Class D ?, I 
 
 Book W3 G 
 
 Goipght]^" [^3^ 
 
 COEVRICHT DEPOSK 
 
izuNS. {Didcowred bjj Ihc Ar<jonaut><.) (i''. Sinm.) 
 
 (pp. 2.) 
 
HISTQRTor-mcWOKLD 
 
 From the Creation of Man 
 to the Present Day 
 
 «»■ 
 
 Dr. GEORGE WEBER -' 
 
 Of Heidelberg 
 
 Author of "History of the People of Israel," "History of German Literature,'' 
 " History of the Reformation," etc., etc. 
 
 INCLUDING A COMPREHENSIVE ^ 
 
 HISTORY OF AMERICA 
 
 r 
 
 CHAS. J. LITTLE, Ph. D., LL. D. 
 
 Formerly Professor of History in Syracuse University, now Professor of Historical Theology in 
 Garrett Biblical Institute. ^ ,„^_^ 
 
 AUG 1 1894 
 
 Profusely Illustrated with over yco engravings, from drawings by DeNeuville, Vierge AV-'<A^oni. 
 Phillopoteaux, Lix, Delort, and others. S - 
 
 P. W. ZIEGLER & CO. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA AND ST. LOUIS. 
 
 \ -. 
 
 A^^^ 
 

PREFACE. 
 
 Geokge Webee, the author of the great work herewith presented to the reader, 
 was born in the Bavarian Palatinate in 1808. The only son of a poor widow, his 
 youth was one of labor and privation. But, like the poet Goethe, he inherited from 
 his mother, the gift of story -telling. From her also he learned a courageous self- 
 reliance and a cheerful trust in God. His pastor encouraged him to study, so he pre- 
 pared himself for the gymnasium at Speyer, whither he started with two dollars in his 
 pocket, and his mother's blessing in his memory. Industry, a powerful constitution, 
 unusual mental power, and moral pith combined to help him work his way through 
 the school and to the University of Erlangen, where he studied for a year and acquired 
 the friendship of Anselm Feuesbach and Franz Schwerdt, the choicest spirits of the 
 faculty. Thence he went to Heidelberg, and became the favorite pupil of the celebrated 
 Hermann. The latter procured him a tutorship in a wealthy English family ; this 
 gave him opportunity to support his aged mother, complete his course at the Univer- 
 .sity, pursue his historical studies, and to travel through Switzerland, France, Italy and 
 the Mediterranean islands. After a brief career in his native town, Bergzabern, as 
 principal of the Latin school, he was called to Heidelberg, where he remained for half 
 a century. His new position in the famous University town, though difficult and 
 exacting, did not prevent his literary labors. In 1845 he published a " History of the 
 English Reformation," and in 1852 " Milton's Prose Writings," a work of careful lit- 
 erary history. In 1847 appeared "His Manual of Universal History " which has gone 
 through twenty editions and appeared in every language of civilized Europe. In 1880 
 his " Universal History " was published in fifteen volumes and received with unusual 
 favor. This latter was the matured expression of deep and careful investigations into 
 every branch of human history. Weber died in 1889 beloved and honored, by his 
 prince and his fellow-citizens, by his University and his pupils, by a great circle of 
 friends at home and abroad. 
 
 The present work is distinguished for its breadth, its accuracy, its fulness, its 
 conciseness, the skill with which its topics are arranged, the quiet ease and dignity 
 of the narrative, the deft introduction of anecdote and maxim, and the warmth 
 of noble feeling with which great men and great events are handled. It is con- 
 servative in tone, yet abounds in proofs of critical learning ; the author is not 
 an iconoclast, much less a destroj'er of well-grounded traditions ; nevertheless the 
 truth is the object of his search and of his reverence. He sketches a character by the 
 selection of essential facts in a man's career, by the reproduction of characteristic 
 phrases, and tell-tale phases of his speech and conduct. So too with an epoch. The 
 
 (3) 
 
4 PREFACE. 
 
 trivial and unfruitful details are discarded, so as to make room for the events that 
 have decided crises, and determined the fate of nations and the destiny of the world. 
 And all --this portraiture of men and narration of events is wrought into an effective 
 unity, in which the author's favorite aphorism "Z?ie Welt-GescJiichte ist das Welt-ge- 
 rioht " receives constant and startling illustration. "The course of human history is 
 God's judgment upon the deeds of men." So he thought and so he taught. 
 
 But every true man is a patriot ; and to the patriot his native land stands first. 
 Weber was a German. Accordingly his own country, especially in the recent years of 
 triumph and consolidation under the leadership of Prussia, somewhat obscured for him 
 his judgment of contemporary events. This was especially true in the case of the 
 United States. It was deemed best therefore, while presenting a free but accurate 
 translation of the latest German edition of the Universal History, to write an entirely 
 new history of the American Republic, and upon an entirely new plan. Instead of 
 beginning with the English colonies, the settlements of other Europeans are first de- 
 scribed ; so that the English may appear in their character as the makers of homes, and 
 the conquerors of a continent. Others preceded them and surpassed them in discovery ; 
 but they were chosen to shape the political institutions, the moral and the religious ideas 
 and habits of the future North American Union. In the following sections, the aim has 
 been to present, as vividly as possible, the story of the fight for independence, of the 
 formation of the " more perfect union," of the consolidation of the states, and of the 
 struggles tha't issued in the civil war. The author has refrained from comment, but he 
 has told the truth ; simply as he could, fully as his space would allow. Facts are the 
 stuff of history ; the rhetoric that dazzles the reader, blinds his judgment and keeps 
 alive his prejudice. The art of the genuine historian lies not in the skill with which 
 he presents and supports his view of the meaning of events, but in the genius with 
 which he separates opinion from realities and compels occurrences to justify or to con- 
 demn themselves. 
 
 C. J. L. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 FIRST BOOK. 
 
 HISTORY OF THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 INTRODIJCTION, Page 23. 
 1. Primeval man. 2. Early modes of life. 3. Eaily forms of government ; caste. 4. Early religions. 
 
 A. THE EASTERN RACES, Page 29. 
 
 1. The Asiatics. 2. The Chinese. 3. The Indians; their religion, literature, art. 4. Babylonians 
 and Assyrians; Nimrod, Semiramis, Salmanasser ; the Chaldeans in Babylon ; Nebuchadnezzar. 5. Egyp- 
 tians; division of Egypt ; religion and arts; history. 6. Phoenicians; navigation, commerce, discoveries; 
 history of Tyre and Sidon. 7. The people of Israel; the Patriarchs; Exodus; Moses as lawgiver; divi- 
 sion of the promised land; the Judges; Samuel and Saul; David; Solomon; division of the kingdom ; idol- 
 atry and the prophets; the Assyrian and Babylonian captivities. 8. Medes and Persians; Zoroaster's re- 
 ligion; Astyages and Cyrus ; Croesus of Lydia ; death of Cyrus ; Cambyses ; Ammonium; Darius; manners 
 and customs of the Persians. 
 
 B. THE GREEK WORLD, Page 75. 
 
 1. Geographical survey, a. The Greek mainland, b. The Greek islands. 2. The religion of the 
 Greeks. 
 
 I. Greece before the Persian "War, Page 81. 
 
 1. The time of the Trojan war; Pelasgi ; eastern immigration; Hellenic races; voyage of the Argo- 
 nauts; Trojan war; Homer; epic poetry; immigration of the Dorians; Codrus; colonies. 2. The period 
 of the wise men and lawgivers, a. Greeks and barbarians ; Amphictyonic council; Delphic oracle ; Olym- 
 pic games, b. Lycurgus the Spartan lawgiver; laws of Lycurgus. a. Institutions of state, b. Mode of 
 life; war with the Messeuians. c. Solon, the lawgiver of the Athenians; Draco; laws of Solon, d. The 
 tyrants; their origin; Periander of Corinth; Polycrates of Samos ; Pisistratus of Athens ; the seven wise 
 men ; Pythagoras, e. Lyric poetry. 
 
 II. The Flourishing Period of Greece, Page 100. 
 
 1. The Persian wars; insurrection of the Greeks of Asia Minor; battle of Marathon; Aristides and 
 Themistocles ; Thermopylae; Salamis; Platfea; Mycale ; EurymSdon. 2. The supremacy of Athens, and 
 the age of Pericles; Pausauias, the traitor; deaths of Themistocles and Aristides; Cimon ; Pericles. 3. 
 The Peloponnesian war (b. c. 431 — 404) ; origin of the war; the war to the peace of Nicias ; Alcibiades; 
 battle of Mantinfea; disasters of the Athenians in Sicily; death of Alcibiades; the fall of Athens; 
 the thirty tyrants. 4. Sophists; Socrates; Plato; Xenophon. 5 The retreat of the ten thousand 
 (b. c. 400). 6. The time of Agesilaus and Epaminondas ; the Corinthian war and the peace of Antalcidas ; 
 expedition against Olynthus and siege of Thebes; the Theban war and the battle of Leuetra; Epaminondas 
 in Peloponne-sus ; battle of Mantinsea. 7. The most flourishing period of Greece in literature and the arts; 
 dramatic poetry; JJschylus ; Sophocles; Euripides; Aristophanes; prose literature; Plato; Herodotus; 
 Thucydides ; Xenophon ; oratory ; Isocrates ; Demosthenes ; .^schines ; the fine arts of the Greeks. 
 
 III. The Macedonian Period, Page 12Y. 
 
 1. Philip of Macedon (b c. 361 — 336) ; character of Philip ; the sacred war ; battle of Chseronea ; 
 Philip's death. 2. Alexander the Great; fall of Thebes; Granicus; Issus; Tyre and Alexandria; Arbela 
 and Gaugemala; expedition into Bactria; march to India; last years of Alexander. 
 
 (5) 
 
6 CONTENTS. 
 
 IV. The Alexandrian Period, Page 141. 
 
 a. Alexauder's successors, i. Greece's last struggle; the Achaian league; Athens; Phocion ; Demos- 
 thenes; Demetrius; Sparta and the Achaian league, c. The Ptolemies and the Seleueidse. d. The Jews 
 under the Maccabees, e. State of civilization during the Alexandrian period ; Theocritus ; Stoics and Epi- 
 cureans. 
 
 C. ROME, Page 147. 
 The races and institutions of ancient Italy. 
 
 I. Rome Under the Government of Kings and Patricians, Page 150. 
 
 1. Rome under the kings (b. c. 753 — 509); Eome built; Rome under Romulus; Numa Pompilius; 
 TuUus Hostilius and Aucus Marcius ; origin of the plebeians; Tarquinius Priscus and Servins Tullius; 
 Tarquinius Superbus. 2. Rome as a republic under the patricians, a. Horatius Codes ; the tribunes ; Cor- 
 iolauus ; contest between the republicans and Porsenna and Tarquin ; emigration to the sacred hill ; Corio- 
 .lanus. b. The Fabii ; Cincinnatus ; the decemvirs ; war with the Veians and .^qui ; Agrarian law ; Sp. 
 Cassius ; the decemvirs ; military tribunes and censors, c. Sack of Eome by the Gauls (b. c. 389), and the 
 laws of Licinius Stolo (b. c. 366) ; taking of Veil by Camillus; Brennus in Rome; M. Manlius and the 
 laws of L. Stolo. 
 
 II. Rome's Heroic Period, Page 165. 
 
 1. The wars with the Samnites, and the battles with Pyrrhus ; first Samnite war; war with the Latins; 
 second Samnite war; Caudinian passes; Sentinum ; war with Tarentum and Pyrrhus. 2. Punic wars. a. 
 The first Punic war (b. C. 263 — 241); Carthage; Agathocles; the Mamertines ; Regulus; Hamilcar Barcas ; 
 end of the first Punic war. b. The second Punic war (b. c. 218 — 202) ; Sicily and Gallia Cisalpina Roman 
 Provinces; Saguntum; Hannibal's passage over the Alps and through Italy; Fabius Masimus and the bat- 
 tle of Cannae; Capua; Syracuse; Tarentum; Hasdrubal's defeat on the Metaurus; Zama. c. Macedonia 
 conquered; Corinth and Carthage destroyed; Philip III. and Antiochus III. conquered by the Romans; 
 battle of Pydua and de-structiou of Corinth ; destruction of Carthage in the third Punic war. d. The man- 
 ners and culture of the Romans ; conflict of the old and new ; Plautus ; Terence ; Cato. 
 
 III. Rome's Degeneracy and Republican Factions, Page 186. 
 
 1. Numantia; Tiberius; Caius Gracchus ; Rome's government of her provinces ; Numantia's insurrec- 
 tion and fall ; Tiberius Gracchus ; Caius Gracchus. 2. Marius and SyJla; the Jugurthine war ; Cimbri and 
 Teutones; the Social war; the first Mithridatic war; the first civil war ; death of Marius ; the Cornelian 
 law and Sylla's death. 3. C'neius Pompey and M. Tullius Cicero; Sertorius; the Servile war; war against 
 the pirates; the second Mithridatic war; Cataline's conspiracy. 4. Caius Julius Csesar ; the first triumvi- 
 rate ; Csesar's wars in Gaul ; the second civil war ; Caesar's victories ; Ciesar's death. 5. The last years of 
 the republic; the second triumvirate ; Cicero's death ; Philippi ; Actium. 
 
 IV. The Roman Empire, Page 210. 
 
 1. CiBsar Octavianus Augustus ; Rome's golden age ; Roman literature. 2. The struggles of the Ger- 
 mans for liberty ; Hermann's victory in the Teutoburger forest; Germanicus; Tacitus on the manners and 
 institutions of the Germans. 3. The Caesars of the Augustine race; Tiberius; Caligula; Claudius; Nero 
 Galba; Otho ; Vitellius. 4. The Flavii and Antonines; Vespasian; the destruction of Jerusalem ; destruo 
 tion of the Jewish state; Britain conquered by Agricola ; Titus; Domitian ; Nerva; Trajan; Hadrian 
 Plutarch ; Antonius Pius ; Marcus Aurelins ; culture and morals. 5. Rome under military government 
 CommoduB ; Pertinax ; Septimius Severus ; Caracalla; Heliogabalus ; Alexander Severus; Philip the Arab , 
 Decius; Gallienus; Aurelian ; Tacitus; Probus ; Cams; reign of Diocletian ; Constantine's victory at the 
 Milvian bridge and sole empire. 
 
 SECOND BOOK. 
 
 MIGRATION OF NATIONS AND THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 A. MIGRATION OF NATIONS AND ESTABLISHMENT OF MONOTHEISM. 
 
 I. The Triumph of Christianity over Paganism, Page 24.3. 
 
 1. The Christian Church of the first century ; per.secutions of the Christians. 2. Constantino the Great 
 and Julian the Apostate; Coustantine's proceedings in Church and state; Arianism ; Augustine; the fathers 
 of the Church ; Julian the Apostate. 
 
CONTENTS. 7 
 
 II. The Migration of Nations, Page 249. 
 
 1. Tbeodosius the Great; Huns and Goths. 2. West Goths; Burgundians and Vandals; Alaric; Slil- 
 icho ; Eadagais ; Alaric in Italy ; the Vandals in Africa. 3. Attila king of the Huns (A. D. 450) ; battle 
 with the Huns; Aquileja. 4. Destruction of the Western Roman Empire (a, D. 476) 5. Theodoric the 
 Ostrogoth (a. d. 500). 6. Clovis, king of the Franks and the Merovingians ; batile of Ziilpicli ; the Merov- 
 ingians and their Mayor of the palace. 7. The Anglo-Saxons 8. The Byzantine empire and the Longo- 
 bards; the court; Justinian; subjection of the Vandals and the Ostrogoths ; Alboin; the Iconoclasts. 9. 
 The Slavs. 
 
 III. Mohammed and the Arabians, Page 266. 
 
 Arabia; Mohammed the prophet; the Mohammedans in Persia and Egypt ; Ali and the Ommiads ; the 
 Arabs in Spain and France; the Abbassides in Bagdad ; the battles between Christians and Mohammedans 
 in Spain ; Arab culture and literature. 
 
 B. THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 I. The Period of the Karlings, Page 2T5. 
 
 1. Pepin the Little (a. d. 752—768); Karl the Great (Charlemagne) (768—814); Bonifacius; Saxons 
 and Longobards; war with the Saxons, and defeat at Roncesvalles ; Karl, Roman emperor; his Internal 
 government. 2. Dissolution of the Frank empire; Ludwig the Gentle (Louis le Debonnaire) ; treaty of 
 Verdun ; Karl the Fat and Arnulf ; Charles the Simple and Hugh Capet. 
 
 II. Normans and Danes, Page 287. 
 
 Scandinavia; Iceland; Russia; England; Alfred; Canute; William the Conqueror; Lower Italy; Rob- 
 ert Guiscard. 
 
 III. The Supremacy of the Holy Roman Empire, Page 288. 
 
 1. The House of Saxony (919—1024) ; Henry the Fowler; Otho the Great; Otho IL and III. ; Henry 
 II.; German culture under the Othos. 2. The House of Franconia; Conrad II. and Henry III.; Henry IV. 
 and the Saxons ; Henry IV. and pope Gregory VII. ; Henry IV. 's death ; Henry V. and Lothaire of Saxony. 
 
 lY. The Ascendancy op the Church in the Time of the Crusades, Page 302. 
 
 1. The crusades ; the Council of Clermont ; Peter of Amiens and Walter the Penniless ; the first cru- 
 sade under Godfrey of Bouillon ; conquest of Jerusalem ; the first king of Jerusalem ; the second crusade; 
 the third crusade ; the fourth crusade; the Latin empire in Constantinople; the fifth crusade; the emperor 
 Frederick II. ; the sixth crusade, under Louis IX.; the consequences of the cru.sades ; orders of knights; 
 war against the Albigenses. 2. The Hohenstaufens (a. D. 1138 — 1154); Well's and Waiblings; Frederick 
 Barbarossa in Italy; Arnold of Brescia; Milan destroyed; Ale.xandria founded ; battle of Legnano; peace 
 of Constance ; Frederick Barbarossa and Hemy the Lion ; Henry VI. and Philip of Swabia ; Pope Innocent 
 III. and the Emperor Otho IV. ; Frederick II. 's contest viith the papacy ; rival emperor in Germany ; Fred- 
 erick II. 's death ; death of Manfred at Beneventum; Conradine's death ; the Sicilian vespers. 3. General 
 view of the Middle Ages; the feudal system ; chivalry; hierarchy; monachism ; mendicant orders; Fran- 
 ciscans and Dominicans; state of the towns; literature (1), scholastics and mystics. (2) Science and his- 
 tory. (3) Poetry. 
 
 V. Decay of Chivalry and Corruption op the Church, Page 337. 
 
 1. The Interregnum (a. d. 1250 — 1273) ; the law of might; confederations of towns. 2. Origin of the 
 House of Hapsburg and the Helvetic confederation ; Rudolf of Hapsburg; Rudolf's proceedings in the em- 
 pire; Adolf of Nassau and Albert of Austria ; the confederation of the Rutii; William Tell; Morgarten. 
 3. Philip the Fair of France and the emperor Ludwig the Bavarian ; Philip IV. and pope Bonifacius VIII. ; 
 the popes at Avignon ; dissolution of the order of the Temple; Henry of Lu.xembnrg; Ludwig the B.avarian 
 and Frederick the Fair; diet at Reuse; Louis's death. 4. The emperors of the House of Luxemburg; 
 Charles IV.; Wenceslaus; the German town war; Rupert of the Palatinate and Sigismund. 5. The divi- 
 sion in the Church and the great councils; Wiolif and Huss ; the council of Constance; the Hussite war; 
 the council of Basle. 6. Germany under Frederick III. and Maximilian I.; Albert II. and Frederic III.; 
 Maximilian I.; change in the German constitution; end of the middle age. 
 
 VI. History of the Rem.iining European States During the Middle Age, Page 351. 
 
 1. France, a. France under the House of Capet (a. d. 987 — 1328). h. France under the House of 
 Viilois (a. d. 1328 — 1529); Philip VI. and John the Good; Crecy and Poictiers; Charles V. and VI.; civil 
 war; battle of Agincourt; Maid of Orleans; Louis XL 2. England; Henry Plantagenet and Thomas S 
 
8 CONTENTS. 
 
 Becket; Richard Lion-heart and John Lackland; Edward I. and the war of liberty in Scotland; Edward 
 III. ; the House of Lancaster ; the wars of the red and while roses. 3. Spain ; state of Spain in the middle 
 age; Araf;on and Castile; Ferdinand and Isabella; the Inquisition; expulsion of the Moors. 4. Scotland. 
 5. Ireland. 6. Italy, a. Upper Italy; Venice; Genoa; Milan; Savoy and Piedmont, b. Middle and 
 Lower Italy ; Florence ; Cosmo de Medici ; Lorenzo the Magnificent ; Savonarola; fine arts; the Papal Do- 
 minion; Ferrara; Naples and Sicily. 7. The new Burgundian territory; condition of ihe kingdom under 
 the first dnkes; Charles the Bold; the new Burgundian territory after the death of Charles. 8. Scandi- 
 navia; establishment of Christianity in the three Scandinavian kingdoms; Denmark before the union of 
 Calmar ; Sweden before and after the union of Calmar. 9. Hungary; Stephen the Pious; the Saxons in 
 Transylvania; the "Golden Privilege"; Louis the Great and Matthias Corvinus. 10. Poland; state of 
 Poland; Casiniir the Great; the Jagellous ; formation of the power of the nobles. 11. The Russian Em- 
 pire ; the imperial House of Ruric ; Ivan Vasilyevitsch. 12. Moguls and Turks; Zengis-Khan and his 
 sons; the Ottoman Turks in Asia Minor; Bajazet and Timvw ; Muradll. ; the Christian army defeated at 
 Warna; taking of Constantinople; greatness and decay of the Ottoman empire. 
 
 THIRD BOOK. 
 
 THE MODERN AGE AND EUROPE. 
 
 I. The Heralds of the Modern Epoch, Page 395. 
 
 1. The sea passage to the East Indies, and the discovery of America; invention of the compass; gun- 
 powder; printing; the Portuguese in the East Indies; Christopher Columbus ; Balboa; Cortez; Pizarro ; 
 consequences of the discovery of America. 2. The revival of the arts and sciences ; Italy ; Germany 
 (Reuchlin, Erasmus, Hutten) ; Humanists and Obscurantists. 
 
 II. The Time of the Reformation, Page 405. 
 
 1. The German Reformation, a. Dr. Martin Luther; the sale of indulgences and the ninety-five theses 
 Luther; Cajetan ; Frederick the Wise; Miltitz; his disputation at Leipsic; burning of the pope's bull; 
 Diet of Worms ; Dr. Carlstadt and the Anabaptists ; Philip Melancthon ; spread of the Reformation. 6. 
 The peasant war; Thomas Munzer; subjection of the peasants, c The Augsburg confession; activity of 
 Luther and Melancthon; Diet of Spire; Diet of Augsburg, d. TJlric Zwingle; Reformation in Switzer- 
 land; religious war; battle of Kappel. 2. Wars of the House of Hapsburg against France; Charles V. .and 
 Francis I.; wars respecting Milan; battle of Pavia; taking of Rome; Ladies Peace of Cambray ; campaign 
 against Tunis; second aud third war between Charles and Francis. 3. The war of religion in Germany ; 
 the league of Smalcald; the gospel in Wirtemberg; the Anabaptists in Munster; spread of the Reformation 
 in Saxony, Brandenburg, the Palatinate, &c. ; the war of Smalcald; campaign on the Danube; Charles V.'s 
 triumphant expedition into Southern Germany; battle near Miihlberg; the elector of Saxony and the land- 
 grave of Hesse taken prisoners; the Augsburg interim; Maurice of Saxony ; the treaty of Passau; the re- 
 ligious war of Augsburg; Charles V. dies. 4. Progress of the Reformation through Europe, a. Lutheran- 
 ism and Calvinism; Germany; the Lutheran and Reformed Churches; Switzerland; Calvinism; Calvinism 
 in France, in the Netherlands, in Scotland. 6. Establishment of the Anglican Church ; England; Henry 
 VIII. 's ecclesiastical innovations ; Henry VIII. and his wives ; establishment of the Episcopal Church under 
 Edward VI. ; the English Church under Mary and Elizabeth, e. The Reformation in the three Scandinavian 
 kingdoms; Scandinavia; Sweden under Gustavus Vasa ; the Reformation in Denmark ; Sweden under the 
 sons of Gustavus Vasa; Poland, d. The Catholic Church; inquisition; pnpacy; Council of Trent; order 
 of the Jesuits. 5. The times of Philip IL (a. d. 1556—1598) and Elizabeth (a. d. 1558—1603); Philip 
 II.; character and mode of government, a. Portugal united with Spain; King Sebastian. 6. Struggle for 
 liberty in the Netherlands; Philip's attacks on the privileges of the Netherlanders; compromise; the 
 Guises; sacrilege; Alba in the Netherlands; Don Juan; Alexander Farnese; William of Orange; the Ar- 
 mada ; termination of the war ; trade; government synod of Dort. c. France during the war of religion; 
 position of parties ; the first three wars of religion ; St. Bartholomew night; Henry III. and the holy league; 
 Henry IV. d. Elizabeth .and Mary Stuart; difference in the characters of the two queens; Knox; Mary 
 Stuart in Scotland ; Mary Stuart in England ; progress of England, and death of Elizabeth ; Essex, e. Cul- 
 ture and literature in the century of the Reformation. 1. Germany; 2. Italy; 3. Spain and Portugal ; 4. 
 England ; 5. France ; the fine arts. 
 
 III. The Seventeenth Century, Page 466. 
 
 1. The thirty years' war (A. D. 1618—1648). a. Bohemia; Palatinate; Lower' ermany; Tilly; ap- 
 pearance of Wallenstein ; union and league; the letters patent, and the proceedings in Prague ; Frederick 
 V. and the battle of the White Hill ; Tilly in the Palatinate; Wallenstein in the North of Germany ; edict 
 of restitution; Diet of Regensburg; Wallenstein's deposition, b. Interference of Sweden; Gustavus 
 Adolphus and Wallenstein ; Gustavus Adolphus in Pomerania; destruction of Magdeburg; battle of Breit- 
 enfield and Leipsic; triumphant course of Gustavus Adolphus; Nuremberg; Liitzeu ; alliance of Heilhron ; 
 
CONTENTS. 9 
 
 Wallenstein's death, c. Termination of the war; peace of Westphalia; Bernard of Weimar; Bauer; Tor- 
 stenson ; Wrangel ; Sweden under Christina and Charles X.; change in the constitution of Denmark. 2. 
 The revolution in England, and the expulsion of the Stuarts, a. The first two Stuarts (James I. 1603 — 
 1625, Charles I. 1625 — 1649) ; James's character and principles ; the gunpowder-plot; the Infanta of Spain; 
 the prince of Wales ; position in relation to parliament ; petition of right ; Straflbrd ; Laud ; Hampden and 
 the Scottish covenant; the long parliament ; Strafford's fall; civil war; Cromwell's appearance; victory of 
 the Independents ; Charles with the Scots ; death of Charles, b. Oliver Cromwell ; Cromwell's victories at 
 Dunbar and Worcester ; Cromwell as Lord Protector; the parliament ; restoration, c. The last two Stuarts 
 (Charles II. 1660—1685, and James II. 1685—1688) ; government of Charles II. ; test act ; habeas corpus 
 act ; Whigs and Tories ; government and fall of James II.; William and Mary ; bill of rights; union with 
 Scotland. 3. The age of Louis XIV. a. Richelieu and Mazarin ; Louis XIII. ; government and activity of 
 Eichelieu; Anne of Austria and Mazarin; war of the Fronde. J. Government and conquests of Louis 
 XIV.; Louis XIV. and his ministers and generals; the Spanish and Dutch war; peace of Ai,\ ; Sasbach ; 
 Fehrhelliu; peace of Nimeguen ; reianions; Strasburg wrested from the empire, e. Austria's distress and 
 triumph; the Turks before Vienna; peace of Carlowitz. d. The war of Orleans; desolation of the Palatin- 
 ate; peace of Kyswick. e. Life at the court; literature; Church ; industry; court of Versailles; art and 
 literature ; Jansenists ; persecution of the Huguenots. 
 
 IV. The Eighteenth Century, Page 510. 
 
 1. The Spanish war of successiou (1702 — 1714); origin of the war; position of parties ; Htichsladt; 
 Prince Eugene and Marlborough; Eamilics ; Turin; Spain; humiliation of France; Malplaquet; change in 
 affiiirs; peace of Utrecht; France; Orleans, duke-regent; Spain; Philip V.; Ferdinand VI.; England un- 
 der the House of Hanover; attempts of the Stuarts frustrated. 2. Charles XII. of Sweden and Peter the 
 Great of Russia in the Northern war (1700 — 1718); Sweden and Russia under the House of Romanoff ; 
 Peter's reforms; Poland under Frederick Augustus the Strong; Charles XII. in Denmark and Poland; 
 Stanislaus Leczinski ; Charles XII. in Saxony: his character; Peter on the Baltic; battle of Pultowa ; 
 Charles XII. in Turkey ; death of Charles XII. ; reformation in Russia; Alexis; Menzikoff; Elizabeth; the 
 Polish war of succession. 3. The rise of Prussia; Frederick I.; Frederick William I.; youth of Frederick 
 II. 4. The times of Frederick II. and Maria Theresa, a. The Austrian war of succession (a. d. 1740— 
 1748) ; cause of the war; Pragmatic sanction ; Charles Albert; the first Silesian war; Charles's coronation ; 
 the Hungarians; d ifiicul ties of Bavaria ; Prague; Dettingen ; the second Silesian war; close of the war; 
 peace of Ais. 6. The seven years' war (a. d. 1756 — 1763) ; Austria's alliance with Russia, France, and 
 Saxony; Dresden and Pirua ; Prague; Collin; Rosbach ; Leignitz; Torgau ; Peter III. and Catharine II. of 
 Russia; close of war; peace of Hubertsburg. c. The German empire and the age of Frederick ; condition 
 of the German empire; Frederick's internal government; the Bavarian war of succession and the alliance 
 of princes, cl. Intellectual life in Germany ; poetry ; religion ; historical writing ; philosophy ; education. 
 
 FOUHTH BOOK. 
 
 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 
 
 A. THE HERALDS OP THE REVOLUTION, Page 543. 
 
 1. The literature of illumination ; character of French literature; Vollaire; Montesquieu; Rousseau; 
 effects of the literature of illumination ; dissolution of the Jesuits; society of Illuminati ; disorder and 
 contests in Holland. 2. Innovations of princes and ministers ; character of political and ecclesiastical re- 
 forms ; Portugal under Pombal ; Spain under Charles III. and Aranda; France; Choiseul : Turgot and 
 Malasherbes; Strnensee in Denmark; Gustavns III. of Sweden ; reforms of Joseph II. in Austria; internal 
 government of Catharine II. in Rus.sia. 3. The partition of Poland ; state of Poland ; king Stanislaus 
 Poniatowski ; the contest with the Dissidents; Confederation of Radom and Bar ; first ITurkish war; first 
 partition of Poland; Tanris ; second Turkish war; Poland's new constitution; Confederation of Targowicz; 
 second partition of Poland ; Poland's end. 
 
 B. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION, Page 555. 
 
 1. The last days of absolute monarchy ; Louis XV. and the empire of the passions ; taxation ; parlia- 
 ment; Louis XVI. and his court; increasing financial difiSculties; Necker; Caloune; contest with the par- 
 liament; summoning of the estates-general. 2. The period of the national assembly ; the third estate de- 
 clares itself a national assembly; storm of the Basfile ; the new system ; the king and the national assem- 
 bly at Paris; ceremony of the federation ; death of Mirabeau ; flight of the king. 3. The legislative assem- 
 bly and the fall of the monarchy; position of parties; Girondist ministers; the tenth of August ; the days 
 of September. 4. Republican France under the government of the National Convention ; execution of the 
 king; the war; Dumouriez ; fall of the Girondists; rule of the Jacobins. 5. Persecutions of the aristo- 
 crats. 6. Horrors in the south; bloody scenes in La Vendee; fall of the Dantonists. 7. Wars of the re- 
 public; first coalition ; peace of Basle ; Robespierre's fall ; the last days of the convention. 8. France under 
 the Directory; Bonaparte in Italy; internal state of France; Babeuf ; Royalists; the Republicans in Italy; 
 revolution in Switzerland; war of the second coalition; Bonaparte in Egypt and Syria; the eighteenth of 
 Brumaire. 
 
10 CONTENTS. 
 
 C. GOVERNMENT OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE, Page 591. 
 
 I. The consulate (1800 — 1804); the consular constitution; Marengo and Hohenlinden; Egypt; the 
 peace of Amiens ; murder of the emperor Paul; the new court and the concordat ; conspiracies. II. Napo- 
 leon emperor (1804—1814). 1. The empire. 2. Austerlitz ; Presburg; confederation of the Rhine; Han- 
 over; Italy; Prussia; Ulm; Trafalgar; Austerlitz; peace of Presburg; establishment of the Rhenish Con- 
 federation. 3. Jena; Tilsit; Erfurt ; occasion of the Prussian war; liattle of Jena, and its immediate con- 
 sequences ; Preuss Eylau; Friedland; peace of Tilsit; proceedings in Sweden and Denmark ; Napoleon and 
 Alexander in Erfurt, 4. The events in the Pyrenean peninsula; Junot in Lisbon ; intrigues in Bayonne; 
 Joseph Bonaparte king of Spain; insurgent war in Spain; Dupont's capitulation; Guerilla war; La Ro- 
 mana; constitution of the year '12; end of the Peninsular war; imprisonment of the pope. 5. The second 
 Austrian war; Hofer; Schill (18<^9) ; Aspern and Wagram ; popular war in the Tyrol ; the peace of Vienna; 
 Schill; William of Brunswick ; Stein; Scharnhorst; the French empire at its height, 6. The war against 
 Russia (1812) ; origin of the war ; Napoleon in Poland ; march to Moscow ; retreat of the grand army. 
 
 D. DISSOLUTION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE, AND ESTABLISHMENT OF 
 
 NEW CONDITIONS, Page 619. 
 
 1. The German war of liberation, and the fall of Napoleon ; rise of Germany; German war of liberty 
 from the year 1813; battle of Leipsic, and its results; Napoleon's last struggle. 2. The restoration and the 
 Hundred Days; Napoleon's abdication; the first peace of Paris; Congress of Vienna, and the first period of 
 the restoration; Napoleon's return, and the government of the hundred days; triumph of legitimacy, and 
 Murat's death ; Waterloo; St. Helena ; second peace of Paris; second restoration. 
 
 E. EUROPE UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF THE CONSERVATIVE POLICY 
 
 OF METTERNICH, Page 635. 
 
 1. The Holy Alliance and the position of parties; the Holy Alliance; liberals and conservatives. 2. 
 France; Louis XVIII.; reign of Charles X. 3. The constitutional struggles in the Pyrenean peninsula 
 and in Italy ; Ferdinand VII. and the Camarilla ; victory of the constitutionalists; intervention of the Holy 
 Alliance in Italy; destruction of the Cortes' government in Spain ; constitutional struggles in Portugal. 4. 
 Great Britain ; state of England ; increasing poverty ; court and government ; Ireland. 5. (Jermany ; 
 struggle of opinions and position of parties ; feast of the Wartburg ; Sand ; decrees of Carlsbad. 6. Greece's 
 struggle for liberty; Ypsilanti and the sacred band; Greece's struggle till the fall of Missolonghi; the Phil- 
 hellenists; Navarino; Adrianople; conclusion; the new romantic literature. 
 
 F. LATER REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENTS, Page 659. 
 
 1. The July revolution of Paris and its consequences; the July revolution ; general consequences; the 
 revolution in Belgium ; rise and fall of Poland ; liberal movements in Germany ; insurrections iu Italy ; 
 struggles between throne and constitution in Spain. 2. Overthrow of the throne of July, and the later rev- 
 olutionary tempests, a. The years of political and social agitation ; France under Louis Phillippe; Italy; 
 Germany; Switzerland, b. The Paris revolution of February and its consequences ; the revolution of Feb- 
 ruary and the French republic; the March days in Vienna and Berlin, and commotions in German}' ; pre- 
 liminary parliament; committee of fifty; national assembly; Italy's rise and fall ; the truce of Malmo, and 
 the Frankfurt September horrors; the Vienna October days; programme of Gagern ; dissolution of the Ber- 
 lin National Assembly; Kremsier ; Hungary's rise and fall; the imperial constitution, and deputation to 
 the emperor; revolutionary movements in Saxony, Palatinate, and Baden, and the rump parliament; 
 Schleswig-Holstein ; France ; restoration of the empire. 
 
 FIFTH BOOK. 
 
 RECENT HISTORY. 
 
 I. The Events of the Years 1850—1870, Page 683. 
 
 1. The Western powers and Russia; the second empire; England; Russia and the Eastern question ; 
 the events on the Danube and in the Baltic; the Crimean war; Sebastopol ; end of the war; Turkey and 
 Greece; Russia under Alexander II.; parties in Poland; uprisings in Poland. 2. German.v, Austria and 
 Prussia; the German Confederation; Austria; Prussia; the new era ; Schleswig Holstein. 3. The found- 
 ing of the Italian kingdom ; parties in Italy ; Magenta ; Solferino ; peace of Villafranca ; Garibaldi ; Gajta ; 
 the kingdom of Italy. 4. The events of 1866; the war in North Germany ; the war in I5ohemia and on the 
 Main; the treaty of Prague ; United Italy and the capital Rome; the North German Confederation ; the 
 settlement in Austria. 5. The Spanish revolution of 1868; parties; expulsion of Queen Isabella ; Repub- 
 licans and Monarchists. 
 
CONTENTS. 11 
 
 II. The Franco-German War of 1870—1811, Page 725. 
 
 Origin of the war; Worth; Metz; Sedan; Republican France ; the new German empire; the bombard- 
 ment of Paris ; the destruction of the army of the east ; the Commune ; the peace of Frankfort. 
 
 III. The Present Situation, Page 738. 
 
 a. Literary and scientific culture, b. Inventions and social movements, c. Geographical discovery. 
 d. Political affairs. 1. Germany. 2. Austria and Russia. 3. Holland ; Scandinavia. 4. France. 5. 
 Switzerland and Italy. 6. Spain. 7. Russia and the Eastern question. 8. England. 
 
 IV. Postscript, Page 777. 
 
 1. Germany. 2. France. 3. Italy. 4. Spain; Portugal. 5. Austria-Hungary. 6. Russia. 7. Bel- 
 gium; The Netherlands ; Switzerland. 8. Denmark; Sweden; Norway. 9. Greece; Turkey ; Bulgary ; 
 Eoumania ; Servia. 10. England. 
 
 SIXTH BOOK. 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 A NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 I. The European Settlement, Page 787. 
 
 1. The Spanish settlement, a. Florida; Ponce de Leon; de Soto ; The Huguenots ; Menendez; later 
 history. 6. Mexico and the Californians. 2. The French settlements aud discoveries, a. Discovery of the 
 St. Lawrence and settlement of Quebec aud Acadia. 6. Discovery of the Great Lakes and of the North 
 West. c. Discovery of the Mississippi and settlement of Louisiana. 3. The Dutch settlements on the 
 Hudson and the Delaware. 4. The Swedish settlements on the Delaware. 5. The English settloraents on 
 the Atlantic coast, a. The Southern Colonies ; \ iiginia ; Maryland ; the Carolinas ; Georgia, b. The Pur- 
 itan Colonies; Plymouth Bay ; Massachusetts; New Haven ; Connecticut ; Rhode Island, e. Pennsylvania; 
 Delaware, d. New York and New Jersey. 
 
 II. The English Conquest of the Continent, Page 828. 
 
 1. The expedition against the French in the Ohio Valley. 2. Against Ticonderoga. 3. To the St, 
 Lawrence ; Montcalm and Wolfe. 
 
 III. The American Revolution, Page 834. 
 
 1. The struggle of the colonists for the rights of Euglishraen (1766—1776). 2. The struggle for inde- 
 pendence (1676—1783). 3. The struggle for a " MoBE Pebfect Union " (1783—1789). 
 
 IV. The More Perfect Union, Page 858. 
 
 1. The administration of Washington and Adams (1789—1801). 2. The period of Democratic rule 
 from Jefferson to Polk (1801—1849). "a. Territorial expansion and admission of new states, b. Foreign 
 affairs; wars with England and Mexico; Indian wars; difficulties with England and France, e. Political 
 development; the constitution in operation; the changes in the states; the parties ; the tariff, bank and 
 currency questions, d. The industrial development and the growth of cities. 3. The struggle to restrict 
 negro slavery and the war to preserve the Union (1849—1869) ; the three compromises ; the Kansas Bill ; 
 the election of Lincoln ; seces.sion of Southern States; the struggle for the Potomac ; the struggle for the 
 Ohio and Mississippi Valley ; the struggle for the Atlantic seaboard ; the surrender of Lee and Johnston ; 
 assassination of Lincoln ; reconstruction. 4. Recent history ; National, ^tate and Municipal (1869— 18!'4). 
 
 V. Canada, Page 942. 
 
 a. From the conquest to the Union of the two Canadas (1763—1841). 6. From the Union to the for- 
 mation of the Dominion (1841— 1867). c. The Dominion (1867— 1894). 
 
 B. CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 I. Mexico, Page 949. 
 
 The struggle for independence ; the war with the United States ; revolutions ; Maximilian ; recent his- 
 tory. 
 
 II. South America, Page 953. 
 The struggle for independence ; Napoleon's demand ; Ferdinand VII.; Bolivar; recent history ; Brazil. 
 
 TABLE OP SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS, 961 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX, - 975 
 
 ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING IDEX, ... - 1001 
 
LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Abdul Hamid 
 
 Abraham Journeying into Canaan — Gustave 
 Dore .... 
 
 Aboukir, Naval Figbt off— J"*-. Weber . 
 
 Acre, Fall oi— Gustave Dore 
 
 Acre, Siege of St. John d' 
 
 Acropolis at Athens 
 
 Adams, John .... 
 
 Adams, John Quincy 
 
 Adams, Samuel 
 
 Addison, Joseph 
 
 Aeneas with Anchises, Flight of, Carrying th 
 Lares from Troy 
 
 Agrippa's, An Audience at — L. Alma Tadema 
 
 Agrippina the Yonnger, Livia, Claudius, and 
 Tiberius .... 
 
 Alabama by the Kearsarge, Sinking of the 
 
 Albert III.' .... 
 
 Albigenses, Crusade against Vae— Albert 3Iaig- 
 nan ..... 
 
 Albrecht Achilles Fighting the Swabians 
 
 Alcibiades .... 
 
 Alemanni Crossing the Rhine — A. De Neiiville 
 
 Alembert, d' . 
 
 Alexander .... 
 
 Alexander I. . 
 
 Alexander II. . 
 
 Alexander III. .... 
 
 Alexander at the Temple of Jupiter Ammon 
 
 Alexander Balas, Coin of 
 
 Alexander before Tyre — H. Vogel 
 
 Alexander, Coin of . . . 
 
 Alexander Discovers the Dead Body of Darius 
 
 Alexander on the Granicus, Victory of — Charles 
 Le Bruii . . 
 
 Alexander the Great . . . . 
 
 Alfred the Great in his Study — A. De NeuviUe 
 
 Algiers, Capture of — F. Lix 
 
 Alhambra of Granada, The 
 
 Amazon, Indian of the 
 
 Amazons — F. Simm 
 
 America 
 
 Assassination of Marshal d'Ancre — A. de Neu- 
 viUe . . . . . 
 
 Andes, Birds' Eye View of the . 
 
 Andr^, J. . . . . . 
 
 Andros, Sir Edmund . . . . 
 
 Antioch, Massacre at — Gustave Dore . 
 
 Antioch, Tetradrachm of . . . 
 
 Antiocbus III. . . . . . 
 
 Antiochus IV., Tetradrachm of 
 
 Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium 
 —H. Vogel . . . . . 
 
 Antony, Mare . . . . . 
 
 Antony, Marc, Delivers the Funeral Oration 
 over the Dead Body of Cssar — H. E. V- 
 Berlcpsch . . - . . 
 
 Apollo Belvidere . . . . 
 
 Archimides, Death of — Nicola Barabino 
 
 Areopagus . . . . . 
 
 PAGE 
 
 765 Argonauts, The — EaM . 
 
 Aristotle .... 
 
 53 Aristotle and Alexander 
 
 588 Arkright, Richard 
 303 Armada, The English Fleet Following the In 
 
 589 vincible .... 
 646 Arms and Armor of the XV. to XVIII. Centu 
 859 ries .... 
 873 Arms and Armor, Ancient 
 856 Arms and Armor of the Middle Age . 
 649 Arms and Armor of the Nineteenth Century 
 
 Arnold, Benedict 
 
 148 Arthur, Chester A. . . . 
 
 208 Assyrian, (Headpiece) 
 Assyrian Chariot of State 
 
 220 Assyrian Clay Coffins 
 
 916 Assyrian High Priest and King 
 
 350 As.syrian Nobles and Courtiers . 
 
 As.syrian Palace 
 
 317 Assyrian "Warriors and Archer . 
 
 349 Athena Parthenos — Phidias 
 
 111 Athenian Army in Sicily, Destruction of the — 
 247 H. Vogel .... 
 
 545 Athenian Youths Riding in Procession — Phidias 
 
 140 Athens, Ancient 
 
 504 Atlas, (initial) .... 
 
 694 Attila, the Hun 
 
 771 Augustus .... 
 
 134 Aurelius, Marcus 
 184 Aurelius, Marcus, Liberates the Chief of th 
 
 135 Marcomanni 
 
 138 Austrians at Hohenfriedberg, Capture of the 
 137 — B. Brendamour 
 
 Aztec Priests Sacrificing a Victim 
 
 133 Babylon, Capture of, by Cyrus 
 
 131 Bacchanalian Festival . 
 
 286 Bacchus .... 
 
 660 Bacchus, The Temple of, at Athens— G, 
 271 Eehlender .... 
 
 955 Bacon, Francis . . . ■ 
 
 Frontispiece. Baker, Sir Samuel 
 
 . 785 Balaklava, Battlefield of 
 
 Balboa Adds the Pacific Ocean to the Spanish 
 451 Realm .... 
 
 954 Ballista ..... 
 
 848 Baltimore, Lord 
 
 820 Bancroft, George 
 
 299 Bank of the United States at Philadelphia 
 
 142 Barbarians, Inroad of . 
 
 142 Barbarossa Asking Aid of Henry 
 
 144 Barricades, Defence of the 
 
 Bartholomew's Night, St. — A. de NeuviUe 
 
 209 Bastile, Storming the — F. Lix . 
 206 Bayard, The Chevalier 
 
 Bayard, Thomas F. . . . 
 
 Bazaine, Marshal 
 
 205 Becket, Murder of St. Thomas A. 
 
 105 Beggars before the Council, The 
 
 177 Belisarius from Rome, Sortie of — H. Vogel 
 
 96 Benares, An Old Fakir of 
 
 PAGE 
 
 81 
 272 
 130 
 
 465 
 
 153 
 
 283 
 
 699 
 
 847 
 
 931 
 
 29 
 
 41 
 
 39 
 
 43 
 
 42 
 
 38 
 
 37 
 
 115 
 126 
 108 
 23 
 254 
 213 
 230 
 
 527 
 
 403 
 
 71 
 
 28 
 81 
 
 123 
 463 
 743 
 
 692 
 
 401 
 204 
 806 
 897 
 883 
 251 
 320 
 674 
 452 
 561 
 418 
 929 
 951 
 361 
 443 
 263 
 34 
 
 (13) 
 
14 
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Beresina, Crossing the .... 
 
 Berlin, Congress of, 1870 — Anton von Werner 
 
 Berri, Duchess de . . . 
 
 Bishops in Pluviale and Casula 
 
 Bisniarcls, Prince, (Headpiece) . 
 
 Bismarck, Prince Otto vou — Fr. Skarbitia 
 
 Blacli Prince, The 
 
 Blaiue, James G. . • • 
 
 Bliicher, Gebhard Lebrecht von 
 
 Bliicber's Cavalry before Paris — C. Delort 
 
 Boabdil, Surrendering to Ferdinand . 
 
 Bolivar, Simon .... 
 
 Bolivar, Simon, {Seadpieee) 
 
 Bonaparte, Joseph 
 
 Bonaparte on the Bridge at Arcole — Emil 
 
 Bayard 
 Bonbomme Richard Captures the Serapis, Cap 
 
 tain Paul Jones on the 
 Boniface, Saint, in Germany — Peler Janssen 
 Bouvines, Battle of — Vierge 
 Braddock, Death of General — P. Philippoteaux 
 Brahma, Vishnu and Siva 
 Brazil, Native of . . . 
 
 Bread Rioters in the Hall of the Convention, 
 
 The— ii'. Lix 
 Broglie, Ducde . 
 Bronze Age, Men during the 
 Bronze Images of Bull Apis 
 Browning, Robert 
 Brovpn, John 
 Brunehild, Death of— T. KelJer 
 Bruue, Maltreatment of the Body of Marshal 
 
 a J)elort .... 
 Brutus Condemning his Sons to Death 
 Brutus, Death of — H. Vogel 
 Brutus, the Elder 
 Bryant, William Cullen 
 Buchanan, James 
 Buckingham, Assassination of the Duke of- 
 
 Emil Bayard 
 Buddha . 
 
 Bunker Hill, Battle of 
 Burgoyne's army marching to Saratoga 
 Burgundians 
 Burke, Kdmund 
 
 Burr and Hamilton, Duel between 
 Byron, Lord George Gordon 
 Byzantine Deacon, Bishop, and Levite 
 Byzantine Emperor and Page 
 Byzantine Emperor and Princess 
 Byzantine Warrior and Major Domus 
 Byzantine Medal 
 Cabot on the Shores of Labrador — E. Bayard 
 Cabot, Sebastian 
 Cassar Crossing the Rhine 
 Caesar Crossing the Rubicon 
 CsBSar, Julius 
 
 Cassar, Julius, (Equestrian) 
 Calhoun, John C 
 Caligula, Coin of 
 Calvin, John 
 
 Cambyses Kills the Sacred Bull — H. Vogel 
 Cannae, Battle of 
 Cannon of the 16th Century, 
 Cannon, Old Swedish Leather 
 Cannon, Swiss Mountain 
 Capitol at Washington . 
 Capitoline Wolf . 
 Carlyle, Thomas 
 Carpenter's Hall, Philadelphia 
 Carthage, The Taking of 
 
 PAGE 
 
 617 
 768 
 666 
 424 
 683 
 704 
 362 
 930 
 622 
 624 
 371 
 956 
 949 
 605 
 
 849 
 276 
 352 
 829 
 35 
 955 
 
 579 
 757 
 24 
 44 
 653 
 906 
 259 
 
 636 
 157 
 207 
 156 
 895 
 906 
 
 483 
 36 
 837 
 845 
 378 
 568 
 880 
 652 
 246 
 264 
 265 
 262 
 262 
 402 
 403 
 199 
 302 
 199 
 204 
 885 
 220 
 427 
 72 
 174 
 423 
 436 
 413 
 871 
 150 
 773 
 837 
 187 
 
 Carthaginian Fleet, Capture of the, by the 
 
 Romans ..... 
 Casimir the Great Announcing the Statutes of 
 
 Wislica .... 
 Catacombs, Widows of the Martyrs in the 
 Catharine of Aragon Defending herself — L. J. 
 
 Pott . 
 Catherine II., of Russia 
 Calvary Soldier, [Initial) 
 Cedars of Lebanon for the Temple, Hauling the 
 
 — Gustave Dore 
 Chamber of Honors 
 Champliiin, Samuel 
 Charles I. — Van DycJc 
 Charles I., Execution of — C. Maillard 
 Charles 1. in the Battle of Naseby — Emil Bayard 
 Charles II. 
 Charles V. 
 
 Charles X. — Charles Duchesne 
 Charles Martel, . 
 Charles Martel in the Battle of Pollers — Plud- 
 
 demann .... 
 Chase, Salmon P. . . . 
 
 Chateaubriaud — E. Bonjat 
 Chaucer, Geoffrey 
 
 Childebert .... 
 
 China, Great Wall of . 
 Chinese Mandarin 
 Chinese Teacher, 
 
 Cicero ..... 
 Cid Campeador, The, on his Horse, " Babieca " 
 Cid, The, with Donna Ximena orders the 
 
 Burning of a Cadi 
 Cinq Mars and De Thou led to Execution — A 
 
 de Neuville .... 
 Circus Maximus, Chariot Race in the — V. Oheea 
 Circus Maximus, Rome — G. Behlender 
 Citizen and Peasants 
 Citizens Guard, The, Viewing the Beheaded 
 
 Bodies of Counts Egmond and Horn — Louis 
 
 Giillart 
 Clay, Henry 
 Cleveland, Grover 
 Clotilda . 
 Clovis 
 
 Clovis, Murder of the Merovings by — Vierge 
 Coin of 5th Century, Showing Head of Paul 
 Coleridge, Samuel Taylor 
 Colouna and Pope St. Boniface — A. de A'eu 
 
 ville . . . ■ ■ 
 
 Colosseum, Bull fight in the— ^. Wagner 
 Columbus, Christopher . 
 Columbus, Christopher, (Headpiece) . 
 Columbus, Christopher, (Initial) 
 Columbus Died, House where . 
 Columbus, Landing of . 
 Columbus Quelling the Mutiny 
 Commune, Members of the 
 Conde . . . • ■ 
 
 Conradin at Naples, Execution of 
 Constantine, Arch of . 
 Constantino in Battle — A. de Neuville . 
 Constantine, Medal of . 
 Constantinople, Siege of 
 Constantiue the Great, Coin Struck by the Sous 
 
 of 
 
 Cooper, James Penimore, 
 
 Copernicus .... 
 
 Corday, Charlotte, Assassinates Marat 
 
 Lix ..... 
 Corinthian Capital 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 15 
 
 Coriolanus .... 
 
 Cornelia and Gracchi — H. Vogel 
 
 Cossacks Going into War- — Edourd Detaille 
 
 Costume of Citizens 
 
 Costumes, Royal, 1625-1640 . 
 
 Crecy, Battle of — A. de Neuville 
 
 Cromwell, Oliver 
 
 Crusade, Coin Issued during the 
 
 Ci'usade, Knight and Squireduring the First 
 
 Crusade of Children — Gnstave Dore 
 
 Crusade, Preaching the First— 4. de Neuville 
 
 Crusaders Approaching Jerusalem 
 
 Crusaders Entering Constantinople — Gitstave 
 Dore .... 
 
 Crusaders Surprised by Turks — Oustave Dore 
 
 Crystal Palace, The 
 
 Cuneiform Inscription, 
 
 Cyprus, Coin of ... 
 
 Cyrus the Great, 
 
 Cyrus, Tomb of ... 
 
 Dsedalus, {Initial) 
 
 Dandolo on the Way to the Holy Laud 
 
 Dante, . 
 
 Doric Coin .... 
 
 Darius II. ... . 
 
 Darius, Grave of, near Persepolis — Flandin 
 
 Darwin, Charles 
 
 Davis, Jefferson 
 
 Decimating a Mutinous Regiment 
 
 Declaration of Independence, Signatures to 
 the .... 
 
 Declaration of Independence, Signing the 
 
 Declaration of Independence was Written 
 House in which the 
 
 Demosthenes, 
 
 Deputy of the Council of Five Hundred and 
 Members of the Directory in Gala Cos- 
 tumes .... 
 
 Derflinger, George 
 
 Diana, (Arte^nis) 
 
 Diaz, Porfirio .... 
 
 Dickens, Charles 
 
 Disraeli, Benjamin, Lord Beaconsfleld 
 
 Doric Capital .... 
 
 Dorylseum, Battle of — Gustave Dore 
 
 Douglas, Stephen A. . 
 
 Drake, Sir Francis, in Central America 
 
 Druid Priest Offering Human Sacrifice in the 
 Sacred Grotto — A- de Neuville 
 
 Dryden, John .... 
 
 Duke, Page, and Nobleman, 
 
 Diippel Redoubts, Storming the 
 
 Dutch Man of War, Seventeenth Century 
 
 Eagle, Imperial (Readpiece) 
 
 Eastern Khan, An 
 
 Eastern Shepherd {Initial) 
 
 Eberhardll. .... 
 
 Edward, the Black Prince 
 
 Egypt, Erection of Public Buildings in An 
 cient .... 
 
 Egyptian King and Courtier . 
 
 Egyptian King in War Chariot, aud Warriors 
 
 Egyptian Priest, and Man and Woman of Low 
 Caste 
 
 Egyptian Q.ieen and Ladies 
 
 Egyptian War Chariot • 
 
 Elba, The Return {rom—C. Delort 
 
 Elephanta, Entrance to Caves of 
 
 Eleusinian Feast 
 
 Eliot, George 
 
 Elizabeth 
 
 PAGE 
 
 159 
 
 189 
 769 
 584 
 472 
 353 
 484 
 306 
 300 
 311 
 295 
 304 
 
 309 
 
 301 
 
 686 
 
 37 
 
 268 
 
 68 
 
 70 
 
 75 
 
 307 
 
 336 
 
 102 
 
 112 
 
 136 
 
 740 
 
 907 
 
 475 
 
 842 
 841 
 
 842 
 124 
 
 580 
 502 
 78 
 952 
 654 
 772 
 125 
 297 
 924 
 459 
 
 201 
 649 
 341 
 706 
 490 
 659 
 74 
 29 
 343 
 354 
 
 55 
 97 
 49 
 
 143 
 
 49 
 
 76 
 653 
 434 
 
 Elizabeth Signing the Death Warrant — A.Liez 
 
 enmayer .... 
 
 Emerson, Ralph Waldo 
 Endicott, John ... 
 
 Englishman aud Fleming, 1640 
 Epaminondas .... 
 Epaminondas Saving the Life of Pelopidas- 
 
 H. Vogel .... 
 Ephesus, Coin of . . . 
 
 Ephesus, The Temple of Diana at 
 Era of Revolutions and Restorations, The 
 Ericsson, John 
 Fabius, Quintus 
 Farragut, Admiral David G. 
 Farragut Enters Mobile Bay . 
 Farragut's Fleet Passing Forts Jackson and 
 
 St. Philip .... 
 Feteof Reason, The— Jl/. Miiller 
 Fichte, J. G. . 
 Filmore, Millard 
 Flaminius, Titus Q. Proclaiming Liberty to 
 
 the Greeks — H, Vogel 
 Florence, Gem of . . . 
 
 Francis I. . . . . 
 
 Francis Joseph I, . . . 
 
 Prankish King and Queen, 
 Franklin, Benjamin 
 Frederick III. .... 
 Frederick Barbarossa, Death of, in the Caly 
 
 Cadmus — H. Vogel 
 Frederick Charles of Prussia, Prince 
 Frederick 11.. in Palermo. Death of Emperor 
 
 —A. Zick .... 
 Frederick II., Statue of 
 Frederick William IV., in Berlin, Oct. 15, 
 
 1840 — Franz Kriiger 
 Frederick William of Prussia, Crown Prince 
 French at Cadiz, The — Paid Delarocke 
 French Citizens 
 
 French Empire, Dissolution of, (Initial) 
 French Generals 
 French Guard, Officer and Musketeer of 
 
 the .... 
 
 French Infantry in Battle 
 French Knight aud Squire 
 French Lady and Gentleman . 
 French' Nobility in Court Costume 
 French Revolution, The, {^Headpiece) . 
 French Revolution, The, {Initial) 
 Fulton, Robert 
 Galileo before the Tribunal 
 Gambetta, Leon 
 Garfield, James A. 
 
 Garibaldi at Marsala, Landing of — G. Broling 
 Garrison, William Lloyd 
 Gauls in Rome, The 
 General, Light Infantry Officer and Infantry 
 
 man .... 
 
 George IV. .... 
 
 German Citizen's Dress 
 German Drummer and Color Bearer . . 
 German Duke and Ladies 
 German Funeral Sacrifice — W. Lindensehmidt 
 Germania Monument on the Niederwald 
 (ierman Knight, Family of 
 German Knight, Superior of the Order of and 
 
 Brother of the Sword 
 German Landsknechts 
 German Landsknechts 
 German Landsknechts, Major and Lieutenant 
 
 of 
 
 422 
 
16 
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 German Revolution, 1848 — Meeting of the 
 
 Parliament . . . . 
 
 Germans into Orleans, Entrance of the — L. 
 
 Braun ..... 
 
 German Standard Bearer and Roman General 
 German Victory Feast after Battle — H. Vogel 
 German Weiler or Home 
 German Women Defending their Wagon CaS' 
 
 ties — A. de Neuville 
 German Inhabitant of at the Beginning o 
 
 Our Era .... 
 Germany, Inhabitants of, during the 3rd and 
 
 4th Centuries 
 Gettysburg, Battle of . 
 Gladiator, Dead, Hauled to the Spoliarium — 
 
 A. Wagner 
 Gladitorial Combat — A. Wagner 
 Gladiators 
 
 Gladstone, William Ewart 
 Godfrey Bouillon 
 Goldsmith, Oliver 
 Gordon, C. E. . 
 Grant, Ulysses S. 
 Great Elector at Fehrbellin, The 
 Great Elector, The 
 Greek Altar, Relief from 
 Greek Boat, Forty-Oared 
 Greek Generals 
 Greek Priestess and Ladies 
 Greek Symposium, A . 
 Greek Theatres, Tragic Figures of 
 Greek Women, Types of 
 Greek Writing, Early . 
 Greeley, Horace 
 Greene, Nathaniel 
 
 Gregory VIL, Hildebrand the Great 
 Guerriere by the Constitution, Capture of the 
 Guise, Murder of the Duke of — Vierge 
 Guizot .... 
 Gustavus Adolphus — A. Van Dych 
 Gustavus Adolphus at Liitzen, Death of — A 
 
 de Neuville . 
 Gustavus Vasa . 
 Hadrian 
 
 Hadrian, Coins of 
 Hadrian, Mausoleum of 
 Hamilton, Alexander 
 Hannibal 
 
 Hannibal Crossing the Alps 
 Hannibal, Stratagem of 
 Harrison, Benjamin 
 Harrison, William Henry 
 Haruspex Officiating 
 Hawthorne, Nathaniel 
 Hayes, Rutherford B. 
 Headpiece (Ornamental) 
 Hebrew Shekel . 
 Helots 
 Henry II. 
 Henry IV., Entrance of, into Paris, March 22 
 
 1594 — Frangois Gerard 
 Henry VIII. 
 Henry, Patrick 
 Hercules, The Farnese 
 Heretics, Burning — A. de Neuville 
 Heretics, Execution of, 16th Century — A. de 
 
 Neuville 
 Hermann 
 
 Hermes of Praxiteles 
 Herod, Mites of 
 Herodotus — Visconti 
 
 Herodotus Reading his History — H. Leuiemann 
 
 675 Hieroglyphic Writing 
 
 Hindu Representation of the Universe 
 
 732 Hindus, Low Caste ... 
 
 236 History, Recent 
 
 215 Hofer, Andreas, on the Isel Hill — Franz De 
 218 fregger 
 
 Homer .... 
 
 193 Horatii Going Forth to Battle, The 
 
 Houston, Samuel 
 
 191 Hudson, Henry . 
 
 Hudson, Henry, in North River 
 
 248 Hugo, Victor 
 
 913 Humboldt, Alexander von 
 Huns at Aquileja 
 
 186 Huns, The 
 
 234 Hussar Cavalryman and Infantryman 
 
 193 Huss before the Council at Constance — C F. 
 
 776 von Leasing . 
 
 302 Iconoclasts, The — A- de Neuville 
 
 651 Image of Confucius 
 
 795 Inca Emperor, An 
 
 914 Independence Hall 
 
 501 Indian, American, (Initial) 
 
 502 Indian Attack . 
 
 79 Indulgences, Traffic in — Hans Holbein 
 103 Initial T. 
 102 Inquisition, The Holy . 
 
 22 Ionic Capital 
 
 117 Iphigenea Led to Diana's Altar as a Sacrifice 
 
 120 Irving, Washington 
 
 122 Isabella II. 
 
 86 Isly, Battle of, 1844 
 
 897 Issus, Battle of . 
 
 850 Italian Scholars and German W 
 
 298 Ivan in Kasan 
 
 868 Ivan the Terrible, The Death of—llakowsky 
 
 446 Jackson, Andrew 
 
 670 Jackson, Stonewall 
 
 473 James I. 
 
 James II. 
 
 475 Jamestown, Settlers at . 
 
 435 Jay, John 
 
 226 Jefferson, Thomas 
 
 226 Jerusalem, Destruction of 
 
 227 Jerusalem, Roman Soldiers Firing the Temple 
 857 Jerusalem, Seals of Kings of . 
 
 171 Jerusalem, Seal Used by Women of 
 
 173 Jewish High Priest and Levites 
 
 175 Jewish King and Warriors 
 
 931 Jewish Shekel .... 
 
 876 Joan of Arc, Monument to, in Rouen 
 
 149 Joan of Arc Wounded at Orleans—^, de Neu 
 
 896 ville . 
 
 927 John at Maupertais, Capture of King — A.de 
 
 619 Neuville 
 
 144 John of Brienne, Seal of 
 93 Johnson, Andrew 
 
 421 Johnson, Samuel 
 
 John Swears Vengeance against the Barons — 
 455 A.de Neuville— 
 
 428 Jonson, Ben 
 
 835 Josephine — E. Bonjat . 
 
 82 Juno, (Hera) — Ludovisi ■ 
 
 432 Jupiter .... 
 
 Kant, J. . . • . 
 
 449 Karl the Bald, Kins . 
 
 214 Karl the Great— Albreeht Diirer 
 
 80 Karl the Great, Coronation of— i^. A. Kaulback 
 
 145 Karl the Great Crossing the Alps— Paw? 
 124 ■ Delaroche . . . . • 
 
 278 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 17 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Karl the Great, Manuscript and Signature of . 280 
 
 Karnak, Ruins at .... 17 
 
 Karnak, Temple of Chesuu at . . 43 
 
 Katzbach, Battle of . . . . 621 
 
 Keats, John ..... 649 
 
 Knight before a Castle, (Initial) . . 275 
 
 Knight, Duke, and Knight Templar, . . 322 
 
 Knight in Full Armor and Lady . . 344 
 
 Knight in Full Armor and Lady . . 350 
 
 Knight in Full Armor and Lady . . 372 
 
 Knights Templar .... 312 
 
 Kosciuszko ..... 553 
 
 Kossuth, Louis ..... 678 
 
 Lafayette . . • • 846 
 
 Lake Dwellers, The — John Gehrts ■ ■ 25 
 
 Landau,Captureof Austrian Batteries at,- Fj>f(/e 500 
 
 Laocoon Groop ..... 128 
 
 Laodieea, Coin of ... . 221 
 
 Lares and Penates, Sacrificing to the — H. Vogel 79 
 
 Last Call fo Arms, The — Franz Defregger ■ 610 
 Law Scroll, Ancient . . . .94 
 Lee, Robert E. . - . . .910 
 LeoXni., Pope, . . . .748 
 
 Leon, Ponce de . . . . . 788 
 
 Leopold I., of Belgium — Wimie ■ ■ 662 
 
 Leopold, Prince ..... 726 
 Lepanto, The Battle of . . . .440 
 
 Lesseps, Ferdinand de . . . . 695 
 
 Lief Eric Disco%'ers Vinland . . . 287 
 
 Lincoln, Abraham .... 905 
 Lissa, Austrian Man-of-War, Ferdinand Max, 
 
 at the Battle of . . . .719 
 
 Lissa, Battle of . . . . . 718 
 
 Livingstone, David .... 742 
 
 London, The Tower of .... 366 
 
 Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, . • 896 
 Lorraine, Cardinal, Receiving the Head of Col- 
 
 igny ..... 453 
 
 Louis II., at Mohacs, Finding the Body of . 382 
 
 Louis XII. in Battle — A. de Neuville . ■ 373 
 
 Louis XIV. at the Age ot 41 . . . 499 
 Louis XVI. . . . . .557 
 
 Louis XVI., Execution of — Vierge . . 567 
 Louis XVIII.— £. Eonjat . . .626 
 
 Louis XVllI., into Paris, Entry of . . 625 
 
 Louis Philippe — Winiherihaler ■ . 661 
 Louis Philippe, Fieschi's Attempt on the Life 
 
 oi—F. Lix . . . . .667 
 
 Louis, St., before Damietta — Gusiave Dore . 313 
 
 Louis, St., Death of — A. de Neuville . . 315 
 
 Louis the Great in battle — A.deNenville . 381 
 
 Loyola, Ignatius ... . 439 
 
 Lucullus, A Supper at . . . . 197 
 
 Luther, Martin .... 407 
 
 Macaulaj', Thomas Babiugton . . . 653 
 
 Maccabeus, Shekel of Simon . . . 144 
 
 Macdouough on Lake Champlaiu . . 872 
 
 Macedonian Coin .... 127 
 
 Macedonian Phalanx, The . . . 129 
 
 Machiavelli ..... 377 
 
 MacMahon, Mar.shall .... 756 
 
 Madison, James .... 867 
 Magnesia, Battle of . . . .182 
 
 Malakoff, Storming the— iS. Knoetel . . 693 
 
 Manfred, Death of ... . 328 
 
 Manhattan, Dutch Traders at . . 797 
 
 Man with the Iron Mask, The — Vierge . 391 
 
 Marie Antoinette .... 558 
 
 Marie Antoinette Led to Execution — De la Boche 572 
 
 Marie Louise, ..... 614 
 
 Marion, General Francis . . • 850 
 
 2 
 
 Marquette and Joliet Discovering the Missis 
 
 sippi .... 
 
 Marshall, Chief Justice John 
 Mais-la-Tour, Battle of — Emil Huenien 
 Marston Moor, Battle of — Emil Bayard 
 Mary Stuart .... 
 Mary Stuart Infor?ned of her Impending Exe 
 
 cntion — C- V- Piloly 
 Mary Tndor .... 
 Maximilian .... 
 
 Mayflower, The 
 Meade, General George 1 1 . 
 Mecca, The Kaaba and Mosque at 
 Medean and Persian Nobles 
 Medeau Xoble, ... 
 
 Medifeval Knight 
 Mehemet Ali Pasha — Couder 
 Melanchthon, Philip — Albrecht Diirer 
 Menephtah I., Pharaoh of the Exodns 
 Metellus in Greece ... 
 
 Metternich, (Headpiece) 
 Metternich, Prince 
 Michael Angelo Buonarot I i 
 Middle Ages, The, (Headpiece) 
 Migration of Nations, (Initial) 
 Miltiades .... 
 
 Milton Dictating "Paradise Lost " to his 
 
 Daughters — M. 3Iunkacst/ . 
 Milton, ifohu .... 
 Miraheanin the Assembly — A. de Neuville 
 Modern Age, The 
 
 Mohammed .... 
 
 Mohammed II. Crossing the Dardanelles — H. 
 
 Vogel .... 
 
 Mohammed, Signature of 
 Moltke ..... 
 Monitor and the Merrimac, The 
 Monroe, James 
 
 Montcalm .... 
 
 Montesquieu .... 
 Montgomery, Death of General — Benjamin 
 
 West .... 
 
 Moore, Thomas 
 Moorish Kings 
 More, Thomas, Taking Leave of his Daughter 
 
 —A. Ziek .... 
 Morse, Prof. Samuel F. B. 
 Moscow, Burning of, Grand Army leaving 
 
 Kremlin — 0. Delort 
 Mukhtar Pasha 
 Murat at Eylau— C Delort 
 Murat, Marshal 
 
 Mylse, Battle of . . . 
 
 Mythological Characters 
 Napoleon I. — Chattillon 
 Napoleon, Abdication of 
 Napoleon after Waterloo, Flight of — A. C. Gow 
 Napoleon Bonaparte, (Headpiece) 
 Napoleon Bonaparte, (Initial) . 
 Napoleon, Last Days of 
 Napoleon III. .... 
 Napoleon III. in Battle of Solferino — E. Meis 
 
 S07iier .... 
 
 Nanmachia, or Mock Sea Fight, A. — ^4. Wagner 
 Nebuchadnezzar 
 Nelson, Admiral Lord 
 Nelson at Trafalgar 
 Nero ..... 
 New Hampshire, First Printing Press in 
 Newton, Sir Isaac, 
 Ney, Marshal 
 
18 
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Nicholas I. 
 
 Nicholas, Grand Duke 
 
 Nicopolis, Battle of 
 
 Nile, Battle of the 
 
 Noblemaa and Officer . 
 
 Noblemen, 1625-1G40 . 
 
 Noble Women and English Duchess 
 
 Norman Ladies and Nobleman 
 
 Norman Ship 
 
 Notre Dame, Paris, Cathedral of 
 
 O'Conuell, Daniel 
 
 Octavius, The Young 
 
 Oglethorpe, James 
 
 Olympian Games 
 
 Olympian Victor, Priest and King 
 
 Omar, the Great, into Jerusalem, Entry of — 0. 
 
 F. Beutscher . 
 Ops ... . 
 
 Palmerston, Lord 
 Paraguay Indian 
 
 Paris, Allied forces on the Road to 
 Paris, February Revolution in, 1848 — B. Adam 
 
 and J. Arnoiit 
 Paris, The June Revolution in, 1848 
 Pavia, The Battle of . 
 Peabody, George 
 
 Peasants, The Revolt of the — L. Herierich 
 Peel, Sir Robert 
 Penn's Treaty with the Indian; 
 Penn, William . 
 Pericles 
 P^rier, Casimir 
 Perry's Victory on Lake Erie 
 Persepolis, The Ruins of 
 Perseus, Coin of 
 Persian Coin, Ancient . 
 Persian Noble and Warriors 
 Pestalozzi, J. H. 
 
 Pharoah's Army, Drowning of — Oustave Dore 
 Pharsalia, Battle of 
 Philip, Death of King 
 Phoenician Coin, Early 
 Plioenician Fleet — Paul PJiiUoppoteazix 
 Phoenician Scene at Court — Paul Phillojjpoteaux 
 Pierce, Franklin 
 Pilgrims at Plymouth, The 
 Pilgrims Receiving Massasoit 
 Pius VII.— £. Eonjat ■ 
 Pius IX., Pope 
 Plato, 
 Pluto 
 
 Plymouth Rock, 
 
 Pocahontas Saving the Life of Captain Smith 
 Poe, Edgar Allan 
 Poland, Division of, (Headpiece) 
 Polish Outbreak in 1861, The . 
 Polk, James K. ... 
 
 Pompadour, Marquis de 
 Pompeii, Destruction of — H. Le Potix 
 Pompey 
 
 Pope, Alexander 
 Popes in Ornate and House Costume, and 
 
 Papal Guard 
 Porus, Defeat of, by the Macedonians 
 Praitorian Guards 
 
 Prfetorian Guards, Revolt ot^ — H. Leutmnann 
 Prague, The Golden 
 Prelates Pastime, A — Ferd. Kriller 
 Printing Presses, Destruction of First 
 Ptolemy I., Coin of 
 Ptolemy II., Coin of . 
 
 PAGE 
 
 648 
 766 
 
 478 
 364 
 288 
 285 
 597 
 645 
 206 
 809 
 
 269 
 150 
 688 
 956 
 623 
 
 672 
 
 673 
 
 417 
 
 783 
 
 411 
 
 644 
 
 825 
 
 823 
 
 110 
 
 755 
 
 869 
 
 73 
 
 183 
 
 68 
 
 99 
 
 540 
 
 57 
 
 203 
 
 819 
 
 51 
 
 51 
 
 50 
 
 904 
 
 813 
 
 812 
 
 585 
 
 668 
 
 118 
 
 77 
 
 811 
 
 801 
 
 895 
 
 543 
 
 697 
 
 876 
 
 556 
 
 228, 229 
 
 195 
 
 408 
 139 
 219 
 237 
 342 
 333 
 396 
 141 
 143 
 
 Putnam, Israel 
 
 Pydna, Battle of 
 
 Pyramids at Gizeh 
 
 Pyramids, Battle of the — F. Lix 
 
 Pyramids, Building of the — G. Eichier 
 
 Pythia on the Tripod, The 
 
 Quadriga, Triumphal 
 
 Quebec, First Settlement at 
 
 Kadetz, Radetzky de 
 
 Raleigh, Sir Walter 
 
 Regulus Departs into Captivity 
 
 Revolutionary Figure, (Initial) 
 
 Rheims, Cathedral at 
 
 Rhodes, Coin of 
 
 Rhodes, Didrachm of . 
 
 Richard, Cffiur de Lion 
 
 Richard I., Cceur de Lion, Orders the Execu- 
 tion of 2000 Saracenic Hostages — A. de 
 Neuville .... 
 
 Richelieu, Cardinal — Ph. de Champagne 
 
 Richelieu, Cardinal and Father Joseph — A. de 
 Neuville 
 
 Rizzio, Murder of David 
 
 Robespierre 
 
 Robespierre Wounded in the Hall of the As' 
 sembly — F. Lix 
 
 Roland, Madame 
 
 Roman Aqueduct 
 
 Roman Ballista 
 
 Roman Boarding Bridge 
 
 Roman Catacombs 
 
 Roman Centuriou . . . 
 
 Roman Chair of State . 
 
 Roman Chariot Race — A. Wagner 
 
 Roman Daggers 
 
 Roman Dancing Woman 
 
 Roman Denarius 
 
 Roman Denarius or " Penny " 
 
 Roman Emperor and Courtiers 
 
 Roman Forum . 
 
 Roman Gladiator, (Initial) 
 
 Roman Lady and Slave 
 
 Roman Lictor, Emperor, and Noble 
 
 Roman Maidens, Captive, Serving Barbarians 
 — A . de Neuville 
 
 Roman Pontiff and German Emperor 
 
 Roman School, Old 
 
 Roman Soldiers Attacking a City 
 
 Roman Standard, Eagle ou 
 
 Roman Standards 
 
 Roman Town, Storming and Sacking a 
 
 Roman Triumph, A 
 
 Roman Warriors 
 
 Roman Warriors 
 
 Rome, The Colosseum at 
 
 Rome, Plan of, (Time of Augustus) 
 
 Romulus and Remus, (Headpiece) 
 
 Romulus Augustulus and Odoacer — B. Morling 
 
 Roncesvalles, Battle in the Valley of — H. Vogel 
 
 Rudolph of Hapsburg, Equestrian Statue of 
 
 Ruskin, John .... 
 
 Russia, On the Road to — E. 3Ieissonier 
 
 Russia, The Return from 
 
 Sabine Women, Rape of the 
 
 Sadowa — W. von Camphausen 
 
 St. Augustine, Old Spanish Gate at 
 
 St. John, Knight of . 
 
 St. John, Ladies of the Order of 
 
 St. John's Hospital, Seal of the Knights of 
 
 Saix, Death of Marshal de 
 
 Saladin ..... 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 19 
 
 Salamis, Return of the Greeks from 
 
 Samson Slaying the Philistines — Ousiave Dore 
 
 -Saracenic Arms 
 
 Saracenic Emblem, (Headpiece) 
 
 Saragossa, The Siege of — C. Delort 
 
 Sardauapalus, Death of 
 
 Sardis, Coin of . 
 
 Saul, Death of — Oustave Dore . 
 
 Savonarola 
 
 Savonarola, Death of 
 
 Scsevola Mucins, before Persenna — E. Vogel 
 
 Schamyl 
 
 Schill, Ferdinand von . 
 
 Schurz, Carl 
 
 Scipio, Cornelius 
 
 Scott, General Winiield 
 
 Scott, Sir Walter 
 
 Sculpture — Architecture — Painting, [Head 
 
 piece) 
 Sedan, The Ride to the Death at the Battle of 
 
 — E. Heunfen 
 Sedan, The Surrender of, 1871, 
 Seminole AVar, Episode of the 
 Sepoy Leaders in India, Execution of — D. 
 
 Weishaiipt . 
 Sepulchre, Coin Showing the Holy 
 Seven Days' War, An Incident in — W. Camp 
 
 hausen 
 Sevard, William H. 
 Shakspeare, William 
 Shalmaneser, from Nineveh, Obelisk of 
 Shekel, A Half 
 Shelley, Percy Bysshe 
 Sheridan, General Phil H. 
 Sheridan's Ride from Winchester 
 Sherman, General William T. 
 Sherman, John 
 Sidney. Sir Philip 
 Sinope, Battle of 
 Smith, Captain John 
 Sobieski, John 
 
 Socrates . . . . 
 
 Socrates, Death of — David 
 Soldiers, 1630 to 1650 . 
 Solomon, Kiuj; — Gustave Dore 
 Solomon, Temple of 
 Solomon 1., the Splendid 
 Solon and Lycurgus — [Headpiece) 
 Solon Dictating his laws — H. Vogel 
 Sophia, Santa . 
 Soto, Burial of de 
 Soto, Ferdinand de 
 -Soudanese War, The 
 Spanish Galleas of the 16th Century 
 Spartacus, Death of — H. Vogel 
 Spenser, Edmund 
 Stanislaus I., of Poland 
 Stanley, Henry M. 
 Stanton, Edwin M. 
 Stephen, Baptism of St., by Pope Sylvester II 
 
 — Benczur Gyula 
 Stephens, Alexander H. 
 Stephenson, George 
 Stilicho Parleying with the Goths 
 Stoic Philosopher 
 Stone Age, Men during the 
 Stone Age, The 
 Stowe, Mrs. H. B. 
 Stuyvesaut, Peter 
 Suleiman Pasha 
 Sumner, Charles 
 
 PAGE 
 
 106 
 59 
 242 
 243 
 607 
 40 
 101 
 61 
 374 
 375 
 158 
 696 
 612 
 926 
 176 
 878 
 650 
 
 23 
 
 727 
 729 
 877 
 
 302 
 
 717 
 902 
 364 
 64 
 145 
 654 
 919 
 920 
 918 
 928 
 463 
 690 
 802 
 503 
 114 
 116 
 477 
 60 
 62 
 390 
 75 
 95 
 389 
 789 
 788 
 774 
 439 
 196 
 463 
 554 
 743 
 926 
 
 291 
 922 
 741 
 252 
 146 
 24 
 21 
 903 
 798 
 767 
 903 
 
 Swift, Jonathan 
 
 Tallyrand— £;. Eonjat . 
 
 Tarsus, Coin of ... 
 
 Taylor, Zacbary 
 
 Tea in Boston Harbor, Destruction of 
 
 Temple, Rebuilding the — Gustave Dore 
 
 Temple, Seal of the Order of the 
 
 Tennyson, Alfred 
 
 Teutoberger Forest, The Battle in the 
 
 Thackeray, William Makepeace 
 
 Themistocles 
 
 Theodosius 
 
 Tliermopylse, Battle of 
 
 Thiers, A. . . . 
 
 Thirty Years' War, Soldiers in the 
 
 Thomas, General George H. 
 
 Thor .... 
 
 Thoreau, Henry David 
 
 Tiberius, Emperor 
 
 Tiglath-Pileser Storming a Town 
 
 Tigranes, Coin of 
 
 Tilden, Samuel J. 
 
 Tilly Asks for the Surrender of Magdeburg 
 
 Tilly, John von Tzerclas, Count von 
 
 Titus, Head of . 
 
 Todleben, General von 
 
 Trial by Water 
 
 Trojan War, The Heroes of the 
 
 Troops Demand to be Led to Rome — Vierge 
 
 Tryphon, Coin of 
 
 Tyler, John 
 
 Tyre, Coin of 
 
 Tyre, Coin of 
 
 United States, Birds'-Eye View of the 
 
 United States, Map Showing Acquisition of 
 
 Territory 
 Utica, Ancient 
 Van Buren, Martin 
 Vandals in Rome, The — H. Vogel 
 Venus of Milo . 
 
 Vercingetorix Surrenders to Csesar 
 Versailles, The Palace at 
 Versailles, Women on the Road to — F 
 Vespasian, Coiu of 
 Vespasianus, Titus Flavius 
 Vespucci, Amerigo 
 Vestal Virgins, School of the — Hector 
 Victor Emmanuel — Metzmacher 
 Victoria, Queen 
 
 Vienna Congress, 1815, Members of the 
 Vieiina, The Cougress of — H. Vogel 
 Virgil . .• . . 
 
 Virginia, The Dead — H Vogel 
 Voltaire 
 Wallenstein 
 
 Wallenstein, Death of — Charles Piloty 
 Wampanoag Indian 
 Washington Crossing the Delaware 
 Washington, George 
 Washington, George, (Headpiece) 
 Washington on the Hudson 
 Washington Preparing to Cross the Delaware 
 Washington's Inauguration 
 Washington's Home at Mount Vernon 
 Wasp Boarding the Frolic, The 
 Wayne, General Anthony 
 Webster, Daniel 
 .Weinsberg, Siege of 
 Wellington 
 
 Wellington. The Duke of 
 Whitney, Eli, and the Cotton Induistry 
 
 terge 
 
 Le Roux 
 
 PAGE 
 651 
 630- 
 131 
 
 901 
 
 838 
 
20 
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Whittier, John G. . . . 
 
 William I., . 
 
 William, Emperor, before Paris — W. von Camp 
 
 hausen .... 
 
 William I., Emperor, Entering Berlin, 1871 — 
 
 W. von Ccimphausen 
 William I., Equestrian, {Initial) 
 William I. Proclaimed Emperor at Versailles 
 
 — Anton von Werner 
 William II., Emperor 
 William IV. . 
 William IV., Murder of Children of— Otto Seitz 
 William the Conqueror, Statue of, at Palais, 
 
 France — A. de Neuville 
 
 PAGE 
 
 902 
 703 
 
 735 
 683 
 
 731 
 750 
 642 
 365 
 
 Winkleried, Heroic death of Arnold von. at 
 
 the Battle of Sempaeh 
 Winthrop, John 
 Wolfe, Death of General 
 Wolsey, Cardinal Thomas 
 Wooden Horse, The— il. 3Iotte 
 Wrestlers, The — Ftorenz 
 Xenophon, The Return of the Ten Thousand 
 
 under — H. Vogel . 
 Xerxes .... 
 
 Zama, Battle of . . . 
 
 Ziske, John, in Battle . 
 Zriny, from Szigeth, Sally of Count . 
 Zwingli, Death of — Weekener . 
 
 345 
 816 
 833 
 429 
 8.5 
 90 
 
 121 
 103 
 
 179 
 347 
 392 
 414 
 
 MAPS AND PLATES IN COLORS 
 
 FLAGS OF THE NATIONS. 
 MAP OF ANCIENT GREECE. 
 MAP OF MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. 
 
 MAP OF ITALY 
 
 MAP OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 
 
 MAP OF EUROPE DURING THIRTY YEARS WAR. 
 
 MAP OF EUROPE DURING REIGN OF NAPOLEON I. 
 
 20 and 21 
 
 75/ 
 127' 
 147. 
 210 y 
 466*^ 
 
 y 
 
^^^M^W9' 
 
 T^ 
 
 COSTA hilCA 
 
 URUGUAY 
 
 PERU. WAR FLAG 
 
 MOROCCO 
 
 HONDURAS 
 
 FLAGS OF 
 
PORTUGAL 
 
 FLAGS 
 
 COMMERCIAL cooe 
 
 ROUMANIA 
 
 THE NATIONS 
 
GREEK PRIESTESS AND LADIES. (pp. 22.) 
 
SCULPTURE — ARCHITECTURE — PAINTING. 
 
 -Primeval Man. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 §1- 
 
 FTER God had in the beginning created heaven and 
 earth, (so runs the book of Genesis) had adorned the 
 heavens with sun, moon, and stars, clothed the eartli 
 with vegetation and filled it with living creatures, he 
 created man in his own image and appointed him, by 
 endowing him with intelligence and speech, to be 
 the Lord of the whole earth. 
 
 Pure and strong in body and in soul, continues 
 Holy writ, the first pair came from tlie creator's hand: 
 and they lived in Paradise, their original home, a life 
 of innocent happiness, until tempted by the serpent, 
 they tasted of the forbidden tree of knowledge, and 
 for their disobedience of the divine command lost 
 their unconscious purity and their state of blessed- 
 ness. 
 
 Adam and Eve* with all their posterity were 
 henceforth doomed to live a life of toil and hardship, " to eat their bread in the sweat 
 of their face." The vehement impulses of a wild and untamed nature plunged the 
 young races deeper and deeper into sin and error, until at last, a great flood (the 
 deluge) swept the human family from the earth, sparing none but Noah and his 
 family, who saved themselves and many animals besides, in an ark. 
 
 Noah's posterity, biblical tradition informs us further, increased so rapidlj^ that 
 the later races, derived from his three sons, Shem, Ham, and Japhet were compelled 
 to seek for homes in the neighboring lands. There they began to build the tower 
 of Babel, the top of which was to reach the sky and be for tliem an everlasting sign. 
 
 This presumptuous enterprise God brought to nothing by confounding their 
 speech and thus separating them from each other. The}' migrated to the four quar- 
 ters of the earth, peopled the three continents, Asia, Africa, and Europe, grouping 
 
 (23) 
 
24 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 themselves, according to their different languages, into tribes and nations. To this 
 
 geographical distribution of the human family may be ascribed the corporeal differences 
 
 that appeared in the course of time. Especially noticeable are differences in the color 
 
 of the skin and the form of the head : hence 
 
 the division into three great trunk races, the 
 
 white (Caucasian), the yellow (Mongolian)? 
 
 the black (Ethiopian), and two branch races, 
 
 the dark brown (Malaj^), and the copper-colored 
 
 (American). The latter, however, may be 
 
 regarded as sub-divisions of one and the same 
 
 race, seeing that the Unity of humanity (as a 
 
 distinct species) is maintained by science also. _^ 
 
 MEN DURING THE STONE AGE. 
 
 2. — Peimeval Modes of Life. 
 
 § 2, As the habitations of men differed, so too 
 
 their modes of life and their occupations. The 
 
 inhabitants of steppes and deserts, where fertile 
 
 spots for pasture were to be found only here 
 
 and there, devoted themselves to pastoral life 
 
 and moved as Nomads with their tents and 
 
 herds from place to place, changing their abode 
 
 with the seasons. These Nomads were the first 
 
 to tame and to train animals, to discover the value of their wool and hides as clothing, 
 
 and of their milk and flesh as food. They employed them too in various forms of 
 
 labor. 
 
 The inhabitants of the plains learned the 
 arts of agriculture and of peace. But the rough 
 and hardy mountaineer gave himself up to hunt- 
 ing, or urged by violent and powerful impulses, 
 .found delight in strife and war. 
 
 The former united to his tilling of the soil 
 the life of the herdsman and in the course of time 
 distinguished the private acre from the tribal land 
 and secured to each one his property, his field, his 
 hut and his herd by laws and legal rights. Hence 
 the pursuit of agriculture has been designated as 
 the great gateway to society. The settlers along 
 the sea-shore and the river banks discovered soon 
 the advantages of their situation. They carried on 
 navigation and commerce, acquired jDroperty and 
 riches, and built for themselves beautiful dwelling 
 houses and cities. Meanwhile the inhabitants of 
 the more inhospitable coasts eked out by fishing 
 
 a joyless existence. Commerce, and the intercourse of races, resulting from it, 
 
 was a powerful stimulus to the progress of mankind. The inhabitants of fruitful 
 
 plains and richly watered valleys carried on an inland trade ; the inhabitants of the 
 
 MEN DTTRING THE BRONZE AGE. 
 
26 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 sea-coast a trade by ships. To the former belonged the caravan trade of Asia and 
 Africa. 
 
 In the beginning this commerce was all barter (ware for ware) ; but man soon 
 began to prize especially the noble metals, to mint them into coins and to use them as 
 a more convenient medium of exchange. 
 
 The inhabitants of cities invented industries of many sorts, and cultivated 
 arts and sciences thus enriching and beautifying their lives and perfecting the 
 human mind. 
 
 3. — Political Organization — The Caste System. 
 
 § 3. In the course of time, peoples divided into civilized and uncivilized according as 
 disposition and intercourse favored the development of intellectual power or natural 
 obtuseness, and isolation from their fellow men hindered mental progress. The unciv- 
 ilized peoples are either wild hordes, under the control of one chief who possesess abso- 
 lute power of life and death, or wandering Nomadic races under the guidance of a 
 chieftain, who as father of the family, exercises the rights of a prince, judge and high 
 priest. Neither these Nomadic tribes with their patriarchal institutions, nor the wild 
 races that wander in Africa's unknown sand-deserts, in Asia's mountains and steppes 
 and in the primeval forests of America have a place in history. This is concerned 
 only with civilized races, who have united together to found an organized common- 
 wealth and who by morality, by law, and by mutual concessions have reached a peace- 
 ful communal life and intercourse. 
 
 A state organization may be a monarchy, or a republic. Monarchy is where one 
 ruler stands at the head of the government. This single ruler is called, according to 
 the extent of his territory, emperor or king, duke or prince. And his authority passes 
 as a rule according to the law of primogeniture to his nearest heir. 
 
 A republic or free state is one where the authority resides in an elected magistracy 
 consisting of several members. When these magistrates are chosen from a circle lim- 
 ited by birth or wealth, the republic is aristocratic. But when the people, as a whole, 
 make the laws and choose the responsible leaders of the government it is democratic 
 — In many states of antiquity the freedom of the individual was limited by the insti- 
 tution of caste. By this is meant a strict separation of men according to birth, posi- 
 tion, and occupation which passes down from father to son and which iiermits no 
 admixture, and no passage from the one class into the other. The two first castes 
 embraced the priests who alone possessed the knowledge of religious doctrines and 
 usages, of civil laws and customs, and the warriors whose duty was to bear arms and 
 to protect the land. These two divisions shared with the king the right to rule and 
 enjoyed many privileges. The peasants, merchants and artisans formed the third 
 caste and this branched out again into numerous sub-divisions. These caste regula- 
 tions were often the consequence of violent conquests ; hence in most of the caste 
 states there existed a despised class doomed to the meanest occupations, leading a 
 wretched life, and treated by the ruling classes with the utmost contempt. 
 
 India has maintained her system of .caste most rigidly and for the longest time, 
 but Egypt also had caste like separations based upon condition and occupation. 
 
 4. — Religious Life. 
 
 § 4. The manner of life and the political society of antiquity were not more manifold 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 27 
 
 than the religions and the forms of worship. The idea of a personal God, creator, 
 and sustainer of the universe was reached in antiquity only by one small people, the 
 Israelites, who worshiped no other God than the God of their race, Jehovah, i. e. The 
 Eternal One. All other peoples worshiped many gods, adoring either the sun and the 
 celestial bodies or worshiping as divine beings the forces and the elements at work 
 in nature. All polytheistic religions, however much they differ, are included under 
 the term heathenism. The Supreme Being was not thought of as spirit, and wor- 
 shiped in spirit and in truth, but conceived of by the ancients either in human shape, 
 or as particular divinities in which were manifested his different powers and attributes. 
 
 jEOLUS 
 MYTHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS. 
 
 The particular divinities they represented sometimes by gods made of metal, of stone, 
 of wood, of clay. To these were erected temples and altars ; to these were offered 
 sacrifices partly to appease their wrath, partly to obtain their favor, partly to thank 
 them for their beneficent providence. The sacrifices were of many kinds, according 
 to the culture of the people. The Greeks who conceived of their Gods as a nobler 
 kind of human beings instituted for them cheerful festivals. At these they consumed, 
 in friendly society, the offered fruits and the sacrificed animals from the small gift of 
 the firstling of the flock, to the great sacrifice of a hundred oxen called the Hecatomb. 
 
28 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 Tlie barbarous or semi-barbarous peoples stained their altars with liuman sacrifices 
 iiopirig to move the heavenl}^ powers by the greatest and most valuable of gifts, to induce 
 them to be gracious to beseeching mortals or to be reconciled if they were angry. 
 The Phoenician and Syrian tribes laid the dearest that they possessed, even their own 
 children as expiatory ofPerings in the arms of a red-hot idol called " Moloch " — To be 
 sure the idol was intended to be the visible sign of an invisible thought or invisible 
 power, but among the people it lost its higher meaning and they gave their adoration 
 to the lifeless image. Only priests and sages knew this deeper sense, but they did not 
 share it with the people. On tlie contrary, they veiled it in mysteries and cherished it 
 as the private property of their oider. For this purpose they invented many legends, 
 stories, and fables of the gods whom they served, clothed them in poetic forms and 
 thereby founded mythology or the doctrine of the gods. In this the deeds and fates 
 of different divinities and their relations to mankind are represented, not in clear 
 intelligible speech but veiled in enigmatical suggestions, allegorical narratives, and 
 pictorial utterance. A people possessed of creative imagination and inclined to the 
 divine developed naturally a rich mytliology. In these sacred m^'ths is reflected the 
 inner life of the youthful races. They have become therefore a copious source of art 
 and poetry. And although these legends of the gods made the people to abound in 
 superstition, yet their solemn worship with its m3'sterious ceremonies and its symbol- 
 ism in the consecrated spaces of the temple, held the people in awe and in holy dread 
 of the gods. To make their faith jet firmer, the greater temples and more sacred 
 .places were provided with an oracle which kept alive the feeling of the nearness of the 
 gods, and a belief in their interference in the affairs of men. To these the people 
 came in critical moments to obtain knowledge of the future and heljaful advice, 
 which was imparted to them in obscure and ambiguous utterance. Thus the human 
 mind, in its search for divine truth, was continuall}'' led astray and held in bond- 
 age now by blinding ceremonials, now by the worship of a lifeless law; thus the 
 Visible and the Sensual absorbed without satisfying, the yearning of the human heart 
 for the supernatural powers. 
 
 UAOOUANAiJAN i'KsxiVAi.. Froiii ail Attic Sarcophnijus. 
 
A. EASTERN RACES. 
 
 1. ORIENTAL LIFE. 
 
 SIA called from its situation the Orient (Land of 
 the Rising Sun) is the cradle of the human family. 
 The garden of Eden is to be sought among the 
 blooming landscapes that extend along the sheltered 
 slopes of the Himalaya Mountains, " those mighty 
 snow palaces," the pinnacles of which are hidden in 
 the clouds. 
 
 In the East arose first those great States and 
 cities from which other lands have taken a part of 
 their civil institutions, of their religious systems and 
 of their culture. In the East, where the camel lives, 
 " the Ship of the Desert," originated that colossal in- 
 land commerce, the caravan trade, which has exer- 
 cised so marked an influence upon the course of 
 human progress. The difficulties and dangers of long journeys through regions but 
 little known, and much frequented by robber tribes, compelled the oriental merchants 
 to organize themselves into armed bodies and to escort their heavily laden camels and 
 beasts of burden from place to place. These caravans gave occasion for the building 
 of markets and cities, of ware-houses and inns; they brought the dwellers in distant 
 parts into communication with each other, so that with the products of the soil, the 
 culture, the religious usages and the political institutions of different countries were 
 also exchanged. 
 
 In the East originated likewise all the forms of religion ; the belief in one God 
 developed among the Jews, renewed and purified in Christianity and finally so potent 
 in Mohammedanism, and also the heathen religions in all their manifold variety, with 
 their powerful priesthoods, their sacrificial service and their ceremonial life. For the 
 relation of man to the heavenly powers has been for the Oriental a subject of eager 
 and profound study, and has led him to results beyond which no other nation has 
 ever gone. 
 
 (29) 
 
80 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 In the East, however, political life was less manifold than religious, revealing far 
 less variety of constitutions and of governmental forms. 
 
 The Nomads had chieftains who exercised a patriarchal authoritj' ; the Caste- 
 States gave extraordinary privileges and powers to the priest and warrior classes. 
 Both combined to create despotism, the absolute sovereignty of the prince, which 
 endowed the ruler with the patriarchal power of the Nomad chief and the religious 
 sanctity of the Caste-kings. Thus the royal authority in the east reached gradually 
 such a height, that the king was worshiiied as a god. To the despot his subjects ap- 
 peared as slaves, without personal rights or property. The king disposed as he pleased 
 of the gtjods and lives of his subjects. He gave and took, at his own will, and could 
 be approached only upon bended knees. Like the immortal gods he lived in luxury 
 and pleasure, surrounded by servants who performed his commands and satisfied his 
 desires. All the wealth and splendor of the earth was lavished upon him. These 
 forms of government, in which laws and human rights do not exist are without vitality 
 and enduring elements of progress; hence all the eastern states became the prej' of 
 foreign conquerors, their early culture being thereby lost or arrested. 
 
 Tlie nature of the Oriental is inclined rather to contemplative quiet and to enjoy- 
 
 ment than to activity. Consequently the eastern peoples never attained to freedom 
 or to self-government ; on the contrary, they submitted passively to native tyrants 
 or sighed under the yoke of foreign conquerors. By means of their iintellectual 
 
EASTERN RACES. 
 
 31 
 
 powers they reached quickly a certain degree of culture and politico-military civiliza- 
 tion, only to abandon themselves quiokly to idle enjoyment, until they sank gradually 
 into sloth and weakness. This weakness was furthered by the oriental custom of 
 polygamy which undermined the family, the source of all domestic morality, strength 
 and virtue. 
 
 The art of the Orient is wonderful in the colossal dimensions of the buildings and 
 the irresistible patience and perseverance displayed in their completion ; but these 
 lack the harmony and symn^etry and beautiful utility to be found in the works of a 
 free people. The creations of their art and their industry show a skilled handicraft, 
 attained and maintained by the compulsion of caste and guild, rather than creative 
 genius and spontaneous activity. Servitude hung like a leaden weight upon every 
 form of oriental life. 
 2. The Chinese. 
 
 § 6. Tlie Chinese have no part in the life of historj', yet they meet us at its 
 threshold. The development of the human race has followed the daily course of the 
 Sun. In all probability therefore the peoples of the extreme East were the first to 
 emerge from the condition of serai-barbarous tribes. 
 
 The great empire of China, " The celestial middle Kingdom," has been inhabited 
 for thousands of years by a race of Mongolian origin, which possesses unchanged the 
 culture and the institutions of hoary antiquity. In China everything is regulated by 
 ancient laws and forms ; there freedom is unknown. This lack of a progressive devel- 
 opment is due partly to the persistent character of the people which clings to the ac- 
 customed and tlie inherited; partly to the isolation of the kingdom from other nations, 
 because of mountains, seas, and the great Chinese wall, nearlj' 1500 miles in length; 
 partly to the exclusion of foreigners from the realm and partly to its political institu- 
 tions. 
 
 For the Emperor, " The Son of the 
 Sky," the sacred Lord, the divinely re- 
 vered sovereign, is possessed of unlim- 
 ited authority, so that he and his man- 
 darins, a numerous body of privileged 
 scholars and oiBcials, hold the enslaved, 
 despised, and oppressed people firmly to 
 the ancient customs and prevent all in- 
 novation. The Chinese thus deprived || 
 of the experiences of foreign nations 
 have fallen behind them in general cul- 
 ture, although they were acquainted 
 ages ago with the compass, gun powder, 
 the art of printing, and althougli they 
 have displayed at all times a wonderful 
 industry and laboriousness. Even their 
 industrial art cannot compare with that 
 of the western nations in spite of their ^'^'''^■'^ mandarin. 
 
 early invention of writing-materials, their early manufacture of porcelain, their skill 
 in weaving silks, and in tlie carving of wood and ivory. Agriculture, which stands 
 
32 
 
 THE ANCIENT AVQRLD. 
 
 CHINESE TEACHER. 
 
 under the immediate protection of the Emperor (who tills and ploughs himself a par- 
 ticular piece of land) is the oldest and most honored occupation ; it constitutes the 
 organizing and ennobling element in the life of the Chinese State and people. Next 
 to the corn and rice-fields, tea and silk-culture are the 
 pride of the land and the source of great wealth. Silk 
 culture is under the immediate care of the empress. 
 Chinese education aims not at the development of in 
 tellectual powers but at the learning of what the fore- 
 fathers knew and jsractised, and of what serves to pro- 
 duce civic virtue, obedience to the laws, reverence for 
 magistrates and parents. 
 
 The education, government and habits of the Chi- 
 nese render them cowardlj^ and inactive and rob them 
 of all sense of honor and of strength. Yet they have 
 the utmost conceit of their superiority, regarding all 
 other nations with arrogant contempt. Their written 
 language, consisting not of letters but of symbols or 
 pictures is so difficult and clumsy that many years are 
 required to learn to read it merel}-. As lawgiver and 
 founder of their religion, of their civil and social in- 
 stitutions the Chinese revere an ancient sage 
 Confucius, (Kong-fu-tse) who collected the 
 early teachings, laws, histories and traditions of 
 tonf„ii„s the people, arranged them into 
 500 jB. c. a sj'stem and thus gave to an- 
 cient custom fixedness and strength. 
 3. The Hindus. 
 
 § 7. Southwards fi-oni the snow covered 
 heights of the Himalayas stretches a fruitful, 
 ^ favored land with a temperate climate ; a land 
 ^ rich in precious products of every kind, and 
 traversed by the Indus, the Ganges and other 
 mighty rivers. Hei'e the Indians or the Hindus 
 have dwelt from immemorial time, and their 
 ancient greatness is attested by many bnildings 
 yet extant, ruins of cities and of temples, by 
 wonderful monuments in Scripture and in 
 stone, and by countless historical reminiscences. 
 The Hindus ^vere descendants of the Ar- 
 3'ans, who migrated from the highlands of 
 Thibet and subdued the less powerful aborig- 
 ines of the southern countrj-. As long as they 
 dwelt in the land of the five rivers, close to 
 the holy river Sarasvati, the Aryans, divided into many bi'anches, led a pastoral life 
 under the guidance of their chiefs and kings, worshiping the powers of nature with 
 songs and sacrifices. But as they wandered eastwards toward the Ganges and the 
 
 IMAGE OF CONFUCIUS. 
 
EASTERN RACES. 
 
 S3 
 
 Tamouna, they exchanged their primitive customs for the institutions of caste, to 
 which they gave the severest form. The first and most honored caste was the Brah- 
 mans ; these were priests richly endowed with goods, honors and privileges. They 
 were counted holy and inviolable ; could be punished in body for no crime ; were 
 free from taxation, constituted the royal council and held most of the offices. Next 
 to the Brahmans stood the warriors (Kschatrija) who for pay and certain advantages 
 assumed the protection and defence of the land. The peaceful character of the people 
 and the isolation of this land made enemies uncommon and wars unfrequent. Conse- 
 quently the warrior class degenerated and the priests acquired easily the first rank. 
 The kings, however, belonged to the warrior caste. Tillers of the soil, merchants and 
 artisans constituted the third caste ; these despised Vaisja were heavily oppressed by 
 taxes and forced levies 
 and so plundered by of- 
 ficials that in spite of 
 the great fertility of the 
 soil they lived in pov- 
 erty and wretchedness. .'' 
 The slave class, Sudra, — - 
 were excluded from all ~ 
 honors and rights, and 
 could not even have a 
 share in the religion and 
 the sacred books of the 
 Aryan Hindus, which 
 latter called themselves 
 the twice-born. The 
 most despised class in 
 India was the Pariah 
 class, or Tschandala, 
 from whom it is said our Gipsies are descended. These are the dark-skinned posterity 
 of the savage aborigines, who are looked upon by the other Hindus as the offscouring 
 of humanity, and treated by them with profound contempt. They may not dwell in 
 cities, towns, or villages, or even in their vicinity ; whatever they touch, becomes un- 
 clean, and whoever sees one of them, is defiled by the sight. Mixing of caste by mar- 
 riage is strictly forbidden ; any one guilty thereof is cast out as unclean and abandoned 
 to contumely. This rigid division into castes, which was upheld by the Brahmans 
 as a divine arrangement of society, hindered all further progress and arrested the early 
 culture of the race. 
 § 8. Religion, Literature, Art. 
 
 The Hindus believed in a divine first being, from whom the visible and invisible 
 world have proceeded, and to which they will, after long periods of time, return. The 
 centre of their religion was the doctrine of the transmigration of souls and of regener- 
 ation. According to this doctrine the human soul has been chained to an earthly body 
 as a penalty ; the goal of human effort must be reunion with the divine soul of the 
 universe. Life on earth is a term of punishment and probation, to be shortened only 
 by holy conduct, by prayer and sacrifice, by penances and purifications. If man 
 
 LOW CASTE HINDUS. 
 
34 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 neglects these holy duties and, falling away from God, sinks deeper into evil, his soul 
 enters after death into the body of a baser creature, to begin anew its weary pilgrim- 
 age. But the soul of the sage, the hero, 
 the penitent ascends through the shining 
 stars toward the eternal spirit whence it 
 came and into which it will be finally ab- 
 sorbed. Man, say the Brahmans, reaches 
 the end of his creation by unbroken coi> 
 templation of the divine and separation 
 from the earthly. Hence they exalted con- 
 templation and reflection above an active 
 life, withdrew themselves from the lower 
 classes, read and pondered the holy scrip- 
 tures of the Veda, inflicted upon them- 
 selves penances and tortures, gave' alms, 
 . performed ablutions, did every sort of 
 ceremonial duty, that they might get 
 ^ nearer to the deity. 
 
 The Brahman may not kill an animal 
 i or injure one, or eat of its flesh, unless it 
 be a sacrifice ; for the soul of a man may 
 dwell in the body of a beast. In the old- 
 est times, when the Hindus still lived in 
 ]«j the land of the five rivers, they worshiped 
 'J'jthe powers that prevailed in nature, Indra 
 I I,' the lord of the sky who governs sunshine 
 •Ajykir and rain with the clouds and the winds, 
 l^^ Varuna the God of the air and many other 
 ^ deities. Alongside these natural deities 
 ' they worshiped quite early a mysterious 
 divine force, called Brahma, which had 
 ,^ power over these nature-gods. After the 
 Hindus gave themselves up to the con- 
 templative life of the Ganges Valley, this 
 idea of Brahma took the first place in the 
 Hindu religion, as the soul of the world, 
 the fountain of all being, Indra and other nature-gods dropping to the rank of world 
 guardians merely. 
 
 About the middle of the sixth century before Christ the doctrine of Prince 
 Buddha "The Awakened" spread through the land. Buddha preached the equality of 
 all human beings, eternal rest in death without a second birth, and love and mercy 
 toward all men as the chief virtue. 
 
 Numberless cloisters were built in many places above the relics of the great 
 teacher to which flocked disciples eager to escape the world. To the weary and heavy 
 laden he had promised a release from the suffering of this present time through the 
 practice of virtue and fraternal love, and the redemption of their souls in " Nirvana," 
 
 AN OLD FAKIR OF BENARES. 
 
EASTERN RACES. 
 
 35 
 
 and they heard it gladly. The Hindus possessed creative imagination and great 
 mental powers. This is displayed especially in their literature. Many of their 
 writings are thousands of years 
 old ; all of them are in the sacred 
 Sanscrit language and irrepar- 
 ably connected with religion 
 and the doctrine of the Gods. 
 The four books of Veda are the 
 source of the religion of the 
 Brahmans, and are held in the 
 highest reverence. They con- 
 tain partly hymns and prayers, 
 partly rules for sacrifice, partlj^ 
 doctrines and precepts ; they 
 are studied and explained by 
 the Brahmans. Next to the 
 Vedas stands " The Laws of 
 Menu" a collection of very 
 ancient maxims, traditions, and 
 binding customs. Besides these the Hindus possess a multitude of poetic writings, 
 distinguished for their imagery, their deep feeling and religious awe. Many of these 
 works were brought to Europe by the English conquerors of India and then translated 
 
 HINDU REPRESENTATION OP THE UNIVERSE. 
 
 BRAHMA, VISHNU AND SIVA. 
 
 by scholars into European tongues. The most famous are two great epic poems, 
 the oldest portions of which belong probably to the tenth century before Christ. One 
 of these is the Mahahharata, in which the conflicts of two races of heroes, Kuru and 
 Panda are celebrated, and Ramajana which sings of the triumphal march of the divine 
 
36 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 hero Rama to Soutli India and Ce3'lon. A third production is Sakonfala, a charming 
 drama of a later period. Indian art is also inseparabl}- connected with the Hindu relig- 
 ion. Particularlj' remarkable are 
 the rock-hewn temples and grottos, 
 the most famous of which are at 
 Ellora in the middle of India, at 
 Salsette, and the Island Elephanta 
 near the cit}"^ of Bombay. Here are 
 grottos, temples, dwellings, passages 
 and galleries with statues and in- 
 scriptions, hewn for miles out of and 
 through the rocks. 
 
 Thousands of hands must have 
 
 worked patiently and persistently 
 
 for ages to complete this wealtli of 
 
 artistic and difficult achievement. 
 
 These products of art together 
 
 s with the products of her looms, and 
 
 her pearls, diamonds, ivory, spices, 
 
 made India even in ancient times 
 
 the goal and centre of tlie caravan 
 
 BUDDHA. trade and sea traffic ; they made 
 
 India also the desire of the conqueror. To' the latter slie fell an easy prey, because of 
 
 the divisions of caste, the poverty of her political development, and the lack of energy 
 
 and of independence among her people. 
 
 1 M 1 \\u Ul 
 
 V\ 1 s <il 11 H 11 \M \ 
 
EASTERN RACES. 
 
 37 
 
 4. — Babylonians and Assyrians. 
 
 § 9. Ill the fruitful regions watered by the Euphrates and Tigris, and in the 
 grassy terraces of Mesopotamia (Mid-river-land), there dwelt in ancient times races of 
 unknown origin, which are now designated by the name Sumeriaii or Accadian. They 
 were the fathers of astronomy, and the inventors of cuneiform writing. These 
 
 CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTION. 
 
 aborigines were subjugated by the Clialdceans, a primitive people, that pushed forward 
 from the eastern highland of Elam into the lower valley of the Euphrates, adopted the 
 culture of the Sumerians, and dwelt for centuries in the land, which was consequently 
 called Chaldfea. During the dynasty of the Cassi, Babylon, the ancient temple-city 
 was made the capital of the kingdom. Of Nimrod, who is mentioned in the Bible as 
 "a might)' hunter before the Lord," and designated as the founder and ruler of 
 Babylon, there is no mention in the inscrip- 
 tions. But the name of Sargon I., is sur- 
 rounded with legendar}' splendor. He is cele- 
 brated as the conqueror who pressed forward 
 to the east and to the west, and as the ruler 
 who made his Semitic warriors acquainted with 
 the culture of the Sumerians. Among the 
 small Semitic kingdoms that existed near 
 Babylon, between the Euphrates and the 
 Tigris, Assyria, which lay toward the north, 
 acquired, gradually, a decided superiority. It 
 was in all probability, a colony of old Babylo- 
 nia, to judge from the likeness of the two peo- 
 ples, in their writing and in their religion. 
 The reputed founder, Assur, is a mythical being 
 suggested by the name of the land. The 
 Assyrians became the dominant people soon 
 after they made the favorably situated city of 
 Nineveh the capital of their kingdom. The 
 names Ninus and Semirarais, so prominent in oriental legends, are only allegorical, 
 mythological abstractions. Seniiramis, who carried on the government after the murder 
 of her husband, Ninus, is pictured in the mythical tradition as a heroic woman of great 
 beauty and luxurious habits ; who marched victoriously as far as India, who adorned 
 Babylon with gardens, and her kingdom with splendid highways, bridges, canals and 
 public buildings. Her name became so celebrated in the East that all great 
 
 ASSYRIAN WARRIORS AND ARCHER. 
 
38 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 {Beconstruction.) 
 
 creations of the human hand, all the wonder- 
 ful works of human boldness and human 
 strength, were ascribed to her. But her 
 successors were incapable and weak. Ac- 
 cordingly, the old Assyrian kingdom fell 
 into decay, until in' the ninth century, 
 after great internal struggles, the throne of 
 Nineveh came into the possession of a new 
 royal line. War-like kings now turned their arms to the South and to the West, 
 subjugated Babylonia, and conquered the Syrian land to the Mediterranean Sea. At 
 the same time, they adorned the walls of their palaces with the pictures and descrip- 
 tions of their deeds, the deciphering of which, by the scholars of our time, has brought 
 new light into Assyrian history. All Western Asia, from Iran and Armenia to Syria 
 and Palestine, bowed beneath their scepter. Tiglath Pileser II (mentioned in the 
 Tiaiathx'nesetxx.,'Book of Kiugs as Phul) compelled the jarinces of Damascus, of 
 B. c. J45-J37. Hamath and of Samaria, to pay him tribute. Still more powerful was 
 snimanaasa,- XV., the skillful general Sargon II, who succeeded to the throne after the 
 B. c. ya»-»sa. short reign of Salmanassar IV. He conquered Samaria and carried 
 sni-aonxi., the Israelites into captivity ; he besieged tlie commercial city of Tyre, 
 jB. c. »3a-jo5. overcame the Philistines of Gaza and Ashdod, and threatened Lower 
 Egypt. The Mqdes and the rebellious Babylonians trembled at his sharp-edged sword. 
 When Sargon was murdered, his son, Sennacherib, ascended the throne. He, though as 
 energetic and as warlike as his father, failed of success ; liis campaign against Judah 
 
EASTERN RACES. 
 
 39 
 
 TiGLATH-PiLESEK STORMING A TOWN. {From Palace at Nineveh.) 
 
 setiuaciierib, and Egypt was unfortunate, and only with difficulty did he suppress 
 ■sos-osi. the uprisings in Babylonia and Media. But the buiklings with wliich 
 he adorned Nineveh made him very famous. Unhappy in his government, he was also 
 unfortunate in death. " As he was worshiping in the house of Nisroch, his god," says 
 the Book of Kings, " Adrammelech and Sharezer, his sons, smote him with the sword." 
 (^11 Kings, xix : 37.') His son, Assurhadon, revenged his death, and compelled the 
 
 Asaui-htnion, unuatural children to fly from the land : he then continued the con- 
 
 ». c. osi-oos. quests in Western Asia ; over- 
 caQie the Egyptian king Tarako, and pro- 
 claimed himself king of Egypt and Ethiopia. 
 Assyrian Satraps, or tributary kings, governed 
 the Nile country and founded the dominion 
 of the so-called Dodekarch}^ Assurhadon's 
 
 Aasurbanipai, son, Assurbauipal, was a most 
 
 B. c. eas-ess. powerful ruler; he subdued the 
 rebellious Egyptians and marched to Thebes ; 
 
 , , . , '^■',^ ^ . , ,. , T, , , . • ASSYRIAN CLAY COFFINS. 
 
 he defeated the untaithtul Babylonians in a 
 
 fearful battle, and hurled the rebels into a consuming fire. In a nine years' war 
 
{pp. 40.) 
 
 DEATH OF SARDANAPALTJS. 
 
EASTERN RACES. 
 
 41 
 
 he subjugated the strong mountain tribes of Susanna, burnt down their cities, and 
 carried oft their treasures and the idols. But the hatred of tlie conquered peoples 
 against this iron tyranny led to a war of desperation, and twenty years after the 
 death of Assurbanipal, the Assyrian Empire perished. Of tlie catastrophe we 
 have no certain information. The Greek writers say that Cyaxares, king of the 
 Medes, and Nabopolassar, king of the Chaldseas, formed an alliance and marched at the 
 head of the great multitude o^outraged people against the Assyrians. Assurhadon II 
 Aasuiiiaaon II., (crroneously called Sardanapalus) was king when this flood broke 
 (saraanapaius) ovcr the throue. Nineveh, the capital, was beseiged, but defended by 
 B. c. ozs-eos. Sardanapalus with great courage — in spite of his sensuality and his 
 love of luxury. The 
 enemy were repeatedly 
 driven back, but their 
 way was opened by an 
 inundation that car- 
 ried away part of the 
 city wall. The king, 
 despairing of his safety, 
 commanded the castle 
 to be set on fire, and 
 he was consumed along 
 with his wives and 
 his treasures. Nineveh 
 was then razed to the 
 ground, and the Assy- 
 rian kingdom divided 
 among the victors. 
 " Nineveh is fallen," 
 cried the Prophets of 
 Israel exultingly, 
 "ashes on the threshold, 
 her cedar walls torn 
 away, now is she be- 
 come a desert, a place 
 for the wild beasts. He 
 
 that passes by maketh a mock of the great city ! " The ruins of splendid buildings 
 and the works of art, with carved figures and inscriptions, which have been brought 
 to light by recent excavations, bear witness of the former splendor and beauty of the 
 ancient city; of the power and the oriental despotism of her rider; of the culture and 
 artistic sense of her inhabitants. 
 
 " Behold, the Assyrian was a cedar in Lebanon with fair branches, and with a 
 shadowing shroud, and of a high stature ; and his top was among the thick boughs. 
 The waters made him great, the deep set him up on high with her rivers running round 
 about his plants, and sent out her little rivers into all the trees of the field. Not' any 
 tree in the garden of God was like unto him in his beauty." (Ezekiel, xxxi. 3, 4, 8.) 
 § 10. The Chaldeans or Babylonians were now predominant, especially under 
 
 ASSYRIAN CHARIOT OF STATE. 
 
42 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 NEBUCHADNEZZAR. 
 
 (From Black Baby- 
 lonian Cameo in 
 Berlin Mus.) 
 
 xihucinHtnexxni; the warlike and mighty Nebuchadnezzar, who conquered the island 
 B. c. aot-soi. city of Tyre, compelled Phoenicia and Syria to pay tribute, and subju- 
 gated the kingdom of Judah. He adorned Babylon with castles, gates, temples, parks, 
 and other works of art. Aliigh and broad wall surrounded the whole city, the length 
 of which is said to have been more than fifty miles. The two royal palaces on the 
 banks of the Euphrates : the high, square tower of Baal the sun-god, which was richly 
 adorned with statues and ornaments of gold, and w* used by 
 those that watched the stars ; the terraced park abounding in 
 trees, called by the people the hanging gardens of Semirauiis, 
 were astonishing creations. These hanging gardens were the 
 present of Nebuchadnezzar to his wife. She liad been brought 
 up iji the wooded mountain land of Medea, and he desired to give 
 her pleasure, by placing near his new palace a picture of her forest 
 home. In their building, the Bab3donians used burnt tile. Their 
 bridges, canals, dikes, dams, "those countless waterbrooks of 
 Babylon " were erected, in order to carry the waters of the 
 Euphrates to the parched ground. The worship of the sun 
 and of the stars led the Babylonian priests to astronomical observations : they reck- 
 oned the course of the sun and divided the year; they determined the paths of the 
 planets, and dedicated to them the seven days of the week ; but a,s they blended 
 astrology with their asti'onomy they went astray, and wandered around the world in 
 later centuries as Magi and soothsayers, as interpreters of dreams and wizards. The 
 Chaldteans were also tlie first to use weights and measures, and among them originated 
 
 geometry and medicine. The fertility of the 
 soil and their active commerce made them 
 rich, and as a consequence fond of splen- 
 dor and of luxurJ^ Hence they were 
 renowned for their fine weaving and their 
 costly carpets, as well as for their immorality, 
 luxury and dissipation. They anointed their 
 bodies with costly ointments, wore white 
 mantles and long hair, and were singularly 
 unchaste in their religious service. Three 
 great mountains of ruins, which start up 
 out of the surrounding desert, a disordered 
 pile of massive stones, broken urns and 
 pottery of every sort, mutilated statues and 
 inscriptions, mark the site where the world 
 famous Babylon, " The pride of the Chal- 
 dteans," used to stand. The once glorious 
 garden has become a desert, where the step 
 The soil once tilled so carefully, the fertility 
 of which excited the wonder of the ancient world, is now a barren plain. The canals 
 are' dried up, the dams broken down, the works of irrigation gone to ruin. And the 
 hanging gardens of Nebuchadnezzar, where Alexander the Great sought to allay the 
 glow of fever, and of tiie sun, is now a heap of ruins, called by the inhabitants Elkafr, 
 wliich means Castle-hill. 
 
 \SS\R1 VN NOULtS VND LUIUTIERS. 
 
 of the wanderer starts the wild beast. 
 
EASTERN RACES. 
 
 43 
 
 ASSYRIAN HIGH PRIEST AND KING. 
 
 5. The Egyptians. 
 
 § 11. The Greeks did right to call Egypt " A gift of the Nile," seeing that the 
 
 regular annual inundation, which is caused b}^ 
 
 the periodical rain-fall on the equatorial high. 
 
 lands, gave to the land an exceeding fertility. 
 
 For the spring flood was guided and regulated by 
 
 a great variety of works of irrigation, such as 
 
 canals, dams, and cisterns. From the earliest 
 
 period the Egyptian valley was divided into 
 
 Upper and Lower Egypt. Upper Egypt was the 
 
 South-land, where the colossal and note-worthy 
 
 ruins of Thebes still excite the admiration of 
 
 travelers. This extensive world of statues and 
 
 columns, the ruins of which are scattered along 
 
 both shores of the river, the colossal sphinxes 
 
 (lions with human heads), the wonderful grottoes 
 
 hewn into the rocky wall, the royal sejDulchers, 
 
 the subterranean death- chambers, and the gigan- 
 tic Memnon column, which is said to have given 
 
 forth melodious tones at the rising of the sun, are 
 
 speaking witnesses of the ancient glory of the 
 
 citj^ of the Pharaohs. 
 
 Further down the stream lay the ancient city of Memphis, equally noteworthy for 
 
 its monuments. To these belong the ruins of the labi/rinth,a. royal palace, consisting 
 
 _ of many chambers, courts 
 
 ^ estibules and corridors, 
 all connected with each 
 otlier. Here too are the 
 P3iamids, erected upon a 
 lunely, rocky plateau, on 
 the edge of the desert. 
 These are, even now, re- 
 jjaided as the miracles of 
 a daring and powerful 
 aichitecture. As soon as 
 a new king ascended the 
 thione, he began the build- 
 ing of a sepulchre, in which 
 his body was to lie; forti- 
 hed it by blocks of stone 
 and strong walls, and en- 
 larged it in the course of 
 years, by surrounding 
 
 structures to an artificial mountain. The longer his government lasted, the greater 
 
 became the pyramid of the king of Memphis. Below Memphis where the North 
 
 land or Lower Egj^pt begins, the Nile is divided into two main streams and several 
 
 TEMPLE OF CHESNU AT KARN.\K. (Built hi/ Rameses II. 
 
44 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 branches, and expands the valley to a great plain, where fruitful fields alternate with 
 grassy meadows, and where forests of palm trees adorn the shores. Still further 
 down it breaks throngli swamp and marsh into the sea. This is the Delta, the 
 
 I'VUA.MIDS AT GIZEU. 
 
 fertilit}' of which made Egypt the granary of the ancient world. Here were situated 
 
 Heliopolis, the city of the sun, and the noteworthy places Sais, Naukratis, and 
 
 Busiris. 
 
 § 12. Egypt possessed, in the remotest times, innumerable cities and villages, aTid 
 
 a high culture. Sciences, arts, and industries were cultivated to such an extent, that 
 
 the land of the Nile has been alwaj-s 
 looked upon as the mysterious cradle of 
 all human progress. Yet the character of 
 the people, and the influence of an all- 
 powerful, royal and priestly domination 
 hindered free development, and prevented 
 advancement. Everything was devoted 
 to the service of a gloomy religion and a 
 powerful hierarchAS which held the people 
 in subjection, fear, and superstition. The 
 belief that after death, the soul found 
 eternal peace only when the body was 
 preserved, led to the embalming of the 
 dead, and to the preservation of mummies 
 in corridors, and death chambers. The 
 
 BRONZE IMAGES OF HI 1.1. Al'l.- 
 
BUILDING OF THE PYRAMIDS. ( G. Ricllter.) 
 
 {jjp. 45.) 
 
46 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 priests, as judges of the dead, assumed the power of devoting the corpses of the 
 wicked to destruction ; and of compelling the doomed soul to wander through the 
 bodies of countless animals. Thus the}' acquired great authority. 
 
 The religion of the Egyptians was principally the worship of the sun, and origin- 
 ated in the character of the country. This found allegorical expression in the sacred 
 marriage of the sun-god 
 Osiris, with Isis the god-, 
 dess of the Nile. But the 
 other gods of the Egyp- 
 tians were also deities of 
 light and of the sun ; 
 among these were Ra or 
 Phra (whence many derive 
 the word Pharaoh), and 
 also the Theban Ammon 
 and the creative natural 
 power Ptah, But since 
 the Egyptians worshiped, 
 not only these deities, but 
 also the animals consecrat- 
 ed to them, their religion 
 degenerated gradually into 
 a symbolism connected 
 with a horrible worship of 
 dumb brutes. 
 
 Not only the bull Apis, 
 who, as sj'mbol of the sun, 
 was regarded as especiall}' 
 sacred, but cows, cats, ser- 
 pents, dogs, and crocodiles, 
 received divine honors. 
 This led naturally to a 
 degenerate art. The stat- 
 ues of the gods, hewn out 
 of hard stone, with their 
 rigid attitudes, and pas- 
 sive solemnity, carry for 
 the most part. the heads of 
 animals. Colossal as was 
 the Egyptian architecture, 
 skillful as the Egyptians were in -sculpture and in the various industrial arts, they 
 have, nevertheless, contributed little of importance and of permanence to the sciences 
 and to literature. And even this was concealed from the people in their hieroglyphic 
 script. There were three kinds of hieroglyphics, which are to be found, partly in the 
 papj'rus rolls, partly on the obelisks. These latter were four cornered columns, hewn 
 out of a single block of granite, covered with inscriptions, and placed at the porches 
 of their temples. 
 
 HIEROGLYPHIC WEiTiNG. ( Tinted letters in red in the original.) 
 
EASTERN RACES. 
 
 47 
 
 EgyjDt was early an object of ad- 
 miration and of curiosity to the Greeks, 
 and is still the wonder of mankind. 
 Eleven obelisks and countless Egyptian 
 monuments, hewn from the hardest 
 stone, are now preserved in Rome ; and 
 the museums and cabinets of Europe 
 contain a great multitude of mummies, 
 antique vessels, ornaments, and jjapyrus 
 rolls. The perseverance and the skill 
 of the Egyptians excite our astonish- 
 ment, and yet we notice everj^where 
 the lack of free development, and crea- 
 tive activity, and of personal freedom. 
 The curse of roj^al and priestly despot- 
 ism blighted every form of Egyptian 
 life ; superstitious and religious gloom 
 darkened their existence. The monu- 
 ments reveal to us a life without 
 courage, in which the enjoyments of 
 the hour alternate with ever-present 
 thoughts of death.* 
 
 § 13. At the entrance to the 
 Delta, where the stream is divided into 
 several branches, stood the ancient 
 state, the capital of which was the citj'- 
 Menea, «6o«t of» Memphis. Its sup- 
 posed founder was 
 Menes. Cheops and 
 Moeris are the most 
 famous names in the 
 succeeding list of kings. 
 The first was builder of the great pyra- 
 mid, 450 feet high, upon which 100,000 
 men are said to have labored forty 
 years. The second was famed for the 
 great lake that bears his name, and 
 which was doubtless used to regulate the 
 overflow of the Nile. Shortl}^ after the 
 death of Moeris (so the Egyptians say), 
 wandering tribes from Syria and from 
 North Arabia invaded the country, sub- 
 Ahowt dued the kingdom, and 
 
 B. C. 2100. 
 
 B. C. 3000. 
 Cfieopsj ahoift 
 B. C. SSOO. 
 Jleevis, about 
 B. €. 2200. 
 
 governed with cruel violence, the tiihutai) lan i Ihn i\ i.iuny of the 
 great house " tliat is, palace, a designation tliat reminds us o£ tlie 
 
 * Tlie name Pliaraoli is derived from Peraa 
 Sublime Porte. 
 
48 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 Hyksos or shepherds, lasted for five centuries, until finally the kings of Upper 
 
 B. c. isso. Egypt (Thebes) accomplished the deliverance of the land. The 
 
 hundred-gated Thebes now became the residence of the Pharaohs, among whom 
 
 Rameses the Great, whom the Greeks called Sesostris, was the most famous. He 
 
 sesosfws, compelled Ethiopia to pay tribute, and pushed, with his victorious 
 
 isoo-iaits. armies and chariots, into Syria, Asia Minor, and Mesopotamia. He 
 
 adorned the kingdom with royal palaces and temples, the grandeur and splendor of 
 
 which may yet be seen in the brokep columns, and in the colossal fragments of statues 
 
 and sculptured walls. Rameses-Sesostris became, in subsequent years, a half mythical 
 
 name, about which clustered the mighty deeds of father and son for a whole century. 
 
 _ But the power of 
 
 _ •-■ ; - ■ - Thebes vanished also. 
 
 ^ The kings of Ethiopia 
 trampled Upper Egypt 
 with their iron feet; and 
 the rulers of Assyria 
 lorded it in Lower 
 Egypt, collecting from 
 their governors and sub- 
 ject-kings, an oppressive 
 tribute. Not until after 
 the time of Assurbani- 
 pal did this period of 
 \ssyrian tyranny, 
 called "the domination 
 of the twelve," come to 
 \i\ end. Psammetichus 
 ( f Sais, with the help of 
 Ionian and Karian mer- 
 cenaries, acquired, in the 
 seventh century, pos- 
 session of Upper Egypt. 
 To secure his throne 
 more firmly, he made 
 EGYPTIAN WAR CHARIOT. an alliance with the 
 
 i's..,.,„,etic,.„s, Greeks, and colonized Egypt with Hellenic mercenaries. This 
 B. c. e^o.cio. innovation embittered the people, and 200,000 of the priest and 
 warrior caste emigrated to Nubia, and founded there the priestly state, Meroe. 
 This was au imitation of the kingdom of the Pharaohs in Thebes, as is shown 
 by the monuments that still strew its former site, upon the Upper Nile, and he 
 scattered over desert plains, which are here and there broken by groups of 
 palm trees. Necho and Amasis are noteworthy successors of Psammetichus. 
 ATecfto, The former was the founder of the Egyptian sea-power and 
 
 jj. c. oio.ttoo. navigation. The canal begun by Rameses, from the Nile to the 
 Red Sea, was continued by him, and the southcoast of Africa was explored by 
 Phoenician sailors, under his command. The latter favored Hellenic culture and 
 
EASTERN RACES. 
 
 49 
 
 Amasis, furthered the emigration of Greek merchants, who brought into Lower 
 n. c. s^*-Bz«. Egypt riches and luxury, so that Sais conld rival with its works of art 
 and monuments, both Thebes and Mem- 
 phis. But the days of its glory were 
 numbered. Amasis was hardly laid to 
 rest in the temple court at Sais, when 
 the Persian king, Cambyses, invaded 
 Egypt with his army. In the bloody bat- 
 tle of Pelusium (Suez), Psammetichus 
 lost his kingdom to the Persians, who now 
 ruled over it for two centuries. The 
 Egyptian people, however, would not mix 
 with their conquerors ; they preserved 
 their customs, institutions, and religious 
 usages, and also their hatred for every- 
 thing foreign. 
 
 6. Phcenicians. 
 
 § 14. On the narrow strip of coast, 
 
 between the Mediterranean Sea and the 
 
 Cedars of Lebanon, dwelt the sea-faring 
 
 and trading race of Phoenicians. Of their 
 
 numerous cities, Sidon and Tyre were the Egyptian king in war chariot, and warriors. 
 
 most important. They were too active and energetic to endure either the system of 
 
 caste or of depotism, like other oriental races. On the contrary, each city, with its 
 
 adjacent territory, formed an independent com- 
 munity, at the head of which stood an hered- 
 itary king, whose power was greatly limited 
 by aristocratic families, and by priests. These 
 independent communities formed a union, of 
 which at first Sidon, the market place of the 
 nation, and afterward Tyi-e was the head. 
 Opposite the coast city of Tyre lay a rocky 
 island with its fortified harbor, its great ware- 
 houses, and its ancient temple of the guardian 
 deity, Melkart. Industry and inventiveness 
 characterized the Phoenicians. They manufac- 
 tured glass, discovered dye stuffs, and invented 
 letters. They were distinguished for their 
 metal work, their weaving, and their architec- 
 ture. Sidonian garments, Tyrian purple, 
 Phoenician glassware, vessels of ivory and gold, 
 were sought for in all the cities of antiquity. 
 The favorable situation of the country led them 
 
 to the sea; the cedars of Lebanon furnished them wood for shipbuilding. The 
 
 Phoenicians, with their handsome ships, visited the coast-lands and the islands of the 
 4 
 
 ECIPTIAN QUEEN AND LADIES. 
 
60 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 Mediterranean Sea, not onlj' to carry their own products, but to obtain the products 
 of the distant East, spices, incense, oil, wine, corn, and slaves. They established 
 manufactories and dye-houses, opened up mines, ventured out into the unknown 
 
 seas of the North, pur- 
 chased tiu at the British 
 islands, and amber from 
 the inhabitants of the 
 Baltic ; and entered up- 
 on daring voyages to 
 South Arabia, East 
 Atrica, and India. Be- 
 yond doubt, the Phoeni- 
 cian sailors were in the 
 seivice of the Egyptian 
 king Necho, in a three 
 J ears' voj-age from the 
 Red Sea around the 
 African coast; and ven- 
 tured farther than any 
 other people of antiqui- 
 t} The PhcBnicians 
 united the Orient with 
 the Occident; they 
 founded colonies at 
 Ciete and Cyprus; they 
 built factories on the 
 island of Sicily ; they 
 made the splendid har- 
 bor of Malta a station 
 for their western route, 
 and built on the oppo- 
 site coast, upon a pro- 
 montory which they 
 converted into an island, 
 by means of a canal, the 
 commercial city of 
 Utica. This city of 
 North Africa, a country 
 iich in olives, date-trees, 
 and grape vines, was 
 built to resemble the 
 mother city Tyre. For 
 the Tyrians delighted in island-colonies containing a castle and a sanctuary, which 
 offered a secure haven for their ships, and a safe landing place for their goods, and 
 united the neighboring coast into a twin city. In like manner they founded the city 
 of Gades (Cadiz), at the pillars of Hercules, uniting it also with the coast. This city 
 
 PHCENiciAN SCENE AT COURT. (Paul PJiiUipjwfeaux.) 
 
EASTERISr RACES. 
 
 51 
 
 with the sanctuary of the Tyrian god Melkart (Hercules), was the support and the 
 emporium of the Spanish trade, where the ships of Tarshish, mentioned by the 
 prophet Jonah, landed, in order to convey the treasures of the land, so rich in metals, 
 to their Eastern home. But the most famous colony of 
 the Tyrians was the new city of Carthage, on the coast of 
 North Africa, which soon eclipsed the mother country by 
 its commercial greatness, its wealth, and its marine 
 power. A woman of royal race, Elissa or Dido, is said 
 jB. c. sso. to have founded Carthage, with a num- 
 ber of noble emigrants from Tyre. The story of the ox-hide used at the founding of 
 tiie city, marks the character of the Phoenicians, whose cunning and astuteness were 
 renowned in all antiquity. 
 
 EARLY PHCENICIAN COIN. 
 
 PHCENiciAN FLEET. {Faul PhilUppoteaux.) 
 
 Their religion was of less consequence to the Phoenicians, than to other oriental 
 races. The worship of Moloch required cruel human sacrifices, and that of Baal and 
 Astarte obscene usages and festivals. 
 
 § 15. The warlike races of Western Asia sharply tested 
 the bravery and the patriotism of the Phoenicians. When the 
 Assyrian Sargon subdued and made them tributary, the richer 
 citizens of Tyre removed to the neighboring rocky island, where, 
 hitherto, only their sanctuaries and their warehouses were to be found, and defended 
 Island Tyre for five years with triumphant success. And the Tyrian navy soon ruled 
 
 COIN OF TYKE. 
 
52 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 jb. c. 500. the sea a second time. Even the Babylonian Nebuchadnezzar, who con- 
 quered the Phoenician mainland, and deported the inhabitants of old Tyre, like the 
 JeAvs, to the interior of his kingdom, was unable to shatter the courage of the island city. 
 Defended by its position, by its enormous walls and breakwaters, it defied all attacks. 
 But these repeated blows wore away the energy of the Tyrians, for when the Persians 
 
 B. c. s4,o. afterward subdued the lands of Asia Minor, even Tyre lost her freedom 
 and her independence. Phoenicia became a Persian province ; the colonial cities in 
 the West fell away, and joined of choice, or by compulsion, the city of Carthage. 
 The Greeks acquired the trade in the ^Egean Sea, and the Phoenician colonies in 
 Crete, Rhodes, Thasos, and other islands, with their rich ore banks. The oppression 
 of the Persians, in the middle of the fourth century, provoked a revolt, of which Sidon 
 was the leader. It miscarried ; Sidon fell into the hands of the Persian king, and 
 when he ordered the oldest citizens to be executed, the inhabitants set fire to their 
 city, and were burned to death with their treasures. Tyre lasted a while longer. But 
 
 B. c. 33«. when the Macedonian Alexander overthrew the Persian empire, and 
 Tyre ventured to oppose the conqueror, the city was conquered, after a seven months' 
 siege, and cruelly punished. It never recovered from the blow ; its commerce and its 
 marine power withdrew to Alexandria. 
 7. The People Israel. 
 
 § 16. Wliile the whole world was worshiping the invisible god-head, in the forces 
 and phenomena of nature, and of the sky ; a people of shepherds, sprung from a 
 Semitic family in Mesopotamia, came to believe in a personal God, who, as creator 
 
 .46i-«/.«m. and ruler of the universe, stands above the changing life of nature. 
 
 js. c. ■iooo. Abraham the Hebrew, one of the patriarchs of this Nomad race, with 
 
 his herds, his men servants and his maid servants, and his nephew Lot, abandoned his 
 
 native pastures and settled in the land of Canaan, where they continued their pastoral 
 
 life ; and where thej'' were called by the original inhabitants Hebrews, that is " the 
 
 isaaa. strangers from beyond." Isaac, whom Sarah bore to Abraham in his 
 
 old age, continued the family ; while Ishmael, his son by his servant Hagar, went into 
 
 the desert, and according to tlie sacred tradition of the Semites, became the progenitor 
 
 of the Arabs. Isaac married Rebecca, who bore him two sons, Esau and Jacob. The 
 
 jncoh. mother's cunning made the younger son, Jacob, the chief of the tribe, but 
 
 could not save him from a long period of trial, before he came to his inheritance. 
 
 Joseph. Jacob had twelve sons, but as his love preferred Joseph, the child of 
 
 JS. c. isoo. his beloved Rachel, the others, filled with envy, determined to rid 
 themselves of their brother, and sold him to Ishmaelite traders, who carried him into 
 Egypt. In Egypt Joseph resisted temi^tation, and was rewarded for his virtue, with 
 fortune and wisdom. His skill in the interpretation of dreams, obtained for him the 
 favor of the Egyptian king, and he came to great dignity and honor. He saved the 
 land from famine, and made all the fields the property of Pharaoh, so that the people 
 rented their farms, and cultivated them for a rental of one-fifth the produce. Joseph 
 thus acquired such authoritjs that it was permitted him to bring his father and his 
 brothers to Egypt, wliere the rich pasture land of Goshen, in lower Egypt, was given 
 ■ them for a dwelling place. Here, in the neighborhood of Heliopolis, they pastured 
 their herds for centuries. Joseph became the darling figure of oriental poetry and 
 tradition. The Hebrews were called Israelites, from Jacob's surname Isj'ael. 
 

 
 ^* S-' 
 
54 ' 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 § 17. The Israelites at first were happy in the rich pastures of Goshen. But 
 when Joseph died, and new kings governed, who knew nothing of his services, the 
 Egyptians were driven, by tiieir luitred for strangers, and their contempt of shepherds, 
 to great severity and cruelty against the descendants of Abraham. Thej' oppressed 
 them by heavy tasks, and, when they increased rapidly in spite of this oppression, the 
 Egyptians grew afraid, and Pharaoh connnanded his officers to drown the new-born 
 male children of the Hebrews in the Nile. Moses would have met this fate, if the 
 
 Moses, king's daughter had not happened to be walking along the shore when 
 
 jB. c. taoo. he was exposed, and had not pitied and saved the child. He was taken 
 to the Egyptian court, where lie was carefully educated and instructed in all the 
 wisdom of the Egyptians. His murder of an Egyptian, whom he saw abusing an 
 Israelite, compelled him, in his fortieth year, to flee into the Arabian desert. Here the 
 great thought came to him, to be- 
 come the savior of his people from 
 Egyptian bondage. Pharaoh refused, 
 at fii-st, to let the people go, but the 
 ten plagues, by whicli the land was 
 visited, created such terror, that he 
 finally consented to the departure 
 asked for by Moses and his brother 
 Aaron. In memory of their depar- 
 ture, and of the death of the first 
 born of Egypt at the hands of the 
 Lord, the Jews established the feast 
 of the Passovei", i. e. Jehovah's passing 
 by the doors of the Hebrews. At 
 this feast they sacrificed the paschal 
 Iamb, their loins gii-ded for the jour- 
 ney, and the staff in hand. The at- 
 tempt to compel the return of the 
 Israelites, at their crossing of the 
 •Red Sea, resulted in the destruction 
 of their pursuers. The waves 
 covered Pharaoh's army, with his 
 
 horses and his chariots; and Miriam, Moses' sister, and the women of the company^ 
 sang a song to Jehovah, with timbrel and dance, because the mighty hand of the 
 Lord had destroyed their enemy, and hurled Pharaoh's wagon and army to the 
 bottom of the sea. "Thou didst blow with tliy breath and the sea covered them ; 
 tliey sank like lead in the mighty waters." 
 
 § 18. Nevertheless the people hungered for the flesh pots of Egypt, and for forty 
 years Moses led them in the wilderness, in order to strengthen their bodies, and to re- 
 store to them morality, and a sense of freedom ; and until a new generation should 
 grow up, possessing the courage and the force to conquer the land, where their fathers 
 had dwelled. During this time, Moses established the religion and the common-wealth 
 of Israel at Mt. Sinai, by the Ten Commandments and other laws. These command- 
 ments were written upon tables of stone, and preserved in the ark of the covenant,. 
 
 MENEl'ilTAU 1., I'HAllAOH OF THE EXODUS. 
 
!i!iiitii'nii!iiiiii]i.aiiigiii„iiiiiiiMiiiuiiiiiiiiiii;u;iiiilllilllillllluilii[lulllli 
 
56 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 which stood in the innermost sacred precincts of the tabernacle, the moving temple 
 
 which the Israelites carried with them thi-ough the wilderness. To explain these laws, 
 
 and to conduct the sacrificial service, a priest-hood was ordained ; Aaron was made 
 
 high priest, and the sacred office was reserved to his posteritj'. The Levites supported 
 
 the sons of Aaron as sacrificial priests, teachers, 
 
 doctors of the law, and physicians. According 
 
 to the priestly tradition, which ascribed the 
 
 system to Moses, Jehovah was himself Lords 
 
 and King. The chiefs and elders of the tribes 
 
 carried on, in His name, the administration of! 
 
 law and of justice, while the high priests and^ 
 
 the Levites. directed in all matters of religion. 
 
 Sacrifices and festivals (feast of the Passover, ' 
 
 feast of Tabernacles) formed the happy bond 
 
 between Jehovah and his chosen people. Every 
 
 seventh j'ear was a Sabbath year, and the land 
 
 remained untilled. What grew of its own, 
 
 accord, was given to the poor. Every fiftieth' 
 
 year was a jubilee jem; when all alienated 
 
 property was returned to its original possessor,' 
 
 in order that the inequality of riches might not 
 
 be too great. The pastoral life was, at tlie 
 
 instance of Moses, exchanged for agriculture, Jewish high phiest and levites. 
 
 which became the jirincipal occupation of his people. 
 
 § 19. The great law-giver was not permitted to lead the Israelites into the 
 promised land. From the summit of Mt. Nebo, he overlooked the beautiful plains of 
 the Jordan, and then departed from the land of the living. " His eye was not dim, nor 
 
 fosiiun, his natural strength abated." Before his death he appointed Josliua, 
 jj. c. i^so. the son of Nun, to be his successor; and exhorted the assembled people 
 to hold fast to Jehovah, and to destroy ritterly the Canaanites. But the people had 
 hardly conquered the Amorites, and other tribes, before they grew weary of battle, 
 and demanded the distribution of the conquered land. This took place, as Moses had 
 ordered, by lot. And in such fashion that Ephraim and Manasseh received equal shares ; 
 while the posteritjr of Levi received no land whatever, but certain cities, a tenth part 
 of the produce of the soil, and a share in tlie sacred offerings. The tribes of Reuben 
 and Gad, with one half of Manasseh, chose the pasture land east of the Jordan, and 
 continued the life of herdsmen. The others settled on the west of the stream, and 
 gave themselves to the culture of grapes, figs and olives, and to the beginnings of city 
 life. 
 
 § 20. But powerful tribes, like the Ammonites and Philistines, forced upon the 
 Israelites bloody and destructive wars. In their brutality and cruelty they forgot the 
 living God, who had led them out of bondage, and fell away into idolatry, until mis- 
 fortune and defeat brought them to reflection. Heroic men arose, who slew the 
 enemj' in battle, and restored the faith and the customs of their fathers. These were 
 The siidaes, the Judges. The most famous among them were Gideon, Jephtha, 
 B. c. isoo-itoo. Samson, the strong, and the heroine Deborah. Gideon's victory over 
 
58 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 the Midianites and Amalekites ; the sacrifice of Jephtha's daughter ; Samson's wild 
 feats, and tragic death in the land of the Philistines, were told to each other by the 
 tillers of the soil, as they sat under the shadow of the palm tree, and by the 
 shepherds encamped beneath the stars. Deborah's triumphal song celebrated, in 
 tones of jubilee, the destruction of Sisera, the Canaanite chieftain, by the hands of the 
 woman Jael. Nevertheless the Philistines conquered the ark of the covenant, the news 
 of which brought sudden death to the high priest Eli. They overran all the country, 
 as far as the Jordan, and greatly oppressed the people. Saul, of the tribe of Benjamin, 
 now appeared ; led the people to battle, and strove successfully against the enemy. 
 
 Samuel, At the samc time Samuel, a pious and patriotic priest, renewed the old 
 B. c. iioo. covenant between the Israelitish people and their God, and restored 
 the Mosaic laws to their former influence. He established schools of the prophets, in 
 which young men were taught the national laws and traditions, were instructed in 
 eloquence and poetry, in music and in song. 
 These schools of Samuel produced the inspired 
 preachers, who, in the Bible, are spoken of as 
 prophets. The champions of freedom, religion, 
 and virtue, they had the greatest influence 
 upon the development and perfection of the 
 religious ideas of the people, and especially ■ 
 their conceptions of God. 
 
 § 21. Samuel's sons did not walk in the 
 w&y of their father, but denied the people 
 justice. The Israelites now demanded a king, 
 who should lead them to battle and to victorj\ 
 Samuel sought in vain to dissuade them, pictur- 
 ing the sorrows and oppression of kingly rule 
 in the darkest colors. They persisted, and 
 compelled him to anoint their chosen leader 
 Sniff, Saul, a man of great stature, 
 
 , B. c. loso. skilled in war, and victorious in 
 battle. He broke the yoke of the Philistines 
 in the West, and the Ammonites in the East, and gathered great spoil. 
 
 But he put his trust in his arni}^ and obej'ed not the commands of Jehovah, as 
 spoken by the mouth of his prophet ; he was therefore rejected, and the shepherd boy 
 David, of the tribe of Judah, was secretly anointed by Samuel. David was re- 
 nowned among the king's captains for his bravery, and for his devotion to the priest- 
 hood, as well as for his skill upon the harp. Saul was now troubled " by an evil spirit 
 from the Lord ; " env}^, a premonition of his destiny, and a suspicion of his ambitious 
 plans, united to drive the king to a hatred of David, to whom his own son Jonathan 
 was entirely devoted. David, however, escaped the snares of the king, and when Saul 
 flung himself in despair upon his own sword, after losing the battle at Gilboa, David 
 was graduallj' recognized by all the tribes as king. Although he composed the beauti- 
 ful psalm on the fallen heroes " who were swifter than eagles, and stronger than 
 lions " he nevertheless destroyed root and branch of the whole family of Saul. 
 
 § 22. David's reign is the brilliant spot of Jewish history. By successful wars 
 
 JEWISH KING AND WARRIORS. 
 
MAMSON .SLAYING THE PHILISTINES. (Gustave DorL) 
 
 KPP- 59-) 
 
60 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 nnviti, he extended the kingdom to the South, and to the East ; he made the 
 
 B. c. 1030. Syrian city Damascus, " the eye of the Orient," his foot-stool, and 
 broke forever the power of the Philistines. He conquered Jerusalem, with its strong 
 tower Zion, from the Jebusites, chose it for his residence, brought thither the ark of 
 the covenant, and thus made it the centre of Jewish worship. David was also a 
 great poet, as is seen in his wonderful Psalms ; and in spite of his many sins, in spite 
 
 KING SOLOMON. (Oustave Dore.) 
 
 of his crime against Uriah, whom he robbed at once of wife and of life, lie remained 
 " the man after Jehovah's heart " ; since he made good his transgressions by great virtues 
 and services, by repentance and contrition. The end of his reign was marked by the 
 rebellion of his favorite son Absalom, who was led astray by evil council. Trusting 
 to the favor of the people, which his father had lost by his cruelty, the popular son 
 
DEATH OP SAUL. ( Gustave Dore.) 
 
 (pp. 61. 
 
62 
 
 THE AXCIEXT WORLD. 
 
 (Ideal Becom^t ruction.) 
 
 sought to obtain by force the ro3-al crown. 
 David abandoned the capital, and fled across 
 Jordan, followed by the curses of his enemies ; 
 but success soon came back to the cunning 
 king. Absalom was slain in his flight. 
 
 Solomon the Wise completed the work 
 soiotiion. of his father. David was 
 Ajtout B. c. looo. great in war, but his son was 
 glorious in the arts of peace ; he adorned 
 Jerusalem with splendid buildings, and erect- 
 ed the famous temple upon Mt. Moriah, 
 which excited universal admiration for its 
 wealth of gold and ornament of every kind. 
 But Solomon departed, in manj"^ ways, from 
 the laws of Moses. He took part in the 
 great commercial undertakings of the Phcenicians, and piled up great treasures, 
 which increased his love of luxury and sensuality. He procured for himself 
 foreign wives, to whom he permitted idolatry in which he himself took part. His 
 admirable wisdom, his skill in answering diflBcult questions and solving riddles, 
 although still admired in the legends of the East, did not protect him, while living, 
 from great folly. His extravagance caused the taxes to be so oppressive, that a re- 
 bellion took place during his life time. This was put down, and the leader, Jeroboam, 
 jo-oboani. compelled to fly. But when Solomon's son, Rehoboam, threatened 
 Reuohonni. to Tcjcct thc dcmands of the people, ten tribes fell away from 
 
HAULING THE CEDARS OF LEBANON FOK THE TEMPLE. (Gusfave Dore.) {pp. 63.) 
 
64 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 him, and chose Jeroboam to be their king. Only Jndah and Benjamin remained 
 faithful to the house of David. 
 
 § 23. This gave rise to two unequal kingdoms ; the kingdom of Israel, composed 
 of ten tribes, Avitli the two capitals Shecliem and Samaria ; and the kingdom of Judah, 
 composed of two tribes, with its capital Jerusalem. As the latter city contained the 
 ark of the covenant, and was therefore looked upon by the Levites, and many pious 
 Israelites, as the true capital, Jeroboam erected in the South and the North of his 
 kingdom, idolatrous pictures, and commanded the people to sacrifice, as in the ancient 
 
 OBELISK OF SHALMANESER, FROM NINEVEH. {British Muneinn.) 
 
 times, upon the mountain tops, — a sin of which all his successors were guilty. One of 
 Ahaf^ about the mightiest of them was Ahab, whose wife Jezebel, of Tyre, intro- 
 B. c. (too. duced the blasphemous service of Baal, and raged cruellj' against all 
 who would not bow before him. She hunted for the life of the prophet Elias, and 
 compelled him to take refuge in the wilderness, and at Mt. Garmel. Through her 
 daughter Athaliah, who was married to the king of Judah, the foreign religion was 
 brought into tliis kingdom also, and protected by the court. As a consequence, there 
 was strife and civil war between the two kingdoms, whereby both were weakened, and 
 driven to form alliances with foreign nations. They drove out the Prophets, who 
 
EASTERN RACES. 65 
 
 boldly prophesied the destruction of the common n'ealth, if the worship of Jehovah 
 was driven out by the worship of idols. But persecution only increased their courage 
 and power. In the deserts and in the wilderness, amid privations and chastisements, 
 their faith grew stronger, and their inner vision became more clear. When Ahab re- 
 jTehu, ahotit ccived his death wound, in fight against the king of Damascus, Jehu, 
 
 B. c. SCO. his captain, with the help of the prophet Elisha, and of the servants 
 Sons, ahoitt of Jcliovah, asccndcd the throne of Samaria. Athaliah was mur- 
 
 B. c. sso. dered : Joaz became king of Judah, and restored the worship of Je- 
 hovah. But these religious quarrels weakened the people. The prophets Joel, Hosea, 
 j-ei-obonut, abottt and Amos proclaimed their woes in the days of Jeroboam II, when the 
 
 B. c. soo. kingdom of the ten tribes was enjoying its last prosperous days; and 
 the prophet Isaiah was creating, by his patriotic activity, a great religious and national 
 revival, at the very time that foreign armies were threatening Jerusalem, and the land 
 of Judah. 
 
 § 24. The Assyrians, under Tiglath-Pileser and Shalmaneser IV., invaded the 
 kingdom of Israel ; and when the king concluded an alliance with Egypt, in order to 
 escape the payment of tribute, the Assyrian king, Sargon II, invaded the country 
 again with his veteran army, conquered Samaria, and carried the king, with the greater 
 
 B. c. ■)!». part of his people, into Assyrian bondage. They received new dwell- 
 ing places along the rivers of Armenia, and in the cities of the Medes, while foreign 
 people from the Euphrates migrated to the green hills of Samaria. From their inter- 
 marriage with the few remaining Israelites came the Samaritans. Judah existed 130 
 years longer. It became tributary to the Assyrians, after the fall of Israel; but when 
 these went to war with the Egyptians, the king of Judah took part with the latter, and 
 refused to pay tribute. The Assyrian king, Sennacherib, marched against, and besieged 
 
 Mesekiah, Jerusalem. But the pious king Hezekiah, the friend of Isaiah, occupied 
 
 B. c. 72S-09K. the throne. A sudden plague so decimated the Assyrian army, that 
 
 the king did not venture to meet the approachingEgyptians, but abandoned Jerusalem 
 
 3£niiasseh, and rctumed to Nineveh. Isaiah's prophecy was fulfilled. Neverthe- 
 
 B. c. aoB.oio. less. King iManasseli fell into idolatry, and persecuted bitterly the 
 
 servants of Jehovah. " The sword devoured tlie prophets, like a raging lion." The 
 
 j^osiaii, servants of Jehovah, led by the i^rophet Jeremiah, used, therefore, the 
 
 jB. c. 03S.60S. reign of the pious young king Josiah, to re-establish the i\Iosaic law, 
 
 and the theocratic state. They discovered and introduced the second law, Deuter- 
 
 onomj^ or the fifth book of the Pentateuch. But the struggle against Nineveh brought 
 
 sore distress to Palestine. Josiah received his death wound in the battle of Megiddo, 
 
 fought against the Egyptian king Necho, who wished to conquer Canaan. And then 
 
 came Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon, the conqueror of the Egyptians. He entered 
 
 B. c. 597. Jerusalem, robbed the temple, led the king and the chief inhabitants 
 into captivity, and sorely oppressed those that remained. This induced the Ijfest king 
 Zedekiah, who trusted in Egyptian support, to attempt once more the fortune of arms, 
 but without success. Nebuchadnezzar burnt temple and city, slaughtered the citizens, 
 
 JB. c. sss. and led away the blinded king, with the greatest part of the people, 
 into the Babylonian captivity. Jeremiah had sought in vain to prevent this reliance 
 of the king upon Egypt, " the rotten reed," and had urged the people to bear the yoke 
 of the Chaldteans, that Jehovah had laid upon them, for their chastisement. He now be- 
 
66 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 took himself to Egypt, where he bemoaned the fall, and the destruction of his countr)'. 
 The Jews, in Babylon, returned to the God of their fathers, and found favor in his 
 js. c. S3S. presence. For when Babylon was conquered by the Persians, some of 
 them were permitted, by Cyrus, to return to their homes. These came back under the 
 lead of Zerubbabel, and began to rebuild the temple. The Samaritans, whom they care- 
 fully avoided, sought to prevent their undertaking, and procured an edict against 
 jB. c. S14. further building. And this was not resumed until the days of Darius. 
 
 When Artaxerxes ruled over Persia, another 
 company led by Ezra and Neheiniah, returned to 
 B. c. 453. the old home, rebuilt the cit}^ and 
 restored the Mosaic laws. Misfortune had taught 
 them that their only salvation was in the faith of 
 
 '"", '„„,.„, , rr- ". "„ V their fathers, hence they avoided most carefully, 
 JEWISH SHEKEL. {limeojEzva.) ' -^ ■'' 
 
 from this time forward, the worship of idols, and 
 
 all contact with the idolatrous heathen ; but their new " city of God " was a city 
 
 of priests, in which a slavish service of the law took the place of the religious 
 
 enthusiasm of former times. 
 
 h, Hebrew Literature. 
 
 § 24. The literature of the Jews, like their history and their institutions of state, 
 relates to the worship of Jehovah. This literature is divided into the historic, poetic, 
 and prophetic writings. The historic books contain the history of the founding of the 
 theocratic kingdom, and the origin of the law. These books are strictly national, and 
 constitute a religious epic. The poetical writings are partly lyric, like the Psalms, to 
 which David gave a distinctive character, although comparatively few of the existing 
 collection were written by him ; and partlj^ didactic, like the book of Job, or the book 
 of Proverbs. The Psalms mirror the religious thought of the Jewish people, yet not 
 with the same energy as the warning, rebuke and prophecies of the inspired prophets. 
 Salvation is to be found in obedience to the divine command. Ruin comes to the dis- 
 obedient. In their tribulations, the avenging hand of God is manifest, and the only 
 means to avert his wrath is sincere repentance. But this repentance is not sacrifice, 
 or prayer, or fasting, but an upright walk, and a pure life. The stream of their 
 thoughts was, to the prophets, the mind of Jehovah, "the burden of the Lord," laid 
 upon them. They wariied, they threatened, they commanded, they foretold in his 
 name, and by his spirit. The most important of the jarophets lived in the time of the 
 Assyrian wars; among these, Isaiah is the mightrest. The sciences, and the plastic 
 arts, had small place among the Jews ; their nature was unartistic, and their severe 
 monotheism hindered the development of sculpture and of painting. 
 
 8. Medes and Persians. 
 
 § 25. Media and Persia are two lands in which rough mountain regions, full of 
 picturesque beauty, alternate with fertile pastures and rich arable prairies. They 
 were formerly inhabited by races, who derive their origin from the primitive Zends, 
 who dwelt still further to the East. The founder of their religion was an ancient 
 sage Zoroaster, who deposited the revelation given him in the sacred book Zenda- 
 vesta. He taught that the Supreme Being was a dual being, a god of light, Ormuzd, 
 
1^ ..1 ^;l:i-,^^-^i m, 
 
 REBUILDING THE TEMPLE. {Gustave DorS.) 
 
 (PP- CT.) 
 
THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 ANCIENT PERSIAN COIN. 
 
 and a spirit of darkness, Ahriman. Both have hosts of similar spirits under their 
 control, who carry on perpetual w.ir with each other, striving for dominion over man 
 and the world. The god of light will finally conquer, 
 evil will disappear, and the human race will enter into 
 , blessedness. The Magi, a powerful body of priests, sym- 
 bolized this doctrine in a solemn worship. The god of light 
 was symbolized, and worshiped in the sun and in fire. The 
 spirit of darkness was kept aloof by sacrifices and prayers, 
 by absolutions and purifications, by resisting and destroying 
 evil in the outer world, and in the human breast. 
 § 26. For a long time the Modes endured the dominion of foreign races, but 
 they finally took courage and struggled heroically for fi'eedom. Warlike kings soon 
 succeeded in destroying this newly acquired freedom of the people, and established 
 over them an unlimited rule. At the same time these kings subjugated the neigh- 
 boring races, among them the kindred people of Persia, who for centuries had pas- 
 tured their herds, hunted and fought, in the beautiful Farsistan, the land of horses. 
 But this dominion was of short duration. Astyages, the last of the Median kings 
 (Herodotus tells us), had a vision, which the soothsayers interpreted to mean that the 
 Astyaaea about SOU of liis daughter would rule over Media and Asia Minor. When 
 n. c. S75. his daughter, who was married to a prince of the subject Persians, 
 ga^t 1)11 th to her son Cyrus, Astyages gave him to his courtier Harpagus, with the 
 m^_^^.^ M^Eg^^^5ggSi commmand to put him to death, in order 
 
 r^^ 
 
 "- that the Persians might not acquire power 
 - over the Medes. Harpagus entrusted the 
 murder to a shepherd, who, instead of killing 
 the child, brought him up as his own son. 
 But the boy made known his royal nature 
 even in his play, which caused him to be 
 brought to the king, and to be recognized. 
 Astyages, set at rest in his mind by the 
 soothsayers, caused Cyrus to be educated 
 according to his rank, and when he grew up, 
 sent him to Persia to his parents. Here the 
 thought seized him of delivering the brave 
 but subject race from Median bondage, and 
 of setting forth with the Persians to victory 
 and conquest. His powerful mind, and his 
 commanding nature, excited the wonder of 
 tlie Persians, and the}'' followed him eagerly ; 
 he attacked the Medes, and Harpagus com- 
 mander of the royal army, because he 
 had been shamefully treated by the king, deserted with his troops to Cyrus. 
 cu>„s, Astyages, betrayed and conquered, abandoned the throne to his for- 
 
 B. C.SSS-S2B. tunate grandson, who became tlie founder of a universal kingdom, that 
 embraced all the civilized countries of Asia. 
 
 § 27. About the same time Lydia, the capital of which was Sardis, was governed 
 
 CYllUS THE GREAT. 
 
t'RUi^Lt. ON 'IIU- FLNKi'v 
 
 NKi'>.\Li'VhK. (ILVo<ji'l.) (P^J-C9.) 
 
70 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 by king Cioesus, whose name has become proverbial, because of his exceeding riches. 
 cj/i-ns anti He was the friend and ally of Astyages, and was tlierefore attacked by 
 
 crteaua. Cyi'us. Deceived by an ambiguous oracle, Croesus crossed the river 
 Halys to attack the Persians, but suffered defeat and retreated in haste to his capital. 
 B. c. B^o. Cyrus pursued him, conquered Sardis, and commanded that the 
 captive King should be given to the flames. Croesus was already tied to the stake (so 
 the story goes), when the recollection of the Athenian sage Solon saved him from de- 
 struction. This great statesman had visited Sardis, and been welcomed by the king. 
 Croesus led him proudly through his treasure vaults, and showed him all his riches ; 
 and then asked him whom he counted the happiest of mortals. But Solon, instead of 
 naming Croesus, named the Athenian Pallas, for he had sufficient property, handsome 
 and well-behaved sons and grandsons, and had fallen in victorious battle against the 
 enemies of his country, and had been buried by the Athenians, at the spot where he 
 fell. When Croesus pressed him fuither, he named two lads, Cleobis and Biton, sons 
 of a priestess in Argos. For he said, when the mother of these lads needed to go to 
 the temple to a sacrifice, and the oxen were not at hand, the lads had yoked themselves 
 to the wagon, and pulled it to the temple. The mother thereupon beseeching the gods 
 to give her boys the best of all rewards, they fell asleep in the teinple and never woke 
 again. When Croesus expressed his displeasure that Solon did not count him as 
 fortunate as a common citizen, the latter replied, "call niD man fortunate till he dies ! ' 
 These words came back to Croesus, first when his favorite son Attys was brought 
 home dead from the hunting field, and now a second time, in his distress, and he cried 
 " Oh, Solon, Solon ! " His outcry excited the curiosity of the Persian king, who asked 
 for an explanation, and struck by the truth of Solon's words, he set Croesus at liberty, 
 and held him afterward in high honor, consulting him in all his undertakings. 
 
 § 28. Cyrus conquered next, 
 the Babylonian kingdom. The 
 Babylonians were holding a great 
 feast, and exulting in their invinci- 
 bility, when the Persians cut through 
 the channel of the Euphrates (the 
 water of which they had diverted 
 from its course), entered the city, 
 slew the king Nabonetos (Belshaz- 
 zar), in his palace, and conquered 
 
 B. c. S3S. the country. This 
 brought Syria, Palestine and Phoeni- 
 cia under the dominion of the Per- 
 sians, and the captured Jews re- 
 ceived from Koresh (Cyrus) " tlie 
 anointed of Jehovah " permission to return home. " How art thou fallen from heaven, 
 O Lucifer, son of the morning!" cried at that time the voice of the prophet, exulting in 
 the destruction of Babylon ; " How art thou cut down to the ground, which didst 
 weaken the nations ! " 
 
 Shortly after this, Cyrus undertook a campaign against the Massagetae, a Nomad 
 tribe near the Caspian Sea. By a stratagem he captured a great part of the hostile 
 
 TOMb OF t\UL : 
 
72 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 army, together with its leader, a son of the Queen Tomyris. The captured chief was 
 so mortified that, even though Cyrus set him free, he put himself to death. The 
 queen, his mother, gathered all her people about her, and thirsting for revenge. 
 It. c. B^o. attacked the Persians at the river Yaxartes. Tomyris was victorioiis. 
 She destroyed Cyrus and nearly all his army. The head of the mighty Persian King 
 was hewn from liis shoulders, and plunged in a vessel filled with blood, the angiy 
 queen exclaiming, " Now take thy fill of blood, thou who in thy life time couldst 
 never get enono'h I " 
 
 C.^MBYSES KILLS THE SACUED BULL. {R. ViK/vl.) 
 
 § 29. Cambyses, the warlike and powerful son of Cyrus, extended the kingdom 
 cambiiwa. hj the conquest of Egypt. The unfortunate king Psammetichus was 
 B. c. sio-sgg. taken prisoner, and compelled to behold his people outraged, and Lis 
 children put to shame. Cambyses, embittered because the king of Egypt had once 
 given him, not his own daughter, but the daughter of his predecessor for a wife, com- 
 pelled tlie Princess and the noble virgins of Egypt to put on the garments of slaves, 
 
EASTERN RACES. 
 
