721 and 1722. — This was the time when Charlevoix visited the colony, who gave a description of its state as he saw it. Quebec was estimated to contain about seven thousand mhabitants; both the lower and the upper town were par- tially built, but none of the extensive suburbs appear to have existed. The society, composed in a great measure of military officers and noblesse, was extremely agreeable, and no where was the French language spoken in greater purity. Under this gay exterior, however, was concealed a very general poverty. The only employment suited to their taste was the fur- trade. This, connected as it was with habits of roving and adventure, had great attractions for the people, and little fortunes were thereby occasionally made; but these were soon dissipated in the haste to enjoy pleasure and display. The absence of gold and silver, then considered almost the only objects as giving lustre to a colony, had always caused New France to be viewed as of less import- ance than it was in reality. The coasts of the St. Lawrence, for some extent below Quebec, were already laid out in seignories, and tolerably cultivated. At a place seven leagues from the capital, many of the farmers were found in easy circumstances, and 49 770 GEEAT EVENTS OF more wealthy than their landlords. The latter were in possession of grants which they had neither capital nor industry to improve, and they were, therefore, obliged to let them out at small quit-rents. The island and city of Montreal presented to the eye objects of deep interest. The population was considerable, as both the upper and lower towns were already built, and a suburb had been commenced. Montreal was rendered comparatively secure against the savages, by the vicinity of two neighboring villages which were inhabited by friendly Indians. General Pj'osperity of the Colony. — Canada enjoyed a long period of tranquillity, under the administrations of De Vaudreuil and Beauharnois, Gallissoniere, Jonqui^re, Lon- guiel, and Du Quesne and his successors. During this interval, the French appear to have entirely overcome that deeply-seated enmity, so long cherished by the great Indian tribes. Their pliant and courteous man- ners, their frequent intermarriages, and, in some instances, actual adoption of the habits of savage life, rendered them better fitted than the English, to secure the confidence of the American savage. Instead of having to treat them as British allies, they could usually employ them, when occa- sion required, for their own military service. An equally favorable change took place in respect to the fur-trade, which had been considerably diverted to the English market. A more liberal system appears to have been adopted; and a large annual fair, opened at Montreal, became the general centre of the traffic. Canada transferred to the English. — In an early portion of the volume, we have given an account of the "French and Indian war," during which an expedition against Que- bec, under Wolfe, was attempted. This was in 1759. That expedition resulted, as is well known, in the death of that distinguished military hero, and the capitulation of the city. AMERICAN HISTORY. 771 A single incident, only, will be here alluded to, touching the fall of this victorious general. On receiving his mortal w^ound, he said, "Support me — let not my brave soldiers Death of Wolfe. see me drop." About a year following the surrender of Quebec, the whole of Canada was transferred to the dominion of Great Britain, by which it has ever since been held as one of her dependencies. Refusal to join in the War of American Independence. — In the revolt of the United Colonies against the government of the mother-country, the Canadians were pressingly invited to join and assist the former. They, however, never swerved from their allegiance. With a view to conciliate the Canadians, the "Quebec Act," passed in 1774, changed the English civil law, which had been at first introduced, for the ancient system. The French language was also directed to be employed in the law-courts, and other changes were made for the purpose of gratifying the people. The most important privilege of all, that of a national representation, was, however, not granted. 772 GREAT EVENTS OF Consequence of the American Independence to Canada. — ' The issue of the war of independence in the colonies, though unfavorable, or at least mortifying, to the mother- country, was attended with some advantages to Canada. A large body of loyalists, who had sought refuge in her terri- tories during the war, I'eceived liberal grants of land in the Upper Provinces, as also farming utensils, building mate- rials, and subsistence for two years. A great extent of country was thus put under cultivation, and flourishing towns, as those of Kingston and Toronto, arose from the policy which was adopted in regard to these settlers. , Thus was laid the foundation of that prosperity which ha§^\ since so eminently distinguished the Upper Province. Territorial Division and a Constitution. — A steady advancement and growth of the country, caused the popu- lation to feel more and more their importance, and they were little contented in the absence of a representative government. The wish for such a government was, at times, strongly expressed. In 1790, Mr. Pitt determined to comply with the desires of the people on this subject; but, as a preliminary, it was resolved to divide Canada into two governments, upper and lower. The constitution granted, proved to be on a basis nearly resembling that of the British constitution. The first house of assembly was opened in 1792, but for several years their proceedings were of no special importance. In 1797, General Prescott was called to administer the government, when complaints began to be made respecting the grant of lands. The Board constituted for that purpose, had appropriated exten- sive tracts to themselves, and thereby had impeded the work of general settlement. He was succeeded, however, in 1800, by Sir Robert S. Milnes, as lieutenant-governor. A few years afterwards, a decision of the chief justice of Montreal declared slavery inconsistent with the laws of the country, and the small number of slaves then living there received a grant of freedom. AMERICAN HISTORY. 773 Dissensions after the Close of the War of 1812. — The contests in which Canada was involved with the United States, during the war of the latter with England, from 1812 to 1815, an account of which the reader will find in a prior part of the volume, had scarcely closed, before the country was disturbed by internal dissensions, particularly the Lower Province. They arose chiefly from the jeal- ousies which existed between the different branches of the government. Indeed, as early as 1807, the assembly seri- ously complained of an undue influence exercised by the executive and judicial officers. The difficulties continued through successive administrations, with partial suspensions under compliant or conciliatory governors, until the govern- ment came into the hands of Sir Francis Burton, who, by yielding all the points in dispute, succeeded in conciliating the assembly. The principal subject of dispute had been the public revenue and its appropriation. But the conciliation was not lasting. Every concession to the assembly gave rise to new demands, and the right was now claimed of an uncontrolled disposal of the entire revenue. Lord Dalhousie, who resumed office in 1826, resisted the demand, and the dissensions were of course renewed. Their violence was, indeed, much increased. On the meeting of the assembly in 1827, Mr. Papineau was chosen speaker, an appointment which, on account of his violent opposition to the measures of government. Lord Dalhousie refused to sanction. But the assembly being in no mood to recede from its position, the consequence was, that no session was held in the winter of 1827-28. Discontent had now risen to an alarming height; and, in the latter year, a petition was presented to the king, signed by eighty-seven thousand inhabitants, complaining of the conduct of successive governors. The subject was brought before parliament, and a committee reported the expediency of a thorough and eflfectual redress, admitting, generally, that the grievances complained of were well-founded. Sin- cere attempts appear to have been made to carry out the 774 GREAT EVENTS OF provisions of the report, or measures of reform which had been promised ; but, in the course of the colonial govern- ment, the claims of the crown and those of the assembly, on certain points, proved to be conflicting. The breach which was hoped to be closed, now became wider than ever. The assembly began to specify conditions on which certain salaries should be paid to the colonial officers; and, as a fundamental reform, next demanded that the legislative council, hitherto appointed by the crown, should be abol- ished, and a new one, like that of the American senate, substituted in its place, composed of members elected by the people. A petition to this effect was transmitted to the king, early in 1833, signed by Papineau. The British ministry, however, scouted at once such a proposal, and hinted the possibility of summary measures on the part of parliament, in order to compose the internal dissensions of the colonies. This was an imprudent intimation. Both the refusal and the inuendo but added fuel to the flame. The assembly refused to pass any bill of supply whatever for the year 1834, and in a more resolute man- ner than heretofore, insisted on an elective legislative council. The next governor who was sent out, the Earl of Gosford, professed conciliatory views; but his real object was otherwise, as was accidentally discovered. The real instructions with which he was charged, were common to him and to the governor of the Upper Province; but the latter had made public a part of those instructions appar- ently without the knowledge of Lord Gosford's intentions. The rage of the popular leaders now knew no bounds; they complained not only of the disappointments they had experienced, but of the deception which had been practiced upon them. The assembly, as before, withheld the supplies, and made no provision for the public services. Disturbances and Insurrection. — A crisis had now arrived. Ministers determined no longer to postpone measures for counteracting the proceedings of the popular party, and AMERICAN HISTORY. 775 placing the executive government in a state of regular action. The death of the king, meanwhile, the necessity of a disso- lution of the parliament, and the unw^illingness to begin the government of a young and popular queen by a scheme of coercion, caused a delay in the execution of the designs of government. The expedient of advancing the amount required for the public service, by way of loan from the British revenue, was substituted by ministers, in the pros- pect of being ultimately reimbursed from the provincial fund. The ball, however, was set in motion, and such was the momentum, that it could not be stopped at once. Meetings were held in the counties of Montreal and Richelieu, in which it was affirmed, that the votes of the Commons, (declaring the elective legislative council and the direct responsibility of the executive to the assembly, inexpe- dient,) had put an end to all hopes of justice. A general convention was proposed, to consider what further means were advisable, and a recommendation was made to discon- tinue the consumption of British manufactures, and of all articles paying taxes. This state of things put the government on the alert; preparations were made to have in readiness for the public service an additional regiment from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. A proclamation, also, was issued, warning the people against all attempts to seduce them from their alle- giance. Meetings of the friends of the government were held in Montreal and Quebec, condemning the house of assembly, declaring attachment to the British connexion, and deprecating disorganization and revolution. Notwith- standing all the attempts of the governor to effect a compromise, an agreement in respect to the topics in dis- pute could not be brought about. A recourse to arms appears now to have been determined upon by the popular leaders, with the avowed object of effecting an entire separation from the parent state. The efforts made to arouse the spirit of independence were considerable, though more secret than formerly, until an association was formed, 776 GREAT EVENTS OF under the. title of the Sons of Liberty, who even paraded the streets of Montreal in a hostile and threatening manner. Other measures of defiance, in different parts of the country, were resorted to, havnig in view still more directly the ulti- mate object of resistance and independence. The recent appointments of the two councils, designed as an alleviation, in part, of the people's complaints, were declared wholly unsatisfactory, while the introduction of an armed force into the province was stigmatized as a new and outrageous grievance. The government could not overlook these incipient steps of an insurrection. Additional military force was called into requisition — loyal volunteer associations were formed as an offset to those of the other party, and the Catholic clergy were zealous in their endeavors to preserve the peace. A scene of violence occurred in the streets, No- vember 6th, 1837, between the two parties, in which the loyalists proved to be the stronger body. That event, as might be expected, increased the ferment; so that the gov- ernment, as the most effectual course to put a stop to the aggressive movement of the people, arrested at Montreal a number of the most conspicuous leaders, with the excep- tion of Papineau, who had disappeared. A part of these, however, were subsequently rescued — a fight ensued be- tween the militia employed on this occasion, who amounted only to thirty, and a body of three hundred well-armed men, protected by a high fence. The former, of course, was overcome. In adopting the prompt measures which were now deemed necessary by the government, strong detachments under Colonels Gore and Wetherall were sent to the vil- lage of St. Denis and St. Charles on the Sorel, to rout the armed bodies of insurgent assembled in those places, under Papineau, Brown, and Neilson. Gore was repulsed; but Wetherall, on the 26th of November, attacking a force of one thousand men, came off victorious, having killed and wounded nearly three hundred of the enemy. This latter AMERICAN HISTORY. 777 affair decided the fate of the contest in that quarter. Ter- ror seized the minds of the peasantry, and they began to consider themselves betrayed by their leaders. A few days subsequently, Neilson, one of the commanders of the insurgent forces, was taken in a barn, conveyed into Mon- treal, and thrown into prison. Papineau, however, could not be discovered. In other portions of the province, where the insurrection had been still more formidable, the government forces were successful. At St. Eustache and the village of St. Benoit, the most bloody scenes were enacted; and there seems to have been at the latter place, after the regular battle, a wanton and barbarous destruction of human life, on the part of the enraged royalists. At the close of the year 1837, the whole Lower Province was reduced to a state of tranquillity. In the mean time. Upper Canada had become the theatre of interesting events. A party had arisen, influenced by inhabitants who had emigrated from the United States; who, advancing from step to step in discontent, at length, scarcely made any secret of their desire to separate from the mother-country, and join the American Union. In 1834, this party, for the first time, obtained a majority in the assembly, and after making or finding causes of disagree- ment with the governor of the province. Sir Francis Head, at length stopped the supplies, after the example of the Lower Province. Sir Francis then reserved all their money bills for her majesty's decision, and rejected appli- cation for the payment of their incidental expenses. To settle the difficulties, if possible, he made an appeal to the people by a new election. This resulted favorably to the constitutional side, and restored tranquillity till the time of the outbreak in the Lower Province. That occasion was seized by Mackenzie, one of the chief leaders at the head of five hundred men, to put his plans in operation, and attempt a separation of the province from Great Britain. His design of taking Toronto by surprise was, however, defeated. Upon the manifestation of force on the part of 778 GREAT EVENTS OF the loyal inhabitants, he retired, his followers were easily dispersed, and a number of them taken prisoners. A large body of the militia had assembled for the defence of the government; but they were given to understand that they might now return to their homes. Only such a portion was retained, under Colonel M'Nab, as was wanted to bring Buncombe, another leader, to terms, which was effected. Mackenzie, 'fleeing to Buffalo, created an interest in favor of the patriots among a portion of the American people, who, on the northern frontier, had been accustomed to sympathize in their attempts at independence. Bodies of men with their leaders, from the American side, took pos- session of Navy island, situated in the Niagara channel, between Grand island and the British shore. This they fortified with cannon, and designed as the seat of offensive operations. But Mr. Van Buren, the American president at that time, interposed his authority at once to arrest these hostile proceedings, so far as his countrymen were con- oerned, and sent General Scott to the scene of action, that a strict neutrality might be enforced. It was during this period that the small steamer, named Caroline, as has been already related in the present work, was burned by the British. This attack had nearly proved fatal to the peace of the country; it did not, however, arrest the vigorous measures adopted by General Scott to fulfil the objects of his mission. The force now collected against the insur- gents, became so far formidable, that they evacuated the island on the 14th of January, 1838. The spirit of insur- rection was now laid, but much remained to be done to effect a satisfactory adjustment of the difficulties between the government and the disaffected. The great reputation of Lord Durham, who was appointed governor in May, 1838, it was hoped would render his action favorable to such an object; but he was soon called upon to decide upon a delicate and difficult question, viz: the treatment of the prisoners taken in the rebellion. Upon a confession of guilt, he sentenced them to be deported to Bermuda, and AMERICAN HISTORY. 779 to be kept there in strict surveillance. Should they ever return to Canada without leave of the governor, they were to suffer the penalty of death. The same was awarded to Papineau and others, implicated in the late insurrection, but who had fled the country. This procedure created not a little excitement in the home government, it being deemed an usurpation of power not belonging to the gov- ernor-general of a province. A grant of indemnity, how- ever, was passed in his case; but Lord Durham was not of a temperament to brook this interposition, and he soon threw up his administration, and left for England on the 1st of November. No sooner had he departed, than fresh troubles arose. The spirit of disaffection was rife, and hopes were inspired through the aid which American sym- pathizers might afford. Communications were secretly kept up with the latter. But miserable success attended the operations of the insurgents. Dr. Robert Nelson, at the head of four thousand men, failed completely to make an impression, and, threatened by the government forces at his quarters at Napierville, he and his company dispersed with- out firing a shot. In Upper Canada, Sir Francis Head had already resigned. His successor. Sir George Arthur, soon found himself in- volved in difficult circumstances. Bands of lawless individ- uals, to the number of several hundreds, on several occasions crossed from the American side; but were, in general, effectually repulsed with little loss to the Bi'itish. The captives taken were treated with a severity which had not before been exercised towards that misguided and unfor- tunate class of people. They were generous in their sympathy, but they had violated the laws of civilized communities, and were liable to a just retribution. A considerable number of the most conspicuous were imme- diately shot, and the rest condemned to severe or ignominious punishments. The "Canadian Rebellion," was closed by these occurrences. The whole history of their efforts showed that the Canada people were unprepared, at that 780 GREAT EVENTS OF period, for an undertaking of such vast magnitude and imminent peril. In 1840, by an act of the imperial parliament. Upper and Lower Canada were united into one, under the name of the Province of Canada. Some changes were made in the form of the government; but only a few of the causes of grievance have been removed, and the great body of the people are still abridged to a considerable degree, in respect to the choice of their rulers, or the free enactment of the laws of the state. Still more recently, the province has been thrown into great excitement by an attempt to pay, from the public exchequer, the losses sustained by those who took part in the Canadian rebellion. What the result of these stormy times will be, the future only can disclose. ■yv yA^-r-qrg ^ ^^ ">£#l>/f\\ Ix^-^ ^-Sz^r--^ AMERICAN HISTORY. 781 II. NOVA SCOTIA. Limits — Conquest by the English — Settlement — Annexation to the British Crown — Policy of England in relation to the Country — Situation of the English Settlers — English Treatment of the Acadians — State of the Prov- ince during the Wars of the United States — Results of the War of 1812. Limits. — Nova Scotia is a large peninsula on the south- eastern part of British America, united to the continent by a nari'ow isthmus, between Chignecto bay and the Gulf of St. Lawrence. It is three hundred and eighty-eight miles in length from north-east to south-west, and contains an area of sixteen thousand square miles. It is a rough, mountain- ous country, barren on the sea-board, but very fertile in some of the interior parts. Settlement. — De Monts, a French gentleman, sailing from France with a view to settlement in this part of America, touched, in the first instance, at Nova Scotia, on the 16th May, 1604; but no settlement was effected until the year after, and that was at Port Royal (now Annapolis). The 782 GREAT EVENTS OF whole country, including New Brunswick, was then known by the name of Acadia. The settlement above spoken of was soon after, in 1614, broken up by Argall, an English captain, engaged in the Virginia settlement. The whole region was viewed with indifference on the part of the English, because it did not contain gold and silver. They, however, made an attempt, under Sir William Alexander, to occupy it, some years after Argall's success against Port Royal; but were obliged to desist, from finding it in pos- session of the French, In 1628 and 1629, the English succeeded in taking Nova Scotia and Canada; but by the terms of a treaty in 1632, the whole country was restored to France. Conquest hy the English. — A period of several years was passed in the infelicities of a deadly feud between the rival chiefs who held possession of the country. But amidst their contentions, an expedition was sent against Nova Scotia in 1654 by Cromwell, who had then declared war against France ; and the result was the reduction of the warring parties, and the submission of the whole country to the English authority. This was but a temporary acquisition. By the peace of 1667, Nova Scotia was again ceded to the French. In the course of a few subsequent years, Nova Scotia was twice invaded and taken by the English from the colony of Massachusetts; the first time under Sir William Phipps, and the second time by a body of five hundred men from Boston. Acadia was now held by the British until the treaty of Rys- wick in 1697, when it again reverted to France. Permanent Annexation to the British Crown. — There was a speedy return of the war between France and Eng- land, and the reduction of Nova Scotia was again left to New England. The first expedition, under Colonel Church, and a subsequent one, three years after, effected little for the object in view. The determination of the New Eng- AMERICAN HISTORY. 