 73 
 
 and to draw water. The Crown Prince and 2,000 3'oung Egj'ptians were put to death. 
 All present except Psammetichus, at the sight of such miser}^, broke forth in lamenta- 
 tion. But when one of his former companions passed b}-, and begged the warrior for 
 an alms, Psammetichus, the wretched king, lifted up his voice and wept aloud. And 
 when Cambyses asked him the reason, he answered : " The misery of my family is too 
 great for tears, but this of my friend makes me weep." Psammetichus died a violent 
 death. The Egyptian temples and the statues of their gods were desecrated, the 
 sacred animals slauglitered, the treasures stolen, the people oppressed and scorned. 
 But now the Persians suffered an evil fate. Two armies sent by Cambyses to conquer 
 Ammonium, were lost in the deserts of Libya. This state had its chief center in the 
 sanctuary and oracle of the ram-horned Zeus-Ammon, in the oasis Siwah; and, like the 
 old priest-state Meroe, w^hich was situated in Nubia, in the midst of a savage Negro 
 
 THE KUINS OF PERSEPOLIS. 
 
 population, was a colony of Thebes, the city of the Pharaohs. It was an enchanting 
 island, in the midst of an endless desert, a green fruitful place, full of palm trees, 
 about the clear-flowing fountain of the sun. Cambyses died, after a reign of seven 
 years, from a wound inflicted upon himself, with his own sword. The Egyptians as- 
 cribed his sudden death to the vengeance of the gods, for the desecration of their 
 temples and their sanctuaries, especially for the slaughter of the sacred bull Apis, and 
 for the ill-treatment of their priests. 
 
 § 30. Meanwhile a rebellion had broken out in Susa, as a result of which one 
 of the Magi, a pretended brother of the king, Cambj'ses, took possession of the throne. 
 This false Smerdis was detected, after a few months, and put to death by seven noble 
 Persians. Darius, who belonged to the royal race of Achsemenides, was called to the 
 kingdom. The seven princes agreed (so the legend runs), that they would ride 
 toward the rising run, and he should be king whose horse was first to neigh. Darius, 
 
74 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 Mtarius Hustnapes, SOU of Hj'staspes, wlieii he thus curiously obtained the throne, com- 
 ' JB. c. B21.4SB. billed with an honorable descent, great sagacity, the firmness of a states- 
 man, and the serious courage of a warrior. He was also a pious adherent of Zoroas- 
 ter's- religion ; yet not an intolerant fanatic like Cambyses. The inscriptions on the 
 rocky wall of Bagistan record how Darius fought long and earnestly against re- 
 bellious tribes, before he came into sure possession of his dominion, and before he 
 could say " twenty provinces pay me tribute, and perform by day and by night whatever 
 I command ! " He governed his kingdom by satraps, regulated the payment of taxes, 
 and carried on great wars, though he was not always victorious. For he waged war 
 upon the Nomads of the Steppes, lying between the lower Danube and the Dnieper ; 
 people who called themselves Scolots, but were known to the Greeks as Scythians. 
 As he approached, they withdrew, with their herds and their tents, and abandoned 
 their barren fields to the enemy. The Persians soon came to the brink of destruction, 
 for want of food, and, pursued by the Scythians, were compelled to make a difficult, 
 and almost destructive, retreat across the Danube. 
 
 § 31. The simple manners and the war-like virtues of the Persians soon degen- 
 erated. The splendid court, where crowds of courtiers and priestly counselors, of 
 servants and satellites, consumed the marrow of the land, destroyed the well-being of 
 the provinces. The royal table was provided with the most delicious meats and drinks, 
 brought from the most distant regions ; a throng of intriguing women, who often re- 
 ceived the revenues of whole cities and districts for their adornment, increased the 
 extravagance and the luxury of the court. This was held in the winter time at the 
 warmer Babylon, in spring at Susa, and in summer at the cool Ecbatana, a citj- shaded 
 with trees and abundant in fountains. Numerous parks and orchards served for the 
 pleasure of the Persian king, at these changing residences. The Satraps of the prov- 
 inces imitated the luxury and the extravagance of the royal court, to the destruction 
 of their lands, which were protected by no laws, and no established rights, against 
 their caprice and despotism. Moreover this vast Persian kingdom was only a cluster 
 of hetereogeneous elements, made up of people with all manner of customs and insti- 
 tutions, and without inward unity or force of cohesive attraction. Even in the army 
 the different tribes preserved their national costumes, weapons and modes of war. 
 Science and literature were unknown to the Persians, but in architecture and sculp- 
 ture they were not behind the other peoples of the Orient, as is shown by the colossal 
 ruins of Persepolis, with their columns, their marble stairways and walls adorned with 
 statues 
 
 AN EASTKIIN KHAN. 
 
mMMIgJ^MMMMMMMl^HHMMM^MMM^lMM^Mjl 
 
 HlUM^MM^^l^Ml^MHiriMM^MlM^MMMmMl 
 
 B. THE grp:ek world. 
 
 1 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 §32. 
 
 THE GREEK MAINLAND. 
 
 REECE forms the southern part of a 
 large peninsula, which is in the north 
 broad and coherent, in the south nar- 
 row, irregular and broken by frequent 
 bays and inlets. Many mountain 
 ranges intersect it so that it consists 
 of a multitude of small secluded and 
 separate regions, especially favorable to 
 the development of independent com- 
 munities. Greece is divided into North 
 Greece, Middle Greece, and the Pelopon- 
 nesus. 
 
 
 1. North Greece consists of the 
 rugged mountain regions, Epirus and 
 Thessaly. These are separated from 
 each other from north to south by the 
 wild, serrated, snow-clad, rocky range of the Pindus. Thessaly is a land of rich and 
 fertile plains lying between the spurs of the Pindus, especially adapted to the breed- 
 ing of horses. The vale of Tempe close to the many-peaked Olympus, the mountain 
 of the Gods, was renowned in antiquity for its natural beauty. Larissa on the 
 Peneus, Pharsalia with its battlefield were noteworthy cities. The Qilta is the 
 southern mountain chain ; between its base and. the sea runs a narrow gorge, which 
 is the only natural entrance from Thessaly to Middle Greece. This is the famous 
 Thermopylce, the warm gateway, so called from the hot sulphur springs that gush from 
 the mountain sides. 
 
 2. Middle Greece or Hellas intersected by the arms of the Oeta consisted 
 of eight small independent states. 
 
 (75) 
 
(6 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 Attioa, a hilly region rich in olives, figs, and honey with its capital, Athens 
 (founded by Theseus who united several indejiendent towns into a single community). 
 Piraeus was the Athenian harbor, Elensis the place of the mysteries and tlie worship 
 
 ELEUSINIAN FEAST. {H. Vogel.) 
 
 of Ceres, and Marathon its world famous battlefield. Opposite Athens lie the Islands 
 ^o-ina and Salamis ; the former renowned for its early culture and its commerce, the 
 latter for the sea-fight in the Persian war. Boeotia, with the famous Helicon, the home 
 of the muses, situated in a region rich in springs and picturesque beauty, is a fertile 
 country famous for its seven-gated city Thebes, for iis heroic Platsea and for the 
 famous battlefields Leuctra and Chferonea. Phoois, with the famed Parnassus, a steep 
 craggy mountain with majestic natural surroundings. At the foot of the mountain 
 lay the holy city Delphi. Tliis was supposed to be the centre (or the navel) of the 
 world ; here was the oracle of Apollo and here were numerous splendid buildings, and 
 other worRs of art. The alternation of rocks, forests, grottos, brooks, of the barren 
 mountain with the fruitful plaius, made a powerful impression and filled the beholder 
 with a feeling of religious awe. Doris and Loeris have no historical value ; ^tolia 
 and Acarnania also had little relation to Greek life. 
 
 3. Pelopoxnesus (now Morea) is united to Hellas bj"- a small and craggy isth- 
 mus. This i)eniusula, bounded by the sea on four sides, is all mountain land. Rugged 
 Arcadia, with charming valleys, and fertile pastures was the home of a sturdy race of 
 
THE GREEK WORLD. 
 
 n 
 
 herdsmen. Mantinea, Tegea and Megalopolis, planned by Epaminondas, were its 
 principal cities. Achaia lay to the north of it on the Corinthian Gulf ; its twelve cities 
 united in the third century, B. C, to form the famous Achaian League. To this be- 
 longed also Sicyon and the rich and beautiful Corinth. Argolis was in the east, a 
 rocky land with a coast abounding in bays. Argos, its 
 capital, is famous as the home of Agamemnon ; Mycenfe 
 and Tiryiith for the ruins of the Cyclopean walls of the 
 '' Lion Gate." Laconia or Lacedcemon lay south of Ar- 
 golis; a rugged country with the Taygetiis mountains 
 and only a few fertile stretches of land in the valley of 
 the Eurotas ; not far away was the world-famous Sparta, 
 a union of separate districts or enclosures which at one 
 time numbered 60,000 inhabitants. Messene, the land of 
 olive-trees, extended from Lacedsemon to the sea. Its 
 ancient rocky capital Ithome, served in after years as the 
 fortress of the new metropolis Messene, built at the sug- 
 gestion of Epaminondas. Pylos was a Messenian city by 
 tlie sea. Ulia lay to the north ; a fertile country with the 
 TLUTo. plains and covered grove of Olympia, so renowned for the 
 
 Olympic games and for its glorious temples and works of art. Because of these games 
 Elis stood under the sheltering peace of the gods and in centuries experienced no war. 
 
 b. The Greek Islands. 
 
 § 33. Westward and eastward of Greece lie 
 a multitude of large and little islands, which are 
 very important in Greek llistor3^ 
 
 They were almost 
 lall distinguished for 
 Itheir products, wine, 
 'oil, and the fruits of 
 the south; they car- 
 ried on a large trade 
 and earl}' attained high culture. The most im- 
 portant are : in the west, Corcyra (now Corfu) 
 famous once for its wealth and progress and its ^~ 
 Corinthian colony, and stony Ithaca, the home of 
 Odysseus. In the southern Mediterranean, the 
 great island Crete renowned for its laws, its cul- 
 ture and its pirates. A hundred cities, says Ho- 
 mer, are probably in Crete. In Ci/prus and Oi/- 
 thera the Phoenicians erected factories and work- 
 shops for dyed fabrics and castings, and worshiped 
 their goddess, whom the Greeks called Aphrodite, 
 
 and the Romans Venus, with obscene rites. They settled Rhodes also, an island rich 
 in ores ; their settlements the Greeks acquired, and here at the entrance of the harbor 
 was erected the colossal bronze statue of the God of the Sun. The Archipelago of 
 
 DLDRACHM OP RHODES- ■ 
 
78 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 the JEgean sea abounded in islands large and small. Eubaea (Negroponte) on which 
 wei-e the cities Eretria and Chalcis, was opposite the east coast of Hellas. Further east 
 are Lemnos, Thasos, Imhros and Samothrace, ancient and 
 famous seats of religious mysteries. Near the east coast 
 of Peloponnesus are the Cyclades or circle islands. Delos 
 the sacred birth place of Apollo and Artemis (Diana) 
 was the centre of these. Paros, was renowned for its 
 marble, Naxos, for its wine. Off the coast of Asia Minor 
 are, Lesbos, Chios, Sm)ios, Coos, important for their wealth, 
 their commerce, their culture as well as their size and fer- 
 tility ; and Patnios, noteworthy for its traditional con- 
 nection with the Evangelist John. 
 
 2. Greek Religious Life. 
 
 § 34. Polytheism was nowhere so cheerful as among 
 the Greeks, whose legends of the gods (myths, whence 
 m3^thology) were in later times adopted by the Romans 
 and blended with the Old-Italian religious system. The 
 Greeks pictured the beginning of the universe as a crude 
 and formless mass. Chaos, out of which emerged the 
 wide breasted Earth, the nether world (Tartarus), Night, 
 
 JU.NO (HERA; 
 
 which gave birth to the Light, and 
 the creative Eros ; these weie all 
 self-subsistent deities. The Earth 
 gave birth to the Sky and the Sea, 
 and then produced a progeny of su- 
 perhuman size and power, the Ti- 
 tans, who governed all things until a 
 more intellectual i-ace under the rule 
 of Zeus (Jupiter) the God of the Sky 
 conquered the heaven, assailing Ti- 
 tans and Giants and burying them in 
 the abysses of the earth. Having 
 tamed the savage forces of nature and 
 the violence of the elements, Zeus es- 
 tablished his throne upon Olympus, 
 while Pluto (called also Hades) ruled 
 the gloomy realms of Tartarus, and 
 Poseidon, (Neptune) with his trident 
 governed the stormy Sea. With 
 them were worshiped Hera (or Juno) 
 the queen of heaven, the Virgin Pal- 
 las Athene (Minerva) who with helm 
 
 DIANA ARTEMIS. 
 
THE GREEK WORLD. 
 
 79 
 
 and shield appears the protectress of all intellectual pursuits and useful inventions, 
 the glorious Apollo, God of Light, who as leader of the nine muses watches over 
 
 SACRIFICING TO THE LARES AND PENATES. {H. Vogel.) 
 
 the fine arts, Artemis his sister (Diana) goddess of the moon and the chase. Aphrodite 
 (Venus) the charming goddess of love, with her youthful son Eros (Amor, Cupid) 
 and her companions, the 
 three graces. Forestand 
 mountains, fields and 
 meadows, streams and 
 lakes were alive with 
 countless divine beings 
 (N3'mphs, Nereids, Tri- 
 tons, the Hours, the god- 
 desses of the seasons, 
 and the Sirens with their 
 bewitching songs ) 
 These were corporeal 
 forms of the mighty ac- 
 tivities of nature and often interfered in human destinj 
 
 RELIEF FROM GREEK ALTAR. 
 
 A race of heroes derived 
 
THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 from Zeus was the connecting link between Gods and men; iu like manner the gap 
 between man and the other animals was filled up with Satyrs, Centaurs, Fauns, which 
 possessed the attributes of man and beast commingled. From his birth-hour every 
 
 human being was believed to 
 
 be accompanied by his guar- 
 dian' and guiding genius 
 (Dtemon) who influenced his 
 desires and his actions, with- 
 out however destroying the 
 freedom of his will. The 
 hearthstone was the seat of 
 Hestia (Vesta) and of the 
 house and family gods (Lares, 
 Penates); these warded off 
 evil from the household, while 
 every important event was 
 under the watch-care of a par- 
 ticular divinity. Christians 
 teach that the earthl}' life is 
 a time of trial and transition 
 to a nobler existence, but 
 the Greeks rejoiced in the 
 pleasures of this earth and 
 shuddered to think of the 
 shadowy existence of the 
 nether world. Like phan- 
 toms, souls descended into 
 Hades, "mere clouds and 
 glimmerings of life." Yet 
 they believed in future rewal'ds and penalties and in eternal life. The departed were 
 conducted by Hermes (Mercury) to the judges of the nether world, and as these de- 
 creed were they appointed to the abode of the righteous (Elysium, the blessed islands) 
 or to the gloomy region of damnation (Tartarus, Orcus). To the souls or shadows 
 (Manes) of the dead, the surviving relatives and friends brought many sacrifices to 
 offer at their graves. 
 
 Dionysius (Bacchus) was a very ancient deity of profound, mystic significance 
 His worship originated in Boeotia, but his rites spread through Lower Italy, the islands 
 of the I^gean Sea and Asia. He signifies the force of nature which ripens the vine and 
 gives the intoxicating power to the grape. He is generally considered as the God of 
 Winter, or the representation of the abundance of Nature given in wine. The worship 
 of Dionysius gave rise to many wild and noisy festivals (Bacchanalia). In Delphi 
 the rites were celebrated in winter ; in them the women assembled as Bacchfe and 
 rioted around Parnassus. The customary ^processions and mummeries of the Feast of 
 Vintage were the origin of the dramatic plays, tragedies and comedies. 
 
 This world of Gods, so rich in beauty and in freedom is represented in the finest 
 productions of Greek art and poetry. 
 
 }IKKMES OF rUAXlTELES. 
 
THE GREEK WORLD 
 I. GREECE BEFORE THE PERSIAN WARS. 
 
 81 
 
 THE TIME OF THE TROJAN WAR. 
 
 ^ 3.5. 
 
 IHE Pelasgi are said to be the 
 oldest inhabitants of Greece. 
 They were an agricultural 
 peaceable people with a re- 
 ligion based upon the worship 
 of nature, in which the earth- 
 mother Demeter (Ceres), tlie 
 God of Vegetation andof wine, Dionysos (Bacchus) 
 and the oracle-giving nature-God Zeus were 
 worshiped splendidly in the forest sanctuary at 
 Dodonain Epirus. This 
 j-eligion of nature — as 
 well as the ruins of an- 
 cient buildings, cities, 
 treasure-houses, royal 
 castles, (particularly the 
 indestructible cyclopean 
 walls in the Peloponne- 
 sus consisting of poly- 
 gonal stone masses piled 
 up and held together 
 without cement) indi- 
 cate that the Pelasgi 
 jjresembled the Orientals 
 in their culture and 
 religious institutions, 
 and that there iised to 
 be in very early times intercourse between Greece 
 and Asia and Egypt. This view is confirmed by 
 the legends of oriental colonists who in hoary 
 antiquity came to Greece and scattered the seeds 
 of culture. For example the Egyptian Cecrops 
 in Attica (Athens) the Phcenician Cadmus in 
 Boeotia (Thebes) the Phrygian Pelops in the 
 Peninsula that bears his name, (Pelop's island) 
 Peloponnesus. 
 
 § 36. The Pelasgi were forced out or sub- 
 jugated by the courageous Hellenes who gradually 
 conquered all Greece. These were of the same 
 family with the Pelasgi and consisted of three 
 branches : The Dorians (in Peloponnesus), the 
 
82 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 lonians (in Attica ana the islands) and the ^olians (in Boeotia and elsewliere). 
 They distinguished themselves early by their deeds of war, their building of cities, 
 and planting of colonies. The poetic legends of the Twelve Labors of Hercules 
 (Herakles), of the voyage of the first Athenian hero Theseus, to Crete the mistress of 
 the sea, where, with the help of the princess Ariadne, he found his way to the man- 
 devouring Minotaur and delivered Athens from her shameful tribute, and of the 
 daring voyage of the Argonauts, are echoes of the earliest achievements of Hellenic 
 history. The voyage of the Argonauts, was undertaken by the Thessalian Jason, 
 
 along M-ith the most famous heroes of his 
 time, Hercules, Theseus, Castor and Pollux 
 of Lacedsemon, and Orpheus, the Thracian 
 singer. These started on the ship Argo for 
 the unknown land of the sun (in later times 
 said to be Colchis on the Black Sea) in order 
 to fetch the golden fleece, which long years 
 before had been hung up there by the 
 Thessalian prince Phrixus, and which was 
 guarded by a sleepless dragon. Phrixus and 
 his sister Helle had a wicked stepmother, 
 who souo^ht the life of both children. Sud- 
 denly appeared to them, their deceased 
 mother, the cloud-goddess Nephele, who gave 
 them the wonderful ram, to carry them across 
 the sea. Helle fell off at the Hellespont and 
 drowned. But Phrixus reached the main- 
 land, sacrificed the ram and spent his life in 
 the land of the Sun. This precious fleece 
 was now to be carried to Thessaly. After a 
 toilsome voyage Jason witli his comrades 
 reached the golden Colchis and with the 
 help of the sorceress Medea, the princess of 
 the land, accomplished his undertaking and 
 returned with his booty. But on their re- 
 turn voyage through the ocean and the mys- 
 terious river Eridanus the Argonauts had 
 wonderful adventures and hair-breadth 
 esca^Des. This narrative indicates early com- 
 mercial relations of the ^olian race with 
 the distant coast of Asia. The further the Greek sailors voyaged, the richer became 
 the legend, the farther east receded the goal of the Argonaut crew. Another legend 
 " the War of the Seven against Tliebes " contains quite probably also a basis of his- 
 toric happenings. 
 
 § 37. The most important event of the Greek lieroic epoch is the celebrated Trojan 
 
 JB. c. 1104-119S. War. In Ilium or Troj', on the northwest coast of Asia Minor, King 
 
 Priam ruled over a rich and cultured people. His youngest son Paris carried off the 
 
 beautiful Helen, wife of the Lacedamonian king Menelaus, who had received him hospita- 
 
 JilllLi^ 
 
 THE FARNESE HERCULES. 
 
THE GREEK WORLD. 
 
 83 
 
 bly in his palace rich in silver and in gold. The injured husband gathered the Grecian 
 princes for a war of revenge, Avhich was conducted by his brother Agamemnon of 
 Myceuse, with the help of the most renowned heroes of Greece. Achilles and his friend 
 Patroclus from Thessaly ; the cunning Odysseus (Ulysses) from the island Ithaca ; 
 Diomedes from Argos ; the aged Nestor from Pylos ; Ajax and others are named in 
 the legend as the chief participants in the war and the bravest chieftains of the 
 
 Greeks. Aulis, where Aga- 
 memnon sacrificed his daugh- 
 ter Iphigenia to Artemis 
 (Diana), was the starting 
 ; point of the great fleet that 
 
 j sailed away to the coast of 
 
 ! Asia. But the Trojans proved 
 
 ' to be such brave antagonists, 
 
 especially Hector, the son of 
 g Priam, and the Trojan prince 
 
 d ^neas, that only after ten 
 
 ^ _ years of fighting, in which 
 • -t. the gods themselves took 
 
 ; " part, could the city be taken 
 
 ' < and destroyed ; and then 
 
 g g only through the cunning 
 I H trick of Odysseus (a wooden 
 g H horse filled with armed men). 
 o Priam and most of the Tro- 
 
 I H Jans lost their lives in the 
 
 > o 
 
 \ p^ defence or in the destruction 
 
 ' " of the city ; the few survivors 
 
 K were carried into slavery. 
 
 s But the victors also suffered 
 
 ^ many misfortunes. Achilles, 
 
 Patroclus and others found 
 
 in Ilium an early gi-ave. 
 
 i Agamemnon after a weari- 
 
 1 some voyage home was mur- 
 
 1 dered at the instigation of his 
 
 faithless wife Clytemnestra, 
 
 and Odysseus wandered, 
 
 driven by storms, for ten 
 
 j'ears, along inhospitable 
 
 shores, around islands and on 
 
 the sea, before lie was permitted to see his faithful wife Penelope, and his son Tele- 
 
 machus, and to clear his house of the insolent wooers who sought the hand of his wife 
 
 and meanwhile consumed his property. 
 
 § 38. Homer. The Trojan War is of more importance to poetry and art than 
 
 to history, since the combats of the heroes, and their adventures and wanderings on 
 
84 
 
 THE AXCIEXT WORLD. 
 
 their return home, formed two legendary cycles, from which the materials of heroic or 
 epic poetry have usually been selected. 
 
 The first and greatest poet to combine these old myths into an immortal work. 
 
 jTomer. about was Homer, according to tradition, a blind singer, whose life is so ob- 
 
 jB. c. aso. scured that, even in antiquity, seven cities strove for the honor of 
 
 his birth-place. The two great poems ascribed to him. are the Iliad, in which the 
 
 '• Wrath of Achilles '' or the battles before Troy, during fifty-one or fifty-three days 
 
 IPHIGEXIA LED TO BIANA S ALTAR AS A SACRIJICE. 
 
 of the last year of the war. are portrayed ; and the Odyssey, in which are related the 
 fates and adventures of Odysseus, and his companions, in the western sea and about 
 Sicily. And even a burlesque epic, in which the battles of mice and frogs were rep- 
 resented in the same fashion, as the battles of the Achi^ans and the Trojans, was fi-e- 
 queiitly ascribed, in ancient times, to the Ionic bard, although written four centuries 
 later. In Homer's time, writing was unknown in Greece. These poems, therefore, 
 were handed down by itinerant singers (Rhapsodists) who learned fragments of them 
 bv heart, and recited them to a listening throng. And even later, after these frag- 
 
THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 ments had been collected and written down, the young men of Greece committed 
 them to memory as an inspiration to patriotism, to religious sentiment and knowledge, 
 and to a love of beauty. Wandering poets called Homerides recited parts of these 
 poems at the great festivals of the Greeks, introducing them with invocations to their 
 gods, with lyric song, accompanied by music (Homeric 
 jieaiott, ahout Hymns}. Hesiod was the head of an 
 B. c. sso. ^olian school of poets who flourished in 
 Boeotia. He composed an epic poem upon the creation 
 of the world, and the origin and fate of the Greek gods ; 
 and a didactic poem, " Works and Days," a golden treas- 
 ury for the sensible citizen, full of maxims for the farm 
 and for navigation, for home and civil life. The verse 
 used by Homer was the hexameter, which continued to 
 be the verse for epic poetry. 
 
 § 39. Soon after the Trojan War, great changes and 
 revolutions took place in Greece. Some of the Hellenic 
 tribes pushed the earlier inhabitants from their settle- 
 ments. These threw themselves upon the others, until 
 at last, the weaker tribe that escaped slavery determined 
 to emigrate, and to found plantations on the opposite 
 
 jB. c. ito4. coast. The most successful of these enii- 
 HOJIER. (Sans Souci, Potsdam.) .. i.\ ^ c i.\ t\ ■ • i iv. -d i 
 
 ^ ' 'grations was that or the Dorians into the reloponnesus, 
 
 under the leadership of the descendants of Hercules. This changed entirely the 
 
 cliaracter of the Peloponnesus, as the control of the peninsula passed away 
 
 from the ^olian and Achaian population into the hands of the rude Dorians. 
 
 Only the northern district, Achaia, and the middle mountain region, Arcadia, 
 
 GxHKoeM ajb B^c^^e VCCOA.OMCON e I CY NM^ 
 
 THCI N A^YT'COMe'T'^T'OYTrOCXpe'+MKVTON 
 MTOXH C KOTTHCTO VX-OiLKKXOrO MOf KXI 
 TCDNa^ClAceaDMTaDMMeT^YTr'OV^iCTH N 
 KOlA.AAAT^HNCXVH'TOVrOf-IN'rOTreAlOKI 
 
 B-xcivecjDH* ic2t)MeA,"xiceA^eKRXci \6yc 
 
 C^^'^HMe'iMHerKeHKpTOYCKXlOINONHN 
 
 AeieT»eYcrro Y©YTOY V'+'icxov \<'k\e\ssyrH 
 
 EARLY GREEK WHITING. 
 
 retained their old inhabitants. The Dorians gradually conquered Argolis, La- 
 conica, Messene, Sicyon, Corinth, and Megara. They even invaded Attica, and 
 threatened Athens; but were compelled to retreat, by the bravery and sacrificial 
 
THE GREEK WORLD. 
 
 87 
 
 cofirus, death of the Athenian king, Codrus. An oracle had declared that 
 n. c. lotts. victory would fall to the side whose king was slain. The Dorians for- 
 bade their warriors to attack Codrus. But the Athenian king, who had also heard 
 the oracle, exchanged his royal garment for a shepherd's dress, and glided unrecog- 
 nized into the enemy's camp, where he immediately provoked a conflict, and found 
 the death that he sought. The Dorians, despairing of victory, at once abandoned 
 Athens, and satisfied themselves with Megara. The Athenians 
 declared that no one was worthy to wear the crown, after such a 
 kingly hero, and accordingly abolished the royal dignitj'. The 
 former inhabitants of the Peloponnesus had various fortunes. The 
 bravest and strongest of them founded the Ionic colonies on the 
 west coast of Asia Minor, and on the islands Chios, Lesbos and 
 Samos. These were soon so renowned for the fertilit)' of their 
 soil, for their commerce, their industry, and their skill in naviga- 
 tion ; for their prosperity and their culture, that they even eclipsed the mother 
 country. Others remained at home and submitted voluntarily to the Dorians, 
 paying them tribute and excluded from every share in the government of the state, 
 although they were permitted to retain their personal freedom and their property. 
 And a third class were compelled to submit by force of arms, and reduced to serfdom 
 and slavery. The former were called, in Laconica, Perioei (countrymen, or Lacede- 
 
 COIN OF EPHESUS. 
 
 THE TEMPLE OF DIANA AT EPHESUS. (BeStOrecl.) 
 
 monians), to distinguish them from the Spartans. The latter were called Helots. In 
 the other states, in Argos, Corinth and Sicyon, the noble families of the Achaians 
 were admitted to equal political rights with the Dorians. 
 
 § 40. Colonies. The Ionian colonies formed, after a time, a confederacy of twelve 
 cities ; of which the most important were Miletus, Ephesus, with the famous temple 
 of Artemis (Diana), Phocsea, Colophon, and the ^olian Smyrna. They had rei^re- 
 sentative councils, and festival assemblies, at the temple of Poseidon, on the promon- 
 
88 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 tory of Alycale. The twelve jEolian cities, north of Ionia, and the six Dorian cities 
 to tlie south, together with the island Rhodes, had similar religious communities, and 
 annual meetings, but each city was an independent community, with its own laws and 
 magistracj". 
 
 Halicarnassus, the birth-place of the historian Herodotus, was the most important 
 city planted by the Dorians. In the course of time, the colonies and the mother 
 country sent emigrants to the shores of the Hellespont, and of Propontus (Sea of 
 Marmora), and of the Euxine (the Black Sea). The most important of these were 
 Cyzicus, Byzantium (Constantinople), at the golden horn, Sinope, and Cerasus the 
 land of cherries. There were flourishing colonies, also, on the coast of Thrace and 
 JSIacedonia, Amphipolis, Olynthia, Abdera. And the number of Greek settlements in 
 Lower Italy M'as so great that the inhabitants spoke Greek, and the whole country was 
 
 rilH PYTIUA ON THE TUIl 
 
 called Magna Grtecia. Among these the most famous were the Spartan trading city 
 Tarentum, the strong Crotona, and the ancient Cumse, the mother city of Naples. 
 The charming island. of Sicily belonged, for the most part, to the Greeks, who founded 
 there, many rich cities, of which the greatest, most powerful, and most cultivated, was 
 the commercial city of Syracuse, a Corinthian settlement. Opposite Rhegium, the 
 city of Messina was founded, at the foot of Mt. ^tna. The Ionian cities of Catena, 
 Gela, and Agrigentum, were also Greek. Cyrene rivaled Carthage on the North coast 
 of Africa, and Massilia, in South Gaul, was a nursery of culture, and a model of civil 
 order, for the rough tribes of the vicinity. All these cities carried on a great com- 
 merce, from the products of their land, and the fabrics of their art. The surrounding 
 country Avas beautiful!}'' eulMvated, and adorned for miles with villas and with parks. 
 They exercised beneficial inlluence upon the conduct and culture of the natives, but 
 
THE GREEK WORLD. 89 
 
 gradually degenerated, because their great wealth and culture developed luxurj^, 
 sensualitj' and sloth. The colonies maintained friendly relations with the mother 
 state, by which they were planted, but were free and independent : they retained the 
 manners, ordinances and religious usages of their forefathers, and revereuced them 
 with filial piety. 
 
 2 The Time of the Law-Givees and Sages. 
 
 a. Hellenic Life. 
 
 § 41. Greece never formed a single state, but was divided into a multitude of 
 independent communities. From time to time the mightiest of these obtained the over- 
 
 ULYMPIAX (.AAIES. 
 
 lordship (Hegemony). For instance Sparta, Athens, Thebes. But language, man- 
 ners, and religious institutions united all the Greek tribes into one people. They 
 called themselves Hellenes, and all other races Barbarians. They were a talented 
 people, capable of great development, remarkable for their beauty of face and of form, 
 and they reached a height of culture to which no other people has yet attained. Their 
 love of freedom, and their manly energy, led them to found many independent com- 
 munities, to which they were attached with devoted patriotism, and which they de- 
 fended with their heart's blood, until party spirit strangled their nobler feelings and 
 their love of unit3^ Activity and industry developed a universal prosperity ; and a 
 beautiful country, under a cfieerful sky, with a healthy, happy climate, filled them 
 
90 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 with the love of life, and an indestructible vivacity. They needed little, and their 
 fertile soil, and favorably situated land, gave it to them without great effort; they had 
 few cares and sorrows, and every free man had leisure enough for intellectual enjoy- 
 ments, for poetry, art, and science. The ordinary employments, required by the neces- 
 sities of life, were avoided by the Greeks, as fit only for slaves and strangers. Their 
 notions of rights were exceedingly strict ; according to these, only the citizen of the 
 state could share in the protection of the laws, and exile was regarded by them as a 
 punishment equal to death. Yet their religious maxims awakened and nourished in 
 them the feelings of fraternity and humanity. The sacred bond of hospitality united 
 cities, families, and individuals. Pious awe protected the suppliant, when he was 
 oppressed by a fatal consciousness of guilt. The herald was looked upon as holy and 
 inviolate, even in the midst of battle. In Athens tliere was an altar in the market 
 place, sacred to Sympathy ; and she had a home also in the hearts of the people. 
 
 § 42. Certain institutions connected with religion were common to all, or to 
 
 several Greek tribes. The 
 most important of these was 
 the Amphictyonic council, 
 or temple-union ; a court of 
 arbitration composed of dele- 
 gates from twelve Greek 
 states, whose duty it was to 
 protect the national sanctu- 
 ary in Delphi, and to prevent 
 the wars between the differ- 
 ent states from becoming too 
 cruel and destructive. It 
 was a union of cities and of 
 states, upon a religious foun- 
 dation, the like of which 
 existed also in other parts of 
 the Greek world. Next came 
 tlie Delphic oracle, with its 
 rich temple. This was a 
 communit}'^ of priests, which 
 restrained violence, by the 
 power of humanity, and brought all the activities of public life under the influence of 
 religion and morality. In every important undertaking, especially at the planting of 
 new colonies, the Delphic Apollo was consulted. The ambassadors first sacrificed at 
 the navel stone, after which the laurel-crowned priestess Pythia ascended the golden 
 tripod, placed above the abyss in the dark chamber of the temple. The vapor that 
 ascended soon wrought her into ecstacy, during which she uttered words that were 
 written down and handed to the ambassadors, for their interpretation. These oracles 
 were obscure, and frequently ambiguous and enigmatical. The temple at Delphi 
 possessed great estates ; numerous tenants paj'ed tribute to the priests, who were also 
 enriched by sacrificial offerings, and votive gifts. The third bond that held together 
 the Greek states and tribes were the games, musical and athletic contests, that took 
 
 THE WRESTLERS. ' (Florenz.) 
 
HERODOTUS READING HIS HISTORY. {H. Leutemann.) {pp. 91.) 
 
92 
 
 THE ANCIEKT WORLD. 
 
 place periodically at famous sanctuaries, in connection with sacrificial service. The 
 Pythian games were dedicated to Apollo, and took place at Delphi ; the Isthmian 
 games to Poseidon, in the pine forests of the Isthmus : the Nemean were dedicated to 
 Zeus, and took jjlace at Nemea near the Peloponnesian city Cleonae. But the 
 Olympian games were the most famous of all. These took place every four years, in 
 the plains of Olympia in Elis, and during their continuance, in the sacred months of 
 the Summer time, there reigned " the peace of the gods." They consisted especially 
 in running, wrestling, fighting, throwing the diskos or spear, and in chariot racing. 
 The olive branch which was given to the victor, was not only an honor for the recip- 
 ient, but for his family and his native city. The works of artists, poets, and authors 
 were first published at these national festivals. It is related that Herodotus, the father 
 of history, read parts of his work at a great sacrificial celebration, and inspired the 
 greatest of all historians, Thucydides, to a glorious emulation. 
 
 The temple of Olympian Zeus, and the 
 colossal statue of the king of the gods, both 
 works of the Athenian artist Phidias, belong 
 to the most wonderful achievements of 
 Greek art. Zeus is represented in a sitting 
 posture, and the statue was beautiful with 
 gold and ivory. A victorj' in an Olj'mpic 
 game was the greatest distinction in all 
 Greece. The returning victor was brought 
 home in a festal procession, and conducted 
 to the temple of the protecting deity amid 
 the songs of victory, which were composed 
 by the best known poets, like Simonides 
 and Pindar. And in the temple the happy 
 event was celebrated with a thank offering, 
 and a joj'ful banquet. The Greek calendar 
 was reckoned b}^ Ol3nTipiads, and thus we 
 discover that 776 B. C, marks the beginnings 
 of the Olympic festivals and games. 
 
 OLYMPIAN VICTOR, PRIEST AND KING. 
 
 b. Lycurgus, Law- Giver of the Spartans (^abont B. O. 884). 
 
 § 43. The manners of the Dorians gradually degenerated in their new home. An 
 unwarlike spirit threatened to prevail, and the hatred between victors and vanquished 
 troubled their peace, and brought confusion into their state. This induced a patriotic 
 B.c.sse. Spartan of royal blond, L3'curgus, to restore and reestablish the old 
 Doric maxims, and thereby to pacify his own people, and at the same time to make 
 them superior to the other states. He made a journey therefore to the island 
 Crete, distinguished for its good laws. For the Doric inhabitants of the island had 
 preserved their original customs and institutions. After making himself acquainted 
 with the state of things among the Cretans, he returned to Sparta and established the 
 remarkable constitution and manner of life which in the course of time assumed the 
 following form. 
 
THE GREEK WORLD. 
 
 93 
 
 a. The Constitution of the State. 
 
 All authority was in the hands of the Dorians, who devoted themselves exclusively 
 to the use of arms, to war and to governing the state. 
 
 In tlie popular assemblies they chose the council of the ancients (Gerousia), who 
 were charged with the executive and the judicial authority, and also the five Ephors, 
 who at first watched over the order of the city, but subsequently had the supervision 
 of public life, and the conduct of officers, and acquired such power that they even 
 called the kings to account. The Council of Ancients consisted of twenty-eight cit- 
 izens, who must be at least sixty years old. This was presided over by two Spartan 
 kings, who belonged to the family of the Heraclidse and received their dignity by 
 inheritance. They possessed less power than honor at home, but in war were always 
 leaders, and unlimited in their authority. This dual monarchy suggests the inference 
 that the old Achaian inhabitants united with the newly arrived Dorians in a common 
 government. The whole constitution was 
 based upon an equality of property. All 
 the land of Laconica was divided, so that 
 the nine thousand Spartan familes received 
 nine thousand indivisible estates or farms, 
 which passed always to the oldest son. 
 The thirty thousand families of Perioeci 
 were provided likewise with estates of smaller 
 extent. The Helots, however, had no land- 
 ed property. They must till the land of the 
 Dorians as serfs, and deliver to their mas- 
 ters a fixed portion of the crop in grain, 
 wine, oil and the like. Savage and defiant 
 as they were, the Helots bore the yoke of 
 slavery with great repugnance, and were 
 always ready to rebel against their lords. 
 Hence it was permitted to the Spartan 
 youth, in order that they might acquire 
 cunning and skill, and contribute to tlie 
 safety of the land, to murder any Helots helots 
 
 suspected of rebellious purposes, thus pre 
 
 venting their increasing number from becoming dangerous. In threatening times 
 the Helots were impressed into military service and, if they distinguished themselves, 
 rewarded with a limited right of citizenship. 
 
 b. Manner of Life. 
 
 In order that the Dorians might preserve the rights that they acquired at birth, 
 the state took charge of the physical and intellectual education of the yqung. Weak 
 or crippled children were exposed, immediately after birth, in a ravine of the Taygetus 
 (which means probably that they were abandoned to the Periceci). The healthy chil- 
 dren were taken from home, when they reached their sixth year, to be educated by the 
 state. The body was trained to great endurance, and the mind to a belief in Spartan 
 law and Spartan greatness. The laws and moral maxims of the state were learned 
 
94 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 by heart, and gymnastic exercises were constantly enforced. The Spartan was no less 
 famous for his cunning and astuteness than for the pithj^ brevity of his speech, which 
 was distinguished by the word "Laconic." But his feelings and imagination were not 
 excited. Science and eloquence were neither treasured or encouraged ; but the seri- 
 ous Doric poetry, united with the dance, and with music, served to awaken and to 
 keep alive the love of country and the love of war. Even Doric art, especially 
 architecture, was distinguished for its energy and majestic simplicity, rather than for 
 
 the beauty and the grace that marked the 
 Ionic buildings. The men were divided, 
 according to their age, into table companies 
 (Syssitia) ; as a rule fifteen united volun- 
 tarily at a single table. Their meals were 
 extremely simple, and each of the company 
 contributed to the expense ; but the royal 
 table was supported by the state. The so- 
 called black blood soup, and a beaker of wine, 
 made up the dinner ; for dessert they had 
 cheese, figs, and olives. The king sat at the 
 head of the table and received a double por- 
 tion, so that he might entertain a guest. 
 Luxury of every sort was avoided Their 
 houses were rude and without comfort, and 
 only the ax and the saw were used in their 
 construction. Money coined of precious 
 metal was excluded from the state, so that 
 no one should have the means wherewith to 
 purchase unnecessary pleasures ; rough iron 
 coins served in daily life as a medium of 
 exchange. And in order that no Spartan 
 should accustom himself to foreign delights, 
 they were forbidden to travel, and foreigners 
 were not permitted to stay any length of 
 time in Sparta. Hunting and the exercise 
 of arms were the chief employments of the 
 adult Spartan. The cultivation of the soil 
 was given over to the Helots ; trade and 
 industry to the PericEci. The entire life of 
 the Spartan was directed to war. jln the 
 city, he lived as in camp, and the time of 
 war was for him a time of festival and joy. Clad in their purple mantles, the long- 
 haired Spartans marched to the field, to the sound of the flute, and adorned them- 
 selves before the battle as though going to a festival. The strength of their army 
 was in their heavy-armed infantry (Hoplites), which consisted of many subdivisions ; 
 and could execute, without confusion, many movements and manouvers. The mem- 
 bers of the same table stood beside each other in battle, united in death as in life. 
 The Spartan ranks never yielded or wavered ; the Spartan conquered or he fell 
 
 ANCIENT LAW SCROLL. 
 
THE GREEK WORLD. 
 
 95 
 
 with his face to the foe. Strict obedience, and the subordination of the j^ounger to 
 the elder, was the soul of the military education and institutions of Sparta. Indeed 
 the city itself was a temple of honor for old age. 
 
 § 44. These laws, termed " rhetria " by their author, were confirmed by the Delphic 
 oracle. Thereupon, Lycurgus made the Spartans swear that they would alter nothing 
 in them, until he returned from the journey that he was about to make. He then 
 traveled to Crete and never returned. The consequences of his laws appeared imme- 
 diatel)". The disciplined Spartans overcame, not only their neighbors the Messeniaus, 
 with whom they had two long wars, but they acquired, in a short time, the overlord- 
 Fifse Messenian ship of the whole Pcloponnesus. They forced the Messenians to pay 
 War, B. c. tribute, after they had reduced their strong castle Ithome, and after 
 730.710. the Messenian hero Aristodemus had, in his despair, stabbed himself 
 
 SOLON DICTATING HIS LAWS. {H. Vogel.) 
 
 at the grave of the daughter, whom he had sacrificed in vain to the gods. But the 
 secotia Messenian Severity and the scorn of the Spartans soon provoked the Messenians 
 TFai; B. c. to E secoud wap. Aristomenes their leader by his bravery and his 
 e7o-o3o. cunning was at first successful, and the Spartans sued for peace. But 
 the Dorian poet, Tyrtaeus, whom they brought from Athens, freed them from their 
 despondency ; with his war songs he kindled afresh their national pride, their sense of 
 honor and their manhood, and with his ordinances he renewed their discipline and their 
 reverence for the old Doric maxims and authorit3^ The Spartans renewed the fight, 
 overcame their enemy, taking Aristomenes prisoner. A part of the Messenians emi- 
 
96 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 grated to the island of Sicily, the others were reduced to slavery. Sparta now pos- 
 sessed control of the peninsula, and only once was their overlordship threatened. 
 King Phido, of Argos, of the eighth, or possibly of the seventh century before Christ, 
 united the northeast states of the Peloponnesus and the island J^^gina, and arrayed 
 them as a rival against the citj^ on the Eurotas river. 
 
 c. Solon the Lawgiver of the Athenians. (600 B. C) 
 
 § 45. After the glorious death of Codrus, the royal dignity was abolished and an 
 
 archon appointed, who performed the royal functions during his life-time, but without 
 
 the royal title and rank. He was chosen by the chiefs of the noble families (Eupatridaj), 
 
 JB. c. lotts. who constituted his council of state. At first only members of the 
 
 family of Codrus were eligible to this office, but gradually Athens became an aristo- 
 
 B. c. 73-t. cratic community, in which the office of archon was opened to all of 
 
 the noble families, the term of service being fixed at ten years. And finally nine arch- 
 
 B. c. OS3. ons were chosen annually, in order that as manj' as possible might share 
 
 in the honor. These archons presided over the government of the city, the religious 
 
 _^ -""^ ^ — = — affairs, the army and navy, 
 
 the making of laws, and the 
 administration of justice. 
 The nobility having acquired 
 all the power of the state, 
 excluded the common citizens 
 (Demos), from all participa- 
 tion in executive or judicial 
 functions ; and, as the laws 
 were unwritten, there was no 
 lack of caprice, partialit}% 
 and injustice. This induced 
 the citizens in their assembly 
 to demand a written code of 
 laws : the nobility refused 
 for a long time to accede to the desires of the people, but when finally compelled to 
 abandon their opposition, they entrusted one of their number, the severe Draco, with 
 Btaco, Ahout the composition of the laws; and he made them so severe that they 
 B. c. eao. were said to be written in blood. Every offence was punished with 
 death ; extenuating circumstances were not considered ; fear and terror seemed to him 
 the only means of improvement and of obedience. But the discontented people were 
 not to be brought again into bondage. Bitter struggles ensued ; and party feeling 
 became so strong that the state was brought to the verge of destruction. At this 
 Solon. B.C. S04. juucturc Solou, one of the seven wise men, who was greatly revered as 
 a poet and the friend of the people, became the savior of his country. He divided the 
 Attic people, according to the income of their land, into four classes, and framed a 
 new republican constitution, according to which the assembly of the people possessed 
 the supreme authority, the power to pass laws, to choose magistrates and judges, and 
 to name the council of four hundred. But that the nobility might not forfeit their 
 power entirely, certain privileges were accorded to them and to land-owners of the 
 
 AREOPAUUS. 
 
THE GREEK WORLD. 
 
 97 
 
 first class. They alone could be elected archons, and these archons, if they performed 
 the duties of their office satisfactorily, constituted the court of Areopagus, which Solon 
 made the guardian of the laws, of the constitution, and of the public morals. This 
 council, which held its session on Mars Hill, consisted of tlie most important citizens ; 
 it supervised the education of the young and the conduct of the inhabitants, to the 
 end that morality and discipline might be preserved, and luxury, ostentation, and sen- 
 suality be kept away. Along with this new constitution, Solon established the so-called 
 relief law (Seisachthia). This remitted to the poorer citizens a part of their debts, 
 abolished personal bondage in pajanent of debt, and relieved the smaller farms from 
 their mortgages. Solon, like the Spartan Lycurgus, made his fellow-citizens swear to 
 alter nothing in his laAvs until he returned from his journey : but he fixed the period 
 of his journey at ten years. He then set out for Egypt and Asia, but returned again 
 to his native city, and, in his old age, he still 
 sought by earnest poems to keep the people in 
 the way of virtue, of justice, and of freedom. 
 
 d. The Tyrants. 
 
 § 46. In the beginning, all the Greek 
 states were ruled by kings, who possessed a 
 patriarchal authority as high priests, judges, 
 and generals. But gradually the noble and 
 rich families, who were at first only members 
 of the king's council, acquired the upper hand, 
 and used some favorable opportunity to get rid 
 of the kings, and to found an aristoci'atic repub- 
 lic, in which they themselves conducted the 
 government. This soon became, for the people 
 (Demos), very oppressive. But as the nobility 
 alone bore arms, and were practiced in war, it 
 was difficult to deprive them of their power. 
 This happened only when some ambitious 
 noble separated himself from his companions, 
 and became a leader of the people. Neverthe- 
 less, democracy did not immediately supplant aristocracy, but the popular leaders 
 (demagogues) obtained, in most states, sole personal authority. They were termed 
 tyrants, by which we are to understand, not arbitrary princes, but the sole rulers 
 of a community, in distinction from the asi/metes, who were sometimes clothed with 
 extraordinary authority in critical situations, by the joint act of the council and of the 
 people. Several of these tyrants possessed great gifts as statesmen, and conducted 
 splendid administrations. To satisfy the people, to whom they were indebted for their 
 elevation, they erected magnificent buildings and encouraged navigation, commerce, 
 and colonization. Their wealth enabled them to surround themselves with artists and 
 poets, and to give the people gi-eat religious festivals. Their splendid courts con- 
 tributed to the welfare of tlie cities. But the dominion of the tyrants did not last. 
 The noble families sought in every way to overthrow them, and were supported by 
 the Spartans, who every where promoted aristocratic institutions. Moreover, the- sons 
 7 
 
 EGYPTIAN KING AND COURTIER. 
 
THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 of the tyrants often forgot their indebtedness to the people, and by their cruelty and 
 despotism, precipitated their own downfall. 
 
 § 47. The most famous tyrants were Periander of Corinth, Polycrates of Samos, 
 jperianaev, aiid Pisistratus of Athens. The two first are known to us in poetic 
 B. c. aoo. legend. Periander, a sagacious prince, who elevated his native city to 
 the first rank in commerce, and encouraged art and poesy, had for his friend the bard, 
 and musician, Arion of Lesbos, who lived a long time 
 at Corinth, and celebrated the sacrificial festivals of 
 the isthmus, in his enthusiatie choral songs. Arion 
 journeyed through Italy and Sicily, giving displays of 
 his art, and acquiring great wealth, and then set out for 
 Corinth. The sailors, eager for his wealth, determined 
 to cast him into the sea. Arion offered them all his 
 treasures as the price of his life, but the}^ afraid of 
 Periander's wrath, determined to stand to their pur- 
 pose. Seeing that ever}' chance of safety had vanished, 
 Arion began to sing and to play, and then sprang, in 
 his singer's robe, into the waves. But the melodies 
 which he sang had so charmed the dolphins, that one 
 of tliem carried the singer on his back to the shore. 
 Arion hastened to Periandei', who arrested the guilty 
 jpoiyci-ates, sailors, and punished them with exile. 
 B.csao. The ring of Polj'crates is a legend no 
 less famous. The rich and mighty ruler of Samos, 
 who with his soldiers and sailors, oppressed the noble 
 races of the beautiful island, and who united oriental 
 splendor with Hellenic art at his -brilliant court, suc- 
 ceeded in everj'thing that he undertook. His fi-iend. 
 King Amasis of Egypt, was anxious lest he bring down 
 upon him the envy of the gods, and wrote to him to 
 sacrifice the dearest that he had, in order to reconcile 
 the heavenly powers. ' Thereupon Polycrates cast a 
 precious and finely wrought ring, that he held most 
 dear, into the sea. The Gods, however, scorned his 
 sacrifice, for in a few days a fisherman brought a great 
 fish that he had captured as a present to the ruler, and 
 when the fish was opened they found the ring in its 
 entrails. When Amasis heard this he feared that 
 ATiiENiA pARTHENos. ( Gopij of Polycratcs would come to ill fortune, and refused fur- 
 Fhidias' Minerva.) tlier relations with him, that he might not be com- 
 
 pelled to bemoan his friend when inevitable fate destroyed him. And so it hapijened. 
 For Poljrcrates was enticed by the Persian satrap to Magnesia, in Asia Minor, and 
 there nailed to the cross. 
 
 But the tyrant most renowned was Pisistratus, who was able, even in the life time 
 
 Fisistt-atiia. of Solon, to make himself sole ruler of the city. He wounded liimself, 
 
 B. c. 580. and then pretended that assassins sought his life, and asked the people 
 
THE GREEK WORLD. 
 
 99 
 
 for a body guard of fifty men, and for the possession of the castle. And although his 
 enemies succeeded in driving him twice from the city, he came back each time. The 
 first time by an agreement with Megacles, who pretended that the goddess Pallas 
 Athene brought him back to the city. The second time by a victorious battle in the 
 open field. He revenged himself upon his enemies by exiling many of them, and by 
 
 B. c. 527. oppressive taxation. And at his death left the dominion to his son 
 Hippias and Hipparchus. Pisistratus, and Hippias also at first, governed with great 
 renown. Agriculture, industrial art, and commerce greatly prospered. The poems of 
 Homer, which had hitherto existed only in tlie memories of the rhapsodists, were now 
 committed to writing. Artists of all kinds found generous jjatrons. The city was 
 adorned with temples and public buildings, and the poet Anacreon lived at the court 
 of Hippias. But when Hipparchus, a sensual and dissolute man, was murdered at the 
 Pan-Atheneaic festival by two Athenians, Harmodius and Aristogiton, in revenge for 
 an insult, Hippias gave free course to his vio- 
 lent nature. His cruelty and severity alienated 
 the people from him, and gave to the Alcmseo- 
 nidse an opportunity to return from their exile, 
 and, with the help of the Spartans, to expel 
 the tyrant. When his children had fallen into 
 
 B.c.sio. the hands of his enemies, Hip- 
 pias capitulated, surrendered the castle and fied 
 to Asia Minor, to seek from the Persians the 
 means of restoration. Soon after his departure, 
 a democratic republic was established in Athens 
 by the Alcm<eonid, Cleisthenes. Hitherto the 
 four hundred members of the council had been 
 chosen from the four ancient family districts, 
 and the preference had been given to the landed 
 nobility. These districts were now abolished, 
 and thus the old family connections were 
 destroyed. In their place Cleisthenes intro- 
 duced ten new districts, each composed of ten 
 small wards. This was a geographical and political arrangement, which led to the 
 equality of all the citizens, to new names and to new protecting deities. The 
 larger districts were called Phyles. The council of five hundred was chosen 
 annually by them, — fift}^ members from every district, without regard to rank or 
 property. An executive committee, composed of fifty members of the council 
 called Prytanes, conducted the government for thirtj^-six days, residing, during this 
 time, in the town hall (or Prytaneum), and supported at the public expense. The}^ 
 presided also at the assemblies of the people. From each of the ten districts, six 
 thousand citizens were chosen by lot to serve as judges (Heliasts). The archonship 
 and the Areopagus continued to exist, but only as officers of honor, without important 
 functions. 
 
 PERSIAN NOBLE AND WARRIORS. 
 
 The Seven Wise Men. 
 
 § 48. Periander of Corinth, Solon of Athens, Thales of Miletus, the creator of 
 
100 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 Greek philosophy, were the most famous of the seven Greek sages. Their principles 
 have been handed down to us in short proverbs like "Do everything with reflection" 
 (Periander), " Moderation in all things," (Solon), " Know thyself," (Chilo of Sparta). 
 Fythagoras, One of the most important men of this time was Pythagoras of Samos, 
 n. c. sso-aoo, the founder of the Pythagorean society, which had many adherents, 
 and was highly esteemed in Crotona and other cities of Lower Italy. The members 
 of this community led a temperate and morally-strict life, lived together in unity and 
 devotedly revered their famous master. They were expert in mathematics and in 
 music, and Pythagoras himself, was the inventor of the Pythagorean proposition con- 
 cerning the square on the hypothenuse of the right triangle. 
 
 e. Lyric Poetry. 
 
 § 49. The courts of the Tyrants led a merry life. Poets and bards were always 
 welcomed. As the epic poem was too serious, an easier and a gayer sort of poetry 
 came into vogue, called lyrical, because sung to the accompaniment of the lyre. Wine 
 and love were the themes of these lyrics, and they were intended to drive away sorrow 
 and care. Anacreon, of Teos in Ionia, who lived at several courts, and died at Athens 
 AnacteoH, in his eightieth year, was the most famous singer of such songs which, 
 B. c. 5S9-47S. after him, are called Anacreontic. But other famous poets found, in 
 the brevity of life and the transitory nature of all earthly things, an occasion for sorrow 
 and melancholy ; and these produced the elegy in which the hexameter and the pen- 
 tameter verse were united to form a distich. Simonides of Keos was the most famous 
 of the Elegiac poets. The lyric poems, in which the poet took a higher 
 flight, and celebrated some sublime object in solemn strains, were called 
 Odes. Sappho of Lesbos, famous for her love and her self-destruction, 
 and the Theban Pindar, carried the ode to perfection. In later times, 
 every short poem was counted lyrical even though it could not be sung 
 to music. Satires especially became quite popular; the inventor of 
 these was Archilochos of Paros, who converted lyrical poetry into a 
 sharp weapon against personal enemies. Fables were invented by 
 ^sop, a Phrygian slave, whose life is veiled in such obscurity, that 
 the story of Jilsop is itself a fable. The Gnomic poetry, or the poetical 
 proverb, comes from Theognis of Megara, the fiery hater of the Demo- 
 crats, by whom he was driven from his home. 
 
 SlnionideSf 
 
 B. c. sso.tes. 
 
 Sapjttho, ahout 
 It. c.soo. 
 
 B. C. i 
 
 .-ii'O/t j/oelto 
 about B. C. 7 
 
 .Esoj>, ahoti 
 
 -tlS-t-tl. 
 
 . c. sao. 
 
 Theofjnls, 
 t. C. 570-tOO. 
 
 § 50. 
 
 II. THE GLORIOUS DAYS OF GREECE. 
 
 1. THE PERSIAN WARS. 
 
 jl-IE Greek colonies, on the coast of Asia Minor, had been con- 
 quered by Cyrus. Accustomed to a life of freedom they bore the 
 Persian yoke, but could not sliake it off, because the noble Greeks 
 who were appointed princes of the different cities, and therefore 
 attached to the court of Susa knew how to maintain their people 
 in obedience. One of the mightiest among them was Histifeus, 
 Pruice of Miletus. He had been with Cyrus in his campaign against the Scythians, 
 
THE GREEK WORLD. 
 
 101 
 
 MILTJADES. 
 
 and had been commanded to guard, with his Gieeks, the bridge across the Danube. 
 But when the news arrived of the misfortunes of the Persians, he was advised by Mil- 
 tiades of Athens, who, as possessor of great estates on the Thracian peninsula, paid 
 lieavy tribute to the Persians, to destroy the bridge, and to abandon the king and all 
 his array to destruction. Thus the Greeks might regain tlieir freedom. But Histia3us 
 would not carry out the project. Yet his fidelity was mistrusted, and he was ordered 
 to Susa by Darius, ostensibly to receive the reward of his great services, but really to 
 be watched b}- the suspicious king. This situation of mingled favor and restraint be- 
 came unendurable to the Greek soldier. He longed to return 
 to his native country, and, when he was not permitted to leave 
 Susa, he secretly induced his relative Aristogoras of Miletus, 
 to 231'ovoke an uprising of the discontented Greeks, so that 
 he might find opportunity to return. The plan succeeded. 
 Miletus and the other Greek colonies were soon in arms. 
 Sparta, and other states of the mother countrj' were appealed 
 to for help, but onl}' Athens responded. Darius wished to 
 restore the exiled Hippias, then residing in Asia Minor, and 
 hence the action of the Athenians. The little city Eretria 
 also sent a small number of ships. The rebellion succeeded 
 finely at first: the Greeks conquered and burned Sardis, the 
 capital of Asia Minor, and the rebellion spread through all 
 Ionia. But the Persian Governor defeated the land army at 
 
 Epliesus ; the Greeks quarreled with each other, and the superior numbers of the 
 «. c. 4»i. enemy gave them the victor3% in a sea fight at Lade, and led to 
 n. c. 49S. the capture and destruction of Miletus. The Milesians were either 
 put to death or led into slavery. Aristagoras fled to the Thracians, by whom he was 
 killed ; Histiseus, who, upon being sent to Ionia, had joined the rebels, was taken 
 prisoner and crucified. Ionia came again under Persian rule, and Darius swore to 
 take bloody revenge upon the Athenians and the Eretrians, because they had sup- 
 ported the rebellion. 
 
 § 51. Mavdonius, the son-in-law of Darius, 
 proceeded with a navy and an army along the 
 JB. c. 403. Thracian coast, while Persian 
 heralds demanded, of all the Greek states, 
 water and earth, as tokens of submission. But 
 his ships were driven, by a storm, against the 
 promontory of Athos, and the Thracians de- 
 feated a part of his army so that he was com- 
 pelled to return to Asia without accomplishing his mission. Jigina, and most 
 of the islands, gave the heralds water and earth ; but when they demanded them 
 of Sparta and Athens, they were put to death, contrary to all tradition and inter- 
 national usage. Enraged at this insult, Darius despatched a second fleet under 
 Datis, an older general, and the young Artaphernes. This fleet sailed through 
 the Archipelago, subdued the Cyclades, and then attacked the city of Eretria. The 
 citizens resisted bravely, but were betrayed to the enemy, who razed the city to the 
 ground and carried off the inhabitants to Asia. The Persians then marched throuo-h 
 
 COIN OF SARDIS. 
 
102 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 the island burning and destroying all before them, and, guided by Hippias to the coast 
 of Attica, encamped in the plains of Marathon. The Athenians sent to the Spartans 
 beseeching help. But an old religious law forbade the Spartans to depart for war be- 
 fore the full moon. So the Athenians, without waiting for them, marched valiantly 
 against the enemy. The most noted of their ten generals was Miltiades, who had 
 served formerly in the Persian army, and was thoroughly acquainted with their mode 
 of warfare. Ten thousand Athenians, and 1000 Platseans, who had joined the former 
 
 of their own accord, attacked the tenfold stronger 
 army of the Persians. Miltiades had chosen for 
 the conflict a place unfavorable for the Persian 
 horsemen, and, in the battle of Marathon, he com- 
 sept. IS. pletely routed the Persian army. 
 B. c. -too. The camp, with all its provisions, 
 fell into the hands of the victors ; the Persians 
 rushed to their ships and sailed away. But the 
 Grecian sentinels saw from the heights, with con- 
 sternation, that the fleet was sailing around the 
 promontory Sunium, and steering to the West, 
 evidently intending to surprise the undefended 
 city. The adherents of Hippias had doubtless 
 suggested this to the Persians, and a flashing 
 shield, elevated upon the mountains, was to serve 
 as a signal. Their cavalry, and a part of the army, 
 had probably embarked, before the battle, for this 
 yevy purpose. Miltiades acted promptly. Leav- 
 ing Aristides with his men to guard the battle- 
 field, he hastened, with the main army, to the 
 city, and arrived at Athens, just as the Persians were about to land. At the 
 sight of this band of heroes, Datis and Artaphernes abandoned their purpose and 
 sailed away. Hippias died on the return voyage. Great, however, was the fame 
 of the Athenians, who were the first to prove themselves worthy of the democratic 
 freedom which they had just achieved, and centuries afterward, patriotic orators used 
 the victor}^ of Marathon to inspire tlie Atiienian people. Beside the burial mounds, 
 which are yet visible upon the plain of Marathon, the Athenians erected a monument 
 to the champions of Greece, who had hurled to the ground 
 the power of the gold-elad Medes and Persians. They 
 erected also, a separate monument for Miltiades. The day 
 after the battle two thousand Spartans arrived to help the 
 Athenians. They visited the battlefield, praised the heroic 
 deeds of the Athenians, and then returned home. 
 
 § 52. Miltiades, the savior of Greece, did not long enjoy his fame. He per- 
 suaded the Athenians to man a fleet, in order to conquer the islands of the jEgean 
 B. c. 4S9. Sea, which had submitted to the Persians. But as the attack upon Paros 
 miscarried, he was accused before the people, of having deceived the Athenians by de- 
 lusive promises. When the trial took place, he had not yet recovered from a wound 
 received at Paros, and had to be carried into the courthouse on a stretcher. The pen- 
 
 (jREEK bENER\LS 
 
 DARIC COIN. (Persia.) 
 
THE GREEK WORLD. 
 
 103 
 
 alty of death, proposed by his enemies, was not 
 inflicted ; but he was condemned to pay the costs 
 of the war. Before he could get together the sum 
 of fifty talents ($50,000), he died. His large- 
 miuded son, Cimon, paid the fine, and gave his 
 father an honorable burial. Aristides, surnamed 
 the Just, and Themistocles, were two Athenians of 
 extraordinary abilities. Both had fought bravely 
 at Marathon, and both sought to make the city 
 great, but in different ways. Aristides would 
 use no means to accomplish his ends, which were 
 not entireljr honorable and just. He followed his 
 conscience, and saw no salvation for the state, 
 except in the land-holding population and in the 
 land army. Themistocles, an ambitious man, who 
 could not sleep for thinking of the glory ofj 
 Miltiades, was less conscientious. He considered I 
 only the advantage and the greatness of the city, 
 and frequently resorted to cunning and to decep- 
 tion. Moreover, he thought that the safety of| 
 Athens la}' in her " wooden walls," that is in her 
 ships and sailors. Abler than Aristides, he soon 
 acquired greater popularity with the people, 
 and in order to carry out his plans unhindered, he procured the banishment of the 
 
 THEMISTOCLES {^l^otiran, Home.) 
 
 FORTY OARED GREEK BOAT. ( Vase Painting). 
 
 B. c. 4S3. straightforward Aristides, by the so-called " potsherd " judgment* 
 (Ostracism ; the name scratched upon a potsherd). 
 
 § 53. Great preparations for a new invasion of Greece were 
 being made, when Darius died. His successor, Xerxes, a man 
 puffed up with pride and flattery, took up his father's plan of 
 revenge upon so large a scale that, according to tradition, he col- 
 lected an army of •1,700,000 men, and a fleet of more than twelve 
 B.C. 481. hundred sliips. Having completed his preparations, 
 and suppressed an uprising in Egypt with great success, he col- 
 lected all his ti-oops at Sardis, and then marched confidently across 
 Ilium to the Hellespont. It was a motley army of all nations and 
 all tongues, clad in various costumes and carrying all kinds of 
 weapons, with which the Persian king crossed over two pontoon 
 
 *Tliis was an arrangement by means of which every citizen wlio became so prominent as to endanger tlie equality of 
 the citizens and the democratic constitution could be banished for a space of time, usually for ten years, without preju- 
 dice to his rights or to his honor. To be ostracised was not a punisliment but a political defeat. 
 
104 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD 
 
 bridges not far from Abydos. Seven days, without interruption, were required 
 to cross the Hellespont, and the army was followed by an endless procession of 
 
 servants, of wagons 
 filled with women 
 and chambermaids, 
 manservants and 
 maid-servants, bag- 
 gage, ornaments, and 
 the like. The heavy 
 armed Persian on his 
 fiery horse, the half 
 naked Arab on liis 
 camel, the tribes of 
 East Iran with bow 
 and battle-ax, the 
 troops from Asia 
 Minor, and the troops 
 from the Caucasus 
 with willow-work 
 shields and wooden 
 
 'i helmets, the Ethio- 
 pians in the skins of 
 
 I panthers and of lions, 
 were all to be seen in 
 this amazing army. 
 
 1 From the Hellespont 
 
 ' they marched across 
 Thrace, Macedonia, 
 and Thessaly ; the 
 fleet meanwhile sail- 
 ing along the coast, 
 in order to supply the 
 army with whatever 
 was needed. That 
 the ships might not 
 be shattered again at 
 Athos, Xerxes em- 
 ployed Greek and 
 Phcenician laborers 
 to blast it and dig it 
 away. Thessaly sub- 
 mitted without a 
 blow. Boeotia, Argos 
 and some of the 
 
 smaller states were glad to offer earth and, water. With threats the enemy came still 
 nearer. The Greeks now showed what could be done by union, courage, and patriot- 
 
THE GREEK WORLD. 
 
 105 
 
 ism. At the urging of Themistocles they quickly established a union, proclaimed a 
 general peace, and placed themselves under the lead of Sparta. In July, at the time 
 B. c. ■tso. of the Olympic games, Xerxes appeared at the pass of Thermopylae, 
 which was held by the Spartan king Leonidas, with three hundred Spartans and a 
 few thousand allies. When commanded to surrender his arms, the Spartanleader 
 answered, "Come and take them," and when told that the multitude of the enemy 
 was so great that their shots and arrows would darken the sun, another answered, 
 " So much the better, then we shall fight in the shade ! " For several days, the 
 Persian king tried in 
 vain to force a passage ; 
 thousands of his soldiers 
 fell victims to the 
 bravery of the Greeks. 
 Even the ten thousand 
 immortals, the flower of 
 the Persian army, must 
 yield to Spartan 
 strength. But a Greek 
 traitor conducted apart 
 of the Persian army, by 
 a foot-path across the 
 summit of the Oeta, so 
 that they could fall 
 upon the rear of the 
 Greeks below. Hear- 
 ing of this, Leonidas 
 dismissed the troops of 
 his allies ; but he him- 
 self, with his three hun- 
 dred Spartans along 
 with seven hundred 
 citizens of Thespise, 
 who refused to leave 
 him, chose to die a 
 hero's death. Attacked 
 from both sides, they 
 fought with leonine 
 courage, until overcome 
 
 by numbers, and worn out by fighting and from wounds, they perished utterly. 
 Only the Thebans who had been compelled to take part in the fight, were treated 
 mercifully ; but even these were marked with the stamp of the royal slaves, and sent 
 home in dishonor. Leonidas and his heroic band were celebrated ever afterward in 
 song, and a bronze lion marked the place where the Dorian hero had fallen. Bceotia 
 and Phocis were now easily subdued, and the Persians pressed forward into Attica and 
 reduced Athens to ashes. The old warriors who garrisoned the castle, after a brave 
 resistance, were put to death. All citizens capable of bearing arms, were serving in the 
 
 APOLLO BELVIDERE. 
 
106 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 fleet. Women, children, and property had been, at the suggestion of Themistocles, 
 carried to Salamis, ^gina, and other cities. A messenger was dispatched in haste to 
 Susa, with the news of the triumph of the great king. A single accident disturbed his 
 pleasure. A portion of the Persian army had marched to Parnassus, to rob and to destroy 
 the sanctuary of Delphi. But when the warriors were clambering up the steep paths 
 of the gloomy region, invisible hands hurled at them fragments of stone and rock, so 
 that many were killed, and the others fled in terror. The Delphian's did not fail to 
 ascribe the salvation of their temple to the intervention of their mighty god. 
 
 RETURN OF THE GREEKS FROM SALAMIS. 
 
 § 54. Themistocles now became the savior of Greece. The united fleet of the 
 Greeks had sailed from the promontory Arteraisium, where it had fought successfully 
 for several days, into the Saronian Bay, whither the Persian fleet had followed. Eury- 
 biades, the leader of the Spartan fleet, had determined to witlidraw with the Pelopen- 
 nesian ships, and to carry on the fight near the Isthmus of Corinth, in order to have the 
 protection of the land force that was stationed there and covered by a wall. Themis- 
 tocles regarded this plan as dangerous, and so he cunningly enticed the Persian king to 
 attack him in the narrow waters, where the hostile ships would be hindered by their 
 B. c. 4S0. own numbers. Thus happened the sea fight of Salamis, in which the 
 
THE GREEK WORLD. 
 
 107 
 
 Greeks were completely victorious. In despair, Xerxes beheld from a neighboring 
 eminence, the destruction of his fleet and informed, through the cunning of Themisto- 
 cles, that the Greeks intended to destroy the bridges across the Hellespont, he 
 hastily retreated with the greatest part of his army through Thessaly, Macedonia and 
 Thrace. But thousands of his warriors perished from hunger, cold, and fatigue, and 
 great throngs were drowned in the river Strymon, by the breaking of the ice. 
 
 § 55. Xerxes left three hundred thousand picked soldiers under the command 
 of Mardonius in Thessaly. These invaded Attica when the Athenians refused an 
 offered alliance, and compelled the citizens, who besought the Spartans in vain for 
 speedy help, once more to emigrate to the huts of Salamis. But when finally the 
 Spartans sent a Peloponnesian army across the isthmus, in answer to the beseechings 
 B. c. 4:79. and threats of the Athenians, the battle of Platfea was fought by the 
 Greeks under the command of the Spartan Pausanias, assisted by the Athenian Gen- 
 eral, Aristides. The Persian army, though 
 three times as strong, was completely de- 
 feated and only 40,000 Persians returned 
 across the Hellespont. The others, among them 
 the brave commander Mardonius, were slain ; 
 some in the battle, some at the storming of 
 their camp, and some in their flight. The booty 
 was immense. Upon the altar of " liberating " 
 Zeus, the sacrificial fire flamed high. On the 
 same day the Persians suffered a second defeat 
 at Mykale, on the coast of Asia Minor, where 
 they had drawn their ships ashore, and sur- 
 rounded them with a fence of willow-work and 
 reeds. Here too a Spartan was the leader, 
 but the bravery of the Athenians and of the 
 Milesians, made him successful. The camp and 
 fleet of the enemy were captured and destroyed 
 by fire, and the sword of the Greeks made 
 
 terrible havoc among the frightened and flying jiedean and Persian nobles. 
 
 Persians. 
 
 2. — Athen's Oveeloedship (Hegemony) and the Peeiclean Age. 
 
 § 56. After the battle of Platsea the war was waged chiefly at sea. As the 
 Spartans possessed fewer ships, the command gradually passed over to the Athenians, 
 who had behaved moreoVer, during the whole war, with much bravery and magnanimity. 
 The treason of the Spartan General Pausanius also furthered the leadership of the 
 Athenians. Certain noble Persians, among them relatives and friends of the king, had 
 been taken prisoners at the capture of Byzantium (Constantinople). These were sent 
 by Pausanius, without the knowledge of his allies, to their royal master. Pretending 
 that they had escaped secretly, they carried, really, a message to Xerxes, from the 
 Spartan General, that he would help him to conquer all Greece, if the king would give 
 him his daughter in marriage, and make him governor of the Peloponnesus. When 
 Xerxes agreed to this, the ambitious man became so arrogant that he disregarded en- 
 
108 
 
 THE ANCIENT WOULD. 
 
 tirely tlie Spartan laws and modes of life : clothed himself in fine raiment, spread a 
 
 splendid table, and 
 was accompanied and 
 served by Persian 
 staff bearers. At the 
 same time h's tyran- 
 nical natnre made the 
 Spartan authority 
 everywhere unpopu- 
 lar. The Spartans, 
 when informed of his 
 conduct, recalled 
 him ; but their author- 
 ity among maritime- 
 states was so weak, 
 that they voluntarily 
 gave up the chief con- 
 ti'ol, altliongh they 
 maintained in form 
 their right to com- 
 mand. Pausanius 
 still carried on in 
 Sparta seci-et com- 
 munication M'ith the 
 Persian king, but his 
 treason was exposed 
 by a slave. He fled 
 
 Altout B. C. 471. to a 
 
 temple as a suppliant, 
 but the enraged Spar- 
 tans closed the tem- 
 ple gates upon him, 
 and compelled him to 
 die of starvation. 
 
 §57. While Pau- 
 sanius was thus de- 
 stroying the power of 
 his countr3% the thi'ee 
 Athenian command- 
 ers were contributing 
 greatly to the pros- 
 perity of their native 
 city, by their remark- 
 able, though various 
 talents. Themistoeles 
 surrounded Athens with a strong wall, and built the splendid harbor of the Pirseus, 
 
110 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 which was afterward united by Cimon and Pericles with the main city, by a long 
 double wall. This brought upon him the irreconcilable hatred of the Spartans. 
 For they did not wish Athens to be fortified, and consequently they charged 
 Themistocles with complicity in the treason of Pausa'nius ; — this too at a time 
 when his enemies had succeeded in ostracising him for ten years. Themistocles 
 JB. c. 47t. now fled to Asia. The Persian king gave him an honorable wel- 
 come, and three cities of Asia Minor fo]' his niaintenance. But M'hen the king 
 urged him to assist in subduing Greece, he is said to have taken poison rather 
 than become the betrayer of his country. His ashes were secretly deposited by 
 his friends in Grecian soil, and centuries afterward his posterity possessed consid- 
 erable rights in Magnesia. Aristides, by his integrity, contributed gieatly to the 
 prosperity of Athens. The confidence reposed in his character induced the Greek 
 B. c. joo. islands and maritime cities to make an alliance with the Athenians, 
 in which they pledged themselves to contribute money and ships for the prosecution 
 of the war. 
 
 A treasury was established at Delos, and the manage- 
 ment of this common treasure as well as the leadership of 
 the union fleet, was given to the Athenians. But the fur- 
 nishing of ships soon became a burden to the small states, 
 and they compounded for it bj' higher contributions. This 
 gave the Athenians the wished-for opportunity to increase 
 their navy, and to bring many islands and smaller maritime 
 states under their control. Their naval superioritj^ enabled 
 them to bring the allied treasure to Athens, and to deposit 
 it in the sanctuary of Pallas Athene. They could also treat 
 their allies as tributary subjects. Aristides died so poor 
 that the state provided for his funeral, and for the education 
 of his children. 
 
 § 58. Cimon, the son of Miltiades, and Pericles con- 
 tributed no less to the greatness of Athens. The first, by 
 PERICLES. ( BrM,h Museum, "' *"■ *""• .^"' successful enterprises at sea, for he had a 
 London.) double victory in Asia Minor over the fleet and the army of 
 
 the Persians. This closed the war, and brought about the 
 so-called peace of Cimon, which secured independence to all the Greek cities and 
 islands. He enlarged the territory of the Athenian state, and expended his large 
 fortune in the adornment of the cit}-, where he laid out the beautiful gardens and the 
 famous portico known as the Academy and the Stoa. In his time, Sparta was sorely 
 JB. c. jcs. afflicted by a terrible earthquake. The greater part of the city was 
 destrojed, and in the midst of the distress, tlie Messenians and Helots took up arms 
 to conquer their freedom. In their extremity the Spartans appealed to Athens, and 
 Cimon, who had a great preference for their institutions, succeeded in getting an 
 army sent to their assistance. But the suspicious Spartans sent it back, which so 
 B. c. J63. offended the Athenians, that the}' ostracised Cimon, and gave to the 
 Messenians the maritime city Naupactus, when they were obliged, after a ten 5-ears' 
 B. c. 4SS. struggle, to give up their mountain fortress, Ithome. At the battle 
 B.C. 437. of Tanagra, the Spartans and their Thessalian allies, obtained some 
 
THE GREEK WORLD. Ill 
 
 advantages over the Athenians who would not permit the banished Cimon to fight in 
 their ranks. But the brave conduct of his old comrades, who threw away their lives 
 in the struggle, convinced the Athenians that Cimon was a true patriot. So tiiey 
 called him back, and obtained a new victory at Grape mountain, (Oenophyta). 
 This established their overlordship in all Greece. Cimon died on the island of 
 
 Feiicies, Cyprus, in the year 449, in the midst of a new campaign against 
 about JB. c. 450. the Pcrsians. Pericles was so distinguished for his talents, his culture, 
 his eloquence and his military skill, and exercised such an influence upon the com- 
 munity, and the peojale of Athens, that the years of his activity are known as " The 
 Age of Pericles." He adorned the state and city by the erection of temples and 
 great buildings (Parthenon, Propylseum). He encouraged the arts and sciences, he 
 invited men of genius, like the great artist, Phidias, into his hospitable home, where 
 Aspasia, of Miletus, presided with grace and dignity; he procured for everyone means 
 and opportunity to perfect and to distinguish himself, and created a taste for art, lit- 
 erature, and poetry in the lowest classes of the people. Though noble and rich by 
 birth, he was a man of the people, and devoted to democratic principles. To him was 
 due the ordinance that every Athenian citizen, who served in a court of justice, or who 
 was present at the popular assembly, or served in the army or the navy, should receive 
 a dailjf stipend. He made generous distribution of 
 money among the needy masses. He arranged for splen- 
 did festivals, plays, and processions for the pleasure of the 
 people, and he brought the Athenian state to such a 
 degree of culture, that almost all citizens were capable of 
 holding office, and hence the arrangement by which nearly 
 all public places were filled bj^ lot, was less dangerous in 
 Athens, than it would have been in any other city. At 
 the same time Pericles preserved for Athens her rank 
 among the other states ; Athenian ships ruled the jEgean 
 sea, making the Islanders tributary to the city, and bring- 
 ing to it immense sums of money. The statue of Pallas 
 Athene in the Parthenon, wore a garment of beaten 
 gold. Athenian armies fought victoriously against alcibiades. 
 
 B. c. 447. Thebans and Spartans, until the fatal 
 battle of Coronea ended their good fortune. In this battle the Athenians were beaten 
 
 JB. c. 445. by Boeotian aristocrats and fugitives. Many were slain, many were 
 captured, and Pericles was compelled to save the city from destruction by a hasty 
 peace. 
 
 3. Peloponnesian War. (431-404.) 
 
 § 59. This peace of Pericles was of short duration. The prosperity of the Athen- 
 ians filled Sparta with envy and dislike. The arrogance and severity with which 
 Athens treated her subjugated allies, especially the island ^gina, created dissatisfac- 
 tion and hate. Two hostile powers soon confronted each other: the Athenian union, 
 to which most of the cities of the coast and the islands belonged, which was sup- 
 ported by the democratic party in all the states, and the chief strength of which 
 consisted in its navy ; and the Pelopennesian union, with Sparta at his head, to which 
 
112 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 the Dorian and the iEoliaii states adhered, which was supported bj' tlie aristocratic 
 party of the different cities, and which relied upon its veteran army. Tlie Spartans 
 hesitated long before beginning the conflict, but when the Corinthians complained that 
 tlie Athenians had broken the peace, by assisting the island Corcyra in her war against 
 the mother city, and when they complained that the Athenians had besieged and 
 sorely distressed the Corinthian colony, Potidtea, in. Macedonia, and when the little 
 Dorian city, Megara, whose life depended upon its trade with Athens, complained that 
 it was excluded from all the seaports and markets of Attica, the Peloponnesian War 
 s. c. 431. was begun. A war that lasted twenty-seven years and devastated 
 the country most terribly. 
 
 §60. The war was declared. A Spartan army under King Archidamus, invaded 
 Attica and devastated the land. Pericles thereupon gathered the people into the city, 
 and equipped a fleet that sailed along the coast of the Peloponnesus, and ravaged the 
 country everywhere. But the overcrowding of Athens pvo- 
 JB. c. 4:29. duced a terrible plague. Thousands were 
 swept away, and at last Pericles himself fell a victim, after he 
 had buried his two sons and many of his dearest friends. The 
 death of tlie great man was for Athens a terrible misfortune, 
 because selfish demagogues like the tanner Kleon, acquired 
 great influence by flattering the people, and sought to prolong 
 the war. Athens, weakened by the strife of parties, saw the 
 B.c.-ts-i. Plateaus, their truest allies, yield to the Spar- 
 tans, and saw Platea herself leveled to the ground, her cour- 
 ageous citizens slaughtered, and their wives and children led 
 away to slavery. 
 
 Lesbos and jMitylene were, on the other hand, conquered 
 by the Athenians. In their rage they determined to kill all 
 the male inhabitants, and to reduce all the women and children 
 to slavery ; but nobler feelings prevailed, and they executed 
 only a thousand of the most guilt3^ Shortly after this, the 
 .,. '..,., Athenian general, Demosthenes, took possession of Pa'Ios in 
 js. c. 4:ss. Messene, and began to lay waste the Spartan 
 territory. The Spartans sought in vain to drive him out ; their attack was repulsed, 
 and more than 400 Spartan Hoplites were shut up in the barren island Sphacteria. 
 Here they uearly perished of hunger ; the only food that they received, came by the 
 hands of daring Helots trj-ing to earn their freedom. Finallj'' they were compelled 
 to surrender to Kleon, who was bringing reinforcements to the Athenians. Kleon 
 thereupon believed himself to be a great general, obtained the command of the 
 entire army, and marched against the Spartan general Brasidas in Thrace. But he 
 was defeated at Amphipolis and killed in his flight. The peace party now obtained 
 tiie upper hand at Athens and concluded the peace of Nicias. The struggle between 
 B. r. 491. the aristocratic and the democratic parties in the cities of Greece had 
 meanwhile become dreadful. Nowhere was it bloodier, than on the island Corcyra, 
 where the noble families were completely destroyed. With the help of the Athen- 
 ians, the Democrats of the city overcame their enemies, shut them up in a building 
 and stoned them to death. This was a death-blow to the prosperity of the beautiful 
 
 DARIUS. 
 
 Persia, B. C. 4i?M05). 
 
THE GREEK WORLD. 113 
 
 island, witli its olive orchards. Where the Spartans conquered, the Aristocrats pun- 
 ished their enemies with death and banisiiment ; where the Athenians prevailed, the 
 Democrats treated their antagonists with equal severity. 
 
 § 61. The conclusion of a peace, without consulting the allies, embroiled Sparta 
 with the Corinthians ; the latter united with Argos, Elis, and a few Arcadian cities, 
 to deprive the Spartans of the over-lordship in the Peloponnesus. They were sup- 
 ported by the youthful Alcibiades, the nephew of Pericles, who now for the first time, 
 gave proof of his skill and persuasive eloquence. He was rich, handsome, educated, 
 and a powerful orator, so that he was fitted to take the place of Pericles, except that 
 he lacked the tranquility and the prudence of his great relative. This war of the 
 Spartans, with Corinth and her allies, would have ruined the city on the Eurotas if 
 
 B. c. 41S. they had not been conquerors in the battle of Mantinea. The sup- 
 port given by the Athenians to the union of Argos, and her cruel treatment of the 
 island Melos, which had remained neutral during the war, excited anew the wrath of 
 the Spartans, and brought the rotten peace of Nicias to an end. 
 
 § 62. The Athenians now sent the finest army and navy, which had ever sailed 
 
 B. c. 41S. from the Pirseus, against the Dorian city, Syracuse, in Lower Italy. 
 The expedit'on was commanded by Alcibiades, Nicias, and Lamachus. But Alcibiades 
 was almost immediately recalled, to answer charges of crime against the religion and 
 constitution of the city. He and his companions were accused of mutilating the 
 busts of Hermes, at the street corners, and open places of the city, and of desecrating 
 the Eleusinian mysteries in a private house. Hungering for revenge, he fled to Sparta 
 and stirred up the Spartans to a renewal of the war. By his advice, the Spartans oc- 
 cupied the little city of Declea, in order to hinder the export of grain; and they sent 
 their able general Gylippus to the help of the Syracusans. This determined the war 
 against the Athenians. Lamachus fell at the siege of Syracuse ; the Athenian ships 
 were destroyed in the harbor, and when Nicias and Demosthenes arrived with rein- 
 foicements, they were surprised by the Sja-acusans and their Spartan allies, and, after 
 two bloody battles, were taken prisoners with all their troops. The Athenians who 
 did not perish in the fight, worked as slaves in the stone ciuarries; the brave generals 
 
 B. c. *t3. Nicias and Demosthenes perished in the market-place of Syracuse, by 
 the hand of the executioner. 
 
 § 63. Painful rumoi's brought the first news of the terrible blow, and when the 
 rumors were confirmed, hardly a fanjily in Athens escaped mourning. The allies of 
 the city abandoned her, and joined the enemy ; the Spartans renewed the war by land 
 and by sea, and the Persian Governor of Asia Minor supported them. The aristo- 
 cratic party, in the city itself, sought to overthrow the constitution, and made a secret 
 compact with the Spartans. But in spite of all, the Athenians held out for eight years 
 against her enemies, and won two important naval battles. They recalled Alcibiades, 
 and made him commander of army and navy. They could easily plunge the columns, 
 upon which his crimes were inscribed, into the depths of the sea, but neither they nor 
 he could restore the ancient glory of the Athenian fleet. The acclamations of the citi- 
 zens might greet the returning exile, and even the gods might seem to be appeased 
 with his revival of the Eleusinian procession. It was a passing dream. In a few 
 months he was degraded from the command, because, in his absence, the battle of 
 
 B. c. *o7. Ephesus was lost by his subordinates. He withdrew to Thrace. And 
 
lU 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 for a moment fortune favored the Athenfans. Thej^ won the victoiy of Lesbos, in 
 jB. c. *oo. which the Spartan general Kallikratidas was slain, but in their joy, they 
 neglected to gather together the corpses and the fragments of ships. For this omis- 
 sion, six of the Athenian generals were condemned to death. 
 
 § 64-. The astute and enterprising Lysander, was at this time the leader of the 
 Spartans. He availed himself of the favor of Cyrus, the younger, governor of Asia 
 jMinor, to enlarge the Lacedcemonian fleet with Persian reinforcements. He took 
 advantage also of the negligence of the Athenian commanders who, contrary to all dis- 
 cipline, had permitted their crews to go ashore. He fell upon them suddenl}- at 
 JB. e. 'ton. -^gospotamos (Goat's River), near the Hellespont, and captured all 
 their ships but nine. The power of Athens was gone. Lysander first reduced to sub- 
 jection the islands and cities friendly to the Athenians, and then attacked Athens by 
 sea and land. The crowded city, torn and tortured by party strife, and by starvation, 
 n. c. *o*. soon surrendered. The long walls and fortifications were pulled down 
 to the sound of the flute : all the ships, save twelve, were given over to the Spartans, 
 and all the fugitives and exiles brought back. Lysander then proclaimed the end of 
 the republic, abolished the democratic institutions at one stroke, and established the 
 government of " The thirty tj'rants." At the head of these Athenian Aristocrats stood 
 Critias. a talented but passionate roan, who punished the leaders of the democratic 
 pnrt}' with death and banishment. Nor did he spare the moderate men who dared to 
 differ with him. Thus Theramenes, a man of great ability, and acquainted with all the 
 movements of this troubled time, was 'put to death by this Spartan- Athenian. 
 Lysander arranged also for the destruction of Alcibiades. 
 His dwelling was surrounded and set on fire, by the troops 
 of the Persian Governor of Asia Minor ; when he tried to 
 escape from the flames, he was shot to dffath with arrows. 
 He was not yet fifty 5'ears old. 
 
 Nevertheless, this reign of terror was of short duration. 
 Thrasybulus, a patriot and a resolute man, collected the fugi- 
 jB. c. 403. tives and the exiles and marched against 
 Athens. Critias fell in battle ; the others of the Thirty were 
 betraj-ed into the hands of the victorious patriots. Some 
 were executed ; the rest were banished. Euclides, the first 
 Archon, and Pausanias, the Spartan king, thereupon agreed 
 upon a compromise between the two parties. The democratic 
 L-onstitution was restored, the rights of property conserved, and 
 a general amnesty proclaimed. But the people were too degen- 
 erate for the old laws and institutions ; they loved ease and 
 quiet and pleasure ; they hated discipline and effort ; and courtesans, with their entic- 
 ing wickedness, undermined the family life and the home. 
 
 4. Socrates. 
 
 § 65. This degeneracy of the Athenians was due largelj' to the Sophists. These 
 were itinerant teachers, who taught a sham-wisdom full of subtleties and fallacies ; 
 theirs was the art to make "the worse appear the better reason." Wealthj' young 
 men paid them enormous fees for teachings, which poisoned the sources of domestic 
 
116 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 and civic life. In opposition to these Sophists, Socrates entered the lists. He was an 
 Athenian citizen, a sculptor by profession, whose aim was to unmask these charlatans, 
 and to awaken in the hearts of his scholars, the feeling for religion, morality and right. 
 Socrates delivered no lectures, but by questions and answers in the open street, or 
 under the blue shy, or in the Athenian workshops, he taught his philosophy, the chief 
 object of which was, " Know Thyself." Even Alcibiades and Critias could not resist 
 the charm of his personality, ugl}' as his features were ; and the Sophists were speech- 
 less before his luminous mind, his simple and unpretentious life, his moral digriit}' and 
 his scorn of wealth. But his questions and cross questions, and his biting irony, made 
 
 DEATH Of SOCKATES. (^Davicl.) 
 
 him many enemies. And as several of his scholars had taken part in the overthrow of 
 democracy, a charge was brought against him, when popular government was restored, 
 for corrupting Athenian youths and for teaching false gods. In a simple defense, 
 Socrates proved to his judges the falsity of this charge. But instead of beseeching 
 them with tears and moans, to acquit him, he closed his speech with the assertion that 
 he had earned a place in the ranks of those honorable men who, for their public 
 services, were maintained in the city hall at the state's expense. This angered the 
 Judges, and by a small majority, they condemned Socrates to death. His friends, 
 especially the rich citizen Crito, urged him to escape. He refused. With his friends 
 
118 
 
 THE ANCIENT AVORLD. 
 
 about him, he discoursed, in his last hours, upon the immortality of the soul, and then 
 B. c. 300. drank the fatal hemlock with the cheerfulness and tranquility of a 
 sage. He wrote nothing. But his famous disciple Plato, who taught in the academy, 
 placed his own doctrines in the mouth of Socrates. Plato himself was called the 
 divine, on account of his sublime ideas and his poetic imagery, and the artistic perfec- 
 tion of his expositions. These were in the form of dialogues, and abound in sublimi- 
 ties and subleties of thought, as well as in extraordinary beauties of expression. 
 Xenophon, the Athenian writer and general, was another famous disciple of Socrates, 
 whose nature and teaching he made known to posterity, in several philosophical 
 writings, and particularly in his Memorabilia, or " Reminiscences of Socrates." 
 
 5. Thk Retreat op the Ten Thousand (B. C. 400) 
 
 § 66. Xenophon's chief historical work is the Anabasis. This is an account of 
 the campaign of the younger Cyrus against Persia, and the retreat of the Greek 
 soldiers under his (Xenophon's) leadership. After her conflict with the Greeks, the 
 Persian kingdom grew continually weaker. In the provinces the Satraps did as they 
 pleased, and provoked rebellion everywhere; at court the selfish weaklings and the 
 intriguing women abandoned themselves to lust and luxui-y, and by their struggles for 
 the crown, destroyed the monarch}'. Under these circumstances the younger Cyrus, 
 satrap of Asia Minor, conceived, the plan of depriving his brother Artaxerxes of the 
 kingdom. He collected a considerable army, the corps of which consisted of Spartan 
 JB. c. 4ot. and Greek soldiers, and started for Persia. In the plains of Cunaxa 
 a battle took place, in which the Greeks were victorious, but Cyrus was slain by his 
 brother. The victorious Hellenes were therefore summoned to surrender : they refused. 
 The Persians then agreed, with an oath, that they should return home unmolested, under 
 the command of Tissaphernes. But on the way, Clearchus and the other Greek com- 
 manders were inveigled to an interview, and treach- 
 erously murdered by the Persians. Xenophon, who 
 had accompanied the expedition as a volunteer, now 
 placed himself at the head of the disheartened and 
 bewildered Greeks, and led them through incredible 
 perils to the shores of the Black Sea, and thence to 
 Byzantium. Without knowledge of the country or 
 the language, and without guides, they were com- 
 pelled to cross pathless mountains, to wade through 
 rivers, and to pierce the snow drifts of deep and 
 dangerous gorges ; everywhere pursued by the Per- 
 sians and attacked by the natives. When at last 
 they beheld, from an eminence, the waves of the sea, 
 they fell upon their knees and greeted it with cries 
 of joy. In Trapezium they rested for thirty days, 
 regaling themselves with festivals and contests. 
 Finding no ships to take them to Byzantium, they 
 marched by land along the coast of the Black Sea. 
 Cheirosophus, the Spartan companion of Xenophon, 
 died at Sinope; and Xenophon led the remnant 
 
THE GREEK WORLD. 
 
 119 
 
 to Thrace, where for a time they served as mercenaries. Finally they followed the 
 Spartan King, Agesilaus, to Asia Minor. Xenophon returned to Athens, was banished 
 immediately, and ended his days in the Peloponnesus. 
 
 6. The Time of Agesilaus and Epaminondas. 
 
 § 67. Sparta was now the chief power in Greece. But she misused her author- 
 ity, oppressed the other states, and excited the hatred of her allies. The ancient 
 simplicity and severity of life had long disappeared. Foreign wars had brought 
 wealth ; this produced greed and luxury and a train of evils. Kings and leaders 
 became purchasable ; a few families possessed boundless riches, in which they rioted, 
 
 lii'AMlNU2<DAS SAVING THE LIFE OF PELOPIDAS. (U. Vogcl.) 
 
 while the jjoor lacked food and raiment, and not even Agesilaus proved strong enough 
 to restore the ancient customs. Nor were the other states any longer the homes of 
 virtue and patriotic zeal. The citizens abandoned military service to hireling soldiers, 
 and laid aside their arms and love of glory. 
 
 The Persians, angry at the Spartans for their secret support of Cyrus, compelled 
 
 them to a war. Agesilaus was already pressing victoriously through Asia Minor, when 
 
 A.ae8iiau«. the Persians stirred up enemies at home against him. The Bceotians, 
 
 B.c.aoa-33s. and Corinthians, jealous of Sparta and insulted often by her, were 
 
 easily induced, by Persian gold, to join against her. Humiliated Athens ventured 
 
 B.C.303. to assist. Another war began, of which Boeotia was the theatre. At 
 
120 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 L,l' \MIMl\DAS. 
 
 Haliartus, Lj'sander lost the battle and liis life. The Spartans, in their extremity, re- 
 B. c. 39*. called their exiled King Agesilaus. Coronea was won by him, but the 
 Persians under the Athenian Conon, rendered his victory worthless, by their defeat of 
 the Spartan ships at Cuidas. Agesilaus withdrew to the Peloponnesus, to carrj^ on the 
 war with Corinth ; Conon, with the help of Persia, set about restoring the fortifications 
 of Athens and the Piroeus. All the Greek states now vied with 
 B. c. 3S7. each other for the favor of the Great King, and 
 Sparta agreed to the peace of Antalcidas, in which the west coast 
 of Asia Minor was ceded to tlie Persians, and lost to freedom 
 forever. 
 
 § 68. This peace contained the further declaration that all 
 Greek states should be free. The Spartans, as guai'dians and execu- 
 tors of the treaty, dissolved therefore all alliances. They conquered 
 jB. c. 3SS. and destroyed Mantinea, compelling the inhabitants 
 to live "in open towns ; they placed their aristocratic adherents in 
 authoritjf in all the cities ; thej^ exercised throughout Greece a 
 compulsory arbitration. " Pride goeth " however " before a fall." The Greek cities 
 of Macedonia had formed an alliance, under the lead of Olynthia. The Spartans 
 commanded them to dissolve. Thej' refused. A Spartan army landed at Ol3'nthia, 
 JB. c. 3SO. and compelled submission. Returning through Bceotia, the Spartan 
 leader, at the entreaty of the Ariscocrats of Thebes, took possession of the castle, and' 
 overthrew the democratic constitution of the state. The Democrats 
 were exiled, or executed, or imprisoned-. 
 
 § 69. The Aristocrats did not long continue their exultation 
 and their violence. The fugitive Democrats collected at Athens, 
 and opened correspondence with their friends at Thebes. It was 
 agreed that thej^ should return disguised as peasants ; and assem- 
 bling secretly in the house of a friend, should surprise and murder 
 the chiefs of the aristocratic party. The plot succeeded. The 
 democratic constitution was restored ; the Spartan garrison was com- 
 pelled to surrender the castle. This led of course to war. Thebes 
 was then fortunately under the guidance of two great and patriotic 
 citizens, Pelopidas and Epaminondas. Both of them were remarka- 
 ble for courage and militar}^ genius. Epaminondas invented the 
 Theban plialanx, and Pelopidas organized the young men into the 
 " sacred troop," (compare the new model of Cromwell, the Iron- 
 sides). The Athenians at first supported the Thebaus, but when 
 Thebes began to subject the neighboring cities to herself, especially 
 JB. c. »J3. the re-built Plateea, her ancient ally, Athens, united 
 iR \L,io 1 H;rURii OF ^^i^l^ Sparta in a new treaty. Thebes refused to accept the condi- 
 CtReek THE4.TRES B. c. 37t. tious of this agreement, and a Spartan army invaded 
 
 {Made from colored'Qf^Q^]^;^^ But at the battle of Leuctra, Epaminondas and Pelopidas 
 ivoiy.) routed them so completeljs that the power of Sparta was broken 
 
 forever. Four hundred Spartans and six hundred Perioeki, with their general 
 Cleombrotus ^rished in the fight ; and the fugitives were so numerous, that Agesilaus 
 " put to sleep " the old Spartan law, which required all who fled the field to be branded 
 as dishonorable. 
 
122 
 
 THE AKCIENT WORLD. 
 
 § 70. Epamiiionclas now invaded the Peloponnesus, and approached the never- 
 fortified capitol of Laconia, that had seen no enemy in five hundred years. But the 
 preparations of Agesilaus, and the determined attitude of the Spartans and of their 
 wives and children, restrained him from attack. But he emancipated the Messen- 
 ians, gave to the exiled children the land of their fathers, and rebuilt for them the 
 
 B. c. seo. city of Messene. Four times in succession, Epaminondas marched 
 through the Peloponnesus, the last time to chastise Megalopolis. The Spartans, and 
 
 B. c.3«s. a part of the Arcadians, met him at Mantinea. The Spartans lost the 
 battles, but the Thebans lost Epaminondas. Not until he was assured of victory, 
 did the hero permit the fatal spear to be drawn from his wound, and (like Wolfe at 
 
 TYPES OP GREEK WOMEN. {Showing Dress of Hair.) 
 
 js. c. 3BS. Quebec) " die content." Pelopidas died two years earlier, and the 
 octogenarian, Agesilaus, lost his life a few years later, returning from an adventurous 
 expedition into Egypt. Epaminondas is a commanding figure in history. Magna- 
 nimous and just, a man of genius and of probity, a patriot and a warrior, he lived 
 the life of the righteous, and died as poor as Aristides. With his dying breath, he 
 counselled the Thebans to use their victory to gain a peace. The Athenians, who 
 B. c. 35S.3SS. had renewed their naval power, attempted, it is true, to subjugate tlie 
 maritime cities ; but the Carion King Mausolus, and the threats of Persia compelled 
 them to desist. Their new naval alliance was perforce dissolved. Greece was now a 
 dismembered body; Hegemony henceforth a reminiscence only. 
 
THE GREEK WORLD. 
 
 123 
 
 7. — The Golden Age of Greece in Literature and Art. 
 
 § 71. While the Greeks were wasting their strength in struggle, and their free- 
 dom in party strife, the plastic and poetic arts reached their full perfection. The 
 drama, which was originally connected with the religious festival of Dionysus, the 
 God of the Vineyard, became most wonderful in the productions of ^schylus, Soph- 
 ^schyius, ocles and Euripides. All three wrote tragedies. -iEschylus, Avho 
 B. c. Bss-ise. fought against the Persians at Salamis, was then in his forty-fifth 
 sopHocies, year ; Sophocles, then a boy of fifteen, sung in the chorus that 
 B. c. 405-400. celebrated tlie victory ; and Euripides was born on the day of the 
 
 THE TEMPLE OF BACCHUS AT ATHENS. (G. Eehlencler.) 
 
 battle. Seven plays of ^schylus (Prometheus Bound, Agamemnon, The Persians) 
 
 Eiitipities, have been preserved ; they breathe the spirit of the great fight for 
 
 B. c. 4S0.400. freedom and, though at times obscure and difficult, are bold in thought 
 
 Aiistophanes, and sublimc in style, reverent of the gods and of ancient customs, 
 
 B. c. 4S2-3SS. and inspired with a sense of human dignity. Seven tragedies of 
 
 Sophocles have also been preserved (Antigone, QEdipus, Electra). These reflect the 
 
 age of Pericles, its refinement and intellectual intercourse ; they are, accordingly, the 
 
 unapproachable models of beauty and harmonious completeness. ' Of Euripides we 
 
 inherit nineteen pieces (Medea, Alcestis, Iphigenia). These belong to the period of 
 
124 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 the Sophists. Feelings are more prominent and varied ; the speeches abound in cun- 
 ning phrases, epigrams and popular common-places, and the emotions of the spectator 
 are adroitly played upon by scenes of suffering and lamentation. The creative energy 
 and genuine pathos of JSschylus and Sophocles are atoned for in Euripides, by de- 
 tailed descriptions, by excessive sensibility, and by smooth and ornate diction. 
 
 Aristophanes brought comedy to perfection. He mocked the 
 faults and follies of his time with pungent and daring irony, for he 
 did not hesitate to produce his contemporaries on the stage. In the 
 " Frogs," he attacked the weeping Euripides and his pathetic 
 dramas; in the "Clouds" he attacked Socrates, whom he repre- 
 sents as the worst and absurdest of the Sophists ; and in the 
 " Knights " he did not spare the mighty Cleon and the greedy 
 demagogues of Athens. The Chorus of the Greek Drama is a 
 lyric comment upon the action of the play ; " but passing beyond 
 the immediate scene, deals with the past and the future, with distant 
 periods and peoples, with humanity and with life, discussing the 
 great results of existence, and uttering the teachings of wisdom." 
 (Compare Matthew Arnold's "Poetry is a Criticism of Life.") 
 The leader of the chorus stood with his troop in front of the stage ; 
 the chorus expressing in rhythmic movements, and to the sound of 
 music, the feelings and the impressions produced upon the spectator, by the unfolding 
 drama. The splendid theatres wliich were erected in many places, were masterpieces 
 of architecture, and contributed greatly to the elevation of the drama. A wealthy 
 citizen of Athens could do nothing more popular than to produce a new play, or a 
 richly decorated chorus at his own expense. 
 
 § 72. The prose literature of the Periclean age is quite 
 as wonderful as the poetry. Plato's dialogues are the sub- 
 jpinfo, lime thoughts of a rich and creative mind, 
 
 B. c. 4a»-34s. clothed in the noblest speech and forms of 
 ueroaotus, expositiou. Herodotus, of Halicarnassus, 
 B. c. J50. described in candid and eloquent simplicity, 
 the conflicts of the Greeks with the Persians, interweav- 
 ing with his narrative many traditions of the Oi'iental and 
 Hellenic races. He had traveled widely, and conversed 
 with the scholars and priests of all the lands, the liistory of 
 which he narrated. He described, with singular accuracy, 
 what he saw with his own eyes, though he repeats manj' 
 ■fabulous stories learned from jjriests and poets. He wrote 
 for the people in simple and hearty phrase. He tells how 
 the Greek love of freedom, intelligent self-reliance and 
 oi'ganization, proved victorious over Oriental servitude, 
 undisciplined mobs and Asiatic pageantry. The deities are 
 the directors of human affairs ; history is the result of provi- 
 dential foresight ; victory belongs not to the proud and the arrogant, but to tli6 
 humble and patient. For Herodotus "the course of history is the judgment of the 
 gods." The books of Herodotus, tradition tells us, inspired the patriot Thucydides 
 
 DEMOSTHENES. 
 
THE GREEK WORLD. 
 
 125 
 
 K. c. 470-403. to his imuiortal work. Banished from Athens, for his late arrival at 
 the battle of Amphipolis, he devoted the j-ears of his exile to the composition of the 
 history of the Peloponnesian War. His "thought- 
 weighted " sentences made his work intelligible to tlie 
 cultured only. In Herotlotus, we have the calm and 
 fulness of the epic, in Thucydides, the vivid brevity of 
 the Drama. The History of the Peloponnesian War 
 closes with the twenty-first year of its duration. 
 Thucydides did not survive to see the ruin of his be- 
 loved Athens. He was murdered in 402, just after 
 returning from his exile. But Xenophon took up the 
 
 xeiiophon, incompleted task. Lucid, fluent, and duric capital. 
 
 B. c. 44e.3se. picturesque in style, he had neither the depth or the historical fidelity 
 of him. M'ho gavo us the immortal characterization of Pericles. An admirer and 
 
 eulogist of the Spartans, especially of Agesilaus, Xeno- 
 phon, in his narration, is resolutely and deliberately 
 partial, so that the great Thebans, Pelopidas and 
 Epaminondas are thrown into the shade. His history 
 ends with the battle of Mantinea. Xenophon wrote 
 also a pedagogical biography of the elder Cyrus, a kind 
 of romance, in which he represented the founder of the 
 Persian monarchy as a model regent. It is really a 
 political pamphlet,— an attack upon the instability of 
 IONIC CAPITAL. republican government and a eulogy of royal rule. 
 
 §73. Oratory also reached its highest development in Athens at this time. Elo- 
 quence was in the beginning a gift of Nature, an inborn talent. But at the time of 
 the Peloponnesian war it was treated as an art. Schools of oratory were established, 
 where the Athenian youths who wished to devote them- ■ 
 selves to public life, to the management of the state 
 or to the pleading of causes, were taught the principles 
 of persuasion and the rules of delivery. Ten Attic ora- 
 tors have bequeathed to us written orations. The 
 isoci-ates, greatest of these was Isocrates, who 
 B. c. 43«.33s. was distinguished not only for the per- 
 fection of his style, but for his great success as a 
 teacher. The most famous of his pupils was Demos- 
 thenes, who struggled with incredible energy against 
 Demosthenes, natural disabilities, until he became 
 B. c. 3SS-323. the greatest orator of antiquity. He 
 knew how to excite, to enchain, and to inspire his lis- 
 teners. His delivery was dramatic, and his transitions corinthian capiial (liomthe 
 from the serious to the sarcastic, swift and powerful. Cho? agio Monument of 
 
 Witty and pathetic by turns, his invective was often •' '''' 
 
 terrible. He was a patriot and a statesman, true'to his convictions and resolute in 
 his policy. In his twelve philippics, he urged the Athenians to a war against Philip 
 of Macedonia, of whose purpose to undermine the liberties of Greece, he was eon- 
 
126 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 vinced quite early. His rival ^sclniies adhered to the Macedonian king, and when 
 the Athenian people bestowed upon Demosthenes a golden crown, JEschiues sought, 
 
 in a splendid oration, to procure 
 t^ -~^^^^ ^^ repeal of their edict. This 
 
 gave Demosthenes opportunity, 
 xsvuiufs. in his great ora- 
 f B. c. 3<j. tion " On the 
 Crown," to crush his enemy so 
 completel3% that he was obliged 
 to retire from Athens, and to 
 close his days as a teacher of 
 oratory iu the island of Rhodes. 
 § 74. Architecture, sculp- 
 ture and painting reached their 
 perfection in the period be- 
 tween Pericles and Alexander 
 the Great. They assumed an 
 importance, and reached a per- 
 fection among the Greeks, un- 
 known in any other period or 
 to any otlierupeople of human 
 history : they were interwoven 
 with the whole life of the peo- 
 l^le ; the feeling for art was a 
 gift common to all classes, and 
 their encouragement an essen- 
 tial element of public policy. 
 In their architecture, symmetry 
 and harmony so jn-evailed, that 
 every building formed a beautiful whole. The chief decoration of their public build- 
 ings were the columns, distinguished into three classes, by their capitals ; the strong 
 plain Doric, the slender 
 Ionic, with its curled 
 capital, and the richly 
 decorated Corinthian. 
 These were used princi- 
 palh' at the entrances 
 of their temples, and in 
 their porches and corri- 
 dors ; but the private 
 dwellings of the Greeks 
 were small and insignifi- 
 cant. The great sculp- 
 tors were Phidias, Sco- 
 pas of Paros, Praxiteles 
 of Athens, and Lysippus ; and their masterpieces, some of which have been preserved, 
 
 VENUS OF MILO. 
 
 ATHENIAN YOUTHS RIDING IN PKOCESSION. 
 
 (Frieze of Parthenon. 
 
THE GREEK WORLD. 
 
 127 
 
 are still regarded as unapproachable. The polytheistic service, with its statues and 
 temple decorations, was favorable to the arts, but not more so than the universal 
 artistic instinct of the people. A famous man was usually honored by the erection 
 of a statue, or the placing of his bust upon a pedestal ; and the cities vied with each 
 other in adorning their streets and public places with works of art. The beautiful 
 bodies of the Greeks were never distorted by ugly costumes, and their gymnastic 
 exercises gave the sculptors opportunity to study the naked body in every variety of 
 posture. The Apollo Belvedere, the Laocoon group, the Medicean Venus, the Venus 
 of Milo, and countless other statues and reliefs are splendid proofs of Greek genius. 
 The famous painters were Zeuxis, Parrhasius and Apelles. But of their pictures we 
 have none. A few copies of them are to be seen upon Grecian vases, and in some 
 decorations in the remains of ancient buildings. Music, dancing, and dramatic art 
 were likewise cultivated by the Greeks, especially in connection with their religious 
 festivals. 
 
 §75. 
 
 III. THE MACEDONIAN PERIOD. 
 I. Philip of Macedonia (369-336). 
 
 \0 the North of Greece lies the rough mountain land of Mace- 
 donia. The inhabitants, thereof, were slightly mixed with Hellenic 
 blood, and had, in the course of time, adopted Greek military cus- 
 B. c. 300. toms and been admitted to the Olympic games. 
 The kings who dwelt at first in Ji^gte, and afterward in Pella, 
 traced their origin to the Heraclides in Argos. The people were 
 warlike, fond of fighting and hunting, of tournaments and carous- 
 ings. Two years after the death of Epaminondas, Philip came to the Macedonian 
 throne, a prince, who united the sagacious skill of a statesman, to the genius of a great 
 soldier. He loved and honored Greek culture, but held firmly to the customs of 
 his people, and even shared in the drunken carousals of the native nobility. And yet 
 he was generous, astute, treacherous and intriguing. He possessed a well-equipped 
 army, eager for fight, and dreaded, especially, because of its peculiar line of battle, 
 called tlie phalanx. 
 
 § 76. Philip's efforts were directed to the subjugation of the discordant Greek 
 states. His watched-for opportunity came with the sacred wars. The Thebans, eager 
 to absorb the neighboring Phocis, charged before the Amphictyonic council that the 
 Phocians had taken possession of lands belonging to the temple at Delphi. The 
 council condemned the accused to pay a heavy fine, 
 and when they refused, delivered them to the The- 
 bans for punishment. The angry Phocians there- 
 upon seized the temple of Delphi, carried off the 
 treasures therein deposited, purchased with them a 
 great arni3% and resisted the Thebans successfully 
 for ten years, invading Boeotia and even capturing 
 some cities. The Thebans wearied and wasted by the strife, turned for help to Philip 
 of Macedon. He responded at once ; conquered Thessaly, and urged his way through 
 
 MACEDONIAN COIN. 
 
128 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 Thermopylge into Phocis. Philomelas and Onomarchiis, the Phocian leaders, were 
 slain and the entire people subjugated. They were expelled from the Amphictyonic 
 council as an accursed race, and Philip was admitted to their place ; their cities were 
 destroyed ; the inhabitants carried off into slavery or kept at home as serfs. 
 
 § 77. Philip had already brought the Grecian colonies in Macedonia under his 
 control, and in the neighborhood of Amphipolis, a region rich in gold mines, he had 
 
 LAOCOON GKOUP, VATICAN. 
 
 built the city of Philippi. He conquered the proud Olynthia, and punished it severely 
 by the loss of property and liberty. But he attained his cherished object by the 
 B. c. 330.33S. Locrian war. The Locrians, like the Phocians, seized a piece of land 
 belonging to the temple at Delphi and were punished by the Amphictyonic council. 
 They refused to pay the fine. ^Eschines of Athens then moved in the council that 
 the Macedonian king be entrusted with their punishment. Philip hastened forward 
 
130 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 with his army, subdued the Locrians, and occuiDied, quite unexpectedly, the important 
 city Elatea. This act of violence startled the Athenians, and obtained a hearing for 
 Demosthenes. He negotiated an alliance with the Thebans, and induced them to 
 equip a considerable army ; but the undisciplined troops, with their incapable leaders, 
 were helpless before the Macedonian phalanx. In spite of the bravery of the " sac- 
 red band " of Thebes who perished to a man upon the battle field, Philip won the 
 s. c. ass. battle of Chgeronea, which put an end forever to the liberties of Greece. 
 Demosthenes pronounced the funeral oration of the fallen patriots, and the century-old 
 Isocrates died by his own hand, so as not to survive the downfall of Greek freedom. 
 
 ARISTOTLE AND ALEXANDER. 
 
 Philip, however, treated the Greeks with friendly clemency, so as to reconcile 
 them to Macedonian rule. For he intended, at the head of all the Greek states, 
 
 B. c. 337. to attack the decaying empire of the Persians. He convened a council 
 at Corinth, proclaimed peace throughout all the land, and established a union under 
 the lead of Macedonia. He had already been named the absolute commander-in-chief, 
 and had designated the number of troops to be furnished by each state, when, at 
 
 B.C.330. the wedding-feast of his daughter in ^gse, he was murdered by a 
 vindictive body-guard or (as some think) at the instigation of his abandoned wife 
 Olympia. The assassin was slain on the spot by the furious warriors. 
 
THE GREEK WORLD. 
 
 131 
 
 COIN OF TARSUS. {Asia Minor.) 
 
 2. Alexander the Great. 
 
 § 78. Philip was succeeded by his large-minded son Alexander, who was twenty. 
 one years old when he became the king of Macedon. His education had been received 
 from Aristotle, the great thinker and investigator ; and he remained, throughout his 
 life, a friend and admirer of Grecian art and literature. 
 Directljr after his coronation, the Greeks acknowledged 
 him as their commander-in-chief against the Persians. 
 But he was first obliged to expel from his borders the 
 wild tribes that had invaded Macedonia. And sud- 
 denly the rumor ran through Greece that Alexander 
 js. c. 333. had been killed. A wild hope of free- 
 dom excited the cities to rebellion. • The Thebans 
 murdered a part of the garrison in their castle ; Athenians and Peloponnesians pre- 
 pared for war. Like a flash Alexander hastened to Thebes, leveled its houses and 
 walls to the ground, and reduced the citizens to slavery. Only the castles, the temples, 
 and the house of the poet Pindar were spared. This terrible judgment alarmed the 
 rest of the Greeks; and the conqueror, soon repenting of his severitj', agce^jted their 
 repentance and submission. 
 
 § 79. In the spring of 334 Alexander marched against Persia. His army was 
 B. c. 334. not large, but splendidly officered with men like Clitus, Parmenio, 
 Ptolemy, Antigonus. At the passage of the Hellespont, Alexander was the first to 
 leap to the Asiatic shore ; at the field of Troy -^ .- — =-=-j^s:=^3.=-=i^i^-^ - — ^ 
 he ordered games and sacrifices in honor of the 
 heroes of the olden time. Achilles was his 
 chosen model, and Homer his constant com 
 panion. 
 
 The first encounter took place at the 
 Granicus River, where a superior force of Per- 
 sians was easily defeated. But the impetuosity 
 of the young king nearly cost him his life ; he 
 was saved by the prompt courage of his general 
 Clitus. The western part of Asia Minor was 
 now rapidly subdued. Halicarnassus taken by 
 storm, the other Greek cities submitted willing- 
 ly, and even greeted the conqueror with expec- 
 tant enthusiasm. In the city of Gordium he 
 found the ancient wagon of Midas, the pole of ' 
 which was tied to the yoke bj^ a knot most in- 
 tricate. '■•Whoso unties this knot, shall be the 
 conqueror of Asia" ran a well-known oi'acle. 
 Alexander cut it with a stroke of his sword. 
 He then marched across the Cicilian highlands, and made himself dangerously ill by a 
 bath in the chilly waters of the Cydnus. Philip, his physician, mixed a potion for 
 him, which the king drank eagerly, handing to the astonished doctor as he did so, the 
 letter of Parmenio, his general, in which Philip was falsely accused of intending to 
 poison him. 
 
 ALEXANDER THE GREAT. (Equestrian.) 
 
132 
 
 THE ANCIENT WOELD. 
 
 § 80. Darius Codomanus himself luiw confronted, him with a larger army ; but 
 
 B.C. 333. suffered a complete defeat at Issus. The unhappy king, who was 
 
 worth}'- of a better fate, fled with the remnants of his army into the interior, while 
 
 Alexander prepared to subjugate Palestine and Phoenicia, and Parmenio compelled the 
 
 r ,<rtiHBnH9BSi?immIi7i'l' 1 V'il'" /T rich Damascus to surrender. The 
 
 booty was immense ; the royal 
 treasure and the royal family fell 
 into the hands of the Macedonians. 
 Darius, bowed down by his misfor- 
 tunes, offered the king all Western 
 Asia, and the hand of his daughter 
 as the price of peace; and an enor- 
 mous ransom for his mother and his 
 wife, the most beautiful woman in 
 Persia. But the son of Philip re- 
 fused. " If I were Alexander," 
 counseled Parmenio, " I would 
 accept the conditions." "So would 
 I," was the answer, '■'■ifltvere Par- 
 menio.'' 
 
 § 81. Palestine and Phoenicia 
 submitted without resistance; but 
 Tj're, trusting in her strong posi- 
 tion, defiantly refused. There- 
 upon began a seven-months' siege. 
 From the mainland to Island-Tyre, 
 a dam was built, upon which towers 
 were erected. From these the 
 Macedonian soldiers hurled all 
 manner of missiles into the city, 
 while the ships of Alexander as- 
 sailed it from the sea. The Tyrians, 
 however, baffled his effort by equally 
 cunning expedients, and withstood 
 him with desperate courage. At 
 B. c, 339. last the citj^ was 
 conquered. The surviving inhabi- 
 tants wei'e led into slavery, and the 
 city given over to destruction. 
 The rich and well-defended frontier 
 citj' of Gaza, the famous remnant 
 of the Philistines, suffered a like 
 fate. The Macedonian king now 
 conquered Egypt, and by building the city of Alexandria gave to commerce a new 
 direction. From Memphis he undertook the difficult and dangerous march to the 
 famous oracle temple of Zeus Amraon, situated in the beautiful oasis of Siwah. The 
 
134 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 priests of the temple declared him to be the sou of their God, which gave him great 
 importance in the eyes of the superstitious Orientals. 
 
 § 82. Alexander found Egypt easy to conquer, so great was the dislike of the 
 ancient population for the Persians. Having established a new government, he 
 
 marched against Darius, who had meanwhile 
 
 brought together a great army. Crossing the 
 
 B.c.ast. Euphrates and the Tigris, he 
 
 ' encountered the Persians, not far from the ruins 
 
 of Nineveh. In the battle of Arbela, with his 
 
 little army, he defeated the great host of Per- 
 
 cuiN or TYRE. sians. And Babylon, Susa, and Persepolis, with 
 
 their immense treasures, fell into hia hands. The existing ruins of the sepulchres of 
 
 Cyrus and Darius, still bear witness of the splendor of this cradle of the Persian 
 
 house. 
 
 Alexander celebrated his victory with a riotous banquet, at the close of which, he 
 
 ALEXANDER AT THE TEMPLE OF Jt'PITER AMJION. 
 
 marched at the head of a Bacchanalian procession, and hurled, with his own hands, 
 flaming torches into the splendid buildings of Persepolis, in revenge for the burning of 
 Athens and the desecration of the Hellenic sanctuaries. 
 
 When Darius heard that Alexander had passed through the Persian mountains, 
 had conquered Susa "the golden castle " and Persepolis "the high portal," and was on 
 his way to Media, he fled from Ecbatana, his summer residence, into the mountainous 
 
ALEXANDER BEFORE TYRE. ( H. Vogel.) ( pp- 135.) 
 
136 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 Bactria, where be was murdered bj' the traitor Bessus. Alexander bemoaned the fate 
 of his unhappy enemy, defeated and captured tlie murderer, who had assumed the title 
 of king, and had him nailed to the cross. 
 
 § 83. The snow-covered Hindu mountains were crossed by his daring soldiers. 
 who nearly perished of hunger and fatigue ; and, after taking possession of the moun- 
 tain regions near tlie Caspian Sea, Alexander undertook to make them accessible by 
 new highways. He was not satisfied with war and conquest merely. He wished to 
 make the wild mountaineers acquainted with the forms of Grecian life, and to adapt 
 them to a new order of political existence. Four new cities each called Alexandria, 
 became centres of the caravan trade, and diffused the Greek language and the Greek 
 civilization throughout the East. In storming a mountain castle he captured the beau- 
 jB. c. 330. tiful princess Roxana, the pearl of the Orient, and made her his Avife. 
 In Bactria he celebrated his splendid marriage feast ; it was to be the sign that the 
 conflict between Greece and Asia was ended. Alexander was now to be known as 
 
 " the great king," and 
 he borrowed more and 
 more from the desi^otic 
 and gaudy customs of 
 the oriental monarchs. 
 He received the Asiatics 
 in royal purple ; lie 
 found pleasure in their 
 prostration and in their 
 worship ; he surrounded 
 himself with Persian 
 staff-bearers and cour- 
 tiers ; he was no longer 
 their conqueror, but 
 their king. This be- 
 havior embittered the 
 Macedonian nobles. In 
 their selfishness and ar- 
 rogance, they murmured at Alexander's treatment of the conquered. At the liead of 
 the discontented, stood Parmenio and his brave but violent son Philetas. the captain of 
 the bodyguard. They stirred up in the army the cry for home, that the campaign might 
 B. c. 3S9. be ended and the booty divided. The}' formed a conspiracy ; but it was 
 discovered. Philetas was condemned to death and pierced through by the lances of 
 his comrades, and to prevent the news from reaching his father, who was in command 
 of Ecbatana and its treasures, two captains were detailed to murder him. They 
 approached the unsuspecting Parmenio, as he was entering the castle-garden of the 
 Median capital, and stabbed him to death. The next year, as Alexander was prepaiing 
 for a campaign against India, another fit of passion led to the death of Glitus, who had 
 saved the king's life at the battle of Granicus. At a drunken carouse at Maracanda, 
 the flatteries of the Greek sophists so enraged the Macedonian warrioi', that he broke 
 forth in violent upbraiding of the king. Alexander seized the lance of one of the 
 B. c. aas. guards, and hurled it at his general, who fell bleeding to the ground. 
 
 GRAVE OF DARIUS, NEAR PERSEPOLis. {From Flaiulin.) 
 
ALEXANDER DISCOVERS THE DEAD BODY OF DARIUS. 
 
 {pp. I3t.) 
 
138 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 The sobered king then threw himself upon tlie corpse, and for tliree daj's refused all 
 
 meat and drink in his sleepless grief. 
 
 Callisthenes, the nephew, of Aristotle, also trifled away by iiis criticisms the favor 
 
 of tiie king. He was cast into chains, and held a prisoner until he died. 
 
 § 84. Alexander kept marching to the East, in order to conquer the wonderful 
 
 and famous land on the river Indus, in spite of the repeated murmurings of the Mace- 
 donian leaders. But the inhabitants of 
 Northern India, stimulated by their priests, 
 offered him greater resistance than he en- 
 countered with the cowardly subjects of the 
 Persian king. In the stormiitg of strong 
 castles, his life was often in great danger, and 
 if the native princes had been united, the 
 Macedonians would have failed in their un- 
 n. c. 320. dertaking. But some of 
 them joined with Alexander against Porus, 
 the mightiest of the princes beyond the 
 Hydaspes (Dschelum). The passage of this 
 river in sight of the enemy, and the battle 
 that followed, in. which the brave Porus was 
 taken prisoner, belonged to the greatest 
 martial achievements of antiquity. 
 
 Alexander founded a city, Bucephala, 
 in memory of his fallen battle horse; and 
 the city Nicea, in memory of his victory. 
 
 He then resumed his march eastward to the Ganges, but the Macedonians were so 
 
 loud in their complaints, that he reluctantly consented to turn back. Twelve stone 
 
 altars, on the shore of the river Hyphasis, designated the eastern terminus of his 
 
 conquering march. 
 
 Porus and the other Indian princes, were given back tiieir lands subject to Mace- 
 donian authority. A fleet of boats was built for sailing down the Indus, in order to 
 
 discover the unknown lands of the South, and to 
 
 open up a commerce between the East and the 
 
 West. Nearch, the commander of this fleet, sailed 
 
 along the coast to the Persian gulf, while Alexan-/ 
 
 der himself with the army took the way through 
 
 the desert. But this undertaking proved disas- 
 trous ; three-fourths of the army were lost in two 
 
 months. The soldiers who had defied the sword 
 
 and the lance in so many battles, succumbed to 
 
 B.C.3SS. the tortures of hunger, and of fatigue, and of thirst in the barren 
 
 desert, or fell victims to malaria, sunstroke, the choking dust, and the nocturnal 
 
 frost. 
 
 Alexander shared the hardships and dangers of the march, with the meanest of 
 
 his army, and rewarded the survivors with gifts and festivals as soon as he arrived in 
 
 the rich oasis city Pura. Thence they marched without difficulty, through Caremania, 
 
 MEDEAN NOBLE. 
 
 COIN OP ALEXANDER. (Containing 
 Image of Lysimachus). 
 
DEFEAT OF POBUS BY THE MACEDONIANS. 
 
 (pp.13!).) 
 
140 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 where Nearcli united his forces with the main armj', after a voyage full of dangers and 
 of marvels. 
 
 § 85. During his absence, tlie governors and officers of the country had greatl.y 
 oppressed the people, and Alexander's first care was to punish their infidelity. He 
 then sought to unite the victors and the vanquished into a single nation, and to diffuse 
 every where the culture of the Greeks. He furthered the marriage of his officers and 
 soldiers with the maidens of the country, and himself married a daughter of Darius. 
 A wedding feast of five days took place in Susa, Avhere more than ten thousand 
 Macedonians celebrated the splendid nuptials, which were to be the capstone of his 
 
 great plan for the 
 union of Greek and 
 Persian. But this 
 sublime idea of a 
 great empire, with 
 equal rights for all, 
 was incomprehensi- 
 ble to the Macedon- 
 ian s and to the 
 Greeks. When 
 Alexander favored 
 the young men of the 
 Persians, armed them 
 with Macedonian 
 weapons, and gave 
 them places in the 
 royal armj', and when 
 he filled up the Mace- 
 donian life-guard 
 with Parthian and 
 Iranian knights, the 
 Macedonians became 
 suspicious that the 
 king was seeking to 
 do without them. 
 Irritated and embit- 
 tered, they broke out 
 
 in open rebellion, when the king on the shores of the Tigris expressed his purpose 
 of sending the older soldiers home. With a wild outcry all demanded their dismis- 
 sion. A few ringleaders were drowned in the Tigris, and the rest were proudly 
 told to go whither they would. They soon surrounded the castle, beseeching pardon 
 and mercy. After a long dela^', the king forgave them and sent his old comrades, 
 10,000 in number, with rich presents and large privileges, back to the land of their 
 fathers. 
 
 Alexander soon began to love the oriental mode of life. His court at Babjdon, 
 the capital of his empire, was' full of splendor. Ambassadors from Greece, Italy and 
 many other lands brought him congraitulations, and flattered his achievements. Ban- 
 
THE GREEK WORLD. 
 
 141 
 
 quets and festivals succeeded each other without end. But the foundation of a world- 
 empire, with Hellenic forms of life, never left his thoughts. To open up new highways 
 
 B. c. 3S4, for commerce he went to Ecbatana. Here he celebrated the great 
 festival of Dionysos, with sacrifices and processions, with chariot races and foot races, 
 with dramatic and artistic contests, with banquets and feasts. Nevertheless the king 
 was quite unhappj'. The faithful friend of his youth, Hephsestion, who had abandoned 
 himself to the enjoyment of the hour, died suddenly in the flower of his years. It 
 was the prelude to the king's own departure. The funeral celebration, which he ap- 
 pointed in Babylon for his beloved friend, was one of his last acts. A violent fever 
 attacked him and hurried him to the grave, in the midst of his plans to conquer Arabia, 
 
 B. c. 323. and before he could make arrangements for the succession to his throne. 
 When asked to whom he left his kingdom, he replied, "to the worthiest." His 
 dead body was brought from Babylon to Alexandria for burial. His memory has 
 been kept alive by the poetry, and the story of East and West. His life of heroic 
 achievement and magnificent enterprises, filled the minds of his contemporaries and of 
 posterity with astonishment. And the brevity of his splendid career, which was 
 short as a meteor's flash, has not detracted from the eternal significance of his ideas and 
 achievements. 
 
 IV. THE ALEXANDRIAN AGE. 
 
 § 
 
 a. ALEXANDER S SUCCESSORS. 
 
 |LEXANDER left only one brother, a man of disordered mind, and 
 two infant children, the youngest born .after the father's death. 
 His empire fell to pieces as rapidly as it had been acquired. 
 His generals fought each other in bloody and cruel wars, in the 
 course of which the house of Alexander perished utterly, and 
 finallj' divided his kingdom into three parts, Macedonia, S3-ria, 
 and Egj'pt. Perdiccas, to whom Alexander had given his signet- 
 ring, at first assumed the dignity of regent; but he was murdered by his own rebellious 
 B. c. 321. army, while engaged in war with Ptolemy the governor of Egypt. 
 Antigonus thereupon acquired the greatest power, having captured and imprisoned 
 B.c.sie. Eumenes, the chief support of Perdiccas. He seized the treasures in 
 Susa, and was able to hire so many soldiers that he could defy all the generals and 
 compel them to acknowledge him as regent. But Seleucus of Syria, Ptolem v of Egvpt, 
 and Kassander of Macedonia, combined against him 
 and his son Demetrius, who was afterward surnamed 
 Poliorketes. the besieger of cities. TJie war that 
 followed involved both Asia and Greece. Seleucus 
 B. c. 312. succeeded finall}' in conqueiing Baby- 
 lonia and the eastern provinces, but Ptolemj^ was 
 defeated by Demetrius, in a sea-fight, near the island 
 B. c. 3o«. of Cyprus. Antigonus now assumed 
 the title of King, in which he was followed by his rivals; the war was finally ended at 
 
 COIN OF PTOLEMY I. 
 
142 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 TETIIADRACHM OF ANTIOCH. 
 
 jB. c. 301. the battle of Ipsus, in Asia Minor, wliere the octogenarian, Antigoiius, 
 lost his life, and his son Demetrius found safety in flight. Seleucus retained Syria, 
 and Egypt fell to the Ptolemies. 
 
 b. The last struggle of Greece. The Achaian Leag^ie. 
 
 § 87. After the battle of Chseronea, 
 Greece stood under the control, or at 
 ts. r. 330. least, under tlie influence 
 of the Macedonian kings; and all attempts 
 of individual states to escape this domina- 
 tion, ended in disaster. Agis II. for 
 instance marched against Antipater the 
 Macedonian regent, but the brave Spartan 
 B. c. 3.30. perished with five thousand of his warriors, in the battle of Megalopolis. 
 The Athenians continued the old quarrels between Aristocrats and Democrats. And 
 when Phocion, witli the help of the Macedonians, acquired control for his party, many 
 Democrats, among them Demosthenes, left the city. His enemies threatened to deliver 
 him to the Macedonians. He took refuge in a temple of the Peloponessns, and rather 
 B.C. 322. than fall into the hands of Jiis foes, drained a cup of poison. "Death 
 is a glorious refuge," he cried to the Macedonian partisan, who sought to take him 
 prisoner. "Death protects from shame." His ashes were afterward carried to Athens, 
 where his memory remained in honor. In the year 818 the Democrats obtained tlie 
 B. c. ats. uj^per hand, and compelled the aged Phocion to drink the hemlock. 
 Party rage now began to soften ; but the love of freedom and of countrjr, as well as 
 civic virtue, disappeared even more rapidly. The arts and the sciences continued to 
 flourish, and Athens remained the centre of civilization; but the 
 greatness of her people was gone forever. Demetrius, the Phaleriani 
 B. c. 317-301. a highly cultivated and luxury -loving statesman, 
 ruled the city for ten years under Macedonian authority; audi 
 Demetrius, " the besieger of cities," the handsome, knightly and 
 pleasure-loving son of Antagonus, succeeded him. Their sensualitj^ 
 and luxury corrupted utterly the remnants of civic virtue, and the 
 Athenians became pitiful flatterers and contemptible parisites. 
 
 § 88. But about the middle of the third century the Achaian league was formed, 
 B.c.sso. to which Aratus of Sicyon gave such power and importance, that he 
 attempted the control of all Greece, especially after the accession of Corinth to the 
 union. As general of the league, he sought, by tiie founding of a confederation, to re- 
 vive again the national energy and llnit3^ But his success excited the envy of Sparta, 
 at a time when two large-minded kings, Agis the fourth and Kleomenes, were trying 
 to renew her ancient virtue. The landed propeity of Sparta had fallen into the hands of 
 a few rich families ; these ruled the state, choosing the ephors always from their own 
 number. Other citizens were destitute of rights and property, and in debt to the rich. 
 Tlie two kings sought relief by abolishing the ofBce of ephors, making void the debts, 
 and by a new distribution of land and a restoration of the institutions of Lycurgus. 
 Aaiaiv., But Agis was cruelly murdered by his enemies, although Kleomenes 
 B. c. 241. was able, by his firmness, to cari-y out his purposes in Sparta. When 
 
 ANTIOCHUS III. 
 
THE GREEK WORLD. 
 
 143 
 
 COIN OF PTOLEMY 11. 
 
 however, the latter attempted to compel the other Peloponnesian states to submit to 
 
 Kieonienes. Spartan rule, he was defeated by the Achaiaii league and their SjDartan 
 
 B. €.230-290. allles, iu the battle of Sellasia. He fled to Alexandria, where he and 
 
 his companions fell by their own hands. Twelve 
 
 years after his death, Sparta was conquered by the 
 
 B. c. 20S. league and compelled to abolish the 
 institutions of L5^curgus. Her wealthy citizens were 
 murdered or banished, and the ancient city of heroes 
 converted into a den of thieves. Philopsemon, the 
 commander of the league and the conqueror of the 
 
 B.C.1S3, Spartans, in a war against the Mes- 
 senians, fell into the hands of the enemy, and was compelled to drink poison. With 
 him perished the " last of the Greeks,'" and the power of the union. The Romans 
 soon conquered the whole country without great difficulty. 
 
 e. The Ptolemies and Seleucids. 
 
 % 89. Seleucid and Ptolemy were the most fortunate of Alexander's successors. 
 The first conquered all the land from the Hellespont to India, and founded the Syrian 
 kingdom of the Seleucids. He built the splendid Antioch on the river Orontes, and 
 
 Seleucia on the Tigris. These and the forty 
 other cities, which were built by his successors, 
 so diffused Greek life and language in the East, 
 that Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt became the 
 chief seats of culture and commerce; but the 
 heajDing up of riches brought in an effeminacy 
 of luxury and lust, the people became indolent 
 and servile, pay ing their kings Avith the meanest 
 flattery. Bloody cruelties, the domination of 
 women and favorites, and universal immorality 
 constitute the history of the Syrian kingdom. 
 B. c. 224-187. Antiochus the third called also 
 the great is renowned for his campaign against 
 India, and for his unlucky struggle with the 
 Romans ; as the kings became weaker, small 
 kingdoms, like Pergamos in Asia Minor and 
 Parthia at the North were established by enter- 
 prising men. Egypt under the Ptolemies had 
 soter, a like experience; the first 
 
 f B. o. aso three, Soter, Philadelphus, and 
 Euergetes founded a great military and naval power, by means of 
 which they acquired territory in all directions; commerce brouglit 
 wealth, the civil administration was perfected in a high degree. Alex- 
 andria became the seat of international traffic, and the centre of Greek 
 art, literature, and culture. The famous museum, with its numerous manuscripts and 
 residences for poets and scholars, was connected with the royal palace ; religion con- 
 sisted of mingled Greek and Egyptian elements; the splendid worship of Serapis and 
 
 EGYPTIAN PRIEST, AND MAN AND WOMAN OF 
 LOW CASTE.- 
 
 JP/»»'lfffle/i>7«?cs. 
 t B. C. 221. 
 EuevgeteSt 
 t B. C. 221. 
 
144 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 Isis was blended with the service of the Helenic gods, but the men who accomplished 
 this were, like the roj^al famil}- itself, like strangers, Greeks and Jews : hence this cul- 
 ture touched only the service, without ennobling the heart, for it took no root in the 
 popular mind ; the court in Alexandria was as famous for its cruelty, its debauchery, 
 and its immorality, as for its splendor, its wealth, and its culture. 
 
 TETR.VDRACH.M OF ANTIOCHUS IV. 
 
 d. The Jews Under the Maccabees. 
 
 § 90. Judcea was, for a long while, the subject of quarrel between the Seleucids 
 and tlie Ptolemies. The rulers of Egypt first took possession of the land, and made it 
 
 tributarj^ ; but they did not disturb the ancient 
 institutions, and permitted the high priests, with 
 the council of seventy (or Sanhedrim), to control 
 religious life and domestic affairs. ]Many Jews 
 settled in Alexandria, where they became 
 wealthy and powerful, but lost gradually the 
 customs, language and faith of their fathers, or 
 blended them with Greek life and thought. 
 At the instance of the second colony, a number of Alexandrian Jews, (tradition 
 says seventy-two\ completed a Greek translation of the Hebrew scriptures, which 
 js. c. ss-i.is7. is known as the Septuagint, and which greatly furthered the spread 
 of Christianity. But the S3'rian king, Antiochus the Great, wrested Judaea from the 
 Ptolemies, and Antiochus Epiphanes even plundered the temple treasures in Jerusalem, 
 and determined to abolish Jewish institutions and the worship of Jehovah. His 
 attempts to force Greek paganism upon the Jews, provoked a desperate resistance, 
 and this led to cruel persecution. At last the people, in their desperation, rose against 
 their tormentors, under the lead of the high priest 
 Mattathias, and his five heroic sons. The eldest 
 f B. c. too. son, Judas Maccabfeus, conquered 
 peace, in which the Sj'rians permitted the re- 
 establishment of the Jewish worship. His 
 t B. c. 13S. brother Simon freed Judtea from 
 Syrian rule, and as priest and prince, conducted 
 affairs with righteousness and wisdom. His suc- 
 cessors conquered tlie Edomites, but part}' hatred and domestic quarrels soon weak- 
 ened the power of the people. The whole nation was divided between the Sadducees 
 and the Pharisees. Both parties held to the Jlosaic law, but were wide apart in their 
 political and their social life, and in their religious ideas. The Pharisees, as worship- 
 ers of tradition, laid great stress upon the observance of minute requirements and 
 
 external usages. This led to hypocrisy and 
 sliam-holiness : the Sadducees, who were for the 
 most part rich and aristocratic, sought to recon- 
 cile the i\Iosaic system with Greek life and 
 thought. A third sect, the Essences, lived in a 
 fraternity, held their goods in common and served 
 God by separating from the world, b_y penitence 
 and works of love. The hostility of these parties, 
 
 SHEKEL OF SIMON MACCABEUS. 
 
 HEBREW SHEKEL. 
 
THE GREEK WORLD. 
 
 145 
 
 and the resulting weakness of the people, brought them finally under Roman rule. 
 
 The last of the Maccabean family was murdered by Herod the Great, a man of 
 Hc,oa.B.c.3o astonishing gifts and astonishing crimes. Under the protection of 
 Rome, he ruled over Judsea for thirty-six years. The 
 Jews hated him bitterly ; so to obtain their favor he re- 
 built the temple of Solomon in great splendoi-. At the 
 last his suspicions made of him a bloody monster, the 
 murderer of his beautiful and beloved Mariamne, and of 
 his own children. And the last notice of him in Holy 
 
 writ shows him seeking the life of the infant Jesus. 
 
 HALF SHEKEL. 
 
 e. Culture and Intellectual Life in the Alexandrian Age. 
 
 § 91. The conquests of Alexander and of his successors, carried Greek culture 
 Theocitos. far to the East, and into the larger part of the ancient world. Com- 
 
 B. c. 2io. merce and the intercourse of nations were extended, and civilization 
 
 greatly furthered. But the intellectual life did not keep pace with the spread of 
 
 civilization. In poetry nothing of importance appeared, except the Idylls of Theoc- 
 
 ritos, and a few dramatic poems which have been lost. History and oratory fell far 
 
 Eiiciiti, behind the nobler productions of the earlier time. But erudite studies 
 
 B. c. 200. and practical sciences flourished greatly. Learned critics and gram- 
 marians arranged and explained the earlier Greek writings. Natural science and mathe- 
 matics, geography and astronomy, which hitherto were in their rudiments, were now per- 
 fected. Euclid composed his manual of geometry. Eratosthenes and Hipparchus de- 
 f B. c. 213. veloped astronomy. Archimedes, of Syracuse, acquired immortal re- 
 nown, by his discovei'ies in mechanics and physics; and Hippocrates laid the foun- 
 dations of medical science. But the chief study was philosophy. For the Pagan 
 religion gave no peace to the soul and no strength for human life. Men turned there- 
 fore to the schools of philosophy founded by Plato and Aristotle. Among these, the 
 Stoics and the Epicureans were the most famous. Socrates had taught that hap- 
 piness was the true end of life. Antisthenes, his pupil, believed that the surest 
 way to obtain happiness, was to renounce all pleasures, and 
 accordingly taught that contentment was the highest goal 
 of human effort. His pupil, Diogenes, who lived in a cask, 
 gave up all the enjoyments of life, and practiced a heroism of 
 renunciation, which excited the admiration of the great Alex- 
 ander. This school was called the cynical school, originally 
 from the place where Antisthenes taught. Diogenes was 
 luunorously called " the dog," because of the wretched life that 
 he led, and because his indifference to culture and refinement 
 seemed better fitted for a dog, than for a man. This doc- 
 trine of the Cynics was ennobled in the Stoic philosophy, of which Zeno, a con- 
 temporary of Alexander, was the teacher. According to the doctrine that he 
 delivered in tlie Stoa at Athens, man arrives at happiness only by enduring all the 
 changing phases of life, joy, and pain, fortune and misfortune, with equanimity. 
 Whatever happens is of necessity, and according to the highest law ; to bear it 
 tranquilly, therefore, is the noblest wisdom and the beginning of peace. An- 
 10 
 
 MITES OF HEROD. 
 
146 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 other pupil of Socrates, Aristippus of Cyreue, taught an opposite doctrine. Life 
 cousists, he said, iu learning to blend discreetly the pleasures of sense and of intellect. 
 His pupil, Epicurus, framed this art of enjoyment into a system of doctrine that pre- 
 sented rational pleasure as the aim and purpose of human life. His followers carried 
 his doctrine much further. Epicurus taught that happiness was to be found in a 
 freedom from pain, and from circumstances that disturbed contentment. But his 
 disciples taught that the satisfaction of sensual lust was the chief aim of life, and thus 
 converted his philosophy into a doctrine of carnal pleasure and sensual delight. 
 
 STOIC PHILOSOPHER. 
 
C. ROME. 
 
 THE KACES AND CUSTOMS OF OLD ITALY. 
 
 HE beautiful peninsula bounded on the north by the 
 majestic Alps, traversed from north to south by the 
 Apennines, and surrounded on the east and south 
 and west by the Mediterranean Sea, was inhabited 
 in the earliest times by many tribes of different blood. 
 Upper Italy on both banks of the Po (Padus) was 
 the home of Gallic races, who, divided into many 
 branches and communities, possessed numerous cities 
 both in the fertile plains and along the sea-coast. 
 
 Middle Italy was the dwelling-place of several 
 small tribes, some of which were counted aboriginal 
 and others of which had migrated from afar. To the latter belonged the Etruscans, 
 to the former the Sabelli. The Sabelli were split up into different warlike and free- 
 dom loving tribes and of these the Samnites, Sabines and Marsians were the most im- 
 portant. The Oscans were of the same blood and to these belonged the Volscians on 
 the sea-coast, the jEequi on the left bank of the Anio and the Hernici on the high- 
 lands of Algidus. The Latins, a sturdy agricultural people in the " broad plain " 
 south of the mountain river Tiber were another old Italian race. But in their inter- 
 course with Cumse and other colonies of Lower Italy, the Latins had absorbed the 
 mythical ideas of the Greeks and other elements of culture ; witness the story that 
 ^neas, after the destruction of Troy, came to Latium with a band of Trojan heroes 
 and married the daughter of the Latin king. 
 
 Lower Italy was covered along both coasts with Gi-eek colonial cities, while Sam- 
 nites, Campanians, and Lucanians inhabited the inland districts, where they carried 
 oil continual war with each other. 
 
 Campania, with its vineyards and cornfields, belongs to the most beautiful and fer- 
 tile regions of the earth, and there the Romans built a multitude of splendid country 
 houses. 
 
 (147) 
 
148 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 Tlie Etruscans were the most remarkable of the inhabitants of Middle Italy. 
 They were a confederation of twelve independent cities, of which Ctere, Tarquiniiand 
 Perusia, near the Trasimenian lake, and Clusium and Veil are best known. The 
 
 FLIGHT OF ^ENEAS WITH ANCHISES CARRYING THE LARES FROM TROY. 
 
 single cities were governed by a nobility of priests. These nobles (Lucomones) 
 elected in war times a federal head to whom they gave an ivory chair, a purple toga, 
 and an escort of twelve lictors with bundles of rods and axes, snch as were given in 
 after times to the Roman Consuls. They were a people who reverenced the Gods ; 
 their priests alone were in the possession of the astronomical and natural science upon 
 which rested their worship of the twelve supernal and infernal Gods. The High Priest 
 officiated at the sacrifice of animals with which were united predictions derived from 
 the inspection of their entrails (haruspices). They were skilled in the casting of 
 bronze, in pottery and in metal work of all kinds; existing ruins of temples, dikes, 
 roads, bridges bear witness of their genius for building. Etruscan vases, porcelain 
 vessels decoraterl with paintings which have been discovered in large numbers, fur- 
 nish striking proof of their industry and artistic feeling. But the oppressive aristoc- 
 racy which robbed the artisan and the peasant of freedom and enthusiasm soon ar- 
 rested this promising Etruscan culture. 
 
 Sabines, Samnites and Sabelli led a simple life in their poorly fortified homes. 
 They loved their herds and their fields; they loved war also and counted freedom 
 their greatest good. From time to time they vowed to the Gods a " sacred spring- 
 tide." All the children and all cattle born in this holy year belonged to the Gods, 
 chiefly to Mars. The cattle were either sacrificed or set free at once, but the children 
 when they reached a certain age were driven forth to conquer for themselves a home. 
 The Latins dwelt in thirty states ; these formed a league of which Alba Longa 
 
HARUSPEX OFFICIATING. 
 
 (pp- i^y-) 
 
150 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 was the capital. Agriculture and civil liberty flourished among them ; their religion 
 was based ujjon nature-worship and closely connected with the tilling of the soil. To 
 their deities belonged Saturn, the God of seedtime and his wife Ops, the 
 Goddess of plenty ; Vesta also, the venerable Goddess of the hearth, whose 
 pure, sacred flame in the round temple of the Forum was kept always burn- 
 ing by the vigilance of six vestal virgins. The federal assemblies of the Latin 
 union were held in a grove on the Albanian mountain. 
 
 I. ROME UNDER THE RULE OF KINGS AND PATRICIANS. 
 
 §93. 
 
 1. THE KINGS (763—509.) 
 
 
 ING NUMITOR of Alba Longa, so runs the ancient story, was a 
 descendant of the Trojan iEneas. He was deprived of his throne 
 by his brother Amulius, and his daughter Rhea Silvia was conse- 
 crated to Vesta, so that she would remain unmarried and childless. 
 When, however, she bore to Mars, the god of war, the twins Rom- 
 ulus and Remus, the uncle commanded the children to be exposed 
 on the shoi-es of the Tiber, where they were suckled by a wolf and 
 found by a shepherd, by whom they were 
 brought up. By accident they learned of 
 their origin and their grandfather's fate to 
 whom they restored his throne ; then they 
 erected Rome in memory of their rescue, on 
 the left bank of the Tiber on the Palatine 
 Hill. Hardly were the walls of the city 
 erected before they were stained with the 
 blood of Remus, who was killed by his 
 brother. 
 
 But Rome — such is the latest view — 
 originated like Athens (§32) in the union 
 
 B. c. MS. of independent communities ; three tribes of Latin and Sabine blood 
 united for defence and commercial advantage in the building of a finely located 
 capitol. 
 
 § 94. When the city had been founded, the legend continues, Romulus pro- 
 claimed it a city of refuge for fugitives and thus attracted inhabitants. But as these 
 nomuius had no wives, and the neighboring tribes refused to give them their 
 B. c. 730. daughters, he arranged a series of games to which he invited the sur- 
 rounding peoples. When now all eyes were fixed upon the contestants, the Romans 
 at a given signal rushed upon the virgins present and carried them into the city. 
 This rape of the Sabine women provoked a war with the Sabines. Both sides were 
 drawn up in battle-array when the kidnapped women rushed between them, their hair 
 dishevelled and their raiment torn, and by declaring that they would share the fate of 
 the Romans, allayed the strife. A treaty was made, according to which the Sabines of 
 the Capitoline hill united to form one community, with the Latins of the Palatine; the 
 
 CAPITOLINE WOLF. {Bronze Statue.) 
 
'^.^tL^ti. i^^i 
 
152 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 Sabine King Titus Tatius should rule jointly with Romulus, and after their death, a 
 Latin and a Sabine should be chosen alternatel}- by the Senate and the choice ratified 
 in the assembly of the people. Some time after this, an Etruscan settlement on the 
 
 RAPE OF THE SABINE WOMEN. 
 
 Coelian liill was incorporated into the Roman commonwealth. Romulus vanished from 
 earth, in a manner unknown and was worshiped as a God under the name Quirinus, 
 and after this the citizens of Rome were called also Quirites. 
 
1. Shield of Macedonian Hypaspist. 
 
 2. Early Greek Helmet. 
 
 3. Later 
 
 4. Early 
 
 5. Greek Shield. 
 
 6. Etruscan Sword. 
 
 7. Persian " 
 
 8. Etruscan '• 
 
 9. Koiuan Helmet. 
 
 10. Breast Shield. 
 
 11, 12. 13. 14, Greek Lances. 
 
 15. Eonian Helmet. 
 
 16. Greek Sword. 
 
 ANCIENT ARMS AND AEJIOR. 
 
 17. Greek Dagger. 
 
 18. " Double-edged Sword, 
 la. Persian Scabbard. 
 
 20. Etruscan Shield. 
 
 21. Konian Helmet. 
 
 22. 23, Persian Helmets, 
 
 24. Koman Armor. 
 
 25. '■ Helmet. 
 
 26. Persian 
 
 27. '■ Shield. 
 
 28. " Bow. 
 
 29. " Shield. 
 
 30. 31, Roman Lances. 
 
 33, 34, Roman Field Standards. 
 , 36, Roman Lances. 
 
 38, 39, Roman Field Standards. 
 . Roman Shield. 
 Armor 
 Shield. 
 '■ Armor. 
 " Scutum. 
 , 46, " Falchions. 
 , Battering Ram and Tower. 
 , Roman Falchion. 
 . Ballista. 
 
 (153) 
 
154 THE ANCIENT \\>^ORLD. 
 
 § 95. After the warlike Romulus came an interregnum and then the wise Sabine, 
 :rt»»« Fompiiius Numa Pompilius, who organized the new state with lawg and relig- 
 aboxt B. c. too. ious institutions. He founded sanctuaries, increased the number of 
 priests and gave rules for sacrifices and predictions. Two-faced Janus, the God of all 
 beginnings in space and time was honored with a temple at the entrance of the 
 Forum, the gates of which were open during war and closed during peace. 
 
 Like the Greeks who had their laws confirmed by divine utterance, Numa Pom- 
 pilius declared that he had received his religious ordinances from the Nymph Egeria, 
 whose sacred grove lay to the south of Rome. 
 
 § -96. The next two kings, the Latin TuUus Hostilius and the Sabine Ancus 
 
 Tifiiiis Moatiiiiis Marcius extended the territory of the little state by lucky wars until 
 
 «6oiif IS. c. aso. four more hills were united to the three already named ; hence the 
 
 ^ii«i.« Marcius name of the city of seven hills. Tullus Hostilius waged war with 
 
 nhout n. c. 62S. Alba Longa. The armies confronted each other when it was agreed 
 
 to decide the fate of the two cities by a duel of champions. Three brothers 
 
 were chosen on each side, the Horatii and the Curatii. Two of the Roman 
 
 champions had fallen already, when the victory was won for them by the cunning 
 
 THE HORATII GOING FORTH TO BATTLE. (DaVld.) 
 
 and courage of the remaining brother. All three of the Curatii were wounded, 
 but the Roman champion was as yet unharmed. The latter fled, pursued by 
 each of the Curatii, who, weakened by their wounds, could not keep together. 
 Turning upon the foremost one, the Roman slew him before the others could assist 
 him. Then attacking and overpowering the second of them, the fight was his. For 
 the third of the Curatii could hardly hold his shield ; he fell at the first blow and with 
 him the independence of Alba Longa. The city was destroyed soon afterwards and 
 its inhabitants transferred to Rome. Other cities of the neighborhood met the same 
 
156 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 fate under Ancus Marcius. The conquei'ed citizens were transi^orted to Rome, where 
 thej received dwelling places and a small propert}-, but were not allowed to share in 
 the privileges of the older settlers. The latter were called Patricians, the new-comers 
 Plebeians. They had personal liberty which distinguished them from the clients or 
 dependents of tlie Patricians. These clients couldnotappear personally in the courts; 
 their patron appeared for them, and for this protection they must wait upon him as 
 their lord. In the course of time the clients and all non-citizens were merged with 
 the plebeians. The conquered communities that were not transported to Rome for- 
 feited one third of their fields; this was converted into peasant farms for the Romans, 
 and thus the communal land of Rome was increased enormously. Ancus Marcius 
 built also the harbor-city Ostia at the mouth of the Tiber. 
 
 § 97. The three last kings Tarquinius the elder (Priscus), Servius Tullius and 
 Tai-Qiiiniiis pris- Tarquinius, the proud (Sujierbus) belonged, according to tradition, 
 CHS about B. c. to the Etruscau race ; and the tradition is confirmed by the character 
 eoo. of their buildings and of the customs that they brought to Rome. 
 
 sei-vius Tullius The elder Tarquin laid the foundations for the enormous Capitol, 
 about B. c. sso. which liis son Tarquin the Proud completed according to his father's 
 plan. The building consisted of the tower and the splendid temple dedicated 
 to the three highest Etruscan deities, Jupiter, Juno and Minerva. The same 
 king constructed the cloaca maxima, subterranean canals built of enormous stone 
 blocks, the circus maximus and the great market-place or Forum. Tai-quin was mur- 
 dered by the sons of his predecessor and succeeded by his son-in-law, Servius Tullius, 
 who' reorganized the state. The Plebeians of the city and vicinity were first divided 
 into thirty tribes, each having its own 
 president and assembly. In the second 
 place he divided the whole population, ac- 
 cording to their wealth, into five classes; 
 and these into 193 centuries (or hundreds) 
 for taxing, voting and militar}^ jDurposes. 
 After the eighty centuries of tlie first-class 
 to which the patricians belonged had 
 voted, came the eighteen centuries of 
 knights. Thus the richer citizens ac- 
 quired greater power, but were bound on 
 the other hand to serve as heavy-armed 
 soldiers without pay, and their taxes were 
 heavier. A sixth class, the Proletariat, 
 the unpropertied crowd was exempt from 
 taxation and military service but also 
 powerless in political affairs. These 
 changes, which tended to merge the Pa- 
 tricians with the richer Plebeians, and to 
 establish the kingdom upon a broader 
 basis of popular power drew upon Servius Tullius the hatred of the Patricians and 
 with their help he was murdered by liis son-in-law Tarquinius Superbus. The transi- 
 tion of power from Servius Tullius to Tarquinius Superbus is represented in legend 
 
 THE ELDER BRl TUi 
 
ROME. 
 
 157 
 
 as tragical and cruel. Via Scderata (Wicked Wa}') is the well-known name of the 
 street through which the wife of Tarquin drove furiously over the body of her mur- 
 dered father. 
 
 § 98. Tarquin the Proud extended the frontier of the State by successful wars 
 Tat-iiuiHiiis with the Latins, whom he united in a league under the authority of 
 siiperbus Rome. He completed the Capitol and deposited there the collection 
 «. c. 53J-509. of ancient oracles, the Sib3-lline books; he planted the first colonies 
 in the land of the Volscians, in order to extend still further the dominion of Rome. 
 Nevertheless he excited the hatred of the patricians, when he sought to increase his 
 limited authority as king. His violence to the Senate and the Patricians, together with 
 the heavy taxes and forced contributions exacted from the Plebeians, produced a 
 general discontent, which broke into rebellion when the Romans learned of the out- 
 rage upon the virtuous Lucrezia, committed by one of the king's sons. Two relatives 
 of the royal fami]}^ L. Tarquinius Collatinus and Junius Brutus took an oath 
 over the corpse of the murdered Lucrezia (who had killed herself in the desperation 
 of shame) to avenge her death. Thereupon they called the people to freedom, and 
 tiie destruction of tyrannical monarchy. The king apprised of the rebellion raised 
 the siege of the maritime city of Ardea, a city built upon a rock, and hurried with 
 
 nRUTUS CONDEMNING HIS SONS TO DEATH. 
 
 his army to Rome ; he found the gates closed against him, the people having deposed 
 him in full assembly. His army thereupon deserted him and with his sons he went 
 into exile. As in Greek story so in Roman legend the overtlirow of tj'ranny and the 
 establishment of republican government are richly embellished with poetic fiction and 
 
168 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 the catastrophe of Taiqiiin was of course represented as the consequence of impious 
 crimes on the part of the Etruscan dynasty. The expulsion of the Kings was perliaps 
 a revolutionar}^ uprising of Latin and Sabine elements against Etruscan rule. 
 
 2. ROME AS A EKPUBLIC UNDER THE PATBICIANS. 
 
 a. Horatius Codes, Tribunes of the Plehs, Coriolanus. 
 
 § 99. The Senate now possessed supreme authority in Rome. It confirmed the laws 
 that were adopted in the assemblies of the people upon its suggestion ; it nominated 
 the officers that the people elected. Instead of a King, two consuls who were chosen 
 annually, ruled the State, declared justice, and commanded the army. The calendar 
 designated each year by the ruling consuls. The name of King disappeared except 
 in the case of the King of saci'ifices, who under the oversight of the senate managed 
 all affairs of ritual and religion. " The Gods must not go without their wonted 
 mediator." Only a Patrician could fill this and the other ofiices. The young com- 
 monwealth was destined to undergo many struggles, within and without, and the story 
 of them abounds in striking legends. 
 
 MUCIUS SC^VOLA BEFORE TORSENNA. (H. Vocjel.) 
 
 During the consulate of Brutus and Gollatinns, a number of young patricians 
 formed a conspiracy to restore the exiled ro3-al family. When this was discovered 
 the stern Brutus condemned the guilty to death, although among them were his own 
 two sons. From without the Etruscan King Lars Porsenna, whose help iiad been 
 implored by Tarquin, beseiged the Janiculum hill on the right bank of the Tiber. The 
 
ROME. 
 
 169 
 
 Romans sought to dislodge him but were driven back and saved only by the bravery of 
 Horatius Codes who defended the wooden-bridge across the Tiber. When the 
 Romans had hewn down the bridge Horatius sprang in full armor into the river and 
 swam to the opposite shore. The republic erected a statue of him and gave him all 
 the land he could mark out with a plough in a single day. Another Roman, Mucins 
 Scsevola entered the Etruscan camp, intending to murder the king. Knowing the 
 language, he was able to reach the royal tent. But by mistake he stabbed a splen- 
 didly attired servant, instead of the king. Thereupon Porsenna sought by threats to 
 compel him to confess, but Mucius thrust his right hand into an adjacent sacrificial 
 flame as proof that he feared neither pain nor death. Hence the name Sccevola (left- 
 hand). Startled by these evidences of bravery and patriotism, Porsenna made peace 
 at once and hastened home. Yet the Romans were compelled to giTe up one-third of 
 B. c. B07. their territory and to furnish hostages. The people of Veil and the 
 Latin union also made war upon Rome in behalf of the Tarquins. In this war Brutus 
 the founder of the Commonwealth and Aruns Tarquinius met and killed each other. 
 In this war too the Romans appointed for the first time 
 n. c. 400. a dictator, who outranked the consuls 
 and possessed absolute authority in the city and in the 
 field. Dictators were named for six months only and 
 when the danger was over laid down their extraordi- 
 nary office. The appointment was made by the Con- 
 sul in the hour of midnight, amid solemn religious 
 ceremonies. 
 
 § 100. Tarquin, unable to regain his royal dignity 
 betook himself to Cumae where he died. The state was 
 B. e. 40S. now in the hands of the Patricians, 
 who no longer fearing the return of the roj^al family 
 ceased to conciliate the Plebeians and oppressed them 
 by the severest debtor laws. The Plebeians were re- 
 quired to pay heavy ground rents for their little prop- 
 erties and to serve in the army without pay, furnishing 
 their own equipments. While they were on a cam- 
 paign, their fields were untilled. Bad harvests pro- 
 duced poverty, and to escape impending misery they 
 borrowed money of the rich Patricians at eight and ten 
 per cent. Unable to pay promptly, they became the 
 property of the creditors, who sold them and their chil- 
 dren as slaves, or kept them on their own estates as 
 bondsmen. As there was no law to protect the un- 
 fortunate debtor, the Plebeians emigrated to the sacred 
 mountain five miles from Rome, intending to found a 
 B.C. 404. new citj'. The Patricians sent Menenius 
 Agrippa to them, to persuade them to return. Agrippa told them the fable of the 
 belly and its members, how by their strife the whole bod}' was endangered, and he 
 promised them relief. The Plebeians were coaxed back, and obtained at first five, and 
 afterwards ten tribunes or protectors. These while in office were sacred and iuviola- 
 
 CORIOLANUS. 
 
160 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 ble ; they could forbid the execution of all senate-decrees and consular edicts that 
 seemed to injure the welfare of the Plebs, and if this failed they could suspend the col- 
 lection of taxes. The Roman people regarded always with pride this bloodless seces- 
 sion. Soon afterwards a famine broke out in Rome, and when finally ships laden with 
 corn arrived from Sicily, the proud Patrician Coriolanus moved in the Senate that 
 none should be distributed to the Plebeians from the public store-houses until they 
 had consented to abolish the tribunes. The Plebeians thereupon placed their ban 
 upon him in the great assembly and compelled liim to fly. Thirsting for revenge he 
 persuaded the Volscians to follow him in an attack upon Rome. Devastating all be- 
 fore them, they marched to the twenty fifth mile stone, when the mother and sister of 
 Coriolanus came out to intercede for the city, and induced him to withdraw. The 
 B. c. 401. angry Volscians are said to have killed him ; but the captured cities 
 thev retained. 
 
 b. The Fabians, Cincinnatus, the Decemvirs. 
 
 § 101. These quarrels of Patrician and Plebeian so weakened Rome that her 
 enemies took one territory after the other from her control. Tlie Plebeians, who had 
 won the former battles, showed no disposition to shed their blood, in order to make 
 their oppressors richer and mightier. They sometimes even suffered themselves to be 
 defeated, when a cruel Patrician was their leader. This happened in a war against the 
 Veii, where one of the Fabii commanded. And the shame of this event so changed 
 the disposition of that family, that they took up the cause of the Plebeians, and then 
 B. c. jtjj. marched out with them against Veii. They came back from many 
 campaigns victorious and loaded with booty, but returning again to attack the enemy, 
 they were so thoroughly defeated, that only one survived the destruction of his race. 
 As the Veii prej^ed upon the Roman territory from the North, so the Volsci and the 
 JEqui invaded it from the South. The latter, who occupied territory reaching almost 
 to Rome, attacked the Romans at j\It. Algidus with such success, that these would 
 have been taken into captivity, but for Cincinnatus. For when the Senate learned of 
 the danger of the army, Cincinnatus was named Dictator. The great Patrician had 
 become so poor, throngh various misfortunes, that he possessed onlj' a small property 
 B. c. -iss. on the left bank of the Tiber. He was plowing in his field when the 
 call of the Senate reached him. He placed himself at the head of the Roman youth, 
 hastened to the scene of danger, and surrounded tlie enem^- in the night. The ^qui 
 were forced to surrender their arms, their baggage, their horses, and tlieir beasts of 
 burden, and to pass under the yoke formed of three spears. 
 
 § 102. Bitter quarrels broke out between Plebeian and Patrician about equality of 
 rights. The Plebeians demanded agrarian laws, a written code, and a share in the 
 offices. 
 
 The Roman commonwealth was in possession of great tracts of land, the use of 
 which was given to the Patricians, on condition that they paid a tenth of the produce 
 into the state treasury, and in addition, a sum of money for the shepherds on the pas- 
 ture lands. But the Patricians came to look upon this as their own property, culti- 
 vated it through their clients or slaves, paying neither the tenth part of the produce 
 nor the wages of the shepherds. From time to time the Plebeians demanded land laws? 
 
ROME. 
 
 161 
 
 whereby they also could obtain a part of the public land. But their demands were 
 always stoutly resisted. The consul, Spurius Cassius, a meritorious and famous man, 
 B. c. 4sa. who offered the first land law, was hurled from the Tarpeian rock, and 
 his house reduced to ashes. 
 
 § 103. The administration of justice was exclusively in the hands of the Patri- 
 cians. Their judgments rested upon traditions and unwritten customs, and wei'e often 
 arbitrarj^ and unjust. The Plebeians consequently demanded fixed and written laws. 
 After a stubborn resistance on the part of the Patricians, the tribunes of the Plebeians 
 succeeded in sending ambassadors to Soutlaern Italy and to Athens to study tlieir laws, 
 
 THE DEAD VIRGINIA. { H. V0(jcl.) 
 
 and to select from them those that seemed adapted to the conditions of Rome. Upon 
 their return, both classes agreed that all officers should give up their places, and that 
 ten Patricians should be given absolute authority, and charged with the formation of 
 a new code. These (Decemvirs) performed their task with great ability, and their 
 n. c. *si-4so. laws were received with such applause by the assembly of the people, 
 that the Decemvirs were appointed for a second year, so that their work might 
 be perfected. But the reappointed Decemvirs now abused their unlimited power. 
 During the second year of their dominion they fined, imprisoned, exiled, and exe- 
 cuted so many of the Plebeians as to draw down upon them a bitter hatred. Siccius 
 Dentatus, an old hero of the people, was murdered at their command, and at the close 
 11 
 
162 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 of the second j^ear they continued themselves in ofBce, without the authority of the 
 assembly. But the popular hatred first broke forth when Appius Claudius, one of the 
 most powerful of these Decemvirs, claimed the beautiful Virginia as his slave. She 
 was the daughter of Virginius, a leader of the Plebeians, and the bride of a former 
 tribune, Lucius Icillius. In the midst of a great crowd Claudius heard the case in the 
 Forum. One of his clients declared that Virginia was his escaped bond-maid. Hardly 
 
 B. c. 440. had the wicked judge declared in his client's favor, when the father 
 rushed to his daughter, and drove a dagger through her heart. The people surrounded 
 the dead body of the beautiful virgin, the Plebeian army marched into the city and 
 camped on the Aventine Hill, and demanded, with threats, the banishment of the 
 Decemvirs and a return to the old order. When the Senate and the Decemvirs hesi- 
 tated, the people were advised by an old tribune to do as tlieir fathers did, and abandon 
 the city. Immediately the armed men formed in line, and marched through the city 
 and to the gate ; men and women, old and young, followed in their train. Their 
 departure broke the stubbornness of the Patricians. The Decemvirs were compelled 
 to abdicate. Appius Claudius killed himself in prison, one of them was executed, and 
 the rest were banished. But the laws of the twelve tables remained in force, and 
 became the basis of the Roman code. 
 
 § 104. The Plebeians compelled, soon afterward, another concession. Marriages 
 
 jB. c. 44S. between Patrician and Plebeian were legalized, and the children of 
 such marriages protected in their rights. But when the Plebeians demanded a share 
 in the consulate, the Patricians declared that they would rather abolish the office 
 
 B.C. 443. entirely. This led to the creation of military Tribunes with consular 
 power. These were commanders of the army and chief magistrates, chosen by each of 
 the two classes. Occasionally the Patricians were strong enough to prevent the elec- 
 tion of Plebeian consular tribunes. And sometimes they were bold enough to elect 
 consuls. But this arrangement lasted, notwithstanding these infractions, for nearly a 
 hundred years. To mollify the Patricians two Censors were appointed, whose duty it 
 was to make out the census list, in which all Roman citizens were designated, accord- 
 ing to wealth and rank, as Senators, Knights, or Burgesses. They were also charged 
 with the building of temples, streets and bridges, and with the oversight of public 
 morals. Breaches of decenc}^ and of the public peace thej^ punished with disfranchise- 
 ment and loss of rank. 
 
 c. The Taking of Rome by the G-auls and the Licinian Lmvs. (389-366.) 
 
 § 105. By a new arrangement, the citizen soldier now received pay during a cam- 
 paign, and the troops were able therefore to stay longer in the field. As a consequence, 
 the Romans extended their territory in the South, and under Camillus conquered the 
 B. c. aoe. Etruscan city of Veii, whose inhabitants were either slain or carried 
 into captivity. This was a death blow to the power of Etruria. The haughty com- 
 mander became unpopular, through his ostentatious triumph and his unequal distribu- 
 tion of the booty. The Tribunes of the people called him to account, but rather than 
 appear before them, he went into voluntary exile, just at the moment when the city 
 most needed him. 
 
 § 106. For at this time the Gauls crossed the Apennines, and besieged the Etrus- 
 can city. Clusium. The inhabitants souglit help of the Romans, who sent ambassadors 
 
THL GAULS IN ROME. 
 
 {pp. 163.) 
 
164 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 to confer with the enemy. When these were unable to persuade the Gauls to raise the 
 siege, they took part in the fight and slew one of the Gallic chiefs. This so enraged 
 the Gauls, that they mareted at once upon Rome, and defeated the Roman army so 
 
 B. c. 3»o. Utterly at Allia, that onlj' a few fugitives escaped from the field. The 
 day of the battle was forever afterward marked black in the Roman calendar, and kept 
 as a day of penitence and prayer. Rome was abandoned by the women and children, 
 and occupied at once by the Gauls. They set fire to the empty city, murdered the 
 eighty old men who had remained behind to appease the gods by their blood, and then 
 surrounded the capitol to which the soldiers had withdrawn. Under the command (if 
 Marcus Manlius, this gar- ^ ^ ^^ ^^ ^^, ^ ^^^^^^^^ ^^j^^^ , ^ ^p,,^^ 
 I'ison resisted so stubbornly 
 that the enemy finallj^ 
 agreed to retire for a thou- 
 sand pounds of gold. 
 Their chief, Brennus, to 
 increase the sum, threw his 
 sword into one scale, and 
 a doubtful story relates 
 that Camillus, with a troop 
 of fugitive Romans, pur- 
 sued the retreating enemy 
 and took away their booty. a rojian triumph. 
 
 § 107. The Roman people were so disheartened by this invasion, that they talked 
 of removing to the abandoned city of the Veii. With difficulty, the Patricians suc- 
 ceeded in persuading them to remain. And to prevent a return to such a plan, the 
 houses in Veii were destroyed, and Rome was hastily rebuilt with narrow and crooked 
 streets and small dwelling houses. But the Patricians reclaimed their ancient priv- 
 ileges, and proceeded to execute the debtor laws with the old severity. The savior of 
 the capital, Marcus Manlius (Capitolinus), took the part of the oppressed and impover- 
 ished Plebeians. This brought upon him the hatred of his own class. They accused 
 
 B. C.3S3. the liero of aiming at kingly power, condemned him to death, hurled 
 him from the Tarpeian rock, razed his house to the ground, and stamped his memory 
 with infamy. This cruelty however aroused the Plebeians from their apath3^ Two 
 courageous and talented tribunes of the people Licinius Stolo and Lucius Sextius pro- 
 
 S.C.371. posed the following laws: Consuls should be again elected, of which 
 one should always be a Plebeian. No citizen should have on lease, more than five hun- 
 dred acres of the public land, the rest to be distributed in small portions to the Ple- 
 beians as free-hold farms. The interest of debts already paid should be deducted from 
 the capital, and the remainder should be collected in three yearly installments. 
 
 Against these proposals, the Patricians struggled mightily for ten years. But the 
 firmness of the two tribunes led to their adoption, and to the abolition of Patrician 
 
 B. c. 300. privilege. The pontifical offices, the new judicial dignity of Prsetor, 
 and some other positions were left to their exclusive conti'ol. But only for a short 
 time. Just before his death, Camillus dedicated a sanctuary, at the foot of the capitol, 
 to Concord. This was a monument of the settlement of the ancient quarrel ; and Rome 
 now entered upon a period of civic virtue and of heroic greatness. 
 
ROME. 
 II. ROME'S HEROIC AGE. 
 
 165 
 
 §108. 
 
 1. THE SAMNITE WARS AND THE FIGHTS WITH PYRRHUS. 
 
 |OVING swarms of Gauls still worried the Romans. Titus Manlius 
 and Marcus Valerius distinguished themselves in fighting these, and 
 the Romans now skilled in war, attacked the neighboring tribes. 
 The Samnites, who dwelt among the Apennines, resisted most stub- 
 bornljs and with these they were compelled to fight with little 
 interruption, for more than fifty years. The war was begun by the 
 inhabitants of Capua and the Campanian plains. Samnite free 
 
 hooters had captured the Etruscan colony of Capua, but had rapidly degenerated in 
 
 this city of pleasures. The Samnites in the mountain attacked these effeminate 
 
 Sainnites of the plain who, unable to defend themselves, turned to Rome for lielp. The 
 
 Romans refused at first, but when the Capuans acknowledged their authority, they 
 
 marched against the Samnites and defeated th'em at Cumse. And a second army of 
 B. c. 34g. the Samnites suffered such losses at the Caudine passes, that 40,000 of 
 
 their shields were collected on the battle field. 
 
 § 109. The Romans were now threatened by their former allies, the Latins. 
 
 These refused to acknowledge any longer the supremacy of Rome, and demanded 
 
 equality, and a share in the Senate, in 
 
 the consulate, and in the other offices. 
 B. c. 3-to. The Romans rejected their 
 
 demands, concluded a hasty peace and 
 
 alliance with the Samnites, and turned 
 
 their arms against the enemy nearer home. 
 
 As the hostile armies stood near Vesuvius, 
 
 the Consul, Manlius Torquatus, forbade all 
 
 single combats. His own son disobeyed, 
 
 and was condemned to death by the stern 
 
 father ; his comrades however celebrated 
 
 the memory of the young hero by a great 
 
 funeral banquet. The battle of Vesuvius 
 
 was decided in favor of the Romans, but 
 
 chiefly by the self-sacrifice of the Plebeian 
 
 Consul, Decius Mus. He had himself de- 
 dicated to death by a priest, and then clad 
 B. c. 340. in white, he rushed on 
 
 horse-back into the midst of the hostile 
 
 throng. After the battle the Latins, the 
 
 Volscians, the JEqui, and the Hernici were admitted to an alliance with the Romans. 
 
 They were allowed to rule themselves, but were required to serve in the Roman armies. 
 
 The brazen prows (rostra) of the Volscian ships, taken in this campaign, were used to 
 
 decorate the tribune of the orators in the Roman Forum. 
 
 § 110. The Samnites now grew jealous of the Romans, and boundary quarrels 
 
 SAMNiAN WARRIOR. (Vcise Ficture from 
 Parin Louvre.) 
 
166 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 B. c. 337. brought on another war. This was advantageous for the Romans, 
 until the}' recklessly marched into the Caudine passes. Here they were surrounded 
 B. c. 3'ii. by the enemy under Pontius, and compelled to pass under the j'oke. 
 But the Senate refused to ratify the compact that the Roman consuls had made with 
 Pontius, and delivered the two consuls, Veturius and Posthumius, in chains, to the 
 Samnites. The Samnites refused to receive them and even spared the hostages in 
 their hands. But they attacked Rome once more. The new Roman commanders, 
 Papirius and Fabias, did their utmost to wipe out the shame of the former defeat, and 
 were so successful that the Samnites were compelled to seek foreign help, first from 
 
 B. C.310.30S. the Etruscans, and then from the Sabelliaus. But the enei'g_y of Rome 
 increased with the number of her enemies. The Samnites were compelled to make 
 terms. But the j^eace was of short duration, for the Samnites united with the Um- 
 brians, the Gauls, and the Etruscans, to carry on a third war, and in order to be near 
 their new allies, they abandoned their own wasted territory and went to Umbi-ia. But 
 the battle of Sentinum, where the 3^ounger Decius Mus followed the examjale of his 
 B. c. 205. father, destroyed the last hope of the allies. Shortl}- afterward tlie 
 great Samnite commander, Pontius, fell into the hands of the Romans; he was led in 
 chains to the city on the Tiber, and suffered a violent death in prison. Once more 
 B.c.soo. the Samnites attacked the Romans, but in vain. Curius Dentatus in- 
 flicted upon them a. second defeat, in which the Samnite j'outh drenched the battle- 
 field with their blood. The Samnites and their allies were compelled to acknowledge 
 the supremacy of Rome, and to serve as allies in the army of their victors. The 
 Romans planted military colonies in the subjugated lands, but treated the vanquished 
 with sagacious clemency. 
 
 § 111. During the Samnite wars, the rich and cowardly Tarentines behaved 
 with great duplicity, and when a Roman ambassador offered them an advantageous 
 treaty, they rejected it with scorn. The Romans therefore, as soon as they were mas- 
 ters of the Samnites, marched against lower Italj'. The Tarentines sought help from 
 Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, who gladfy seized the opportunity, to increase his renown 
 and his conquests. He was a worthy antagonist, — a man of courage and of noble 
 bearing, although his armj^ was made up of men from every nation. Partly because 
 
 B. c. SS0.279. of his famous line of battle, and partly because of his elephants, 
 Pyrrhus was victorious in two battles ; and when he made preparations to attack 
 Rome, the Senate seemed desirous of peace. But the blind Appius Claudius had him- 
 self carried into the Senate to protest against such conduct, and persuaded them to 
 send Pyrrhtis word that no peace could be agreed upon, until the enemy left Italy ; 
 "that Rome would never make peace with a victorious foe." The wisdom and digni- 
 fied bearing of the Senate, which seemed to the ambassadors of Pyrrhtts, like "a 
 gathering of kings," the integrity and simplicity of the Roman generals, Fabricius and 
 Curius Dentatus, and the courage and the discipline of the Roman legions, excited 
 the admiration of the King, who hitherto had known only the degenerate Greek 
 world. Not long after this Pyrrhus was called, by the Syracusans, to Sicily, to defend 
 them against the Carthaginians ; but as he was preparing to take possession of the 
 beautiful island, he was compelled by the Sicilian Greeks to depart. He marched 
 once more to Tarentum, but was soon defeated so completefy by the Romans, under 
 B.c.iri. ■ Curius Dentatus, at Maleventum (ever afterward called Beneventum). 
 
ROME. 167 
 
 that he hastened to get back to Greece. Some years afterward Pyrrhus was killed in 
 battle at the city of Argos. And about the same time Tarentum was made tributary 
 to Rome, having lost her fleet and a part of her art treasures. The conquest of lower 
 Italy soon followed. The vanquished peoples were compelled to recognize the sov- 
 ereignty of Rome, either as allies or as subjects ; and the depopulated cities were col- 
 onized with Romans, to whom all others were subordinated. The city on the Tiber 
 was now in control of Italy. The renown of Rome had reached the Orient, and the 
 Eg3'ptian king, Ptolemy Philadelphus, sent a splendid embassy to the Senate, seeking 
 an alliance with the Roman people. 
 
 2. The Punic Wars. 
 
 a. The First War With Carthage {B. C. 26^-^4.1.') 
 
 § 112. Carthage, a commercial city on the north coast of Africa, had been 
 B. c. sso. founded centuries before by Phoenician wanderers, and had reached 
 great wealth and power through the enterpi'ise and the intelligence of her inhabitants. 
 The Carthaginians carried on an extensive trade with all the countries bordering on 
 the Mediterranean. They planted colonies in southern Spain and in Sicily, and grew 
 so rich that the suburbs of their city was like a garden, and decorated with numerous 
 splendid villas. But civic freedom, mental culture, and nobility of purpose, were un- 
 known to these rich traders. The administration of law and of justice was in the 
 hands of a plutocracy. Art and literature were hardly cultivated ; their religious 
 worship was stained by human sacrifices, and their falsehoods and cunning were so 
 well known, that Punic faith was a proverbial expression for treachery and strategem. 
 For a long time the Carthaginians fought with the Syracusans for the possession of 
 Sicily ; and when Dionysius, the sou of a mule driver, but a 3'oung and daring warrior, 
 B. c. -toe. made himself sole ruler of Syracuse, and established, with the help of 
 B. c. aey. a mercenary army, a despotism in the city, the Carthaginians rapidly 
 gained ground. His sou, Dionj^sius the younger, was a cruel and sensual prince, who 
 jB. c. aey. was driven from the city by the Corinthian hero, Timoleon. After 
 s. c. 34J. he had liberated Syracuse, Timoleon won the victory of Crimesus, 
 whereby a limit was set to the progress of the Carthaginians. But another bold 
 adventurer, Agathocles, originally a potter by trade, made himself tyrant of Syra- 
 cuse ; and renewed the war, which was conducted with such varying fortune, that 
 S3'racuse was besieged by the Carthaginians, and Carthage by the army of Agathocles 
 at the very same time. Agathocles, however, conquered the North coast of Africa 
 B. c. 3o«. and assumed the title of king. But his army was soon annihilated, 
 and he himself compelled to escape secretly to Syracuse, where he re-established 
 his authority by murder and cruelty. He was finally poisoned, and so excruciating 
 was the pain he suffered, that the hoary tyrant consented to be burned to death. 
 B. c. XS9. A period of chaos followed. The Campanian mercenaries (Mamer- 
 B. c. H82. tines) of the dead tyrant took possession of Messina, murdered or 
 banished the population, plundered and devastated the whole island. In their extrem- 
 B. c. 370. ity, the Syracusans chose the brave and popular Hiero for their king. 
 In alliance with the Carthaginians, Hiero attacked the Mamertines, and besieged their 
 city Messina. The Mamertines thereupon turned to Rome for help. 
 
 §113. The more honorable citizens of Rome opposed an alliance with the Mam- 
 
168 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 ertiiie robbers ; but the Senate could not resist the temptation afforded them 
 by this opportunitj' to conquer the rich and beautiful island of Sicily, although 
 they perceived that the jealous Carthaginians, who were already in jDossession of 
 the castle of Messina, would resist tlieni to the last extremity. The Roman re- 
 inforcements soon succeeded in driving the enem}' from the walls of the city, in 
 B. c. soi. forming an alliance with Hiero of Syracuse, and in depriving the 
 Carthaginians of the important city Agrigentum. The Romans thereupon proceeded 
 to build a fleet, according to the model of a wrecked Carthaginian ship. With this 
 fleet they attacked the Carthaginians, and b}' means of grappling bridges, whereby 
 the hostile shijjs could be invaded and the fight made to resemble a land fight, 
 they won their first naval battle at Mylae, near the Liparian islands. This victory 
 of the Consul, Duilius, so elated the Romans, that they determined to deinrive the 
 Carthaginians of the dominion of the Sea, and sent tlieir Consul, Regulus, with a fleet 
 and a great army, to Africa. Regulus marched victoriously to the gates of Carthage, 
 supported by the recreant cities and tribes of North Africa. The Carthaginians sued 
 for peace, but the haughty conqueror insisted upon such hard conditions, that the}' 
 
 determined upon a desper- 
 
 ate resistance. They in- 
 ci eased the number of 
 their mercenar}' troops, 
 and intrusted the conduct 
 of their defence to the 
 skilful Spartan, General 
 Xanthippus, who defeated 
 the Romans so completely 
 at the harbor city of Tunis, 
 that onl}' two thousand of 
 their army escaped. The 
 others were either killed 
 or taken captive. Among 
 the captives was the Con- 
 B. c: 25S. sul, Regulus. The recreant cities were terribly punished b}' the Cartha- 
 ginians. Enormous contributions in monej- and cattle were levied upon them, and 
 three thousand Numidian chiefs and civil officers are said to have died upon the cross. 
 § 114. This blow was followed by a series of calamities. Two Roman fleets were 
 wrecked by storm, and the Romans compelled for years to abstain from naval warfare. 
 And even on the land the}' ventured no great battles. They feared the elephants 
 which had been so decisive at Tunis, and which they themselves had not learned to 
 use. Gradually, however, they recovered their strength and courage. They made a 
 B.C. 251. successful attack from Palermo, drove back the Carthaginians and cap- 
 tured their elephants. The Carthaginians, it is said, thereupon sent Regulus to Rome 
 to negotiate an exchange of prisoners, exacting from him beforehand, an oath that he 
 would return to captivity if the negotiation failed. Regulus dissuaded the Senate from 
 the exchange, because he said it was injurious to Rome; and then, true to his oath, 
 returned to Carthage. The Carthaginians were so enraged, that they killed the mag- 
 nanimous man with cruel tortures. Victory wavered for many years. Appius Clau- 
 
 KOMAN BOARDING BRIDGE. 
 
170 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 B. c. s-t». dius, who, in spite of unfavorable auspices, entered upon a battle at 
 Drepanum, was defeated on sea and land. Finally the Carthaginian General, Ham- 
 ilcar Barcas, took possession of the citadel Eryx, from which he was able to watch all 
 the movements of the Romans. This endured as long as Drepanum was sufficiently 
 provisioned, but as soon as Rome, in consequence of patriotic enthusiasm, was pro- 
 
 REGULUS DErAIlTS INTO CAPTIVITY. 
 
 vided by wealthy citizens, and by the use of the temple treasures, with a fleet of 200 
 B. c. 241. vessels, the Romans were able to blockade the town. And the consul 
 Lutatius Catulus so completely defeated the Carthaginian navy at the ^gean islands, 
 that they consented gladly to a peace, in which they gave up Sicily and the fortresses 
 which they had so long defended, and agreed to pay an immense sum to defray the 
 expenses of the war. 
 
ROME. 
 
 171 
 
 b. The Second Cartliaginian War. (218-202.) 
 
 § 115. The Cartliaginians refused to pay tlieii- mercenaiy troops their .stipulated 
 B. c. t!4o. wages. This led to a terrible war that lasted through three .j'ears. 
 js. c. 237. Meanwhile the Romans transformed Sicily, the granary of Italy, into 
 the first Roman province. They took possession also of Corsica and Sardinia, not how- 
 ever, without severe struggles with the half barbarous inhabitants. They took away 
 the island Corcyra and a few cities along the coast, from the pirates of Illyria. Their 
 JB. c. sgG. hardest fight, however, was with the Cisalpine Gauls. These had 
 B. c. «as. come down from the Alps and from the valley of the Rhone, and had 
 fallen upon Etruria. The Romans defeated them in two bloody battles at Telamon, 
 B. c. 825. on the Etrurian coast, and at Clastidiura, on the river Po. They then 
 B.C. nnn. took possession of the fertile tracts of land on both sides of the Po, 
 and united them with Rome by two great highways, known as the Via Fiaminia and 
 the Via ^Emilia. Cisaljiine Gaul from this time was governed as a Roman province. 
 § 116. The Carthaginians, meanwhile, had been making conquests in South Spain. 
 At first under the brave Hamilcar Barcas, and, after his 
 death in battle, under the sagacious Hasdrubal. They built 
 New Carthage, and thereby awakened the fear and the 
 jealousy of the Romans. Hasdrubal was therefore compelled 
 to sign a treaty, in which he recognized the Ebro as a 
 boundary beyond which Carthage must not extend her 
 conquests. The Romans at the same time formed an 
 '^\ alliance with the rich and powerful trading city of Sagun- 
 tum, which is held to have been a Greek colony. Hasdrubal 
 was «oon murdered. He was succeeded by Hannibal, the 
 son of Hamilcar, then in his twenty-fifth year. Hannibal 
 combined the sagacity of his predecessor with the boldness 
 and the genius of his father, and, as a boy, had sworn on 
 the household altar eternal hatred to the Romans. He 
 began his career by a few successful' battles with the Spanish tribes, and then 
 B. c. 31.9. starting a quarrel about boundaries, he attacked Rome's ally Sagun- 
 tum. He was warned, in vain, by Roman ambassadoi-s, to abandon the siege. 
 He referred them to the Senate of Carthage, but meanwhile, after eight months 
 labor, compelled the city to surrender. To speak more truly, he entered the 
 city, which the iidmbitants had transformed into a burning ruin. For when the last 
 hope of saving the city liad departed, they gathered their possessions together 
 in the market place, set them on fire and then plunged into the flames, except a 
 few who perished by the sword of the enemy, or under the embers of their burning 
 houses. The Roman embass)- in Carthage thereupon demanded the surrender of ' 
 Hannibal. The senate hesitated and vacillated. Quii]tus Fabius, saying that 
 he carried in his bosom peace and war, bade them choose. They demanded war 
 with a loud voice. Opening the folds of his toga the Roman exclaimed " take then 
 war I " Thus began the famous war of Hannibal, a mighty war of races, which was to 
 determine whether the Greek-Roman culture of the west, or the Phcenician-Semitic 
 culture of the east, should sha})e the development of mankind. 
 
 § 117. In the spring of the year 218 B. C. Hannibal crossed the Ebro, subdued the 
 
 H.VNXIBAL. 
 
172 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 tribes of that vicinity, and then, with an army of 90,000 foot soldiers, 12,000 horsemen 
 and thirt^r-seven elepliants, crossed the Pyrenees. At the same time his brother, 
 Hasdrubal, with a mixed army and a considerable fleet, held Spain in his control ; 
 Hannibal marched through South Gaul, conquered a passage across the Rhone, and 
 B. c. SIS. began the immortal passage of the Alps. (Probably by the Little St. 
 Bernard.) The soldiers, as they ascended, fought continually with the wild inhabitants 
 and with the snow and ice. They forced their way across the walls of rock, and along 
 the edges of terrible ravines, without shelter and without rest. The half of the army 
 and all the cattle perished on the way. But his losses were soon made up when Han- 
 nibal, after fourteen days, arrived in upper ItalJ^ The consul, Cornelius Scipio, was 
 
 QUINTUS FABIUS DECLARES WAR. 
 
 defeated and severely wounded in a cavalry fight on the Tieinus river. His colleague, 
 the heedless Sempronius, in spite of the wonderful bravery of his tired, hungry 
 soldiers, was defeated utterly in the battle at Trebia. And this decided the Gallic 
 tribes, on both sides of the Po, to attach themselves to Hannibal. After a short rest in 
 Liguria, he began the difficult march across the Apennines. On this march he lost one 
 B. c. nit. of his eyes by inflammation. He now devastated Etruria, and at Lake 
 Trasimene he fought the Consul Flaminius. The latter by his rashness brought upon 
 himself a complete defeat, in which he perished, and his warriors were either slain or 
 drowned in tlie lake. The fight was so hotly contested that an earthquake, wliich tore 
 up the ground beneath the combatants, remained unnoticed. The way to Rome now 
 
ROME. 173 
 
 stood open to tlie victor, but tlie defiiint courage of the Latin and Italian population of 
 middle Italy, and the courageous bearing of the senate, made the Carthaginian general 
 hesitate to press forward, with his exhausted troops, into the heart of the enemy's 
 country. Driven back from the walls of Spoletium, he concluded to march along the 
 
 HAMNTBAL CROSSING THE ALPS. 
 
 east coast of the Mediterranean toward Apulia, and to detach from Rome the people of 
 lower Italy. 
 
 § 118. Hannibal was now confronted b}' a man whose prudence and sagacious 
 strategy caused him many difficulties. This was the Dictator, Fabius Maximus, the 
 dilatory (cuncator). Fabius avoided an open battle, but pursued the enemy step by 
 
174 
 
 THE ANCIEXT WORLD. 
 
 step, taking advantage of every unfavorable position. In Campania, where he 
 occupied the mountain heights, he forced Hannibal into a position so dangerous, that 
 the Cartliaginian escaped only by a strategy-. He tied burning branches to the horns 
 of oxen and, bj- driving them through the mountains, was able to deceive the Roman 
 general. Nevertheless the Roman people murmured at the dilator}- conduct of the 
 war, and by their senseless urging, induced the Consul Tarentius Varro to venture a 
 battle against the judgment of his colleague, JEmilius Paullus. This resulted in the 
 B. c. 9ie. terrible defeat of the Romans at CannEe, where the number of the slain 
 was so great, that Hannibal is said to have collected three bushels of gold rings taken 
 from the arms of the dead knights. These he sent to Carthage. Among the captured, 
 
 was the noble ^Emi- 
 lius Paullus. Tliis 
 battle-day of Cannse, 
 like that of Allia, was 
 marked black in the 
 Roman calendar, and 
 observed as a da}' of 
 penance and prayer. 
 The invincible senate 
 preserved, in the 
 midst of disaster, its 
 courage and comjios- 
 ure. All who had 
 fled at Cannae were 
 declared dishonored, 
 and expelled from the 
 army, and the return- 
 ing consul was 
 thanked by the sen- 
 ate, because he had 
 
 not despaired of the salvation of the republic. Parties were reconciled, and vied 
 with each other in patriotic devotion. 
 
 § 119. Hannibal deemed it unwise to march at once against Rome with his weak- 
 ened army, so he went into winter quarters in the rich and luxurious city of Capua. 
 But his rough warriors were so weakened by the pleasures of the city, that they lost 
 all zest for fight. The Romans, on the contrary, were uncommonly active, preparing to 
 put fresh troops in the field in the early spring. Hannibal i-eceived no reinforcements 
 from Carthage. Two successful engagements filled the Romans with courage, and 
 made it possible for them to chastise the cities in Lower Italy and Sicily, which had 
 gone over to Hannibal after the battle of Cannae. JMarcellus sailed across to Sicily and 
 besieged Syracuse, but this was so bravely and successfully defended by the people, with 
 the help of the ingenious mathematician and scientist Archimedes, that ISIarcellus was 
 B. c. sn. able to conquer the city only after three years of tremendous effort. Ter- 
 s. c. st9. rible, however, was the revenge of the Romans. The soldiers murdered 
 and plundered. Archimedes was clubbed to death. The works of art were carried to 
 Rome, and the glory of Syracuse was destroyed forever. Capua suffered a like fate. 
 
 BATTLE OF CANN^. 
 
176 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 Two Roman legions surrounded the city. The inhabitants besought Hannibal for 
 help. The latter marched to the gates of Rome, hoping that the Romans would 
 abandon the siege in order to save their capital. The excitement in Rome was almost 
 wild, when the flames of the neighboring cities announced the coming of the enemy, 
 and the terrible phrase " Hannibal is at the gates," never disappeared from the mem- 
 ory of the people. Nevertheless, only a part of the troops left Capua for Rome. Han- 
 nibal was compelled to retreat, and the starving Capua compelled to surrender. Twenty- 
 B. c. 211. eight Capuan senators died by their own hands ; fifty-three were be- 
 headed ; the citizens were reduced to slavery, and their property divided among for- 
 eign settlers. The treasures of Capua were carried to Rome, all rights were abolished, 
 B. c. ftoa. and Roman prefects ruled the city. Two years later, Tarentum came 
 again into the power of the Romans. Fabius Maximus, "the shield of Rome," led the 
 inhabitants into slavery and took possession of their treasure, but did not disturb the 
 statues of " the angry gods." Terror soon led the recreant states back to Rome, and 
 Hannibal's situation without money, without reinforcements, and without provisions, 
 B. C.20S. became, with every day, more critical. His victory at Venusia, where 
 Marcellus, " the sword of Rome," fell into an ambuscade, was the last successful deed 
 of the great Carthaginian. 
 
 120. Hannibal's only remaining hope was Spain, now that he was abandoned 
 by his ungrateful country. His brother, Hasdrubal, was 
 there. He had successfully resisted the Romans for a 
 long time, until confronted by the young and able Corne- 
 lius Scipio, who so pressed him, that he could no longer 
 remain, and therefore determined to unite with his 
 brother, who had called him to Italy. Crossing the Alps, 
 B. c. 20S. as Hannibal had done, he arrived in upper 
 Italy, and, moving along the coast of the Adriatic Sea, 
 he pushed forward to the camp of his brother, who was 
 confronted in lower Italy by the Consul, Claudius Nero. 
 The consul now resolved upon a daring plan. Unper- 
 ceived, he slipped away to Umbria, formed a union 
 B.C.20S. with his colleague, Livius Salinator, at- 
 tacked and destroyed the array of Hasdrubal, near the 
 river Metaurus, before Hannibal received news of his 
 brother's arrival, the Romans having captured all the 
 Carthaginian messengers. Hasdrubal's blood}^ head, 
 
 , r ■ xwhich the returning consul hurled into the Carthaginian 
 
 CORNELIUS sciPio. (Ajricanus.) , n ^ ^- ^^ j. .t t ^ i i 
 
 camp, was the first notice that the distressed general 
 
 received of his impending fate. 
 
 § 121. But Hannibal in adversity revealed the true greatness of his military 
 genius. Without aid from abroad, meanly supported by his native city, abandoned by 
 his Italian allies, except the few cities which, like Crotona, were afraid of Punic gar- 
 risons, or of Roman vengeance, he maintained himself nevertheless against a superior 
 foe, with the remnant of his army, for several years. Meanwhile Cornelius Scipio con- 
 quered Gades, the last bulwark of the Cartliaginians, and, having completed the con- 
 quest of Spain, returned victorious and laden with booty, to be rewarded with the 
 
178 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 Roman consulate by his grateful fellow-citizens. But he soon grew tired of the cap- 
 ital where he had many powerful opponents, and where the constitution and the laws 
 hampered his imperious will. Moreover, his soul thirsted for activity, and the applause 
 of the people spurred him on to new enterprises. The cautious Senate refused to 
 sanction his plan of a campaign in Africa, but appointed him governor of Sicily. 
 Scipio opened a recruiting camp in Syracuse. The Roman warriors, who had fled from 
 Cannse, and many other volunteers, hastened to his standard, and many cities made 
 contributions, in order to provide his army with all the requisites for a great expedi- 
 tion. Scipio then set sail across the Mediterranean, and with the help of the Numid- 
 ian king, Masinissa, the Romans surprised the camp of the Numidians and Cartha- 
 
 ANCIENT TJTICA. 
 
 JB. c. 304. ginians, not far from Utica, set fire to their tents of straw and wooden 
 huts, and defeated the united enemy with great loss. Masinissa had formerly fought 
 against Scipio, but changed sides when his neighbor, Syphax, of West Nnmidia, a 
 friend of Carthage, robbed him of his kingdom and of his beautiful bride, Sophonisbe, 
 the daughter of Hasdrubal, and compelled him to flee to the desert. Sj'phax fell into 
 the hands of Scipio in a second battle, and was carried prisoner to Rome, where he 
 soon perished miserably. His stolen wife, Sophonisbe, hoped to escape the vengeance 
 of the Romans by a speedy marriage with Masinissa, but, when threatened with 
 captivity, she preferred the cup of poison which was given her by Masinissa. After 
 such blows as these, Carthage had but one remaining hope, Hannibal and his Italian 
 
ROME. 
 
 179 
 
 army. With mutterings and tears, the hero abandoned the land of his glory, in obedi- 
 ence to the call of his country. He sought in vain, in a personal interview with Scipio, 
 to make a treat}' of peace. Scipio refused and the battle of Zama followed, which, in 
 B. c. S03. spite of the bravery of the veteran soldiers and the skilful disposition 
 of the Carthaginian general, ended in his defeat. Hannibal now advised peace on anj' 
 terms. The Carthaginians were compelled to promise to begin no war without the 
 consent of the Romans, to give up all claim to Spain, to suri-ender their war ships, and 
 to pay a large J'carly tribute. After burning the Carthaginian fleet, and conferring 
 the kingdom Nuraidia upon his friend Masinissa, Scipio (henceforth Scipio Africanus) 
 returned to Rome, where a splendid triumphal procession awaited him in the decorated 
 streets. Hannibal, on the contrary, was compelled to abandon his native country, and 
 as a persecuted fugitive, carried his hatred for Rome to the court of the Assyrian king 
 Antiochus. 
 
 Macedonia Conquered Corinth and Carthage Destroyed. (B. C. 146.) 
 
 §122. Macedonia 
 and a part of Greece 
 was at this time gov- 
 erned by King Philip 
 111., a young man of 
 intelligence and wit, 
 and attractive man- 
 ners, but faithless, 
 sensual, and wicked. 
 He had formed an 
 alliance with Hanni- 
 bal, and made war 
 upon the Romans and 
 their allies in Greece 
 and Asia Minor. 
 Consequently, after 
 the Punic wars, the 
 Romans turned their 
 arms against him. 
 They sent Quintius 
 Flaminius, a man 
 who delighted in Greek art and literature into Greece, to stir up the Hellenic 
 B. c. 107. cities to rebellion. The Macedonians were attacked and defeated at 
 Dog's Head (Kynoskephala), a Thessalian range of hills not far from Pharsalus. 
 Philip was compelled, by this defeat, to acknowledge the independence of Greece, to 
 surrender his fleet and a large sum of money, to give up all his foreign possessions,' 
 and the right of waging war. In order to flatter the vanity of the Greeks, Flaminius 
 announced, in the most ostentatious manner at the Isthmian games, the liberation of 
 n.c.too. Greece from Macedonian rule. But the Romans soon souglit to exer- 
 cise dominion over the Hellenic states. The warlike ^tolians therefore placed them- 
 selves at the head of several Greek tribes, as the Achseans had formerly done, and 
 
 BATTLE OF ZAMA. 
 
180 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 appealed to the Syrian king, Antiochus III. Antiochus, at whose court Hannibal was 
 a truest, followed their call; but he wasted his time in banquets and debauchery, in- 
 sulted the Macedonian king, his natural ally, instead of attacking the Romans at once 
 and with united energ}^. The Romans marched swiftly into Thessaly, stormed Ther- 
 mopylae, and compelled the Assyrian king to retreat to Asia. He was followed thither 
 jB. c. too. by a Roman army under Cornelius Scipio, the brother of Africanus. 
 At Magnesia a sanguinary battle was fought, in which Antiochus was utterly defeated. 
 He was compelled to purchase peace by ceding to Rome all his European possessions, 
 and all the lands of Western Asia this side of the Taurus. In addition he paid an 
 
 N.^X^«- 
 
 • * i. •. 
 
 ;-j ► 
 
 :/• 
 
 
 T^ 
 
 ft, 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 CAPTURE OF THE CARTHAGINIAN FLEET BY THE ROMANS. 
 
 enormous sum of money. The JEtolians were also subjugated and punished with 
 heavy fines. Hannibal, to escape the Romans, fled to King Prusias of Bithynia. 
 B. c. 1S3. When the latter could no longer protect him, he took poison to escape 
 his enemy. He had faithfully kept the oath of his boyhood in a struggle of fifty 
 years. His great antagonist, Scipio, died about the same time on his estate in Lower 
 Italy far from Rome, from which his enemies had driven him ; and to fill up the 
 measure of this fateful year, Philopoemen also was compelled to drink the poi- 
 soned cup. 
 
 § 123. Perseus, the wicked son of Philip III., persuaded his suspicious father to 
 
ROME. 
 
 181 
 
 B.c.tsi. murder his noble son Demetrius, who was well disposed to the Roman 
 people. Remorse soon carried the unhappy father to his grave. And as soon as 
 
 jB. c. 179. Perseus ascended the throne, he began a new war which led to his 
 overthrow. His immense riches made it possible for him to have made great prepara- 
 tions, but his avarice and stubborn conceit made him an easy prey to the skillful and 
 
 B.c.ies. experienced Roman general, ^milius Paulus. Perseus was d.efeated 
 
 TITUS Q. FLA.MINIUS PllUCLAIMINU LIBERTY TO THE GREEKS. (H. Vogel.) 
 
 at the battle of Pydna, and fled with his adherents to the island of Samo-Thrace, but 
 they were compelled to surrender themselves unconditionally to Octavius, the com- 
 mander of the Roman fleet. And the king with his treasures, his captive children 
 and friends, was led in triumph through the streets of the city of the world. To all 
 his pleadings the Romans answered, " Free yourself from shame," but he had not the 
 courage to take his own life. He died a captive at Alva. Macedonia was divided 
 into four districts, which were granted republican government. A thousand noble 
 
182 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 B. c. 1-to. Achseans ('anions; them the great historian Polybius) were carried as 
 hostages to Rome. 
 Twentj' years later a 
 pretended son of 
 Perseus (false Philip 
 as he was called) 
 raised the standard 
 of rebellion against 
 Rome. This gave the 
 Romans the wished- 
 for opportunity to 
 convert Macedonia 
 B. c. i^s. into a 
 Roman province. 
 Metellus soon over- 
 came the pretender, 
 but he had hardly 
 left the conquered 
 land, when the 
 Acheean league took 
 arms, hoping to break 
 the 3^oke of Roman 
 bondage. Metellus 
 marched to meet 
 them and had defeat- 
 ed them in two bat- 
 tles, when he was suc- 
 B. c. ne. ceeded 
 by Mummius, a rough 
 and uncultivated war- 
 rior, hj whom the 
 splendid citj of 
 Corinth was stormed 
 and burned to the 
 ground- The Corin- 
 thians were either 
 slain or sold into 
 captivity; the works 
 of art destro3^ed, sold, 
 or carried off to 
 Rome ; Greece con- 
 verted into a Roman 
 province, and, under 
 the name of Achaia, 
 made subject to the 
 governor of Macedonia. 
 
 A phantom of tlieir former freedom and self-government 
 
ROME. 
 
 183 
 
 COIN OP PERSEUb 
 
 was conceded to the Greek cities, but only a phantom. Roman oppression and 
 Roman taxation soon destroyed the prosperity of the once flourishing cities, and 
 
 quenched the love and libertj^ and the 
 patriotism of former centuries. The Spar- 
 tans became mercenary soldiers, the Athe- 
 nians wandered about as artists and scholars, 
 actors and dancers, and poets. The Romans 
 patronized them and despised them. 
 
 § 12-±. Carthage meanwhile returned 
 to her former prosperity. The jealousy of 
 Rome revived, and Cato concluded his 
 famous speeches invariably with the declaration "Carthago delendaest" "Carthage 
 must be destroyed." Trusting to Roman jirot( c timi. tlie Kumidi'in kino- JNInslnissa 
 enlarged his territory 
 at the expense of 
 Carthage, provoking 
 boundary quarrels 
 and invasions. Rome 
 declared these inva- 
 sions a breach of the 
 treatjs and declared 
 war. The Carthagi- 
 nians pleaded for 
 mercy, and delivered 
 B. c. 140. to the 
 Romans three hun- 
 dred hostages, their 
 arms and their ships. 
 Nevertheless the 
 sentence was pro- 
 nounced, " Carthage 
 must be torn down." 
 The citizens were 
 permitted to build a 
 new town ten miles 
 distant from the sea, 
 but they determined 
 rather to be buried 
 under the walls of 
 their houses, than to 
 abandon their ancient 
 and beloved home on 
 the sea. A daring 
 courage, a patriotic 
 
 enthusiasm seized all ranks and ages. The city became a camp ; temples were con- 
 verted into forges and armories. Even the veteran legions of Rome were powerless in 
 
 BATTLE OP PYDNA. 
 
184 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 the presence of this enthusiasm. Frequently defeated, their condition was extremely 
 critical, when the younger Scipio, the talented son of ^milius Paulus, and the 
 adopted son of Scipio, became consul and dictator. He finally succeeded in con- 
 B.c.i*e. quering the starved and pest-stricken city. But only after a des- 
 perate resistance, and six days of murderous conflict in the streets. The rage of the 
 embittered combatants and a terrible conflagration destroyed the majority of the pop- 
 ulation. A desperate band of Roman deserters, who with the general, Hasdrubal, and 
 his wife and children, defended the temple of " The god of rescue," despairing of 
 their lives, set the building on fire, expecting all to perish in the flames. But 
 Hasdrubal did not share the heroic feeling of his wife ; he escaped and sought mercy 
 from the Romans. Fifty thousand inhabitants escaped the sword, but they were sold 
 into slaver}-, or doomed to long imprisonment by the victorious Scipio, henceforth 
 known as the younger Africanus. " Let Carthage be leveled to the ground," was 
 the decree of the Roman senate. " Let the barren 
 site be torn up by the plow, and the soil be 
 cursed forever." For seventeen days the fire 
 raged, and the proud mistress of the Mediterra- 
 nean became a pile of ashes. " Where the indus- 
 trious Phoenicians had wrought and traded for 
 
 five centuries, Roman slaves now pastured tlie ^^^jj, q^ alexandek balas. 
 
 herds of their absent masters." The subject 
 territory was henceforth known as the Roman pi-ovince, Africa. 
 
 d. Roman Culture and 3Ianners. 
 
 § 125. The acquaintance of the Romans with Greece wrought great changes in 
 Roman culture, Roman morals, and Roman habits of life. The works of Grecian art 
 and literature, taken from the plundered cities, produced a taste for culture, and 
 awakened new feelings and new ideas. A powerful part3% at the head of M'hich were 
 the Scipios, INLarcellus, Flaminius, and others, favored Hellenic philosophy, poetry 
 and art, patronized Greek scholars, poets and philosophers, and sought to bring to 
 Rome not only the art treasures, but the mind and the language of the conquered 
 people. Roman poets appeared who followed Grecian models. Plautus and Terence 
 viautus, B. c. ts4. wrote comedies, and the latter was i^atronized b}' the younger Scipio 
 and his friend Lselius. Twenty comedies of Plautus and six of Terence have been 
 Terence, JB. e. 159. prcscrvcd, Mid havc been frequently imitated by modern dramatists. 
 The Romans, however, were practical people ; their thoughts were directed to the art 
 of Avar, to the administration of the state, and to jurisprudence. The common people 
 had more pleasure in parades, in gladiatorial figlits, and fights with wild beasts, than in 
 the productions of art or the gifts of the Muses. But the richer classes introduced 
 into their homes the elegance and refinement of Greek life, clothed themselves in fine 
 raiment and gave luxurious banquets. They adopted too the social politeness of the 
 Oriental, his sensual pleasure, his lust of the e3'e and lust of the mind. As a conse- 
 quence the ancient morals, discipline, simplicity, moderation, and fortitude began to 
 disappear. This led M. Porcius Cato to form an opposition party, in order to resist 
 these innovations. As censor, he proceeded with the utmost severity to put down 
 Greek philosophers, Greek orators, Greek festivals, Greek religious usages and every 
 
ROME. 
 
 185 
 
 kind of luxury and sensual splendor. Cato also composed writings upon agriculture 
 the basis of Rome's ancient greatness, and upon the old Italian races, whose simplicity 
 and moral purity he contrasted with the degenerate manners of his own time. Yet 
 
 METELLfS IN GREECE. 
 
 Cato's own example, for he himself learned Greek in his old age, shows that strict ad- 
 herence to the ancient and traditional, must succumb to the progressive tendency of a 
 new epoch. 
 
186 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 III. ROME'S DEGENERACY AND THE PARTY STRUGGLES OF 
 THE REPUBLIC. 
 
 § 126. 1. NUMANTIA, TIBEKIUS, AND CAIUS GKACCHTJS. 
 
 HE Roman dominion was increasing, but Roman virtne, Roman pa- 
 triotism, the sources of their greatness, were as rapidly decreasing- 
 The rich and the noble 
 
 "f^^^^^^ll 
 
 ^^ 
 
 mm. 
 
 
 
 W^^i^S 
 
 
 ROMAN LADY AND SLAVE. 
 
 formed a new aristocracy, 
 which, like the earlier 
 Patrician, appropriated to 
 itself all dignities and 
 
 oflfices. To increase their inherited glory by 
 
 victories and triumphal processions, they sought 
 
 continually for new wars, in which they could 
 
 be conspicuous. And in order not to diminish 
 
 the riches upon which the power of the family 
 
 was based, and yet at the same time to enjo}' 
 
 every pleasure and delight, the provinces were 
 
 plundered and their clients were oppressed. 
 
 The Optimates, the men of the new nobility, 
 
 were made pro-consuls and proprEetors in the 
 
 conquered lands. Surrounded by a mob of 
 
 secretaries and officials, they looked far more 
 
 to their own advantage, than to the happiness 
 
 of the people of the provinces. The richer 
 
 members of the order of Knights farmed out the taxes, paying into the state treasury 
 
 a definite sum, and 
 then, b}' means of tax- 
 gatherers, doubling 
 and tripling this 
 amount. Hungry 
 tradesmen and 
 monej'-lenders took 
 the little that was left 
 by the officials and 
 the tax-gatherers, so 
 that a generation was 
 long enough to de- 
 stroy the prosperity 
 of a Roman pro- 
 vince. A law existed, 
 it is true, which gave 
 the outraged people 
 the right to accuse 
 their oppressors at 
 
 DEAD GLADIATOR HAULED TO THE SPOLIARIUM. (A. Wagner.) 
 
ROME. 
 
 187 
 
 the close of an administration and to require a restoration of their property. But 
 the judges all belonged to the aristocracy or the plutocracy. Accordingly the guilty 
 went scot-free, or were condemned to pay a small penalty or banished from Rome for a 
 brief period. 
 
 Occasionally a pro- 
 vince sought to shake off 
 the yoke, and to conquer 
 freedom in battle. The 
 first example of such an 
 uprising was given by the 
 inhabitants of Spain, the 
 Lusitanians, who dwelt in 
 what is now Portugal,, 
 under their brave leader 
 Viriathus, and the heroic 
 Spanish race who dwelt in 
 and around Numantia. 
 Viriathus was murdered 
 by a band of faithless con- 
 spirators, but the Numan- 
 tians defied the Romans 
 for five years, and com- 
 B. c. i3». pelled from 
 the Roman Consul, whom 
 they surrounded in the 
 mountains, the recognition 
 of their independence. 
 But the Senate refused to 
 confirm this agreement. 
 The Consul, stripped of his 
 decorations and with his 
 hands tied behind his back, 
 was delivered to the 
 enemy, and the war re- 
 sumed. But the brave 
 mountaineers were not yet 
 conquered. Tlie younger 
 Scipio now took the field, 
 and having restored the 
 ancient discipline, was 
 able, with his army, to 
 compel the surrender of 
 B. c. 133. Numantia. The intrepid citizens died by their own hand, rather than 
 endure the taunts of the victors. Scipio (iienceforth Numantinus) destroyed the 
 emi)ty city, whose ruins still look down upon posterity, the glorious monument of a 
 noble struggle for independence. 
 
 THE TAKING OF CARTHAGE. 
 
188 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 § 127. The new nobility not only filled all the offices, excluding all newcomers 
 from positions of high honor, but possessed all the public land, and r^ipidly absorbed 
 the small freeholds by purchase, usury, 
 intrigue, and even ■violence. This brought 
 about a great inequality of fortune. The 
 free-hold farmers, the strength of ancientl 
 Rome, disappeared entirely, while the 
 Aristocrats accumulated great estates. 
 which were cultivated by hordes of slaves. 
 These were known as latifundia. Throngs 
 of beggars, composed of men and women, 
 hunted from house and barn by cruel land- 
 ■ lords, wandered through Italj% the picture 
 of human misery. Tiberias Gracchus, son 
 B. c. 133. of Cornelia, and grandson 
 of the great Scipio Africanus, now rose up 
 as the jDrotector of oppressed povert3\ 
 He proposed to renew the Licinian laws 
 so that no one should possess more than 
 500 acres (jugera) of the public land. 
 The rest to be distributed in small por- 
 tions among the needy families. He was 
 met with a storm of hatred. The Aristo- 
 crats found another tribune of the people 
 to veto the proposal of the tribune Tiberius, 
 And as, by Roman law, the tribunes 
 must be unanimous, the proposal was de- 
 feated. But Tiberius Gracchus urged the 
 people to depose his colleague, and thereby 
 violated the sanctity of the office. His 
 enemies accused him of intending revolu- 
 tion ; he lost gradually the favor of the people, and at an election of tribunes, he, 
 with 300 of bis adherents was slain by the Optimates and their supporters. The peo- 
 ple who had abandoned him, honored his memory by 
 the erection of his statue. 
 
 § 128. Gains Gracchus, the younger brother, was 
 as brave, as determined, and far more talented. He 
 n. c. 123. renewed the proposal of Tiberius, and 
 with it proposed a distribution of grain at fixed prices, 
 to the poorer citizens. His extraordinary eloquence 
 and his humane efforts, created for him a powerful fol- 
 lowing among the people, whose pressing misery he 
 sought to relieve by building highways, by public 
 works, and by the founding of colonies on the African 
 coast. As he marched through city and land, no one 
 ventured to oppose him, especially as the great Scipio 
 
 ROMAN DANCING WOJIAN. 
 
 TRIUMPHAL QUADRIGA. 
 
 1 
 
ROMli:. 
 
 189 
 
 Africanus ^milianus had been found one morning murdered in his bed. But when 
 the tribune of the people, urged by his violent friend, Fulvius Flaccus, proposed to 
 give the right of Roman citizenship to the allies, in order to strengthen his following 
 and his power, the Aristocrats, in their terror, determined to destroy him. As in the 
 case of his brother, a tribune was won over, Livius Drusus 
 1 vetoed his proposals, and made the people believe that this 
 'increase of Roman citizens was a blow directed at them- 
 selves. He promised them also many advantages, if they 
 COIN OF TRYPHON. (Sij7^ia.) would support him in his contest with Gracchus. A terrible 
 fight took place between the two parties, the Aristocrats, 
 with the consul Opimius at their head, and the adherents of Gracchus and of Fulvius. 
 Fulvius and 300 of his companions were slain, and their corpses thrown into the Tiber ; 
 Gracchus escaped to a grove beyond the river, and perished at the hands of a faithful 
 slave, who plunged, as his master commanded, a sword into his breast. The laws and 
 
 CORNELIA AND THE GKACCHI. { H. Voijel.) 
 
 B. c. 121. ordinances of Gracchus were abolished ; his party friends punished 
 with death, imprisonment, and exile. The Aristocrats were once more the rulers of the 
 republic. They declared the memory of the Gracchi infamous. But the people paid 
 the noble brothers an increasing tribute of reverence. 
 
 2. The Times of Maeius and Cylla. 
 
 § 129. The Jugurthine Wak. — The Aristocrats disgraced their rule by greed 
 
190 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 KOMAN CHAIR OF STATE. 
 
 and bribery, by the defiance of every feeling of justice and of honor. Jugurtha the cun- 
 ning, skillful, and ambitious grandson of Masinissa of Numidia, took advantage of this 
 moral degeneracy and corruption in Rome, and killed two sons of his uncle, who had 
 
 been made joint rulers with 
 him. He took possession of 
 their states, the sovereignty 
 of which the Romans had 
 guaranteed them, and by 
 bribing influential Senators, 
 he was able to remain in pos- 
 session of his plunder, and 
 to heap crime upon crime. 
 Finally the anger of the peo- 
 ple compelled the Senate to 
 send an army to Africa ; but 
 the Numidian king, by brib- 
 er}"^ and corruption, produced 
 such disorder in the army, 
 that they were beaten in the 
 first encounter and compelled 
 to pass under the yoke. This 
 disgrace so embittered the Romans, that the Senate was compelled to take measures for 
 B.C109. the punishment of the insolent king. Metellus was sent with fresh 
 -troops to Africa. He restored discipline to the army, and victory to the Roman 
 standards. But the people were so embittered against the aristocracy, that they were 
 determined, at every cost, to drive them from control. To this end they needed a bold 
 leader from their own circle, and they found one in the ambitious Cains Marius, a man 
 of ignoble birth, but brave, enterprising, endowed with great military ability, and 
 filled with hatred for the rich and the aristocratic. The rough warrior despised all 
 culture and refinement. And, smarting from an insult which he had received from the 
 haughty Metellus, was eager for revenge. He offered himself as consul, was elected 
 JB. c. 107. by the popular party, succeeded in having Metellus pushed aside, and 
 himself entrusted with the conduct and completion of the Jugurthian war. The 
 energetic Marius and his severely disciplined army, soon proved too strong for 
 Jugurtha, with all his cunning and expedients. He was conquered, and driven to take 
 refuge with Bocchus, king of Mauritania. But this faithless and vacillating prince 
 IS. c. xost. delivered him to Cornelius Sylla, who was next in rank to Marius. 
 The " Son of the desert " was carried in triumph to Rome, imprisoned in an under- 
 ground cell of the capital, and starved to death in his " Chilly bathroom," as he called 
 his dungeon, upon entering it. 
 
 § 130. The Cimbrians and Teutonians. The African war was not yet ended, 
 when the Cimbrians and Teutonians appeared on the Roman frontiers. These northern 
 races were of gigantic size and strength, and were marching forward with their women, 
 children, and property, to conquer for themselves new homes. They were clad in skins 
 of beasts and in iron armour, and carried enormous shields, long swords and heavy 
 B. c. 113. clubs. They first attacked the Romans in Karinthia. The latter had 
 
 A 
 
ROME. 
 
 191 
 
 expected to lead them into an ambuscade, but Avere defeated in a bloody battle, after 
 which the barbarians marched through Gaul, plundering and ravaging. Within four 
 years, they annihilated five consular armies in the valley of the Rhone and on the 
 shores of Lake Geneva. At this juncture, Marius, whom the Romans had re-elected 
 B. c. 105-100. repeatedl}^ to the consulate, contrary to the law, apjaearedas the savior 
 of the republic. His army, recruited from all classes and tribes of Italy was proof 
 against fatigue of every kind. Marius exercised the strictest discipline, compelled his 
 soldiers to endure all manner of hardships, and to perform every kind of labor. The 
 Teutons returning from an expedition into Spain, and marching toward Upper Italy, en- 
 countered Marius at Aquae Sextise, and were 
 defeated with terrible slaughter. The Cim- 
 
 jB. c. los. brians, who had meanwhile 
 broken through the Tj^rol, and the valley of the 
 Etsch, into upper Italy, abandoned themselves 
 to the pleasures offered them by that rich coun- 
 try ; and were suddenly overwhelmed bj' Marius 
 and his colleague Lutatius Catulus, near Ver- 
 cellae. The rough courage of these Germans, 
 who slaughtered themselves and their children, 
 
 B. c. toi. rather than enter into slavery, 
 made the Romans tremble. Small remnants of 
 the Cimbrians sought shelter in the Venetian 
 Alps, and in the mountains of Tyrol, where 
 their posterity remain to this very day. The 
 battle of Vercellse gave new strength to party 
 quarrels, as the .Democrat, Marius, demanded ■ 
 for himself the glor}* of the day, wliich, in the 
 opinion of the Aristocrats, belonged to Catulus. 
 
 § 131. The Wak Against the Allies. 
 
 B. c. loo. and the hoiDe of the popular party, was rewarded with a sixth consulate. 
 The Aristocrats now gathered about Cornelius Sylla, an ambitious statesman of military 
 genius, who united in himself the cultui-e of the Aristocrat and the vices of the people. 
 His was a strong mind in a strong body. Under his leadership, the Aristocrats made 
 rapid progress in opposition to the Democratic party. The illegal conduct of Satur- 
 ninus, the tribune of the people, who, secretly, supported by Marius, distributed corn 
 to the poor, and lands in Gaul and North Africa to the soldiers of Marius, was the 
 prelude of a terrible party-struggle, which became more threatening with every day. 
 The exile of the haughty but blameless Metellus, who refused to execute the decree of 
 the people, was intended to deter the senators from all opposition. By deeds of mur- 
 der and outrage, Saturninus prolonged his period of ofSce, and obtained for his com- 
 panion, the infamous Glaucia, the consular dignity. Marius now grew ashamed of his 
 allies and abandoned them. This gave the Optimates the courage to oppose their 
 antagonists. The lawless conduct of the factions now destroyed all public order, and 
 the popular excitement broke out in insurrection and street-conflicts. The Democrats 
 
 B. c. »■». were beaten ; their leaders, with many of their adherents, were murdered 
 by the aristocratic youths, who tore the tiles from the roof of the capitol to hurl upon 
 
 INHABITANT UF GERMANY AT THE BEGIN- 
 NING OF OUE ERA. 
 
 Marius, the savior of Italy, the pride 
 
192 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 their heads. But the mass of the people and their Italian allies, continued their disor- 
 der and violence. Livius Drusus, the younger, sought to mediate between the Senate 
 and their opponents, and proposed to help the poor by land laws, colonization, and dis- 
 tribution of corn ; and to satisfy the allies by conferring upon them the rights of citizen- 
 ship. But the Aristocrats refused to listen to him ; he was attacked in his own house, just 
 jB. c. ot. as he was dismissing the crowd that had escorted him home, and he died 
 in a few hours. The murderer was not discovered, and the proposed laws of Drusus 
 came to nothing. The cheated allies, who were enthusiastic for the plans of Drusus, 
 now rushed to arms, determined to conquer equal rights or independence. The 
 Sabellians, the Samnites, and the Marsians declared 
 their independence of Rome, formed an Italian league, 
 B. c. oo-ss. and proclaimed Corfinium, under the 
 name of Italica, the capital of the new union. Veteran 
 armies took the field. In Rome the people put on 
 mourning, armed the freed-men and gave equality of 
 rights to the Latins, the Etruscans, and the Umbrians. 
 And after wavering fortunes and many bloody battles, 
 the Romans succeeded in conquering the enemy. The 
 proud anti-Rome, Italica, sank back to its former 
 obscurity. But the danger was yet so imminent, that 
 the Romans deemed it prudent to concede the rights 
 of citizenship to all their allies. But they divided these 
 new citizens among eight tribes only, so as to limit 
 their political power. 
 
 § 132. The First War Against Mitheidates. 
 Hardly were the allies pacified, when the Romans were 
 attacked from the East by a brave and able prince, 
 Mithridates, king of Pontus, on the Black Sea. He 
 sought to unite into one great league, the Asiatic and 
 Greek states, which were brought to despair by the 
 5?3 oppression of Roman tax-gatherers, and to conquer 
 independence from Roman rule. Faithless and cruel, 
 but strong, energetic, and invincibly courageous, the 
 king of Pontus was the most important enemy of the 
 Roman people ; and against him, they defended them- 
 selves like the lion of the desert against the hunter. 
 In western Asia, at the command of Mithridates, on one terrible day, all men 
 who wore the toga, 80,000 in number, were put to death. At the same time, 
 the king took possession of Roman territorj% and sent an army into Greece to 
 protect the Athenians, the Boeotians, and others who had joined him. The Roman 
 Senate thereupon gave Sylla the command of the war against him. Sylla had 
 distinguished himself in the war against the allies, and had been chosen consul. 
 B.C. 88. But Marius, with the help of the eloquent tribune, Sulpicius, and of 
 the " New citizens " obtained a decree of the people, according to which he was him- 
 self entrusted with the conduct of the Mithridatic war. The two messengers who 
 brought this edict into Sylla's camp, were stoned to death by the angry soldiers, and 
 
 HUMAN CENTUEION. 
 
GEliMAN WOMEN DEFENDlNCi TUEUl WAGON CASTLES. (A. de Ne- ri". .> 
 
 13 (pp.193.) 
 
194 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 Sylla marched straightway to Rome. He drove Marius, with eleven of his companions, 
 into exile as traitors to their country, restored the authority of the Senate, arranged 
 for the safety and the order of the city, and then resumed the campaign against Mith- 
 ridates. Marius escaped manifold dangers, and found his way to Africa. 
 
 § 133. The First Civil War. Sylla first stormed Athens, which atoned lor its 
 
 rebellion by a terrible massacre. He then plundered the temple of Delphi, and con- 
 
 B. c. SO. quered the army of the king of Pontus in two battles. He marched 
 
 through Macedonia and Thrace to Asia Minor, and compelled i\Iithridates to make a 
 
 B. c. s-j,. peace", in which Rome once more 
 acquired control of Western Asia, and in addi- 
 tion, a large sum of money and the entire nav}' 
 of the Pontian king. The rebellious cities and 
 districts were punished severely by fines and 
 confiscation. Flavins Fimbria, the adherent of 
 Marius, who had defeated Mithridates before 
 Sylla's arrival, was now threatened by the latter, 
 and abandoned by his soldiers. Tlie cruel de- 
 stroyer of new Ilium, thereupon took his own 
 life, in a temple at Pergamos. Marius mean- 
 while had left the ruins of Carthage, and re- 
 turned to Italy. He gathered about him a 
 band of desperate men, and all3ang himself 
 with the Democratic leaders, Cinna and Serto- 
 rius, marched to the gates of Rome. The city 
 weakened by hunger and discord, soon surren- 
 dered, and Marius gave his vengeance free 
 course. Mobs of rough soldiers plundered and 
 murdered on every side. The leaders of the 
 Aristocratic party, the most respected and 
 renowned Senators and Consulars, were slain, 
 their houses plundered, their property confis- 
 cated, and their corpses abandoned to dogs and 
 vultures. Marius then had himself chosen 
 consul for the seventh time, and thus reached 
 the goal that had been promised him bj- an 
 oracle in his youth, and toward which he had 
 struggled restlessly for many years. The ex- 
 citement, in which his own rage and his fear of Sylla's prosperitj^ and revenge had 
 
 B. c. ae. brought him, chased all peace from his soul. He abandoned himself 
 to drink, and a violent fever soon put an end to his life. Two years afterward Cinna 
 was slain in a soldiers' quarrel. 
 
 § 184. In the year 83 before Christ, Sylla landed in Italy and marched 
 
 B. c. S3. immediately to Rome. In Lower Italy he defeated several times the 
 Democratic consul, besieged the younger Marius in the fortified city of Prfeneste, 
 driving him to suicide; and then in a bloody battle near the gates of Rome, defeated 
 the Marian party and the rebellious Samnites. Marius, before his departure from 
 
 EAGLE ON ROMAN STANDARD. 
 
ROME. 
 
 195 
 
 the capital, had put to death the venerable Pontifex Maximus, Scsevola, and other 
 •chiefs of the opposition party; and Sylla, to revenge them, slaughtered four thousand 
 prisoners in the Circus Maximus, in the presence of the trembling Senate. 100,000 
 
 B. c. S2. human lives had already perished in the civil war, when Sylla " the 
 fortunate," as he was called, published the 
 proscription lists, upon which stood the 
 names of those Romans who were to be 
 plundered and murdered. All ties of blood, 
 of friendship, of gratitude, and piety were 
 thereby torn asunder. Sons attacked their 
 fathers, slaves their masters ; terror and 
 outrage everywhere prevailed. Sylla was 
 
 B. c. sst. proclaimed dictator and 
 published the Cornelian laws, by which the 
 whole authority of the state came into the 
 hands of the Aristocrats. The power of the 
 
 B. c. 79. tribunes was broken ; the 
 administration of justice, and the system 
 of taxation, entirely reorganized. These 
 arrangements completed, Sylla resigned his 
 dictatorial office and retired to his estate, 
 where he soon died, either from a hemor- 
 rhage or from a terrible disease, brought 
 upon him by his mode of life. His corpse 
 was brought to Rome and committed to 
 
 B. c. 7s. the flames with magnifi- 
 cent funeral ceremonies. He was without 
 faith, but not without superstition ; he relied upon his star and his own strong mind, 
 but silenced the voice of his conscience bj'' a scrupulous observance of religious rites. 
 
 3. The Times of Cnj^us Pompeius and of Tullius Cicero. 
 
 § 135. The death of Sylla did not restore peace 
 to the shattered commonwealth. The proscribed 
 and persecuted Democrats gathered about their brave 
 B. c. 7s. and upright leader Sertorius, and 
 
 fought successfully against the Roman armies in 
 Spain. Supported by the natives, whose favor 
 Sertorius had been able to win, they thought of 
 establishing a republic, independent of Rome ; and 
 not until Sertorius had been murdered at a banquet 
 bj' his jealous comrades, was Pompeius (who had 
 iLADiATORs. {From an Antique earlj^ joined the party of Sylla and was now regarded 
 Mosaic.) as its chief) able to suppress the insurrection. His 
 
 good-natured manners and conciliatory character made him a successful mediator. 
 Half hero and half adventurer, his chivalrous bearing captivated the popular imagi- 
 nation, and aroused the enthusiasm of the army. 
 
 POMPEY. (Palazzo Spada, Borne.) 
 
196 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 § 136. When Pompey returned to Italy from Spain, he was confronted by a new- 
 enemy, the insurgent slaves. Seventy gladiators escaped from Capua, broke open the 
 
 B. c. 7g. slave prisons in Lower Italj', and sounded a cry for a war of freedom. 
 In a short time their number had increased to fifty thousand. At their head stood the 
 bold Thracian, Spartacus. Their first intention was to return home. But after con- 
 quering two Roman armies that had undertaken to bar their way, they were filled with 
 the hope of destroying the Roman power, and of revenging themselves for their ill- 
 treatmeut. The peril of Rome was great and imminent, but lack of discipline and 
 harmony divided the slaves, and led to senseless expeditions. The consul Marcus Cras- 
 sus was consequently able to surround the poorly armed bands in the mountain forest 
 
 DEATH OF SPARTACUS. (H. Vogel.) 
 
 of Sila, and, having isolated them, to conquer each group singly. Spartacus, with a 
 part of his army, forced a passage to Lucania, but was defeated, after a heroic resist- 
 
 B. c. 71. ance, in a bloody battle at the river Silarus. The power of the insur- 
 rection was now utterly broken. All prisoners were put to an excruciating death. A 
 few remnants of the army succeeded in reaching Upper Italy, but were annihilated by 
 Pompeius. The two victors were rewarded, the following j'ear, by an election to 
 the consulate, and vied with each other for the favor of the people, by their lavish 
 expenditures. 
 
 § 137. But Pompey acquired his chief renown in Asia, where he carried to a suc- 
 cessful termination, the war against the pirates and a second war against Mithridates. 
 The pirates had their homes in the barren mountain regions of southern Asia Minor; 
 
ROME. 
 
 197 
 
 from these they made plundering voj'ages over the Mediterranean, devastating the is- 
 lands and the coast, kidnapping aristocratic Romans, in order to obtain great sums as 
 ransoms, and interrupting everywhere commerce and travel. Pompeius was thei'efore 
 ». c. «■>. intrusted, by the Gabiniau law, with a dictatorship over the seas, islands 
 and shores of the Roman commonwealth 
 and provinces. In three months he 
 scoured the whole Mediterranean sea, 
 driving out the pirates ; then conquered 
 the fortified castles and cities of their 
 own land, and deported the prisoners to 
 the Cilician city, Soli, which was after- 
 ward called Pompeiopolis. Hardly was 
 this accomplished, when the Manilian 
 law entrusted, to Pompeius, the conduct 
 of the second Mithridatic war. 
 
 § 138. For the king of Pontus, 
 encouraged by the discord at Rome, had 
 jB. c. M. taken up once more his 
 former plans of conquest and of inde- 
 pendence. He besieged the wealthy 
 island city of Cyzicus, which was 
 friendly to the Romans ; but was so 
 thoroughly defeated by LucuUus, that 
 he hastened back to Pontus. Crassus 
 pursued him and conquered Pontus, 
 whereupon Mithridates sought protec- 
 js. c. J2. tion and help from his 
 
 son-in-law Tigranes, king of Armenia. 
 The latter led into the field, near his 
 splendid capital Tigranocerta, an enor- 
 mous army, among which, the steel-clad 
 riders with their lances, were regarded 
 
 as invincible. Lucullus, on the contrary, commanded a force so small that the king 
 spoke of it as too large for an embassy, and too small for an army. Nevertheless 
 a. c. 69. Tigranes was defeated, and Lucullus was about to subjugate the whole 
 kingdom and to carry the Roman eagles into Parthia, when the 
 legions, discontented because of many hardships, broke into mutiny. 
 Lucullus thereupon returned to his riches and his pleasure-gardens, 
 B.c.«7. while Pompey left Italy to take command of the 
 B. c. ee. rebellious army. He conquered Mithridates, in spite 
 of the re-enforcement that the latter had gathered, in a nocturnal 
 battle on the Euphrates. He then reduced the Armenian king to 
 subjection, and compelled the war-like tribes of the Caucasus to 
 acknowledge the supremacy of Rome ; and finally proceeded to 
 B.c.«4. Syria, and brought to an end the dominion of the Seleucids. Mithri- 
 dates, bereft of nearly all his lands, attacked by his own son Pharnaces, abandoned 
 
 A SUPPER AT LUCULLUS'. 
 
 COIN OP TIGRANES. 
 
 {King of Syria.') 
 
198 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 7 
 
 by his soldiers, and deserted and betraj'cd bj' his oppressed subjects, took poison and 
 
 perislied with his wives and daugliters ; not however, before a sentinel, taking pity 
 B. c. «3. upon the writhing prince, had helped the poison with his sword. A 
 laurel-crowned messenger brought the news of the death 
 of his greatest enemy to the Roman commander in his 
 camp at Jericho. Pompeius organized his conquests into 
 three provinces, gave some of the more distant lands over 
 to the authority of tributary kings, and then returned to 
 jB. c. «». Rome, where he celebrated his victory 
 with a two daj's' triumph, having filled the treasury of 
 the commonwealth with enormous riches. 
 
 § 139. During the absence of Pompeius, his friend 
 and adherent, Tullius Cicero, had won for himself the 
 ;,?^v? name of " Father of his Country." Cicero, the child 
 ^: ;i~ of unaristocratic parents, had so distinguished himself 
 b}^ his talents, his energy, and irreproachable life, as to be 
 elected consul. In Athens and Rhodes he had devoted 
 
 himself to Greek learning, especially to eloquence and philosophy, with such zeal 
 
 and success, that he could be compared as a statesman and orator to Demosthenes. 
 
 Although vain and weak, he possessed civic virtue, patriotism, and a strong feeling of 
 
 justice. During his consulate, a conspiracy was 
 B. c. aa. formed by Cataline, a man of aristo- 
 cratic birth, but stained by a vicious life, and loaded 
 
 down with debt. He and his fellow-conspirators 
 
 intended to murder the consuls, set fire to Rome, 
 
 overthrow the constitution, and, in the consequent 
 
 confusion to get control of the citj-, by the help of 
 
 the soldiers of Sylla, and the mob, and' then to estab- 
 lish a militaiy dictatorship. But the vigilant Cicero 
 
 brought to naught their wicked undeitaking. la 
 
 his four orations against Cataline, he unmasked the 
 B. c. 02. bold traitor in the Senate, and forced 
 
 him to fly to Etruria, where he and his soldiers were 
 
 defeated by the consular armies. The courage of 
 
 the traitors was worthy of a better cause. Five of 
 
 his fellow-conspirators died a violent death in prison. 
 
 4. The Times of Caius Julius C^sak. 
 
 § 140. — The First Triumvirate. Sylla's suc- 
 cess spurred ambitious men to imitation : each 
 sought to be the first, and to get possession of the 
 commonwealth. Pompe}' possessed an almost royal 
 authority, and was resting upon his laurels, while 
 his great rival, Caius Julius Ccesar, gradually acquired strength. Csesar was at once 
 orator and writer, statesman and soldier. His liberality made him popular, and his 
 ambition spurred him on to great achievements. In order to overcome the party of 
 
 ROMAN DAGGERS. 
 
ROME. 
 
 199 
 
 JULIUS GjESAR. 
 
 B.c.eo. old Republicans, led by Fortius Cato, the younger, Csesar made an 
 alliance with Pompeius and Crassus. This was called the triumvirate, and the three 
 men pledged to each other mutual help, and with the support of the popular party, 
 ruled the commonwealth, without regard to the wishes of the senate. They procured 
 the confirmation of the arrangements made by Pompeius, in 
 Asia, cunningly removed Cato from Rome, by entrusting 
 hiur with an honorable mission, and instigated the Tribune, 
 B.c.ss. Clodius, to provoke the banishment of 
 Cicero, because he had executed the companions of Cataline 
 without legal authority. Csesar then obtained the govern- 
 orship of Gaul, where he conducted a long war, and, not to 
 B. c. se. be disturbed in his enterprises, he renewed 
 the triumvirate for two years longer. Pompeius received 
 Spain as his province, governed it, however, by subordinates, 
 I exercising at Rome a dictatorial power. Crassus, the richest 
 nan in Rome, greedily chose the distant Syria, with its 
 B. c. S3. treasures, but was conquered in the desert 
 jf Mesopotamia, by Parthian horsemen, and after the death 
 of his son, Publius, and the greater part of his troops, was 
 overtaken as a fugitive and killed. The exulting victors 
 gloated over his corpse, and stuffed his pallid mouth with 
 gold. The Roman standards fell into the hands of the 
 enemy. Of the splendid army that had crossed the Euphrates, the half remained on the 
 battle-field, and 10,000 prisoners were carried into the far East, and sold as slaves. 
 Only a small remnant was rescued by the legate, Cassius, who conducted them with 
 difficulty to Syria. 
 
 ^^ /-' ^ ^^^''■::y';y^^^C1?^^-Z^:^^c!^^^^^.^'' -:;?"/ - § 141.— C^sae's Gal- 
 
 " ' ' " ~ - o' Lie Wars (B. C. 58-50). 
 
 Gaul (now France), and 
 Helvetia (now Switzer- 
 land), were anciently inhab- 
 itated by the Celts. These 
 were divided into small 
 states and tribes, which 
 ^ were governed by a nobility 
 and a priesthood of Druids. 
 Gaul had already become 
 a Roman province, when 
 the Helvetians, crowded 
 by the Germans, determ- 
 ined to leave their bar- 
 ren mountain country, and to seek new homes in southwest Gaul, on the river 
 Garonne, and the slopes of the Pyrenees. To prevent this, Caesar marched to 
 Gaul. He conquered the Helvetians at Bribacte (near Autun), and compelled 
 them to return to their wasted homes and villages. Novia Donum (now Nyon), 
 on the shore of Lake Geneva, became a Roman boundary fort. Caesar turned then 
 
 :_MCSAK UKUSbINO THE RHINE. 
 
200 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 toward Germany, conquered the German chieftain, Ariovistus, who had been called 
 B. c. ss. by the Sequani to help them .against the jEdui, and had settled 
 in East Gaul with his rough warriors, where he oppressed both peoples with his 
 arbitrary rule. Cas.sar defeated him in the valley of the Rhine, and compelled him, 
 with the remnant of his 
 army, to recross the 
 river. Ariovistus, soon 
 after this defeat, died 
 of his wounds. Ccesar 
 
 B. c. 5S-S3. then sub- 
 dued the Belgians, the 
 Nervii, and other Gallic 
 tribes, crossed the Rhine 
 twice, in order to ter- 
 rify the inhabitants 
 of the German forest, 
 and to restrain them 
 from hostile incursions 
 into Gaul. Csesar's 
 Commentaries upon the 
 Gallic War, are the 
 records of this expedi- 
 tion. But the Roman 
 General had no thought 
 of permanent conquest 
 in Germany, or in Brit- 
 ain, on the coast of which 
 
 B. c. Bs-Sit. he land- 
 ed twice. He wished to 
 show, only, that the 
 arm of Rome reached 
 across the Rhine and 
 the Channel. After 
 a few fights with the 
 Celtic inhabitants of 
 Britain, he sailed back, 
 to complete the subjuga- 
 tion of the Gallic tribes ; 
 for their unsteady and 
 vacillating nature led 
 them to constant change. 
 They rebelled the mo- 
 
 B.c.ss. ment Csesar left them. Not until he had put down the last uprising 
 in Alesia, was he able to convert the land that bordered on the Rhine into a Roman 
 province. Vercingetorix, tlieir last leader, was led in triumph through the streets 
 of Rome, and beheaded at the foot of the capitol. The religion of the Druids, 
 
 VERCINGETORIX SURRENDERS TO C^SAR. 
 
DRUID PRIEST OFFERING HUMAN SACRIFICE IN TUB SACRED GROTTO. (A. de. Neuville.) 
 
 {pp. 201.) 
 
202 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 with its gloomy human sacrifice, gave place to the Pagan gods of the Greek and the 
 Roman. 
 
 §142. The Second Civil War. (B.C. 49-48.) Meanwhile party strife in Rome had 
 degenerated into robbery and murder. Powerful leaders fought in the streets, and at the 
 places of election, against each other, with armed adherents ; and the insolent Clodius was 
 
 B. c. 52-50. murdered by Milo, a friend of Cicero, on the Appian Way. Bribery was 
 so shameless that, without it, nothing could be accomplished. The Senate and the 
 old Republicans adhered to Pompeius, and offered him the consulate. He used this 
 great power to the disadvantage of Cffisar, of whose renown he was envious. At his 
 instigation, the Senate ordered Csesar, at the close of the Gallic War, to lay down his 
 
 CE VR CROSSINb THE RL EICON. 
 
 command, and to discharge his troops. Curio and Antonius, two tribunes of the peo- 
 ple, who proposed this decree, and demanded that Pompeius also should surrender his 
 B. c. 4o. authority, were driven from the city. They fled to Cfesar's camp, and 
 urged him to come forward as the protector of the violated rights of the people. After 
 some hesitation Ctesar crossed the Rubicon, the boundary river of his province, and 
 marched against Rome. The die was cast ; Pompeius. terrified from his apathy and 
 careless confidence, did not venture to await liim in the capital. He hastened with his 
 few troops, and a great train of Senators and Aristocrats, to Brundusium ; and when the 
 victor approached this city, he hurried across the sea to Epirus. Caesar did not pursue 
 him, but returned to Rome. He took possession of the state treasure, and then pro- 
 
ROME. 
 
 203 
 
 ceeded to Spain. An indecisive battle was fought at Ilerda, between tlie Pyrenees and 
 the Ebro, but, bj^ his subsequent movements, Caesar so crowded his adversary, that 
 Pompey was forced to an agreement, in consequence of which, his officers were dis- 
 charged, and his common 
 soldiers transferred to the 
 victor. Caesar, on his way 
 home, besieged and con- 
 quered the city of Massilia, 
 which had closed her doors 
 against him ; and after 
 punishing the citizens, 
 marched to Rome, where 
 he was proclaimed dictator, 
 jB. c. 4,8. and elected 
 consul for the following 
 year. He then crossed the 
 Ionian Sea to attack Pom- 
 peius in person. The de- 
 cisive battle of Pharsalia 
 soon took place, in which t 
 Csesar's veterans, although * 
 opposed by double their ' 
 numbers, won a brilliant ! 
 victory. With a few faith- | 
 ful comrades, Pompeius ' 
 fled to Egypt, where he j 
 was murdered. Ptolemy, ! 
 hoping to win Csesar's 
 favor, ordered him to be 
 killed, as he landed in 
 Pelusium. His body was 
 cast unburied on the shore. 
 § 143. Ccesar followed 
 Pompeius into Egypt. He 
 shed tears of sympathy, 
 when he heard of the fate 
 of his great antagonist, and 
 refused to reward the in- 
 stigator of the murder ; 
 for when he was chosen 
 arbitrator in the quarrel 
 between Ptolemy and his 
 beautiful sister Cleopatra, 
 
 he decided in favor of the latter. This brought him into war with the King and 
 the Egyptian people, — a war that detained him nine months in Alexandria, and 
 brought him into great danger. When the citadel, iu which he defended him- 
 
204 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 BALLibTA ( Time of Csesar ) 
 
 self with wouderful skill, with a part of its great library, burst into flames, he 
 withdrew to the neighboring island Pharos. But not until re-enforcements reached 
 s. c. *t. liim, and Ptolemy had been drowned in the Nile, could he invest Cleo- 
 patra with the government of Egypt, and march out to fresh victories. The battle 
 
 which he fought and won from Phar- 
 naces, the son of Mithridates, is famous 
 fiom the letter in which he immortal- 
 ized it, " I came, I saw, I conquered," 
 (veni, vidi, vici). After a short stay 
 m Rome, he sailed for Africa, where 
 the friends of the republican constitu- 
 JB. c. 40. tion, and the adherents 
 of Pompeius had assembled a great 
 army. In the bloody battle of Thapsus, 
 Csesar annihilated the hopes of the Re- 
 publicans ; thousands covered the field 
 of battle; many of the survivors committed suicide, among them the noble Cato, who 
 in death remained true to the principles that he had maintained through life. A four 
 days triumph greeted the victor on his return to Rome. He soon left the city, how- 
 ever, for Spain, in order to attack his last enemies, who had gatheied aiouud the sons 
 
 JB. e. 45. of Pompeius. In the terrible 
 battle of Munda, where both sides fought 
 with the courage of desperation, and where 
 Caesar's fortunes and life were in the great- 
 est danger, he succeeded finally in destroy- 
 ing the last remnants of the Pompeian and 
 Republican parties. One of Pompey's sons 
 was killed in his flight ; the survivor became 
 a pirate, and died ten years later, at the hand 
 of a murderer. 
 
 § 144 CcBsar now returned to Rome, 
 as lord and master of the commonwealth. He 
 was greeted as the " Father of his Country," 
 and chosen dictator for life. The soldiers 
 and the people he sought to win by his lib- 
 erality, and tlie Aristocrats, by offices. He 
 furthered commerce and agriculture ; beauti- 
 fied the city with temples, theatres, and 
 parks; protected the provinces against the 
 oppression of officials ; reformed tlie calendar, 
 and established many good and useful institutions. But his evident desire for the title 
 and the dignity of a monarch, his increasing haughtiness, his contempt of the Senate 
 and of republican forms, brought about a conspiracy. His favorite and flatterer, Marc 
 Antony, offered the " Imperator " at a banquet, the kingly crown, and in spite of the 
 affected displeasure with which Caesar refused it, his inward satisfaction and the pur- 
 pose of his party were easily recognized. At the head of the conspiracy stood Marcus 
 
 JULIUS C^SAR. 
 
206 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 
 THE YOUNG OCTAVIUS. 
 
 Junius Biutus, Ccfibai'tj fnencl, and tlie stern Republican Caius Cassiiis. Csesar, disre- 
 B c 44 gaidmg all warnings, convened a session of the Senate on the Ides of 
 March, in the Hall of Pompeius : he fell, pierced with 
 J J three and twenty daggers, and with the cry, " Et tu 
 
 Brute ! " at the base of Pompey's statue, yet not before 
 he could wrap himself in his toga, in order to fall with 
 decency and dignity. 
 
 5. The Last Years of the Republic. 
 
 § 145. It was soon manifest that the idea of freedom 
 survived only in the minds of a few patriots, but was 
 extinguished in the hearts of the people. The momentary 
 enthusiasm for the newly conquered liberty, soon turned 
 into hatred and abuse of the murderers of Caesar, when 
 Marc Anton}', at his funeral, discoursed eloquently of 
 his services and of his genius, paraded a number of real 
 or pretended legacies from the dead hero's testament, and 
 ordered presents to be distributed to the poor. The sen- 
 ate, on the other hand, supported the conspirators, and 
 committed the administration of the provinces to certain 
 of their number. When Antony undertook to get possession of one of these provinces 
 by force, Cicero delivered his Phillipics against him, and induced the senate to declare 
 him an enemy of the republic. Antony was de- 
 feated in battle at Mutina, and fled to the gover- 
 nor of Cisalpine Gaul (Lepidus). The senate 
 now openly favored the Republicans. This brought 
 upon them the opposition of Octavius Csesar who, 
 as heir of the great name, had the old soldiers on 
 his side. Ceesar Octavianus was the grandsoir of 
 the sister of Julius, and was afterward known as 
 Caesar Augustus. He raised the standard of re- 
 venge and formed, with Antony and Lepidus, a 
 B. c. 43. second triumvirate. New pro- 
 scription lists were published, in which appeared 
 the names of many famous Senators and Knights. 
 A reign of terror now began. Kinship, friend- 
 ship, filial piety, disappeared. Among the victims 
 of this thirst for blood was Cicero ; his head and 
 his right hand were planted upon the rostrum. 
 
 § 146. The rulers of Italy, having satisfied 
 their vengeance, marched against the Republicans 
 B. c. 43. who had gathered about Brutus 
 and Cassius, and established their camp in Mace- 
 donia. At Philippi a decisive battle was fought, in which Cassius was compelled 
 to yield to Antony, while the legions of Octavius were driven back b.y Brutus. 
 Cassius, deceived by false reports, tjirew himself upon his sword, and the triumvirate, 
 
 MVUC WiONY. 
 
KOME. 
 
 207 
 
 renewing the battle twenty, days later, defeated Brutus; and "the Last of the 
 Romans," fell likewise by his own hand. His wife, Porcia, the daughter of Cato, 
 took her own life, as did many of the friends of liberty. Philippi became the 
 sepulcher of the republic. The struggle was now not for freedom, but for dominion. 
 The victors divided up the empire, so that Antony obtained the East, and Octavian the 
 West. The weak Lepidus was given, at first, the province of Africa ; of this he was 
 deprived in a short time. 
 
 § 147. While the dissolute Antony was enjoying the incense of Greece, and the 
 delights of Asia, while he was leading a life of luxury, at the court of Cleopatra in 
 Alexandria, the cunning Octavian, and the leader of his fleet, Agrippa, were winning 
 
 DEATH OF BRUTUS. [H. Vogcl.) 
 
 over the Roman people, by their expenditures and plays. They rewarded also their 
 B. c. 41-40. soldiers with lands, and kept army and navy in practice. The attempt 
 of Fulvia, the wife of Antony, to hinder these distributions of land, resulted in the 
 battle of Perusia, in which her party was defeated, and the old Etruscan city utterly 
 destroyed. Antony quarreled frequently with Octavian, and was frequently reconciled 
 to his former friend. But when he Avasted Roman blood and stained Roman honor in 
 a futile march against the Parthians, when he married Cleopatra, the foi-eign queen, 
 and gave Roman provinces to her sons for their kingdoms, the senate, under the 
 guidance of Octavian, deprived Antony of all his dignities, and declared war 
 against Cleopatra. East and West attacked each other, but the sea fight at Actium, 
 
208 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 B. c. 3t. in spite of Egyptian superiority, was .decided in Octavian's favor. 
 Antony and Cleopatra fled, as the victor approached the gate of Alexandria. Antony 
 threw himself upon his own sword, and Cleopatra, when she perceived that'her charms 
 
 AN VLDIENfE 4.1 Vt.RIIlv's (/ [I IIKl 1 lldl )ll I ) 
 
 were powerless over Oetavian, and learned that he meant to take her as a captive to 
 B.C.30. Rome, poisoned herself with scorpions. Egypt became the first prov- 
 ince of imperial Rome. 
 
_Mli\'\ \M) ( 1 Hi|'\TRA. AT THE BATTLE OF ACTIUM. (H. Voqel.) 
 
 14 ' (pp. 209.) 
 
210 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 IV. IMPERIAL ROME. 
 
 The Times of C^sak Ootavianus Augustus. 
 §148. 
 
 JHE civil wars had carried off the able and patriotic men ; the sur- 
 viving crowd demanded only bread and circuses. It was there- 
 fore not difficult for the astute Octavian, who was called by sen- 
 ate and people Caesar Augustus, to transform the Roman republic 
 Auausttia, into a monarchy. Yet not to excite the prejudices 
 JB. c. ao to 14 A. n. of the Romans, he did not call himself King or Lord, 
 but preserved republican names and forms, and called himself Csesar. 
 Nevertheless he gradually obtained from tlie senate and the people, the control of all 
 the offices and powers of the State. As commander-in-chief of 
 the army (imperator) he determined peace and Avar ; as prince 
 (^princepsi) he was president of the senate and state council, 
 chief of the legislature and of the judiciary ; as tribune, with 
 authority to choose his colleagues, he was the representative 
 of the people. Accordingly, the popular assemblies became 
 less frequent and less powerful. As censor and pontifex 
 maximus private morals, religion and worship were under his 
 control. As consul and 2^'>'o-consul, with the right to appoint a 
 substitute and of nominating colleagues, he conducted the ad- 
 ministration of Rome and of the provinces. He was adroit 
 and gentle, moderate yet persistent, a master of dissimulation, 
 thoroughly acquainted with the weaknesses of men, and hence 
 he reached his goal more safely than his great-uncle Caesar. 
 Tiie Roman empire, during his reign, reached its greatest extent 
 and its highest degree of culture. It stretched from the 
 Atlantic to the Euphrates, from the Danube and the Rhine to 
 the Atlas mountains, and the waterfalls of the Nile. Art and 
 literature so flourished, that the period of Augustus is known 
 as the Golden Age. Splendid highways, provided with mile- 
 stones, connected the twenty-five provinces with Rome, and facilitated intercourse. 
 Magnificent aqueducts and canals attested the daring energy of the Roman people. 
 The city was adorned with temples, theaters, and baths and so changed that Augustus 
 could say, " I found it brick and left it marble." The 
 Pantheon, which Agrippa dedicated to all the gods, 
 is still a beautiful ornament of Rome. Augustus and 
 his friends, Maecenas, Pollio, and others, furthered art 
 and literature, and patronized poets and scholars. The 
 first public library was built upon the Palatine hill. 
 The citizens, no longer occupied with war and with politics, dedicated their leisure to 
 reading and writing, passed from deed to speech, and from action to thought. Culture 
 spread rapidly among all classes. 
 
 § 149. Roman Litkeatuke. — The chief poets of the Augustine age were Virgil, 
 
 ROMAN STANDARDS. 
 
 ROMAN DENARIUS OR " PENNY. 
 
ROME. 
 
 211 
 
 Horace, and Ovid. Virgil composed tlie ^iieid, an epic poem with patriotic substance 
 
 virgUf and inspiration, modelled after the Iliad of Homer. He composed also 
 
 fx»A.B. pastoral poems in the spirit of Tlieocritus, and a didactic poem upon 
 
 farming, in which the old Roman love of country life found hearty expression. Horace, 
 
 to whom his patron Majcenas presented a small estate in the Sabine countiy, published 
 
 Hotace, odes, satires, and humorous epistles, in which he set forth his cheerful 
 
 f B. c. s. views of life, with grace and wit. He lived contentedly a modest, 
 
 independent life, which he preferred to the splendor of the great world. 
 
 Ovid, the composer of mythological tales, was banished by Augustus, to themount- 
 
 ROMAN" AQUEDUCT. ( Ccimpagna, Borne. ) 
 
 Ovid. ains near the Black Sea. There he wrote his Tristia or poetic 
 
 fiy-i. JO. complaints. 
 
 Lucretius Cams was the most gifted of the older poets, and won eternal renown, 
 by his poem on "The Nature of Things " in which he has represented poetically the 
 views of Epicurus. Among the younger poets are to be mentioned Catullus, Tibullus, 
 and Propertius. Phsedrus, author of the well-known fables, was aThracian slave, to 
 
 saiiust, whom Augustus gave his freedom. Among the historians, the most 
 
 B.C. so. famous was Sallust, who, in his "War of Jugurtha" and his "Con- 
 spiracy of Gataline," sketched a faithful but a terrible picture of that degenerate time. 
 
212 
 
 B. C.Sa to 17.4.. D. 
 
 THE ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 Titus Livius wrote, in one hundred and forty-two books, of wliich 
 tliirty-five are extant, a complete history of Rome, in which he cared 
 
 
 more for 
 
 Nepos, w 
 
 PLAM OP KOJIE. (_Time of Augustus.) 
 
 vivid and powei'ful representation, than for critical accuracy. From Cornelius 
 e possess a biography of Pomponius Atticiis ; while the biographies of distin- 
 guished men that are attributed .to him, were written 
 by a subsequent author. The Romans imitated the 
 Greeks in art and literature, but remained far behind 
 them. 
 
 Of the lyrical inspiration which the Greeks pos- 
 sessed, we find no trace among tiie Roman writers. 
 Greek authors not uufrequently chose for a subject 
 the history of Rome : thus Polybius, the contemporary 
 of Livy, wrote a history of the Punic Wars, and 
 Dionysius, of Halicarnassus, composed a Roman Arch- 
 aeology. For the geography of the Ancients, Strabo"s 
 description of the earth, gives us copious and valuable 
 information. 
 
 2. The Fight of the Germans for Liberty. 
 
 § 150. Drusus, the valiant stepson of Augustus, 
 was the first Roman to make conquests on the right 
 ,v bank of the Rhine. In many successful campaigns, he 
 
 VIRGIL. {Capitoline Museum, fought against the Suevi, between the Rhine and the 
 Rome.) Elbe, the Sicambri, the Brocteri, the Cheruski, and 
 
ROME. 
 
 213 
 
 others, and sought to secure the land for Rome by fortresses and entrenchments. Return- 
 ing-honie, he was thrown from his horse and fatally injured. His brother, Tiber- 
 B.c.atooA.D. ius, completed the conquest of West Germany, more by skilful 
 negotiation with the discordant Germans, than by force of arms. The country, 
 between the Rhine and the Weser, was henceforth governed by a Roman officer ; and 
 foreign customs, lan- 
 guage and laws 
 threatened to destroy 
 the German territory. 
 G e r m a n warriors 
 fought in tlie Roman 
 ranks, and wore 
 proudly Roman dec- 
 orations. But the 
 rashness and daring 
 of the Roman gover- 
 nor, Quiutilius Varus, 
 aroused among the 
 German tribes their 
 slumbering sense of 
 freedom. Led by the 
 bold prince of the 
 Cheruski, Hermann, 
 (Arminius) who had 
 served in the Roman 
 army, several tribes 
 united to shake off the 
 foreign yoke. The 
 careless governor was 
 warned in vain by 
 Segest, whose daugh- 
 ter, Thusnelda, had 
 been carried off by 
 Hermann, and mar- 
 ried against her fath- 
 er's will. Varus, with 
 three legions and 
 many auxiliaries, was 
 decoyed into the 
 Teutoburger forest, 
 where he was so coni- 
 
 ATJGLsTUs (Statue !)? Vatican ) 
 
 oA..n. pletely defeated by Hermann's army, that the woods were covered far 
 
 and wide with the corpses of the Romans. Their eagles were captui'ed, and Varus 
 killed himself in despair. The Germans took fearful revenge upon their foes, and 
 slaughtered many of their prisoners at the altars of their gods. Many a Roman, from 
 an aristocratic family, grew old, as the herdsman or servant of a German peasant. 
 
214 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 OLD ROMAN SCHOOL. 
 
 Augustus, at the news, cried in desperation "Varus, give me back my legions !" and 
 tiiought afterward not of conquest, but of guarding only the Rhine frontiers. 
 
 § 151. Augustus died in his seventy-sixth year, at Nola, in Lower Italy. In the 
 14: A. B. same year, Germanicus, the son of Drusus^ crossed the Rhine, once 
 
 more ravaged the land 
 of the Chatti (Hesse), 
 buried the bleaching 
 bones of the Romans in 
 the Teutoburger forest, 
 and carried off into cap- 
 tivity Hermann's brave- 
 minded wife, Thusnelda, 
 whom her angry father 
 had surrended to the 
 foe. But although the 
 Roman general, who 
 was accompanied by his 
 noble wife Agrippina, 
 the grand-daughter of 
 Augustus, defeated the 
 allied Germans in two battles, and although Germany was hard pressed also from the 
 sea-coast, nevertheless the Roman dominion acquired neither strength nor duration on 
 the right bank of the Rhine. Their boats were broken by storms, and their armies 
 perished from fatigue, and from the sword of 
 the Germans. And when at last, Germa- 
 10A..D. nicus was recalled by his 
 envious uncle Tiberius, who succeeded 
 Augustus as emperor, the Germans were no 
 longer troubled by the Roman lust for con- 
 quest. The allies of Hermann thereupon 
 attacked the Marcomanni. These were led 
 hj Marbode, and gave the Romans oppor- 
 tunity to harass Germany from the south. 
 Marbode was di-iven from the land, and took 
 refuge with the Romans, who maintained 
 him for eighteen years in Ravenna. Her- 
 mann was murdered by his jealous friends. 
 His deeds are still celebrated in song, and in 
 our time a colossal statue, in memory of 
 him, was erected at Detmold. Thusnelda 
 died a Roman prisoner. Her son, born to 
 her in captivity, was brought up as a gladia- 
 tor at Ravenna. The daughter of Germani- 
 cus, the younger Agrippina, laid the foundation for the prosperity of Cologne. 
 (Colonia Agrippina.) 
 
 § 152. Tacitus on the Manners and Institutions of the Germans. — About a 
 
 ^^> 
 
216 
 
 THE ANCIEXT WORLD. 
 
 hundred years after Augustus, the historian, Tacitus, composed the " Germania " 
 a description of the German territory and its inhabitants: of their customs, in- 
 stitutions, and modes of life. The same writer, in his annals and histories, had writ- 
 ten the story of the early empire ; and in those works displayed a profound knowl- 
 edge of human nature, great courage, and art. He wrote the " Germania," prob- 
 ably, to contrast the natural life of the barbarian, with the refinement and eorruirtion 
 of the civilized Roman. It is a golden little book, to which Germans and Englishmen 
 
 
 .^^ ■'» 
 
 THE BATTLE IN THE TEUTOBURGER FOREST. 
 
 owe the first detailed knowledge of their forefathers. From Tacitus, we learn that 
 Germany was inhabited by a large number of independent tribes, sometimes acting 
 with, at other times warring upon each other ; that these frequently changed their 
 habitations, and were governed partly by tribal chiefs, and partly by republican forms. 
 Besides the tribes dwelling between the Rhine' and the Elbe, there were the Lombards 
 west of the Elbe, the Marcomanni on the Danube and in Bohemia, the Vandals 
 between the Oder and the Vistula, the Suevi and the Burguudians in Silesia, the 
 
218 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 GERMAN WEILER OR HOME. 
 
 Goths, the Saxons, the Angles, and the Frisians, with many others. The chief occu- 
 pations of the Germans were hunting and war. Cities and castles they never built: 
 their barns and huts were scattered about in the midst of their estates, for they hated 
 
 a quiet life within doors. 
 Important matters were 
 treated of in public assem- 
 blies of the people, where 
 all the free-holders of a 
 given district assembled 
 under arms. These assem- 
 blies decided peace and 
 war, appointed command- 
 ers, governors, and priests, 
 received the young men 
 into the company of 
 braves, and established 
 laws to guide the adminis- 
 tration of justice. Certain 
 distinguished chiefs gathered about them voluntary bands, who accompanied them to 
 the field, and had a share in the booty. These comradeships, based upon mutual 
 fidelity, constituted the closest bonds between man and man. The Germans were of 
 lofty stature, strong and brave and hand- 
 some. They combined purity of morals 
 with hospitality ; fidelity, and eloquence, 
 with a reverence for women and for mar- 
 riage. Their chief vices were, drunken- 
 ness and gambling. Good morals produce 
 good laws ; they loved poetry and song, 
 and handed down their poems orally. 
 Alliteration and assonance, rather than 
 rhyme and quantity, distinguished their 
 verse. But they possessed the art of 
 writing (runes) at an early period. As 
 the}^ marched to battle, they sung their 
 war songs, partly to encourage themselves, 
 partly to frighten their enemies. Bards, 
 as they are called, were common among 
 the Celts, but not among the Germans, 
 The latter worshipped their gods, not in 
 temples, but in gloomy forests and under 
 sacred trees. Wodan or Odin, the arche- 
 type of heroic energy, was their supreme 
 God and all-father. The twelve Asen sup- 
 ported him in the government of the world. Wodan's wife was Freia', who presided 
 over all marriages (Friday — Freia's day). Her sons Thor, the Thunderer (Thursday — 
 Thors day), Tiu, the God of War (Tuesday — Tiu's day), and Balder, the God of 
 
ROME. 
 
 219 
 
 light, were also worsliippecl. Death ou the battle-field, was the most honorable to the 
 Germans. The fallen heroes expected 
 
 a happ3^ life in Valhalla, while those 
 who died a bloodless death, lived a 
 shadowy life in Hela's realm. Human 
 sacrifices were quite frequent among 
 them. Criminals, captives, and slaves 
 were offered to the gods. 
 
 8. The Empbeors of the Julian 
 House. 
 § 153. The life of Augustus 
 
 was darkened by domestic sorrow. 
 
 The sons of his daughter Julia died in 
 
 their youth, and Ju'lia herself, by her 
 
 immoral life, compelled her father to 
 
 banish her from Rome. This brought 
 
 the empire into the hands of Tiberius, 
 
 the adopted stepson of Augustus. 
 
 The new emperor was sagacious but emperor tiberius. {Enlarge.d from a coin.) 
 
 misanthropic, and reached the throne by the intrigues of his mother Livia, the third wife 
 
 of Octavianus. Like Augustus, Tiberius 
 did not disturb the traditional forms of 
 state, and spared the prejudices of the 
 Romans ; but we learn from the history of 
 Tacitus, that his original mildness soon 
 Tihet-ius, yielded to his despotic in- 
 14-37 A. D. clinations, especially when 
 his cunning and vicious, favorite, Sejanus, 
 helped him to found a military tj'ranny. 
 He suggested the formation of tlie Prseto- 
 rian guards into a single bod3^ In this 
 way the troops, who had hitherto scattered 
 in detachments, could be used to oppress 
 the people. The popular assemblies ceased 
 to convene, and the cowardly senate degen- 
 erated into a tool of the monarch. The 
 terrible treason-courts were an instrument 
 for the destruction of any important citizen, 
 especially as men were punished, not sim- 
 ply for their deeds, but for their speeches 
 and for expressions of republican senti- 
 ments. Spies undermined fidelity and, 
 loyalty among the people, and destroyed 
 
 the last spark of freedom. Germanicus died suddenly in the East, it was believed 
 
 of poison, and his wife Agrippina, and the other members of his family were, in a few 
 
 PRAETORIAN GUARDS. 
 
2ii0 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 ROMAN DENARIUS. ( Time of 
 Tiberius.) 
 
 years, the victims of Sejanus. The empire was visited also by fire and earthquake, 
 which destroyed many of the most beautiful and wealthy cities of Asia Minor. A 
 crowded amphitheater in Fidense fell to the ground. 
 The last years of his life Tiberius spent in the island of 
 Capri, in Lower Italy. He distrusted, feared, and de- 
 spised the world, and permitted Sejanus to commit all 
 manner uf crime, even to the destruction of his own son 
 Drusus. When the favorite finally sued for the hand of 
 31 A. D. the widow of Drusus, and manifestly in- 
 tended to depose Tiberius himself, the senate was commanded to put him to death. 
 Tiberius, bowed down with age and illness, started for Rome, but in lower Italy he 
 became unconscious; and some of his 
 companions hailed his great-nephew 
 Caligula as emperor. Tiberius, liow- 
 3VA^.t>. ever, revived, whereup- 
 on the frightened friends of Caligula 
 smothered him to death with pillows. 
 Tiberius was in his seventy-eighth year. 
 § 154. His successor, Caligula, 
 was the unworthy son. of the noble Ger- 
 nianicus, and the high-minded Agrippina. 
 
 Califfuitt, 
 
 37-J,l A., n, 
 
 41-!i't .4. U. 
 
 COIN OF CALIGULA. 
 
 He was a bloodthirsty tyrant, who delighted 
 to sign death-warrants, a see them executed; a mad spendthrift, who 
 projected the absurdest buildings ; a haughty braggart, who celebrated 
 
 triumphs over Germans 
 and Britons whom he 
 liad hardly seen, and 
 decreed himself divine 
 honors; aglutton, whose 
 table swallowed up 
 enormous sums. Cer- 
 tain noble Romans, tired 
 of executions, confisca- 
 tions, and outrage, 
 formed a conspiracy', in 
 consequence of which, 
 two captains of the 
 guards murdered the 
 craz}' tyrant in the 
 imperial palace. The 
 Praetorians then 
 dragged his uncle, the 
 feeble Claudius, from 
 AGRIPPINA THE YOUNGER. LI VIA. his hiding place, and set 
 
 CLAUDIUS. TIBERIUS. {Omjx Gem.) him trembling on the 
 
 (Jilts. throne. He soon became the plaything of courtiers and of women. 
 His favorites, especially the freed men Narcissus and Pallas, obtained 
 
ROME. 
 
 221 
 
 the most important offices, and great riches at the expense of the people, while his wife 
 Messalina abandoned herself to wanton lust. The emperor finally decieed her execu- 
 tion, and then married his wicked niece, the j'ounger 
 Agrippina, who soon hurried tlie weak old man out of the 
 world, in order to place her son, Claudius Nero, on the 
 throne. 
 
 § 155. Nero, at the beginning of his reign, showed 
 great gentleness. He wished that he had never learned 
 Nero, to write, that he might not si,iin a death 
 
 B4,-os.i.n. warrant. But in a little while his mild- 
 ness turned to cruelty. He persecuted and executed and 
 
 COIN OF LAODICEA. 
 
 confiscated even among his own adherents and relatives. His step-brother, Britani- 
 
 cus, died of poison at the imperial table ; his mother he tried to drown, and when she 
 
 escaped, he delivered her to the hands of assassins ; his virtuous wife Octavia, 
 
 daughter of Claudius, was banished to a 
 
 lonely island, where she died a violent death. 
 
 The poet Lucan, the author of the epic 
 
 Pliarsalia, and the philosopher Seneca, the 
 
 teacher of Nero, were driven to destruction. 
 
 Urged on b_Y courtiers and courtesans. Nero 
 
 committed incredible crimes and follies. 
 
 Plaj^s and processions, in which he himself 
 
 took part as singer and musician, luxurious 
 
 banquets and wild expenditures of every 
 
 sort, consumed the revenues of the state. 
 
 A great conflagration at Rome was said to 
 
 have been kindled, by the despot, so that he 
 
 might sing " The Burning of Troy " from 
 
 the roof of his palace. And then, to divert 
 
 the popular hatred from himself, he charged 
 
 the crime upon the Christians, who suffered 
 
 consequently the most terrible persecution. 
 
 The rebuilding of the city, and Nero's 
 
 golden house on the Palatine, so increased taxation, that an insurrection followed ; 
 
 and when the Spanish legions, under Galba, approached the capital, Nero fled to his 
 
 ROMAN LICTOR, EMPEROR AND NOBLE. 
 
222 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 villa, and had himself put to death 
 by a freedraan. In him expired the 
 house of Augustus. 
 
 § 156. The aged Galba was too 
 miserly to satisfy the greed of the 
 Prsetorians. They proclaimed Otho 
 eiaiha, emperor, and mur- 
 
 otho, dered Galba and his 
 
 vitettius, appointed successor. 
 as-oo ji. n. At the same time 
 Vitellius marched, with his legions, 
 from the Rhine to Italy, and con- 
 quered the armies of his adversary. 
 Otho, and many of his adherents, 
 died by their own hand. Vitellius 
 was a glutton of vulgar mind, who 
 spent his short reign in riotous ban- 
 quets and violent oppression. His 
 conduct embittered the Syrian and 
 Egyptian legions, which finally pro- 
 claimed, as emperor, their brave com- 
 TiTus FLAvius vEsPAsiANus. mandcr. Flavins Vesj)asian. The 
 
 legions were joined by the troops in Moesia and Dalmatia. As Vespasian's army ap- 
 proached the gates of Rome, a brief civil war occurred, in whicl 1 pie of the 
 
 THJi COLOSSEUM Al ROME. 
 
ROME. 
 
 223 
 
 capital was destroyed. But Vitellius was killed by a mob of bi'utal soldiers, who cast 
 o»A.B. his mutilated bod}' into the Tiber. The hardened people, in the midst 
 
 ROMAN SOLDIERS ATTACKING A CITY. 
 
 of these cruelties, pursued their wonted pleasures, and abandoned themselves to the 
 silliest superstition. 
 
 DESTRUCTION OF .JERUSALEM. 
 
 The Flavians and the Antontnes. 
 § 157. Vespasian is the first of the good emperors. He restored the discipline 
 
224 
 
 THE AKCIENT WORLD. 
 
 COIN OF VESPASIAN. 
 
 Vespasian. of the iivmy and of the Prsetorian guards, abolished the treason- 
 Go-79 A n. courts, improved the administration of justice, and filled the state 
 treasury by economy and sagacity. He built the temple of peace, and the Colos- 
 seum, whose ruins still excite the admira- 
 tion of the traveler, brought back the 
 Batavians of the lower Rhine to the 
 obedience, and enlarged the borders of the i 
 empire, by the conquests of Judea and of 
 Britain. 
 
 § 158. The oppressions of the Roman 
 ofiScers who governed Judea, especially the 
 cruelty and greed of Gessius Florus, drove 
 
 j-et-Hsaiem the peoplc finally to rebellion. They fought with the courage of des- 
 Deati-oueti, pcratiou, but were conquered by the Roman legions and forced into 
 7o.i.B. Jerusalem, which was besieged at first by Vespasian, and then after- 
 ward by his son Titus. The 
 crowded cit}^ was so wasted by 
 pestilence and starvation, that 
 thousands plunged into the 
 grave. Titus offered pardon in 
 vain ; rage and fanatacism urged 
 the Jews to a desperate strug- 
 gle. They defended their tem- 
 ple, until the magnificent build- 
 ing broke into flames, and death 
 in every form raged among the 
 vanquished. The victory of 
 Titus was followed by the com- 
 plete destruction of Jerusalem. 
 Among the prisoners that fol- 
 lowed the victorious chariot of 
 thp Roman, was the Jewish his- 
 torian Josephus. The triumphal 
 arch of Titus still standing in 
 Rome, shows pictures of the 
 Jewish sacred vessels, that were 
 sarried to the city. The Jews who were left at home, suffered terribly from Roman 
 rule. But sixty years after the destruction of Jerusalem, Hadrian established a pagan 
 colony on its sacred soil, which was called Alia Capitoltna : and erected on the 
 heights, where the temple of Jehovah had been built bj" 
 Solomon, a temple to Jupiter. Tlie exasperated Jews, 
 led by the fanatical Simon, " son of the star," took arms 
 i39-t3B A. n. again to prevent this insult. In a mur- 
 derous war of three years, in which half a million inhab- 
 itants were slaughtered, they were conquered by tlie 
 Romans. The survivors wandered out in throngs. The laud resembled a desert, and 
 
 HEAD OF TITUS. [From a coin.) 
 
 JEWISH COIN. (Head of Titus.) 
 
ROMAN SOLDIERS PIKING THE TEMPLE AT JERUSALEM. {pjJ. 225) 
 
226 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 the Jewish commonu'ealth came to an end. Since then the Jews live scattered over 
 
 the whole earth, faithful to their customs, their religion, and their superstition ; 
 but wholly separate from other peoples. Subsequently, the 
 exiles were allowed, once a year, on payment of a certain 
 sum, to weep over the ruins of their sacred city. 
 
 § 159. During the reign of Vespasian, Agricola, the 
 father-in-law of Tacitus, conquered Britain as far as the 
 Scotch highlands, and introduced Roman institutions, cus- 
 toms, and speech. Britain remained subject to the Romans 
 400 3-ears. The religion of the Druids yielded gradually to 
 Roman paganism, and the foreign civilization struck root in 
 the land. But the warlike strength of the people was weak- 
 ened bj'' this contact with the Romans, so that the Britains 
 were unable to resist the rough Picts and Scots, from whom 
 the wall, erected hj Hadrian, was not sufficient to protect 
 them. 
 
 § 160. The plain but powerful Vespasian was succeeded 
 by his son Titus. The faults and sins of his youth were 
 laid aside by the new emperor, and he earned for himself 
 the splendid name " Love and Delight of the Human Race." 
 79 A. n. Duiing his reign. Herculaneum and Pompeii 
 M'ere destroyed by the eruption of Vesuvius. Pliny, the 
 elder, lost his life in this eruption, as we learn from a letter 
 
 of his nephew to the historian Tacitus. The excavations made at these buried cities, 
 
 especially at Pompeii, have been of immense importance to our knowledge of antiquity, 
 
 aiid to the art of our own times. 
 
 § 161. This noble prince was 
 
 followed, unfortunately, by his cruel 
 
 son, Domitian, a morose and gloomy 
 
 tyrant, who found pleasure only in 
 
 fights of wild-beasts and of gladia- 
 tors. Finally, at the instigation of 
 
 his wife, the beautiful, brilliant, but 
 
 immoral Domitia, he was murdered 
 
 by the companions of his lusts and 
 
 cruelties. Nerva, an aged Senator, 
 
 xeio, now ascended the 
 
 96-98 A. i>. throne. He adopted 
 
 the energetic Roman soldier Trajan. 
 
 who was born in Spain, and appointed 
 
 him his successor. Trajan earned for 
 
 himself, by his domestic government, 
 
 the surname of " The Best," and by 
 
 Trajan, his Warlike deeds, the fame of the greatest of emperors. He estab- 
 osii7A.i>. lished justice, facilitated commerce bv the building of highways 
 
 and harbors, (Civitavecchia) adorned Rome with public buildings, temples, and 
 
 COINS OF HADRIAN. 
 
 i 
 
ROME. 
 
 227 
 
 a. new forum, where the senate and the people erected, to his honor, the still 
 existing cohimn of Trajan. At the same time he conquered the war-like Dacians 
 on the Danube, founded the province of Dacia, and settled it with Roman colonists, 
 in the East he made war upon the Parthians, conquered Babylon and other cities, 
 and transformed Armenia and Mesopotamia into Roman provinces. The country, 
 from the sources of the Danube to the Black forest, was given to Gallic and German 
 colonists, and protected against hostile invasions by a pale and trenches. It was 
 called Titheland, because the inhabitants gave a tenth part of the corn, fruit, and cat- 
 
 MArSOLEtni OF HADRIAN. 
 
 tie that they raised, to the Roman government; and the ruins of several cities and the 
 excavated antiquities, show that they shared in Roman culture. The most important 
 cities in Titheland were Constance on the lake, Baden-Baden (Aquee Aureliffi), at the 
 foot hills of the Black Forest, and Ladenbnrg on the Neekar. 
 
 Trajan honored culture, and loved the society of intellectual men like the historian 
 Tacitus. Pliny, the younger, was honored b}' him with a consulate, and appointed 
 governor of Bithynia. The latter, in a solemn panegyric, described for posterity 
 
(/'P-2-28.) 
 
 DESTRUCTION OF 
 
POMPEII. (H. Le Rovx.) 
 
 I pp. 2-29.) 
 
230 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 the excellencies and the achievements of his imperial friend. The correspondence 
 between Pliny and Trajan, give valuable notices of the care with which the emperor 
 managed the adminstration of the provinces. 
 
 § 162. Trajan's relative and successor, Hadrian, paid more attention to the defence, 
 than to the extension of the imperial borders, and found more pleasure in art, and 
 literature than in war. He was a sagacious and cultivated statesman, eager to increase 
 the ro^'al power, but vain and easily flattered. His love of knowledge and of art, led 
 Hnarinu, Mm to Undertake long journeys at first to the East, where he spent 
 iii-i3s A. B. much time in Greece, Asia, and Egypt, and then to the West, to visit 
 Gaul, Spain, Britain, and the regions of the Rhine. Among the writers, artists, and 
 
 orators of his court, the most import- 
 ant was the Greek Plutarch, the 
 author of the contrasted biographies 
 of Greek and Roman generals and 
 statesmen. These are especially cal- 
 culated to excite admiration for the 
 heroic deeds, and the lofty purposes 
 of antiquity. The ruins of his villa 
 at Tiber, his colossal monument, the 
 mound of Hadrian in Rome, and 
 numerous remains of buildings and 
 of statues, bear witness to Hadrian's 
 love for art. His favorite Antinous, 
 who was drowned in the Nile, he 
 commemorated in many statues and 
 monuments. 
 
 § 163. Hadrian's adopted son, 
 Antoninus Pius, was an ornament to 
 the throne. He avoided war, because 
 ^iifoniiiHs j>jHs, he would "rather 
 iss-iotA..D. preserve one citizen 
 than kill a thousand foes."' He 
 watched over the adminstration of 
 justice, founded schools, and relieved 
 poverty, so that his reign was the 
 golden age of the empire. His suc- 
 cessor, Marcus Aurelius, the philosopher, was as distinguished in war as in peace. 
 He protected the Eastern frontiers against the Parthians, drove the German tribes 
 3tai-n,s A.ui-euua, of tlic IcaguB of the Marcomanui back across the Danube, and 
 letiso A..D. defeated the Quadi in their own land. When, sometime afterward, 
 they broke across the frontiers once more, he undertook a second campaign against 
 them, and died at Vienna, before it terminated. He was a simple, strong man, who re- 
 mained faithful, even on the throne, to the severe morality of the Stoics. His wife 
 Faustina, the unworthy daughter of the pious Antoninus, and his adopted brother 
 and co-regent Lucius Varus, were, by their vices, in striking contrast with the Emperor. 
 He furthered culture and useful institutions : his noble maxims and purposes are re- 
 
 IT 
 
 MARCUS AURELIUS. 
 
ROME. 
 
 231 
 
 corded in his meditations, which he composed in the Greek language, and dedicated to 
 himself. Monuments and statues preserved to posterity the memory of the wise and 
 good prince. His bronze equestrian statue, and the Antoninus column, still adorn the 
 city of Rome. 
 
 § 164. The Roman empire rejoiced at this time in the highest civilization, 
 morally corrupt as the people had become. Arts and sciences flourished in the courts 
 of the emperors, and in 
 the palaces of the rich, tij 
 and among all classes. 
 Commerce and industry 
 prospered, and the dwell- 
 ing houses in the popu- 
 lous cities bore witness 
 of refinement and opu- 
 lence. In Rome and in 
 the more important 
 cities of the provinces, 
 schools were estab- 
 lished. The ruins of 
 buildings, highways, 
 and bridges, which we 
 fi_nd in Italy and in manj^ 
 provincial cities, the 
 statues, sarcophagi, and 
 altars, with their carv- 
 ings and inscriptions, 
 and the porcelain and ^^ 
 bronze vases of artistic 
 form, which are found 
 buried in the earth, all 
 give proof of the artistic 
 feeling and the culture 
 of the imperial age. But |i 
 morality, nobility of 
 soul, and strength of 
 character, were no 
 longer imposing, and 
 freedom was an un- 
 known good. The peo- 
 ple, no longer hardened 
 by war and agriculture, 
 became weak and fond 
 of luxury. They re- 
 joiced in the barbarous fights of wild beasts and gladiators in the amphitheater, and 
 abandoned themselves to the pleasures of the baths, with which the emperors provided 
 tlie capital, in order to draw away the citizens from serious things. Perseus lashed 
 
 MARCUS AURELICS LIBERATES THE CHIEF OF MARCOMANNI. 
 
 {From Arch in Capitol, Rome.) 
 
232 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 the degenerate race with the scourge of his satire, and sought to restore the old energ_y, 
 
 moralitj, and simplicit}-. The brilliant Juvenal unveiled, in his faithful and realistic 
 
 Ferseus, pictures, the deeps of crime and wickedness, to which his contempor- 
 
 3^-02^.0. aries had fallen. And the Greek Lucian in his wittv writings, mocked 
 
 all existing philoso- 
 phy', religion, and life, 
 hoping thereby to 
 destro}' the old and 
 to make room for 
 something newer and 
 nobler. But all these 
 wrote in vain ; a 
 higher power alone 
 could save the deca}-- 
 ing world. This 
 power had already 
 appeared, but the 
 blinded Romans rec- 
 ognized it not, be- 
 cause it came not in 
 the glory of dominion 
 but in the garb of 
 humilit}'. Jurispru- 
 dence also reached great perfection in this period. The intricacy of 
 public and of private life, and the lack of fidelity and honesty among 
 the people, compelled the working out of legal rights in all their 
 relations. The jurists of this age, Gains, Papinion, Ulpian, and 
 
 ROMAN CHARIOT RACE. (A. War/ne7\) 
 
 Jfitvenal, 
 
 loo A. n. 
 
 f 200 A. n. 
 
 Paul us, are the 
 classics of Roman 
 legal lore. 
 
 5. Rome Under 
 jNIilitary Rule. 
 §165. Commodus, 
 the son and successor 
 of Marcus Aurelius, 
 was a furious rufSan, 
 of great size and 
 strength, whose only 
 pleasure was in fights 
 
 Commoaus, with 
 
 iso-t»9 A. n. wild 
 animals and with 
 gladiators, who went 
 himself into the bull fight in the colosseum. (.4. 'Wagner.') 
 
 arena, who oppressed the people in every way, until he was finally murdered by 
 
234 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 A NAUMACHIA, OR MOCK SEA FIGHT. (A. n'agner.) 
 
 rertinajc, bj those about him. Pertiiiax, a really able ruler, soon died a violent 
 
 103 .4. D. death. After his murder, the Preetorian guard became so insolent that 
 
 septimitts seveitts, they sold the imperial throne to the highest bidder. Septimius Severus 
 
 103-mi A. D. was the first to restrain the violence of the soldiers by his implacable 
 
 severity, and to re- 
 stoi'e the authority of 
 the monarch. He 
 was a rough warrior, 
 who overcame his two 
 rivals for the throne, 
 and extended the em- 
 pire by conquests in 
 the East, where he 
 deprived the Par- 
 thians of Mesopota- 
 mia. He protected 
 the Britons, by a new 
 line of intrenchments 
 and fortifications, 
 against the Picts and 
 Scots, but he robbed 
 the senate of its re- 
 maining power, and put his whole confidence in his army. He thus became 
 the founder of military rule. To commemorate his deeds in Mesopotamia, 
 he erected the triumphal arch, which is still to be seen at the entrance of the 
 Forum. 
 
 § 166. Septimius 
 Severus died at York 
 (Eboracum), in Bri- 
 tain. His cruel sou, 
 Caracalla, true to his 
 father's teachings, 
 favored only the 
 soldiers, treating all 
 other men with con- 
 tempt. He murdered 
 his brother Geta, who, 
 by his father's will, 
 was to share the 
 throne with him ; he 
 put to death his 
 teacher, the great 
 jurist Papinian, be- 
 
 Caracalla, 
 
 GLADIATORIAL COMBAT. 
 
 {A. Wagner.) 
 
 cause the latter refused to justify the murder. In order to increase 
 9it-st7.i.B. the taxes, and to obtain great sums of money to defray his great ex- 
 penditures, he gave the right of citizenship to all the freedmen in the Roman empire. 
 
ROME. 
 
 235 
 
 The colossal ruins of the " Antonine baths '' with their arches, halls, and chambers, are 
 still standing in the south of Rome ; — a speaking witness to this great extravagance. 
 Meitogahoiua, Hc was finally murdered. His successor Heliogabolus, a priest of the 
 sis-gsnA.B. Syrian sun-god, was a weak and cruel profligate, who introduced the 
 service of Baal into Rome, and thereby destroyed the last remnant of old Roman 
 morality. The " God of Emesa," a black conical stone set with precious jewels, re- 
 ceived a sanctuary on the Palatine hill, and was worshiped by Syrian women in 
 sensual dances, while the Roman senate, arrayed in Asiatic costume, performed the 
 temple service. The wanton weakling was finally killed by the Prsstorians, who 
 
 CIRCUS MAXiMUS, ROME. ( G. Rehleiider.) 
 
 AiBDcanaer severus, gavo the throttc to his cousiu, Alexander Severus. The latter was a 
 222-23S A.D. niau of purB morals, who listened to his intelligent mother Mammaea, 
 a woman favorably inclined to Christianity. But Alexander proved too weak for his 
 difficult circumstances ; befoi'e his eyes the FrEetorians murdered their prefect, the 
 great jurist Ulpian, over whose severity they were greatly embittered. Artaxerxes, 
 on the Eastern frontier, overthrew the Parthians, and established the new Persian 
 kingdom of the Sassanides. These now invaded the Roman provinces. They re- 
 vived the old Persian worship of the sun, and of fire, and sought to awaken in their 
 people patriotic feeling and national ideals. 
 
236 
 
 THE ANCIEJfX WORLD. 
 
 § 167. The murder of the Emperor and of his mother, by rebellious soldiei's at 
 33ii .4. D, Mayence, brought the empire into such confusion, that twelve emperors 
 
 ^==S^ 
 
 ROMAN BALLISTA. 
 
 were made and unmade in twenty years. Philip Arabs who, like Alexander Severus, 
 2JJ-3JI9.4. ». was a friend of the Christians, sought to make his reign memorable by 
 
 a great festival, in honor of the thousandth 
 anniversary of the founding of the city. 
 a^o-»5i A. i>. His successor Decius, a 
 stern senator, and a man of old Roman 
 morality and religion, persecuted the 
 Christians, but was killed bj^ the Goths, a 
 German race, who had marched to the 
 lower Danube, and were making incursions 
 by land and water into the Roman empire. 
 After his death, the dissolution of the em-, 
 pire seemed so near, that the historians of 
 Gatiienus, that time speak of the 
 2J3-30S .4. n. period during which Gal- 
 lienus reigned in Rome, as the time of the 
 thirty t3n'ants. The East was invaded by 
 the new Pei'sians, and the northern front- 
 iers were threatened by the German tribes. 
 aes S70A.B. Claudius II. a skillful em- 
 peror, conquered the Goths in Pannonia, 
 but perished from the plague. 
 GERMAN STANDARD BEARER AND ROMAN GENERAL. b 1"°- Aurelianus uow became the 
 
 restorer of the empire. He conquered the 
 
 2-)o-s-s!s A.. B. disobedient generals, marched against the kingdom of Palmj'ra which 
 
 had been founded by Odauathus, in a Syrian oasis, and governed, after his death, by 
 
REVO:fiT OF THE PRAETORIA\ (.L \.RD». {II Lcutniiunn) ( pji 23" ) 
 
238 
 
 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
 
 the beautiful and lieroic queen Zeuobia. 
 
 KOMA> \\ARlUoK;? 
 
 The " City of Pahns "' beautiful for art, and 
 noted for its science and its commerce, 
 was destroyed, and Zenobia led captive to 
 Rome. Her teacher and counselor, the 
 philosopher Longinus, died a violent death. 
 The ruins of Palmyra still attract the 
 interest of travelers. In the North, 
 Aurelian restored the Danubian frontiers, 
 but gave the province Dacia to his enemies, 
 and transplanted the inhabitants to the 
 right bank of the river. And to protect 
 the capital from a sudden attack, he sur- 
 rounded Rome with a circular wall. 
 
 § 169. Aurelian was murdered by 
 his soldiers. Tacitus, his successor, was 
 killed in a campaign against the Goths. 
 
 Tiifitus. Probus then came to the 
 
 9«-2?e.4z>. throne. He extended and 
 
 completed the fr;intier wall, from the 
 
 i-rohiis. Bavarian Danube to the 
 
 S7e-ss3 A. B. Taunus. The traces of 
 
 this wall are yet visible, and are called 
 
 by the people " The Devil's Wall." He 
 
 AKCU HF 00.\'!>TANTINE. { Jv'llh\) 
 
ROME. 
 
 239 
 
 planted vineyards along the Rhine and in Hungarj% and improved the military ser- 
 
 cnwes, vice. But he too was murdered by iiis soldiejs ; and his successor, 
 
 asa-ass a. d. Carus, in a campaign against tlie Persians, was killed either by a stroke 
 
 Diocletian, of lightning or an assassin's knife. Diocletian, the wise and skillful 
 
 2S4 30SA.D. Dalmatian, who by his bravery and intelligence had climbed from 
 
 slavery to the command of the army, now ascended the throne. 
 
 § 170. He abolished gradually all republican forms, and took away from the 
 senate all political power. He then divided the empire, with a view to its better de- 
 fence. He assumed for himself 
 
 the title of Augustus, or chief em- ^^^^^fe ^^^^^ 
 
 peror, and ruled, in person, the '^^dai^^B' " n''^ 
 
 East together with Thracia. His 
 lieutenant, Gallerius, with the title 
 " Cfesar," governed the Illyrian 
 provinces. Maximianus received 
 also the title Augustus, and the 
 government of Italy, Africa, and 
 the Islands, while his son-in-law 
 Constantius (Chlorus, the Pale), 
 governed as " Cccsar " the Western 
 provinces, Spain, Gaul, and Britain. 
 Diocletian ruled the empire 
 for twent}" years, and restored it to 
 strength and prosperity. But he 
 was misled into a bloody persecu- 
 tion of the Christians, and thus 
 stained the later years of his 
 memorable and valuable life. The 
 sword of persecution still raged 
 among the disciples of the cruci- 
 fied Saviour, as Diocletian abdi- 
 aos .1. n. cated the throne, 
 in order to pass the last years of 
 his life at his country house in 
 Dalmatia, in peaceful leisure, and 
 to forget the confusion of the 
 world, in the decoration of his 
 palaces and of his gardens. But 
 
 313 A. n. the storms that broke over the empire found their way to his retreat. 
 His wife and daughter were murdered in the East, and he himself seems to have 
 shortened his own life, in order to escape shameful outrage. 
 
 § 171. A time of confusion and of civil war followed his abdication, and 
 
 not until Constantine, the son of Constantius Chlorus, took upon him the government 
 
 of the West, was tliis confusion ended. His mother Helena had won him over to 
 
 Christianity, and, under the banner of the cross, he defeated the cruel Maxantius not far 
 
 ainA.n. from the Milvian bridge, and when his adversary was drowned in the 
 
 CONSTANTINE IN BATTLE. 
 
 {A de Nevville.) 
 
240' 
 
 THE ANCIENT WOKLD. 
 
 Tiber, he marched into Rome. From here lie governed the West, wliile his brother-in- 
 law, Licinius, governed the East. But his ambition soon occasioned a new war, in 
 which Licinius lost the kingdom and his life. Thus Constantine became the sole ruler 
 
 sssA.Mt. of the Roman empire. He immediately issued the decree of Milan, in 
 which he protected the confessors of Christianity from further persecution. Never- 
 theless, he caused throngs of captives to be thrown to the wild beasts, and put to death 
 his wife Fausta, his noble son Crispus, and other relatives. 
 
 Conclusion. If we cast a glance back over antiquity, we easilj^ perceive that our 
 intellectual life and our culture struck root there. The East gave us our religious 
 ideas ; Greece gave us immutable models and rules for art; and Rome, by her jurispru- 
 dence, established human society in national, municipal, and private life, with such care 
 and intelligence, that the overwhelming authority of Roman law is still perceptible in 
 all the governments of the civilized Avorld. 
 
 MEDAL OF CONSTANTINE. 
 
SARACENIC ARMS. {Muse cCartiUerie, Paris.) 
 ( pp. 242. ") 
 
A. THE MIGRATION OF RACES 
 
 AND 
 
 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF MONOTHEISM. 
 
 I. THE TRIUMPH OF CHRISTIANITY OVER PAGANISM. 
 
 1. THE CHRISTIAN CHUECH OF THE FIRST CENTURIES. 
 
 § 172 
 
 
 HE Romans were very tolerant of the religious 
 of other peoples ; thej^ accepted not onl}" the 
 pantheon of the Greeks, but also the religious 
 life of the Orient, of Chaldea, Persia, Egypt 
 and Syria. But as Christianity admitted of 
 no alliance with paganism, as the christians 
 avoided anxiously all participation in the 
 pagan festivals and pagan ceremonies, as they 
 refused to serve in the army or to accept 
 office under the state, the hatred of the peo- 
 ple and the mistrust of rulers led to bitter 
 persecutions of the believers in the gospel, 
 who were to be found in all lands and in all 
 ranks of society. 
 
 Ten persecutions are recorded from the days of Nero, when Peter and Paul are 
 said to have been put to death, down to the first decade of the fourth centurj' when 
 Diocletian and Valerius drove the confessors of the crucified saviour by torture and 
 axe to the sacrificial altar and burned their churches and their holy scriptures. Even 
 Marcus Aurelius, the noblest of the Emperors, thought it necessary to break b}" 
 force the obstinacy of these supposed fanatics ; and the short reign of Decius is mem- 
 orable for one of the most violent of all these persecutions. But the cheerful readi- 
 
 (243) 
 
 - M^irrT^ 
 
244 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 ■•5-?*, 
 
 ness with which these martyrs bore pain and death increased the number of believers 
 so that "the blood of the martyrs" was rightly called "the seed of the church." 
 The persecuted hid themselves in subterranean galleries (Catacombs) among the 
 graves of tlieir beloved, in caves also and mountain gorges. Their afflictions intensi- 
 
 -^-^ fied their faith in God ; the number 
 _^ ^_~ j;=^^§ of apostates who delivered their bi- 
 
 1^ !i=^ "; ^> ^ ~ ^ bles to be burnt or offered incense 
 
 to the statues of the emperors was 
 small indeed, compared with the 
 stout-hearted confessors who held 
 fast in life and in death to their bap- 
 tismal oath, to fight manfully for 
 God and Christ. The poor and op- 
 pressed, the weary and heavy-laden 
 seized joyfully the message of salva- 
 tion, which gave to the believer 
 human rights, brotherly love and 
 consolation in this life, took away 
 also the sting of death, and de- 
 stroyed the victory of hell. During 
 the years of persecution Christianity, 
 through its indwelling truth and fav- 
 orable external circumstances, spread 
 in all directions, so that in the third 
 century, long before Constantino 
 placed it under the protection and 
 the favor of the State, it had crossed 
 the frontiers of the Roman empire. 
 
 2. CONSTANTINE THE GrEAT (325 
 
 — 337) AND Julian the Apos- 
 tate (361—363). 
 
 § 173. CONSTANTINE, when he 
 became sole ruler, removed the im- 
 perial residence to Byzantium which 
 from that time has been called Constantinople. This beautifully situated city he 
 fortified with walls and towers and adorned magnificently with palaces and churches, 
 with amphitheatres and works of art. He thereupon abolished the few remnants of 
 the ancient constitution, surrounded himself with a brilliant court of chamberlains, 
 ministers, court-officials and court servants and introduced a most oppressive system 
 of taxation. 
 
 For the better management of the great empire be divided it into four prefectures 
 — the Orient which included Thrace and Egypt, lllyricum which included Greece, 
 Italy which included Northern Africa, and the Occident (Gaul, Spain, Britain). 
 
 Each of these was divided into dioceses, and these latter into provinces. The last 
 years of his life Constantino devoted chiefl}'' to religious and ecclesiastical affairs; but 
 he postponed the baptism that was to cleanse him from all sin until a short time before 
 
 ROMAN CATACOMBS. 
 

 THE WIDOWS OF THE MARTYRS IN THE CATACOMBS. 
 
 (pp.245.) 
 
246 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 his death. He introduced the observance of Sundaj' and issued edicts concerning it : 
 lie founded many cliurches and endowed them with real estate from the public prop- 
 erty ; he gave the clergy freedom from taxation and other privileges ; he conceded 
 to the Bishops courts of their own ; per- 
 mitted legacies to be made to the church 
 and finally prohibited Pagan sacrifices and 
 festivals. The Christian Church began 
 now to take new shape. The presbyters 
 and bishops had been chosen hitherto b}^ 
 the church community and the principle 
 of fraternal equality had prevailed among 
 all christians. But now the priesthood 
 was separated from the people (clergy and 
 lait}'), and a hierarchj' was created in which 
 the bishops of the principal cities, as met- 
 ropolitans, presided ov5r the other bishops, 
 while the latter named the priests of theii 
 Sees and issued for them regulations. At 
 the same time the church service, which at 
 first consisted only of song, prayer, scriji 
 ture-reading and love feast, was made more 
 imposing by means of music and the othei 
 
 arts. BYZANTINIAN DKACON, lilSlluP AND LK\ITt. 
 
 § 174. Aeianism. Augustine. The Church Fathers. 
 
 Christian doctrine, also, did not long retain its original simplicity and purity 
 after man j- men made it the subject of investigation and reflection. The relation of Christ 
 to God especiallj' occupied their thoughts and they sought to fathom the m3'ster\^ of his 
 divine and human nature. In the time of Constantine violent conflicts arose between 
 the Alexandrian preacher Arius and Alexander, his bishop. The former maintained that 
 Christ, the son of God, was less tlian God, the Father, and depended upon him, while 
 the latter, supported by his deacon Athanasius, affirmed that God the Son was of the 
 same essence with God, the Father. 
 
 The first general council, which Constantine convened at Nicea, declared the 
 view of Athanasius to be the doctrine of the Catholic Church and this in the course 
 of time was elaborated into the dogma of the Trinity. 
 
 But the German races, Goths, Vandals, Lombards, who had received their Chris- 
 tianity from Arian missionaries continued to be Arians for centuries, and were on that 
 account denounced and persecuted by the Catholic Church as heretics. A middle 
 party, which taught that the Son Avas begotten of the Father from all eternity, but was 
 of like essence only and subordinate to him, maintained its influence in the East for 
 many years under the name of semi-Arians. Streams of blood were made to flow 
 for the sake of these propositions so inscrutable to the human mind. 
 
 A no less important conflict arose in the fifth Century touching inherited sin and 
 election by grace. Augustine, Bishop of Hippo in North Africa, maintained thai 
 human nature, through Adam's fall, had become unable to perform of its self any 
 good thing, and that the ability to live rightly could be imparted only by the gnice ot 
 
THE MIGRATIOX OF RACES. 
 
 247 
 
 God. A small pan of the human race was predestinated to salvation, while all others 
 were abandoned to destruction. This stern teaching was opposed by Pelagius, a 
 British Monk residing in Africa, who asserted that man may, by the power of his own 
 will, do that which is good and be saved. After j-ears of quarreling, a middle doctrine 
 was favored, which aimed to satisfy both the laws of the church and the demands of a 
 free moral intelligence. 
 
 The Christian writers of the first centuries were called the Church Fathers. 
 Their works, are all the more important, because the traditional or inherited doctrine of 
 the Catholic Church rests upon them. Tiie nearer they are to the age of the Apostles, 
 the greater is their authority, since it is assumed that the disciples of Jesus made 
 many oral statements to their contemporaries, which are not to be found in the Apostolic 
 writings and are perhaps discoverable in the Apostolic Fathers, the immediate suc- 
 cessors of the Apostles. They wrote some in Greek, others in Latin. Among the 
 
 Greek fathers, the most eminent are the 
 Alexandrian writers Clement and Origen, 
 the champion of orthodoxy Athanasius, the 
 founder of Church History Eusebius, and 
 the eloquent preacher John Chrysostom 
 (Gold-mouth) of Constantinople ; among 
 the Latins, Tertullian, Augustine and Jer- 
 coiN STRUCK BY THE SONS OF cuNsTANTiNE ome. The latter translated the Bible, and 
 THE GREAT. j^jg yersion known as the Vulgate is the au- 
 
 thorized Bible of the Roman Catholic Church. 
 
 § 175. Constantine had three vicious sons ; these, according to their father's will, 
 divided the empire between tliem. But in the year 337 after many deeds of violence 
 and bloody struggles the empire fell to Constantius alone. 
 
 
 ALEMANNi cuossi.N'G THE RHINE. {A. de N'euvUle.) 
 
 As he was himself busy in Asia he sent his cousin Julian to Gaul to protect the 
 
 conata,iti„s frontiers from the Germans, hi the old tithe-lands (§161) on the 
 
 337-301. Upper Rhine and near the sources of the Danube, the warlike Ale- 
 
248 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 maniii had won for themselves homes, which extended from Lake Constance to the 
 river Lahn near Coblentz. Fall of warlike energy, they tried to subjugate the lands 
 33i beyond the Rhine and made incursions into Roman Gaul. Julian de- 
 
 feated the Alemanni at Strasburg, crossed the river twice, drove back the Franks from 
 the Netherlands, and revived the ancient mili- 
 tary glory of Rome. But the emperor recalled 
 the best joart of his troops to send them against 
 the Persians. Julian remonstrated in vain. 
 The legions, angr}' at their recall, rose in mutiny A 
 and, in his favorite city Paris, proclaimed tlieu 
 commander emperor. Julian was prepaiuiL,/'; 
 himself for civil war when the death of Con- 
 stantius at Tarsus gave him the throne without/ 
 aoo a bloody struggle. Unopposed 
 
 he took possession of the imperial castle at 
 Constantinople as the ruler of the mighty em 
 pire. He sent away at once all superfluous 
 court-creatures, clothed himself in the greatest 
 simplicity, lived frugally and abolished all use- 
 less pomp and parade. He established justit( 
 restored the discipline of the army, and revi\ ed 
 its martial virtue. But although he brought 
 fresh vigor to the degenerate people, his zeal to 
 re-establish jjaganism greatly impaired the success of his efforts. 
 
 The severity of the Christian teachers of his youth had developed in Julian a repug- 
 nance to the gospel while his vivid imagination, together with his love for Plato's phi- 
 losophy (§§ 65, 72) and for the literature and poetry of the ancient world had made 
 him an enthusiastic admirer of Paganism. Hence he was called, by the Christian writ- 
 ers, " Julian the Apostate." And yet he was too just and too sagacious to jDursue the 
 Christians with bloody persecution. He was satisfied to banish Christians from his 
 presence and from the offices and schools of the state, to controvert their opinions in 
 his writings, and to restore the pagan worship with its festivals and sacrifices. To the 
 God of the Sun he himself sacrificed, sometimes, a hecatomb of steers with solemn cer- 
 emonies. Nevertheless, his endeavor to raise from tlie dead the corpse of paganism 
 and to revive the customs and institutions of a vanished time, was a foolish enterprise. 
 His last words were full of tragic meaning. He had undertaken a bold campaign 
 against the New-Persians and urged his victorious army be3^ond the Euphrates and the 
 Tigris, but enticed by the enemy into pathless mountain regions, had been compelled 
 to retreat. A deadlj'^ arrow struck him, destroying his life and his creations. " Thou 
 hast conquered, Galilean " was his dying confession. 
 
 Jovian Joviau, the effeminate, was his successor. He surrendered at once 
 
 303-364. the conquests of Julian and restored to Christianity her lostdominion. 
 T-nfe.is 36J-3IS. After his death the empire was divided, the Arian Valens ruling the 
 TuieiitiHint, east, while his brother, the rude warlike Valentinian I governed the 
 aej.37s. west. 
 
 INHABITANTS OF GERMANY DURINCt 
 
 3rd and 4th centueies. 
 
THE MIGRATION OF RACES. 
 
 249 
 
 §176. 
 
 II. THE MIGRATION OF RACES. 
 
 1. THEODOSIUS THE GREAT (379-395). 
 
 HILE Valens was ruling the east there came from the steppes of 
 central Asia a savage, ugly, well-mounted, nomad race, the Huns. 
 They overthrew the Alani, subjugated the East-Goths, whose aged 
 King Hermanric took his own life, and then attacked the West- 
 Goths. These were Christians, having received the gospel from 
 the Arian bishop Ulfilas, and therefore Valens gave them permis- 
 sion to cross the Danube, with their wives and children, and to occupy new homes. 
 Bribing the Roman officials, the West Goths retained their arms contrary to the agree- 
 ment with the emperor, 
 and when the cruelty 
 and greed of the im- 
 perial governor brought 
 them to the edge of 
 starvation, they u n - 
 sheathed the sword 
 once more, stormed the 
 city of Marcianopel, and 
 marched plundering and 
 devastating through the 
 land. Valens bore down 
 upon them jiromptly 
 with his legions, but was 
 defeated in the terrible 
 battle of Adrianople, and 
 lost his life in a burning hut to which he had fled for refuge. The victors, with ex- 
 ultant fury, now ravaged the defenceless land as far as the Julian Alps, and threatened 
 Offitiaii even the frontiers of Italy. In this crisis Gratian, the son of Val- 
 37a-3S3. cutinian, chose the intrepid soldier Theodosius, then living in exile 
 upon his estate in Spain, to be the ruler of the West. Theodosius soon brought the 
 Theottosiits War with the Goths to an end. A part of the enemy he settled in the 
 3-)o-3»s. lands south of the Danube, the rest he took as mercenaries into the 
 3S3. Roman army. Soon after this Gratian, the chase-loving pupil of the 
 
 poet Ausonius, was murdered in an uprising. Theodosius thereupon, having defeated 
 v€itentinian the leader of the rebellion, Maximus, the governor of Gaul, in open 
 383-302. battle, made Valentinian the younger, whose beautiful sister he had 
 married, the ruler of the West. 
 
 But nine years later Valentinian was the sacrifice of a conspiracy, of which Arbo- 
 gast the Gaul was the leader. Theodosius took the field against Arbogast and his 
 anti-emperor Eugenius and defeated them at Aquileja. Arbogast took his own life 
 and Eugenius was murdered just as he flung himself in the dust at the feet of the 
 Emperor. 
 
 THEODOSIUS. {Gold Medal.) 
 
(.Pp.^bQ.) 
 
 THE HUNS. {A. de NeuviUe.) 
 
THE MIGRATION OF RACES. 
 
 251 
 
 Theodosius now united East and West, for the last time, under one scepter. He 
 was a powerful but passionate prince ; in Thessalonica, for example, he put to death 
 7000 citizens to revenge the murder of the governor by an angry mob. For this he 
 was made to do penance by the fearless bishop Ambrose of Milan, and pei'formed it 
 willingly. This submission of the Emperor Theodosius was an acknowledgment of 
 the intellectual and moral power of Christianity, which was able to punish and to re- 
 strainthe misuse of imperial power. "Thus the church became the protector of pop- 
 ular liberty and saints assumed the parts of tribunes of the people." 
 
 Theodosius was a zealous champion of Catholic Christianity. He prohibited and 
 persecuted Arianism, forbade sacrifices and predictions and permitted the pagan tem- 
 ples to be plundered and destroyed. The sacred fire of the Vestals now expired, the 
 Oi'acles and Sibyls were struck dumb ; the pagan Gods perished before the belief on the 
 crucified Saviour. Only among the dwellers in remote country districts and mountain 
 regions did the pagan faith and sacrificial service continue for any time, either openly 
 or secretlj^ and it was soon despised by the cultivated as the religion of boors, 
 (Pagani). 
 
 At his death Theodosiifs bequeathed the East with lUyria to his son Arcadius, 
 a youth of eighteen, dependent upon his counsellor Rufinus of Gaul. 
 To Honorius, a boy of eleven only, he gave the West, but placed him 
 
 j/oiioi'iiis in charge of the sagacious statesman and skillful soldier, Stilicho. 
 
 395.J3.* The Empire remained, from this time on, divided. The ruler of the 
 West resided at Ravenna. 
 
 Areadins 
 
 S05-J0S. 
 
 2. West Goths, Burgundians, Vandals. 
 
 § 177. Envy and jealousy of Stilicho drove the treacherous Rufinus to entice the 
 daring Alaric, king of the West Goths, to attack the provinces of the Western empire. 
 Ravaging and murdering bands devastated Thessaly, IVIiddle-Greece and the Peloponne- 
 sus, trampling to I'uin the 
 remnants of Greek cultuie 
 until they were surrounded 
 by the armies of Stilicho m 
 Elis and forced to retreat 
 Shortly after this Alaiic, 
 
 4oa. who had 
 
 been appointed meanwhile 
 by the East-Roman court, 
 the commander and gov- 
 ernor of lllyria, invaded 
 Upper Italy, devastated 
 the banks of the Po, but 
 suffered such losses in 
 two battles with Stilicho 
 that he was compelled to return to lllyria and to wait for better days. Hardly 
 
 *o3. had he disappeared, when mighty throngs of heathen Germans, Van- 
 
 dals, Burgundians and Suevi under Duke Radagais broke into Italy, destroying cities and 
 
 -tors villages, and filling the land with pillage and murder. For these too 
 
 INROAD OF BARBARIANS. 
 
252 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 Stiliclio's skill and bravery proved destructive. Their leader fell ; thousands perished 
 by the sword, by famine and by disease ; others accepted Roman pay. The pieces of 
 the army fell upon Gaul where the Burgundians, after repeated plunderings, settled 
 along the Rhine and founded the Kingdom of Burgundy, which extended from the 
 Mediterranean to the Vosges mountains. The Vandals and Suevi crossed the Pyrenees 
 and conquered for themselves homes in Spain. The Suevi settled permanently in the 
 Northwest but the Vandals, two centuries later, crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and set- 
 tled in Northern Africa. 
 
 ^i>ji,LljMAIAM^t*^ -=' 
 
 STILICHO PARLEYING WITH THE GOTHS. 
 
 § 178. In his extremity, Stilicho had formed an alliance with Alaric, and prom- 
 ised him a yearly contribution of money. His enemies, especially the treacherous 
 j»s. Olympius, accused him therefore of high treason, and brought about 
 
 his execution in Ravenna. He sought protection at the sacred altars, but being 
 
{pp.2b?j) THE VANDALS IN ROME. {H. Votjel .) 
 
254 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 enticed away by treacherous promises, he was cut to pieces by a gang of murderers. 
 Alaric thereupon was appealed to by the adherents of Stilicho. Enraged- at the loss 
 of his friend and of his money, he marched into Italy, 
 besieged Rome, and compelled the frightened inhabitants 
 to purchase mercy with gold, silver, and costly garments. 
 410. But when the court of Ravenna rejected 
 
 his offers of peace, the Gothic chief appeared repeatedly 
 before the walls of the city of Rome, finally took it by 
 storm, and gave it over to his army for a three days' 
 plunder. Not long afterward, Alaric died in Lower Ital}^ ; 
 his coffin and his treasures are said to have been buried in 
 the ground, under the waters of the river Busento. His 
 brother-in-law, Athaulf (Adolph), made a treaty with coin of fifth century, show- 
 Honorius, by which he became the husband of the beau- ing head of paul. 
 
 4i2. tiful Placidia, the sister of tlie Emperor. He then led the West Goths 
 
 into South Gaul, and founded the West Gothic kingdom that originally extended from 
 the Garonne to the Ebro, and had Tolosa (Toulouse) for its 
 capital. But some years later, the Vandals having crossed 
 over to Africa, the West Goths conquered all Spain. The 
 Franks, however, compelled them to give up the district 
 between the Pyrenees and the Garonne. Adolph was mur- 
 dered while marching against Barcelona. Wallia succeeded 
 4/5. him ; Placidia, treated unworthily by the ene- 
 
 [ mies of her husband, returned to Ravenna, and was married 
 a second time. 
 
 § 179. Placidia's son, Valentinian HI, succeeded his 
 father Honorius. JEtius, a skillful soldier and able states- 
 vaientinian III. man, was his counselor. Bonifacius, the 
 ■t^s-tss. governor of North Africa, being an enemy 
 of -ZEtius, and fearing his wrath, rebelled against the empire 
 and called upon the Vandals, under their brave and cunning king Genseric, to come 
 over from Spain to his as- 
 sistance. He soon repent- 
 ed his folly, and opposed 
 them with his soldiers 
 when they came. But the 
 Vandals conquered him, 
 and took possession of 
 430. , North Af- 
 
 rica, where they estab- 
 lished the Vandal king- 
 dom, with Carthage as its 
 capital. They then con- 
 quered Sicily and the 
 Balearic Islands, and spread terror through the islands and along the coasts, by 
 430. their piracy. Hippo (now Bona) was besieged, and St. Augustine, 
 
 ATTILA, THE HUN. 
 
 THE HUNS AT AQUILEJA. 
 
THE MIGRATION OF RACES. 
 
 255 
 
 bishop of that citj', died during the siege. Bonifacius was finall}- reconciled to the 
 J3S. court of Ravenna, but soon afterward was killed in a fight against 
 
 Jitius. The Vandal kingdom of North Africa lasted for one hundred years, in spite 
 of frequent battles between the Arian Vandals and the Catholic Romans. Genseric 
 died in 477. 
 
 3. Attila, King of the Huns. 
 
 § 180. About the middle of the fifth century, Attila, " The Scourge of God," left 
 his wooden capital, on tlie river Theiss, in Hungary, in order to conquer the West 
 Roman Empire. More than half a million rude warriors, partly Huns, partly subject 
 or allied Germans, marched across Austria and Bavaria, to the valley of the Rhine. 
 They destroyed the royal family of Burgundy at Worms, ravaged the Roman cities 
 and then marched plundering and murdering into Gaul. J^;tius, with an army of 
 
 4S1. Romans, Burgundians, West Goths and Franks, met them at Chalons 
 
 on the river Marne, and defeated them with terrible slaughter. One hundred and 
 sixty thousand corpses covered the battle-field. The king of the West Goths was 
 among the slain and the legend that the spirits of the defeated fought in the air above 
 the survivors, attests the terrible fury of the battle. Attila defended himself against 
 
 453. his raging enemies, but withdrew to Pannonia, and in the following 
 
 year again invaded Upper Italy. Aquileja was destroyed; Milan, Padua, and Verona 
 besieged, and the fertile 
 vallej^ of the Po utterly 
 wasted. The inhabitants 
 of Aquileja sought safety 
 in the rock and sand is- 
 lands of the lagoons, and 
 laid the foundations of 
 Venice. Attila was about 
 to enter Rome, but 3nelded 
 to the entreaties of Bishop ^^"S'T, 
 Leo I., who induced him ' "* 
 to make peace with Val- 
 entinian, and to leave 
 Italy. The gratitude for stor:ming and sacking a roman town. 
 
 this unexpected rescue was so great, that the Avithdrawal of the ravager of Italy 
 vs^as ascribed to the appearance of the apostle Peter, who stood with drawn sword at 
 the side of his successor. Attila died suddenly in his Pannonian camp, either from a 
 
 453. hemorrhage, or at the hands of his Burgundian bride, with whom he 
 had celebrated his wedding the night before. His death arrested the development of 
 the kingdom of the Huns. The East Goths and the Longobards, after desperate 
 struggles, conquered their independence, while the ruins of the kingdom of Attila, and 
 of his army, were lost in the steppes of Southern Russia. 
 
 4. Destruction of the West Roman Empire. 
 
 § 181. The Roman dominion now hurried to its end. Valentinian killed with 
 
 454. his own hand the brave JEtius, the last support of the kingdom, 
 
256 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 because he feared the greatness of the man and resented his independence. But he 
 
 J55. soon lost his own life at the hands of Petrouius Maximus, whose wife 
 
 he had seduced. While reviewing his troops on the field of Mars in Rome, he was 
 
 CAPTIVE ROMAN MAJUEN SERVING BARBARIANS. (A. Be A'eUvUle.) 
 
 murdered by two conspirators, before the eyes of the people. Petronius having seized 
 the throne, sought the hand of the imperial widow, Eudoxia. But she spurned the 
 murderer of her husband, and determined to call in the Vandals to accomplish her 
 
 revenge. Geriseric landed in Austria, con- 
 quered Rome, and permitted his soldiers to 
 plunder the city for two weeks. Loaded 
 with booty and captives, among them the 
 empress and her two daughters, the Van- 
 dals returned to the coast of Africa, and 
 carried on their piratical trade with greater 
 boldness than ever. After some timeRici- 
 mer, the commander-in-chief of the foreign 
 mercenary troops in Rome, a brave, astute, 
 but blood-stained man, acquired such influ- 
 ence, that he ruled the kingdom until his 
 death. He did not assume the imperial title, 
 tfcs-rfja. but set up and removed em- 
 perors at will. They were all instruments 
 in his hands, even Anthemius, a relative 
 of the Byzantine court, under whom East 
 and West united in a campaign against 
 the Vandals. The campaign failed, either through the treason, or the folly o'l itr 
 commander Basiliscus; and the fleet was lost by fire. Three years after the dc a i a 
 JJ5. of Ricimer by the plague, Orestes, his ambitious general, placed tlie 
 
 empty crown upon the head of his son Romulus Augustulus. The German soldiers of 
 
 ROMAN EMPEROR AND COURTIERS. 
 
THE MIGRATION OF RACES. 
 
 267 
 
 the empire now demanded one-third of the soil of Italy. When this was refused them, 
 
 jjo. their leader Odoacer, put Orestes to death, took for himself the title of • 
 
 king of Italy, and made an end of the West Roman Empire. To the harmless Romu- 
 lus Augustulus, he gave an estate in Lower Italy and a pension. Ten years later Chlo- 
 4se. dowig, king of the Franks, conquered the Roman governor in Gaul. 
 
 ROMULUS AURUSTULUS AND ODOACER. (v5. MorUlig.) 
 
 These two events laid the foundations for new conditions in Europe ; "conditions based 
 upon Christianity and German character. 
 
 § 182. Theodoric the East Goth. — Odoacer had been ruling for twelve years, 
 
 when Theodoric, king of the East Goths, marched from the Danube into Italy, at the 
 
 instance of the Emperor at Constantinople. Two hundred thousand warriors, with 
 
 their wives, children, and possessions, followed him in long trains. Their numbers 
 
 17 
 
258 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 ■tso. were too great for Odoacer to resist. He entrenched liimself behind 
 
 the walls of Ravenna, but after a brave defence, which lasted for three daj's, he sur- 
 
 ■toa. rendered upon honorable terms. But a short time afterward, he was 
 
 slain by the Goths, at a riotous banquet. Theodoric established his kingdom at 
 Ravenna, and ruled with wisdom and justice, from the southern capes of Italy to the 
 Danube. He respected ancient laws and institutions ; he protected commerce, agri- 
 culture, and industry ; reserved the conduct of war for himself and the Goths, and 
 gave his soldiers a third part of the land. He appointed counts, from among his offi- 
 cers, to administer justice in disputes between the two peoples, and with sagacious 
 tolerance maintained religious peace. Learning and culture shared in this protection, 
 and cultivated Romans, like the historian, Cassiodorus, were appointed to important 
 offices. In foreign countries, the renown of Theodoric was so great, that kings 
 brought their differences to his judgment seat. Not until shortly before his death was 
 he tempted to crueltj'. Boethius and his father-in-law, Symmachus, were executed bj' 
 him, because he suspected them of having urged the Emperor at Constantinople to 
 drive the Goths out of Italy. Boethius composed in prison his famous " Consolations 
 
 5«e. of Philosophy." This cruelty provoked the irrreconcilable hatred of 
 
 the Catholic Romans. The ashes of the " accursed heretic " were cast out of the 
 colossal sepulcher, in Ravenna, and scattered to the four winds. Nevertheless, this 
 " Dietrich of Berne," so celebrated in song and story, lives on in history, the lofty 
 figure of a great and pacific German prince. 
 
 6 Chlodowig (Clovis) King of the Fbanks and the Merovings. 
 
 § 183. The Franks lived anciently on the lower Rhine : they were a German 
 tribe, a powerful people, who fought with spear and battle ax ; bold, cunning, ener- 
 getic. At one time they united several German tribes on the shores of the Rhine into 
 a powerful league, known as the league of the Franks. Their oldest kings were 
 Pharamund and MerovEeus. When the cunning and courageous Chlodowig became 
 their ruler, he led them forth to battle and to conquest. He overcame the Roman 
 cModowia governor, Sj'agrius, at Soissons, took possession of the land between 
 
 (Clovis) the Seine and the Loire, then attacked the Alemanni, who inhabited 
 
 ^si-sii. both sides of the Rhine. He defeated the latter in a bloody battle, 
 and subjugated the territorj^ between the Moselle and the Lahn. In the heat of the 
 fight, Chlodowig had vowed that if the battle, then wavering in the balance, was determ- 
 J96. ined in his favor, he would accept the faith of his Christian wife, 
 
 Chlotilda of Burgundy. So in the same year, he, with three thousand nobles of his 
 train, were baptized in the cathedral at Rheims. But his savage heart was not made 
 soo. gentler by his baptism. He conquered the discordant Burgundians, 
 
 sot. overcame the West Goths, extended the kingdom of the Franks as far 
 
 as the Rhone and the Garonne, and then sought, by the murder of all the Frankish 
 chiefs, to secure for himself aiid his descendants the government of the entire king- 
 dom. His zeal for the extension of the Catholic doctrine among the Arian Germans, 
 was so great, that he was praised by the clergy as the "most Christian" king, and a 
 second Constantine. Chlodowig and his successors are known in history as the Mero- 
 vings or Merwings, a name derived from the ancient chieftain jNIeroviius. 
 
 § 184. The vices of the father descended to his four sons, who divided up the 
 
DEATH OF BRUNEHILD. (F. Keller.) 
 
 ( m^- 259. ) 
 
260 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 511. kingdom after bis death, so that the oldest received Austrasia with its 
 
 capital, Metz; and the three younger, Neustria and Burgund)-. Under Chlotar 1. and 
 
 Chlotar II. the whole kingdom was united. But the story of the Merovings makes a 
 
 sss-ots. horrible picture of human wickedness. Fratricide and murder, bloody 
 
 MUKDEii OF THE Mi;u(i\ iM.it. BY CLOVis. ( Vierije.) 
 
 civil wars, and outbreaks of unbridled passions fill up their annals. Bishop Gregory, 
 of Tours, has written the story in the simple style of the books of Judges and of 
 Kings. The wicked deeds o/ the two queens, Brunhilde and Fredegonde, are espe- 
 cially infamous. At last the descendants of Chlodowig became so impotent that they 
 are known in history as the helpless kings. The steward of the royal estate (Major 
 
THE MIGRATION OF RACES. 261 
 
 Domus) gradually acquired authority and power. The only transaction of the feeble 
 iMerovings was their annual visit to the assemblies of the people, where they appeared 
 upon a wagon drawn by four oxen. At first, each of the three kingdoms had its own 
 OS7. Major Domus, but Pijjpin of Heristal was able to unite the dignities 
 
 of Neustria, Burgundy, and Austrasia into one great office, and to make it hereditary 
 in his own house. Pippin's descendants, known as " Dukes of the Franks," thus 
 acquired the royal power, while the Merovings retained only the royal name. The 
 Franks devoted themselves entirely to war. As a consequence, Roman culture soon 
 predominated, even in Frankish Gaul ; the language, the customs, and the legal insti- 
 tutions of the Romans, continued to exist, and the blonde-haired kings of the Franks 
 occupied the place of the Roman emperor. 
 
 7. The Anglo Saxons. 
 
 § 185. Britain was abandoned by the Roman armies about the middle of the 
 fifth century. The inhabitants, too weak to resist the attacks of the savage Picts and 
 Scots, sought help from the Angles and the Saxons on the lower Elbe. These bold 
 free-booters, well-known for their courage and their swift moving boats, followed the 
 
 440. call, and crossed the British Islands, under their two leaders Hengist 
 
 and Horsa. But no sooner had they driven the Picts and Scots back to Caledonia, 
 than they turned upon the natives, and conquered, after a terrible war, the land to 
 which they gave their own name Angle-land, or England. Heathen barbarism, and 
 German customs drove out the Christian Roman culture, language, and law. The old 
 Roman cities disappeared, and Britain returned to primitive conditions, in which the 
 war and the chase, agriculture and pastoral life alone remained. The Britains were 
 mostly killed by the sword. A few escaped to the opposite coast of Gaul, which is 
 now called Brittany. Only in the mountains of Wales and Cornwall, did the Celtic 
 inhabitants retain their independence and their national peculiarities. The rest of 
 England came into the possession of the Anglo Saxons, who established in it seven 
 small kingdoms. These remained separated from each other until the ninth centurj^ 
 
 a27. when Egbert, of Wessex, united the seven kingdoms of the Hep- 
 
 tarchy, and called himself King of England. Heathenism yielded to Christianity in 
 the seventh century, when the Benedictine monk, Augustine, with his missionaries, 
 
 5»o. arrived in Kent. The King and his nobles were baptized, and the 
 
 arch-bishopric of Canturbury established. The legends of King Arthur and his round- 
 table belong to this period of struggle, between the Christian Britains and the heathen 
 Anglo-Saxons. 
 
 8. The Byzantine Empire and the Lombards. 
 
 § 186. The Court of Constantinople blazed in oriental splendor, and abounded 
 in women and favorites, who made and unmade emperoi's by their intrigues and their 
 crimes. An insolent bodj^-guard like the Praetorians, and an excitable population, 
 made the government very difficult. The people found pleasure only in religious 
 disputes, and in the rough diversions of the Hippodrome. They were di- 
 vided into the " Blues " and the " Greens," names taken from the colors of the 
 charioteers of the Hij^podrome. These parties hated each other mortally, yet exer- 
 
26-: 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 cised upon the empire and the government, upon the faith and the church, a powerful 
 
 siistiiiiau iufluence. Sucli were the circumstances when Justinian, a man of 
 
 BH7.S0S. humble origin, ascended tlie throne. He put down the " Greens," who 
 
 had stirred up a rebellion against him, and who were especially hated by the Empress 
 
 Theodora (the daughter of a doorkeeper in the circus), for a personal insult she had 
 
 B3S. received at their hands. Belisarius, his general, was active in their 
 
 suppression, and the Hippodrome was closed indefinitely. The Justinian code, or 
 
 corpus juris, of which the Pandects are' the essential 
 parts, was compiled by his minister Tribonian. He 
 obtained also, through guile, silk-worms from China, 
 II and introduced the culture of silk into Europe. He 
 built the church of St. Sophia, in Constantinople, 
 fortified the empire by castles along the Danube, 
 BYZANTINE MEDAL. ^^^^^ persecuted Pagans and Arians. His favorite 
 
 maxim was " One will, one law, and one faith." 
 
 § 187. Vandals and Goths were Arians, and, as both these kingdoms were in a 
 shattered state, Justinian determined to make war upon them, and by conquering 
 their lands, to restore his empire to the extent that it had possessed in the time of 
 Constantine. Belisarius, the greatest general of his time, subdued the Vandals in a 
 S33. few months, for these were divided by religious quarrels, and their 
 
 last king, Gelimer, was taken prisoner to Constantinople. The land was handed 
 over to an East Roman governor. The 
 AriaTi faith was rooted out, the young Van- 
 dals were drafted into the imperial army, 
 and the stolen treasures carried away to 
 Constantinople. About this same time, 
 Amalasunta, the noble daughter of Theodoric, 
 was murdered by the Gothic prince, Theoda- 
 tus, whom she had called to a share in the 
 536. government. Justinian de- 
 
 termined to revenge her, and sent Belisarius 
 to Italy. He conquered Rome, and de- 
 fended it, with military skill and heroic 
 courage, a whole year against Vitiges, 
 wliom the Goths had made king in place 
 of Theodatus. Astonished at the bravery 
 of Belisarius, the Goths offered him tlie 
 630. throne, and surrendered to 
 
 him their capital, Ravenna. He took it in 
 the name of the Emperor, but did not es- 
 cape the envy and the slander of the court 
 
 5JO. favorites. He was recalled in the midst of his victories, and sent to 
 
 the East to fight the Persians. The Goths thereupon rebelled, lifted the brave Totila 
 
 5^4. upon his shield, and greeted him as King. Totila soon re-conquered all 
 
 Italy. Belisarius was then sent back, but so poorly provided with troops and money, 
 
 5JS. that he could accomplish little. He crept along the coast without 
 
 BYZANTINIAN WARRIOR AND MAJOR DOMUS. 
 
264 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 venturing a decisive battle. Justinian recalled him in anger and drove him into dis- 
 grace. A later legend tells how, as a blind old man, he begged a miserable subsistence. 
 ssa. His successor was Narses, a supple courtier, but at the same time, a 
 
 552. hero like Belisarius. At Tagina, Totila received a mortal wound, and 
 
 the bravest of his warriors were left on the battle-field. The remnant of the army 
 653. now chose Tejas for their king, but after many bloody battles, he too 
 
 fell at the head of his braves, and only a small company escaped across the Alps. 
 
 § 188. Narses, as imperial governor of Ravenna, now ruled the conquered land. 
 But after Justinian's death, Narses was removed, not, however, before he had called 
 the Lombards into Italy. They came with satisfaction ; for they loved to wander, 
 and they were acquainted with the charms of Italy. They marched under the 
 
 5«s. leadership of Alboin, to the 
 
 regions of the Po, which received from them 
 the present name of Lombardy. They be- 
 seiged and captured Pavia, and made it the 
 capital of their kingdom. Alboin fell a victim 
 to the vengeance of his wife, the beautiful 
 Rosamunde. He had slain her father, Kuni- 
 'mnnd, king of the Gepidse, and made a drinking 
 5J3. cup of his skull ; and at a riot- 
 
 ous feast he compelled the daughter to drink 
 from it. Rosamunde was so embittered by this 
 outrage, that she caused his death. The rough 
 Lombards treated the natives with violence, 
 and robbed them of their possessions. But the 
 fertile fields soon showed the signs of German 
 skill and energy. The Roman organization of 
 cities, wliich had fallen into decay, was renewed 
 by the German Lombards. A powerful nobility 
 of dukes and counts stood at the head of the 
 war-like nation, and the kings were chosen in 
 the assemblies of the people, or, as they were 
 called, in the " fields of May." The Lom- 
 bards shared with the old Roman population their culture, especially as the Romans 
 accepted from their conquerors the Arian faith. This Lombard kingdom lasted for 
 two centuries, but finally fell to the Franks. 
 
 § 189. The glory of Justinian's empire soon disappeared. The throne of Con- 
 stantinople was stained with blood and crime. Emperor succeeded emperor. Blinded 
 eyes, mutilated ears and noses belonged to the daily events of this God-forsaken court. 
 And yet Constantinople remained the seat of culture and learning, notwithstanding this 
 
 xeo tfce vileness and moral wretchedness. Church affairs still continued to excite 
 
 laaiirian. great interest in the imperial city. Statues and relics in the churches 
 threatened to produce a new idolatry, and Leo, the Isaurian, issued an edict, requiring all 
 
 ')is.74:i. statues and pictures to be taken from the churches. This created a storm, 
 which shook the empire for a century. Two parties, image-worshippers and image- 
 
 BYZANTINIAN EMPEROR AND PAGE . 
 
THE MIGRATION OF RACES. 
 
 265 
 
 Cotistantine 
 Copronym ns, 
 
 of images as an 
 
 ieo. IV. 
 
 breakers, made war iqDoii each other. Leo's energetic son, Constantino, 
 nick-named by his enemies, Copronymus (the dung-heap), followed his 
 father's example. He eovened a council, which condemned the worship 
 "invention of the devil," and punished the incorrigible with death and 
 exile. Leo, the Fourth, belonged also to these image-breaking emper- 
 77B.7SO. ors. But after liis sudden death, his widow, L-ene, called another church 
 Irene SOS. council, which repealed the former action, and restored the images 
 to the churches. But this ambitious and passionate woman put out the eyes of her 
 ov/n son, and then drove him into poverty. She carried on the government for five 
 years v/ith energy and audacity. It is said that Karl the Great, was arranging a mar- 
 riage with her, in order to unite the East and the West, when she was driven from the 
 throne by a conspiracy. She died at Lesbos, in poverty and wretchedness. Leo, the 
 S13-S20. Armenian, and his descendants made another attempt to remove the 
 images from the chui'ches. This, however, 
 was not so violent, and was brought to an 
 end by the empress. Basilius, the Mace- 
 soj. donian, began a new 
 
 dynasty, that ruled for two centuries, and 
 brought new strength to the empire. The 
 decrees against images were not recognized 
 in the West, yet a church council, con- 
 vened by Karl the Great, at Frankfort, con- 
 demned the abuse of images in the church. 
 
 BYZANTINIAN EMPRESS AND PRINCESS. 
 