783 landers, however, could not be shaken. After two years spent in preparing, they assembled a large force of five regiments; and under the command of General Nicholson, they arrived at Port Royal on the 24th of September, 1716, which in its weakness capitulated without resistance. The month following, when the deed of surrender was made, forms the era of the permanent annexation of Nova Scotia to the British crown.* The Indians of the country, who were strongly attached to the French, were not satisfied with the transfer, and for many years became extremely troublesome to the English, frequently surprising them, and carrying off their property. It was in the course of these disturbances, that the Massachusetts troops in 1728 defeated the tribe of the Noridgewocks; among the results of which invasion, was the death of the celebrated Father Rolle, their missionary. Policy of England in relation to the Country. — After the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle 1748, which had been preceded by disasters to the French possessions in America, particu- larly by the taking of Louisburg, Great Britain began to pay more attention to Nova Scotia. Hitherto, it had been quite a French country, peopled and cultivated throughout by that hostile nation. It was suggested, that of the large number of soldiers and sailors discharged in consequence of the peace, a part might with great advantage be located as agriculturists, and thereby provide the colony with an English population. This project was embraced with ardor by the Earl of Halifax. Fifty acres were allowed to every private, with ten addi- tional for each member of his family. A higher allowance was granted to officers, in proportion to their rank. By this arrangement, three thousand seven hundred and sixty adven- turers with their families were induced to embark in May, 1749. They were landed, not at Annapolis, but Chebucto, named henceforth Halifax, after the patron of the expedition. * Murray's British America. 784 GREAT EVENTS OF Situation of the English Settlers. — As munificent provi- sion vv^as made for them from time to time, a town, with spacious and regular streets, w^as soon reared; where they were as comfortably situated as they could be with a hostile population in their vicinity, and the difficulties arising from the French claims. The boundaries of the country were in dispute between the two nations — the encroachments of the English, as the French settlers deemed them, alarmed the fears of the latter; and the Indians, excited by French emissaries, committed upon the English numerous outrages. At length, the French arose in rebellion against the British rule ; but it was not until after many attempts to subdue them, on the part of the English, that the object was effected. The success of the last expedition, under Colonel Monckton, in 1755, from New England, secured the tranquillity of all French Acadia, then claimed by the English under the name of Nova Scotia. English Treatment of the French Acadians. — The Eng- lish, in consequence of the war which now raged between France and Britain, did not feel at ease. They had reason to believe that, in the event of an invasion of Nova Scotia by the French, they would find not only the Indians, but the Acadians, friendly to the invaders. A cruel expedient, hardly justified by the circumstances, was adopted to pre- vent the danger and evil. It was determined to break up the homes of the latter, and disperse them throughout the British colonies, so that they might be unable to unite in offensive measures. They were comfortably situated, and attached to their homes; were a quiet people, only a few of them ever having been openly engaged in arms against the British; and, consequently, they could not but keenly feel the greatness of their wrongs. They submitted to them, but with moans and pathetic appeals, though occasional forcible resistance was oflfered. "Notwithstanding the barbarous diligence with which this mandate was executed, it is not supposed that the num- AMERICAN HISTORY. 785 her actually deported exceeded seven thousand. The rest fled into the depth of the forest, or to the nearest French settlements, enduring incredible hardships. To prevent the return of the hapless fugitives, the government reduced to ashes their habitations and property, laying waste their own lands with a fury exceeding that of their most savage enemy. In one district, two hundred and sixty-three houses were at once in a blaze. The Acadians, from the heart of the woods, beheld all they possessed consigned to destruction; yet they made no movement till the devastators wantonly set their chapel on fire. They then rushed forward in desperation, killed about thirty of the incendiaries, and then hastened back to their hiding-place." — Such is the account given by an eloquent historian of this barbarous proceeding. iMfi®(gfi®M if MAias Condition of the Acadians. — By the peace which was concluded at Paris, in 170,3, France was compelled to transfer to her victorious rival all her possessions on the North American continent. After the peace, the case of the Acadians was necessarily taken into consideration. The severe treatment to which they had been subjected brought 50 786 GREAT EVENTS OF no advantage to the country, as it had not become the theatre of war, and there no longer remained any pretext for con- tinuing the persecution. Though transportation vi^as advised by the governor, yet the administration at home, with a more equitable spirit, allowed them to return to their original places of abode, receiving lands on taking the customary oaths. Yet the justice rendered was imperfect, inasmuch as no compensation was allowed them for their plundered property. It, however, pleased a number to return, though in 1772 the whole body was found to be only two thousand one hundred; an eighth-part, perhaps, of what had constituted once a flourishing colony. They have since, by their industry, brought themselves into a thriving state. State of the Province during the TVar of the United States. — The condition of Nova Scotia, as indeed of the adjoining British provinces on the North, was highly crit- ical during the war of the American Revolution; but the fears indulged from this source proved unfounded. The province remained loyal to the crown during the whole of that long and arduous contest. At its close, there was a large influx of refugees into the province. The number that arrived, prior to September, 1783, was reckoned at eighteen thousand, and two thousand more landed in the following month. "Many of these new citizens possessed considerable property, as well as regular and industrious habits, so that they formed a most important acquisition. Several addi- tional townships were erected; Shelburne, before nearly deserted, rapidly acquired upwards often thousand inhabit- ants; emigrants from Nantucket established a whale-fishery at Dartmouth; while saw and grist mills were established in various parts of the province. A considerable propor- tion of these emigrants directed their course to the region beyond the peninsula; which thereby acquiring a great increase of importance, was, in 1784, erected into a distinct AMERICAN HISTORY. 787 government, under the title of New Brunswick." Cape Breton, from the above date, after having been separated from Nova Scotia until 1820, was reannexed to the latter. Results of the War of 1812. — The war between the United States and Great Britain, which broke out in 1812, materially advanced the prosperity of Nova Scotia, and showed the importance of Halifax as a naval station. Into this port numerous prizes were carried, by the sale of which large fortunes were realized. The evils of war were almost unknown, for a neutrality was observed by the gov- ernment of Maine and the British authorities on the New Brunswick frontier; so that although the militia were kept in readiness for service, they were not called into it. A long succession of able governors since, has been the means of giving to the province a desirable increase of wealth and prosperity. The importance of Halifax has, within a few years, been greatly increased, by becoming a touching place for the royal English steamers (Cunard line) in their transit across the Atlantic. III. NEW BRUNSWICK. Extent — Physical Aspect and Soil — Settlement and Progress — Signal Calamity. Extent. — New Brunswick is a territory which forms a kind of irregular square, lying on the east of the state of Maine, though extending farther north than that state, and therefore bounded west by a portion of Canada. It com- prises an area of more than twenty-seven thousand square miles, and hence its surface considerably exceeds that of Nova Scotia and Cape Breton united. Physical Aspect and Soil. — The surface of the country is broken and undulating, though scarcely any where 788 GREAT EVENTS OF rising into mountains. The fertility of the soil is greater than that of Nova Scotia, and is especially indicated by the magnificent forests with trees of enormous size, the export of which for timber and shipping constitutes the chief occupation of the colonists. The borders of the streams consist of the richest meadow lands. The climate, like that of Canada, is excessively cold from November to April. At the latter period comes a sudden change, bring- ing intense heat and rapid vegetation. Settlement and Progress. — Previously to 1783, the French comprehended the territory now called New Brunswick, under the general appellation 6f New France, viewing it more particularly as an appendage to Acadia. At that period, it received its present name and its existence as a colony. The English claimed it as a part of Nova Scotia, though they paid no attention to its improvement. After that peninsula had been finally ceded to the Eng- lish, the French laid claim to New Brunswick as a part of Canada, and made preparations to enforce it by arms. But the subject was put to rest finally by the cession of all Can- ada to the British, at the peace of 1763. It only remained to be populated and improved by enterprising people from abroad, as it was inhabited mainly by the few Acadians who had sought refuge from persecution among its forests. A people of this description soon came, or more properly had emigrated to New Brunswick, the year before the era of the peace above referred to. They consisted of families from New England, who settled at Mangerville, about fifty miles up the St. John, and, in 1783, they amounted to about eight hundred. At the close of the revolutionary war, several thousand of disbanded British troops removed from New England, were located at Frederickton. The new colonists, however, were subjected to great hardships and cruel privations, when first placed in the midst of this wil- derness, which they more keenly felt from the fact that they had been accustomed to the comforts of civilized life. AMERICAN HISTORY. 789 Great exertions were made for the improvement of the country under General Sir Guy Carlton, who was appointed governor in "i/.'SS. A degree of success attended his efforts, as a gradual advancement took place. During a period of fourteen years from the time he left the country, the gov- ernment was administered by a succession of presidents. By an arrangement of duties on foreign timber, and by leav- ing that from New Brunswick free, a foundation was laid for the signal prosperity of the colony. This state of things commenced in 1809, and the exports of this article, from that period, continually increased, until it reached its acme in 1825. Then a severe reaction was experienced, in conse- quence of speculative over-trading. The trade, however, assumed a healthy condition in the space of a few years. The progress of the colony of late years has been cheer- ing, and its natural advantages appreciated, as they have been the more unfolded. It was during the administration of Sir John Harvey, that the disputed boundary between Maine and New Brunswick had nearly occasioned a rup- ture between the United States and Great Britain. Tlii connection with the cod-fisheries in its vicinity. In this, its commercial aspect, it is the most valuable of all the English northern possessions. The celebrated bank, which constitutes the fishing- ground, is estimated to extend six hundred miles in length and two hundred in breadth, composed almost throughout of masses of solid rock. The abundance of fish is literally inexhaustible, no diminution of fruitfulness being observed, although Europe and America have drawn upon this treasure, to any extent, for several centuries. The vast 794 GREATEVENTSOF masses of ice, which float down from the northern seas into the neighborhood of this island, bring also with them a valuable article of commerce, viz: herds of seal, which the seamen contrive to take, and which furnish a rich store of oil for export. Discovery and Settlement. — Newfoundland was discov- ered, in 1497, by Cabot, and has always been claimed by Britain. Attention was drawn to its fisheries before 1517; since, as early as that time, it was stated by the crew of an English ship, that they had left forty vessels, of different European nations, engaged in the fishery. Several partial attempts were made at settling the coun- try, from 1536 to 1612; but it was only at the latter date that we find the first attempt made on a large scale to col- onize the territory. It was chiefly promoted by Mr. Guy, an intelligent merchant of Bristol, who induced a number of influential men at court to engage in the undertaking. In 1610, he having been appointed governor of the intended colony, conveyed thither thirty-nine persons, who con- structed a dwelling and store-house, and formed there the first permanent settlement. For several years,* however, the spirit of settlement lan- guished. It was not until 1621 that it began to revive under the auspices of Sir George Calvert, afterwards Lord Baltimore, who obtained a grant of a considerable tract on a part of the island. He had in view the establishment of a Catholic colony, who might enjoy there the free exercise of their religion. About twenty years after his first plant- ation, there were estimated to be about three hundred and fifty families on different parts of the coast. The fishery," at the same time, grew rapidly into importance. In 1660, the French, who had previously become active rivals of the British in the fishery, formed a settlement in the Bay of Placentia, which they occupied for a long period. Through some jealousy, excited by those who favored the deep-sea or whale-fishery, in opposition to the boat- AMERICAN HISTORY. 795 fishery at Newfoundland, serious attempts were made at one time, by the government at home, to break up all the settlements on the island, and reduce the land to a desert. This cruel and suicidal policy could, however, be effef led but in part, and some years afterwards more just views began to be entertained on the subject, and some emigra- tions even were made again! French Hostilities. — During the war with France, which broke out in consequence of the revolution of 1688, the settlements in Newfoundland endured great vicissitudes. The latter had, by favor or oversight, been allowed full freedom of fishing, and even formed several settlements. They evidently showed an intention of gaining possession of the whole island. With a view to efl^ect their object, the works at Placentia were attacked in 1692, and partly destroyed; but, in 1696, the French, reinforced by a squad- ron from Europe, attacked St. John, yet without success. The place, however, suffered severely, and another arma- ment, before the end of the year, gaining possession of it, set it on fire. Upon this, Ibberville, with a body of troops, destroyed all the English stations, except Bonavista and Carbonier. An English fleet, sent out to retrieve these dis- asters, failed through the misconduct of the commander. The difficulties were terminated in 1698, by the peace of Ryswick, which placed every thing on the same footing as before the contest. Renewal of War. — The war of the succession exposed the colony again to the attacks of the French, who were favored by local situation in their proceedings at Newfound- land. The English, at first, took some of the smaller set- tlements; but in 1705, the troops in Placentia, reinforced by five hundred men from Canada, successfully attacked the British colonists. Three years afterwards, St. John was completely destroyed, and the French became masters of every English station, except Carbonier. A subsequent 796 ' GREAT EVENTS OF attempt of the British to recover their possessions, w^as not without effect; but their splendid successes in Europe enabled them at the treaty of Utrecht, in 1713, to do more than redeem all their losses in America. Louis XIV. was compelled to yield up all his possessions on the coast of Newfoundland; but he retained, for his subjects, the right to erect huts and stages for fishing on particular portions of the coast. Changes of Administration. — The nominal dependence of Newfoundland on Nova Scotia, was withdrawn in 1779. From this period until 1827, the government of the island was administered by naval commanders, appointed to cruise on the fishing station, but who returned to England during the winter. Since the last-named period, the gov- ernment has been administered by resident governors, and, in 1832, it was determined to grant the boon of a repre- sentative assembly. This was placed on an extremely liberal footing, the assembly being elected by a suffrage nearly universal. Present Condition. — The chief British settlements are on the large peninsula named Avalon, constituting the south-eastern part of the island. St. John, the capital, is very convenient for ships coming either from Europe or America, and particularly for the deep-sea and seal-fish- eries. After all its improvements, it still bears the aspect of a fishing station, consisting of one long and narrow street, extending entirely along the sea. AMERICAN HISTORY. 797 VI. HUDSON'S BAY TERRITORY. Extent — Discovery — Settlement — Contests with France — Present State. Extent. — The Hudson's Bay Territory is a region of British America, far surpassing, in extent, the settled and occupied parts. It is about two thousand six hundred miles in length, from east to west, and nearly one thousand five hundred miles in width, from south to north. It extends northerly till it reaches the Arctic ocean. Discovery. — Hudson's bay, from which the territory takes its name, was repeatedly visited, at an early period, by English navigators, though for a long time solely with a view to the great object of discovering a north-west passage to Asia. It appears that Sebastian Cabot, in 1517, first penetrated to this gulf, but did not view it as an inclosed sea. This voyage, however, was lost sight of, so that when Hudson, in 1610, sailed through the straits now bear- ing his name, and found a wide and open expanse, it was considered a new discovery, and named, from him, the Hudson sea. Nor was it recognized as a bay, but was viewed, with hope, as a part of the Pacific. The great navigator, however, having been compelled to winter within the straits, where the crew were exposed to severe suffering, a violent mutiny arose among them, when he and several of his adherents were exposed, in a small boat, on this inhospitable shore, and doubtless perished. Several voyages were made during the next half century, with many perils and disasters, and all of them abortive as to the primary object. But they were the means of laying open the great extent of Hudson's bay, and of conveying some idea of the valuable furs which might be obtained on its shores. Settlements. — A Frenchman, named Grosseliez, having penetrated thither from Canada, made a survey of the 798 GREAT EVENTS OF country, and laid before the French court the plan of a settlement. Finding his proposition unheeded, he sought the English patronage under Prince Rupert, and in June, 1668, a company of adventurers sailed in a vessel com- manded by Zachariah Gillam, and reached a river, then called Nemisco, to which they gave the name of Rupert. Here they wintered with comparative comfort. Upon the report made by this party, a capital of ten thousand five hundred pounds was subscribed by the prince and others, and a charter was obtained, securing to them the exclusive trade and administration of all the countries around Hud- son's bay. They immediately sent out adventurers, who formed a settlement on Rupert's river. Others were established on Moose river, in 1674, and four years later on the Albany. By 1685, they had added two more on the Nelson and Severn, and in 1690, their affairs were in such a flourishing condition, that they determined to triple their original stock. Contests with France. — France, learning these results, regretted her indifference to the proposal of Grosseliez, and commenced efforts to secure advantages which she had, in effect, thrown away. "A claim was advanced on the ground of prior occupation, and Grosseliez, already detached from the English service, was sent out, in 1682, with another officer. He not only laid the foundation of a factory on Hayes' river, but, in the following spring, sur- prised the British one on the Nelson, taking Gillam a pris- oner, and carrying him to Canada; and yet, soon after, by means not very distinctly stated, the English became mas- ters of these stations. In 1G86, however, amid a profound peace, the Chevalier de Troyes marched thither, and sud- denly took the Rupert, Hayes, and Albany factories. These movements do not seem to have attracted much attention in Europe, but when the war in 1688 broke out, hostile operations were carried on with great ardor. During 1693-94-95, the different posts were successively taken and AMERICAN HISTORY. 799 retaken. In 1696, the English had recovered almost the whole ; but in the following year, a squadron from France defeated the Hudson's bay ships, and tpok all the forts except Albany. The treaty of Ryswick leaving things in statu quo, this state of possession continued till the peace of Utrecht, in 1713, by which the various posts were restored to Britain." Discoveries have been made in the intervening years, from the above date to the present time, which have resulted in a more extensive knowledge of this immense country. Settlements have occasionally been made on the coasts of the bays or rivei'S which so abound there; but the object principally in view of the many expeditions on those northern waters — viz: the ascertaining of a passage into the Pacific at the head of the American continent — has never been secured. 