 9. The Slavs. 
 
 §189. h. The Slavs were called Wends 
 by the Germans. They are one of the "€__ 
 great families of Europe ; the Germans, 
 Komans, and Celts being the other three. 
 They lived for centuries on the wooded 
 heights of the Carpathian mountains, 
 whence they were driven by Asiatic hordes 
 into other lands, to seek new homes. Some 
 migrated northward, and settled in the 
 plains and steppes, where the Scythians and Sarmatians had for ages pastured their 
 flocks and herds. Others moved to the South and West, and occupied the lands va- 
 cated in the great migrations of the fifth century. Russians and Poles, the Wends of 
 Moravia and Bohemia (Czechs), and those of Silesia, are of Slavonic origin. The 
 Slavs in modern Germany are for the most part merged with the Teutons, whose 
 ancestors settled in Pomerania and Prussia. 
 
 Other tribes occupied the lands between the Danube and the Adriatic Sea, Dal- 
 matia, Bosnia, Croatia ; and IMacedonia, Greece, and the Peloponnesus were invaded by 
 them. In language, customs, and ori.uin they were closely related, but divided into 
 countless separate groups. Their religion was a worship of idols, connected with 
 human sacrifices. It was based upon the reverence for beneficent, and their dread of 
 the maleficent powers of nature. Swantowit was the chief God of the West Slavs. 
 
266 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 His temple was at Arkona, on the island of Riigen, in the Baltic. Thither went all 
 the Wends of the Oder and the Elbe, to worship his four-headed image. Perun, the 
 god of thunder and lightning, was tlie supreme god of the East Slavs. Czernabog, the 
 
 wicked head of the black deities and 
 spirits of the under world, was another 
 to whom they sacrificed. The Slavs 
 are lively and excitable, possessing, 
 also, many domestic virtues and amia- 
 ble social qualities. They soon forget 
 in songs and dances, the cares and 
 burdens of life ; but when excited, 
 easily exceed the limits of modera- 
 tion. In former centuries, they were 
 counted bloodtliirsty, vindictive, and 
 faithless. Proud of their nationality. 
 
 x'^ Hers and characteristics. The pas- 
 sion for cultui'e, and for ideal exis- 
 tence, they did not share with tlie 
 Roman and the German races. The 
 Roman lands occupied by the Slavs 
 were turned into waste places, while 
 those conquered by tlie Germans 
 blossomed into beauty and fertility. 
 Oppressed by the Germans and 
 
 MOH.^MMED. (Ideal.) 
 
 treated as slaves, they have returned hatred for contempt. Devoted to pastoral and 
 agricultural life, they are notable in war, chiefly for their cavalry. In their morals they 
 incline to the Orient, and woman is by no means regarded as she is among the Germans 
 of the West. 
 
 III. MOHAMMED AND THE ARABS. 
 
 § if^o. 
 
 iRABIA FELIX (Happy Arabia), is the southwest district of 
 
 Arabia. It is fruitful in coffee, frankincense and costlj^ spices. 
 
 Here used to live a people capable of great culture, and powerful 
 
 in their haughty independence. They worshipped nature and tlie 
 
 stars ; a black stone in the Kaaba at Mecca was their national 
 
 holy of holies. The Koreishites were the guardians of the Kaaba, 
 
 and to it came throngs of pilgrims every year, who made it famous 
 
 for its fairs and festivals and poetical contests. The Arabs had grown rich througli 
 
 commerce and caravans and the breeding of horses. They delighted in poems and leg- 
 
 jvo/inm inert cuds. It was amoug these Arabs that Mohammed was born in the year 
 
 sji-032. 571. He came of an honored priestly family among the Koreishites. 
 
 He grew up a merchant, and made many journeys in the caravan trade. In his 
 
THE MIGRATION OF RACES. 
 
 267 
 
 travels and at Mecca, the meeting-place of the Semitic races, he found opportunity to 
 observe the morals and the inner life of men. He thus became convinced that the 
 relicfion of the Christians and Jews was greatly superior to that of the Arabs. His 
 niarriao-e with the rich widow, Kadijah, made him independent ; he withdrew from the 
 
 bustle of life, and began to ponder 
 how he could redeem his people 
 from their low estate. The wait- 
 mg of the Jews for a Messiah, the 
 piomise of Jesus to send a com- 
 forter, so wrought upon his mind, 
 that he came to feel and to pro- 
 claim, " I am he of whom the world 
 has need." His epileptic seizures 
 favored his belief, that he had in- 
 tercourse with angels, and visions 
 from on high. 
 
 § 191. Mohammed was just 
 forty years old when he began to 
 cry : " There is but one God, and 
 ^ Mohammed is his Prophet." But 
 c except his wife Ayesha, his father- 
 s in-law Abu Bekr, his uncle Ali, and 
 < a few other relatives and friends, 
 s he found none to believe in his mis- 
 ^ sion. A threatened outbreak com- 
 Z pelled him, indeed, to flee from 
 J Mecca to Medina (Hidsehiah, 
 ^ July itt, ons. He'gira. The first 
 % year of the Mohammedan Calen- 
 ^ dar). At Medina he found adher- 
 g ents, with whom he made excur- 
 sions, and through whom he finally 
 conquered from the Koreishites, 
 the liberty of returning to Mecca. 
 His revelations (from the angel 
 Gabriel) were ecstatic utterances, 
 frequently adapted to existing cir- 
 cumstances. These were collected, 
 two years after his death, into the 
 Koran, which is divided into Suras. 
 This is the law and the gospel of 
 the Moslems. Mecca recognized 
 Mohammed as a prophet, and his 
 doctrine, Mam, soon spread over all 
 Arabia. In it he combined fun- 
 damental doctrines of Judaism and 
 
268 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 SIGNATURE 01 
 MED. 
 
 A.bti Sekt'r 
 
 032-034 
 
 Christianity, witli many maxims sanctified by long usage, and peculiarly grateful to 
 the Oriental mind. 
 
 Ablutions, i^rayers, fasts, pilgrimages to Mecca, and the giving of alms, he ur- 
 gently inculcated. He retained the rite of circumcision, prohibited strong drink and 
 pork, and permitted polygamy. A chief commandment was to propagate Islam, and to 
 compel its acceptance, if need be, by fire and sword. Human life and human fate 
 are determined from eternity ; death and misfortune reach no 
 one, save by the pre-existing will of God. " To battle ! " 
 therefore cried the prophet's disciples " Paradise is full of pleas- 
 ure for us ; there, waited on by black-eyed virgins, we shall 
 oaif. gaze upon the face of God." In the eleventh 
 
 of the Hegira, Mohammed died. Mecca, where he was born, 
 and Medina, where he is buried, remain to this hour the 
 sacred resorts of thronging pilgrims. The Prophet united 
 seriousness and dignity in conduct and bearing, with a cheerful 
 and engaging nature, and a handsome person. He was gentle 
 simple and domestic in his habits, but rather too susceptible to 
 the love of women. 
 
 § 192. Ali, husband of Mohammed's only daughter Fatime, hoped to be his 
 successor (Caliph). But while he was weeping over the Prophet's corpse, Abu 
 
 Bekr, the father of Mohammed's artful 
 wife, managed to make himself the 
 I Caliph. The siaiple, energetic Omar followed him. The 
 enthusiastic Arabs carried their new doctrine beyond 
 tlie bounds of Arabia, Moslems (Musselraen, Saracens) 
 conquered Palestine and Syi'ia, entering as victors 
 
 o34,.o4:-t. Jerusalem, Antioch and Damascus. Khalid " The Sword of God," 
 and the cunning Amru, led the hosts. Persia yielded after a series of bloody battles. 
 The last king Jezdegerd fled, like Darius before Alexander, with the holy fire into 
 the mountains. There he fell by the hand of an assassin. Eastward now the Arabs 
 050. marched, carrying Islam into India. The worship of the Sun died 
 
 out before it, and it became the prevailing religion 
 of the East. The new cities Basra, Cufa, and 
 Bagdad became the centres of commerce, and the 
 seats of luxury and splendor. Amru marched from 
 Syria to Egypt, conquered Alexandria (destroying 
 the great library), and reduced Memphis to ashes. 
 Cairo arose from the camp of the Moslem general^ 
 and the gospels were pushed aside by the Koran. 
 
 § 193. Omar was stabbed by a Persian slave. 
 
 o*4-oso. ger of the Koran, obtained the caliphate. Twelve years later, he be- 
 came the victim of a conspiracy, and Ali at last ascended the chair that belonged to him. 
 But the family of the murdered Othman, the Ommiads, opposed him, provoking a civil 
 GGi. war, in which Ali perished and all his liouse. The Ommiads obtained 
 
 the caliphate, and transferred the seat of power to Damascus. They conquered 
 C3'-prus, Rhodes, and Asia Minor, and besieged Constantinople. Greek fire saved the 
 
 COIN OP RHODES. 
 
 COIN OP CYPRUS. 
 
 Othman, the collector and arran- 
 

270 
 
 TUK Mlnni.K AGK. 
 
 fl«.s-.<i;.i. iniiiori;\l inty. Tliis was propan-il in tlio ImKls of shijis, and forood in 
 
 sti'oams iluMUgh ouppor pipes, upon tiio hostile vessels. 
 
 Jj l!'l, 'I'lie norili coast ol" Al'rica was eoniinered at the same time, Imt only after 
 a long war, in whieh C^hristian enllni'eaml (Mirislian religion were 
 aiinihilaieil. Ivairawan in the terrilmy oi' 'I'unis, a spot siir- 
 r>mnded by snuling meadows, beeame the llourishing eapital of the 
 Saraeeii kingdom, and the centre of the caravan trade. North 
 Africa, once the seal oi' Roman I'ivili/ation, now iHsnppcared from 
 the circle of cidiixaied nations. Kediuun tribes fonndcd tlioir 
 robber commonwealths upon the ruins of the ancient splendor. 
 Sicily, likewise fell into the hands of the Arabs, and became the 
 ceidre id" piratical excursions to the coasts of Italy. 
 
 j^ lOo. In the beginning of the eight century, the West (lOth 
 Hoderigo, robbed Icing AViiid/.a of the Spanish throne. The 
 sons of the banished king, and other discontented Spaniards 
 
 thereujHiu called the Moslems into AtViea. Tarik, the j\rab general, crossed the 
 
 en.vui.i'.s M.vii'i'Ki.. 
 
 cnART.Fs :MAKt'Fi. i\ 1 n>, 1 A 1 ii.v. o. loinv.iJs. {Pli/thh innnn.) 
 
 straits, laid the foundations of Gibraltar (^Gebel nl Tarik"). and conquered the West 
 tit. Goths. In the battle of Xerxes, the flower of the West Gothic soldiers 
 
'I'lIK Mir;l!A'riON OK HACKS. 
 
 271 
 
 cover(;(l ll 
 (Moors; ': 
 withilrow. 
 
 Killlo fi(-lil, iiiid Kin^' Kodei'igo was drowned in liisfliglit. TlieArjdjs 
 
 iicriMl all S]/aiii iis lai' as Asturias, into tVie liills of wliicli tlie Webt Gotlis 
 
 lie Saratioiis crossod tlie J'yrenees, conquered South France as far as the 
 
 Kiionc, and threatened the kingdom and 
 
 Christianity with destruction. JJut Charles 
 
 Marlel Ti'he Ifammer), the natural son of 
 
 till; Major Donuis, Pippin of Heristal, over- 
 
 7:r^. came thein in a seven days' 
 
 hatlli; at 'J'oiirH and I'oitiers. The Arabs 
 
 n;turned to Sjiain, and Charles Mailel was 
 
 the savior of Western Christendom. 
 
 ^ 196. Eighteen years after this vic- 
 toiy, the Oinrniads were driven fioni the 
 tljrone by the Ahbasides, who destroyed 
 7r.o. their rivals by a teriilile mas- 
 
 sacre. Abderrahman, however, escaped the 
 destructiftn of his family, and after many 
 dangers and adventures reached Spain 
 7r.r.. where he founded theCaliph- 
 
 ate of Cordova. The Aljbasides chose the 
 splendid Bagdad for their capital. Uarun al 
 rjAMPKADoii o.v HIS HOUSE Kaschid, the coiitemj.orary of Karl the Great. 
 
 " HABiECA." 7H«-Hint. ruled this city with such re- 
 
 TIIK AI.IIAMI'.UA OK (IKANArtA. 
 
 nown. that his name has become immortal in the Arabian nights Rut the culture, 
 the splendor, and the luxurious life of Bagdad destroyed the war-like energy of the 
 
272 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 Saracens, so that the Liter Caliphs became the phiythings of their Turkish bod)^ guards. 
 Tlie commander of tlie guard (Emir al Omra) soon usurped all temporal power, and 
 left to the successors of the prophet only tlie dignity of a spiritual prince. 
 
 § 197. Spain flourished wonderfully under the Ommiads. Populous cities sprang 
 up : industry and agriculture prospered ; mines were opened ; rich villages, fertile 
 farms, splendid palaces with their gardens and fountains, l.ike Alcazar in Cordova, and 
 Alhambra in Grenada, proved the prosperity of the land. Arts and sciences were also 
 patronized, but when the Ommiud dynasty disappeared, Spain was split up into many 
 
 toss. small states, which were finally overcome by the Christians in the 
 
 North. These dwellers in Asturias 
 extended their territory by suc- 
 cessful wars, so that finally three 
 kingdoms were established, Castile, 
 Aragon, and Portugal. These were 
 independent of each other, but 
 carried on perpetual war with the 
 Arabs of the South. These strug- 
 gles produced in the Christian 
 Spaniards fanaticism, pride, and a 
 passion for war. The deeds of the 
 god-inspired champions, especially 
 
 looo. of the great Cid 
 
 Campeador, were handed down in 
 song, and kept alive the courage 
 and the chivalry of the Spanish 
 nobility. But civic freedom also 
 flourished in the Spanish cities. 
 tsis. The victory of 
 
 Tolosa in the Sierra Morena, 
 broke forever the power of the 
 Moors. A generation later, Cor- 
 dova and Granada recognized Fer- 
 
 is^s. dinand of Castile 
 
 as their sovereign, and the Moors 
 no longer ruled anj'where in Spain. 
 
 § 198. Ill all the lands inhabited by the Arabs, arts and sciences flourished. 
 Mosques, palaces, and gardens were found in all their cities. Industry and commerce 
 made them wealthy, but also made them weak. Architecture, decorative sculpture and 
 painting (Arabesques), music, song, and poetry were patronized and richly rewarded. 
 The system of notation, introduced in the eleventli century by the Italian Guido, of 
 .4i'ioeii>in fioay. Arezzo, was borrowed probably from the Spanish Arabs. High schools 
 were established in Damascus, Bagdad, Cairo, Cordova and Salerno, whei-e grammar 
 and philosophy, natural science and medicine, mathematics and astronomy, were 
 taught. The Arabs erected observatories, and recoi'ded their observations in astrono- 
 mical tables. They introduced Arabic numerals and were the most famous physicians 
 of the middle ages. Tliey translated the writings of the Greeks, especially those of 
 
 ARISTOTLE. (Fahsio Spada, Borne.) 
 
THE CID WITU DONNA XIMENA ORDERS THE BURNING OF A CADI. 
 
 18 
 
 (A. de Neuville.) 
 {pp. 273.) 
 
274 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 Ai'istotle, whose magnificent S3'sten: became tlie foundation and substructure of the 
 investigations and systems of the Moliammedan philosopliers, Avicenna and Averroes 
 Afei-i-oca f//os, audtiie Jewish-Arab philosopher, jMaimonides. They were exceedingly 
 3i<iin,oni<ies-\t2o-4.iond of lyric and narrative poetry. The Arabian Antara, Mutinabbi, 
 jniitniinbhi !»«<;. and others were at one time celebrated names, and the Persinn poets 
 firviiisi fio3o. Firdusi (author of the famous epic Shahname), Saadi and Hafiz are 
 snaiti -fiiot. known to all European peoples in translations. Firdusi's epic tells 
 Hafix -fisso. the story of the kings and heroes of Iran, and the later Persian his- 
 tory down to the overthrow of the Sassanids. It is in two parts. The first tells the 
 story of the chief hero Rustem, the second is a rhymed chronicle, and treats especially 
 of the deeds of Alexander. 
 
 CHILDEBERT. 
 
B. THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 I. THE ERA OF THE KARLINGS. 
 
 § 198. 
 
 1. PIPIN THE LITTLE (752-768). KAEL THE 
 GREAT (768-814). 
 
 HE Austrasiaii dukes, Pipin of Heristal and Karl 
 Martel (§§ 184, 194), had through martial deeds 
 won the confidence of the nation, and through 
 their zeal for the spread of Christianity, tlie 
 favor of the clergy. People and priests combined to 
 place Pipin upon the Prankish throne. For when Ma- 
 jordomus or Steward of the Palace, Pipin the son of 
 Karl Martel confined the last of the Merovings in a 
 cloister and had himself proclaimed King by a national as- 
 sembly. The choice of the nation was confirmed by the 
 Pope of Rome, who sought to secure in the King of the 
 Franks, a support against the Lombards in Upper Italy and against the image-break- 
 ing Emperors (Iconoclasts) of Constantinople, under whose sovereignty the eternal city 
 stood. In return for his solemn coronation, first at the hands of the Bishops of the 
 Kingdom, and afterwards of Pope Stephen III. who consecrated him King " by the 
 grace of God," in the cathedral of St. Denis, Pipin freed the Roman see from the 
 domination of the Byzantine emperors, and promised the Pope, in a personal interview, 
 to cede to him a part of the Adriatic coast south of Ravenna. This " donation of 
 Pipin " which was afterward drawn up in the "deed of Kiersy " and deposited in the 
 papal archives is the basis of the temporal power of the Pope. Yet the pontificate did 
 not come, until later,into permanent possession of this great addition to the so-called 
 Patrimonium Petri,the beginnings of which existed already in the days of Gregorj' the 
 Gi'eat. 
 
 To this period belongs Boniface (properly Winfred) one of those active mission- 
 aries from England who, under the protection of the Karlings, proclaimed the doctrine 
 
 (275) 
 
276 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 of the Crucified liedeemer to the rude inhabitants of Germany. He preached in Hesse, 
 where he founded the Abbey of Fukla, and among theThuringians, Franks and Bavarians, 
 establishing everywhere bishoprics and schools, so that for his energy and zeal he was 
 
 BONIFACE IN GERMANY. (Peter Janssen) 
 
 called the " Apostle of the Germans." After his appointment as archbishop of Mayence, 
 he went among the heathen Frisians by whom he was put to death. He and his com- 
 panions were attacked during worship by a hostile mob ; he made no resistance and 
 was cut down holding the gospels above his head. The sees and schools established 
 by him were closely connected with the papal chair, and as the Karliiig rulers favored 
 this connection, the Pope of Rome came to be regarded throughout the whole Frank- 
 ish empire, at the close of the eighth century, as the Head of the Chuech. As a 
 consequence, the earlier independent foundations were gradually incorporated into the 
 Roman Catholic church. 
 
 § 199. Pipin " the Little " or " the Short," as he came to be called, ruled for sixteen 
 y«s years ; under his energetic administration the kingdom of the Franks 
 
 extended far into South and Middle Germany, and at his death he divided it between 
 his two sons Karl and Karlmann. When, three years afterward, the latter died the es- 
 771 tates of the realm declared Karl sole sovereign of the Franks. The 
 
 widow and sons of Karlmann fled across the Alps and found protection with Desider- 
 ius the Lombard king in Pavia. Desiderius was angry at Karl who was his son-in-law 
 as he had recently driven away his wife. 
 
 Karl waged many wars ; nevertheless he furthered Christian civilization and civil 
 
THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 277 
 
 KARL THE GREAT. {Albrecht Burer.) 
 
 order. In order to protect his frontiers, and at the same time to extend Christianity, 
 he fought the League of tlie Saxons thirty-one yeai's. Tliis league consisted of several 
 heathen tribes along the Weser and the Elbe. They lived without cities, in free com- 
 
THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 279 
 
 munities, under their counts and nobles, and they were fighting for their dearest posses- 
 sions, liberty and the religion of their forefathers. Kad conquered the Eresburg in the 
 
 772. south of the Teutoburger forest, destro3'ed the Irminsaul, the giant tree 
 
 which according to the belief of the people supported the univei'se, and compelled the 
 Saxons to make peace. This accomplished he obeyed the call of Pope Hadrian against 
 
 lya. Desiderius, the Lombard king, who had invaded the Roman territory, and 
 
 tried to compel the Pope to consecrate the two sons of Karlmann kings of the Franks. 
 
 Karl collected his forces at Geneva, crossed the Alps at St. Bernard, stormed the 
 
 passes and conquered Pavia. Desiderius was imprisoned in a Frankish cloister ; and 
 
 soon after his son Adalgis was conquered at Verona, Karl had himself crowned king 
 
 77-t. of the Lombards at Milan, united Upper Italy with the kingdom of 
 
 the Franks and confirmed to the Pope the "donation of Pipiu." 
 
 BATTLE IN THE VALLEY OP RONCESVALLES. {H. Vogel.) 
 
 § 200. During Karl's absence the Saxons had driven away the Frankish garrisons 
 jyj-jij. and restored the old frontiers. Once more the king appeared in 
 
 their land. His following proved too strong for the Saxon tribes, who entered the 
 field in separate bands. Karl conquered them anew, fortified the Weser with castles 
 and, in Paderborn, compelled the chiefs of the Saxons to surrender. One only refused 
 to sign the treaty of submission, Duke Witukind who took refuge with the Danes. 
 
 The two following j'ears Karl fought against the Moors in Spain ; conquered Pam- 
 
 jjy. peluna and Saragossa and annexed all the country as far as the Ebro, 
 
 including Barcelona, to the Frankish kingdom. But returning from Spain, the rear- 
 
280 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 guard of Karl's armj, under Roland, suffered a terrible defeat in the valley of Rouces- 
 valles, in which the bravest heroes of the Franks were slain. This figlit of Roland was 
 a favorite theme of medieval poets. (Roland's song, § 249). 
 
 The absence of the king in Spain encouraged the Saxons to rebel again. They dev- 
 ise, astated Thuringia and Hesse with fire and sword, compelled the monks 
 of Fulda to fly and swept lilvc a flood to the Rhine. Karl hurried promptl}' to the rescue 
 and overthrew them again. He then introduced the Frankish system of districts and ju- 
 diciary and placed only Franks or friendly Saxon nobles in authority. But when he 
 attempted to use the Saxons against the Slavs in the East, they fell upon their com- 
 rades, the Franks, at Suntal (between Hanover and Hameln) and cut them to pieces. 
 This demanded revenge. The Frankish officers devastated the homes of the Saxons and 
 9S3. slaughtered 4500 Saxon prisoners to atone for the massacre. The war be- 
 came only more savage. But it was finally determined against the Saxons at the battle 
 tss. of the Haase. Dukes Witukind and Albion took the oath of fealt^^ and 
 were baptized. The people followed their example. A number of new bishoprics were 
 established around Cologne and Mayence, for the maintainance and spread of Christian- 
 ity among the Saxons. But a few years aftei', a long dreaded free military service, and 
 the demand of the church for a tenth of the harvest, provoked another i-ebellion, which 
 led to the expulsion of 10,000 Saxon families and the planting of Frankish settlements 
 in their land. This broke their resistance forever. The Mark Brandenburg was 
 created by Karl the Great as a means of defence and a base of operations against the 
 Slavs east of the river Elbe. 
 
 § 201. Thassillo, Duke of Bavaria, and his Lombard wife also attempted to conquer 
 independence, but were defeated, captured, and shut up by Karl in a cloister. The 
 savage Avars of Pannonia also provoked him ; he drove them back and took from 
 tliem the best of their territory. 
 
 Karl the Great was now 
 master of all lands from the 
 Ebro in Spain and the Apen- 
 nines in Italy to the Eider in 
 North German}!', and from the 
 Atlantic Ocean to the Elbe and 
 the Raab. To him, at Pader- 
 born, came the exiled Pope Leo 
 ni, seeking protection and help. 
 Karl betook himself to Rome at 
 once and restored Leo to the 
 papal throne. In a solemn trial, 
 over which the King presided, 
 the Pope was acquitted of the 
 charges made against him , in 
 the church of St. Peter Karl 
 
 MANUSCRIPT AND SIGNATURE OF CHARLEMAGNE. j 1 il T> T?,. 
 
 was crowned by the 1 ope Lm- 
 necember soo. PEROR OF RoME. This made Wcstem Christianity into a politico- 
 ecclesiastical unity, "a divine empire on the earth," of which the Pope was the spiritual 
 and the emperor, the temporal head ; " the two swokds " were to stand together 
 
282 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 mutually recognizing and supporting each other, yet independent and self-subsistent. 
 This led to the complete separation of the Western and Eastern churches, (the Roman 
 Catholic and the Greek Catholic). 
 
 § 202. The internal administration of Karl was no less successful than his military. 
 He improved every branch of government. He set aside the dukes of the tribes, 
 divided the whole kingdom into counties, appointing a count for each, and royal 
 inspectors to hear the appeals of those dissatisfied with the decisions of the counts. * 
 He appointed stewards to manage the crown lands, and to collect their revenues. Laws 
 and ordinances, called capitularies, were determined upon by the Emperor, with the 
 advice of the Bishops and the nobility, and confirmed in assemblies of the people, in 
 which all freemen had a voice. He favored agriculture and the education of the 
 people, had copies made of the works of Latin writers, and began a eollectiou of old Ger- 
 man heroic ballads. Scholars like the monk Alcuin and the chronicler Eginhard 
 rejoiced in his favor and support. To the clergy he decreed a tenth of all revenues, 
 and gave them besides many presents ; he introduced the Roman church music, and 
 sent missionaries to the heathen that the gospel might be preached, and churches and 
 monasteries created. Aachen (Aix la Chapelle) was his favorite residence, next to 
 this, Ligelheim on the Rhine. Frankfort on the Main was built orginally about a 
 sidi. castle of the Frankish king. He died in 814, and his body lies in the 
 
 church of the Virgin Mary at Aachen, a church in Old-Roman style, built for him by 
 Eginhard. His renown was so great among his contemporaries, that even Haroun 
 al Raschid (§ 195) sent him costly presents from the distant East. His handsome, 
 majestic form, and his powerful frame still moves in legend and in song a monumental 
 imperial figure of Mediaeval Christendom, the first great example of the organizing 
 genius of the Teutonic races. 
 
 2. Dissolution of the Frakkish Empire. 
 
 § 203. Karl's son, Ludwig the Pious, belonged rather to the cloister, than the 
 8i4-a4o. court or the army. A premature division of his states among his 
 three sons Lothar, Pipin and Ludwig brought much sorrow to himself and great con- 
 fusion to the nation. For when he sought to change it in favor of a fourth son, the 
 two elder sons rebelled against him. Ludwig abandoned by his vassals on the " Field 
 of Lies," at Strasburg, and betrayed by his sons, was imprisoned by Lothar in a 
 cloister. He was reinstated by his son Ludwig, but after Pipin's death this same son 
 took arms against him to redress another unjust division. Dying broken hearted, he 
 S40. left his sons to quarrel with each other. The civil war that followed 
 
 so wasted the kingdom, that the bishops and nobles compelled the brothers to sign the 
 s^3. treaty of Verdun. By this compact Lothar obtained Italy, Burgundy, 
 
 and Lorraine (Lothar-ingen) with the imperial title ; Karl the Bald received West 
 Frankia (France) ; and Ludwig the German, the lands on the right bank of the Rhine, 
 with Spire, Worms, and Mayence. 
 
 The tribes in the East now began to form a nation and were called " Deutsche " 
 to distinguish them from the Latin races of the West and the South. The treaty of 
 Verdun marks the birth hour of the German and the French nation. The unity of the 
 
 * "If a count fails to do .justice, let the inspectors take possession of his house and live at his expense 
 until he does." So runs a law of Karl the Great, 779. 
 
ARMS AND ARMOR OF THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 , Neck Helmet. 
 
 , Sliiiulder and Ann Sliiekl. 
 
 , 4, Knee Anndr, 
 
 . Kettle Dunn. 
 
 . Long Bow. 
 
 . Cross '■ 
 
 . Ai-balest. 
 
 , 10, 11. Arrows. 
 
 . Herald's Trumpet. 
 
 . Signal Horn. 
 
 14 Helmet. 
 
 15. Neck Armor. 
 
 16. 17. Helmets. 
 18, 19. Sabres. 
 
 20. Shield of IStli Century. 
 
 21. •' '■ 12rli 
 
 22. " " nth 
 
 23. Helmet of 12tli " 
 
 24. Double-handed Long 
 Sword. 
 
 25, 26. 27, Battle Lances. 
 
 28. Tournament Armor. 
 
 29. Blunt Practice Lance 
 Liglit .Service Lance. 
 
 37. Costume or Knights of 13tl) 
 
 century. 
 
 38. Dagger. 
 
 39. Stylett. 
 
 40. Martel de Fer. 
 
 41. Francisques. 
 
 31. Blunt Practice 
 
 32. Light Service 
 
 33. Double-handed Kris Sword42. Lochabei- Axe 
 
 34. 35. Ecus, or Shield 11th and43, Stylett. 
 12th Centuries. 44. Dagger. 
 
 36. Bracounifere. 45. Crow's Foot, 
 
 (283) 
 
284 
 
 THE Mn)ULE AGE. 
 
 Frankish empire was dissolved ; in future, the peoples of Germanic and Romanic 
 speech would move to their development along widely separated paths. 
 
 § 204. A time of great confusion followed the treaty of Verdun. Arabs in the 
 South, Slavs in the East, Normans in the 
 North and West made havoc in Europe. 
 The Karling rulers, too weak to save their 
 dominions, were forced to concede to the 
 counts of the different marks hereditary 
 authority. Thus it happened that all 
 power came into the hands of the nobility. 
 
 Karl the Fat, who came unexpectedly 
 into possession of the imperial crown, and 
 
 sf«.ss7. the entire inheritance of 
 
 Karl the Great, was too weak to resist the 
 daring Normans and therefore made with 
 them a disgraceful peace. 
 
 His nephew Arnulf, of Bavaria, re- 
 belled against him and the embittered Ger- 
 man nobles flocked to Arnulf s standard. 
 After the death of the emperor, France and 
 Italy fell into anarchy, but Arnulf ruled 
 Germany with a strong hand. He defeated 
 
 {qi^wiiiiii-iiiiiiiiiriiii'ii'mii™ 
 
 KING KARL THE BALD. 
 
 SOI. the Normans, and with the help of the Magyars destroyed the mighty 
 
 kingdom of Moravia. These Magyars or Hungarians took possession of the lowlantjs 
 
 of the Danube, and became for Germany a 
 more terrible scourge than either Avar or 
 Slav had ever been. Arnulf died in the 
 prime of his manhood, after a glorious expedi- 
 tion into Italj^ leaving an infant son Ludwig 
 to occupy his throne. The Magyars now in- 
 vaded the land and forced the payment of a 
 yearly tribute. 
 
 This continued until the Dukes of Ba- 
 varia, Swabia, Saxony and other German 
 Princes elected Conrad of Franconia as their 
 King. For the Karling line had died out 
 000-911. with Ludwig the cliild. Ger- 
 many was now an elective monarchy, yet the 
 ruling line was seldom departed from, until 
 it failed of an heir. 
 
 § 205. The Karlings ruled in France 
 longer than elsewhere, but without energy a,nd 
 S9S-920. without influence. Under 
 Charles the Simple the dukes and counts 
 made themselves quite independent of the crown, and the mightiest of them Hugh of 
 Paris, imprisoned the feeble king for a long time. On the other hand, Charles freed his 
 
 FKANKISH KING AND QUEEN. (10th Century.) 
 
THE MIGRATION OF RACES. 
 
 285 
 
 Kingdoru from the piracies of the Normans, b}^ giving to RoUo the province now called 
 Normandy, on condition that he and his followers would be baptized and I'ecognize the 
 King of France as their liege lord. The Normans soon adopted the language, the man- 
 ners, and the life of the French. They restored the ruined cities and increased the cul- 
 ture and prosperity of the land by agi-iculture,laws, and an established justice. Charles 
 the Simple was followed by two more Karling Kings, Louis D'Outre-Mer and his son 
 Lothar. But their power was at last so limited that they possessed 
 only the city of Laou and vicinity ; all the rest was in the hands of 
 the defiant nobles. 
 
 Louis V. son of Lothar died childless, whereupon Hugh Capet son and heir of 
 oao-o87. Count Hugh of Paris assumed the royal title, and when Charles of 
 Lorraine asserted his claim as rightful heir, he was conquered and confined for life in a 
 dungeon. 
 
 o3e-os-t. 
 
 oa-i-ose. 
 
 § 206. 
 
 n. NORMANS AND DANES. 
 
 HE Scandinavians are a Teutonic people. They share with the Ger- 
 mans the love of freedom and of activity, the migratory impulse, and 
 have the same language, religion, and customs. Their Viking ex- 
 peditions carried them in all directions, and they confided life and 
 property boldly to their boats on the stormy sea. As Normans 
 they ravaged the coast of the Baltic and the North Seas, sailed 
 with their little ships ''nto the mouths of rivers, and returned to 
 their homes laden with spoils. As Danes, they terrified the English and forced from 
 them a heavy tribute. The Norwegians dis- 
 covered and peopled the distant Iceland, and 
 founded on the island a flourishing com- 
 munity, with the religion and language, and 
 the laws and institutions of the mother 
 country. Certain Norman Vaeriger were 
 sea. called to the dominion of the 
 
 lands on the Gulfs of Finland and Both- 
 nia, by the Slavic inhabitants. Ruric, prince 
 of the Russians, established himself in Nov- 
 gorod, and became the father of a race 
 that ruled Russia, till the end of the six- 
 teenth century ; although his posterity 
 adopted the manners and the language of the 
 natives. Greenland was discovered and col- 
 onized by the Icelanders, and even America 
 
 is said to have been known to the Normans. These Normans loved the chase, war, 
 and feats of arms. Agriculture, and the raising of cattle, they turned over to their 
 slaves. Fidelity was their chief virtue, and the love of poetry the only tenderness of 
 these rude men. Their singers (Skalds) celebrated, in epics and other poems, the 
 mighty deeds of their forefathers. The Edda (Wisdom) is the most famous collection 
 
 NORMAN SHIP. 
 
286 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 of these heroic songs, and exists in two forms. Ansgar, Bishop of Hamburg, preached 
 Christianity with great zeal among the Scandinavians, as early as the ninth century. 
 But the worship of Odin did not yield to the new faith for more than two centuries. 
 
 § 207. England, under the weak successors of Egbert, suffered especially from the 
 Danes. They plundered the sea-coasts and the river shores, and destroyed the Chris- 
 Aifrea the Great, tian churches and cloisters. Even Alfred the Great Was driven by 
 
 S71-001. them from his throne, although after long wandering he succeeded, by 
 cunning, bravery, and vigilance, in putting a stop to their incursions. Several com- 
 panies of Danes, who had been converted to Christianity, settled in Northumberland. 
 And Alfred devoted his strength to the cultivation of his people. Like Karl the 
 Great, he divided the country into 
 communities and districts, and ap- 
 pointed counts and aldermen to 
 be administrators of justice. He 
 founded churches and schools; he 
 collected the Anglo-Saxon heroic 
 poems, and translated the writing of 
 Boethius. In all important matters §^5^^\ | 
 he counseled with the Witenagemot, >-§w$5^J>Si\ 
 an assembly of nobles. Himself a 
 model of upright life, Alfred ac- 
 customed his people to intelligent 
 and regular activity. But under his 
 successors the Danes of Northumber- ^ 
 
 1002. land were massacred 5^4r*" 
 
 bjf the Anglo-Saxon population. 
 Thereupon Swe^ai " The Lucky," ^ 
 king of Denmark and Norwa)', 
 renewed the expeditions of plundei 
 ^^ith such success, that his son, Can- 
 ute the Great, united the En 
 
 caitiite, lish crown with the 
 
 loie-ioas. Danish and Nor 
 
 wegian. He was a wise and just 
 
 '/^^^^ 
 
 ALFRED THE GREAT IN HIS STUDY. {A. cLe NeuvUle.) 
 
 ruler. He made a commercial treaty with the German emperor, Conrad H, and 
 proved his reverence for the holy father in Rome by a pilgrimage. After the 
 death of Canute and of his sons, Edward the Confessor, a scion of the old 
 Eiitcai-a the 'royal family, ascended the throne. Edward had spent much 
 confesaof, time with liis relatives in Normandy, and acquired a love for 
 1049-1009. Norman habits. He favored therefore the foreigner at the expense 
 of the natives, and at his death appointed Duke William of Normandy to be his 
 successor. The nation rebeled and chose Harold king. But at the battle of 
 looo. Hastings (or Senlac), in which Harold and the flower of the Anglo- 
 
 Saxon nobility lost their lives, William the Conqueror became Lord of England. 
 The Normrtu Duke having been accepted by the people, introduced many new condi- 
 tions, lie enriched his Norman knights with the estates of the conquered Anglo- 
 
28S 
 
 TIIK MIDDLK AGE. 
 
 Saxons, gave the principal oluireh oflioos to his friends, made tlie Freneii language the 
 language of the realm, and established Norman law. A single battle thus sufficed to 
 change the character of England. The living and powerful English nationality of 
 to-day is a blending of different people, different laws, different manners and customs, 
 different poetry, and different language. 
 
 § 208. Robert Gniscard (the Cunning) was a Norman nobleman of handsome 
 K,>hfrt «iiiwnr<f fomi and enterprising mind. He conquered, by his bravery and shrewd- 
 
 tosH.tosa. ness, the largest part of Lower Italy. He called himself King of 
 Apulia and Calabria ; recognized the Pope 
 as his liege-lord, and saved Gregory VH from 
 the revenge of Henry IV. His brief career 
 powerfuUj'- influenced the history of the 
 Papac}', and the subsequent histor}^ of 
 Western Europe. Boemund, his heroic sou, 
 extended his dominions by new conquests, 
 while Robert's brother, Roger, took Sicily, 
 with its two cities, Palermo and Messina, 
 from the Arabs. The stories of the blessed ' 
 coasts of Salerno, of the eternal spring of 
 the South, with its sweet fruits and its treas- 
 ures, attracted many energetic Normans 
 to the charming region. Robert's house 
 
 itoger II. died out. His nephew Roger 
 
 itao-iis*. II. united Sicily with Lower 
 Italy, received the kingly dignity from 
 the Pope, and founded the kingdom of 
 Naples and Sicily, into which he introduced 
 the feudal system, and the judicial prac- 
 tice of France. This kingdom became exceedinglj^ prosperous ; it had a good consti- 
 tution, justice was carefully administered, there were fine schools at Salerno and 
 Amalfi, agriculture, commerce, and industry were fostered. Nevertheless the courage, 
 the energy, and the customs of the Normans were gradualh'- undermined. These 
 beautiful lands remained for fifty-six^years in the Irands of Roger, and his successors, 
 and then passed to the Hohenstaufens. 
 
 NORMAN LADIES AND NOBLEMAN. 
 
 {11th Genturij.) 
 
 III. 
 
 § 209 
 
 THE ASCENDENCY OF THE GERMAN ROMAN EMPIRE. 
 
 1. The Saxon Dynasty. (919—102-4.) 
 
 ERMANY had become, through the violence of its nobles and the 
 invasions of the Hungarians, a land of chaos and of barbarism. 
 Conrad the Salic king, the first freely chosen monarch, tried 
 earnestlj'and with great severity, to bring about a better state of 
 things. The disobedient Counts, Erchanger and Berchthold, who 
 liad changed their count-ship into dukedoms, and tried to escape 
 from Conrad's royal authority, were swiftl}^ beheaded. Their mortal enemy Salomo, 
 
EDITH FINDING THE BODY OF UAKOLD AFTER THE BATTLE OF HASTINGS. {A. de NeuvUle.) 
 
 19 {pp. 289.) 
 
290 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 the rich and sagacious bishop of Constance, wrought tlieir ruin at the meeting of the 
 diet. Conrad I. was a manly prince of imposing stature, generous and cheerful. But 
 in his terrible wrestle with the opposing forces of his time, his noble nature was under- 
 mined, and his strength prematurely broken. When he perceived that his children 
 were neither intelligent nor successful, and that his land was in danger from the pow- 
 tienru tiie Foiviet; crful Duke of Saxony, with whom he had carried on war for many 
 oio-oaa. years, he urged the elevation of his former antagonist, Henry the 
 Fowler, of Saxony, to the throne. This energetic prince increased his kingdom 
 
 toward the North and the West and 
 the East. In the North he estab- 
 lished Schleswig, in the West he recon- 
 quered Lorraine, and in the East he 
 founded the Markneissen, to keep off the 
 Slavs. At the same time he did his ut- 
 most to Germanize the Wends in the 
 Eastern lands, and to win them for Chris- 
 tianity and civilization. The Magyars, 
 who every j^ear broke over the land 
 trampling down the corn-fields, with the 
 hoofs of their horses, were induced to 
 sell him a nine years' truce. This Henr_y 
 purchased of them, determining at the 
 same time to imjDrove his army, and to 
 build strong castles along the frontier. 
 Henry thus became the founder of the 
 Bourgeoisie (that is, the Castle people), 
 and earned for himself the name of the 
 builder of cities. When the nine j^ears 
 had expired, he refused the Magyars any 
 further tribute, and when they attacked 
 933. him, he defeated them 
 
 with great loss, at the battle of Merseburg. 
 Henry sought also to unite the German 
 lands under one authority, without de- 
 stroying the characteristic life of the 
 different tribes and states. 
 
 § 210. Otto the First (or the Great) 
 followed the path of his father. He sought 
 to maintain the unity of the kingdom, and to appease all tribal hatred. 
 He gave dukedoms and bishoprics to relatives and friends with this 
 But only after desperate fights with his two brothers, did he come into 
 peaceful possession of his throne. His one brother, Tankmar, was 
 slain at the altar of the church, where he sought protection. Otto was a man of 
 majestic stature ; his gaze betokened power and authority, and he would brook no resist- 
 ance. And yet he met the humble and the oppressed with generosity and justice. 
 He watched vigilantly to see that every one received his rights, and that the judges 
 
 STATUE OF WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR AT PALAIS, 
 
 FRANCE. (^4. de. Neuville.) 
 
 03e-973. 
 
 end in view, 
 
 03S-9J1. 
 
rSKm ',M 
 
 ^;^mi^^>- -^ 
 
 •^ .'M 
 
 * ■ ^ 
 
 
 BAPTISM OP ST. STEPHEN BY POPE SYLVESTER II. (BenCZUr Gl./ula.) 
 
 (pp.291.) 
 
292 
 
 TiiF, ;mipdle age. 
 
 did no man violence. lie proteeted liis kingdom against the Slavs and the Danes, 
 sought to extend culture and humanity by spreading Christianity, and to exterminate 
 the gloomy idolatry still prevailing, with its bloody sacrifices. He was greatly assisted 
 bv his brother Bruno, archbishop of Cologne, and Duke of Lorraine, who established 
 schools for Christian education and for moral training in the whole kingdom, and 
 when the Magyars tormented Germany with new invasions. Otto, with his imperial 
 banner, on which was blazoned the archangel Michael, won such a victory near Angs- 
 OJ5. burg, that only a few of the vast number escaped, and their invasions 
 
 came to an end. Nearly all Germany followed the king, and supported him in this 
 
 decisive contest. Christianit3\ which at the 
 close of the tenth century entered Hungary, 
 during the reign of King Stephen the Saint, 
 brought to the Magyars gentler customs, and 
 more love of peace. Otto's coronation as 
 emperor, was an event of great consequence 
 oos. for German}-; the imperial 
 
 dignity henceforth belonged to the Holy 
 Roman Empire of the German Nation. His 
 marriage with Adelheid, the beautiful and 
 pious queen of Burgundy and Upper Italy, 
 strengthened Otto's claim to the rich penin- 
 sula. He conquered the countrj- from Be- 
 rengar, who had sought the destruction of 
 Adelheid, and was ci'owned in Milan king 
 of Lombardj^ He then marched to Rome, 
 where he was crowned emperor, and compelled 
 the Romans to swear that thej^ would "never 
 choose or consecrate a pope without his or 
 his successor's will and knowledge." This 
 protectorate future popes refused to ac- 
 knowledge. The union of Germany and Italy bi'ought culture and historic greatness, 
 but was also the source of " unutterable w^e "' to the German people. 
 
 § 211. Otto the Second reigned ten j-ears: he fought with the unrul}- nobles in 
 
 otto MI. Germanj^ and Italy, with Lothar, king of the AVest Franks, who 
 
 073-0S3. souglit to rob him of Lorraine, and with the Greeks and Saracens in 
 
 Lower Ital}', where he claimed possessions as the dowerj' of his wife Theophania. 
 
 Naples, Salerno, and Tarentum were already in his power, when Otto was overwhelmed 
 
 by the Saracen armies at Basantello. Otto himself with a compan}- of his nobles, 
 
 052. fell into the hands of the enera3% from whom he escaped onlj' bj^ his 
 skill in swimming. He was preparing for a new campaign, when aviolent fever car- 
 
 053. ried him to his grave. His infant son Otto III. was saved bj- the sen- 
 sible and faithful archbishop of Mayence. When Duke Henry of Bavaria attempted 
 
 to usurp the throne, the archbishop protected the lad until he w^as 
 able to protect himself. The young king was far superior to his con- 
 temporaries in culture and in knowledge, and was called the " Wonder of tire 
 World ; " yet he lacked the energy to rule a warlike people. He spent a great- 
 
 ROMAN PONTIFF AND GERMAN EMrEROR. 
 
 Otto III, 
 
 0S3-100S. 
 
294 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 part of his short life in Rome. Here he was crowned emperor, and plaj'ed with plans 
 
 »»9. of world dominion. He undertook a pilgrimage to the grave of Karl 
 
 the Great, expecting to get strength and inspiration from the i-elics of that powerful 
 
 looo. emperor, and then made a barefoot pilgrimage to the grave of Adel- 
 
 bert, the missionary. As the j'ear 1000 approached, in which the world was expected 
 to come to an end, Otto increased his penance and his pra3-ers. He intended to make 
 " Golden Rome " the capital of his kingdom, but death removed him from his plans : 
 
 1003. he died unmarried, and his kingdom passed to Henry II. of Bavaria. 
 
 § 212. Henry had great trouble with the Germans, Italians, and Slavs, but he 
 
 Meiiiy II. met his enemies with energy and success, and both protected and 
 
 looa-ioii enlarged his kingdom. Rudolph of Burgundy, his mother's brother, 
 
 promised him the land of Burgundj-. His love for church and clerg}^ led him to build 
 
 the cathedral, and to establish the bishopric of Bamberg, which procured for him and 
 
 1007. his wife, Kunigunde, the title of saint. To give greater significance 
 
 to this foundation, the king invited Pope Benedict VIII. to cross the Alps and to ded- 
 
 J014. icate the cathedral, and lie then placed the bishopric under the espe- 
 
 loao. cial protection of His Holiness. In spife of his coronation at St. Peter's 
 
 by the Pope, as emperor, and of his attachment to the clergy, Henry II. ruled in ec- 
 clesiastical affairs with a strong will, and exercised his protectorate over Rome with 
 solemn earnestness. German interest rather than Italian filled his heart, but the 
 
 1024,. tumults that followed his death blighted the culture which the Ottos 
 
 and the foreign empresses had introduced into Magdeburg, Halle, and Bremen. Ger- 
 bert, a man instructed in the "wisdom of Arabia and of Greece, introduced mathematics 
 into Germany and the beginnings of architecture, sculpture, and industrial art. Al- 
 though he was regarded by his contemporaries as a magician, he was greatly helped 
 by Bishop Bernward. Latin poems bore witness of some -intellectual life, and the 
 schools of the Saxon nionarchs preserved the germs of culture. The civilization and 
 refinement which was favored by the Ottos, was also furthered by the discovery of the 
 silver mines of the Harz Mountains. For the increase of money helped commerce 
 and industry and culture. 
 
 2. The Salic Feanconian Emperors (1024-1125.) 
 
 § 213. Conrad II., Duke of Franconia, was a man of powerful will and of great 
 
 coHru€i II. bravery, more anxious to extend his kingdom and his renown than to 
 
 loa-t-ioso. govern in peace. He received the iron crown of the Lombards and 
 
 the imperial crown at Rome, and annexed the Burgundian kingdom, on Lake Geneva, 
 
 the Rhone, and the Jura Mountains. This bi'ought him into conflict with Burgundian 
 
 nobles and bishops who regarded themselves as independent princes, and refused him 
 
 obedience : and also with his stepson Ernst of Scliwabia, who had stronger claims to 
 
 Bui'gundy. Ernst, with his friend Welf, and his faithful servant Werner of Ki- 
 
 loao. burg, raised the standard of revolt. But they were soon defeated. 
 
 Schleswig was ceded to the Danish king Canute, and the river Eider established as the 
 
 German frontier. Conrad's chief aim was to exalt the imperial power. To that end 
 
 three means seemed to him especially adapted. First, the gradual abolition of ducal 
 
 authority, and its transfer to the emperor : second, the conferring of powerful church 
 
 ofBces upon members of the ruling dynasty; and third, making benifices hereditary 
 
PREACHixG THE FIRST CRUSADE. {A. dc NeuvUle.) {l>P- 295.) 
 
296 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 He therefore transferred the ducal authority in Bavaria, Swabia, and Franconia to 
 his son, and sought opportunity to do the same with the other dukedoms. He ae- 
 
 io3i. quired great power over the church, and in his second expedition to 
 
 Rome, he issued the famous edict, which made the benifices of Italy hereditary, like 
 those in Germany. At the same time he determined the obligations and contribu- 
 tions due from the ecclesiastical princes to the emperor. Conrad's son, Henry HI. (The 
 Henry III- Swartlw), was a man of great strength, under whom Germany reached 
 1039-10S0. its greatest extent. Bohemia, Poland, and Hungary acknowledged 
 the supremacy of this German-Roman emperor. To break the opposition of his 
 nobles, he determined to found an absolute imperial hereditary monarchy, and 
 either to unite the ducal dignity in the German lands with the Royal authority, or to 
 make it entirely independent. A schism in the church enabled him to depose the 
 three rival popes, and to give the holy chair to German bishops. He aimed to extend 
 the imperial power over German princes, and over the head of the church at Rome. 
 He subdued Duke Godfrey of Lorraine, and appointed popes and bishops and ab- 
 bots as he deemed best. « He proclaimed in German}' and throughout the empire, the 
 peace of God, which had been introduced by the French clergy. According to this 
 arrangement, from Thursday evening to Monday morning, all weapons were laid at 
 vest; no revenge was to be taken, and no blows to be struck; — an arrangement quite 
 necessary in that terrible time. Henry was absolutely free from the sin of simony, 
 that is from the sin of selling church offices and dignities for money, or for worldly 
 advantages. He loved the church, and governed it for the good of Christendom. 
 
 § 214. Henry IV. was five years old when his father died. His pious mother Ag- 
 Kenry IV. ncs was at first his guardian, but the ambitious Hanno, arch-bishop of Co- 
 ioa«-iio«. logne, kidnapped the j'^oung king, and took possession of the government. 
 
 io«3. The stern rule of this prelate displeased Henry ; he found more pleasure 
 
 in the society of Adelbert, Arch-bishop of Bremen, who managed to get liini away from 
 Hanno s control. The young Henry surrounded himself with noblemen from Swabia 
 and Franconia, and despised the council of his princes. To punish the Saxons, he took 
 up his residence in Goslar ; here he maintained a riotous court, oppressed the people, 
 abused the nobility, and brought confusion into all the country. He treated his wife, 
 Bertha of Savoy, whom he had married against his inclination, with great rudeness and 
 
 10Z4. unkindness. The Saxon nobility at last took up arms under Otto of 
 
 Nordheim. The castles were broken down, even Harzburg was destroyed, and the 
 
 lo^s. King compelled to fly. But Henry's superior genius soon gave him 
 
 the victory over the Saxons, whereupon the latter appealed to the Pope. 
 
 § 215. The papal chair was at this time occupied by Gregory VII., a man of 
 citegojy vii. great strength of will and character, wlio was determined to restore 
 loia-ioss. the clergy to their former morality and piety, to make the church 
 independent of secular authority, and to lift the papacy above the empire and every 
 princely power. Gregory VII., when only Arch-deacon Hildebrand, had induced his 
 predecessor to withdraw the choice of a pope, from the Roman people, and to confer it 
 upon a college of cardinals. When he became pope, he set about the purification of 
 the church; he issued severe edicts against simony; deposed and banished the bishops 
 who had reached their places by purchase or bribery ; forbade lay investiture (appoint- 
 ment to ecclesiastical offices by secular princes). He then made celibacy binding ujjon 
 
BATTLE OP DORYL^iTM. (Gustave Dore.) 
 
 (pp 297.) 
 
298 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 every member of the Hierarchy, from the highest to the lowest. The appeal of the 
 Saxons therefore was a welcome opportunity to the daring Pope, for it enabled him to 
 proclaim that the pope, as the Vicar of Christ, was superior to all temporal princes : 
 that emperors, kings, and dukes, were vassals of his holiness. He cited Henry IV. to 
 loie. trial. The King, instead of appearing, called an assembly of his clergy 
 
 to depose the Pope, and announced to Gregory their resolves in a scornful epistle 
 addressed to " Hildebrand not a pope but a false monk." Gregory thereupon excom- 
 municated the king and his adherents, and deposed him from his throne. Henry's 
 
 difBculties with the Saxons, 
 and with his virtuous wife, 
 from whom he wished to be 
 divorced, were producing gen- 
 eral discontent. He saw him- 
 self deserted by his people, 
 and the princes assembled in 
 Tribur announced to him his 
 dethronement, if he was not 
 released from the papal curse 
 before a year expired. 
 Henry thereupon hastened, 
 accompanied by his faithful 
 wife and a single servant, 
 across the Alps in the dead of 
 loii. winter. The 
 
 Pope was at Canossa, the cas- 
 tle of the Countess Mathilda 
 of Tuscany, when Henry ar- 
 rived, but would not admit 
 the emperor to his presence, 
 until he put on a penitent's 
 garb, and waited meekly in 
 the castle yard for a short 
 time, on three successive days. 
 After this humiliation, the ex- 
 communication was made 
 void . 
 § 216. During Henry's absence, his enemies had elected Rudolph, of S wabia, king. 
 A civil war ensued, in which Henry was victor, through his superior talent and the sup- 
 loso. port of his faithful cities. Rudolph soon lost his life and Henry was 
 
 now able to undertake a war of revenge against Gregory, who had renewed the bann 
 against him. Henry gave the command in Germany to his son-in-law Frederick of 
 10S1-10S3. Hohenstaufen, duke of S wabia, and marched with his army across the 
 Alps. A church council called by him at Padua deposed Gregory, and elected 
 Clement IH. to the papal chair. Henry then besieged Rome, and after a two years' 
 struggle, on tlie shores of the Tiber, he entered the eternal city in triumph. Greg- 
 ory defended himself bravely in the castle of St. Angelo, and was finally rescued 
 by Robert Guiscard with his Normans and his Saracens. But the terrible ravages of 
 
 GREGORY VII., HILDEBRAND THE GREAT. 
 
MASSACRE AT ANTIOCH. (GustdVe Dore.) 
 
 [pp. 299.) 
 
800 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 Robert's soldiers so embittered the Romans, that the Pope thought it best to retire to 
 loss. Salerno, wliere he died the following year. His last words were " I 
 
 loved justice and hated unrighteousness, therefore I die an exile." But Henry's suf- 
 ferings were not ended with the death of liis mighty antagonist. The jsrinces of Ger- 
 lost. many had chosen a new king, Hermann of Salm, and the successors of 
 
 Greo'ory prepared for biui many foes in Italy, and excommunicated him anew ; and to 
 fill up the cup of his misery, his own sons rebelled against him. Conrad was driven 
 forth and died in disgrace, but Henry who was already crowned, lifted also the sword 
 ao-ainst his father. The son took the father prisoner, compelled him at the Diet of 
 Ino-leheim to surrender his castles and his kingdom, and when the emperor escaped 
 from prison, the war was carried on, until, bowed down with sorrow and misfortune ; 
 itoa. Henry IV. died in Luettich. And even now the monarch was not at 
 
 rest. His body lay for five years in an unconsecrated chapel at Speyer, before it was 
 
 permitted to lie in the imperial vaults. Henry 
 IV. was a gifted nature brave and generous, 
 but uncontrolled in his passions and desires. 
 And the spirit of the time was against him. 
 § 217. Henry V. continued his alliance 
 with the Pope, so long as he fought against 
 Mteni-v r. his father, but hardly was he 
 iioo-ttgs. in sole possession of his 
 throne, before he reopened the quarrel about 
 investiture. In the Church of St. Peter 
 at Rome, he took Pope Pascal II. with all 
 his cardinals prisoners, compelled him to 
 crown him emperor, and to make conces- 
 sions. When Pascal took these concessions 
 1111. back, war conflicts and ne- 
 
 gotiations followed. Pope and anti-pope 
 iiio. shattered empire and church. 
 
 1133. Henry was excommuni- 
 
 cated. Finally a concordat was agreed upon 
 at Worms, in which Pope Calixtus II. 
 agreed that bishops and abbots should be 
 freel_y chosen in the presence of a royal 
 ambassador, but should be invested with their spiritual authority by the pope. The 
 emperor however should invest them with their temporal possessions and rights, by the 
 touch of his sceptre. The severity of Henry against rebellious princes, prevented 
 these from placing his nearest relative Friederich of Hohenstaufen on the throne left 
 i^uthav the vacaut by his death. They chose Lothar the Saxon, the heir of Otto 
 Saxon, of Nordhciui. But when the Hohenstaufen brothers refused fealty to 
 
 ii3s-ti37. the new king, Lothar united with Henry the Proud, of Bavaria. He 
 married the daughter of this Welfish house, and thus increased the great possessions 
 of this family, by the inherited estates of Nordheim, and the splendor of Bavaria, by 
 annexing the Saxon dukedom. The Hohenstaufens were unable to resist this great 
 superiority ; they were compelled, after a destructive civil war, to acknowledge Lothar 
 
 KNIGHT AND SQUIRE DURING THE FIRST CRU- 
 SADE, (nth Century.) 
 
CRUSADERS SURPRISED BY THE TURKS. (Gustave Dore.) (pp. 301.) 
 
302 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 tt33. as their overlord, and to aceompaii)- him on his second march to Italy. 
 
 In his first march thither lie had obtained the imperial crown, but with it very little 
 glory. 
 
 SHOWING THE 
 SEPULCHRE. 
 
 IV. THE SUPREMACY OF THE CHURCH IN THE TIME OF THE 
 
 CRUSADES. 
 1. The Ceusades. 
 
 § 218. 
 
 ILGRIMAGES to Jerusalem and to the holy sepulcher, began to be 
 customary as early as the fourth century. Penitents and seekers 
 for salvation went to the church that had been built by the 
 empress Helena, to offer prayer, or to the Jordan to wash awa}^ 
 their sins in its waters. As Christianity 
 extended its sway, these pilgrimages 
 became more frequent, and so long as 
 the Arabs were in possession of Palestine, the pilgrims were 
 unmolested. But when Syria and Palestine fell into the 
 hands of the Seljuk Turks, both the natives and the way- 
 farers were evilly treated. They must pay taxes, were fre- 
 quently robbed, outraged, and even murdered. Peter of 
 Amiens, a returning pilgrim, appealed to Pope Urban II., 
 depicted to him the siilferings of the Christians of the East, 
 and received permission to go through city and country to 
 stir up the people to the great enterprise of freeing the Holy Land from the power 
 
 of the infidels. A great excitement was pro- 
 duced by the preaching of this eloquent monk, 
 and when Pope Urban held the council at 
 109S. Clermont, in Southern France, 
 
 to stir up the West against the East, the council 
 was attended by a throng of bishops and nobles, 
 and an immense crowd of people of all classes. 
 The Pope closed liis fiery exhortation with the 
 ciy, " Let everjr one deny himself and take up 
 his cross that he may win Christ!" "It is the 
 will of God," shouted the multitude with one 
 voice, and thousands kneeled down seeking 
 admission into the comjDany of holy warriors. 
 They attached a red cross to the right shoulder, 
 and were therefore called Crusaders. Absolu- 
 iooo.iooo. tion from their sins, and eternal 
 life in heaven, were promised to the warriors, 
 and not a few earthly advantages besides. 
 
 § 219. But the excitement was so great, 
 
 that the Crusaders were unwilling to await 
 
 So they marched out in early Spring, in a disor- 
 
 GODPREY DE BOUILLON. 
 
 the preparations of the princes. 
 
FALL OF ACRE. (Gustave Bore)- 
 
 (pp. 303.) 
 
304 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 dered and poorly armed mob, under tlie lead of Peter the Plermit, and of a French 
 looo. knight, Walter the Penniless. They wended their way through Ger- 
 
 many toward Constanti- 
 nople. The war-like tribes 
 on the lower Danube re- 
 fused them passage and 
 food; thereupon tliey at- 
 tacked Belgrade, and filled 
 the land with pillage and 
 murder. The enraged in- 
 habitants rose up against 
 them, and slew them by 
 the thousunds. The sur- 
 vivors, with their leaders, 
 reached Constantinople, 
 but all except a few perished 
 in Asia Minor at the hands 
 i of the Turks. Walter fell 
 < in battle, surrounded by 
 ^ his brothers and his bravest 
 ? companions. Another mob 
 5 plundered the Jews along 
 § the Rhine, in Strasburg, 
 = Worms, and Mayence, and 
 ^ marched then to a similar 
 o destruction, under the lead 
 ^ of the priest Gottschalk, 
 t and of tlie rude count 
 J Emiko von Leinigen. 
 
 § 220. A hundred 
 thousand had already per- 
 ished, M'hen Godfrey of 
 Bouillon, Duke of Lor- 
 raine, with his brothers 
 and a crowd of well- 
 equipped knights, marched 
 to Constantinople, and 
 Hugo, the brother of the 
 French king, and Tancred 
 set out by sea for the holy 
 Sepulcher. Alexius Com- 
 nenus, the emperor, would 
 not allow them to pass 
 over into Asia, until they 
 promised to restore to him the cities that formerly belonged to the Eastern 
 empire. They passed over to Nicea, where in a great review, they numbered 
 
BJCHARD I, CCETJE DE LION, ORDERS THE EXECUTION OF 2000 SARACENIC HOSTAGES. 
 
 2Q (A. de Neuville.) (]'P- 305.) 
 
306 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 COIN ISSUED DURING THE 
 CRUSADES. 
 
 100,000 knights and 300,000 foot soldiers. Among their leaders was Robert of 
 Normandy, son of William the Conqueror, Stephen of Blois, who had " as many 
 castles as there were days in the year," and the rich and powerful Raymond, of 
 Toulouse. The conquest of Nicea was their first great achievement. Thence they 
 marched into the country of the Sultan and defeated the Turks, in the battle of Dory- 
 
 1091. Igeum. But famine soon attacked them, and 
 
 the arm}' separated into different groups. Baldwin, the 
 brother of Godfrey, went off to the Euphrates, and founded 
 the kingdom of Edessa. Finally the army appeared before 
 Antioch. But the rich and well-fortified cit}^ held out for 
 loos. nine months, and then was only taken through 
 
 treason. The Christians visited a terrible vengeance upon the 
 conquered citizens, but were themselves surrounded within 
 three days, by countless throngs of Turks. They were only 
 saved by the " holy lance," which was found in the church of 
 St. Peter at Antioch. This so inspired the Crusaders, that they 
 broke through the gates of the city, and put their enemies to flight, and thus opened a 
 way to Jerusalem. The priest who discovered the lance was compelled to pass through 
 an ordeal of fire ; as he perished in the flames, the lance was no longer believed to 
 be genuine. 
 
 § 221. At Whitsuntide, the army 
 was within sight of Jersusalem. The 
 Crusaders fell upon their knees, shed- 
 ding tears of joy, and shouting the 
 praises of God. But to conquer the 
 city was a hard task, for the pilgrim 
 army especially, as they had no instru- 
 ments for a siege. The heat of the sun 
 and the scarcity of water, was more 
 terrible than the arrows of the enemy. 
 Yet their enthusiasm overcame all hin- 
 drances. After a siege of thirty days, 
 Jerusalem yielded to a two days storm, 
 ji./j/ IS, 1009. under the cry " God 
 wills it, God helps us." The fate of the 
 vanquished was terrible. 10,000 Sara- 
 cens were slaughtered ; the Jews were 
 burned to death in their sj^nagogues. 
 Neither age nor sex were spared ; the 
 
 FRENCH KNIGHT AND SQUIRE. , , ^i, -, -.t 
 
 streets were tilled with corpses, with 
 blood and with the limbs of the mutilated. 'And then, when their vengeance was ap- 
 peased, they bared their heads, and approached the church of the Holy Sepulcher, with 
 their songs to thank God that he had given them the victory. A king of Jerusalem was 
 then chosen. The first choice was the brave and steady Godfrey, of Bouillon, but he re- 
 fused to wear a royal diadem, where the Saviour had worn a crown of thorns. He called 
 himself, therefore, the Protector of the Holy Sepulcher. The new kingdom of Jeru- 
 
DANDOLO ON THE WAY TO THE HOLY LAND. 
 
 {pp- 307.) 
 
318 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 salem became a feudal monarchy. Godfrey defeated the Sultan of Egypt at Ascalon, 
 
 Attguat, 1090. but died in the following year, from the effects of the climate and of 
 
 over-exertion. His brother Bald- 
 
 iioo. win inherited the 
 
 kingdom, and did not refuse the 
 royal title. 
 
 § 222. But the rocky coun- 
 try, with its surrounding desei't, 
 was hard to defend against the 
 Turks ; and the Crusaders were 
 full of discord, disobedience and 
 lust for adventure. Reinforce- 
 ments failed them, and the situ- 
 ation of the Christians soon be- 
 came critical, especially when the Sultan of Mosul conquered and destroyed Edessa, 
 
 ii4e. and then attacked the Eastern frontiers. Saint Bei-nard, Abbot of 
 
 Clairvaux, in Burgundy, now preached a second crusade. His authority was so great 
 
 SEALS OF KINGS OF JERUSALEM. 
 
 RICHARD, COEUR DE LION. 
 
CEUSADERS ENTERING coNSTANTiNorLE. (Giistave Dore.) 
 
 { pp. 309.) 
 
310 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 2na cruaaae, that Louis VII. of France, troubled in his conscience because he 
 it-ti-ii-to. burned down a church to which his enemies had fled for protection, 
 obeyed the call, and even King Conrad III. did not venture to oppose Bernard, when lie 
 had addressed him at Speyer, in a fiery exhortation. Conrad took 
 the cross and marched with his splendid army over Constantinople 
 iijy. into Asia Minor. But, by the treachery of the 
 
 Greek guides, he was led into a waterless desert. Suddenly Turk- 
 ish riders pressed in from all sides upon his ranks, and Conrad's 
 army suffered such loss, that not a tenth part returned to Con- 
 stantinople. The French army, which marched along the coast, 
 fared no better. The pilgrims perished, either by the sword or 
 from hunger and fatigue. Only a poor remnant of their armies 
 ii^s. were led by the two kings to Jerusalem, where 
 
 they accomplished nothing of importance. The situation of the 
 
 SALADIN. 
 
 DEATH OF PREDEETCK BARBAROSSA IN THE OALYCADMUS. (ff. Vogel.) 
 
 Christian kingdom became daily more critical, especially after the brave Saladin took 
 possession of Egypt, and united all the land from Cairo to Aleppo, under his sceptre. 
 The kingdom of Jerusalem was now in distress. Saladin granted a truce ; but the 
 truce being violated, the Sultan took the field. The battle of Tiberias went against 
 
ill ' i. ' ' ' " 
 
 "I 
 
 .«'<«/ t, . .' ^ \^^mti , , I I'- ^ i 
 
 Ml*' 
 
 
 V 
 
 ^d/ t 
 
 V . 
 
 THE CRUSADE OF CHILDREN. ( Gustave Dore.) 
 
 (pp. 311.) 
 
312 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 SEAL OF JOHN OF BRIENNE 
 
 Sj'rf Ci'iistitle, 
 
 iiso-tios. 
 
 the Christians. Their God had forsaken them. King. Guido and many of his nobles 
 itst. were taken prisoners. Joppa, Sidon, and Jerusalem fell into the 
 
 hands of the victor ; the crosses were torn down, the 
 church vessels destroyed, hut the inhabitants were 
 treated kindly. The victory of Saladin was stained by 
 no cruelty. 
 
 § 223. The news of this disaster produced a panic 
 in the West, and led to the third crusade. From the 
 capes of Italy to the mountains of Scandinavia the excite- 
 ment spread, and armed troops enlisted for the Holy Land. All who 
 remained at home, in France and England, were compelled to pay a 
 crusade tax. The three mightiest monarchs of 
 the West, Frederick Barbarossa, of Germany, 
 Philip II. of France, and Richard Lien- Heart 
 of England, took the cross. Frederick with 
 liis army marched by land through the Greek 
 empire to Asia Minor. After a terrible experi- 
 ence in the deserts and the wilderness, he de- 
 iiBo. feated the Sultan of Iconium, 
 
 in the vicinity of his capital. But as the aged 
 hero was crossing a mountain stream, Selef, he 
 was drowned in the waves. Many of his 
 knights turned back ; others followed his second 
 son, Friederich of Swabia, to join King Guido 
 at Palestine, and to take part in the siege of 
 Acre. The kings of France and England, who 
 had taken the sea route across Sicily and stormed 
 Messina, now arrived, and Acre was soon con- 
 iisi. quered. Richard Lion-Heart 
 
 stained his renown by his pride and cruelty. After the fall of the city, the French 
 king, who was alwaj^s quarreling with his English comrade, returned home. Richard 
 was now the commander of the undertaking, and his name was the terror of the East. 
 Yet in spite of his strength and his intrepidity, he could not conquer Jerusalem. He 
 twice pitched his tents within a day's march of the sacred 
 city, but each time withdrew, having accomplished nothing. 
 Quarrels between him and the French knights, discord 
 among the Crusaders, and the strength of the enemy, pre- 
 vented his success. . Finally the coast from Tyre to Joppa, 
 and the unhindered approach to the Holy Places, were con- 
 ceded to the Christians, and Richard returned to England. 
 As he passed through Austria, he was captured by Duke 
 Leopold, and delivered to the greedy Emperor, Henry VI., 
 who surrendered him only upon payment of a heavy ran- 
 som. The discovery of the captive king, by the singer 
 Blondel, is a well-known story, and in spite of his faults, Richard was a favoiite 
 theme of the Medieval poets. His youth had been passed in the warm south, and 
 
 KNIGHTS TEMPLAR. 
 
 SEAL USliD BY WOMEN OF 
 JERUSALEM. 
 
ST. LOUIS BEFORE PAMIETTA. (GuStaVe Dore.) 
 
 {pp. 313.) 
 
314 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 seal of the knights of st. 
 John's hospital. 
 
 there where everybody sang and fought, he felt himself at home. Song and poetry 
 were always his delight. 
 
 § 224. The fourth crusade came to a singular end. French and Italian knights, 
 *«i Crusade, Under the lead of the Count of Montferrat 
 isoa.iso*. and Baldwin of Flanders, assembled in 
 Venice, in the beginning of the thirteenth century, to go to 
 Jerusalem. Alexius, son of Isaac Angelus, who had been 
 robbed of the imperial throne, met the Crusaders and besought 
 them to reinstate his father in his rights. He promised them 
 a great reward, the subjection of the Eastern Church to the 
 Pope, and help in their enterprise against Jerusalem. They 
 consented to his plans. Under the lead of Dandolo, the aged 
 ISO*. Doge of Venice, they sailed to Constanti- 
 
 nople, conquered the city, and placed Alexius and his father 
 on the throne. But when they demanded their pay, the people rebelled ; Alexius was 
 killed, Isaac frightened to death, and the leader of the rebellion lifted to the throne. 
 The Franks now stormed Constantinople, plundered churches, 
 palaces and dwellings, destroyed the treasures of antiquity, and 
 filled the city with horrors. They hurled the new emperor from the 
 top of a column, and then divided the empire. The Latin empire, 
 with Constantinople, was given to Baldwin ; the coast lands and the 
 islands of the JEgean sea were given to Venice; Count Montferrat 
 received Macedonia and parts of ancient Greece ; Athens and 
 other Greek cities came into the possession of French noblemen. 
 A feudal monarchy was erected, as at Jerusalem, and the old popula- 
 tion reduced to dependence. But the new Latin empire had neither foundation nor 
 
 duration. With difficulty it held out half a 
 century against its numerous foes. It fell 
 1201. then to Michael Palgeologus, a 
 
 descendant of the old imperial family, which 
 had established an independent dominion in 
 Nicea. 
 
 § 225. Jerusalem, far from being helped, 
 was weakened by this crusade. The separate 
 groups, which from time to time came to the 
 assistance of the distressed kingdom, were of 
 little value, and the enthusiasm which drove 
 throngs of children to take the cross, ended in 
 a frightful waste of life. " Suffer the little 
 children to come unto me for of such is the 
 kingdom of heaven." This was so interpreted, 
 that thousands of boys and girls left their 
 homes for the Holy Sepulchre, only to perish 
 mm. from hunger or fatigue, or to be 
 
 sold as slaves by greedy merchants and pirates. Andreas II., of Hungary, the Dukes 
 mis. of Austria and Bavaria, Count William, of Holland, and many German 
 
 SEAL OF THE ORDER 
 OP THE TEMPLE. 
 
 KNIGHT OF ST. JOHN. 
 
DEATH OF ST. LOUIS. (A. lie Neuville.) {p2i. 315.) 
 
316 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 LADIES OF THE ORDER OF ST. JOHN 
 
 nobles and bishops led another company, and just as fruitlessly. Finally, Frederick 
 II. undertook the fifth crusade, at a time when the Sultan of Egypt and the ruler of 
 sth ci-uantie, Damascus were making war upon each other. But Frederick was 
 i2as. under the papal bann, and the 
 
 Pope forbade Christian warriors taking j)art in 
 his enterprise. Nevertheless, Frederick induced 
 the Sultan to make a treaty, in which Jerusalem, 
 Bethlehem, and Nazareth, with the whole coast 
 from Joppa to Sidon, was ceded to the Chris- 
 tians. This enraged the Pope ; he declared the 
 peace a web of falsehood and treachery, and laid 
 an interdict upon the city and the Holy Sepul- 
 chre. Frederick II. placed the crown of Jeru- 
 salem upon his own head, without the consecra- 
 tion of the church. He was abandoned by the 
 Christian knights and the clergy in Jerusalem, 
 and obliged to leave the Holy Land. Fourteen 
 years later, a wild Eastern people broke into 
 ia44. Palestine, conquered Jerusalem, 
 
 destroyed the Holy Sepulchre, and tore the 
 bones of kings from their grave. At Gaza, the 
 flower of the Christian chivalry, fell beneath their blows. Acre, and a few coast cities, 
 were all that remained to the Christians. 
 
 § 226. The news of these disasters induced King Louis IX., St. Louis, of France, 
 
 to take the cross. With many nobles, the 
 ifi4,s. French king sailed by Cypress 
 
 to Egypt. The border city of Damietta fell 
 once more into the hands of the Franks. But 
 as they advanced up the Nile to the conquest 
 of Cairo, the army was shut in between the 
 canals and the river, while the fleet was de- 
 stroyed by Greek fire. The King's brother and 
 his bravest knights were lost. Louis, with the 
 remnant of his army, was taken prisoner, and 
 escaped only by paying an enormous ransom. 
 liso. and giving up the conquered 
 
 city. But most of the pilgrim army never saw 
 their homes again. What was spared by sword 
 and pestilence, was destroyed by the cruelty 
 of the Mohammedans. The pious King, after 
 purchasing his freedom, proceeded to Acre, 
 where he remained four years, during which 
 he greatly strengthened its defences. Mean- 
 while, Egypt came under the control of the warlike Mamelukes. The indomitable 
 1270. Louis undertook another crusade sixteen years later, partly against 
 
 the piratical Saracens, in Tunis, partly to compel them to pay tribute to his brother 
 
 SUPERIOll OF THE ORDER OF GERMAN 
 KNIGHTS AND BROTHER OF THE SWORD. 
 
318 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 Charles, of Naples and Sicil3% partlj^ in the hope of planting Christianity in North 
 Africa. But pestilence carried him, and many of his army, to the grave. The French 
 leaders concluded a peace with the Saracens, and returned home. An expedition of 
 the English prince, Edward I., was equally unable to save the kingdom of Jerusalem. 
 The Mamelukes conquered Antioch and Acre, and the French Christians, of their own 
 accord, abandoned Syria. The consequences of the crusades were very important. 
 
 § 227. 1. Intellectual culture was advanced by them. The Europeans made 
 the acquaintance of distant lands and peoples. They were brought into contact with 
 the sciences and arts of other nations. Their notions of the world and of human 
 affairs were extended and corrected. 
 
 2. The crusades ennobled the knighthood. It gave them finer aims, and led to 
 the foundation of the orders of chivalry, which served as models of knighthood, and 
 which united in themselves all the virtues of nobility. These orders were founded in 
 Palestine : The Order of the Hospital, the Order of the Temple, and the Order of the 
 Teutonic Knights. They blended together the spirit of chivalry and of monasticism. 
 They added to the three monastic vows chastity, povertj', and obedience, a fourth, 
 namely, fight against the infidels and the protection of pilgrims. 
 
 a. The Knights of St. John grew out of a brotherhood, founded by Italian mer- 
 cliants, in the Hospital of St. John, to nurse and protect pilgrims. There were of these 
 Hospitallers three classes : Saving brothers, who nursed sick pilgrims ; priests, to per- 
 form divine worship, and knights to fight the infidel and to protect pilgrims. After 
 the loss of Palestine, they removed to the island of Rhodes. This they defended 
 
 j(s»3. heroically against the Turks, but being compelled to surrender it, 
 
 received the island of Malta from Charles V. 
 
 b. The Knights Templar were established by French knights, to defend the Holy 
 Sepulchre against the infidel. Donations and legacies made them enormously rich. 
 After the loss of their possessions in the Holy Laud, they settled in France, abandoned 
 themselves to unbelief and superstition, and the order was abolished. 
 
 c. The Order of German Knights was founded by Frederick of Swabia. Its 
 activity in Palestine was small, its renown came from its achievments on the Baltic 
 Sea. Called to protect the germs of Christian life upon the banks of the Vistula, these 
 Teutonic Knights conquered, after bloody struggles, the whole country, for German 
 life and morals and culture. Kulm, Thorn, Elbing, Kcinigsberg were founded by 
 them. The forests were cleared, the lands were tilled, but the old freedom vanished. 
 The knights of the order governed the lands, the peasants became serfs. 
 
 The Assassins were a fanatical sect of Mohammedans, founded by "the prophet 
 Hassan. They lived in Parthia and in the mountain heights of Syria, and were 
 remarkable for their absolute obedience to the "Old Man of the Mountains." What- 
 ever deed was requii-ed of them, they executed it with cunning and boldness, and 
 mocked at martyrdom. They had rich booty in this life, and expected to enjoy much 
 beauty in the life to come. They were a terror alike to Cliristian and Saracen. 
 
 § 228. 3. During the crusades many serfs obtained their freedom. This gave 
 rise to a yeomanry in Europe. The cities, too, increased in power and importance ; 
 commerce flourished, and industries developed rapidly. 
 
 4. The crusades increased the power and the influence of the clergy, and the 
 wealth of the church. For legacies and donations to monasteries and the clergy, 
 
THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 319 
 
 became quite common, and many estates were ijurchased by them for a mere song. 
 Moreover, religious zeal was intensified into fanaticism. This led to the persecution 
 of the Waldenses and Albigenses, sects that preserved the apostolic simplicit)' in their 
 religious life and worship. Provence and Languedoc were the homes of the Albigenses 
 (from the city Alby). Here they lived under a beautiful sky ; prosperous citizens, 
 with their free institutions, and daring poets who attacked the clergy with humor- 
 
 1200. ous liberty. Innocent III. excited the Cistercian monks to preach a 
 
 crusade against them, and their rich count, Raymond of Toulouse. Troojas of savage 
 warriors, led by fanatical monks brandishing the ci'oss, invaded the once prosperous 
 land, destroying the cities and castles, murdering guilty and innocent alike. Raymond 
 withstood his enemies heroically ; but when Louis VIII. took up arms against him, the 
 
 mzo. Count yielded, and gave up the larger part of his possessions. But the 
 
 twenty years' war had converted the land into a desert, and silenced the troubadours 
 for ever. 
 
 SIEGE or WEINSBERG. 
 
 The peasant republic of Stedinger was attacked for the same reason, by Count 
 
 123a. Oldenburg, at the instigation of the Bishops of Bremen and Ratzeburg. 
 
 The peasants fought desperatel}', but were overcome by numbers and by horsemen. 
 
 Their lands were ruined, their herds destroyed, men, women and children slaughtered. 
 
 §229. 
 2. The Hohenstatjfens. (1138-1254.) 
 
 The emperor Lothar died on his way back from Italy. His son-in-law, Henry the Proud, 
 1137. claimed the imperial throne, but the great power of the House of 
 
 Guelph, which ruled over Bavaria and Saxony, and whose possessions extended from 
 the Mediterranean to the Baltic, together with the unpopularity of the haughty Duke, 
 led the Gerirfan princesto elect Conrad of Hohenstaufen, at the diet of Coblentz. But 
 Henry was in possession of the imperial insignia, and refused his allegiance. Conrad 
 therefore declared him to have forfeited both his dukedoms, and placed him under the 
 
320 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 conina III., imperial ban. This renewed the conflict between the Hohenstaufens 
 
 ii3s-it53. and the Guelphs, and led to a destrnctive civil war. At the siege of 
 
 Weinsberg, it is said the cry of Guelph and Ghibelline was heard for the first time. 
 
 These cries were subsequently the names of parties. The castle was surrendered to 
 
 BARBAEOSSA ASKING AID OF HENRY. 
 
 1140. king Conrad, but the garrison is said to have been saved by the cun- 
 
 ning and fidelity of the women. The war lasted till the death of Henry the Proud. 
 This was followed by a truce, but a permanent peace was not established until his son, 
 
THE MIDDLE AGE. 321 
 
 Henry the Lion, received back the two kingdoms of Saxony and Bavaria, from Con- 
 rad's successors. Austria however was separated from Bavaria, and raised to an in- 
 dependent dukedom with great privileges. Conrad was a brave and pious man, but 
 the war against the Guelphs, and tlie crusades undertaken by him hindered his use- 
 fulness for Germany. Just as he was preparing to go to Rome to be crowned, his life 
 was taken from him. He had guided the choice of the princes to his high-minded 
 and powerful nephew of Swabia, who was counted theflower of knighthood, and whose 
 splendid qualities the king had learned to know during the crusade. Frederick I. 
 fiefirick gave to the empire peace and order within, and authority and safety 
 Barbaiossa, abroad. The dark-skinned Italians called him Barbarossa, on account 
 1139-1100. of his blond hair and his reddish beard. But the blending of justice 
 and severity in the imperial mind of this powerful man awakened, everywhere, rever- 
 ence and obedience. 
 
 § 230. Frederick led six armies into Italy. The Lombard cities, especially 
 Milan, had abolished the rights of counts and bishops in their community, and were 
 about to establish small republics. Full of patriotism, and thirsting for liberty, they 
 established a powerful militia, chose civil magistrates and judges, and sought to escape 
 the imperial authorit3^ When Frederick, according to ancient custom, held his review 
 
 1154,. near Placenza, and called upon the princes and cities of Upper Italy 
 
 to do him reverence, Milan refused. Frederick was unable to punish Milan, but he 
 sought to alarm it by the destruction of some smaller cities. He then received the 
 Lombard crown at Pavia, and the imperial crown at Rome. The latter was his reward 
 
 1155. for his surrender of Arnold of Brescia. This celebrated monk was a 
 
 scholar of the famous Abelard. He wished to restore the church to apostolic simplicity; 
 he denounced the temporal possessions, and the luxury of the clergy, and declared the 
 temporal power of the Pope to be contrary to Holy Writ. The Romans, excited by 
 his sermons, renounced the authority of the popes and established a republican consti- 
 tution. But Hadrian IV., who had risen from an English beggar boy to the papal 
 chair, punished the disobedient city with ban and interdict. The Romans thereupon 
 lost courage ; they abandoned Arnold to his fate, he tried to escape, but was captured 
 and delivered to the Emperor, and then to the Pope, and was burned to death, at the 
 chief gate of the city. The Romans, conquered by the German soldiers, were com- 
 pelled to give up their new institutions, and to submit to the authority of the Pope. 
 
 § 231. When Frederick returned to Germany, the Milanese turned upon and 
 destroyed the cities that were true to the Emperor. Frederick marched into Italy a 
 second time. He called upon the jurists to determine his sovereign rights (regalia), 
 
 iiss. according to the Justinian code, and when Milan still refused to obey, 
 
 he declared vengeance against the rebellious city. A violent war issued in the success 
 of the Emperor. Milan was besieged for a year and a half, and compelled to sur- 
 
 iie2. render. The banner wagon of the city was broke to pieces, and tlie 
 
 citizens compelled to humble themselves before their conqueror. The walls and most 
 of their houses were leveled to the ground, and the inhabitants compelled to settle in 
 four sections, separated from each other. The other Lombard cities, frightened at the 
 fate of Milan, consented to receive the imperial governors (Podesta). But Frederick 
 was soon entangled in a violent quarrel with the imperious Pope Alexander III., for 
 he had recognized Victor IV. as the legitimate head of the church ; Victor having 
 21 
 
• 322 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 been chosen by some of the cardinals, and b^y the church council in Pavia. Alexan 
 der excommunicated the Emperor and the Anti-pope, and supported the Lombards, who 
 were enraged at the oppression and extortion of the imperial governors. The Lombard 
 league was formed, to which almost all the cities of Upper Italy adhered. Thereupon, 
 Fi'ederick marched to Rome, compelled Alexander to fly to France ; and as Victor IV. 
 had died nieanwhile, he procured the election of another anti-pope. Paschal IIL But a 
 iiott. pestilence attacked his army, and carried off the flower of the Ger- 
 
 man knighthood ; among tiiem his best friends, the Archbishop Rainald of Cologne, 
 1107. and Duke Frederick of Swabia. With a fragment of his armj', the 
 
 Emperor hastened to Pavia, whence he returned home, barely escaping captivit}' in his 
 lios. flight. This apparent judgment of Heaven increased the courage and 
 
 the strength of the Lombards. They built the fortified city of Alessandria, which 
 
 bears the name of the Pope, drove out the 
 imperial governors, and so completely or- 
 ganized their defence, that Frederick was 
 compelled, for a long time, to leave the 
 Italians alone, especiall}' as affairs in Ger- 
 many required great attention. 
 
 § 232. But finally Frederick Barba- 
 rossa marched with a great armj^ once more 
 across the Alps. But the siege of Alessan- 
 iii-t. dria lasted so long, that 
 
 he feared to lose all the fi'uits of the cam- 
 paign, and therefore determined to give bat- 
 tle against the advice of his friends. Henrj- 
 the Lion, however, abandoned him in his ex- 
 tremity ; for this prince thought more of 
 his own advancement, than of the plans of 
 the emperor ; and he was, moreovei', angry 
 with Frederick, because the latter had in- 
 duced Duke Guelph to sell the Guelph estates 
 to the house of Hohenstaufen. Although 
 Frederick fell at his feet, at Lake Como, beseeching his assistance, Henr}' refused to be ap- 
 iiw. peased ; and the Germans were defeated in the battle of Legnano, where the 
 Milanese "death legion " performed miracles of valor. The Emperor himself was miss- 
 ing for some days, but so great was the regard for his greatness, that the Pope and 
 im. the Lombard league willingly accepted the offered peace. At a meet- 
 
 ing in Venice, Frederick and Alexander agreed to a six 3'ears" truce, and this finally led 
 11S3. to the peace of Constance. By this time Alexander was ackowledged as 
 
 tiie rightful head of the Church : Frederick was relieved from ex-communication, and 
 the cities of the league were secured in their rights and franchises. The Emperor or 
 his representative were to confirm the magistrates elected by the citizens, and to have 
 the power of life and death; but civil justice and the administration of city affairs was 
 left to the conniiunes. The citizens were to take the oath of allegiance, and to pro- 
 vide the imperial armies with the necessary supplies. Emperor and Pope gave each 
 other the kiss of peace, in front of St. Marks' church in Venice. Thereupon the Ger- 
 
 KNIGHT, DUKE AND KNIGHT TEMPLAR. 
 
THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 323 
 
 list. man ruler led the horse of the Vicar of Christ through the cheering 
 
 throng. Representatives from the cities were admitted to an equal participation in an 
 assembly of princes for the first time in this notable congress at Venice, and the 
 cities of Upper Italy were soon renowned as free republics. Before Frederick left 
 Italy, he accomplished the betrothal of his eldest son Henry with Constance, the 
 heiress of the Norman kingdom, and Naples, and Sicily. 
 
 § 233. The news of B'rederick's reconciliation with the Pope, struck Henry the 
 Lion with terror. He had extended his dominion among the Slavs of Pomerania 
 and Mecklenburg, and among the Frisians of the Baltic. He had attacked the peasant 
 republic in Holstein, and acquired for himself a great kingdom. He had opened up new 
 mines in the Harz, founded cities and bishoprics, and invited colonists from the Nether- 
 lands. But his deed of violence against princes and prelates were so well-known, that 
 the bronze lion which he had erected in front of his castle in Brunswick, was as much 
 the emblem of his robbery, as of his strength. When Frederick returned, he iieard 
 complaints of Henry from all sides. This 
 gave him the desired opportunity to summon 
 Henry to judgment; and when Henry re- 
 fused to appear, he was placed under ban and 
 
 iiao. deprived of his two dukedoms, 
 Bavaria and Saxony. Bavaria was given 
 to the Wittelsbachs. Saxony went to Ber- 
 nard of Anhalt, and to the other princes and 
 bishops; much of it to Cologne. But the 
 " Lion " could not be tamed without a dev- 
 astating war. For a long time he with- 
 stood all his foes ; he destroyed Halberstadt, 
 and carried off the Bishop ; he took Count 
 Ludwig of Thuringia, and his brother, pris- 
 oners, and subdued the nobles of Westphalia. 
 Not until Frederick marched against him in 
 person, and compelled Liibeck into submis- 
 sion, and threatened the Duke with a siege, 
 
 list. did Henry yield to his great 
 
 antagonist. He retained for himself and for his family, Brunswick and Lunenburgh. 
 
 jtisj. Frederick having overcome all his enemies, celebrated a splendid 
 
 national festival in Mayence, in honor of two of his sons; and then departed on the 
 
 iiso. crusade, in which he lost his life. 
 
 But Barbarossa still lives in story, and in later times; the resurrection of the Ger- 
 man empire in its ancient strength and glory, has been connected with the legend of 
 his return to life. 
 
 § 234. Henry the Sixth, his son, possessed his father's strength and energy, but 
 xreni-tf VI. lacked his nobility of character. He was greedy, stern, and cruel. The 
 1IOO-I107. songs of the minnesingers, which delighted his youth, soon ceased to 
 charm his heai't ; his soul was full of great plans, but the gloomy sternness of his coun- 
 tenance terrified the Italians, like the "blood-red northern light." His life was a con- 
 tinual contest. When the Norman king died, Henry sought to take Naples and Sicily, 
 
 GERMAN DUKE AND LADIES. 
 
324 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 as the inheritance of his wife, Constance ; but the nobles, fearing this foreign master 
 opposed him and elevated a native nobleman, the brave Tancred, to the throne. Henry 
 marched immediately with his army across the Alps. In order to obtain the imperial 
 crown, he abandoned the faithful Tusculum to the vengeance of the Romans. The city 
 
 lioi. was leveled to the ground. A part of its inhabitants took refuge in 
 
 Frascati, but the King did not overcome Apulia as quickly as he had expected. His 
 army wasted away with pestilence, his wife was carried captive to Sicily, and he him- 
 self returned home to confront new foes. Henry the Lion had returned to Brunswick, 
 and taken up his former plans. But the energetic Emperor soon overcame his ene- 
 
 iios. mies. By the capture of Richard Lion-heart, of England, he deprived 
 
 the Duke of a powerful support, and obtained the means for a new expedition against 
 
 ii»4:. Naples and Sicily. Tancred was dead. Henry the Lion soon followed 
 
 it»5. him. The emperor hastened into Italy, destroyed the Norman army, and 
 
 Syracuse and Palermo. His rage and vengeance were terrible. He filled the prisons 
 
 with noblemen and bishops, putting out the eyes and tearing out the tongues of some, 
 
 iioi. hanging, burning, and burying others alive. Henry died in his thirty- 
 
 second year, and his wife Constance, soon followed him to the grave. Pope Innocent 
 
 1108. Ill became guardian of their two-year old son Frederick, and 
 
 made the Sicilian kingdom a fief of the pap)al see. The friends of the Hohenstaufens 
 
 rniup of stcahia. thcreupou elected Philip of Swabia, while the Guelphs elected Otto, 
 
 iiot-iaos. the son of Henry the Lion, to be king. Philip was a man of gentle 
 
 manners, pure habits, and pious disposition. Otto was a rude, violent and daring 
 
 knight. The South recognized Philip. The North followed Otto, and a ten years' 
 
 otto XV. war ensued, during which violence and lawlessness prevailed. In a 
 
 1107-1X18. single year, sixteen cathedrals and three hundred villages were burned 
 
 i-ioa. to the ground. Philip was murdered by Otto of Wittelsbach, either 
 
 from private revenge or inconsequence of a conspiracy. Otto IV, who was now ac- 
 
 moo. knowledged generally as king, and who married Philip's daughter, laid 
 
 the murderer under ban. He fled to the Danube, where he was slain; and his family 
 castle was torn down. 
 
 § 235. Innocent III. soon provoked the passionate emperor to a bitter quarrel. 
 This pope was a great statesman. He followed the policy of Gregory VII., maintain- 
 ing that the church was higher than the state, the spiritual greater than the temporal 
 head; that consequently all princes must recognize the Pope as their sovereign liege 
 lord, and judge. During the civil war in Germany, he had supported Otto, and won 
 from him the promise to confirm all the donations that had been made to the papal 
 chair, and to give up the imperial claims to Rome and to Middle ltal3^ This of course 
 would secure the independence of the papal state. Otto came to Rome to be crowned, 
 but after his coronation, he asserted his imperial rights anew, and even invaded Lower 
 Italy in order to regain the kingdom of Sicily, and to shake off the authority of Rome. 
 Innocent excommunicated him, and sent the j'oung Frederick to Germany, in order to 
 
 1210. kindle anew the fight between Guelph and Ghibelline. The latter 
 
 party received the beautiful, hopeful lad with joy. Otto took part as the ally of John 
 
 1214:. of England, in the war against Philip of France, and suffered a great 
 
 ims. defeat in Flanders. Thereupon Frederick II., of Hohenstaufen, was 
 
 acknowledged generally asking of Germany, although Otto IV. did not die till 1218. 
 
THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 325 
 
 laso. Frederick, after having his young son Henry elected king, returned to 
 
 Italy, and received the imperial crown in Rome. But the new emperor was a free- 
 Fveaeticu II. thinker, who had been educated in the wisdom of Arabia. He had a 
 121S-12SO. strong inclination for Islam and for oriental life, and he soon became a 
 mighty enemy of the Pope. As king of Upper and of Lower Italy, he threatened the 
 temporal power of the papacy ; and as a free-thinker, he threatened the authorit}^ of 
 the church. Consequently, Innocent and his successors struggled hard to separate the 
 dominion of Naples and Sicily from the German crown and the imperial dignity. 
 
 § 236. Frederick II. delayed so long to carry out his promised crusade, that he was 
 
 122S. excommunicated by Gregory IX. The next year he started without 
 
 waiting to be freed from the papal ban. Thereupon the Pope not only baflied all his 
 undertakings in Palestine, but attacked his possessions in Lower Italy. This hastened 
 Frederick's return. He drove back the papal armies 
 and threatened the papal state, until Gregory was 
 quite willing to make peace, and to free him from 
 excommunication. Frederick now gave his whole 
 attention to the welfare of his states ; he deposed 
 his misguided, disobedient son Heniy from the Ger- 
 
 123S. man throne, and placed his younger 
 
 son Conrad in the vacant kingdom. He issued 
 edicts to repress the robberies of the knights, and 
 to establish enduring peace throughout the land. 
 He gave to Sicily a new constitution, he favored com- 
 merce, industry, and poetry. But in an evil hour he 
 attacked the Lombard cities, in order to compel them ^ 
 to acknowledge his imperial rights. This attempt 
 produced a terrible war of parties and of principles. 
 Frederick made an alliance with the Ghibellines, 
 and with the inhuman tyrant Ezzelino of Verona ; he 
 brought into the field his faithful Saracens and his 
 
 1X37. hireling soldiers, and conquered the 
 
 allied army of the Lombards at Cortenuova. Most statue of Frederick ii. 
 of the cities now submitted to his sway. When, '' 
 
 however, he sought to compel the Milanese to unconditional surrender, and gave 
 
 1230. Sardinia to his son Enzio, the Pope renewed the excommunication, 
 
 supported the Milanese, and stirred up everywhere enemies against the Emperor, ac- 
 cusing the latter of infidelity and of blasphemy. Frederick retorted and answered in- 
 
 im. suit witii insult. Finally Gregory sank under the weight of his hun- 
 
 dred years, and Frederick seemed to be master of the situation. 
 
 § 237. Fieschi, a Genovese Cardinal, was now elected pope. He assumed the 
 
 i2-t3. title of Innocent IV. Frederick, when congratulated that the new pope 
 
 was his friend, replied, " I fear I have lost a friend among the cardinals, and shall find 
 an enemy in the papal chair, for no pope can be a Ghibelline." And he was right. In- 
 nocent made a few efforts for peace; then escaped secretly from Rome, and called a 
 
 ia*s. church council in the city of Lyons, on the borders of the German and 
 
 the Roman world. Here he renewed the ban against the Kaiser as a blasphemer, a 
 
326 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 secret Mohammedan, and an enemy of the church. He declared him to have forfeited his 
 dignities and crown ; he released his subjects from their allegiance, and threatened all 
 the Emperor's adherents with the curse of the Church. The flames broke out in all the 
 1H40. lands of the empire. The papal party elected another emperor, Henry 
 
 J2jy. of Thuringia ; and when Henry was defeated at Ulm, and died at the 
 
 Wartburg, Count William of Holland was induced to accept the royal title. But 
 the imperial cities, and the secular princes, remained steadfast to Frederick's son Conrad. 
 § 238. Italy meanwhile was devastated by the war between the Guelphs and 
 Ghibellines. The hot blood of the vindictive southerners produced incredible cruel- 
 ties. Family fought against family, city against city. Ezzelino, the leader of the 
 Ghibelline nobles, committed unspeakable outrages against the Guelph cities. Fred- 
 erick's majestic form long remained upright ; the number of his enemies only in- 
 laws, creased his courage. Even his great losses at Parma could not break 
 his spirit. But when his son, Enzio, fell into the hands of the Bolognese, who held 
 him prisoner for more than twenty years, when his private secretary, Peter of Vinea, 
 proved a traitor, and as he was led to execution, beat out his brains against a cluirch 
 pillar, the Emperor broke his heart. He was just about undertaking a new campaign 
 12S0. against Upper Italy, as he died in the arras of his beloved son Manfred. 
 He was in the fifty-sixth 3'ear of his age. Frederick united fine culture with great 
 bravery and beauty of person. Surrounded by splendor and pleasures of every sort, 
 he might have been happy, had he learned to tame his passions and to moderate his 
 desires. His manner of thought, his customs, and his life, were repugnant to the ideas 
 of his time and to the maxims of his church ; moreover, he abandoned himself unre- 
 servedly to sensuality and to doubt. Dante places him in hell, among the daring 
 doubters who rage against heaven, and for a punishment are placed in fiery sepulchers. 
 § 239. Innocent IV. now returned rejoicing into Italy; first, however, stirring up 
 the whole world by his letters against tlie godless family of the Hohenstaufens. He 
 declared Naples and Sicily to be fiefs of the papal see, and excommunicated Fred- 
 erick's sons, Conrad IV. and Manfred, because they defended their paternal inherit- 
 125^. ance. Conrad conquered Naples, but soon passed into the grave. 
 His chivalrous half-brother, Manfred, defended Lower Italy with German and Arab 
 warriors, and was so successful that most of the cities acknowledged him, and the 
 1354. Guelph troops were obliged to withdraw. This brought Pope Inno- 
 isas. cent the IV. to his grave. Manfred then won another victory, and 
 was crowned in Palermo king of Sicily. He now ruled like his father, in the magnifi- 
 cent castle by the sea. The Ghibellines were victorious also in Upper Italy, until 
 isao. their leader Ezzilino was made prisoner at the battle of Cassano, and 
 died of his wounds at a castle in Milan. Rome now saw that the papacy could not 
 succeed by its own strength. Pope Urban IV. therefore made an alliance with the 
 French, and offered Sicily to the energetic but cruel Cliarles of Anjou, brother of the 
 i2tts. French king Louis IX. He was to have it on condition that he con- 
 quered it with the help of the Guelphs, and that he paid a yearly tribute to the papal 
 court. Charles landed at the mouth of the Tiber, and was received by the new Pope 
 Clement IV. and the clerical party, as a second Judas Maccabteus, who would smite 
 hip and thigh the accursed heretic and Mahommedan chieftain, ilanfred opposed him 
 
DEATH OF EMPEROR FREDERICK IT. I.N I'ALElt.Mi i. ( .1. ZirL.) {pp. 327.) 
 
828 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 i««e. bravely, but was betiayed by the Italians at the battle of Beneventum. 
 
 He plunged into the midst of his enemies, and died the death of a hero. 
 
 § 2iO. The battle of Beneventum broke the power of the Ghibellines. Naples 
 
 DEATH OF MANFRED. 
 
 and Sicily fell into the hands of the conqueror, who made them feel all the sufferings 
 of the vanquished. The friends of the Hoheustaufens were punished with death, the 
 
THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 329 
 
 dungeon and exile, and their property was given to the French and Guelph soldiers. 
 In their misery, they called the youthful Conradin to Italy. This son of Conrad IV. 
 had the lofty spirit and the heroic mind of his ancestors. He left his German home 
 with his friend Frederick of Baden, and a few devoted soldiers, to reconquer the inherit- 
 ance of the Hohenstaufens. The Ghibelliues received him with transports of joy ; 
 he marched victoriously through Upper and Middle Italy, and made a triumphal entry 
 
 EXECUTION OF CONRADIN 4T N-VPLF^ 
 
 ( Tin last nf fli, Ilnlnnstaufen'i) 
 
 into Rome, which the Pope abandoned as he approached. At the capitol he received 
 the acknowledgment of the eternal city, and then he marched to Naples. His first 
 engagement with the enemy gave him the advantage, but in his eagerness he fell into 
 an ambuscade, in which his troops were killed or dispersed. He himself was taken 
 lioa. prisoner along with his bosom friend Frederick. Charles of Anjou 
 
330 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 had them both beheaded. King Enzio died a prisoner at Bologna. The sons of Man- 
 fred languished in prison to satisfj^ the implacable Charles. Margaret, the daughter 
 of Frederick II., was so ill-treated by her husband, Albert of Thuringia, that she es- 
 caped in the night time from the castle of Wartburg, and fled to Frankfurt. As she 
 fled (the legend declares), she embraced her eldest son with such violence, that she bit 
 him in the cheek, and he was known afterward as " Frederick with the bitten cheek.'' 
 Charles of Anjou raged against all the adherents of Conradin. One of these, John 
 issa. of Procida, swore to have revenge. At his instigation, the Sicilian 
 
 vespers took place. All the French of Sicily were murdered by the inhabitants, and 
 the island was then surrendered to the courageous son-in-law of Manfred, Peter of 
 Aragon, by whose help the inhabitants repulsed all the attacks of Charles, and founded 
 an independent kingdom. A war ensued between Peter and Charles, which neither 
 of them survived. Frederick the Second, son of Peter, was crowned king of Sicily, 
 but Naples continued under French rule for two centuries. 
 
 3. Medieval Life. 
 
 § 241. The social conditions of the middle ages resulted from the blending of 
 Feuaaiism. German and Roman institutions. To this mixture we give the name 
 of feudalism. When the Roman provinces were conquered, the victors took possession 
 of a great part of the conquered land in such fashion, that the king took all the state 
 propertj% but gave a part of the land to his comrades, with the obligation to follow 
 him to battle attaching to it. The remainder was left to the former inhabitants. But 
 in order to bind the freemen firmly to his throne, the kii^g gave to some of them parts 
 of his own share with a life tenure. Such gifts were called fiefs. The giver was the 
 liege-lord, the receiver a vassal. In like manner, the richer land owners endowed 
 those without property with parts of their possessions, or with parts of their fiefs, and 
 thus they too acquired vassals. Bishops and abbots also gave fiefs to knights upon 
 condition that they would protect their cloister, or that they would perform military 
 service. The feudal system thus formed a chain of dependence and fidelity, which 
 bound together mediseval humanitjs in a most complicated fashion, and greatlj' limited 
 freedom of person and of property. The crown vassals gradually conquered for 
 themselves the heredity of their fiefs, and became so powerful that they confronted the 
 kings as equals. Rich land holders gradually acquired the property of the poorer 
 class, so that they belonged to the nobility, while the small free holders fell into rela- 
 tions of dependence, and cultivated their former property as tenant farms, for which 
 they paid a rent. Their condition grew worse and worse, until the land population 
 fell into serfdom, were chained to the soil, and given up defenseless to the will of the 
 master. All who lived in dependence, or in serfdom, were obliged to make contribu- 
 tions, or to render services to the lord of the castle ; to give him tithes of their 
 fruits and wine and flocks, or to give him money on particular occasions, or to give hinr 
 gratuitous labor. These were called feudal burdens, and grew more oppressive and 
 more manifold every j^ear. 
 
 § 242. There were three classes in the middle ages : the military class, the 
 
 Chivalry. teaching class, and the working class. The military class included 
 
 the nobility and the knights, with their vassals and servants. Knighthood was based 
 
 upon birth, and upon the education of the page. He was required to earn his spurs 
 
THE MIDDLE AGE. 331 
 
 by a feat of arms, before he could be received into the company. The main purpose 
 of chivalry was fight; sometimes to prove one's strength or.fidelit3% sometimes to de- 
 fend one's personal honor, sometimes to protect religion and the clergy, sometimes to 
 protect women as the weaker sex. The latter led to the minnesingers, the soul of 
 chivalry and of mediseval poetry. Tournaments, in which a noble maiden gave the 
 prize to the victor, kept alive the feeling for chivalry, and that no false knight should 
 slip in under the disguise of his armor and his helmet, the coat of arms was intro- 
 duced to signalize the name and family of the champion. 
 
 § 24-3. The teaching class included the clergy, both the secular priests and those 
 jHieratchy. of the cloistcr. They alone were in possession of culture, and had the 
 power to determine man's salvation. Hence they acquired a great dominion over the 
 ignorant, credulous, and religious people of the middle ages. The Pope ruled not 
 only in religion and the church and among the clergy, but he sought authority over 
 secular princes and kingdoms, and regarded the imperial crown as his fief. The chief 
 clergy frequently occupied important state offices, and archbishops and abbots ob- 
 tained gradually such great estates, that they resembled princes. Proud cathedrals 
 arose, that were decorated with the achievements of every art. A happy life in a 
 beautiful house seemed to be the privilege of the superior clergy. The episcopal 
 authority, which originally covered all the relations of spiritual, moral, and social life, 
 was more and more limited by the Roman supremacy. The appointment of arch- 
 bishops and bishops became gradually the exclusive right of the church, although 
 these were originally appointed by the secular princes. The episcopal courts were 
 more and more limited, as the court of Rome assumed jurisdiction over all important 
 questions, and placed many cloisters and monasteries directly under papal control. 
 All appointments, appeals, and dispensations must be paid for, and thus much money 
 flowed constantly to Rome. Legates were appointed to oversee the churches in for- 
 eign lands. The papal authority thus became absolute, until it was dangerous to op- 
 pose it. Every antagonist of existing ecclesiastical arrangements was treated as an 
 enemy of the church, and punished accordingl3^ These punishments were of three 
 degrees, excommunication, which struck the individual ; the interdict, which struck a 
 city or a state, depriving it of worship and of all spiritual and ecclesiastical services ; 
 and the crusade, with the accompanying inquisition, in which whole populations were 
 given over to destruction. The power of the papacy was especially furthered, first 
 by the false decretals, attributed to Isador of Spain, a collection of church laws and 
 decisions pretending to come from the first four centuries, but belonging really to the 
 ninth ; secondly, by the growth of monasticism ; and thirdly, by mediaeval scholasti- 
 cism. 
 
 § 244. (1) Monasticism originated in, the east, where the contemplation of divine 
 sionaatictam. things and solitary life is regarded as more meritorious than energetic 
 action. So many chose this calling, that at the end of the third century, the Egyp- 
 tian Antony, who had cast 'away his riches, and chosen the desert for his residence, 
 gathered together the isolated hermits into a communal life, and his pupil Pachomius, 
 accustomed them to a life in monasteries or cloisters. Regulated by definite ordinances, 
 629. the system spread gradually to the west. Benedict, of Nursia, in the 
 
 sixth century, founded Monte Cassino in Lower Italy. This was the first cloister with 
 definite rules for all its members, touching raiment, food, modes of life, and spiritual 
 
332 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 exercises. This order of St. Benedict was introduced into all the lands of the west, 
 and many monasteries were erected. The sites of these were usually in picturesque 
 places, and the inhabitants of them took a three-fold vow of chastit}', poverty, and 
 obedience. These monks cleaved the forests, and transformed the moors into blooming 
 iields. They furnished an asylum to the persecuted and the oppressed. They en- 
 nobled the souls of men, by proclaiming the gospel ; they trained the hearts of the 
 young to morality and refinement ; they preserved from destruction the remnants of 
 ancient literature and science. Many of the Benedictine cloisters, like St. Gall and 
 Fulda, were the nursing places of culture, of science, and of art. When the Order of 
 St. Benedict degenerated, the cloister of Clugny in Burgundy was established in the 
 tenth century, with a view to stricter discipline ; and Clugny became the centre of a 
 great confederacy of more than 2000 monasteries, most of which were very wealthy. 
 But this order likewise became gradually less strict ; consequently the Cistercian order 
 was founded in the eleventh centurjs and in tlie beginning of the twelfth, the Order 
 of Premontre. The Carthusian monks went farthest in the practice of renunciation. 
 They lived a life of solitary and silent confinement ; their food was meager and coarse ; 
 they clothed themselves in hairy garments, inflicted upon themselves frequent scourg- 
 ings, and lived a life of uninterrupted praj^er. 
 
 § 245. The mendicant orders were founded in the thirteenth century. Francis 
 
 Fianviseaua ana of Assisi, the son of 'd rich merchant, gave up his property, clothed 
 noininicaits. himself in rags, and went begging and praying through the world. His 
 fiery zeal soon procured him adherents, who cast away their money and property, 
 fasted, prayed, chastised themselves, and satisfied their meager wants from voluntary 
 gifts and alms. The Order of Franciscans, or Minorites, spread rapidly through all 
 lands, and soon divided into several branches. Dominic, a cultivated Spanisli noble, 
 founded the Order of Dominicans or preaching monks, whose aim was the purification 
 of the faith and the destruction of heresy. The conversion of the Albigenses among 
 whom the Dominicans lived for a long while, was the first task of this order. The Dom- 
 inicans were likewise bound hj a vow of poverty and renunciation. The courts of 
 inquisition, with their terrible tortures and punishments, were com,mitted to this 
 order. The severity with which they exercised their authority in Hesse and Thur- 
 1333. ingia, so excited the people, that they slew the judges of heresy and 
 
 put an end to the persecution. The mendicant monks were the most powerful sup- 
 port of the papacy. In return for their fidelity, the Pope endowed them witli great 
 privileges, and relieved them from the jurisdiction of the local bishops. The Francis- 
 cans were the favorites of the common people, in whose sorrows and joys they shared ; 
 the Dominicans dedicated themselves to the sciences, and gradually got possession of 
 the universities. The greatest doctors of- the church belonged to the Order of St. 
 Dominic. 
 
 § 246. (2) The working class included the inhabitants of the country and of the 
 
 Cities ana Mimic- city, who pursucd the arts of peace. The tillers of the soil were, 
 ipai jMfe. for a long time, the only working class of Germans. These were 
 not free, and had no part in public life. But the Saxon emperors and the Hohen- 
 staufens exerted themselves to build cities ; and many of the country people settled in 
 them, so that the third estate came to consist of burgesses and peasants, and acquired 
 gradually various rights and privileges. The German cities were divided into imperial 
 
A PRELATES PASTIME. {Ferd. KriUer.) 
 
 {pp. 333. ) 
 
334 THE MIDDLE' AGE. 
 
 cities and land cities. The imperial cities wei'e directl}' subject to the Emperor, and 
 were represented in the imperial diet. The land cities belonged to the territory of a 
 secular prince or of a bishop. The imperial cities were the oldest, the richest, and the 
 most powerful ; and it was in them that the municipal life of the Middle Age was 
 especially developed. 
 
 The municipalities acquired gradually by donation, purchase, or freedom, certain 
 rights of sovereignty ; for example, the right to administer justice, to coin monej', to 
 lay taxes, to collect customs. The citizens of the German imperial cities, especially in the 
 south, consisted originallj', as in ancient Rome, of patrician families, of artisans and culti- 
 vators of the soil who, as clients, possessed no share in these civic rights. The officers 
 and aldermen of the city were chosen from the Patricians ; but gradually the lower 
 classes resisted the dominion of the patrician families. To this end they organized 
 guilds. These artisan guilds, the strength of which was to be found in the strong 
 arms of the workmen, soon acquired such power, that they not only conquered every- 
 where civil rights for themselves, and a share in the citj^ government, but in many 
 cities, the aristocratic element was expelled by a democratic government of guilds. In 
 times of war, these guilds marched to the field with their own banners under the 
 lead of the guildmaster, and protected their freedom against foreign enemies as bravely 
 as they conquered and maintained it at home. Prosperity and power gave them social 
 happiness ; and this was manifested in dances. May festivals, and pastimes of every 
 sort. 
 
 § 247. The literature of the Middle Age was of three kinds of theological writ- 
 ings, the most important of which were composed by tiie scholastics and the mystics. 
 The schoolmen were the philosophical theologians, who made Christian doctrine the 
 subject of their thought and investigation. They used the logic of Aristotle, and in- 
 vented a multitude of terms and formulae, and came at last to empty explanations and 
 demonstrations, and to the absurdest subtleties. Their works astonish us by their 
 acuteness, by their fine distinctions, by their skill in reasoning, by tlieir learning, and 
 their amazing industry. Thomas Aquinas, the Dominican, and Duns Scotus, the Fran- 
 ciscan, were the most famous school-men of the thirteenth century ; and the scholastics 
 were all divided into Thomists and Scotists. Emotional natures refused to be satis- 
 fied with the dry reasoning of the school-men. They opposed therefore, to the philosophy 
 and logic of scholastic Christianitjs a religion of feeling, of poetry, and of imagination. 
 Bonaveiitiira. Bernard of Clairvaux wJio lived in the twelfth century, and 
 f t27-t. Bonaventura, wlio lived in the thirteenth, were the beginners of 
 
 this tendency ; but it reached its full development in the M3'stics. These 
 imitated the life of Christ, sought to overcome the wickedness of the world by 
 chastising the flesh and destroying the lusts of the sense, and struggled after a union 
 with God, at once complete and direct. Mysticism has greatlj^ influenced literature 
 and life, and although this doctrine of humility and self denial weakened the energies, 
 and this excitement of emotions led frequently to fanaticism, nevertheless its influence 
 upon a rude and obtuse humanity was singularly' beneficial. The " Imitation of Christ " 
 by the Domincar. monk Tauler, of Strasburg, and the little " Book of Eternal Wisdom " 
 by Suso, of Constance, were of great authority. But the most powerful influence exerted 
 by the Mystics, was through the brotherhood of common life in the Netherlands, to 
 t i^'t. which Thomas a Kempis belonged, the author of the famous book of 
 
THE MIDDLE AGE 335 
 
 devotion known in all languages, and read by all Christians, the " Imitation of Christ." 
 Tlie Flagellants were allied in part to the Mj'stics. When the conflicts between Guelph 
 and Ghibelline filled Italy witli wickedness and crime, the cities of the Peninsula were 
 startled by throngs of penitents, who marched through the land singing penitential 
 songs, and lashing their bare backs until the blood flowed, in order to obtain forgive- 
 ness from God. The same thing took place in German}^ and other countries in the 
 
 i34o-i3*s. fourteenth century, when the Hack death wasted Europe, and was 
 looked upon as a ^^unishment from God. Bands of Flagellants marched from place to 
 place, preaching penitence and chastising themselves, and persisting in their activity, 
 in spite of the Church and of the Inquisition. 
 
 § 248. Mathematics, natural science, and history, were also in the hands of the 
 clergj^ although the Greeks and Arabs exercised great influence upon the develop- 
 ment of the exact sciences. It was from the Arabian schools that the western clerg)^ 
 obtained a great part of their much admired knowledge. Albertus Magnus, a famous 
 f 1280. teacher, was also a great traveler, and so skilled in natural sciences, 
 that he was counted a magician. Among the authors of Latin chronicles and annals, 
 were William of Tja-e, the French historian of the crusades and of the Holy Land, 
 and Otto of Freysing, the half-brother of King Conrad III. Along with this learned 
 writing, there were also, at the time of the crusades, historical descriptions of certain 
 periods and events wiitten in French, Spanish, and Italian. Among these are the his- 
 
 frouaatt, tory of the fourth crusade by Villehardouin, Froissart's Chronicles, 
 
 1329 1400. and Joinvilles history of St. Louis. Philip Comines, in his Menifiirs, 
 comines, is oue of the founders of modern historiograph}'. These were wiit- 
 
 i4*5-iso». ten in French. Villani's Historj' of Florence is the most important 
 rniani,^ 134,8. of thc Italian chronicles, M'hile Muntanier wrote in Spanish an ac- 
 count of the deeds of the kings of Aragon, remarkable for its epic spirit and its fidelity 
 to nature. 
 
 § 249. Poetry however passed early into the hands of the knights, chiefly because 
 love, and the service of women, was the heart and centre of mediaeval poetry, and in 
 this of course the clergy could not participate. In substance and in form it was alike 
 in all the lands of Europe. This likeness is due parti}' to the international spirit of 
 the crusades, and partly to the use of the Romance languages. In Italy, France, and 
 Spain, and even in England, the languages resembled each other so that tiie literarj^ 
 products of one land were easily understood in the other. 
 
 Mediaeval poetry was of three sorts : heroic poems, in which the deeds of chiv- 
 alry, fights, adventures, and love furnished the material ; lyric songs, in which the 
 poet expressed his feelings, his moods, or his thoughts in melodious verses and relig- 
 ious poems, where devotional feeling and pious enthusiasm broke forth into praises of 
 God and of Mary, or pictured the deeds and the fortunes of the saints. The epic 
 poems were based upon legendary cycles, some taken from the antique woi'ld, like the 
 Alexandriad, others taken from the Christian world like the story of Karl the Great, 
 and of Arthur and his round table, ;ind the legend of the Holy Grail. To this latter 
 cycle belong the two great German romances of the Middle Age, Parsival and 
 1200. Tristan, and Isolde. But the Niebelungen is the pearl of German epic 
 
 poetry. It originated at the time of tiie great migration, but was ]-educed to its pres- 
 ent form by an unknown poet, in the beginning of the thirteenth century. The 
 
336 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 stories of Siegfried, who was murdered at the Linden spring, in the forest, the bloody 
 revenge of liis faithful wife Krienihilde, and the destruction of the royal house of Bur- 
 gundy, by Dietrich of Berne, at the court of Attila, the king of the Huns, are the 
 chief features of this great production. The lyric poets, the minnesingers of Germany 
 and the troubadours of France, gave expression to the feelings of love or to the 
 delights of the mind in the changes of nature, though some times they satirized the 
 manners of the nobility, and the degeneracy of the clergy. The Wartburg, near 
 Eisenach, was the meeting place of the most admired and gifted of the German min- 
 naiite, nesingers. The greatest poets of the Middle Age belonged to Italy. 
 
 1X95-1321. Dante Alighieri, of Florence, created the Italian poetic diction in his 
 f i37i. " Divine Comed3\" Petrarch carried it to melodious perfection in his 
 sonnets, and Boccaccio created the language of Italian prose in his tales and novels. 
 Dante's magnificent poem consists of three parts. Hell, Purgatory, and Paradise. Its 
 
 melodious verses contain all the wisdom of tlie 
 Middle Age, the whole treasure of its science, 
 so that one can saj"- that heaven and earth laid 
 hands to the completion of Dante's poem. 
 Petrarch's other works are composed in Latin. 
 Like Boccaccio, he rendered great services in 
 the revival of ancient literature and culture. 
 The art of the Middle Age was wholy devoted 
 The sacrea Arts, to religion. AH its various 
 branches united together in building the sub- 
 lime cathedrals, of which the oldest were in the 
 round arch or Roman style, and the latest in 
 the pointed arch or Gothic. The Gothic stjde 
 reached its perfection in the thirteenth and 
 , fourteenth centuries. The Gothic buildings 
 have a. free bold character, and point upward 
 
 DANTE {^BKjn.i Bust. J/«</. /;-/ ^ta//i like the faith that produced them. Their chief 
 3Iai>k. . 
 
 decoration is the slender spire which forms a 
 
 majestic flower, pointing to the goal toward which the human soul is striving. The 
 
 ground-plan has the figure of the cross. The twilight that is obtained by the painted 
 
 windows, fills the soul of the suppliant with awe, at the presence of the Almighty. The 
 
 cathedral churches consist of a choir for the clergy and the high altar, and of a middle 
 
 nave with a lofty roof, and usually two side naves, separated from the middle one by 
 
 rows of columns. Sculpture, music, painting, are likewise in the service of the church. 
 
 The sculpture and carved work which conceal the clumsy and heavy masonry, are to 
 
 be regarded as parts of the great idea that underlies the Gothic stjde. The pictures of 
 
 Christ and his disciples, the statues of the saints, the manifold decorations, reliefs, and 
 
 symbols, the flowers that start fi'om every corner, all point to the Christian religion, 
 
 and to the struggle of man and the human soul to reach the divine. The carving in 
 
 wood and ivory, the metal work, the pictures above the altars, the painted windows, 
 
 the vaulted roofs, and the lofty columns are also symbols of religious teaching and of 
 
 the church. The eternal ideas of faith are thus expressed in visible form ; hence 
 
 these older pictures all have the character of peace, because peace is the nature of 
 
THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 337 
 
 God, but a peace full of life and eneigj^ ; hence too the glory of color that gave variety 
 to unity and motion to peace. The solemn tones of the old church music with the 
 majestic play of the organ promoted reverence ; and the chiming bells called men to 
 collect their thoughts, and awakened in their hearts a longing for heavenly things. 
 
 V. THE DECAY OF CHIVALRY AND THE DEGENERATION OF THE 
 
 CHURCH. 
 
 § 250. 
 
 1. The Interregnum. (1250—1273.) 
 
 HE death of Frederick II. was a critical moment for Germany. 
 Foreign princes without power and influence now obtained the- 
 imperial title, while throughout the empire disorder and lawless- 
 1X50. ness prevailed. Might was the only right. When 
 
 William of Holland fell in fighting the Frisians, the Arch-bishop 
 of Cologne promoted the election of Richard of Cornwall, brother 
 of the king of England, while the arch-bishop of Treves, and his 
 
 following, chose Alfonso X. of Castile. Richard sailed up the Rhine, loaded with 
 
 treasures for the 23rinces who had chosen him. 
 
 Alfonso never visited the kingdom to which 
 
 he had been called. Meanwhile princes and 
 
 bishops sought to extend their territory, and 
 
 to acquire sovereignty, while the knights and 
 
 vassals misused their strength in highway 
 
 robbery. From their castles, which they had 
 
 built on the shores of navigable rivers, or 
 
 beside the main highwaj's, they carried on 
 
 their life of wild pillage, kidnapping travel- 
 ers, in order to obtain ransom, and plunder- 
 ing the freight wagons of the commercial 
 
 cities. Thej'' defied the laws and the courts 
 
 with their strong arms and their strong walls. 
 
 The Fehmgericht, as it was called, was a 
 
 wretched make-shift against the violence of 
 
 these insolent knights. This tribunal had 
 
 its principal seat in Westphalia, under the 
 
 conduct of the Arch-bishop of Cologne, who 
 
 sought to alarm transgressors by the fear of 
 
 a secret justice and a bloody revenge. Even 
 
 the powerful Hansa, the great league of Bal- 
 tic cities and the union of the cities of the 
 
 Rhine, were hardly able to protect their mem- 
 bers. And yet the cities were the only (Facade of Strasburg Blinster, 1S91 A. D.) 
 
 points of light in this dark period. 
 
 They stood for the development of a national society, and preserved the faith in 
 22 
 
 ■ EQUESTRIAN STATUE OP RUDOLPH OF HAPSBURG. 
 
338 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 communal life. But the lot of the peasant was terrible. Village and barn were ofteii 
 burned down and harvests destroyed in the quarrels of the barons. The chase and the 
 wild animals were alike destructive to their fields ; the demands for their labor were 
 endless. The law gave them neither rights nor protection, and they were exposed to 
 most cruel and disgraceful outrages. 
 
 2. The Power op the Hapsburgs and the League of the Forest Cantons. 
 
 § 251. During the interregnum, many nobles and bishops acquired sovereign 
 rights, and not a few, imperial estates. These they desired to preserve, and hence 
 the}^ did their utmost to prevent the election of a prince, strong in land and people, to 
 the imperial throne. Yet they needed at the same time a powerful man to jjut an end 
 to lawlessness, and to break the superiority of King Ottocar, of Bohemia, Moravia, 
 
 and Austria. All these properties were to 
 ntitioiiiii be found in Rudolph of Haps- 
 of Hapabuia, hiivg ; and Archbishop Wer- 
 tgts-teoi. ner, of Mayence, succeeded 
 in making him emjjeror. His estates in 
 Alsace, and in Switzerland were large, but so 
 separated from each other, that the electoral 
 princes did not think Rudolph dangerous 
 because of his possessions. His bravery, 
 strength, and sagacity, were well-known, 
 while his piety and inclination for the church 
 and the clergy, made his choice especially 
 grateful to the Pope. When, therefore, 
 Rudolph had secured to the Pope and to the 
 German princes their territories, and acquired 
 rights, his election was universally acknowl- 
 edged, and Alfonso, of Castile, induced to ab- 
 dicate. Only Ottocar refused his allegiance, 
 and to appear at the appointed diet. Rudolph 
 declared war against him, and with the assistance of his own people and the German 
 123S. princes, won the glorious victory at Marshfeld. Ottocar was killed. 
 
 Austria, Steyermark, and Krain were given to Rudolph's sons, and the foundations 
 laid for the Austrian house of Hapsburg. 
 
 § 252. Rudolph avoided every interference in the affairs of I'"aly, and gave his 
 entire strength to Germany. Series of campaigns enabled him to win back many of the 
 fiefs, states, rights, and incomes, that had been taken from the empire. But his great- 
 est achievement was the establishment of peace, and of social order. He traveled 
 throughout the kingdom, and called the robber nobles to his judgment seat. In 
 Thuringia alone, he hung twenty-nine of the knights, and destroyed sixty-six castles. 
 In Franconia, and along the Rhine, he subdued seventy strongholds in a single year. 
 1291. In one of these expeditions the aged monarch died, respected for his 
 
 simplicity, virtue, and uprightness, for his intelligence, his impartial justice, and his 
 deeds of war. 
 
 § 253. The princes now chose Adolph of Nassau to be emperor, partly because 
 
 FAMILY OF GERMAN KNIGHT. 
 
THE MIDDLE AGE. 339 
 
 Adoiph of they feared the in creasing power of the Hapsburgs, and partly because 
 ifaasau, they hated Albrecht, Rudolph's cruel and greedy son. But Adoiph, 
 mog-mos. like Rudolph, sought to increase his little territorjs and used the 
 money which he had received from the King of England to purchase Thuringia and 
 Meissen. This involved him in a war with '" Frederick of the bitten cheek." The 
 Rlienish princes were angry at the emperor, because he had taken from them the river 
 tolls, and they, in connection with Frederick and his friends, deposed Adoiph, and j^ut 
 j«39s. Albrecht of Austria in his place. Adoiph was slain in battle, but 
 
 Albrecht continued the unrighteous war against Thuringia. He was an energetic but 
 a cruel man, and incredibly obstinate. In his greed he soon provoked a war with the 
 Rhenish princes who had made him emperor, and carried destruction into the regions 
 along the Rhine and Neckar. He was finally murdered by his own nephew, John of 
 130S. Swabia, whom he had deprived of his paternal inheritance. John expi- 
 
 ated his crime as a monk, but the Emperor's wife and daughter took fearful revenge 
 upon all who belonged to the participants in the murder. 
 
 §254. Albrecht's cruelty led to the foundation of the Swiss league. Switzer- 
 AibrecM of land was a part of the empire and was governed by imperial officers. 
 Austria, The rich and powerful dukes of Zsehringen, the founders of Berne 
 i3»a-i3os. and other cities, were originally chosen for this work. But this house 
 1218. dying out, the counts of Savoy governed the southern portion, and the 
 
 Hapsburgs the north of Switzerland. This gave them control of the four forest can- 
 tons. When the Hapsburgs came to the imperial throne, they tried to make these 
 part of Austria. Albrecht permitted his governors to use the imperial authorit}', so as 
 to oppress the simple but courageous liberty-loving mountaineers. Three of the Can- 
 1307. tons, Schwytz, Uri, Unterwalden, thereupon formed a league, stormed 
 
 the castles, and drove out the governors. Albrecht's death saved them from his 
 wrath. But his sou Leopold, took up his father's jilan. He marched an army into 
 1315. Switzerland, but suffered a terrible defeat at Morgarten. Lucerne 
 
 then joined the league, which afterward included Berne, Zurich, Zug and other can- 
 i3s«. tons. In the battle of Sempach, the men of the league, in their fight 
 
 with the Austrians, proved themselves worthy of their liberty. 
 
 3. Philip the Faik, of France, akd the Emperor Ludwig, op Bavaria. 
 
 § 255. In Boniface the Eighth, the papacy reached its highest splendor, but in him 
 also it came to a fall. In a war between Philip the Fair, of France, and Edward I., of 
 England, he offered himself as arbitrator. Philip refused, and demanded tribute of the 
 clergy. The Pope thereupon forbade the priesthood to pay this tribute. Philip now 
 prohibited every export of silver and gold from his kingdom. This cut off the papal 
 
 1302. revenues. Boniface now declared every one a heretic who refused to 
 believe that the king was subject to the pope, in both spiritual and temporal things. 
 Philip on the other hand solemnly proclaimed, through the states general, that his' 
 kingdom was independent. He was therefore excommunicated, and France was placed 
 under an interdict. The King sent to Italy to hire soldiers, and made an alliance with 
 the family Colonna, and other discontented noblemen, who attacked the Pope and took 
 him prisoner. The peasants, however, hurried to his relief, but the shame was too 
 
 1303. much for the proud and passionate man, and he became insane. The 
 
340 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 French party now succeeded in getting the new Pope, Clement V., to take up his resi- 
 i:tor.. dence at Avignon, in Southern France, thus bringing the papacy under 
 
 COLONN.V AND rOPE ST. BONIF.VCE. (^A. dc yt'livillc.) 
 
 the influence of tiie French court. This is known as the Babj'lonian captivity, and 
 lasted seventy 3'ears. 
 
 § 256. The Knights Templar were now abolished. Rumors of blasphemous prac- 
 
THE jMI])DLE age. 
 
 341 
 
 tices, secret crimes and infidelity on the iiai-t of the Order, gave Philip a pretext for 
 iuiprisonlng tiie Templars, and confiscating their wealth. A six years' trial, marked 
 by dreadful tortures, extorted from the prisoners confessions that appeared to prove 
 1310. their guilt ; and when fifty-four of them retracted these confessions, ■ 
 
 thej' were condemned to be burned. Tiie Grand Master, Jacob of Molay, protested in 
 
 1313. vain against such proceedings, and offered to disprove all charges ; but 
 he also died at the stake, summoning in his last breath, pope and king before a higher 
 
 1314. judgment seat. The people reverenced him as a martyr, and looked 
 upon the speedj' death of king and pope, as a judgment of God. The French king 
 took for himself the lion's share of the Templars' treasures, but some were given to 
 the Knights of St. John, and some to the princes of the land. Thus fell the temple 
 which was to reconquer the Holy Sepulcher. 
 
 § 257. While this was happening in France, Germanj^ was ruled by Henrj^ VII., 
 
 Henry Til., of Luxemburg. Heniy took 
 iaos-1313. measures at once for the 
 maintenance of order, and united Bohemia 
 to his other possessions. He then turned to 
 the long forgotten, discordant Italy, and 
 undertook a march to Rome. His arrival 
 was greeted with delight by the ojDpressed 
 Ghibellines, and the great poet, Dante, of 
 Florence, celebrated his ajjpearance by a 
 Latin treatise upon monarchy, and by songs, 
 which were soon in eyery mouth. Henry re- 
 ceived the Lombard crown, exacted tribute 
 from the cities of upper Italy, and was wel- 
 comed to the city of Pisa. But the Guelphs, 
 Florence, and the King of Naples at their 
 head, rose up against him, and he was com- 
 pelled to fight for his coronation at Rome. 
 He marched against Florence, but he died 
 
 DUKE, PAGE AND NOBLEMAN. ( A'/T7A Center;/.) "'^^ suddenly, _ not far from the 
 
 Arno, in the bloom of his manhood. The 
 joy of the Guelphs gave strength to the suspicion that he had been poisoned by a 
 Dominican monk, from whose hands he had just taken the sacrament. His death 
 broke the last bonds between the states and cities of Italy, and pillage and war raged 
 everj' where. But, strange to say, commerce, industrj', science, art, and poetry 
 flourished splendidlj% 
 
 § 258. The seven electoral princes of Germany were now divided in their choice 
 
 M^uiiwia of an emperor, some choosing Ludwig of Bavaria, others Frederick of 
 
 Austria. This led to an eight years' war. Ludwig was successful, in 
 
 spite of the strength of the Austrian party. The Swiss victorj' at 
 
 Morgarten weakened the Austrian forces, but at the battle of Miiehl- 
 
 dorf, Frederick was beaten and taken prisoner. He would not give 
 
 up the fight, or rather his brother Leopold, sought the support of Pope John XXII., 
 
 who placed Ludwig under ban and interdict. Ludwig now released Frederick upon 
 
 of Bavaria, 
 
 1313-1341. 
 
 1315. 
 
 1322. 
 
342 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 ta2B. condition tliat lie would abdicate, and prevail upon Lis party to make 
 
 peace. Neither Pope nor Leopold would consent, and Frederick, true to his word, re- 
 turned to his captor. Ludwig was so touched by this conduct, that he would have 
 shared the empire with Frederick, if the electoral princes had been willing. Leopold 
 of Austria died soon afterward, but the Pope refused to be reconciled with Ludwice, 
 
 iaae. whereupon the 
 
 latter appointed Frederick 
 his viceroy, and started with 
 an army for Italy. 
 
 § 259. In Italy he was 
 at first successful. The 
 Ghibellines and the Fi'ancis- 
 can monks supported him, 
 and an anti-pope was chosen. 
 But when he sought money 
 from the Italian cities to sat- 
 isfy his troops, their enthusi- 
 asm waned. The death of 
 Frederick obliged him to re- 
 X330. turn to Ger- 
 
 many, and the papal triumph 
 was complete. The Ghibelline 
 nobles sought a reconciliation 
 with Fope John, and the anti- 
 pope withdrew. John of 
 Bohemia, the restless son of 
 Henry VII., tried selfishly 
 but unsuccessfully to mediate 
 the quarrel. But John XXII. 
 and his successor, Benedict 
 1334. XII., refused 
 
 all attempts at mediation, and 
 the German princes finally 
 declared that for the future, 
 evei-y election of a monarch 
 should be valid without pa- 
 pal confirmation. They de- 
 133S. posed and pun- 
 
 ished the clergymen who 
 obeyed the interdict. The 
 manifest influence of the 
 French court, and the greed 
 of the Pope and the cardinals in Avignon, diminished the authority of the papal see. 
 But Ludwig, also soon lost the confidence of the German princes, by his unjust and 
 violent measures, seeking as he did to acquire Tyrol and Brandenburg, and to bend 
 spiritual and temporal law to suit his will. This led to the choice of a rival emperor, 
 
 THE OdLDE^f PR VGUE (Cltl/ TInll Ulth C'llirl ToUt) ) 
 
THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 343 
 
 i3*o. but the most of the German people, especially the imperial cities stood 
 
 by Ludwig, and the new emperor Karl IV., was not acknowledged until both Ludwig 
 
 134'.. died, and his successor was chosen by the Bavarian party. During 
 
 all these troubles, lawlessness afflicted every city and district in Germany. Each must 
 help himself as best he could. -At the same time the empire was visited by earth- 
 quake, famine, and the black death. When finally the pestilence died out, the world 
 took fresh courage ; men made for themselves new garments and sang new songs. 
 
 4. The Luxemburg Ejipebors. 
 
 § 260. Karl IV, was a sagacious prince who thought more of money and terri- 
 Rnri IV., tory, than of glory and renown. The princes and cities of Italy were 
 is-tT-tsT/s. therefore able to purchase from him the imperial rights, and he accepted 
 a crown from the Pope, with the condition that he would lemani in Rome but a single 
 day. The struggle between Guelphs and 
 Ghibellines now ceased, but the princes and 
 free cities quarrelled with each other about 
 territory, and began to employ mercenary 
 soldiers, whose enterprising leaders, (Condot 
 tieri), frequently had the fate of peoples iu 
 their hand. In Germany, Karl's efforts weie 
 directed principally to satisfj'ing his greed foi 
 land. He sold privileges and franchises to the 
 imperial cities ; he sold patents of nobility for 
 money ; he incorporated Brandenburg and other 
 lands into his possessions. In Bohemia, how 
 ever, his activity was beneficent. He invited ; 
 thither, artists and artisans from Italy and 
 134S. Germany ; he built towns and 
 
 cities, he furthered agriculture and industry, 
 laid out streets and erected bridges, drained the 
 marshes, and cleared the forests. He erected 
 the first German university at Prague ; for eberhard it. 
 
 this he obtained the consent of the Pope and the co-operation of the Italian poet 
 Petrarch. The university soon counted from five to seven thousand students. Karl 
 1359. IV., was the author of the golden bull, which made the choice of em- 
 
 peror the work of seven electoral princes. These were the three archbishops of May- 
 ence, Treves, and Cologne, the count Palatine of the Rhine, and the princes of Sax- 
 ony, Brandenburg, and Bohemia. 
 
 § 261. But the imperial authority was almost gone. The ordinances of the empire 
 weneesias. Were disregarded ; might made right ; each must rely upon himself, or 
 i37s-t4oo. upon such allies as he could obtain. Under Wenceslas, Karl's son and 
 successor, the confusion grew even worse. The king tried to protect the weak, but 
 soon fell a victim to his own passions, and to the difficulties of his time, and became 
 a rude and angry drunkard. While the king thus abandoned himself in Bohemia to 
 the chase, and to his riotous companions, and made himself hated by his cruelty and 
 his tyranny, the German empire was abandoned to distress. The cities in Swabia', in 
 
344 
 
 THE JMIDDLE AGE. 
 
 Franconia, and on the Rhine, foi-nied the league of Swabian cities, for the maintain- 
 ance of order and defence against the robber knights. The knights imitated their ex- 
 ample, and made leagues with each other. These leagues fought incessantl}-, until the 
 13SS. murder of the archbishop of Salzburg, by a Bavarian duke, brought 
 
 on the war of cities, which nearly ruined southern Germany. In Bavaria the citizens 
 were victorious ; in Franconia their braverj' enabled them to hold their enemies in 
 check ; but in Swabia the nobles were triumphant. The Swiss league fought victori- 
 ouslv at the same time against Leopold of Austria, and his nobles. And in the battle 
 13SG. of Sempach, where the brave Arnold of Winkelried made " a path for 
 
 liberty " through the ranks of the enemy, by seizing their spears and burying them in 
 his breast, the proud Austrian Duke with six hundred and fifty-six of his knights, fell 
 beneath the blows of the Swiss freemen. 
 
 § 262. Finally the nobles determined to depose Wenceslas. He had not brought 
 
 peace to the church ; he had sold the title of 
 Duke to the rich and able Visconti, in 
 IMilan ; he had not established the peace of 
 the realm, and had ruled cruelly and tyranni- 
 jiupteoi.t. cally in Bohemia. Ruprecht, 
 i-too-mo. of the Palatinate, grandson 
 of the founder of the University of Heidel- 
 berg, (1386) was cliosen king. But in spite 
 of many good qualities, Ruprecht was un- 
 equal to the emergency. A number of cities 
 and princes of South German}' formed a 
 league, "against eveiy one whosoever should 
 venture to injure any one of them in his 
 privileges, rights, or possessions." This was 
 an open defiance of the roj'al authority. 
 Ruprecht fared no better in Lombardy. 
 When he tried to restore IMilan to the empire, 
 he was defeated by the Italian mercenaries. 
 The peace of the church was restored with 
 siai«n»in€i. great difficulty hj his suc- 
 nto-i4:3-i. cessor, Sigismund. He was 
 supported earnestly by Frederick of Hohenzollern, Count of Nlirnburg. As a reward 
 for his great services, Sigismund made Frederick the ruler of the Mark Brandenburg, 
 1*11. gave him the land in fief and the electoral dignity. This was the 
 
 foundation of the Prussian monarchy. 
 
 KN'IGHT IN FULL ARMOR AND LADY. 
 
 {Middle of XVth Century.) 
 
 5. The Church Schism and the Councils. 
 
 § 263. For a long time, there had been a clamor for the retuun of the Pope from 
 Avignon to Rome. But the French cardinals, M'ho felt more at home in southern 
 France than amid the dissensions and bloodj'^ struggles of Ital}-, brought to nought 
 every plan looking to that end. Finally two parties were formed among the cardin- 
 als, which resulted in two popes, one at Avignon, and one at Rome. Each declared 
 is'is. himself the only true head of the church, and each excommunicated 
 
346 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 the other and his adherents. The Church of the West was rent in twain, and the con- 
 sciences of the people 
 confused. Men asked 
 for bread, and the de- 
 generate church gave a 
 1400. stone. 
 
 Tlie church council of 
 Pisa deposed both popes, 
 and chose a third, but 
 the two first insisted 
 upon their rights, and 
 now the church was in 
 three pieces. Universal 
 bitterness filled the 
 Christian world, and 
 men clamored for a re- 
 form of the church in 
 its head and members. 
 The conservative party, 
 especially the learned 
 theologians of Paris, 
 hoped to bring about 
 this reform by calling a 
 general council, but the 
 scholars and adherents 
 of the Oxford professor, 
 
 Jolin Wyclif, J O h U 
 
 t ias4. Wyclif, 
 
 urged a complete change 
 in the creed and consti- 
 tution of the church. 
 Wyclif declared the 
 papacy to be an unchris- 
 tian institution, and 
 zealously attacked abso- 
 lution, monastic life, 
 and the worship of the 
 saints. He translated 
 the Bible into English, 
 and rejected auricular 
 confession, celibacy, and 
 the doctrine of transub- 
 stantiation. His most 
 important disciple was 
 John Huss, professor in 
 a man of distinguished learning, pure life, and Christian humility. Huss 
 
 Prague, 
 
THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 347 
 
 preached against the abuses of the papacj^ against the wealth and temporal power of 
 the clergy, against monasticism and absolution. He was excommunicated by the 
 Pope and his writings were condemned, yet his disciples increased daily, among them 
 a Bohemian nobleman, Jerome of Prague. The German students at the University 
 opposed this innovation, and losing their privileges, in consequence, five thousand stu- 
 dents and professors left Prague and founded the University of Leipsic. 
 § 264. Finally a church council was called at Constance. The city was filled 
 1414-141S. with bishops and princes from all countries, the Pope and the Em- 
 peror at their head, and 150,000 persons in all are said to have been present. The 
 unity and reform of the Church was the aim of this assembly, and the council de- 
 
 JOHN ZISKE IN BATTLE. 
 
 clared, at the beginning, that its power came from Christ, and that all must obey. 
 The three popes were urged to abdicate. John XXIII., in order to escape this humiliation, 
 
 i4is. disguised himself and fled ; hereupon the council declared itself su- 
 
 perior to the pope, deposed the fugitive John, and united with the Emperor to punish 
 the disobedient One of the two remaining popes abdicated, and the other was dis- 
 possessed, after long and fruitless negotiations. But the efforts of the Germans and 
 of the Englishmen to reform the church, before electing a new pope, were baffled by 
 the French and Italians. They managed to get Martin V. elected to the papal chair. 
 
 i^ii. Martin was a moderate man, quite willing to abolish certain abuses, 
 
 and to satisfy certain princes, if thereby the cry for a reformation could be stifled. 
 
348 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 CITIZEN AND PEASANTS. {15th Centuri/.) 
 
 John Hiiss had also been summoned to this council. Provided with a safe conduct, 
 Huss repaired to Constance, but was immediately arrested and accused of heresy. 
 The i^ale slender man, whose soul of fire seemed to consume his bodj^, defended him- 
 self with dignity and enthusiasm, but his 
 judges were his enemies; his friends appealed 
 /J15. in vain to the imperial safe 
 
 conduct. The council would keep no faith 
 with heretics, and demanded unconditional 
 retraction. The Bohemian reformer lefused 
 to retract, and suffered death with the forti- 
 tude of a martyr. Jerome of Prague was 
 141G. burned at the stake a year 
 
 afterward. " No sage," wrote ^neas Silvias, 
 " has shown more courage on his death bed, 
 than these Bohemians at the stake." 
 
 § 265. But these cruelties drove the 
 
 Hussites to a terrible war. The cup which 
 
 was refused them in the sacrament, was 
 
 chosen for their standard (hence the war was 
 
 called the war of Utraquists.) The}' exacted 
 
 a terrible revenge of the priests and the 
 
 monks, who refused it to them. The Pope 
 
 excommunicated them, but they stormed 
 
 1419. the State-house at Prague, and murdered the city counsellors ; and 
 
 when Sigismund became king of Bohemia, the whole nation took arms to hinder his 
 
 taking possession of the land. John Ziske, a man of great skill in war and great elo- 
 
 -i,?^^S ^^rs^s_===s=^ quence, became their 
 
 _J I^ ^e (< '™^ ^^''^ ^ ''^^^ ■" ^^ ^ leader. The Hussites 
 
 defeated three imperial 
 M2«. armies : 
 
 they burned the Bohe- 
 mian churches and clois- 
 ters. Ziske became 
 blind, but still led his 
 soldiers to victory, and 
 was the terror of his 
 enemies. After his 
 death, his followers 
 divided. The radicals 
 continued the Holy 
 War, devastated Sax- 
 siectE of CONSTANTINOPLE. oiij, and levied tribute 
 
 1424. upon Brandenburg and Bavaria. Finally jjeace was made, but 
 
 1420-1430. Bohemia was utterlj' ruined. A small party, dissatisfied with the 
 concessions made to the Catholics in the peace, separated from the other Hussites, and 
 formed the Moravian brotherhood, a sect poor, peaceful, but bravely true to the Bible. 
 
THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 349 
 
 § 266. The Council of Basel was called by Eugene IV. This pope hesitated for 
 Council of Baaei, a loHg time, then finally consented to resume the work of reform. 
 1413-1440. But the conferences at this council soon began to threaten the papal 
 power. The assembly being composed largely of the inferior clergy, they dimin. 
 ished the revenues which the Roman see was drawing from the churches, and limited 
 the power of the pope in appointing bishops and other dignitaries. Pope Eugene 
 became so anxious, that he removed the council to Ferrara and thence to Florence. 
 Manj', however, remained in Basel, and these chose another Pope, Felix V., declaring 
 
 ALBRECHT ACHILLES FIGHTING THE SWABIANS. 
 
 like the council of Constance, that they were higher than the pope. Eugene, encour- 
 aged by the people and the princes, who feared another Schism, excommunicated the 
 disobedient members of the council, and rejected their edicts. To overcome the re- 
 sistance of the Germans, he won to his side the private secretary of the Emperor 
 Frederick III. This able man, Jilneas Silvius, induced the weak emperor to consent to 
 144S. a concordat, that left the church in the old state, and perpetuated 
 
 the abuses and the exactions of former times. Finally the council acknowledged 
 Eugene's successor, Nicholas V., as the rightful Pope, and then dissolved. 
 
 6. Germany under Frederick II., and Maximilian I. 
 
 5 -67- The Luxemburg family expired with Sigismund. His son-in-law, Al- 
 
359 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 AlhfecM II., 
 
 1^37-1-139. 
 
 ALBERT III. 
 
 brecht II., of Austria, obtained the imperial crown, which henceforth 
 remained in the House of HaiDsburg. Albert's energy was taken up 
 entirelj^ with Bohemia and Hungary. His 
 Fretiei-ick III., ncpliBw, Frederick III., was 
 1440-1493. his successor ; a prince with- 
 out princely qualities, who met the many 
 misfortunes of his long reign with obtuse 
 indifference. The Turks conquered Con- 
 stantinople, and ravaged the Austrian fron- 
 tiers; Hungary and Bohemia chose kings of 
 jjsa. their own ; Charles the Bold, 
 
 of Burgundy, extended his kingdom to the 
 Ehine ; Milan and Lombardy were separated 
 fiom the German empire ; the German princes 
 ruled independently, and carried on their 
 feuds without interference. In Bavaria, 
 Duke Ernest of Munich, drowned his 
 daughter-in-law Agnes of Augsburg, in the 
 Danube ; in Swabia, 200 villages and toAvns 
 were reduced to ashes ; Saxony and Thuringia 
 i*4». were devastated by a five 
 
 years' war ; the regions of the Rhine and the 
 Neckar were ravaged by the quarrels of princes. In short, Germany was everywhere 
 a scene of confusion and of bloody quarrels. 
 
 § 268. This condition produced at last a wish for a better constitution of ^he 
 empire. The princes however would make 
 no sacrifices of their pretended rights. They 
 dreaded any increase of imperial authority. 
 But Berthold of Mayence, the patriotic arch- 
 bishop, succeeded in bringing about an un- 
 Maxinuiian I., dei'stauding between I\Iaxi- 
 1403-1510. milian, and the princes and 
 the representatives of the free cities. At 
 1^95. the Diet of Worms it was 
 
 agreed to proclaim a peace, and to prohibit, 
 by severe punishment, every private resort to 
 arms. The empire was divided into ten dis- 
 tricts, in each of which a court of justice 
 was established. A tax was decreed for the 
 support of the empire and of the army. Yet 
 these reforms i-eally increased the power of 
 the princes, so that they could manage their 
 states as unlimited rulers. The Swiss league 
 refused to acknowledge the imperial courts, 
 1*90. and to furnish soldiers for the 
 
 KNIGHT IN FULL ARMOR AND LADY. 
 
 {Early 16th Century.) 
 
THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 351 
 
 imperial army. And when Maximilian attacked them, he was defeated by them and 
 compelled to acknowledge the independence of Switzerland. 
 
 § 269. Maximilian marks the transition from the Middle Age to the Modern Era. 
 He was a mighty hunter, a brave warrior, and a gallant knight. His romantic mar- 
 riage with Mary of Burgundy, his wars in the Netherlands and in Italy, wear a 
 mediseval character. But Italy was already astir with the beginnings of a finer state- 
 craft and a marvelous intercourse of nations, and alive with the signs of discovery and 
 of invention that heralded a new epoch. 
 
 VI. HISTORY OF THE OTHER EUROPEAN STATES IN THE MIDDLE 
 
 AGES. 
 
 1. FRANCE UNDER THE CAPETIANS. (987-1328.) 
 
 § 270. 
 
 HE first successors of Hugh Capet possessed little power and terri- 
 tory. The dukes, counts, and barons, of the provinces, regarded 
 the king as their equal, and conceded to him the first rank, so 
 far only as they acknowledged him to be their feudal lord. These 
 feudal rights of the king, the noblemen were obliged to support ; 
 otherwise their own subjects might become disloyal. The posses- 
 sions of the great vassals were for the most part independent estates, and were no 
 closer to the French crown than the western lands on the Seine, the Loire, and Ga- 
 ronne, that belonged to the English kings,' and the eastern lands on the Rhone and the 
 Jura, that belonged to the German empire. The Capetians sought of course to increase 
 the royal authority, and in their efforts were both fortunate and sagacious. Fortunate 
 because most of their line w§re so long lived that almost always a grown-up son suc- 
 ceeded to his father ; sagacious, because the first kings made their eldest sons co- 
 regents, so that when the father died, the government underwent no 
 change. The most important of the French kings were Louis VII., 
 who undertook the second Crusade ; Philip Augustus, who took Nor- 
 mandy from the English king John ; and Louis VIII., who increased 
 his territory in the south by the war against the Albigenses. But the 
 government of St. Louis and of Philip the Fair had most influence 
 upon the fortunes of France. The former improved the administra- 
 tion of justice, and brought about the acknowledgment of the royal 
 courts as the highest in the land. The latter improved the government of the cities, 
 Philip le Bel, giving to the citizens many I'ights and privileges, and calling represen- 
 (the Fair,) tatives from the cities into the states-general. As the cities increased 
 in power, they needed more and more the protection of the kings 
 against the landed nobilit}', and were more and more ready to pay lib- 
 erally for this protection. The cities voted always with the king in 
 the states general. The clergy also stood as a rule with the crown, and gave gener- 
 jphiiip v., ously from time to time to defray the royal expenses. At the same 
 laio-is^n. time they sought to protect the ancient freedom of the Galilean 
 
 Xiouis VII., 
 113Z-11SO. 
 Philip II., 
 
 iiso-maa. 
 
 Iioxtis VIII., 
 
 I^ojiis IX., 
 12gG-lS70. 
 
 t2SS-131-t. 
 IjOltis X., 
 131-1.1316. 
 
352 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 p.hui'oli against tlie attacks of tlie Roman pontiff. Tiie breath of modern liistory ir- 
 fornis tiie whole policy of Philip the Fair. After the death of his 
 three sons the Frencii throne passed to the house of Valois. 
 
 
 h. France under the Valois. (1328-1539.) 
 
 § 271. Philip VI. of Valois inherited the French throne, but Edward III. of 
 
 England asserted his 
 claim as the son of 
 a daughter of Pliilip 
 PI, nil' VI., t li e 
 iHns-i.iao. Fair. 
 lie assumed tiie title 
 of King of France, 
 and made war upon 
 Pliilip. The Salic 
 law forbade inherit- 
 ance by a female 
 lino, but Edward 
 paid no regard to 
 I his. The English 
 were victorious at 
 crepu is^o. Crecy, 
 and Calais fell into 
 their hands. Philip 
 died very soon after 
 this, and his son, John 
 
 Sohtl the Uooil, the 
 
 taao-taa^t. Good, 
 came to the contested 
 throne. Eager to 
 wipe out the memory 
 of Crecy, he attacked 
 the English army, 
 which was command- 
 ed by the Black 
 Prince, Edward's 
 heroic son. But John 
 was defeated at Poi- 
 tiers, and carried a 
 prisoner to London. 
 During his absence, 
 Charles, the Dauiihin, 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 1 
 
 #.^^^HB^S|^SB9[ 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 f5^^ ^.^f-'-^'wIS^ 
 
 wtM'i 
 
 ^.Ji 
 
 1 -^ 
 
 
 f//'%w^''' 
 
 
 
 '.^>:-5#^iflB^fe^'-'i?^'~' 
 
 ^*^M:^^,i 
 
 
 •■\',?K -"' 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^^i'^'^i* ■• 
 
 
 1 
 
 ::,fr'.'.-. ■'■"■■;;.. 
 
 .) 
 
 liA'l'Tl.l'', OV i;iir\ INKS. ( I 
 
 poiNera, tsso. coiuluctcd tlic government. Tiie citizens of Paris, enraged at the op- 
 pressive taxes, and the insolence of the nobility, rebelled under the leadership of 
 Marcel. Some of the Dauphin's council were murdered in the palace, and the city fell 
 into the hands of the insurgents. The uproar spread rapidly, and a peasant war ensued. 
 
BATTLE OP CREOY. (A. de NeuvUlc.) (pp. 353. ) 
 
364 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 isas. Great devastation followed, and many deeds of violence, until the 
 
 citizens and the peasants were conquered bj' the French nobility. Marcel fell in a 
 street fight in Paris, and his adherents suffered cruel punishment. After the rebellion 
 
 isao. liad been put down, France and England agreed upon a treaty, in 
 
 which C^alais and southwest France were given to England, and a large ransom paid 
 for John. Edward III. abandoned his claims to tlie French throne. But the ransom 
 
 tse*. monev could not be collected, so John returned voluntarily to his 
 
 captivity, and died in London. 
 
 § 272. John's son. Charles Y.. liealed tlie wounds of tlie country. His rule was 
 Charles V., mild and gentle ; he quieted the angry feeling of the people by his 
 (tne nise) sagacity, his bravery, and his justice. He won back from the English 
 tae^-tsso. all their conquests except Calais. But his ieeble-rainded successor, 
 
CAPTURE OP KING JOHN AT MAUPERTAIS. (A. de NeUVlUe.) 
 
 (pp. 355. ) 
 
356 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 i37t. Charles VI., brought France once more to confusion. Two powerful 
 
 Charles vi., parties confronted each other at court, headed respectively by the Duke 
 13SO-H2S. of Burgundy and the Duke of Orleans. Each struggled for the regency, 
 while the citizens every where rebelled against oppressire taxation, and demanded an ex- 
 tension of their rights. This was a period of popular uprisings everywhere. In Ger- 
 many, the cities were fighting against the nobility ; in Switzerland, the freemen against 
 their lords ; in England, the people under Wat Tyler and other leaders, had risen up 
 
 tass. against the King, while in Flanders, citizen and peasant were attacking 
 
 nobility and court. But a lack of unity among the insurgents deprived them of the 
 victory, and the uprising was followed by a diminution of popular privilege. The 
 partv of the Duke of Burgundy favored the people, but that of Orleans stood by the 
 nobility. 
 
 § 273. Henry V., of England, took advantage of these circumstances to renew 
 the war against France. He demanded 
 back the former possessions, and when these 
 
 ms. were refused him, he marched 
 
 by Calais into France, and defeated tiie 
 French army at Agincourt. The French 
 army was four times as large as the English, 
 yet it was utterly destroyed or captured. 
 The waj' to Paris lay open to the victory. 
 Party-rage was at its highest point. Popu- 
 lar uprisings, and deeds of violence were 
 the order of the da3^ The Burgundians, who 
 were in alliance with Queen Isabella, pro- 
 i^io. voked an insurrection, in which 
 Count Armagnac, the head of the Orleans 
 party, and many of his followers were put 
 to death. In revenge, John of Burgundy 
 was murdered by the friends of the slaugh- 
 tered count. This induced his son, Philip 
 the Good, and the Queen to ally them- 
 selves with Henr}' V., of England. Isabella 
 gave him her daughter in marriage, and 
 secured to him and his posterity the French 
 throne. In a short time the whole of northern France was in the hands of the Eng- 
 
 ij3«. lish ; but in the midst of his triumph Henry died. In the same year 
 
 Charles VI. ended his life of insanit}', and his son, Charles VII., came to the throne. 
 But this made little change in the situation. The English and their French support- 
 ers, declared the infant king, Henr}^ VI., the lawful ruler of France, and under tlie 
 leadership of the king's uncle, the Duke of Bedford, besieged Orleans. 
 
 § 274. It was in this crisis, that the Maid of Orleans, a young girl of Don Reniy 
 
 Charles VII., in Lorraine, came to the rescue of her country. She believed that 
 
 1J93 xjic. she had been called by a heavenly vision to restore the courage of the 
 
 i4ia. King, and of his soldiers. Clad in steel, with a helmet upon her head, 
 
 and swinging the banner of the Holy Virgin before her, she marcl\ed at the head of 
 
 FREN'Cli LADY AND GENTLEMAN. 
 
 {Middle of IJ^th Century.) 
 
JOAN OP ARC, WOUNDED AT ORLEANS. (A. de Neiiville.} {PV- ^^^ • ) 
 
358 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 the army, and with her inspired exhortations, awakened "the religion of monarchy" in 
 the masses of the people. The city of Orleans was saved ; Charles VII. was crowned 
 at Rheims; and the English were deprived of most of their conquests. The belief in 
 her heavenly mission gave the French courage and self-reliance, but created among 
 
 CATHEDRAL AT RHEIMS. (BuUt bij Robert Coucy 13th Gentury.) 
 
 their enemies fear and hesitation. This continued until Joan of Arc fell into the 
 
 H13. hands of her enemies. She was arraigned before an ecclesiastical 
 
 court in Rouen, condemned for blasphemy and witchciaft, and burned at the stake. 
 
THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 359 
 
 1435. But the English lost one province after the other, and when at last 
 
 Philip of Burgundy was reconciled to the French king, Calais was their only posses- 
 
 1*36. sion on French soil. Paris opened her gates and received Charles 
 
 with rejoicing. This weak king, who was governed by women and favorites, ruled 
 
 France for twenty-five years, and his reign was one of peace. He was followed by 
 
 jDoHis XI., Louis XL, a cruel cunning statesman, who acquired absolute authority 
 
 ut9i-i*s3. by his tyranny and his treachery, and greatly enlarged his kingdom. 
 
 He deprived the nobility of their great privileges, united gradually all the great fiefs 
 
 to the crowu, and then, with the help of the Swiss, overthrew Charles the Bold, and 
 
 took possession of Burgundy. Distress 
 and fear followed him to his lonesome cas- 
 tle, where he lived the last years of his 
 chaties VIII., life. Charles VHL, and 
 i4s3-ijt98. Louis Xn. acquired Brit- 
 tany, but wasted the strength of their land 
 in expeditions to Italy. The beautiful 
 country of the Apennines was a "sepul- 
 chre " for the French, as it had been for 
 the Germans. But during the reign of 
 i.oiiis XII., the popular king Louis 
 i4os.tsts. xn., great progress was 
 made in civic freedom, social order, and the 
 establishment of legal rights. 
 
 2. England. 
 
 § 275. Henry H., of Anjou, the great- 
 iieiii-y II., grandson of William the 
 1154-iiso. Conqueror, was the first of 
 the Plantagenets on the English throne. 
 This family had great jjossessions on the 
 Loire and the Garonne, and as Normandy 
 belonged also to England, the whole west 
 of France was in the power of these Ange- 
 Mu kings. This produced many conflicts, 
 MONUMENT TO JOAN OF ARC IN BOUEN. ^^^ the kings of Fraucc asserted feudal rights 
 
 (Erected on the spot on ivMch sJie was burned.) over these territories which the English 
 
 kings would not concede. Henry H. was 
 a powerful and intelligent ruler, of violent disposition, but of great talents. He de- 
 voted himself especially to the improvement of the law and of courts of justice. His 
 1104. " Constitutions of Clarendon " were intended to limit the power of 
 
 ecclesiastical courts, and to compel the clergy to submit to the royal authority in tem- 
 poral affairs, without an appeal to the pope. But Thomas a Becket, the archbishop 
 of Canterbury, rejected the articles of Clarendon, and deposed all clergymen wlio sub- 
 mitted to them ; and when he was threatened with judicial proceedings, he appealed 
 to Rome and fled to France. He remained several years in a cloister of Burgundy, 
 whence he excommunicated the adherents of the King. Pope Alexander HI., however, 
 
360 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 iioo. ■ brought about a reconciliation, but Thomas had hardly returned to 
 Canterbury, when he proceeded with his old severity against the clergy, who had ac- 
 cepted the constitutions of Clarendon. This provoked the King to say, " Who will 
 rid me of this proud priest ? " Four of his faithful knights stole away secretly from 
 his camp, hastened to England, and murdered the Archbishop at the steps of the high 
 altar. This pollution of the church, with the blood of a murdered bishop, created 
 
 1170. universal horror, and gave the papacy complete victory in England. 
 
 The murderers were punished, the 
 
 //I Mi ~- i , - 
 
 
 constitutions of Clarendon abo- 
 lished, and Thomas a Becket canon- 
 ized as a saint. Thousands of pil- 
 grims journeyed to Canterbur}', 
 im. and the king, some 
 
 years afterward, knelt at the grave 
 of the mart3'r, and bared his back 
 to the scourges of the pious monks. 
 
 § 276. Richard Lion-heart and 
 
 uiciuu-ai., John Lackland sur- 
 
 11S0.1109. vived their father. 
 sohn. The first, though 
 
 it»»-t2i6. distinguished for 
 his bravery and knightly achieve- 
 ments, brought no happiness to 
 England, and John was defeated 
 in all his undertakings and con- 
 flicts. His nephew Arthur, he 
 ordered to be put to death in prison, 
 whei'eupon Philip Augustus of 
 France, as his liege lord, summoned 
 him to a court of peers. John 
 refused to appear, whereupon the 
 mas. French king seized 
 
 Normandy, and the family lands 
 of the Plantagenets, on the Loire 
 and the Garonne. When he quar- 
 reled with the Pope as to who 
 should be archbishop of Canter- 
 bury, England was laid under an 
 interdict ; his subjects were re- 
 leased from their allegiance, and the king of France was urged by the Pope to 
 the conquest of England. John thereupon stooped so low as to present the crown of 
 England to the Pope, and to take it back from the hands of the legate of Innocent 
 III. as a papal fief, agreeing to pay an annual tribute of a thousand marks. Innocent 
 thereupon relieved him of the interdict, and forbade the expedition of the French 
 king. The English people were outraged at this conduct of the King's, and at his 
 121*. defeat at Bovines, brought about largely by his cowardice. They 
 
 JOHN SWEARS VENGEANCE AGAINST THE BARONS. 
 
 {A. de Neuville.) 
 
THE MURDER OF ST. THuJIAS A BECKET. 
 
 (pp.3C>\.) 
 
362 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 S 
 
 Eaivard I. 
 127t!.-X30'>. 
 
 hated him too for his arbitran' conduct, and his unscru]nilous cruelty. They rose 
 against him, therefore, and compelled him to sign his name to the Magna Charta, which 
 1215. is the foundation of the English Constitution. This charter secured to 
 
 the clergy the right to elect their bishops, to the nobility relief from feudal obliga- 
 tions, and to the freemen of the cities protection against oppressive taxes, delays of 
 Henry III., justice, and arbitrary imprisonment. Henry III. reigned for many years, 
 iaio-i27s. and though the condition of the realm during the half century of his 
 rule was deplorable, it greatly furthered the progress of constitutional libert3\ His 
 lavish rewards to his favorites, the extortions of the papal legates, and the Italian 
 clergy, so injured the prosperity of the land, that nobility and people rose in re- 
 bellion. Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester, was the leader of this rebellion. He 
 imprisoned the King and the roj^al family, until the evils were partly removed and new 
 privileges secured. Westminster Abbey was built during the reign of Henrj-, who 
 was a lover of the fine arts, and furthered architecture and many forms of industry. 
 
 S 277. Edward I. succeeded to his father 
 Henry III. His reign is memor- 
 able for a series of blood}^ wars. 
 13S3. He annexed Wales to his king- 
 
 dom, and introduced into it the English consti- 
 tution and civil law, and gave the title of Prince 
 of Wales to the heir of the English throne. 
 Another war took place in Scotland, where 
 Robert Bruce and John Baliol contended for 
 the Scottish crown. Edward, who was chosen 
 aibitrator, decided in favor of Baliol, who was 
 leady to call himself a vassal of the English 
 king. This provoked the Scotch to arms. 
 Under the lead of William Wallace they 
 marched against the English; the low lands of 
 Scotland ran red with the blood of heroes. 
 Wallace was taken prisoner and beheaded. The 
 coionation stone of the Scottish kings at Scone 
 was brought to London, and still adorns West- 
 minister Abbey. All Scotland, as far as the 
 highlands, was overrun by Edward's victorious troops, and yet the Scotch maintained 
 their independence. Robert Bruce the younger, the grandson of the former contestant, 
 after many vicissitudes, obtained the Scottish throne, which continued in his house 
 Eiiivnia II. until it finally passed over to the related family of Stuarts. Edward 
 1307 13X7. II. had none of his father's energjr. He made no conquests abroad, 
 and was unable to maintain peace and order at home. • The nobles took up arms 
 against him, killed his favorites, and looked on quietly as the Queen and her paramour 
 Mortimer drove the unlucky monarch from his throne, and compelled him to die a 
 EdtData III. wretched death in prison. But when Edward III., his son, came of 
 i3sy/3jr. age, he punished their wicked deed by the execution of Mortimer and 
 the banishment of the Queen, to a lonesome castle. 
 
 § 278. Edward III. ruled with abilit}^ and renown. He limited the power of the 
 
 THE BLACK PRINCE. 
 
THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 363 
 
 pope by measures in which he was ably supported by John Wyclif, and he gave to 
 many cities the right to send deputies to Parliament, as had been done by some of his 
 predecessors. But Parliament was now divided into two houses. The House of Peers, 
 consisting of the great nobles and the bishops, and the House of Commons consisting 
 of the landed gentry and the representatives of the cities. Without tlieir consent no 
 taxes could be levied, and no laws proclaimed. Tlie war with the French, which has 
 been already described, was greatly to the advantage of the English. It brougiit them 
 into close relations with tlie industrial people of Flanders, whereby English industry, the 
 Bichaifi It. source of her modern greatness, made extraordinary progress. But 
 
 i37r-iao9. Richard II.-, the grandson of Edward III., had an unquiet and unhappy 
 reign. A popular insurrection was 
 with difficulty suppressed, and then 
 only by the resolute swiftness of the 
 king himself, and when Richard ban- 
 ished the originator of these troubles, 
 his cousin Henry of Lancaster, the 
 latter formed a powerful party, which 
 deposed the King. Richard died of 
 starvation, in a distant castle in York- 
 shire, while Henry of Lancaster took 
 possession of the English throne. This 
 Menry IV. Hcury IV. of Lancaster 
 i.iooi-n3. was distinguished for 
 the sagacity and the bravery, by means' 
 of which he secured the crown to him- 
 self and his posterity. The Earl of 
 Northumberland and his son, Percy, 
 known as Hotspur, rebelled against 
 1J03. him, but were unsuc- 
 ct„sful. The Lollards or disciples of 
 Wyclif were persecuted to satisfy the 
 clergy, many of them being imprisoned 
 in a gloomy dungeon, which was known 
 as Lollards' tower. Henry of Lan- 
 
 Hent-y V. caster .was followed by 
 i*ia-u2)i. his brave son Henry V., 
 whose youthful frivolity and subsequent nobility of character have been portrayed 
 by the great poet Shakespeare. He made great conquests in France, all of which were 
 lost during the reign of his son Henry VI., who was the unhappiest prince that ever 
 occupied a throne. 
 
 § 279. The sixth Henry lost the French crown through the activity of Joan of 
 
 Henry VI. Arc, whcn he was but one year old. But the Wars of the Roses robbed 
 
 i4aa «4«/. him of his English possessions. Richard, Duke of York, great grand- 
 son of Edward III., believed that his title to the English throne, was better than that 
 of Henry. He formed a powerful party and lifted the banner of rebellion. As the em- 
 blems of the House of Lancaster were red, and those of the House of York, white roses. 
 
 WILLIAM SHAKSPEARE. 
 
364 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 this civil war is always called the War of the Roses. In the beginning, Richard was 
 defeated by the troops of the Queen, who decorated his head with a paper crown, and 
 then planted it upon one of the roofs of York. But Richard's eldest son Edward, 
 revenged his father's death. He got possession of the throne and maintained it 
 through many vicissitudes, until Henry VI. closed his wretched life in the 
 tower, and his son had been put to death. But the blood-stained crown brought the 
 jEdttata rr. House of York no blessing; for tliey now turned their weapons against 
 i^oi-i4S3. each other. Edward put his brother Clarence out of the way, and 
 when he himself died, leaving two young princes behind him, his youngest brother, 
 
 Richard, had these strangled in the Tower, and 
 
 took possession of the throne, upon which he 
 
 tried in vain to establish himself by fresh 
 
 crimes. Heiiry Tudor, a descendent of the 
 
 House of Lancaster, who, by flight to France, 
 
 had escaped the destruction of his familj^ landed 
 
 on the coast of England, and marched against 
 
 nichai-a ijcr. Richard III. In the battle of 
 
 ns3-ijtss. Bosworth (1485), Richard was 
 
 M^sB. slain, and Henry VII. became 
 
 Henry Tir. king of England. Henr}^ mar- 
 
 US5.1500. ried the daughter of Edward 
 
 IV., and thus brought about a reconciliation 
 
 of parties, but history can tell of no other war 
 
 in which so many cruelties were heaped upon 
 
 each other. Eighty members of the royal 
 
 family and nearlj' all the nobility of England, 
 
 perished in the conflict. The Tudors were able 
 
 therefore to give to the crown a more absolute 
 
 NOBLEWOMEN AND ENGLISH DUCHESS. 
 
 (14th Genturi/.) 
 
 authority than it had possessed under the Plantagenets. 
 
 279 b. Scotland under the Stuarts. 
 
 Meanwhile the Scotch throne was in possession of the House of Stuart. But the 
 nobility, powerful through their estates and clansmen, and accustomed to war and weap- 
 ons, conquered from these feeble kings an almost independent position. They sought 
 to diminish the royal privileges, and to get for themselves the estates of the crown. 
 Thus the history of the Stuart kings is nothing but a story of struggles 
 and rebellions, and of the fruitless efforts of the Scottish monarchs 
 to put down the anarchy of the nobles. James I. was murdered by a 
 conspiracy ; his bold son James II., who imitated his father's example, 
 died a violent death in the campaign against England; and James III., 
 a prince of great parts, was also a victim to this hatred of authority. 
 This latter monarch sought to modifj^ the rough manners of the nobility by arts and 
 industries, and to increase the royal authority, by following the example of Louis XL 
 of France. This brought upon him the hatred of the nobility, who were especially 
 angry when the king showed favor to the common people, who shared liis love for 
 astrology, music, and architecture. They formed a conspiracy, therefore, murdered his 
 
 no 
 
 l-t37. 
 
 Jan 
 
 es rr. 
 
 i-ta-} 
 
 i-too. 
 
 Jamt 
 
 s rrr. 
 
 1-tOO 
 
 -IJSS. 
 
366 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 favorites, aud drove the King from bis throne. He fell by the hand of a common 
 fames Mv., soldier. His son James IV., was frank and chivalrous, and found more 
 ' 14SS-1S13. favor with the nobles. He gave banquets and festivals,, and gathered 
 them about him at his brilliant court; but when James IV. made war upon Henry 
 VIII., of England, the Scottish army was defeated in Flodden field. Ten thousand 
 Scottish warriors perished, and the corpse of the King was found the day after the bat- 
 tle under a pile of slaughtered nobles who had refused to survive their beloved prince. 
 This campaign against England, and its fatal consequences, were the outcome of 
 1S13. an alliance of Scotland with France, that proved in many ways disas- 
 
 TITE TOWER OF LONDON. 
 
 tTani es V. 
 ISlS-lS-iH. 
 
 barbarism. 
 
 trous to both countries. During the reign of James V., Scotland was 
 torn by the rage of political and religious parties, and lapsed almost to 
 
 S79 a. Ireland. 
 
 Henry II. was the first king who undertook to conquer the Emerald Isle, with its 
 Celtic population. The permission to do so was given him by the pope of Rome. The 
 conquest, however, was merely in name. Only Dublin and its environs recognized the 
 supremacy of England. Bloody wars divided the population, and destroyed the poetic 
 culture of the earlier time, and the Christian enthusiasm of the seventh and eighth cen- 
 turies. Native chieftians, who called themselves kings, made perpetual war upon each 
 other, and upon the English conquerors, and prevented the development of industrial 
 art and civil order. Knightly adventures, and warlike romance, constitute the annals 
 
THE MIDDLE AGE. 367 
 
 of mediseval Irish history. The people were without freedom, and without culture : — 
 abandoned to the oppression of the nobility, and the control of the clergy. Law and 
 order were unknown. The settlement of English noblemen in Ireland made no change; 
 for these Englishmen adopted the language, customs, manners, even the garb and name 
 of the conquered, and as stubbornly opposed the civilization of the island. The Eng- 
 lish of the mother country were compelled to conquer their own degenerate country- 
 men, and the hatred between the two made the wars exceedingly bloody, and increased 
 the division and the race hatred between victors and vanquished. 
 
 3. Spain and Portugal. 
 
 § 280. Aragon, Castile and Portugal, were for centuries independent kingdoms. 
 Aragon sought to extend eastward, conquering the coast-lands and the islands, sub- 
 duing Sardinia and Sicily, and finally acquiring the kingdom of Naples. Castile ex- 
 tended southward, driving out the Moors and annexing Cordova, Seville and Cadiz. 
 These struggles had a powerful influence upon the history and tlie character of the 
 Spaniards. First they developed a love of war and chivalry, so that the Spanish peo- 
 ple found their pleasure in feats of arms, in tournaments and in romantic poetry. Sec- 
 ondly, they intensified religious zeal, and established the dominion of the clergy, which 
 has prevailed continually in Spain. Thirdly, they aroused the sense of freedom and 
 self-reliance in the people, that gave rise to the Spanish Cortes, an institution, the 
 like of which was to be found in no other kingdom. The Cortes of Aragon possessed 
 not only the right to make laws and to determine taxes, but the king was required to 
 get their consent even to his choice of counsellors, and all differences of the Cortes 
 with the king were determined by an independent supreme judge. 
 
 § 281. Peter III., conqueror of Sicily, is the best known of the kings of Aragon ; 
 Feter, III. Alfonso X. the most important of the Castilian monarchs. The latter 
 inyoisss. studied astronomy and astrology, music and poetry; enlarged the uni- 
 versity of Salamanca, furthered the perfection of the Spanish language, and procured the 
 writing of law books and historical chronicles. But he failed in practical wisdom. 
 Seeking the phantom of the imperial crown of Rome, and eager for pleasure and lux- 
 Mpiionao X., ury, he oppressed his people with taxes, and by his waste and debase- 
 1235-iasj. ment of the coinage plunged the land into misery. Alfonso XL con- 
 Aipiionao XI., quered the Moors, but in order to pay the expenses of this campaign, 
 131S 13SO. the tax known as Alcavala was introduced. This required a payment 
 i3so-i3eo. on every piece of property that was sold, as often as it changed hands. 
 Peter the Cruel, the son of Alfonso, seems to have been insane. He was finally con- 
 isaheiia, quercd and put to death by his half brother Henry, who then ascended 
 n'.^-so*. the throne. The marriage of Isabella of Castile with Ferdinand of 
 Aragon united the two kingdoms, and began a new era for Spain. 
 
 § 282. (a.) Ferdinand and Isabella had a single aim. They sought to diminish the 
 jFertunana, poiver of the nohility., and to increase the royal authority. Ferdinand 
 i4t7» isis. obtained from the Pope the dignity of Grand Master, for the three rich 
 Castilian orders of knighthood, and also the right to appoint the Spanish bishops. He 
 then deprived the nobility of their share in the administration of justice, established a 
 royal judiciary, and created a standing army for the maintenance of peace and the 
 extinction of robbery. But the most powerful of all his methods was the court of the 
 
368 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 Inquisition, in vvhicli the King himself was grand inquisitor and the creator of all the 
 judges. This couit was not only the terror of heretics, and secret Mohammedans and 
 Jews, but it held the nobility and the clergy in dread, and fettered every form of free 
 intellectual activity. The least suspicion, the false witness of an enemy could lead to 
 prison and to judicial inquiry. By means of torture, confessions could be obtained 
 from the innocent, and even the bravest could be entrapped by cunning questions and 
 artful subterfuges. Numberless sacrifices marked these autos da ft (acts of faith). 
 The damp dungeons were filled with languishing prisoners, while the state treasury 
 was enriched with their possessions. Throne and altar were thus bound together 
 against the freedom of the people. In the later years of their reign, Ferdinand and 
 Isabella were guided in their policy by the energetic and severely orthodox, but able 
 statesman, Cardinal Ximenes. 
 
 § 282. (b.) During the first crusade, Count Henry of Burgundy deprived the 
 
 roffitatii. Moors of Portugal. At first 
 he ruled it as a Castilian dependency. But 
 his son and successsor Alfonso I., after his 
 great victory over the Arabs, assumed the 
 title of king, made the land independent of 
 Castile, and gave it a constitution with an 
 ii-ta. excellent code of laws. Soon 
 
 ii4s. afterward he conquered Lis- 
 
 bon, with the help of some Dutch and Flem- 
 ish crusaders, and made it his royal resi- 
 dence. Pope Alexander III., confirmed him 
 in his royal dignity, upon the payment of an 
 1119. annual tribute to the papal 
 
 iiss-izii. see. His son Sancho I., who 
 conquered the Arabs at Santalem, acquired 
 for himself the surname of the *' peasants' 
 friend," because of his interest in agricul- 
 ture, and the improvement of villages. In 
 the fifteenth century, the kingdom was ex- 
 tended by conquests in North Africa, and by 
 daring voyages of discovery. Before that its history is marked principally by strug- 
 gles between king and nobility, wars with the Moors, and Castilians, and quarrels 
 i3si.i3«t. with the pope and the powerful clergy. Pedro the Stern, is noted 
 1385-1433. for his revenge of his murdered wife Inez, and his son John for his 
 14S1-I19B. conquests in Africa. The glorious period of Spain began with John 
 i4os-is2t. 11., and Emanuel the Great. 
 
 § 283. The expulsion of the Moors is one of the most tragical events in Spanish 
 1402. history. When Granada succumbed, after a ten years' war, to the arms 
 
 of Ferdinand and Isabella, religious freedom was guaranteed to the Moslems. But the 
 zeal of the clergy soon destroj'ed this guarantee. The Moorish inhabitants of Gran- 
 ada, then rebelled at this oppression, and resorted to the sword. But they were sub- 
 dued a second time, and were given the choice between expulsion or conversion to 
 Christianity. Many turned their backs forever upon their beloved homes ; others 
 
 D0t.£ AND D0L.\REbb\ 
 
370 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 reluctantly accepted the gospel, but were brought to repeated rebellions bj'the severity 
 of the Inquisition, and the oppression of the government. The fight against the 
 Moors was both a race and a religious fight. Every victory was a step toward para- 
 dise. Every earthly crime found its expiation in the blood of the infidel. The fate of 
 the baptized Moors under Philip II., and Philip III., was the most tragic of all. At 
 first they were commanded to renounce their speech, their national costume, and their 
 peculiar usages, and when this proved insufScient to extinguish the last traces of their 
 Arabian origin and their foreign faith, they were driven without mercy from the Span- 
 ish soil. 800,000 Moors, men and women, the aged and the infant, left the land of 
 their birth, their fertile fields and the homes built by their own hands. In a short 
 time the fruitful meadows of the south were bare as the desert, agriculture was 
 neglected, industry was arrested, prosperous villages went to ruin, industrious cities 
 were depopulated, poverty, filth, and indolence, covered the once wealthy and fortunate 
 regions, where only ruins remained to give witness of the former glor3^ The Jews 
 suffered a like fate. Priests and courtiers shared with each other the estates and 
 treasures of the persecuted. Another consequence of this unfortunate alliance of 
 throne and altar, was the destrucuon of the parliamentary rights and the political free- 
 dom of the Spanish people. , 
 
 4. Italy. 
 
 a. Upper Italy. 
 
 § 284. Venice and Genoa became so prosperous by their commerce and their 
 ships, that they brought 
 back the days of ancient 
 Greece. Venice confined 
 her attention to the Adri- 
 atic and jEgean seas, con- 
 quering the islands and 
 the coast-lands in order to 
 acquire convenient har- 
 bors and landing places in 
 Dalmatia and Greece, in 
 the Archipelago and at the 
 Dardanelles. This re- 
 markable city, which orig- 
 inated in the union of 
 several islands, had become rich and mighty by its oriental trade. Splendid 
 churches (St. Marks), magnificent palaces (palace of the doges), beautiful piazzas 
 and lofty bridges made it the wonder of the world. But its wealth and its magnifi- 
 cence could not supply the lack of freedom. The constitution, which was originally 
 democratic, was transformed in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, into an 
 oppressive oligarchy. The chief magistrate was an elective doge whose authority was 
 limited. The power of the state was in the great council, to which only a certain 
 number of aristocratic families, whose names were written in the golden book, were 
 eligible. And to prevent any change in this constitution, there was a dictatorship of 
 " the ten " under whose control a secret police force was always active. Spies and 
 
 •^Sf!'*^-^ 
 
 VENETIAN GALLEY OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
BOABDIL SURRENDERING TO FERDINAND. 
 
 {pp- 3n.) 
 
372 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 informers, subterranean dungeons and instruments of torture constituted a veritable 
 Inquisition. Every footstep was watched, every word was overheard, every movement 
 13S5. of the people vigilantly guarded. The attempt of the Doge, Marino 
 
 Falieri, to overthrow this haughty aristocracy, by the help of the lower classes, resulted 
 in his own downfall and his death on the scaffold. Their insatiable greed for money 
 and estates created a hardness of heart among the Venetians, which undermined all 
 family affections, morality and religion. In the fourteenth and fifteenth century 
 Venice sought to extend its territory on the main land, and acquired dominion over 
 Verona, Padua, Brescia, and manj' other cities of Upper Italy. This brought the city 
 into conflict with other European states, and more than once to the edge of destruc- 
 1S08. tion. Especially in the beginning of the sixteenth century, when the 
 
 league of Cambray was formed, in which were 
 united the Emperor Maximilian, Louis XII. of 
 France, Ferdinand of Spain and Pope Julius 
 II., — all bent upon the dismemberment of 
 Venice. The French were at the point of con- 
 quering the city, when the senate succeeded in 
 dividing the league and winning over the Pope 
 and the king of Spain. The French were now 
 driven out of Italy. The founding of the 
 Ottoman empire however, was the greatest 
 calamity to Venice. The Turks deprived them 
 of their Eastern possessions, and at the same 
 time the discovery of a sea-route to East India 
 destroj'ed their commerce. The marriage of 
 the doge with the Adriatic Sea, which used to 
 take place upon the ship of state, Bucentoro, 
 became a meaningless festivity. But the liber- 
 ality of the rich Venetians, and their love of art, 
 greatly furthered the development of painting, 
 especially through Titian and his school. 
 § 285. Genoa was the proud rival of Venice. The jealousy of the two repub- 
 lics led to many wars and naval engagements, in which Venice was usually the victor, al- 
 though in the Chioggia war, the Genoese fleet sailed victoriously through the lagoons of 
 laso. the city. The marble palaces of Genoa, her harbor covered with a 
 
 forest of masts, and her bank of St. George testified to her wealth. But the quarrels 
 of democra,cies and aristocracies, of Guelphs and Ghibellines, weakened her strength 
 and destroyed her virtues. Avarice and the pride of wealth were the ruling passions 
 isas.. of the people. Unable to rule themselves, they sought for foreign lords 
 
 and came at last, sometimes under the power of Milan, and sometimes under the 
 authority of France. A constitution was framed for Genoa in the sixteenth century 
 by her naval hero Andreas Doria, he having overthrown the French dominion and re- 
 stored republican forms. But although Doria gained independence for his native 
 city, he could not give her domestic peace. Twenty years later, the handsome, rich, 
 13JI. and cultivated Fiesco, sought to deprive the house of Dorif; of the 
 
 cliief authority, but the enterprise failed with the unexpected death of ihe chief con- 
 
 KNIGHT IN FULL ARMOR AiND LADY. 
 
 {Early 16th, Century.) 
 
LOUIS XII. IN BATTLE. (A. de NeuvUle.) {pp. 3T3.) 
 
374 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 spirator. Genoa's power and commercial greatness, like that of Venice, was shattered 
 by the Ottoman empire and the discovery of a sea-passage to the East Indies. 
 
 § 286. Milan came gradually under the control of the rich Visconti. This 
 family obtained the ducal dignity from the Emperor, founded a terrible tyranny by 
 their crimes and by their mercenary soldiers and lianditti, and conquered the greater part 
 of Lombardy. About the middle of the fifteenth century, the male line of the Vis- 
 conti expired with Philippo Maria, who had greatly extended his 
 power with the help of his general, Carmagnola. Philippo was 
 cruel and faithless, murdered his own wife with cruel tortures out 
 of jealousy, and ruled the people with the utmost tyranny. The 
 Milanese after his death, offered the sovereignty of their city to 
 GEM OF FLORENCE. nso. Francisco Sforza, the ablest of the bandit chiefs, 
 
 although France and Spain were eager to possess the city. The French king Louis 
 XII., who had claims to the dukedom as a descendant of the Visconti, conquered it 
 because of quarrels in the family of Sforza. Ludovico, the Moor was abandoned 
 tooo. by his Swiss mercenaries and led away captive to France where he 
 
 languished ten years in a subterranean dungeon. The great artist Leonardo da 
 Vinci left Milan about the same time. He had adorned it with his " Last Supper" 
 and other important works. But the 
 French were driven out of Italy a few 
 years later, and the son of the im- 
 prisoned Ludovico was made Duke of 
 Milan. But the duke and his Swiss 
 soldierswereconquered by the French 
 lais. king Francis I., in 
 
 the battle of Marignano and Milan 
 once more united to France. Ten 
 years later, it fell to the Spaniards 
 and remained in their possession for 
 nearly two centuries. 
 
 § 287. The Counts of Savoy ac- 
 quired nearly all of the western part 
 of Upper Italy. This house had ex- 
 tended its little territory into a duke- 
 dom, by sagacity and courage, had 
 pushed its way acrosss the Alps to 
 Geneva, and southward to Piedmont 
 and Turin, including also Nice and 
 other territories. But the Swiss '~"^^\-V=^ • 
 
 league and the strong kingdom of savonarola. 
 
 France pushed forward their frontiers, and crowded Savoy gradually into a smaller 
 territory. The Reformation made Geneva free, and in the wars between Francis I., 
 and Charles V., the Duke of Savoy lost the best part of his inherited dominions. 
 But his successors were able to obtain abundant compensation for these losses by the 
 acquisition of Sardinia and Genoa, and the house of Savoy is now the reigning house 
 of Italy. 
 
THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 375 
 
 h. Middle and Lower Italy. 
 
 § 288. Pisa was the first commercial city of .Tuscany. When this succumbed to 
 the jealousy of the Genoese, Florence rose above the other cities and brought Pisa 
 under its control. Florence was governed at first by the nobility, but these were so 
 weakened by the party struggles of Guelphs and Ghibellines (Bianchi, Neri) that the 
 guilds obtained control. These guilds embraced masters and craftsmen in all trades, 
 and especially the workers in wool, but a democracy was hardly established in Florence 
 before the rich merchants and the lower classes battled for the control of the city. In 
 
 DEATH OF SAVONAROLA. 
 
 this struggle a plutocracy sometimes, and sometimes the democratic guilds, were mas- 
 ters of the commonwealth. But in spite of them, Florence was noted for its 
 love of liberty and of culture, and could be compared to ancient Athens. The rich 
 Cosmo, family of the Medici finally succeeded in winning over both classes, 
 
 i42s-t4e^. so that Cosmo de Medici, a man of noble mind and patriotic feeling, 
 without rank and title ruled Florence with almost unlimited power. He received from 
 his fellow citizens the title of " Father of his Country," for he made the city powerful 
 
376 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 and prosperous by fortunate wars, and by his patronage of arts and sciences, and 
 adorned it by the erection of splendid buildings. 
 
 § 289. Cosmo's grandson, Lorenzo the JMagnificent, made Florence the seat of 
 every art and science and the nursing school of all Europe. Artist, poets, and writers 
 x,otetixo, adorned his court. Greek scholars escaping the sword of the Turks 
 14JS-H03. taught the Greek language and literature. Sculpture, painting, and 
 music developed their finest qualities. After Lorenzo's death the folly of his son 
 Piero, and the eloquence of the dominican monk Savonarola induced the Florentines 
 to expel the Medicean family, and to restore the republic. For a while Savonarola 
 was the actual ruler of the city, and the Florentines renounced " the vanities of the 
 world." But the Pope excommunicated "the Prophet of Florence," the clergy rose 
 against him ; overthrown by his enemies, he was condemned to death as a seducer of the 
 
 u,os. people, and burned 
 
 at the stake with two of his faithful 
 companions. The Mediceans soon 
 returned, and when they were ex- 
 Ijelled a second time, the Emperor 
 Charles V., beseiged the city, and 
 having conquered it, established the 
 cruel Alexander de Medici as duke 
 1S30. over the humiliated 
 
 republic. Alexander, after seven 
 years of tyranny, was murdered by 
 the people. But the Medicean house 
 remained in possession of the gov- 
 ernment. Of the many artists who 
 lived in Florence in this stormy 
 period, Michael Angelo Bnonarotti 
 was the most famous. He was 
 equally wonderful in architecture, 
 sculpture and painting. The most 
 famous author of the time was the 
 statesman Machiavelli, author of the 
 "Prince," the "History of Florence" and "Discourses on Livy." 
 
 § 290. The popes we have seen lived for twenty years in Avignon in southern 
 France. During this period Rome was the scene of violence and of bloody family 
 feuds between the two great families, Colonna and Orsini. This induced Cola Rienzi 
 to attempt a restoraiion of the republican constitution, and thus to give the city peace 
 and the greatness of ancient Rome. His fiery eloquence carried the Romans with 
 1347. him ; they created the new republic, made their orator the tribune of 
 
 the people and drove the nobility beyond the walls. But Rienzi's head was soon 
 turned ; vanity destroyed him. Oppressive taxes took away his popularity, and his 
 enemies compelled him to fly. He returned after a few years, but only to be destroyed 
 13B4. in a popular tumult. After the return of the popes to Rome, and the 
 
 healing of the papal schism, some distinguished popes did their utmost to heal the 
 wounds of the city, and of the Cliurch. Among these we must mention especially 
 
 MICHAEL ANGELO BUONAROTTI. 
 
THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 3T7 
 
 xichoias r., Nicholas V., the founder of the Vatican Library and Pius II., the bril- 
 1*47-1455. liant and versatile writer, (jEneas Silvius, § 266), both of whom were 
 patrons of culture and of science. Alexander VI. (Borgia), on the other hand aston- 
 Fius II., ished all Christendom with his godless conduct. The cruelties and 
 14SS.1464. crimes of his family, especiallj- of Csesar and Lucrezia Borgia, have 
 Alex. Til., been the themes of modern poetry and romance, and have reached 
 1403-1503. posterity with strange embellishments. Caesar Borgia died as a fugitive 
 in Spain, and Lucrezia expiated the sins of her youth as Duchess of Ferrara. Alexan- 
 fuitua XI., der's successor Julius II., possessed splendid ability, but his love of 
 1503-1513. war was in strange contradiction with his spiritual dignity. He 
 marched in person to the field, and extended the papal domain by the annexation of 
 ico X., Bologna, Ferrara and other 
 f Dec. 1, ism. cities. Leo X. the highlj^ edu- 
 cated son of Lorenzo the i\lagnificent, united 
 in the Vatican all the glory of art and culture. 
 But he forgot the doctrine of the church and 
 the gospel in his. study of Greek and Roman 
 literature, and by the sale of indulgences en- 
 couraged the pious credulity of the people in 
 order to pay for the church of St. Peter, and 
 to reward his artists with a liberal hand. The 
 Raphael, diviuc painter Raphael was the 
 i4S3-is^o. ornamentof his court. Ferrara 
 was ruled in the fifteenth century by the house 
 of Este, — no less distinguished than the Medi- 
 Arioato, ceau for its culture and its 
 ij*,t-i533. patronage of art and science. 
 Tasso, Ariosto the poet of " Orlando," 
 
 f 1595. and Tasso, the singer of " Jeru- 
 
 salem Delivered," dwelt at the court of Ferrara. 
 Savonarola also was a native of the city. 
 
 § 291. Naples, after the fall of the Hohenstaufens, was a papal fief, governed by the 
 
 descendants of Charles of Anjou. They defended the cause of the Guelphs, as eagerly 
 
 as the Aragonian kings of Sicily defended that of the Ghibellines. Joan I., and Joan 
 
 jToan I., II., queens of Naples, filled the kingdom with cruelty, war and con- 
 
 1343-1392. fusion. The latter dying without children, named at first a Spanish, 
 
 and then a French, prince as heir to the throne. This resulted in two parties, which 
 
 joaji II., fought for the possession of Naples with great bitterness and varying 
 
 1414-1135. success. The house of Aragon, Alfonso and his sons, obtained the 
 
 upper hand. But Charles VIII. of France, invaded Italy to assert the claims of 
 
 the House of Anjou. He marched through Upper and Middle Italy, took possession of 
 
 140S. Naples and drove his adversaries to Sicily. But a league between 
 
 Milan, Venice and the Pope, compelled the French to withdraw, and the House of 
 
 Aragon came once more to the throne. Louis XII., of France in alliance with the 
 
 Spanish king Ferdinand, subjugated Naples some years later, but Ferdinand and Louis 
 
 quarreled over the division of the spoil. The Spanish king by force and cunning, 
 
 JIACHIAVELLI. 
 
378 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 iaea-M404. 
 
 Jo/t» the 
 Fearless 
 
 14:04-1-H». 
 
 1419.1-1:97. 
 
 1S04. managed to get Naples into his possession, and for two centuries, the 
 
 kingdom of the two Sicilys was subject to the Spanish sceptre, and governed by a 
 viceroy. Oppressive taxation and the destruction of civil rights led gradually to the 
 poverty, and the political slavery, of the once prosperous country. 
 
 5. New Bdkgundy. 
 
 § 292. Philip the Bold, received the dukedom of Burgundy from his father. King 
 xtiuijt me jsoia, John of France. To this he united by marriage and inheritance, many 
 other possessions, but especially the rich cities of Flanders. His son, 
 John the Fearless, who was deeply implicated in the civil wars of 
 France, and ruined thereby, extended his possessions into the Nether- 
 lands, and Philip the Good came to be ruler over Brabant, Holland, 
 Philip the ciooa, and other cities of the Low Country. Philip the Good was one of the 
 mightiest and richest princes of his time, and the knights of the Low 
 Countries were distinguished for their splen- 
 dor and their noble bearing. The rich com- 
 mercial and industrial cities, Brussels, Ant- 
 werp, Ghent, possessed great rights and priv- 
 ileges but a powerful militia. In Lyons, a 
 University was erected in 1426, and four 
 years later the order of the Golden Fleece 
 was founded. 
 
 § 293. Philip's son, Charles the Bold, 
 ciiai-ies the Bold, extended the dukedom, and 
 1407-1-177. increased the glory of his 
 court. He was a man of strength and 
 braveiy, but his greed of power and his pas- 
 sions made him headstrong, insolent, and 
 reckless. He was eager to transform his 
 dukedom into a kingdom, of wliich the Rhine 
 should be the eastern frontier. But his un- 
 dertakings were brought to nought by the 
 cunning and faithless Louis XL, of France. 
 For when Charles attacked the Duke of 
 Lorraine, Louis brought about an alliance between Lorraine and Switzerland. This 
 alliance was joined by Alsace and by the cities of the upper Rhine. Charles thereupon 
 marched a powerful army against the Swiss, but was so terribly defeated in the battle 
 i4te. of Granson that the survivors fled in wild panic, while the artillery 
 
 and the camp full of treasures fell into the hands of the enemy. The angry Duke, un- 
 able to endure this disgrace, attacked the Swiss once more, but the battle of Murten 
 1479. ended in the same wa3^ The victors were enriched once more with 
 
 enormous booty. The Duke of Lorraine received back the land which Charles had 
 taken from him, and Berne took a portion of Savoy. This calamity shattered the mind 
 of the bold Duke ; he refused every offer of mediation, and marched a third time against 
 his fearless foe. But in January, 1477, his army was defeated at Nancy, even more 
 1477. terribly than before, partly by the bravery of the Swiss, Alsatians and 
 
 BURGUNDIANS. (14*70.) 
 
THE MIDDLE AGE. 379 
 
 their allies, and partly by the treason of the leader of his Italian mercenaries. Charles 
 himself was killed in the fight. 
 
 § 294. Louis XI. now took possession of Burgundy as a fief of the French crown, 
 and stretched out eager hands for the other possessions of the ruined duke. But at 
 this crisis Maria, the daughter of Charles the Bold, married Maximilian of Austria, 
 who conquered the French king, and compelled Louis to abandon his schemes. Maria 
 
 wr». died shortly after by a fall from her horse, whereupon the French king- 
 
 resumed his plots, hoping to take the cities of the Low Countries from Maximilian, who 
 
 14SH. was the guardian of his infant son, Philip of Burgundy. Louis stirred 
 
 up an insurrection in Ghent; Brabant wavered, and the guilds of Bruges openly 
 
 i4:ss. rebelled. But Maximilian brought the Netherlands to acknowledge 
 
 the rights of his ward. Philip, however, died early in Spain, at the court of his father- 
 
 isoe. in-law. His son Charles V., the child of the Spanish Infanta Joan, 
 
 inherited all the lands of his parents and his grand-parents. Born at Ghent, his heart 
 
 isoo. clung to the rich and cultivated Netherlands, which he united into a 
 
 great kingdom by the acquisition of Utrecht, and added to the German empire as the 
 Circle of Burgundy. 
 
 6. Scandinavia. 
 
 § 295. The bold sea voyages and wanderings of the Normans and Danes, of the 
 Vikings and Varings, gradually ceased. A few enterprising princes obtained the 
 mastery over the other chieftains (Fylken kings. Folk-chiefs), and by uniting diiferent 
 tribes they founded kingdoms. Thus Harold Fairhair founded Norway ; Gorm the 
 Maroiti Fairhai,; Old, fouuded Denmark ; and the Ynglings founded Sweden. But the 
 
 f »3o. war-like Norman chiefs, yielded reluctantly to the authority of a king, 
 
 ei^>ni, me Old, and many of the discontended started off again to sea, seeking new 
 
 t »3c. homes in other countries. Thus Rollo established himself and his 
 
 people in Normandy. This struggle of the kings against the discontented chiefs en- 
 dured for several centuries, and prevented the thorough introduction of Christianity 
 into the Scandinavian monarchies. Bishop Ansgar, the apostle of the North, had, it 
 is true, introduced the gospel as early as the ninth century into the three countries, 
 and certain kings like Harold Bluetooth in Denmark and Olaf Lapking in Sweden, 
 had adopted this Christian teaching in the next century. Nevertheless the heathen 
 Canute, the worship of Odiu struggled a century longer against the progress of the 
 
 ctreat, ucw faith. Cauutc the Great, in Denmark, and Olaf the Saint, in 
 
 f 1035. Norway, gave the victory to the crucified Savior. But Sweden was 
 
 not completely won until the middle of the twelfth centurj^ in the time of Eric the 
 Saint. And the half-savage Finn did not yield until much later. But the Scandina- 
 vian kingdom was greatly benefited by this triumph of the church ; the Benedictine 
 monks planted the germs of intellectual culture, purified the manners of the people, 
 and made them acquainted with the blessings of civilization. They introduced the art 
 of writing, and supplanted the ancient runes by the Latin alphabet. They encouraged 
 agriculture, introduced new cereals, erected mills, opened up mines, and accustomed 
 the war-like people to the arts of peace, to industrial occupation, and the tilling of the 
 soil. Christianity greatly modified the relations of master and slave, awakening the 
 feeling of human dignity, and of all men's equality before God. Only the pagan 
 
380 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 poetry and the heathen myths of the olden time were destroyed by the monks. The 
 intellectual life of Iceland therefore perished. Gradually the clergy acquired great 
 riches, privileges and estates, so that the hierarchy became the jjeers of the landed 
 nobility. The peasant class however, continued in abject dependence, and the cities of 
 Scandinavia had little or no importance. 
 
 § 296. Denmark and Norway were united together until the close of the Middle 
 Age. The kings of the eleventh and twelfth centuries were war-like and enterprising, 
 waitiemnr I., and greatly extended their dominion. Waldemar I. and his son, 
 iisT-iisa. Canute VI., guided by the sagacious and enterprising Arch-bishop 
 cautite Ti., Axcl, extended their authority in every direction. And Waldemar 
 iisg-i^os. II., known as " the Conqueror " was singularly successful throughout 
 irnMemnr II., the Baltic Sea. He conquered all the Slavonic lands on the south and 
 isos-tn*!. east coast, from Holstein to Esthonia, and called himself king of the 
 Danes and Slavs, and lord of Nord Albingia (Schleswig — Holstein). But his cruelty 
 1233. provoked hatred and bitterness. He was consequently imprisoned by 
 
 the deeply injured Count Henry of Schwerin, for two years in his castle. Danen- 
 burg and all his vassal princes abandoned him, conquering their independence with 
 the sword. The proud structure of Waldemar fell to pieces. Hamburg and 
 LUbeck became free imperial cities; the peasant republic of Ditmarsen, reconquered 
 its independence ; the German lands of the Baltic fell once more to the emperor- 
 After the death of Waldemar II., there ensued a period of great confusion, which the 
 nobility used skillfully to increase their privileges. The great landholders obtained 
 nvtfrfemni- IV., excmptiou froui taxes, and an individual judiciary for each estate. 
 13-1:0-137.-.. Waldemar IV., subsequently re-established the royal authority with a 
 1307. strong hand, and by the Union of Calmar, his daughter Margaretlie 
 
 united the three Scandinavian kingdoms into a single raouarchy. 
 
 § 297. Sweden, also, was the scene of continual struggles between the nobility 
 and the crown. Even the mighty house of the Folkungs, which acquired the throne 
 about the middle of the thirteenth century, finally succcmbed to the destiny that as- 
 sailed every Swedish dj^nasty. Of the seven kings of this house, five were dethroned, 
 and died in a dungeon, or in exile. After the expulsion of the last Folkung, Magnus 
 1303. II. the Swedish crown passed to his nephew, Albert of Mecklenburg. 
 
 Albert, however, was conquered bj'' the Danish Margarethe and deprived of the king- 
 dom, whereupon Sweden concluded with Denmark the Union of Calmar. This union 
 isat. was an injury to all three kingdoms, for Margarethe was followed 
 
 by weak kings. The power of the state in Denmark and Norway came more and 
 more into the hands of the landed nobility, while Sweden was treated by the Danish 
 kings almost like conquered territory. 
 
 Discord undermined the Union of Calmar, without destroying it. The Hanseatic 
 
 League, desirous to prevent a permanent union of the tliree kingdoms, carefully nour- 
 
 christian I. ishcd this discord. With Christian I., the House of Oldenburg began 
 
 144S-14S1. to rule ill Denmark, and at the same time Sweden was governed by 
 
 the wise and brave Sten Sture, who restrained the violence of the nobilitj', in- 
 
 sten stiiie. crcased the power of the cities and of the peasants, founded the 
 
 i4,7t-isot. University of Upsala, and brought foreign scholars and printers into 
 
 the kingdom. He governed the realm v/ith almost absolute power. But Sten Sture 
 
THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 381 
 
 the Younger, quarreled with the Archbishop of Upsala, who formed an alliance with 
 15SO. Christian II. of Denmark, by means of which Danish authority was re- 
 
 established in Sweden. Sten Sture was defeated in battle and mortally wounded, 
 whereupon Christian II. caused ninety-four of the most powerful nobles of Sweden to 
 be beheaded in Stockholm. This cruelty so embittered the Swedes, that in a few 
 years Denmark and Sweden were separated forever. 
 
 7. Hungary. 
 
 § 298. Otto I. won a great victory at Lechfeld, near Augsburg, in the year 955, 
 and thus put an end to the roving of the armed Magyars. 
 
 Not long after this their king, Geisa, was converted to Christianity, and 
 
 »73. permitted German missionaries to preach the gospel to his people. 
 
 His son, Stephen the Saint, completed the work that Geisa had begun, and received 
 
 sfepfte.. H.e from the Pope the royal dignity and a consecrated crown. He estab- 
 
 saint. lished bishoprics, and invited Benedictine monks into his kingdom. 
 
 997-J03S. These soon acquired a great influence over his wild people, who had 
 
 LOUIS THE GREAT IN BATTLE. {A. cle NeuvUle.) 
 
 hitherto resisted Christianity, partly because they hated the Germans, and partly be- 
 cause they loved a wild and licentious life. Stephen divided his kingdom into 
 countries, and to the. presidents of each he committed the administration of justice and 
 of military afl'airs. He accustomed his people to civil order, and to agricultural and 
 industral life. But the war-like nature of the Magyars, and their dislike of Christian 
 culture, which brought to them instead of the ancient freedom, serfdom, feudal slavery, 
 and the hard toil of the fields, broke out shortly after Stephen's death in savage con- 
 t,!ei«n II. flict and confusions. Geisa II. ruled during the twelfth century, and 
 iiji-iiai. in his reign Flemish and Low German emigrants settled in Transyl- 
 vania. These (Saxons) have preserved down to our own day the manners, language, 
 and institutions of their fathers. Through their industry and perseverance they have 
 converted a desert into a garden, have created rich cities and prosperous villages, and 
 liave protected energetically their great privileges against all attacks. In the thir- 
 
382 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 teentli pentiuy the Hungarian magnates extorted from king Andreas II. a charter 
 called "the golden pi-ivilege." This guaranteed to the nobility and clergj^ most im- 
 
 laaa. portant rights, and laid the foundation for the free constitution of 
 
 Hungary. A breach of this golden privilege by the king justified the nobility in 
 armed resistance. 
 
 § 299. Andreas III. was the last king of the House of Arpad. After his 
 
 1301. death Hungary became an elective monarchy. Louis the Great of 
 
 Naples, of the reigning House of Anjou, was elected king, and under him Hungary 
 
 ijovis the. oi-eat. reaclicd the highest point of external power and inward prosperity. 
 
 1342-138Z. He obtained the crown of Poland, extended his frontiers to the lower 
 
 Danube, and made the Venetians his tributaries. The hills about Tokay were planted 
 
 FINDING THE BODY OF LODIS II. AT JIOHACZ. 
 
 With vineyards, the statutes of the realm were greatly improved, citizens and j^easants 
 
 were guaranteed against the oppression and caprice of the nobility, and schools were 
 
 established in the land. But after the death of Louis, violent quarrels ensued until 
 
 finally the German emperor, Sigismund, obtained the Hungarian crown, and arranged 
 
 for a representation of the estates of the realm. But his daughter's children were so 
 
 weak that Hungary became a prey of the Ottoman Turks, until the heroic and skillful 
 
 ntattHiaa Cor- Hunyad saved it from their hands. The grateful nation therefore gave 
 
 Di.u.s. the Hungarian crown to his powerful son, Matthias Corvinus, who 
 
 t^ss-t^oo. reigned for thirty-two years, a worthy successor of Stephen tlie Saint 
 
THE MIDDLE AGE. 383 
 
 and Louis the Great. He held the Ottoman power in check, extended the frontiers 
 toward Austria and Germany, and improved the military sj-stem. He founded a new 
 university at Buda, established a library, and cared for the culture of the people by 
 attracting to his kingdom scholars and artists, printers and architects, gardeners and 
 artisans. But all these gains were lost by his successors. The Turks marched con- 
 quering beyond Belgrade ; the territorial acquisitions in the west were abandoned, and 
 the royal authority was so limited that not only taxation,* but eveu peace and war, were 
 made dependent upon the will of the national convention, and at last the magnates as- 
 isso. sumed the whole authority to themselves. King Louis H., was de- 
 
 feated at Mohacz. This brought on a struggle for the throne, which tore the land in 
 
 CASIMIR THE GREAT ANNOUNCING THE STATUTES OF WISLICA. 
 
 two, into East and West Hungary. The former fell to the Turks; the latter was 
 united hy Ferdinand of Austria to his other possessions, and finally all Hungary, both 
 East and West, fell to the House of Hapsburg. 
 
 8. Poland. 
 
 § 300. The plains along the Vistula, and the lands along the Oder and the 
 
 Wartha, were the homes of Slavic tribes which were sometimes united together under 
 
 one chieftain, and sometimes separated into several princedoms. After the conversion 
 
 see. of Duke Misco by German missionaries, Poland was looked upon as an 
 
 imperial fief, but it was so loosely connected to the empire that under Frederick IL it 
 
384 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 became altogether free. Manifold divisions so weakened the kingdom, that in the 
 
 twelfth century, the Silesian princedoms on the Oder seceded, and were Germanized. 
 
 i.a<usiaiis IT. But in the fourteenth century Poland became quite important, for 
 
 1305-1333. Duke Ladislaus united the countries along the Wartha (Posen) with 
 the countries on the Vistula. He called these territories the Kingdom of Great Po- 
 land; had himself crowned in Cracow and made the royal authority hereditary. His 
 • ctisimii- the son, Casimir the Great, conquered Galicia and Red Russia, established 
 a,ent. a university in Cracow, and gave his people better laws. He sought 
 
 1333. 13JO. earnestly to diminish the power of the nobility, and to favor the 
 growth of cities, but a people so Avar-like and so destitute of culture made free cities 
 impossible. Dominion in Poland was founded upon the sword, and remained in the 
 hands of the nobility. Money and trade was in the hands of the Jews ; the peasant 
 was a serf, who led a wretched life, and in spite of the fertile fields on the Vistula, 
 obtained a bare existence from his bitter toil. / 
 
 § 301. The male line of the Piasti became extinct with Casimir. The Poles 
 x,outs the oteat. iiow offered their crown to his nephew, Louis the Great, of Hungary, 
 
 1370-13SH. and from this time forward Poland was an elective monarchy. Never- 
 theless, the nation remained for two centuries true to the House of Jagellon, which, 
 
 jffoeHoHs. however, was obliged to reward the nobilit}^ for their support with ex- 
 
 i3sa.is7!i. emption from taxation and other great priviliges. Jagello (Ladislaus), 
 was the first king of this family. He added Lithuania to the Polish kingdom, after 
 Christianity had been introduced there and the idols thrown down. The woolen gar- 
 ments that were distributed at baptism led thousands to the new faith. Casimir H , 
 
 casimif II. was obliged in the wars he waged to purcliase the help of his nobility 
 
 t44j-i4os. by fresh concessions. In order that the nobility need not all appear 
 in person at the diet, it w^as arranged that a certain number of representatives should 
 i4oa. be sent from each voiwodeschaft, who, in conjunction with deputies 
 
 from the clergy and councillors, appointed by the king, should constitute the diet of 
 the realm. Without the consent of this' diet, in which the commons were not at all 
 represented, the king could make no change in the tax system, nor in the laws, nor do 
 anything of importance, either in domestic administration or in war. The nf)bility 
 were the only citizens of Poland, and the principle of their absolute equality among 
 each other so increased their authority that frequent changes of monarchs, and wars of 
 succession, undermined the royal power. The Teutonic order of knights in Prussia 
 had carried on long and bloody wars with the Slavs, but had established a kingdom 
 that reached from the Oder to the Gulf of Finland, a prosperous kingdom, with rich 
 trading cities, with civil order, and with German habits. The long reign of the grand 
 
 1351.13S2. master, Wiurich of Kiiiprode, marks the golden age of the Teutonic 
 order. But the ceaseless conflicts with the Poles and Lithuanians, and the quarrels of 
 the knights among themselves, undermined their kingdom. Li the battle of Tannen- 
 1410. berg, the grand master and most of his knights were slaughtered, and 
 
 the order was compelled to yield to the authority of Poland. The intrepid grand 
 master, Henry of Plauen, revived its strength, and wished to resume the struggle with 
 the Poles, but he was deprived of his dignity, whereupon he entered into treasonable 
 1414. negotiations with the Poles which led to his imprisonment and death. 
 
 In the disgraceful peace of Thorn the order was compelled to cede its finest possessions 
 
THE MIDDLE AGE. 385 
 
 i4oe. to Poland and the grand master obliged to remove his residence to 
 
 Konigsberg. In the century of the Reformation, the feudal authority of Poland was 
 extended by King Sigismund over the dukedom of Prussia. Albrecht of Branden- 
 burg, the grand master having become a Lutheran, established this dukedom as a 
 sigisniiina I. sccular principality and gave Courland as a fief to Gotthard Kettler, 
 isoe-is-ts. grand master of the Order of the Sword, who had also become a 
 Lutheran. But notwithstanding these extensions of the kingdom, the selfishness of the 
 nobility made it impossible for Poland to efficiently resist the aggressions of the Rus- 
 sians and the Turks. 
 
 9. The Russian Kingdom. 
 
 § 302. Vladimir the Great, great grandson of the Scandinavian chieftain Ruric, 
 riaaimii: introduced Greek Christianity into his kingdom at the close of the 
 About tooo. tenth century. His dominion extended at that time from the river 
 Dnieper to lake Ladoga, and to the banks of the Dwina, and his residence was at 
 Kieff. But his successor lost, by divisions and domestic wars, so much of unity and 
 of strength, that the Poles and "Brothers of the Sword" conquered large territories 
 ig2*. in the East, and finally the Moguls overran the whole land from the 
 
 Dnieper to the Vistula, and compelled the Russians to pay them tribute. The great 
 khan of the " Golden Horde," of Kaptschak, for two centuries exacted an oppressive 
 iajs. tribute from the Russian princes and their subjects. The princes of 
 
 Moscow attempted in vain to break the heavy yoke, and not until the might of the 
 Goldci Horde was broken by their own dissensions, did Ivan the Great, of Moscow, suc- 
 ceed in liberating the country. 
 
 He then engaged in several successful wars, and extended his power in all direc- 
 ivau (toHii) tions. He first conquered the rich maritime city of Novgorod, which 
 tue Gi-eat. belonged to the Hanseatic League, destrojang its republican constitu- 
 (wasiietntaii.) tion, and transplanting a number of its chief citizens to other cities. 
 1402.1S0S. Ivan was also law-giver, administrator, and the real founder of the 
 Russian monarchy. He arranged the succession to the throne so as to prevent further 
 division of the kingdom, and brought artisans and builders from Germany and Italy, 
 in order to plant the beginnings of culture among his people. He built the Kremlin 
 (Citadel), to protect his capital, Moscow. After the capture of Constantinople by 
 the Turks, the Russian metropolitan (afterward patriarch) was chosen by the native 
 bishops, and thus the independence of the church was obtained. Ivan's grandson 
 rvan Ivan II., was the first to assume the title of CzAE, or "sole autocrat 
 
 rrasiieH'ttch ti. of all the Russias." Kasau and Astrakan were conquered by him ; 
 his dominion was extended to the Caucasus, and preparations were made for the dis- 
 covery and the subjection of Siberia. By the formation of a troop of archers (Stre- 
 ts33.is8t. litzes), he began the creation of a standing army. With Ivan's son 
 Feodor, the male line of the House of Ruric became extinct. The Cossacks were 
 is»8. also subdued by Ivan and his successors. These famous riders dwelt 
 
 near the waterfalls of the Dnieper, along the Don, and among the foothills of the 
 Caucasus. They led a life of wild independence under their self-elected chieftains, 
 and fought continually with the Poles and the Moguls. 
 25 
 
386 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 10. Moguls and Turks. 
 
 § 303. In the beginning of the 13th century, Zengis Khan, the chief of a 
 zengis Kiiaii. Nomacl hordc, started out from the high tablelands of Asia, con- 
 f i«3y. quering and to conquer. He crossed the Chinese wall, and subdued 
 
 the " Celestial Kingdom."' Hindoostan, Persia, the vast empire of the Karismans, 
 were unable to withstand the strength of these wild herdsmen. Bochar, Samarcand, 
 and Balca, with all their treasures of art and science, were reduced to ashes. 
 These conquests were continued by the sons and grandsons of Zengis Khan. 
 Batu subdued the lauds north of the Black Sea, made Russia tributary, set fire to 
 
 IVAN IN KASAN. 
 
 Cracow and devastated Poland and Hungary. The Moguls or Tartars then crossed 
 the Oder. Breslau disappeared in flames. Duke Henry of Silesia, with his Christian 
 
 1241. comrades, were defeated at Liegnitz by these Asiatic heathen. The 
 
 people fled to the mountains ; the West of Europe trembled ; and Pope and Emperor 
 vs^ere too busy and bitter with their quarrels to save Christendom. Fortunately the 
 Moguls halted, fi'ightened b}^ the bravery of the European warriors, and by their 
 
 isss. strong castles. They turned their arms against the caliphate of Bag- 
 
 dad, which they brought to a bloody end. The last caliph perished with 200,000 Mos- 
 lems, and the Moguls pushed on to Syria. Here they destroyed Aleppo and Damas- 
 cus, and annihilated Christian and Arabic culture in the Holy Land. In a few gener- 
 ations the Mogul empire fell into several independent states, but for two centuries the 
 
388 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 Russians bore the yoke of the Golden Horde, and Hungary and Poland recovered but 
 slowly from the awful visitation. 
 
 § 30i. The Moguls pushed the Ottoman Turks from their homes about the Cas- 
 pian Sea, and drove them toward Asia Minor. These were warlike nomads of Moliam- 
 iii»». medan faith, who were urged bj' their priests to fight against the 
 
 Christians. Othman pushed into Bithynia, chose Prusa for his residence, and main- 
 tained his conquests against the indolent Greeks and their western mercenaries. His 
 successors selected the handsomest and strongest lads from among the conquered 
 Christian peoples, and trained them up in the Mohammedan faith and to military life. 
 juuraa I. Out of these they made a splendid infantry, called janissaries. Murad 
 (Amtiiatu I.} I. reduced all Asia Minor; then crossed into Europe, and subdued 
 i3oi-i:tso. the country from the Hellespont to the Hsemus. Adrianople was 
 
 BATTLE OF NTCOPOLIS. 
 
 taken, adorned with splendid mosques, and chosen to be the residence of Murad and 
 Bajaset. the Capital of his empire. His son, the energetic but violent Bajazet, 
 13S0-HO3. continued the victorious course of his father so successfully that he 
 was called "the Thunderbolt." He conquered Macedonia and Thessa(y, and all 
 Greece to thesouthern extremity of ancient Laconia. Then finally the West took up 
 arms against the dreadful foe. Sigismund of Hungary, John of Burgundj', the flower 
 of French knighthood, and of the German nobility, 100,000 strong, marclied to the 
 lower Danube. But at the battle of Nicopolis the Christians, in spite of their bravery. 
 
THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 389 
 
 i3oe. were utterly defeated. Many noblemen and knights fell into the hands 
 
 of the Turks, from whom they were ransomed only by g];eat sums. Ten thousand 
 prisoners of lower rank were butchered by Bajazet. 
 
 § 305. But an unexpected enemy now blocked the course of the powerful victor. 
 The Mongolian ruler, Tamerlane, a descendant of Zengis Khan, who had determined to 
 restore the fallen kingdom of his great ancestor. At the head of a horde of herds- 
 men, he left his capital Samarcand, determined to subdue all the races from the Chi- 
 nese wall to the Mediterranean Sea. He marched victoriously through India and 
 Persia, destroyed Bagdad and Damascus, took Syria from the Mamelukes, and filled 
 Asia Minor with cruelty and terror. Clouds of smoke, piles of ruins, and heaps of 
 dead bodies marked his victorious track. Grinning skulls were his trophies. Bajazet 
 
 SANTA SOPHIA. {Condaiilinople.) 
 
 now raised the siege of Constantinople, and marched to meet the conqueror of the 
 1402. world. A fearful battle was fought at Angora, which resulted in the 
 
 victory of the Moguls. Bajazet was taken prisoner and died the following year. But 
 Tamerlane's world — empire fell to pieces as rapidly as it had been created. 
 
 § 306. Murad IT., the grandson of Bajazet, restored its former strength to the 
 
 siiiraa II. shattered empire, and reconquered the lost territories in Asia and 
 
 (AniMiratii IT.} Europc. Hc rcduccd the eastern empire till it comprised only Con- 
 
 i4!ii-i4Bt. stantinople and a few adjacent districts, and made this tributary to 
 
 his throne. Thereupon John Palseologus determined to obtain the help of western 
 
 Europe, by a union of the eastern with the Romish church. To this end, he, with 
 
390 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 the patriarch and many bishops, proceeded to Rome, and thence to the council of 
 1*39. Florence. After g, long, violent discussion, an ambiguous treaty was 
 
 agreed upon, which was however rejected by the zealots of botli churches. This 
 made the separation worse than before. Yet the Pope urged the Christian princes to 
 a crusade against the Turks, and persuaded Hungary and Poland to attack the Otto- 
 man empire. Ladislaus, king of Hungary and Poland, and the heroic Hunyad, of 
 Mwnniaaes. Transylvauja, crossed the Danube but were terribly defeated at the 
 1444,. battle of Varna. The head of the young king was carried about on 
 
 a pole by the exulting Turks. 
 
 § 307. After the death of Murad II., his blood-thirsty son, Mohammed II., be- 
 MohammeA II. Came sultan of the Ottoman empire. Determined to make Constant- 
 i4ai-i4si. iuople his capital, he besieged the city, and after fifty days of desper- 
 ate resistance, it was compelled to 
 surrender. As the Turks stormed 
 the walls, the last emperor, Constan- 
 tine Palseologus, in whom survived 
 the antique Roman heroism, the love 
 for freedom, religion, and country, 
 rushed to the thickest of the fight 
 14S3. and fell gloriously in 
 
 the defence of the imperial city. But 
 the old seat of Byzantine splendor 
 became the residence of the Sultan. 
 The church of St. Sophia was trans- 
 formed to a Mosque, and the crescent 
 was planted upon the ruins of Christ- 
 ian civilization. The fall of Con- 
 stantinople was followed by the con- 
 quest of Greece, and by the subjec- 
 tion of the lands of the Danube. 
 Pope Nicholas V., and Pope Pius II., 
 tried in vain to arouse the slumber- 
 ing religious energy of the West to 
 new crusades. Only a few disordered 
 146B. companies marched under the Franciscan monk Capistrano, to the 
 
 relief of the heroic Hunyad in Belgrade. But the West could not be inspired 
 again to a general war. Yet in the mountains of Albania and Epirus, the heroic 
 i4«7. Scanderbeg maintained until his death, an independent dominion, 
 
 and Hungary was saved by Hunyad's victory at Belgrade. But the battle of 
 15H9. Mohacs, brought the half of Hungary along with Buda into the 
 
 hands of the Turks, while Solomon the Magnificent, wrested the island of Rhodes 
 Solomon from the knights of St. John, and then marched to the gates of 
 tKe Splendid. Vienna and carried terror into all Europe. Solomon gave to the 
 legoisee. Turkish empire its greatest extent, and its utmost strength. His do- 
 minion included Syria and all of Asia to the Tigris, Egypt, and the north coast of 
 Africa, with the pirate states of Algiers, Tunis and Tripoli. Solomon died at a great 
 
 (sOLOMON I. THE SPLENDID.) 
 
fnvfir, — h~ — ■"— fluiHiintmftiirllliiP''' ~-ii- .-jj. — -^j- 
 
392 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGE. 
 
 age, before Szigeth in Hungary, in the defence of wliich place the highminded Zriny 
 lost his life. After the death of Solomon the power of the Turks declined ; the jan- 
 jsarries grew indolent, judges and governors purchasable, and the provinces were de- 
 populated by oppression. Barbarism soon covered the lands of the Eastern empire. 
 The once rich cities and cultivated fields, bore witness everywhere of decay and 
 wretchedness ; for wherever the Turks planted their feet, they destroyed the germs 
 of life. 
 
 SALLY OF COUNT ZHINY FllOM SZIGETU. 
 
( pp. 394. ) THE MAN WITH THE IRON MASK. ( Viergs.) 
 
I. THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 
 
 THE SEA KOUTE TO THE EAST INDIES AND THE DISCOVERY OP AMEEICA. 
 
 HE great iuveiitions that came into use in the fourteenth and 
 fifteenth centuries, wrought a complete change in the condi- 
 tions of the Middle Age. An Italian from the neigborhood 
 of Amalfi (Flavio Gioja) invented the compass by teaching 
 how the magnetic needle with its peculiar property of point- 
 ing to the North might be used to determine the points of 
 the horizon and this gave a tremendous impulse to the art of 
 navigation. Gunpowder (according to some, the invention 
 of Berthold Schwartz, a German monk ; according to others bor- 
 rowed from the Chinese and the Arabs,) began to be used in 
 war about the middle of the fourteenth century and hastened the 
 destruction of chivalry. But the invention richest in results, 
 '*^ was the art of printing, due to John Guttenberg of Mainz. His 
 assistants in the work were the goldsmith Fust or Faust, 
 and the copyist, Peter Schoffer, who were the only ones to jarofit 
 by the invention. Schoffer introduced cast metal types instead of the carved 
 wooden ones used by Guttenberg. At first the invention was kept secret, but it was 
 soon carried by German craftsmen into all the lands of civilized Europe. Books which 
 hitherto were accessible to the rich only, now came into the hands of the people, since 
 the facility of reproducing literary works so greatly reduced their price, 
 
 § 309. The use of the compass made it possible to extend navigation which, 
 hitherto, had been chiefly along the coast only, and limited to the European seas. The 
 Portuguese were the first to sail the ocean. The discovery of the islands Porto 
 Santo and Madeira (soon famous for their wine and sugar cane) was followed by the 
 
 (395) 
 
396 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 acquisition of the Azores, the discovery of the green promontory (Cai^e de Verd), and 
 of the coast of upper Guinea, so ricli in gold dust, ivory, and gum. The negroes seen 
 here for the first time were captured and the slave-trade introduced. In the reign of 
 King John II. lower Guinea (Congo) was discovered. Sailing from here, the daring 
 Bartholomew Diaz reached the soutiiern extremity of Africa, called by him tlie Cape 
 t4so. of Storms, butsoon chanoxnl by the luipefiil king into the Cape of Good 
 
 DESTRUCTION OP FIRST PRINTING PRESSES. 
 
 Hope. Twenty years later (Amei'ica having been discovered meanwhile) the enter- 
 prising Vasco Da Gania discovered the sea route to the East Indies, by sailing from the 
 ij»s. East coast of Africa across tiie Indian Ocean to the Malabar coast and 
 
 into the harbor of Calcutta. 
 
 Amid hard struggles witli the natives, the Portuguese established here the first 
 European trading-colonies, an undertaking that they executed with persistance and 
 
COLUMBUS QUELLING THE MUTINY. ( pp. 397. ) 
 
398 
 
 THE MODERN^ AGE. 
 
 courage. Vasco Da Gama and Cabral (who on their way had discovered Brazil and 
 acquired it for Portugal) were followed by the brave Almeida. The latter compelled 
 isoo. several Indian princes to pay tribute and to permit the building of 
 
 warehouses in their chief cities. But on his return home, stopping to fetch wat^er from 
 South Africa, he and his brave companions were slain by Hottentots. 
 
 Albuquerque, a hero as wise as he was brave, now became Governor of 
 India. He conquered Goa and made it the cai)ital of the Indian colony ; he besieged 
 iBio. Malacca, the centre of the far Indian trade ; subjugated the ruler of 
 
 Ormuz in the Persian Gulf and made the name of the Portuguese king respected and 
 ir.,r.. feared. But king Emanuel rewarded his faithful servant with ingrati- 
 
 tude and thereby broke the hero's 
 heart. In the following decades, 
 the Portuguese established colonies 
 and warehouses upon the island of 
 Ceylon and the coast of Coro- 
 mandel ; subjugated Malacca and 
 also the Sunda islands, famous for 
 their spices. Lisbon thus became 
 the centre of international trade. 
 But selfishness and greed soon 
 strangled the nobler impulses in the 
 hearts of the Portuguese. 
 
 § 310. The zeal for discovery, 
 awakened by these Portuguese 
 undertakings, led the bold Genoese 
 Christopher Columbus, who had 
 been a sailor from his youth, and 
 had spent a great part of his life 
 in Portugal, to the idea of finding 
 another route to the famous Indies, 
 by a western passage. He com- 
 municated his plan to King John 
 II of Portugal, but could obtain no 
 support. His plan was declared 
 to be a dream. Nevertheless, behind 
 his back, the attempt was made to 
 take advantage of it. Dissatisfied with this ignoble conduct, Columbus left Lisbon 
 and turned to Spain, while his brother Bartholmew went to England to lay the enter- 
 prise before King Henry VII. But even in Spain, for a long time, Columbus found no 
 hearing. But at last Isabella of Castile, rejoicing over the happy conquest of 
 Granada, was moved to equip three ships and to entrust them to the daring navigator. 
 The dignity of a great admiral and of viceroy over the lands and islands that he 
 might discover, and the tenth part of the revenues derived from them, were promised 
 to him for himself and his posterity as the reward of his success. On the third of 
 August 1492, the little fleet sailed from the harbor of Palos on past the Canary 
 /j»«. Islands to the unknown West. The fear and anxiety of the crew 
 
 CURISTOPHEE COLUMBUS. 
 
JS? j8KJ5£aS'. 
 
400 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 increased with tlie distance, and changed finally from murmur to mutiny. The daring 
 leader was threatened with deatli if he did not turn back, just as tlie discovery of 
 tile island Guanahani (afterwards called San Salvador) came to save him on the 
 twelfth of October. It was a beautiful, fruitful, wooded land inhabited by copper- 
 colored, naked savages who witnessed, without suspicion, the taking possession of 
 their land in the name of the Spanish King and Queen, and who exchanged their 
 best possessions for the tinsel and the toys that were offered them. But the ex- 
 pected treasures of gold, diamonds, and pearls were not to be found either here or in 
 the larger islands Hayti and Cuba which were soon afterwards discovered. Yet the 
 Spaniards were delighted with the luxurious plants and giant trees, and with the 
 charming climate and splendid star-lit skies of these tropical lands. Columbus having 
 founded a colony that he called Hispaniola, upon the 
 island of Hayti, returned to Spain and after a danger- 
 ous voyage, astonished Europe with the story of the 
 distant world of wonders, which, in consequence of 
 his original error, received the name West Indies. 
 
 On his three subsequent voyages Columbus 
 discovered Jamaica, Porto Rico and other island.s, 
 and finally the northeast coast of South America, not 
 far from the mouth of the Orinoco. Yet the new 
 continent bears the name, not of its discoverer, but 
 of its first describer, the Florentine Amerigo Ves- 
 pucci. Columbus, like many great men, did not enjoy 
 the fruits of his achievement. The colony at 
 Hispaniola was soon troubled by quarrels among the 
 colonists and with the natives. And vchen Colum- 
 bus punished the worst malcontents, and sent 
 others back to Europe, they assailed him at the 
 Spanish Court and painted his government in the darkest colors. King Ferdinand 
 sent thereupon, a narrow-minded ofScial Bobadilla to investigate affairs; he began his 
 i&oo. work by deposing Columbus from his office and sending him in chains 
 
 to Spain. Upon his arrival he was released from his fetters, but no more thought was 
 
 given to the original sigreement. A 
 new commander Ovando was ap- 
 pointed in his place. Kept away 
 fiom Hispaniola (or San Domingo) 
 Columbus now imdertook a fourth 
 iso-i-iao-t. voyage, hoping to 
 find a western passage through 
 C entral America ; but this proved 
 1 failure. He returned to Spain 
 mlIv and worw out, and as Queen 
 I'-xbella died about this time, the 
 list years of his life were gloomy 
 and cheerless. Deprived of his offices 
 and his dignity, he died at Valladolid 
 in his fifty-ninth year. His remains 
 
 AMERIGO VESrUCCT. 
 
 HOUSE WHERE COLUMBUS DIED. 
 
26 BALBOA ADDS THE PACIFIC OCEAN TO THE SPANISH REALM. (pp. 401. ) 
 
402 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 were subsequent!}^ brought to Cuba. The chauis in which lie Iiad been sent back 
 isoe. to Spain were, at the command of his son Diego, buried with him. 
 
 §311. Columbus and his discoveries aroused a new heroic spirit. Every courageous 
 mariner thirsted for discovery. The storm-beaten and enterprising Balboa, one of the 
 lata. most imposing forms in this " Ocean Chivalry" crossed the mountain- 
 
 isthmus of Panama and discovered tlie Pacific Ocean. The Portuguese Magellan 
 sailed through the strait called after him into the Pacific Ocean, and reached, half 
 starved, the East Indian Islands, being therefore the first to make the voyage around 
 isio-ism. the world. Both died a violent death. Tlie former at the hands of his 
 jealous successoi-, the other slain in battle by the savages of the Phillipine 
 Islands. Even the distant Labrador in the icy north was discovered by the Italians 
 Cabot, father and son. And gradually the South Sea also swarmed with newly 
 isso-isst. discovered islands. But the discovery and conquest of Mexico by 
 Cortez, was the most important of these events, for he discovered, not a land 
 of savages, but a people dwelling in cities carrying on arts and industries, clothing 
 
 themselves in woolen stuffs, and 
 governed by a constitutional King, 
 a rich nobility and a powerful 
 riesthood. With seven hundred 
 aring Spaniards, Cortez subju- 
 L;ated a populous nation that lacked 
 neither courage nor patriotism, 
 imprisoned their proud and mighty 
 King Montezuma in his own palace 
 and conquered their capital Mexi- 
 co, the Venice of the western 
 world. The thundering cannon, 
 the statel}^ cavalry, the splendor of 
 European warfare created in the 
 natives the belief that the Spaniards 
 weie superior beings, whom they 
 eould not possibly resist with 
 their weak powers and wretched 
 \'seapons (iron was unknown to 
 them), nevertheless the Mexicans 
 fought heroicall}^ for their country 
 xiid their freedom. They stoned 
 to death their captured king, be- 
 cruse he favored the Spaniards, and 
 compelled the foreigners by their 
 desperate uprising, in the famous 
 Night of Mourning" to retreat 
 \Lioss the lake ; and in the furious 
 ttle of Otumba they would have 
 exterminated the Spaniards if Cor- 
 tez had not, with daring presence 
 
 CABOT ON THE SHORES UF LABRADOR. {E. Bayard.) 
 
THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 
 
 403 
 
 SEBA8TIAX CAKOT. 
 
 of ipincl, hurled their leader to the ground, and thus precipitated a panic and a flight. 
 Cortez however, carried his dangerous undertaking to a glorious conclusion. Within 
 two years he conquered the land, stormed the capi- 
 tal in spite of the brave resistance of the new King 
 Guateinozin and put an end to the cruel idolatry of 
 Huitzilopoehtli to whom thousands of human be- 
 ings were annually sacrificed. But, in the establish- 
 ment of a new order of things, he was bafSed on all 
 sides by his mistrustful government. Having dis- 
 covered Honduras and California he returned to 
 Spain in order to appeal in person to the court. He 
 was received with high honors, presented witli rich 
 •estates at the foot of the Cordilleras, raised to the 
 rank of Marquis but no longer continued as governor 
 of Mexico. When about to return to Mexico, he 
 died in a village near Seville in 1547. 
 
 Pizarro and Almagro, men of warlike spirit and 
 of great enterprise, but selfish, passionate and nncul- 
 tszo-isss. tured, conquered Peru, the land of 
 gold, with even slenderer resources. Under the rule of the Incas, the Peruvians had 
 reached a peaceful prosperity, and a civilization free from the cruel superstition of the 
 Mexicans, though without their manly courage. The Spaniards were helped in their 
 
 conquest by a quari'el over the succession between 
 the royal brothers Atalmalpa and Huascar. Piz- 
 arro getting possession of the person of Atal- 
 malpa cruelly and treacherously put him to death, 
 in spite of his promise to set him at liberty for an 
 enormous mass of gold; he then subjugated the 
 beautiful land, so rich in gold and built the new 
 1535. capital, Lima. Orellana, starting 
 
 1540. from Peru, sailed up the Amazon ; 
 
 encountering incredible dangers and hardships. 
 Eldorado, the fabled land of gold, was however not 
 found along its shores. 
 
 Pizarro and his brothers soon quarrelled with 
 Almagro the discoverer of Chili. Almagro was 
 conquered and beheaded, but revenged by his son, 
 who with a band of conspirators waylaid and 
 killed Francis Pizarro. The band being nearly 
 ruined by this thirst for blood, the emperor, 
 Charles V, sent a sagacious priest, Pedro de la 
 t54e. Gasca to be governor of Peru ; 
 
 the rebellious bands were soon put down, the last 
 Pizarro hung upon the gallows and the state reorganized. 
 
 § 312. Admirable as the courage and energy might be, thus displayed by Eu- 
 ropeans in the discovery of the new world, their cruel treatment of the natives was 
 
 AZTEC PRIESTS SACRIFICING A VICTIM. 
 
404 
 
 TlIE MODERN AGE. 
 
 reprehensible in the highest degree. Sword and shot and disease and slavery were 
 combined by the Spaniards, for their extermination. The Indians were compelled to 
 work the plantations, and the gold and silver mines of the conquerors, and to bear 
 burdens too heavy for their weak bodies. 
 
 The well-meaning missionaries, who had been sent out to convert the Aborigines, 
 sought in vain to inculcate kindness and humanity ; avarice hardened the hearts of the 
 Europeans and made them deaf to the teachings of the gospel. And when the noble 
 Las Casas, in order to ameliorate the lot of the West Indians, suggested the use of 
 Negroes for the harder labor, he inaugurated the cruel slave-trade without benefiting 
 the copper-colored races. 
 
 The discovery of the New World and the introduction of foreign products from 
 
 America and the Orient, produced great 
 changes in the lives and manners of the 
 Europeans. Coffee, sugar, potatoes have 
 become necessaries of life. Dye-stuffs, cotton, 
 and the finer kinds of wood are indispensable 
 to modern industry. The increase of the 
 noble metals has exercised a powerful 
 influence upon prices and upon commercial 
 relations. Science began to take new form, 
 especially in all that relates to our knowl- 
 edge of the earth. Commerce also took a new 
 ^ ,^ direction ; the Italian sea-ports were aban- 
 |,?iVj,/Li doned, while Portugal, Spain, the Nether- 
 I^^Mlands and England, in a word the Atlantic 
 coast states became the centre of interna- 
 tional trade and the seats of wealth. Portu- 
 gal and Spain did not, however, lung enjoy their prosperity ; for they shackled 
 commerce and excluded other nations from their colonies. 
 
 AN INCA EMPfaaou. 
 
 2. The Renascence op the Aets and Sciences. 
 
 § 313. Italy in the fifteenth century was the brain of Europe ; many splendid 
 courts and rich cities vied with each as patrons of the arts and sciences. The 
 Mediceans in Florence (§ § 288, 289) and several of the popes founded libraries and 
 academies and collected costly manuscripts ; the art of printing, which soon appeared 
 in every city, contributed powerfully to the culture of the people. Hitherto Latin 
 literature had been pursued exclusively ; but the taking of Constantinople bj^ the 
 14S3. Turks, drove the Greek scholars to Italy, and the study of their lan- 
 
 guage soon became the fashion. Dictionaries and grammars, commentaries and trans- 
 lations made the ancient writers easily intelligible. To write classical Latin was the 
 mark of the educated. New schools were founded, at first in Italy, then in the other 
 lands of Europe. Universities, gymnasia and seminaries of all sorts, sprang up in Ger- 
 many, and scholars like John Reuchlin (f 1522), Erasmus of Rotterdam (f 1586), and 
 Ulric Von Hutten (t 1523), vied with the great Italians in their knowledge of Greek and 
 Latin literature and philosophy. Latin was at this time the language of scholars, and 
 
THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 
 
 405 
 
 a lively interchange of letters took the place of the modern newspaper. The conflict 
 of the old and the new learning culminated in the struggle of Reuchlin with the Domini- 
 cans of Cologne. The latter were determined to burn up all Hebrew books written 
 since the birth of Jesus. Reuchlin, to whom the matter was referred by the Chancellor 
 of the empire, Archbishop Albert of Mayence, declared the purpose of the Dominicans 
 injurious to science. This so enraged them that they accused Reuchlin of heresy, 
 1BX4. burned one of his writings publicly, and condemned the study of 
 
 Greek and Hebrew. A war of ink-horns ensued. The friends of the new learning 
 stood by Reuchlin and humanism won a complete victory. The Pope finally forbade 
 the conflict. Ulrie Von Hutten and Crotus Rubiajius contributed to this controversy 
 the famous Epistolae Vikoeum Obscu- 
 RORUM. (Letters from the Dark.). In these 
 letters, the conduct and ignorance of cloister 
 lite were satirized with exact but comical 
 fidelity in the barbarous latin of the Monks. 
 Hutten died in exile near Zurich. Erasmus 
 continued for tliirteen years longer to oppose 
 scholasticism and monasticism with all the 
 weapons of humor and intelligence. The 
 " Praise of Fools " and his edition of the 
 Greek Testament are his most important ' 
 works. Allied at the beginning with Hutten 
 and Luther, he separated from them in later 
 years and opposed them in violent tracts. 
 His career in England, esjDCcially his con- 
 nection with Colet and More, and the new 
 learning at Oxford, as well as his relations to 
 tlie liumanistsand Luther, make him a figure 
 of unusual moment Italian scholars and german women. 
 
 § 314. 
 
 n. THE PERIOD OF THE REFORMATION. 
 1. The German Reformation. 
 a. Martin Luther. 
 
 ET the Church be reformed in head and members! " was the cry of 
 Europe in the fifteenth century. But the great church councils 
 had met and accomplished nothing. The Church had refused the 
 desired self-regeneration, and the voice of the people had received 
 but little attention. The papal court was in the receipt of great 
 revenues from the churches of other countries, the inferior clergy 
 were indolent, immoral, ignorant, taking little or no part in the new learning and 
 the progress of the age. The superior clergy led a worldly life, taking pleasure 
 in sensual enjoyment and princely extravagance, frequentlj' forgetting the doctrine of 
 the Church in the art and literature and philosophy of pagan antiquity. A great dis- 
 
406 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 content prevailed with the Church, and the hierarch}' and the unchristian life of several 
 popes greatly increased this dissatisfaction. Itneededonly an impulse to unite all the 
 elements opposed to the papacy into a powerful opposition. This impulse was given 
 by Pope Leo X. To defray the expense of building St. Peters, and other architec- 
 tural works, he gave Archbishop Albert of Mayence, and of Magdeburg, the privilege 
 of selling an indulgence, in which the purchaser was guaranteed escape from purga- 
 torial punishment. Albert obtained the half of this money, and made use in Saxony 
 of the Dominican monk Tetzel, who went about his work so heedlessly, that Dr. Mar- 
 tin Luther, an Augustinian monk, seeing that true penitence and the authority of the 
 1B17. confessional were brought into disrepute, felt moved to nail ninety-five 
 
 theses to the church door at Wittenberg, on the evening of All-saints Day, 1517. He 
 offered at the same time to defend these theses agaiiKt all comers. He denied in them 
 that an indulgence had any efficacy without repentance, and denied also the right of 
 even the Pope to grant absolution to any who were not truly sorry for their sins. 
 
 The indulgence might 
 free the purchaser from 
 ecclesiastical punish- 
 ment, but it could not 
 acquire for him the 
 grace of God. He 
 pointed out the differ- 
 ence between false pen- 
 ance and true peni- 
 tence ; between external 
 opinion and inward 
 faith ; between the dead 
 holiness of works, and 
 true Christian right- 
 eousness. 
 
 § 315. Martin 
 His father, an honest 
 
 TRAFFIC IN INDULGENCES. 
 
 Part of Bare Engraving by Hans Holbein. 
 
 Luther was born on the 10th of November, 1483. 
 miner in Mohra, desired him to study law, and he had spent four years in Erfurt 
 to that end. But anxiety for the salvation of his soul drove him to a cloister. He 
 spent a last evening with his friends, in song and music and wine, and then departed 
 for a quiet cell in the Augustinian monaster}^ He performed all the duties and drudg- 
 eries of a mendicant monk, but obtained no relief for his melancholj- and his distress 
 of soul. At last he reached the conviction that man can not be saved by works, but 
 only through faith in the mercy of God, through Jesus Christ, and this brought peace 
 to his heart. Staupitz, his vicar-general, recommended him for Wittenberg in 1508. 
 Frederick the Wise, had just established a new university in that town, and there 
 Luther began his activity as teacher, preacher, and a curate of souls. 
 
 § 816. The deep religious earnestness that was unmistakable in Luther's theses, 
 found a response in all German}^ But Luther was summoned to defend him- 
 self in Rome. The Elector of Saxony interfered however, and the papal nuncio Caj- 
 octoher. ISIS, etan appointed a hearing in Augsburg. Luther, provided with 
 a safe conduct, proceeded thither. The proud Dominican thought it an easy 
 
THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 
 
 407 
 
 matter to overcome the humble monk, with his theological learning ; but, after a short 
 encounter, Cajetan commanded him to depart, and not to appear again before him till 
 lie retracted. Appealing to the Pope, Luther fled with great haste by night from 
 Augsburg. Cajetan demanded of the Elector tu deliver the bold preacher to Rome, 
 or at least to expel him from his dominion. Frederick answered that Luther's re- 
 quest for an impartial court seemed to him quite just. This protection of the Elec- 
 tor was the more important for Luther, because the Elector was at that time the 
 January, mo. rulcr of the empire, as the death of the emperor Maximilian, required 
 a new election. And, as the Pope desired to influence this election, he was anxious 
 not to lose the support of Frederick. He therefore sent his chamberlain Miltitz, an 
 adroit Saxon nobleman, to 
 make his peace with Fred- 
 erick, and at the same time 
 to withhold Luther from 
 further steps against the 
 church. Luther promised 
 to abandon the matter if 
 the sale of indulgences 
 was stopped, and if silence 
 was imposed upon his en- 
 emies. To prove his earn- 
 estness he urged everj^one 
 in writing to obedience and 
 reverence toward the 
 Church and its head, and 
 assured the Pope, in all 
 humility, that it had never 
 been his intention to attack 
 the prerogatives of the 
 Roman see. 
 
 § 317. But the ex- 
 pected reconciliation did 
 not take place. John Eck, 
 a professor in Ingolsiadt, 
 a scholar and a skillful 
 disputant, challenged 
 Carlstadt and Luther to a 
 disputation in Leipzig. In 
 
 sune, isio. the heat of the debate, Luther maintained that the Roman bishop had 
 become head of the Church, not by command of Jesus himself, but by later human 
 institution, and expressed doubts of the infallibility of the pope and of councils. As- 
 tonished at this boldness, Eck immediately published a learned book, in which he tried 
 to prove that the papacy had been established by Christ, in the person of Simon Peter, 
 and was consequently a divine arrangement. With this book Eck hastened to Rome, 
 and obtained a bull, in which a number of Luther's propositions were condemned as 
 
408 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 jiene, IB, iBso. heretical, his writings ordered to be burnt, and he himself placed un- 
 der excommunication, if he did not retract within sixty days. This condemnation of 
 Luther, upon the charge of an antagonist, without waiting for his defence, was disap- 
 proved in all Germany. Eck published the bull of excommunication, but Luther';? 
 writings were burned only in Cologne, Mayence, and Lyons. In Saxony the bull had 
 no effect. Luther now replied with his famous writings, " An Address to the Christ- 
 ian Nobility of Germany," and the " Babylonian Captivity and Christian Freedom." 
 In these he laid bare, without mercy, the abuses and wrong doings of the existing 
 church, and demanded immediate reform. The enthusiasm with which these writings 
 were received, and the cry for freedom which re-echoed throughout Germany, embold- 
 ened Luther to a step which separated him from the Roman Church by an impassable 
 
 gulf. He marched with the students of 
 
 Wittenberg to the Elster gate of the city, 
 
 Deceniher lo, and there threw the bull 
 
 i5»o. of excommunication and 
 
 a copy of the canon law into the flames. 
 
 § 318. Meanwhile Charles V., grand- 
 son of Maximilian, king of Spain and Bur- 
 gundy, had been chosen German emperor, 
 and his first task was the settlement of 
 these ecclesiastical difficulties; He ap- 
 pointed a diet at Worms, gave Luther a 
 safe conduct, and permitted him to appear 
 before the assembled princes and repre- 
 sentatives of the imperial cities. Luther, 
 remembering the fate of Huss, went not 
 without trembling, yet full of confidence 
 in God, and found himself surrounded 
 by a thronging multitude. The Em- 
 Aptti, iBsi. peror and the papal am- 
 bassador (Alexander), many princes, 
 lords, prelates, and representatives of the great cities were present, when the 
 embarrassed monk was introduced. Required to retract, he hesitated and asked 
 for time. He was granted till the following day. The second time he appeared 
 resolute and strong. He acknowledged himself openly to be the author of the writ- 
 ings that were laid before him, and replied to their demands with the following words ; 
 " As long as I am not convinced from the Holy Scriptures that I am in error, I can and 
 will not retract, for my conscience is a prisoner to the word of God," and concluded 
 with the exclamation, " Here I stand ; I can do no otherwise ; God help me. Amen." 
 All attempts to bring him to another declaration failed, but no violence was attempted. 
 Luther started away unassailed; many princes and members of the diet did the same. 
 And not until their departure was the ban proclaimed against Luther and his adher- 
 May 80, 1531. cuts, and his writings condemned to the flames. Charles V., now closely 
 allied to the Pope, was determined to root out this heresy, but Luther was already in 
 safety, for the Elector Frederick had ordered him to be seized and to be carried off to 
 the Wartburg, where he lived as " the Knight George." His friends mourned him as 
 
 >11N \-lE AND HOUSE COSTUME, AND 
 PAPAL GUARD 
 
THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 
 
 409 
 
 dead until some bold writings and an angry pamphlet against Albert of Mayence, who 
 was once more selling indulgences, convinced them that he was more alive than ever. 
 Albert reflected and stopped the sale. 
 
 § 319. While Luther was at the Wartburg, he led a life of activity, but of illness 
 and of melancholy. During his absence from Wittenberg, a new movement took place, 
 which greatly disturbed tiie pious and pacific Elector. Dr. Carlstadt abolished the 
 mass, gave the cup to the laity, and attacked images and ceremonies. He was soon 
 joined by the so-called 
 " Prophets of Zwickau." 
 These were uneducated 
 men, ruled by their fanat- 
 ical feelings, who attacked 
 the baptism of children, 
 because they said a sacra- 
 ment without faith had no 
 efficacy, and insisted upon 
 the rebaptism of adults 
 (Ana-baptists). These 
 prophets declared that thej' 
 had communications direct 
 from God. In some of the 
 churches the images and 
 the priestly robes were 
 destroyed. Many monks 
 abandoned the cloisters, 
 and confusion took pos- 
 session of the people 
 Luther could remain 
 no longer at the Wart- 
 burg ; he hastened to Wit- 
 
 March, ISZS. tcnbci g, 
 
 preached every day for a 
 week against these innova- 
 tions, repulsed the enthu- 
 siasts of Zwickau, and pac- 
 ified the people for a quiet 
 development of the Refor- 
 mation. Wittenberg now 
 
 became the centre of German culture. Philip 
 twenty years, who had already penetrated to the depths of knowledge, came to 
 ateiancMhon, Luther's assistaucc and brouglit the University of Wittenberg to great 
 i4»7-iseo. renown. Luther was violent and destructive, but Melanchthon was 
 mild and conciliatory. While the latter and other great scholars sought to give a 
 scientific basis to the new doctrine, Luther by his German writings and hymns, and 
 especially by his translation of the Bible, won the hearts of the people. This was 
 begun at the Wartburg and completed at Wittenberg. It was discussed thoroughly 
 
 Vrv iil fTiS i> OTVIT DVRERIV^ • ORA PHILIPPI 
 
 iV\ENT£M.'NON 'T OTVIT-PINGERE-DO CT^ 
 
 ^\ANV^ 
 
 PHILIP MELANCHTHON. (After Albrecht Dilrer.) 
 
 Melanchthon, a young man of 
 
410 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 in the circle of his friends, and was published entire in the year 1534. It is a master- 
 piece of German language and of German genius. 
 
 § 320. The new doctrine soon crossed the frontiers of Saxony. The Landgrave 
 Philip, of Hesse, became an earnest supporter of the gospel; but the citizens of the 
 imperial cities were after all the most devoted friends of reform. The assembled con- 
 gregations often started a psalm, or a new church hymn, of their own accord, and thus 
 led to the postponement of the mass. When the churches were refused the people, 
 they worshipped in the open air, in the fields, in the meadows, and when religious 
 motives were not powerful enough, the prospect of church estates and worldly advantages 
 kindled a fresh zeal. All Germany appeared to be swept along in the movement, and a 
 national church, independent of Rome, seemed to be inevitable. But the Pope wod 
 
 158*. over Ferdinand of Austria, 
 
 the Dukes of Bavaria, and several South 
 German bishops to the league of Regens- 
 burg, ill which they promised each other 
 mutual support and the expulsion of the 
 Wittenberg doctrines from their dominions. 
 The seed of dissension was strewn in 
 Germany at the very moment in which the 
 noblest minds of the nation were striving 
 for freedom and independence. 
 
 GERMAN citizens' DRESS. 
 
 Century.) 
 
 (Early 16th 
 
 b. The Peasant War. {1525.} 
 
 § 321. This cry for freedom filled the 
 peasants with the hope of lightening their 
 burdens by their own strength, since Christ 
 had made tliem free by his precious blood. 
 A peasant war ensued. In the beginning, 
 patriotic men like Sickingen and Hutten 
 seemed willing to place themselves at the 
 head of the movement, and to conquer the 
 transformation of Germany in state and 
 1522. church; but Sickingen 's early 
 
 death, at the siege of his castle Landstnhl, and Hutten's flight, delayed the uprising 
 and took away from it definite plan and aim. The wild speeches of the ana-baptist, 
 Thomas Miinzer, who demanded the abolition of all spiritual and temporal power, 
 and the establishment of a divine kingdom in which all men should be equal in rank 
 and in wealth, heated the brains of the excited peasants. In a short time the whole 
 population about Lake Constance assembled under Hans Miiller, of Bulgenbach, a former 
 soldier. Clad in a red mantle, and wearing a red cap, he marched with his adherents 
 from village to village, while the standards of rebellion fluttered from the wagon that 
 drove behind him. The peasants had " twelve articles " which they meant to establish 
 at the point of the sword. They demanded freedom to hunt and to fish, and to cut 
 wood in the forests, the abolition of serfdom, of feudal service and of the tithes, the 
 right to choose their own clergy, and the free preaching of the gospel. The peasants 
 along the Neckar, and in Franconia soon followed, under the command of George 
 
412 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 Metzler. Thej' coiujjelled the nobility to accept the twelve articles, and to give their 
 subjects the demanded rights. Whoever ventured to oppose them died a swift, pain- 
 ful death. They marclied through the land, setting fire to barns and buildings, 
 destroying cloisters and castles, and visiting their oppressors and opposers with a 
 bloody revenge. Under the lead of brave knights like Gotz of Berlichingen, (Gotz, 
 of the iron hand), they pushed into Wurtzburg, wliile others devastated Baden. The 
 insurrection then spread into Swabia, Alsace, and the regions of the Rhine. Ecclesi- 
 astical and secular princes were panic-stricken, and conceded the demands of the angrj' 
 peasants. But in Thuringia and the Harz mountains the uprising had a more relig- 
 may, tBss. ious character. Tliomas Mlintzer had acquired the authority and the 
 reputation of a prophet. He girded himself with the sword of Gideon and sought to 
 found a kingdom of God, all of whose members should be free and equal. Inflamed by 
 his pi'saching, the people destroyed, in their rage, castles and cloisters, and the monu- 
 ments of the olden times. 
 
 § 322. Luther in the beginning of the uprising counseled peace. He reminded 
 the princes and landowners of their cruelty and severity, and dissuaded the peasants 
 from the insurrection. But as the danger increased, as the prophets of murder and the 
 spirits of plunder broke loose in the land, he published a violent pamphlet against the 
 " plundering and murdering peasants," in which he called upon the magistrates to 
 smite them with the sword, and to show no mercy. The elector, John of Saxony, the 
 landgrave, Philip of Hesse, and other princes, now broke into Thuringia, and easily 
 overcame Thomas Miintzer and his poorly armed peasants. A scaffold was erected at 
 Miihlhausen, upon which the prophets came to a horrible death. In Swabia peace was 
 restored by Truchsess von Waldburg, who then marched against the peasants of 
 Franconia ; these were soon put down. The prisoners were butchered, and the citi- 
 zens of the Franconian cities who had supported them were severely punished. It was 
 everywhere the same. In most regions the peasants were compelled to carry all the 
 former burdens, and the nobility in their triumph, declared " Our fathers have chas- 
 tised you with rods, but we will chastise you with scorpions." 
 
 c. The Protest and Confession of Augsburg. (^1529-1530.') 
 
 § 323. The new church grew stronger in spite of conflict, and Luther's energy 
 increased with opposition. In 1524 he left the Augustinian cloister, and in the fol- 
 lowing year he married Catherine von Bora, a former nun. In the circle of his faith- 
 ful friends he now began to lead a happy familj^ life. His strength and his cheerful 
 confidence in God, were not broken, either by repeated attacks of illness, or by povertj'. 
 He wrote two catechisms, in which he laid the foundation for a uniform creed and for 
 better religious instruction. Melanchthon was equally active. By the appointment 
 of the Elector, he visited the churches of all Saxony. The Reformation was making 
 such progress that Catholic princes, spiritual and temporal, became alarmed. They 
 therefore resolved at the diet of Speyer, that no further innovations should be per- 
 mitted, that the new doctrine should not be extended, ami that the mass should be in 
 no wise hindered. This action of the diet led to the famous protest of many princes 
 and imperial cities ; and from this protest all who reject the authority of the pope, and 
 the maxims of the Roman Catholic Church are called Protestants. The Emperor was 
 in Italy when the protest was laid before him; he would not receive it. The protest- 
 
THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 413 
 
 ing princes and cities would then have formed a league of defence, if Luther and the 
 evangelical theologian had not rejected every defence of the divine word by carnal 
 weapons. 
 
 § 324. In the following summer the emperor convened the splendid Diet of 
 ju»e»5, 1530. Augsburg. The protesting princes and cities now presented their 
 Confession, composed by Melanchthon and approved by Luther. In this they sought 
 to prove that they were not establishing any new church, but purifying and 
 restoring the old one. This Confession composed with great clearness and moder- 
 ation, embraces in its first sections the doctrines of evangelical faith, and in the 
 second section it enumerates the abuses against which the reformers fought. After 
 the Confession had been read, the assembly resolved to justif}' the doctrines and usages 
 of the existing church by a confutation, and then to attempt a reconciliation by a con- 
 ference of the moderate men of both parties. But the confutation composed bj' Eck 
 and others made but little impression, and the conference led 
 to no result, because both the Pope and Luther were opposed 
 to any further concessions. The unity of the church could 
 now be conquered only by the sword. The Protestant princes, 
 and the important cities, rejected the order of the diet 
 which forbade the spread of their teaching, and denom- 
 inated them a sect ; they then left the diet. After their 
 departure it was resolved to root up the new sect, and to put 
 SWISS MOUNTAIN CANNON, uudcr the ban all the adherents of it who did not, within a 
 {XlVth Century.) given time, abandon their innovations. But this edict did 
 
 not frighten the princes, or the Wittenberg reformer. The princes thought more of 
 their faith than of the Emperor's favor, and Luther in his confidence composed the 
 immortal hymn, " Our God is a strong castle." 
 
 § 325. The reformed church of Germany was, unfortunately, soon divided into the 
 Lutheran and the Zwinglian. Ulrich Zwingli of Toggenburg, a classically educated and 
 liberal clergyman of republican principles, was a priest of Zurich, when the Franciscan 
 ztcingii, monk, Samson, appeared there to sell indulgences. Zwingli opposed with 
 14S4-1S31. all his might this and other abuses of the Church, and attacked with great 
 energjr the Swiss custom of serving as hireling soldiers in foreign wars. He was a prac- 
 tical, sensible man, more bent upon the improvement of morality than upon purity of doc- 
 trine and of faith. He went very thoroughly to work, seeking to re-establish the simple 
 life of primitive Christianity. He was bravely supported by the council of Zurich, and 
 with their help he transformed the teaching and the usages of the Church : he removed 
 all images, crosses, altars and organs, and so ordered the administration of the Lord's 
 Supper, that it resembled the lovefeast of the early Church, and became simplj" a token 
 of remembrance and of mutual love in Jesus Christ. This entangled Zwingli in a 
 fatal conflict with Luther. The German reformer rejected Zwingli's interpretation of 
 "this is my body" into "this betokens my body," and maintained that Christ was 
 bodily present in the sacrament, although the bread and wine were not trans-substan- 
 tiated. Philip of Hesse convened a conference at Marburg, and tried in vain to 
 1589. effect a reconciliation. Luther declared that Zwingli's opinion was a 
 
 denial of Christ, and with the words, " You have another spirit in you," refused the 
 hand that Zwingli offered him with tears. Luther also advised a separation of his 
 
414 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 adherents from the South German cities, which had adopted Zwingli's views. On this 
 account, the latter presented a separate creed of their own, to the Diet of Augsburg. 
 § 326. Zwingli's teacliings produced a great excitement in Switzerland. In 
 Zurich, Basel, Berne and Schaffhausen, and in the valley of the Rhine, the Church was 
 reformed according to Zwingli's principles. In St. Gall, Glarus and other cantons, the 
 parties were equally divided. But in the forest cantons the ancient usages prevailed. 
 The monks and clergy were very powerful among the shepherds and peasants of Lake 
 Luzerne, and moreover the liireliiig Swiss soldiers came principally from this region. 
 These cantons made an alliance with Austria, and forcibly put down every reform. 
 
 DEATH OF ZWINGLT. ( Wi't'kou'r.) 
 
 Berne and Zurich, on the other hand, urged the reformation «ith equal violence. A 
 conflict was inevitable ; especially as Zwingli was determined upon such political 
 changes as would make Bei'iie and Zurich sujireme in Switzerland. The clergy of both 
 parties insulted each other with impunity ; this increased the excitement, and provoked 
 tumults. Zurich and Berne now blocked the highways and prevented the movement 
 of goods and provisions; this excited the rage of Luzerne, and the forest cantons; 
 they armed themselves secretly and invaded Zurich. The latter, abandoned by the 
 people of Berne, marched their little army of two thousand men, against an enemy 
 four times as strong, and were defeated utterly in the battle of Cappel. Zwingli, 
 tsau who marched to ''he field as chaplain, fell beside the banner of the city, 
 
THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 
 
 416 
 
 and with him fell the best men of the reform His body was mutilated by the angry 
 foe, then burned and the ashes of it strewn to the winds. As a result the old church 
 was restored in many places that had favored the new doctrines, and Switzerland was 
 divided about religion for all future time. 
 
 2. 
 
 The Wars of the Hapsburgs against France. 
 
 § 327. Karl V. ruled an empire the like of which had not existed since the 
 cuariea v., days of Karl the Great (Charlemagne). Before he was of age he was 
 isio-issa. lord of the wealthy Netherlands, wliich were his paternal inheritance; 
 
 t tsss. as a young man he succeeded to the Spanish monarchy, upon the death 
 
 11 \K1 1-s \ 
 
 of his grandfather, Ferdinand the Catholic, and with these he obtained Naples and 
 Sicily, and the newly-discovered lands in America ; in his mature manhood he inherited 
 the Austrian estates, and was elected the successor of his grandfather Maximilian, as 
 German emperor. He could say with truth, that "the sun never set in his dominion." 
 He was a man of singular intelligence, and unwearying activity ; great as an adminis- 
 
416 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 trator and a brave leader of armies. His adversary and rival was King Francis the 
 F,-ancis I., First, of France ; — a handsome and powerful man renowned for his 
 iBiB.iB4t. love of art and science, for chivalrous bearing and for his courage ; 
 famous also for his despotic government, his love of pleasure, and his fondness for 
 beautiful women. Francis and Charles hated each other with deadly jealousy. Each 
 wished to be the first prince of Europe, and each eagerly sought the imperial 
 crown. Charles was the victor, and Francis became his determined foe, seeking by 
 
 every means to weaken his authority. This produced four wars, of which Milan was 
 IBIS. the chief occasion. The battle of Marignano threw this beautiful 
 
 dukedom into the hands of the French. But Charles claimed it as an imperial fief, 
 and marched a great army into Italy. At that time wars were conducted with hireling 
 soldiers and no nation could stand up against the Swiss and Germans. Their muskets 
 
418 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 made short work of the knightly warfare of the Middle Age, and their cannon broke 
 ism. the castles into ruins. The French were conquered. They lost Milan 
 
 isas. and Genoa, and retreated across the Alps. Bayard, "the knight with- 
 
 out fear and without stain," was one of the sacrifices of this campaign. The Con- 
 stable Bourbon, the richest and mightiest nobleman in France, in order to revenge him- 
 self for the insults and injuries which he had received from Francis, entered the 
 1SS4. service of the Emperor and now led the imperial army into southern 
 
 France. But the brave citizens of Marseilles compelled it to withdraw. 
 
 § 328. Francis I., smarting from his defeat, and eager to regain his lost terri- 
 tory, placed himself at the head of a well equipped arm}^ and marched into Italy. But 
 he was held back at Pavia, during which time the Constable Bourbon obtained fresh 
 
 troops fiom Germanj- and united with the 
 Spanish general, Pescai'a. But want of 
 raonej' and provisions brought the allied 
 army into great distress, while the camp of 
 the French overflowed with abundance. 
 Bourbon and Frundsberg thereupon ex- 
 cited their soldiers to storm the French 
 camp. Surprising them at night the battle 
 1S2&. of Pavia took place in 
 
 which Francis was defeated and taken 
 prisoner. Ten thousand soldiers were 
 killed or drowned: Francis was kept at 
 Madrid for a year, and compelled to sign 
 a peace in which he promised to renounce 
 isae. his claims to Milan, and 
 
 to give up the duchy of Burgundy. But 
 the French king had hardly reached home 
 when the Pope released him from liis 
 oath, and formed the holy league, in order 
 to free Italy from Spanish rule. This 
 league consisted of the Pope, the King 
 of England, the King of France, and a 
 few Italian princes. The rage of war once 
 more broke loose in Italy, and the recruiting drum went beating through every German 
 town. As it was a fight against the Pope, the Lutherans enlisted in throngs, so that 
 Frundsberg soon led a powerful army across the Alps, and united once more with the 
 Constable Bourbon. But money was too scanty to satisf}^ the troops. The soldiers 
 mutinied and Frundsberg died of apoplexj'. The troops demanded to be led to Rome ; 
 Bourbon yielded. On the sixth of Ma}-, 1527, the Spanish and German soldiei's 
 isas. climbed the walls of the eternal city ; among the first to fall was 
 
 Bourbon. The robber band now broke through the streets of the city, plundering the 
 palaces and the dwellings, robbing the churches of their ornaments and their vessels, 
 and mocking the Pope and the cardinals. Clement VII., was obliged to purchase his 
 liberty upon hard conditions, and took the first opportunitj- to escape. The Emperor 
 expressed great sorrow for the outrages that the head of Christendom had endured. 
 
 THE CHEVALIER BAYARD. 
 
THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 
 
 419 
 
 The French meanwhile made conquests in Upper Italy, and then marched to Naples in 
 order to take this kingdom from the Spaniards. Disease however wasted their armj^ 
 
 isss. and as the imperial troops were also dying rapidly from the effects of 
 
 their debaucheries, both parties were anxious for peace. The mother of Francis, and 
 
 is^o. the aunt of Charles, now intervened and brought about the "Ladies 
 
 THE TROOPS DEMAND TO BE LED TO ROME. ( Vierge.) 
 
 Peace " of Cambray. Francis renounced his claims to Milan, and paid two million 
 crowns for the ransom of his sons, but retained possession of Burgundy. Maximilian 
 Sforza got back Milan as an imperial fief. The Pope and the Italian princes then made 
 
420 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 tlieir peace. Cliarles V. was crowned by Clement, King of Lombard}', and Emperor 
 of Rome and the Pope was promised the destruction of the heretics and tlie return of 
 isso. the Medici to Florence. The latter liappened immediately ; Florence 
 
 was conquered and deprived of its republican constitution. Hut the former was not so 
 easy to accomplish. The Diet of Augsburg, which was convened immediately led to 
 no result. 
 
 § 329. But Francis liad bj' no means given up Milan. When Maximilian Sforza 
 1S3S. died a few years later he made an alliance with the Turks to accom- 
 
 plish this end. Charles about the same time conquered Tunis and brought to an end 
 1S3S. the piratical kingdom of Hayraddin. By this great achievement he 
 
 gave freedom to 20,000 Christian slaves. Francis now made a rapid march to Upper 
 Jtal}^ taking possession of Savoy and Piedmont, the duke of which countries was in 
 
 close alliance with the Emperor. But the 
 next year Charles marched an army into 
 isaa. Provence in order to attack 
 
 his adversary in his own country. He 
 was obliged to withdraw, as the French gen- 
 eral, Montmorenci, converted all the land 
 between the Rhone and the Alpine passes 
 into a desert, and threatened the imperial 
 army with destruction by starvation. But 
 all Christendom was outraged at Francis' 
 alliance with the Turks, especially as these 
 were making such ravages in Lower Italy 
 taas. and in the Greek islands. 
 
 Pope Paul III. offered therefore his media- 
 tion, and brought about the truce of Nice, 
 which left to each combatant what he had in 
 his hands. A personal interview of the two 
 monarchs appeared to have efifected a rec- 
 onciliation, and Charles was so convinced 
 GERMAN LANDSKNECHTs. (16th C,'»tHr,/^.) of the good faith of his antagonist, that 
 isao. when he was obliged to visit the Netherlands the following year he 
 
 went through Paris. But the friendship was of short duration. In 1541 Charles 
 ts^t. undertook a second African campaign, in order to annihilate the piiates 
 
 of Algiers, who were scouring the JMediterranean Sea. But the storms of autumn, 
 and the attacks of his enemies, made this expedition a failure. The Emperor lost 
 heavily in ships and men, and was obliged to retreat. This disaster filled the king of 
 /ojis-isjjf. France with new hopes ; he therefore made a new alliance with the 
 Sultan, and began a fourth war against the Emperor. But the latter marched into 
 France, with a great army from German}', and moved rapidly upon Paris. Francis 
 J5j^. was glad enough to conclude the peace of Crespy. This estab- 
 
 lished the Spanish superiority In Italy. Three years later Francis died. But his 
 nei,,u ir., son Henry II., followed the same path. He allied himself with the 
 ».;j7-/55o. Protestant princes of Germany, while he oppressed the reformed relig- 
 ion in his own country. And when finally Charles V. passed from the scene of action. 
 
THE HERALDS OF THE i^IODERN EPOCH. 
 
 421 
 
 the war between Philip II. and tiie Frencli king was continned for several years, until 
 isso. the peace of Ciiateau-Canibresis put an end to the struggle of both 
 
 nionarchs, without, however, destroying the hostility between France and Sj)ain. 
 
 3. The Religious Wai;s in Germany. 
 
 § 330. The wars with Finance, and the danger from the Turks prevented the 
 Emperor from carrying out the decrees of the Augsburg Diet against the German 
 Piotestants. While the Ottoman armies were threatening Austria, he thought it 
 unwise to compel by force the return of tiie people to the Catholic Church. But tlie 
 imperial courts were beginning to proceed against the evangelical jjrinces and cities, 
 in order to deprive them of their ecclesiastical estates. Tiie Elector of Saxony, and 
 the Landgrave of Hesse took the lead, therefore, in forming a union at Schmalkald, in 
 
 laai. wliich they promised to protect 
 
 each other, if any Lutheran prince or city was at- 
 tacked for its adherence to the word of God. Tiie 
 Emperor thought it best to make peace with the 
 union which he did the next year at Nuremberg. 
 
 153S. Both parties agreed not to attack 
 
 each other before tlie meeting of a church council, 
 and meanwhile legal proceedings should be sus- 
 pended. Tills agreement tied the hands of the 
 Protestants and yet it favored the extension of 
 the evangelical doctrine throughout Germany. 
 Tiie most important conquest of the Reform was 
 Wurtemberg. Duke Ulric, a passionate and cruel 
 man, had been driven from his possessions by the 
 
 (tsio.j Swabian union. He wandered for 
 
 many years in foreign lands, and liis dukedom 
 was governed by Austria until the landgrave, 
 Philip of Hesse, determined to restore him to 
 his jiossessions. He marched into Wurtembei'g, 
 
 153J. overcame the Austrians, and re- 
 
 stored Ulric to his people, who forgetting their 
 former oppressions, received him back with joy. As Ulric had become a convert to 
 evangelical doctrine, he permitted it to be preached throughout Wurtemberg, and 
 tiie church of the dukedom was soon transformed. The University of Tubingen, 
 which had been established in 1477, became one of the chief nurseries of evangelical 
 learning. 
 
 § 331. But the new church suffered greatly from strange doctrine. The Ana- 
 baptists had not disappeared with the deatli of Thomas Miinzer. Fugitives propa- 
 gated it, so that it reappeared in many places, although it was opposed by the re- 
 formers, and put down l)y the magistrates. The worst form of it appeared in 
 the city of Miinster. The reformation had taken place with such violence that the 
 ir,a4-isas. bishop had been compelled to fly. But it soon appeared that Rott- 
 man, the most influential preacher of the town, was an ana-baptist, and the ana-bap- 
 tist party obtained such power that they soon were in possession of the magistracy. 
 
 {< h 
 
422 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 whereupon thej' drove out all who were not of the same faith, and shared their prop- 
 erty among themselves. They established a religious commune, in which John Mat- 
 thiesen possessed absolute authority. They introduced community of goods, and be- 
 gan the defence of the city against the army of the bishop. Matthiesen was soon 
 killed, and Bockold took his place. His divine revelations, as he called them, led him 
 to follies and to crimes. He turned over the government of the city to twelve elders, 
 who were chosen from the wildest fanatics. He then introduced polj'gamy and put to 
 death all that dared to oppose him. One of his adherents was " moved by the spirit 
 of God " to propose the title of " King of the new Israel." Bockold put on a crown, 
 clothed himself in splendor, erected his throne of justice on the market place of the 
 city, and began a reign of sensual wickedness and bloody tyranny. He and his pQople 
 
 defended themselves with courage and 
 endurance for many days. Even when re- 
 duced to starvation they continued to 
 resist, and when their walls were stormed by 
 the enemy they fought with the courage of 
 despair. But the city was finally captured 
 by the bishop and his allies. The worst 
 of the leaders were starved to death in iron 
 cages, that were suspended from a tower; 
 the others were beheaded or banished. 
 Munster has been since then a Catholic 
 city. A generation later the Ana-baptists 
 were transformed by the priest Menno, and 
 are now known as Mennonites. The}' are 
 distinguished by simplicity of dress and 
 manners, by their rejection of priesthood, in- 
 fant baptism, oaths and military service. 
 But they have given up the dangerous prin- 
 ciples of the early time. They lead a quiet 
 life as peasants and farmers. In the North 
 German cities the aristocracy were compelled to struggle with the democracy of the 
 guilds. In Liibeck the daring Burgomaster, WuUenweber, placed himself at the head 
 of the democrats and the discontented, and undertook to conquer for the Hanseatic 
 1S3J. League, the countries of the Baltic. He was already in possession of 
 
 Copenhagen when he was removed from his office and executed as a "revolutionary 
 scoundrel." 
 
 § 332. The reformed church soon won an entrance into the dukedom of Saxony, 
 and the electorate of Brandenburg; for the two princes who had hitherto resisted it, 
 both died in 1542. George of Saxony was followed by his brother Henrj', who was 
 favorable to the Reformation, and Joachim II. received at Spandau the Lord's Supper 
 in both forms, and permitted the Protestant teachers to indoctrinate his people. Henry 
 of Brunswick would have nothing to do with any faith that he must share with the 
 former friend of his youth, now his bitter enemy, the Land-grave of Hesse. But Henry 
 is-ts. was conquered by the troops of the Saxons and of the Hessians, and 
 
 led to prison. Along the Rhine and the Neckar the same progress was made, and the 
 
 MAJOR AND LIEUTENANT OF GERMAN LANDS- 
 KNECHTS. 
 
THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 
 
 423 
 
 CAN'NOX OF THE 16tH CENTURY. 
 
 Emperor was finally convinced that neither discussions nor diets would heal the schism. 
 
 His hope rested entirel}' upon the general council which Pope Paul III. had convened 
 
 1S4S. at Trent. But the Protestants rejected a council which they regarded 
 
 as partisan, and under the control of the Pope, and demanded a church council of the 
 
 German people. This destroyed the Emperor's 
 last hope of a peaceful solution and determined 
 him to restore the unity of the church by force 
 of arms. In this same year Luther died in his 
 is^a. native town of Eisleben, whither 
 
 he had gone to reconcile some quarreling 
 friends. 
 
 § 333. When the Emperor determined upon war, he made a secret treaty with 
 the Pope, with the spiritual p)rinces, and with the Duke of Bavaria. But his most im- 
 portant ally was the Protestant duke, Maurice of Saxony. This young prince bitterly 
 disliked his cousin the elector, John Frederick, and was greatly discontented with the 
 course of things. He therefore abandoned the league of Schnialkald, and his father- 
 in-law, Philip of Hesse, and joined the Emperor. He promised the latter obedience and 
 a recognition of the decrees of Trent and he was promised in return by Charles an in- 
 crease of territory, and the electoral dignity 
 of Saxony. The Protestants had not the 
 least knowledge of these alliances. Indeed 
 when the Schmaldkaldic army marched to 
 the field, the Elector entrusted the govern- 
 ment of his dominion to his cousin Maurice. 
 Schartlin, the general of the South Ger- 
 man cities, wished to attack, the ErajDeror at 
 once, but he was overruled. He then pro- 
 posed to march into the Tyrol, cut off the 
 Italian troops, and to dissolve the council 
 of Trent ; but this too was prohibited. Thus 
 Charles gained time to get his troops from 
 Italy, and to take up a secure position. 
 The Protestants lost their opportunity in 
 fruitless skirmishes, until Charles by a junc- 
 tion with troops in the Netherlands, was 
 able to take the offensive. But the cold 
 weather proved so damaging to the Span- 
 iards and the Italians, that the Protestants 
 expected to conclude a favorable peace, when the news reached them that Maurice had 
 turned traitor anl marched into the lands of the Elector of Saxony. John Frederick 
 immediately hastened home; the Landgrave of Hesse and the other leaders followed 
 his example ; and the army of the league of Schmalkald was dissolved. 
 
 § 334. South Germany now stood open to the Emperor. Well-meaning counsel- 
 lors tried to induce him to make religion free, and thus to bring all classes back to their 
 allegiance and to their obedience. But Charles wished to restore the unity of the 
 church, and, at the same time, to give to the imperial power its ancient authority. He 
 
 GERMAN LANDSKNECHTS {Iblh tentu) IJ ) 
 
424 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 tlieret'ore called upon the South German princes and cities to submit and to renounce 
 the league of Schmalkald. The frightened cities immediately obeyed. Ulm delivered 
 up its cannon, and purchased the forgiveness of the Emperor. Augsburg was abund- 
 antly able to resist, but the merchants determined to surrender. Frankfort and 
 Strasburg followed. Duke Ulric of Wurtemberg paid a heavj- fine, and delivered 
 over his strongholds to the imperial troops. The Elector of Cologne announced his 
 dignity, and made way for a Catholic successor, who soon restored the mass. In 1547, 
 all South Germany had been reduced to obedience. 
 
 § 335. Meanwhile John Frederick had defeated Maurice and conquered Saxony, 
 except Dresden and Leipzig. The Protestant population greeted him everywhere with 
 joy, and he could easil}^ have collected an army with which to oppose the Emperor, but 
 his allegiance had by no means died out. He refused the offered help. But Maurice 
 
 now appealed to the Emperor. The latter 
 hastened Avith his army to Bohemia, and 
 marched against the Elector. The imperial 
 troops, 27,000 strong, crossed the Elbe, 
 surprised John Frederick while he was at 
 worship, and defeated him in the battle of 
 1547. Miihlberg. John himself 
 
 was taken prisoner. The Emperor tried to 
 frighten him by condemning him to death. 
 But not venturing to execute this sen- 
 tence, he changed it into imprisonment 
 for life, upon condition that John Frederick 
 would surrender his fortresses and transfer 
 his land, along with the electoral dignitj', to 
 Maurice. John bore his imprisoment with 
 submission and pious resignation. Philip 
 of Hesse was the next to be chastised. 
 Maurice and Joachim of Brandenburg inter- 
 ceded for him. The Emperor replied, "If he 
 surrenders unconditionally, begs for mercy, 
 and gives up his fortresses, he shall not be punished with death, or life-long imprison- 
 ment." Finally the Emperor agreed orally that Philip should not be injured in body 
 or estate, nor troubled with imprisonment. Trusting to this promise Philip surren- 
 dered, and accompanied by the two electors, he went to the imperial camp, and, falling 
 upon his knees before the Emperor, begged for mercy. The Duke of Alba invited him 
 to supper, and then took him prisoner. The Emperor had his two chief enemies in his 
 power, and carried them with him when he left Saxony. But Maurice, who had 
 ]iledged his honor to his father-in-law, was angry at this breach of faith, and Charles 
 had reason to repent it. 
 
 § 336. The Council of Trent opened its deliberations on the 13th of December, 
 1545. The proceedings were conducted by the papal legate. The assembly consisted 
 of uncompromising adherents of the papacy. The Protestants, therefore, found little 
 satisfaction in their conclusions. The Emperor, who hoped above all things to bring 
 about a union of both confessions, was greatly displeased. He protested and wished 
 
 BISHOPS IN PLTIVIALE AND CASULA. 
 
THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 
 
 425 
 
 the conclusions to remain unpublished, esjDecially as the Protestant states had 
 agreed to submit to the council, if certain points were reconsidered. Paul III. not 
 only published the results of the council, but he removed the council itself to Bologna. 
 
 i5j». The Emperor was now exceedingly angry. He forbade the clergy to 
 
 leave Trent, but was able to retain a minority only. He then published the Augsburg 
 
 is^s. Interim. In this document the cup and marriage of priests were con- 
 
 ceded to the evangelical church, and some concessions were made, touching justifica- 
 tion and the mass. But the old ceremonies were to be retained in worship. The 
 Protestant princes were willing to accept this Interim, but the cities and the preachers 
 refused. The latter fled from their home to North Germany, which had refused the 
 Interim. Four hundred preacliers became fugitives, most of them going to Magde- 
 burg. In Saxony the Leipzig Interim was proclaimed, in the composition of which 
 Melanchthon was thought to have made too many concessions. Here also many 
 preachei's left their parishes. Magdeburg 
 was put under the imperial ban. Never- 
 theless a multitude of pamphlets, satires, 
 mocking poems and caricatures issued from 
 the city, all of which breathed hatred and 
 scorn for the Interim and its makers. 
 
 § 337. The Emperor seemed now to 
 have reached his goal. The council returned 
 
 1551. to Trent, and even Protest- 1 
 ant delegates were admitted. Already he 
 was thinking of making his son his succes-| 
 sor, and the imperial crown hereditary in his 
 family, when suddenly he found an unex- 
 pected adversary in the man to whom he 
 owed his victory, Maurice of Saxony. Maur- 
 ice secretly made an alliance with several 
 German princes, and secured the help of ^^ 
 the French king, Henry II., by a treaty in 
 which he permitted Henry to garrison Metz, 
 
 and other imperial cities. He offered the 
 
 city of Magdeburg pardon and religious lib-GERMAN drummer and color bearer. {16th 
 erty, and thus induced it to surrender. Lentury.) 
 
 Charles was warned, but Maurice dissimulated with such skill, that he easily deceived 
 the Emperor, who thought it impossible that he should be outwitted by a German. 
 Suddenly Maurice entered Augsburg, and marched into the Tyrol. He was ap- 
 
 1552. preaching Innsbruck to take the Emperor prisoner, when a mutinj' 
 among his German troops gave Charles the opportunity to escape. The council of 
 Trent dissolved in a panic. Charles set the elector, John Frederick, at liberty, and 
 then fled by night, leaving to his brother Ferdinand the work of making peace. 
 Ferdinand immediately concluded the treaty of Passau, which guaranteed religious 
 
 1552. freedom to those who adopted the Augsburg confession, abolished the 
 
 Interim, set the Landgrave of Hesse at liberty, and declared tliat the decrees of Trent 
 
426 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 were not binding upon Protestants. The past was forgiven, and a permanent peace 
 provided for. 
 
 § 338. Tliis treaty of Passau was the last work of Maurice. His ally, Albert 
 of Brandenburg, refused to accept it, and continued his ravages in lower Saxony. 
 
 1SS3. Maurice marched against him to conquer a peace, but in a conflict of 
 
 horsemen he was mortally wounded. Albert continued his devastations, but was 
 finally captured and condemned to death, but escaped to France. In 1655, the peace 
 of Augsburg was adopted. By this peace the religion of the ruler determined the 
 religion of the subject. Those who would not follow their prince might emigrate. 
 Tlie chief contention was over the clause that required the spiritual princes, who should 
 hereafter adopt the reform doctrines, to forfeit their estates and revenues. This point 
 was left undecided, and became the "seed of bloody harvests." 
 
 § 339. The peace of Augsburg destroyed the Emperor's cherished hopes. He 
 determined to abdicate and to retire to a cloister. In a solemn assembly at Brussels 
 he transferred to his son, Philip, the government of the Netherlands, and a short time 
 
 1555. afterward the kingdoms of Spain and Naples, as well as the New World. 
 
 The Austrian states, and the conduct of German affairs, he had already given to his 
 brother, Ferdinand. He then retired to West Spain to the cloister, San Juste. Here 
 he lived two j^ears in retirement, emploj'ed in religious exercises and pious meditation, 
 but not altogether careless of the affairs of the empire. Ferdinand I., chosen emperor 
 by the German princes, then united the imperial crown with the Austrian hereditary 
 kingdom, and held faithfully to the religious peace which he had promised to observe. 
 
 4. Peogress of the Reformation in Europe. 
 
 a. Luther anism and Calvinism. 
 
 § 340. Charles V., by his ecclesiastical policy, prevented the conquest of the 
 whole German nation by the reform movement. The treaty of Passau and the peace 
 of Augsburg created a divided Germany. The Lutheran reform extended gradually 
 from Saxony and Hesse to the neighboring countries, acquired supremacy in North 
 Germany, made great progress in Franconia and Svvabia, and from Strasburg spread into 
 Alsace and Lorraine. It spread also along the Vistula and the Baltic, where the 
 grandmaster of the Teutonic order, Albert of Brandenburg, united with the evangel- 
 ical church, converted the province of Prussia into a hereditary dukedom, and ac- 
 knowledged the overlord-ship of Poland. The Grandmaster of the Knights of the 
 Sword did the same thing in Courland and Livland. But the House of Hapsburg, the 
 dukes of Bavaria, and the ecclesiastical princes of Germany, were enthusiastically de- 
 voted to the ancient church, while Ingolstadt was a nursery for the old faith. Never- 
 theless the two emperors, Ferdinand I., and Maximilian II., refused to do violence to 
 the consciences of their subjects, and the evangelical doctrine soon had numerous con- 
 fessors in Austrian territory. The Protestants obtained toleiation and built many 
 churches, and in Hungary and Transylvania they were more numerous than the Catho- 
 lics. In Bohemia, the Hussites became for the most part Liitheran, but the later 
 princes of Austria abolished the rights of the Protestants, and gave exclusive domin- 
 ion to the Roman church. The doctrine of Zwingli was adopted by several South Ger- 
 man cities, but spread no farther. Wlien, however, Calvin elaborated the principles of 
 Zwingli into a complete system of doctrines, the Calvinistic Reformed church in Ger- 
 
THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 
 
 427 
 
 manj- grew quite rapidl}'. Frederick the Tliird, of the Palatinate, introduced it into 
 
 tsso. his dominion, and caused the composition of the Heidelberg Catechism. 
 
 It found its way also into Hesse, Bremen, and Brandenburg. Melanchthon and his dis- 
 ciples were at heart Calvinists, and the publication of his opinions brought upon him 
 
 iseo. so much opposition and defamation that he died in great sorrow. His 
 
 adherents, who were called Philipists or Crypto-Calvinists, were bitterly persecuted in 
 
 isso. Saxony. The formula of Concord, which was signed by thirty 
 
 Lutheran princes and cities in the year 1580, was intended to restore unity, but only 
 widened the breach between 
 the Calvinistsand the Luth- 
 erans. Chancellor Crell, who 
 tried to convert Saxony to 
 Calvinism, was first impris- 
 oned- and then beheaded as a 
 
 loot. traitor. 
 
 § 341. Switzerland like- 
 wise had two evangelical 
 doctrines, although the teach- 
 ing of Zwingli was b}' no 
 means so far from the system 
 of Calvin as that of Luther. 
 
 Calvin, Calvin had 
 
 isoo-isa-t. fled from 
 France to Geneva, in which 
 Farely had already begun the 
 preaching of reform. At the 
 latter's earnest entreaty, he 
 remained in Geneva, where he 
 exercised a powerful influence 
 upon the constitution, relig- 
 ion, morals and culture of 
 the city. He was a man of 
 lofty intelligence and moral 
 power ; severe with himself 
 and severe with others ; opposed to every earthly pleasure, he governed men purely 
 by a strong will. In his doctrine he followed Zwingli, although in his views 
 of predestination and grace he went bej'ond him, and even beyond Augustine. 
 Like Zwingli he desired to restore the simplicity of primitive Christian worship. 
 Pictures, decoration, organs, candles, crucifixes he banished from the church. 
 Worship consisted in prayer, preaching and the singing of psalms. Sunday (or 
 the Sabbath) was the only church festival. The constitution of the Calvinistic 
 church was republican in form. The congregation elected elders who administered 
 discipline, chose its own clergymen, watched over the morals of the people, and 
 the relief of the poor. Clergymen and elders together formed the Synods which 
 legislated for the churches. The Calvinists forbade the theater and the dance, and 
 
 JOHN CALVIN. 
 
428 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 the pleasures of society, and consequently their teaching took no such root in the 
 higher classes as in the others. 
 
 § 342. Calvinism extended from Geneva into southern France. Its adherents 
 were soon so numerous that they could enter upon a desperate struggle with the rul- 
 ing church. The French court wavered, for a while, but political reasons decided it to 
 
 HENRY VIII. 
 
 stand by the Roman hierarchy. The so-called reformed faith was forbidden Cal- 
 vinistic preachers were burned at the stake, the followers of Calvin were nick-named. 
 Huguenots, and persecuted with great bitterness. From France and Switzerland, Cal- 
 vinism spread into the Netherlands, and in the northern provinces became victorious 
 after a desperate struggle. In Scotland the new teaching was opposed by the court 
 and the clergy, and many of its confessors were committed to the flames. Mary of 
 Guise, the queen regent, was eagerly devoted to the Roman church, and in conjunc- 
 tion with Cardinal Beaton did her utmost to root out heresv. But the Cardinal was 
 
THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 
 
 429 
 
 murdered by a mob of conspirators in his own house. The regent, after a three 3'ears 
 struggle against the reform, passed to another world, and John Knox, who had been a 
 isei. pupil of Calvin in Geneva, conquered Scotland for the reform teach- 
 
 ing. The confession of faith, the form of worship, and the Presbyterian constitution 
 of the Calvinists, were introduced into Scotland, the mass forbidden as idolatry, and 
 the church property confiscated. Cloisters and cathedrals were destroyed in an out- 
 
 CARDINAL THOMAS WOLSEY. 
 
 break of blind rage. The Scottish church soon came to be called the Presbyterian. 
 The Puritans of England held the same principles, but they were compelled to yield to 
 the adherents of episcopac}'. Numerous sects started into existence, which received 
 their development on the free soil of North America. 
 
 The Founding of the Anglican Church. 
 
 § 343. England at first met the adherents of Luther with bloody persecution, and 
 
430 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 Heni-u nil,, king Heniy VIII., by his learned treatise againstthe German reformer, 
 XB00.1S43. acquired from the Pope the title of " Protector of the Faith." But 
 Henry's adherence to the Pojje was changed into hatred, when Clement VII. refused 
 to declare void his marriage with Catharine of Aragon, the aunt of the Emperor 
 Charles V. The king was partly moved by doubts of the validity of his marriage 
 with the widow of his deceased brother, and partly by his desire to marry the beauti- 
 ful Anne Boleyn. Af- 
 ter waiting many years 
 for a decision from 
 Rome, he grew weary 
 of delay and determined 
 upon the separation of 
 the English Church from 
 the papacy. He re- 
 moved Cardinal Wolsey 
 from ofSce, made 
 Thomas Cranmer Arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury, 
 1533. and rest- 
 
 ing upon the opinions of 
 .English and foi'eign un- 
 iversities, he declared 
 ins marriage with Cath- 
 arine to be null and void. 
 He then compelled the 
 clergy to recognize him 
 as the head of the Eng- 
 lish church, and iiiduceJ 
 parliament to pass stat- 
 1S34. utes abol- 
 
 ishing the authority and 
 the power of the pope 
 in England. He dis- 
 solved the monasteries, 
 turn ing monks and 
 nuns hungry and help- 
 less into the world, 
 and confiscated their 
 property partly in favor 
 of the crown, and 
 partly in favor of his friends. The institutions of the Catholic Church were for 
 the most part untouched, and the statutes of the Six Articles (called by the people 
 1539. The Bloodj^ Articles) commanded upon penalty of death the observ- 
 
 ance of celibacy, of auricular confession of monastic vows, and of the mass, and re- 
 quired all to believe in transubstantiation, and the witholding of the cup. Bishop 
 Fisher and Sir Thomas IMore (once lord-chancellor and author of Utopia) died on the 
 
 THOMAS MORE TAKING LEAVE OF HIS DAOGHTEE. (^4. Zick.) 
 
432 
 
 THE MOPKHX AGK. 
 
 scaffold booauso tlioy rel'usoil to acknowledge tlie King as the lioad of tlieoluircli. Tlie 
 Pope exconinmnieated Henry and his adherents, at the moment when the dissolu- 
 tion of the monasteries provoked a rebellion in the North of England. Henry replied 
 by executing the friends and relatives of the Englisli cardinal Pole, who had published 
 the bull of excommunication, and by handing abbots and monks over to the executioner. 
 § 34-1. The rejected Catharine soon d^ed in exile. But Anne Boleyn did not long 
 tsao. survive her. Hardl}' was the second wife beheaded b}- her jealous hus- 
 
 band, when the beautiful Jane Se_ymour died in child-bed. Henry then mai-ried Anne 
 of Cleves, but neither her face nor her manners pleased the King, so he put her away 
 and from well, who had brouglit about the marriage, fell into disfavor, and was soon 
 ts-to. beheaded. Catharine Howard, Henry's fifth wife, expiated her unfaith- 
 
 J5j«. fulness upon the scaffold, and Catharine Parr, who was eagerly devoted 
 
 to the Reformation, escaped death only by her great intelligence. Even on his own 
 death-bed Henrv signed death warrants. 
 
 nVRXTNG UKKKTICS. (.-(. (fc Xciiville.) 
 
 ^ 345. Edward VI. was but ton years old when his father died. This neeessi- 
 Eiiirnttt ri.. tated a regency, in which the Duke of Somerset and Arch-bishop Cran- 
 xs4j-ts^a. mcr exercised the greatest influence. The first became Protector of Eng- 
 land, ursurped the whole authority of the state, and greatly favored the plans of Crannier 
 for the establislunent of the Anglican church. Crannier proceeded with care and mod- 
 eration to blend together Catholic and Protestant elements. "Tiie Book of Common 
 Prayer " was composed in English from the old English missals. Festivals and the 
 worship of the saints were abolished, the Lord's Supper was administered in both forms, 
 the clergy were allowed to marry and the Confession of Faith, or the thirty-nine articles, 
 were brought into substantial harmony with the confessions of the continental reform- 
 ers. The episcopal form of government, the use of the surplice, and other features of 
 the English Church, lean to the Roman Catholic system. But the king and not the 
 pope was made the head of the church, archbishops and bishops being appointed by 
 
THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 
 
 433 
 
 tss2. . him. Somerset by his tyranny made himself many enemies, who 
 finally accomplished his execution. The Duke of Northumberland succeeded him and 
 governed the realm even more absolutely. He persuaded Edward on his death-bed 
 to alter the last will of his father, and to name as his successor Lady Jane Grey, a 
 grandniece of Henry VIH. But hatred for Nortliumberland, and for his son Dudle}', the 
 husband of Lady Jane, brought about a reaction in favor of Mary. By the declaration 
 
 MARY TUDOR. 
 
 that she would disturb no one in matters of belief, the people were brought to her sup- 
 laayu Ttiiioi: port, and placed her upon the tlirone. Northumberland died upon the 
 tss3-t5ss. scaffold. Dudley and Lady Jane languished for a time in prison, and 
 then were executed. Lady Jane was the most cultivated woman of her time, beauti- 
 ful, pious, and singularly intelligent. 
 
 § 846. Mary did not keep her promise. Brought up in the Catholic faith, for 
 which her mother suffered, her cliief thought was the restoration of the papal power. 
 She induced her parliament to abolish the reforms of Edward VL, restored the former 
 28 
 
434 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 religion of Rome, and arranged with Cardinal Pole, whom she had appointed Arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury, measures to root our heresy. The bishops who resisted were 
 deposed ; Cranmer, Latimer and Ridley were burned to death at Oxford, and the 
 flames of martyrdom were kindled throughout the realm. Not to attend the mass was 
 a capital offense. Crowds of fugitives crossed the channel and sought protection in 
 
 ELIZABETH. 
 
 Germany and Switzerland. Persecution became hotter when Mary married Philip of 
 
 Spain. But her sorrow over the evident dislike of her husband shortened her days. 
 
 The people called her Bloody Mary, but she was only a gloomy, unfortunate and dis- 
 
 Eiixnitetn, appointed woman. Her half-sister Elizabeth, the daughter of Anne 
 
 isss-ittoa. Boleyn, exchanged her cell in the tower for a royal palace, and bj'the 
 
THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 435 
 
 /sea. Act of Uniformity restored the ciiurch establishment of Edward. The 
 
 book of common prayer and the thirty-nine articles were made obligatory, and the 
 court of High Commission appointed by the Queen to supervise the affairs of the church. 
 The returning fugitives hoped to induce her to adopt the principles of Calvin, but 
 Elizabeth had no mind for the simplicity of the puritan forms, or for their notions of 
 
 chiirch government. This led to the separation of some of the Puritans from the An- 
 glican church, and to the gradual development of a Presbyterian party inside the estab- 
 lishment. The separatists were persecuted and driven from the kiilgdom into Holland. 
 Presbyterians inside the church organization first made their power felt under the 
 Stuarts. 
 
436 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 c. The Reformation in the Tliree Scandinavian Kiyigdoms. 
 
 % 347. Christian II., the last king under the Union of Cahnar, so embittered the 
 chi-istiaii II., nobiUty by his ci'iielty that the insurrections broke out in Sweden and 
 1S13-1BS3. Denmark. These led to the dissolution of the union, and to the intro- 
 1550. duction of the evangelical church. In Sweden, Gustavus Vasa was 
 
 the author of this ecclesiastical and political change, and the founder of a powerful dy- 
 nasty. He had been taken to Denmark by Christian II. as a hostage, but he escaped 
 to Liibeck, where he was protected and furnished with money with which to liberate 
 his native land. In the very year in which the massacre of Stockholm filled Sweden 
 tsgo. with terror, Gustavus landed on his native shores. He escaped a thous- 
 
 ens*n<iiis rasa, and dangers by his own resolute courage, and the fidelity of his coun- 
 isita-iano. trymen, and although the agents of Christian pursued him every wheie, 
 he was able to gather about him a band of peasants who defeated the Danish troops 
 issi. and their allies, and soon took possession of Upsala. Tlie glory of his 
 
 name, and the cry of freedom soon brought liim adherents from every section. Lii- 
 beck supported him with troops, 
 cannon, and money, so that he 
 compelled the Danish garrison to 
 1533. leave the kingdom, 
 
 and having been chosen king by 
 the Swedish diet, he entered 
 Stockholm in triumph. The new 
 monarchy was at first elective, but 
 twenty years later the diet de- 
 clared the crown hereditary in 
 the male line of Vasa. The 
 is-t-i. royal estate, how- 
 
 ever, had been so wasted by 
 the Danes, that the dignity of 
 the crown required increased revenues. Tlie Reformation furnished a welcome 
 opportunity. The people, instructed in the new doctrine by the bi'others Petri, ac- 
 cepted it willinglj% and the diet confiscated the estates of the clerg}'', inasmuch as 
 isai. they had taken part with the Danes, and showed no interest in the 
 
 independence of their countr3\ Gustavus then gradually introduced the Reformation 
 everywhere, and took from the church the largest part of her revenue. The nobility, 
 in order to enrich themselves, supported his undertaking. The bishops, after a long 
 resistance, recognized the new order of things, and were allowed to remain as superin- 
 tendents of the cluirch, but dependent upon the king and limited by consistoi'ies. 
 
 § 348. Denmark, meanwhile, had also undergone a great change. Frederick I. 
 Fi-eiiei-ivk I., of Schleswig- Holstciu had been acknowledged as king bj^ the no- 
 1533-153.*. bilit}^ and the people, and had strengthened himself against his rival. 
 Christian II., b_v encouraging the evangelical teaching. While Frederick was conced- 
 ing to tiie Protestants equality with the Catholics, and arranging for the independence 
 of the Danish cluirch. Christian II. had gone over to the Emperor and Pope, and with 
 chiMiaH III., their help was making an attack upon Denmark. But he was captured 
 1S34-1S30. and imprisoned for sixteen years in a gloomy tower. Christian III., the 
 
 01,D SWKDISn LEATUEK CA.N.NON. 
 
THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 437 
 
 son of Frederick, completed the victory of the Luthei'aii church in Demnark. The 
 alergy forfeited most of their estates to the crown and the nobility, while the bishops 
 became wholl}^ dependent upon the government. In Norway the new church was es- 
 tablislied by the peasants, but in Iceland the bishops and their adherents fell with arms 
 in their hands. The Swedish and Danish nobility acquired, by the Reformation, great 
 wealth, power, and privileges. 
 
 § 349. Gustavus Vasa establislied the welfare of Sweden hy good laws, and by 
 the encouragement of commerce and of industrj^. But his sons experienced a bitter 
 Eiio AjT'., fate. Eric XIV. was so violent and so suspicious that he at last became 
 isoo-ises. insane. He murdered several members of the Sture family with his 
 own hands, and the nobles all quaked with fear. They therefore formed a conspiracy 
 under the lead of his brothers, as a result of which Eric was imprisoned and jDut to 
 John III., death. His brother, John III., succeeded him. His first wife, the 
 1SOS-JS02. daughter of the Polish king, was a bigoted Catholic, and she in con- 
 nection with a Jesuit, who lived in Stockholm secretly as an ambassador, induced to 
 the King to restore the ancient faith, and to bring up the j'oung prince Sigismund as a 
 Catholic. But the Swedish people earnestly resisted the Catholic ceremonies and John 
 repented the undertaking, especially as his second wife worked for the evangelical 
 siaiainunti, church. But his son Sigismund, who was also king of Poland, suffered 
 1502-1000. greatlv through his Catholic education. When the Swedish diet made 
 the evangelical Lutheran religion the sole religion of Sweden, Sigismund refused to 
 obey. His uncle Karl was appointed Protector of the Realm. Sigismund defended 
 his rights with arms. But he was conquered and given the choice to renounce the 
 papacy and retain his kingdom, or to send his son to Sweden to be educated in the 
 Lutheran religion. Sigismund refused to send his son, so Karl IX. obtained the crown, 
 and a new law of succession secured it to his offspring. 
 
 § 350. This provoked a war between Sweden and Poland. Under Gustavus 
 Kail IX., Adolphus, the son of Karl, this war resulted to the advantage of 
 leoo-ieii. Sweden. Livland, and other provinces, were lost to Poland, whose 
 power now steadily decreased. The Polish nobility resisted all attempts to reform the 
 church or to reorganize the state. A few persecuted religionists found j^rotection and 
 toleration in Poland, and the "dissidents," as tlie adherents of the new doctrines were 
 called, acquired, after many struggles, religious liberty and civil equality. This how- 
 ever they were unable to retain. Yet opinions which were rejected b}' the reformers 
 found toleration in Poland, especially the Socinians, a Unitarian sect that rejected the 
 mystery of the Trinity. 
 
 d. The Catholic Church. 
 
 § 351. Spain and Italy were not without traces of the Reformation, but the 
 nature of the people, and the severity of the Inquisition hindered the progress of Reform. 
 Among the confessors of the new doctrine were scholars and writers like Peter Martyr 
 who were compelled to seek safety in foreign lands. Some adopted principles wliich 
 1553. were rejected by the reformers as false doctrine. Socinus, already 
 
 mentioned, was an Italian and Servetus, who was burned, was a Spaniard. 
 
 The leaders of the Catholic church did not give up the idea of suppressing the 
 new doctrine ; wherever they could, they sought to obtain this end by force, and where 
 
438 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 the use of force was impossible, tliey did tlieir utmost to prevent tlie preaching of the 
 
 Htnitian rx., P p 1 c s taulf 
 xs22-isg3. beliefs. Al- 
 most all the popes, even 
 Hadrian VI., and Paul 
 III, who earnestly de- 
 sired to reform the church, 
 were exceedingly severe 
 Paul XXX., against the 
 is34,-i5-t». Protestants. 
 Paul IV, a gloomy octo- 
 genarian monk, so pro- 
 voked the people by liis 
 cruelty, that on the day 
 Fmti XT., of his death 
 1SSS-1330. they muti- 
 lated his statues, and 
 burned down the house of 
 the Inquisition. The 
 Council of Trent began 
 its third session under Pius 
 IV., in Januarjr, 1562. 
 x-itts u:. The decrees 
 iBs»-xsea. of this coun- 
 cil are the fundamental 
 doctrines of the Catholic 
 church. The confessions 
 of faith of the ancient 
 councils were declared in- 
 fallible, and the creed of 
 the church expressed in a 
 most indefinite form. Pure 
 ethics were re-established, 
 c h u r c h discipline i m- 
 Dec. J, ises. proved, and 
 the clerical order brought 
 under closer supervision. 
 The Council of Trent com- 
 pleted the development of 
 the Roman C a t li o 1 i c 
 church, and in three cen^ 
 en-egoi-u xxxx., turies no 
 isjs-i5S5. subsequent 
 council was called. Greg- 
 or}'' XIII. reformed the 
 calendar by passing from 
 
 TRIAL BY WATER. 
 
THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 
 
 439 
 
 IGNATIUS LOYOLA. 
 
 the fourth of October to the fifteenth. He also ordered the singing of a Te Deum 
 when lie received the news of the massacre of Saint Bartholomew. The greatest pope 
 of the century was Sixtus V. He began life as a shepherd boy, became a Franciscan, 
 si><«« v., then an inquisitor, afterward a cardinal, and finally head of the 
 isss-isoo. church. He was a powerful ruler, maintaining order with great se- 
 verity, and erecting great buikhngs, and excavating the monuments of antiquity from 
 the ruins of ancient Rome. 
 
 § 352. The Jesuits or " Company of Jesus,"' were 
 the chief support of the popes in their efforts to arrest the 
 reformation. This powerful order was founded by Igna- 
 isjo. tins Loyola, a Spanish nobleman, a sol- 
 
 dier, a dreamer, an organizer and an enthusiast. Led to 
 renounce his military career oy a wound that crippled him 
 for life, and by reading the lives of the saints, he made a 
 painful pilgrimage to the Holy Sepulcher. Commanded to 
 return and to get an education, he studied with incredible 
 perseverance, at Salamanca and Paris, and then sought 
 and found six companions who would join him in the con- 
 quest of the world for Mary and her Son. They took three 
 vows, poverty, chastity and obedience, and then offered themselves unconditionally to 
 the Pope. The new order was, after much difficulty, recognized and sanctioned 
 Ignatius was its first general, and 
 
 Laynez, one of the six recruits, - ^ ^1.. ^ 
 
 perfected its remarkable constitu- 
 tion. This constitution was alto- ^Z 
 gether unique. The general in 
 Rome, commands the " provin- 
 cials " or the commanders of the 
 provinces, and these in turn com- 
 mand subordinates in different 
 ranks and degrees. The watch- 
 word of the company is obedience. 
 The members of the order are 
 guarded vigilantly, and all the ties 
 that bind them to the world are 
 sundered. Candidates must serve 
 a long probation, during which 
 their qualities and inclinations are 
 carefully studied, so that each 
 one may be appointed to his 
 proper work. Some are sent to the cloister, others trained to science ; some un- 
 dertake the instruction of the young, the ablest subtlests are sent to courts and 
 palaces, and those endowed with eloquence are used as preachers at home, or sent 
 as missionaries to foreign lands. Privileged by the popes in a most extraordinary way, 
 and eni-iched by donations and legacies, the Jesuits acquired a various and powerful 
 influence. Their chief end was the overthrow of Protestantism and the suppression of 
 
 SPAimiSH GALLEASS OF THE 16tII CENTUKY. 
 
440 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 intellectual freedom. 
 This thej' sought in 
 different waj's ; b)' 
 persuasion to bring 
 the adherents of the 
 new faith back to 
 the ancient church, 
 by the confessional 
 in which they urged 
 princes and influen- 
 tial 23ersons to oppose 
 the Reformation, and 
 to limit the freedom 
 of belief; by educa- 
 tion of the young, in 
 which they sought to 
 gain the rising gen- 
 eration for their 
 principles. But the 
 order soon became 
 the object of popular 
 hatred, because it 
 destroj'ed religious 
 jieace, and taught 
 strange doctrines of 
 morality. The teach- 
 ing that "the end 
 justifies the means," 
 is not to be found 
 just in those words 
 among Jesuit max- 
 ims, but the doc- 
 trine that words and 
 oaths when uttered 
 have no validity, "if 
 tlie mind thinks other- 
 wise," was used by 
 
 them in a most destructive fashion. 
 
 5. The Age of Philip II., (1556-1598) and of Elizabeth (1558-1603). 
 
 § 353. Philip II. of Spain was a morose and misanthropic prince, who had three 
 aims : — the increase of his dominion, the extermination of Protestantism, and the destruc- 
 tion of popular liberties and rights. To reach these, he sacrificed the happiness of na- 
 tions, the welfare of his kingdom, the love of his people and of his family. His half- 
 isri. brother Don Juan, who conquered the Turks at Lepanto, was sur- 
 
 rounded by the King with a web of falsehoods, trickery and espionage, so that all his 
 
THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 
 
 441 
 
 uiideitakiiigs were baffled and he himself hurried to his grave. Philip's son, Don 
 Carlos, died in the dungeons of the Inquisition. B3' means of this terrible court, and 
 his frequent autos dafi, he succeeded in destroying every trace of heresy in SjDain and 
 Naples, and robbing the people of their freedom. But he destroyed at the same time 
 the greatness of both countries. When, however, he undertook to bend the Nether- 
 lands to the same yoke, he provoked that memorable contest from which freedom rose 
 triumphant. After a reign of forty-two years which was the grave of Spanish great- 
 ness, Philip succumbed to a terrible disease. He left a land loaded with debt and 
 wasted with cruelty. The Duke of Alba was a cruel instrument of his tyrannical 
 commands. Master and servant have received the execration of mankind. 
 
 a. Portugal United with Spain. 
 
 § 354. Portugal shared the fate of Spain. Both lands were oppressed by a pow- 
 erful priesthood, supported by an absolute king. 
 Tlie rights of the people were destroyed, their in- 
 telligence blunted, their heroism reduced to slavery 
 and their prosperity brought to an end. A mourn- 
 ful fate united Portugal to Spain. 
 
 King Sebastian undertook a cam jDaign against 
 
 sebnatifiH the uubelieviug Moors in North 
 
 issi-is7s. Africa. On a terribly hot day 
 in August, he attacked the army of the enemy in 
 the plains of Alcassar, and suffered a complete de- 
 feat. Ten thousand Christian warriors were left 
 upon the field of battle. Among the missing was 
 King Sebastian, altliough his body could not be 
 discovered. The crown of Portugal became vacant 
 and Philip II. sent Duke Alba to make good his 
 claim. The Portuguese favored Antonio, another 
 claimant, but the latter was too feeble to maintain 
 his pretended rights against the Spaniards. He 
 was forced to fly, whereupon Lisbon and the 
 whole land submitted to Philip. The Portuguese were under Spanish rule for 
 
 isso-iojo. sixty years, and until the I'ich and influential Duke of Braganza 
 acquired the throne. But meanwhile the Portuguese sea-power had fallen into decay 
 and their foreign possessions passed to other hands. 
 
 CHAMBER OF HORRORS. {Niirnbiirg.) 
 
 b. The Fight for Freedom in the Netherlands. 
 
 §355. The Netherlands had of old possessed important chartered rights and 
 liberties. Among these was the right to determine their own taxes, to an indepen- 
 dent judiciary, to a domestic army, and to native born officials. Charles V. had 
 often violated these rights, but the fondness of the Emperor for the people of the 
 Netherlands, among whom he was born and whose character he loved, warded off 
 hostilities. Philip, on the contrary, was a haughty Spaniard who looked upon the 
 Netherlands as a subject province, and frequently attacked their ancient privileges. 
 
442 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 He appointed his half-sister Margaret of Parma, a woman of masculine mind to 
 ifiso. be regent in Brussels. He surrounded her with a cabinet council 
 
 in which Cardinal Granvelle presided, and he marched a Spanish garrison into 
 the land. But the Netherlanders, many of whom inclined to evangelical teaching, 
 were most outraged when the King, in order to preserve the ancient teaching, 
 increased the laws against heretics and determined to create fourteen new bishops. 
 This was a prelude to the introduction of the Spanisii Inquisition, and Gran- 
 velle, who was to be the Metropolitan of all these sees, had already the title of 
 " Grand Inquisitor." The patriotic party with William of Orange and Count 
 Egmont at their head, urged the King to respect the institutions of the land, to 
 modify the laws against heresy, and to permit liberty of belief. But Philip answered 
 that he would " rather die a thousand times than permit the slightest change in re- 
 ligion." 
 
 356. The adherents of the new church were to be found among the common 
 
 people only. The nobility clung to the old 
 faith, but were nevertheless determined to 
 oppose the Inquisition. Four hundred of 
 them signed the so-called Compromise, and 
 xoieiitber, isas. petitioned for the suspension 
 of the Inquisition. When the}^ presented 
 this to the Regent she was greatly dis- 
 turbed. One of her counsellors said to her 
 she should not be alarmed at these "beg- 
 gars." The phrase was adopted as the watch- 
 word of their league. They called them- 
 selves beggars, (Gueux) and wore around 
 their necks a medal with the likeness of the 
 king, and the inscription " faithful to the king, 
 though he make us beggars." The petition 
 met with no success. The heretics were 
 deprived of liberty, property, and life ; 
 nevertheless the new teaching spread everj'-- 
 where. Psalms were sung; the people went 
 in throngs to hear the field-preachers ; 
 monks and holy objects were hooted on the streets. And finally the people of Ant- 
 isns. werp and Brussels broke into the churches and the cloisters, tore down 
 
 crucifixes, and destroyed sacred images and pictures. Moderate men regretted these 
 excesses, and aided in their punishment. Order was soon restored, and Margaret her- 
 self advised gentleness and mercy. But her suggestions were despised. Philip de- 
 Aihn. termiued to send the Duke of Alba with a Spanish army into the 
 
 tsoT-ts^a. Netherlands and to compel the people hy severity and force. 
 § 357. The news of Alba's arrival drove the N'etherlandei's to flight. William of 
 Orange, a calm, sagacious man. resolute, energetic and silent, bent before the storm 
 and retired to Germany. He sought in vain to persuade Egmont to do likewise. But 
 Egmont trusted to his great services and remained. Alba was no sooner arrived, than 
 he arrested Egmont and Count Horn on a charge of high treason, and beheaded them 
 
 :\IOOEtSH KINGS. 
 
WMl 
 
 tm imli'ii 
 
 
 
 '/i M 
 
 Ml 
 
 
 li'^L a' 
 
444 
 
 THE MODERX AGE. 
 
 i5as. with eighteen other noblemen in the market place of Brussels. They 
 
 were tried by "the Council of Insurrection," called by the Netherlanders the Bloody 
 Council. Tins tribunal punished with incredible cruelty all who believed the new 
 doctrine, and all who fought for ancient rights and institutions. The regent Margaret, 
 indignant at these cruelties, resigned her position and returned to Italy. But Alba 
 erected a citadel in Antwerp, and maintained a reign of terror for six years. In utter 
 disregard of law, he laid a tax upon the land, and distributed it so unequally as to cut 
 the root of commercial prosperity. This oppression and the inhuman cruelties of the 
 Spanish troops at last created such an uproar, that Madrid determined to recall Alba. 
 The news that the sea-beggars had conquered Briel, that tlie northern provinces had 
 
 THE CITIZEN S GUARD VIEWING THE BEHE.A.DED BODIES OF COUNTS EGMONT AND HOKN. 
 
 (Louis Gallart.') 
 
 1572. united together, and that William of Orange had been made Stadt- 
 
 holder, convinced the Spanish court that Alba's methods were after all a failure. 
 isj-t. When he left the Netherlands tlie nothern provinces established Cal- 
 
 vinism as the religion of the country, accepted the Heidelberg catechism, and founded 
 a university in the city of Leyden. 
 
 § 358. Alba's successors, Zuniga and Requesens, abolished the council of insur- 
 i573-is7e. rection, and sought to restore the authority of Spain bj^ milder meas- 
 ures, but the hatred of the people for the foreign soldiers prevented reconciliation. 
 1574. Even the Spanish victory, in which the two brothers of Orange were 
 
THF, iCoxocLASTS. {A. de Neuville.) 
 
 (pp. 445.) 
 
446 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 1S70-1S7S. slain, produced no effect. Don Juan was now entrusted with 
 
 the difficult task. But before he arrived the troops broke out in mutiny 
 
 and murder. Orange was therefore able to unite all the provinces in a league 
 
 is7e. for the expulsion of the Spanish arra}^ and Don Juan was not able to 
 
 restore the shattered power of his brother. Alexander Farnese of Parma, next 
 
 MURDER OP THE DUKE OF GUISE. ( VieTQe.) 
 
 157S-1S02. assumed command. Like Don Juan he sought to separate the 
 southern from the northern provinces. Thereupon William of Orange united the 
 isio. northern provinces in a closer union. This union was the foundation 
 
 of the united states of the Netherlands. The southern provinces were so discordant 
 that Parma succeeded in suppressing the insurrection in many places, and in bringing 
 several cities to obedience. Philip now directed al! 1>1-' hatred against Orange. He 
 
THH HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 
 
 447 
 
 ■ 
 
 declared him an outlaw, and offered great rewards and a patent of nobility to who- 
 ever might deliver him alive or dead. Several attempts were made to assassinate him, 
 and finally the ball 
 of a fanatic named 
 Gerard stretched 
 him dead in the 
 city of Delft. The 
 
 iss-t. murderer 
 was seized and ex- 
 ecuted, and the 
 northern provinces 
 elected his son 
 Maurice to take 
 the place of Will- 
 iam the Silent. 
 
 § 359. The hat- 
 red of Catholics 
 and Protestants for 
 each other in the 
 western states of 
 Europe was now 
 greater than ever. 
 The Catholics 
 placed their confi- 
 dence in Philip of 
 Spain, the Protes- 
 ants were support- 
 ed secretly or op- 
 enly by Elizabeth 
 of England. She 
 sent Leicester with 
 an army to the 
 Netherlands, she 
 supported the 
 French Huguenots 
 against the Catho- 
 lic league and the 
 Jesuits, and when 
 issi. her o'yn 
 life was threatened 
 by fanatics, she 
 signed the death 
 warrant of Mary 
 Stuart. Philip 
 
 now determined to chastise heretical England and its excommunicated Queen. He as 
 sembled the invincible Armada, consisting of 130 war-ships, and sent it under 
 
448 TIIK MODERN AGE. 
 
 the coinmaiul of Medina Sitlonia to subjugate England and the Netherlands. But 
 the "Invincible Armada" was conquered by the storms of the sea, and by the skill 
 and bravery of the English. What escaped the calamities of the channel was sliat- 
 tered on the shores of Scotland. 
 
 It was a fatal blow. When Sidonia returned to Spain, Philip nuirmtired, "I 
 sent you against men and not against the storms and cliffs."' Spain's superiority 
 at sea was broken, and the independence of the Netherlands was secui'ed. For, 
 although the war lasted twenty years longer, the Spaniards wei'e unable witli all 
 their bravery and skill to subjugate the land. Maurice of Orange proved to be a 
 isos. splendid leader, and the northern states fought successfully for their 
 
 freedom. Shortly before his death, Philip transferred the Netherlands to his daugh- 
 ter Clara, with the condition that if she died childless, the land should return to 
 Spain. But the united states of Holland would not consent to the plan ; thej' con- 
 taoo. tinned the war after Philip's death. Finally, Henry IV. of France, 
 
 negotiated a truce that secured their independence, religious freedom, and their col- 
 osal trade with the East Indies. But the independence of the united states of Hol- 
 land was not formally acknowledged until the Peace of Westphalia in 16-18. The 
 southern provinces (^Belgium^ continued for a century with Spain, and then passed 
 to Austria. 
 
 § o60. Commerce^ ConMltntion, MeJiffiivt. Holland emerged from the struggle 
 prosperous and powerful. The Dutch established their East India company in 1602, 
 and opened up direct communication with India, at the same time depriving the 
 Portuguese of many settlements. Batavia, on the island of Java, became the Center 
 of their profitable trade. The constitution of the United Netherlands, which was 
 perfected by their great statesman. Olden Barneveld, was that of an aristocratic 
 republic. A general court composed of representatives of the seven provinces, 
 constituted tlie legislative body. The high council with the Stadtholder at its head, 
 conducted the government, but the army and navy were commanded exclusively 
 by the Stadtholder. The arts and sciences prospered greatly, and philology, 
 especially, was carefully studied at the Dutch universities, while the Dutcli painters 
 rivalled the great Italian masters. But Prostestant Holland did not escape re- 
 ligious dissension. A quarrel about predestination and the relation of church and 
 state, divided the country into two parties ; a strictly orthodox one, to which JMaurice 
 of Orange and his following belonged, and a moderate one, of which the champions 
 were Olden Barneveld and Hugo Grotius. Thedatter would have subordinated the 
 leto. church to the state but the S3''nod of Dort decided in favor of the 
 
 former. Olden Barneveld, in spite of his great services, died upon the scaffold ; and 
 Hugo Gi'otius, the historian of the " War for Liberty,"' and the founder of international 
 law, was sent to prison, from wliich he was rescued by the cunning ayd fidelity of his 
 wife. 
 
 France diirhiff her jRfliffious Wars. 
 
 § 361. King Henry II., a stern adversary of the Huguenots, died from a wound 
 jfpiir.v ir.. received at a tournament in 1559. His weak and sickly son Francis 
 15^7.1350. II., succeeded him. He was married to the beautiful Mary Stuart, of 
 
29 
 
 EXF-CUTION dl' IIKKETICS, .WITH CENTURY. (A. clc NoUVlIlc) (pp. 449.) 
 
450 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 Frniicia II, Scotlaiid, Oil wliicli accouiit her uncles, the Guises, had great influence 
 isso-iaeo. at court. They were zealous adherents of the pope, and they used 
 their position to oppress the reformers. This enabled their rivals, especially the Prince 
 of Cond^, of the Bourbon family, and the Admiral Coligny, to strengthen themselves 
 by an alliance with the Huguenots. Party hatred increased with every day ; each 
 sought to conquer by the help^ of the King. The Diet of Orleans was looked upon by 
 both parties as the fitting moment for the execution of their plan. The Guises ob- 
 tained the upper hand ; the Huguenot chiefs were already imprisoned, when the sudden 
 death of the King changed the face of affairs. Catharine de Medici, the queen 
 cuarieaix. mother of Charles IX., was now supreme and the Bourbons recovered 
 1B00.1S74,. their influence at court. The Guises returned to Lorraine, and Mary 
 Stuart sorrowfully and reluctantly set sail for Scotland. 
 
 § 362. This departure of the Guises brought toleration to the reformers. The 
 Duke of Guise, embittered at this concession, formed an alliance with powerful noble- 
 men for the maintainance of the ancient faith, and returned to Paris. As the Duke 
 ise-i. and his train passed a barn in Vassy, they found some Calvinists 
 
 engaged in worship. These they massacred without 
 mercy. Instantly a cry for vengeance rang through 
 the land. France was divided in two hostile camps 
 that fought each other with the utmost bitterness. 
 Horrible cruelties were committed, and the kingdom 
 shaken to its foundation. The Catholics obtained help 
 from Rome and Spain, the Huguenots were supported 
 by England, and obtained soldiers from Germany and 
 Switzerland. An indecisive battle was fought at Dreux ; 
 isas. Duke Francis, of Guise, was murdered 
 
 at the siege of Orleans. A short truce followed, in 
 ,,.„,, c.,^„.T,,„ which religious toleration was secured for the Calvin- 
 
 MARY STUART. _ *^ 
 
 ists. But the truce was soon violated. The parties 
 isai. again confronted each other, fully armed. But in spite of the bravery 
 
 of the Huguenots at the battle of St. Denis, the Catholic party maintained control, 
 because Catherine de Medici cast in her fortunes with the ancient church. Several 
 bloody engagements took place in the vicinity of La Rochelle ; Cond^ was assas- 
 1B70. sinated, and finally the treaty of St. Germain was agreed upon, in 
 
 which the Calvinists were guaranteed the exercise of their religion. Conde's nephew, 
 Henry of Navarre, now joined the Huguenots, but the soul of the reform party was 
 Coligny, who stood by Prince Henry's side as leader and counsellor. 
 
 § 363. After the peace of St. Germain Coligny became a favorite with the young 
 king. The Admiral sought to persuade Charles IX. to make war upon Spain, and in 
 order to. establish a permanent reconciliation of the two parties, the King urged a mar- 
 riage of his sister Margaret with the young prince Henry. This angered the Guises, 
 who believed that Coligny had plotted the murder of Duke Francis of Guise, and 
 they determined upon revenge : as Coligny was returning home one evening a 
 musket ball shattered his arm. The Guises now allied themselves with Catharine de 
 Medici, and her third son, Henry of Anjou, and all three agreed to destroy the Cal- 
 viuistic leaders at the approaching wedding. The Queen Mother, who was opposed to 
 
ASSASSINATION OF MARSHAL d'ancre. (A. de NeiiviUe.) {pp. 451.) 
 
452 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 a warwith Spain, and hated the Admiral, was quite willing to have Coligny removed. 
 This was the origin of the massacre of St. Bartholemew, on the 24stof August, 1672. 
 The signal bell was rung at midnight ; Coligny was the first sacrificed ; the assassins 
 then scattered into all parts of the city, filling the houses and streets with corpses. 
 The butchery lasted for three whole days, and was imitated in several cities. The 
 lowest estimate places the number of murdered Huguenots at twenty-five thousand. 
 The King, to whom the plan was communicated just before its execution, shot with 
 his own hand at the fugitives that fled the palace. When the Guises were called to 
 account for the bloody deed, Charles assumed the entire responsibility, and justified 
 the horror with a story of a Huguenot conspiracy. Many Frenchmen abandoned 
 their country in horror and sought protection in Switzerland, in Germany, and in the 
 Netherlands. Henry, of Navarre, saved his life by a compulsory recantation. But as 
 soon as he was in safety, he returned to his former faith. 
 
 § 364. Two years after the massacre, Charles IX. passed away, tormented by ter- 
 
 h^\K^ 
 
 BAiiTuuLEMEw's NIGHT. {A. cle NeuvUle.) 
 
 is7^. rible dreams. His brother Henry, who had been for a year the elected 
 
 king of Poland, escaped secretly from the rough regions of the Vistula, in order to 
 Keniyxix, obtain the crown of France. He was a weak and pleasure-loving 
 is74-t3so. prince, without seriousness and without energy. He liked to shut 
 himself up with his favorites and his lap-dogs inside his palace, and to forget the storm 
 that raged without. And when the fear of judgment disturbed his conscience, he 
 sought comfort in superstitious devotion, in pilgrimages and processions, and scourg- 
 ings. That he might enjoy more undisturbed the pleasures of the capital, he granted 
 to the Huguenots, religious freedom and equal rights with the Catholics. The latter, 
 enraged at these concessions, formed the holy league under the leadership of Henry 
 
 157a. of. Guise, and in alliance with Philip H., of Spain. Priests and 
 
 monks and Jesuits especially, worked zealouslj"- to obtain members for the new union. 
 The vacillating and faithless King, now went over to the Catholic zealots, assumed the 
 headship of tlie league, and abolished the religious peace. Henry HI., was childless ;, 
 
THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 
 
 453 
 
 1SS4. SO too was his younger brother, the Duke of Anjou. -This made the 
 
 Bourbon Henry of Navarre, after the death of Anjou, the nearest heir to the throne. 
 The prospect of a Protestant king alarmed Catholic France, and gave the league new 
 strength. The King was compelled to proclaim the extermination of heresy, and to 
 confiiTO all the doings of the union. At first the intention was simply to put aside 
 
 CARDINAL LORRAINE RECEIVING THE HEAD OF COLIGNY. 
 
 the Protestant claimant of the throne, but as Henry of Guise increased in power, he 
 reached out his own hands for the scepter, claiming to be a descendant of the Carlings, 
 and to have a stronger claim than the ruling family. A conspiracy was formed in 
 lass. Paris against the freedom and the life of the King, and when Henry 
 
 attempted to protect himself with Swiss troops, the people broke into insurrection. 
 They gatiiered about the Duke of Guise, erected barricades in the city streets, and 
 
454 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 attacked the ro3-al troops. The king abandoned his capital to the adversary, and 
 Henry of Guise was now as powerful as the ancient major domus, but this did not 
 1S88. satisfy him. He convened a diet at Blois, intending to deprive the 
 
 Bourbons of the throne, to exterminate Calvinism, to cliaiige the government, and to 
 get all power into the hands of the Guises. In this crisi.s. King Henry HI., ventured 
 a bold step. He caused tlie Duke of Guise and his brother, the Cardinal Louis, to be 
 
 iMURDER OF DAVID EIZZIO. 
 
 X3SO. assassinated, and the most influential leaders of their party to be impris- 
 oned. This produced a terrible excitement throughout the kingdom. Paris renounced 
 the God forsaken King ; the Pope excommunicated him ; revolutionary governments 
 appeared in various parts of France, Henry III., abandoned and despised, saw no 
 other way of safety than to ally himself with Henry of Navarre, and the Huguenots 
 Civil war flamed up anew, but the league was overthrown. Henry was besieging 
 Paris and threatening to convert it into a pile of ruins, when the knife of a fanatical 
 
456 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 monk put an end to his life. He died on tlie first of August, 1589, after appointing 
 Henry of Navarre to be his successor. 
 
 § 365. There was to be a weary struggle before Henry IV. could reach the 
 
 Kenru If. throuc of Frauce. Mayenne, the brother of the murdered Guise, as- 
 
 1S80-1010. sumed the conduct of the league ; Philip H. made the most of the 
 
 confusion and sent his famous general, Alexander of Parma, with an army into 
 
 France. Henry won his famous victory at Ivry, and then besieged Paris. The city 
 
 suffered all the horrors of starvation, but Henry was at last convinced that he could 
 
 never acquire peaceful possession of the French throne by battles and victories. 
 
 moo. " Paris is worth a mass," he said, and entered the cathedral of St. 
 
 Denis to swear allegiance to the Catholic church This broke the power of the 
 
 1S03. league. Paris opened her gates, and received the messenger of peace 
 
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 ^^^^ 
 
 MARY STUART INFORMED OF HER IMPENDING EXECUTION. (C Y. PilotiJ.) 
 
 with joy. The Pope lifted the excommunication, tlie heads of the league made 
 treaties with the King, and even Philip H. consented to the peace of Vervins. Heniy 
 is»s. having established peace at home and abroad, issued the Edict of 
 
 Nantes in which he gave to the Calvinists religious freedom, equality of civil rights, 
 and many other advantages, such as exemption from episcopal jurisdiction, and the 
 possession of certain strongholds. He then sought to heal the wounds of the war hy 
 encouraging agriculture, industry, and commerce. Through his friend and minister. 
 Sully, he reorganized the administration and the system of taxation. He became ex- 
 ceedingly popular, but fanaticism only slumbered. As Henry was planning to estab- 
 lish a Christian empire in which all three confessions should be granted equal privi- 
 
THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 
 
 457 
 
 loio. leges, and by which the power of Austria migiit be broken, he was 
 
 stabbed to death by the assassin Ravaillac. 
 
 industry, in navigation, agriculture and literature. The Queen op- 
 pressed the religious inclinations of her people, and suffered no con- 
 Parliament, I 
 
 d. Elizabeth mid Mary Stuart. 
 
 § 366. England all this while was flourishing, under Elizabeth, in commerce am 
 
 Elixahetli, 
 155S-10O3. 
 
 tradiction ir 
 
 but she possessed the qual- 
 ities of a great ruler. Hav- 1 
 ing a strong mind and a 
 strong will, schooled b^ 
 study, and by sharp expeii 
 ence, she saw and chose 
 what was best for her king 
 dom. She was surrounded 
 with able counsellois, 
 among whom Lord Bur- 
 leigh took the first lank 
 She was economical and 
 orderly in administration, 
 but she loved dissimula 
 tion, intrigue and decep 
 tion. Her character was 
 in sharp contrast with that 
 of Mary Stuart, queen of 
 Scotland. The beautiful 
 princess had passed her 
 youth in happiness and 
 pleasure. She was amia- 
 ble, cheerful, and full of 
 life, though not free from 
 wantonness and immoral- 
 ity, while Elizabeth was 
 serious and jealous, tyran- 
 nical and often morose. 
 Mary held fast to the 
 Catholic religion and to 
 the papacy, in the midst of 
 a people, who rejected the 
 mass as idolatry. 
 
 § 367. Her second husband was the Scottish nobleman Darnley, but he behaved 
 ises. so badly that the Queen encouraged the singer Rizzio from Turin, who 
 
 was also her secretary. Urged on by his jealousy and by false friends, Darnley con- 
 spired with several noblemen to murder Mary's favorite before her eyes. Tliis filled 
 the heart of the Queen with bitterness against her husband. Slie separated from him 
 
 tLl/jAiJKill 
 
 siuNiNG THE DEATH WARRANT. (A. Liezenmcii/er. 
 
458 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 and gave her favor to Bothwell, a Scottish nobleman. Nor was she reconciled until 
 Darnley fell sick ; then she nursed him with great devotion. But one night during 
 her absence, the inhabitants of Edinburgh 'were awakened hj a terrible explosion. The 
 
 tsov. villa of the King was shattered to pieces and Darnley's strangled 
 
 corpse was found among the ruins. Bothwell was believed to be the perpetrator; 
 yet three months later he was Mary's husband. The Scottish nobility rose in rebel- 
 lion, Bothwell fled to the Hebrides, and lived a pirate's life until he was captured by 
 the Danes. Mary was led in triumph to Edinburgh, and then imprisoned in the island 
 castle Loch Levin, where she gave up her crown and appointed her half-brother, Mur- 
 
 isas. ray, regent during the minority of her son James. She escaped how- 
 
 ever, recalled her abdication, gathered 
 
 an army, but was conquered a second 
 time, and would have been captured 
 also, if she had not fled to England 
 seeking the protection of Elizabeth. 
 
 § 368. Elizabeth declined to see 
 her until she proved herself guiltless 
 of her husband's murder, and as 
 Marjr would not recognize Elizabeth 
 as her sovereign, and consent to a 
 trial, she was detained in England. 
 Her presence however threatened 
 Elizabeth's safety. The Duke of 
 Norfolk, who sought Mary in mar- 
 riage, lost first his liberty and then 
 i5?8. his life. The Dukes 
 
 of Northumberland and West-more- 
 land rebelled, hoping to set Mar}- free 
 and to restore the Catholic Church. 
 But Northumberland died upon the 
 scaffold. Mary was suspected of 
 complicity with his designs. She 
 was placed under the strictest guard, 
 and all attempts of foreign courts to 
 procure her liberty were fruitless. 
 The troubles in Scotland and the re- 
 ligious wars of the continent apfieared to make her imprisonment necessar3^ At this 
 juncture Babington, who was supported by Spain, formed a conspiracy to murder 
 Elizabeth, and to place Marj^ upon the English throne. The plot was discovered ; the 
 guiltj^ conspirators died upon the scaffold. And as Mary M^as proved to have knowledge 
 of the conspiracy, she also was found guilty, and Elizabeth was petitioned by Parliament 
 not to interfere with the course of the law. Elizabeth signed the death warrant: 
 Fet). r, tssi. Burleigh saw to its swift execixtion. Mary was beheaded in the nine- 
 teenth year of her imprisonment and the fort}--fifth of her life. She died with forti- 
 tude and true to her faitii. Elizabeth complained that her ministers had executed the 
 judgment against her commands, and punished her private secretary Davison with 
 
THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 
 
 459 
 
 fine and imprisonment, because he had surrendered the death warrant to Lord Bur- 
 leigh. 
 