800 GREAT EVENTS OF RUSSIAN AMERICA. GENERAL DESCRIPTION. The Russians may be regarded as the first discoverers of the north-western shores of this, continent. Behring and Tchirikow, in 1728, first saw the straits which separate America and Asia. The Russian voyagers subsequently extended their discoveries southwardly, along the American coast towards Nootka Sound, and, at a late period, made a few establishments for hunting and trade with the Indians on the coast. A single settlement at Sitka, and two others at Kodiak, and Illuluk, on an adjacent island, engaged in the fur-trade with the Indians, comprise all the actual Rus- sian possessions in America. The limits of the Russian territory, in this region, are bounded on the south by the parallel of fifty-four degrees and forty minutes north latitude; but though the Muscovite power lays claim to the territory, and about fifty thousand Indians acknowledge his authority, the sovereignty is little more than a name. On the 5th of April, 1824, a conven- tion between the United States and his majesty the Empe- ror of all the Russias, was concluded and signed at St. Petersburg. By the third article of this convention it was agreed, "that hereafter there should not be formed under the authority of said states any establishment upon the northern coast of America, nor in any of the islands adja- cent, to the north of fifty-four degrees and forty minutes of north latitude ; and that, in the same manner, there shall be none formed by Russian subjects, or under the authority of Russia, south of the same parallel." This coast possesses an Alpine character. In some parts it rises into mountains covered with snow, with immense AIMERICAN HISTORY, 801 glaciers winding through its cavities. The most remarka- ble summit seems to be that called St. Elias by the Russian navigators, and which, it is affirmed, has been visible at sea at the distance of sixty leagues. The inhabitants of the more northern regions of this coast, appear to be Esquimaux, as they abound also on the eastern coast, and around Hudson's bay. The savages of Nootka are said to be very cruel to the captives taken in war, and have frequently proved treacherous and vindictive in the interconrse held with trading-vessels. 51 ^^^^ilff^^^^ •fisf0!//f.-^-~. 802 AMERICAN HISTORY. MEXICO. SYNOPTICAL SKETCH. The Eagle with the Serpent alighting on the rock in Lake Tenochtitlan, on the spot where the City was built. Discovery — Condition, anterior to the Spanish Conquest — Invasion by Cortez — Arrival of Cortez in the Mexican Capital — Abdication of Montezuma — Retreat of Cortez, and Return — Fall of the City and Empire — Fate of Cortez — Extent of New Spain — Introduction of the Catholic Religion — Native Spanish Population under the Colonial Government — Classes of the Inhabitants — Causes of the First Mexican Revolution — Commence- ment of the Revolution — Continuation of the War by the Patriot Chiefs — Decline of the Revolution — Invasion by Mina — Revolution under Iturbide — Adoption of the Federal Constitution — Prosperity of the years 1825 and 1826 — Election of President in 1828 — Usurpation of Bustamente — Defence of the Federal Constitution — Santa Anna's Proceedings — Establishment of a Central Republic — Attempts against the Central Government — Revo- lution of 1841 — Overthrow of Santa Anna's Government. The northern coast of Yucatan was first visited and explored in 1517 by Francisco Fernandez de Cordova, who sailed from Cuba in three small vessels, with a company of AMERICAN HISTORY. 803 adventurers. He here found a race of men much bolder and more warlike than the inhabitants of the islands, who resisted the intruders with a most determined spirit. Many of the latter perished in the contests they were engaged in, and Cordova himself received a wound, of which he died soon after his return to Cuba. The prospect of booty which the region presented, stim- ulated the Spaniards to secure their prize at any hazard. Another expedition was planned the following year, under Grijalva, consisting of four ships and two hundred and forty men. They commenced by verifying the reports of the preceding adventurers; they then continued their voyage as far as the River Panuco, and were. met every where with the marks of a good degree of civilization. Landing frequently, they were sometimes suspected, and warmly attacked ; at other times, they were received with the rev- erence due to superior natures. Condition, anterior^ to the Spanish Conquest. — The most ancient Mexican nation, according to tradition, was the Toltecas. It would appear that, at a period corresponding with that of 472 of the Christian era, they were expelled from their own country, called Tollan, somewhere north of Mexico, whence becoming migratory for many years, they at length built a city, called Tolton, fifty miles east from Mexico. In 667, the Toltecas were chiefly cut off by famine and pestilence. About a hundred years after this, their country was occupied by the Checkemecas, who likewise emigrated from some northern section of the continent. They mingled and intermarried with the remnant of the Toltecas. In 1160, the Aztecs, who dwelt north of the Gulf of California, abandoned their country, and, for a series of years, led a wandering life. They originally consisted of six tribes, but eventually the Mexican tribes separated from the rest, and continued their journey alone. In 1325, they reached a spot on which they commenced a city, and which they 804 GREAT EVENTS OF called Mexico, after Mexitli, their god of war. Here, for two hundred years, down to the time of their conquest by the Spaniards, they flourished. They increased in power and wealth. They were joined by the other Aztec tribes from whom they had separated. They were a superior people — well instructed in the art of war. They excelled in sculpture, and, at the time of the invasion, had made considerable progress in architecture, agriculture, &c. Their capital contained not less than one hundred thousand inhabitants. Their government was an elective monarchy. Montezuma was on the Mexican throne, and had surrounded himself with the highest regal splendor, and exercised the most despotic power. Such, in brief, was the condition of the Mexicans when their conquest was attempted by the Spaniards. Invasion by Cortez. — The reports which had been brought home by several, especially Grijalva, of the fertility and wealth of Mexico, determined Velasquez, the governor of Cuba, to attempt its conquest. The expedition was intrusted to Fernando Cortez, a man peculiarly well calculated by his courage, his perseverance, and other qualities, for an enter- prise like this, full of danger and difficulty. The expedition consisted of eleven vessels and six hundred and seventeen men. The object was to make war upon a monarch whose dominions were more extensive than all the kingdoms sub- ject to the Spanish crown. Arriving at the island of Cozu- mel, Cortez had there the good fortune to redeem Aguilar, a Spaniard, who had been eight years a prisoner among the Indians, and who proved extremely useful as an interpreter. In March, 1519, Cortez landed in Tabasco, a southern province of Mexico, where, though the Indians met him with extraordinary courage, they were routed with great slaughter, in several successive engagements. Continuing his course to the westward, he landed at San Juan d'Ulloa. Here he was most respectfully addressed by a deputation on board of his ship, but in a language alto- AMERICAN HISTORY, 805 gether unknown to him, and even to Aguilar. Fortunately, one of his female slaves, received at Tabasco, well under- stood the Mexican language, and explained what had been said in the Yucatan tongue, with which Aguilar was unac- quainted. This woman, who was known afterwards by the Marina interpreting the Address of the Mexican Deputation. name of Donna Marina, informed him that the persons who addressed him were the officers of a great monarch, whom they called Montezuma, and that they were sent to inquire what his intentions were in visiting their coast, and to offer any assistance he might need in order to continue his voy- age. Cortez, having thus learned the purport of the mes- sage, assured the officers that he approached their country with the most friendly sentiments, and came to propose matters of great moment to their prince, which should soon be more fully unfolded. Next morning he landed his men, horses, and artillery, by the assistance of the natives, who unconsciously were admitting among them the instruments of their own destruction. On the 26th of March, Cortez commenced his march towards the Mexican capital, having first destroyed his 806 GREAT EVENTS OF vessels, that his soldiers, deprived of the means of retreat, might rely solely on their valor. On his way thither, by consummate address, he alienated from Montezuma several Cortez burning his Ships. of the petty states with their caziques. Others he com- pelled, by force of arms, to join him. By degrees, he marched into the country, and, with the addition of the natives, he found himself at the head of an army consisting of several thousand persons. Arrival of Cortez in the Mexican Capital. — As Cortez approached the Mexican capital, a great retinue of persons came to meet him, adorned with plumes and clad in man- tles of fine cotton. Each of these saluted Cortez in the most respectful manner. They announced the approach of Montezuma himself; and soon after, the harbingers, two hundred in number, in a uniform dress, appeared in sight. These were followed by a company of higher rank, in splendid apparel, in the midst of whom was Montezuma, carried in a litter richly ornamented with gold and feathers of various colors. The king and Cortez met, and the most A M 11 II I C A N HISTORY 807 respectful salutations passed between them. Montezuma conducted Cortez to the quarters that had been prepared for his reception, and took leave of him, sayin"-, "You are now with your brothers in your own house; refresh your- selves after your fatigue, and be happy until I return." Meeting of Montezuma and Cortez. The first care of Cortez, however, was to take precau- tions for his security, by planting the artillery so as to com- mand the different avenues which led to the place allotted for his reception. In the evening, Montezuma returned to visit his guests, and again made them magnificent presents. Various con- ferences passed between them; and the next day Cortez and some of his principal attendants were admitted to an audience of the emperor. While these events were happening, Cortez formed a plan no less extraordinary than daring. This was to seize Mon- tezuma in his palace, and to carry him prisoner to the Spanish quarters. He communicated his plan to his prin- cipal officers, and almost instantly put it into execution. 808 GREAT EVENTS OF The Abdication of Montezuma. — Although Montezuma was permitted to exercise the functions of royalty, yet he was guarded with the utmost vigilance by the Spaniards. The king's brave son, with several of the principal officers, on the slightest pretext, was burned alive by the command of Cortez. The monarch himself was, at length, bound with fetters. Having both the monarch and his subjects Montezuma on his Throne. under this temporary authority, Cortez availed himself of it to the utmost. He appointed commissioners to survey the empire, and to prepare the minds of the people for submitting to the Spaniards; and, in the end, he persuaded Montezuma to acknowledge himself a vassal to the Spanish crown, and to pay an annual tribute. The fallen prince, at the instance of Cortez, accompanied this profession of fealty and homage, with a magnificent present to the king of Spain, and, after his example, his subjects brought in liberal contributions. War, and the Death of Montezuma. — About this time AINIERICAN HISTORY. 809 Velasquez, piqued by the success of his subaltern, had sent a force into -Mexico to take him and his principal officers prisoners; but the good fortune of Cortez triumphed again; for overcoming his enemies in battle, he induced the greater part of them to join his standard ; and when he had least of all expected it, he was placed at the head of a thousand Spaniards, ready to aid him, at any hazard, in his enterprises. This additional force had but just time to enroll them- selves under their new leader, before the Mexicans attacked them in all directions. Cortez now found himself environed with the most immi- nent dangers. The only resource which remained to hifii was to try what effect the interposition of Montezuma might have upon his enraged subjects. When, the next Death of Montezuma. morning, they approached to renew the assault, that unfor- tunate prince was compelled to advance to the battlements, and exhort his people to discontinue hostilities. But tlie fury of the multitude could not be repressed, and it was now directed momentarily against their prince. Flights of 810 GREAT EVENTS OF arrows and volleys of stones poured in so violently upon the ramparts, that before the Spanish soldiers had time to lift their shields for Montezuma's defence, two arrows wounded the unhappy monarch, and a blow of a stone on his temple struck him to the ground. Most bitterly did these poor men lament the consequences of their displeasure, as they witnessed the fate of their sov- ereign. As for Montezuma, in a paroxysm of rage he tore the bandage from his wounds, and so obstinately refused to take any nourishment, that he soon ended his days, rejecting with disdain all the urgency of the Spaniards that he should embrace the Christian faith. Retreat and Return of Cortez. — The death of Monte- zuma filled the Mexicans with surprise and terror; but added to, rather than diminished, their hostility. They determined to reduce by famine a foe which they could not subdue by force. This coming to the knowledge of Cortez, he perceived, situated as he was, that his safety lay in instant retreat from the city. Preparations were accord- ingly made to march out of Mexico that very night. Each soldier took such booty as he was able; yet a large quantity of silver was left behind. At midnight, (he troops aban doned their quarters, and proceeded in silence along the causeway that led to Tacubaya. The Mexicans were watching the retreating foe. At length, the latter reached a breach which had been made in the causeway, when in an instant they were astounded by a tremendous roar of martial instruments. Clouds of arrows were showered upon them. Yet they struggled on to a second breach, where they were obliged to wade through the mud and water. All was darkness, confusion, dismay. Many were so heavily laden with spoils, that they sunk to rise no more. The carnage was dreadful. It was a night of blood — or what is known in the Mexican history as the Noche triste, or "doleful night." Cortez lost some five or six hundred Spaniards, and of his allies, the Tlas- AMERICAN HISTORY. 811 calans, above two thousand. Only a small portion of the pillaged treasures was saved — horses, ammunition, baggage, nearly all were gone. In the morning, although his troops needed rest and his wounded care, Cortez pursued his march towards Tlascala, where he was received with kind- ness by his allies. Noche Triste. Some interval of tranquillity was now absolutely neces- sary, not only that the Spaniards might give attention to the cure of their wounds, but in order to recruit their strength, exhausted by a long succession of fatigues and hardships. When these objects had been attained, and his forces were considerably augmented, on the 28th of Decem- ber, 1520, Cortez commenced his return towards Mexico. In his progress towards it, he took possession of Tezcuco, the second town in the empire, situated on the lake about twenty miles from the capital. He had already prepared the materials for building several brigantines, so that they might be carried thither in pieces ready to be put together, and launched when they were needed. Here he established 812 GREAT EVENTS OF his head-quarters, as it was the most suitable place to launch the brigantines. With the launching of these, all was in readiness for the great enterprise. Cortez building Brigantines on the Lakes. Nor were the Mexicans unprepared. Upon the death of Montezuma, his brother, Quetlavaca, a man distinguished for his courage and capacity, was raised to the throne But in the midst of his preparations to meet the invaders, he was fatally attacked by the small-pox, a scourge which had been introduced into the country by the Spaniards. Gautimozin, nephew and son-in-law of Montezuma, was next chosen emperor, nor could the choice have fallen on a more deserving man. Great bravery was displayed by the Mexicans during the siege. Cortez found it necessary to proceed with caution in all his measures. His chief prospect of success lay in cutting off supplies from the city; at length, in that, he succeeded, so that the public stores were exhausted, and the sufferings in the city became extreme. Fall of the City and Empire. — At this crisis, Guatimozin, AMERICAN HISTORY. 813 in an attempt to escape to the provinces, with a view to arouse his people more effectually for his defence, was cap- tured and conducted to Cortez. He appeared with singular composure and self-respect, requesting of Cortez, that no insult should be offered to the empress or his children. "I have done," said he to his con- queror, "what became a monarch. I have defended my people to the last extremity. Nothing now remains but to die. Take this dagger," (laying hold of one which Cortez wore,) "plant it in my heart, and put an end to a life which can be no longer useful to my country." Before he left the city, he had been careful to disappoint the expectations of the Spaniards, by throwing all his treasures into the lake. When the fate of their sovereign was known, the Mexi- cans laid down their arms, and Cortez took possession of that small part of the capital which yet remained, three- fourths of it having been reduced to ashes during the con- flict. In this manner terminated the memorable siege of Mexico. The fate of the capital decided that, also, of the empire. The provinces submitted, one after another, to the con- querors. Small parties of Spaniards, marching through them without interruption, penetrated in different quarters to the Pacific ocean. Thus a great and rich empire was secured to Spain, through the almost incredible efforts of a single man at thef head of a small band of adventurers. Fate of Cortez. — As a reward for his bold and surprising achievements, Cortez was warmly eulogized by his coun- trymen at home, and the Emperor Charles V. appointed him captain-general and governor of New Spain, with other tokens of favor. But a bitter cup was at last pressed to his lips. After returning to America, and continuing there for a time in his command, he came back, in 1540, to his native country. But in consequence of his ambition and usurpa- tions, his reception at home was ill-suited to the character of his heroic deeds. "The emperor behaved to him with 814 GREAT EVENTS OF cold civility, his ministers treated him sometimes with neg- lect, sometimes with insolence. His grievances received no redress; his claims were urged without effect; and, after several years spent in fruitless application to ministers and judges, he ended his days on the 2d of December, in the sixty-second year of his age." Extent of New Spain. — This country, under the Span- iards, embraced a more extensive region than the empire of Mexico, or the dominions of Montezuma and his predeces- sors. It included, in addition to the Mexican empire proper, New Navarre, a vast territory, extending to the north and west; the provinces of California, as also the peninsula of California; and, moreover, the provinces of Yucatan and Honduras, stretching from the Bay of Cam- peachy to beyond Cape Gracias a Dios. At an early period, most of these countries had been visited and subju- gated by Spanish adventurers. The peninsula of California, which had been discovered by Cortez in 1536, began to be explored by the Jesuits towards the close of the seven- teenth century. Here they established an important mis- sion, but, after a time, were expelled from the country. Introduction of the Catholic Religion. — The conquerors of New Spain carried with them the Catholic faith, which became the established religion; and, indeed, was the only religion that was tolerated, until the revolution in the beginning of the present century. The establishment was instituted as an auxiliary branch of the government, on a similar model to that in Spain. In attempts to convert the natives, they made use of the same unjustifiable means that have been resorted to by the Jesuits. But notwithstanding all that was done, their spiritual character and condition were unchanged. Of real Christianity, they remained wholly ignorant, and retained all their veneration for their ancient superstitions. This mixture of Christianity with their own heathenish rites and notions, was transmitted to their pos- AMERICAN HISTORY. terity, and has never been eradicated. That device of the infernal pit, the Inquisition, was established in America by the bigoted zeal of Philip II., in the year 1570. This measure completed the ecclesiastical apparatus for fastening Catholicism on the new world. Introduction of Christianity. Native Spanish Population under the Colonial Govern- ment. — "For nearly three centuries, down to the year 1810, Mexico was governed by viceroys, appointed by the court of Spain, all of whom, with one exception, were European Spaniards. Every situation in the gift of the crown was bestowed upon a European, nor is there an instance, for many years before the revolution, either in the church, the army, or the law, in which the door of preferment was opened to a Spaniard, Mexican-born. Through this policy, a privileged caste arose, distinct from the Mexican Span- iards in feelings, habits, and interests — the paid agents of a government whose only aim was to enrich itself, without any regard to the abuses perpetrated under its authority. 816 GREAT EVENTS OF Classes of the Inhabitants. — Anterioi to the revolution in ISIO, the population of Mexico was divided into distinct castes, as follows: 1, The old Spaniards, bom in Spain, designated Chapetones. 2, Creoles or Whites, of pure European race, born in America, and regarded by the tirst class as natives. 3, The Indians, or indigenous copper- colored race. 4, The Mestizos, or mongrel breeds of Whites and Indians, in the purer descent approaching to the Creoles. 5, Mulattoes, or descendants of Whites and Negroes. 6, The Zamhos, descendants of Negroes and Indians. And 7, The African Negroes, whether manu- mitted or slaves. The pure races were the old Spaniards, Creoles, Indians, and Negroes, and gave rise, in their various combinations or divisions, to the others. The remaining three races were impure or mixed, and were sub-divided, without any assigned limits. Upon the breaking out of the revolution, the distinctions of caste were all absorbed in the name of Americans and Europeans. Causes of the First Mexican Revolution. — For more than a century, Spain had been on the decline, when, in 1808, the Emperor Napoleon gave a finishing stroke to her degrada- tion, by seizing upon the royal family, and placing his brother Jerome upon the throne. To this revolution, the Spanish chiefs, who were assured of their places, were disposed to yield, excepting the viceroy of Mexico. But the people, indignant at the foul treatment which their sovereign had received, were determined not to submit to it. A general revolt against the authority of Buonaparte, soon disclosed itself in old Spain, intelligence of which reaching Mexico on the 29th of July, 1808, the feelings of the people were excited to the highest pitch of enthusiasm. At this time, the Cabildo, or municipalty of Mexico, presented a petition to Iturrigaray the viceroy, to assemble a junta, or repre- sentatives of the province, for self-government. The vice- roy, however, hesitated, fearing the Spanish population, who A M r. R I (; A N II I s ■!• o n Y . 