 § 369. The Pope and Philip II. expressed great horror when they learned of 
 Mary's fate. The 
 former hurled his 
 anathema at the 
 heretic Queen, and 
 called upon the Cath- 
 olic powers to avenge 
 the death of Mary. 
 The latter sent the 
 " Invincible Ae- 
 MADA " to England, 
 expecting to subdue 
 the islanders and the 
 Netherlanders at the 
 same time, and to 
 establish a Catholic 2 
 empire in the nerth- ^ 
 west of Europe. But > 
 the destruction of the i 
 Spanish fleet in- t 
 creased the renown of ^ 
 England and her ^ 
 queen, and laid the ^ 
 foundation of the 2 
 marine power and s 
 commercial greatness |^ 
 of the British empire, i 
 Industry and coloni- I 
 zation now began in 't 
 eai'nest. The cele- 
 brated navigator 
 I^rancis Drake and 
 other heroes of the 
 ocean discovered the 
 element which Britan- 
 nia was to rule. Ire- 
 land alone proved 
 fatal to Elizabeth's 
 enterprises. Henry 
 VIII. had made of it 
 a kingdom, and sub- 
 jected it to the eccle- 
 siastical laws of En- 
 gland. But only the British settlers shared in the Reformation ; the native Irish and 
 
460 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 their clerg'j remaining true to tlie papal system. Elizabeth tried to unite the island 
 more closely in church and state to England. But she was opposed by the Earl of 
 Tyrone, chief of a warlike clan, who obtained help from Rome and Spain. The Earl 
 of Essex was sent by the Queen, whose favorite he was, to govern Ireland, but 
 instead of defeating Tyrone, he made a disadvantageous treaty with him. This cost 
 Eb'sex the favor of the Queen, and when he entered into a jilot with King James of 
 Scotland to compel Elizabeth to name James as her successor, he was imprisoned and 
 belieaded in the Tower. The death of her favorite and the loss of her popularity so 
 embittered the last days of the Queen that she passed manj' sleepless niglits tossing 
 upon the pillows, an in the seventieth year of her life ended her unhapp}' existence. 
 On her death-bed she appointed James of Scotland, son of Mary Stuart, heir to the 
 Eno'lisli throne. 
 
 CuUure and Literature in the Century of the Heformation, 
 
 § 370. Civilization in the sixteenth century made rapid progress in all lands. 
 
 Schools were improved, universities in- 
 creased in number, art and literature 
 cherished and supported. The works 
 of antiquit}^, Avhieh were everywhere 
 translated and explained, awakened new 
 ideas and formed new tastes ; the intel- 
 lectual activity, that resulted from the 
 ecclesiastical and religious conflicts, 
 furthered general culture and intensified 
 literary culture ; the eager interest in 
 intellectual treasures led to wonderful 
 creations in art and science. Germany 
 and Italy, especially, were nurseries of 
 culture. 
 
 (1 ) Germany, in her numerous uni- 
 versities, cultivated especially the study 
 of antiquity ; and under the influence 
 of jMelanchthon established tlie classical 
 scliool, whicli has spread through all 
 Copernicus. lauds. Copemicus, of 
 i*73-is^a. Thorn, demonstrated 
 the error of the Ptolemaic astronomj', 
 and showed that the sun is the centre 
 of the planetary sj'stem, and that the 
 eirtli, like the other planets, not only rotates upon its axis, but revolves around the 
 liepie,: sun. John Kepler, one of the greatest thinkers of all time, investi- 
 t.-.ii-taao. gated with the inspiration of a prophet, and the imaginative power of 
 a poet, the laws of the solar sj'stem. But, misunderstood and persecuted b}" religious 
 ciniiico. bigots, he led a wretclied life and struggled for the means of subsist- 
 isa^-ui-is. ence. Galileo of Pisa, his great contemporary, fared no better. For 
 he was brought before the inquisition, and compelled to abjure his belief in the motion 
 
 COPERNICUS. 
 
462 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 Newton, of the earth. What Kepler and Galileo began, was continued by the 
 ie*3-j(ja». Englishman, Isaac Newton, who discovered the law of universal 
 gravitation. 
 
 The Meistersingers were another product of the reformation period in Germany. 
 Hans Sachs, a shoemaker, of Nuremberg, was the most distinguished of these poets of 
 the people. Till Eulenspiegel was a master of burlesque and humorous lyric, while 
 Brunat, Sebastian Brandt in his "Ship of Fools," John Fischart in his " Jesuit's 
 nBs-isii. Cap," and Thomas Murner in his " Rogue's Guild," brought satirical 
 poetry to didactic power, chastising the faults and follies of the time with wit and 
 righteous severity. " Reynard the Fox," the Low German epic of animal life, gives a 
 vivid picture of court life, where flatterers rule and cunning is mightier than merit, 
 duplicity worth more than virtue. 
 
 Luther's translation of the Bible 
 made him creator of German prose. 
 And his spiritual songs made him the 
 founder of German hymnology, but the 
 latter received its more perfect form in 
 Paul aei-iiai-a, the hj^mns of Paul Ger- 
 1000-1070. hard, of Saxony, in 
 which the pious thought and cheerful 
 confidence in God, that distinguished 
 the German people, found simple and 
 touching expression. 
 
 (2.) Italy was as noteworthy for 
 
 art and literature in the sixteenth as in 
 
 Brachiaveiu, the Seventeenth cen- 
 
 ■fis37. tury. Machiavelli, of 
 
 Florence, wrote his Florentine history 
 
 and his " Prince," which even now 
 
 excites universal admiration. In the 
 
 " Prince " Machiavelli portrayed a 
 
 tj^rant, who founds his sovereignty and 
 
 makes his will supreme law by sagacity 
 
 and consistent conduct, without regard 
 
 to morality, virtue, or religion. Freedom and civic happiness are no more considered 
 
 than fidelity and righteousness. Sagacity alone was valued and success alone desired. 
 
 Hence the statecraft, which rejects all considerations of morality and humanity, striving 
 
 Ariosto, only for dominion and for wealth is called Machiavellism. Ariosto 
 
 1^7^-1533. wrote the charming and humerous poem of " Orlando Furioso," and 
 
 Tasso, ■fisos. the melancholj' Tasso, in his " Jerusalem Delivered," immortalized the 
 
 first Crusade in beautiful diction and in harmonious lines. 
 
 (3.) Spain and Portugal also ■ celebrated, in the sixteenth century, their 
 
 ceniantea, goldeu age of art and literature. Cervantes in his humorous romance, 
 
 1547-ioto. Don Quixote, sketched the portrait of a man who utterly mistakes 
 
 the actual world because of the phantoms that fill his brain, and who fights for the 
 
 ■cause that has captured his imagination, with such energy and skill, that the name 
 
 SIR ISAAC NEWTON. 
 
GEOFFROY CHAUCER, 1340-1400. 
 
 bIR IIIILIF &1DM,\, l.).)4-15SG. 
 
 EDWARD SPENCER, 1552-1599. FRANCIS BACON, 1561-1626. 
 
 EARLY ENGLISH AUTHORS. {pp. 463.} 
 
464 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 of Cervantes' hero has become a proverb in every civilized nation. Lope de Vega in 
 caidei-oii. his " Star of Seville," and Calderon in his '-Life is a Dream," brought 
 laoo-iost. the dramatic poetry of Spain to its highest achievement. The Port- 
 r«iiio<-<is. uguese Camoens celebrated in his epic poem the glorious period of 
 iss^-isTo. eastern discover}'. This poem v\"as saved by him from the shipwreck 
 in which he lost all his fortune. Abandoning all else he swam with it to the shore. 
 He became finally so poor that he had to beg for bread. 
 
 (4.) England, however, produced the greatest poet of all times, William 
 Shakespeare, Shakcspearc, wonderful alike in tragic and in comic drama. Julius 
 ise^-ioie. Ciesar, Henry IV,, Richard HI., are founded upon historic events. 
 Macbeth, Lear, Othello, deal with the fate and tragedy of individuals. The Summer 
 Night's Dream and the jNIerry Wives of Windsor are among the best known of his 
 comedies. Hamlet has been discussed b}' the critics of every generation and of every 
 country. Sliakespeare's sonnets reveal a world of feeling, and give us a glimpse in his 
 changeful life. A sovereign of speech, Shakespeare easily found words for the sub- 
 lime, the pathetic, the ridiculous, and the divine. 
 
 (5.) France, in the sixteenth century, saw the romantic poetry of the 
 Middle Ages displaced by the literature of Greece and Rome. Rabelais in his satiri- 
 snbeinis, f 1553. cal romauces mocked, with coarse humor and biting wit, the romantic 
 poetry and its heroes. At the same time presenting in varied pictures the life of the 
 state, the church and of the salon, pictures full of licentiousness and nude realities, 
 statoi, fisjif. but with a serious background. Clement Marot, a contemporarj' lyric 
 poet, imitated Horace and Ovid; and lodelle made the first attempt to introduce the 
 drama into France. The Huguenot poet, Diibartas, wrote the "Week of Creation," 
 which was used bj' Milton in his " Paradise Lost." 
 
 (6.) The fine arts made great progress in the sixteenth centur3^ in Italy 
 
 and Germany. Sculpture and painting declared their independence of architecture, 
 
 Michael Angeio, and influenced by the antique, shaped themselves into freer and nobler 
 
 t-tta-ise-i:. forms. In Florence, Micliael Angelo became a master in all arts. In 
 
 Kaphaet. Romc, the divine Raphael brought painting to a beauty of form and a 
 
 nobility of expression that has' never been equalled, both in oil 
 
 paintings, like the Sistine Madonna and the Transfiguration, and in 
 
 iseon. aa. vitici, frescocs, like those in the Vatican. Titian, of Venice, founded a 
 
 fisio. school noted for its coloring. Leonardo da Vinci painted the 
 
 coneaio, renowned "Last Supper" at Milan, and Corregio, of Parma, dis- 
 
 fissj. played a marvelous power to portray the inward life of men and 
 
 patestiiua. womcu. Music also made great progress, especiall}' through the 
 
 i5«j-iso^. creative genius of Palestrina. Germau}^ and the Netherlands were no 
 
 Kiijieiis. less famous in these respects than Italy. Rubens* and Van Dj'ck, and 
 
 ts-i^.ie-to. Rembrandt, were all renowned for their coloring and boldness of repre- 
 
 Bemhiiitnu, seutation, while Teniers touched all the forms of common life with 
 
 tooe-taa^. the glory of his genius. Tiie Italian paintei's strove to represent 
 
 MMoibeiii. -fis^s. the ideal ; those of the Netherlands sought to present the actual and 
 
 .4.. Oarer, the real; the German school, on the other hand, was distinguished 
 
 i^it-isss. by its insight into nature, and its apprehension of character. The 
 
 i-tsa-iaso. 
 
 Titian, Ht7-iS70 
 
\RMb A\D ACCOUTREMENTS, 15tH TO 18tH CENTURIES. 
 
 I PIstolet. 18t)i centmv. 19. 
 
 CarbliiC, 17th centurv. 20. 
 
 Esplngole. 21. 
 
 Matciuock Gun. 22. 
 
 Gun Best 23. 
 
 ' Marrocain. 24, 
 
 V. Flint Lciek, 18tli ceiltuiv. 25, 
 
 8 Biittle Axe. 
 
 9. Hussite Maoe. 27. 
 
 in. Lance. 28. 
 
 '.1. Hussite Mace. . 29. 
 
 K'. Halberd. 30. 
 .. Hussite Mac . 
 
 . Halberd. 31. 
 :.. Battle Axe. 
 
 6. Caba-iset. Ifitli century. 32. 
 
 :. Italian Hat, Htli centui •--. 33. 
 1 Hessian Cip. ^Stli centui v. 34. 
 
 30 
 
 Cabasset, 15tli century. 
 
 Polish Hat, 18th century. 
 
 Dragoon Hat. 
 
 Cossack Cap, 18tli century. 
 
 Swiss Infantry Hat. 
 
 English Cavalier Hat. 
 
 26. Cavalry Casque, 15th 
 
 century. 
 Hussar Cap, 18th century. 
 ChasseurCap, 18th century 
 Sappeur Cap. 18th century. 
 Kussian Grenadier Cap, 
 
 18tli century. 
 French Headpiece, 15th 
 
 century. 
 Shako. 
 
 Loading Shovel 
 Wiper. 
 
 a5. Ramrod. 
 
 36. Priming Fork. 
 
 37. German 12-Pounder, 1650. 
 
 38. Herisson. 
 
 39. Mortar, 16th century. 
 
 40. Round Shot. 
 
 41. Shrapnel Shot. 
 
 42. Fire Ball. 
 4.3. Chain Shot. 
 
 44. Bar Shot. 
 
 45. Round Shot. 
 
 46. Hand Grenade. 
 
 47. Bomb Shell. 
 
 48. Prussian Cannon, 18tt 
 
 century. 
 
 49. Priminc Rod. 
 
 50 51. 52 War Kockets. 
 53, 54,55. Storming Pikes. 
 
 . Danish Cannon, 1713. 
 . Powder Cask. 
 . Swiss Cannon, 15th century 
 . English Howitzer, 18th 
 
 century. 
 . Halberdier, 15fh century. 
 , 62, 63. Swords, 15th and 16th 
 
 centuries. 
 . Bayonet. 18th century. 
 . Armor, 15th century. 
 . Powder Flask. 
 . Bullet Mould. 
 . Powder Flask. 
 , 70, 71. Sword, 17th and 18th 
 
 centuries. 
 . Sabre. 
 . Spanish Arquebusler, 16th 
 
 century. 
 
 (465) 
 
466 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 t. craiiaeh. pictures of Holbein, Albrecht Diirer, and Lucas Cranach, are treas- 
 
 mg-isss. ured still in German galleries. Murillo, of Spain, united passionate 
 
 niutnio, feeling with beauty of form and of color. In music Orlando 
 
 lais-ioss. Lasso, wlio was born in the Netherlands, but lived in Munich, was a 
 
 basso, f i5»s. worthy rival of the Italian Palestrina. 
 
 in. THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 1. The Thirty Years War (1618-1648.) 
 
 § 371. 
 
 a. Bohemia, The Palatinate, Tilly, Wallenstein. 
 
 1550-150-t. 
 
 bERDINAND I. and Maximilian 11. maintained the religious peace 
 of Augsburg with righteous impartiality. The duke 
 of Saxe Gotha, disturbed it for a brief moment, but 
 Majiimiiinn II., with this cxceptiou it endured until Rudolph H. be- 
 iso^-isiG. gau to rule. Rudolph was a zealous Catholic, but a 
 BudoiDh II., poor sovereign neglected the affairs of state to 
 i5io-iei2. study astronomy, and to collect pictures and antiq- 
 uities. He confided in the Jesuits, who strewed industriously the seeds of religious 
 discord, and soon liarvested in Austria and in the German empire, misery, confusion, 
 1SS3. and hatred. The Archbishop Gebhard, of Cologne, passed over to 
 
 the reformed church, and introduced new doctrines into his diocese. He was de- 
 posed from his seat by the Pope, placed under the ban by the empire, and deserted by 
 the Lutherans. In Steierraark and Carinthia, the Archduke Ferdinand deprived the 
 Protestants of their religious freedom, tore down their churches and schoolhouses. 
 isoe. burnt their Bibles, and drove all who refused to attend mass from the 
 
 tei-ritor}-. The Protestant imperial city, Donauworth, was placed under imperial ban 
 for disturbing a procession and deprived of Protestant worship. The Pi-otestants pro- 
 tested in vain; the weak and indifferent Emperor gave them po relief. The Elector 
 1007.' Palatine therefore formed a Protestant union of princes and cities. 
 
 loos. This was followed by the Catholic league, at the head of which was 
 
 looo. Maximilian of Bavaria. The league formed an alliance wijh Spain. 
 
 The union sought th6 support of Henry IV., and of the Dutcli. A dispute betweeii 
 the Count of Neuburg, and the elector of Brandenburg, over the succession to the 
 loij. dukedoms of Cleve and Berg, produced the first collision. A long 
 
 and wasting war gave one part of the inheritance (Cleve) to the Eleetor of Branden- 
 burg, and the other part to the Count of Neuburg. 
 
 § 372. Rudolph's incompetency threatened to ruin the House of Hapsbarg. His 
 
 leos. relatives compelled him therefore to give Austria and Hung;nia to his 
 
 brother Matthias. Bohemia, for which he greatly cared, and whoso capital, Prague, 
 
 was his residence, he secured to himself for a wliile by a grant of religious liberty. 
 
 leis-ioio. But tiiis, too, he was finally obliged to surrender to -Mattlii:;.^,. Yet 
 
THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 
 
 467 
 
 SOLDIERS IN THE 30 YEARS WAR. 
 
 the latter had as little strength and capacity as Rudolph, and as he was old and child- 
 less, he appointed his cousin, Ferdinand, to be his successor in Austria, Hungary, and 
 Bohemia. This filled the Protestants with dismay, and when the building of PrtJtes- 
 tant churches was forbidden, the disma}' 
 'n-oke into opposition. The defenders of Bo- 
 iiemia met together under the lead of Count 
 Thurn, and called the imperial counsellors 
 before them. And after a violent dispute, 
 two of the most hated of the counsellors 
 were thrown from the castle window. A 
 new government was now proclaimed; the 
 Jesuits were driven out, and an army was 
 placed in the field. Count Thurn marched, 
 this army to the gates of Vienna, just as^ 
 Matthias died. The deputies of the Protes- 
 tants urged their way to the imperial castle, 
 and required Ferdinand, with threats, to 
 give them religious freedom and equality 
 of rights with the Catholics. Ferdinand 
 refused, in spite of his danger, from which 
 he was rescued by the sudden appeai-ance of 
 his armed horsemen. Unfavorable weather 
 and want of supplies compelled Thurn and 
 his army to retreat. 
 
 § 373. A few months later Ferdinand II. was chosen emperor, but before he 
 Ferdinttiui II., could be crowued, Bohemia and Moravia declared their independence 
 1010-1037. of the House of Haj^sburg, and chose Frederick V., Elector of the 
 Palatinate, and the head of the Protestant union, to be their king. His wiser friends 
 warned the Elector of the danger involved in his acceptance. But his haughty wife, 
 Elizabeth, a daughter of King James, of England, and his Calvinistic chaplain, per- 
 suaded his already willing mind. He accepted the Bohemian crown, hastened to his 
 A'o..e»i6e.-, loio. coi'onatioii at Prague, gave himself up to i"oyal banquets and by his 
 Calvinistic zeal soon offended both Lutherans and Hussites. Ferdinand was not so 
 silly. He made an alliance with Maximilian of Bavaria, in which the latter agreed to 
 send his able general. Till}-, with an army into Bohemia. In the battle of White 
 1020. Mountain Frederick's army was soon put to flight. A single hour 
 
 determined the fate of Bohemia. Frederick himself, bereft of self-possession and of 
 courage, fled to the Netherlands, pursued by the imperial ban which deprived him of 
 his hereditary possession. Ferdinand tore in pieces the charter of Bohemia with his 
 own hand. Seventy-two of the leading Protestant noblemen were beheaded : the 
 property of hundreds was confiscated and given to the Jesuits or other monastic 
 orders. In a few decades the Catholics were completely triumphant, but 30,000 
 families abandoned Bohemia. The union, which had looked on quietly at these pro- 
 ceedings, was thereupon dissolved amid universal contempt. 
 
 § 374. Till}' now marched into the Palatinate. But at this juncture three 
 brave men entered the field to defend the cause of the Elector and of Protestantism. 
 
468 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 These were Christian of Brunswick, Ernest of Mansfeld, and George Frederick of 
 leaa. Baden. The latter two united and conquered Tilly at Wiesloch. 
 
 But as the victors soou separated, Tilly attacked George Frederick in the battle of 
 Wimpfen, and would have captured him, if his faithful guard had not covered the 
 retreat. Tilly next at- 
 tacked Christian of Bruns- 
 wick, who was compelled 
 to retreat toward the Neth- 
 erlands and seek help from 
 England. Heidelberg was 
 the next to suffer. The 
 library of the university 
 was sent to Rome, and the 
 town and vicinity ravaged 
 by Tilly's soldiers. At the 
 assembly of princes held 
 1023. the next 
 
 year in Regensburg, Max- 
 imilian of Bavaria, received 
 the Palatinate as his re- 
 ward. 
 
 § 375. Ferdinand was 
 now eager to restore the 
 Catholic cliurch, and to 
 root out Protestantism. 
 This alarmed the Protes- 
 tants of other countries, 
 especially England, Hol- 
 10H3. land, and 
 
 Denmark. They furnished 
 the Protestant allies with 
 
 „ „ J t. ,, , JOHN VON TZERCLAS, COUNT VON TILLY. 
 
 money and troops, so that ' 
 
 the three leaders reappeared, supported by Christian IV., of Denmark, who was en- 
 ticed into the conflict, partly by religious zeal, and partly by the hope of acquiring 
 new territor3^ 
 
 The Emperor now determined to raise an army of his own. To this end Albert 
 
 1885. of Wallenstein, a Bohemian nobleman, offered his services. Im- 
 
 mensely wealthy through inheritance, marriage and the purchase of confiscated 
 estates, Wallenstein offered to maintain an armj'' of fifty thousand men at his own 
 cost, if Ferdinand would give him the absolute command, and would compensate him 
 from the conquered territories. Ferdinand hesitated at first, but then accepted, and 
 created him Duke of Friedland, and an imperial prince. The war now spread into 
 North Germany. Wallenstein with his savage throngs marched along the banks of 
 
 teea. the Elbe and formed a junction with Tilly. Mansfeld was defeated at 
 
 the Bridge of Dessau, and compelled to retreat through Hungary and along the Lower 
 Danube, where he died. Christian of Brunswick soon followed him to the grave, 
 
470 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 and Christian IV. was defeated by Tilly, and driven back to Denmark. Wallenstein 
 1633. took possession of Mecklenburg ; Holstein and Schleswig were devas- 
 
 tated by the imperial troops ; in 
 short the entire North lay van- 
 quished at the Emperor's feet and 
 the Protestant princes and citizens 
 trembled at their impending ruin. 
 In this extremity Stralsund gave 
 less. a sublime example 
 
 of patriotism and courage. The 
 citizens refused to admit the im- 
 perial garrison. Wallenstein then 
 marched his troops to the city, and 
 swore to take it, even though it 
 were fastened to heaven with 
 chains. But after a ten weeks' 
 siege, and the loss of twenty thou- 
 1020. sand men, he was 
 
 compelled to retire. This led to a 
 brief truce ; Christian IV. received 
 back his wasted lands but must 
 promise to refrain from any future 
 interference in German affairs. 
 
 § 376. The conquered and 
 garrisoned countries were com- 
 pelled to abandon Protestant 
 worship, and to endure the return 
 of the Catholic church. The Em- 
 1020. peror issued an 
 
 Edict op Restitution, which 
 restored to the Catholics all their 
 confiscated property. The Cal- 
 vinists were excluded from the 
 peace, and the Catholic states 
 were permitted to set about the 
 conversion of their subjects. This 
 edict filled Protestant Germany 
 with terror, and prolonged the 
 unhappjr civil war. Many princes 
 and cities refused to obey the 
 Edict of Restitution, and the Em- 
 peror was compelled to maintain 
 his soldiers under arms. But 
 Wallenstein was no longer leader. 
 At the diet of Regensburg the 
 1030. princes made such universal complaint of his devastations and 
 
THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 471 
 
 barbarities, and Maximilian of Bavaria demanded so emphatically the removal of 
 his domineering rival, that Ferdinand was compelled to retire Wallenstein from his 
 army. The latter was deep in astrological studies when he received the imperial com- 
 mands. He retired to his Bohemian estates where he waited quietly until he -whs 
 again necessary. Tilly assumed command and marched against Magdeburg, ivhich 
 
 WALLENSTEIN. (Ill the background, representation of his assassination.) 
 
 had refused to recognize the Edict of Restitution. But just at this L-risis appeared 
 suddenly a foreign hero upon German soil, the Swedish king, Gustavus Adolphus. 
 
 b. The Intervention of Sweden. Gicstavus Adolphus and Wallenstein. 
 
 § 377. To protect Protestantism in Germany, to confirm the power of Sweden 
 on the Baltic, and to arrest the extension of Austria into North Germany, Gustavus 
 
472 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 Adolphus, the grandson of Gustaviis Vasa, determined to interfere in the German 
 war. He was supported by the sagacious Cardinal Richelieu, who was then supreme 
 in France, and who watched with jealousy the increasing power of the House of Haps- 
 leso. burg. Directly Gustavus Adolphus landed in Pomerania the old Duke 
 
 of Pomerania gave over his devastated and outraged dukedom to the Swedes. The 
 
 piety of Gustavus and the discipline of his 
 soldiers, who gathered twice daily to worship 
 God, were in striking contrast witla Tillj' 
 and Wallenstein, and the people consequently 
 greeted the Swedes, and their high-minded 
 king, everywhere as saviours and deliverers. 
 Isot so the princes. They feared the ven- 
 geance of the EmjDeror, and in an assembly 
 losi. at Leipzig determined to 
 
 preserve neutrality. The Electors of Bran- 
 denburg and Saxony even refused the Swedes 
 permission to march through the land, and 
 while Gustavus Adolphus was thus delayed, 
 Magdeburg was conquered and destro3'ed by 
 mayso, Tilly and Pappenheim. The 
 1031. unfortunate city was given 
 
 over to a three days' plundering. It became 
 the scene of horrible cruelties, and was at last 
 EOYAL COSTUMES. (1625-1640.) reduced to ashes. The cathedral in which 
 
 the victors ordered a Te Denm to be sung, a cloister and a few fishing huts were all 
 that remained of the once prosperous city. 
 
 § 378. The plunderer of Magdeburg now turned upon Saxony. In his terror 
 the Elector made an alliance with Gustavus Adolphus, to save his land from the 
 Sen. 7,1031. murderous troops of Tilly. At the battle of Leipzig the imperial 
 troops were utterly defeated. Tilly was obliged to retreat in haste to the South, while 
 the king of Sweden marched to the Main and the Rhine. Before the winter was over, 
 a large part of South Germany was in the hands of Gustavus Adolphus, and he crossed 
 the Rhine at Oppenheim where he drove back the Spaniards. In the spring 
 he marched through Nuremberg seeking Tilly. He attacked him at the River 
 April, 1032. Lech. In the battle Tilly was mortally wounded. Augsburg was 
 now entered by the Swedes and evangelical worship was restored. Gustavus Adol- 
 phus, accompanied by Frederick V., then marched into Bavaria and entered Munich. 
 But a fine, and the taking away of one hundred and forty cannon, was the only punish- 
 ment which the King inflicted upon the trembling Bavarians. 
 
 § 379. Wallenstein's expected opportunity had come. The Emperor, b}^ his 
 prayers and his concessions, induced him to put a new armj' in the field. He marched 
 against Saxony, and then into Bohemia, and after a junction with the Bavarians, marched 
 into Franconia where tlie Swedes were entrenched not far from Nuremberg. The 
 hostile armies \a.y here idle for months, without a battle, until the land for seven miles 
 round was converted into a desert, and even Nuremberg was threatened with famine. 
 Gustavus Adolphus thereupon determined to attack Wallenstein's camp. But his 
 
DEATH OF GUSTAVDS ADOLPHUS AT LUTZEN. (A. de NeilVlUe.) (pp. 473.) 
 
474 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 daring soldiers were driven back bj- the terrible fire. The plan had to be abandoned, 
 
 and the troups of Wallenstein retreated to Saxony. The Swedes followed them, and 
 
 icae. on a foggy November day forced on the battle of Llitzen, in which the 
 
 Swedes were victorious, but their king was slain. Wallenstein was obliged to retreat 
 
 GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. {A. Vojl Dijcl.) 
 
 with his beaten army to Bohemia. The Swedes dragged the mutilated corpse of their 
 hero king, from piles of dead, and buried him in liis native soil. 
 
 § 380. The Swedish chancellor. Axel Oxeustiern, an energetic and able man, now 
 
THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 
 
 475 
 
 assumed the conduct of the German war. A number of evangelical princes and 
 1033. cities, agreed in the treaty of Heilbronn, to persevere faithfully in the 
 
 alliance with Sweden. The commanders of the allied armies were Bernhard of 
 Weimar, and the Swedish general, Horn. France furnished money, and the war went 
 on. Bavaria was chastised by the Swedes, who no longer refrained from plunder, and 
 Silesia was so devastated by the Austrian troops that the prosperity of the land was 
 entirely destroyed. But Wallenstein's career was nearing its end. His dilatory con- 
 duct, and his incomprehensible stay in Bohemia, were used by his enemies to his ruin. 
 He had become so great that they were afraid in Vienna that he might make peace 
 
 DEATH OP WALLENSTEiN. (Charles Piloty.) 
 
 without regard to the imperial policy. He was accused of planning an alliance with 
 the Swedes, in order to obtain for himself the throne of Bohemia. And the Emperor 
 finally agreed to the overthrow of his too powerful commander. Treason was begun 
 in Wallenstein's own camp ; his leading generals were first vv^on over to the imperial 
 plan, and then Wallensteiu was deposed. The latter retreated with the remnantof his 
 ' Feh. gs, itt3*. army to Eger, where he might be nearer to tlie Sw^edes. But he was 
 murdered by the Irish general Butler, and other conspirators, and with him his most 
 faithful adherents were also put to death. His estates and those of his friends were 
 confiscated and given to his murderers. Wallensteiu was a daring, enterprising man, 
 
476 
 
 THE lAIODERN AGE. 
 
 born to command, reticent and severe, haught)' beyond measure and consumed with 
 ambition. As his tall form, clad in a scarlet mantle, moved through the camp, his war- 
 riors, even the stoutest of them, shuddered at sight of his gloomy and resolute face. 
 
 c. Result of the War. Peace of- Westphalia. 
 
 § 381. The imjDerial army now marched into Bavaria and Bernhard of Weimar 
 
 CARDINAL RICHELIEU. (Ph. de Champagne.) 
 
 ■sei,. e, leaj. was defeated in the battle of Nordlingen. Saxony, and other states, 
 
 thereupon concluded with the Emperor the peace of Prague ; the Emperor withdrawing 
 
 May, less. the Edict of Restitution. Wallenstein's adherents were hunted down 
 
 and put to death. But the terrible war was far from ended. Richelieu who saw that it 
 
THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 
 
 477 
 
 reh. IS 
 Feriiina. 
 
 1037-1007. 
 
 L^ 
 
 was a favorable time for humiliating Austria, and extending the French frontiers, 
 promised the Swedes help in money and in men, and supported Bernhard of Weimar in 
 his undertakings along the upper Rhine. The Swedish general Ban^r conquered Saxony 
 
 103O. and Thuringia, and converted those fruitful regions into uninhabited 
 
 deserts. When Ferdinand II. sank into the grave, the German people were burdened 
 , 1037. with unspeakable misery. But Bernhard of Weimar was now suc- 
 ta III., cessful, and he was about to found an independent principality upon 
 the shores of the Rhine, when he died suddenly in the prime of life. 
 
 io3». Many suspected that he had been poisoned. The French took advan- 
 
 tage of his death to hire his army and to occupy Alsace. The war was now carried 
 into South Germany while the Swedes devastated once more unfortunate Bohemia. 
 
 § 382. Bandr the Swedish general died 
 in 1641, and was succeeded by Torstenson, a 
 talented pupil of Gustavus, who, owing to 
 his sufferings from the gout, was carried 
 about on a couch, and yet was noted for the 
 astonishing rapidity of his movements. He 
 
 10J2. defeated the imperial armies 
 
 at Leipzig, invaded the Austrian dominions 
 repeatedly, and caused Feidinand III., to 
 tremble for Vienna. He then appeared un- 
 expectedly at the mouth of the Elbe occu- 
 pied Holstein and Schleswig, and compelled 
 the king of Denmark to a humiliating peace. 
 Worn out by disease and fatigue, he surren- 
 dei'ed his command to the brave Wrangel. 
 The latter in union with the French general 
 
 1047. Turenne attacked Bavaria, 
 
 put Maximilian to flight and established a 
 truce, and was just about to enter Bohemia 
 when the war was ended by the Peace of 
 Westphalia. 
 
 § 383. The Peace of Westphalia was in process of negotiation for more than 
 ie~i3-io4s. five years. France acquired large possessions in Alsace, Sweden a 
 part of Pomerania, Stettin, Wiesmar, Bremen, and other cities. Brandenburg obtained 
 Magdeburg and Halberstadt. Bavaria was permitted to retain the electoral dignity 
 and the upper palatinate, while the Rhine palatinate was handed over to the son of 
 Fredei'ick V. Switzerland and the Nethei'lands were recognized as independent states. 
 The provisions of the Peace of Augsburg were confirmed and extended to Calvinists. 
 The situation, as it existed in 1624, was to prevail touching the possession of ecclesi- 
 astical property and the exercise of the Protestant religion. Further consequences 
 of the Thirty Years War were the following: — First, an increase in the power of the 
 princes, expensive courts, standing armies, and high taxes: second, an ecclesiastical 
 orthodoxy which rested not upon religious experience but upon a rigid observance 
 of the letter of the creed: third, the ruin of commerce and of industry. The pros- 
 perity of Germany never returned. Many commercial cities were beggared ; the im- 
 
 SOLDIERS. (1630-1650.) 
 
478 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 perial cities fell behind the royal capitals ; industry and wealth passed over to Holland 
 and to England ; fourth, German art and literature perished. Manners, language, 
 and poetry were borrowed from the French, and native productions were despised. 
 The ancient German character succumbed to foreign influences. The two most im- 
 portant authors of this period are Christopher of Gi'immelshausen, and Philander von 
 Woscherosch. Both found their material in the sorrows and changes of the thirty 
 
 YEARS AVAR. 
 
 d. Sweden under Christina and Carl X. Constitutional Changes in Denmark. 
 
 § 384. The Swedish crown now passed to Christina, the daughter of Gustavus 
 
 to32. Adolphus. During her mi- 
 
 nority, an imperial council governed the 
 realm, and made the most of their oppor- 
 tunit}' to increase the privileges and the rev- 
 enues of the nobles. When the queen her- 
 self began to reign, she called to her brilliant 
 icjj. court artists and scholars, 
 
 from all the lands of Europe, and displayed 
 gieat strength of mind and character. Her 
 loAe of art and science found little nourish- 
 ment in the Protestant North, and she felt 
 herself a stranger in her native countr}'. 
 After a reign of ten years, she abdicated in 
 1GS4. favor of her cousin Carl 
 
 Gustav, retaining for herself a life pen- 
 sion. Christina then left the land of her 
 fithers, and in Innsbruck united with the 
 Catholic church. She traveled through the 
 Netherlands, France and Italy, and finally 
 NOBLEMEN. (1625-1640.) took up her residence in Rome. She died in 
 
 the year 1689, and was buried in the cathedral of St. Peters. 
 
 § 385. Carl X. was a great warrior. He undertook a war of conquest against 
 Carl A-., Poland, formed an alliance with the great elector, Frederick William, 
 
 los^-iotto. of Brandenburg, freed Prussia from the overlordship of Poland, took 
 possession of the western territory, and would have obtained tlie entire kingdom, 
 J..;,,, ittsn. after the three days' battle of Warsaw, if an invasion of the Danes 
 had not compelled him to return to Sweden. He hastened to the mouth of the 
 Elbe, but the Danish army made no resistance, so that Schleswig and Jutland were 
 soon in Swedish hands, except the fortified city of Fredericia. This, however, was 
 loss. stormed by Wrangel, and in the middle of winter, the King marched 
 
 his army over the frozen belt to Fuenen, and a few days later to Seeland. The Danes 
 were so astounded by the sudden appearance of the enemy, that they had no thought 
 of a defense, and immediately sued for peace. But Carl refused their offered sacri- 
 fices, hoping to bring all three Scandinavian kingdoms under his control. But the 
 citizens of Co]ienhagen made so stout a resistance, and the Dutch coming to the help 
 of the Danes, the war was prolonged, until the sudden death of the Swedish king 
 
THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 
 
 479 
 
 changed the whole situation. The Swedish council, who conducted the government 
 during the minority of Carl XI., concluded the Peace of Oliva with the Poles, 
 teeo. and the Peace of Copenhagen, with the Danes. In both treaties, 
 
 Sweden obtained great advantage. Prussia's independence of Poland was recog- 
 nized, but the Danish nobilit}' had shown such selfishness and cowardice, that tijc 
 court was able to overthrow the existing constitution. The elective monarchy was 
 changed into an hereditar^s and the monarch was given absolute power. The nobility 
 lost their former independence, and were chained to the throne by titles and orders. 
 Carl XI., In Sweden also, the power of the nobility was broken by the stern 
 1000.1007. and sagacious Carl XL, who demanded back the alienated estates of 
 the crown, and required them without mercy, although he permitted the ancient insti- 
 tutions to endure. 
 
 2. The English Revolution and the Expulsion of the Stuarts. 
 
 a. The Two First Stuarts. 
 
 § 386. James I., the son of Mary Stuart, was a pedantic prince, cunning, but nar 
 
 jrni.ies I., VOW minded, and of perverted 
 iao3.io2s. education. He had grown up 
 amid the quarrels of Presbyterian preachers, 
 and was especially equipped with theological 
 erudition, and took delight in ecclesiastical 
 disputes. It pleased him greatly to pose as 
 a great scholar, both in speech and in writing, 
 and he composed several books; although, as 
 a ruler, he lacked prudence and sagacity. Lord 
 Bacon, the most famous philosopher of his time, 
 was his lord chancellor, but was impeached 
 for bribery, and punished with fine, imprison 
 ment, and disgrace. James was timid enough 
 to love peace, and preferred quiet to the honor 
 of his country. But he was so lavish of his 
 favor, that he was controlled, not unfrequently, 
 by the most unworthy favorites. The most 
 powerful of these was George Villiers, Duke 
 of Buckingham, distinguished for his personal englishman and Fleming. (1640.) 
 beauty. James had the loftiest ideas of royal autho^it3^ was convinced that it proceeded 
 directly from God, and was unlimited, and for this opinion he sought proofs in the 
 Old Testament. Accordingl}-, he hated the Presbyterian church of Scotland, because 
 their principles made the king no more important than any other member of the con- 
 gregation, and for the same reason, he loved the Episcopal church, in which the king 
 was the head and source of all .spiritual power. " No Bishop, no King," became 
 therefore, the watchword of all the Stuarts, and the chief enterprises of the family 
 were the introduction of episcopacy into Scotland, and the suppression of the Pur- 
 itans in England. 
 
 § 387. Three events of James' reign are especially noteworthy. The gun-powder plot, 
 the bridaLtour of the Prince of Wales, and the growing opposition in the Parliament. 
 
480 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 James had promised toleration to the English Catholics, but the crown was 
 hardly secure upon his head, when he began to collect from the Catholic non- conform- 
 ists, a heavy poll-tax, in order to enrich his favorites, and to pay for his court festivals. 
 This enraged the deluded Catholics. They formed a conspiracy to blow up the King 
 and Parliament, and to change the government. A written warning, addressed to a 
 looa. Catholic peer, led to the discovery of the plot, and the chief culprit, 
 
 Guy Fawkes, was arrested and executed. The other participants fled and stirred up a 
 rebellion, in which the most of them perished. All the Catholics of England were then 
 compelled to pay heavy fines, and to swear an oath of allegiance to the King. 
 
 James believed, in his pride, that his son was worthy of a king's daughter of the first 
 
 degree, and, therefore, sued for the hand 
 of the Spanish Infanta. This project was 
 very unpopular among the English peo- 
 ple, first because they wished no Catholic 
 queen, and secondly because the long 
 negotiations with Spain had prevented 
 the king from supporting his Protestant 
 son-in-law, Frederick V., of the Palatin- 
 ate. The Pope, however, and the Span- 
 ish court gave their consent, and there 
 seemed nothing now to prevent the mar- 
 riage. But the Duke of Buckingham 
 persuaded Prince Charles to make a jour- 
 ney to Madrid, and the King, who in his 
 own youth had surprised his Danish bride 
 in this fashion, encouraged the under- 
 taking. They ari'ived in Spain under as- 
 sumed names, and as soon as they were 
 recognized, were treated with great dis- 
 tinction. But Buckingham's frivolity 
 excited displeasure. He quarreled with 
 the Spanish court, and did his utmost 
 to prevent the marriage. Henrietta, of 
 France, became the wife of Charles. 
 
 Parliament had known but little freedom in the days of Elizabeth, but her talents 
 as a ruler, and her economy kept the people satisfied. When James, however, in the 
 consciousness of his royal almightiness, strode forward in the same path, limiting more 
 and more the rights of Parliament, and laying export and import taxes arbitrarily upon 
 all commodities. Lords and Commons broke into violent opposition. The King threat- 
 ened and dissolved Parliament repeatedly, and arrested the boldest speakers, but all to 
 no purpose. Each new Parliament spoke the same language, and when James at last 
 declared that their pretended rights were only privileges, granted them by the crown, 
 1021. the Commons put on record a protest, in which they declared that the 
 
 right to make laws and to lay taxes was an inheritance of all Englishmen, and that free- 
 dom of speech and security of person belonged to every merabei of Parliament. The 
 King stormed over this insolence, tore in pieces with h's own hands the leaf upon which 
 
 CHARLES I. ( Van Dyck.) 
 
THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 481 
 
 the protest was recorded, dissolved the Parliament, and arrested some of the deputies. 
 But at this juncture, James was taken awa}', and Charles I. ascended the throne. 
 
 § 388. The newreign began with a violent attack upon Parliament. Twice in three 
 ciiaries I., ycars was the House of Commons dissolved. A war with France and 
 lens-ie-ta. subsidies for the German Protestants caused great expenditure. The 
 king was very angry that Parliament was so sparing in its appropriations, and would not 
 even grant him a tonnage tax or ship money, as had been customary. But the French 
 war was unsuccessful. English blood and English honor were shamefully squandered. 
 The third Parliament threatened to impeach Buckingham, and the King, in order to 
 save his favorite, signed "the petition of right," in which he secured to Parliament its 
 less. ancient rights, and to every member freedom of speech, and safety of 
 
 less. person and of property. Shortly after this, Buckingham was murdered, 
 
 whereupon the king chose Thomas Wentworth, an eloquent member of the opposition 
 party, to be his counsellor, making him Lord Strafford and viceroy of Ireland. Went- 
 worth was a man of great eloquence, extraordinary enei'gy, and indomitable will. He 
 set about to strengthen the authority of the crown, and advised the King to rule with- 
 out a Parliament. The money necessary for current expenses could be obtained by 
 collecting taxes, according to existing statutes, and in addition, excise duties were 
 levied upon wine, salt, soap, and other articles of daily use. The King, moreover, re- 
 vived ancient and forgotten claims of the crown, like the ancient ship money. At the 
 same time, Charles thought to establish more firmly the Anglican church, and to put 
 down the Puritans and Presbj'terians. His chief instrument, in this enterprise, was 
 Laud, of London, whom he afterward appointed arch-bishop of CanterburJ^ Laud 
 reconsecrated the cathedral of St. Pauls, enriched the clnirch with pictures and dec- 
 orations, enlarged and beautified the ritual, deposed the Puritan preachers, revived the 
 court of high commission, and the star chamber, whereby all were punished who ven- 
 tured to oppose his innovations. Prjmne, a Puritan writer, was condemned to the 
 pillory, to the loss of both ears, and to life long imprisonment, because he had written 
 a big book in which he condemned dances, masquerades, and the theatre. 
 
 § 389. These measures produced great excitement throughout the land. John 
 Hampden, a quiet, but determined man, refused to pay the "ship money," and de- 
 fended himself so successfully before the court, that the wrongfulness of the govern- 
 ment was as clear as day. The Puritan preachers went through the land, stirring up 
 resistance, and declaring that Laud intended to restore the Catholic church. The 
 seeds of hatred for court and clergy took root and grew. The King, however, per- 
 sisted and determined to introduce episcopacy and the prayer book into Scotland. 
 In the cathedral at Edinboro, when worship began, according to the new form, a 
 jiiiyieav. tumult arose, in which the crowd exclaimed, " Pope ! Anti-Christ.' 
 Stone him ! " Stools were thrown at the clergyman, and he was driven from the altar. 
 " The solemn league and covenant " for the protection of pure religion and the church 
 against papal eri'or and delusion was renewed ; the bishops were driven out, Presby- 
 terian worship restored, and the people summoned to arms. Charles now determined 
 to break their resistance with an army, but his troops j'ielded to the believing Scotch, 
 who marched to the field, singing psalms and praying to God. The Scotch crossed 
 le^o. into England, and the King was compelled to call a Parliament, and to 
 
 seek the help of the nation. 
 31 
 
482 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 § 390. This Parliament is known in English history as the Long-Parliament. 
 Hampden, Pym, Cromwell, HoUis, and other influential members, were opposed to ab- 
 solute monarchy, and to episcopacy. But during tiieir struggle against the King and 
 the bishops, they divided among themselves. The most violent adopted gradually 
 democratic principles, and sought to establish a republic ; the more conservative de- 
 sired only a reform of the existing state and church. The hostility of the new par- 
 liament to the royal wishes was soon manifest in their determination to put "grievance 
 before supply; " and in their determination, rather to support the Scottish rebels, than 
 
 to furnish money for their suppres- 
 sion. Strafford, " the great apostate," 
 and Arch-bishop Laud were impeach- 
 ed. The King conceded the demands 
 of the House, in order to save them : 
 Strafford defended himself for seven- 
 teen days with dignity and convinc- 
 ing power, and finallj'^ the impeach- 
 ment proceedings were abandoned, 
 and a " bill of attainder " substi- 
 tuted. This bill declared them both 
 guilty of attempting to destroy the 
 liberties of England. It was passed 
 in both Houses, and signed bj^ the 
 King, who sacrificed his most faithful 
 servant to appease the rage of the 
 people. " Put not your trust in 
 princes," exclaimed Strafford, when 
 told of the King's conduct. Strafford 
 bore himself with great composure 
 May 11, le-ti. upon the scaffold : 
 Laud, his companion in sorrow, re- 
 mained in prison three years, and 
 was then beheaded. The Court of 
 High Commission, the Star Chamber, 
 and the Council of the North were 
 abolished, and the bishops were ex- 
 BATTLE OF MARSTON MooE. (Emil Bayard.) eluded from the House of Peers. 
 § 391. Suddenly England was startled with the news that the Protestant settlers in 
 L'eland had been attacked and murdered by the Catholic inhabitants The Queen espe- 
 cially was accused of having formed a conspiracy of papists, bishops, and courtiers, for 
 the destruction of the freedom and the faith of the Protestants. The struggle became 
 much fiercer. Parliament became more exacting, attacking the royal authoritj', and 
 demanding that all the members of tlie royal council, and the generals of the army 
 should be subject to their control. The adherents of the King were known as "cav- 
 aliers," and consisted for the most part of noblemen and officers of the army ; the 
 supporters of the Parliament were nicknamed " Roundheads," from the manner in 
 which they wore their hair. An attempt of the King to arrest five leaders of tlie 
 
ASSASSINATION OF THE DUKE OF BUCKINGHAM. (Emil Bayard.) (pj?. 483.) 
 
484 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 opposition miscarried. Those marked for destruction escaped, and were brought back 
 
 to the ' House of Commons ' in triumph by the people, on the following day. The 
 
 King, in a rage, retired to York, and determined upon war. The Queen fled to Hol- 
 
 civii itar, land, seeking foreign help, but all continental Europe was then 
 
 la-tst-ia^e. engaged with the Thirty- Years' War. Charles was without money, and 
 
 OLIVER CROMWELL. 
 
 his army consequentlj' without supplies, while the Parliament was in possession of all 
 the revenues and liberally supported by private contributions : families brought their 
 silver, women their jewelry to the help of the popular cause, and the taxes and 
 contributions that had been stubbornl}'' refused to the King were willinglj^ paid to the 
 Parliament. Nevertheless the small but disciplined army of the King was greatly 
 superior to the parliamentary troops wdiich were commanded by the Earl of Essex. 
 
CHAELES I. IN THE BATTLE OF NASEBY. {Emil Bayard.) {pp. 485.) 
 
486 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 Prince Ruprecht, the King's nephew won two victories witli the royal cavalry. In 
 the second year of the war Hampden died, but Oliver Cromwell, an earnest Puritan, 
 formed his regiment of Ironsides from his God-fearing friends, and with these irre- 
 sistible soldiers he soon changed the face of affairs. The battle of Marston Moor 
 jief!/ 2, 1044. was lost by Ruprecht's impetuositj'. Cromweirs gloomy but determ- 
 ined squadrons did not yield an inch. Cromwell's name soon acquired great im- 
 portance, and the Puritans seized their opportunity to remove the Book of Common 
 Prayer from the church service, and to replace the Episcopal church government by 
 the Presbyterian system of John Calvin.- Pictures, organs, and decorations disap- 
 peared from the churches, the painted windows were broken, the monuments destroyed 
 and festivals prohibited. 
 
 § 392. But discord soon jDrevailed in the camp of the victors. The Independents 
 were dissatisfied with Presbyterian church government. They desired the complete 
 independence of each congregation in religious matters, and were unwilling to recog- 
 nize the decrees of the synods as universal laws. The moderate Puritans or Presby- 
 terians, and the Radicals or Independents were now involved in violent quarrels. The 
 
 weh. io4:S. latter succeeded in passing the self-denying act according'to which no 
 member of either House could hold office in the army or in the state. This compelled 
 Essex to give up his command, and Fairfax a talented officer was now placed at the 
 head of the Parliamentary army. But Cromwell was the real commander, and also 
 the head of the Independents. He had been one of the most earnest supporters of the 
 self-denying act, and proceeded to the army to place his resignation in the hands of 
 Fairfax. But Fairfax declared to Parliament that Cromwell was indispensable ; he 
 alone could lead the cavalry, for where he with his Ironsides fought in the name of the 
 Lord, there was victory. Parliament consented: the civil war waged with increasing 
 June 14, lo^s. bittemcss. But the battle of Naseby destroyed the last hope of King 
 Charles. He retreated with a remnant of his army to Oxford. Cromwell and Fair- 
 fax were preparing to beseige the town when the King with two companions escaped in 
 disguise to tlie Scottish camp, hoping to find fidelity and allegiance among his fellow 
 countrymen. But they held him under the stiictest guard, compelled him to listen to 
 the long sermons of their preachers, and when it was found impossible to induce the 
 King to subscribe to the solemn league and Covenant they sold him to commissioners of 
 Parliament, by whom he was imprisoned in a strong castle. 
 
 § 393. The rupture between the Presbyterian and the Independents, now made 
 itself distinctly felt. The former controlled Parliament, the latter the army. Crom- 
 well kept his plans adroitly concealed. While he was playing the part of the mediator, 
 a Puritan colonel with a squadron of cavalry carried off the imprisoned King and 
 
 jieiie i«'t7. brought him to the army. Cromwell then marched to London in order 
 to overawe Parliament. Charles meanwhile escaped to the Isle of Wight and for a 
 while Pi-esbyterians and Independents both struggled to bring him over to their side 
 and to make peace with him separatelJ^ But Charles trusting to foreign aid, behaved 
 ambiguouslj^ and treacherously and thereby lost his last opportunity for a jDcaceful solu- 
 tion of his troubles. The army at the instance of Cromwell, seized the person of the 
 King and brought him to a lonely castle on the sea-coast. Colonel Pride under the 
 same inspiration, surrounded the House of Commons with his troops and carried off 
 
 uec, itt-is. eighty-one of tl:we Presbyterian members. Pride's Purge, as it is called. 
 
EXECUTION OF CHARLES i: ( G. Maillard.) ( pp- 487. ) 
 
488 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 being completed, Cromwell occupied the royal apartments in White Hall, for he was 
 now lord and master, and the Rump Parliament, consisting of Independents, was his 
 willing instrument. An extraordinary tribunal was created, before which the King was 
 accused of treason, because he had carried on war against Parliament : Charles Stuart 
 was arraicfned four times and condemned to death as traitor, murderer and eneni}- of 
 Ills country. Three days were given him to prepare for his death and to take leave of 
 his children. He was then led to White Hall where he was beheaded. An enormous 
 crowd looked on silently at the horrible tragedy. Not until the executioner seized the 
 j„„.3o.io4». bloody head by the hair and held it up exclaiming "Behold the head 
 of a traitor ! " did the people give expression to their sorrow by a hollow moan. 
 
 h. Oliver Cromivell. (1649—1658.) 
 
 § 394. The news of the King's death created a terrible excitement in Scotland 
 
 ^ and in Ireland. The Prince of 
 Wales, then residing in Holland, was 
 called into Scotland, and proclaimed 
 king as Charles II., although he was 
 fii'st required to sign the Covenant 
 leso. and to join the Pres- 
 
 byterian church. Ireland also ac- 
 knowledged the new King and took 
 up arms in his favor. Thereupon 
 Cromwell who had erected in En- 
 gland a republican government in 
 which Milton, the blind composer 
 of " Paradise Lost," had a part, 
 marched against the disobedient 
 island. His way was through bluod 
 and over corpses, but it led to vic- 
 tory. And when he left the country 
 to cany his sword into Scotland 
 other republican leaders followed in 
 his footsteps. The insurrection was 
 suppressed in three j^ears, but at the 
 end of that time Ireland was depopu- 
 lated, or inhabited by beggars. In 
 Scotland also the republicans were 
 victorious. The Scotch army was so 
 well intrenched that Cromwell could not reach them. Hunger and disease so 
 diminished his forces that he was thinking to retreat. But the preachers in the 
 Scottish army grieved at the war-like spii-it and the good cheer of the King 
 persuaded the Scottish commander to assume the aggressive. When Cromwell 
 saw the oncoming Presbyterian arm3% he exclaimed, "The Lord has delivered them 
 into our hands!" The battle of Dunbar decided against the Scots, Cromwell con - 
 Sept. 3, leso. quered Edinboro and marched into the heart of Scotland. The Lord 
 of Hosts, who was invoked by both Presbyterians and Independents, was with the strong 
 
 JOHN MILTON. 
 
490 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 and brave battalions. Suddenly now Charles entered upon a daring enterjDrise. He 
 marched with his troops across the English frontiers, and called to his support the ad. 
 herents of the kingdom. But ver}- few answered, and on the anniversary of the battle 
 Sept. a, lost, of Dunbar the royal army was utterly defeated at Worcester. Charles 
 became a homeless fugitive upon whose head Parliament placed a price. Amid a 
 thousand dangers he escaped in disguise to France, and Scotland was reduced to sub- 
 jection by the Republican general, Monk. The Commonwealth now became in- 
 volved in a war with Holland. In this they were as victorious by sea as they had 
 been hitherto by land. The Dutch admirals, Tromp and De Ruyter, distinguished 
 themselves by tlieir intrepidity and skill, but Admiral Blake and General Monk car- 
 oct.iosi. ried off the victory. The Dutch were obliged to accept a disgraceful 
 peace, while England passed her navigation acts, according to which foreigners could 
 only bring their own products in their own ships to England. This gave to English 
 commerce a new impulse at-the cost of tlie trading Dutch. 
 
 § 395. Cromwell 
 meanwhile had quar- 
 reled with the House 
 of Commons, and had 
 determined to dis- 
 solve the Long Par- 
 liament. Surround- 
 ing the house with 
 troops, he entered the 
 hall, delivered an ex- 
 citing speech and 
 drove the members 
 present from the 
 
 .4j»'ii teas. room 
 with the help of his 
 soldiers, crying to the 
 one " Thou drunk- 
 ard " to another dutch man of war, seventeenth century. 
 
 " Blasphemer " and to a third "Adulterer." A council of state presided over by 
 Cromwell then undertook the creation of a new Parliament. Lists of God-fearing 
 people in the various districts were made out, and from these representatives 
 from the three kingdoms were chosen. This assembly was called in mockery, 
 " The Barebones Parliament," from the name of one of its members, the leather dealer 
 Praise God Barebones. The biblical baptismal names of most of its members were 
 significant of their religious feelings. (Habbakuk, Ezekiel, Slaysin, Stand-fast-in-the 
 faith.) But Cromwell could not get along so easily with these remarkable people as 
 he had hoped, and as they wished to introduce several drastic laws which would have 
 produced great changes, he availed himself of the public discontent to dissolve the 
 " Barebones Parliament " with his soldiers. General Lambert now sketched a new 
 jBec. less. constitution, which was adopted. A Parliament of four hundred mem- 
 bers constituted the legislative power. Cromwell, as Lord Protector, possessed the ex- 
 ecutive authority and the command of the army and navy. As Protector, Cromwell 
 
THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 
 
 491 
 
 ruled with strength and renown. His strong will and his great ability as a ruler 
 made him respected abroad ; his pure home and his simple manner of life created con- 
 fidence among his own people. Yet there were many to envy and to oppose him, re- 
 publicans as well as royalists; and these embittered the evening of his life and pie- 
 vented a quiet continuance of his authority. His last days were full of suspicions and 
 of fear, for he lived always in the shadow of assassination. He died on the 3rd of 
 
 CHARLES II. 
 
 Sept. a, loss. Sept. 1658, the anniversary day of his victories at Dunbar and Wor- 
 cester. 
 
 § 396. Richard Cromwell, the Protector's son, was too weak to maintain his in- 
 herited dignit}^ of Lord-Protector. Accordingly three powers soon confronted each 
 other, the Protector, the Parliament and the army. The military power under Monk 
 yiprii laso. and Lambert, soon conquered. Parliament was dissolved, the old 
 Piiimp Parliament convened again, and Richard Cromwell compelled to abdicate. But 
 
492 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 the Rump Parliament was soon forced to yield to the soldiers, and a committee of 
 safety, under the lead of Lambert, undertook the conduct of affairs. Men gradually 
 began to feel that nothing but the restoration of the monarchy would re-establish 
 civil order. And General Monk entered into negotiations with Charles Stuart, then 
 living in the Netherlamls, though carefully concealing his purpose and his plans. He 
 arrested Lambert, dissolved the committee of safety, and convened a now Parliament. 
 The latter, consisting mostly of royalists, arranged with Monk the restoration of the 
 Stuarts. Pardon and liberty of conscience were the only concessions that Charles was 
 iuau29,ia«o. required to make, in order to enter triumphantly into London, where 
 he was received with the shouts of the people. But even these conditions he did not 
 fulfill. The regicides, those who had taken part in the trial of Charles I., were sen- 
 ten«ed to death, and ten of them were executed. But this triumph of the royalists 
 was greatly diminished by the steadfastness with which the regicide Puritans main- 
 tained their principles. Cromwell's corpse was taken from the grave and hanged on a 
 gallows. The Episcopal church was restored and the Presb3'terian clergy once more 
 deprived of their livings. 
 
 c. The two Last Stuarts— Charles II., {1660-1685.) James 11, {1685-1688.} 
 
 § 397. The reign of the frivolous and licentious Charles II. was a fatal period 
 for England. Neither the ruin of his father, nor his own trials instructed him or gave 
 him warning. The Plague and the Fire might destroy two-thirds of London, and fill 
 
 1665. all hearts with sorrow, but the royal court lived merrilJ^ As debts 
 
 increased, and money became scarce, and Parliament refused to be generous, Charles 
 sold Louis XIV., of France the honor and the welfare of his country and his own 
 religion. At that time it was counted, especially in France, a sign of culture to pass 
 over from the Protestant to the Catholic church. This fashion found imitators in 
 England, also. The Duke of York the King's brother, made a public profession of the 
 Catholic religion, and Charles was himself a Catholic in heart, although he held out- 
 wardly to the English Church, and showed only at his death his real conviction by tak- 
 ing the sacraments from a Catholic priest. But the people adhered to the faith of 
 their fathers. They ascribed the great fire to the Catholics, and immortalized this 
 
 1673. charge on a monument : they forced Parliament to pass the Test Act 
 
 according to which only members of the English Church and confessors of Protestant 
 doctrine could be members of Parliament, ofiacers of* the state, or hold commissions in 
 the army. As long as Clarendon, the historian of the English rebellion, was at the 
 
 ice:. head of the ministry, the King was moderate and law-abiding. But 
 
 when Clarendon fell into disgrace and became an exile, Charles allowed himself all 
 manner of arbitrary and illegal conduct. He formed a ministry of talented and un- 
 principled statesmen known as the Cabal, which conducted the government according 
 to the King's wish without regard to the rights of the people. Bribery ceased to be 
 disgraceful when the King himself received annuities from Louis XIV., for supporting 
 the French in their war against Holland. A new conflict arose between King and Par- 
 liament. The more the King sought to be absolute, the more the Parliament sought to 
 maintain the rights of the people and the religion of the country. They even demanded 
 the exclusion of the Duke of York from the royal succession, and Charles was com- 
 pelled to send his brother away, and to form a new ministry in which the Earl of 
 
THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 
 
 493 
 
 i«s». Shaftesbury was prime minister. Under his administration the Habeas 
 
 Corpus Act, the sacred law of personal freedom, was brought into being. According 
 to this law, no one may be arrested without a written warrant stating the grounds for 
 the arrest, and every prisoner must have a judicial hearing within three days of his 
 taking into custody. The two political parties of Tories and Whigs originated in these 
 conflicts. The Whigs (Liberals) regarded the state constitution as a contract be- 
 tween the king and the nation, and demanded for the nation in case of its violation 
 the right of active resistance. The Tories (Conservatives) denied that the royal 
 authority proceeded from the people, and required from the subjects a passive obedi- 
 ence. During the last years of Charles J I., the Tories acquired a majority because the 
 
 Court took advantage of a 
 conspiracy against the life of 
 the King and of his brother 
 to destroy the chiefs of the 
 Whig party. Lord Russell 
 and Algernon Sidney, two of 
 the noblest and best-beloved 
 men in the realm, died upon 
 the scaffold. Shaftesbury fled 
 tes5. to Holland, 
 
 the Dnke of York re-entered 
 into all his rights and offices, 
 and when Charles died with- 
 out lawful heir he ascended 
 the English throne as James 
 II. 
 
 § 398. James II. was 
 jrnmes 11., hardly seated 
 ies5-ioss. upon the 
 throne when Monmouth, the 
 natural son of his brother 
 Charles, sought with the help 
 of the Whigs to deprive him 
 of his kingdom. The attempt 
 miscarried. Monmouth died 
 upon the scaffold, and his adherents and defenders were prosecuted with terrible 
 cruelty. Tlie name of Judge Jeffries, who traveled through the counties with his 
 troops of executioners, is written in bloody letters in the annals of England. His easy- 
 victory and the fear of the people created in the King the hope of restoring the Catho- 
 lic church. He made the hated Jeffries Lord Chancellor, gave many oiSces and mili- 
 tary commissions to Roman Catholics, and to those who had recently passed over to 
 Catholicism, and intended by an edict of toleration to abolish the test acts. But 
 Parliament would not consent to the- edict of toleration. James therefore declared 
 that the crown could dispense with the law. The English people for a time made no 
 resistance to the King, hoping for speedy relief since the aged monarch had no male 
 children and his two daughters were married to Protestant princes ; the elde];. Mary. 
 
494 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 to William of Orange, and the younger, Anna, to a Danish prince. But the unex- 
 pected birth of a Prince of Wales destroyed this hope, and the people determined to 
 help themselves with the assistance of William of Orange. Scores of dissatisfied 
 Britons passed over to the Hague. The Whigs made an alliance with William and 
 promised him the help of the Protestant nation. James did not perceive the storm 
 that had gathered about his head, until William with his army lauded on the British 
 coast. The King appealed in vain to his army and his people, and promised the aboli- 
 tion of his unconstitutional measures. The ground on which he stood was under- 
 mined with treason, with hypocrisy and perjury. For the Stuarts had taught the 
 nation little else. A part of the army went over to William. The voice of the people 
 spoke against James. The King thereupon sent his wife with the Prince to France, 
 Bee. toss. threw the royal seal into the Thames, and fled from the land of his 
 fathers. He lived for the future in St. Germain supported by a pension from 
 Louis XIV. 
 
 § 39c\ The flight of James enabled the English people to declare the throne 
 
 vacant. They excluded the Catholic line of 
 the Stuarts from the succession, and gave 
 the crown to William and jNJary, but in- 
 structed by past events they established in 
 Feb. 16S9. the Bill of Rights the an- 
 cient jnivileges of the people, without how- 
 ever attempting to undermine the royal 
 authority. The Scotch recognized the new 
 order, and received back their Presbyterian 
 system. But the Catholic Irish supported 
 by France and by James II., were not sub 
 dued until the bloody battle of the Boyne, 
 where the aged ^Marshal Schomberg led the 
 forces of William against King James himself. 
 After the death of Mary, William reigned a 
 short period alone, but he died childless in 
 early manhood, and James II., did not long 
 -iHiie. survive him. Mary's sister 
 
 ijo9-ij/^. Anne now became the Queen 
 of England, and during her reign Scotland 
 and England were united so that Scottish representatives voted in the English 
 Parliament. The Scottish Parliament was abolished, but the Scottish judicial system 
 1707. and the Scotch law were left in force. Anne died without issue. She 
 
 survived her husband and all her children, and after her death the English crown fell 
 to George the Elector of Hanover, the grandson of Elizabeth, wife of the unfortunate 
 Frederick V.. so conspicuous at the beginning of the Thirty Years War. Two at- 
 tempts of the Stuarts to overthrow the House of Hanover, and to get possession of the 
 English throne ended in disaster. 
 
 3. The Age of Louis XIV. 
 a. mchelien ami Mazarin. 
 § 400. When Henry IV. was murdered in 1610. his son Louis XIII., was but 
 
 FRENCH NOBILITY IX COVRT COSTUME. 
 
 (17fh Century.) 
 

 iM^. 
 
 CINQ MARS AND DE THOU LED TO EXECUTION. {A. cU NevviUe.) ( pp. 495. ) 
 
496 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 lOlO-ltt-tS. 
 
 XIII., nine j^ears old. During this minoritj^ his mother, Marie de Medici 
 was regent, and her Court was filled with Italian favorites who en- 
 riched themselves with French property, and offended by their insolence the national 
 pride. The French nobility took arms and filled the kingdom with insurrection. 
 When Louis XIII. assumed the government, he permitted the foreign favorites to be 
 ion. murdered and executed, and even banished his mother from the court. 
 
 But the people were not a whit better off. The new favorites Avere no more virtuous 
 nor talented than the old. Hence the nobles of the realm and the injured Huguenots 
 rose once more against the government and plunged the land into confusion. This 
 gloomy condition of affairs did not come to an end until the Cardinal Richelieu entered 
 iQs*. the royal council, and began to exercise an almost absolute authority. 
 
 Yet the King never loved him, 
 the Queen and nobilit}' in- 
 trigued continually to accom- 
 plish his overthrow, cabals and 
 conspiracies were constantly 
 created to destroy him. But 
 the greatness of his intellect 
 conquered all obstacles, and he 
 worked steadfastly to increase 
 the power of France abroad, 
 and to strengthen the power of 
 the kingdom at home. To ac- 
 complish the first he sought to 
 weaken the House of Hapsburg, 
 and ejitered into alliances witli 
 tlie enemies of the Emperor in 
 Germany and .in Italj'. He 
 kept alive the Thirty Years 
 War, although he oppressed the 
 Huguenots under his own 
 authority. He broke the power 
 of the nobility and of the bu- 
 reaucracy, and overcame the 
 Huguenots, who in the south and 
 ppj^Pj, west of France had acquired 
 
 an almost independent position, 
 with their fortresses, their militia and their great privileges. He conquered in three 
 wars the most important of the Huguenot cities, and deprived them of their fortifica- 
 tions. He then besieged Rochelle for four months, and at last captured this bulwark 
 109O. of the Calvinists, robbed them of their political privileges and their in- 
 
 dependence, but granted them religious freedom and equal rights with Catholic sub- 
 jects. This disarming of the Huguenots took from the rebellious grandees, their strong- 
 est support ; as a consequence they soon succumbed to the power of the Cardinal. 
 The boldest of them were executed or exiled ; even the Queen mother and her second 
 son, the Duke of Orleans, were obliged to leave the country and the Duke of Mont- 
 
33 CARDINAL RICHELIEU AND FATHER JOSEPH. (A. dc KuUcUL.) \ pp. 497.) 
 
498 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 morencj-, who belonged to one of the most renowned families of France died b}- the 
 hand of the headsman. A like fate destroyed the Count of Cinq j\Iars, who formed 
 with the Queen and mauj' nobles a conspirac}- against the mighty Richelieu. The 
 Capuchin Father Joseph, a man of great intelligence and diplomatic skill, was the 
 Cardinal's chief agent at home and abroad. The French Parliaments which laid claim 
 to a peculiar sovereignty, were supplanted by extraordinary courts of justice. The 
 officers in the province were weakened and limited by the appointment of royal in- 
 spectors, who were dependent only upon the government. 
 
 § 401. In the year 1642 Richelieu died, hated and feared by the nobilit}- and the 
 
 j»er. J, 1CJ8. people, but admired by many contemporaries and by posterity. Louis 
 XIII., a Prince without virtues and without crimes, dependent alike upon his favor- 
 ites and his foes, soon followed him to the grave. Anna of Austria, the haughty 
 domineering sister of the King of Spain, now became regent. She gave her confidence 
 to the Italian Mazariu, the disciple of Richelieu, 
 and consequently found violent opposition 
 among the nobilit}', and in the Parliament which 
 sought to recover its former power and posi- 
 tion. The people longing to escape the burden 
 of taxation, and led by the brilliant Cardinal 
 De Retz supported the opposition, in order to 
 drive Mazarin from the court, and to compel 
 the adoption of a new system. This led to the 
 
 itt4s.ios3. violent civil war known as the 
 war of the Fronde. j\Iazarin was compelled to 
 leave the countrj^ but the confidence of the 
 Queen was so imshaken, that he ruled France 
 from Cologne as unconditionally as he had 
 ruled it in Paris. His exile moreover was of , 
 short duration. Louis XIV. reached his major- 
 it}' in 1651. Turenne the leader of the roj'al ^-u-. 
 troops conquered his adversarv, the great Conde, "'^^'=^^^^J 
 in the suburbs of Paris, and Mazarin returned 
 triumiDhant, proclaiming by his return the vic- 
 tory of absolute monarchJ^ For six je&vs longer Mazarin enjoyed the respect of 
 France and of Europe. Cardinal De Retz was obliged to keep away from France, first 
 however atoning for his rebellion in the dungeon of Vincennes. Conde after brave 
 but fruitless struggles, sought safety in Spain but was recalled by the j'oung King and 
 granted back his estates. jMazarin's nieces were endowed with French wealth and 
 married to conspicuous noblemen. Parliament abandoned its resistance, after the 
 King appeared before them in hunting costume and whip in band, demanding their 
 obedience with the declaration "I am the state" ("L'etat c" est raoi"). The peace of 
 
 nov. 7, 16SO. the Pyrenees between France and Spain was the last work of Mazarin. 
 He left behind him an immense fortune, a valuable library and many art treasures, 
 splendid palaces and gardens. His death came opportunely, for Louis was beginning 
 to grow weary of him and longing to take the reins of government into his own 
 hands. 
 
 NOBLEMAN AND OFFICER. {17th Centuiy.) 
 
THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 
 
 499 
 
 b. Louis XIV. and His Wars of Conquest. 
 § 402. After Mazarin's death, Louis 
 
 XIV. appointed no prime minister, but 
 
 surrounded himself with men who ac- 
 complished only his wiU, and had no 
 
 other aim than to increase the renown 
 
 and the splendor of their King. In his 
 
 choice of these men, Louis displayed the 
 
 insight of a great ruler. Colbert was 
 
 the great promoter of French industry 
 
 and commerce, and his generals Turenne, 
 
 Conde, and Vauban exceeded in talent, 
 
 knowledge and skill, the statesmen and 
 
 warriors of all other countries, as much 
 
 as Louis XIV. himself excelled in 
 
 kingly authority and the qualities of a 
 
 statesman all princes of his time. The 
 
 age of Louis XIV. is the golden age of 
 
 the French monarchy, and the court 
 
 of Versailles, .where the ro3^al residence 
 
 was established, was everywhere praised 
 
 and admired as a model of good taste 
 
 and of fine culture. But, as the King 
 
 was chiefly concerned with his own 
 
 pleasure and renown, his government 
 
 became the grave of freedom, of morality, and of manly character. Court favor was 
 
 the aim of all eifort, and flattery was the surest 
 road by which to acquire it. Virtue and merit 
 found at the last but little recognition. 
 
 § 403. Louis XIV. wished to cover his 
 name with the glory of war, and at the same 
 sjianish w-«i-. time to increase the territory of 
 to67-ioes. his kingdom. The death of the 
 Spanish king, Philip IV., gave him the oppor- 
 tunity to set up a claim to the throne, and to 
 invade the Spanish Netherlands. An alliance 
 of England, Holland, and Sweden compelled 
 him to shorten the campaign, and to give up the 
 siayiaos. greater part of the conquered 
 territory. Yet a number of Flemish cities v/ere 
 annexed to France, and converted by Vauban 
 into invincible fortresses. As the victorious 
 course of the haughtj' King had been arrested 
 principally b3^the exertions of Holland, Holland 
 sQiETEER OF THE FRENCH '"'^^ "^^^^^ *» ^^el his revenge. He brought 
 GUARD. over Sweden to his side, purchased the friend- 
 
 LOUIS XIV AT THE AGE OF 4L 
 
 OFFICER AXD MIJ 
 
500 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 ship of the English king by annuities and mistresses, and made an alliance with 
 the Elector of Cologne and the Bishop of Miinster. He then began a second 
 war which was directed at first against Holland, but which lasted seven j^ears 
 and involved nearly all the European states. The French army marched rapidly into 
 
 trai- TTuu the heart of 
 Hoiiaittt. Holland. 
 
 lois-iero. The leaders 
 of the republic had paid 
 more attention to their 
 navy than to their army, 
 and their great cities 
 fell almost undefended 
 into the hands of tlien- 
 enemies. French dra- 
 goons approached with- 
 in ten miles of the capi- 
 tal. The frightened 
 Dutch begged humbly 
 for peace but were not 
 heard. But while the 
 French armj' was besieg- 
 ing the Dutch fortresse'^, 
 the ruling part}', to 
 whom the whole calam 
 ity was ascribed, weie 
 overthrown by the pop- 
 ular party of Orange 
 John and Cornelius De 
 Witt were murdered, 
 lera. and the 
 government transferred 
 to the soldier and states- 
 
 Tviiiiaiii III. man, Wil 
 Min-itos. Ham III., 
 of Orange. This able 
 general immediately 
 awakened courage and 
 patriotic enthusiasm 
 among the Dutch. They 
 broke down their dikes, 
 and made their inundated land inaccessible to the French. The walls of Groningen 
 defied the attacks of the enemy, and the daring march of the French across the frozen 
 waters to attack Amsterdam was suddenly arrested b}' a thaw. This saved Holland : 
 for now the great Elector of Brandenburg, Frederick William, came to the rescue and 
 induced the Emperor Leopold to enter the war. The French were compelled to divide 
 

502 
 
 THE MODERX AGE. 
 
 THE GREAT ELECTOR. 
 
 The M'ar lasted three years lons'er and. 
 
 jo?j. their forces and to send their main army along the Ehine. The Span- 
 
 iards also joined the alliance against France. 
 
 § 404. But the strength of the French mcieased ■nith the number ot then loes 
 Turenne devastated the Palatinate, then 
 crossed the Rhine and ravaged Francouia. 
 Tiie German princes were disunited. The 
 Austrian minister of war was in the pa}' of 
 the French king and betrayed the plan of 
 the campaign to the enem}-. The Austrian 
 generals were incompetent. If the Great 
 Elector had not saved the honor of Germany 
 the triumpli of France would have been 
 comi^lete. Louis XIV. had induced the 
 Swedes to invade Brandenburg, but before 
 the Swedes were prepared for an attack, 
 jKiie ss, xe7s. the energetic Frederick Wil- 
 liam broke in upon them, and in the battle 
 of Fehrbellin inflicted upon Sweden a crush- 
 ing defeat. This battle was the beginning 
 of the greatness of Prussia. A month later 
 Turenne, the greatest general of his time, 
 ^uiy 37. was killed at Sassbach, and 
 the French compelled to re-cross the Rhine, 
 was especiall}' destructive to the lands along the Moselle and the Saar. When, how- 
 ever, tlie English Parliament required their king to withdraw from the French alliance 
 
 and to support the Dutch, Louis determined to 
 bring the war to an end. In the peace of N"ym- 
 1619. wegen the Dutch, recovered all 
 
 their lost lands and cities. Spain however, was 
 required to give up the Franche Comte and many 
 fortified places. The German Empire lost the 
 city of Freiburg and the dukedom of Lorraine, 
 and the Great Elector was compelled to surrender 
 to Sweden the territories and the cities in Pomer- 
 ania, that he had conquered with such difficulty. 
 The high-minded prince yielded to the hard neces- 
 sity, with the prophecy that an avenger would 
 proceed from his loins. 
 
 § 405. The timid submission of the German 
 
 princes increased the pride and the greed of Louis 
 
 XIV. He claimed that a number of districts, which 
 
 had belonged at one time to the territories ceded to him in the peace of Nj-mwegen, 
 
 leso. were also included in the treaty, and he seized a multitude of cities, 
 
 villages, castles and mills, in a word whole districts on the left bank of the Rhine, and 
 
 Sept. lesi. at last took possession of the free city of Strasburg. The free citizens 
 
 were disarmed and compelled to take the oath of allegiance to their foreign monarch 
 
 GEORGE DERFLIXGER. 
 
THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 
 
 503 
 
 on their knees ; the Strasburg Minster, the glory of German architecture, was given 
 over to Catholic worship. Italy also suffered from the violence of the King, especially 
 Ti-«ce ofBeoens- Milan and Genoa. Austria, Spain and Germany yielded without re- 
 6u.-ff. sistance to these outrages, and made a twenty years' truce with the 
 
 Aug. IS, 10S4:. French king, on condition that he would make no more reprisals and 
 attempt no further extension of his frontiers. 
 
 e. Austria's Extremity and Victory. 
 
 § 406. During all this time the Emperor Leopold was kept busy in the east of his 
 kingdom. In Hungary, the oppression of the Protestants, the quartering of soldiers 
 upon the people, and the acts of violence against certain noblemen had produced dan- 
 
 laa-i. gerous insurrections, and the Turks had renewed their former plans of 
 
 conquest. The Austrian authorities hoped by their severity to put down the rebellion : 
 
 1971. they executed the leaders and 
 
 violated the chartered rights of the nation. _ -.'-_-__ 
 
 But these arbitrary proceedings exasperated 
 the Hungarians all the more, provoking their 
 love of freedom and their warlike impulses. 
 Emmerich Toekoeli, an energetic nobleman, 
 
 1674,. whose estate had been confis- 
 
 cated, raised the standard of rebellion, and was 
 soon at the head of a powerful army with 
 which he drove the Austrians from Hungary. 
 Louis XIV. furnished him assistance, and the 
 
 10S2. Porte, which recognized him as 
 
 the tributary king of Hungary, sent a great 
 army to his aid. Devastating all before them 
 
 ies3. the Turks approached the walls 
 
 of Vienna. The Court fled to Linz: the 
 capital of Austria seemed lost : but the courage 
 of the citizens, and the incompetency of the 
 Ottomans in conducting a siege, enabled the 
 city to withstand all attacks for sixty days 
 
 Sept. 12, tos3. until the army of Charles of Lorraine united with the Polish army 
 under the heroic king John Sobieski, and relieved the distressed city. The Turks were 
 defeated in a bloody battle at the gates of Vienna. They retreated hastily, leaving 
 enormous booty in the hands of the victors. Hungary was then conquered, Toeko- 
 eli compelled to fly, and Ofen, which had been in the hands of the Turks for 146 years, 
 was taken from them. The Hungarian nobility were deprived of their ablest leaders, 
 
 1087. and a reign of terror established in the land. The Emperor Leopold 
 
 then abolished the elective monarchy aud overthrew the Hungarian constitution. Hun- 
 gary was converted into a hereditary possession of the Hapsburgs. The Turks made 
 great efforts to recover what they had lost, and the blood of Christians and of Turks 
 flowed in streams about the walls of Belgrade. But Charles of Lorraine, Prince Eu- 
 gene and Louis of Baden, the Austrian commanders held aloft the standard of victory. 
 
 JOHN SOBIESKI. 
 
504 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 io»9. By the treaty of Carlowitz, Transylvania and all the land between the 
 
 Danube and the Theiss were surrendered to Austria. 
 
 d. The Orleans War. (1689-1697.) 
 
 § 407. To assist the Turks in their war against Austria, Louis XIV. provoked the 
 so-called Orleans war. When the Elector Carl died without male heirs, and his land 
 passed over to the Catholic line of Pfalz Neuburg, Louis XIV., in the name of his 
 brother, the Duke of Orleans (who had married the sister of the Elector) laid claim to 
 all his estates ; and when his claim was not allowed, he sent his armies to the Rhine. 
 To make an invasion of France impossible, he commanded the regions of the Rhiue to be 
 
 PEINCE EtIGElvfE BEFORE BELGRADE. 
 
 devastated, so as to put a desert between the two kingdoms. The wild hordes set fire 
 to the prosperous villages, to the rich cities along the Rhine, and ravaged all the 
 southern portion of the Palatinate. The ruined tower of the castle at Heidelberg is a 
 silent witness of this barbarism. At Mannheim, the inhabitants themselves were com- 
 pelled to lay violent hands upon their fortifications and their homes. At Heidelberg 
 fune, loao. the bridge across the Neckar was blown to atoms, and a part of the 
 city destroyed by fire. Another cause of this war, in which the Netherlands, Spain, 
 and Savo}', were soon involved, was the appointment to the archbishopric of Cologne. 
 Louis XIV. had, by bribery, compassed the election of his friend William of Fursten- 
 berg, but the Pope and the Emperor refused to confirm the election. The war lasted 
 eight years, and in spite of the superior numbers of his enemies, the French monarch 
 
THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 
 
 505 
 
 was victorious, because of the ability of his generals, In Italy, in Holland, in the 
 sorely afflicted Germany, and in Northern Spain, the French fought with great success. 
 xeoj. And yet Louis, in the peace of Ryswick, which closed the war, was far 
 
 more moderate than he had been in the peace of Nymwegen. The Germans were the 
 chief losers as Strasburg, and all the districts, annexed by the French, were retained 
 
 DESTRUCTION OF HEIDELBERG. 
 
 by King Louis. But the clause in the treaty, according to which Catholic worship 
 must be tolerated in all Protestant districts which the French had occupied during the 
 war, became, for the Protestants of the Palatinate, a source of many sorrows. Louis 
 XIV. foresaw the coming vacancy of the Spanish throne, and hence made a hasty 
 peace, that his hands might be free for his great opportunity. 
 
506 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 Court Life, Literature, Church. 
 
 § 408. The age of Louis XIV. is spoken of, in the obsequious histories of his 
 
 time, as "the golden age" of France. Com- 
 merce and industry prospered greatly under 
 Colbert's care. The weaving of wool and of 
 silk, the manufacture of stockings and of fine 
 cloth, all of which were cultivated in the cities 
 of the south, brought great prosperity. Sea 
 trade increased rapidly, colonies were planted, 
 and commercial companies carried the products 
 of France into all the regions of the earth. 
 Th? French Court revealed a hitherto unknown 
 splendor. The castles of Versailles, with its 
 columns, its fountains, its avenues of trees, and 
 its decorated gardens, was a model of taste for 
 all Europe. Festivities of all sorts, operas and 
 dramas, to which the first mind of France con- 
 tributed, followed each other in fascinating 
 alternations. Poets, artists, and scholars vied 
 with each other, to celebrate a prince that re- 
 warded their efforts, to give him pleasure, or to 
 increase his renown with the utmost generosity. 
 Splendid structures, like the Hotel Des Invalides, precious libraries, invaluable books 
 and manuscripts, academies of science and of art, increased the glory and the fame of 
 the grand monarch. The easy 
 manners of the liobility and of 
 the court, and their grateful 
 sociability, conquered Europe 
 more effectually than the French 
 army. French fashions, French 
 language and .literature, pre- 
 vailed in the circles of high 
 society everj'where. The foun- 
 dation of the French Academy, 
 bj^ Richelieu, led to the perfec- 
 tion of the French language and 
 of the French style, and made it 
 the language of diplomacy and 
 of society, of conversation and 
 of correspondence. Dramatic 
 poetry reached its climax in 
 
 NOBLEMAN. {Middle of 17th Century.) 
 
 Comeille, 
 
 nucine, f ie»». 
 Moliere, f 1078. 
 
 Peter Corneille, 
 in Jean Racine, 
 and in Molifere. 
 C o r n e i 1 1 e ' s 
 
 'Cid" was the first great pro- 
 
THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 
 
 507 
 
 ductiou of the French tragic drama. Racine's Iphigenia and Phaedra were attempts 
 to rival Euripides, while in his Tartnffe, his Miser, and his Misanthrope, the comedian 
 Moliere showed himself to be thoroughly acquainted with the weaknesses of human 
 
 Boiieau, ftiti. nature. Boileau, in his 
 odes and satires, imitated Horace. 
 iiafontaine, Lafontaine, in his fables 
 iieo-t. and stories, produced a 
 
 book for children that yet holds a place 
 in all cultivated families. Fenelon, in 
 jFeneioH, ] 1715. his Telemachus, gave a 
 charming treatise on education, which 
 was translated in all the languages of 
 Bosstiet, ■fiioj,. Europe. Bossuet was 
 a master of eloquence in the pulpit and 
 in theological controversy ; the Hugue- 
 Bayie, fiyoo. Hot Bayle elaborated, 
 with wonderful ability, the philosophy 
 of doubt; and the provincial letters of 
 rascal, f i««2. Pascal belonged to the 
 most brilliant and most powerful pro- 
 ductions of controversial literature. 
 The Society of Jesus has never re- 
 covered from the blows inflicted upon 
 them, by this mighty adversary. 
 
 § 409. But the stain upon the glory of Louis XIV. is his persecution of the 
 
 MADAME DE MAINTENON. 
 
 PERSECUTION OF THE HUGUENOTS. 
 
 Huguenots. The French king believed that the unity of the Church was inseparable 
 from the unity of the monarchy. He therefore oppressed the Jansenists, a Catholic 
 party, which was at first opposed by the Jesuits, and afterward by the Pope. And for 
 
508 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 the same reason he persecuted the Calvinists, till they fled the kingdom, or returned to 
 the Catholic church. Colbert, who thought highly of the Huguenots as industrious 
 and inventive citizens, for a long time prevented violent measures. But the influence 
 of the royal confessor, La Chaise, the zeal of Madame de Maintenon, and the stub- 
 born cruelty of Louvois, the minister of war, flnally determined the King to his destruc- 
 tive course. The number of Huguenot churches was diminished, and their worship 
 was limited to a few cities. Every time Louis was attacked with a fit of repentance 
 or of devotion, the Calvinistic heretics suffered the consequences ; for hj their con- 
 version, he hoped to atone for his own sins. The Huguenots were gradually excluded 
 from offices and dignities, from all positions of honor, and all rights in the guilds. 
 Converts were favored ; the poor were bribed ; the conversion of children was declared 
 valid; families were divided; children taken from their parents and brought up 
 in the Catholic faith; and a return to Huguenot worship was punished as a crime. 
 Court and clergy, the eloquent Bishop Bossuet at their head, did their utmost to es- 
 tablish the ecclesiastical unity of France. When all these measures failed," the drag- 
 onnades were tried. Dragoons were sent into the south, and quartered upon the 
 Huguenots. The outrages of these booted and spurred "converters" who left the 
 houses of apostates, and crowded into the dwellings of the steadfast, were mightier 
 than all the inducements of the Court, and all the temptations of the priests. Thous- 
 ands fled to foreign countries, that they miglit enjoy their faith in peace. Last of all 
 October, loss. Came the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. Calvinistic worship was 
 
 forbidden ; their churches were 
 torn down ; their schools closed ; 
 their preachers exiled ; and when 
 the emigration increased so enor- 
 mously as to frighten the govern- 
 ment, it was prohibited, under 
 penalty of galley-slavery and con- 
 ji; fiscation. Yet, in spite of these 
 ^' till eats and prohibitions, half a 
 million French Calvinists carried 
 their industry, their faith, and their 
 hearts into Switzerland, Prussia, 
 Holland and England. These fugi- 
 tive Huguenots taught to foreign- 
 eis the art of weaving silk fabrics, 
 and of knitting stockings. Flat- 
 terers might praise the King as an exterminator of heresy, but the courage of the jjeas- 
 ants in the Cevennes mountains, and the great number of the Huguenots who were 
 satisfied with family worship, soon proved that religious oppression had failed of its 
 purpose. For when the persecution reached the mountain valleys where the Waldenses 
 preserved their simple worship, the pursuers met with desperate resistance. A terri- 
 ble war filled the peaceful valleys of the mountains. Fugitive priests, in the gloom 
 of the forests, excited their evangelical brethren to enthusiastic conflicts, until the per- 
 secutors grew weary of the fight. Two million Huguenots were left by the Edict of 
 Nantes without civil rights and without worship. 
 
 i'"^^ 
 
 FRENCH INFANTRY IN BATTLE. 
 

 1 «( 
 
 'rMm^^ iff I ST. iM^' .w 
 
 KEVOOATiON OF THE EDICT OF NAistTES. {A. de NeuviUe.) {-pp. 509.) 
 
510 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 IV. THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 § 410. 
 
 1. The Spanish Wae of Succession (1701-1714). 
 
 I HE last Hapsburg in Spain was approaching his end. Exasperated 
 by the European powers, who, during his life time, had agreed 
 upon a division of his land, the childless king, Charles II., made 
 a secret testament, in which he excluded Austria from the Spanish 
 throne, and named a grandson of Louis XIV., Duke Philip of 
 Anjou, as heir to the Spanish dominons. 
 Charles died in the last year of the seventeenth century, and Louis 
 lioo. XIV., after some hesitation, determined to accept the testament. 
 
 True, his exhausted kingdom needed rest, but his cabinet and Madame de Maintenon 
 were not afraid of war. " There are no Pyrenees any longer," exclaimed the eager 
 i^eopoia I., monarch. But kings are notal ways prophets. The Emperor, Leopold, 
 16B7.170S. took up arms to defend the inheritance of his second son Carl. With 
 him stood the princes of Germany, especially the Elector Frederick of Brandenburg, 
 and the Elector of Hanover. England and Holland also came to the support of Aus- 
 tria ; Holland because she feared the growth of France, and England because the 
 1701. French king had recognized the pretender, James III., as the king of 
 
 England. Only two German princes took the side of France, the Elector of Bavaria 
 and his brother, the Elector of Cologne. Spain 
 was divided. The Eastern provinces were for 
 Austria ; the rest of the land was for the Bour- 
 bon king, Philip V., who was, by his mother's 
 side, a Spaniard and a Hapsburger. 
 
 § 411. This time Austria and England 
 conquered ; for their armies were led by the two 
 greatest generals of their time. Prince Eugene 
 of Savoy, and the Duke of Marlborough. 
 Prince Eugene, who had acquired great renown 
 in the war with the Turks, made a masterly 
 march into Italy, driving back the Spanish 
 army, and bringing the Duke of Savoj^ to the 
 side of Austria. Marlborough was the head of 
 1701. the Whig party in England, 
 
 which under Queen Anne conducted the gov- 
 ernment, and was therefore given almost un- 
 limited 23ower. The Duke of Savoy, by his alliance with Austria, brought his 
 dominions into great distress. Piedmont was conquered, and also Lombardy. 
 1703. But the brave Tyroleans drove back the Bavarians, and prevented a 
 
 junction of the Spaniards with their German allies. The Elector of Bavaria was 
 obliged to abandon the Tyrol, and to unite with the French army. Prince Eugene 
 and Louis of Baden now bore down upon them. Marlborough executing a masterly 
 movement along the Rhine and the Mosselle, formed a junction with them, and in the 
 
 PRINCE EUGENE. 
 
THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 
 
 511 
 
 Aug. 13. i^o*. battle of Blenheim, the French and Bavarian army were utterly 
 routed. The French were, for the most part, taken prisoners; their ammunitions and 
 Joseph. I., supplies fell into the hands of the enemy. Bavaria was abandoned to 
 i^os-1711. the Austrians, and cruelly oppressed. The Elector and his brother were 
 put under the impe- 
 rial ban by Leopold's 
 successor, Joseph I. 
 
 §412. The French 
 were defeated like- 
 wise in the Nether- 
 lands and in Italy. 
 Marlborough over- 
 threw completely the 
 incompetent Mar- 
 shal Villevoi in the 
 aiayns, i7oa. battle 
 of Ramillies. As a 
 consequence, the 
 Spanish Netherlands 
 recognized the Aus- 
 trian claimant as the 
 king of Spain, In 
 Italy Prince Eugene 
 in the battle of Turin, 
 sex>t. ■>, 1-ioe. routed 
 the French army, and 
 occupied Milan, Lom- 
 bardj^ Lower Italy, 
 and Sicily. Only in 
 Spain could Philip of 
 Anjou maintain him- 
 self against the Eng- 
 lish and Austrian 
 armies. 
 
 Barcelona, Valen- 
 cia, and other import- 
 ant cities however re- 
 fused to acknowledge 
 his authority, while 
 
 the English acquired nothing except Gibraltar, which they hold to this day. Philip 
 iro*. v., who soon prevailed, threatened dire punishment to his rebellious 
 
 cities. Valencia was devastated, and her brave citizens, who were determined to suffer 
 1707. death rather than to submit to the hated Castilians, set fire to their 
 
 own houses, and were buried under the ruins. The conquests of Saragossa and Lerida 
 broke the resistance, and the axe of the headsman destroyed the lives of the boldest 
 leaders. Aragon, Catalona, and Valencia lost the last remnants of their rights, and 
 
 THE DrivE OF MARLBOROUGH AND HIS WIFE. 
 
512 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 were governed henceforth by the laws of Castile. Yet Barcelona persisted in her 
 resistance, till the close of the war. 
 
 § 413. In 1708, Eugene and Marlborough 
 
 jfuiu 11, lios. increased their renown, by a 
 great victory at Oudenarde, on the river 
 Scheldt. Louis XIV. now despaired of suc- 
 cess, and startled at the exhaustion of his peo- 
 ple, he even wished for peace. But Eugene, 
 Marlborough, and the Dutch statesman Hein- 
 sius, succeeded in forcing upon him hard con- 
 ditions. He was asked to give up not only all 
 claim to the Spanish monarchy, but Alsace and 
 the city of Strasburg, and he would have con- 
 sented, if his enemies had not insisted also that 
 he should help to drive his own grandson out 
 of Spain. This was too much for the French 
 court, and the war continued. In the terrible 
 
 Sept. 11, 1700. battle of Malplaquet, the French 
 lost more men than at any previous defeat, 
 and were ready for almost any terms. But the 
 victors did not know the day of their oppor- ,,^,. . 
 
 LOUIS XV. AND FRENCH GENERAL (IV 15.) 
 
 tunity. 
 
 § 414. The wife of Marlborough quarreled with Queen Anne. A Cabal drove 
 
 the Duchess from the English court, and the Whig ministry gave place to the Toiies. 
 
 Bolingbroke and the new cabinet wished 
 for the end of the war, so as to do without 
 
 1710. Marlborough, and began 
 negotiations with France. These were soon 
 completed, especially as Joseph I. died with- 
 out male issue, and his brother Carl, the 
 
 1711. claimant of the Spanish 
 monarch, inherited the Austrian crown. It 
 
 Call jj., was certainly not the interest 
 itii-17-to. of the foreign powers to 
 enlarge Austria by the annexation of Spain, 
 and thus to establish the superiority of 
 the House of Hapsburg. A truce was 
 agreed upon, between England and France. 
 Marlborough was accused of speculations, 
 and deprived of his dignities ; and when the 
 truce expired, the treaty of Utrecht was 
 framed. Spain and the American possessions 
 were given to the Bourbon king, Philip V., 
 upon condition that the French and Span- 
 ish crowns should never be united. England received from France, Nova Scotia and 
 other possessions in North America, and from Spain, Gibraltar, with certain commercial 
 
 FRENCH ABBE. {Early I8ih Century.) 
 
THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 
 
 513 
 
 advantages. The Duke of Savoy obtained the island of Sardinia, with the title of 
 Apiii ti, 1V13. king. The Emperor of Germany would not sign the treaty of Utrecht, 
 and continued the conflict for some time. 
 
 But Carl was soon convinced that he could not prosecute the war successfully 
 
 alone. He therefore agreed to the peace of Rastatt. Austria obtained the Spanish 
 
 March, tJi<t. Netherlands, together with Milan, Naples, and Sicil3\ The Electors 
 
 of Bavaria and of Cologne were restored to their possessions, and the title of the King 
 
 of Prussia was universally recognized. 
 
 § 415. France. Louis XIV. died in the following year. He was tired of life, 
 
 Sept. to, 171B. and bowed down by affliction. Within two years he had lost his son, 
 
 i^oxiis XV., his grandson, his great-grandson, and his brilliant wife. His succes- 
 
 niB-m^. sor, Louis XV., was but five years old. During his minority, Philip of 
 
 JAMES WATT DISCOVERING THE POWER OF STEAM. 
 
 Orleans Kegent, Orlcaus was regent of France, and Cardinal Du Bois, his former teacher, 
 
 nis.1723. became his prime minister. Regent and minister alike were brilliant 
 
 and talented, but highly immoral, despising virtue and religion, and wasting the 
 
 revenues of the state, to satisfy their love of luxury and of pleasure. During the 
 
 regency, the Scotchman, John Law, established his celebrated bank, which promised 
 
 immense gains, especially from a speculation in Louisiana. This created an incredible 
 
 excitement in France, which the regent and his companion made the most of. Law's 
 
 bank was made a royal institution, and the coin of the realm was exchanged for paper 
 
 imo. money. An immense number of bank notes were issued, until at last 
 
 the bank broke, ruining thousands, while the greedy nobles became immensely wealthy. 
 
 § 416. Spain. The Spanish king, Philip V., was a weak prince, governed by 
 
 33 
 
514 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 women, tormented by melancholy, and by his ambitious second wife, 
 Elizabeth of Parma. With 
 
 JPhllip v., 
 
 iioi-n<io. 
 
 the help of an Italian named Alberoni, Eliza- 
 beth obtained for her oldest son Charles, 
 Naples and Sicily ; and for her second son 
 Philip, the dukedom of Parma. When 
 Philip died, he was succeeded by his son 
 Feiaiiiaufi VI., Ferdinand VI., but he too 
 
 ino-iiso. was afflicted by incurable 
 melancholy, which was charmed away by the 
 singer Faranelli, who obtained great influ- 
 ence at court. 
 
 § 417. England. George I., II., and III., 
 
 oeoi-ae I., were kings of the House of 
 
 1J1J-1J3S. Hanover. The two former 
 eieoi-ge II., wcre almost strangers in the 
 
 lisi-noo. realm, and consequently ex- 
 cfeorge III., crciscd but little personal in- 
 
 iteo-isso. fluence upon the course of 
 events. English constitutional liberty be- 
 came so firmly established, however, that the 
 responsible government thought mainly of 
 the well-fare of the realm, and the greatness 
 of the nation 
 
 CZAR AND BOYARS. 
 
 {17th Century.) 
 
 The first two Georges permitted themselves occasional interferences 
 in the government of the state, but in the 
 main the law prevailed, and freedom was 
 secure. Commerce and industry were 
 constantly extended, and the land was ex- 
 tremely prosperous. In the year 1769, 
 James Watt constructed the steam engine, 
 which created a new epoch in human de- 
 velopment, and about the same time, Ark- 
 wright invented the spinning-jenny and the 
 power loom, for the weaving of wool, cot- 
 ton and flax. In the reign of George I., 
 the pretender, James III., with the help 
 iT/is-itn. of dissatisfied Tories, 
 sought to obtain the English throne, but 
 his enterprise failed, and brought upon 
 his adherents a great disaster. In the 
 days of George II., Charles Edward, the 
 son of James, ventured a second attempt. 
 With the help of France, he landed in 
 BOYAES A^ lI^i~ {17th & 18lh Centuries.) Scotland, where he obtained a numerous 
 
 following among the daring highlanders. 
 js*5. His early successes encouraged him to invade England, but the bat- 
 
LANDING OF EDWARD THE PRETENDER. 
 
 (pp. 515.) 
 
516 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 tie of CuUoden destroyed forever the hopes of the Stuarts. Charles Edward, like 
 Charles II., was saved in a romantic fashion by the friends and adherents of his 
 house. But they were fearfully punished for their devotion. Executions and con- 
 fiscations went on without end ; the prisons, from Edinburg to London, were filled 
 with Jacobites. 
 
 2. Charles XII. of Sweden and Peter, the Great of Russia (1700-1718.) 
 Sweden and Russia. 
 
 § 418. In the beginning of the 18th. century, Sweden reached the pinnacle of 
 
 her power. Charles XI. 
 increased the royal es- 
 tates, and filled the state 
 treasury by his sagacity 
 and his economy. 
 Army and fleet were 
 maintained in good con- 
 dition. The shores of 
 the Baltic, with the rich 
 cities of Stralsund, Stet- 
 tin, Riga, Wismar, and 
 the mouths of the Oder, 
 the Weser, the Dwina 
 and the Dnieper, were 
 Swedish territory. The 
 present city of St. 
 Petersburg was at that 
 time a swamp on Swed- 
 ish soil, and the Swedes 
 were equal to any peo- 
 ple of Europe, in valor 
 and in military skill. 
 But when the Russians 
 were united under the 
 
 House of House of 
 
 Momanoff, RoUianoff 
 
 ioi3-iiao. they be- 
 gan to extend their 
 frontiers in all direc- 
 tions. Alexis Romanoff 
 Meocis, acquired 
 
 i«-ts-t«7e. Smolensk 
 
 and Siberia, compelled the Cossacks to acknowledge Russian authority, and furthered 
 Feoao,: industry and the cultivation of the land. Feodor Romanoff was 
 1070-1082. the creator of the absolutism of the Czar, as he destroyed the 
 family register, iipon which the noble families based their claims. 
 
 § 419, Peter the Great. What his ancestors had begun, was brought to com- 
 
 PETER THE GREAT. (Godfrey Kneller.) 
 
THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 
 
 617 
 
 Peter the Great, pletioii b}' Petei' the Great. He made great journeys tlirough Europe, 
 iGsa-ii3s. acquainting liiuiself with the institutions of 
 cultivated nations, and with the advantages of organized 
 government. He thereupon determined to transform the 
 Eussian empire from an Asiatic to a European state. To 
 tliis end he promoted the immigration of foreign artisans, 
 sailors, and officers, notwithstanding the prejudices of liis 
 own countrymen. He studied ship-building in Holland 
 and in England, visited the workshops of artists and of 
 manufactures, and studied the construction of mills and 
 machines. An uprising against the innovations and the 
 foreigners was suppressed and skillfully used by the Czai% 
 to transform his military system. The guilty were terribly 
 punished, being hanged or beheaded or broken on the wheel, 
 and as the Czar participated in person in these executions, 
 it was manifest, that the new culture had not reached his heart. He compelled his 
 subjects to wear the European costume, but he himself remained a barbarian in 
 
 JOHN SOBIESKI. 
 
 POLISH WINGED CAVALRY IN BATTLE. { W. Gamphauseii.) 
 
 nil" als, opinions, and methods ; abandoned to drink, savage in his passions, and terri- 
 ble in his wrath. 
 
 § 420. Poland undei- Frederick Augustus the Strong. While Russia was growing 
 
518 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 F,e€ie>tck mighiter, Poland was nearing the edge of ruin. When John Sobiesk 
 
 Atia<iat II. (king) died, there ensued a violent contest for the crown, which ended 
 
 iooi-n33. in the election of Frederick Augustus of Saxony, a prince famous for 
 
 his gigantic strength, and for his dissolute life. He was proclaimed king of Poland 
 
 i«9j. after he had gone over to the Catholic chnrch. But the Polish 
 
 nobility had so diminished the authority of the crown, that the state M'as rather an 
 
 oligarchy than a monarchy. The nobles alone possessed civil rights, the peasants were 
 
 serfs, and the artisans and merchants were in everything subordinate to these feudal 
 
 lords. And the elected king was nothing more than the administrator of the decrees 
 
 of the nobles. 
 
 § 421. Charles "XII. was but sixteen years old when he ascended the Swedish 
 
 Charles XII. throoc. Accordiugly, the rulers of Russia, Poland, and Denmark 
 
 ni07-nis. thought it would be easy to deprive Sweden of her conquered land. 
 
 Peter the Great, 
 wished to establish 
 himself on the Bal- 
 tic ; Augustus the 
 Strong wanted Livo- 
 nia ; and the Danish 
 king, Frederick IV., 
 sought to acquire 
 j S c h 1 e s w i g . They 
 concluded an alliance 
 with each other, and 
 Frederick Augustus 
 marched with a Saxon 
 army to the frontiers 
 of Livonia, while the 
 Russians besieged 
 Narva, and the Dan- 
 ish king attacked the 
 Duke of Holstein. 
 
 CHARLES XII. RELIEVING xNARVA. g^j- ^he yOUUg King, 
 
 indignant at the unrighteousness of his enemies, crossed with his brave arm}' to See- 
 
 1700. land, beseiged Copenhagen, and so frightened the Danes, that Frederick 
 
 IV. gave up his allies, and promised to compensate the Duke of Holstein. Charles now 
 
 not. turned upon his other enemies. With 8,000 men he defeated 80,000 
 
 Russians at Narva, captured many cannons and much ammunition. He then marched 
 
 into Poland, defeated the Saxon and Polish armies, conquering one state after the other. 
 
 The citizens of Warsaw surrendered with trembling hands the keys of their capital, 
 
 ijoa. and paid the contributions that he levied upon them. The fruitful 
 
 regions of the Vistula, and the Polish cities of the Baltic were soon in the power of 
 
 the Swedes. Charles required the Poles to set aside their king, Frederick Augustus, 
 
 and to choose another. They struggled desperatel}' against this decree, but Charles 
 
 compelled them to obej^ and the choice fell upon Stanislaus Lescziuski. 
 
 § 422. Campaigning in the south of Poland was difScult, on account of the 
 
THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 
 
 519 
 
 swamps and the poverty of the country, yet Charles XII. succeeded even there. He 
 then marclied across Silesia into the heart of Saxony, which suffered terribly from the 
 ravages of the Swedish army. The inhabitants of the plains fled into the cities, and 
 the royal family sought protection in the neighboring kingdom. Augustus, to save 
 his land from ruin, gave up the Polish crown, renounced the alliance with the Czar, 
 Sept. noe. and surrendered the Russian ambassador Patkul to the Swedish king. 
 Charles had Patkul broken on the wheel, and in spite of the peace, occupied Saxony 
 for a whole year, the land suffering terribly from his exactions, and at the same time 
 from the extravagance of the court at Dresden ; for while the estates of the realm 
 consented grudgingly to the enormous taxes, and the wretched peasant was starving, 
 Augustus the Strong was maintaining a splendid court, and spending enormous sums 
 upon his festivals. Charles XII. was a strong contrast to the dissolute Elector. 
 Charles was every inch a soldier ; he drank no spiritoiis liquors, and shared with the 
 common soldier all the hardships of the cam- 
 paign. He ate common food, wore common 
 clothing; the same dress in summer and win- 
 ter ; a long military coat, and great cavalry 
 boots. He loved the sound of the battle, the 
 whistling of balls, and the neighing of the 
 war-horse. He cared nothing for operas and 
 concerts and court festivals. 
 
 § 423. While Charles XII. was wasting 
 time in Saxony and Poland, Peter the Great 
 was planning to conquer the Swedish posses- 
 
 iioa. sions on the Baltic. He built 
 
 the fort at Cronstadt, drained the marshes on 
 the Neva, and laid the foundations of St. Peters- 
 burg. Moscow and other cities were compelled 
 to furnish noblemen, merchants, and artisans ^i 
 for the new capital. And even foreigners were^ii 
 induced to emigrate thither. Charles XII. now '^li 
 determined to attack Moscow, and to press 
 into the heart of Russia. It would have been ^°"sh lancer and armored cAVALRYiMAN. 
 far wiser to have marched to the Baltic, and to have exterminated these new crea- 
 
 i-ioa. tions. But the Swedish king choose the way to Smolensk. No Rus- 
 
 sian army opposed him, as he waded, with his army, through the deep rivers, and 
 traversed the pathless swamps. In an evil hour he determined not to wait for his 
 general Lowenhaupt, who was on the way to him with fresh troops and supplies, but 
 allowed himself to be persauded by the old Cossack, Mazeppa, to march into Ukraine. 
 Lowenhaupt, attacked by the Russians, escaped only by the loss of all his artillery and 
 his supi^lies, and with great difficulty united the remnant of his army with the forces 
 of the King. The autumn rains were followed by a terrible winter ; many of the 
 July s. 1100. veterans perished by cold, and thousands lost their hands and feet. 
 Finally Charles beleagered Pultawa, but his cannon were not heavy enough to reach 
 the city, and Peter arrived with a great army. The battle of Pultawa followed, in 
 which the Swedish army was utterly routed. All their supplies and ammunition were 
 
520 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 captured by the enemjs and the surviving leaders and soldiers were taken prisoners. 
 Charles XII., the proud conqueror of three kings, became a helpless fugitive, who, 
 only after desperate efforts in the shelterless and famine stricken Steppes, escaped 
 with two thousand companions into Turkish territor3^ Luwenhaupt collected the 
 rest of the fugitives ; but retreat was impossible, for lack of food and artillery ; so 
 lie surrendered with sixteen thousand men. Not a man of them ever saw his home 
 agaiu. They were scattered through the empire, and died either in the mines of 
 Siberia or as -beggars on the highways. 
 
 § 424. Charles XII. was honorably treated by the Turks. In his camp at Ben- 
 mo. der, he was 
 maintained in sover- 
 eign stale, as the guest 
 of the Sultan. But the 
 thought of returning 
 home vanquished, and 
 without his army, was 
 unendurable to his 
 proud soul. He tried 
 to induce the Turks to 
 make war upon Russia, 
 and spent time and 
 strength, and exhausted 
 every means to gain the 
 Turks for his plans. 
 But meanwhile, his 
 three antagonists re- 
 newed their former al- 
 liance. Fredei'ick Au- 
 gustus took possession 
 of the Polish kingdom : 
 Peter the Great extend- 
 ed his conquest to the 
 Baltic, and the King of 
 Denmark occupied 
 Schleswig. Prussia and 
 Hanover also joined the 
 alliance, and invaded 
 the German territories 
 of Sweden. Only with 
 dilBculty was it possible 
 for the brave general 
 Stenbock, with his small army of peasants, to defend the fortified coast cities ; but 
 jtjii. finally Charles XII. seemed about to achieve his wishes. A Turkish 
 
 army entered Moldavia, and surrounded the Russian czar, forcing him almost to sur- 
 render. But his wife Catharine, (once a slave of his minister ]\Ienschikofif), managed 
 to bribe the Turkish Vizier and, by liis help, to conclude a peace. Cliarles XII. 
 
 innii^. 
 
 OHAKLES XII. OF SWEDEN. 
 
PETEE THE GREAT AFTER THE BATTLE OF PULTAWA. ( Jip. 521.) 
 
522 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 foamed with i»age at this failure of his cherished plan, yet he persisted in his purpose, 
 and remained at Bender until the Sultan withdrew his support, and commanded him 
 to leave the Turkish dominion. He took the money given him for his journey, and 
 remained at Bender nevertheless. Finally the Janissaries stormed his camp, set fire 
 to his tent, in which he defended himself with leonine strength, and finally took him 
 prisoner. He remained ten months in captivity, and consumed his strength in childish 
 obstinacy. Not until he was told that his German possessions had fallen into the 
 xotemhe,; Mm. hauds of his encmics, did he abandon Turkey, and set out for 
 Stralsund on horseback, where he arrived after fourteen days' continuous riding. 
 
 § 425. Stralsund was defended by the brave Swedes, with the utmost courage. 
 jtec, liis. But at the end of a year, the city was compelled to surrender, where- 
 upon all Pomerania and the island of Riigen came into the hands of Prussia. But 
 the obstinate king, Charles, would make no peace. He coined copper dollars to pay 
 
 the expenses of new equipments, and without 
 waiting for the result of negotiations with the 
 Russian emperor, he invaded Norway to chas- 
 tise the King of Denmark, for his violation of 
 the treaty. One of his armies perished with 
 cold, hunger, and fatigue. With the other, the 
 King marched to the south ; but at the siege of 
 tiis. Friederickshall, he lost his life. 
 
 The Swedish nobility now usurjDed all authority. 
 They excluded the rightful heir, Friederick of 
 Holstein, and conferred it upon the younger 
 isio. sister of Charles XH., Ulrica 
 
 Eleanora, and her husband Frederick, of Hesse 
 Cassel. Sweden was no longer a monarchy, 
 except in name. All power lay in the hands 
 of the imperial council of nobles. Baron von 
 Goersz, the minister of Charles, was cruelly 
 executed, and a number of treaties speedily 
 confirmed, in which Sweden gave up all her 
 foreign possessions, except a small part of 
 Pomerania. 
 
 § 426j But Russia emerged from the struggle a mighty European power. The 
 acquisition of Esthonia and Livonia, and other Swedish provinces, was for Russia the 
 beginning of a new epoch. So long as Moscow was the capital, the eyes of the Czar 
 were directed to Asia, with whose inhabitants and customs the Russians had greater 
 sj'rapathy than with the European. But now that Petersburg had become the seat of 
 government, and had been adorned by great buildings and parks, Russia had become a 
 European empire. The restless activity of the great Czar, produced a complete trans- 
 formation. Commerce and navigation were promoted by the building of highways, 
 canals, and harbors. Manufactures and mining were especially favored, and an acad- 
 emy of sciences was founded. The internal administration, especially the police sys- 
 tem, assumed new form, so that the imperial power was increased, and that of the 
 nobility diminished. One of the most important innovations of Peter the Great, Avas 
 
 TURKISH PASHA AND NOBLEMAN. 
 
 {16th & 17th Centuries.) 
 
524 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 the abolition of the patriarchal dignity, and the creation of the Holy Synod as the 
 supreme authority in church affairs, to which the Czar himself gave direction. 
 
 § 427. But Peter remarked^ with sorrow, that his only son Alexis, was opposed 
 to these innovations, and was surrounding himself with friends of the old order, evi- 
 dently intending to return to Moscow as the capital of the empire. The Czar sought 
 to bend the defiant spirit of his son, and to make him friendly to European culture. 
 Alexis refused to be conciliated, and fiuall}' escaped from the kingdom. Peter, con- 
 cerned for the continuance of his institutions, had his son brought home, and then 
 condemned to death. Whether he was executed or died before the judgment could 
 Ills. be carried out, is uncertain. When Peter died, he was succeeded by 
 
 cati,n,ine I., his wifc Catharine I. Under her and her successor, Peter II., Men- 
 iias-iiai. schikoff conducted the government ; but just as he hoped to marry 
 Fetei- II., his daughter to the young emperor, he was overthrown, and banished 
 i7-i-:-nao. to Siberia. The empress Anna who succeeded Peter TI., gave her 
 Aiijin, confidence to the energetic Geimans, Ostermann, and Muennich ; the 
 
 it3o-i->^o. former was her minister of state, and the latter her minister of war. 
 Elizabeth, But whcn ■ the youngest daughter of Peter the Great, Elizabeth, was 
 ii4t-i7e2. elevated to the throne by a palace revolution, all the favorites of 
 Anna were banished to Siberia. The infant Ivan, whom Anna had named as her suc- 
 cessor, was thrown into prison, and suffered to grow up like a brute. Elizabeth aban- 
 doned hei'self to a dissolute life, and the government to lier favorites. 
 
 § 428. The riotous life of Frederick Augustus the Strong, was transferred from 
 Dresden to Poland, and destroyed the li'ttle remnant of moral power left in the Polish 
 nobility. New vices were blended with the old. Vanit}', flattery, and religious big- 
 otry were more at home in Poland than ever. The Jesuits succeeded in depriving the 
 iii3. Polish dissidents of their ecclesiastical and civil rights. This led to 
 
 an uprising in the Protestant city of Thorn, and to the execution of ten of its chief 
 1794. citizens. The principal church was given over to the Catholics, and 
 
 the city deprived of its charter. To complete the ruin of the nation, the war of suc- 
 cession broke out in 1733. Stanislaus Lesczinski, who had fled from Poland after the 
 battle of Pultawa, and Avho had mariied his daughter to King Louis XV., of France, 
 renewed his claims to the throne, and relying upon French help, had set out for War- 
 «33. saw. But Russia and Austria favored Frederick Augustus III., of 
 
 Saxony. Stanislaus, although acknowledged by the Polish people, was compelled to 
 fly to Konigsberg, and thence to France, when the Russian troops entered Poland. 
 Frederick Augustus III., known as King August II., was a weak and inactive mon- 
 arch, under whose reign Poland rapidl}^ neared her dissolution. Stanislaus, however, 
 tiss. became the possessor of Lori-aine, and lived twenty-nine years in 
 
 Nancy, a friend of the poor, and a patron of the arts and sciences. 
 
 3. The Rise op Prussia. . 
 
 § 429. Frederick William the Great, Elector of Brandenburg, gi'eatl}' increased 
 Elector Fred- his territory by successful wars, and secured to his kingdom an influ- 
 erick nutiam, Butial posltiou by the founding of a great army. He encouraged 
 to4o.i«8s. prosperity and culture at home, b)^ favoring the immigration of for- 
 eigners, especially of French Huguenots. He was followed by his son, the Elector 
 
THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 
 
 525 
 
 Frederick III. Frederick III., to whom the splendor of Versailles seemed to be tlie 
 King highest triumph of earthly majesty. He looked with envy upon the 
 
 Fteaetick I., Electors of Hanover and Saxony, because they were called kings ; 
 to8s-ni3. and great was his joy, when the Emperor Leopold rewarded him for 
 his support in the War of the Spanish Succession, by acknowledging him as king of 
 ^an. IS, 1701. Prussia. He was solemnly crowned in Kcinigsberg, placing the crown 
 upon his own head and that of his wife, and then entered Berlin in triumph, as king 
 Frederick I. He adorned his capital with palaces and monuments, collected distin- 
 guished Prussians about him-in Charlotten burg, and with the help of Leibnitz, the 
 philosopher, founded academies of sciences and arts in Berlin, and established the 
 University of Halle, to which he called a number of distinguished scholars and phil- 
 osopheib 
 
 § 430 But these expenditures brought heavy taxes. The splendor of the new 
 
 monarchy seemed about to become pernicious 
 to the state. Fortunately, the extravagant 
 Frederick I., was followed by the economical 
 Frederick Frederick William I. Lux- 
 ntiiiam I., ury was banished from the 
 1713-1740. court ; the retinue of ser- 
 vants was greatly limited ; the royal table 
 became quite simple ; the Queen and her 
 daughters busied tliemselves with domestic 
 affairs ; raiment and furniture were of the 
 most unpretentious character. Instead of a 
 circle of philosophers, Frederick William 
 and his good friends formed their tobacco 
 college, where each member told his doubt- 
 ful story, and smoked his strong tobacco. 
 Christian Wolf, the philosopher, received 
 orders to leave Halle within four and twenty 
 hours. Nevertheless the King made things 
 easier for the peasants, and encouraged in- 
 dustry. He forbade the import of foreign 
 i7go. manufactures ; he gave a home to the exiled Protestants of Salzburg ; 
 
 and he compelled judges and officials to perform their duty. The only luxury 
 he allowed himself, was the enormous sum he spent upon his Potsdam guard. 
 He spared no expense to get " tall fellows " from all the land of Europe, — not a few 
 being kidnapped, and brought by stealth into his dominion. At his death he left 
 X8, 000, 000 in cash, a great treasure in silver ornaments and utensils, a well-organized 
 revenue system, and a splendidly organized army. 
 
 § 431. His great son, Frederick II., struck out a different path. While his father 
 
 Freiierick II., was hunting or surrounded by his rude companions, the talented prince 
 
 bom .Tan. 24, was husy with French writers, and with the flute, which he passion-^ 
 
 1712; ately loved. Father and son had little sympathy with each other. 
 
 .iteif use. Frederick was repelled by his father's cruelty, and the father was 
 
 angry that the son pursued a path of his own. Finally, Frederick arranged a plan to 
 
 FREDERICK THE GREAT 
 
526 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 escape paternal authority, b\' flight. But a letter of Frederick's to his confidant, 
 Lieutenant Von Katte, revealed the secret. The king foamed with rage. He inipris- 
 jj^o. oned his son at Fort Kuestrin, and ordered Von Katte to be hung up 
 
 in front of Frederick's window. All who were in the secret were terribl}^ punished 
 by the enraged monarch. Not until Frederick besought his father's forgiveness was he 
 released from prison and given back his sword and his uniform. Soon afterward he 
 was married to a princess of Brunswick. B at he seldom saw his wife, especially after his 
 father gave him for his own the town of Reinsberg, where he carried on a gay life in the 
 circle of his cultivated and free-thinking friends. He read the works of the ancients 
 in French translations, he greatly admired French literature, and became so enamoi-ed 
 of Voltaire, that he wrote him flattering letters, and subsequentl}^ invited him to his 
 court. Frederick invited also a number of French authors, who had been banished 
 from France, to take refuge with him ; and when he ascended the throne, he recalled 
 Wolf to Halle with the well-known expression that " In his dominions everyone might 
 go to heaven in his own fashion." 
 
 4. The Age op Fbedeeick II., and of Maria Theresa. 
 a. The Austrian War of Succession. (^1740-17J^S.') 
 
 % 432. The Emperor, Karl VI., a good-natured, but by no means distinguished 
 i->*o. prince, died shortly before Frederick II. ascended the throne. Just 
 
 before his death, he concluded with the Sultan the shameful peace of Belgrade. He 
 had no male heirs, so it was his chief concern during his reign to secure the succession 
 icr«w« Theresa, of the Austriau hereditary dominions to his daughter Maria Theresa. 
 11-to-iiso. To this end he purchased, through great sacrifices, the acknowledg- 
 ment by all the Courts of the " pragmatic sanction."' According to this, the Austrian 
 hereditary lands were to remain undivided, and, should a male line fail, were to pass 
 to the female line. Hardly liad the Emperor closed his eyes, when Karl Albert, Elec- 
 tor of Bavaria, laid claim to the Austrian dominions. Karl was too weak and too 
 extravagant to make good his claims with the slender resources of his own exhausted 
 land, but the French court, in spite of its recognition of the " pragmatic sanction,"' 
 supported him with money and with troops. The French were anxious to have their 
 hands free, to extend their kingdom along the Rliine and in the Netlierlands. But 
 Frederick II. now laid claim to Silesia, and also favored the Bavarian Elector in his 
 claims to Austria, Hungaria, and Bohemia. Saxony too started for a share in the 
 booty ; even the indolent Frederick Augustus II. laid claim to Moravia, and thus 
 brought unspeakable misery to his unhappj^ land. 
 
 § 433. A few weeks after the death of Karl VI., the armj^ of Frederick marched 
 
 Oct. so, ti40. into Silesia. The King himself was with his armj% rather to learn war 
 
 than to command in person. His two generals, Schwerin and Leopold Von Dessau, 
 
 April. 11^1. managed his army with great skill and success. They won the battle 
 
 of Mollwitz, and occupied the greater part of Silesia. The French army now invaded 
 
 siari rit., Germanj^ and occupied upper Austria and Bohemia, Karl Albert was 
 
 li-ti-iiis. acknowledged Duke at Linz, and received in Prague the Bohemian 
 
 crown. He was now at the pinnacle of his success. He Avas chosen emperor, and was 
 
 preparing for a splendid coronation in Frankfort. 
 
 § 434. In her extremit}-, Maria Theresa turned to Hungary. She appeared (so 
 
(2J;j.527 .) MARIA THERESA BEFORE THE ASSEMBLY. (P. PMlUppoteaUX.) 
 
528 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 the story goes) with her infant son Joseph in her arms, at a diet in Pressburg, and by 
 her eloqnent appeals, and her promises of favor, produced such enthusiasm among the 
 Hungarian magnates, that they broke forth in the cry " Vivat Maria Theresa rex ! " 
 The Tyroleans likewise exhibited their ancient fidelity. A mighty army soon marched 
 to the field, drove the Bavarian and French troops before them, ^nd marched, plunder- 
 jTan. »i, 13-is. ing and ravaging, through Bavaria. While Karl Albert was being 
 crowned emperor at Frankfort, the Austrians were invading his capital, Munich. They 
 robbed him of his possessions, and compelled him to take refuge with the French. 
 
 § 435. At the same time an .A.ustrian army invaded Bohemia, and attacked the 
 jTuiu, «J2. French. To deprive them of the assistance of Prussia, Maria Therest) 
 ceded Silesia to Frederick II., and in a short time the largest part of Bohemia was in 
 the hands of the Austrians. The French commander Belle-Isle, with a considerable 
 army, was shut up in Prague. But the French Marshal, by a daring movement, 
 escaped to Eger in the middle of winter, In the following spring Maria Theresa was 
 crowned in Prague, and at the same time she obtained a powerful ally in George II., 
 of Hanover and England. The French were driven across the Rhine, and Saxony 
 came over to the side of Austria. 
 
 § 436. The victory of the Austrians, at the battle of Dettingen, alarmed Fred- 
 jTiiiie 27, 1H3. erick II., and he began the second Silesian War against Maria Theresa. 
 As ally of the Emperor, he invaded Bohemia, while Charles VII. recovered Bavaria 
 and re-entered Munich. But only to die. His son, Maximilian Joseph, renounced all 
 claims to the Austrian succession, and gave his vote in the election of emperor to the 
 husband of Maria Theresa, who was crowned emperor in Frankfort as Francis I. 
 Meanwhile Frederick II. had lost nearly all Silesia to the Austrians. But his splendid 
 jrni.e -t, ii4B. victory at Hohenfriedberg restored to him his advantage. He and his 
 generals won repeated victories ; the old Dessau defeated the Saxons ; Frederick 
 marched into the abandoned Dresden, and Maria Theresa consented at last to the peace 
 of Dresden, in which she once more ceded Silesia to Frederick, the latter acknowledg- 
 ing her husband, Francis I., as German emperor. 
 
 § 437. But though the war was ended in Germany it continued in the Nether- 
 lands. The French were under the lead of the talented Marshal Saxe, and acquired 
 complete possession of the Austrian Netherlands. They made conquests in Holland 
 also, but, exhausted by the war, all longed for peace, and finally the treaty of Aix la 
 
 Oct. ii4s. Chapelle was concluded, in which the Austrian hereditary lands were 
 given to the Empress Maria Theresa, except Silesia and some Italian possessions. The 
 former fell to Prussia, and the latter to Philip of Parma. The other states returned to 
 the old conditions, and France obtained from the expensive war nothing but military 
 glory. 
 
 h The Seven Years' War. {1756-1763.) 
 
 § 438. Maria Theresa, smarting from the loss of Silesia, used the eight j'^ears of 
 peace that now ensued, to form alliances with other European powers. Elizabeth of 
 Russia, angered by Frederick's mockery, and eager for the Prussian possessions on the 
 Baltic, was easily won. Augustus III. of Saxony was also ready to punish the great 
 King, wl'io spoke of hinv always with contempt. But the masterpiece of Austrian 
 diplomacy was wrought out by the Austrian minister, Kaunitz, at Versailles. For he 
 
630 
 
 THE MODERX AGE. 
 
 induced France to give up its ancient policy of weakening tlie House of Hapsburg, and 
 to unite with Austria against Prussia. Louis XV. liad given himself up completely to 
 his lusts and to liis favorites. The proud and virtuous Maria Theresa condescended 
 so far as to send a flattering letter to the Marquise De Pompadour, the King's all-power- 
 ful mistress. The Pompadour and her creatures brought about an alliance betM-een 
 France and Austria, which was intended to deprive F'rederiek of his possessions, and 
 to reduce the Kin"- of Prussia to the rank of an Elector of Brandenbuvo'. 
 
 ^L^ni HZ VI K0SSE\CH 
 
 § 439. Frederick, apprised of all these movements, determined to anticipate his 
 enemies. He invaded Saxony, occupied Leipzig and Dresden, and established a Prus- 
 .iugnst. 1736. svAR administration. The taxes and revenues of the land were con- 
 fiscated, ammunition, arms, and artillery, carried off to ]\LTgdeburg ; and to justify 
 his undertaking, Frederick published documents, in which he exposed the plans of his 
 enemies. The Saxon army were forced to surrender at Pima on the Elbe. Frederick 
 octoiier. compelled fourteen thousand prisoners to enter the Prussian service, 
 but at the first opportunity the}' fled to Poland. As Frederick continued to levy 
 money and recruits in Saxony, war was declared upon him by tlie German empire. 
 
MARSHAL WAXE IN THE BATTLE OF FONTENOY. 
 
 (.1. de KeitviUe.) d)]). 531.) 
 
532 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 FREDERICK WILLIAM ^ ON SEIDLITZ. 
 
 And the aristocrats of Sweden joined their forces to crush him. England alone, be- 
 cause threatened by France in America, and anxious about Hanover, supported 
 Frederick. A few German states, Hanover, Brunswick, Hesse Cassel, and Gotha also 
 adopted his cause. 
 
 § 440. The next spring Frederick marched 
 
 with his main armj' into Bohemia, while his allies 
 
 attacked the French, who were between the 
 
 stay a, itsi. Rhine and the Weser. The battle 
 
 of Prague was, for Frederick, a dearly purchased, 
 
 but a brilliant victory. The fruits of it however 
 
 j.die s. were lost the next month, by a 
 
 defeat at KoUin, which the Prussian King suffered 
 
 at the hands of the Austrian Field marshal Daun. 
 
 And to make matters worse, the French won a 
 
 j«fj/. great victory at Hastenbeck, over 
 
 Frederick's allies, and proceeded to take up winter 
 
 quarters in Saxony. The Prince of Souhise, a 
 
 favorite of the Pompadour, had ah-eady advanced 
 
 to the river Saale, when Frederick attacked him 
 
 .voii. 5, ijsj. suddenly, and defeated him in the 
 
 battle of Rossbach. The imperial army fled at the first encounter, and the F'rench 
 
 soon followed. Seydlitz, the leader of the Cavahy, had particularly distinguished 
 
 Dec. s. himself. A month later Frederick defeated Daun in the battle 
 
 Leuthen. But the war greatlj^ dis- 
 tressed all Germany. Hanover, 
 Brunswick, and Hesse Cassel suffered 
 especially from the forced contribu- 
 tions of the Duke of Richelieu. 
 
 § 441. William Pitt had now 
 become the ruling spirit in the Eng- 
 lish ministry, and Frederick, after 
 the battle of Rossbach, had become 
 tlie idol of the English people. Pitt 
 determined therefore to support him 
 generously with money and with 
 troops, and to give him the choice of 
 a commander. Frederick appointed 
 Ferdinand of Brunswick avLo, in 
 ijss. early spring, drove 
 
 the French across the Rhine, and 
 secured North Germanj' from their 
 invasions. Meanwhile the Russians 
 had inarched to the Oder, and as 
 Bestuscheff liad behaved mysteri- 
 ously during an illness of the Czarina Elizabeth, he was banished, and his command 
 given to Fernior. The latter occupied East Prussia, and then invaded Brandenburg. 
 
 WILLI AJl I'lTT. 
 
THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 
 
 533 
 
 Frederick thereupon executed a masterly movement to the Oder, and defeated the 
 Auatiat as. Russians in the murderous battle of Zorndorf. He then started to 
 
 relieve his brother Henry in Saxony, but was surprised by Daun's superior army, 
 octoher IS. and lost all his artillery and many soldiers. Nevertheless he formed a 
 
 junction with Henry, and drove the enemy once more out of Silesia and Saxony. 
 
 § 442. But his strength was nearly exhausted. With difficulty he filled up the 
 
 gaps in his army, and found money and supplies to continue the war. Maria Theresa 
 
 on the other hand was constantly receiving armies and subsidies from Russia and 
 
 BATTLE OF LEUTHEN. 
 
 France. To prevent a junction of the Russians and the Austrians, Frederick marched 
 A.t,g. 12, ii5». to the Oder ; but after defeating the Russians, he was himself utterly 
 routed by the Austrians, under their able general Laudon. "All is lost," he wrote to 
 his minister, " save the royal family ; farewell forever." Dresden and nearly all of 
 Saxony was lost to Prussia, but the discord between Austrians and Russians prevented 
 their making use of their victory. Meanwhile the allies, under Ferdinand of Bruns- 
 A.ug. 1, ns». wick, had defeated the French army at Menden, driven them across 
 the Rhine, and saved Westphalia and Hanover. 
 
534 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 § 443. Fredei'ick was now comiielled to act on the defensive. The loss of able 
 officers and veteran soldiers could not even be supplied by Frederick's military genius. 
 And to obtain money, he was obliged to debase the currency and to collect oppressive 
 
 jhhc. isoo. taxes. The Austrians now oc- 
 cupied Silesia. Whereupon Frederick aban- 
 doned Saxony, and b}'^ his victory iat Liegnitz, 
 recovered Silesia. But the Austrians and Rus- 
 A.uauat IS. sians occupied Berlin, and de- 
 vastated Brandenburg. Daun entrenched him- 
 self upon an eminence not far from the Elbe, 
 and resolved to pass the winter in Saxony. 
 ' Frederick attempted to storm his camp, and in 
 xov. 3, neo. the battle of Torgau, he con- 
 quered Saxony, and was able to make his winter 
 quarters in Leipzig. But this victory overf 
 Daun cost him fourteen thousand of his bravest 
 soldiers. 
 
 § 444. In the j^ear 1761 Frederick seemed 
 lost. For when George III. ascended the Eng- 
 lish throne, the English refused to continue 
 the war. Silesia seemed lost to Austria, and 
 the province of Prussia to Russia. But in the 
 hour of Frederick's extremity, the Czarina 
 Jan. s. lies. Elizabeth died, and her nephew 
 Peter III., a passionate admirer of the Prussian king, obtained the Russian crown. 
 This transformed the situation. Peter made a treaty wfth Frederick, and the Rus- 
 sian army joined the Prussian fo}'ces. The alliance however did not long endure. 
 ^ Peter's innovations in church and state pro- 
 
 voked the Russians, and his treatment 'of his 
 wife Catharina provoked her to a comspiracy. 
 suia iJ, i5«a- The Czar was murdered, and 
 Catharina II. usurped the throne that belonged 
 to her son Paul. The new Czarina recalled her 
 troops from Prussia, but she confirmed a treat}' 
 of peace that had been made with Frederick. 
 And the Russian general, before his departure, 
 helped the Prussian King to another victory. 
 
 § 445. The German people were now in 
 desperation; their lands were wasted, their 
 Nov., 1302. industry had perished, their 
 prosperity was gone. Even Austria was so 
 shattered, that Maria Theresa no longer op- 
 posed the termination of the war. A truce 
 was agreed upon, and in the next February the 
 Feb. IS. lies. long desired peace was agreed upon, in Hubertsburg. B}' this treaty 
 Silesia was secured to Frederick, and Canada given to England. For the French 
 
 ALsThI VN LL\EH\L AND OFFICER. 
 
 (ITbO-HTo.) 
 
 HANS JOACHIM VON ZIETHEN. 
 
THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 
 
 535 
 
 had been defeated in Quebec by the brilliant and heroic achievements of General 
 Wolfe. 
 
 c. The German Empire and Frederick's old age. 
 
 § 446. The German empire had sunk into disrepute, and was not even represented 
 in the negotiations at Hubertsburg. The authority of the empire was a mere shadow, 
 aud the income of the emperor but a few thousand guldens. Four hundred and fifty 
 
 GEORGE III. 
 
 hereditary or elective princes and republican municipalities ruled in Germany, and left 
 to the emperor nothing but the confirmation of agreements and the determination of 
 rank. In war, German princes were frequently with the enemy, Bavaria almost always 
 taking part with France. The Diet, which held its sessions in Regensburg after 1663, 
 had lost all respect, as the sessions gave rise to nothing but debates, and these debates 
 even were more concerned with trivial matters, than with the interests of the people. 
 The judicial system of Germany was no better than the impei'ial administration. The 
 
536 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 HUSSAR OFFICER AND CAVALRY GRENADIER. 
 
 {Prussia, 1760.) 
 
 imperial court in Wetzlar was so slow, that years elapsed before a case could be de- 
 cided. And while the archives accumulated, 
 the parties often died. The judges were 
 open to bribeiy, and every attempt of the 
 jTosepu II. emperor to improve the sj's- 
 170S-1700. tern, met with the success- 
 ful resistance of those immediately con- 
 cerned. The lower courts made it almost 
 impossible for the common man to obtain 
 justice; the poor and the weak were help- 
 less against the injustice and the oppression 
 of the cunning and the strong. It was the 
 golden age of lawyers and advocates. 
 
 § 447. But while the empire was sink- 
 ing, Prussia was rising to greater power 
 and prosperity. The wounds of the Seven 
 Years' War were healed by the King as 
 rapidly as possible. He subsidized the 
 farmers and the manufacturers in Silesia and 
 in Brandenburg, remitted their taxes for a 
 number of years, and relieved the lot of the 
 peasant. He furthered the cultivation of 
 the land, the care of forests, and the opening 
 of mines ; established colonies in waste places, and did his utmost to encourage in- 
 dustry and commerce. In his court expenses he was simple and economical, and the 
 
 finances were so well regulated, that the . 
 treasury was soon relieved. -Not until liis 
 later life, did Frederick adopt ojipressive 
 and severe measures. He then made a 
 monopoly of coffee, tobacco, and salt, and 
 in order to hinder smuggling, he appointed 
 a multitude of French custom house officers, 
 whose insolence made them hated by citizen 
 and peasant. Church and school received 
 the least attention from the King. The 
 schools of smaller places were given to the 
 veterans of his armj'', while the high-schools 
 were frequently in the hands of French- 
 men. He cared but little for church and 
 Christianity, although he established toler- 
 ance in his dominions. His nephew and 
 freaerick w. II., succcssor, Frederick Wil- 
 i;s6-i«»7. liam II., was a pietist, and 
 issued an " edict of religion " which forbade 
 the clergy departing a hair's breadth from the 
 symbolical books, and which greatly limited 
 
 HUSSAR AND INFANTRYMAN. 
 
THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 
 
 537 
 
 freedom of doctrine and of belief. The judicial system however was the object of 
 Frederick's earnest solicitude. Torture was- abolished, and all cruel and unusual 
 punishments. Procedure was simplified, and the laws improved. The new code, now 
 linown as the Prussian common law, breathes the free mind of the great king. 
 Frederick himself personally attended to the administration of justice, spurring on 
 the indolent, and punishing the unscrupulous. Actively at work, from early morning- 
 till late at night, he was acquainted with all the circumstances of his kingdom, and as 
 he did not hesitate at times to use his cane, he terrified the lazy and the unjust. In 
 literature, Frederick was certainly unpatriotic, writing his letters and his works in the 
 French language. In fact the character of this nation excited his constant admiration 
 and imitation. French adventurers by the hundred found hospitality in Prussia, and 
 all the regions of Germany were alive with the merry children of France. Parisian 
 barbers and dancing-masters and swindlers 
 were not seldom preferred in the appoint- 
 ments to positions at court, and in the state 
 service. 
 
 § 448. In his old age, Frederick was 
 compelled to go to war again with Austria. 
 In 1777 the Bavarian line of the house of 
 Wittelsbach expired with Maximilian Jo- 
 seph, and the electorate passed to the next 
 heir, Carl Theodor, of the Palatinate. This 
 prince had no lawful children, and had no 
 love for Bavaria. He was easily persuaded 
 by Joseph II. to recognize the claims of 
 Austria to lower Bavaria, and to- surrender 
 these lands, upon the guarantee of certain 
 advantages for his illegitimate children. 
 Frederick II. tried to prevent this, at the 
 diet of the empire ; and when this failed, he 
 1JJS-13J0. marched an army into Bohe- 
 mia. This led to a war, in which the fight- 
 ing was chiefly on paper, for both parties 
 ti-ied to prove themselves in the right, by learned treatises. Finally Maria Thersa 
 May 13, 1JJ9. agreed to the peace of Teschen, in which the difficulty was peaceably 
 adjusted. But some years after her death, Joseph II. made a second attempt to get 
 possession of Bavaria, offering Belgium in exchange. This too Frederick sought 
 to prevent. He established an alliance of princes to which most of the princes of 
 Germany belonged. This alliance greatly increased the authority of the Prussian 
 king. Meanwhile the empire ueared its dissolution. Every prince was struggling 
 for unlimited power ; every one had his little court, in which he imitated Versailles 
 in splendor and expenditure, in morals and manners, in language, literature, and art. 
 
 OFFICER OF THE GUARD AND GRENADIER. 
 
 d. The Intellectual Life of the German Peojyle. 
 
 % 449. If the division of Germany into small principalities was disadvantageous 
 to its political power, it was beneficial at least to the development of German art and 
 
538 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 science. Many princes were patrons of literature and culture, inviting able men to 
 their capitals and universities, and encouraging poets and scholars to great achieve- 
 ment, lu the second half of the eighteenth century, at a time when Germany was 
 losing its political significance, literature, poetry, science and intellectual life in gen- 
 eral reached a high degree of excellence. This was especially true of poeti-y. 
 Mallet; iTii. Haller, in his didatic poem, " The Alps " described the scenery and 
 Mageaoin, 113^. the people of his native country. Hagedorn, in his political " Nar- 
 deiieit, 1709. ratives," and Gellert, in his "Fables and Stories," imitated the ele- 
 gant ease of the French, while they likewise revived the old German hymns. 
 
 Ktopatocfi, Klop- 
 
 im-iso3. stock 
 wrote his Messiah, 
 and by his odes, 
 awakened in the peo- 
 ple a feeling for 
 Christianit}', and a 
 love for freedom. 
 What he did in 
 poetry, his great 
 contemporaries, Se- 
 Btich, isao. bastian 
 Hanaei, X150. Bach and 
 George Frederick 
 Handel, did in music. 
 Handel's Oratorio 
 " The Messiah " can 
 be called a great 
 Christian epic in 
 x.e.ssiiia, " tones." 
 1720-17S1. Lessing, 
 the great thinker and 
 critic, revealed, in 
 his " Hamburg Dra- 
 maturgy " the weal^- 
 GOETHE. ness of the French 
 
 dramatic literature, 
 and showed, by his own plays, " Minna von Barnhelm," " Emilia Galotti," and 
 " Nathan the Wise " the path to genuine dramatic art. At the same time, he pointed 
 out. in his Laocoon, the true relations of poetry and of plastic art. His contem- 
 winkeiuian. popary, Johu Winkelman, reached the same result by different 
 1717.176S. methods. Not the least of Lessing's contributions to modern 
 culture were his controversial writings, touching the Wolfenbiittel fragments. 
 Meifier, Herder, a man of great brilliancy and poetic eloquence, discussed 
 1JJJ-JS03. the origin of language and of poetr\', pointed out the beauties 
 of oriental lore and the deep significance of popular songs, among the differ- 
 ent races. He published also his " Ideas toward the Philosophy of Human His- 
 
 J 
 
THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 539 
 
 1733. tS13. 
 
 toi'v," which gave a mighty impulse to further investigation. Wie- 
 land, in his romances, taught, in easy language, a wise enjoyment of 
 life, a doctrine especially grateful to the higher classes. At the same time, he renewed 
 in his " Oberon " the romantic poetry of the Middle Ages. These three writers trans- 
 formed the prose language of Germany. Lessing contributed strength, precision, and 
 lucidity; Herder, inspiration and imagination; Wieland, ease and grace. And these 
 Goethe, three were followed by the greatest genius of the century — Goethe, 
 
 1749. 1S3S. in whose creations are mirrored, not only his own intellectual life, but 
 the mental movements of the German people. In the seventies, when the youth of 
 Germany were despising the rules of art and of traditional morality, and praising the 
 products of unbridled genius ; when they were adoring the songs of the people, and 
 worsliipping Ossian and Shakespeare, the " Sorrows of Werther," a romance in letters, 
 and the dramatic picture " Gcitz von Ber- 
 lichingen," aroused a storm of enthusiasm. 
 After Lessing and Winkelman had awak- 
 ened in Germany a taste for antique art, 
 Goethe produced his classical dramas 
 " Tasso " and " Iphigenia," composed in 
 antique spirit and form, and alive with 
 the impressions that he had received in 
 use. his journej^ to Italy. His 
 
 tragedy of " Egmont " reveals his nature 
 and his powers in a different manner, 
 especially in its pictures of popular life. 
 His idyllic poem " Hermann and Dorothea" 
 touches the exciting period of the French 
 revolution and the sufferings of the emi- 
 grants. His romance of "William Meis- 
 ter " which portrays the life of the theater 
 and his novel of " Elective Affinities " 
 both belong to the new romantic time, 
 which found delight in the miraculous 
 the mysterious, and the supernatural.s™^^!'^^™ his 30th year. (L.vonSimonavoitz.) 
 
 In his " Truth and Poetry " Goethe pictured the course of his own life and cul- 
 ture. And in his collossal dramatic poem "Faust," he gave to posterity a picture 
 of his innermost soul. The might}' storms that passed through the political world, 
 scHiiief, directed the thoughts of men to history. Frederick Schiller produced 
 17SO-1SOS. his historical dramas, in wliich he represented the stormy periods of 
 domestic and foreign history, and by his enthusiasm for freedom, country, and human 
 happiness, he struck the chord that responds most surely in the popular heart. His 
 three first tragedies, " Tiie Robbers," "Cabal and Love," and " Fiesco," belong to the 
 stormy period of his youth. With " Don Carlos " he began a new and nobler period. 
 During his residence in Jena, as professor of history, he busied himself with the 
 " Thirty Years' War," with the " Revolt of the Netherlands; " and with his Eulogy of 
 " Wallenstein." He also wrote the "Song of the Bell," a charming picture of human 
 life, in its joys and sorrows. In the days of his illness and misfortune, he composed 
 
640 
 
 THE MODERN AGE. 
 
 " Maria Stuart," "The Maid of Orleans," the "Bride of Messina" and his splendid 
 drama " William Tell." Schiller and Goethe became intimate friends, in spite of the 
 differences of their natures ; and their united activity marks the highest point in the 
 achievements of German poetry. 
 
 § 450. But theology,. philosophj% history, the science of education, all shared this 
 powerful impulse. Protestant theologians investigated the Bible, and expounded the 
 x^arater. Christian doctrine, each according to his bent. Some, like Lavater of 
 i-m-isoi. Zurich, sought to maintain the world, in the strictest belief, and to 
 establish the conviction that man could reach God only b}- prayer. Others, like 
 xicoiai, Nicolai, desired to make the human mind the supreme judge in divine 
 1733-isii. things, and declared everything contrary to reason to be mere super- 
 stition. The foi-mer were called supernaturalists, the latter rationalists. Athirdpart}% 
 stotbeia- of which the philosopher Jacobi, and the poet. Count Stolberg, were 
 the leaders (like the mystics of the Middle Age) made religion a mat- 
 But the greatest revolution was wrought in philosophy. Kant, the 
 great thinker of Konigsberg, in his " Kutick " expounded a sj'stem 
 that soon made its way into all sciences, and excited and dominated 
 the learned world of Germanj-. His disciple, Fichte, passed from the 
 ■critical idealism of Kant, to pure idealism, declaring, in his "Doc- 
 trine of Knowledge," that the ME or the EGO was first and original. In his system 
 of moralit}', Fichte made freedom and self-activity the aim of moral effort, and b}' his 
 "Addresses to the German Nation" he became renowned among his contemporaries, 
 sciieiiina, and to posterity. Fichte 's pupil, Schelling, blended his idealism with 
 177S.1S34. natural philosophy, and Hegel, in his dialectics, created a system that 
 Mteaet, mo-isai. exercised a powerful influence upon the intellectual development of 
 s/tittiei; Germany. Spittler wrote history with precision and clearness, and 
 nsa-isto. John Mueller, of Switzerland, began a new era of historical composi- 
 atueiier, tion, by his learning and his artistic skill in presentation. Basedow, 
 liss-isoo. inspired by Rousseau of France, was the forerunner of Pestalozzi and 
 BasetJott!. Froebel. He established a model school at Dessau, and was followed 
 1723-1700. by Campe and Salzmann, who exjDOunded and improved tlie methods 
 Festaioxxi. of teaching, upon Avhicli Pestalozzi founded his system of education 
 17JIO-1SS7. and of school life. 
 
 ijjo-jrsio. 
 
 ter of feeling, 
 
 Kant, 
 17SJI-1709. 
 
 Fichte, 
 170S-lSt^. 
 
 J. H. PESTALOZZI. 
 
 J. G. FECHTE. 
 
(541) 
 
r '>>> J. 
 
 
 {pij. 542.) 
 
 BATTLE OP ISLY. .(1844.) 
 
A. THE HERALDS OF TEIE REVOLUTIOK 
 
 §451. 
 
 I. THE LITERATURE OF ENLIGHTENMENT. 
 
 •^«i^ 
 
 FRANCE in the course of the eighteenth centuiy, was 
 sliaken to its foundations by the prevailing litera- 
 ture. 
 
 Men of genius and of great endowments yet 
 full of prejudice attacked religious belief and the 
 institutions of the church, with sharp and skeptical 
 criticism ; assailed the medieval constitution of the 
 state, and declared the existing conditions and 
 forms of society to be antiquated abuses. Starting 
 with the actual wrongs in the church, in the state, in the 
 administration of justice and in social arrangements, they 
 gradually undermined organized society and rendered 
 unstable all laws and traditional usages ; seeking to destroy 
 the prescriptions, privileges, and prerogatives of rank and, 
 to make room for freedom and personal merit, they weakened also reverence for 
 ancient jnaxims and rights and for legitimate authority; fighting against supersti- 
 tion, prejudice, and traditional opinion, they confused both faith and conscience, 
 destroyed in the hearts of men their reverence and regard for sacred inheritance, and 
 expected to see the happiness of the world bloom forth amid the ruins of the existing 
 Older. This was especially the case with Voltaire, Montesquieu and Rousseau. For 
 their writings, adorned as they were with the magic of beautiful diction and poetic 
 form, were read by the whole of civilized Europe. Their paths were different but led 
 them to the same results. 
 
 § 452. Voltaire, a writer of great genius, who had distinguished himself in all 
 tlie forms of literature, attacked with the weajDons of sharp wit and keen intelligence, 
 all prevailing opinions and existing institutions without inquiring what should take 
 their place. In his dramatic and epic poems (Mahomet, The Henriad, The Maid of 
 
 (543) 
 
544 
 
 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 
 
 Orleans), in his satires and romances, and in his historical and philosophical works, 
 (" Essaj-s upon the Morality and the Intelligence of Nations " " The Age of Louis 
 XIV," "The History of Charles XII") he set forth his views and doubts, his thoughts 
 and criticisms, his investigations and experiences. Religion and Church, Priesthood 
 
 and popular belief were attacked 
 most violently, and although his 
 mockery and wit destroyed men a 
 prejudice and superstition, revealing 
 the imbecility of the Church in all 
 its nakedness, yet it robbed man}^ of 
 their religious feeling, planting in 
 many souls doubt and unbelief, and 
 roitnire Substituting for the 
 i«»j-ijjs. law of Christ, cold 
 calculation and selfish egotism as the 
 highest guides for human conduct. 
 
 Montesquieu, a more serious 
 writer, pointed out what was faulty 
 in the existing order, in the hope of 
 its timely transformation. In the 
 " Persian Letters " he attacked the 
 church creed and the whole educa- 
 tional and governmental system of 
 France in the mocking manner of 
 Voltaire, and ridiculed in the same 
 fashion the manners and social con- 
 ditions of his contemporaries. In 
 his " Considerations of the causes of 
 the greatness and the decay of the 
 Roman State," he sought to prove 
 that patriotism and self-reliance make 
 a state powerful, while despotism 
 VOLTAIRE. Ig.jfig it to destruction. His third 
 
 luontesQuien work " The Spirit of Laws " exhibits the constitution of England 
 10S0.17SS. as the best form of government for the people of to-day. 
 Jean Jacques Rousseau, son of a Genevese watchmaker, attacked existing con- 
 ditions with enchanting pictures of a different society. After a youth of poverty 
 and mistake, revealed with startling frankness in his " Confessions," he came, in 
 writing a prize essay upon the " Influence of the Arts and Sciences upon Morality," 
 to the fundamental proposition of all his thinking to wit : Refinement is the cause of 
 all misery and all crime; nature produces only what is good but all degenerates in 
 the hands of men. Hence the cry must be, " Back to Nature." Shaking from them 
 the fetters of culture, education, and custom, men will soon return to happiness and 
 health, to prosperity and righteousness. His writings are distinguished more for their 
 feeling and power of representation than for depth and truth. The romance entitled 
 " The New Heloise " contrasts the charms of a natural life with the restraints of 
 
THE HERALDS OF THE REVOLUTION. 
 
 545 
 
 jMONTESQUIEU. 
 
 actual society; "Emile"is an attempt to base rational e.Uication upon nature and 
 parental love, and is an atonement for sending his own children to the foundling 
 asylum. The " Confession of a Savoyard 
 Vicar,'"in which he contrasted a religion 
 of the heart with the prevailing system, 
 'brought upon him condemnation and 
 exile. In the " Social Contract," he 
 expounded the equality of all men as 
 the indispensable condition of every 
 stable government : and an absolute 
 democracy, with legislative popular as- 
 semblies, as the perfect political system. 
 His writings contain, in spite of their ^ 
 
 fundamental errors and their paradoxes, i 
 
 KoKseein many golden truths. 
 
 1712-1778. His words are the ex- > 
 pression of a deep inward feeling ; and 
 hence produced immeasurable results. 
 The places trodden by his foot or 
 visited by him in the days of his exile, 
 were reverenced by the next generation. 
 He re-awakened in France the feeling for nature, for simplicity and home ; but also 
 a yearning for the primeval state of liberty and equality, that could be stilled only 
 by the destruction of existing institutions. 
 
 § 453. The influence of these 
 men throughout Europe was the 
 greater because at that time Paris 
 gave the key-note in everything, 
 and the French literature and 
 language were exclusively read 
 and spoken in the higher circles. 
 Princes like Frederic the Great, 
 Gustavus III. of Sweden, Charles 
 III. of Spain, Catharine II. of Rus- 
 sia, the greatest statesmen of all 
 lands, and many influential per- 
 sons were in correspondence with 
 Voltaire and his like-minded con- 
 temporaries. Among these latter 
 werg the famous mathematician 
 n'Aiemhert and philosopher 
 1717.17S3. D'Alembert and 
 the versatile and equally renowned Didei'ot. They were the crea- 
 tors of thee Encyclopedia, which gave a survey of all human knowl- 
 edge, at once clear, magnificent, and free, yet hostile to every nobler aspiration 
 because it subordinated soul to sense. Quesna}', the court physician, published at the 
 35 
 
 D'4LEMBERr 
 
 I>itIerot 
 1713-1784. 
 
546 THK F.UA OF KF.VOl.l" I'lONS AND UKS lOK ATIOXS. 
 
 same time his physiocratio doctrine, in which he attacked the hitherto prevailing mer- 
 cantile system, and set forth the cultui-e of the soil as the source of national wealth. 
 The " Children of Light " were speedily victorious in all the lands of Europe. Tol- 
 eration in Religion, the disappearance of superstition and prejudice, the reforms of 
 Regents and ministers, the abolition of the order of the Jesuits, were all indications 
 of a nobler time. 
 
 The Company of Josus. (^<5 oo:2') whose chief object was ro hinder t]\e enlighten- 
 ment of the people and who opposed all reforms and innovations, could no longer exist 
 in a period, in which the whole civilized world cared more for humanity and brotherly 
 love than for correctness of creed. When therefore Pombal. the Portuguese minister, 
 t7sa. closed the Jesuit colleges and sent the merabei"s of the order to Rome, 
 
 and when all the Bonrbon rnlei-s of Europe followed his example. Pope Clement XIV.. 
 a sagacious pontiff, abolished the society. This compelled even ilaria Theresa, who 
 ijjs. had long maintained the company in Austria, to consent to its dissolu- 
 
 tion, and the other Catholic lands of Germany obeyed the papal mandate. 
 
 All obeyed the Pope except the Jesuits themselves. To counteract their influence 
 
 Adam Weisshaupt, Professor in Ingolstadt, founded the secret society of the llltimiiuUi, 
 
 im. the purpose of which vras popular enlightenment. But their attacks 
 
 upon the ex-Jesuits, monks, and clergy were soon arrested by the legal prosecutions 
 
 begun against them by the Bavarian government. 
 
 2. REFOEiiisG Princes and Ministers. 
 
 § 454. Fi-ench Philosophy and Literature exercised the greatest influence upon 
 princes and governments. The pi-oductionsof French authors were read and admired 
 in the higher circles of Eurepean society, and the young noblemen of Europe were 
 sent to Paris to complete their education. No man of importance could expect rec- 
 ognition, until he had visited the intellectual circles of the French capital. The princes 
 and statesmen of Europe eagerly sought the favor and friendship of French writei-s 
 and philosophers. It is not wonderful therefore that what was set forth as tr\ie in speech 
 and writing, should be applied in actual life. There was consequently an earnest 
 effort to tri\nsform old institutions and forms, old customs ami privileges. The spirit 
 of the time showed itself in relhrioHS atf-'airs, in the principle of toleration, in the 
 abolition of the Society of Jesus, and of the Inquisition ; and in the modification of 
 those maxims and institutions that were especially dangerous to fraternal love and to 
 human rights. But the new epoch was especially manifest in the humanizing of the 
 jmiu'iai tfi/stem : in the establishment of the equality of all men, with the consequent 
 abolition of the privileges and buniens which had originated in the Middle Age. 
 Serfdom was abolished in many lands ; the claims of feudal service were abandoned : 
 oppressive and dishonorable conditions were removed. New legid codes abol- 
 ished the cruel punishments of former times, such as torture, mutilation, break- 
 ing upon the wheel, etc.. and even criminals were conceded some few rights. 
 In politiAil ewnomi/ the Fi-euch writer-s set forth new principles, which were applied in 
 many lands. Acconling to these principles, money is the lever of political power. As 
 a consequence, the wise governor will seek, by industry, and the use of natural forces, 
 to produce the greatest possible money income. Agriculture, mining, woodcraft, were 
 therefore encouraged : commerce, manufactui-es. and useful inventions preunoted. But 
 
THE HERALDS OE THE KEVOLUTION. 547 
 
 on the other hand, the system of taxation was made excec<linj4i)' oppressive ; royal 
 monopolies were created, indirect taxes levied, lotteries established, and i)ap('r money 
 issued. 
 
 About the same time Adam Smith, of Glasgow, published his " Wealth of Na- 
 Adntn smiih, tlous," a work that created a new epoch in political economy, by nniin- 
 J1700. taining that the source of national wealth was the free devchipnient 
 
 and movement of human energy. 
 
 § 455. Portugal. The first to reconstruct a state, according to these princi- 
 t7so-tm. pies, was Pombal, in Portugal, the all powerful minister of Joseph 
 
 i7r,s. Emmanuel. 
 
 An attempt to murder the King, which was ascribed to the Jesuits, let to the ex- 
 pulsion of the members of this order from Portugal, and to an attempt to educate the 
 people by means of new schools and a circulation of b(joks. The activity of this pow- 
 erful minister extended to all parts of jiublic life ; he employed a German general to 
 reorganize the army, he furthered agriculture and industry, striving to lift the people 
 Nov. t7ss. from their filth and ignorance. And when the Lisbon earthquake de- 
 stroyed 30,000 houses, he worked heroically to heal the effects of the great disaster. 
 Bold and resolute, Pombal was also cruel and arbitrary ; the dungeons were filled with 
 his opponents. So when these acquired their freedom, under the reign of the weak 
 luii^ia f !«/«. Maria, they united to overthrow the minister, and of course the 
 wretched conditions of the earlier time soon returned. 
 
 § 456. Spain. Aranda, the liberal minister of Charles III. in Spain, nnide sim- 
 ilar attempts to transform both church and state. And when the Jesuits oji^josed his 
 Charles III., iiiuo vatious, lie arrested five thousand of them in a single night, hurried 
 nao-tiss. them on shipboard without distinction of age or rank, and transported 
 them as criminals to the papal states. Their property was confiscated, their schools 
 Mnreh, iitti. closed ; the government then adopted measures for the education of 
 the people and to improve the system of administration. German colonists were 
 brought into the land, t(j cultivate barren sections of the country, and founded the 
 colony called La Carolina. But in the later years of Charles IIL, the cleigy and 
 the Inquisition regained their influence, and destroyed or modified the new insti- 
 tutions. 
 
 § 457. France. Choiseul, tiie French minister, was also a friend of advance- 
 ment and of progress, but during the reign of the licentious king, Louis XV., reforms 
 were impossible. When, howevei', Louis XVI. ascended the throne, he called into his 
 ministry two men, who had both the will and the energy to heal the distresssed State, 
 by thorough-going changes. These two famous ministers were Turgot and Males- 
 ma. herbes. They proposed a new sytem of taxation. Nobility and 
 
 clergy were to be no longer exempted, and the feudal relations were to be abolished 
 or transformed. Civil rights were to be granted to all, without respect to person, 
 rank, or religion. But their plans were wrecked, by the selfishness of the nobility 
 and the clergy, and the blindness of the Court. 
 
 § 458. Denmark. Stiuensee, a German physician, acquiied the absolute favor 
 
 ciiriHttiin VII., of Queen Caroline Mathilda, the wife of Christian VII., of Denmark. 
 
 iion.iHos. The Queen, who was a sister of George III., of England, raised 
 
 Struensee to the rank of count and of prime-minister. He was given such complete 
 
5:18 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIOXS AND RESTORATIOXS. 
 
 authority, that all orders signed by him had the same validity as those signed by the 
 King, and the ail-powerful minister was thus enabled to establish mimy regulations for 
 the relief of the citizens and of the peasantry, for the diminution of the power of the 
 nobility, and for the improvement of judicial procedure. But he was, after all, a man 
 without firmness, without courage, and without great intellectual power. His relation 
 to the Queen was evillj^ interpreted, his introduction of the German language offended 
 Danish pride, and the cowardice that he displayed, during an insurrection, made him 
 contemptible. At a court ball Juliana, the stepmother of Christian VII., forced her 
 wa3" to the King's apartments, and induced him to sign his name to a number of war- 
 rants of arrests. Struensee and his friend Brandt were then hurried to prison, and 
 ijia. after a summary trial, were found guilty of high treason, and beheaded. 
 
 Caroline Mathilda was divorced from the King, and died in prison, where she suffered 
 it7s. three sorrowful years. Juliana acquired the regency, and abolished 
 
 all the innovations. But when the Crown-prince Frederick came of age, he governed 
 in the name of his father, and called to his assistance a man of great abilitj- and in- 
 tegrity. Count Bernstorff. 
 
 § 459. S"WEDEN. Adolf Frederick, of Sweden, was so good-natured, that the 
 Adotr Frederick, oligarchv of the nobility acquired absolute control. The royal council 
 
 i73M-n7i. conducted all the affairs of state ; and these people sold themselves to 
 foreign powers, and served the courts that paid the largest price. The honor and the 
 welfare of the land was to them of little moment. The two parties among them were 
 known as the "hats" and "caps;" the "hats" were in the pay of France, and the 
 " caps " in the pay of Russia. They hated each other bitterly, and the royal diet was 
 often the scene of hostile attacks. The King had neither power nor authority. But 
 entatavua III., when the popular Gustavus III. ascended the throne, he brought over 
 
 ir«-ij»a. the Swedish army and the people to his side, and compelled the diet, 
 by force, to consent to a change of the constitution. The executive authority was 
 given back to the crown, and the council was reduced to a consulting body. The 
 King was made commander-in-chief of tlie army, and given the appointment of all 
 civil and military officers. Tax levies, declarations of war, and treaties of peace, 
 ijss. required the consent of the Estates ; but after some years, Gustavus 
 
 freed himself from these limitations, and acquired absolute authority. But he used 
 it at first to make great reforms in the administration of the state and of justice, 
 and to advance the welfare of his people. Many of his creations were due, it is 
 true, to a fondness for French customs, and a' love of splendor. The founding of 
 an academy, the erection of theatres and opera houses, and the like, caused the 
 impoverished land great expense. His popularity decreased, for his love of the 
 people was vanishing. Finally he made the manufacture of whisky a royal monop- 
 oly, and compelled the Swedes to buy from the royal distilleries. He undercook 
 Gustariis III., also a usclcss and expensive war against Russia, and was thinking of 
 f.TTn.-f/i, 1709. a war against France, when a conspiracy was formed, in consequence 
 of which, he was mortally wounded at a masked ball, and died twelve days after. 
 
 § 460. Kaunitz, the enlightened minister of Maria Theresa, of Austria, abolished 
 many abuses, and introduced many reforms. The military system was reorganized, 
 and the judicial system was greatly improved. New schools were established, and the 
 finances regulated. But the Empress proceeded cautiously, sparing carefully the 
 
• THE HERALDS OF THE REVOLUTION. 549 
 
 national religion, national lights, and traditional usages. But Jier noble minded son, 
 
 Joseph II., in his enthusiasm for freedom and humanitj', acted with more speed, and 
 
 Joseph II., less sagacity. He undertook a number of reforms that ofi'ended the 
 
 17SO.10OO. clergy and the zealous friends of the Church, injured the privileged 
 nobilit}^ and disturbed the national prejudices of the races over which he ruled. He 
 introduced toleration, giving to the confessors of the Lutheran, Calvinistic, and Greek 
 doctrines the free exercise of their religion, and equal civil rights with the Catholics. 
 He then diminished the number of monasteries, using the money thus acquired for the 
 improvement of schools and the erection of public institutions. He limited pilgrim- 
 ages and processions, and hindered the intercourse of his clergy with Rome. Pope 
 lias. Pius VI. even made a journey to Vienna, to dissuade the Emperor 
 
 from these undertakings. Joseph received him with honor, but persisted in his plans. 
 His reforms in civil relations were equally imjDortant. He established personal freedom 
 by the abolition of serfdom, and civil equality, by the introduction of uniform taxation 
 and equality before the law. ' His purposes were noble, but he paid too little regard to 
 existing relations, usages, and prejudices. His enemies were able therefore to cast 
 suspicion upon his actions, and to deprive him of the fruit of his reforms. When he 
 attempted to introduce them into the Austrian Netherlands, when he erected a supreme 
 court in Brussels, and sought to transform the University, insurrections broke out, 
 irsr. which led to a refusal to paj' taxes. The Austrian government was 
 
 driven from the countr}', and the Netherlands were declared free and independent. 
 This insurrection was the work of the clergy and tlie nobility, and a like movement 
 1700. occurred in Hungary also. This broke the Emperor's heart, and 
 
 hastened his death. The germs of his disease had entered his system during the 
 Turkish war, when, as the ally of Russia, he marched with his army, to the unhealthy 
 regions of the Danube. Joseph's restless activitj^ the readiness with which he granted 
 access, as well to the lowest as to the highest, and the severit}^ with which he restrained 
 the arbitrary conduct of his subordinates were never appreciated by his contempor- 
 aries. But posterity has learned to reverence his name, and to recognize the nobility 
 i^eopoia II.. of his purposes and of his efforts. Leopold II., his brother and suc- 
 
 iroo-t702. cessor, restored the old conditions, and gradually pacified both Belgium 
 and Hungary ; the republicans of the Netherlands were reduced to obedience, at the 
 point of the baj'onet. 
 
 § 461. Catherine II. had a long and splendid reign, during which even unculti- 
 cathei-ine ii„ vatcd Russia also felt the spirit of the age. She conducted a corres- 
 
 1702-1790. pondence with Voltaire and his companions, called Diderot to St. Peters- 
 burg, and furthered the sciences and the arts. She improved the administration of 
 justice, and founded academies and schools. But most of her reforms were mere illu- 
 1787. sions. Her famous journey to the Taurus, where artificial villages and 
 
 cunningl}^ arranged flocks and festivals along the route, gave the impression that the 
 land Avas rich in products and in people, is a picture of her entire reign. She was a 
 woman of violent impulses and excitable senses, who followed, in her private life, the 
 wanton manners of the upper classes. St. Petersburg was conspicuous for an immor- 
 ality, an extravagance, and a sensuality even worse than that of Paris. Gregor Orloff, 
 one of the murderers of her husband, obtained both Catherine and the kingdom as his 
 reward. But he was followed by a long line of other lovers, who were all loaded with 
 
550 THE ERA OF EEVOLUTIOXS AND KESTORATIONS. 
 
 I 
 
 honors and riches. The office of favorite was given by the Empress like any other 
 
 p'ofemfctn, tij»i. court position. Potemkin remained in favor longer than any other. 
 
 For sixteen years he conducted the affairs of state, living during that time in fabulous 
 
 CATHERINE II. OF RUSSIA. 
 
 splendor, and openly parading an enormous wealth. He was a man of tremendous 
 energy and boldness, who spared neither money nor human life. The Empress loved 
 him for his barbarous strength, and was little concerned about tlie sufferings of the 
 
THE HERALDS OF THE REVOLUTION. 551 
 
 177S. people. The insurrection of Pugatchieff, who gave himself out for 
 
 Peter III., was soon suppressed. He was betrayed by a bosom friend, beheaded, and 
 then hacked to pieces. 
 
 3. The Partition op Poland, and the Wars Between Russia and Turkey. 
 
 § 462. The elective monarchy of Poland was the ruin of the land. Every time 
 the throne became vacant, the nation was divided into parties, briber}^ prevailed, and 
 the nobility acquired such privileges, that organized government became impossible. 
 The crown was powerless. The royal diet became a byword because of its quarrels ; 
 and all power was in the possession of the armed unions. The nobleman alone was 
 free, and had the right to use arms ; the peasants were serfs and the slaves of abject 
 ignorance. Commerce and trade were in the hands of avaricious Jews. Foreign 
 powers now began to look, with greedy eyes, upon the helpless Polish kingdom. After 
 freu. A.iia- III; the death of Frederick Augustus III., Stanislaus Poniatowski, a former 
 f i»«3. lover of the Empress Catherine II., was chosen king, amid the clash 
 
 poniatoicsky, of Russian sabres. Poniatowski knew literature better than lie knew 
 170^.1705. men, and could choose pictures better than he could govern a kingdom. 
 ■fi79s. He was only a plaything in the hands of the Russian minister at Warsaw. 
 
 § 463. But the Polish dissidents, Protestants, Socinians, and Greek Christians, 
 now demanded the restoration of their civil and religious privileges. Their demands, 
 although supported by Russia, Prussia, and most of the Protestant governments, were 
 rejected by the Polish nobility. The dissidents thereupon united with the liberals 
 nav. and the discontented, to form the " Confederation of Radom." They 
 
 sought the help of Russia, and compelled the Polish Diet to grant them religious tol- 
 eration, a share in the offices, and their confiscated churches. Surrounded by Russian 
 troops, the members of the diet gathered beneath the portrait of the Empress Cath- 
 erine, and signed the " act of toleration," and to complete their humiliation, they 
 agreed that no change should be made in the existing constitution, without the con- 
 sent of Russia. These proceedings outraged the feelings of Polish patriots, and aroused 
 i7as. the hatred of the C&tholic zealots. These formed the " Confederation 
 
 of Bar " in order to emancipate Poland from Russian authority, and to deprive the dis- 
 sidents of their restored privileges. France supported them with money and officers. 
 The conflict between the two confederations was hot and bitter. But the Russian 
 armies decided it in favor of the dissidents. Bar and Cracow were stormed, and the 
 Catholics driven into Turkish territoiy. The Russians pursued them beyond the fron- 
 tier, and did not refrain from murder, conflagration, and plunder, even in a foreign 
 country. 
 
 § 464. These outrages provoked Turkey to declare war upon Russia, and for six 
 F'lrat Tuvkish ycars, eastern Europe sulfered terribly. The Russians conquered 
 War. Moldavia and Walachia, and stormed Bender, while the Turks devas- 
 
 i7es.i77i. tated Greece with fire and sword, so that whole districts were covered 
 with ruins and with corpses. The Turkish fleet was set on fire and destroyed; Moscow 
 was desolated by a pestilence, and Poland, by the raging civil war. The impotence 
 and discord of Poland led finally to its partition. Frederick II. and Joseph II. con- 
 ferred together in person, and Prince Henry of Prussia then visited St. Petersburg to 
 Aug. B, 1772. make terms with Russia. A treaty of partition was agreed upon, by 
 
552 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIOXS AXD RESTORATIONS. 
 
 •n-hich each of tliese three kiugdoms annexed a part of Poland. The diet protested, 
 and proved easily that the pretended rights of the three powers were of no valne. The 
 nobles protested, solemnly, before God and the world, against the outrage ; bnt Rus- 
 sian soldiers compelled them to consent. The fruitful regions along the Vistula passed 
 over to Prussia. Galicia, and the rich mining regions of Wilieka, went to Austria : 
 and the lands along the Dwina and the Dnieper went to Russia. The establishment 
 of a " Perpetual Council," under the influence of Russia, robbed the Polish king of the 
 last remnant of authority. The Russian ambassador in Warsaw was, from this time 
 on, the real ruler of Poland. Shortly after the partition, Russia made peace with Tur- 
 
 jiijysi. ««. key. acquiring a free passage through the Dardanelles, and the pro- 
 tectorate of Moldavia, Wallachia, and the Crimea. 
 
 § 465. But Russia was not yet satisfied. She next compelled the Khan of Tar- 
 liss. tary to lay down his authority, and Potemkin conquered the Crimea 
 
 and the other lauds on the Black Sea. He then colonized the barren Steppes with 
 Germans, and created the commercial city of Odessa. But the hajipiness and the 
 prosperity of the inhabitants disappeared with their freedom. The once splendid 
 Canvas cities had become gypsy camps, and the stone houses and palaces had fallen to 
 ruins. 
 
 §4()6. But this proximity of Russia alarmed the Porte. In a short time another 
 
 terrible ■« ar occurred between Russia and Turkey. The Emperor Joseph joined the 
 
 Russians, in order to share iu spoils of conquests, and the Russians were again 
 
 Second victorious. lu the midst of winter, Potemkin and Suwaroff continued 
 
 Turkish Ha.-, tliclr bloodv and terrible triumph. The waj- to Constantinople was 
 i7S7-i79i. open before them, when England and Prussia suddenly assumed a 
 
 Bee. 93. 1700. threatening attitude, and Gustavus of Sweden attacked the Russians 
 by sea and land. Poland also thought the time propitious to reconquer her liberty. 
 
 yray 3. 1791. They dissolved the " Perpetual Council," changed their elective mon- 
 archy into a hereditary kingdom, and framed a new constitution, according to modern 
 ideas, in which executive, legislative, and judicial powers were kept distinct and sep- 
 arate. 
 
 § 467. This constitution was greeted with the applause of all Europe. Frederick 
 William 11. congratulated the Poles, and even Catharine of Russia concealed her vex- 
 ation : but party spirit and selfishness soon destroyed the good work. Manj- of the 
 grandees were dissatisfied with the change. They formed a party for the preservation 
 of •• Polish freedom " as thev called the old constitution, and sought the protection of 
 the Russian Empress. Catharine, having just concluded the peace of Jassy with the 
 jnii. ii9«. Turks, was glad enough to march her armies into Poland. The patri- 
 ots now appealed to Prussia, but the Prussian cabinet preferred an alliance with Rus- 
 sia, to an alliance with the Poles, especially as the new constitution was marked with 
 French political ideas and forms. But the Poles did not despair. Thaddeus Kosci- 
 uszko, who had fought in Amei'ica under Washington, placed himself at the head of 
 the patriots, and marched ag-aiust the Russians. But discord, treason, dissension, and 
 indecision, baffled all his undertakings. The King, who had hitherto been an enthu- 
 siastic supporter of the new constitution, lapsed into his old weakness, and. alarmed 
 by a letter of the Empress, forbade all further hostilities against the Russians. The 
 patriots were compelled to lay down the sword, and to abandon their native country 
 
THE HERALDS OF THE REVOLUTION. 
 
 553 
 
 in order to escape the cruel mockery of their enemy. The "PerpetUcal Council" and 
 the old constitution were restored. 
 
 ^ 468. But now came a new chapter of violence. In April, 1793, Prussia and 
 1103. Russia declared that they felt compelled to confine Poland to narrower 
 
 limits, in order to bridle the excitement which had spread from France among the 
 Poles, and in order to preserve the neighboring states from the contagion of democ- 
 racy. The Polish diet protested in vain against this new partition. But Russian 
 j-iii« »a, tTi»3. troops surrounded the place of their assembly, arrested their boldest 
 speakers, and suppressed all opposition. 
 
 The deputies acquiesced in 
 sullen silence, and bowed to the 
 will of the great powers. By 
 this second partition of Poland, 
 the most important districts of 
 Oct. 1*, 1703. the East fell to 
 Russia, and the two cities of 
 Danzig and Thorn, together 
 with greater Poland, were an- 
 nexed to Prussia. The rem- 
 nant of the monarchy coui- 
 prised only about one-tliird of 
 its former territory. 
 
 § 469. Russia and Prussia 
 now garrisoned the partitioned 
 laud, and Catharine's ambassa- 
 dor, the harsh and brutal Igels- 
 trom, ruled in Warsaw with 
 defiant insolence. But the Pol- 
 ish national spirit awoke once 
 more. A secret conspiracy 
 spread its branches over the 
 entire land. Kosciuszko, and 
 the exiled patriots, returned 
 and took the lead of the move- 
 ment, of which Cracow was the 
 centre. As absolute commander 
 of the national forces, Kosciuszko issued a proclamation to the people, in wliich beset 
 fjrth the purposes of the conflict, namely — the restoration of the independence of Po- 
 land, the recovery of the stolen territories, and the establishment of constitutional 
 .•idwi 17, 1704. government. The insurrection soon reached the capital. On Palm 
 Thursday, the Russian garrison in Warsaw was attacked ; partly slain and partly cai> 
 tured. Igelstrom's palace was set on fire, and four of the aristocratic adherents of 
 Russia were hanged on the gallows. Tlie whole land followed the example of the cap- 
 ital. Tlie King sanctioned the uprising of the outraged nation, and everything prom- 
 ised a successful issue. The Prussians, who had inarched to the vicinity of Warsaw, 
 
654 
 
 THE ERA OK KKVOLI'TIOXS ANP KESTORATIONS. 
 
 were compelled to a, hasty and disastrous retreat by the brave generals Kosciuszko, 
 Dombrowski, and Joseph Poniatowski (^the King's nephew). 
 
 § 470. But the success of the Poles, sharpened the enemies' appetite for ven- 
 geance. In accord with Austria and Prussia, Catharine sent her most dreaded gen- 
 eral, Suwaroff, to Poland. Kosciuszko was compelled to yield to the superior force of 
 «»«^. tu. xia-t. his bold antagonist. In an unsuccessful battle he fell from his horse 
 with the cry, " This is the end of Polaud I " and was led away a prisoner. Upon the 
 4th of November, the suburban city of Praga was stormed bv the Russians. Twelve 
 thousand non-combatants were slain or drowned in the Vistula. The cries of the 
 wounded and of the murdered terrified the inhabitants of the capital, and made them 
 ready to surrender. On the 9th of November, Suwaroff entered Warsaw in triumph. 
 Stanislaus Poniatowski was compelled to abdicate, and to live in St. Petersburg, upon 
 a pension contemptivously granted him by the Russians. A few months later, the 
 jr«». i3»s, three powers declared that the)" had determined, out of consideration 
 for the welfare of their subjects, and owing to their love of peace, to partition Poland 
 once more. This time the South, with Cracow, was given to Austria ; the land west 
 of the Vistula, with its capital Warsaw, fell to Prussia, and the lion's share went of 
 course to Russia. Thus perished the once famous and mighty Poland, a sacrifice to 
 domestic discord and to foreign violence. Kosciuszko was set at liberty, and died in 
 Switzerland, in October, 1S17. 
 
 SIANlSLiVS ]., OF rOLA-NI*. 
 
B. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 
 
 1. THE LAST YEARS OF ABSOLUTE MONARCHY. 
 
 OUIS XV. was at first so popular that his 
 ijoitis xv. people called him the " well- 
 f I jr* beloved " ; when disease threat- 
 ened his life the whole land bemoaned 
 him and when he recovered, they cele- 
 brated his recovery with the wildest de- 
 light. But as the King abandoned himself 
 to shameless debauchery, and his govern- 
 ment, his courts of justice and his army, to the panderers 
 of his lusts, and the companions of his revels, this popular 
 love turned to hatred and contempt, particularly when 
 mistresses without manners, and without shame, ruled the 
 court and the kingdom. Among the latter, the Marquise 
 de Pompadour (f 1764) guided the affairs of France for 
 twenty years, filling the highest offices with her favorites, 
 deciding for peace or for war, according to her caprice, and 
 using the public treasur}^ as her private purse, so that she 
 bequeathed millions to her heirs even after her life of splendor and luxury. She 
 and her creatures pampered the baser appetites of the King, that they might reign 
 without restraint. Yet the Pompadour was possessed of dignity and tact ; but the 
 Countess Dubarry, a woman of the lowest class, who succeeded to her place, took from 
 the royal court the last shred of decency and respect. 
 
 § 472. This government of lust and extravagance, together with the senseless 
 and costly wars in Germany, exhausted the royal treasury, increased the public 
 debt, and the taxes of the people. All revenues being drawn from the merchants, the 
 artisan and the peasant classes, they were of course exceedingly oppressive to the poor 
 and to those of moderate means. And to their exasperation at the exemption of the 
 
 (555) 
 
656 
 
 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 
 
 nobility and clergy, was added their hatred for the " Farmers of the Revenue " with 
 their cruel and greedy agents. The land and income taxes, the poll tax, the house 
 and window taxes, the tolls ou the highway, the tax on salt, the tithes, the contributions 
 
 in labor, the feudal pajanents, 
 I'obbed the lower classes of the 
 fruits of their labor, and pre- 
 vented the development of a 
 prosperous commonwealth. The 
 Parliament of Paris (which was 
 a bench of judges) had acquired 
 the right to register all decrees 
 and edicts of taxation, and had 
 come to liold that none was 
 valid without its approval. This 
 contention led to repeated quar- 
 rels between the parliament and 
 the royal ministry, which ended 
 usually in a " bed of justice,"" 
 that is, an arbitrary command of 
 the king given in person to reg- 
 ister the ministerial rescript. 
 
 Not only the tax decrees, 
 but the arbitrary letters of ar- 
 rest (lettres de cachet), were a 
 subject of strife between the 
 parliament and the government. 
 These terrible sealed letters 
 were obtained easily by all 
 those having any influence at 
 court, and by means of them any 
 one could be imprisoned without 
 hearing and trial. For ten years 
 the Parliament of Paris fought against court and ministry, until Louis XV, tired of 
 their obstinate resistance, reorganized the Parliament and imprisoned the recalcitrant 
 1771 members. But his successor restored their suspended prerogatives. 
 
 § 473. Louis XV was carried away by a terrible disease in the midst of his sin- 
 ful career : he left the state treasury exhausted, the land burdened with debt, the 
 public credit ruined, and the people oppressed with taxes. Under such difficult cir- 
 jtj« cumstances, Louis XVI ascended the throne. He had a good heart but 
 
 a weak brain ; he wished to improve the condition of the people, but had neither 
 money nor sagacity for the necessary measures; he tolerated the frivolity and 
 extravagance of his brothers, and permitted his wife, Marie Antoinette, the highly cul- 
 X.DIIIS xj-i. tivated daughter of Maria Theresa, to interfere in State affairs, and to 
 i774:-i793 exercise great influence upon the court and the ministry. Proud and 
 aristocratic toward the people, she was soon the object of popular hate ; for all severe 
 measures were ascribed to her interference and the liberty she assumed in private life 
 
 MARQUISE DE POMPADOUR. 
 
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 
 
 557 
 
 was interpreted to her dishonor. Even in the famous affair of the " Diamond Neck- 
 Lace," in which certain swindlers made use of her name to get possession of a priceless 
 ornament, she was believed by many to be guilty. 
 
 The lack of money 
 and the disorder in tlje 
 State finances could be 
 remedied only by taxa- 
 tion of the nobility and 
 of the clergy; by ex- 
 tensive reforms in the 
 royal administration, 
 and by economy in ex- 
 penditure. Turgot and 
 Malesherbes desired 
 jfije. such re- 
 
 forms, but Louis XVI 
 had neither the will nor 
 the strength for such 
 decisive measures, and 
 the court of Versailles 
 had no mind for econ- 
 om3^ Necker, a banker 
 from Geneva, who suc- 
 ceeded Turgot as minis- 
 ter of finance, found it 
 impossible therefore to 
 cover the deficit in the 
 treasury, and his publi- 
 cation of a paper upon 
 the financial condition 
 of France made him so 
 unpopular with the 
 court and the aristocra- 
 
 Xeeknr Cy, that 
 
 iTTT-nsi. he was 
 
 compelled to resign. The American war was at this time increasing the financial dis- 
 tress and awakening a longing for freedom and for republican institutions. It was 
 therefore a great misfortune for France that, at such a critical moment, the frivolous 
 and extravagant Calonne assumed control of the finances ; for Calonne departed from 
 Necker's policy of economy, met cheerfully the wishes of the Queen and the demands 
 ■of the Princes, and deceived the country with splendid promises. Brilliant fetes were 
 celebrated in Versailles, and Calonne's talents were lauded to the skies. Soon, however, 
 his promises proved to be idle wind ; he determined to avert impending bankruptcy by 
 calling together an assembly of notables consisting of nobility, clergy, officers of State, 
 distinguished judges, and representatives of certain cities. But Calonne found in this 
 assembly violent opponents, instead of his expected friends. They rejected his plan of 
 
558 
 
 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 
 
 Fehruavu general taxation, including the nobility and the clergy, and threatened 
 t7S7. him with a criminal process so that he resigned his office and betook 
 
 himself to London. 
 
 § 474. Calonne's successor in the administration of the finances, Lomenie de 
 
 Brienne, had a difficult 
 post. In order to cover 
 the deficit in the treas- 
 ury, he must resort to 
 the usual means, in- 
 crease of taxation and 
 loans ; but the Parlia- 
 ment of Paris opposed 
 him so vigorously that 
 the ministry, having 
 tried in vain " a bed of 
 justice," determined to 
 arrest the boldest mem- 
 bers and to banish them 
 to Troyes. This step 
 AuoHst, irss. caused 
 great excitement among 
 the people, which in- 
 duced the ministry to 
 make terms with the 
 exiled members of the 
 parliament, and to per- 
 mit the resumption of 
 their sessions. But the 
 spirit of resistance had 
 become too powerful 
 and had already seized 
 the people. They gath- 
 ered in crowds about 
 the hall of meeting, 
 cheering the speakers of 
 the opposition and hooting the party of the ministry. They burned daily the hated 
 minister of finance in effigy, and made known their feelings in different cities 
 by angry tumults. In the streets and in the parliament resounded the cry " The 
 States General ! " In vain the ministry attempted, by transforming the parliament 
 into a superior and several inferior courts, to break down the opposition. A new 
 spirit had come over the people which was bound to triumph. Brienne "was com- 
 pelled to retire, as the lack of funds had become so great that all cash payments 
 Auo<iat were suspended, and national bankruptcy appeared inevitable. The 
 17SS. popular Necker was now called to the ministry a second time. He im- 
 
 mediately pacified the people by withdrawing the edicts against the parliaments, and by 
 preparing to call the States general. But a question soon arose that brought him into 
 
' GO TELL YOUR MASTER THAT WE ARE HERE BY THE AUTHORITY OP THE PEOPLE, AND CAN BE 
 DRIVEN HENCE ONLY AT THE POINT OF THE BAYONET." (A. de NeuvilU.) 
 
 {pp. 559.) 
 
560 
 
 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 
 
 difficulty with the parliament and a second assembly of notables. The latter thought 
 that the new assembly should, in tlie number of I'epresentatives and in the method of 
 voting, follow the estates of 1614, while Necker wished to give the third estate a double 
 representation and to vote by poll instead of by estates. In this opinion he was sup- 
 ported by the most talented leaders of the people in a multitude of pamphlets (" What 
 i»ee. i7as. is the third estate?" by Abbe Sieyes) Necker's opinion prevailed. A 
 royal edict fixed the number of noble and clerical members at three hundred each, 
 that of the commons at six hundred, and the following ilay as the time to convene. 
 " Now comes my time," said Mirabeau, who had learned the effects of Luttres de Cachet 
 in the prison at Vincennes. Repulsed hj the nobility, he purchased a cloth store and 
 appeared as candidate for the third estate. Necker was still the hero of the day, but 
 he was not the pilot of a ship of state. He was only driving before the wind. • 
 2— The Constitutional Assembly — (May 1789 to Sept. 1791.) 
 
 § 475. When May came, the representatives of the three estates convened in 
 Versailles, — among them the most talented and cultivated men of 
 France. The third estate, offended by the 
 court at the opening, began to quarrel in the 
 first sessions with the two privileged estates. 
 The latter demanded separate chambers, but 
 the commons pi-essed for one chamber and for 
 a vote by poll. After a contest of several 
 weeks the third estate, which was presided over 
 by the astronomer Bailly, but led by the con- 
 spicuous talents of Sieyes and Mirabeau, de- 
 jime 17. Glared itself to be The Na- 
 tional Assembly. Thereupon it was joined 
 by members of the other estates. At the same 
 time it determined that existing taxes should 
 be collected only so long as the estates should 
 not be dissolved. 
 
 These doings disquieted the court and 
 suggested to it the idea of giving the nation 
 a constitution, thereby abolishing the States- 
 general. To this end a Eoyal sitting was 
 appointed and the assembly hall was closed. The ' repi-esentatives met together 
 dTtme «o. in the empty hall of the tennis-court and swore a solemn oath, 
 with up-lifted hand, not to separate until they had given the kingdom a new con- 
 stitution. When the tennis-court was closed they held a session in the church of St. 
 Louis. The royal sitting took place on the twenty-third of June, but neither the 
 speech of the king nor the proposed constitution was satisfactory. At the close of the 
 session Louis commanded the assembly to disperse. Nobility and clergy obeyed but 
 the commons sat motionless, and as the master of ceremonies called upon them to 
 leave the room, Mirabeau reminded the assembly of their oath and cried to the court 
 oflScial, " Go tell your master that we are here by the authority of the people, and 
 jriene S7, 17SO. Can be driven hence only at the point of the bayonet." The feeble 
 king did not venture to meet this determined resistance with force ; on the contrary 
 he advised the nobility and the clergy to unite with the commons. 
 
 FRENCH CITIZENS. {1790-179'2.) 
 
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 
 
 661 
 
 § 476. Storming the Bastile. 
 
 Meanwhile the excitable population of Paris were kept in continual uproar 
 by newspapers, pamphlets, and inflammatory speeches. In the public pai'ks, in cofiee 
 houses, in wine rooms, and especially at the Palais Royal, the dwelling of the licen- 
 tious, ambitious, and wealthy Duke of Orleans, violent speeches were made by agitators 
 and demagogues about popular freedom, human rights, equality of all ranks, etc., and 
 the assembled throngs were urged on to battle for a new era. The most gifted of 
 these popular orators was a young law^^er, Camille Desmoulins. Even the soldiers 
 stationed at the capital were carried away by this enthusiasm for liberty, and became 
 members of the newly organized national guard. The administration of the city was 
 turned over to a democratic municipality, of which Bailly was the Mayor. The court 
 alarmed at the increasing excitement, determined, for its protection, to bring to 
 Versailles some German and Swiss regiments. This was declared by the leaders of 
 the people to mean the use of force against the national assembly. Suddenly the 
 rumor ran through Paris that Necker was dismissed and banished, and a favorite of the 
 Queen appointed in his place. A general uprising followed. Noisy throngs wearing 
 the national cockade (red, white, blue,) marched through the streets ; the bells were 
 rung and the armories and gun shops plundered. Tumult and confusion prevailed 
 July u. /r«i9. cvcrvwherp. On the fourteenth of July the mob, having taken thirty 
 
 STORMING THE BASTILE. (F. Lix.) 
 
 thousand muskets and some cannon from the Hotel des Invalides, stormed the 
 Bastile, an old castle used as royal prison. The commandant Delaunay and the 
 garrison of seven men fell a sacrifice to the rage of the mob. Their heads, stuck upon 
 poles, were carried through the streets of the city, and several hated aristocrats were 
 murdered. The banished Necker was called back, and his journey through the cities 
 and villages of France resembled the triumph of a victorious hero. 
 
S2 
 
 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 
 
 In this joyful reception of the minister, tlie nation bore witness of its enthusiasm 
 for freedom and its hatred for the court and the aristocracy. Lafayette, who had 
 fought for America's freedom, was named General of the national guard, and while the 
 king came to Paris and showed himself to the assembled people, standing on the bal- 
 cony of the town hall 
 with a cockade in his 
 liat, the Count D'Ar- 
 tois and several no- 
 blemen of the first 
 rank, like Conde and 
 Polignac, left their 
 country in dread an- 
 ticipation of coming 
 events. 
 
 § 477. The New 
 Order. 
 After the tak- 
 ing of tlie Bastile, 
 law and authority 
 were powerless in 
 France. The people 
 no longer paid their 
 tithes to the church 
 and tolls to the no- 
 bility, and revenged 
 themselves for their 
 long oppression by 
 devastating their cas- 
 tles by fire and plun- 
 der. As the news of 
 these events reached 
 the national assembly, 
 it was proposed that 
 the privileged classes 
 should prove, by con- 
 spicuous deed, their 
 willingness to lighten 
 the burdens of the 
 people, and to this 
 end should renounce 
 
 voluntarily all their feudal revenues. This proposition created a storm of enthusiasm 
 and self-denial. No one halted : ranks, cities, and counties vied with each other in 
 August 4, i7so. bringing the largest sacrifices to the common weal. This was the 
 famous fourth of August when, in one excited sitting, all tithes, ground-rents, tolls, and 
 the like were abolished, the soil declared free, and the equality of all citizens, before 
 the law, proclaimed. These resolves, and the laws and arrangements necessary to make 
 
 WOMEN ON THE ROAD TO VliRSATLLES. ( Vicrge. ) 
 
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 563 
 
 them effective, produced, in a short time, a complete reorganization of all existing condi- 
 tions. The church lost its wealth and was subordinated to the state ; cloisters and 
 Monastic orders were abolished, the priests paid by the state, the bishoprics rearranged, 
 and religious freedom guaranteed. But as the Pope refused to permit the clergy to 
 take the required oath to the new constitution, the French priests were soon divided 
 into jurors and nonjurors. The latter were deprived of their places and subjected to 
 many persecutions, though they enjoyed the confidence of the faithful. The nobility 
 sacrificed not only their privileges and the greatest part of their revenues, but lost also 
 the insignia of their rank by the abolition of all titles, coats of arms, orders, and the 
 like. And that the old conditions might be absolutely abolished, France was divided 
 into departments and arrondissements, a new judicial system with juries was intro- 
 duced, new weights, new measures, new coin, and finally a constitutional system in 
 which the rights of the King were limited beyond reason, and the making of laws com- 
 mitted to a single chamber to be chosen by universal suffrage. 
 
 § 478. The King and the National Assembly at Paris. 
 
 As the King hesitated to proclaim the declarations of the assembly as law, 
 the rumor spread that he intended to dissolve it by violence. This rumor was 
 strengthened by calling the Flemish regiment to Versailles, and by a festival that the 
 body guard gave to the newly arrived officers. During the banquet the company, 
 excited bj^ wine, indulged in foolish speeches, toasts, and songs ; busy tongues soon 
 carried them to Paris, and the excited people, already suffering from famine, quickly 
 
 Oct. s. made their anger known. On the fifth of October great crowds, mostly 
 
 women, marched to Versailles, in order to obtain from the King relief from famine and 
 a change of his residence to Paris. The King tried to quiet them, but one wing of the 
 castle was stormed, and the Queen compelled to fly. 
 
 The next day the King and his family entered Paris, under the escort of this 
 terrible mob, and took up their residence in the palace of the Tuileries. The national 
 assembly soon convened, and the riding-school, in the vicinity of the palace, was 
 prejiared for their sittings. Power came more and more into the hand of the lower 
 classes, who were kept in continual excitement b)'^ newspaper writers and demagogues, 
 and urged to hatred against the court and the aristocrats. Among these demagogical 
 journals, the most violent was " The Friend of the People " edited by the insolent 
 horse-leech Marat, from Neufchatel in Switzerland. The democratic clubs now ac- 
 quired greater importance and extent, especially the Jacobins, which had branches in 
 all the cities of France. The members of this club wore, as a badge, the red caps of the 
 galley convicts and strove for a republic, in which all the citizens should be free and 
 equal. The Club of the Cordeliers had for its leaders, the boldest men of tlie revolu- 
 tion, like Danton and Camille Desmonlins. The Constitutional Club (Fenillants) on 
 tiie other hand, to which Lafa3'ette belonged, decreased in importance every day. The 
 names of these clubs were derived from the cloisters in which they held their sitting. 
 
 § 479. The Feast of Federation. The Flight of the King. On the anniversarj' 
 
 suiy 14, 1700. of the storming of the Bastile, a magnificent festival "was held in the 
 
 •field of Mars. It was termed the "Festival of Federation." Talle3'rand, the Bishop 
 
 of Autun, and also a member of the National Assembly, marched, at the head of three 
 
 hundred white-clad priests, to the altar of France, and consecrated the national tri- 
 
564 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 
 
 color. Lafayette, in the name of the National Guard, the President of the National 
 Assembles and tiiially the King himself, swore fidelitj' to the constitution. The count- 
 less multitude lifted up their hands, and repeated the oath of allegiance, wliile the 
 Queen, carried away by enthusiasm, lifted the Dauphin in her arms, and joined in the 
 general acclaim. But this was the last happy day of the King, whose situation grew 
 rapidly worse. Necker, unequal to the difficulties of the hour, abandoned France, and 
 returned to Switzerland. Mirabeau threw himself upon the side of the court, and op- 
 posed, with all the might of his eloquence, any further limitation of the roj'al author- 
 it}^ because he held that a constitutional monarchy was the best government for 
 France. But unfortunately for the King, the great orator died suddenl)^ in the forty- 
 
 A.prii a, ij»i. second year of his age, exhausted by his dissolute life, and by fatigue 
 and overwork. He was the last support of the throne. Louis XVI. now lost all self- 
 possession. He refused to accept as his confessor, a priest who had taken the oath of 
 allegiance, and also to declare the emigrants, who were stirring up war against France, 
 to be traitors to their country. He was suspected of disloyalty to the constitution, 
 and the more this suspicion gained ground among the people, the more dangerous be- 
 came the situation of the King. Finallj', in desperation, he determined to escape from 
 the kingdom. Bouille, a resolute general in Lorraine, was taken into the secret, and 
 promised to support the plan M'ith his troops. Issuing a proclamation, in which he 
 protested against all his own acts, since October 1789, as the result of compulsion, the 
 King escaped from Paris with his family. But the undertaking miscarried. Louis was 
 
 June 81, 1J91. rccoguized, detained in Varennes, and, at the command of the National 
 Assembly, brought back to Paris. The royal authority was then suspended until 
 Louis, at the end of September, took an oath to support the new constitution, and 
 proclaimed it to the French people. 
 
 3. The Legislative Assembly and the Overthrow of the Monarchy, (^Ist. of Oct. 1791, to 
 
 .20 Sept., 1792.) 
 § 480. The Girdonists. The members of the national assembly had excluded 
 themselves from the new legislature. As a result, the members of the legislative as- 
 sembly were nearly all republicans. But they were divided into a radical and a 
 moderate party. The radicals occupied the high seats in the rear of the hall, and were 
 called ''The Mountain." The Moderates were spoken of sometimes as "The Plain," but 
 mostly as the Girondists, because most of their leaders were from Bordeaux, and from 
 the department of the Gironde. The Girondists gathei'ed around the minister Roland 
 and his brilliant and high-minded wife, and among them were men of great eloquejice 
 and civic virtue, like Vergniaud, Lanjuinais, Barbaroux, Biissot, Condorcet, and 
 others. The Girondists were in the majorit}- ; hence the ministrj' composed of Roland, 
 Dumouriez, and others, belonged to this party. The attention of the government and 
 of .the assembly was especially and at once directed to the non-juring priests and the 
 emigrants. These were bent upon overthrowing the new order of things ; the priests 
 by sowing hatred and discontent among the French people, and the emigrants b}^ urg- 
 ing foreign powers to invade France. The assembl}' determined therefore to arrest all 
 priests who had not taken the oath, and to declare the emigrants at Coblentz guilty of 
 high treason, confiscating at the same time, their estates and revenues. But the King 
 vetoed both these acts of the legislative assembly. This veto was ascribed to the 
 
THE FRENCH KEVOLUTION". 565 
 
 secret hopes of the court in the intervention of foreign powers. Tlie people conse- 
 quently became more hostile. They knew that the Queen was in negotiation with her 
 brother, the German emperor, and that she looked upon the emigrant nobility for sup- 
 port and salvation. It was manifest too, that war was impending, as the Emperor 
 Leopold and King Frederick William of Prussia, after an interview in the castle ^>i 
 Pillnitz, near Dresden, had determined to put their armies in the field, and to require 
 the French government to compensate German princes and noblemen, for their lost 
 tithes and feudal privileges, to restore to the Pope his possessions in Avignon, and to 
 frame the constitution as King Louis himself had sketched it in 1789. The French 
 
 April 20, 1703. cabinet answered this demand, with a declaration of war upon Austria 
 and Prussia, to which the wretched King consented with tears. To protect the capital 
 and the national assembly against every attack, twenty thousand national guards were 
 summoned from the southern provinces, to whom was committed the defence of Paris. 
 But Louis refused to sanction this measure. The ministry of the Gironde thereupon 
 resigned, and Madame Roland published a letter, reproaching the King for his folly and 
 misconduct. Under these circumstances it was easy to stir up insurrection. On the 
 1502. 20th of June, a mob, armed with pikes, gathered at the Tuileries, to 
 
 compel the King to sign the decrees against the non-juring priests, and for the defence 
 of the city by the national guard. But Louis remained firm. He defied all tiireats, 
 and bore patiently the mockery of the people, who placed upon his head the red cap 
 of the Jacobins. The dilatory arrival of Potion, with the citizen guard, freed iiim 
 finally from the intolerable situation. 
 
 § 48L These events were the prelude to the terrible tenth of August. War 
 hud already broken out, to the great satisfaction of the Prussian ofBcers, who talked 
 of a military '• promenade " to Paris, in which they expected to gain great honor with 
 little effort. The Prussians marched into Lorraine, under the command of Duke 
 Ferdinand of Brunswick. An Austrian army assisted him, and 12,000 emigrants 
 burned with eagerness to overthrow the " lawyers' government," and to revenge them- 
 
 Aug. 10, 1702. sclvcs upon their adversaries. The Duke issued a proclamation full of 
 threats against the National Assembly, the City of Paris, the National Guard, and all 
 tiie French who favored the Revolution. This insolent proclamation excited a terrible 
 hatred among the French, for the emigrants and their protectors. And the Jacobins 
 used this excitement to overthrow the King. They invited crowds of rabble, and even 
 galley slaves, from all the maritime cities, to come to Paris. They established a com- 
 mittee of safety, and stirred up the rough inhabitants of the suburbs to a decisive 
 blow. At midnight, on the 10th of August, the alarm bells were rung. An enormous 
 crowd moved first to the city hall (Hotel de Ville) in order to proclaim a new munic- 
 ipal government, and then marched to the royal palace, which was defended by nine 
 hundred Swiss, and by the National Guard of Paris under Mandat. Mandat was determ- 
 ined to meet tlie threatening mob with foi'ce : the democrats therefore resolved upon his 
 destruction. He was ordered to the city hall, and was murdered on his way thither. 
 The National Guard, uncertain what to do, and dissatisfied with the many nobility 
 present in the palace, rapidly dispersed. The crowd became more violent; cannon were 
 trained upon the castle ; the men with pikes urged their way into every part of the 
 palace, and the crowd demanded the deposition of the King. Louis suffered himself 
 to be persuaded to seek protection for himself and family, in the hall of the Legislative 
 
566 THE KRA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 
 
 Assembl}', where they remained sixteen hours in a narrow apartment. The King had 
 hardly left the palace, before the human billows broke over its defenders. The Swiss 
 guard resisted bravely, and defended the passages. When the assembly heard the 
 rattle of musketry, they compelled the terrified King to prohibit his guard from firing. 
 Tiie faithful protectors of the monarch were thereb}' devoted to destruction. The 
 raging mob no sooner noticed that the}'' had ceased to fire, when the}' stormed the 
 palace, murdered all witliin reach, and destroyed all the furniture. Five thousand 
 persons, among them 700 Swiss, were a sacrifice to the rage of the mob. Meanwhile 
 the National Assembly determined to suspend tlie royal authority, to place the King 
 and his family under guard, to give the prince a tutor, and to summon a national con- 
 vention. The royal family were sent to the " temple " as prisoners. Insulted by 
 tlieir keepers, deprived of every comfort, and cut off from all societj", they wore out 
 here in wretchedness, the weary daj's, until released by death. 
 
 § 482. The Bays of September. The Legislative Assembly now created a min- 
 istry of their own, of which Roland and the dreadful Danton were both members. 
 Danton was minister of Justice, and in conjunction with the municipality of Paris he 
 now possessed all power. The municipal council governed the citj* with the men of 
 pikes, and all the prisons were soon full of '• suspects " and " aristocrats." When the 
 news of the approach of the alliec reached the city, it was determined to get rid of all 
 the enemies of the new order by a general massacre. First of all, they slaughtered 
 the non-juring priests bj- hundreds in the cloisters and in the prisons, and then en- 
 sued the horrible days of September. From the second to the seventh of September, 
 bands of hired assassins marched from prison to prison. Twelve of them acted as 
 judge and jury, the others as executioners. Under this mockery of justice, the pris- 
 oners were murdered, with the exception of a few whose names were marked on their 
 lists. About three thousand were slaughtered, either singly or in masses, by these 
 butchers ; and for their work, they received daily wages from the city council. Among 
 the victims was the Princess Lamballe, the friend of the Queen. Her head was placed 
 upon a pike, carried to the temple, and held up to the window of Marie Antoinette's 
 cell. The example of the capital was followed in many other cities ; a wild destruction 
 of statues, inscriptions, coats of arms, and other monuments of the ancient time con- 
 cluded the " days of September," the transition days from royal France to the new re- 
 sept. St. jfjos. public. The autumnal equinox was declared, by the Convention, to 
 be the beginning of the reign of "freedom and equality," and all Frenchmen were 
 now ordered to address each other as " citizens." Lafayette, who was with the army 
 of the North, and who had ventured to Paris in order to save' the King, was now 
 called upon to make defence. Satisfied that the Jacobins were thirsting for his life, 
 he fled to Holland, intending to go to America. But he fell into the hands of his 
 enemies, wlio held liim a captive for five years, in the dungeons of Magdeburg and 
 Olmuetz. Talleyrand went to Eugland. and thence to America, where he waited for 
 better times. 
 
 4. Republicax France Uxdek the Nation^al Convention (^September. 1792 
 
 to October, 1795.) 
 § 483. The ^Execution of the Kinfl. The Convention was ciioseu under the influ- 
 ence of the Jacobins, and by universal suffrage. It consisted of republicans of many 
 
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 
 
 667 
 
 varieties. The moderates, whose name of Girondists was becoming, with every day, 
 more liateful, strove for a republic, in the sense of antiquity or of the United States 
 of North America. But they were soon overpowered by the radicals and democrats, 
 who desired the overthrow of all existing institutions, in order to establish tlieir new 
 state of freedom and equality. Their watcliword was, " He that is not for us is 
 against us," and they 
 sought to put an end 
 to all resistance by 
 terror and by blood. 
 Their strength was in 
 the Jacobins and in 
 the Sans Culottes, the 
 wild bands of revolu- 
 tionists, who vrere 
 kept in continual ex- 
 citement by songs, 
 festivals, the planting 
 of liberty trees, and 
 the like. The trial 
 of King "Louis 
 Capet " was one of 
 the first acts of the 
 National Convention. 
 An iron chest had 
 been discovered in 
 the Tuileries, full of 
 letters and documents 
 from which, it was 
 clear, that the French 
 court had been in 
 communication with 
 Austria and the enii- 
 . grants, and had also 
 been bribing certain 
 members of the Na- 
 tional Assembly, for 
 example, Mirabeau. 
 The King was there- 
 fore charged with be- 
 traying and conspir- 
 ing against the land 
 and the people. De- 
 fended by the noble Malesherbes, Louis appeared twice before the convention (11th and 
 20th of December), but in spite of his manly bearing and of his able defense, and in 
 spite of the efforts of the Girondists, he was condemned to death by a small majority. 
 The party of the IMountain, the party of Robespierre, of St. Just, of Danton, of the lame 
 
 EXECUTION OF LOUIS XVI. ( Viercje.) 
 
fM!8 
 
 TlIK KKA OK KKVOI.ri'lONS AND KKSIOK ATIONS. 
 
 Jo II. <?. <}(>.'!. (\)ullinn, (oj;'('llu'r with (he l>iiko df (^rh'ims, suniiiiiU'd " E(|Uiilitv," 
 oiiH)U)_vi'iI every iiieiius to briny about this eiul. l>ut they wuukl not have siiceeoiled, 
 it' thoy had not lirst oliiiiiged tlie liuv tliat required a ninjority of two-tliirds for a coii- 
 iienuialioii to dciitli. It was murder elotliod in a judicial form. On the 21st of Jan- 
 nary, the nnl'ortunalo King ascended tlie seail'(dd in the Place de la Revolution. The 
 iiruni-beats of tiio National Cuiard drowned his last words, and " Robespierre's women "' 
 grecleil his bloody head with the cry "Vive la republique ! " Two crimes were com- 
 mitted simultaneously ; in I'^anei' the murder of a king, in Poland the murder of a 
 nation. 
 
 § 4S1. />iii)ioi(r/r;. jMeanwhile, tlie Prussians had marched through Lorraine 
 
 into Champagne, but the Duke of 
 Brunswick lost time, reducing unim- 
 l>ortant fortresses ; and as a result, 
 entered the eonntrj' when the roads 
 were impassable from rain, and when 
 the eating of unripe fruit weakened 
 and destroyed his army. Dumouriez 
 srpt. tf«, not. occupied the forest, 
 and Kellermanu attacked the enemy 
 at Valmy with such success, that the 
 Prussian army determined to advance 
 no further. Six days were lost in 
 negotiations with Dumouriez, and 
 then the liernian troops retreated 
 to N'crdun, \\itluiut being pursued, 
 and linally abandoned French terri- 
 tory. The Austrians had started 
 from the Netherlands, but had just 
 as little success. After the battle of 
 .Vol', t. «»«. Jemappes, Dumouriez 
 conquered Belgium and Luettieh, 
 whose inhabitants greeted the French 
 as emani'iiiators from the rule of 
 .Vustria and liie Pisiiop. lie then 
 threatened the Diiteli trontiers. 
 !\Ieau\\hile. (leneral (\istine captured the cities along the Rhine, iu which French 
 <«<'f. ?<. >}»». ideas had found many adherents. The citizens of Maycncc, abandoned 
 by the Elector, by the Bishop, and by the nobility, received the French troops with 
 enthusiasm. These successes gave the republicans fresh courage, and the European 
 powers great alarm. New armies were raised in all Europe to invade France, and to 
 put down the revolution which was threatening the safety of all existing states. 
 England, where the Tories were in power, under the lead of the younger Pitt, where 
 the eloquent Edmund Burke was attacking the revolution with great violence, — 
 England took the lead of the "coalition" against l-'rance. An Austrian ai-my ap- 
 peared in the Xetherlands, drove the French across the Meuse, and defeated Dun\ouriez 
 Hntfh tx. lios. at Neer-Wiuden. Tlie French couunander, angrv at the Jacobuis, 
 
fJIIAH,I.CI'l"I'K fJOIlUAV AhhAh.SINA'I'l'.S MAK 
 
 in, .^').) 
 
570 
 
 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 
 
 because they had so poorly provisioned his army, and had so hampered him with 
 incompetent generals, threatened to overthrow the republic, and to establish a mon- 
 archy. The convention thereupon ordered him to Paris. Instead of obeying, 
 Dumouriez arrested the messengers of the Convention, delivered them over to the 
 enemy, and, with a part of his troops, went over himself to the Austrians. About 
 jMitf, 1793. the same time Mayence fell into the hands of the Prussians, who were 
 once more approaching the Freneli frontier. 
 
 § 485. The treason of Dumourriez was used by the Jacobins to overthrow the 
 
 ROBESPIERRE. 
 
 Gironde. The Girondists, tired of mob rule, were bent upon converting France into a 
 federal republic like the United States of America. In that way only they expected 
 to break the power of Paris. The Mountain and the Jacobins saw, in the scheme 
 their own destruction, and entered upon a fight for life and death. They accused the 
 Girondists of connivance with Dumouriez ; charged them with attempting to weaken 
 the power of the people, and to destroy the republic, at the very moment when 
 France was threatened by invading armies. But the eloquence of the Girondists put 
 
["HE FRENCH REVOLU;riON. 
 
 571 
 
 to shame all these attacks, and Marat finally urged the radical mob to an uprising 
 against the moderates, and the luke warm traitors. This led to daily insurrections 
 and tumults, which threatened life and projaerty. All honest and moderate people 
 weie in continual peril. The Girondists brought Marat into Court, but he was ac- 
 quitted by the Jacobin juries, and carried by the mob in triumph into the Convention. 
 jijifti S4. X703. The Girondists then procured the appointment of a Commission of 
 Twelve, who should discover and punish the promoters of tumult. When this com- 
 mission arrested the journalist Hebert, the editor of Pere Duchesne, and his con- 
 federates, the furious mob compelled his release, and began the great riot of the 31st. 
 
 xau 31. of May. The rioters made Henriot, a former lackey and police sjjy, 
 the leader of the National Guard. They then surrounded the Tuileries, where the 
 Convention was in session, and demanded the abolition of the Commission of Twelve 
 and the expulsion of the Girondists. The Girondists displaj^ed in vain all their 
 powers ; the people pressed into the hall, and 
 into the galleries, and shouted for their victims. 
 The majority of the assembly, together with 
 their courageous president, ordered the mob to 
 leave the hall, but in vain. The convention 
 was obliged to yield to the commands of the 
 mob and the Mountain. Thirtj'-four Giron- 
 dists were arrested, twenty of them however 
 escaped, and called upon the inhabitants of 
 Brittany, Normandy, and the Maritime cities 
 of the South, to rise up against the Jacobins. 
 
 Oct. 31. But the other fourteen died 
 
 July 13. upon the guillotine. The mur- 
 der of Marat, by the noble enthusiast Charlotte 
 Corday, and a terrible civil war, were the im- 
 mediate consequences of these violent measures. 
 Roland, Petion,Barbaroux, Condorcet, all died 
 a violent death. Madame Roland also perished 
 on the scaffold, exclaiming, " Oh, liberty, what members of the commune. (1793-1794.) 
 crimes have been committed in thy name ! " 
 
 Thirteen members of the convention, who had voted with the Gironde, were also ex- 
 pelled, so that the democrats of the Mountain now ruled the assembly. 
 
 § 486. The Reign of Terror. The convention was now able to unfold a fearful 
 power and activity. It divided itself into various committees, among which the com- 
 mittee of the public welfare and the committee of safety have acquired a terrible re- 
 nown, by their deeds of blood. A revolutionary tribunal, consisting of twelve jurors 
 and five judges, upheld the activity of these committees by their cruel and speedy 
 trials. Fouquier Tinville was the public prosecutor in this terrible court. At the 
 head of the Committee of Public Safety were Robespierre, Couthon, and St. Just. 
 Without regard to human life, they pursued their desperate aim. Whatever ventured 
 to oppose them was stricken down without mercy. This reign of terror made itself 
 felt in three directions : in the cruel persecution of all citizens who were known as 
 
572 
 
 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 
 
 " Aristocrats " or Royalists ; in the bloody suppression of the uprisings in the south and 
 in the west ; and in the powerful war of defence against all foreign enemies. 
 
 § 487. The Persecution of the Royalists. The municipality of Paris was in the 
 hands of extreme Jacobins and Democrats. All the wards of the city were under the 
 supervison of democratic policemen. A revolutionary army of Sans Culottes stood 
 leady to support the Men of Terroi-, so that all power was in the hands of the mob 
 and their furious leaders. As in Paris, so also in the provinces, the Jacobins predomi- 
 nated. Tlieir orators and presidents committed the bloodiest crimes against all 
 
 who would not work with 
 them. A law against sus- 
 pects declared every body to 
 sei»«. 17. ito3. be " an enemy 
 of his country" who showed 
 any sj-mpathy for the mon- 
 archy, or for the priesthood, 
 or for the nobilitj^, and threat- 
 ened him with death. The 
 prisons were filled with thous- 
 ands of so-called aristocrats, 
 and every day, thirt}^ or forty 
 persons were dragged to the 
 scaffold. The base slander 
 of a personal enemy, the ac- 
 cusation of a spy, the hatred 
 of a vagabond, sufficed to 
 bring the innocent to prison 
 and to death. But death 
 lost its terrors, and the pris- 
 ons became meeting places of 
 cheerful companions and 
 powerful intellects. For 
 among the sacrificed, were 
 the noblest and most dis- 
 tinguished men of France. 
 The noble-minded Male- 
 slierbes, members of the Na- 
 MARIE ANTOINETTE LED TO EXECUTION. (De la Eoche.) ^^^^-^.^^ Assembly, like Bailly 
 
 and Barnave, scholars and writers like Lavoisier and Andre Chenier, 
 died under the axe ; among them, the sorely tried Queen Marie 
 Antoinette, who, before her judges and on the scaffold, showed a 
 fortitude and a nobilitj- of soul worthy of her birth. Her son died 
 under the severe discipline of a Jacobin, and her daughter, the Duchess 
 
 d' Angoiilerae, carried through life a gloomy spirit and an embittered heart. Even 
 Kov. a. n».t. the pious sister of Louis XVL, the gentle Elizabeth, died upon the 
 
 scaffold. Nor did the Duke of Orleans escape, for Dahton's favor could not protect 
 
 hiui from Robespierre's cruel envy. 
 
 Oct. to. It03. 
 JTune S. 170S 
 
 XI' 1 1. 
 
 17SS. 
 
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 573 
 
 6. The Horboes in the South. 
 
 § 488. Wlien the inhabitants of Normandy and Brittan)^ rose in defence of 
 the expelled Girondists, the Committee of Public Safety devastated the region be- 
 tween the Seine and the Loire with instruments of terror. Carrier, their agent, 
 crowded together his victims by the hundred, upon ships with trap-bottoms, by means 
 of which they were drowned in crowds. In Lyons, a former priest stirred up the 
 artisans to rob and murder the aristocrats. The rich citizens of Lyons thereupon 
 ji.fi; 16. 1J03. procured the execution of the demagogue. This enraged the Men of 
 Terror at Paris. An army was sent to Lyons ; the city was taken ; the citizens were 
 shot b}' scores, because the guillotine worked too slowly ; houses were torn down, and 
 whole blocks blown up with powder. The possessions of the rich were distributed to 
 the mob, and Lyons was to be destroyed from the face of the earth. A similar fate 
 befell Marseilles and Toulon. The Royalists of Toulon called the English to their 
 help, and made over to them their city and harbor; but the army of the revolution, in 
 which the young Corsican, Napoleon Bonaparte, gave the first proofs of his military 
 genius, overcame all obstacles. Toulon was taken by storm. The English, un- 
 able to defend the city, set fire to their fleet, and abandoned the wretched inhabitants. 
 The wealthy citizens were shot down, and their property distributed to the Sans- 
 Culottes. Bordeaux and Northei'u France were scenes of similar terror. 
 
 § 489. The Blood// Scenes in Vendee. But La Vendee, a peculiar district of 
 West France, traversed by hedges and intersected by ditches, was the greatest suf- 
 ferer of all. The people in this district preserved the simplicity of the ancient time. 
 Peasants and tenants were attached to their landlords ; they loved the king, rever- 
 enced the priest and the church, which had been dear and sacred to them from thejr 
 youth. When, therefore, the National Assembly banished or murdered their priests, 
 when the King perished by the guillotine, when their sons were drafted into the 
 army, the people rose in their wrath to resist the Reign of Terror. Their leaders were 
 from all classes, from the peasants and the nobility ; and at first the}' drove back the 
 armies of the Republic. The Convention then sent a revolutionary army under 
 Westermann, and the furious Ja,cobins, Ronsin and Rossignol, to suppress the rebellion. 
 These fell like wild beasts upon the inhabitants ; set fire to their cities, villages, barns, 
 and forests, and sought to break the resistance of the Royalists by cruelty and terror. 
 But the courage of the Vendeans was unbroken. Not until General Kleber marched 
 his army against them, did the unfortunate people yield, and then their land had be- 
 come a desert, and thousands had fertilized the soil with their blood. The brave but 
 humane Hoche followed, and offered the weary people peace. His moderation brought 
 them to submission. 
 
 § 490. Dantons Overthrow. The cruelty of the Jacobins was at last too terrible 
 for Danton and Camille Desmoulins. Danton was weary of murder, and retired with 
 his young wife, for a short time, into the country, to enjoy the wealth which the 
 Revolution had brought him. Desmoulins attacked the three heads of the Committee 
 of Safety in his journal. This enraged the Jacobins, and as several friends and adher- 
 ents of Danton had been guilty of deception and bribery, in connection with the East In- 
 dia Company, and some others had caused offence by their attacks upon religion, the 
 Committee of Public Safety determinec^ to destroy Danton and all his party. The con- 
 vention had altered the calendar and the names of the months, had abolished Sundays 
 
574 
 
 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 
 
 and holidays, and substituted for them decades and popular festivals. This led several 
 Dantonists, like Hubert, Momoro, Chaumette, and Cloots, to attack Christianity and 
 the priesthood with scandalous fury. They desecrated and plundered the churches, 
 they made a mock of sacred garjnents and sacred vessels, they paraded in blaspheming 
 crowds through the streets, and finally they determined, in the Convention, to estab- 
 lish the worship of reason in the place of the Catholic service. At a festival in Notre 
 Dame, where the Goddess of Reason was represented by the beautiful Madame Momoro, 
 
 TUE FETE OF REASON. ( M. lliiller.) 
 
 they began their new religion. Robespierre opposed all this ; he was neither greedy, 
 nor licentious, nor blasphemous. And he determined to destroy both Desmoulins and 
 
 Feh. iraj. Danton. When the former appeared in the Convention, St. Just of- 
 fered a remarkable resolution, in which he divided the enemies of the Republic into 
 three classes, the corrupt, the ultra-revolutionists, and the moderates. The resolution 
 
 jirni-c/i aj. was adopted on the 24th of* March. Nineteen ultra-revolutionists, 
 among them, Cloots, Hebert and Momoro, the husband of the Goddess of Reason, were 
 
m 
 
 
 , iiiirri I'l' iiilL^ 11^^ 
 
 THE DANTONISTS ON THE ROAD TO THE GUILLOTINE. (D. Maillard.) {jjjj. 575.J 
 
576 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 
 
 xatoh 31. led to the guillotine. On the 31st of March, the corniptionists were 
 accused before the revolutionary tribunal, and Danton and Desmoulins were dragged 
 into the trial. They demanded to be confronted with their accusers. For three days, 
 Danton's voice of thunder and the tumult of the people made his condemnation im- 
 possible. For the first time in its history, the Tribunal hesitated; whereupon the 
 Convention gave to the Court authority to condemn the accused, without a further 
 Aptii B, tvo-t. hearing. They were led to the guillotine and beheaded, along with 
 a crowd of rabble. They died courageously, and with noble dignit3% 
 
 7. The Military Achievements of the Republicans. 
 
 § 491. The First Coalition. Meanwhile the armies of all Europe were marching 
 to the French frontiers. The Dutch, the Austrians, and the English were in the 
 Netherlands. Prussian and Austrian troops had crossed the Rhine. Sardinia was 
 tlireatening the southeast, and Spanish and Portuguese armies were stationed at the 
 Pyrenees. The English were striving to destroy the naval power of France, to con- 
 quer her colonies, and to maintain the armies of the continent by enormous subsidies. 
 At first the allies were successful. Alsace and Flanders fell into their hands, and the 
 way to Paris was open. But discord and incompetency hindered their success. There- 
 publicans, on the other hand, suspecting treason in every defeat, sought to compel 
 victory by terror. General Beauharnais, who came too late to save Mayence, was 
 guillotined. So too were Custine and his son. And Hoche was imprisoned, be- 
 
 xoi'.s8.3o,ii03. cause he was defeated by the Prussians and other German troops at 
 Kaisers-lautern. The energetic and able Carnot now became a member of 
 the Committee of Safety, and brought unity and combination into the war. A 
 draft was ordered, which compelled everybody to take his part. Freedom still 
 created among the soldiers courage and enthusiasm ; but they were no longer led 
 against the enemy in small divisions, and from their ranks proceeded the greatest 
 generals of modern time. The soldiers of other countries, who fought for pay and 
 not for fieedom, were no match for these j'onng warrioi-s : and besides that, the un- 
 dertakings of the allies were frequently hindered by political considerations, and by 
 
 June 2o, ii»-i. diplomatic arts. In June, Jourdan compelled the allies to retire from 
 Belgium, and at the beginning of autumn the Netherlands and the Dutch frontiers 
 ii»^-'os. were in the hands of the French. In December and Januarj^ General 
 Pichegru led his half-starved, half-clad army across the ice into Holland, compelled 
 the Stadtholder to fly to England, and founded the Batavian republic. Holland was 
 now allied with France. The French troops were clad and maintained at the expense 
 of the Dutch, and great sums of money were sent to Paris, as compensation for the 
 war. Meanwhile the Englisli took possession of the Dutch ships and colonies, so that 
 tlie unfortunate country was plundered on both sides. 
 
 § 492. The Peace of Basel. The French were just as victorious along the 
 1704. Rhine. In October the Austrians and Prussians abandoned the left 
 
 bank to the enemy ; and the Prussian government, busy with the affairs of Poland, 
 April s, 110S. agreed to the peace of Basel. In this shameful peace the left bank of 
 the Rhine and Holland were given up to the French, the Rhine was established as the 
 natural boundary of France, and North Germany was separated from the South. The 
 war continued in South Germanj', but North Germany was declared to be neutral soil. 
 
[kw:>! H-i 
 
 viiii:i'«ii:ivi",:,^.|j"i:„"'i'„i7iiPiii,iir 'i ' iii 
 
 
 
 o7 ROBESPIERRE WOUNDED IN THE HALL OF THE ASSEMBLY. (F.Lix.) (pp. 511.) 
 
578 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 
 
 The Austriaus, however, continued the war. Pichegru was defeated, Heidelberg was 
 
 1106. taken from the French, and Mannheim was jjartly destroyed, and then 
 
 occupied by the Germans. Clerfait, the Austrian commander, now resigned, and was 
 
 succeeded by the Arch-duke Karl, the Emperor's brother, who soon displayed great 
 
 Sept. 3, «»«. militar}' genius. He defeated Jourdan at Wurzburg, and compelled 
 
 him to retreat across the Rhine. Even Moreau was forced out of Bavaria and Swabia, 
 
 Sept. lo to Oct. but by a masterl}' retreat through the Black forest, he reached the 
 
 «i, 1700. Rhine without great loss. The other German princes imitated, for the 
 
 most part, the example of Prussia, and made peace with France. 
 
 § 493. Robespierre s Doumfall. After Danton's death, the Committee of Safet}^ 
 ruled absolutely, and brought the Reign of Terror to a climax, by their arrests and 
 executions. But the Convention and the people no longer trusted them. The 
 friends of Danton were lurking and watching for an opportunity. When Robespierre 
 1794. made an end of the blasphemous worship of reason, his enemies in- 
 
 creased. The Convention solemnly resolved that there was a Supreme Being, and that 
 the soul was immortal; and at a festival, in honor of this Supreme Being, Robespierre 
 officiated as high-iDriest. To his enemies belonged Tallien, Fr^ron, Fouch^, and that 
 .Tilly S7. 1704:. master of lies, Barere. On the 9th of Thermidor, a struggle for life 
 and death began in the Convention. Robespierre and his friends were not allowed to 
 speak. Their adversaries howled them down, and passed a resolution to arrest 
 and imprison the three chiefs of the Committee of Safety, Robespierre, St. 
 Just, and Couthon, together with their companion Henriot. On their way to the 
 prison, they were set free by the mob. The drunken Henriot thereupon threatened 
 the Convention with the National Guard, while the others hastened to the cit}' hall, 
 but the National Assembly was too prompt for them. 
 
 A proclamation, cried through the streets, scattered Henriot's army, while the 
 citizens, tired of the Jacobins, rushed to the support of the Convention. The accused 
 were re -arrested. Henriot crept into a sewer, out of which he was pulled with hooks. 
 Robespierre tried to kill himself, but succeeded only in shattering his jaw. They were 
 siiuj as. led, amid the curses and cries of the people, first to the revolutionary 
 Tribunal, and then to the guillotine. Ninety-three Jacobins shared the fate of their 
 leader. 
 
 The Last Days of the Convention. 
 
 § 494. The Thermidorians were doubtless animated by personal revenge ; never- 
 theless, the death of Robespierre meant a return to order and moderation. The popu- 
 lar assemblies were gradually restrained, the power of the city council diminished, and 
 arms taken from the mob. Freron assembled about him the young men, who, from 
 their raiment, were known as the " Gilded Youth." These attacked the Jacobins on 
 the street, and in their club. The club was at last closed, and the Jacobin cloister 
 torn down. 
 
 The Convention was strengthened by the recall of the excluded members and of 
 the Girondists, and then caused the worst men of the Reign of Terror to be put to 
 death. But when the most active members of the Committee of Safety, Barere, Va- 
 dier, d'Herbois, and others were accused, the Jacobins gathered themselves together, 
 and drove the excited people, who were desperate from famine and poverty, to a ter- 
 
THE BREAD RIOTERS IN THE HALL OF THE CONVENTION. {F. LlX.) {iJp. 579. J 
 
580 
 
 THE ERA OF KEVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 
 
 Gefmlual, 
 SKarch 3i, 
 
 April 1, t70S. 
 
 jtlay HO, 119a 
 
 rible insurrection. Mobs surrounded the hall of the convention, cry- 
 ing for bread, for the release of the patriots, and for the Constitution 
 of 1793. But Piehegru was fortunately present in Paris, and came to 
 the help of the convention with citizens and soldiers. The mob was 
 dispersed, and the still more dangerous insurrection of the 20th of May 
 was also suppressed by the courageous jiresident Boissy d'Anglas. The mob sur- 
 rounded the convention from day-break till after midnight, demanding the restoration 
 of the Committee of SafetJ^ But the power of the Jacobins was broken. Some died 
 by their own hand, some were deported, and others were beheaded. Meanwhile, the 
 party of the Royalists was increasing, and a new constitution was adopted, in which 
 the executive authority was given to a directory of five persons, and the legislative 
 power committed to a council of ancients and a council of five hundred. The Repub- 
 lican members of the convention, fearing that 
 the Roj'alists would succeed at the next elec- 
 tion, added a supplement to this constitution, 
 requiring that two-thirds of both legislative 
 councils should consist of members of the Con- 
 vention. The Royalists rebelled against this 
 limitation of the franchise, and provoked an 
 uprising of the sections. The Convention there- 
 upon called upon Napoleon Bonaparte to put 
 down the insurrection, which he did, on the 
 Oct. s, lists. 5th of October, 1795, (13th 
 Vendemiaire). This gave to the Republicans 
 of the Convention the upper hand, and to the 
 young Napoleon the command of the Italian 
 army. A few days after his appointment, he 
 March s, iioe. married the -widow of Gen. 
 Beauharnais, who had been put to death by the 
 Terrorists. Josephine was the beautiful and 
 graceful daughter of a French ofiicer, Tascher 
 AND MEMBER OF THE DIRECTORY IN GALA de la Pageric. Napoleon had been made a c- 
 cosTUME. (1794-1799.) quainted with her by Barras; he loved her 
 
 passionately, although she was several years older than he. 
 
 DEPUTY OF THE COUNCIL OP FIVE HUNDRED 
 
 8. France Under the Directory (Oct. 26th, 1795— Nov. 9th, 1799.) 
 
 § 495 Bonaparte hi Italy. Tlie French army on the Italian frontier was in a 
 wretched condition. Suddenly Napoleon appeared, as their commander-in-chief, and 
 in a short time he had made them so enthusiastic, and attached them so firmly to liim- 
 self, that thej' followed him into every danger. Where the love of glory was not 
 jj»e. powerful enough, the treasures of Italy stimulated their courage. In 
 
 April, Napoleon defeated the Austrians at Monte Notte, separated them from the 
 Sardinians, frightened the king, Victor Amadeus, into surrendering Savoy and Nice to 
 3iay. France, and into permitting the French armies to march through his 
 
 territor3\ The kingdom was thus made entirel^y dependent upon France, and Charles 
 Emanuel IV. surrendered Piedmont also, and retired with his family to the island of 
 
(pp.581.) BONAPARTE ON THE BRIDGE AT AKCOLE. {Emil Bayard.) 
 
582 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 
 
 Sardinia. Napoleon's victorious course soon placed him in possession of all Upper 
 3iau to, 1700. Italy ; he crossed the bridge of Lodi, marched into Austrian Milan, 
 subjugated the cities of Lombardy, and so terrified the small princes, that they begged 
 for peace, on any terms. Napoleon forced the Dukes of Parma, Modena, and Tuscany, 
 to give him great sums of money, costly pictures, manuscripts, and works of art. 
 These he sent to Pai'is, and the money was used to subsidize the directory. The octo- 
 A.iia. 5, !■>»«. genarian commander of the Austrians, Beaulieu, was now superseded 
 by Wurmser ; but Napoleon defeated him at Castiglione, and then beleaguered him in 
 Mantua. The army sent to his relief was defeated in three successive battles, and the 
 .Vol-, iioa. Austrian army in Italy completely wiped out. This compelled 
 j««, «»». Wurmser to capitulate. Bonaparte permitted the venerable com- 
 mander to retain his 
 sword, and to march out 
 with a part of his heroic 
 garrison. Pope Pius VI., 
 was so terrified by these 
 successes of the French, 
 that he purchased the 
 jfe6. lo, not. peace of 
 Tolentino by cessions of 
 territory, large sums of 
 mone}% and valuable 
 works of art. The Arcli- 
 duke Karl was then 
 made commander of the 
 Austrian armies in Ital}', 
 but he was soon com- 
 pelled to an inglorious 
 retreat, and pursued by 
 Bonaparte in the direc- 
 tion of Vienna. The 
 frightened Emperor 
 Francis was now per- 
 
 JOSEPHINE. (H. Boinat.) Ill ^1 .-n 
 
 •' ' suaded, by the still more 
 
 April iSy ito-). fi'ightened women of his court, to sign the truce of Leoben. just at 
 
 the moment when the French arm}' was in great danger from the Tyroleans. At the 
 
 same time, an uprising of the people in Venice led to the murder of many Frenchmen 
 
 in Verona and its vicinity. 
 
 Napoleon revenged his comrades by destroying the Venetian republic. . The cow- 
 ardice of the aristocratic counsellors greatlj' helped him in his work. The French 
 marched into Venice in the month of May, carried off the ships and the supplies of 
 the Republic, robbed the churches, galleries, and libraries of their most precious treas- 
 oct, 17, 1107. ures, and occupied the city until the peace of Campo Formio was 
 signed. By this peace, Austria agreed that Upper Italy should be formed into the 
 Cisalpine Republic. Under the protectorate of France, Belgium was ceded to the 
 French Republic ; the left bank of the Rhine and Mayeuce were also surrendered ; 
 
 \ 
 
THE FRENCPI REVOLUTIO^T. 
 
 583 
 
 but ill return for these, Austria acquired Venice and Dalmatia. The princes, prelates, 
 
 and noblemen, who lost by this surrender 
 
 of the left bank of the Rhine, were com- 
 pensated by territories on the right bank. 
 
 These, and all other points relating to Ger- 
 Bec. tjoi. many, were arranged at 
 
 the Congress of Rastatt, where Napoleon 
 
 presided in person, and whence he departed 
 
 to Paris to receive the applause of excited 
 
 thousands. 
 
 § 496. Gracchus Baleuf. The Royal- 
 ists. The government of the five directors 
 
 was hateful alike to the Republicans and 
 
 the Royalists. The first attempt to over- 
 throw it was made by the Republicans, 
 
 under the lead of Gracchus Babeuf, who 
 
 aimed at a new distribution of property, 
 
 and sought to establish equality of wealth. 
 
 He was joined by many of the old Jacobins, 
 
 and they founded the "Union of Equals" 
 
 which held its sittings secretly, at the hussar, cavalryman and infantryman. (i795.) 
 iiiay,noe. Pantheon. The conspiracy was discovered. Babeuf drove a dagger to 
 
 his heart ; the others were executed or exiled. The Royalists, on the other hand, 
 
 succeeded in the elections in bringing into 
 the legislative assembly a majority of their 
 friends, among them Pichegru, the former 
 commander of the Rhine army. He was 
 chosen president of the council of five hun- 
 dred, and sought to restore the monarchy. 
 J The Republicans, in the directory and in the 
 legislative chambers, sought, in their anxiety, 
 help from Napoleon Bonaparte. Bonaparte 
 Isent Bernadotte, the cunning, and Augereau, 
 the brutal, into Paris; ostensibly to bring 
 the conquered standards, but really to sup- 
 port the directors against the Royalists. On 
 Sept. -t, ISO*, the 18th Fructidor, Augereau 
 surrounded the Tuileries and arrested the 
 Royalist deputies. Eleven members of the 
 ancients, forty-two of the five hundred 
 (among them Pichegru), and two directors, 
 were thereupon condemned to exile. The 
 Royalist elections were declared invalid, the 
 returned emigrants were banished, and many 
 
 newspapers sup^trei-sed. Nevertheless, the government of the directory failed to 
 
 inspire 'conficlence. Commerce, industry, agriculture, were at a standstill, and the 
 
 GENERAL, iilOtir INFANTRY OFFICER, AND 
 INFANTRYMAN. (1795.) 
 
584 
 
 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 
 
 state treasury was empty. The paper money of the Revolution, which, during the 
 Reign of Terror, no one ventured to refuse, had now lost all value. Great losses 
 were tlie consequence. The expenses of war and other outlays, could only be met by 
 forced contributions in the conquered lands. 
 
 § 497. The Republicans in Italy ; the Transformation of Switzerland. Italy and 
 Switzerland were now made to feel tlie insolence and the capacity of the Directory. 
 In the winter of 1797 the French provoked republican uprisings in Rome and other 
 parts of the Papal dominions. In suppressing these movements of the mob, a French 
 Feb., i-.os. general was killed by the papal troops ; thereupon Berthier marched 
 his army into Rome. A liberty tree was planted in the Roman Forum, and the 
 temporal power was taken away from the Pope, and handed over to a republican 
 government, consisting of consuls, senators, and tribunes. Heavy contributions were 
 then levied upon the city, valuable works of art were carried off to Paris, the aged 
 
 pope Pius VI. was led a prisoner to France, where 
 .4ii</., 1399. he died the next j^ear, and the car- 
 dinals were severely persecuted. Genoa and Lucca 
 also received democratic constitutions, for which 
 they paid with their treasures of art. But Naples 
 went through a series of changes. The hard hearted 
 pei-ainana IV., and cowardly king, Ferdinand, who 
 (I) of xapiea, turned over the affairs of state to 
 itso-is2s. his wife, Catharine, was induced, by 
 the Queen and her friend Lady Hamilton, to send a 
 Neapolitan army, under the Austrian general. Mack, 
 into the papal states. The French were driven out 
 of Rome, and the city occupied by Mack's army. 
 Nov. nna Dec, But iu a fcw days, the French re- 
 JI9S. turned, drove out the Neapolitans, 
 
 Ir- and marched to Naples. The Neapolitan court fled 
 ^_ to Sicily, after setting fire to their own fleet, and 
 abandoned Naples and the whole country to the vic- 
 cubTLME OF ciTizLNh. [1796:) tors. The Neapolitan people now rose in insurrec- 
 tion, urged on by monks and priests. Mobs of rabble, uniting with peasants and 
 galle}' slaves, took possession of Naples, and committed such horrors that the ro}^al 
 governor fled to Sicily, and even Mack sought protection from the French. The 
 French, under Championnet, now forced their way into the desperately defended 
 jfnn,. 170O. clty, and erected the Parthenopian republic. All the cultivated, 
 respectable, and patriotic Neapolitans accepted the new order with enthusiasm, rejoic- 
 ing at their redemption from the long oppression of royal and priestly despotism. 
 Switzerland also experienced a compulsory change of constitution. In 1798 the 
 Republicans of Waadtland rose in arms to free themselves from the authority of 
 Berne, and as they were unable to cope with the Bernese, they called upon the 
 French for help. General Brune occupied Berne with a French army, took pos- 
 session of the city treasury and the arsenal, and levied heavy contributions upon 
 the people. With the help of the Democratic party, the French then converted 
 Match, nos. Switzerland into an indivisible Helvetian republic. The forests can- 
 
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 
 
 585 
 
 tons, urged on by their priests, refused to accept the new government, and took up 
 arms. But their desperate and courageous resistance was soon conquered. Geneva 
 also was united to France. About the same time, an insurrection occurred in Ireland. 
 A French army under Humbert was sent to support the insurgents, but was forced by 
 
 August, lifts, the English to a speedy capitulation, and Ireland was then placed un 
 der martial law. 
 
 § 498. The Second War of the Coalition (1798-1799.') These events, and Napo- 
 leon's expedition to Egypt, led to a new coalition of Russia, England, and Austria, 
 ao-ainst France. Russia, in 1796, came under the rule of Catharine's eldest son Paul, 
 an eccentric prince, who hated the Revolution, who was a warm admirer of the Knights 
 of Malta, of which he 
 was grand-master, and 
 who found a cause of 
 war in Napoleon's tak- 
 iug the island of 
 Malta. England dread- 
 ed the consequences of 
 the Egyptian expedition 
 for her Eastern posses- 
 sions, and scattered 
 money with liberal 
 hands. Austria was in 
 difficulty with the Direc- 
 tory, because the dwell- 
 ing of the French am- 
 bassador in Vienna had 
 been attacked, and the 
 tri-color had been in- 
 sulted. This war was 
 carried on in Germany, 
 Italy, Switzerland, and 
 the Netherlands all at 
 
 srarch 2s, noo. ouce. The French were driven across the Rhine by the Arch-duke 
 
 Karl, and the French ambassadors at Rastatt, as they were leaving the city, were 
 
 Ai»»-H ss. attacked, robbed of their papers, and two of them killed. In Italy also 
 
 the French suffered defeat. The Russians conquered the Cisalpine Republic ; Moreau 
 
 April !t7, ii»». was defeated at Cassano, and MacDonald at Trebia, and Italy was 
 jfiine 17-19, lost to the Frcuch at the battle of Novi. This brought the Parthenopian 
 August IS. Republic to an end. As the French abandoned Naples, Cardinal Ruffo, 
 jit.ie 13. with a mob of peasants and vagabonds, stormed the city. The court 
 returned from Sicily, and began at once a terrible punishment of the Republicans in 
 Naples. Supported by Lord Nelson, whose fleet lay in the harbor, the royal government 
 and the priesthood committed outrages worthy of the worst days of the Reign of Terror. 
 When the rabble was worn out with robbery and assassination, the judge, the jailor, 
 and the hangman, set to work. All who supported or furthered the republican insti- 
 tutions, wei-e hunted down. Four thousand of the most cultivated and respected men 
 
 PIUS VII. (E. Ronjat.) 
 
586 
 
 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 
 
 and women of tlie cit^- died upon tlie scaifold, or in gloomy dungeons. The aged 
 Prince Caraccioli, Ferdinand's former confidant, and Nelson's friend, was tied to a 
 mast, and then, load- 
 ed down with a heavy 
 weight, thrown into 
 the sea. The repub- 
 lican government in 
 Rome was likewise 
 destroyed, and the 
 new pope, Pius VJL, 
 entered the Vatican. 
 After the conquest of 
 Italj', the Russian 
 commander Suwaroff 
 recrossed the Alps, to 
 drive Massena and 
 the French army out 
 of Switzerland. The 
 Russian army climbed 
 mountain passes 
 which had been hith- 
 erto regarded as in- 
 accessible to man, 
 fought against nature 
 and against their en- 
 emies with a bravery 
 never surpassed, and 
 yet the French main- 
 tained themselves in 
 Switzerland. Before 
 Suwaroff could unite 
 with his allies, the 
 Russians were de- 
 feated in the battle 
 of Zurich. Suwaroff 
 Sept. as, aj, X100. led 
 the remnant of liis 
 army back to Russia, 
 where he died in sor- 
 aiay. isoo. row, 
 because of the dis- 
 favor of his monarch. 
 The attempt of the 
 English to drive the 
 French out of the Netherlands, was a disastrous failure. The Duke of York, who 
 Oct., ii9». commanded the expedition, was utterly incompetent, and bought his 
 
 r-^ 
 
BATTLE OF THE PYRAJIIDS. {F. Lix.) 
 
 ipp.m.) 
 
688 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 
 
 way home by a shameful treaty, without considering his Russian allies. This so 
 embittered the Russian czar, that he withdrew from the coalition. 
 
 § 499. Bonaparte in J^gypt and Syria. In June 1798, Napoleon sailed for the 
 mouth of the Nile ; his purpose was to weaken the naval power of the English, and to 
 threaten their possessions in East India. In the hot days of July, he left Alexandria, 
 and marched through the Egyptain desert to Cairo. The distress of the army, under 
 the glowing sun, without water and without sufficient food, was terrible ; yet in the 
 j-ni» ai, i-ioo. Battle of the Pyramids, the Mamelukes were conquered, and Napoleon 
 entered Cairo. But during his absence, the French fleet had been led away hy the 
 English hero, Lord Nelson ; and Napoleon was compelled to make preparations for a 
 Alia- t, a, 1798. longer stay. He therefore established a new government, a new sys- 
 tem of police and taxation ; and he ordered the scholars and artists who were with his 
 
 NAVAL FIGHT OFF ABUKIR, AUGUST 1, 1798. {Fr. Weber.) 
 
 army, to investigate the antiquities and monuments of this wonderful country, to col- 
 lect and to describe the relics of their ancient life Bonaparte and his soldiers were 
 careful to spare the religious feelings of the Mohammedans, their priests, their 
 mosques, and their ceremonies ;• nevertheless, the fanatical Mussulmans hated the 
 dominion of the Christians. And when the French commander levied taxes and con- 
 tributions upon them, and the Turkish government called upon the Mohammedans to 
 Oct. HI, i7»a. war against the Christians, there arose in Cairo a terrible insurrection. 
 This was not suppressed until six thousand Mohammedans were slain. Napoleon then 
 ji-eb., 1700. marched against the Turks in Syria, and conquered Joppa, where he 
 massacred at one time two thousand prisoners. He then besieged St. John D'Acre. 
 March-Slay, 1700. Here Napoleon's fortune proved treacherous for the first time ; the 
 Turks drove back their desperate enemies, while a Turkish army outside the city 
 threatened the besiegers. The latter was soon conquered and dispersed, lievertheless 
 
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 
 
 589 
 
 Bonaparte was compelled, by pestilence, to give up the siege and to retreat. He 
 .ruty 95. reached Cairo in June, and the next month defeated the Turkish army 
 at Aboukir. A few days after the battle, he received newspapers recounting the 
 misfortunes of the French in Italy, and news also of the political situation in France. 
 He determined to return. Handing over the command of the Egyptian army to 
 Kleber, he sailed from Alexandria and narrowly escaping capture by the English, soon 
 Oct. s,i7o». reached the French coast, and journeyed, amid the acclamations of the 
 people, hastily to Paris. 
 
 SIEGE OP ST. JOHN D'ACRE. 
 
 § 500. The Eighteenth Brumaire. The Directory had lost all influence. Every- 
 body was convinced that a change of constitution was necessary. The news of Napo- 
 leon's landing fixed all eyes upon him. His daring expedition had increased the ad- 
 miration of the people for the new Csesar, and the return of the hero, who was said to 
 have been exiled by the envious directors, formed the substance of all conversations. 
 Napoleon now determined to place himself at the head of the state. To this end he must 
 overthrow the Directory. He assured himself of the support of the officers and troops 
 stationed in Paris, and then arranged with Sieyes, one of the directors, and with his brother 
 Lucian, the president of the council of five hundred, the plan of operations. Tiiis 
 
590 
 
 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIOXS AND RESTORATIONS. 
 
 was to remove the sittings of the council to St. Cloud, in order to bring the members within 
 reach of the soldiers. Entering the hall, Napoleon sought at first to win the council 
 over to his plans. But when he was met with reproaches and threats, he commanded his 
 grenadiers to empty the hall at the point of the bayonet. The Republicans were com- 
 pelled to yield, and sought safety through the doors and windows. The most defiant 
 of them were carried out by the grenadiers. A commission of fifty persons was then 
 charged with framing a new constitution. This was the. Coup D' Etat of the 18th. 
 Bruuiaire, in consequence of wJiich, Napoleon Bonaparte became First Consul, and in 
 alliance with Sieyes, created a new constitution, which preserved the shadow of a re- 
 public, but was really a military despotism. 
 
 MADAME ROLAND. 
 
0. THE RULE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. 
 
 I. THE CONSULATE (1800 TO 1804.) 
 
 § 501 
 
 ,HE consular constitution distributed the functions of the 
 state as follows: 1 — A senate, consisting of eighty mem- 
 bers, had authority to choose from the names sent from the 
 various departments, the members of the legislative body, 
 the chief executive officers, and the judges. 2 — A legislative 
 .^'^^ body consisting of a tribunate composed of a hundred mem- 
 ^^7{k bers, whose duty it was to examme and to discuss the propo- 
 '' ij%', sitions of the executive, and of a law-making assembly which 
 ^jS» voted upon these propositions without discussion and adopted 
 or rejected them without amendment. 3 — The executive 
 ) consisting of three consuls chosen for ten j-ears, of whom the first 
 consul, Napoleon Bonaparte, exercised actually the executive author- 
 it}', while the second and third consul (Cambaceres and Lebrun) 
 assisted iiim as counselors. Bonaparte surrounded himself with a 
 state council and a cabinet, for which he selected men of the highest 
 talent and largest experience. Talleyrand, the skillful diplomatist, 
 became minister of foreign affairs; the astute Fouchd controlled the police system, and 
 Berthier was chief of the general staff. The French law book, the code Napoleon, in 
 the composition of which the ablest jurists of France were engaged, is a striking proof 
 of the abilit}' of the state council. 
 
 § 502. Maeengo and Hohenlinden. 
 
 The new constitution once established, Napoleon wrote an autograph letter 
 to the king of England and another to the Emperor, offering peace. But this un- 
 usual step met a cold reception. The answers to it spoke of the restoration of the 
 Bourbons, and of the return to old frontiers. The contrast between the apparent 
 candor and magnanimity of Napoleon, and the haughty coldness of the cabinets of 
 London and Vienna filled the French with the enthusiasm of war. The Russian Czar, 
 however, treated Napoleon with more consideration. Paul's love of soldiers and his 
 anger at the Austrians and English, who refused to exchange their Russian prisoners, 
 
 (591) 
 
592 
 
 THE ERA OF REUOLUTIONS AKD RESTORATIONS. 
 
 were cunningly made use of by Napoleon. He sent thousands of these prisoners, newly 
 clad and armed, back to their native country. This won the heart of the chivalrous 
 Czar so that he entered into friendly correspondence with Bonaparte, and broke off 
 relations entirely with his former allies. The first consul now secretly collected a 
 
 large body of troops near Lake Geneva, and. 
 began his daring march across the St. Bernard 
 with the main army, while other divisions were 
 sent by the Simplon, St. Gotthard and other 
 arny, isoo. passes, into Italy. The army 
 marched through mountains of snow and ice 
 past the Hospice of St. Bernard, into the river 
 valley of Dora Baltea. Here the way seemed to 
 be blocked by the Austrian fort Bard. But 
 Napoleon mastered every difficulty. The troops 
 crossed the neighboring mountain by a narrow 
 sheep-path, while the cannon were secretly and 
 cunningly pushed forward under the batteries of 
 the fort. The French arrived, unexpectedly, in 
 upper Ital}^ at the same moment in which the 
 Austrians compelled Genoa to surrender, and 
 jHHe », isoo: thereby acquired possession of the 
 whole land. But the situation soon changed. 
 Five days after the fall of Genoa the Austrians 
 were defeated at Monte-bello, and shortly after- 
 jn«e i4,,isoo. wards in the battle of Marengo, where they were beaten in a third 
 attack, after being twice victorious. The troops of General Desaix, who had just 
 arrived from Egypt, and the opportune cavalry charge of the young Kellermann 
 decided the battle, and snatched from the Austrian commander, Melas, his confidently 
 expected victory. Desaix, one of the noblest and greatest men of the Revolutionary 
 era, died a heroic death at Marengo. Milan and Lombardy fell into the victors' hands. 
 At the same time another French army under Moreau had penetrated to Bavaria, 
 driven back the Austrians in several engagements and compelled them to an armis- 
 tice ; but the glorious march of Macdonald and Moncey, over the ice-clad Alps, and 
 feh.a,isoi. Moreau's splendid victory on the bloody field of Hohenlinden com- 
 pelled the Austrians to sign the treaty of Luneville. and to accept the valley between 
 the Adige and the Rhine as the frontier of the French Empire. The treaty also pro- 
 vided for the formation of an Italian republic under the presidency of Bonaparte, and 
 for the compensation of German princes, by secularizing the estates of the church and 
 confiscating the property of imperial cities on the right bank of the Rhine. Two 
 years later an arrangement of German frontiers was agreed to, which was the first 
 jpeb. as, 1S03. step toward the dissolution of the German empire, and toward the 
 creation of sovereign kingdoms and dominions. 
 
 FRENCH GENERALS. (1799-1800.) 
 
 § 503. The Peace op Amiens. 
 
 England now stood alone. The Russian Czar Paul had shortly before, in 
 order to gratify his hate, formed an alliance of armed neutrality with Prussia, Sweden, 
 
THE RULE OF NAPOLEOX BONAPARTE. 
 
 593 
 
 
 and Denmark ; and as this gave the English enemies in the Baltic also, they became 
 anxious for rest and recuperation. Negotiations were begun but they led to no result 
 because it was impossible to agree about Egypt. Kleber, angry as he was at Napo 
 Icon's departure, had 
 nevertheless main- 
 tained himself suc- 
 cessfully against the 
 English and the 
 Turks, and in the bat- 
 
 3IarcU SO, ISOO. tie of 
 
 Heliopolis had defeat- 
 ed au enemy six times 
 his strength. But on 
 the day of the battle 
 of Marengo, he had 
 been assassinated at 
 Cairo by a fanatical 
 Mahommedan. The 
 French army then 
 passed to his incom- 
 petent successor Me- 
 nou who had gone 
 over to Islam. It was 
 speedily reduced to 
 such extremities, that 
 the English hoped to 
 compel its surrender 
 and therefore pro- 
 tracted the peace negotiations. Not until the brave English general Abercrombie had 
 fallen at Canopus, were they convinced that it was impossible to conquer the war-like 
 
 itfn.-c/t a/, Msoi. French, either by their own army made up of all people or by the 
 worthless Turkish mobs The French troops, twenty four thousand in number, were 
 finally carried to France in English ships, with their arms, their munitions of war, and 
 all their treasures of science and art. The Peace op Amiens followed. The English 
 
 3ia,ch ay, isoa. agreed to surrender the greater part of their foreign conquests and to 
 turn over the Island of Malta to the knights of- St. John. This treaty hastily agreed 
 upon by the English ministry, excited violent opposition among the English people. 
 The press, especially, attacked Napoleon with great violence. The First Consul, who 
 could tolerate neither blame nor contradiction, replied with like vehemence in the 
 French official journal (Moniteur). The feeling thus produced led to a renewal of 
 the war, when the English delayed the surrender of Malta, and the execution of other 
 articles of the treaty. They no longer feared Russia, for the Emperor Paul had suf- 
 fered a violent death. His cruelty, his mad caprices, and his gloomy suspicions had so 
 increased as to leave no doubt of his incurable insanity. A conspiracy was formed 
 among his courtiers, of which Count Pahlen was chief. Paul was attacked in his bed- 
 
 xarcH as, isoi. chambcr and, when he refused to abdicate, strangled to death. His 
 S8 
 
 UEATH OP MARSHAL DESAIX. 
 
594 
 
 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AXD RESTORATIONS. 
 
 son Alexander was then f)roclaimed Czar. "The crown, too nervous to punish, 
 did not even venture to be angry, or to appear unthankful." The murderers 
 were rewarded with riches and honors. Under such circumstances the peace of 
 
 Amiens could not last : at the close 
 of the year the English again de- 
 clared war, and Pitt became again 
 prime minister. Meanwhile Napo- 
 leon had reduced Switz.erland to 
 dependence upon France, as he had 
 Mau *«, tsos. already subjugated 
 Holland and Italy. By the " Act of 
 IMediation " the constitution of the 
 Swiss republic was so changed that 
 Fej,. 1S03. the cantons became 
 independent again, but a Landamman 
 and a Diet represented the union. 
 "This furnished the desired 'medium' 
 between unit}- and isolation." 
 
 § 504. The New Couet and the 
 Concordat. 
 Bonaparte tried, in the begin- 
 ning, to reconcile the old and the 
 new ; to luiite the conquests of tb.e 
 Eevolution with the manners and 
 forms of the jMonarchy. But his 
 preference for the old conditions was 
 soon manifest in the restoration of the 
 earlier arrangements and usages. At the court of the First Consul in the Tnileries 
 the former costumes and fashions, the ancient forms of etiquette and the elegance of 
 the royal period soon reappeared. Aristocratic bearing, refinement and fine manners 
 were once more the marks of good society. The social tact of his wife Josephine, the 
 beauty and amiability of his step-children (Eugene and Hortense Beauharnais"), the 
 handsome forms and striking talents of his sisters, greatly contributed to his success.* 
 
 ALEXANDER I. 
 
 I. Joseph. 
 
 1767— lS4i. 
 
 6 Pauline— Borghese. 
 17S1— 1825. 
 
 ♦FAMILY TREE OF THE BOXAPARTES OF AJACCIO CORSICA. 
 
 C-iKLO BONAPARTE- LETITIA EAMOLISI (tlSo6 at ROME). 
 
 2 Napoleon. 3 Lncian. 4 Elisa— Baocioehi. 
 
 1769-1S21. 1T72-1S40. 1777— ISJO. 
 
 7 Caroliue- l\Iurat. 
 17S2-1S3S1. 
 
 5 Louis. 
 177S— 1S46. 
 S Jerome. 
 17S4-1S60. 
 
 Prince Napoleou. 
 
 Napoleon Bonaparte— Josephine Beauharnais (nee Jascher de la Pagerie). 
 1763— ISll. 
 
 Eugene. Hortense — Louis Bonaparte. 
 
 17S1— 1S24. 1 1&S7. 
 
 Louis Napoleou III- 
 1S1S~1S52, President of the RepuWio. 
 1S5'2— 1870. Emperor. 
 1 1873, Exile in England. 
 
THE RULE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. 
 
 595 
 
 Many of the emigrant nobles were permitted to return and treated with such favor 
 that tliey soon entered the service of the New Regime. Madame De Stael (Necker's 
 daughter) collected once more in her salon a company of cultivated and famous men. 
 The vanity of the French also favored Napoleon's plans, and when he established the 
 order of the Legion of Honor, Republicans and Royalists greedily struggled for this new 
 evidence of human weakness. The restoration of the Christian worship in the P'rench 
 jiifj/ 15, jsoi. churches was eagerly desired by Napoleon. He abolished the repub- 
 lican festivals, and restored the celebration of Sunday and then proceeded to negotiate 
 with the Pope. This led to the Concordat, whereby the French clergy lost their 
 ancient independence and were made subject to the head of the church and the ruler 
 April IS, 1S09. of the statc. The system of education also attracted his attention, 
 especially the institutions for practical knowledge like the polytechnic school of 
 Paris. He made the schools wholly dependent upon the State. In a word Napo- 
 leon wished to govern everything by his own hand and his own will, and thus became 
 the creator of tiiat destructive centralization, which makes local government and self- 
 reliance imijossible in France. 
 
 § 505. Conspiracies. 
 
 Napoleon had no pleasure in a free state. He limited therefore more and 
 more the political rights of the citizens, prosecuted Jacobins and Republicans 
 (Ideologists he called 
 them), put his trust in 
 his guard and his police, 
 the three-fold strength 
 of which was wielded 
 by the cunning of 
 Fouche. Repeated con- 
 spiracies against the life 
 of the first consul were 
 started, sometimes bj- 
 Republicans, sometimes 
 hy Royalists, and these 
 led to fresh restrictions 
 and closer surveillance. 
 The boldest attempt 
 of the time was by means 
 of an infernal machine 
 filled with -powder and 
 ball, as the consul was 
 driving to the opera 
 house. Napoleon 
 
 neeemher H-t, CSCapcd 
 
 jfsoo. through the promptness and presence of mind of his coachman, 
 
 although many houses were destroyed and several persons killed. In consequence 
 of this a great number of Jacobins were deported, although it was subsequently 
 
 CHATEAUBRIAND, 
 
 {E. Ruiijal.) 
 
596 
 
 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 
 
 discovered that the plot originated among the ro3'alists that surrounded tlie 
 
 Count D'Artois. The conspiracies became more extensive and more dangerous, when 
 
 A^ugtist 3. the consulate was conferred upon Napoleon for life, with the authorit^y 
 
 isos. to appoint his successor. This result of universal suffrage took away 
 
 from the Bourbons their last hope, on which account the emigrants risked everything 
 
 NAPOLEON I. (Chattillon') 
 
 to destroy Napoleon. George Cadoudal and General Piehegru, a giant in strength, 
 were the agents in a fresh attempt at assassination ; they traveled secretly fi'om 
 England to France, but, with about forty of their confederates, were detected and 
 imprisoned. Before their fate was determined Napoleon was informed that the Duke 
 D'Enghien, the chivalrous grandson of the Prince of Conde, was the soul of all these 
 roj-alist conspiracies. He immediately ordered the young nobleman, then resident in 
 
THE RULE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. 
 
 597 
 
 the town of Ettenbeim in Baden to be arrested, hurried to Paris and condemned to 
 luaich SI, death by a hurried court-martial. In spite of his magnanimous defense, 
 ISO*. he was ordered to be sliot. All Europe was indignant at this inde- 
 
 fensible crime ; even the admirers of Napoleon were reduced to silence. The poet 
 Cliateaubriand, author of "The genius of Christianity" resigned the office which had 
 been procured for him by Napoleon's sister, Elisa, and retired to Switzerland. Pichegru 
 died in prison a violent death, whether by suicide or murder is unknown. George 
 Cadoudal, with twelve conspirators, ascended tlie guillotine. General Moreau, accused 
 of complicity with Pichegru's undertaking, and arbitrarily condemned to two years 
 imprisonment, went into voluntary exile in America. 
 
 II. NAPOLEON AS EMPEROR. (1804—1814.) 
 § 506. 1. — The Empire. 
 
 HE royalist conspiracy was used by Napoleon for the establishment 
 of an hereditary monarchy. His adherents in the tribunate pro- 
 posed to confer upon Napoleon the imperial dignity ; this was 
 confirmed by the Senate and ratified by a vote of the entire popu- 
 lation. While all hearts were yet throbbing with the recollection 
 May IS, ISO*, of the bloody execution, Napoleon I. was proclaimed 
 Emperor of the French, and at the end of the year was solemnly 
 Bee. 3, ISO*, consccratcd by the Pope in the church of Notre Dame. The crown, however, 
 
 was placed upon his own _ 
 
 head and that of his kneel- 
 ing consort, by his own hand. 
 This coronation appeared 
 to be the close of the rev- 
 olution, since now all the 
 old institutions, the abolition 
 of which had cost thousands 
 of human lives, gradually re- 
 turned. The new Emperor 
 surrounded his throne with a 
 splendid court, at which the 
 old titles, orders, and grada- 
 tions of rank revived again in 
 different form. He himself, 
 it is true, preserved a military 
 simplicity. But the mem- 
 bers of his family became 
 princes and princesses ; his 
 generals became marshals ; 
 faithful servants who fur- 
 thered his plans, became great dignitaries of the crown, or were held fast to the new 
 imperial throne as senators with large incomes. . The creation of a new nobility with 
 the old titles of prince, duke, count, baron, completed the magnificent structure of 
 
 CATHEDRAL Or NOTRE DAME, PARIS. 
 
598 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 
 
 an imperial court, that outshone all other courts of Europe. The republican institu- 
 tions gradually disappeared ; the old calendar was reintroduced ; the new nobility- 
 was allowed to create entailed estates : the press was put under censorship and 
 civil freedom more and more restrained. The ruler would endure no criticism. 
 Hence he diminished the number of tribunes to fifty, and in 1807 abolished the 
 tribunate entirely. Obedience now became the sum of patriotic dutj*. And 
 France stood under a tyranny more powerful than that of the ancient monarchy. 
 But the tyrant was a great man who had saved France from ruin within and without. 
 Therefore men submitted willingly and in spite of the hard conscription, the severe 
 embargo, and the heavy taxation, the people bore their burdens more easily because 
 many achievements of the revolution, like equality before the law, the peasant's right 
 to possess landed property and religious freedom, remained untouched. Industry 
 made great progress ; arts and trades flourished exceedingly ; unusual prosperity was 
 everj-where visible. Splendid highways like those across the Alps, canals, bridges, 
 public works of all sorts, are to this day the speaking monuments of this extraordinary 
 man. Paris was adorned with magnificent palaces, majestic bridges, and splendid 
 streets. In the Louvre was brought together all that art could show that was great 
 and splendid. The University was established upon a magnificent plan, and made 
 supreme and authoritative in the entire system of education. The glory of the nation 
 made the yoke of the emperor easy. The people forgot the silence of freedom, amid 
 the rattle of musketry and the blare of trumpets. They did not perceive that the 
 arrogant tone of the war bulletin, and the splendid phrases of senators and legislators, 
 eclipsed the truth and destroyed the love of candor. 
 
 2. AusTEELiTZ, Peesburg, The Rhine Confederation. 
 
 § 507. The English made the outbreak of a new war with France an excuse for 
 seizing Dutch and French ships ; and invited Russia and Austria to a new coalition 
 3iay 1S03. Napoleoii, on the other hand, marched his troops to the Weser in 
 order to occupy Hanover, which at that time belonged to the English king. The 
 people and army of Hanover were determined to risk life and property in the 
 defense of their country, but the selfish nobility and the ofiieials preferred a dis- 
 graceful capitulation, which gave up tlie entire land to the French, rather than to 
 engage in desperate but honorable struggle. With gnashing teeth the brave army 
 retreated across the Elbe and then disbanded ; arms, munitions of war, and valuable 
 horses fell ii!to the hands of the French, who garrisoned the land with their troops and 
 exhausted it with taxes and contributions. Many patriotic men of the Hanoverian 
 army, entered the English service, and proved their bravery in the German legion on 
 man}^ fields of battle, far from home. The threatening position that Napoleon now 
 assumed toward the entire North, as well as his arbitrar}- conduct in Holland, Italy, 
 and other lands, caused the remaining powers no little anxiety. The Italian republic 
 was transformed into an Italian kingdom, of which Eugene Beauharnais was made the 
 siarcii r, isos. vicerov, aud to it was auncxcd the Dukedom of Parma. Lucca was 
 given to Napoleon's sister Elisa. In Spain and Germany also he acted with the same 
 self-will, and as a consequence Russia, Austria, and Sweden united with England 
 against France and renewed the wap with great energy. Even in Prussia there was a 
 strong part}', at the head of winch was the high-minded Queen Louise and the brave. 
 
THE RULE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. 
 
 599 
 
 energetic, jovial, and talented Prince Lud\^ig Ferdinand, who urged an alliance with 
 the coalition against Napoleon. But the three ministers were favorable to France and 
 possessed the entire 
 confidence of the ir- 
 resolute, peace-loving 
 king. So Prussia re- 
 mained neutral to her 
 own destruction. 
 
 § 508. While the 
 attention of all 
 Europe was directed 
 to the west coast of 
 France, where Napo- 
 leon was preparing 
 ships of all kinds, and 
 collecting a great 
 arm}^ at Boulogne, os- 
 tensibly to invade 
 England, he was ar- 
 ranging quietly for 
 the remarkable cam- 
 paign of 1805. Hav- 
 ing secured the sup- 
 port of the South 
 German countries, he 
 set forth with seven 
 army-corps, crossed 
 the Rhine, and 
 marched into Suabia, 
 while Bernadotte, 
 without regard to the 
 neutrality of Prussia, 
 marched into Prus- 
 sian territory, and 
 pushed on to the Isar. 
 Frederick William 
 HI. was so offended 
 at this violation of 
 his sovereignty, that 
 he assumed a threat- 
 ening attitude toward 
 Napoleon, although 
 not declaring war. 
 With Napoleon were 
 his famous marshals Ney, Lannes, Marmont, Soult, and Murat, and his army was 
 
 Oct. 14,, laos. strengthened by the troops of Baden, Wurtemberg, and Bavaria. The 
 
600 
 
 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTOKATIOXi 
 
 Dukes of Hesse and Nassau also supported hiin. In a short time the Austrian gen- 
 eral. Mack, was shut up in Ulm, and cut off from the main army. Despairing of relief. 
 Oct. SO. the incompetent commander soon capitulated, and twenty-three thou- 
 sand Austrians, (among them eighteen generals), were made prisoners. The}- surren- 
 dered also forty battle flags, and sixty mounted cannon. Mack was tried by a court- 
 martial, and deprived of his rank and honors. But Napoleon's satisfaction, in his great 
 Oct. at. victory, was greatly diminished, by the naval victory of the English at 
 Trafalgar, in which the whole French fleet was destroyed, while the English lost their 
 great hero. Nelson. 
 
 § 509. In Prussia the war party was now in the ascendant. The King renewed 
 
 his alliance with the Czar Alex- 
 ander, in the garrison church at 
 Potsdam, the two monarchs 
 swearing eternal friendship over 
 the coffin of Frederick the 
 Great. Haugwitz was then 
 sent to Napoleon with threaten- 
 ing demands : but the French 
 -Tor. 11. isos. emperor marched 
 along the Danube, fighting 
 several bloody battles with the 
 Russians, under Kutusoff and 
 Bagration. He found them 
 harder to conquer than the 
 Austrians, for Murat easily con- 
 xor. 13. quered Vienna, as 
 the Prince Auersperg failed to 
 defend or to destroy the bridge 
 across the river. The indeci- 
 sion of the Emperor Francis, 
 and the want of harmony be- 
 tween the Austrians and the 
 Russians, enabled the French to 
 defeat the allied army, which 
 they had pursued into Moravia. 
 Bee. s. tsos. In the Battle of 
 the Three Emperors' at Aus- 
 terlitz, the winter sun shone down upon Napoleon's most brilliant victory. The 
 Emperor Francis, eager for the close of the war, now sought out Napoleon, and agreed 
 to a truce, in which the withdrawal of the Russians from the Austrian states was 
 M>ec. as. determined. The Peace of Pressburg soon followed. Austria lost 
 Venice (which was united to the kingdom of Italy), the Tyrol (which was given to 
 Bavaria), and the Black Forest (which fell to Baden). Bavaria and Wurtemberg 
 were raised to the rank of kingdoms. Baden was made a grand-duchy, and aU three 
 made matrimonial alliances with Napoleon. The daughter of Maximilian Joseph of 
 Bavaria, became the wife of the Emperor's stepson, Eugene. Frederica Catherine, of 
 
 ADMIRAL LORB NELSON. 
 
THE RULE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. 
 
 601 
 
 Wurtemberg, married Napoleon's frivolous brother Jerome, who, at tlie Emperor's 
 command, abandoned his first wife Elizabeth Patterson of Baltimore. While Carl, 
 the grandson of the Duke of Baden, married a niece of the Empress Josephine. 
 The lauds along the lower Rhine, with Dusseldorf as a capital, were given to the 
 Emperor's brother-in-law, Joachim Murat. Holland too lost her independence, and 
 Louis Napoleon was made her king. The royal family at Naples was next made to 
 feel the wrath of the great soldier, for during the war, the combined Russian and 
 English fleet had landed at Naples, and had been welcomed by the King and Queen. 
 
 Dec. 27. Napoleon now issued a decree, in connection with the peace of Press- 
 burg, declaring that " the Bourbons in Naples had ceased to reign." The throne was 
 given to Joseph Bonaparte, and a French army 
 marched to Naples to install him in his new 
 dignity. The royal family pleaded and stiried 
 up rebellions, but were obliged to take refuge in 
 Sicily, where they lived under English protec- 
 Feb.,tsoe. tion, till Napoleon's overthiow. 
 The conquered territories of Italy were divided 
 into dukedoms, and given over to French 
 marshals and statesmen, and when, two }ens 
 later, Joseph was made king of Spain, Joacliui] 
 Murat succeeded him as king of Naples. Aftei 
 the battle of Austerlitz, the Prussian ambassa- 
 dor, Haugwitz, did not venture to state his 
 instructions to the victorious Emperor, but was 
 induced, partly by threats and jaartly by appar- 
 ent friendship, to sign a treaty, in which Prussia 
 exchanged certain territories along the Rhine 
 and in Switzerland for Hanover. The King 
 was not consulted, and strove to escape the 
 exchange, but was obliged to submit. The news of this sudden change in the situa- 
 tion so affected the English minister, Pitt, that he died soon after. 
 
 § 510. The creation of the south German kingdoms dissolved the German Empire. 
 Napoleon determined therefore to establish a Confederation of the Rhine, to withdraw 
 southern and western Germany from Austrian influence, and to bind it to himself. A 
 great number of princes and imperial cities entered into his plan, and a treaty was 
 July, laoo. signed in Paris on the 12th of July, 1806, by virtue of which. Napoleon 
 became the protector of the Confederation, securing to each member of the union the 
 sovereignty of his dominion, in return for the troops that each placed at French com- 
 mand. Dalberg, ruler of a small principality, became Napoleon's viceroy, in the Con- 
 federation, and many small principalities were consolidated, whereby the power of the 
 larger princes was greatly increased. The Emperor Francis II., now abdicated, and 
 withdrew all his states from the German alliance. " The Holy Roman Empire of the 
 Aug. a, isoo. German nation " ceased to have a being, and Francis II. became 
 Francis I., Emperor of Austria. Arndt was brave enough to give expression to the 
 feelings that agitated German patriots, but few ventured to join him, — especially after 
 
 MARSHAL MURAT. 
 
602 " THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AN'D RESTORATION'S. 
 
 ^ug. s«, isoe. the publisher, Palm, of Nuremburg, was shot, for refusing to reveal the 
 author of a pamphlet published by him, called '• The Humiliation of Germany." 
 
 3. Jena, Tilsit, Ekfuet. 
 
 § 511. The wavering attitude of Prussia had angered Xapoleon ; he deemed the 
 king's friendship unreliable, and his hostility of little moment. The formation of the 
 Confederation of the Rhine was evidently intended to make Germany as dependent 
 upon the French Empire as Italy and Holland. Prussia sought therefore to counter- 
 act it, by the formation of a Northern Union ; and when Xapoleon, by his intrigues, 
 destroyed the undertaking, the King was deeply offended. In the second place, the 
 French Emperor offered to return Hanover to the English, without so much as consult- 
 ing the Prussian government. In the third place, the frontiers were constantly vio- 
 lated by the French commanders. Prussia ventured at last to present an ultimatum, 
 to mobilize her armies, and to break off communications with Paris. 
 
 § 512. While they were waiting for an answer in Berlin, the French troops, 
 under Napoleon and his marshals, were already in the heart of Thuringia and Saxony. 
 
 Oct. to, isoe. An engagement took place at Saalfeld, where the Prussians were 
 Oct. 1*. defeated ; but in the battle of Jena they were completely overwhelmed. 
 This battle determined the fate of the country between the Rhine and the Elbe. The 
 leaders of the Prussian army had neither plan nor council ; in their arrogance, they 
 had expected victory, and had made no arrangement for retreat. The army separated, 
 and was captured in detachments. Bliicher alone was able to save the honor of Prussia 
 at Liibeck, although he could not hinder the horrors that attended the storming of the 
 city. Thirteen days after the battle of Jena, Napoleon marched into Berlin, and 
 issued his decrees from the Prussian capital. The Elector of Hesse, who had refused 
 to join the French, was deprived of army and of country, and driven forth a fugitive. 
 The Duke of Brunswick, who had been carried to his home upon a stretcher, had to be 
 carried further into Denmark, in order to die a quiet death. Hamburg, Bremen, and 
 Leipzig were loaded down with war taxes, and the treasures of art and science were 
 carried away from all the leading cities of Germany. Saxony alone was spared. The 
 »ec., isos. Saxon prisoners of war were set at liberty, and the title of king was 
 given to the elector, who was permitted to join the Confederation of the Rhine. 
 Gratitude for his own salvation and the salvation of his people, held Frederick 
 Augustus firmly attached to the French Emperor, in the trying days to come. 
 
 § 513. The King of Prussia fled to Konigsberg, and in his distress, turned to his 
 friend, the Czar Alexander, who sent a Russian army under Bennigsen to East Prus- 
 sia, to prevent the French from crossing the Vistula. Napoleon then issued a proc- 
 lamation to the Poles, in the name of Kosciuszko, in which the people were urged 
 to take up arms for freedom. The Poles made the greatest sacrifices, and strengthened 
 the ranks of the French with brave soldiers under General Dombrowski. Napoleon 
 
 ran. s. ISO-}, entered Warsaw amid the shouts of the people, but did nothing to 
 satisfy their longing for independence. Murderous battles were now fought on the 
 
 Feb. s. isor. banks of the Vistula, but the great battle was that of Eylau, where 
 the courage of the French, Russians, and Prussians alike was sublime and the slaughter' 
 appalling. Both sides claimed the victory, and the exhaustion of all was so great, that 
 the war was not resumed till four months later. The Prussian king was anxious for 
 
THE RULE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. 
 
 603 
 
 peace, but the negotiations led to no result. Finally, his Silesian fortresses were taken 
 atay. 25. by the French, and even Danzig was surrendered. The King then de- 
 spaired of success, and -when the French defeated the Russians in the battle of Fried- 
 jn«e 14. land, and occupied Konigsberg, the allied monarchs determined upon 
 a personal interview with Napoleon at Memel, iu which they agreed to the peace of Til- 
 jruiyT-o. sit. Frederick William lost the half of his dominion, all the lands be- 
 tween the Rhine and the Elbe. He consented also to the founding of the duchy of 
 Warsaw, and to the erection of Danzig into a free city. He was obliged, moreover, 
 to pay to the French Emperor -$120,000,000. The territory ceded by Prussia was united 
 with Brunswick ; Hesse and South Hanover were formed into the kingdom of West- 
 
 Jlt'RAT AT EYLAU. (C. Belort.) 
 
 phalia, of which Cassel was made the capital. This kingdom was given to Napoleon's 
 youngest brother Jerome. 
 
 § 614. Austerlitz and Jena broke the power of Austria and Prussia. The fate 
 of Europe now depended upon France, England, and Russia. All three recognized 
 one right only, that of self-defence, as was soon shown in Sweden and in Denmark. 
 King Gustavus IV. of Sweden, at the instigation of England, continued the war alone 
 against Napoleon. His obstinacy, and his over-estimate of his powers, indicated a 
 disordered mind. He refused Napoleon, the imperial title, and called him always 
 breneral Bonaparte, and he believed that he was called by Providence to restore the 
 bourbons, that Napoleon was the beast described in Revelation whom he, Gustavus, 
 
604 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIOXS AXD RESTORATIONS. 
 
 was appointed to overthrow. Nevertheless, the French conquered Stralsund, while 
 the Russians invaded Finland. Meanwhile the French emperor was trying to destroy 
 British commerce, by his continental blockade. This made the Swedish war of great 
 importance for the English : the French might get possession of the Baltic, and shut 
 off English ships from the Baltic coast. They offered Denmark their alliance, but 
 
 se'j>f. s-5, tsoi. this was refused. An English fleet thereupon bombarded Copenhagen, 
 reduced a part of the city to ashes, and carried oS the Danish fleet. Denmark was so 
 embittered, that she allied herself to France, declaring war upon the English and 
 their ally, the Swedish king. Alexander also had joined Xapoleon at the famous 
 meeting in Erfurt, where four kings and thii-ty-four princes were present. The two 
 emperors agreed witli each other, that Xapoleon should conquer Spain, and Alexander, 
 Finland, Moldavia, and Walachia. Sweden was now threatened from all sides by the 
 Russians, by the Danes, and by the Spanish troops that were serving under Kapoleon. 
 And though the Swedish army was in a wretched condition, the stubborn king refused 
 all terms. This led to a conspiracy in Stockholm and in the army, in consequence of 
 .vni-eA t3, 1S09. which, Gustavus IV. was made a prisoner, and deprived of his throne. 
 The revolution was followed by a peace, in which Finland was ceded to the Russians, 
 
 ^Mff. Si, isio. and finally the ^larshal Bernadotte was made the adopted son of Carl 
 XIII., and ascended the throne of Sweden as Carl XIV. Gustavus IV. was permitted 
 to go to Germany, and under the name of Colonel Gustavson. he lived an uncertain 
 life, separated from his family, and in voluntary poverty, until he died in 1837. 
 
 4. The PExrysuLAE War. 
 
 § 515. Intoxicated by his success, Napoleon advanced continually to new under- 
 takings. Like his model, Carl the Great, he determined to unite the South and West 
 of Europe into a great empire, under the control of France. To that end he sought 
 to annex the Spanish peninisiila and to bring all Italy under his control. He. de- 
 manded of Portugal that she should renounce her alliance with England, and exclude 
 British ships fi-om her harbors. The court of Lisbon refused. Napoleon thereupon 
 obtained the support of Godoy, the powerful favorite of the Spanish king and queen, 
 and then sent Marshal Jnnot, with an army, through Spain into Portugal. The 
 frightened King at Lisbon fled with his treasures to Brazil, whereupon Junot was cre- 
 .vor. 3o. 1S07. ated Duke of Abrantes, ordered to take possession of the whole land 
 reb. 1. isos. in the name of his Emperor, and to proclaim that the '-House of Brag- 
 anza had ceased to rule," Godoy, the Spaniard, who had neither virtue, merit, nor talent, 
 who had become absolute ruler in Spain only by the favor of the immoral queen, and 
 the impotent king Charles IV., now betrayed his country into the hands of Napoleon. 
 Spanish troops, under La Romana. entered the Emperor's service to fight against the 
 Swedes, while French soldiers occupied Spain. But the Spanish people became rest- 
 less: tumults arose in Madrid, in which the palace of the hated favorite was plundered, 
 jKarek, ISOS. and he himself threatened with death. The feeble king. Charles IV. 
 alarmed by these events, abidieated in favor of his eldest son, Ferdinaud. whom the 
 people loved, because of his opposition to Godoy. But although Ferdinand humbly 
 sought from Napoleon a confirmation of this change, seeking at the same time to 
 marry one of Napoleon's relatives, the French ruler sent Mnrat to occupy Madrid, and 
 then invited Ferdinand, with his parents, to an interview with himseK and Godoy. 
 
THE RULE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. 
 
 606 
 
 Ferdinand went to Bayonne, in spite of the remonstrances of his friends, and the 
 reluctance of his people. But the Spanish family was soon involved in the web of 
 Napoleon's intrigues. Charles IV. revoked his abdication, and made over the crown 
 to Napoleon and his family. Ferdinand had not the courage or the intelligence to 
 protest. In the enjoyment of a pension, he took up his residence in France, while 
 Charles IV., with his family, settled down in Rome. Joseph Bonaparte was now made 
 
 j.eiie e,iaos. king of Spain. A Cortes-constitution was adopted. The judicial and 
 administrative systems were improved. But the dreadful insurrection in Madrid in 
 which 1200 French soldiers were slain, showed that the nation itself would not sub- 
 mit so easily to foreign rule as the impotent dynasty had done. 
 
 § 516. Before Joseph 
 had entered Madrid, 
 Juntas Avere formed in 
 different cities, which 
 undertook the conduct 
 of affairs, and refused 
 obedience to the new 
 king ; these were de- 
 fended by armed bands 
 called Guerillas, who 
 made continual war 
 upon the French troops. 
 The more cultivated 
 citizens were reconciled 
 to the new order, as it 
 gave .them more free- 
 dom than they had 
 known under the ab- 
 solute monarchy and 
 priestly rule, but the 
 great mass of the peo- 
 ple followed their 
 clergy, to whom the 
 French were a terror. 
 Napoleon's army was 
 strong enough to keep 
 the King and his minis- 
 ters in Madrid, but their authority went no further than the French ba)^onets. 
 The more distant cities and districts either followed the Juntas, or acted independently, 
 yet Spain, in these stormy years, was really saved by this anarchy, in-as much as each 
 city and district must be conquered separately. All Europe looked in astonishment 
 upon the struggle of a people who marched bravely to death for their nationality and 
 independence, for their old customs and religious usages, for their belief and their 
 traditional institutions. The Guerillas avoided open conflict. Their strength con- 
 sisted in surprises and petty warfare, and while the French were wearing out their 
 forces in scattered fights, and besieging well-defended cities, the English began their 
 
 fjOV/^T-- 
 
 JOSEPH BONAPARTE. 
 
606 
 
 THE EEA OF KEVOLUTIOXS AXD RESTOKATIO^'S. 
 
 first successful war against Xapoleon. In the beginning, the French arms vreve victor- 
 
 j^His 1*. i^os. ious. The undisciplined troops of the Spanish were defeated at Rio 
 
 Cecco b_v Bessieres, but Dupont was forced to surrender his twenty thousand Frenchmen 
 
 THE DUKX OF WZIXrSGTOX. 
 
 July sa. in Andalusia. This great victory filled the Spanish with enthusiasm ; 
 king Joseph abandoned Madrid, the French armies retreated across the Ebro. The 
 
THE SIEGE OF SARAGOSSA. ( C. Delort.) (^jp. 60T.) 
 
608 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 
 
 English, under Wellesley (Wellington) and other generals, would have captured the 
 A.U0. 30, xsos. entire French army, if the capitulation of Cintra had not given 
 to Junot's troops a free passage back to France. 
 
 § 517. Napoleon himself now marched at the head of an army into Spain to re- 
 deem the French cause. The insurgent troops were soon defeated, so that, after four 
 Dec. J, isos. weeks, the Emperor could reinstate his brother Joseph in Madrid. 
 While Napoleon was seeking to win over the Spaniards by mingled conciliation and se- 
 verit}^ his generals were fighting bloody battles with the Guerillas and the English 
 Feb. SO, laoo. armies. Saragossa was taken after a desperate resistance. General 
 Silly as, iao9. Moore, was killed, and although Wellington won the battle of Talavera, 
 he was nevertheless compelled to keej^ within the boundaries of Portugal. Seville 
 and Andalusia fell into the hands of the French, but the Spaniards would not yield ; 
 the central Junta removed to Cadiz, which defied all attacks ; and the Spanish general. 
 La Romana, now escaped from Denmark with his troops, to take charge of the war 
 against Napoleon. The new war with Austria called the Emperor away from Spain, 
 but he left behind him a numerous army, consisting chiefly of German troops. At 
 the close of the Austrian campaign, this was increased to 300,000 men, and under the 
 command of the ablest French generals (Soult, Massena, Ney, Marmont, jNIcDonald), 
 marched through Jhe peninsula in all directions ; but their victories only intensified 
 the hatred of the Spanish people. Petty warfare became assassination ; the greatest 
 achievements of Napoleon's warriors, their fatiguing marches through mountains and 
 ravines, their sieges and their storms, did not give them possession of the land. Mas- 
 san.-aiay, 1811. scna's daring campaign to Portugal was brought to naught bj' the 
 sharp-sighted Wellington, who erected the lines of Torres Vedras, against which the 
 French shattered their strength in vain. Massena was compelled to retreat ; the Em- 
 peror removed him in a fit of rage, and gave the command of the Spanish army to 
 Marshal Soult. jMeanwhile the Cortes assembled in Paris, and proclaimed a new 
 constitution, known as the Constitution of the Year 12. This destroyed forever 
 absolute monarch}- and priestly authority in Spain. But the Spanish clergy made it 
 hateful to the Spanish people. 
 
 § 518. The Russian campaign of 1812 compelled the Emperor to reduce the 
 Spanish army. Wellington thereupon marched into Spain, supported by the Gueril- 
 j«n/ 22, 1S12. las ; the British armies were soon victorious. Marmont was defeated 
 at Salamanca by Wellington. The English entered Madrid and drove out the French 
 king. Suchet and Soult, brave and rapacious, were still victorious, and Joseph was 
 able once more to occupy his uncertain throne, but the terrible catastrophe of the 
 Russian campaign demoralized the French armies in the Spanish peninsula, and Joseph 
 was compelled once more to leave. After defeating the French at Vittoria, Welling- 
 ji.iie 21, 1S13. ton pursued them across the Pj'ienees, but was stoutly resisted by 
 Marshal Soult. On the 10th of April, 1813, while the allies were encamping in Paris, 
 the Marshal defended himself against Wellington with great energy at Toulouse, al- 
 though compelled to retreat by superior numbers. Napoleon's overthrow restored 
 Ferdinand VII. to the Spanish throne. 
 
 § 519. The Imprisonment of the Pope. When the Pope refused to close the 
 harbors of the papal state to the English ships, and to form an alliance with France, 
 Napoleon subjected him to a series of insults, and annexed a part of his territory to the 
 
THE RULE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. 609 
 
 Italian kingdom. But the steadfast pontiff neither bent nor broke. On the contrary, 
 in the second war against Austria, he allied himself witlithe enemies of the French em- 
 peror. Napoleon thereupon decreed the abolition of the temporal power of the Pope, 
 
 jfiay la. 1S09. and when the holy father excommunicated hinj, he carried him away 
 fiiiuo. from Rome, exiled the cardinals, and annexed the States of the Church 
 
 to French territory. Pius VII. lived in different cities, until he was finally ordered 
 to reside in Fontainebleau. When he stubbornly refused to fill the vacant bishoprics, 
 or to perform any act of ecclesiastical authority as long as he remained in captivity, 
 and was deprived of the council of the cardinals, Napoleon was compelled to more 
 
 joii. «5, 1S13. arbitrary measures. But the Pope was finall}' induced, in a personal 
 interview with the Emperor, to make important concessions. Yet the course of events 
 soon released the head of the church, and restored his temporal sovereignty. 
 
 5. The Second Austrian War.. Hofer. Schill (1809). 
 
 § 520. Napoleon's violence in Italy and his growing influence in Germany, 
 startled Austria. The Vienna cabinet determined to try again the fortune of war. 
 The Spanish uprising, the discontent with the European blockade, the movements in 
 North Germany seemed to indicate that the hour of Austria had struck, that now was 
 the time to recover her lost power, and to break the foreign tyranny. But the magic of 
 the Napoleonic name was all too powerful. The princes of the Rhine Confederation still 
 strengthened the French army with their troojDs, and the soldiers of South Germany 
 poured out their blood for a foreign ruler in a struggle against their own country- 
 men. In April the Austrian armies, under the Arch-duke Carl, marched into Bavaria 
 18O0. and Italy. But Napoleon marched along the Danube, forcing his ene- 
 
 Apfii 10.X4, mies across the Inn, and invading Austria for a second time. On the 
 iso». 10th of May he was at the gates of Vienna, and in three daj's he en- 
 
 tered it as a conqueror. Just below Vienna, where several bridges spanned the Dan- 
 ube, the French armies attempted to get across. But in the two days' battle of As- 
 Mau iti-ag. pern and Essling, they were compelled to abandon the project. Fifteen 
 thousand French soldiers covered the battle-field, and for the first time, the belief in 
 jmie ij. Napoleon's invincibility was shaken. Not until reinforcements arrived 
 from Italy could the French army get across the river. The Arch-duke Carl was then 
 July 5-6. defeated in the great battle of Wagram, and compelled to retreat. 
 The loss on both sides was about equal, but it was plain that the French no longer 
 possessed their former mastery in the field. Nevertheless, Austria concluded hastily 
 ji.i« lit. the truce of Znaim, with a view to permanent peace. 
 § 521. This truce was disastrous to the T3'roleans. These mountaineers held 
 with fidelity to Austria, and had risen to throw off the rule of Bavaria, to which the 
 Tyrol had been ceded in the peace of Pressburg. Confident of Austrian help, they 
 seized their muskets and attacked the French from the heights and defiles of their 
 mountains. Their chief was Andreas Plofer, a man of great strength and bravery, 
 beloved for his piety and his patriotism. A terrible conflict enssed. The Bavarians 
 abandoned the Tyrol, and Hofer took possession of Innsbruck. The truce of Znaim 
 Oct. 1*, laoo. made the insurgents irresolute, without ending the struggle. But the 
 peace of Vienna, in which Austria lost 50,000 square miles and -3,000,000 inhabitants, 
 took from the Tyroleans all hope of aid. The Bavarians and the French marched into 
 39 
 
610 
 
 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIOXS AND RESTORATIONS. 
 
 Feb. so. isio. tlie country. Innsbruck fell to Bavaria. :Most of the leaders fled, but 
 Hofer was captured and shot in Mantua. The Tyrol was divided into three parts. 
 § 522. During the second Austrian war, other parts of Germany attempted to 
 ^»rii, isio. shake off the foreign yoke. An attempt was made to overthrow the 
 King of Westphalia. This failed. Mayor von Schill, with a troop of volunteers, 
 souo-ht to stir up the people of Xorth Germany against the French. Schill was driven 
 into Siralsund. whence he expected to escape to England; but he and liis companions 
 
 THE LAST CALL 10 AKM 
 
 (Fra^zLe 
 
 xay 31, 1S09. were either slain or taken prisoners, and the prisoners sent to the 
 gallevs or shot. Duke William of Brunswick was more successful. Scorning the 
 truce of Znaim, he fought his way through hostile lands and armies to the Xorth Sea, 
 and escaped to England. Staps, a lad who attempted to assassinate Xapoleon, was 
 
 ott. IS. isoo. seized and put to death. But in Prussia the high-jninded Baron 
 Stein was making preparations of another fashion. Patriotic men were now in charge 
 of affairs, and Stein was seeking to elevate both citizen and peasant, the former by in- 
 troducing new municipal institutions, the latter by the creation of peasant freeholds 
 

 
 
61: 
 
 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 
 
 
 and the abolition of serfdom. He introduced also liberty of trade, and abolished many 
 mediteval privileges. In a word, he established civil equalitj-, which he regarded as 
 the pillar of anj' permanent throne. Stein's leading princijile was the emancipation 
 of energy, the removal of all fetters upon the freedom of property and of person. He 
 sought to promote industry, to awaken the sense of community, and to have all men 
 
 participate in the welfare of the nation. His 
 reforms made it possible for the Prussian state 
 to recover from the terrible calamity of Jena. 
 Scharnhorst reorganized the army. He intro- 
 duced universal service, opened to all the pos- 
 sibilities of rank, and abolished all degrading 
 punishments. The King, it is true, was soon 
 isos. compelled to sacrifice Stein to 
 
 the hatred of Napoleon, but Stein's creations 
 remained, and are the foundation upon which 
 modern Prussia rests. His successor, Harden- 
 berg, followed his principles as much as pos- 
 sible, and the " Union of Patriots," to which 
 the noblest men of the country belonged, as 
 ■well as the new University of Berlin, nourished 
 and strengthened patriotic feeling, especially 
 among ambitious youth. 
 § 523. The French Umpire at the Climax of Its Power. Napoleon was now tor- 
 mented b}' the thought that he was without an heir. He therefore put aside the Em- 
 Dee. 15, isoo. press Josephine, alleging a defect in their marriage, and wedded 
 Marie Louise, daughter of the Emperor of Austria. On the 2nd of April, 1810, "the 
 daughter of the Ctesars," whose train was carried by five queens, became liis wife. 
 In the next year, a son was born to the Emperor, who was given the title King of 
 Rome. But Napoleon's pride and ambition drove him to new acts of violence. An- 
 nexations and exchanges of land were without end. The Continental Blockade was- 
 the despair of commerce and of industry. When King Louis of Holland sought to pro- 
 tect the rights of his people, he was compelled to abdicate by his angry brother, and 
 jkii/ j», tsto. Holland was annexed to France. Hamburg, Bremen, Lllbeck, the 
 Duchy of Oldenburg, the lands between the Rhine and the Elbe were added to the 
 French empire, which now controlled the entire coast of the North Sea, and numbered 
 130 departments. And Hamburg was occupied by French troops. Meanwhile, a 
 terrible police system destro3-ed the last remnant of freedom, threatening every sus- 
 pect with arrest and imprisonment. Caprice, passion, and tyranny, took the place of 
 right and law. Blockade, oppressive taxation, conscription, were the burdens imposed 
 upon the allied countries, while hostile peoples were oppressed with forced loans and 
 quartered troops. 
 
 FERDINAND VON SCHILL. 
 
 6. The War Against Russia (1812.) 
 
 § 524. The extension of the French empire to the coast of the Baltic and the 
 taking away of his land from the Duke of Oldenburg, a near relative of the Russian 
 Czar, destroyed completely the friendship between Alexander and Napoleon, which 
 
614 THE ERA OF EETOLUTIOXS AXD RESTORATIONS. 
 
 was already greatly shattered by the enlargement of the duchy of Warsaw, and by 
 the intrigues leading to Xapoleon's marriage. This ill-feeling was increased when the 
 Russian government issued a new tariff, preventing the import of French goods. Both 
 powers now equipped themselves for the desperate struggle. Russia made peace with 
 the Turks, and formed an alliance with Bernadotte of Sweden, whom Napoleon had 
 grossly injured. The French emperor, on the other hand, made an alliance with 
 Prussia and Austria, and thereby increased his strength considerably. Alexander's 
 demand that the French garrisons should evacuate Pomerania and Prussia, led to an 
 immediate declaration of w"ar. 
 
 S 525. In May, Napoleon appeared with the Empress in Dresden, where the 
 isii. Princes of the Rhine, the Emperor of Austria, and the King of Prussia, 
 
 united to do honor to the 
 mighty man who had sum- 
 moned half Europe to the 
 war against Russia. After 
 ten days' delay among the 
 princes. Napoleon hastened 
 to his army of half a mil- 
 lion men. This army was 
 ^'^ ^ — ^ T' scattered between the Vis- 
 
 / V ^ ^^■— -^ " 1 tula and the Niemen, with 
 
 its thousand cannon and 
 
 its 20,000 wagons. The 
 
 ^ ,^ left wing, composed oi 
 
 ~" '-^ yl -«s^ j^*^^^^^^"" Prussians and Poles, was 
 
 commanded by Macdonald, 
 and was stationed on the 
 Baltic coast; the right, 
 which consisted of the 
 
 ,Hj ■'^^^=^ ^lS fc-J' "^^^^I^^^^K. 5'i''/C^ Austrians under Schwart- 
 
 "<> -rJ^^^fe. -e. «. •^^^E-==^'^^ zenberg, and of a French 
 
 and a Saxon division, con- 
 MAEiE-LonsE. fronted the Russian Army 
 
 of the South. The main 
 June. army, commanded by Napoleon himself, marched into Wilna. The 
 
 appearance of the French aroused the Poles to wild hope and warlike enthusiasm. 
 The diet of Warsaw proclaimed the restoration of the kingdom of Poland. But this 
 was not to Napoleon's mind. He prohibited an uprising, and declared that out of re- 
 gard to Austria, he could not consent to the re-establishment of the Polish Republic. 
 Nevertheless Polish soldiers followed the imperial eagles, and the Polish people sup- 
 jruiu. ported the foreign troops, which were now marching from WUna to 
 
 Witepsk. The rains were terrible, and hundreds perished of fatigue. Moscow, the 
 heart of Russia, was Napoleon's goal. But the ways were impassable ; his supplies 
 did not reach him ; the land could not support his troops ; diseases thinned out the 
 ranks of the army, and filled his hospitals with helpless soldiers. 
 
 § 526. The Russian generals, Barclay de Tolly and Bagration, carried on the 
 
{pp. 615.) 
 
 RETREAT FROM MOSCOW. ( G. Delort.) 
 
616 
 
 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 
 
 war in Parthian fashion, avoiding a pitched battle, and enticing tlie Emperor into the 
 heart of the country. Not until he reached Smolensk, did the troops engage ; where, 
 
 Ana. f, ism. after fighting the whole day, the Russians withdrew in the night, 
 having set fire to the city. In Smolensk, Napoleon called a council of war, and in 
 spite of his generals' advice, he determined upon the conquest of Moscow, where he 
 expected to winter. The Russians, on the other hand, complained of Barclay's inac- 
 tivity, as the ancient Romans complained of Fabius. Alexander consequently ap- 
 pointed Kutusoff to command the army. This general was a native Russian devoted 
 to the Greek religion and to old Russian customs, and accordingly very popular 
 among the masses. He certainly (they thought) would never permit the Holy City 
 of Moscow, with its countless towers and gilded domes, to fall into the hands of the 
 
 Sept. 7, isix. French. He halted the army, and delivered battle at Borodino, where 
 the French maintained 
 possession of the field, 
 while the Russians re- 
 tired in good order. 
 Over 70,000 dead and 
 wounded covered the 
 scene of conflict. Ney, 
 the Prince of Moscovy, 
 was the hero of the day. 
 On the 14th of Septem- 
 ber, the French entered 
 Moscow. The nobility 
 and the wealthy had 
 already left. When the 
 French army marched 
 through the streets, they 
 were startled to discov- 
 er only a few vagrants. 
 But what was their hor- ^^*- 
 ror, when the city broke 
 into flames, and for four 
 days, all was converted 
 
 Sept. IS, ist2. into a sea of fire! The commander of the citj', Rostopt-schin, had 
 ordered the conflagration without the Czar's command, thinking to deprive the 
 grand army of winter quarters, and to compel a disastrous retreat. Forgetting all 
 discipline, the soldiers plunged into the burning houses, to satisfy their greed and 
 their j)assions. 
 
 § 527. The Russians were bent upon a war of destruction, yet Napoleon re- 
 mained thirty-four days in Moscow, hoping for peace, and refusing to see that Kut- 
 usoff was holding him off, until the winter-cold might enable him to destroy utterly 
 Oct. 24. the retreating army. Not until October was the command given for 
 the disastrous retreat. After destroying the Kremlin, the army proceeded to Smo- 
 lensk. In November the cold was ten degi'ees below zero, and later on it reached 
 thirty. Hunger, frost, and fatigue made more victims than the bullets of the Rus- 
 
 MARSHAL NEY 
 
CROSSING THE BKRESINA. 
 
 (iJp. 617.) 
 
618 
 
 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 
 
 sians, and the lances of the Cossacks. Thousands of starving and freezing soldiers 
 strewed the highways and the fields. Kutusoff issued a proclamation, ascribing the 
 burning of Moscow to the French, thus stirring up the people to bitter hatred against 
 the retreating foe, and compelling the latter to fight at every step. Smolensk was 
 reached by the middle of November, and the army counted at that time but forty thou- 
 sand active combatants. Thirty thousand unarmed stragglers followed in their wake, 
 without discipline, order, or commanders, the picture of misery and horror. Arrived 
 in Smolensk, the expected supplies of clothing, food, and arms were not to be found, 
 while the enemy appeared in ever increasing numbers. Ney, "the bravest of the 
 brave," brought up the rear guard. His passage of the Dnieper, in the night, was 
 
 BURNING OF MOSCOW. GRAND ARMY LEAVING KREMLIN. ( C. Delort.) 
 
 one of the boldest achievements recorded in human history. On the 25th of Novem- 
 ber, the army arrived at the river Berasina. Two bridges were erected in sight of the 
 enemy, and the little remnant passed over, amid countless dangers. But eighteen thou- 
 sand stragglers fell into the hands of the foe. How many were drowned in the ice- 
 cold waters of the river, or trampled to death in the rush, no man could tell! At the 
 Nov. 2tt-«o, 1S12. passage of the Berasina, Napoleon had eight thousand active soldiers 
 left. Ney was the last man to cross ; half of Europe was in mourning. On the 3rd 
 of December Napoleon published the famous twenty-ninth bulletin, which informed 
 the anxious nations, who had been for months without news, that the Emperor was 
 safe, but the great army was annihilated. Two days later, he turned over the com- 
 mand to Murat, and hastened to Paris to levy new recruits. 
 
D. DISSOLUTION OF THE FRENCH EM- 
 PIRE AND ESTABLISHMENT OF 
 NEW CONDITIONS. 
 
 §528 
 
 THE GERMAN WAR OF LIBERATION AND DOWNFALL OF 
 NAPOLEON. 
 
 HIS is the beginning of the end," Tal- 
 lej'rand is reported to have said of 
 the Russian campaign : and the saying 
 soon proved to be true. An oppres- 
 sive conscription filled up the gaps 
 in the French arm}', but the faith in 
 Napoleon's invincibility had vanished, 
 and the raw undisciplined recruits 
 were of little use against an enemy, 
 exulting in their recent victories and 
 jwing with patriotic zeal. As early as the 
 30th of December, the Prussian general 
 York, who was stationed on the Baltic coast 
 under McDonald, made an agreement 
 with the Russian commander-in-chief Diebitsch, and with 
 his troops withdrew from further conflict. This act was, to be sure, publicly disavowed 
 in Berlin, but the king's journey to Breslau, where many patriotic men gathered about 
 1S13. him, was the first step toward an alliance with Russia, which was agreed 
 
 upon in February under the active influence of Stein. The outrageous treatment of 
 Prussia had created such a hatred toward the foreign tyranny, that the King's " Call to 
 xafcH n. my people " urging them to volunteer against the French, produced an 
 incredible enthusiasm. Striplings and men alike abandoned their ordinary avocations 
 and their homes to take part in the liberation of the Fatherland; students and teachers 
 left their lecture rooms, public officers their desks, young noblemen the paternal es- 
 
 (619) 
 
620 
 
 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 
 
 tate, and seizing musket and knapsack, took their places as privates in the same rank 
 
 with the artisan, who had just come from his workshop, and with the peasant who had 
 
 luareuio. exchanged the plow for the sword. The order of the Iron Cross 
 
 jaarcjifis. founded on the birthdaj^ of Queen Louise was a spur to the brave, and 
 
 1S13. the proclamation of Kalisch, calling upon them to struggle for the 
 
 rights, the freedom, and independence of all the states of Europe, filled them with hope 
 
 and expectation. 
 
 § 529. The allied monarchs sought the support of the king of Saxony, but Fred, 
 eriek Augustus resisted their urgent entreaties ; gratitude for so many proofs of favor 
 and confidence given him by Napoleon and fear of his wrath kept him faithful to the 
 French emperor. He placed his dominions, his fortresses, and his troops at the dispo- 
 sal of his mighty ally, and thus Saxony became the theatre of the war. In the first 
 Mays. battle at Liitzen and Bautzen, the French held the field and drove 
 
 may no. their adversaries across the Oder, but the courage of the young German 
 1S13. warriors taught the enemy that another spirit than that of Jena had 
 
 come upon the Prus- 
 sians. Here Scharn- 
 horst received his mor- 
 tal wound, and among 
 the thousands who 
 lay dead upon the 
 field was Napoleon's 
 friend and favorite 
 Duroc. The death of 
 the latter filled Napo- 
 leon with gloomy fore- 
 bodings, but pride and 
 arrogance carried him 
 forward. In vain did 
 Prince Metternich at- 
 tempt to mediate a 
 peace. Napoleon re- 
 fused to cede the small- 
 est portion of the con- 
 quered land. Austria 
 now declared war upon 
 France. The battle of 
 Dresden followed. Na- 
 poleon was, however, 
 Moreau, who had been 
 Aug. sa-n:. brought from America by the Emperor Alexander, carried dying from 
 1S13. the field. But the fruits of the victory at Dresden were destroyed, 
 
 Alio- so. first by a victory of Bliicher in the battle of Katzbach = second by 
 Aug. 3o. the capture of the French General Vandamme with his whole army, at 
 Sep. a. the battle of Kulm ; third, by the splendid achievements of the united 
 
 Prussian and Swedish army which prevented the taking of Berlin by the French; 
 
 PRINCE METTERNICH. 
 
 victorious once more and exulted to see his old rival 
 
622 
 
 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 
 
 ah0. «3. and fourth, by the engageineut at Hagelberg, where the Landwehr beat 
 down the eneni}'^ with baj'onets and the butts of their muskets; and a few weeks 
 after this the Silesian arm}^ was united with the army of the north, Count York having 
 Oof. 3. crossed the Elbe in sight of the enemy and wrung from him a glori- 
 
 ous victory at Wartenburg. 
 
 § 530. The princes of the Rhine Confederation now began to abandon Napoleon, 
 Bavaria concluding an alliance with Austria. In October the armies concentrated in 
 front of Leipzig; the Austrians under Prince Schwartzenbevg, who commanded the en- 
 tire allied force, the Russians under Barclay, Bennigsen and others; the Prussians un- 
 der Bliicher ; the Swedes under Bernadotte. The allied troops numbered three hun- 
 dred thousand men, the army of Napoleon only one hundred thousand. The allies, 
 however, were weakened by the want of harmony among their leaders. Yet Napoleon 
 
 October developed in vain the genius which had hitherto proved so wonderful. 
 
 10, 17, IS, His bravest generals Ney, Murat, Augereau, McDonald deployed in 
 tsia. vain their forces ; the three days battle of Leipzig was the grave of 
 
 the French empire. After a terrible loss Napoleon abandoned the city on the morn- 
 ing of the 19th of October. The premature destruction of the Elster bridge gave 
 twelve thousand able-bodied warriors into the hands of the victors, to say nothing of 
 the great number of sick and wounded who died for lack of care and in indescribable 
 suffering. Pursued by the allies, the French hastened by forced marches to the Rhine ; 
 their way was blocked by the Bavarians and Austrians, but the dying lion in the battle 
 Oct. so, 31. of Hanau, once more displaj'ed his might, and in a brilliant victory 
 opened for his army the way to the river. Then followed, jn quick succession, the dis- 
 solution of the kingdom of Westphalia, the return of the Elector of Hesse and of the 
 Dukes of Brunswick and Oldenburg to then states, the impiisonment of the king of 
 Saxony, and the abolition of the Rhine Con- ^_. 
 federation. Dalberg gave up his grand duch> 'X 
 Frankfort and Wurtemburg, Baden, and Hcbse 
 Darmstadt made treaties with Austria and 
 turned their troops over to the allies. Onl} m 
 Hamburg were the French able to hold out '; 
 There they remained till May 1814, exactmg 
 from the city the most oppressive contribul ions, 
 The king of Denmark was punished for hit. at 
 tachment to Napoleon with the loss of Noi ^^ a} , 
 which, in the treaty of Kiel, was given ovei to 
 ,raH. 14, isi-1. Sweden. The like happened 
 in Italy. The Viceroy Eugene, after a bia\e 
 struggle, abandoned the regions of the Po to 
 the Austrians and joined his father-in-law in 
 Bavaria. The Grand Duke Ferdinand returned 
 to Tuscany, and the sorely tried Pope Pius VII 
 received back the states of the Church. Naples alone remained for a while in the 
 hands of Murat, who having quarreled with Napoleon, had allied himself to Austria. 
 
 § 531. The allied monarchs, with their ministers and generals, held a council at 
 Frankfort, at which they appointed Stein provincial chief of the conquered lands, and 
 
 GEBHARD LEBRECHT VON BLtJCHER. 
 
DISSOLUTION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 
 
 623 
 
 offered the French emperor peace if he would be satisfied with the Rhine as the French 
 frontier. But they were soon convinced by the preparations and conscriptions of Na- 
 poleon that he was determined to try the fortune of war once more. They therefore 
 j^an. 1, isi*. crossed the Rhine. On New Year's night Bliicher, with his talented 
 chief of staff, Gneisenau, crossed the river with the Silesian army at various points be- 
 tween Manlieim and Coblentz, wliile Schwartzeuberg with the main army marched into 
 
 THE ALLIED FORCES ON THE ROAD TO PARIS. 
 
 southeast France through Switzerland. A second Prussian army under Biilow deliv- 
 ered Holland meanwhile and restored the hereditary Stadtholder. The armies of Blii 
 cher and Schwartzenberg united in Champagne and won the battle of La Rothi^re, but 
 Feh. 1, the difficulty of supporting the two armies compelled their separation, 
 
 iat4. Schwartzenberg moving along the Seine and Bliicher along the Marne. 
 
 Napoleon was thus enabled to defeat the army of Bliicher and to force his retreat; 
 then throwing himself suddenly upon the main army he defeated it and drove it back. 
 Feb. lo-is. The allies now sued for peace, and if Napoleon had been satisfied to 
 surrender the conquered lands, he might easily have retained the French throne. But 
 his demands increased with his good fortune ; he hindered negotiations with ambiguous 
 and indefinite statements, until Bliicher, his irreconcilable enemy, was able to attack 
 Mar. 7-0. him and put him once more at a disadvantage. The negotiations were 
 now abandoned and the deposition of Napoleon determined upon. Another engage- 
 
624 
 
 THE ERA OF EEYOLrXIOXS AXD KESTORATIOXS. 
 
 inent at Arcis convinced the emperor thiit his diminished and exhausted armj- was no 
 longer equal to the stalwart ranks of the enemy, and this conviction made him irreso- 
 lute. While the allies were marching upon Paris, and his presence at the capital was 
 highly necessary he wasted his time in bold but useless marches. The heroic fight of 
 xarch «5. the national guard at Ft;re-Champenoise was the last splendid expres- 
 sion of the old French militar} ^piiit \ few d<i\& afteiwaid tlie enenn btoimed 
 
 Moutmartre. Joseph, to whom ^a})oleon Ind entin--te(l the detente 
 
 1 u il now 
 
 BLUCHER S CAVALKT BEFORE PARIS. 
 
 (C. Delort.) 
 
 abdicated in favor of Mortier and Marmont, and retired with the empress aud the re- 
 gency to Blois. The two ^Marshals were soon compelled to yield to superior numbers 
 jtarch 31, and the city was surrendered. The allies marched into Paris, and a 
 1S14. provisional government was established under the presidency of Tal- 
 
 leyrand. This cunning diplomatist and master of intrigues now began to work in the 
 interests of the ancient royal family, and sought, by urging the principle of legitimacy, 
 to bring abotit the exptilsion of Xapoleon and the restoration of the Bourbons.* 
 
 »TUE BOUEBOX FAMILY. 
 
 THE GKASDSOSS OF iOUIS ST. 
 
 Louis XTI— Marie Antoinette 
 
 Louis 'SXm. 
 
 Charles X. 
 
 tlT93 
 
 tl794 
 
 Count De Provence 
 
 Couut D'Artois 
 
 
 
 tlS24 
 
 > . "i"^*^ 
 
 Louis X^ni 
 
 Marie Tlierese 
 
 Due D'AngouIeme Due De Barri 
 
 Daupliiu tl795 
 
 flSol 
 
 
 tlS« Murdered 
 
 
 Married 
 
 
 13 Feb., 1S20 
 
 
 Due D'AngouIeme 
 
 
 Henri V 
 
 Due De Bordeaux 
 
 Comte De Cliambord 
 
 born 1S20 
 
 flSSS. 
 
DISSOLUTION OP THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 
 
 625 
 
 2. End of the Napoleonic Rule and the Restoration. 
 
 § 632. Meanwhile Napoleon remained in Fontaineblean with his guard and his 
 adherents, whose number was increasing daily. But he wavered in his purposes, till 
 the news of Marmont's defection determined him to abdicate in favor of his son ; 
 Apiii 4,isi4. this conditional abdication was not accepted by the allied powers, and 
 he could not continue the struggle because his nearest friends like Berthier, Ney and 
 Oudinot had left him in order to worship the new sun. Napoleon thereupon sub- 
 scribed to the unconditional act of abdication as framed by the allies. He received the 
 Island of Elba as his property, with an annual income of two million francs and the 
 right to surround himself with fmr hundred of his faithful guard. His consort, Marie 
 
 ENTRY UF LOUIS XVIII JNTU PARIS. 
 
 Louise, received the Dukedom of Parma. On the twentieth of April Napoleon took 
 leave of the grenadiers of his guard in the courtyard of Fontainebleau. On the fourth 
 lof May he landed at Elba, and soon afterward, to the rejoicing of the exhausted 
 I atayao, tsi4. nations, the first treaty of Paris was concluded, in which France 
 received Louis XVHI as her king, with a new constitution and the frontiers of 1792. 
 The foreign armies left the French territory, and the Congress of Vienna was convened 
 to establish permanently the new order of things in Europe. 
 
 § 533. At this Vienna Congress emperors and kings, princes and nobles, and the 
 
 sejit.isi^. most famous statesmen of all nations were assembled to rejoice over 
 
 June tsis. their victory. The splendor and culture of all Euro[)e was displayed 
 
 in dazzling festivals, splendid balls and banquets ; and of festivities there was no end, 
 
 4n 
 
fi26 
 
 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIOXS AND RESTORATIONS. 
 
 But to establish the new order was no easy task. Beneath all the dazzling festivities 
 surged violent passions which threatened to destroy the work of peace. The restora- 
 tion of the legitimate princes to their lost thrones, and the destruction of the republican 
 constitutions, were two principles upon which all could easil}- unite. But the ques- 
 tion of the division of the conquered lands, and of compensation for the allies, excited) 
 envy, selfishness, and 
 greed. Prussia de- 
 manded the annexa- 
 tion of Saxony, and 
 Russia that of Po- 
 land ; both demands 
 were violently op- 
 posed. The discord 
 appeared to threaten 
 another war, so that 
 the armies were kept 
 upon a war-footing. 
 These events and the 
 happenings in France 
 at the same time 
 awakened in Napo- 
 leon fresh hopes. For 
 the constitution given 
 to the French people 
 proved a poor defence 
 against the reaction 
 under Louis XVIII. 
 
 The actions of the Bourbons soon showed that "they had learned nothing and forgot- 
 ten nothing." The recollections of the Revolution and of the Empire were as far as 
 possible effaced. The tri- color was exchanged for the Bourbon white. The old aris- 
 tocrats treated the new nobility with scorn and arrogance, crowding them from the 
 court circles, in which the haughty Count D'Artois, and the gloomy and vindictive. 
 Duchess D' Augouleme (the daughter of Louis XVI t, exercised the greatest influence. 
 The guards "were dismissed and their places filled by well-paid Swiss; the ofiicers of 
 the Grand Army were discharged with half pay : the Legion of Honor rendered con- 
 temptible, by the distribution of countless decorations among the unworthv. Even 
 the compact with the banished Emperor was broken. The clergy and the emigrants, 
 who enjoyed especially the favor of the King, thought only of getting back their lost 
 estates, and tithes, and feudal rights. 
 
 § 534. A mighty dissatisfaction took possession of the nation. The wish for a 
 change seemed to spring up out of the ground, especially when a hundred thousand 
 French soldiers returned home from their imprisonment or from foreign lands, and 
 spread their enthusiasm for Xapoleoa into every corner of the country. Meanwhile 
 Xapoleon was kept informed by his adherents, especially by Fouche, Davoust, Claret, 
 and the Duchess of St. Leu, of the mistakes of the Bourbons and of the feelings of the 
 people. He determined to try his star once more. With a hundred men he landed 
 
 LOUIS xviii. (E. Bonjat.) 
 
/vv X 
 
 x:5j '^;vf -% VV 
 
 
 THE RETURN FROM ELBA. " SOLDIERS OF THE 5tH, DO 'SOU RECOGNIZE ME ? " ( C. Delort.) 
 
 {pp. 627.) 
 
628 
 
 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 
 
 
 xa,: 1, ISIS. Oil the south coast of France. With cunning and rapidly-distributed 
 proclamations he soon won all hearts. The tri-color appeared everywhere ; the troops 
 sent out to oppose him went over to him ; the citizens of Grenoble battered down 
 their gates as he approached, and 
 Colonel Labedoyere, at the head of 
 the garrison greeted him as chief. 
 The enthusiasm was as great as in 
 the days of his glorious victories. 
 D'Artois rushed in vain to Lyons 
 hoping to win the soldiers there. The 
 cr^' " Vive TEmpereur " met him from 
 all sides and when even Ney, who had 
 once expected to bring the usurper 
 in chains to Paris, went over to his 
 former comrade, the Bourbons in mad 
 confusion abandoned a second time 
 their native land. Louis XVIH, 
 with a few of his supporters, went to 
 
 aiav. 20, xsis. Ghent, while Napo- 
 leon took possession of the Tuileries 
 and framed a new ministry. Thus 
 began the dominion of the "Hundred 
 Days." Clubs were re-established 
 and the songs of the Revolution were 
 heard again. But Napoleon had not 
 laid aside his dislike of popular move, 
 ments ; he too had "learned nothing 
 and forgotten nothing." The im- 
 perial throne with its splendor and 
 its nobility he was determined to re- 
 store. But the people would have 
 none of it. The new constitution, 
 June 1. which was solemnly 
 
 sworn to at a great festival in the 
 Champs de Mai, did not satisfy either 
 their expectations or their demands. 
 § 535. The Vienna Congress, 
 startled by these events, agreed finally 
 upon the following territorial divi- 
 sions. Austria received back East 
 Galatia, the Tyrol, and Salzburg, 
 with the kingdom of Lombardy, 
 Venice, Dalmatia, and the Illyrian 
 provinces added as compensation for Belgium and the western territory. The kingdom 
 of the Netherlands was made, by uniting all the provinces of the Netherlands, under 
 William of Orange as sovereign king. The Italian princes received back their posses- 
 
 rs^sis. 
 
 
 = -OS 
 
 
 u>C«o,^:5i2 
 
 = c = o E— i--a 
 
 ^■O'jzooe^oo 
 
630 
 
 THE ERA OF REVOLtTTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 
 
 sions ; the republic of Genoa was given to Sardinia, and the states of the church 
 were restored. In Spain and Portugal also the old dynasties returned. The duke- 
 dom of Warsaw was united to Russia as the kingdom of Poland, and received from 
 Alexander a free constitution. Prussia received back the territory taken from her 
 in the peace of Tilsit, together with Posen and Danzig, the half of the kingdom of 
 Saxony, and important territories along the Rhine. 
 
 Austria and Russia appeared inclined, at the beginning, to negotiate with Napoleon 
 and to leave him or his son in possession of the French throne, especially as he prom- 
 ised to observe the treaty of Paris, and not again to disturb the peace of Europe. But 
 Talleyrand's activity and Murat's thoughtlessness determined otherwise. The usurper 
 was proclaimed the " enemy of nations " and given over to public vengeance. Murat 
 had joined the allies, and attacked the viceroy of Italy, but he felt that his conduct 
 
 was unnatural, and a corres- 
 pondence was opened be- 
 tween Naples and Elba. 
 Napoleon's landing and 
 triumphal march were, for 
 Murat, the signal for a new 
 uprising. The Emperor 
 warned him to be cautious, 
 but without waiting for the 
 development of affairs, he de- 
 clared war upon Austria, and 
 called the people of Italy to 
 arms. But the battle of 
 Tolentino decided against 
 him. His army was dis- 
 persed, and he fled to South- 
 ern France, while the Aus- 
 trians entered Naples, and 
 restored the exiled Ferdi- 
 nand. After the battle of 
 Waterloo, Murat wandered 
 along the French coasts, then 
 escaped to Corsica, and undertook an expedition into Calabria, to stir up the people 
 against Ferdinand. But he was easily overcome, and paid for his rashness with his 
 death. On the 13th of October this daring soldier, who had risen by valor and 
 fortune, from his poverty as the son of an inn-keeper, to the ruler of the most beau- 
 tiful portion of Ital}^ was shot to death at Pizzo. 
 
 § 636. Napoleon's fate was decided earlier. The European powers armed a half 
 million men to meet the returning exile. Napoleon marched the soldiers, who hurried 
 to him from all sides, into the Netherlands, to meet the armies of Wellington and of 
 Bllicher. He encountered the Prussians at Ligny and forced them back, while Ney, 
 at Quatrebras, withstood the forces of Wellington, consisting of English, Dutch, and 
 Germans. At the battle of Waterloo, victory wavered long in the balance, and not 
 until the Prussians, under Bliicher, arrived, were the French finally defeated. 
 
 TALLEYRAND. (E. Boiljat. 
 
632 
 
 THE EKA OF KEVOLl TIO>'S AND KESTORATIOXS. 
 
 Grouchy failed to cut oft' the Prussians, or to hold them back, so that the French ^ere 
 finally driven from the field. The old guard, under General Cambronne, fell fighting 
 at Mont St. Jean, their brave commander answering the summons of the enemy with 
 the immortal cry, " The guard dies, but it never surrenders." Soult led Xapoleon, 
 pale and confused, from the battlefield. He hastened to Paris, but his old energy and 
 powers of invention seemed to have deserted him. The flight was universal; all the 
 artillery fell into the hands of tlie enemy, and only a fourth part of the army escaped 
 from the field. The battlefield of Waterloo had become the grave of the French Em- 
 pire. 
 
 § 537. The chambei-s in Paris, at the instigation of Fouche, now demanded the 
 abdication of Napoleon. Eeluctaiitly the broken conqueror yielded to their demand. 
 
 He abdicated in favor of his son Napoleon 
 1 1 , and fled to Kochefort, intending to go 
 to America. But the English were in pos- 
 session of the harbor, and trusting to the 
 magnanimity of the British nation, he sought 
 the protection of the English ship Bellero- 
 phon. But the statesmen of England had 
 no sympathy for the vanquished adventurer. 
 • ^ ^^^ s^^ i^r^ "^-^i»i rhey determined to send him, as a prisoner. 
 
 I^^Sr W^M^ M^ ''^ *^^ ^^^^"^"^ °*" ^'^- Helena. On the ISth of 
 
 ^^ " ' ort. IS, ISIS. October he arrived at the 
 
 ilace of his exile, in the midst of the Pacific 
 cean. He lived there separated from his 
 el itives, with a few faithful friends, until 
 the 5th of May, 1821. The climate was 
 unhealthy, and the strict supervision tinder 
 ^^ hich he was held, fretted away his strong 
 ^pirit. A disease, inherited from his father, 
 hastened his death. His ashes were brought 
 to Paris in 1842, and buried in great pomp, in the Hotel des Invalides. 
 
 § 538. After the abdication of Napoleon, Fouche conducted a provisional gov- 
 ernment. He agreed with "Wellington and Bliicher, that no one should be punished 
 jthih ts. ists. for his past deeds or opinions, and then surrendered to them the capi- 
 tal. A few days later, the Bourbons returned to the Tuileries, under the protection 
 of foreign bayonets. The people were quiet and unsympathetic. The armies were 
 dismissed, the Chambers dissolved, and a proscription list ptiblished, which deprived 
 some men of their offices, drove some into exile, and condemned others, like Marshal 
 Ney, to death. The allied monarchs resided, for a while, in Paris, and assisted the 
 Bourbons to establish the new order. Finally a second peace of Paris was agreed 
 xor.so.ists. upon, in which the French frontiers of 1790 were restored, all the 
 stolen treasui-es of art and science returned to their former owners, 150.000,000 dol- 
 lars war indemnity paid over to the allies, and seventeen fortresses surrendered to the 
 allied army. These fortresses were to be garrisoned by foreign troops, for at least 
 thi'ee years. Labedoyere and Ney were condemned to be shot. This execution of the 
 iHx. J, 1SJ5. famous marshal, was looked upon as a violation of the agreement be- 
 
 WEIXJNGTON. 
 
AHDFCATION OF NAPOLEON. 
 
 {PV- 633.) 
 
634 
 
 THE EKA OF REVOIA'TIOXS AXD RKSTOKATIOXS. 
 
 tween Wellington and Fouchc. Lavalette was also condemned to denth. but ie!?cued 
 from prison by his faithful wife. The exiles consisted of the members of the Napole- 
 onic family, the generals and statesmen who were with Napoleon at Waterloo, and tin- 
 ally all the regicides, *. e., the members of the Convention, who voted, for the death of 
 Louis XYI. Fouchc was included among these, and compelled to leave France. Car- 
 not, Sieyes, and others did likewise. Berthier lost his mind, and threw himself from 
 a balcony of the Castle at Bamberg. 
 
E. EUROPE UNDER THE TNEEUENOE OE 
 
 THE CONSERVATIVE POFJOY 
 
 OF METTERNICH. 
 
 § 539. 
 
 THE HOLY ALLIANCE AND THE POSITION 
 OF PARTIES. 
 
 I HE Revolution and the military rule of Napoleon had 
 visited European society, from its lowest to its highest 
 forms, with the severest chastisement. Deeper reflection 
 upon the progress of the Revolution, revealed the in- 
 llW|ff73^^&^^^^^^^'" 'jj|\ fluence of a higher power, that brings to naught liuman 
 V\ ■ vSs^-^JlW.Jf^ y. ' J III pride, and punishes severely human wickedness. Re- 
 ligious feeling entered once again the hearts of men, so 
 that piety and Christian faith were once more dominant 
 in upper circles. The three allied monarchs, Alexander 
 of Russia, Frederick William III of Prussia, and Francis of Austria, under the influ- 
 sept. HO, isis. ence of this feeling, established the Holy Alliance which was joined 
 by all European sovereigns except the Pope and the King of England. The three 
 rulers, without regard to the difference of their creeds, solemnly promised to live ac- 
 cording to the words of holy writ, which commands men to love each other as 
 brothers, to stand by each other in the bonds of a true and imperishable fraternity, to 
 rule their subjects as loving parents, and to maintain religion, peace, and justice. But 
 this ideally beautiful alliance soon became the instrument of a state-craft, which, under 
 pretence of religion, attempted to exalt the absolute sovereignty of the prince and of 
 the government, and to eradicate utterly the doctrine of popular sovereignty and the 
 democratic and constitutional institutions depending upon it. This prostitution of 
 Christianity to the purposes of reaction brought upon the Holy Alliance the reproach 
 of hypocrisy and the hatred of the nations. 
 
 (635) 
 
636 
 
 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 
 
 § 540. Princes and governments strove in general for absolnte monarch}^ and 
 unlimited power. The people on the other liand were eager for constitutional forms. 
 In England, where constitutional monarch}' had been developed, the representatives of 
 the people had control of the appropriations, had a share in the formation of the 
 laws, and the right to inquire into the administration of the state. Representative 
 government guarantees alike the dignit}' of the monarch, and the freedom and the 
 rights of the people, and is therefore the best arrangement for a civilized state. Hence 
 the European nations strove for the establisimient, or for the extension of these con- 
 stitutional forms of state, and public life was almost exclusively directed to constitu- 
 tional systems and political progress. This led to the formation of two powerful 
 parties of which the one (differentlj^ designated " aristocratic," " conservative " or 
 " servile"), was determined to concede to the people the least possible, while the other 
 (" democratic," " liberal," or " radical ") sought to obtain for them the largest possible 
 measure of right. The former opposed vigorously the introduction of constitutiona 
 
 MALTREATMENT OP THE BODV OF MAIISIIAL BIIUNE. [C. Dclvrt.) 
 
 forms or (where they had been introduced) sought to strip them of democratic ele- 
 ments. The latter aimed to establish and to develop constitutional life, to increase 
 the rights of the people, and to organize a parliamentary system. The governments 
 were as a rule in the hands of conservatives ; and the liberals were in oi^position. Of 
 the five great European powers, England and France only possessed a constitutional 
 system. Russia, Austria, and Prussia, on the other hand, held fast to the absolute 
 monarchy, — the two latter however convening the notables of the land for particular 
 and provincial affairs. In German}^ Italy, and the Spanish Peninsula, modern history 
 is concerned chiefl}' with these constitutional struggles, in which sometimes the one and 
 sometimes the other political principle prevails. 
 
 2. France. 
 
 § 541. The French kingdom shaken to its foundations bj' the events of the 
 Revolution, experienced under the restoration a remarkable change of thought and 
 feeling. The party of extreme Royalists (ultras, or as they were designated by their 
 
EUROPE UNDER *TIIE CONSERVATIVE POLICY OF METTERNICII. 
 
 637 
 
 opponents " white Jacobins ") became so powerful that the king found it difficult to 
 maintain the constitutional guarantees. Instead of the free thinking antipathy of 
 former da3'S, the churcli looke<l with delight upon a religious fanaticism that passed all 
 bounds. This union of intense absolutism and religious zeal provoked cruelties that 
 Sept. ISIS. surpassed even the bloodiest events of the revolutionary era. At 
 Marseilles, Toulon, Nimes, Toulouse, and elsewhere, furious and fanatical mobs fell 
 upon the Protestants, Bonapartists and ReiJublicans and murdered them by hundreds. 
 In Avignon they shot down Marshal Brune and threw his body into the Rhone. In 
 Toulouse when General Ramel sought to check the outrages of the Royalists he was 
 sacrificed to the popular rage. Murder, plunder, and conflagration were the order of 
 the day. The murder of the Duke De 
 Berri, the King's nephew, upon whom the 
 hopes of the Bourbons rested, only fur- 
 
 reh. 13, isao. thered the efforts of the 
 party of reaction at the head of which 
 stood the Count D'Artois and the Duchess 
 D'Angouleme. The king was compelled 
 to dismiss the moderate ministry of De- 
 cazes, and to consent to a limitation of 
 personal liberty, freedom of the press, and 
 the right of suffrage. The new ministry 
 carried their royalistic zeal to the extreme. 
 The chamber expelled the liberal deputy 
 1SS3. Manuel for an expression of 
 republicanism, and the army, commanded 
 by the Duke D'Angouleme, crossed the 
 Pyrenees, at the instance of the Holy 
 Alliance, to restore absolute monarchy in 
 Spain. 
 
 § 542. On the 16th of Sept. 1824, Louis XVIII. closed his life of trial and of 
 change. Bitter experiences had tauglit him gentleness and moderation ; and the unbri- 
 dled vehemence of tlie members of his family filled the heart of the dying monarch with 
 gloom}' forbodiiigs of the future. His brother Count D'Artois became king of France. 
 
 May so, isxs. By his solcmu coronation in Rheims, Charles X. appeared to indicate 
 that he intended to govern in the sense of the ancient "i\Iost christian" kings. 
 Accoi-dingl}' he opened his heart to the nobility and to the clergy, giving out as a watch- 
 word " The throne and the altar." The emigrants received, as compensation for their 
 losses during the Revolution, a thousand million francs. A series of laws in the inter- 
 est of the Church and the Christian religion, attested the purpose of the king to create 
 a mighty breakwater against revolutionary ideas, by the regeneration of France. This 
 regeneration was to be accomplished by giving back to the clergy their former position 
 of authority, b}' founding rich episcopates, by furthering the religious orders, and by 
 clothing ecclesiastical ceremonies with all the new Roman pomp. The Jesuits, who 
 had been reorganized by the Pope, returned to France, albeit secretly. They established 
 unions and sought to get the education of the youth into tlieir power. But the king, 
 through these measures, strengthened the liberal opposition, as all the men of philo- 
 
 CHARLES X. {Charles Duchesne.) 
 
638 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESl'ORATIONS. 
 
 sophical education, all the friends of light and of Science, turned away from a govern- 
 ment that showed such favor to the men of darkness. While the blinded monarch 
 believed that he could imprison the minds of the people by anachronistic pilgrimages 
 or by intolerant laws and limitations, the new generation was listening eagerly to the 
 bold words and teachings of the enlightened professors of the University of Paris 
 (Guizot, Villemain, Royer-Collard), or reading the bold declarations of the libel press 
 (The Globe, The National, The Constitutional), or rejoicing in B6ranger's " Songs of 
 Freedom " or Courier's " Satires." The writings of Voltaire and of the Encycloptedists 
 were once more widely circulated, and the older citizens read with enthusiasm the 
 numerous histories and memoirs of the Revolution and the Napoleonic Empire 
 (Thiers, Mignet). 
 
 3. — The Constitutional Struggles in the Spanish Peninsula and in Italy. 
 § 543. In Spain and in Italy the new political ideas had not penetrated to the 
 people, for these were under the domination of the Priests. They lived only in the 
 minds of the educated ; and when it became dangerous to acknowledge them they were 
 propagated in secret societies, — by the Free Masons in Spain and in Portugal, and 
 by the Carbonari in Italy. Diminution of the power of the priests, introduction of 
 political freedom, the education of the people, and the development of patriotism, 
 were the chief purposes of these societies. Their power was first revealed in Spain. 
 Ferdinand VII. a treacherous, suspicious man, and a master of dissimulation, was no 
 
 jttnu lo, isn. sooner restored, than he overthrew the parliamentary constitution 
 in Spain and brought back the absolute monarchy with all its mischief. Nobility and 
 clergy were once more exempted from taxation, the cloisters, the Jesuits, and the In- 
 quisition reappeared. A dreadful persecution assailed all the adherents of France, 
 all who had held any office under Joseph or rendered him any service whatsoever, and 
 even the chiefs and adherents of the Cortes, and the leaders of the bands who had 
 poured out their heart's blood for king and country, and now claimed as a reward civil 
 freedom and a share in the management of the State. Many of these heroes died upon 
 the scaffold ; others wandered abroad as exiles and fugitives. Those who remained at 
 home locked up their opinions and their dissatisfaction in their silent hearts. A 
 number of court-favorites (Camarilla) consisting of fanatical priests, selfish court- 
 flatterers, and intriguing women captured the confidence of Ferdinand, and urged him 
 to a cruel persecution of all liberals. The administration of the State and of justice 
 became most wretched. The royal treasury, in spite of the most oppressive taxation, 
 was exhausted. The movement of trade and of industry was arrested. The South 
 and Central American colonies declared and conquered their independence and estab- 
 lished a number of republics. The war of Independence in South America is especially 
 connected with the name of the Creole Bolivar, who died in 1830. 
 
 § 544. On New Year's Day 1820, certain regiments, collected in Cadiz and 
 
 Jan. 1, isao. destined for South America, broke out in mutiny. Colonel Riego was 
 the soul of this insurrection, but the conduct of it was intrusted to Quiroga, who had 
 just been released from prison. It soon spread over all Spain. The constitution of 
 the year 1812 was demanded everywhere, and the king was compelled to yield, to con- 
 vene the Cortes, and to swear fidelity to the constitution. This victory of the Spanish 
 Democrats inflamed the zeal of their comrades in Portugal and in Italy. Popular up- 
 
EUROPE UNDER THE CONSERVATIVE POLICY OF METTERNICH. oSd 
 
 risings took place in Lisbon and Oporto, and the people demanded the removal of Lord 
 Beresford (who governed the land in the name of the king yet absent in Brazil), and 
 also the convening of the Cortes, and the introduction of a constitution like that newly 
 
 jnii. so, 1S21. given to the Spaniards. John VL returned to Lisbon, and swore to 
 support the new constitution for Portugal and Brazil. In Naples the Carbonari ex- 
 cited a military insurrection, which progressed so rapidly that king Ferdinand was 
 
 jtity 13, 1S20. compelled to concede to the Neapolitans the Spanish constitution. 
 William Pepe and Can-ascosa, the chiefs of the insurrection, marched into Naples in 
 triumph at the head of the rebellious troops and their allies, the Carbonari. In Pied- 
 mont also there was a revolutionary uprising against the priesthood, the aristocracy, 
 3in,cu 18X1. and the monarchy. In consequence of which Victor Emmanuel 
 abdicated in favor of his brother Charles Felix, and the Spanish constitution was intro- 
 duced into the kingdom of Sardinia. 
 
 § 545. The heads of the Holy Alliance, alarmed at this new revolutionary spirit, 
 at the suggestion of Metternich, determined to put down the liberal movements. At 
 j«n. 1S21. the Congress of Laibach, at which King Ferdinand of Naples was 
 present as a guest of the other monarchs, it was determined to overthrow by force the 
 constitution of his kingdom, and Ferdinand consented. An Austrian army invaded the 
 jfinicii isai. land ; the troops of Pepe and Carrascosa were soon overpowered, 
 whereupon the king abolished the constitution. The priesthood and the absolute 
 monarchy now united, by means of mercenaries and jDaid police, to destroy every 
 movement toward freedom and progress. This turn of affairs in Naples determined 
 the fate of the constitution of Piedmont. Santa Rosa at the head of his enthusiastic 
 liberals resisted, not ingloriously, at Novara, but abandoned by their secret patron, the 
 Prince of Carignano, their strength was soon broken. Turin and Alessandria were 
 taken by the Austrians, and absolute monarchy, in its strictest form, was restored in the 
 kingdom of Sardinia. Upper Italy was overwhelmed by the reaction, and many a 
 Aitrii 1821. patriotic man like Pallavicino-Trivulzio of Milan and Silvio Pellico 
 the poet, was doomed to long incarceration as prisoner of state. 
 