817 opposed the measure. Apprised of liis inf;linatir)n to gratify the |)er>ph!, the Spaniards seized the viceroy, and dehvered him over to the prison of the Inquisition. The conspirators were principally Spanish merchants in Mexico, and were secretly favored in their desii^ns hy the court of the Audi- ciencia, the hi^diest judicial trihunal of Mexico. The European Spaniards, both in the capital and in the interior, now formed patriotic associations for the defence of what they termed their rii,'hts, and armed themselves against the Creoles, who Imd favored the project of assem- bling the junta. The latter, though hy far the most numerous, were unused to arms, and submitted for the moment; but their spirit was aroused, and it became an absorbing ques- tion whether themselves or the small clique of Eui'opeans should possess the right of administering the government during the captivity of their king. A general impatience to shake off the yoke of foreign domination, began to seize the minds of all. There was wanting only a leader to make the occasion and to strike the blow. Commencement of the Revolution. — The person was soon found, in Don Miguel Hidalgo Castiila, a clergyman, dis- tinguished for his talents, learning, and liberality of senti- ment. Perceiving the general disaffection of the people, and the prevailing animosities against the Spaniards, as also having private motives of discontent, Hidalgo con- ceived the i)lan of a general insurrection for the subversion of the colonial government. Allende, a friend of Hidalgo, was the first to raise the standard of revolt in the little town of Dolores, on the IGth of Sej)teml)er, 1810, where he seized and im[)risoned seven Europeans, whose property he distributed among his fol- lowers. The Indians, under Hidalgo, now flew to arms; and being reinforced by disaffected troops belonging to the government, Hidalgo marched to Guanaxuato, a wealthy town of eighty thousand inhabitants, of which, after a stren- uous contest, he received the submission. This was an 52 818 GREAT EVENTS OF acquisition of signal importance, as lie found in the treasury an amount of five millions of silver. From this period, the insurrection spread rapidly, not- withstanding the efforts of Venegas, the new^ viceroy, to allay it. Many towns declared in favor of Hidalgo, who proceeded from Guanaxuato to Valladolid, where he was joyfully received as a deliverer. His pecuniary resources were increased by the donation of one million two hundred thousand dollars from the public authorities. His next step was to march towards the capital. He had made a great acquisition in having Morelos, a warlike priest, and highly celebrated in the revolution, come to his aid. Mexico was, at this time, in a highly critical condition — the prevailing disaffection had reached it, and was producing its fruits of weakness and division. The forces collected for its defence were wholly inadequate to the object. In this juncture of affairs, Hidalgo might doubtless have seized on the capital; indeed, many were anxiously awaiting his approach, as its deliverer. After an anxious night, great was the surprise the next morning, on the part of the peo- ple, when they saw the assailants retiring. The cause of Hidalgo's strange retrograde movement has never been satisfactorily ascertained. From this period, sad reverses awaited him. When he had arrived at Aculco, on his retreat, he was attacked, on the 7th of November, by Calleja, who, with the main part of the Spanish army, had previously reached the capital. Of the royal troops, six thousand were disciplined veterans, and their imposing appearance alone was sufficient to frighten Hidalgo's Indians. These fled at the first fire; the regular troops being thus left unsupported, were unable long to stand the attack. Pursued by the royalists with great fury, the slaughter became immense; ten thousand of the independents, in the official report of Calleja, were said to have been killed, wounded, and taken prisoners. Hidalgo, having retreated to Guanaxuato, was, on the 29th of November, attacked again by Calleja, and driven from AMERICAN HISTORY. 819 his position, with the loss of twenty-five pieces of cannon and several valuable officers. "Hidalgo retreated to Valladolid, where he caused eighty Europeans to be beheaded, and proceeded thence to Gua- dalaxara; he made another triumphal entrance into that city, on the 24th of November. Here he committed another act of cold-blooded massacre, which has left a foul blot on his name. All the Europeans having been thrown into prison, Hidalgo determined to destroy them. Without trial or previous examination, they were taken out in small parties, and conducted under the veil of night to retired parts of the neighboring mountains, where between seven and eight hundred were butchered in secret. This remorse- less act of barbarity, besides being wholly unjustifiable by the rules of war, was impolitic in the extreme. It pre- vented many respectable Creoles from joining the insur- gents; and as it drove the Spaniards to despair, it furnished them at the same time with an excuse for any atrocities which they chose to commit." Hidalgo continued to retreat towards Saltillo. By this time, his forces were reduced to about four thousand men; and arriving at Saltillo, a distance of nearly five hundred miles from the Mexican capital, he left the army, and with several officers sought the frontiers of the United States, with the intention of purchasing arms and military stores. He was destined, however, to be the victim of treachery. One of his subordinates in office had the baseness to arrest him, for the purpose of securing a pardon for himself. The leader, Unsuspicious of danger when attacked, was easily overcome and taken. It was on the 21st of March, 1811, that Hidalgo and his followers were made prisoners. Many of them were executed on the field of action the next day. Hidalgo and a few others were not put to death until the 27th of July following. Continuation of the War br/ the Patriot Chiefs. — The revolution had evidently taken deep hold on the minds of 820 GREAT EVENTS OF the people. The fate of Hidalgo did not dispirit the chiefs of the patriot cause. The prominent of these, Rayon, a lawyer, Villagran, and Moreios, a priest, now assumed the responsibihty of directing the storm. The principal of these was Moreios, and to an account of his movements we confine ourselves. From small beginnings Moreios possessed, at length, an efficient army, and was obeyed throughout nearly the entire southern coast of Mexico. On taking the field, town after town was taken, and victory succeeded to victory. His course, moreover, was marked by the humane treatment of his prisoners in every instance. Moreios had now great reason to hope for success in his noble enterprise, while the inhabitants were ready to aid him in every possible way. In this state, it was deemed necessary to oppose to him the greatest captain of the governmental forces, and Calleja was summoned to defend the capital. Calleja, soon after his arrival at Mexico, attacked the army of Moreios at Quantla; but after a severe action, he was repulsed, and obliged to retreat, leaving five hundred dead on the field of battle. But what he could not eflfect by storm, he now attempted to accomplish by siege. For seventy-five days he continued to besiege Moreios, who was determined, if possible, to hold out; but all hopes of obtaining provisions being, at length, extinguished, Moreios resolved to evacuate the place, which he effected on the night of the 2d of May, 1811. Most of the inhabitants marched out with the. army. When Calleja discovered the movement, he commenced a spirited attack upon them, and four thousand of the patriots were slain. It was during the events attending the siege of Quantla, that Victoria and Bravo, both young men, began to distinguish themselves in the cause of independence. Guerrero likewise, in the suc- cessful defence of a neighboring town, began his long and perilous career. Following the affair at Quantla, Moreios engaged in numerous encounters with divisions of the enemy, and, for AMERICAN HISTORY. 821 a time, was victorious; but he was at length taken, and doomed to execution. Just prior to his death, he uttered the following simple, but affecting prayer: 'Lord, if I have done well, thou knowest it; if ill, to thy infinite mercy I commend my soul.' He then bound a handkerchief over his eyes, gave the signal to the soldiers to fire, and met death with as much composure as he had ever shown when facing it on the field of battle." Decline of the Revolution. — After the death of Morelos, no leader was found whose influence was sufficient to com- bine the efforts of the insurgents, and secure harmony among the chiefs. The cause of the revolution, therefore, declined apace. Teran, Guerrero, Rayon, Torres, Bravo, and Victoria, commanding in different parts of the country, were mostly, in the course of two or three years, overcome, and taken prisoners. The story of Victoria is one of uncommon interest. The province of Vera Cruz was the field of his operations, and it was not until after a struggle of two years, that this formidable insurgent chief was dis- armed of his power to harass the viceroy, Apadoca. He lost many of his followers in battle, others deserted him, and he was left, in the end, literally alone. No threats and no promises of preferment could induce him to offer his submission to the government. Unattended by a single friend, he sought the solitude and security of the mountains, and was lost for several years to his country. Invasion of Mexico by Mina. — In the year 1817, when most of the insurgent forces were dispersed, an enterprise of singular boldness was attempted in Mexico, by a for- eigner named Don Xavier Mina. His more specific object was to establish the independence of Mexico on a consti- tutional basis, without an entire severance of the country from Spain. Mina was a nephew of the celebrated gen- eral of that name, who so long resisted the French and Spanish royalists in his native country. In May, 1816, 822 GREAT EVENTS OF he sailed fi'om Liverpool with a small expedition, having a few thousand stand of arms, and also equipages for a body of infantry and cavalry, and arrived in the United States in June. Here he procured the service of several officers, an addition of muskets, and some pecuniary aid from Balti- more and New Orleans. Sailing for the Gulf of Mexico, he did not reach Galveston until November, where he was joined by Aury, the commander of the privateers in that quarter, and by some of the inhabitants; but as it was too late for operations, he passed the winter in Galveston. Early in the following spring, Mina entered upon the prosecution of his design. But the time chosen by him was unpropitious. The revolutionary cause had fallen to a low point. Mina failed, was taken, and shot. The power of the insurgents was broken, and most of their eminent men were either killed in battle, or shot as traitors, or impris- oned. But the principles of independence were daily gain- ing ground in the country at large, and the spirit of the revolutionists, though checked for a time, was not subdued, as was proved by subsequent events in Mexican history. Revolution under Iturhide. — The unfortunate termination of the expedition under Mina, was by no means a termina- tion of the difficulties in which Mexico had long been involved. The next person who largely figured in her affairs was Augustin Iturbide, who had risen, in 1816, by his valor and capacity, to the command of what was called the northern army. In 1820, the cortes having ordered the sale of the church property, the viceroy, Apadoca, refused to acknowledge the cortes; he employed Iturbide to reduce Guerrero, one of the patriot chiefs; but, instead of this, he formed a junction with that chief, and on Febru- ary 24th, 1821, he proclaimed the independence of his country. Soon after, he took possession of the capital, and, in 1822, May 18th, he usurped the crown, through the sub- serviency of his troops. He was proclaimed emperor, under the name of Augustin the First. AMERICAN HISTORY. 823 The next morning congress was convened in extraordi- nary session. His election to the imperial dignity was proposed and discussed in his presence, and was voted for by a few more than one-half the whole body of delegates. Meanwhile, the friends of liberal institutions, overawed by the power of the usurper, fled to their wonted retreats, until a fitting season should arrive for acting with union and effi- ciency. The acts of oppression of Iturbide, from this time, continued to increase. He ordered the dissolution of con- gress, had recourse to forced loans, with other usurpations. While affairs were in this posture, Santa Anna, who at this time was commanding at Vera Cruz, was suddenly dismissed. Surprised at treatment thus harsh, and as he deemed unjust, Santa Anna excited the garrison to revolt, for the purpose of dethroning Iturbide, and establishing a republican government. While these matters were in pro- gress, Victoria, who for some years had lived in obscurity, made his appearance, and was appointed commander-in- chief of the insurgents. In February, 1823, Echavarri, the commander of the imperialists, joined forces with Victoria and Santa Anna. Defection now became general among the officers of the army; in consequence of which, Iturbide was obliged to surrender his power. Hastily assembling at Mexico the dispersed members of congress, on the 19th of March, 1823, he tendered them his abdication of the crown. Con- gress allowed him a yearly pension of twenty-five thousand dollars, on condition of his leaving the Mexican territory for ever. On the 11th of May, he embarked for Leghorn. Adoption of the Federal Constitution. — A provisionary government was immediately established, and a triplicate executive appointed, consisting of Generals Victoria, Bravo, and Negrete. Measures were at once adopted for the con- vocation of a new congress, which, upon assembling, entered on the arduous plan of framing a constitution of government. This they did on the federative plan, and on the 2d of Feb- 824 GREAT EVENTS OF ruary, it was sworn to in the capital, amidst the rejoicings and acclamations of the people. The government soon went into operation, and Victoria was chosen president of the republic, and Bravo vice-president. Contrary to the decree of perpetual banishment against him, Iturbide returned to Mexico in disguise ; but, being discovered, he was shot. This took place on the 10th of July, 1824. Several disturbances had occurred, partly on his account, during his absence; but the republic was now relieved from one great source of disquietude. The general provisions of the new constitution, as to the distribution of the powers of government into their parts, were the same as those of the constitution of the United States; but they differed as to the right of trial by jury, which was omitted, and the Roman Catholic religion was alone to be tolerated in Mexico. Prosperity of the years 1825 and 1826. — The new gov- ernment was now acceptable to the Mexican people. The administration of Victoria was popular, and measures were maturing for cementing the union of states, and for consoli- dating the public liberty. Much was done, also, to stimulate the industry of the people. The prospect of public peace, order, and liberty in Mexico, was such as to attract thou- sands of emigrants from the United States and from Europe. Wealth, and comfort, and honors, were held out as a reward of virtue and enterprise. But the pleasant vision soon van- ished, and this ill-fated country was again the theatre of turmoil and contention. Election of a President in 1828. — Victoria's term now expiring, a new president was to be chosen; among the prominent candidates for which office were General Guer- rero, and Gomez Pedraza, then secretary of war. The canvass resulted in the choice of Pedraza; but the friends of Guerrero soon set up a claim in his favor, alleging that, in taking the votes, he was defeated solely by fraud. AMERICAN HISTORY. 825 At the session of the new congress in January, 1829, the house of representatives proclaimed Vincent Guerrero to be duly elected president, on the constitutional ground that he had the majority of the legal votes. General Bustamente, who had been supported by the partisans of Pedraza, was declared to be duly elected vice-president; and in organ- izing the new administration, Zavala, then governor of the state of Mexico, was appointed secretary of state, and General Santa Anna, secretary of war. Usurpation of Bustamente. — Soon after the declaration of congress in favor of the election of Guerrero, that body passed a resolution investing him with dictatorial powers, in anticipation of an invasion by Spain, to recover posses- sion of Mexico. The Spanish army of four thousand five hundred men, sent for that purpose, were defeated, and compelled to retire The continuance of his extraordinary power was now no longer necessary ; yet Guerrero contin- ued to exercise it, and in a manner and for purposes not contemplated. This brought upon him the censure of Bus- tamente and others, who saw in his measures a desire to perpetuate his dictatorship. Yet, on the 11th of December, Guerrero resigned his dictatorship into the hands of congress, and retired to his estate. Bustamente immediately assumed or usurped the presidency, pretending that he was actuated solely by a desire to restore the constitution, which had been violated in the elevation of Guerrdro to the presidency. The latter now fled to the mountains, but circumstances, in the spring of 1830, seeming to favor an attempt to regain his lost authority, he embarked in the enterprise, and the whole country was again in arms. He was, however, unsuccessful, and falling into the hands of his opponents, he was condemned as a traitor, and executed in February, 1831. Defence of the Federal Constitution. — The measures of Bustamente directly tended towards the establishment of a strong central government, as those of Guerrero had been in 826 GREAT EVENTS OF favor of a perpetual dictatorship. On the ground of Bus tamente's procedure in his government, Santa Anna, in 1832, placed himself at the head of the garrison of Vera Cruz, and, as a pretext for revolt, demanded a reorganization of the ministry. His declarations were in favor of the constitu- tion and the laws, and consequently rallied the friends of the federal system to his support. War soon began to rage, and it was not until nearly a year, that an accommo- dation was made, when it was agreed that Pedraza should be restored to the government. He was accordingly restored, and by means of his favorable notice of Santa Anna, now his friend, but formerly his enemy, he exerted such an influence, that the latter was elected his successor in 1833. Gomez Farias was chosen vice-president. The federal system was now apparently reestablished under the new administration. Proceedings of Santa Anna — a Central Republic Estab- lished. — From the first moment of Santa Anna's accession to the presidency, he was inflamed with a desire for dicta- torial power. He seized an opportunity to desert the federal republican party, and joined the centralist faction. By a military order, he dissolved the constitutional congress in May, 1834, and in January, 1835, he assembled a revo- lutionary and aristocratic congress, which deposed the vice- president Farias, and elected General Barragan, a leading centralist, in his place. About the same time, through the influence of Santa Anna, the constitution of 1824 was abol- ished by congress, as were also all the state constitutions and state authorities, and a central republic was established in its place. So violent a measure proved unacceptable to several of the states. Zacatecas submitted, and declared for centralism. "The torch of liberty was now extinguished in the republic, and military despotism fully established." No! it was not quite extinguished. One Mexican territoiy, Texas, with her by fifty thousand bold inhabitants, chiefly emigrants from the United States, was ready to resist the AMERICAN HISTORY. 827 dictates of a usurper and a despot. Santa Anna felt at once the importance of reducing Texas, and of defeating tiie Americans or driving them from the country. He made the attempt with an army of eight thousand men, but when he supposed that his object had been attained, he was suddenly attacked at San Jacinto, by General Houston, who routed his troops, and took him prisoner. This occurred on the 21st of April, 1836. After being a prisoner several months, he was permitted to return to Mexico, where, in the mean time, his authority as president had been super- seded, and where he passed several years in obscurity, on his own hacienda (farm). Attempts against the Central Government. — Two succes- sive attempts were made against the central government during the years 1837 and 1838, under Bustamente, who had been chosen president after his return from France. The first consisted of declarations in favor of federation, and of Gomez Farias for the presidency; but the disturb- 828 GREAT EVENTS OF ance was easily quelled. The other attempt was made by Mexia in 1838, who had once before raised the standard of rebellion against the central government. He was opposed by Santa Anna, who had issued from his retirement, and who hoped, by rendering some service to the government, to wipe off the disgrace which attached to his name. Mexia was unfortunate, and, being taken prisoner, was almost instantly shot. Santa Anna appeared again on the stage, in resisting an attack from an invading French expedition against the town of Vera Cruz. An insurrection commenced with the federalist party, in the month of July, 1840, headed by General Urrea and Gomez Farias, and, for a time, the prospect was favorable for another reform of the constitution. Revolution of 1841. — But revolutions were not at an end in Mexico. An insurrection broke out in the month of August, 1841, the result of which was, the bombardment of the capital, the downfall of Bustamente, and the conven- tion of Tacubaya. Santa Anna took a part in this revolution against the president, and being at the head of the army, he selected the junta, which, according to the "plan of Tacu- baya," was to choose the president of the republic. The junta repaid the distinction conferred upon them by select- ing him for that high office. The congress, however, which assembled in June, 1842, proving to be disagreeable to Santa Anna, he dissolved it by an authoritative act, and, convening an assembly of notables, they fixed on a new constitution. A New Constitution. — This was proclaimed on the 13th of June, 1843, and conferred almost all the power on the national executive. Santa Anna himself having been chosen that executive, the new government was organized by the assembling of congress in January, 1844. There was little agreement between that body and the dictator, as he might now be called, and hostility to his administration began to be expi-essed throughout the country. Measures were AMERICAN HISTORY. 829 accordingly taken for his overthrow, in which Paredes, who had commenced the revolution of 1841, bore a conspicuous part. At the head of a body of troops, he openly declared against the dictator, and soon carried with him several of the noi'thern provinces. Overthrow of Santa Anna's Government. — The people in the capital soon arose in arms; the military declared against the dictator, and on the reassembling of congress, General Herrera, the leader of the constitutional party, was appointed provisional president of the republic, and a new ministry was formed. This was an occasion of unbounded rejoicing throughout the country. Santa Anna, however, with the troops still under his command, attempted to regain his lost authority; but meeting with defeat and dis- appointment, he endeavored to escape, having first proposed to his opponents terms that were not accepted. This occurred in January, 1845. He was taken prisoner, and confined several months in the castle of Perote; after which, congress passed against him a decree of perpetual banish- ment from Mexico. In the mean time, the province of Texas having main- tained its independence during nine years, and having been acknowledged therein by the United States and several European powers, was, upon its own application, received into the confederacy of the former, and became a constituent part of the great American Union. This annexation became the occasion of the war between Mexico and the United States, of which an account is given in the history of the latter country. 830 GREAT EVENTS OF GUATEMALA GENERAL DESCRIPTION. Volcanoes. Ruins of Old Guatemala, destroyed by an Earthquake and Volcanic Eruption, and abandoned by the Inhabitants. Locality — Extent — Physical Character — Discovery and Conquest — Indepen- dence of the Country. Guatemala, or the "Republic of Central America," is the most southern point or portion of the North American con- tinent, exclusive of the isthmus. It has an area of one hundred and eighty-five thousand square miles. It is com- posed of five states, which are sub-divided into districts, and of the federal district, which contains the seat of government. The soil of the country is in general good, and exhibits the same variety as in Mexico, with similar productions. In portions of it, Guatemala is subject to tremendous con- AMERICAN HISTORY. 831 vulsions of nature. This is the case mostly in the moun- tainous regions, of which there is a lofty chain, traversing the country, and presenting a series of twenty-one volcanic summits in constant activity. Old Guatemala, the capital of the state of Guatemala, has been several times destroyed by earthquakes, as it lies between the volcanoes of Agua and Fuego. Discovery and Conquest. — Guatemala, like the other portions of the American continent in this quarter, was discovered by the Spaniards. It appears never to have formed a part of the empire of Mexico. At the arrival of the Spaniards, it contained many distinct kingdoms or prin- cipalities. The natives, called Quiches, lived in cities, and some ruins of their works are yet visible. The subjugation of Mexico by Cortez, struck terror into the inhabitants of Guatemala, and some of the chiefs sent embassies to the conqueror, offering to submit to him, and acknowledging themselves vassals of the Spanish king. Cortez dispatched Pedro de Alvarado, one of his officers who had been most active in the conquest of Mexico, to take possession of the country. Alvarado marched from Mexico in November, 1523, with three hundred Spaniards, and a large auxiliary force of Mexicans. He met, however, with strenuous opposition in his progress. The Indians were defeated in several engage- m'^^ts, and the Spaniards remained masters of the prov- inces in which these engagements took place. On entering the kingdom of Quiche, they met with a more serious resistance than they had received elsewhere. The invaders, nevertheless, ci\ ihe 14th of May, 1524, gained the victory in a great battle. Alvarado continued his march to the capital of the king of Kachiquel, who had sent his submis- sion to Cortez. This prince received the stranger with courtesy, and on the 29th of July, 1524, they laid the foundation of the ancient city of Guatemala. The con- quest of the remaining provinces followed soon after, 832 GREAT EVENTS OF although many savage wMs have remained to the present day very little explored or known by the conquerors. Alvarado marcning on Guatemala, Independence of the Country. — The people of Guatemala declared Guatemala independent on the 15th of September, 1821, and subsequently it was incorporated with Mexico; but on the fall of Iturbide, it disconnected itself from Mex- ico, and formed a separate independent republic on the 4th of July, 1843, under the title of the "Federation of Central America." The constitution of the republic is modeled on that of the United States. The president and vice-president are elected for four years. The senate is composed of two members from each of the states, and the house of repre- sentatives consists of deputies (one deputy for thirty thou- sand inhabitants) elected by the people. They have abolished slavery in this country, as well as in Mexico. No other religion than the Catholic is tolerated in Guatemala, that being the established faith. AMERICAN HISTORY. 833 SOUTH AMERICA. I. NEW GRENADA. Balboa discovering the Pacific Ocean. Extent and Physical Features — Revolution of 1811 — Formation of a Consti- tution — Liberation of Quito — The Crisis of 1828 — Separation of New Grenada, Venezuela, and Equator — State of the Government since the Separation. Extent and Physical Features. — New Grenada consti- tutes the north-west portion of the South American conti- nent, commencing with the isthmus, and extending down on the western coast nine hundred and eighty miles. It con- tains an area of three hundred and eighty thousand square miles. The country is traversed by several chains of the Andes, the basis of which consists of elevated plains or table- lands, which are many thousand feet above the level of the 53 834 GREAT EVENTS OF sea. The soil is extremely fertile, and produces in great richness and abundance the various fruits and vegetables of the tropical regions. The climate is hot and unhealthy in the low country on the coast, but on the table-lands is found a perpetual spring. Revolution of 1811. — Soon after the invasion of Spain by the French in 1808, a revolutionary spirit began to manifest itself in the Spanish colonies of South America; and in the course of a few years, all these colonies, one after another, declared themselves independent, and formed republican constitutions, most of which took that of the United States as a model, in a great measure. But the people were ill- prepared for fi*ee governments. Their character, education, and habits were little in accordance with republicanism. New Grenada declared itself an independent state in 1811, and after a long and severe struggle with the mother- country, expelled the Spaniards from its territory. The memorable victory of Carabobo, in 1821, completed the overthrow of the Spanish authority. In this battle, an army of six thousand royalists was nearly annihilated, only four hundred men saving themselves by taking shelter in Porto Cavello. The patriots were led on by Bolivar.* Previously to this period, viz: in 1819, a union was decreed of New Grenada and Venezuela into one republic, under the name of Columbia, the presidency of Quito having subse- quently succeeded to the confederacy. Formation of a Constitution. — On the 17th of July, 1821, a general congress met at Rosario de Cucuta, to form a constitution, which was completed and adopted on the 30th of August. The legislative power was vested in a senate of thirty-six members, and in a chamber of deputies * Simon Bolivar was a native of Caraccas, and belonged to one of the most respectable and wealthy families of that city. By a series of brilliant and arduous services, he established the liberty and independence of his native country, and procured the well-deserved title of The Liberator. AMERICAN HISTORY. 835 of ninety-four members, and Simon Bolivar was elected president, and Santander vice-president. Bolivar and San- tander w^ere both reelected for a second term, commencing on the 1st of January, 1827. Liberation of Quito. — In respect to the liberation of Quito, it appears that the destruction of the royal army, on the plains of Carabobo, enabled Bolivar to direct his whole attention to the expulsion of the Spaniards from the southern provinces. The presidency of Quito, afterwards formed into the republic of Equador, had, for many years, been united with New Grenada. The army of the South, under Sucre, was reinforced by the troops which could be spared from other situations, amounting to seven thousand men, and the president placed himself at its head. Both parties having at length concentrated their forces, the cam- paign and the fate of Quito were decided at the battle fought at Pinchincha, about the 1st of June, 1822. Boli- var's usual success still attended him, and the arms of the republic were again crowned with a most signal victory. The Crisis of 1828. — In 1828, the country was threat- ened with anarchy, and Bolivar took a decisive step — and daring as it was decisive — in dissolving the Columbian con- gress on the 27th of August of that year, and assuming absolute authority. To this movement he had been encour- aged by addresses from various municipal bodies, calling upon him to put an end to the public disorders, by taking upon himself that authority. He organized a new govern- ment to suit his own views, and soon began to feel the consequences of the bold measure he had adopted, in the conspiracies that were formed against him. The month of September did not pass without an attempt to assassinate him. His aid-de-camp was killed, but Bolivar's life was saved by the courage of his officers. Generals Padilla and Santander were charged with this plot, and by a special tribunal condemned to death. The former was executed, 836 GREAT EVENTS OF but the punishment of Santander was commuted for banish- ment. Several other individuals suffered death. The coun- try was more or less agitated by violent factions; many military leaders aspired to the supreme command, and Bolivar's efforts to prevent dissension incited insurrections. Many denounced him as a usurper and tyrant. Venezuela claimed her independence, and Bolivar, after endeavoring in vain to unite them, and create a spirit of harmony under his rule, resigned all his authority to the congress at Bogota, ill 1830. He retired to Carthagena in deep depression of spirits, on account of the calamities of his country. Separation of New Grenada, Venezuela, and Ecuador, or Equator. — On the 4th of May, 1830, Senor Joachim Mosquera was elected president, and General Domingo Caicedo, vice-president; but on the 4th of September, Mos- quera resigned, and Urdanata was appointed temporary president until the arrival of Bolivar, whose return to power was decreed by a meeting of soldiers and citizens; but Bolivar died at Carthagena, December 17th, the same year. Venezuela again joined Columbia for a short time; but in November, 1831, a new separation took place, and since that time the late republic of Columbia has been divided into three republics, viz: New Grenada, Venezuela, and Equator, whose constitutions are similar to that of Columbia. State of the Government since the Separation. — Since this period, there seems to have been a regularity in the appointment of the highest officers of the government. In 1832, General Santander was called to the presidency, whose term of office expired in 1836. The next term of four years was filled by Jos6 Ignacio de Marquez. Of late years — that is, for two successive terms — General Herran has been president of New Grenada. Don Thomas C. Mosquera was elected president of the republic in 1848. AMERICAN HISTORY. 837 II. VENEZUELA. Furst Discovery by the Spaniards — They approach the Village built upon poles. Name, Physical Features, &c. — Discovery — State of the Country under the Spanish Dominion — Termination of the Spanish Dominion — Condition since. Name, Physical Features, SfC. — This republic formerly known by the name of the Captain-generalship of Carac- cas, as has been seen, once formed a part of the republic of Columbia. When it was first brought to the knowledge of the Spaniards, they called the place where they landed Venezuela, from the common propensity to find a resem- blance between the objects they saw in America, and those that were familiar to them at home. An Indian village, built upon piles, was the object which suggested the name. Venezuela includes a portion of the great chain of the Andes and a vast plain, which constitutes the greater part of the surface. It is watered by the Orinoco, one of the largest rivers of the world, which empties into the Atlantic by about fifty mouths. The area of Venezuela measures four hundred and fifty thousand square miles. In respect 838 GREAT EVENTS OF to its soil, it has all the richness of the equatorial regions of the globe. Discovery. — The Spaniards, under Ojeda, first visited this country, in 14^. They made some attempts to settle at the Indian village before adverted to, which they observed built upon piles, in order to raise the huts above the stag- nant waters around. But their labors were, for the most part, abortive. The reduction of the country was brought about by soldiers of fortune, abounding in Germany in the sixteenth century, who, through an arrangement of the Emperor Charles V., were introduced into these wilds. These adventurers, neglecting the purpose for which they were placed there, which was to cultivate and improve the country, became impatient to amass riches, and wandered from district to district in search of mines. In this pursuit, they cruelly plundered the natives, and imposed on them intolerable tasks. In a few years, the desolated province hardly afforded them subsistence; and when they were removed by their employers, the Spaniards again took pos- session of the country, and soon renewed the horrors which it had already experienced. In consequence of these, and other 'ravages at a later period, the whole region lay waste for a long season. When new settlements were at length commenced, they advanced so slowly, that this part of the Spanish possessions remained comparatively unproductive, while the other American colonies were in a thriving state. State of the Country under the Spanish Dominion. — As in the other provinces held by Spain on this continent, the Spanish dominion continued in this until the early part of the nineteenth century. Venezuela was, however, agitated by the question of freedom and independence, perhaps, earlier than was the fact elsewhere in Spanish America. As early as in 1797, an attempt to raise the standard of independence was made in Venezuela, so keenly did the country feel the rapacity and oporessiou of the Spanish AMERICAN HISTORY. S39 government. Two natives of Caraccas were leaders in this revolt, which comprised a large number of people dis- tinguished for their talents, virtues, and wealth. The insurrection, which had for its object the securing of the heads of government, as hostages, till a treaty could be made with the court of Spain for a redress of grievances was fixed for the 14th of July, 1797; but was divulged by one of the conspirators on the evening previous. The consequence was, that most of the conspirators were arrested, and eventually put to death, but the leaders effected their escape. The discontents of the people continued, and General Miranda, in consequence of earnest entreaties expressed in letters from Venezuela, to put himself at the head of an expedition for revolutionizing the country, acceded to the proposal. Proceeding to the United States, he collected there a body of a few hundred adventurers. With this force he sailed from New York in 1806; but after arriving on the coast, he was repulsed by the Spanish gun-boats; and it was only after recruiting his forces at Trinidad, and aided under the convoy of a British sloop, that he again proceeded to the place of destination. He, however, effected nothing, as he found the people now luke-warm in the cause of revolt, and abandoned the project, with the loss of numbers of his men, who were taken and hanged. Termination of the Spanish Dominion. — The Spanish authority, however, over the province, was drawing to an end. The great revolution broke out in 1810. On the 19th of April, the captain-general of Caraccas was deposed, and delegates were chosen by the people to meet in a congress, for the purpose of forming a government for Venezuela. The congress published a declaration of independence on the 5th of July, 1811, and this example was followed by the other provinces, which were afterwards united, as has already been mentioned, in the republic of Columbia. In so succinct an account as the present, the details of 840 G K E A T E V E N T S OF the revolution cannot be given, nor would they be specially interesting or useful, from their want of general and perma- nent results. It needs only to be stated, that the patriots were generally successful till 1812, when they experienced the lerrible calamity of the loss of their city, Caraccas, by an earthquake; a circumstance which wrought upon the superstitious fears of the populace against the cause, and that Miranda, who had returned to this country, in despair capitulated, was taken a prisoner, and finally sent to Spain, where he died in a dungeon. From this period, through a series of years, the contest maintained a doubtful character; Bolivar defeating the royalists in several battles, and they in their turn defeating him. The struggle between the parties continued, until after the junction of New Grenada and Venezuela, in 1S19. The battle of Carabobo in 1820, as already related in the history of the former state, put the finishing stroke to the war in Venezuela. By the end of the year, the Spaniards were driven from every part of the two provinces, except Puerto Cabello and Quito. Condition since the Overthrow of the Spanish Power. — The promise of better times soon after the union of New Grenada and Venezuela, was realized but in part. The country continued disturbed for years. In the mean time, the republic of Columbia was formed, but, as already shown, it was not destined to continue: its remembrance, however, will always be connected with the heroic efforts of Bolivar. The government of the country was administered from 1831 to 1835, by General Jose Antonio Paez, the president, and 1835 to 1839, by Dr. Vargas, also the president. Since the last-named period, the government has been in the hands again of General Paez. From recent accounts, however, it 1 1 would seem that the country is in a disturbed state, a war 1 1 being carried on between Paez and Monagas — Paez repre- senting the constitutional party. Very lately, the latter i , obtained a decided victory over Monagas. 1 1 AMERICAN HISTORY 841 III. EQUATOR, OR ECUADOR. Name, Extent, Physical Character — Classes of the Inhabitants — Subversion of the Spanish Authority — Condition since the Spanish Rule. Name, Extent, SfC. — This country derives its name from its situation, it being intersected towards tlie north by the equator. It is one of the three republics before spoken of, formed from the territory which, before 1831, constituted the repubHc of Columbia, and it comprehends the ancient kingdom or presidency of Quito, and formerly constituted a part of the vice-royalty of New Grenada. It has an area of three hundred and twenty-five thousand square miles, and u population of six hundred and fifty thousand souls. The western part of Ecuador is traversed from north to south by a chain of the Andes, forming a double ridge of colossal summits; the valley between which, constitutes a table-land of about twenty-five miles in width, and from nine thousand to nine thousand five hundred feet in height. Throughout this elevated valley, a perpetual spring is enjoyed; while on the summits of the mountains the snows 842 GREAT EVENTS OF of winter are always seen; and in the low country, along the coast, the heat is excessive, and the climate is danger- ous to foreigners. The whole eastern portion of the state is traversed by the great River Annazon, which forms a part of the southern boundary of the republic. Classes of the Inhabitants. — A small proportion only of the inhabitants are whites, the Indians and mixed breeds composing the bulk of the population. The civilized part of the population is confined to the central valley and the western coast, the vast tracts of land to the east of the mountains being occupied by independent and hostile tribes of savages. The aborigines belonged to the Peru- vian family, and numerous remains of their architectural industry and skill are still visible. Subversion of the Spanish Authority. — Dissatisfaction with the authority of the central junta of Spain, and gener- ally the anxiety which was felt for the fate of the colonies, in case the French should prevail in the peninsula, led to the establishment of a junta in the province of Quito in August, 1809, and the Marquis Selva Allegre was chosen its president. The viceroy of New Grenada, Don Amar, determined to destroy the junta; "but, desirous of exhibiting an appear- ance of acting in conformity to the will of the people, he convened the principal inhabitants of Santa Fe de Bogota, for the purpose of consulting them on the subject, believing that they would not have independence sufficient to oppose his will. In this, however, he was disappointed. The assembly not only approved of the proceedings at Quito, but declared that a similar body ought to be formed in Santa Fe, for the security of the country, in case Spain should finally be conquered by the French. "The assembly, with the consent of the viceroy, was adjourned to meet again on the 11th of September, 1809, the first meeting being on the 7th. Still thinking to intimi- AMERICAN HISTORY. 843 date the members, the viceroy required that each one should give his vote in writing. When the assembly again met, they were surprised to see that the guards of the palace were doubled, and that great military preparations had been made, as if an enemy was approaching the city. But even this seasonable display of military force did not have the effect of overawing the assembly; its debates were bold and spirited; and the voting by written ballots, showing the opinions of the different members, tended to strengthen their firmness and resolution, so that the friends of the measure were rather increased than diminished. "This occasion first brought into notice several individ- uals, who afterwards became distinguished patriots; Camillo de Torres, Gutierrez, Father Padilla, and Moreno, were among the number. Being at length persuaded that he could not have the appearance of acting in conformity to public opinion, he took immediate steps to suppress the popular junta at Quito by an armed force; and the vice- roy of Peru having dispatched troops for the same object, the junta was obliged to yield to a power which it had no means of resisting. And although an assurance was given by the president of the audiencia of Quito, that no one should any way suffer on account of what had taken place; yet, in violation of this plighted faith, a large number of those who had belonged to, or supported the popular government, were arrested and imprisoned, and on the 2d of August, the following year, they were all massa- cred in prison, under pretence of revolt. The troops stationed in the city, after massacremg the prisoners, were suffered to plunder the inhabitants ; the scene of rapine and carnage was shocking, and involved the property of thousands, and the lives of more than three hundred per- sons, murdered in cold blood." From this period, a long struggle ensued — most of the incidents are common with those which have been narrated. The Spanish authority was not entirely overthrown, until the splendid victory of Pinchincha, in 1822; soon after 814 GREAT EVENTS OF which, Quito was united with Columbia. This union was dissolved in 1830, and Quito formed an independent state. Condition since the Spanish Rule. — One of the early presidents of the republic was Vincente Rocafuerte; more lately, the executive department has been filled by Juan Joseph Flores; according to the latest advices from Ecua- dor, there are symptoms of a revolution. Numerous accusations against the president have been brought for- ward. What events may grow out of it, time will decide. The instability of political affairs in that quarter of tlie world has long been remarked; nor perhaps will it soon cease to be a feature of the governments of South America. AMERICAN HISTORY. 845 IV. PERU. ^ 6 awfi sc .Manco Capac and liis Wife appearing ou the borders ot Lake Titiaca. Locality, Extent, and Physical Character — Condition at llie time of its Invasion by the Spaniards — Conquest by Pizarro — Condition of the Country after the Conquest — Insurrection — Revolutionary Movement — Declaration of Inde- pendence — Condition of the Country after the Expulsion of the Spaniards. Locality, Extent, SfC. — Peru lies south of Equator along the western shore of the continent, nearly central between the isthmus and the Straits of Magellan, having an area of five hundred thousand square miles, and a popu- lation of one million eight hundred thousand. The country is traversed by several chains of the Andes, from north to south, the principal chain lying nearly pai-allel to the coast. There exists a great variety as to the surface, soil, and climate of Peru, portions of the country being sterile, with no rains, and only dews; and others very fertile, abounding in impenetrable lorests of gigantic trees, and producing the rich fruits and vegetables of tropical regions. The traveler, according to his elevation, meets here with eternal snows or perpetual summer, or the most excessive and deadly heat. 846 GREAT EVENTS OF The gold and silver vv^ealth of Peru has a world-wide celebrity. The silver mines of Potosi are perhaps the richest known, unless the recent golden treasures of Cali- fornia shall be found to exceed them. Like the latter, the former were first made known by accident. An Indian, by the name of Hualpa, one day following some wild animals up the mountain, laid hold of a shrub or tree to aid his ascent; which, giving way, revealed a mass of silver ore, which lay so near the surface as to cling to the roots. For some time Hualpa kept his discovery a secret, but his rapid increase of wealth attracting the notice of a countryman, he revealed it to him. The friends, however, soon quar- reled; upon which, the secret was divulged. Hualpa discovers the Mine of Potosi. Condition at the time of its Invasion by the Spaniards. — "Peru was one of the two monarchies of America which, at the invasion of the Spaniards, had attained to a degree of refinement far above that savage state in which most of the American Indians lived. It was also remarkable from the contrast of the character of its civilization to that of the Mexicans. Instead of the fierce and lofty spirit, the bloody wars, the uncouth deities, and ferocious rites of the latter, the Peruvians were united in tranquil subjection to a mild superstition, which represented their Inca as the child AMERICAN HISTORY. 847 of the sun, to whom unreserved submission was due. However fable may have been mixed with the truth in the tale of Manco Capac and his wife Mama Ocollo— who, according to the traditions of the country, founded the' empire, first appearing among the people about the year 1100, claiming to be children of the sun— the story of the Manco Capac and his Wife first appearing to the Peruvians. greatness of the Peruvian empire has nothing fabulous. It comprehended not only the vast region now called Peru, but the territory of Quito or Ecuador, which is * covered with the monuments of the Incas. Order was established in this vast region; the land was carefully cultivated; the rivers were carefully employed in irri- gating the soil; mountains were formed into terraces to receive the canals constructed for this purpose, and walls were built to prevent the water from escaping; so that large tracts, which have now relapsed into deserts, were rendered productive." Conquest by Pizar7'o. — Francisco Pizarro, an uneducated Spaniard, is entitled to the renown, or the infamy, of bring- 848 GREAT EVENTS OF ing this rich country under the dominion of Spain, in the former part of the sixteenth century. The details are too numerous to be here given; but suffice it to say, that with two associates and about two hundred soldiers, he overran this splendid empire, and filled it with rapine and blood. The gentle and unsuspicious character of the natives ren- dered them an easy prey to the artifice, cupidity, and cruelty of these Spanish cut-throats, Pizarro's associates were Diego de Almagro, a soldier of fortune, and Fernando de Luques, a mercenary priest. Atahualpa, the Peruvian emperor, treated the strangers with great courtesy, and sent them several valuable presents — fruits, corn, emeralds, and vases of gold and silver. The sight of the gold and silver served to render the Spaniards more fierce, and prepare them for the cruel butcheries that followed. The following morning, Atahualpa, attended by fifteen thousand men, met Pizarro at a place previously Valverde addressing Atahualpa. appointed. He was borne on a throne of gold. As the procession approached Pizarro, a Dominican friar, by the name of Valverde, made a long address to the emperor, in which he endeavored to expound the Christian religion; AMERICAN HISTORY. 849 following which, he proposed to him a submission to the king of Spain, on the ground that the pope had made a present to him of Peru. To this, Atahualpa replied, that he was willing to be the friend of the king of Spain, but not his vassal. The pope he considered a very extraordinary personage to make a present of that which did not belong to him; and as to those whom the friar denominated Christians — "If," said he, "they worship a God who died upon a cross, I worship the Sun, who never dies." After further efforts at persuasion, Valverde became indignant, and called upon the Spaniards to vindicate their holy religion, and to wreak their just vengeance upon dogs who could thus trample upon the gospel. Upon this, a signal was given, and the work of butchery commenced in the emperor's own palace. Pizarro himself advanced towards Atahualpa, and took him prisoner, while all around the princes of the race of the Incas, the flower of the nobility, and other great men of the court, were indiscriminately put to the sword. The cruelties that were inflicted, from this time forward, upon this unoffending people, and the riches amassed by these rapacious adventurers, so abhorred of God and men, are scarcely capable of enumeration, were it the object of this succinct account to speak of particulars. While their prince, being a prisoner, was condemned on some frivolous pretext, and strangled at the stake, they were made to expi- ate, by their death, the crime of owning a rich and beautiful country. Their great city of Cuzco was entered by Pizarro, in 1534, and plundered of its immense wealth. Indeed, the thirst of blood and plunder was every where exhibited in the progress of the Spaniards through the country. Had the latter shown any degree of moderation and humanity, they would probably have made themselves masters of the empire without further bloodshed than this commencement of the fearful tragedy. A people, by constitution and training so mild and submissive, would have yielded to the yoke without much reluctance. But the infinite variety of .54 850 GREAT EVENTS OF their calamities stirred up the people to revenge, and they found agents to give it, for a time, a degree of effect. But the Spaniards persevered in their efforts to overthrow the country; large numbers poured into it from abroad, and all resistance finally ceased. Those of the natives who were most attached to their liberty, to their government, and to their religion, took refuge at a distance among inaccessible mountains. The greater part of them, however, submitted to their conquerors. Pizarro iii Cuzco. The fate of these robbers was, at length, as deplorable as that of the subjects of their rapacity and cruelty. By various causes irritated and enraged against each other, the leaders fought among themselves, and the most revolting scenes of revenge and hatred were- exhibited in the result. The original leaders of the enterprise were soon no more, and others followed in the same path of robbery, blood, and mutual jealousy and contention. These civil wars contin- AMERICAN HISTORY. 851 ued through a series of years. Fortunately for this part of the new world, the most seditious of the conquerors, and of those who followed in their steps, had perished in these wars. With their departure was connected a degree of tranquillity, and then only the Catholic kings might with truth style themselves the sovereigns of the Spaniards set- tled in Peru. Condition of the Country after the Conquest. — The native Peruvians, after their subjugation, quietly submitted to the Spanish yoke for more than two centuries. They felt keenly, in many instances, the wrongs inflicted on them, but they had no power of resistance against a disci- plined Eui'opean force. They were loaded with insupport- able burdens, yet it was useless to complain. The exactions of their conquerors were most unreasonable and cruel, and they passed their days in sorrow, groaning under the severest bondage. It would seem that all memory of their ancient independence, and the glories of the empire of Manco Capac, was lost from among them. Under their oppressions, their spirit and resolution appeared wholly to depart; but events proved that they were capable of being aroused — if by nothing better, at least by despair. Insurrection in the latter part of the Eighteenth Cen- tury. — The sufferings of the natives became so extreme, that they wanted nothing but a leader to induce them to rise upon their oppressors, and attempt the overthrow of the Spanish power. Such a leader was found in Tupac Amaru, a descendant, on the mother's side, from an Inca of that name. He was well fitted, in many respects, to head an insurrection, having a commanding figure and intrepidity of spirit. He animated his countrymen to many heroic deeds, and, in the course of the rebellion, several success- ful battles were fought, and many Spaniards killed in the encounters, and many massacred in the progress of the Indian arms; but these were, on the whole, unsuccessful; 852 GREAT EVENTS OF their irregularities were, perhaps, more than retaliated by the Spaniards. Amaru was captured in the course of the war, and drawn into pieces by wild horses, as the punish- ment of his attempt to free his countrymen from oppression. Several other leaders were likewise taken, and shared the same cruel fate. The principal leaders of the insurrection being no more, the great body of the Indian population quietly returned to vassalage, and bowed again under the galling yoke. Such was the issue of an attempt for freedom, which filled Peru with bloodshed and misery for the space of two years, and of a war, in which, it is asserted, one-third of the popula- tion of Peru perished by the hand of violence. It produced no permanent or important change in the condition of the Indians. They were rigidly prohibited the use of arms. The tribute pressed more heavily afterwards, and was more strictly levied, and that unfortunate people were treated more contemptuously, in revenge of their unsuc- cessful rebellion. Revolutionary Movements in the early part of the Present Century. — Previously to the French invasion pf Spain, and the confusion into which the mother-country was thrown by that event, and the consequent facilities and inducements which were furnished to the colonies in respect to their independence, an attempt had been made in Peru, having that object in view, as early as the year 1805. It was undertaken by Ubalde, an eminent jurist of Cuzco; but it proved to be a failure, and its author paid his life as the forfeiture of his rashness. In 1809, a popular movement took place, and provisional juntas were established at Quito and La Paz. This revo- lutionary design, however, was at once defeated by the viceroys of Peru, Buenos Ayres, and New Grenada, whose armies dissolved the juntas. After this second abortive attempt, Peru remained tranquil for ten years, while the neighboring provinces were engaged in the war of their AMERICAN HISTORY. 853 independence. At length, the people of Chili having defeated the Spanish army in the decisive battle of Maypu, in 1818, conceived the project of securing their independ- ence by expelling the Spaniards from Peru. A naval armament and a land army both were fitted out for this object; the one in 1819, and the other in 1820. The naval force was commanded by Lord Cochrane, an English adventurer, and the land force was commanded by General San Martin. Some obstacles were interposed to the immediate suc- cess of the undertaking; partly from negotiation, and partly from the insufficiency of the invading forces — the liberating army of San Martin being only about five thousand strong, and Cochrane being able only to blockade the Peruvian ports. The city of Lima appeared to be too powerful for an attack by the army of the general; but having, at length, resolved on the enterprise of advancing upon this' city, the pusillanimity of the viceroy made way for a success which force might not have achieved. The viceroy fled, to secure his personal safety, while a deputation of citizens invited San Martin to enter the city as a liberator. Declaration of Independence. — It was on the* 12th of July, 1821, that San Martin made his entry into Lima, where he was received with acclamations, and, on the 28lh, the independence of Peru was formally declared. San Martin took the title of Protector of Peru, with supreme power, both civil and military. A provisional government was organized, and measures were adopted to establish the affairs of the country on a permanent basis. But the new state of things was fluctuating. It was not until the 20th of September, 1822, that the first Peruvian congress con- vened. At this congress, an executive junta was appointed, of three persons, to administer the government. San Mar- tin declined the office of commander-in-chief of the Peru- vian armies, and returned to Chili. From this period, there was little promise of stability for 854 . GREAT EVENTS OF the new republic. Discontent and dissensions followed among the people, and every thing was thrown into confu- sion. It was not until the great liberator, Bolivar, had come among them, by invitation of a portion of the people, and after three sanguinary battles had with the royalist forces, that the Spanish power was prostrated in Peru. On the 10th of December, 1824, the Peruvian congress was again installed. Bolivar was then declared the political and military head of the republic, as he had been once before, and a gift of a million of dollars was tendered him for his services, which he saw fit to refuse. Lower Peru was thus liberated, and, as early as January, 1826, Upper Peru experienced the same deliverance, through the arms of the patriot General Sucre. Condition of the Country after the Expulsion of the Spaniards. — Bolivar's influence was great, and a consitu- tion of government was adopted, which harmonized with his views; but the people were still dissatisfied, and they seized an occasion, when Bolivar was absent in Columbia, of rising in insurrection, and effected a complete revolution in the beginning of the year 1827. A new form of gov- ernment was adopted, combining the properties of a federal and a central system, with a president, chosen for four years, a national congress, and a separate provisional government. The republic, however, did not become settled by this latter change; for the constitution of 1827, like that which preceded it, has proved to be too little congenial to the taste and capacities of the people. As late as 1835, four chiefs, in arms, were striving for the supremacy; and one year later, a spurious' president, General Salaverry, having been defeated in battle, was condemned to death by a court mar- tial, and shot, with his adherents, in the month of February, 1836. In 1837, Peru was placed under the protection of Santa Cruz, president of Bolivia. Both Chili and Buenos Ayres were at war with Peru, a few years since. AMERICAN HISTORY. 855 V. BOLIVIA. N BJJOWN SC Name, Extent, and Physical Character — Overthrow of the Spanish Power — Proclamation of Independence — Choice of Rulers under the New Consti- tution — Present Condition. Name, Extent, ^-c. — This country, originally called Upper Peru, and once forming a portion of the vice-royalty of Buenos Ayres, or La Plata, dates from the battle of Ayacucho, December 9th, 1828, in which the republicans, under Sucre, completely defeated the royalists. The name, Bolivia, given to it, was in compliment to Bolivar. The republic has a length of one thousand one hundred and forty-two miles, and an area of four hundred and ten thousand square miles. In its physical features, it is marked by several lofty peaks of the Andes. Some of them exceed twenty thousand feet in height. The inequality of the sur- face gives it a great variety as to temperature and climate. In the central portion of it, the soil has great agricultural capabilities. The mineral wealth of the country is very 856 GREAT EVENTS OF considerable — the famous mine of Potosi, which has here- tofore been particularly noticed, now belongs to Bolivia. Overthrow of the Spanish Power. — The provinces of Upper Peru having been wrested from the Spaniards, as above stated, Genera] Sucre soon cleared the country of the royalist forces. As he advanced into the territory, not only was he received with universal joy by the inhabitants, but the royal corps, in various places, spontaneously declared for the independence of the country. Sucre reached Potosi in April, 1825, where Olaneta, the Spanish general, made what resistance he was able, but was himself slain, and the royal troops in Upper Peru surrendered to the conquerors. Proclamation of Independence. — The upper territories being thus emancipated, a general congress of delegates was convened to decide on the political destiny of the intendencies; whether they would unite with Lower Peru, or the United Provinces, or form a separate and independ- ent nation. The latter was chosen; and, on the 6th of August, 1825, a solemn declaration of the independence of Upper Peru was published. The congress, which assem- bled at Chiquisaca, gave the new republic its name, and determined to call the capital Sucre, the name of the gen- eral whose exploits have so often been spoken of. Having solicited Bolivar to prepare a constitution, the congress dis- solved itself on the 6th of October. The constitution which was proposed by Bolivar, and adopted by the con- gress in 1826, vested the executive power in a president chosen for life, with the privilege of naming his successor, and the legislative power in three bodies: a senate, tribune, and censors. But this constitution was soon abolished. Choice of Rulers under the New Constitution. — Sucre, at the time of the adoption of the Bolivarian constitution, resigned his discretionary power, and was elected presi- dent; but he sent in his resignation to the congress which AMERICAN HISTORY. 857 assembled on the 3d of August, 1828, and returned to Columbia, and, in June, 1830, he was assassinated near Pasto. On the retirement of Sucre, General Velasco filled the office of president, till the meeting of the convention, on the 16th of December, This body displaced Velasco, and elected General Blanco president. A revolution soon followed, which resulted in the deposition and death of Blanco, January 1st, 1829. A temporary government was established, with Velasco at the head, till a new president could be elected, and Santa Cruz was chosen. Generals Velasco and Ballivian have since been elected presidents of the republic; the latter is still in office. Present Condition. — The most recent accounts represent Bolivia as being in a state of civil war. The antagonists of President Ballivian have proclaimed the constitution of 1839, and constituted a provisional government, backed by a powerful military organization. The revolution is headed by General Belza, minister of war, who has violated his oath of office, disgraced his country, and outraged consti- tion and laws, for the purpose of gaining the presidency. 858 GREAT EVENTS OF VI. CHILI. View of Valparaiso. Extent, Physical Features, Climate — Conquest by Almagro — Revolution in the beginning of the Present Century — Final Establishment of Independence — Subsequent Condition. Extent, Physical Features, Climate, ^c. — Chili, lying on the shore of the Pacific, fronn the twenty-fourth to the forty- fifth degrees of south latitude, its length being one thousand two hundred and sixty miles, and its breadth three hundred miles, possesses many natural advantages and attractions. The immense chain of the Andes traverses the country from north to south. In the vicinity of these mountains, earthquakes are common, and these seem to be the only drawbacks to the paradise which nature has formed in this part of the South American continent. Chili, it is believed, is blessed with the most salubrious and delightful climate on the globe. Though there are some sterile tracts, the soil, in general, is remarkably fertile, and the products are rich and varied. Medicinal, dyeing, and aromatic plants abound, and there AMERICAN HISTORY. 859 are several plants peculiar to the country. All kinds of metal abound in Chili. Gold, however, is the most copious, and in some districts there is scarcely a hill which does not contain it. Chili is supposed to be the only American state, formerly subject to Spain, whose commerce has been increased since the separation from the mother-country. Conquest by Almagro. — After the principal provinces of Peru were brought into subjection, the Spanish conquerors turned their attention to the conquest of Chili. In the early part of 1535, Almagro set out for Cuzco, in the prosecution of this enterprise, with a considerable force. From the nature of the route, he met with great difficulties, and lost many of his men; but he at length accomplished his design, and was received with tokens of submission on the part of Mr^Ks\.\j,v Almagro marching agamst Chili. the inhabitants. The natives, however, at length, recovering from their astonishment at the sight of so superior a race of men as the Spaniards, began to think of regaining their lib- erty. Hence, a war arose, which lasted ten years, in which, though the natives were sometimes successful, they were 860 GREAT EVENTS OF generally and in the end defeated. For a long course of years, the possession of the country by the Spaniards con- tinued to be disputed, and fatal hostilities occurred from time to time, as they attempted to extend their empire in Chili. Their object, however, was effected by degrees, as in all the other American colonies. Revolution in the beginning of the Present Century. — The occasion of the revolution in Chili, and its subsequent independence, was the same as in the other Spanish states in America, viz: the disturbances in Spain in consequence of the French invasion in 1809. The captain-general of the province was compelled to resign, and by the popular voice the Count de la Conquista was elevated to his place. The count immediately took measures for instituting a new gov- ernment. A general congress was determined on, and at length chosen, after some attempts made by the royalists at a counter-revolution. The congress, upon their organization, passed a decree, permitting all persons who were dissatisfied with the changes in the government, to leave the country with their effects, within six months. The children of slaves, born in future, were declared free, and many other acts were passed, with a view to reform the abuses of the ancient government. Discontent, however, with the new order of things, soon arose, and there was the usual amount of plots and counter- plots, menace and fighting, between the friends and the enemies of the changes in the govei'nment, which has con- stituted a principal feature of Spanish American history in modern times. After various military movements and inter- nal struggles, the revolutionary power was overthrown, and, in 1814, the Spanish authority was completely reestablished in Chili. Final Establishment of Independence. — This state of things continued for more than two years. But it was destined to pass away, after some severe fighting. The AMERICAN HISTORY. 861 government of Buenos Ay res dispatched an army, under San Martin, for the purpose of liberating Chili. After incredible exertions and fatigue, he crossed the lofty chain of the Andes, and arrived in Chili with very little loss. At Chacabuco, the royal troops were defeated, and put to the rout, on the 12th of February, 1817. At Santiago, the liberator v^^as received with acclamations by the inhabitants, and made supreme director. He, however, declined the office, and bestowed it upon O'Higgins, who had commanded a division of his army. Chili was delivere(^ by means of San Martin's successes, ending in the great victory of Maypu, April 5th, 1818, in which the whole Spanish army was destroyed, with the exception of their commander, Osorio, and a few horsemen. This victory set the seal on the independence of Chili, and the patriots were soon enabled to carry the war into the enemy's country by the invasion of Peru, as narrated in the history of the latter. Condition subsequently to the Establishment of Independ- ence. — The fact of securing her independence has given little repose to Chili. The outward forms of a republic have been preserved in her government, while parties have struggled for the ascendancy, and filled the country with turbulence. For several years, the southern frontiers were disturbed by the depredations of an outlaw, named Bena- vides, a Spaniard, who put himself at the head of the Arau- canian Indians, and desolated the country with fire and sword, and the commission of bloody atrocities unsurpassed in the history of savage warfare. His success, and the authority he had acquired over the Indians, induced him to think himself a powerful monarch, and he attempted to establish a navy. He captured several American and English vessels, which touched on the coasts of Chili for refreshments, and made himself master of a large amount of property, arms, and military stores. The Spaniards encouraged him in his piracies and murders, and furnished him with troops and artillery. But his bloody career was 862 GREAT EVENTS OF cut short by the Chilians, who dispatched an expedition against him in October, 1821. Arauco, his capital, was taken, his forces defeated, and Benavides compelled to flee. He was taken prisoner in February, 1822, tried and executed. In January, 1823, O'Higgins was compelled to resign, and was succeeded by Ramon Freire, as supreme director. In July, 1816, Freire resigned his office, and Admiral Man- uel Blanco was appointed in his place; but before the expiration of two months, he retired from office. In 1827, the form of the government was changed; but the public tranquillity has not been secured by the change. Of the two vice-presidents, who were chosen from 1827 to 1831, one was expelled and the other assassinated. Chili, for many years, has been agitated by the dissensions of two parties; the one desiring to establish a central government, and the other, a government like that of the United States. Chili, in connection with Buenos Ayres, within a few years, has been at war both with Peru and Bolivia. According to the latest accounts, some difficulty now exists between this country and Buenos Ayres; the hope is expressed that it may not issue in war. The too great readiness of the infant republics of South America to engage in contentions with one another, and to indulge in internal feuds, must be acknowledged to be a bad omen in respect to their preparation for the blessings of liberty and independence. =JJ AMERICAN HISTORY. 863 VII. BUENOS AYRES, OR PROVINCES OF LA PLATA. m\yi.i>](o)s-M^ii S)o Name, &c — rnhabitants, or Classes of People — Discovery and Settlement — First Insurrection against the Government of Spain — Progress and Changes of the New Government — Present Condition of tlie Government. Name, <^c. — This country received its name, at first, from the name of its great river La Plata. The river was so denominated from the fact that, among the spoils of a few^ Indians, inhumanly put to death, some ornaments of gold and silver had been found. In 1778, it was erected into a Spanish vice-royalty by the name of the vice-royalty of Rio de la Plata. On its declaration of independence, in 1816, it assumed the name of the United Provinces of La Plata, and, in 1826, that of the Argentine Republic; and it has, also, long been known by the name of Buenos Ayres, from the name of its chief city. Inhabitants, or Classes of People. — These are the same as are found in Chili, viz: European Spaniards, Creoles, 864 GREAT EVENTS OF Negroes, Indians, and the mixed races. The Chiqnintos are a numerous and civilized nation of independent Indians. There are also many other tribes. There is a striking sameness in the character of all the South American states. Among the Creoles, the strictest equality obtains. No white would do service for any one of his own nation. Education, perhaps, in all the classes, is rather neglected. Discovei-y and Settlement. — Sebastian Cabot, in the early part of the sixteenth century, sailed up the river, to which he gave the name of La Plata. In attempting to build a fortress in the country, or otherwise to commence a settle- ment, he met with so much opposition from the inhabitants, that, in 1530, he returned to Spain, in order to obtain recruits. The few men whom he left in the colony, were either massacred, or abandoned the country. Some more considerable forces, led by Mendoza, came and settled on the river in 1535, and laid the foundation of Buenos Ayres. Their condition, however, was precarious, whether there, or wherever else they located themselves in the country. They were in danger of being cut off, either by famine or Indian hostilities. Buenos Ayres was at length abandoned, and settlements made farther up the river. To propitiate the natives, they finally resorted to the policy of marrying their women. From a union of this kind, sprung the race of Mestizoes, which, in the course of time, became so common in South America. Buenos Ayres was rebuilt in 1580, and from that time some of the petty nations in that vicinity submitted to the Spanish yoke. A degree of civil- ization and order was effected among this savage people, by the Jesuits, through a long course of years. First Insurrection against the Government of Spain. — The desire of throwing off the government of the mother- country was manifested at an early period among the inhabitants of the city of Buenos Ayres. The develop- ment of this feeling was somewhat earlier there, than in AMERICAN HISTORY. 865 Other parts of Spanish America. It owed its origin to the war which existed between Spain and Great Britain, in 1806. As the consequence of this war, the province of La Plata was neglected, and thus presented a strong tempta- tion for invasion on the part of the British. That which might have been attempted at some subsequent period by- public authority, was commenced by private aggressions, or certainly without orders from the government. A fleet and army, under Commodore Topham and General Beres- ford, after effecting the conquest of the Cape of Good Hope, proceeded to Buenos Ayres, on the 8th of June, 1806, and, after a slight resistance, took possession of the place on the 28th of June. The Spaniards, however, under Liniers, a French officer, collecting a large force in the country, retook it within sixteen days, with a good deal of loss to the British. The latter having received reinforce- ments, made two several attempts to recover possession of the city, but failed in both. In the embarrassments occasioned by Napoleon's invasion of Spain, parties sprang up in Buenos Ayres, some support- ing Liniers, who had been appointed viceroy of the province, and others the Spanish authority. The latter appeared, for a time, to be the prevailing power; but the ebulition of royalty which had proclaimed Ferdinand, was of short duration. The Spanish Americans began to feel that they had power in their hands, as was manifested in their defeat of the British. Their discontents increased at the tyranny exercised over them. Commotion followed com- motion, till in May, 1810, the viceroy, Cisneros, finding his embarrassments and perplexities greatly increased by the disasters of the Spaniards at home, was compelled to announce his inability to manage the government. By the request of the municipality of the city, he called a congress, which established a provisional junta for the government of the country. The 25th of May, the date of this govern- ment, has ever since been observed as the anniversary of independence in Buenos Ayres. 55 866 GREAT EVENTS OF Progress and Changes of the New Government. — On the part of Spain, attempts were made to recover her lost power, and the difficulties and dissensions, so universally experienced by the American colonies on such occasions, were felt in a considerable degree in Buenos Ayres. In 1811, a congress assembled in the city of Buenos Ayres, and placed the executive power in the hands of a triumvi- rate. In 1812, Posadas was appointed supreme director of the republic, with a council of seven. In 1816, a congress assembled at Tucuman, declared the countries on the La Plata independent, and named Pueyredon director; having transferred its sessions to Buenos Ayres, it assumed the title of the United Provinces of South America. In 1819, a congress assembled at Buenos Ayres, formed a constitution, modeled on that of the United States, and Rondeau was elected supreme director, and Rivadavia was placed at the head of foreign affairs. For some time, the principal functions of the government were discharged by a constituent congress, the executive power being intrusted to the provincial government of Buenos Ayres. In February, 1826, Rivadavia was elected president. The republic became involved in war with Brazil, on account of Banda Oriental, which was first added to Brazil, and afterwards declared (August, 1828) independent. Riva- davia having resigned, the congress was dissolved, each of the provinces became again independent, and Dorego was chosen governor of the province of Buenos Ayres. Gen- eral Lavalle, at the head of the Unitarios, caused Dorego to be shot, and himself to be proclaimed president, Decem- ber 1st, 1828. A bloody civil war ensued, and in August, 1829, Lavalle was compelled to resign, and his successor was General Juan Jose Viamont, who was succeeded, December 8th, 1829, by General Juan Manuel de Rosas, who was declared dictator August 9th, 1830; but before the end of the year, General Queroga made himself dicta- tor or governor. In 1835, De Rosas was made governor of Buenos Ayres for five years; and; in addition to his AMERICAN HISTOKY. 867 Other duties, he was charged with the foreign relations of the Argentine Republic* As early as the year 1822, the independence of the United Provinces of La Plata was acknowledged by the congress of the United States, and a treaty of commerce was concluded with Great Britain in 1825. Domestic troubles, however, were again renewed, the union of the provinces was dissolved, and separate governments were established. But the difficulties did not soon come to a close, as two fiercely-contending parties, of opposite views respecting the forms of government, created no small amount of turbulence and misrule. On December 29th, 1839, a battle was fought at Cagan- cha, between General Echagne, governor of the Buenos Ayrean province of Entre Rios, and General Fructuoso Rivera, president of the Oriental Republic of Uruguay. The former had an army of five thousand men, and was defeated with a loss stated at eight hundred killed, and a considerable number of prisoners, together with the loss of their baggage and horses. The loss of General Rivera, in killed and wounded, was stated at about two hundred. Present Condition of the Government. — The govei'nment of this country, for many years past, has been in the hands of Don Juan M. de Rosas. According to the latest advices, Rosas is in trouble with the new British minister, Mr. Southern. It is stated that the former refused to receive Mr. Southern, unless he was authorized to treat with Rosas on the basis laid down by Mr. Hood, the first special minister that was sent out by England. Mr. Southern refuses to submit to that condition, and thus the affair remains at present. * American Almanac for 1849. 868 GREAT EVENTS OF VIII. ORIENTAL REPUBLIC, OR URUGUAY. Locality-, Extent, &c. — Name and History — The Constitution. Locality, Extent, SfC. — This country lies north of the Rio de la Plata, east of the river Uruguay, and south of Brazil. It has an area of eighty thousand miles. Monte Video is the capital of the repuhlic, and is a town of some importance. Uruguay comprises nine departments. Name and History. — This country constituted a part of the vice-royalty, afterwards the republic of La Plata, and was known by the name of Banda Oriental (Eastern Fron- tier, from its geographical position). After the declaration of the independence of the United Provinces, it became the subject of an obstinate war between the new republic and the empire of Brazil. Elio, who was appointed by the regency of Spain cap- tain-general of the province of Rio de la Plata, in that capacity, also, governed the province of Monte Video, or AMERICAN HISTORY. 860 the Banda Oriental. He was now the most dangerous and powerful enemy with which the government of Buenos Ayres were at war. That government having received an ally, by the desertion of Artigas, a captain in the royal ser- vice, employed him, in conjunction with General Rondeau, in an expedition against Banda Oriental. In May, 1811, they obtained a signal victory at Las Piedras over the roy- alists, and laid siege to Monte Video. In this extremity, Elio, finding himself unable to hold out long without assist- ance, applied to the Portuguese of Brazil, who sent him an army of four thousand men, and a subsidy of moneys. Before any important operations could be engaged in, how- ever, a treaty was concluded between Monte Video and Buenos Ayres, in November, 1811, by virtue of which the siege of Monte Video was to be raised, and the Portuguese forces were to return home. In pursuance of the treaty, the siege was raised, but the Portuguese proved faithless, and began to ravage the territory of La Plata. Danger now encompassed the Buenos Ayreans, not only from the Portuguese, but from the royalists of Peru. They, however, induced the latter to withdraw their troops, and the royalists they defeated in battle; but nothing could restore quiet to the country, and hostilities were again com- menced with Monte Video. The war was carried on with various success, and what, with this calamity and rival fac- tions which infested the city, little tranquillity was enjoyed, till articles of agreement between the Brazilians and Buenos Ayreans were signed at Rio Janeiro, August 27, 1828. Then was effected the independence of the country, which took the title of the Republic of Monte Video, so named from its capital, but it has since assumed the title of the Oriental Republic of Uruguay. A constitution was adopted in 1830, according to which the legislative power is vested in two bodies; a senate of nine members, and a house of representatives of twenty- nine members, and the code Napoleon was established as the law of the country. 870 GREAT EVENTS OF IX. BRAZIL. Tropiciil Vegetation — Aiiiiimls, ' second year ; and if vacancies happen, by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the legislature of any state, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inliabitant of that state for which he shall be chosen. The Vice-President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. The Senate shall chuse Iheir other officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside : and no person shall be convicted without the concurreiice of two-thirds of the members present. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from office, and disqual- ification to hold and enjoy any office of honour, trust or profit under the United States : but the party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment and punishment, according to law. Section 4. The times, places and manner of holding elections for senators and representatives, shall be prescribed in each state by the legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by law make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of chusing senators. The Congress shall assemble at least or.ce in every year, and such meeting shaU be on the first Mondav in December, unless they shall by law appoint a different day. Section 5 Each House shall be the judge of the elections, returns and qualifications of its own memheis, and a majority of each shall constitute a quonim to do business ; but a smaller number may adinurn from day to d.nv, and may be aii*hnrizcd to compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner and under such penalties as each House may provide. Each House may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its members for disorderly behaviour, and, with the concurrence of two-thirds, expel a member. 892 CONSTITUTION. Each House shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment require secrecy ; and the yeas and nays of the members of eithet House on any question shall, at tlie desire of one-fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. Neither House, duniig the session of Congress, shall, without the consent of the other, adjovuna for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting. Section 6. The seuators and representatives shall receive a compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the Treasury of the United States. They shall in all cases, except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same ; and for any speech or debate in eitlier House, they shall not be questioned in any other place. No senator or representaUve shall, duruig the time for wliich he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United States, wluch shall have been created, or the emolumen's whereof shall have been increased during such time ; and no person holding any office under the United States, shall be a member of either House during his continuance in office. Section 7. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives ; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments as on other bills. Eveiy bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a law, be presented to the President of the United States ; if he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his objections to that House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on theu' journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration two- thirds of that House shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two-thirds of that House, it shall become a law. But m all such cases the votes of both Houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each house respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as if ho had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law. Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of adjoununent) shall be presented to the President of the United States ; and before the same shall take eSect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two-tliirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. Section 8. The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defence and general welfare of the United States ; but all duties, miposts and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States ; — To borrow money on the credit of the United States ; — To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several states, and with the Indian tribes ; — To estabhsh an uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States ; — To coin money, regiUate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures ; — To provide for the punishment ot counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States ; — To establish post offices and post roads ; — To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for hmited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries ; — To constitute tribunals inferior to the supreme court ; — To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the liigh seas, and offences against the law of nations ; — To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules con- cerning captures on land and water ; — To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years ; — To proviae and maintain a navy ; — To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces ; — To provide for caUing forth the mihtia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections and repel invasions ; — To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the states respectively, the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress ; — To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular states, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by the consent of the legislature of the state in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dock-yards, and other needful buildings ; — And to make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof Section 9. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the states now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the ConCTess prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceedine ten dollars for each person. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when m cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it. No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. No capitation, or other direct, tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the census or enumeration herein before directed to be taken. No tax or duty shall he laid on articles exported from any state. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one state over those of another : nor shall vessels bound to, or from, one state, be obligf-d to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. No money shall be drawnn from the Treasury, but in consequence of appropriations made by law ; and a regular statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of all pubUc money shall be pubhshed from time to time. CONSTITUTION. 893 No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States : and no person holding any office of profit or trust under them, shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state. Section 10. No state shall enter into any treaty, nUiance, or confederation ; grant letters of marque and reprisal ; coin money ; emit bills of credit ; make any tiling but gold and silver com a tender in payment of debts ; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law mipairiiig the obligation of con- tracts, or grant any title of nobihty. No state shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing it's inspection laws : and the net produce of all duties and imposts, laid by any state on imports or exports, shall be for the use of the Treasury of the United States ; and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and controul of the Congress. No state shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops, or ships of war in time of peace, enter mto any agreement or compact viith another state, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay. ARTICLE II — Section 1. The executive power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four years, and, together with the Vice-President, chosen for the same term, be elected as follows : Each state shall appoint in such manner as the legislature thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of senators and representatives to which the state may be entitled in the Congress : but no senator or representative, or person holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector. [A clmise oriffinally inserted in this place, relative to the election of President and Vice-President, has been superseded mid annulled by Article Twelve of the Amendments ; lohich see.'] The Congress may determine the tune of chusing the electors, and the day on which they shall give their votes ; which day shaU be the same throughout the United States. No person except a natural bom citizen, or a citizen of the United §tates, at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the office of President ; neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the United States. In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, resignation, or inabiUty to dis- charge the powers and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-President, and the Congress may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or inaliility, both of the Presi- dent and Vice-President, declaring what officer shall then act as President, and such officer shall act accordingly, until the disabibty be removed, or a President shall be elected. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services, a, compensation, which shall neither be encreased nor diminished during the period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that period any other emolument from the United States, or any of them. Before he enter on the execution of liis office, he shall take the following oath or affirmation : — "I do solenmly svv-ear (or affirm) that I will fiiithftiUy execute the office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States." Section 2. The President shall be commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several states, when called into the actual service of the United States ; he may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices, and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offences against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the senators present concur ; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other pubhc ministers and consuls, judges of the supreme court, and all other officers of the United States, whose appointments are not herein othei-wise provided for, and which shall be established by law : but the Congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments. The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions wliich shall expire at the end of their next session. Section 3. He shall from time to time give to the Consress information of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient ; he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and in case of disagreement between them, with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall tliink proper ; he shall receive amha-ssadors and other public ministers ; he shall take care that the laws be fiiitiifully executed, and shall commission all the officers of the United States. Section i. The President, Vice-President and all civil officers of the United States, shall be removed from office on imiieacbment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. ARTICLE m— Section 1. The judicial power of the United States, shall be vested m one supreme court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may fi-om time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services, a compensation, which shall not be duninished during their continuance in office. *f/ion 2. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, arising under this Consti- tution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority ; —to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls ;— to all cases of admindfy and maritime jurisdiction ;— to controversies to which the United Stntes sh.iU be a party ;— to controversies between two or more states; — between a state and citizens of another state; — between citizens of different states, between citizens of the same state claiming lands under grants of different states, and betvfeen a state, or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens or subjects. 894 CONSTITUTION. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and those in which a state shall l)e party, the supreme court shall have original jurisdiction. In iill the other cases before mentioned, the supreme court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions, and under such reRulutions as the Congress shall make. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of imneachment, shall be by jury ; and such trial shall be held in the state where the said crimes shall have been committed ; but when not cx)mmitted within any state, the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by law have directed. Section 3. Treason against the United States, shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason, unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court. The Congiuss shall have power to declare the punishment of treason, but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture except during the life of the person attainted. A KTICI.K IV. — Section 1 . Full faith and credit shall be given in each state to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other state. And the Congress may liy general laws prescribe the manner in which such acts, records and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. Section 2. The citizens of each state shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several states. A person charged in any state with trea.son, felony, or other crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another state, shall on demand of the executive authority of the state from wliioh he fled, be delivered up. to be removed to the state having jurisdiction of the crime. No person held to service or labour in one state, under the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labour, but shall be delivered \ip on claim of the party to whom such service or labour may be due. Section 3. New states may be admitted by the Congress into this Union ; but no new state shall be formed or erected within t he jurisdiction of any other state ; nor any state be formed by the junction of two or more states, or parts of states, without the consent of the legislatures of the states concerned as well as of the Congress. The Congress sliall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the teiTitoiy or other property belonging to the United Slates ; and nothing m this Constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United States, or of any particular state. Section 4. The United States shall guarantee to every state in this Union a republic-an form of government, and shall protect each of them against invasion ; and on apphcation of the legislature, or of the executive (when the legislature cannot be convened) ag.iinst domestic violence. A RTICLE v. — The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both Houses shall deem it necessary, shall pro- pose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the applical ion of the legislatures of two-thirds of the several slates, shall call a convention for proposing amendmeuls, which, in either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this Conslitutiou, when ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several states, or by convention in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the other m(xle of ratification may be pro- posed by the Congress ; Provided that no amendment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in I he ninth section of the firet article ; and that no state, vrithout its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage m the Senate. ARTICLE VI. — All debts contracted and engagemeiils entered into, before the adoption of this Con- stitution, shall be as vaUd against the United States under tliis Constitution, as under the Confederation. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof; and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authonty of the United States, shall be the supreme law of I he land ; and the judges in every state shiUl be bound thereby, any thing in the constitution or laws nf any state to the contrary not withstanding. The senators and represent al ives before nanitioned, and the members of the several state legislatures, and all executive and judicial nlTiicrs, bolb of the Tuitpd States and of the several state.s, shall be bound by oath or affinnation, to support this Constitutiou ; but no religious test shall ever bo required as a qualification to any ofllce or public trust under the United States. ,M\TICLE VII — The ratification of the Conventions of nine states, shall be sufficient for the estab- lishment of this Constitution between the slates so ratifying the some. Done in Convention by the unanimous consent of the states present the seventeenth day of September in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven and of the Independence of the United States of America the twelfth. In Witness wherei if we have hereunto subscribed our names, GEO WASHINGTON— Prcm<;« ami ileputy from Vinjinia. New Hampshire — John Langdon, Nicholas Gilman. Massachusetts — Nathaniel Gorham, Rufus Ifing. Connectiait — Wm. Saml. Johnson, Roger Shennan. New York — Alexander Hamilton. Neio Jersey — Wil : Livingston, David Brearley, Wm. Paterson, Jona. Dayton. Pennsylvania — B. Franklin, Thomas MitTlin, Roht Morris, Geo: Clymer, Tho: Fitzsimona Jared IngersoU, James Wilson, Gouv : Morris. Delaware — Geo : Read, Gunning Bedford, Jnn'r, John Dickinson, Richard Bassett, Jaco : Broom Maryland — James M'Henry, Don : of St. Thos. Jenifer, Daul. Carroll. Viririnia — John Blair, James Madison, Jr. North Carolina — Wm. Blouiit, h'leh'd Dobbs Spaight, Hu. Williamson. South CaroHnn — J. Kutledire, Charles Cotesworth I'inckney, Charles Pinckney, Pierce Butler, Georgia — William Few, Abr. Baldwin. Attest : WILLUM JACKSON, Secretary. CONSTITUTION. 895 ARTICLES IN ADDITION TO, AND AMENDMENT OF, The Constitution of the United States of America, PROrOSED BY CONGRESS, AND RATIFIED BY THE LEGISLATURES OF THE SEVERAL STATES, PURSUANT TO THE FIFTH ARTICLE OF THE ORIGINAL CONSTITUTION. (Article 1.) Congress shall make no law respecting an establisliment of relisinn, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or aliridgins: the freedom of speech, or of the press ; or the right of tlie people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances. (Article 2.) A well regulated mibtia, being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed. (Article 3.) No soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. (Article 4.) The riglit of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searclies and seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affinnation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or thuigs to be seized. (Article 5.) No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the mihtia, when in actual service in time of war or pubhc danger ; nor shall any pei-son be subject for the same otTence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or hnib ; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law ; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation. (Article 6.) In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the state and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusa- tion ; to be confronted with the witnesses ag-ainst liim ; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favour, and to have the assistance of counsel for his defence. (Article 7.) In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law. (Article 8.) Excessive bail shaU not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. • (Article 9 ) The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or di, larage others retained by the people. (Article 10.) The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people. Article 11. The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens of another state, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign state. Article 12. The electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the nmnber of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of tlie government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate ; — The President of the Senate shall, in presence of tlie Senate and House of Representa- tives, open all the certificates and the votes shall then be counted ; — The person having the greatest number of votes for President, shall he the President, if sucli number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no [lerson have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the Hou.se of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the Piesident. The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-President, iisuch number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the pinpnse shall consist o.. two-thirds of the whole number of .simators, and a majority of the whole number shall be nece.'sary to a choice. But no person constitutionally inehgible to the office of President shall bb eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. 896 CONSTITUTION. TTie following is prefixed to the first Ten* of the preceding Amendments . CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES, Begun and held at the City of New York, on Wednesday, the fourth of March, one thousand seven hundred and eighty-nine. The Conventions of a number of the states, having at the time of their adopting the Constitution, expressed a desire, m order to prevent misconstruction or abuse of its powers, that further declaratory and restrictive clauses should be added : And as extending the ground of pubUc confidence in the government, will best insure the beneficent ends of its institution ; Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America, in Congress assembled, two-thirds of both Houses concurring, That the following Articles be proposed to the legisla- tures of the several states, as amendments to the Constitution of the United States, all. or any of wliicli jrticles, when ratified by three-fourths of the said legislatvu-es. to be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of the said Constitution, viz. Articles in addition to, and Amendment of the Constitution of the United States of America, proposed by Congress, and ratified by the Legislatures of the several States, pursuant to the fifth article of the original Constitution. The first ten amendments of the Constitution were ratified by the states as follows, viz : By New Jersey, 20th November, 1789. By Pennsylvania, 10th March, 1790. By Maryland, 19th December, 1789. By New York, 27th March, 1790. By North Carohna, 22d December, 1789. By Rhode Island, 15th June, 1790. By South Carohna, 19th January, 1790. By Vennont, 3 November, 1791. By New Hampshire, 25th January', 1790. By Virginia. 15 December, 1791. By Delaware, 28th Januarj'. 1790 * Only ten of the twelve Articles of Amendment proposed by the first Congress, were ratified by the states j the first and second in order not Ijeing approved by the requisite number. These two were the following : Article the First. After the first enumeration required by the first Article of the Constitution, lliere shall be one representative for every thirty thousand, until tlie number shall amount to one hundred, after which, llie proportion shall lie so regulated by Congress, that there sliall not be less than one hundred representatives, nor less than one representative for every forty thousand persons, until the number of representatives sliall amount to two hundred, after which the proportion shall be so regulated by Congress, that there shall not be less than two hundred representatives, nor more than one representaltve for every fifty thousand persons. Article Second, No law, varying the compensation for the services of the senators and representatives, shall take effect, until an election of representatives shall have intervened. The following is prefixed to the Eleventh of the preceding Amendments : THIRD CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES : At the First Session, begun and held at the City of Pliiladelphia, in the State of Pennsylvania, on Monday the second of December, one tliousand seven hundred and ninety-three. Resolved by the Senate and House of Represaitatives of the United States of America, m Congress assembled, two-thirds of both Houses concurring. That the following Article be proposed to the legisla- tures of the several states, as an amenthnent to the (Constitution of the United States ; which when ratified by three-fourths of the said legislatures, shall be valid as ptirt of the said Constitution, viz : The following is prefixed to the Ticelfth of the preceding Amendments: EIGHTH CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES: At the First Session, begun and held at llie City of Washington, in the Territory of Columbia, on Monday the seventeenth of October, one thousand eight hundred and three. Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America, in Comrress assembled, two-thirds of both Houses concumng. That in heu of the tliird paragrapli of the first section of the second article of the Constitution of the United States, the following be proposed as an amendment to the Constitution of the United States, which, wlien ratified by three-fourths of tiie legislatures of the several states, shall be vahd to all intents and purposes, as ptirt of the said Constitution, to wit : The ten first of the preceding amendments were proposed at the first session of the first Congress of the United States, 25 September, 1789, and were finally ratified by the constitutional mmiber of sttites, on the 15th day of December, 1791. The eleventh amenthnent was proposed at the first session of the thirtl Congress, 5 March, 1794. and was declared in a message from the President of the United States to Doth houses of Congress, dated 8th Januaiy, 1793, to have been adopted by the constitutional number of states. The twelfth amendment was proposed at the first session of the eighth Congress, 12 Decem- ber, 1803, and was adopted bv the constitutional number of states in 1801, according to a public notice thereof by the Secretary of State, dated 25th September, of the same year. *** The foregning copy of the Constitution, Amendments, tf-c , ts printed from an edition which "has been critically compared with the original, and found to be correct in te.rt, letter and punctuation ;" and is so cm-lijicd by Jamas Buchanan, Secretary of State DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. When, in the course of human events, it becomes neces- sary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume, among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights ; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. That, to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriv- ing their just powers from the consent of the governed ; and that, whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or abolish it, and to institute new government, laying its foundations on such principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that governments, long established, should not be changed for light and transient causes ; and, accordingly, all expe- rience hath shown that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. 898 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. But, when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide new guards for their future security. Such has been the patient suf- ferance of the colonies, and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former systems of government. The history of the present king of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having, in direct object, the establishment of an abso- lute tyranny over these states. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world : He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary for the public good. He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immedi- ate and pressing importance unless suspended in their operations till his assent should be obtained; and, when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of representation in the legislature ; a right inestimable to them, and formidable to tyrants only. He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the repository of their public records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing, with manly firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected ; whereby the legislative pow- ers, incapable of annihilation, have returned to the people at large for their exercise ; the state remaining, in the mean time, exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within. He has endeavored to prevent the population of these states ; for that purpose obstructing the laws of naturaliza- tion of foreigners," refusing to pass others to encourage their migration thither, and raising the conditions of new appro- priations of lands. f JRD-232 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 899 He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refus- ing his assent to laws for estabhshing judiciary powers. He has made judges dependent on his will alone, for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of officers to harass our people, and eat out their substance. He has kept among us, in time of peace, standing armies, without the consent of our legislatures. He has affected to render the military independent of, and superior to, the civil power. * He has combined with others, to subject us to a jurisdic- tion foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his assent to their acts of pretended legislation. For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us : For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any murders which they should commit on the inhabi- tants of these states : For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world : For imposing taxes on us without our consent : For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefit of trial by jury : For transporting us beyond seas to be tried for pretended offences : For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring province, establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging its boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these colonies : For taking away our charters, abolishing our most val- uable laAvs, and altering, fundamentally, the forms of our governments : For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his protection, and waging war against us. 900 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the hves of our people. He is, at this time, transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to complete the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already begun, with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the head of a civilized nation. He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian savages, whose known rule of war- fare is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions. In every stage of these oppressions, we have petitioned for redress in the most humble terms. Our repeated peti- tions have been answered only by repeated injury. A prince, whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. Nor have we been wanting in attentions to our British brethren. We have warned them, from time to time, of the attempts, by their legislature, to extend an unwarrant- able jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them, by the ties of our common kindred, to disavow these usurpations, which would inevi- tably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They, too, have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consan- guinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity which denounces our separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, enemies in war, in peace, friends. We, therefore, the Representatives of the United States of America, in General Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the vv'orld for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name, and by the authority of the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish and declare DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 901 that these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be. free and independent States ; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connection between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved ; and that, as free and independent States, they have full power to levy war, con- clude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and to do all other acts and things which independent States may of right do. And, for the support of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. JOHN HANCOCK. New Hampshire. JOSIAH BARTLETT, WILLIAM WHIPPLE, MATTHEW THORNTON. Massachusetts Bay. SAMUEL ADAMS, JOHN ADAMS, ROBERT TREAT PAINE, ELBRIDGE GERRY. Rhode Island. STEPHEN HOPKINS, WILLIAM ELLERY. Connecticut. ROGER SHERMAN, SAMUEL HUNTINGTON, WILLIAM WILLIAMS, OLIVER WOLCOTT. Neiv Yorli. WILIJAM FLOYD, PHILIP LIVINGSTON, FRANCIS LEWIS, LEWIS MORRIS. New Jersey. RICHARD STOCKTON, JOHN WITHERSPOON, FRANCIS HOPKINSON, JOHN HART, ABRAHAM CLARK. Pennsylvania. ROBERT MORRIS, BENJAMIN RUSH, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, JOHN MORTON, GEORGE CLYMER, JAMES SMITH, GEORGE TAYLOR, JAMES WILSON, GEORGE ROSS. Delaware. CiESAR RODNEY, GEORGE READ, THOMAS M'KEAN. Maryland. SAMUEL CHASE, WILLIAM PACA, THOMAS STONE, CHARLES CARROLL, of Carro. ton. Virginia. GEORGE WYTHE, RICHARD HENRY LEE, THOMAS JEFFERSON, BENJAMIN HARRISON, THOMAS NELSON, Jr., FRANCIS LIGHTFOOT LEE, CARTER BRAXTON. North Carolina. WILLIAM HOOPER, JOSEPH HEWES, JOHN PENN. South Carolina. EDWARD RUTLEDGE, THOMAS HEYWARD, Jk., THOMAS LYNCH, Jr., ARTHUR MIDDLETON. Georgia. BUTTON GWINNETT, LYMAN HALL, GEORGE WALTON. l.tWr'20 :J» **»> i^ •1 CK J?-'* *' ^^%' \^K*" ^^^"^^ ''-^^*" ^^^-^^ \^ ir .' '^oV^ s^ » *bv^ ce»^ °^ *•-» A^ ^^ "^ ^ .. °^ *•>-• a9 AUGUSTINE ♦ A V> FLA. , 'i^ ' • . • VO- o « " " ^ ^