 § 546. The Spanish Cortes perished quite as ingloriously. For the liberals 
 abused their victory, limited the royal authority most unwisely, and so assailed the 
 monasteries and the privileged class, that they excited the Priests and the adherents 
 of absolute monarchy to a bloody struggle. Civil war threatened to destroy the 
 Oct. 1822. unhappy people. Thereupon the Holy Alliance requii'ed the Cortes to 
 alter tlieir constitution, and to concede to the king a larger authority. The Democratic 
 party defiantly refused. Whereupon a P^rench army crossed the Pyrenees. In vain 
 the Cortes called the people to arms. Constitutional libei'ty had no meaning for 
 masses led by Priests and Monks, and the new system was opposed to their habits and 
 tlieir feelings. The war of the people, the famous old Guerilla, in which the Cortes 
 Feb. 1823. trusted, did not take place. The mob and the Camarilla greeted the 
 French as the saviours of the country from the hateful tyranny of the Free Masons. 
 A few leaders like Mina in Barcelona, and Quiroga in Leon resisted the foreign 
 army courageousl}', but the soldiers showed little enthusiasm, and sought safety in sur- 
 render. The French entered Madrid victoriously and, as the Cortes, with the king, 
 had fled to the south, they proclaimed a regency. Cadiz was the last refuge of the 
 friends of the constitutif)n : the French now approached this fortified city. But the 
 
640 
 
 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 
 
 members of the Cortes, instead of being buried under its ruins (as they had declared), 
 made a treaty with the besiegers ; agreeing to dissolve and to set the king at liberty. 
 Ana- ts, 1SH3. Ferdinand VII. was once more in power, by the help of foreign bayo- 
 nets; the constitution was annulled, and the apostolic party expended its rage upon 
 their former enemies. Riego and many of his companions died by the hand of the 
 executioner; thousands wandered without bread and home as exiles in strange lands; 
 a number quite as large expiated their love of liberty in damp prison cells, and died as 
 victims of their effort to take from the people the institutions to which they had been 
 habituated by three centuries of despotism. 
 
 THE FRENCH AT CADIZ. {I'lnd I>i lui 1 1 he ) 
 
 § 547. This wretched issue of the Spanish constitution, incited the Queen of 
 Portugal and her second son Dom Miguel to a similar enterprise. They induced the 
 weak king John VI. to abolish the Cortes-constitution and to permit the persecution 
 of the constitutionalists and the Free Masons. Soon afterwards Dom Miguel rebelled 
 April iii24. against his own father so as to obtain a regentship, but failing was 
 1S20. banished the country. John VI. died two years afterward. His oldest 
 
 son Dom Pedro who, as constitutional emperor of Brazil, could not be at the same 
 time king of Portugal, transferred the government of his mother-country to his daughter 
 Donna Maria da Gloria, and gave the Portuguese a liberal constitution. To be sure 
 
EUROPE UNDER THE CONSERVATIVE POLICY OF METTERNICH. 
 
 641 
 
 Dom Miguel, returning from exile, was soon able, with the help of the apostolic party, 
 Tune, tsus. to overthrow this constitution. He deprived his niece of her right to 
 the throne, proclaimed himself absolute monarch, and proceeded furiously with ban- 
 ishment, imprisonment, and death agahist the friends and adherents of the constitu- 
 tional system. But his government was of short duration. Dom Pedro gave the Bra- 
 zilian crown to his son, landed in Portugal and, after two years of war, compelled his 
 tyrannical brother to renounce the throne and to go into exile. Dom Pedro there- 
 sept. 2j, 1S34. upon re-established the Cortes-constitution, but unfortunately he died 
 soon after. And under the government of his daughter Donna Maria it underwent 
 many changes and assaults. 
 
 § 548. England emerged from the long struggle with France victorious and power- 
 ful. She had destroyed the fleets of other nations, and secured to herself the suprem- 
 acy of the ocean. She had ex- 
 tended her possessions in the West 
 Indies, brought Canada to prosper- 
 ity, established colonies in Western 
 and Southern Africa and created 
 an empire in India, greater than 
 the kingdom at home, and destined 
 to be a source of untold wealth. 
 Distant islands, which had been 
 discovered by daring navigators 
 like Cook, yielded obedience, while 
 Gibraltar and Malta confirmed 
 English authoi-ity in the Mediter- 
 ranean. The Ionian islands, and 
 the free navigation of the Darda- 
 nelles, gave the English flag almost 
 control of the Levant. The con- 
 stitution of England awakened the 
 envy of other nations, so carefully 
 did it define the rights of the peo- 
 ple and of the crown, and so firmly 
 did it secure freedom of speech and 
 
 of the press. Yet the English monarchy was not without great difficulties. In the 
 first place wealth was distributed very unequally. The wars by sea and by land 
 had been enormously expensive, the national debt had increased so greatly that the 
 annual interest was §150,000,000. The expenses of the court were extravagant, 
 salaries of officials were very large, appropriations increased so rapidly that tlie 
 required means could be obtained only by taxing the necessaries of life, hou.ses 
 and lands, incomes, and commodities to the utmost. This brought about the de- 
 struction of the small land-owner and the small trader. Estates were accumulated, 
 in the hands of a few, rents were raised to the point of oppression, and the corn- 
 law prevented the import of foreign food-stuffs. Manufactures likewise < ame into 
 the hands of a few rich capitalists, and the number of artisans who lived from hand 
 to mouth increased to an alarming extent. The poor tax, and the subsidies of the 
 41 
 
642 
 
 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 
 
 George IV. 
 
 1S90-1S30. 
 
 government, did but little to diminish the niiseiy. Insun-ections were the natural 
 consequence, but the working classes leceived no benefit. On the contrary, they 
 were dispersed easily by military power. The bloody sujjpression of the uprising 
 isio. at Manchester by the government provoked great bitterness, and the 
 
 lower classes began to agitate for political power. They demanded universal suf- 
 frage, annual parliaments, and a secret ballot. They stated their jjrinciples in the- 
 people's charter, from which they were called Chartists. They failed of their im- 
 mediate aim, but their agitation had great influence upon the repeal of the corn- 
 laws in 1842. 
 
 §549. In the second place, the political condition of England after tlie Napoleonic 
 wars was one of apathy. George IV. had no sympathy with the people 
 and trusted entirely to the Tories. The people repaid his indifference 
 with hate, especially when he sought a divorce from his wife Caro- 
 line of Brunswick. Castel- 
 reagh, the boon companion 
 of George, and the sup- 
 porter of a false and faith- 
 less system of politics, 
 finally committed suicide. 
 This greatly affected the 
 tsii. King and 
 
 drove him to retirement. 
 Meanwhile, Canning, a 
 really able statesman, 
 lifted England once more 
 to "great renown. The 
 Princess Cliarlotte, the bril- 
 liant and amiable daugh- 
 ter of George IV. died 
 without children. He was 
 therefore succeeded by his 
 nnuam II'., brother Wil- 
 1S30-1S3-1. liam IV., a 
 simple, straightforward 
 sailor. With him the 
 Whigs came into power ; 
 their leaders were John Russell, Brougham and Palmerston. The most important polit- 
 1S31. ical measure of this period was the reform of the Parliament, by means 
 
 of which the rotten boroughs were destroyed, the parliamentar}^ districts rearranged ac- 
 cording to population, and the right of suffrage made dependent upon a definite income. 
 This was a triumph of the middle classes over the aristocracy. It was soon followed by 
 isss, the abolition of slavery in the colonies for which Wilberforce, Buxton 
 
 and other philanthropists had labored for many years. The slaves in the colonies were 
 given their freedom and the owners were granted compensation. The English there- 
 upon sought to persuade other nations to do likewise, and especially to put an end to 
 vietori,,, 1S37. the slavc trade. Upon the death of Willliam IV., Victoria, his niece 
 
 AVILLIAM IV. 
 
EUROPE UNDER THE CONSERVATIVE POLICY OF METTERNICH. 
 
 643 
 
 obtained the crown of England. She was married on the 10th of February, 
 1840 to Prince Albert of Coburg. The first great measure of her reign was the 
 repeal of tiie corn-laws, after a violent, agitation, of which Richard Cobdeu was 
 
 QDEEN ^ lOTORIA. 
 
 the leader. By a gradual process extending from 1846 to 1849 these laws, which 
 laid enormous duties upon foreign breadstuffs, were gradually repealed, and in 1869 
 
644 
 
 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 
 
 they were finally removed. In a short time free trade, except in wines, spirits, and 
 tobacco, became the settled policy of England. Although Australia, Canada, and other 
 colonies are allowed to impose duty on imports from the mother country. 
 
 § 550. In the third place, Ireland is the wounded member in the English body 
 politic. The two peoples, unlike in nature, religion, and institutions havenever formed 
 one nation, and the old feuds have been kept alive by the landlords, and by the clergy. 
 Ireland is divided into numberless small farms, thousands of them not averaging five 
 acres apiece. The peasants who work these farms are in many cases compelled to pay 
 extravagant rents to their landlords, many of whom they have never seen. On the 
 other hand the English clergymen were in possession of all the revenues of the Irish 
 cliurch, while the Catholic clergy must be supported by the people living in poverty, 
 although the great majority of the Irish people are Catholic. Various uprisings were 
 
 put down, but the peo- 
 ple continued to rebel. 
 Finally the emancipa- 
 JS30. tion act was 
 passed which admitted 
 Catholics to the English 
 Parliament. Under this 
 act Daniel O'Connell 
 with forty followers en- 
 tered Parliament and 
 began to agitate for the 
 repeal of the union, or 
 the separation of Ireland 
 from England. The 
 failure of the potato 
 crop, the outbreak of 
 pestilence and of famine 
 demanded immediate 
 relief and O'Connell 
 found it easy to keep 
 the land in an uproar 
 and to unite all his coun- 
 trymen in organizations 
 to promote repeal. The Catholic clergy supported him and his word became the 
 law of Ireland. He demanded the abolition of the Church tithes, and when 
 Parliament refused, the people would not pay them. The English resorted to 
 violence and were opposed with violence. Mobs of armed men marched through the 
 1833. land to plunder and to kill. A coercion bill was passed, and martial law 
 
 proclaimed. The church bill for Ireland, with appropriation clauses, was introduced 
 and became a law. This abolished or diminished the tithes, and appropriated a part of 
 the Church revenues for public instruction, but the High Church party and the Tories 
 fought desperately to mutilate the bill and to a great extent succeeded. The High 
 Churchmen in England were supported b}' the Orangemen of northern Ireland. Re- 
 
 Sra ROBERT PEEL. 
 
EUROPE UNDER THE CONSERVATIVE POLICY OF METTERNICH. 
 
 645 
 
 ligioLis and national hate was kept alive, and many Irishmen left their native country 
 and sought new homes in North America. 
 
 5. Germany. 
 
 § 551. Germany departed from the Congress of Vienna weaker and less united than 
 ever. The number of princedoms was, it is true, diminished by more than a hundred, 
 but thirty-eight principalities, which were united in the German union, acquired sov- 
 ereign authority in their domestic affairs. In place of the former diet there was 
 created a Congress of the Union, consisting of ambassadors from the different govern- 
 ments, who met at Frankfort, under the presidency of Austria. But this Congress 
 was without independence, and the German union was an impotent member of the 
 European family of nations, dependent altogether upon the two great powers, Austria 
 and Prussia. And to make matters worse, 
 foreign kingdoms sent ambassadors to 
 Frankfort; Denmark, because of Holstein, 
 and the Netherlands, because of Luxem- 
 burg. Yet the people were not represented 
 at all, although the thirteenth article of 
 the "Act of Union" contained a vague 
 clause about constitutional government, 
 which corresponded but little to the ex- 
 pectations of the people. And when Prus- 
 sia hesitated to grant a constitution, and 
 instead of convening a Parliament, con- 
 vened only provincial councils with secret 
 sessions, the bitterness of the people be- 
 came very great. Austria was governed 
 absolutely, and held apart from Germanj^. 
 Prussia also was under the influence of 
 Metternich, and allowed herself to be 
 used to carry out his policy. The consti- 
 tutions, which had been adopted in the smaller states, were soon abandoned, and the 
 customs barriers between the different lands made commerce difficult and almost im- 
 possible. 
 
 § 552. The Liberals who sought for a progressive development of the states, and 
 were full of the hope of German unity, began now to increase. The German youth, 
 discontented with the present, longed for the return of the Mediaeval Empire. They 
 established Fraternities at the Universities, and began to proclaim their love of the 
 old-new Fatherland. The spirit made itself felt, especially at the festival of the Wart- 
 burg. A number of professors and students of the University of Jena met at the 
 Oct. IS, isii. Wartburg, near Eisenach, to celebrate the 300th anniversary of the 
 Reformation. They made fiery speeches and sang enthusiastic songs, after which 
 they made a bonfire of emblems and books that seemed, in their eyes, to belong to a 
 past age. This festival received its importance, however, from the bloody deed of one 
 arai-ch H3, isio. of its members, Carl Sand, who murdered the poet Kotzebue. The 
 latter was accused of betraying his fatherland, but his murder gave occasion to the 
 
 DANIEL O'CONNELL. 
 
646 
 
 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 
 
 Sent., tsio. Carlsbad decrees, which limited the freedom of the Press,- established 
 a central commission for the discovery of political criminals, placed the Universities 
 under strict supervision, and required all the governments of Germany to carry out 
 the decision of the Congress of the Union. The democratic spirit of South Germany 
 luatj IS, taso. was at the same time suppressed by the decrees of Vienna. Prussia, 
 for a long time the hope and confidence of all German patriots, marched at the head 
 of this reaction. Men like Arndt and Jahn were accused of sedition, deprived of 
 their offices, and watched constantly by the police. The unity of Germany seemed to 
 vanish like a dream. To speak of it even was a crime. Every single state was ruled 
 without regard to the common interests, and although many improvements were made 
 in the Church, and school, and state, the political authority and honor of Germany 
 seemed to have no value in the eyes of German princes. 
 
 6. The Struggle fob Gkeek Independence. 
 
 § 55-3. But suddenly the news flashed through Europe, that the Greeks had 
 risen in arms against the Turks. Like a breath from a nobler world, it quickened the 
 
 ACROPOLIS AT ATHENS. (Modern.) 
 
 lives of the people held fast by the chains of the Holy Alliance and the policy of 
 Metternich. This movement of the Greeks was headed by Alexander Ypsilanti, a 
 Moldavia)] nobleman, in the Russian military service. He was helped by a widely 
 ramified society, the secret purpose of which was the separation of Greece from Tur- 
 sxarch.isni. key. In a short time, Morea (Peloponnesus), Livadia (Hellas), Thes- 
 sal3% and the Greek islands were in arms. But the expected help of Russia failed 
 them. The Czar Alexander was restrained by Metternich, who compared the uprising 
 of the Greeks with the democratic movements in Italy and in .Spain. The Turks 
 foamed with rage, and took a bloody revenge. The patriarch of Constantinople, the 
 head, of the Greek Church, was torn from the altar by angry Mohammedans, and hung 
 up at the main door of his church. A like fate befell the Bishops of Ephesus and 
 Nicomedia. Many old Greek inhabitants of Constantinople died a violent death, or 
 were driven to beg their bread in foreign lands. The Holy band of Greeks, under 
 
EUROPE UNDER THE CONSERVATIVE POLICY OF METTERNICH. 
 
 647 
 
 June lo. isai. Ypsilanti's lead, was finally destroyed, iu the desperate battle of Dra- 
 gatschaii. Ypsilanti fled to Austria, where he languished for many years in prison. 
 
 § 654. A fearful national war now broke out in all parts of Greece. In the 
 Morea the wild Mainotes rose in rebellion. These were followed by other inhabitants 
 of the Peloponnesus, under Demetrius YjDsilanti, the brother of Alexander. The 
 Greeks in Livadia, and in the island, fought with the courage of their ancestors. The 
 European people looked with sympathy upon the glorious contest, sent them money 
 and men, and did their utmost to sustain their leaders, and to maintain the republic 
 1S33. that they had established. While the Princes of the Holy Alliance 
 
 abandoned the Christian people to the blows of infidels, crowds of sympathizers 
 were moving toward the ancient scenes of glory. The English poet Byron dedicated 
 
 1S9*. his talent, his for- 
 
 tune, his energy, and his life, to 
 the cause of Greece, and the rich 
 Genevan Eynard supported them 
 with enormous sums of money. 
 In spite of the discord and selfish- 
 ness of tlie Greek leaders, the in- 
 surgents were victorious, until the 
 year 1825. In that year Turkey 
 acquired a powerful support in 
 Mehemet Ali, the Pasha of Egypt, 
 who had overcome the Mamelukes, 
 and introduced into Egypt western 
 institutions. The Pasha sent his 
 son Ibrahim, with a considerable 
 army, into the Peloponnesus. The 
 discordant Greek bands were una- 
 ble to withstand him ; one city 
 after another fell into his hands. 
 Ibrahim and his inhuman troops 
 marched over corpses and ruins to 
 their victory. The coasts of Greece 
 were cruelly devastated, while the 
 cabinets of Europe sought in vain 
 
 Aj»i-ii 33, IS36. to bring the war to an end. But not until tlie fall of Missolonghi 
 was there a change in the situation. The distressed city, unable to hold out longer, 
 made a desperate attempt to break through the ranks of the besiegers. A third part 
 of the inhabitants were slain, tlie city was burned to the ground, and all who had 
 remained in it were buried beneath the ruins. A cry of horror went through all 
 Europe, and the governments were driven to activity by the angry curses of their cut- 
 raged peoples. 
 
 § 555. The Czar Alexander had just died, and his brother Nicholas was govern- 
 
 Beo. 1, isss, ing with a strong hand. In England the high-minded Canning was then. 
 
 in the splendor of his youth, and had not forgotten his early enthusiasm for Greek 
 
 independence. In France also the government was obliged to listen to the voice of 
 
 MEHEMET ALI PASHA. ( Coilder.) 
 
648 
 
 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 
 
 friends of Greece, especialh^ wlieu the bloodj- abolition of the Janissaries, in which 
 June, js««. 15,000 jNIohammedans lost their lives, revealed the barbarism and 
 inhumanity of the Turkish empire. At Canning's instance, a treaty was made be- 
 tween Russia, England, and France, in which tlie three powers pledged themselves to 
 compel the emancipation of the Greeks. A united fleet appeared at once in the 
 Archipelago, and summoned Ibrahim to evacuate the peninsula. When he refused, 
 Oct. SO. issj. the Turkish-Egyptian fleet was annihilated in the naval battle of Navar- 
 
 ino. But the allies did not know 
 their own minds, and Canning died 
 in the crisis of affairs. The English 
 looked with more favor upon Turke}', 
 and the Sultan now resolved not to 
 let the Greeks go, and behaved so 
 defiantly to Russia, that the latter 
 issa. declared war. This 
 
 excited once more the hopes of the 
 Greeks. While the armies of the 
 Ottoman Turks were marching to the 
 lands of the Danube, Ibrahim was 
 compelled, by the French fleet, to 
 abandon Morea. Capo DTstria of 
 Korfu was now made president of the 
 Greek republic, and the Russians 
 soon compelled the Turks to the 
 Sept. 1-t, isso. peace of Adrianople, 
 in which the independence of Greece 
 was acknowledged. But a long time 
 elapsed before the frontiers could be 
 established, and the Greek fleet was 
 destroyed to keep it out of the enemies' 
 hands. Finally, at a Congress in 
 May, 1S3S. Loudon, the European 
 powers established tlie kingdom of Greece, making Otto I. of Bavaria the king. 
 
 NICHOLAS I. 
 
 7. The New Romantic Litekatuee and Akt. 
 a. Germany. 
 
 § 556. The creators and chief pillars of romantic literature and art were 
 
 -■1. w. sehieaet. Augustus and Friedrich Sclilegel, and the two poets, Novalis and 
 
 and Tieck. They directed their attention to the forgotten products of 
 
 romantic literature and, following the example of Herder, collected 
 
 and elaborated the legends and the songs of the old German time. 
 
 They introduced the romantic poetry of the Spaniards and of the 
 
 Italians into Germany bv skillful translations, and brought the niyth- 
 
 Tierjt, 1713.1SS3. ologj" aud poctry of the Orient and of Scandinavia into the circle of 
 
 their studies. Dante, Shakespeare, Cer\'antes were splendidly translated. The 
 
 Sclilegel brothers distinguished themselves bv their critical writings, their translations 
 
 i-)ei-is-*s. 
 
 F, Sclilegel, 
 yovalis. 
 
 itts-iaoi. 
 
JOHN LiUYLiEN. lIvJl-lTUl. 
 
 JOSEPH ADDISON. 1G72-1719 
 
 ALEXANDER POPE. 1688-1744:. 
 
 BRITISH POETS. 
 
 JOHN KEATS. 1796-1821. 
 
 (pp. 649.; 
 
650 
 
 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AJs^D RESTORATIONS. 
 
 and their knowledge of the history 
 of literature. Tieek acquired renown 
 for his fables and romances. Novalis, 
 by his melancholy poems and his 
 jrouaue, fragmentary romances. 
 1111-184,3. Fouqu(^ contributed his 
 wonderful story of Undine, while 
 Brentano collected and modernized 
 jsuckert, old German ballads. 
 iiss-isao. Ruckert translated 
 and imitated the poems of the 
 •Orient; the brothers 
 Grimm helped on the 
 movement b}' their in- 
 vestigations into the 
 Old German language and literature 
 and by their search for popular 
 fables and proverbs. The great his- 
 torian Raumer followed, with the 
 History of the Hohenstauffens. Many 
 writers of the Romantic school joined 
 the Catholic Church, which created 
 great offense among the Protestants. 
 
 118S.18e3. 
 
 11SO-18BO. 
 
 STR WALTER SCOTT. ITTI-IS.32. 
 
 xjiiintia, Uhland and Arndt how- 
 tiae-iseg. ever did not join the 
 movement, but followed in the path 
 of Schiller. The party of the Lib- 
 erals and the great mass of the Ger- 
 man people were devoted rather to 
 jenn jpaui thcse than to the others. 
 1793-1825. Jean Paul Friedrich 
 Richter stands quite apart from both 
 these schools as the author of the 
 humorous romance, and the painter of 
 the domestic life of Germany, full of 
 wild fancj', of delicate humour, of sub- 
 tlet}^ and of mysterious suggestion. 
 
 b. The writers of Italy under- 
 took the lofty work of lifting their 
 nation from the degredation of cen- 
 
 SAMUEL TAYLOR COLERIDGE. 1 772-1 fS.jt. 
 
 Aljieri, 
 1740-1803. 
 Foscolo, 
 1111-1821. 
 IjCOjittrfli, 
 1108-tS31. 
 
 tnries. Alfieri, in his 
 dramas, sought to cre- 
 ate entlnisinsm for free- 
 dom and fatherland. 
 Foscolo and Leopardi 
 broke forth in melan- 
 
BEN JONSON. 1574-1637. 
 
 JONATHAN SWIFT. 1667-1745. 
 
 SAMUEL JOHNSON. 1709-1784. OLIVER GOLDSMITH. 1728-1774. 
 
 BRITISH PROSE WRITEIIS. {jjp. 651.) 
 
652 
 
 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 
 
 choly strains to bewail the wietched 
 jpeiiico, ness of their country. 
 ^iso-iss^:. Silvio Pellico and othei> 
 souglit to arouse their compatriots 
 by pictures of a noble past; and 
 stanzoiii, Manzoni, the most re- 
 i7ss-ia7a. nowned poet of recent 
 Italy, followed the same direction. 
 In Scotland and England, ballads 
 and border tales were collected, and 
 the past exerted a powerful influence 
 upon many men of great genius. The 
 jBm-Hs, greatest of these was 
 1759-iioe. Robert Burns, by birth 
 a peasant, whose poems are full of 
 warmth, strength, sensibility, and 
 Scott, vivid power. Walter 
 tJ3i.is32, Scott began his remark- 
 able career by collecting ballads, con- 
 tinued it with epic narrative, and 
 made himself famous for all time, by 
 his romances, in which he pictured 
 the manners, customs, landscapes 
 
 THOMAS MOORE. 1780-1852. 
 
 LORD GEORGE GORDON BYRON. 1728-1824. 
 
 and character of his own country and 
 of other lands, with unaj)proachable 
 skill. 
 
 In England, the Lake school of 
 irorasiFoi-th, Wordsworth, Soutliey, 
 f)io-tsao. and Coleridge, created 
 coiet-uige, B, uBw development in 
 ii-is-is3-i. the poetry of nature. 
 Rogers wrote his " Pleasures of 
 ^Memory," and Campbell hi.s "Pleas- 
 ures of Hope." These were easily 
 Byron, surpassed by Lord 
 t78a.is24. Bj'ron, a man of great 
 gifts and of powerful imagination, but 
 full of unrest and of unsatisfied pas- 
 sion. His feelings and observations, 
 his experiences and reflections in his 
 travels through Europe, he has im- 
 mortalized in the two poems, "Childe 
 Harold," and "Don Juan." Beside 
 these he wrote his dramas " Manfred," 
 " Marino Faliero," "Cain," his ballads, 
 and the famous " Hebrew Melodies." 
 
THOMAS BABINGTON .MACAULAY. 1800-1859. 
 
 GEliRliE ELIOT. 181!J-1SSU. 
 
 ROBERT BROWNING. 1812-1889. 
 
 RECENT BRITISH AUTHORS. 
 
 JOHN RUSKIN. 1819- 
 
 {p2X 653.) 
 
654 
 
 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 
 
 Byron was endowed with a rare poetic 
 Shelley, genius ; lie knew all the 
 iros-isss. movements of the 
 human soul, all its moods and pas- 
 sions, and knew likewise the words 
 in which to clothe them. But he 
 lacked reverence and love for tlie 
 moral sublime; he was without faith 
 in humanit}', or confidence in God : 
 he longed for a better age, and would 
 have died to bring it nearer, but his 
 nature was too turbulent for that 
 steady activity,' by which alone the 
 best can be achieved. Thomas 
 Moore, the Irishman, gave to the 
 world, in his " Irish Melodies," a 
 touching expression of the vanished 
 splendor and loveliness of the Em- 
 erald Isle. Yet his chief work is his 
 oriental poem, Lalla Rookh. Shelley 
 was a gifted, noble, but bewildered 
 nature. He attracted all too soon 
 the condemnation of liis pinns conn- 
 
 
 
 
 K'"-"^^^^^ 
 
 
 
 jM 
 
 
 
 \ — 
 
 
 r 
 
 >; 
 
 %k ^ 
 
 1 
 
 m^f^ 
 
 n 
 
 CHARLES DICKENS. 1812-1870. 
 
 ■V UVSSIIE tiOELLKY. 17 '.12-1 822. 
 
 trymen, and led a life of inner strug- 
 gle and suffering, until death took 
 him eai'ly from a world that gave 
 him little pleasure. And yet his 
 poems reveal glimpses of unearthly 
 beauty, although overshadowed by 
 the gloom that always surrounded 
 his powerful mind. In more recent 
 Tennyson, times, Alfred Tennj'son 
 i8oa-iso3. has become famous for 
 liis "Idylls of the King " and his 
 elegiac poem "In Memoriam." Robert 
 jB>-o>r>iJii0, Browning has created 
 1S12-1889. a new species of poetic 
 lepresentation in the "Ring and the 
 Book." His dramas and dramatic 
 poems abound in lofty thought and 
 powerful phrase, but are lacking in 
 perfection of form and in musical at- 
 cni-iyie, tractivencss. Thomas 
 nos-issi. Carlyle, in his " Sartor 
 Resartus." first made the English ac- 
 quainted with the growing influence 
 
Ell ROPE UNDER THE COI\^SERVATIVE POLICY OF METTERNICH. 
 
 655 
 
 of German thought, and in his essa3's and histories, revealed a genius of surpassing 
 
 power. His " French Revolution " is unique in the literature of the world. A 
 
 history, a comment, a prose poem, abounding in dramatic pictures, in bursts of 
 
 nickeiis. prophetic ironj', in flashes of inspired insight, and yet marked vvi li 
 
 1S1S-1S70. the narrowness of the Scottish puritan. Dickens and Thackeray, i); 
 
 Thackerau. their novcls, have acquired great renown, while about them circle a 
 
 1S11-1S63. multitude of clever writers, the most famous of whom are Charlotte 
 
 Biatinu Evans, Broute, Gcorge Eliot (Marian Evans), and Mrs. Gaskell. Macaulay, 
 
 is2o-tsso. ill his "Essays" and his "History of England," exalted rhetoric to a 
 
 throne of power; Matthew Arnold brought into English criticism the spirit of the 
 
 great French master, St. Beuve, while Stuart Mill and Herbert Spencer expounded 
 
 the philosopliies of Utilitarianism, and Evolution with lucidity aud force. 
 
 In France the classical literature 
 of the old regime was attacked from 
 three sides, first by Idealism, which 
 began with Rousseau's entliusiasm for 
 nature and reason, found expression 
 
 St. Fiei-re in the Paul and Vir- 
 
 uay-isijf giuia of Saint Pierre, 
 aiadame Koiaiui, iu Madame Roland's 
 
 1754-1703. "Appeal to Posterity,' 
 and in Volney's " Ruins ; " secondlj', 
 by the poetry of the revolution, 
 especially in the Marseillaise hymn, 
 and in the " Young Captive "of Andr^ 
 Cht^iiier. But the new romanticism 
 of Madame de Stael, the daughter of 
 Necker, which was enriched with 
 
 z,amnfUiiK, rcligious sentiment 
 
 1700-1809. by Lamartine, and 
 
 culminated in Victor Hugo, was the 
 
 greatest enemy of classicism. Dur- 
 
 maii. Be stnej, iug her exile from 
 
 1700-1817. Paris, Madame de 
 Stael made herself familiar with Ger- 
 man literature and German life as 
 
 she showed in her famous " L'Allemagne," and afterward clothed her romantic ideas 
 and her impressions of travel with the poetic form in her romances " Delphine " 
 and " Corinne." Chateaubriand wandered, during the reign of terror, in the forests 
 and wastes of North America, and recorded his impressions in his " Rene " and 
 " Atala." Upon his return to France, he wrote his great work on the " Genius of 
 Christianity," which contributed greatly to the reconciliation of church and empire, 
 cjiateauhriana, and to the restoration of religious feeling in France. After the murder 
 
 i7os-ts4s. of the Duke d' Enghien, he left the country, and made his pilgrimage 
 to Jerusalem, the fruit of which was the epic poem of the "Martyrs." With the res- 
 toration, this poet began his golden age. He became cabinet minister, ambassador at 
 
 WILLIAM MAKEPEACE THACKERAY. 1811-186.3. 
 
656 
 
 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 
 
 Victor itiiao, several courts, and defender of legitimate monarchy. Lamartine struck 
 isos-tsstt. the same chords in his religious and poetic " Harmonies " and found 
 a ready welcome with the French public. He made " A Journey to Syria and Pales- 
 tine," which he described with great charm, and afterward composed his two great 
 poems " Jocelyn," and " The Fall of an Angel." As deputy of the second house, La- 
 martine gradually renounced his royalist opinions, and became the champion of a cos- 
 mopolitan democracy. This led to his history of the " Girondists," which made him 
 so popular, that he was especially adapted to arrest the revolution of 1848. Victor 
 Hugo is famous for his lyrics, dramas, and romances. But he excels as a lyric poet. His 
 "Odes," "Ballads," "Autumn Leaves," and other volumes reveal a sure insight in to the 
 souls of men, and a surprising sympathy with all the moods and impulses of the human 
 heart. His dramas however are exaggerated and unnatural, not seldom violating the 
 
 laws of beauty and of taste. 
 They abound in cruelties and 
 horrors, in the wild and the im- 
 possible. The best known 
 among them are "Cromwell," 
 " Hernani," " Lucretia Borgia," 
 and "Marion Delorme." After 
 the revolution of 1848, he was 
 chosen a member of the National 
 Assembly, but being an eager 
 republican, he opposed bitterly 
 the plans of Louis Napoleon, 
 provoking his wrath to such an 
 extent that he was compelled to 
 fly, in December 1851, and spent 
 many vears in the Isle of Jersey, 
 where he wrote several of his 
 greatest works. Among these 
 are " Les Miserables," a picture 
 of social conditions in France, 
 which has become world-famous. 
 In contrast with this romantic 
 poetry, there arose a liberal 
 schoo] which found expression in the political satires of Courier, and in the popu- 
 Bevanget; \&v sougs of Berangcr. This latter poet gives genuine expression 
 fiso-issi. to French character in its nobler phases. He is cheerful, full of life, 
 and yet amiable, noble, and enthusiastic for freedom and for human welfare. A lover 
 of his country and of mankind, and a child of the people, he spoke the natural lan- 
 guage of the heart, and was at once the comfort and the inspiration of the masses. 
 This literary liberalism came to an end with the July revolution. A new power entered 
 the field. The didactic romance, which attacked not onlj^ monarchy and hierarch3% but all 
 eeot-ae Sand, the ti'aditions of society. George Sand was the most gifted and attractive 
 iao4-is76. of all these writers. Her contemporaries, Eugene Sue and Alexander 
 Dumas, pictured society rather than attacked it. Tlie present school of French litera- 
 
 VIOTOR HUGO. 
 
EUROPE UNDER THE CONSERVATIVE POLICY OF METTERNICH. 657 
 
 ture wavers between a poetic and a repulsive realism. Daudet and Bourget represent 
 the former, and Flaubert and Zola are the masters of the latter tendency. 
 
 Russia, during the 19th century, has created a literature of acknowledged power. 
 I'uachkin This began with Alexander Puschkin, whose poetry reflects every phase 
 noo-ts3j. of popular life. Turgenieff portrayed the dark side of Russian society 
 Turaenieff, and popular manners, with cutting severity but vivid realism, while Tol- 
 i8is-ts83. stoi has astonished his contemporaries with a power of imagination, a grasp 
 of details, a strength of thought, and an audacity of ideas almost unexampled in our age. 
 Hungarian literature originated inour century, and reached its perfection in Alex- 
 Fetoefi, ander Petoefi, a poet and a hero who fell fighting for democracy and inde- 
 ■ 1823-1S40. pendence. His songs of wine and of love, and his pictures of travel, 
 are the fruit of many wanderings among shepherds and peasants, gypsies and robbers. 
 Danish poetry was, in earlier times, influenced chiefly by Germany, but Adam Oeh- 
 lenschlager founded a national scliool, choosing for his themes the old Norse stories. 
 isos-tsts. Hans Christian Andersen, in his fables, attracted readers in all coun- 
 ji68e« born isss. tries, and the two Norwegians, Bjornson and Ibsen, have been recog- 
 nized as men of surprising genius through their stories and dramas. The greatest poet of 
 Sweden is Tegner. His "Story of Fritjhof" is the national poem of the Swedish people. 
 c. The Fine A7-ts. 
 
 Romanticism had a powerful influence upon the development of the fine 
 arts, especially upon painting. It enriched art with new elements, gave a nobler sig- 
 nificance to artistic ideas, unfolded a deeper spiritual life, and prevented absorption in 
 form to the exclusion of mental and moral significance. The two schools, the classic 
 and the romantic, struggled for a while for sole supremacy, but both tendencies were 
 finally reconciled in a natural and powerful realism. The champion of classical art in 
 menga, Germany was Raphael Mengs, the son of a Saxon court painter, who 
 
 iiti8-ii7o. aroused a new love for art by his pictures in oil and in fresco, and 
 although he was by no means a genius, showed the way to a nobler taste. David, 
 Bavia, the French painter, in his imitation of the antique and his studies of 
 
 n^s-isss. nature, of models, and of the theatre, revealed the weakness of the 
 classical school ; for he attached so little importance to the imagination and to crea- 
 tive composition. Carstens was more reasonable. Although he studied the antique 
 with great seriousness, he reproduced its forms freely and boldly from memory and 
 imagination. But he found no sympathy among his contemporaries, and wasted away 
 in poverty and disease at Rome. His influence lived on, however, in his successors. 
 overbech, Ovcrbeck and Schadow were the leaders of the new romantic school. 
 liso-isoo. They devoted their art exclusively to Christian representations, after 
 the manner of the old German and old Italian painters. A greater than either of 
 coineiius, theso was Peter Cornelius of Dusseldorf, the founder of the school of 
 i7S3-isoi. art at Munich. In 1841 Cornelius was called to Berlin by Frederick 
 William IV., whither he was followed by William Kaulbach, who painted the great 
 Kauihach, frescos of the new museum. In more recent times, the German 
 xsos-is7ii. painters have been noteworthy for the variety of their themes. Piloty, 
 in Munich and his pupil Makart have followed the realistic school of France and Bel- 
 gium, while Anselm Feuerbach has perfected the idealism of the old Italian masters. 
 Defregger has become celebrated for his scenes of Bavarian popular life, while Menzel 
 42 
 
658 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 
 
 and Werner have preserved for posterit)' the memories of a great time in their national 
 painting. 
 
 In France and in Belgium painting reached a great perfection. Gerard followed 
 the example of David. Robert was the creator of the historical picture of common 
 life. Horace Vernet immortalized scenes from the army and camp life of the Napo- 
 Beiacfoix, Iconic time, while Delacroix portrayed Dante and Virgil in their voy- 
 iio»-tsG3. age to the city of Hell. In Delaroche, the romantic realistic school 
 reached its most powerful expression. In England, Turner produced his landscapes 
 deemed worthy to take their place beside those of Claude Lorraine, while David Wil- 
 kie acquired great renown by his pictures of English and of Scottish life. Architect- 
 ure and sculjjture had also their devoted artists. Canova breathed into his statues a 
 canova, Certain grace, which, however, was marred at times by a painful effort 
 i-isi-issz. at effect. The first sculjator of the age was Thorwaldsen, born at Co- 
 penhagen, though his parents came from Iceland. Like Carstens, he was an earnest 
 student of the antique. The old world of gods and heroes was the realm in which 
 Thorwaldsen delighted to dwell, and in which he found the themes for bis statues and 
 reliefs. And yet he was too close to actual life to withdraw himself from the tenden- 
 cies of his time, and these tendencies were toward religion and common humanity. 
 Christ, the apostles, and other figures of sacred history, were wrought out by Thor- 
 Thoricaiosen. waldscn with great power. The most famous of his monumental 
 17JO-1S44. works are the Guttenburg monument in Mayence, the statue of Schil- 
 ler in Stuttgart, and the "Dying Lion" in Luzerne. Though honors and distinctions 
 were showered down upon him, he preserved his simplicity and his love for his 
 friends, having no preference for splendor and society. Danneker is renowned for 
 his " Ariadne ;"Schadow, father of the painter, for his Victoria at the Brandenburg gate 
 at Berlin ; Rauch for his monument of Queen Louise, and the great group surmounted 
 by the equestrian statue of Frederick the Great at Berlin. Rietschel solved the difficult 
 naueh, problem of clothing statues in the costume of the time, without de- 
 
 nti-is5i. stroying their ideality. Schwanthaler is famous for his statues of Mo- 
 zart and of Goethe, and for the colossal work " Bavaria " in Munich. 
 
 In musical art, secular music has gradually displaced the supremacy of sacred. 
 
 e?iHcit:, Gluck gave to the musical drama a new significance, and Mozart 
 
 tii4:-itai. created a number of operas, which, like the dramas of Schiller, are the 
 
 sioxai-t, pride and the delight of the German people. But Beethoven, in his sym- 
 
 1136-1791. phonies and sonnets, revealed the possibilities of music beyond the 
 
 Beethoven, boldest anticipation of his predecessors or contemporaries. Mendel- 
 
 1770.1S27. sohn, by his oratorios and his songs, and Weber, by his operas, gave 
 
 Mayan. to their ideas a noble, and at the same time a national expression, 
 
 113S-1SOO. while Meyerbeer was a master of ingenious and startling effects. But 
 
 luendeisohn, a uew cpoch of German opera began with Richard Wagner. The 
 
 iso»-ts^7. musical-declamatory opera re-appeared. A disciple of Gluck in prin- 
 
 sciiii6ei-f, ciple, he had no love for simplicity, but strove for the colossal, the 
 
 t707-ts!ts. massive, the over-whelming. No artist has ever had bitterer enemies, 
 
 or more enthusiastic friends, than the composer of Tannhaiiser, Lohengrin, and Parsi- 
 
 iragnet; val. Schubert and Schumann are renowned for their songs, while the 
 
 IS13-1SS3. Italians, Rossini and Verdi, have preserved the traditions of their 
 
 people in the music that they have written in the spirit of Gluck and of Mozart. 
 
tOlOIOCOIQtOI OTOl 0/^\0 IOI010I0 1_0 101010101 
 
 F. LATER REVOLUTIONARY I^IOVEMENTS. 
 
 I. FRANCE. THE JULY REVOLUTION AND ITS CONSEQUENCES. 
 
 § 557. 
 
 HARLES X. regardless of public opinion, 
 pushed forward on the path of re- 
 buff, a, 1S29. action. The liberal 
 ministry jdelded to an ultra-royalist 
 cabinet under Polignac's presidency, 
 and when the chamber expressed 
 dissatisfaction with the policy of the 
 government, the king dissolved it and 
 . aray, 1S30. ordered a new elec- 
 
 ^^j^iltion. In vain, the men of the oppo- 
 ' sition appeared in greater numbers, 
 and thus confirmed the distrust of 
 the people toward the new ministry. 
 Charles X. was not to be taught. He 
 thought that the glory with which 
 the French troops were covering 
 themselves in Africa would produce 
 a more favorable sentiment. When 
 jicfi/ s. the Moniteur pub- 
 
 lished the famous " Three Ordinances " in which the freedom of the Press was sus- 
 pended, the new chamber was dissolved before it was convened, and the election law 
 jhii; 36-30. was arbitrarily changed, the July Revolution occurred. After three 
 days' heroic fight in the streets of Pai-is, the people conquered for themselves, emanci- 
 pation from the Bourbon dynasty and from priestly domination. On the 29th of July, 
 during the hottest of the street fight, a provisional government was established by the 
 deputies of the chamber then present in Paris. Laffitte, the banker, Casimir-Perier 
 and Odilon Barrot carried on this administration until the constitutional part}- pre- 
 vailed over the republicans, and Louis Philippe, Duke of Orleans, was named as pro- 
 
 (659) 
 
660 
 
 THE ERA OF KEVOLUTIOXS AXD RESTORATIO:srS. 
 
 tector of the State. When it \ras too late, Charles X. offered to take back the hated 
 ordinances, and to j^poiut a popular ministrv. He was compelled to go \rith his 
 iamily a third time into exile, \rhile his shrewder relative. Louis Philippe, after swear- 
 ^w». ». ing fidelity to the hastily revised constitution, ascended the throne as 
 king of the French. The restoration of the tri-color and the re establishment of the 
 
 CAPTVRE or AlAJifSS. 
 
 ^^Jr. JLJJ-I 
 
 Ifational Guard under La Fayette's command, marked the beginning of the new kincf- 
 dom : a kingdom created by the people. Algiers was retained by the new govern- 
 meat and organized as a colony : not. however, without long weary struggles with the 
 Mahommedau ptiptdation and their indomitable chief Ab del Kader. Charles X. died an 
 e^e in the year 1S36. 
 
 § ooS. The Holy Alliance, already shaken by the death of Alexander, fell to 
 pieces m>m the shock of the Jvdy revolution, and throughout Europe, moTemenis be- 
 gan which produced a transformation. The French monarchy, it is true, took up a 
 peaceful attitude toward the other states of Europe. The xictorious liberals in Paris 
 preferred mediation and reconciliation to conflict and civil strife, and sought to sain 
 the moderates and the undecided for the maintainance of e3dsting conditions. Xever- 
 theless the movement was mighty enough to bre.ik through, in more than one place, 
 the artificial structure of the Congress of Yienna. Belgium, Germany, Poland, and 
 Italy, were the scenes of insurrections which it required two years of struggle to snp^ 
 pre^ ; and although the influence of Russia, Austria, and Pru^ia was strong enough to 
 
LATER REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENTS. 
 
 661 
 
 maintain the old state of affairs in most countries, nevertheless, liberal ideas increased 
 so rapidly, and public opinion became so powerful, that all the measures of the police 
 regime were set at defiance. In western Europe, the influence of England and of 
 France prevailed, and this was in favor of a constitutional system, of civil freedom and 
 of representative institutions. 
 
 § 559. The revolution in Belgium was tiie immediate consequence of the events- 
 of Julj^ in Paris. The Vienna Congress 
 had united the provinces of Flanders and 
 Brabant with Holland, to form a kingdom 
 of the Netherlands, without the slightest 
 regard to religion, language, or national 
 interest. The Dutch regarded themselves 
 as the ruling race. They compelled the 
 Belgians to share their large national debt 
 and their high taxes, tried to force upon 
 them the Dutch language and Dutch laws, 
 and to place the education of the Catholic 
 youth under the control of Protestant au- 
 thorities. And when the press assumed a 
 1S30. hostile tone, the govern- 
 
 ment proceeded against the journalists with 
 fines, imprisonment and banishment. This 
 led to an alliance between the French Lib- 
 eral party which vs'as working for a free 
 constitution, and the Catholic ultra-mon- 
 tane party, wliich demanded freedom of in- 
 struction, — an alliance against the Dutch 
 government, which the king in a speech 
 from the throne designated as "infamous." The dissatisfaction, produced by this royal 
 utterance, was so great, that when the news of the Paris Revolution reached Brussels, it 
 set the whole city ablaze. On the evening of the 25th. of August mobs destroyed the 
 printing ofiSce of a newspaper of Dutch proclivities, the palace of the Minister of Jus- 
 tice, and the dwelling of the chief of police. To prevent further devastation by the 
 mob, a citizen-guard was constituted, and a citizens' committee, until finally the radical 
 and ultra-montane party combined to form a " national congress." The example of 
 Brussels soon found imitators, so tliat'in a short time the Brabant flag was waving in 
 all Belgium. An attack of the Dutch upon Brussels was repulsed, and the Belgian 
 insurgents now advanced upon Antwerp, in order to take this city also from their 
 hated neighbor. Thereupon the Dutch general, Chasse, withdrew into the citadel, and 
 bombarded the city with three hundred cannon for seven hours. Indignant at this 
 conduct, the National Congress declared the independence of Belgium, and the exclu- 
 sion of the House of Orange from the Belgian throne. Meanwhile, a conference of the 
 
 ivov. 1S30. five great powers was called together in London, and after long dis- 
 cussion, it came to the conclusion to separate Belgium from Holland, and to establish 
 just frontiers: accordingly Leopold of Saxe Coburg, a relative of the English sovereign, 
 
 June isai. who was shortly afterward married to a daughter of Louis Philippe, 
 
 LOUIS PHILIPPE. ( Wintherlhaler). 
 
662 
 
 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIOXJ 
 
 received the Belgian crown. Leopold sought to pacify the liberals by a grant of rep- 
 resentative institutions, and the Catholic clergy, by the complete independence of the 
 Church from the State. In vain the Dutch attempted a second time to subjugate the 
 nee. 1S3S. seceding provinces. Threatened and opposed by France and England, 
 they were compelled, in spite of the bravery of their army and navy, to abstain from 
 
 further war. Belgium, however, began 
 at once to prosper, both in its free insti- 
 tutions, and in its rapidly developed in- 
 dustries. 
 
 § 560. The happv issue of the 
 French and Belgian Revolutions im- 
 pelled the Poles to insurrection. The 
 Vienna Congi'ess had created a king- 
 dom of Poland, and subjected it to the 
 Czar of Russia. The constitution, 
 which provided for a diet, and for a na- 
 tional army, also afforded the peoi^le 
 liberty with law; their industry pros- 
 pered, literature revived, while great 
 highways opened up a growing com- 
 merce. But all these advantages were 
 not sitfficient to efface among the Poles 
 the desire for the resurrection of their 
 country, and the hope that the French 
 nation wotild hasten to help their old 
 ally, strengthened them in the belief 
 that the hour of Poland's regeneration 
 was at hand. On the 29th of Xovem- 
 1S30. ber, twenty armed ca- 
 
 dets of the Royal School forced their 
 way into the palace of the Viceroy, 
 whom they had sworn to murder, while 
 other conspirators called the people of 
 Warsaw to arms. The Grand Duke 
 barely escaped the fate intended for 
 him, and yielding to the storm, with- 
 drew from the land. A provisional government undertook the conduct of affairs, but 
 the regency, which \vas composed of Polish noblemen, chose the way of negotiation 
 rather than that of war. and although Chlopicki was soon appointed dictator, and 
 although the hastily summoned diet invested Prince Radzivil with supreme authority, 
 the situation was not bettered. The aristocracy, dissatistied with the violence of the 
 demo'cratic and republican clubs, held matters in their hands and hindered all enter- 
 prises by their delay and discord. While the Emperor of Russia was advancing into 
 jnii. as. 1S3X. Poland with an army of two hundred thousand men, the Diet de- 
 clared the House of Romanoff' to have forfeited the throne of Poland ; but refused to 
 free the lands of the peasants and to abolish feudal tribute and rejected the proclama- 
 
 LEOPOLP I.. KING OF TUE BELGIANS. (Win»c). 
 
LATER REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENTS. 663 
 
 tioii of a people's war, which was all that could have saved Poland. The Polish army 
 was brave enough in the field of battle. Chlopicki fought like a hero, and Dwernicki 
 astonished the world by his bold retreat into Austrian territory ; yet the Poles were 
 May ««, is3i. defeated by the Russians and ruined by discord, treachery, and the 
 duplicity of the French mediators. Diebitsch, the Russian general, died of the 
 cholera. His successor, Paskiewitcsh, crossed the Vistula and advanced upon War- 
 saw. The democrats of the capital, believing that the failure of the revolution was 
 due to treason, began a horrible massacre. A mob headed by soldiers forced its way 
 into the castle, murdered the generals stationed there, and attacked several persons 
 suspected and hated as aristocrats, friends of Russia, or spies. Czartoryski, in whose 
 hands the authority had been placed, fled to the camp of General Dembinski. The 
 Diet now appointed Krukowicki president, with dictatorial power, and thus entrusted 
 the liighest authority to the hands of a man who was either a fool or a traitor. When 
 the Russian army approached the capital, the dictator issued the most contradictory 
 orders. The Polish army bravely withstood the advancing enemy, and the lieroic 
 deeds of the fourth regiment have been often celebrated in song. But, after a two- 
 days storm, Warsaw and Prague were surrendered to the Russians, after which the 
 Sept. a-7, is3t. government and the Diet, with the remaining troops, took refuge in 
 Prussia. Here they were disarmed and held prisoners until Poland was completely 
 subjugated, when they received the promise of an amnesty and permission to return. 
 But thousands of them rejected the mercy of the Emperor, preferring to eat the bread 
 of sorrow on foreign soil, rather than to witness patiently the gradual extermination 
 of Polish nationality. In Poland and Littau court-martials were held, and the mines 
 of Siberia were peopled with their victims. Poland was deprived of its constitution, 
 its Diet, and its royal council, and became a Russian province' with a separate adminis- 
 tration, and a separate judiciary. Humiliated Warsaw was ruled with an iron sceptre. 
 The emigrants attempted in vain, by conspiracies and uprisings in Cracow, Galicia and 
 Posen, to accomplish the rescue of their fatherland. New prosecutions, and the final 
 incorporation of the free-state Cracow into the Austrian monarchy, were the only 
 results of these desperate undertakings. 
 
 § 561. Germany too was moved mightily by the news of the Revolution of i\Ay. 
 The princes, fearing that the French desire for the left bank of the Rhine might pre- 
 cipitate a new war, noticed with anxiety the discord between people and government, 
 and hastened, partly by just concessions, and partly by swift recognition of accom- 
 plished changes, to diminish the discontent, and to prevent a union of the discontented. 
 The uprisings in Hanover and Saxony were appeased by the granting of liberal consti- 
 tutions, and by the abolition of oppressive abuses and limitations. In Brunswick, 
 where the inhabitants had destroyed the castle, and forced Duke Carl to fly, his brother 
 William assumed the government, and pacified the excited people by a reformation of 
 tlie constitution. In Hesse-Cassel, the elector William II. consented to a liberal con- 
 stitution, but the hate which the people showed to the Countess Reichenbaoh, his ill- 
 assorted wife, so angered the elector that he made his son regent, and with the Countess 
 and his other treasures, abandoned Hesse ; he lived partly in Baden-Baden, partly 
 in Frankfort, where he died in 1847. In Baden, the freedom of the press was intro- 
 duced ; and in the South German legislatures, the liberals acquired the majority, and 
 pressed for changes and reforms in constitution and administration. But the increas- 
 
664 THE ERA OF REVOLUTION'S AND RESTORATIONS. 
 
 ing boldness of the party, in speech and in writing, especially the proceedings at the 
 
 Slay, XS32. festival of Hambach, induced a swift reaction. The peaceful character 
 of the July monarchy, and the fall of Warsaw, freed the German princes from the 
 fear that the liberal movements might receive foreign sujjport: and the undertaking of 
 some young enthusiasts to break up the Diet of Frankfort was a welcome performance 
 to the leaders of the reaction. Many were arrested ; prisons and fortresses were filled 
 with political criminals ; France and Switzerland became the homes of numberless 
 German fugitives ; the censorship of the press was re-established ; the publication of 
 books watched with the utmost care; and the prerogatives of legislative bodies greatly 
 diminished. The party of progress was thus brought to a halt, by the violence of its 
 own adherents. Victory belonged to the governments. But they knew not how to 
 use it. For they soon outraged the feelings of the peoiale in many ways, especially 
 
 .Tune, 1S37. wheu, at the accession of Victoria to the throne of England, the 
 crown of Hanover fell to her uncle, Ernst August, of Cumberland. For he abolished 
 the constitution already granted, and restored the old feudal arrangements, and, not- 
 withstanding the opposition which he encountered on every side, summoned all 
 servants of the state to take a new oath of allegiance. When seven professors of the 
 University of Gottingen refused, he depi'ived them of their places, and banished them 
 from the kingdom ; so, too, when the assembly of estates Jacked a quorum, because so 
 many members refused to attend, their places were filled by members of the minority. 
 These, and similar measures, made a great gulf between the people and their rulers. 
 The "police state" was everywhere dreaded and hated, and the Bureaucracy was the 
 object of universal dislike. In the press, in literature, in poetry, the existing political 
 system was constantly denounced; while among the people, every opposition to the 
 Bureaucrats was heartil}' applauded. Yet amid all these struggles and divisions, there 
 was one impulse in which all shared, — the longing for national unitj^ and for a strong 
 German confederation, established upon mutual interests. And this led to the found- 
 1833. ing of the " customs union," the corner stone of German political 
 
 unity. (ZoUverein). 
 
 § 562. In Italy, likewise, the July Revolution produced serious consequences, 
 but the hopes of the patriots were soon carried to the grave. The uprisings in 
 Bologna, Modena and Parma, were quickly suppressed by Austrian troops, and the 
 banished regents immediately restored. In the papal states, the i:)apal troops, supple- 
 mented by bandits and convicts, were employed to put down the insurrection. These 
 ruffians raged so furiously, that the Austrian military became necessary to protect the 
 government and the country from their own soldiers. Jealous of Austria, the French 
 
 Web. issg. now took possession of Ancona. An attempt to overthrow the Sar- 
 dinian throne, and, with the help of young Italy, to precipitate a revolution, failed 
 ingloriously. A band of fugitives under the lead of the Polish general, Ramorino, a 
 1S33. native of Genoa, started from Switzerland to invade Savoy, but with- 
 
 out success. In Spain the liberals came to the front once more, not, however, through 
 
 Oct. 1S30. their own strength, but in consequence of a disputed succession to the 
 throne. Ferdinand had been persuaded by his fourth wife, Marie Christine, to abolish 
 the Salic law, and to secure the succession to his infant daughter Isabella. This 
 change displeased the apostolic party, which put its entire trust in Ferdinand's 
 
 Sept. XS33. younger brother, Don Carlos. Hardly had the king closed his ej'es, 
 
LATER REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENTS. 665 
 
 when the Absolutists jji-oclaimed Don Carlos king, and provoked a civil war. They 
 found sujjport in the northern provinces, especially among the rude inhabitants of the 
 Basque mountains. Instigated by priests and monks, IM by brave and enterprising 
 brigands, the Basques drew their swords for the absolute monarch, who had taken 
 refuge in their midst. The Queen regent, Marie Christine, now made overtures to the 
 constitutionals and the liberals, agreeing to introduce a parliamentary constitution, and 
 to permit the return of tlie fugitives and the exiles. Thus the war of the succession 
 became a war of principles and a civil war. After many bloody battles, the Christines 
 
 1839. were successful ; the Carlists laid down their arms, and Don Carlos, 
 
 with his family and many officers and priests, took refuge in France. General Espartero 
 
 isii. now quarreled with the queen mother, and this was the beginning of 
 
 new struggles, constitutional changes and court intrigues. Espartero was powerful 
 
 1S43. enough to procure Christine's banishment for a time, and to assume the 
 
 regency. But he was soon put down by General Narvaez, an adherent of the queen 
 mother, and compelled to fly to England. Christine returned and continued to reign 
 until her daughter Isabella reached her majority. Both mother and daughter were 
 controlled hy the suggestions of the king of France. 
 
 2. The Government of July and the Popular Uprising of 1848. 
 a. The Years of Political and Social Excitement. 
 
 § 563. The July monarchy, erected as it was upon the uncertain foundations of 
 popular sovereignty, suffered many attacks. The adherents of the Bourbons and of 
 the Legitimists were joined bj- the Republicans in their attempts to overthrow the new 
 order. Only the prosperous middle class, anxious to preserve their possessions, and 
 expecting, to find salvation in a constitutional monarchy, were satisfied with the gov- 
 ernment of July, and upon these Louis Philippe particularly depended. But when 
 the King delayed to extend the suffrage and to call the less prosperous citizens to take 
 part in political life, the number of his supporters became quite small. Moreover, the 
 King failed to win the heaits of the French. Though possessed of an immense for- 
 tune, he used his high station to increase his riches. As a consequence, he was re- 
 proached with selfishness and greed, and this reproach fell upon his ministers and 
 office-holders. All were looked upon as tainted with corruption, and even the beauti- 
 ful domestic life of the royal family failed of proper recognition. The Legitimists 
 were the first to attack the King and his ministry. But the hate of the people for the 
 Bourbons was yet too fresh for them to succeed. The unfurling of the white flag, 
 
 Feh., isai. at the death of the Duke de Berri, caused an uprising, in consequence 
 of which the palace of the Arch-bishop of Paris was destroyed. The attempt of the 
 Duchess of Berri to arouse the Vendeans also failed. When she was arrested and her 
 
 xov., isaa. secret marriage revealed, the romantic charm that clung to the ban- 
 ished royal' family gradually disappeared. The Legitimists, with the aged poet Cha- 
 teaubriand at their head, now gave up the hope of placing Count Chambord upon the 
 throne. They called him Henry V., but they could give him neither sceptre nor 
 authority. The Republicans were more dangerous. The uprisings in Lyons and Paris 
 
 1831-2-4. were suppressed, and the ring-leaders punished ; but the newspapers 
 were alive with their opinions, and in their secret assemblies they obtained more and 
 more adherents. The National was the much persecuted and much punished organ 
 
666 
 
 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 
 
 of the Republicans, who were soon divided into various factions. The moderates at- 
 tacked the existing constitution, and sought only a transformation of the government ; 
 but the radicals declared that property was theft, and urged war against the wealthy 
 classes, or flattered the working-classes by exaggerating their importance, and de- 
 manding the readjustment of capital and labor, and better wages for the laborer. All 
 this tended to an upheaval of social conditions. Liberty, fraternity, and equality was 
 the watchword, and hatred for the prosperous, was the core of the new doctrine. 
 It 1^ ^\ele proclaimed and extended, and manj- saw iii 
 
 them salvation from 
 poverty and degrada- 
 
 Communistic and soci ili^ti 
 
 K'^^f* 5^ 
 
 
 r 
 
 '// 
 
 tion. Gradually tlie 
 socialists Of France 
 formed an alliance 
 with those of other 
 countries, and thus 
 constituted the Inter- 
 national. These 
 socialists, believing 
 that if the king were 
 put to death, the 
 communistic repub- 
 lic could be easily 
 proclaimed, sougiit 
 to assassinate Louis 
 Philippe, but he es- 
 caped eight separate 
 attacks with trul}'' 
 wonderful good for- 
 tune. The most ter. 
 rible of these was that 
 of. the Corsican) 
 F i e s c h i , who ex- 
 ploded an "infernal 
 machine " in the 
 boulevard, whereby 
 eighteen persons near 
 
 July. tS3S. the 
 
 King were killed. The guilty were punished with death, but assassination continued to 
 be tried. Limitation of the press, of the right of assembly and of personal freedom, 
 were the consequences of these attempts. Louis Philippe was also sorely afflicted by the 
 death of liis oldest son, the popular Duke of Orleans, who was thrown from his carriage. 
 § 564. Pope Pius IX. made the papacy the political center of Italy by opportune 
 isjo. reforms. He extended the freedom of the press, improved the ad- 
 
 ministration of justice, gave the city of Rome a liberal charter, and started tlie forma- 
 tion of an Italian confederacy. The excitable Italians were filled with new hopes. 
 Jan., is4a. Sicily unfurled the banner of independence, and began a mighty 
 
 
 DUCHESS DE BERRI. 
 
riESCHl's ATTEMPT ON THE LIFE OF LOUIS PHILLIPPE. [F. LlX.) {jyp. 667.) 
 
THE KRA OF UEVOI-UTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 
 
 struggle \\itli her oppressors. Tlic King of Naples sought to appease liis people by a 
 parliamentary constitution, and conipellod other princes thereby to do likewise. The 
 Grand-duke ].,eopold of Tuscany, and Charles Albert of Sardinia, were among those 
 that followed his example. But the Duke of JModena, an ardent champion of the 
 divine right of princes, escaped the hatred of the peojile by flight, while in Parma the 
 uec. IS. ts-n. throne became vacant by the death of tlie Duchess Marie Louise, the 
 little beloved and little respected widow of Napoleon Bonaparte. All this tilled the 
 
 Italians with tiie hope 
 of national unity and 
 freedom. Only two 
 powers stood in the 
 way of their achieve- 
 }nent — the Jesuits 
 and the Austrians — 
 and upon these were 
 poured the glowing 
 hatred of the Italians. 
 Hurrahs for Gioberti, 
 tlie foe of the Jesuits, 
 and death to the (iJer- 
 mans mingled in the 
 cries of " Long live 
 Pionono, the saviour 
 of Italy!" 
 
 In Germany the op- 
 position between the 
 government and the 
 jieople had reached 
 a crisis. The writ- 
 ings of young Ger- 
 many, the songs of 
 the political poets, 
 the boldness of the 
 daily press, the liberal 
 writings of young 
 philosophers and the- 
 ologians, the doc- 
 trines and speeches 
 of the " friends of light " among the Protestants, and of the - German Catholics " 
 among the Catholics, revealed the deep dissatisfaction of the people with the 
 existing state and church. Frederick William IV., who became king of Prussia 
 in 1840, tried to meet this feeling with reforms. He opened the sittings of the 
 courts to the pidilic, issued an edict of toleration, and called the Estates of his 
 »s^5. Provinces to assemble in Berlin. When the Estates met, the demands 
 
 of the people for a free press and a free state Avere supported with such eloquence and 
 with such earnestness, that they could no longer be resisted. Meanwhile, a great 
 
 roPK rii s IX. 
 
670 
 
 KHA OF UKVOI.iriOXS AXD KKSTOKATIONS. 
 
 crisis tocik place in tlio coiuiiu'reial world. A linaiicial panio rubbed tiiousaiids of 
 their fortunes, brought multitudes to the edge of starvation. To make nuitters worse, 
 famine and pestilenee visited the regions of industrial aetivit)', and misery spread into 
 every corner of Germany. Uprisings in Berlin, Stuttgart. Munich, and other cities 
 were the consequence. The military and police soon put down the tumults, and a 
 
 rich harvest put an end 
 \ v,.v't'r''i'!y' fo tlis famine; but it 
 
 was impossible any 
 longer to overlook the 
 ^^^^\ inequalities of fortune 
 
 which the crisis iiad re- 
 vealed. The excitement 
 and dissatisfaction with 
 the political institutions 
 of Germany was greatly 
 increased by the infatu- 
 ation of King Ludwig of 
 Bavaria, for the Spanish 
 dancer, Lola JNIontez, 
 b}- whom the aged mon- 
 arch was led into ex- 
 travagance and hasty 
 action. The ultra-mon- 
 tane party quarreled 
 with the king's darling, 
 the Countess of Lands- 
 feld, as she was called ; 
 and as a consequence, 
 the ministry and the 
 heads of the university 
 were dismissed, and 
 when the students took 
 the part of their profes- 
 sors, the King closed 
 the university, and or- 
 dered the students to 
 depart. An insurrec- 
 
 Feh.. tS^S. t i O a 
 
 followed. The King 
 ^^ iz^ix. was obliged to retract, 
 
 and the Countess Lola 
 was dismissed from the country. Switzerland was in the same decade, the scene of 
 great hostility between Catholics and Protestants, conservatives and radicals. Eight 
 cloistei's of Aargau had been abolished, and tiieir estates been confiscated by the 
 government. The Catholic Cantons protested, but without avail. Lucerne now 
 entrusted the Jesuits with the education of hor vouth, and when the radicals stirred 
 
 1 
 
EUROTK UNDER THE CONSEKVATIVE rOLIC:Y OK MET TKUNICII. G7 1 
 
 up a tumult, a desperate coullict took place between tlieiii and tJie Jesuits. Tiie 
 Catholic Cantons demanded the punislnnent of the rioters, and a restoration of the 
 ia*o. cloisters. When this was refused tlicni, they seceded and formed a 
 
 separate union. The radicals declared this conduct unconstitutional, and dcmamlid 
 the expulsion of the Jesuits. The Catholic Cantons refused to disband. 'I'ln' 
 government then attacked them with the sword. The struggle was brief. The 
 government soon conquered Freiburg, when Lucerne and the other Cantons submitted 
 
 jhiu, is-ti. at once. Their separate union was dissolved, the Jesuits were 
 expelleil, the governments of the Cantons modified, and the costs of the war imposed 
 
 Bee, la-tt. upon the Catholics. Austria, France, and Prussia came too late 
 with their mediation, and the failure of France was one of the causes of the revolu- 
 tion. The Swiss used the opportunity to change their constitution. The Federal 
 council, which sits permanently in Berne, Was conjoined with the council of the Can- 
 tons, and a national council elected by the people. 
 
 h- The February Revolution in Paris. 
 
 § 565. While these events were occuring in Italy and Switzerland, the policy of 
 Guizot was giving great offence to the Frencii liberals. The excitement was increased 
 by a trial of high officials for bribery, and by the murder of the Duchess of Praslin 
 by her own husband. The people were satisfied that a government, upborne by such 
 rotten pillars, was impossible. The cry for reform went through the land, and the re- 
 form desired was universal suffrage. Throughout France reform banquets were the 
 order of the day, and when the Chambers were convened in Paris, a reform banquet 
 was arranged for, to give expression to the pojmlar mind. But the government for- 
 bade the banquet, and the speech from the throne described the movement as one 
 started by hostile or blind passions. The program for the l)anquet was issued never- 
 theless. But when the government took military measures for its supression, it was 
 abandoned. When the members of the opposition determined to accuse the ministry of 
 a breach of the constitution. The people however were too excited to be thus ap- 
 peased. Mobs of ai'tisans, tramps, students, and street-Arabs marched tlirough the 
 streets crying "Reform! Down with Guizot !" The crowds increased with every 
 hour ; the soldiers spared them ; the police were too feeble to put them down ; barri- 
 Feb. lasa. cades were erected and defended. The fight lasted for two days, when 
 the King dismissed Guizot and promised reform. The ci'owds now marched singing 
 and hurrahing through the streets ; most of the barricades disappeared, and the houses 
 were illuminated. But this did not suit the secret societies. They wanted much more 
 than a change of ministry. The barricades in the northeast part of the city, where the 
 working classes lived, were still standing. About ten o'clock, a crowd of people with 
 flags and torches marched through the Boulevards, singing and shouting. , They halted 
 before the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and demanded the illumination of the build- 
 ing. The troops now interfered, but the Colonel commanding was insulted. Suddenly 
 a shot was fired, and the soldiers delivered a volley which killed and wounded fifty- 
 two of the mob. Tlie corpses were placed upon a bier, and carried through the streets 
 by men carrying torches and crying " to arms ; they are murdering us." At midnight, 
 the bells were rung, and the next morning, the 24th, of February, all the streets of 
 Paris were barricaded. A violent stru'jgle soon ended with the victory of the people. 
 
672 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AXD RESTORATIONS. 
 
 Louis Philippe abdicated, and fled with his wife to England, whither the rest of his 
 family soon followed. A republican government w^as established, under the piresidency 
 of the aged Dupont de 1' Eure, and in which the poet Laniartine, the leaders of the 
 left, Ledru-RoUin and Arago, and the socialist, Louis Blanc, took part. But the new- 
 government did not bring the expected happiness. As the revolution was the work 
 of the working classes, something must be done to better their condition. National 
 workshops w'cre established to provide employment at the expiense of the state. The 
 state expenses mounted up with great rapidity, and the number of men out of work 
 increased with every day. The workshops had to be closed ; the working classes 
 thereupon attempted a new revolution, seeking power for the fourth estate. This led 
 jw«»« »s, is^s. to the cruelties of June, in which the advocates of the Red Republic dis- 
 
 FEBRUARY REVOLfTION IN PARIS. 1848. PROCXAIMTXG THE REPUBLTC. 
 
 (B. Adam and J. Ai-nouf.) 
 
 graced themselves by their ferocious brutality. They murdered the General Brea and 
 Arch-bishop^ Affre of Paris, and filled the barricades with the corpses of their 
 enemies. General Cavaignac was thereupon made dictator hy the National Assembly. 
 He conquered the insurgents, had crowds of them arrested and deported, and placed 
 Paris under martial law. The National Assembly, under his protection, completed a 
 republican constitution with a single chamber, and a president to be chosen every four 
 years. They would fain have elected General Cavaignac to the presidency, but the 
 Bee. to. ts*s. nation, blinded bj* the splendor of the imperial name, chose Louis 
 Napoleon Bonaparte, the nephew of Napoleon, who had twice attempted the overthrow 
 
EUROPE UNDER THE CONSERVATIVE POLICY OF METTERNICH. 
 
 673 
 
 of Louis Philippe, and undergone a long imprisonment as a punishment for his reckless 
 enterprise. 
 
 § 566. The news of the Paris revolution produced an agitation in all Europe. 
 In Germany, Hungary, and Italy, popular uprisings took place, that far exceeded all 
 previous movements in extent and strength. A propaganda was established, with its 
 head-center at Paris, to keep alive the revolutionary feeling, and to spread republican 
 ideas, of a socialistic character. The first effects were seen in Baden. The Grand- 
 duchy had been long distinguished for its political activity, and it now marched for- 
 
 THE JUNE REVOLUTION IN PARIS, 1848. 
 
 ward with the banner of progress and of reform. Urgent petitions demanded free- 
 dom of the press, trial by jury, the right to bear arms, and a German parliament. 
 The government of Baden conceded these points, and went even further in the 
 adoption of conciliatory measures. The example of Baden affected other German 
 states. In Wiirtemburg and Saxony, the chiefs of the liberal opposition were called 
 to the cabinet. The leaders of the liberal party in South Germany met at Heidel- 
 berg, to consider the welfare of the nation, and issued an appeal to the German people, 
 in wiiicli they urged the convening of a National Assembly. But the agitation was 
 luafcH, 1S4S. greatest in the Austrian Empire. An insurrection took place in 
 Vienna, which led to the overthrow of Prince Metternich, who retired to En- 
 43 
 
07-4 
 
 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. 
 
 liuid. The old ordinances were soon dissolved, and the Austrian capital .was 
 for a wliile in a state of lawlessness. Freedom of the press produced a re- 
 volutionary literature. The right of free assembly led to stormy meetings and dem- 
 ocratic clubs. The plans of the revolutionists were gi-eatly furthered by the vast 
 number of unemployed workmen. Demagogues came into Vienna from all quarters, 
 and street fights became the order of the day. The Emperor, with his court, retired to 
 
 DEFENSE OF THE BARRICADES. 
 
 Slav, ts-ts. Innsbruck, and did not return to the capital, until the Constitutional As- 
 
 jthih. sembl)^ convened, which entreated him urgently to come back to Vienna. 
 
 Berlin likewise had her days of March. Reluctantly the Prussian government conceded 
 
 iWrti-oh, 7. tiie freedom of the press and otiier reforms, and promised a transformation 
 of the German union. Conflicts between the soldiers and the people so embittered the 
 latter, that they demanded the removal of the troops and the establishment of a citizen- 
 
EUROPE UNDER THE CONSERVATIVE I'OLICY OF METTEIINICII. 
 
 075 
 
 militia. Foieign agitators, especially Poles, increased the excitement and the bitter 
 feeling by their exasiieraling speeches. Mobs gathered bel'ore the castle and insulted 
 jtfarr/., IS. the soIdicrs with their threats. A detachment of infantry pushed them 
 back at the point of the bayonet; two shots were fireil, by whom or whence is un- 
 known. These were the .signal for a street fight, that raged violently for two weeks. 
 The King finally commanded the military to be withdrawn, dismis.sed his ministry, and 
 consented to the creation of a citizen guard for the defence of tlie city and the protec- 
 tion of the castle. An amnesty was proclaimed; all political prisoners were dis- 
 charged, and all political exiles permitted to I'eturn. Three days after the proclama- 
 mareh, 21. of the amnesty, the King declared that he would govern as a constitu- 
 
 f FICVI \N I I "\ f M TT \ 1 MS ■ 
 
 F rUE Piltll VMENT 
 
 tional monarch, and place himself at tlie head of a free and united Germany. A con- 
 stitutional assembly was elected by universal suffrage, and a few weeks afterward this 
 assembly began the difficult work of preparing a constitution for the Prussian mon- 
 archy. 
 
 S 567. Meanwhile all the German states were undergoing great changes. The 
 Congress of the Union had been transformed by a number of Liberal ambassadors, 
 and a committee of seventeen was appointed to sketch a new constitution for the 
 German union. King Louis of Bavaria yielded to public opinion, and abdicated in 
 wavcH, is-tfi. favor of the Crown-prince Maximilian. The Duke of Hesse-Darm- 
 stadt made way for his son. In Hanover and other states Liberals were called into the 
 ministry, and set about democratic reforms, witli headlong haste. In some sections 
 
676 
 
 THE ERA OF KEYOLUTIOXS AND RESTORATIONS. 
 
 revolutions broke out, the peasants destroj'ing the rent and tithe-books, and the castles 
 of their landlords. It was not enough for the radicals that a national assembly should 
 frame a new constitution for Germany ; they were determined to found a German re- 
 public immediately, and to that end Hecker and Struve called the people to arms. 
 This movement took place in Baden, but ended in a speedy defeat of the insurgents. 
 The National Assembly began its session on the 18th of May in St. Paul's church at 
 Frankfort. It included the most talented and eloquent men of the German nation. 
 Its first act was to abolish The Congress of the Union, and to establish a new 
 Central Government. After violent debates, it was determined to choose an irre- 
 sponsible executive who should be surrounded with a responsible ministry. The 
 j-ni» 11. is*s. Arch-duke John of Austria was chosen such chief magistrate and ac- 
 cepted the ofSce in Jul}^ 1848. (Reichsverweser. Imperial Executive.) 
 
 § 568 Italy was the scene of similar changes aud excitements. The banner of 
 independence was unfurled in Sicily, and for a j^ear a desperate struggle was main- 
 tained against Naples, but without success. 
 The King of Naples, with his hired Swiss 
 soldiers, subjugated the Sicilians, and then 
 abolished the constitution that he liad 
 granted to his people in the hour of his ex- 
 tremity. In Rome the excitement was more 
 than Pope Pius IX. could manage. He 
 promised to grant a constitutional govern- 
 xoi: 15, is-ts. ment, and convened an as- 
 sembly in the eternal city, but his minister, 
 Rossi, was stabbed to deati, and the Demo- 
 crats usurped all authority. The Pope tied 
 in disguise to Gaeta, abandoning his capital 
 to the mob, which immediately proclaimed 
 Feh., is*9, a republic and confiscated 
 the property of the church. Mazzini, the 
 head of young Italy, and Garibaldi, the cap- 
 tain of volunteers, were the rulers of Rome. 
 The Pope now appealed to the French. A 
 French army marched to the cit}-, and de- 
 manded the re-establishment of the Pope. This was refused. The French besieged 
 the insurgents. "Weeks of bloody struggle elapsed before they entered the city. The 
 ruiy a, is*». Republicans fled, and the old conditions were gradually restored. In 
 Tuscany also the Democrats were successful, and drove the Grand duke into exile. 
 But their success lasted a few weeks only. The greatest change, however, took place 
 in upper Italy. In Milan and Venice the people drove out the Austrian garrisons. 
 The standard of independence was thereupon unfurled in all Lombardy. Charles 
 Albert of Sardinia also attempted to get possession of Lombardy and Venice. He de- 
 clared war upon Austria, and, supported by Italian volunteers, he pushed the Austrian 
 troops to the northern frontiers of Italy. But his success endured for a brief season 
 only. On the 6th of May, the octogenarian field-marshal, Radetzkv, defeated him at 
 Verona, and compelled him to seek safety in flight. The next year Charles Albert 
 
 KADETZKY DE RADETZ. 
 
EUROPE UNDER THE CONSERVATIVE POLICY OF METTERNICH. 677 
 
 attempted the enterprise a second time, but with no better success. In despair he 
 gave up the crown to his son Victor Emmanuel, and fled to Portugal. The young 
 king then made a disadvantageous peace with Austria, but he continued to pursue 
 tlie path of liberal reform wiiich his father had opened up. Venice, invincible by 
 Aug. 2B, 1S49. positiou, resistcd for several months the Austrian armies, but finally 
 internal dissensions made it the prey of its former conquerors. Thus everywhere in 
 Italy the old order was re-established. 
 
 § 569. The storm of revolution continued in German}' and in Hungary, and 
 while the constitutional assembly in Frankfort was deliberating upon a new constitu- 
 tion, a blood}' war broke out in Schleswig-Holstein. According to ancient prescrip- 
 tions, the two dukedoms remained united, the succession being restricted to the male 
 line of the House of Oldenburg. But the energetic inhabitants of the dukedoms, 
 foreseeing the extinction of the royal house of Denmark, desired to be .annexed to 
 Germany, under their own Duke of Augustenberg. The King of Denmark was de. 
 termined, on the other hand, to jDreserve the integrity of the Danish monarchy. The 
 jruiy, 1S40. inhabitants thereupon determined to rebel. Trusting to German help, 
 they established a provisional government, and appealed to the Central Govern- 
 ment at Frankfort. This appeal was answered by the appointment of a governor. 
 The Danes then declared war. German volunteers poured into the country, expecting 
 that the troops of the Union would soon follow. But Germany was without a navy, 
 and the commerce of the North Sea and of the Baltic suffered greatly in the conflict. 
 Russia and England also interfered in behalf of Denmark. The Prussian government 
 Aug., 1848. preferred diplomacy to war, and negotiated the truce of Malmci. The 
 assembly at Frankfort accepted this truce with great reluctance, and the German re- 
 publicans thereupon determined to break up the convention, and to proclaim a repub- 
 lic. The federal troops prevented their success, but the murder of members of the 
 convention by the mob furnished a terrible example of the brutality of political 
 hatred. 
 
 § 570. This brutality revealed itself in the Austrian Empire. Hungary was 
 struggling for independence. She desired a separate government, in which she should 
 have no part in the military system, state debt, tlie tax, or the financial legislation of 
 the rest of the empire. But the Slavonic population of Hungary was opposed to this 
 policy of the Magyars, and Jellachich of Croatia, took the field against them. The 
 seiit. 1848, furious Magyars thereupon murdered the imperial commissioner. Lam- 
 berg. Austrian troops were then ordered into Hungary, but the Democrats of Vienna 
 hindered their departure by furious insurrections, during which they attacked and 
 brutally murdered the minister of war. The Emperor abandoned his capital a second 
 time, going to Dlmiitz in Moravia. He then empowered WindischgrLitz to restore 
 order in Vienna. The city was besieged by Austrian soldiers, and defended for three 
 weeks by the people. Finally it was stormed ; martial law was proclaimed, and 
 the ring-leaders of the insurrection were put to death. Among these was Robert 
 xov. o, 1848, Blum, a member of the National Assembly at Frankfort, and one of 
 the principal orators of the Democratic party. 
 
 § 571. Windischgratz now led his victorious army into Hungary. The majority 
 of the Frankfort Parliament thereupon determined, if possible, to separate the rest of 
 Germany from Austria, so that each might erect a new political system, and then en- 
 
THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AXD RESTORATIONS. 
 
 ter into a commercial and customs alliance. Prussia was to be the head of this new 
 German confederation. Heinricli Ton Gagern was the principal champion of this plan, 
 and undertook, at the head of a new federal cabinet, to carry it into execution. But it 
 was opposed by the Austrians. by the Catholics and by the Republicans. The Aus- 
 trians opposed it because they were unwilling to be excluded from Germany, the Cath- 
 olics because they begrudged the leadership to Protestant Prussia, and the Republi- 
 cans because they saw in it the postponement of their final triumph. Moreover the 
 king of Prussia had dissolved the constitutional convention that he had convened in 
 Berlin. Worn out by the agitation and excitement, the King had determined upon a 
 -Tor. tsis. decisive step. He appointed a new ministry under the presidency of 
 Count Brandenburg, prorogued the National Assembly, fixing its next session at the 
 city of Brandenburg, and when a great number of the deputies refused obedience and 
 declared the collection of revenues unconstitutional, he dissolved the Assembly. At 
 
 the same time, however, he published a 
 liberal constitution of his own, which 
 provided for a legislative body to con- 
 sist of two chambers, and to be chosen 
 by universal suffrage. 
 
 § 572. Austria soon followed the 
 example of Prussia. The Emperor 
 Ferdinand abdicated in favor of his 
 youthful nephew. Francis Joseph. The 
 new emperor dissolved the constitu- 
 Bee. is^s. tional assembly, pro- 
 claimed a new constitution and a new 
 code of laws. He then proceeded to 
 the subjugation of the Magyars, but 
 they offered a desperate resistance. 
 Excited by the fiery eloquence of Kos- 
 suth, and supported by Polish leaders, 
 like Dembinski, the Hungarians drove 
 out the Austrians and conquered all 
 the fortified places. Gbrgey com- 
 manded their army with great skill. 
 Foreign volunteers strengthened their ranks. Hungarian banknotes circulated as 
 money. The independence of Hungary was proclaimed, and a provisional govern- 
 A.j>r«, ts^a. ment established, which was conducted by Kossuth. The Austrian 
 authorities soon saw that Windischgratz was not equal to tlie emergency. He was 
 recalled, and the brutal field-marshal. Haynau, appointed in his place. And at the same 
 time Austria asked help of Russia. Himgarv was now invaded from three sides. 
 From the north Paskiewitsch entered with a Russian army; from the West. Haynau 
 with Austrian troops : and from the south. Jellaehich with his Croats. The Hungar- 
 ians, however, continued the contest for several months. But quarrels between the 
 Polish and the Magyar leaders, and between Kossuth and Gurgey, destroyed their 
 -4iiff. is^o. strength. Gorgey, who had been declared dictator, surrendereil at 
 Vilasfos, while Kossuth and other leaders fled to Turkev. Manv were condemned to 
 
 lorrs Kossrm. 
 
EUROPE UNDER THE CONSERVATIVE POLICY OF METTERNICH. 679 
 
 death, many languished away in dungeons, and many were compelled to perform the 
 meanest drudgery of the Austrian army. 
 
 § 573. The fall of Hungary was the conclusion of the revolutionary movement. 
 For the National Assembly at Frankfort had already come to an end. It had pro- 
 statcn, 1S49. claimed the fundamental right of the German people, and had at last 
 framed a constitution. The party of Gagern had prevailed by a small majority. But 
 in order to do so, had compromised with the democratic radicals. The new constitu- 
 tion provided that the king of Prussia should become hereditary emperor of the new 
 Germany. A solemn deputation went to Berlin and offered the imperial dignity to 
 the king of Prussia, if he would accept the new constitution with all its provisions. 
 But the King gave at first an uncertain answer, and afterwards declined the proffered 
 honor. The Prussian estates, which had been meanwhile convened, presented an ad- 
 dress to the King, in which they urged him to accept the imperial dignity and the new 
 constitution. The House of Representatives was thereupon dissolved, the upper 
 chamber was adjourned, and the election laws so changed, that in future, representa- 
 Apiii, 1S40. tives were chosen, not by universal suffrage, but by electors, divided 
 into three classes, according to their rank and property. 
 
 § 574. This refusal to accept the new imperial constitution provoked new excite- 
 ment tkroughout Germany. Insurrections and street fights took place, first in those 
 states that refused to introduce the new government, — in Saxony, in Bavaria, and in 
 parts of Rhenish Prussia. Next in Baden, where the government had accepted the 
 May, 184:9. ncw coustitution, a mutiny occurred among the soldiers, and in conse- 
 quence of this, the Grand-duke abandoned the country to the democratic and repub- 
 lican leaders. In the National Assembly at Frankfort, the refusal of the German gov- 
 ernments to accept the new constitution, gave the extreme left increasing influence; 
 the conservative deputies leaving, either voluntarily, or at the command of their gov- 
 ernments. But the Prussian army rapidly conquered peace. • Prussian troops sup- 
 pressed the uprisings along the Rhine; they marched into Dresden, and freed the capi- 
 tal of Saxony from the insurgents ; they invaded Bavaria and Baden, and suppressed 
 the insurrection just as it threatened to enter Wiirtemburg. The remnant of the 
 tf-Miie, is-io. National Assembly at Frankfort now removed to Stuttgart. They were 
 spoken of as the Rump Parliament, nevertheless they established an executive council 
 of five members, and would have supported the revolution, had not Rbmer driven 
 them from the kingdom. Meanwhile the Prussians had re-established order in Baden. 
 The republican leaders escaped to Switzerland or to America. Soon after these events, 
 the three kings of Prussia, Hanover, and Saxony, published a new imperial constitu- 
 tion, which was received with great satisfaction by the moderate men of all parties. 
 But Saxony and Hanover soon withdrew, and left Prussia to carry out the plan alone. 
 Austria now intervened, and restored the old Congress of the Union. Prussia, for a 
 while, refused to send a representative. Austria, and the others states, threatened to 
 use force, and the armies were confronting each other, when, at the last moment, the 
 conflict was averted by an agreement made between the Prussian and the Austrian 
 
 jvotieiii6e>-, isso. ministr}'. This humiliation of Prussia at Olmiitz, where the minis- 
 ters met, created great bitterness at Berlin, and throughout the kingdom. Various at- 
 
 Aeeember, taso. tcuipts wcrc made to establish a more perfect union, but all proved 
 
680 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIOXS AND RESTORATIOXS. 
 
 fruitless. Prussia finally gave way, the Old Union was re-established, and the old 
 Congress at Frankfort reconvened. 
 
 § 575. Aifairs in Schleswig-Holstein also turned out badly. In March, 1849, the 
 Germans marched triumphantly to Fridericia, and beleaguered the place. But the 
 garrison was strengthened, the German army was driven back, and the Danes pos- 
 
 j^iiiy, isjo. sessed themselves of the intrenchments and works of the besiegers. 
 A truce followed. Schleswig was placed under neutral authority, and occupied by 
 Prussian and Swedish troops, and the next year, Schleswig and Holstein were handed 
 over to Denmark. But the . governor, who liad been appointed by the Central Gov- 
 
 j-iijy, isso. ernment at Frankfort, refused to abandon the country. Volunteers 
 streamed in from all sides. The Danes were attacked, but the battle ended in the dis- 
 comfiture of the Germans. The latter continued the war, but Austria and Prussia 
 determined to bring it to a speedy close. They required the governor to give up his 
 authority, and to make room for a government appointed b}' Denmark and the two 
 German powers. Their wishes were fulfilled. Austrian troops occupied the land from 
 Hamburg to Rensburg, and Schleswig was given over to the vengeance of the Danes. 
 § 576. The constitutional assembly of France finished its labors in May, 1849. 
 A democratic republic with universal suffrage, and religious and civil freedom for every 
 citizen, with a single legislative chamber, and a president to be elected every four 
 years, were the leading features of the new system. The new legislature contained 
 many democrats with socialistic tendency. These called themselves The Mountain, 
 and when the French government resolutely opposed socialism at home and abroad, 
 the Mountain attempted to provoke new uprisings in Paris and Lyons. These were 
 speedily suppressed, and many of the leaders driven into exile, or carried off to prison. 
 The socialists now abandoned their plans of revolution, but sought to increase their 
 power in the legislature. To prevent this the National Assembly limited the suffrage, 
 aiaysi.isso. and at the same time issued new regulations for the Press. These 
 measures brought upon the assembly the hatred of the people, and Louis Napoleon 
 getting possession of the arm}-, and the civil officers, prepared to overthrow the con- 
 stitution, and to make himself sole ruler. He won the clergy by great concessions, 
 and when the assembly refused to alter the constitution so as to make him eligible for 
 a second term, Louis Napoleon, with the help of his army, dispersed the assembh", and 
 struck down the parliamentary opposition. The Coup d' Etat was supported by St. 
 
 Becemher s, Amaud, the minister of War, Morny, and Maupas, the Minister of 
 1S51, Police. Leading members of Parliament were arrested and banished. 
 
 Insurrections and barricade-fights took place in Paris, Lyons, and other cities, but 
 were soon suppressed. The president appealed to the people, and 7,000,000 votes 
 were cast in favor of the new government, which was built upon the plan of the First 
 Consulate. Louis Napoleon was declared president for ten years. He was clothed with 
 royal authority, and the legislative power was made to consist of a senate and a legis- 
 lative assembly. But this was only a temporary device. The empire was proclaimed 
 j)ecein«>ei- s, the uext year, the people voting for it by a still greater majority The 
 1SS9. French people, worn out and wasted by revolutions, submitted will- 
 
 ingly to the new emperor. Napoleon III., who, with the help of police and military, 
 established peace and order with an iron hand. 
 
{pp. 682.) ALFRED TENNYSON. 
 
^■1 
 
 RECENT I-IISTORY. 
 
 FEOM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIEE TO 
 THE FRANCO-GERMAN WAR. 
 
 I. THE WESTERN POWERS AND RUSSIA. 
 
 §577. 
 
 THE SECON'D NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE. 
 
 HE establishment of the new empire in France 
 filled the reactionary and conservative par- 
 ties with new confidence. All fear of rev- 
 olution seemed to vanish, and the aristocratic 
 world abandoned itself once more to the de- 
 lights of social life. The other nations at 
 first maintained an attitude of reserve, fear- 
 ing lest the third Napoleon might follow in 
 the footsteps of his uncle, not only in his 
 methods of internal administration, but in 
 his foreign policy ; that he might revive the 
 Napoleonic ideas and traditions, which he had 
 proclaimed in his writings as the true stand- 
 ards of progressive development. Gradually, 
 however, they came to believe that " the em- 
 pire was peace." The nephew had, to be 
 sure, been sorely tried by fate, and had learned to tame and to control his passions, to 
 conceal his thoughts and his plans, or to wrap them up in ambiguous expressions and 
 diplomatic phrases. Nevertheless " a Napoleon of peace," as Louis Phillipe liked to 
 call himself, he was determined not to become. The " grafid nation " had felt itself sorely 
 wounded by the conduct of the citizen-king. For the pride of France was to guide 
 the fate of Europe, to control the course of history, to start new impulses, to speak 
 the emphatic word, to exercise in critical moments the decisive influence. And this 
 
 (683) 
 
684 
 
 KECEXT HISTORY. 
 
 national pride Xapoleon resolved to gratify. Recognizing the military character of 
 the French people, he determined to give it every opportunity : and, by cherishing this 
 love of glory, he revived the slumbering sympathies for the Bonapartist dynasty, es- 
 tablished his throne upon strong foundations, and directed the restless and turbulent 
 forces of the people to foreign issues. When the royal families of Europe hesitated 
 
 NAPOtBOS m. 
 
 to ally themselves in matrimony with the new ruler, Napoleon offered his hand to the 
 Spanish beauty, Eugenie Montijo. Duchess of Teba, and in doing so he proudly de- 
 fmt.so, iso3. clared himself a sovereign " by the grace of the people." His marriage 
 marrh 16, 1SS6. and the birth of a prince three years later, were both greeted by uni- 
 versal applr.use. Napoleon announced, as the fundamental principle of his policy, the 
 right of the people to determine their own destiny ; this involved, in its application, a 
 resort to the ballot-box in every case of political transformation. Savoy and Nice 
 were annexed to France by a popular vote ; the smaller states of Italy were incorpor- 
 ated into the new kingdom by the action of the people ; and in ilexico the establish- 
 ment of an empire was based apparently and ostentatiously upon the popular wUl. In 
 the Schleswig-Holstein difBculty Napoleon urged a similar solution. Social questions 
 were carefully studied by the Emperor. In Paris he created bakeries, subsidized by 
 
FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 685 
 
 the city, where the poorer classes could obtain bread at moderate prices. In the valley 
 of the Rhone he provided against inundations, by dykes, and dams, and changes in the 
 bed of the stream ; and he sought everywhere to further agriculture. Splendid public 
 buildings, erected at the expense of the Empire and the Cities, furnished employment to 
 the masses, and at the same time created new streets and healthier dwellings. The 
 great Exposition of art and industry, which was opened in May 1854, and commercial 
 
 1SS4. treaties with different states, greatly increased the trade of France at 
 
 home and abroad. Unlike his uncle, who had fettered the commerce of Europe by the 
 Berlin and Milan decrees, he unloosed the bonds of the French protective system, and 
 by diminishing or abolishing tariff duties, he made an important step toward free-trade. 
 Notwithstanding the popularity of Napoleon's rule, his enemies remained bitter and 
 numerous. The Legitimists retired from political life, and, owing to the inactivity and 
 the passive nature of their chief, the childless Count Chambord, their hopes for a new 
 restoration faded away. The Orleanists were represented by Guizot, who occupied 
 himself with his memoirs, and his religious meditations, and by Thiers, who, though 
 brought into intimate relations with the Napoleonic family by his " History of the Con- 
 sulate and the Empire," had, nevertheless, become a member of the parliamentary op- 
 position. But the Republicans were much more stubborn in their resistance, and their 
 hatred for the new regime. Many distinguished personalities like Ledru RoUin and 
 Louis Blanc, like Victor Hugo and Quinet, remained abroad, as irreconcilable haters of 
 imperialism, in England, in Belgium, in Switzerland, expecting a new overturn in 
 affairs. And even in France, on many occasions, as for instance, at the burial of the 
 
 1SS7. poet, B^ranger, there were outbreaks of anti-Bon apartistic feelings 
 
 and opinions. But Napoleon HI. was on his guard. He had a vigilant police, a pow- 
 erful army, a splendid guard, devoted generals and officers, who repaid him with fidel- 
 ity and zeal for the advantageous position that he had created for them in the state 
 and in society. A corporation law, drawn with great care, gave the government the 
 right to examine minutely into every form of society and every kind of meeting. The 
 severest measures against the press silenced the opposition, and placed the expression 
 of public opinion altogether under the control of the state. The attack of the Italian, 
 June 14, less. Orsini, upon the life of the Emperor, gave an opportunity for even 
 severer measures. Five districts were created, and Espinasse was made minister of 
 war and police. In a word, the whole empire was placed under martial law ; a military- 
 police terrorism, conspicuous for arrests and deportations, held all minds imprisoned, 
 and filled them with fear and alarm. This system of war, and of terror, was only 
 gradually modified by conciliatory measures, and even then, the free expression of opin- 
 ion in the press, and in the legislature, was greatly limited. The system of centraliza- 
 tion, which placed all power in the hands of the officials, guided and determined every 
 manifestation of public life, and repressed every kind of self-government, in corpora- 
 tions and communities. 
 
 Not until Napoleon had, through a new military organization, placed the empire 
 
 1S97. in a position to maintain the attitude toward other nations, due to its 
 
 rank, and to hold in check the hostile elements at home, did he enter into freer paths. 
 
 isa». The dismission of Minister Rouher, the adroit champion of imperial 
 
 absolutism, marks the transition to a constitutional system, with freedom of the press 
 and of public assembly, and of actual participation by the legislative body in public 
 
686 
 
 RECENT HISTORY. 
 
 affairs. Once more the people were called upon to speak their mind at the ballot-box ; 
 'xay 8, X870. the parliamentary era was adopted by a vast majority, and Ollivier 
 WIS called to head the new administration. But the greatest triumphs of Napoleon 
 
 were in the field of European politics. Supported 
 liy England, he was able to break up the Holy Al- 
 liance, and by waging successful war against Rus- 
 sia, and against Austria, he restored to France 
 her military glory, and her controlling position in 
 the affairs of the civilized world. 
 
 § 578. The English government regarded 
 with anxiety, at first, the restoration of the Bona- 
 partist Dynasty, and its traditions, and accord- 
 ingly, began to increase the defences of the na- 
 tion. Harbors and coast-fortifications were placed 
 -V in order, great additions were made to the navy 
 t^ and to the army, and a volunteer soldiery was or- 
 _.- ganized. Indeed all the nations of the continent 
 C were angry at England, seeing that political fugi- 
 -^ tiveS, and exiles from all lands, found a safe refuge 
 ., in the island kingdom, from which they could sup- 
 c port the party of revolution in other European 
 states, and from which they labored to overthrow 
 ~ existing governments. The British cabinet, how- 
 ever, by its nioderation and adroitness, pacified 
 ~ the continental powers, without limiting in the 
 least the ancient freedom of the soil ; and as 
 ^ events of great importance soon directed the gaze 
 ^ of the world to other things, a good understand- 
 ^ ing was restored. France and England entered 
 y into an alliance, which was kept alive by repeated 
 a visits between the ruling families and by many 
 J personal attentions. This enabled the English 
 ^ nation to move, unhindered, along the pathway of 
 reform and of intellectual progress, which she fol- 
 lows with such eagerness and success. The 
 World's Fair, in the year 1851, the diminution or 
 abtilition of taxes, marine telegraphs and the like, 
 greatly furthered trade and commerce. The law 
 was everywhere enforced ; the slave trade was op- 
 posed and suppressed ; the rights of seamen and 
 of the merchant marine defended ; Jews were ad- 
 mitted to parliament, and the election laws were so 
 changed, as to include, among the electors, nearly 
 the entire adult male population. But England 
 v/ds by no means so' toitunate and successful in lier foreign policy. This was often 
 one sided ; the influence of the country was often frittered away in petty quarrels ; 
 
FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 
 
 687 
 
 nobler policies were often sacrificed to material advantages, to the interests of trade 
 and to national prejudice. With the United States of North America she quarreled 
 continually, and these quarrels became so bitter that several times they threatened 
 war. In the East Indies, the disregard of the religious usages and prejudices of the 
 natives, the injustice and partiality of the courts, the inadequate execution of agree- 
 ments, and of treaties by British officials and by British oflicers, provoked a rebellion in 
 the army and a national war, which shook profoundly the Anglo-Indian Empire and 
 brought with it most inhuman cruelties. In Delhi, the massacre of English in- 
 1S5I. habitants, by the rebellious Sepoys, was revenged by streams of blood. 
 
 The treacherous deeds, and the horrible cruelty of Prince Naiin, Saliib in Cawnpore, 
 
 ^- ■ - ^ 
 
 EXECUTION OP bEPCi LE -VDERb IN INDIA {D Wei^hctlljlt ) 
 
 who had murdered, in the region of the upper Ganges, all his European prisoners re- 
 gardless of age or sex, were punished by horrible executions at the cannon's mouth. 
 Yet the insurrection enhanced the power of England, and led to its firmer establish- 
 ment. The courageous behavior of the European armies in Lucknow, and other places 
 iHtiia Bill. of the rebellious land, the achievements of General Havellock, and other 
 isss. commanders, gave splendid proof of their superiority and military 
 
 energy ; and the subjection of the Indian empire to the immediate authority of the 
 Queen, after the rebellion was suppressed, opened a new era in the public life of the 
 East Indies. The fidelity with which Queen Victoria supported the parliamentary 
 system in England, united government and people in confidence and affection. Only 
 in Ireland was there disaffection. The Fenians in America sent their agents into the 
 Emerald Isle, to provoke an insurrection, so that the English government was com- 
 pelled to suspend the habeas corpus act, and to declare martial law. The head centre, 
 Stephens, was arrested, but made his escape. Conspiracies, conflagrations, murderous 
 
RECENT HISTORY. 
 
 attacks now kept the English people in continual excitement, and provoked numerous 
 prosecutions, and exceptional police laws. Yet they were not without good results, for 
 the liberal party made earnest efforts, by the disestablishment of the English Church in 
 Ireland, and b}" a reform in the land laws, to pacify the Irish people. The land legisla- 
 tion, especially, was intended to set limits to the severity, and caprice, of the landlords. 
 and to render possible, the conversion of a tenant farm into a freehold. The death of 
 nee. i4, 1S61. the Prince Consort Albert, was a heavy blow not onlj- to the Queen, 
 but to the country- ; for the prince had always exercised a conciliatory and wholesome 
 influence upon public affairs, and upon the court circle. Victoria was so heart-broken 
 by her loss, that she withdrew herself, for a long time, from state ceremonies. King 
 Dec. ises. Leopold of Belgium, the prince's uncle, died four jeavs later: just a 
 few months after the death of the great statesman Palmerston, whose skillful 
 Oct. ises. hand had so often guided the ship of state through storms and difficult 
 situations, and to whose intimacy with Napoleon was especially due the maintenance 
 of the alliance between France and England. A noteworthy episode in English his- 
 tory, was the brief war with Abyssinia. The tyrannical king, Theodore, cast certain 
 missionaries and English citizens into prison, and scoined all remonstrances and re- 
 quests of the London cabinet. Sir Robert Napier was sent, with an armed force, to the 
 Red Sea, to vindicate the national honor, and the rights of nations. King Theodore 
 Apiii ises. himself was killed at the storming of the fortress Magdella, and the 
 AbA'ssiuians were glad to accept the terms of the conquerors. 
 § 579. — Russia and the Oriental Question. 
 
 The third Napoleon consecrated his empire with a war against the same nation 
 which had triumphed over his uncle and the grand armj^: and in revenging the name of 
 Napoleon he not onh flattered Fiench pride, but the religious prejudices of the Catholic 
 
 clerg3". The Revolution had never 
 touched the frontiers of the Russian 
 Empire ; even the Poles had submit- 
 ted in silent resignation to the will 
 of the stern monarch in St. Peters- 
 burg ; Austria had invoked his help 
 against Hungary ; Prussia, was his 
 faithful ally ; the German princes re- 
 garded him as the strong tower of ^ 
 ro3"al authority; the people were op- 
 pressed and discouraged, public opin- ■ 
 ion reduced to silence, the party of ; 
 reaction honored and respected. Nich- 
 olas "sole autocrat of all the Rus- 
 sias" was thus led to resume the 
 conquests of Katherine IT., and to 
 bring the principalities on the Danube 
 into closer relations, by the erection 
 of a Russian protectorate. The Turk- 
 ish empire was in a shattered condi- 
 tion. The Russian Czar spoke of it. 
 
 LOKD PALMERSTON. 
 
FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 689 
 
 in a confidential conversation, as a " sick man ; " a strong blow might easily be its death- 
 blow. The Czar especiallj'- relied upon the great discord between the Christians and 
 Mohammedans, and upon the devotion of the Greek Christians, who looked upon him as 
 the protector of their faith. True the Turkish government was not guilty of oppress- 
 ing its Christian subjects. Christians of all confessions might live undisturbed, if they 
 only paid their taxes. In the lands and cities south of the Danube, the Christians con- 
 stituted a majority of the inhabitants. In Constantinople, and in other cities, they 
 dwelt in particular sections. The government of the Sultan, however, was not always 
 able to restrain the fanaticism of the Mohammedans in the outlying provinces. The 
 Christians were sometimes attacked, robbed, outraged, murdered. Now there existed 
 old treaties, which conceded to the Russian Czar, a certain protectorate over the Christ- 
 ians of Greek confession ; and Nicholas, earnestly devoted to his church, and regarding 
 its extension as his holiest duty, lost no opportunity to meddle in the religious 
 quarrels of the Turkish kingdom. Russian agents were constantly seeking to bind 
 their companions in the faith to the great northern power, and the Russian ambassador 
 in Constantinople spoke as if the Czar were the rightful and acknowledged protector 
 of Greek Christendom in the East. The Christians of Greek confession by this action 
 of the Czar, not only secured for themselves an advantageous position with Moslems, 
 but they came to regard themselves as the only lawful possessors of the pilgrim-stations 
 in Palestine, especially of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem ; and determined, in their 
 arrogance, to exclude the Roman Catholic pilgrims from the sacred places, or to admit 
 tliera only under humiliating conditions. Thus the Holy Chapel, at the Sepulchre 
 often became the scene of bloody quarrels, between the confessors of the Eastern and the 
 Western church. Now it happened that France possessed a like protectorate over the 
 Roman Catholics of Palestine. But since the number of Greek pilgrims was much the 
 greater, and the French government was seldom disposed to A'ex itself about the 
 pilgrim monks in the Holy Land, the Greek Christians had obtained the advantage by 
 the powerful help of Russia and by the weakness of the Sublime Porte. So Nicholas 
 determined to declare himself the protector of all Christians in the Turkish Empire, 
 and thus to give a legal aspect to actual conditions ; but this would have so degraded 
 the Sultan in the eyes of the Mohammedans, that if it had succeeded unchallenged, it 
 would have precipitated the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire. 
 
 § 580. Events Along the Danube, and in the Baltic ,Sea. — France and England re- 
 solved to preserve " the balance of power " and came at once to the support of Turkey. 
 The Czar, however, hoped to frighten the Sultan by energetic promptness. Prince 
 Menschikoff was sent to Constantinople as extraordinary-ambassador. Stopping at 
 Sebastopol he reviewed the Russian fleet and army, and then proceeded to the Bos- 
 phorus. He demanded an immediate audience with the Sultan, and entered his pres- 
 jiai-cii 2, 1SS3. ence without ceremony and even without respect. His demands were as 
 insolent as his bearing. He demanded for the Czar a protectorate over all Greek 
 Christians. This would have made Nicholas co-regent with the Sultan. When his de- 
 mands were rejected, Menschikoff left the Turkish capital with angry threats. Three 
 weeks later, the English and French fleets anchored in the Dardanelles to watch the 
 July ■>, iss3. course of events. Nicholas thereupon commanded Prince Gortschakofi: 
 to cross the river Pruth with two divisions, and take possession of the Dannbian prin- 
 cipalities. To gain favor with the Christian population, he issued a manifest saying 
 that he came to defend the Holy orthodox faith. Sultan Abdul Medschid replied with 
 44 
 
690 
 
 RECENT HISTORY. 
 
 a firman, in which he solemnly confirmed their rights, to the Christians of his domin- 
 ion ; and on the 4th of Oct. he declared war upon Russia, unless the latter imme. 
 diately evacuated the Danubian principalities. At the same time Omar Pasha occu- 
 pied the south bank of the 
 Danube with a Turkish 
 army. Nicholas did not 
 cross the river, but the Rus- 
 xov. ao, 1S53. sian fleet at- 
 tacked the Turkish squadron 
 in the harbor of Sinope, and 
 destroyed the most of it. 
 England and France, as the 
 allies of Turkey, resented 
 this outrage b}' declaring war 
 upon the Russians. The war 
 now assumed large propor- 
 tions. Prince Paskiewitsch, 
 the most famous of Russian 
 generals, led the Russian ar- 
 mies to Silistria, while the 
 English forces under Lord 
 f4 Raglan, and a French army 
 o under Marshal St. Arnaud 
 3 appeared in the Dardanelles, 
 o and landed at Varna. At 
 t^ the same time Admiral 
 % Avg., iss^t. Charles-Na- 
 
 pier conducted an English 
 fleet to the Baltic to attack 
 Cronstadt and St. Peters- 
 burg. The Russians were 
 unsuccessful at 'Silistria, and 
 Paskiewitsch retired from the 
 war. The French, in a hasty 
 march to the interior, lost 
 two thousand men from heat, 
 fatigue, and cholera, and the 
 camp at Varna was devas- 
 tated by the pestilence. The 
 expedition to the Baltic had 
 not much more success. Bo- 
 marsund was captured, a few 
 sailing vessels were de- 
 stroj'cd and a few coast vil- 
 lages devastated. 
 § 581. The War in the Crimea. — After the allies had lost fifteen thousand men, they 
 determined to attack the fortified citj' of Sebastopol, and to destroy the Russian naval 
 
FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 
 
 691 
 
 power in the Black Sea. North of Sebastopol itself were strong fortifications intended 
 to protect the fleet lying at anchor in the harbor, and beyond these were the heights 
 occupied by Prince Menschikoff, with an avmy of thirty thousand men. These were 
 Sept. 20, 1S5J. attacked by the allies and were driven from their position in the Battle 
 of the Alma. Yet Sebastopol was still impregnable. Menschikoff found time to 
 strengthen the city from all sides, a 
 work in which he was greatly aided 
 by the genius of General Todleben. 
 He further added to his inaccessi- 
 bility by sinking seven great ships 
 of war in the harbor. The allies 
 soon perceived that they must wait 
 for new cannon, and instruments of 
 siege; and meanwhile must go into 
 camp. St. Arnaud fell sick and 
 died upon the ship that was taking 
 him to Constantinople. He was 
 succeeded by General Canrobert. 
 The siege of Sebastopol now began 
 in earnest. The first attempt to 
 storm the works, by a united attack 
 of army and navy, ended in a disas- 
 trous retreat of the allies. Eight 
 
 xov. s, 1SS4. days later the Eng- 
 lish were attacked at Balaklava, 
 famous in poetry for the charge of 
 the Six Hundred. On the 5th of November the battle of Inkerman was fought and 
 resulted in favor of the allies. 
 
 § 582. The Winter Campaign in Front of Sebastopol. — But the bloody battle of 
 Inkerman eifected no change in the situation. A winter campaign, for which no prepa- 
 rations had been made, was inevitable. Not since the Russian campaign of 1812 had 
 an army suffered such misery as the soldiers in the Crimea during the winter of 1854 
 and 1855. Incessant rains convei'ted the trenches into canals, and the tents were often 
 filled knee-deep with water. Clothing, food, hospital supplies were lacking ; men 
 were compelled to serve often without shelter; diseases of all sorts, especially the cholera 
 and dysentery, carried them away by scores. Sisters of JVTercy and English women, 
 particularly Florence Nightingale, made noble sacrifices to alleviate the sufferings of 
 the troops. This misery of the allied armies encouraged the Russian Emperor to hold 
 out. He rejected the four points which had been offered him as a basis of peace, al- 
 though they were supported by Austria and Prussian Austria, at this juncture, joined 
 
 jTnii. 26, isss. the allies, and some weeks later Sardinia made a treaty with France 
 and England, and sent an army of fifteen thousand men to the Crimea. Prussia and the 
 states of the German union adhered to their neutrality. When the new year opened, 
 the war was resumed with redoubled energy. But the Czar Nicholas was not per- 
 mitted to see its close. The news that his army had been defeated by Omar Pasha so 
 
 atarcti 2, ISSS. wrought upou his health, that he died quite suddenly. His son and 
 successor, Alexander II., was more inclined to a peaceful settlement of the terrible 
 
 GENERAL VON TOTT.EBEN. 
 
692 
 
 RECE^^T HISTORY. 
 
 war. Xevextheless, respect for his deceased father required him to exert all the 
 enei^v of the nation to bring the snuggle to an iKUiorable conclusion. The honor cf 
 
 France, and of the 
 new empire, also de- 
 manded more sacri- 
 fices. So the allies 
 approached \rith their 
 trenches and their 
 parallels nearer to 
 the city, and Todle- 
 ben created the cele- 
 brated ilalakoff tow- 
 er, an almost impreg- 
 nable bulwark. 
 
 §583. Jjhelg^tie 
 <yf the War. The 
 siege of Sebastopol 
 lasted all stimmer. 
 ileanwhile, a part of 
 ; the allied fleet sailed 
 : into the sea of Azof. 
 ; and devastated the 
 ; harbor towns. Prince 
 : Gortschakoff s u c - 
 i ceeded Prince Men- 
 ; schikcff as Eussian 
 I commander. and Gen- 
 ; eral Pelissier suc- 
 • ceeded Canrobert in 
 command of the 
 French army. When 
 Loni Raglan was car- 
 ried off by rite chol- 
 era. General Simpson 
 took his place, and 
 the Russian admiral, 
 Xaohimoff.was struck 
 by a bullet, as he was 
 inspecting the forti- 
 tications. Thus death 
 mowed down the au- 
 thors and leaders of 
 the terrible war. On 
 jsii. the Sih 
 
 of September, after 
 
 ter:..l. i.....^^.;,:. ;.„ .1. .- ± ; -: ? -::rmcd - c French, and another bul- 
 wark br the English. Gortschakoff still held a strong position upon the north side 
 
sroRMiNC iiiL MALAKon, (.Stpt S,1S5.JJ {R Knoctd.) {jip.(}'V6) 
 
694 
 
 RECENT HISTORY. 
 
 of the bay, but the siege of Sebastopol was ended. On all sides the longing was for 
 peace. But not until the Russians had saved their honor, by capturing the Turkish 
 fortification at Kars, was the Czar willing to accept the proposition to call the Con- 
 Maich 30. issa. gress at Paris. After weeks of negotiation, the Congress agreed upon 
 the following : 
 
 The Ottoman empire should be preserved, the navigation of the Danube made 
 
 free, the Danubian 
 principalities should 
 be placed under the 
 protection of the 
 western powers, the 
 Christians should 
 have equal rights 
 with Mohammedans, 
 under the guarantee 
 of all the contracting 
 powers, and the Rus- 
 sian naval force in 
 the Black Sea should 
 be limited. 
 
 Napoleon III., at 
 the close of the 
 Crimean war, was at 
 the height of his 
 power. His minister, 
 Walewski, a natural 
 son of the first Napo- 
 leon, conducted the 
 Congress. All e3'es 
 were now directed to 
 the arbiter of Europe, 
 whose happiness at 
 this time was in- 
 creased by the birth of a son, the child of France, given to the world by his Spanish 
 wife Eugenie. 
 
 § 584. Turkey and Crreeee. The Sublime Porte came out of the war exceedingly 
 feeble. Neither Abdul Medschid, who died on the 26th of June, 1861, or his brother* 
 Ahdui Axis, and successor, Abdul Aziz, could cope with the increasing anarchy and 
 isei-isie. financial misery. The attempts at reform, made by Fuad Pasha, were 
 without enduring success. The chief difficulty, however, was caused by the vassal 
 states. Moldavia and Walachia united together to form Roumania, and chose a Mol- 
 davian nobleman, Alexander Cusa, as their leader ; and when he proved a tyrant, a 
 rebellion broke out in Bucharest, which brought to the throne a German princC: Carl 
 I'eh., isea. Anton von Hohenzollern. In Servia the conflicts between the Chris- 
 tians and the Turks became so bloody, that the western powers were obliged to inter- 
 fere so that the sovereignty of the Sultan vanished to a shadow. The next year 
 tsas. Prince Michael Obrenowitsch was murdered at Belgrade, and 'lis 
 
 \i^ 
 
 ALEXANDER II. 
 
FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 
 
 695 
 
 young relative, Prince Milan, was raised to the throne by the National Assembly. 
 King Otto of Greece, in spite of his good will, had, in thirty years, been unable to 
 acquire the affection of the people. During the Crimean war, some enthusiasts in 
 Athens sought to excite the Greeks to take the part of Russia, but Otto, partly from 
 lack of energy, and partly from fear of the western powers, resisted the urging of the 
 friends of Russia. This conduct deprived him of any respect still existing for him 
 among the Greeks. They believed that with an enterprising man on the throne their 
 "great idea" of a new Greek empire might be realized. They therefore planned the 
 
 laes. overthrow of the Bavarian dynasty. Uprisings took place in Athens 
 
 and Corinth, which led to the departure of the king and the erection of a provisional 
 government. But the hope of getting a monarch from a powerful reigning house was 
 not fulfilled. Several princes declined the offered crown. Finally a young Danish 
 
 laes. prince was chosen at the suggestion of England and proclaimed King 
 
 of Greece, under the name of George I. But he proved as feeble as the Bavarian Otto. 
 The English government then gave up its protectorate of the Ionic islands, and consented 
 to their union with the Greek kingdom. But the national and religious excitement 
 continued and provoked bloody uprisings and cruel conflicts in the island of Candia 
 (the ancient Crete). King George, by his marriage with a Russian princess, united 
 his people more firmly to the Russians, and trusting to Russian support, the Greeks 
 encouraged the uprisings in Candia. Turkey now assumed a hostile attitude, and Eu- 
 rope was threatened once more with the 
 Eastern question. But a conference at 
 Paris restored the island to the Turks. 
 The visit of the Empress Eugenie of 
 France, the Emperor Francis Joseph of 
 
 iseo. Austria, and the Crown 
 
 Prince of Prussia, to the Suez canal, 
 built under the direction of the French 
 diplomatist, De Lesseps, brought the Ot- 
 toman empire a step closer to the civil- 
 ized world of Europe. 
 
 § 585. Russia mider Alexander II. 
 Alexander II. was crowned Czar of all 
 the Russias in Moscow, on the 7th of 
 September, 1856. At his coronation he 
 issued a number of edicts of mercy. He 
 also diminished the standing army, there- 
 ihj relieving the countrj' of taxation, and 
 setting free much wasted enei'gy for in- 
 dustrial pursuits. Commercial treaties 
 promoted intercourse with foreign lands. 
 A ministry of enlightenment set about improving and increasing the schools. The 
 oppression of the Jews and the non-Greek Christians ceased, and the administration 
 of justice was modified by the introduction of the jury system. But his great reform 
 was the abolition of serfdom, and the establishment of peasant communities upon a 
 landed basis, a measure which began a complete transformation of the social, financial, 
 and economic conditions of the empire. At the same time, the Russian power in 
 
 FERDINAND DE LESSEPS. 
 
696 
 
 RECENT HISTORY. 
 
 v^iaJx- v^^i! 
 
 '^N 
 
 tss9. Asia was strengthened and extended. Schamjl, the ancient enemy 
 
 of the Czar in Circassia, was taken prisoner and held a captive, until he died twelve 
 years afterward. 
 
 § 586. Parties in Poland. Alexander II. extended his reform to Poland also. 
 where Prince Gortschakoff, the defender of Sebastopol, took the place of the old Prince 
 Paskiewitsch. An amnesty permitted the political fugitives to return home. The 
 judicial and educational systems were reorganized, the University of Warsaw was 
 made a national institution, the peasants were relieved of feudal burdens, the cities 
 were given home government, and an economic society was founded in Warsaw. But 
 the Poles still longed to be a nation, and the patriotic party thought the time was op- 
 portune to restore the " lost countrv." Eussia was weakened by the Crimean war : 
 France had declared in favor of popular suffrage. A party of national resistance was 
 organized, and secret societies spread through the land. The peasants, mistrustful of 
 
 the Polish nobility, held apart from the 
 movement. The chief supporters of the 
 National party were in the old cities, es- 
 pecially in the capital, Warsaw, among the 
 educated youth, who dreamed of a glorious 
 nationality, among the priests who thought 
 the movement favorable to their design, 
 among the dissatisfied Jews who wished for 
 civil equality, and among the emigrants who 
 carried in their breasts as a holy inheritance, 
 a consuming hatred for the destroyers of 
 their beloved Poland. 
 
 § 587. In February, 1861, the National 
 party began a series of patriotic demonstra- 
 issi. tions. When the Russian 
 
 military intervened, bloody conflicts en- 
 sued. The imperial government regretted 
 these events, and entrusted to a number of 
 SGHAMYi. distinguished citizens the maintenance of 
 
 public order. At the same time. Count 
 Wielopolski, a high-minded Polish patriot, was appointed minister of education and of 
 religious affairs in Warsaw. A Polish state council also was established. But these 
 gifts were not enough for the excited patriots. They desired independence, and the 
 restoration of the ancient Polish republic. Processions, public meetings, the singing 
 of the national hymn by excited crowds, still continued. The authorities dissolved the 
 militia and the economical union, and also increased the severity of the police. But 
 the excitement increased, and in April a conflict toi'k place between the soldiers and 
 the people, in which a number of Poles were killed and wounded. Warsaw was now 
 placed by the governor in a state of siege : the demonstrations of the National party 
 were forbidden. The movement was thereupon transferred from the streets to the 
 churches. The national hymns were sung within the sacred walls, and heaven was 
 besought to answer with the restoration of Poland. The death of the old Prince 
 Czavtorvski, the Nestor of the Polish patriots in 1831, was solemnized in Paris by a 
 
698 RECENT HISTORY. 
 
 great procession and elaborate ceremonies. The state of siege was now extended by 
 the governor over all Poland. The singing of the national hymn was forbidden, and 
 when the churches were filled with the crowds that came to mourn for Kosciusko, the 
 people were dispersed at the point of the bayonet, and the Bishop, with a number of 
 well-known citizens, was sent to prison. But the Emperor hoped to overcome the 
 movement by reforms and conciliation. He named his brother, the Grand-duke Con- 
 ji.iie, is6«. stantine, as viceroy of Poland, and appointed Wielopolski chief of the 
 civil power. But the population of the city was under the influence of a secret 
 conspiracy ; the Grand-duke and Count Wielopolski were repeatedly assailed bj' 
 assassins. 
 
 § 588. The Russian government now determined upon a conscription. On the 
 night of the 14th of January, soldiers entered all the houses of Warsaw, and carried off 
 the J^oung men for military service. The blow was so unexpected, that few had escaped. 
 The revolutionary party collected the fugitives and the sympathizers with the patriotic 
 fraternities, in forests and remote places, and organized a popular war against the 
 isaa. Russians. They attacked the imperial troops at different places, and 
 
 in order to win the peasants for their cause, the provisional government issued a 
 proclamation, in wdiich they promised to secure to the peasants the freeholds of their 
 farms. The watch-word was given for another conflict between the Poles and the 
 Russians. In England and in France the old sympathies for the outraged people 
 were revived, and public opinion declared in unmistakable terms in their favor. 
 European diplomacy developed great activity in favor of Poland, but the sj^mpathies 
 if the western nations did not go beyond these diplomatic notes. Meanwhile the 
 Russian arms were victorious. The proclamation of the provisional government failed 
 to influence the peasants. Instead of a national armj^, the insurgents had only dis- 
 ordered groups to lead against the Russians. Every band was under a separate leader. 
 General Mieroslawski, the well-known adventurer of 1848 and 1849, had returned to 
 his native country, and been named dictator ; but he was defeated by the Russians, fled 
 across the Prussian frontiers, and then basely published attacks upon his compatriots. 
 Langiewicz was nobler, and for a while more successful. But he too was soon com- 
 pelled to Q.J. Nevertheless, the provisional government was able to keep the kingdom for 
 a long time insecure, and supported by the nobility, by the inhabitants of the cities, 
 and by the clergy, to establish a reign of terror. The members of this government, 
 whom the Russians tried in vain to discover, astonished the world with their activity 
 and their organization. They issued ordinances and laws; they collected taxes: they 
 erected revolutionary tribunals in Warsaw and in the provincial cities. Two govern- 
 ments confronted each other, a. government of open violence, and a government of 
 secret terror. But everj^ supply of arms, ammunition, and men, was cut off by the 
 watch maintained upon the Prussian and Austrian frontiers. 
 
 § 589. The cabinet at St. Petersburg declined all foreign intervention, and re- 
 jected the proposition of the Western powers for a truce. Wielopolski was removed, 
 and General Berg was placed in charge at Warsaw. The Emperor Napoleon made 
 another attempt to convene a European congress, but Avithout avail. Russia proceeded 
 with energetic violence ; resistance was beaten down : the activit}' of the provisional 
 government repressed ; the voices of the patriots silentfed. The Czar then determined 
 to unite the Polish peasantry more firmly to Russia, by giving them free-hold rights 
 
ARMS AND ARMOR OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 Needle Gun. 
 Chassepot. 
 Spiingaekl Rifle. 
 Martini-Henry Kifle. 
 Vltterlin Gun. 
 Wei-ndl Rifle. 
 Revolver. 
 
 Cartridge and Ball. 
 Rifle Ball. 
 Bayonet. 
 OKcer's Sword. 
 Saber. 
 
 . Cavalry Sabre. 
 
 . Sabre Bavonet. 
 
 , 16, 17, 18. Standards. 
 
 , Drum. 
 
 . Cartridge Box. 
 
 . Trumpet. 
 
 . CuM'ass. 
 
 . Knapsack. 
 
 ' Krupp 12-incli fiun and Cartridge. 
 
 , Section of Conical Steel Shot. 
 
 . Ramrod and Wiper. 
 
 28. Galling Gun. 
 
 29. Parrott Gun. 
 
 30. Siege Gun. 
 
 31. 32, 33. Artillery Cartridges. 
 
 34. Armstrong Gun. 
 
 35. Mortar. 
 
 36. Round Shot. 
 
 37. Sea-Coast Gun. 
 
 38. Krupp Mortar and Carriage. 
 
 39 to 56. Modern Military Caps, Hats, 
 and Helmets. 
 
 (699) 
 
700 RECENT HISTORY. 
 
 in their property, and on the other hand, to weaken the nobility and the cities by root 
 ing out the Polish language, by suppressing national peculiarities, and bj' transplant 
 ing the old families to other regions of the empire. Church f)roperty also was con- 
 
 ises. fiscated, the independence of the Catholic church thus broken, and the 
 
 Polish clergy stabbed to the heart. The Po.pe protested, and diplomatic relations be- 
 tween St. Petersburg and Rome were broken off. This Polish uprising chilled the 
 desire of Alexander to reform his people and his empire, and the attempts to assassi- 
 
 isey. nate him, made by Russians and by Poles, rendered his life sombre and 
 
 unhappy, while they led to further repression of progressive movements. 
 
 2. Germany and the Two Great German Powers. 
 
 § 590. The Gernian Union. — When the revolution had been suppressed through- 
 out Germany, a reaction took place in church and state. The Jesuits began their 
 itinerant preaching, the hierarchy concluded with each of the governments a Con- 
 cordat. Church unions sprang up, and missions were preached in all corners of the 
 land. Princes and nobles were eager to overthrow or to transform the new institu- 
 tions, that the revolution had established. Liberal cabinets gave way to conserva- 
 tives. Constitutions were purified of their democratic elements, and the daily journals 
 were regulated by laws and severe restrictions. Political assemblies were either sup- 
 pressed or strictly watched. And when the particular governments lacked the will or 
 the strength to arrest political progress, the Congress of the Union interfered. A 
 Central Commission of the Union was charged with the decision of all constitutional 
 tss4t. difficulties, and this commission established a Press Law for all the 
 
 states of the Union. In this way, some constitutional provisions were wholly set aside 
 in many states, as in Hesse Cassel, Homburg, and Lippe-Detmold, while others were 
 modified or rendered nugatory by bold revision. In some states, as in Hanover and 
 Mecklenburg, the feudal conditions of an antiquated time were restored in the inter- 
 ests of the landed gentry. All this excited great indignation throughout Germany. 
 But the Congress of the Union was supported, in this reactionary activity, by the two 
 great German powers ; although it was no secret, that the humiliating day of Olmlitz 
 had made a great gulf between Prussia and Austria. The Restoration of the Con- 
 gress of the Union had been the work of Austria. Prussia had consented only with 
 reluctance. But the majority of the other states stood upon Austria's side. And thus 
 it happened, that for a decade, the German people struggled in vain against the re- 
 action, hoping to save a few remnants of their constitutional rights and liberties. The 
 people desired to be saved from religious and social ruin ; they desired a political sys- 
 tem, in which, notwithstanding the variety of dialects and of states, the German 
 people might act as a whole, and take a position in European politics, corresponding 
 to their greatness, their power, and their civilization. 
 
 The National Vnioji labored to unite with Prussia, and took the imperial con- 
 stitution of 1849 as the goal of its efforts, while the Reform Union worked for an or- 
 ganization, in which Austria would find a place with Germany and Prussia. The 
 Prussian Government, it is true, showed little favor to the National Union ; but the 
 German princes and rulers encouraged the Reform Union, because they feared more 
 from Prussia than from Austria. When the Emperor Francis Joseph had given a con- 
 stitution to his own people, he thought it a favorable moment to assemble all the Ger- 
 
FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 701 
 
 man monarchs at Frankfort, to deliberate upon a reform of the German Union. The 
 Prussian king was at that time in bitter conflict with his House of Representatives. 
 But all the other reigning ^princes accepted the Austrian invitation. The king of 
 
 ises. Prussia remained away, the Grand-duke of Baden refused to sign the 
 
 proposals of reform, and the people refused to be satisfied with the proposed assembly 
 of notables, instead of a national parliament. The only result of the assembly of 
 princes was to make plain that even the rulers had lost faith in the Congress of the 
 Union, and that they wei'e satisfied that some concessions must be made to satisfy the 
 desire of unity so prevalent among the German people. Attempts, too, were made to 
 establish a uniform financial system, uniform weights and measures, and a better mail 
 service. But the great celebration of 1859, in honor of the national poet Schiller, 
 was a striking proof of the feeling of brotherhood and of nationality that had 
 taken possession of all sections of the German family. The hour of redemption was 
 drawing nigh. 
 
 § 591. Austria.— The struggle of 1848 and 1849 had left the House of Haps- 
 burg stronger than before. The Congress of tlie Union had been raised from the 
 dead, and the struggle of the German people for a nobler political life had been 
 strangled. Yet not without great sacrifices. The maintainance of a powerful army, 
 the great expenses for police and administration had increased the imperial debt, until 
 all the gold and silver disajDpeared from daily life, and only paper was in circulation. 
 The imperial credit was ruined. Expenses exceeded revenues by many millions. As 
 everj'where else in Germany, so here too, the reactionary party was determined to 
 bury the achievements of the revolution. By an imperial decree, the new constitution 
 was abolished, and the absolute monarchy restored. The diiferent races had too little 
 sympathy with each other to care for a form of government which they neither under- 
 stood nor desired, and of whose operations they had no experience. But their failure 
 to rebel was no proof of their content. A Hungarian attempted to assassinate the 
 
 18B3. Emperor. The ancient Hungarian crown, with the crown-jewels, had 
 
 been discovered and restored to the House of Plapsburg. But it was easier to restore 
 the crown than to conciliate the people. The exiled jiatriots were too numerous for 
 quiet to reign among their friends. Resistance often reached such a pitch, that an- 
 other insvirrection seemed imminent. In other lands, Austria met witli resistance, but 
 acted with greater wisdom, for in these the Emperor introduced great reforms, espe- 
 cially in relieving the peasants from the burdens upon their holdings. This produced a 
 social revolution which the government presided over, with many heavy sacrifices, and 
 although the Catholic prelates brought about a Concordat with the Pope, and were 
 able to maintain it, 3'et even they were compelled to concede to the Protestants of 
 both confessions, civil equality with the Catholics, and the exercise of their faith and 
 public worship. - But absolute government was no longer possible in Austria. And 
 when the Italian war revealed the utter rottenness of the system, it became clear that 
 only a political regeneration could save the empire from ruin. Finally, after many 
 precious months were wasted in exijeriments, it was determined to call the people to 
 a share in the making of their laws and to erect a parliamentarj' system. Austria be- 
 
 isei. came a constitutional state in Feb. 1861. Hungary received back her 
 
 old organization, so far as this was compatible with the new system. The other lands 
 were granted legislatures of their own for home affairs, while the interests, common 
 
702 RECENT HISTORY. 
 
 to all, were to be cared for by an Imperial Council chosen partly by the emperor and 
 partly by these local legislatures. But it required all the energy of Schnierling, the 
 Prime-minister, to break the resistance of the aristrocracy. In Hungary and in Austria, 
 in Bohemia, Galicia, and other provinces there was a violent opposition to the constitu- 
 tion, so that the elections to the imperial council were incomplete. In Hungary the 
 op230sition bordered upon anarchy and terrorism. Finally it was agreed to make two 
 imperial councils, a smaller and a larger council, — the smaller for the German-Slavonic 
 lands, the larger to include the Hungarians also. 'But even in this form, the imperial 
 constitution was but partially introduced. The Slavs and Magyars opposed an ar- 
 rangement that threatened to give the superiority to the German element in the 
 empire. 
 
 § 592. Prussia. Frederick William IV., took an oath to maintain the constitu- 
 
 isso. tion, on the 6th of February, 1850. His reluctance was manifest in 
 
 all his speeches, and this reluctance influenced all his government. Although unwill- 
 ing to restore the conduct of affairs to the feudal aristocracy, he changed and inter- 
 preted so much away, that the constitution shrank to an impotent bit of history, the 
 ambiguous expressions of which were capable of many interpretations. In one ques- 
 tion only, did Prussia pursue a successful and popular policy, namely, in the reorganiza- 
 zoii-vei-Bin. tion of the customs union which, in spite of the intrigues of Austria 
 
 18S3. and her allies, was renewed for twelve years more. Encouraged by 
 
 the peaceful attitude of the French emperor, Manteuff'el, the Prussian minister, pushed 
 boldl}^ forward in the path of reaction. The landed-gentry came to the front of po- 
 litical life, and making alliances with the military and the bureaucracy, they sought 
 to restore the old absolutism and the old privileges of rank. The democracy was dis- 
 couraged. The liberal constitutional party sought to justify its confidence in liberal 
 institutions bj^ correct behavior. During the Crimean war, the Berlin cabinet refused 
 to join the alliance against " the Czar of all the Eussias," although the enthusiasm for 
 Russia was hardly strong enough to make them openly take his side. Prussia thus re- 
 mained without influence upon the course of European events. It was an act of 
 courtesy only to invite her to send a representative to the Congress of Paris. A few 
 months after the peace, Prussia was greatly disturbed by an upi-ising in Neuenburg, in 
 Switzerland. This little territory belonged to the king of Prussia. Through the me- 
 diation of Napoleon, the difficulty was adjusted, and the king of Prussia surrendered 
 
 issi. his claim. This was the last political act of the brilliant, but unhappy 
 
 Frederick William IV. The revolutions of 1848 had embittered his life ; the humil- 
 iation of Russia, and the death of the Emperor Nicholas increased his gloom ; the 
 last dike against the revolutionary deluge seemed to be swept away. In October, 
 1857, it was plain that the king's reason was affected. His brother, William, be- 
 came regent in October, 1858, a regency that was confirmed two weeks later by 
 both Houses of Parliament. Frederick William then journeyed to Italy, but the out- 
 break of the Italian war drove him home. The next year he lost coDSciousiiess 
 entirely, and on the 2nd of January, 1861, he expired. 
 
 § 593. The New Era. Meanwhile the Prince regent had conducted the govern- 
 ment in a liberal manner. The choice of his ministers, the majority of whom were 
 known as progressive men, furnished a pledge that a new era had begun in the con- 
 stitutional history of Prussia. Prince Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who was minister 
 
FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 
 
 703 
 
 president, being a Catholic, reconciled the members of his confession to 
 the new order of things, while Count Schwerin had the confidence of 
 the entire people. Prince William had not the brilliant qualities of his 
 brother, nor his romantic ideas, but he was practical, straightforward, 
 energetic, and invincibly honest. The press, the legislative cham- 
 bers, everj' form of society, revealed the influence of the change. A progressive party 
 was formed, and it was hoped that the upper House would soon be made more efficient 
 and more liberal. But when the Prince Regent ascended the throne as King William 
 I., a conflict took place between the all-powerful progressive party and the new mon- 
 
 miliam I., 
 
 Born 
 
 Slaveh 2^, lt07. 
 
 Diea 
 MarcH », isas. 
 
 WILLIAM I. 
 
 arch. The progressives desired a parliamentary government like that of England. 
 This, however, was in conflict with the traditions of the House of HohenzoUern. Tjie 
 King believed himself to have received his crown as a trust from Almighty God, for 
 which he was indeed responsible, but not to any man-chosen parliament. The party 
 of progress refused to further the reorganization of the army, upon which the King's 
 heart was set. This conflict of the ruler with his legislature produced great excite- 
 jxaui4,, isei. meat, which was increased to the highest pitch, when a fanatical stu- 
 dent, Oscar Becker, attempted to assassinate the king in Baden-Baden. At his solemn 
 coronation in Konigsberg, on the 18th of October, 1861, King William declared, with 
 
704 
 
 RECENT HISTORY. 
 
 great emphasis, that " the rulers of Prussia received their crown from God, and that 
 the Houses of Parliament were called to be his counsellors." In March, 1862, the 
 maieh, ises. House of Representatives demanded an itemized budget, and the con- 
 flict became so sharp that tlie ministry resigned, and the House was dissolved. But 
 septemher. 1SG2. the ncw Housc was more radical then its predecessor. At this juncture 
 FoH Bismarck Otto Vou Bismavck was called to the ministry. The lower House 
 Born persisted in its refusal to confirm the King's plans, and was conse- 
 
 Aptiii. tsis. quently adjourned from time to time, and then dissolved. Bismarck's 
 appointment. was looked upon as a declaration of war. His hatred of the radicals 
 was well-known. His contempt of phi'ases and of rhetoric was undisguised, and as 
 yet he had given no proof of his extraordinary genius, and no indication of his far- 
 reaching plans. The conflict continued, and became exceedingly bitter. Government 
 and legislature were unreconciled when the war with Austria broke out, and the 
 glorious achievements of the Prussian army created a second new era, in which the 
 old quarrel was completely swallowed up. 
 
 § 594. Sohleswig-Holstein. The ancient order of succession in Sclileswig-Hol- 
 stein, restricted it to the first born of the male line. 
 This order was violated by the London treaty of 1852, 
 which gave the sovereignty of these provinces to the 
 Danish prince, Christian von Sonderburg-Gliicksburg. 
 As this prince was to be the successor of the 
 reigning king, Frederick VH. of Denmark, the arrange- 
 ment secured the integrity of the Danish monarch3\ 
 The estates of Schleswig-Holstein rejected this arrange- 
 ment at the instance of the lawful heir, the Prince of 
 Augustenburg. This created, for the provinces, a state 
 of war. They were occupied by Danish troo^js, while 
 the sons of the people were transferred to Danish gar- 
 iss4-isss. risons. During the period of reaction, 
 the Danish government attempted to establish a new 
 constitution that would have made army and navy, 
 custom houses, post-offices and money all Danish. 
 But the German feeling in the two provinces rebelled at this arrangement, and ap- 
 pealed to Prussia and Austria. The German powers thereupon declared that the new 
 constitution was not valid for Holstein and Lauenburg. Denmark struggled against 
 this decision, but when the Congress of the German Union threatened war, Denmark 
 irov. isss. declared the constitution set aside for Holstein and Lauenburg, but 
 valid throughout Schleswig ; and also that the ministers were responsible to the king- 
 only in what related to Holstein. By this arrangement, Schleswig was really incor- 
 porated into Denmark. Holstein refused to accept the separate parliament that was 
 xarcji, ISSS. offered her, and demanded her old right of union with Schleswig. The 
 Danes refused to accept this plan. A diplomatic war began, but the Danes could 
 Oct. t. neither be persuaded nor alarmed. Finally the Congress of the Ger- 
 
 man Union determined upon the use of force. 
 
 § 595. Just at the moment when the Danish Idng had determined upon the 
 xov. IS, is«3. complete absorption of Schleswig into Denmark, death removed him and 
 
 PRINCE OTTO VON BISMARCK. 
 
 {Fr. Skarhina.) 
 
FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 
 
 705 
 
 the "protocol prince," as he was called, Prince von Sonderburg-Gliicskburg, ascended 
 the Danish throne as Christian IX. Frederick of Augustenburg at tile same moment 
 proclaimed himself Frederick VIII., Duke of Schleswig-Holstein, and prepared to de- 
 fend his rights. The German people supported him with all their strength. The ex- 
 citement was intense, and all eyes were directed to Frankfort, awaiting the action of 
 the Congress of the Union. Early in December, the troops of Saxony and Hanover 
 
 ijec. ■}, tsoa. crossed the Elbe to occupj' Holstein andLauenburg. The Danes with- 
 drew, and as the}^ retired, the people proclaimed their attachment to Duke Frederick 
 of Augustenburg. On the 27th of Dec, at a great assembly of the people held at 
 Elmshorn, he was solemnly declared to be their duke. Hearing this, the Prince left 
 Gotha and hastened to Kiel, where he was received Avith great enthusiasm ; but he re- 
 frained from every act of sovereignty, awaiting the action of the German Union. 
 Meanwhile the Danes had determined to fight for Schleswig. Relying upon England, 
 they expected to win. But Austria and Prus- 
 sia now joined hands, and demanded-the aboli- 
 tion of the November constitution, the cause 
 of all the trouble. Christian IX. rejected 
 these demands. The German powers there- 
 upon refused to be bound by the London 
 treaty, and marched into Schleswig, caring 
 neither for the protest of the German Union 
 or the remonstrance of the English ministry. 
 ise^. In January, 1864, the troops of 
 
 Prussia and Austria, under Field-marshal 
 Wrangel, entered Holstein. The Prussians, un- 
 der the command of Prince Frederick Carl, 
 and the Austrians led bj^ Gen. Gablenz. The 
 Danish commander, De Meza, determined to 
 give up Schleswig and to retire to the strong 
 entrenchment at Diippel. Wrangel now 
 ordered the Prussian main army, under Prince 
 Frederick Charles to march against Diippel, and 
 the Austrian army to occupy Schleswig. The Danes exerted themselves with unceas- 
 ing energy to convert Diippel into a second Sebastopol. The Prussians determined to 
 A.i,tii, IS. 189't. take the works by storm. On the 18th of April, after a terrible day, 
 in which the Prussians lost twelve hundred men, including seventy officers, the works 
 were in Prussian hands. 
 
 The fall of Diippel decided the war. The Danes made no further attempt to de- 
 fend the main land. On the 28th of April they embarked, during the night, in great 
 haste and Wrangel was in full possession of the provinces. In May a conference was 
 convened in London, but it led to no result. The war was renewed, but as England 
 refused to assist the Danes, it ended disastrously for Denmark. Prince Frederick 
 
 June, as-zo, Carl drove them from Alsen. The united armies then forced them to 
 
 ise-t. abandon Jutland. The Danish fleet was captured by the Austrians, 
 
 and these disasters broke the obstinate spirit of the Danes. King Christian IX., 
 
 opened direct negotiation with Austria and Prussia. The German Union was not con- 
 
 45 
 
 PRINCE FBEDERICK CHARLES OF PRUSSIA. 
 
706 
 
 RECENT HISTORY. 
 
 suited. The result was a suspicion that Prussia intended to annex the dukedoms, and 
 the treaty of Vienna did not allay these suspicions. It provided that the King of 
 
 Denmark should cede 
 all his rights to Schle- 
 swig, Holstein, and 
 Lauenburg, in favor 
 of the King of Prussia 
 and the Emperor of 
 Austria. It was soon 
 apparent that Prussia 
 did not intend to 
 give over the con- 
 quered country to 
 the Prince of Augus- 
 tenburg. Other 
 claimants to the 
 throne appeared, and 
 the crown-jurists in 
 Berlin declared that 
 iaa4. all rights 
 jiuff. 14, ises. had been 
 extinguished by the 
 treaty of Vienna. At 
 Gastein, Austria and 
 Prussia agreed to 
 continue the joint oc- 
 cupation ; Schleswig 
 being governed by 
 Prussia, and Holstein 
 by Austria, while 
 Lauenburg should 
 pass to the Prussian 
 king, for the sum of 
 two and a half million 
 thaler s. This agree- 
 ment created great 
 dissatisfaction in Ger- 
 many, as it contained 
 the germs of new 
 conflicts, and created 
 an impossible situa- 
 tion. 
 3. The Founding op the Italian Kingdom. 
 
 § 596. Sardinia had twice attempted in vain the liberation of Italy. Radetzky's 
 victories re-established the power of Austria, and the old oppression of the political 
 and intellectual life of the Italian people. Lombardy was filled with soldiers, and held 
 
FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 707 
 
 down by powerful fortifications, and Austria stretched out a helping hand to the 
 tyrannical princes of Modena and Parma. The constitution of Tuscany was set aside, 
 and Ferdinand II., king of Naples and Sicily, harried his people with soldiers and with 
 taxes to an incredible degree. Austria protected the Pope also, garrisoning for him 
 the northern part of his territory, and conciliated the clergy with a favorable concor- 
 dat. To break the Austrian power was the eager longing of king Victor Emmanuel, a 
 man of courage and of strong national feeling. Fortunately for him, he was guided 
 by his minister, tlie great statesman Camillo Cavour. Austria put her trust in the 
 power of bayonets, the influence of the clergy, and the terrors of the police. Sar- 
 dinia, on the other hand, weakened the power of the clergy by liberal and tolerant 
 laws, created a free political life within her dominion, strengthened her armies, and 
 sought to win the favor of the Italian people. Cavour advised participation in the 
 Crimean war, in order to win the support of England and of France, and especially 
 to gain a hearing at the Congress of Paris. He presented to the Congress a memor- 
 ial, in which he showed that there could be no enduring peace in Europe until the in- 
 dependence of Italy was recognized, the tyranny in Naples brought to an end, and 
 Austria compelled to give a liberal constitution to Lombardy and Venice. These de- 
 mands constituted the future program of the Italian party of progress. Unions were 
 formed everywhere to promote national unity. The most active of these, was the 
 National Union, which was founded by Manin and Pallavicino. Garibaldi now returned 
 to Italy, and sought a home with his family in the little island of Caprera. After 
 many wanderings and vicissitudes, he came back to offer his help to the National 
 Union. Mazzini and his friends pursued more extended plans, but they had no dis- 
 position to hinder the work of Cavour and Garibaldi. The purpose of the National 
 Union was to drive out the foreigner, and to unite Italy under the House of Savoy. 
 A mighty excitement soon took possession of the people. The Duke of Parma was 
 murdered on the open street, armed bands marched through Naples, while anarchy 
 and despotism struggled with each other for the possession of Sicily. The Sardinian 
 government had no choice. It must unfurl boldly the banner of Italian independence, 
 and accept the fight with Austria. But the past taught king Victor Emmanuel that 
 he needed a mightier ally than Garibaldi and his Italian volunteers. 
 
 § 597. Magenta. Orsini's attempt to assassinate the Emperor Napoleon, had a 
 noteworthy influence upon Italian affairs. Orsini confessed that he sought the French 
 ruler's life, simply because he would not save Italy. He had become a hindrance to her 
 freedom, rather than a help. In his earlier days, the Emperor had doubtless been in con- 
 fidential relations with the Italian patriots, and was perhaps himself a member of the 
 Italian secret society. He was now considered a traitor by his former companions. 
 Aug. B, 1S5S. The sauic year he had an interview with Count Cavour at Plombieres. 
 Plans were considered for the emancipation of Italy ; and the marriage of prince Na- 
 poleon Bonaparte with the princess Clothilde, the youthful daughter of Victor Emman- 
 uel, was to create a firm bond between the two families. The speech of the Emperor 
 to the Austrian ambassador, at his New Year's reception, and the words of the Italian 
 king, at the opening of Parliament at Turin, indicated in plain words that Sardinia 
 would be no longer deaf to the cries of the rest of Italy. The neutral powers sought 
 a pacific solution of the difficulty, but Austria sent an ultimatum to the king of Sar- 
 dinia, requiring him to reduce his army to a peace footing within three days. When 
 
708 RECENT HISTORY. 
 
 this demand was refused, the Austrian Field-marshal, Gyulai, was ordered to cross the 
 Ticino. This gave the French emperor an opportunity to intervene as the protector 
 of his all}', Victor Emmanuel. Gyulai was dilatory and inactive, so that Sardinia had 
 ample time to collect her ti'oops about the fortified Alessandria, and to form a junc- 
 May, isso. tiou with the Fiench army. In May, Napoleon himself appeared in 
 Italy, and although he entrusted the management of the campaign to his experienced 
 generals, Canrobert, Niel, Mac Mahon, and others, yet his presence was a great inspira- 
 tion for his soldiers. The Austrian commander was utterly incompetent. He had 
 lost his opportunity, and must now act on the defensive. After a bloodjr battle at 
 Buffalora, the Austrians were utterly defeated in the battle of Magenta. The Aus- 
 trian soldiers fought with great bravery, although they suffered greatly from the scan- 
 dalous robbery of the contractors, who furnished their supplies. The loss of Magenta 
 jTune^, 18BO. brought with it the loss of all Lombardy. Milan was evacuated by 
 Gyulai, and on the 18th of June, Napoleon entered the city, amid the acclamations of 
 the people, with Victor Emmanuel at his side. The Austrians took up a new position 
 on the Mincio, where they were supported by the famous quadrangle, consisting of 
 four strongly fortified cities, Peschiera, Mantua, Verona, Legnago. 
 
 § 598. Solferino. These disasters to Austria brought about the overthrow of 
 several Italian governments. Duke Leopold of Tuscany was abandoned by his army 
 and his civil servants, and compelled to leave Florence. A provisional government, 
 under the protectorate of Victor Emmanuel, was immediately established. The Duchess 
 Louisa of Parma, with her young son, hastened to Switzerland, and the Duke of 
 Modena sought protection in the Austrian camp. Everj^where the Italian flag was 
 unfurled, and annexation to Sardinia was desired. In Germany these events created 
 great excitement. Austria endeavored to obtain the support of Prussia and the other 
 members of the German Union. The war now raging along the Po might soon be 
 transferred to the Rhine. For a time it looked as if public opinion would carry the 
 German states to the Austrian side. War preparations were made ; the garrisons 
 were increased, Prussia gradually placed her entire army upon a war footing. But 
 many circumstances combined to dampen this war-like enthusiasm. Russia, angry at 
 Austria for her conduct in the Crimean war, used her influence to withhold the Ger- 
 mans from the strife. England declared, that in case of a war, she would not protect 
 the German merchant ships. The liberal party was not inclined to strengthen abso- 
 lutism and clerical dominion ; and it soon appeared that the German troops generally 
 were in no condition for a war. The Prussian cabinet had not yet forgiven Olmiitz. 
 Prussia's chief duty was to protect herself, and to be ready for possible emergencies ; 
 and she lost all inclination to take part in the war, after France had given the assur- 
 ance that the war would be localized-, i. e. confined to Italy. Austria however deter- 
 mined to try once more the fortune of battle. The Emperor Francis Joseph, took the 
 field in person, but with no better success. The Emperor abandoned the "quad- 
 jKiie a*, isBo. rangle " and crossed the Mincio, but was defeated at Solferino with 
 great loss, although the Austrians were able to withdraw in good order from the 
 field. 
 
 § 599. The Peace of Villa Franca. The French people were wild with enthusi- 
 asm for their victorious emperor, yet his position was one of difficulty and of danger. 
 The French army had suffered greatly in the Italian campaign ; the excitement in 
 
FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 
 
 709 
 
 The Austrians, 
 
 Germany made a hostile movement upon the Rhine quite probable, 
 moreover, were still 
 in possession of the 
 great quadrangle. 
 True, the Emperor 
 Napoleon had said, 
 " Italy free to the 
 Adria," but to realize 
 this watchword might 
 hazard all his for- 
 tunes. The two em- 
 perors therefore ar- 
 
 ji€i« s, isso. ranged 
 a peace. Austria 
 abandoned Lombardy 
 to the line of the 
 quadrangle, that is to 
 a line drawn from 
 Peschiera to Man- 
 tua ; Italy was to 
 form a confederacy 
 under the presidencj' 
 of the Pope; the 
 e.\iled princes might 
 return, if permitted 
 to do so freel}' by 
 their subjects. But 
 when the treaty of 
 
 irov. lo, laao. peace 
 came to be made at 
 Ziirich, only the first 
 of these conditions 
 was maintained. 
 Lombard)^ passed to 
 the king of Sardinia, 
 while Savoy with 
 Nice, was ceded to 
 France. But the 
 people of Modena, 
 Parma and Tuscany 
 refused to accept their 
 former rulers, and 
 were annexed to Sar- 
 dinia. Even Bologna 
 renounced the rule 
 of the Pope, and sought protection from Victor Emmanuel. Switzerland might 
 
TIO 
 
 RECENT HISTORY. 
 
 protest and the Pope might excommunicate, but things took their own course. Instead 
 of the Italian confederation, with the Pope at its head, Europe was compelled to recog- 
 nize a kingdom of Italy, under the House of Savoy. 
 
 § 600. Craribaldi. The national and the revolutionary forces in Italy were 
 now united for a common aim, the formation of " One Italy." The territory of Rome 
 was protected from hostile attack by French troops, but the kingdom of Naples and 
 of Sicily was without support. Francis II., the young and inexperienced son of the 
 werdinuna II., tyrannical Ferdinand II., occupied the throne, and had under his 
 ^May zit, 18.59. Command a well-disciplined army of one hundred and fifty thousand 
 men. But the tyranny of the Government, which opposed stubbornly all reform, had 
 
 LANDING OP GARIBALDI AT MARSALA. {G. Broling.) 
 
 prepared the ground for the secret societies ; and the withdrawal of the Swiss mercen- 
 aries robbed the throne of its strongest support, at the very moment when Mazzini 
 laoo. and Garibaldi joined hands for their daring enterprise. The first up- 
 
 risings were in Messina and Palermo. In May Garibaldi landed with a few thousand 
 armed men at Marsala. He gathered about him the scattered volunteers, declared 
 himself dictator in the name of Victor Emmanuel, king of Italy, and marched to the 
 capital, Palermo. The population rose as one man, and supported the coming patriots. 
 General Lanza, who was in command of the citadel, opened a heavy fire, destroying a 
 part of the city ; but the action of the English admiral compelled him to yield. The 
 monarchy was now shaken to its foundation, and the glory of Garibaldi spread over 
 
FROM THE rOU2s^DATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 711 
 
 j-.iHe as, tseo. the world. The King restored the former constitution, called about 
 
 him a liberal ministry, proclaimed an amnestj", and sought an alliance with Sardinia. 
 
 But it was too late. Wherever Garibaldi appeared, the land broke into flames. Six 
 
 j^uiy 18. weeks after the taking of Palermo, the dictator marched to Messina. 
 
 The city was soon in his possession. He then landed upon the mainland with five 
 
 ^i.(/. 21, tsao. thousand men. The garrison at Reggio at once surrendered the city 
 and the castle. Everywhere the soldiers disbanded, and the cities and provinces 
 formed provisional governments. Garibaldi marched triumphantly through the South, 
 nowhere meeting resistance. On the 6th of September, Francis II. abandoned his cap- 
 sept. ■}. ital, and retired to Capua ; and on the next day. Garibaldi marched 
 
 into Naples, amid the acclamations of the delighted population. The Pope fared no 
 better than the King. Garibaldi declared that he would proclaim the kingdom of 
 Italy in its natural capital. The Pope's friends, in the Catholic lands of Europe, ex- 
 hausted every means to save the temporal power of the Pope, but the patriotic en- 
 thusiasm of the Italian people was more powerful than the cries of the clericals. Gen- 
 eral Lamoriciere was induced to take command of the papal army, but when the Sar- 
 dinian troops, under General Cialdini, reached the frontiers of the Pope's dominions, 
 a general uprising took place, and the different cities established provisional govern, 
 ments. The papal troops encountered the Sardinian army and were beaten. Some 
 were taken prisoners, and the entire force was dispersed. A handful retired to 
 Ancona ; but when it was besieged on the following day, both by sea and by land, it 
 Sept. »9. was compelled to surrender. A few days later, Victor Emmanuel ap- 
 peared in the city and assumed command. He thence proceeded to Lower Ital}-, to 
 complete the conquests begun by Garibaldi. The patriotic- general, who saw in Victor 
 Emmanuel, the divinely appointed liberator of Italy, resigned to the King his dictatorial 
 authority, and entrusted to him the completion of his great work, the uniting of Italy 
 under a free and stable government. With the words, " Sire, I obey," he gave up his 
 xov. y, isao. command, marching into Naples beside the King, commending his 
 comrades to the especial protection of the monarch, and then returning to his modest 
 estate on the island, Caprera. 
 
 § 601. Gaeta. War operations now assumed a sharper character. After the 
 xoe. a, taeo. capture of Capua, King Francis, with the remnant of his troops, re- 
 tired to the fortress of Gaeta. This was the last refuge of the Bourbon dynasty. 
 The city was heroically defended, and its defence is the one bright spot in the short 
 reign of Francis II., and his noble young wife, Marie of Bavaria. The siege of Gaeta 
 lasted three months. Napoleon sought to free himself from complicity with the pol- 
 icy of the Sardinian king. Like other powers, he withdrew his ambassador from 
 Turin, but he went even further. He sent a French fleet to the harbor of Gaeta, and 
 thus enabled the besieged to supply themselves with food and ammunition. But the 
 cry of the Neapolitan king brought him no armed help ; his promises and proclama- 
 tions to the people of the two Sicilys brought him no favor with his subjects. A few 
 reactionary uprisings took on the character of bandit enterprises, and Napoleon, think- 
 ing that enough had been done for the honor of King Francis, called away his fleet. 
 Feb. 13, isoi. On the 13th of Feb., 1861, Francis and his wife sailed to Rome on a 
 French ship. The next month, Messina passed into the hands of General Cialdini ; 
 the kingdom of the two Sicilys was at an end. And on the 18th of Feb., 1861, Victor 
 
712 
 
 RECENT HISTORY. 
 
 Emmanuel, surrounded by the representatives of all the states that acknowledged his 
 sovereignty, proclaimed himself King of Italy. 
 
 §602. The Kingdom of Italy. With the exception of Austrian, Venice, and the 
 papal city of Rome, all the states of Italy were now united in a single monarchy. 
 The statecraft of Cavour, the resolute courage of Victor Emmanuel, the patriotic self- 
 sacrifices of Garibaldi, the political sagacity of the cultivated classes, had united to 
 achieve this great result; and even the agitation of Mazzini, and his republican 
 friends, had contributed to the great enterprise. But a difBcult task was yet to be ac- 
 complished. Years of rest and of peace must be obtained, to establish and to organ- 
 ize the rapid conquests of recent years, and to procure the respect and the confidenoe 
 of other nations. Italy, it is true, was not free. Rome was still in other hands. 
 Cavour was urged on ever}- side to rash and dangerous measures. The people clam- 
 ored for Rome and Venice, and 
 were not altogether satisfied with 
 a military monarchy. Even Gari- 
 baldi sympathized with this clamor, 
 and with these suspicions, and 
 was especially provoked at the 
 dilatory policy of Cavour. Yet 
 the great statesman succeeded in 
 reconciling the angry patriot, and 
 in restraining him from inconsid- 
 jMJie «, isoi. erate movements. 
 But Count Cavour died too soon 
 for the welfare of the state that 
 he had called into being, and yet 
 with a sublime consciousness that 
 the future of the kingdom was 
 secure. But under his successors, 
 Ricasoli and Rattazzi, the Italian 
 government progressed quietly in 
 the path marked out by him. The 
 European governments gradually 
 recognized the new order. The 
 banditti in Naples were energeti- 
 cally suppressed, even though they were supported from Rome ; and the military 
 strength of the land was increased, at the same time that better laws were passed, 
 and reforms inaugurated. Yet the party of action was not satisfied with this 
 gradual progress. They longed for Rome and Venice, and the agitators became so 
 violent, that the government was obliged to make arrests and to disband some volun- 
 tary oi'ganizations. Among the imprisoned were friends and comrades of Garibaldi, 
 isca. and the latter now determined to march against Rome. He sailed to 
 
 Palermo, wliere he soon gathered armed volunteers about his standard. The young 
 men eagerly followed him, especially as the rumor was circulated that the government 
 secretly encouraged the undertaking. But an energetic proclamation of the King 
 warned all Italians to take no part in this heedless movement. Yet Garibaldi was 
 
 VICTOR EMMANUEL. ( Jlli'lzViachcr.) 
 
FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 713 
 
 not to be dissuaded. When his way was blocked by the garrison of Messina, he 
 turned aside to Catania, where he embarked with two thousand volunteers, as he said 
 "to enter Rome as a victor, or to die beneath its walls." But he did neither. For 
 although lie landed at Melito, and marched at once into the Calabrian mountains, he 
 came into collision with a detachment of the Italian army at Aspromonte. A skirmish en- 
 
 Aug, 28, laos. sued, in which a few volunteers were killed, and Garibaldi was wounded 
 and taken prisoner. A government vessel brought him to Verignano, where he slowly 
 recovered from his dangerous wound. He was an object of sympathj' throughout Eu- 
 rope, and there was general rejoicing when the news was published that he was out of 
 danger. After this unfortunate adventure, Italy had a long rest in which to complete 
 
 Sep. IS, ise4. her inner development. In September, 1864, France and Italy agreed 
 that the capital of Italy should be transferred to Florence, and that the French troops 
 should be gradually removed from Rome. The inhabitants of Turin were bitterly 
 opposed to this change, but it took place in 1865. The Pope was exceedingly angry 
 at the agreement of the two countries, and gave the world, as a Christmas present, 
 the famous encyclical of 1864, in which he condemned the political and religious ideas 
 of his age. He began also to create an army of his own, for the maintenance of his 
 authority. The French troops now began to depart, and unexpected events soon made 
 Venice a part of the Italian Kingdom. 
 
 4. The Seven Weeks Wak. 
 
 § 603. The conference at Gastein created only a truce. The evident desire of 
 Prussia to annex Schleswig-Holstein found no favor in Vienna. The Austrian cabinet 
 sought the support of the Congress of the Union, and held fast to her joint right of 
 possession. This dissension soon produced trouble in the dukedoms, for while the 
 Prussian governor, Von Manteuffel, established an iron rule in Schleswig, the Austrian 
 Jan. ia«o. governor. Von Gablenz, administered affairs in Holstein with gentle 
 moderation. The Prussian ministry soon complained that this moderation favored 
 revolution, and was in conflict with the convention of Gastein. But Austria refused 
 to change her policy, especially as the arrival of the Italian general, Govone, in Berlin, 
 created the suspicion that Prussia was seeking an alliance with Italy. War prepar- 
 luaich, isoa. ations were made. Benedek was placed at the head of the Austrian 
 army north of the Alps, while Arch-duke Albert assumed command in Venice. Prus- 
 sia now made counter-preparations, and the Vienna cabinet then sought the support of 
 the German Union. Prussia made a secret treaty with Italy, and Count Bismarck 
 declared openly that the German Union, as then constituted, afforded so little guaran- 
 ntnrcH 2*, 1900. tee for the future of Germany, that Prussia felt compelled to move for 
 iis reform. Finally a day was ajipointed upon which both Austria and Prussia agreed 
 
 Aiirii 25. to disarm. But before it arrived, Austria declared that she would 
 disarm against Prussia, but not against Italy. This excited hesitation in Berlin and 
 Prussia refused to disarm. Austria then offered to refer the question to the Congress 
 of the Union ; this too was declined by the Prussian ministry. Terrible excitement 
 now spread through Germany. Count Bismarck was the object of bitter hate ; at- 
 tempts were made upon his life, one of which lie escaped as by miracle. The 
 European powers proposed a Coniiress, but Austria declined to participate, except upon 
 condition that none of the states represented in the Congress should enlarge her territory. 
 
714 
 
 RECENT HISTORY. 
 
 § 604 Early in June the Austrian government brought the Schleswig-Holstein 
 question before the Congress of the German Union, and ordered General Gableiiz to- 
 convene the estates of Holstein. The Prussian government at once declared this to be 
 a breach of the Gastein conference, and placed her armies in the field. Austria did like- 
 wise, but the condition of her army was worse than it had been even during the Italian 
 campaign. Von Manteuffel was ordered to march into Holstein. Austria thereupon 
 
 insisted that the 
 army of the German 
 Union should * be 
 made ready for war. 
 This motion of Aus- 
 tria was adopted by 
 the Congress, where- 
 upon Prussia de- 
 jkhb lo, xsaa. clared 
 that the Union was- 
 dissolved, and 
 brought forward a 
 plan for a new con- 
 federation, based up- 
 on universal suffrage, 
 and from which Aus- 
 tria was to be ex- 
 cluded. 
 
 This marked the 
 beginning of a new- 
 epoch for Germany, 
 The opposition of the 
 Prussian Parliament 
 continued to criticise 
 isae. the King 
 and his minister, but, 
 in the hour of danger, 
 the people rallied to 
 the support of their 
 monarch and his 
 measures. The rest 
 of Germany divided 
 into two camps, the 
 MOLTKE. Austrian and the 
 
 Prussian. The first 
 had nothing in common but their dislike of Prussia and of Bismarck; the second hoped 
 to see German}' united under the lead of a powerful yet peaceful state. The thought 
 of civil war was repugnant to all, but the discord of Germany, and the misery of politi- 
 cal plurality, could be healed only after the sword had done its awful work. 
 
 June, isoe. Beuedek had stationed his army in Bohemia, forming the arc of a 
 
716 
 
 RECENT HISTORY. 
 
 great circle on the Upper Elbe. Prussia determined therefore to unite all the states, 
 north of the river Main, in a league under her control. Hanover, Saxony, and Hesse, 
 were summoned to immediate decision. If they consented, they might retain their 
 sovereignty within the constitution of the new union ; otherwise they would be dealt 
 with as enemies. All three refused. The Elector of Hesse was led a prisoner to 
 Stettin. King George of Hanover abandoned his capital and his kingdom to the 
 Prussian army, and sought to break through, with his army, to the south, so as to 
 jiene, is9«. Unite wiih the Bavarians. After desperate fighting, the blind King 
 George was obliged to capitulate. Meanwhile Saxony had fallen also into Piussian 
 hands. The Saxon army had united with the Austrians in Bohemia, leaving the cap- 
 ital and kingdom undefended. Dresden was occupied by the Prussians without 
 resistance. 
 
 § 605. War in Bohemia and along the River Main. In possession of Saxony, the 
 
 Prussians could now concentrate their army 
 in Bohemia. Before Benedek could carry 
 out his plan of moving through Saxony into 
 the heart of Prussia, the Prussians had 
 marched three army corps into Bohemia. 
 The first days of Julj% King William, accom- 
 panied by Bismarck and Von Roon, and his 
 chief of staff, Von Moltke, arrived at the 
 front and took command of the army. He 
 had not long to wait for the decisive moment. 
 On the 3rd of July, the decisive battle of 
 ji.7ff 3, isoa. Konigratz (or Sadowa) was 
 fought, and won for the Prussians by the 
 opportune arrival of the armj^ of the Crown 
 Prince. Toward evening the remnant of 
 the beaten arm}^ was in full retreat. " The 
 day of Konigratz," said the King of Prus- 
 sia in his order of the day, "has cost heavy 
 sacrifices, but it is a day of honor for the 
 army, and of pride for the Fatherland." 
 §606. Meanwhile, Prussian generals were marcliing against the army of the Ger- 
 man Union, which had separated into two divisions, under the command of Priroe 
 Charles of Bavaria, and Prince Alexander of Hesse. The former was in North Franr:>i;ia 
 and the latter just north of Frankfort. Falkenstein was ordered to push between ihe 
 two armies and to defeat them separately. The Bavarians were first compelled to re- 
 treat, whereupon the Prussian general, instead of following them, turned upon the 
 army under the Prince of Hesse. When this army gave way, the Prussians entered 
 jTuiy 14. Frankfort. The Congress fled and resumed its sessions in Augsburg ; 
 heavj' contributions were levied upon Frankfort, and the demands and threats of the 
 conqueror so preyed upon the mind of Fellner, the Burgomaster, that he took his own 
 life. 
 
 § 607. The defeat of the Austrians at Konigriitz opened, for the Prussians, the 
 way into the heart of Austiia. The army of the north was dispersed ; Vieuiju was 
 
 CROWN PRINCE FREDERICK WILLIAM OF 
 PRUSSIA. 
 
FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 
 
 717 
 
 The Emperor instead o 
 
 Bhakeii with excitement. The Emperor, Francis Joseph, thereupon determined upon a 
 surprising move. In Italy, the army of the south, under Arch-duke Albert, had won a 
 
 June s-i. splendid victory in the battle of Custozza. 
 using his advantage 
 against Italy, deter- 
 mined to cede Venice 
 to Napoleon, so as to 
 use the army of the 
 south against Prus- 
 sia, and to win the 
 alliance of France. 
 Napoleon accepted 
 the unexpected pres- 
 ent, explaining that i 
 it gave him oppor- 
 tunity to mediate be- ; 
 tween the warring 
 powers. He sought 
 at first to obtain a 
 truce. But King 
 William declared 
 that he would agree 
 to a truce only upon 
 definite conditions of 
 peace, and Victor 
 Emmanuel was of 
 the same mind. Yet 
 the mediatorial ac- 
 tivity of the French 
 emperor limited the 
 war in Italy to a few 
 skirmishes, and led to 
 negotiations between 
 Prussia and Austria. 
 The Austrian em- 
 peror called the Arch- 
 duke Albert, with 
 the army of the south, 
 to his assistance, and 
 gave to hi in the chief 
 command. But the 
 rapid march of the 
 Prussians made the 
 
 defence of the capital impossible. A truce was agreed upon, in which Austria consented 
 
 jm/m ««, is««. to her own exclusion from the German Union, gave up her claims to 
 
 Schleswig-Holsteiu, and consented also to the transfer of Venice from France to Italy. 
 
718 
 
 RECENT HISTORY. 
 
 § 608. This truce was concluded just as the Prussian army was about to enter 
 Alia. 23. Pressburg. Four weeks later, the peace of Prague was agreed upon, 
 
 in which Austria con- 
 sented to paj' the 
 costs of the war, and 
 to accept the changes 
 of boundary insisted 
 upon bj' Prussia 
 north of the river 
 Main. Prussia, on 
 the other hand, 
 agreed to restore his 
 throne to tlie king of 
 Saxony. Meanwhile 
 the troops of the 
 Union had been earn- 
 ing no laurels. The 
 men of Baden, of 
 Wlirtemburg, and 
 Bavaria, fought 
 j jtiij; 23-29. bravely 
 ! enough, but they 
 fought in vain. The 
 ! south-German gov- 
 ; ernments finally sued 
 i for peace, and made 
 a secret treaty with 
 A.ua. 13-22. Prussia, 
 in which they agreed 
 to support her in the 
 event of a foreign 
 war, and to continue 
 the customs-union. 
 Hesse-Darmstadt and 
 Saxon}'- were occu- 
 pied by Prussia for 
 a long time. TJie 
 Grand-duke con- 
 sented, with great 
 reluctance, to the 
 conditions of peace, 
 Sept. 3. which 
 compelled him to sur- 
 render Homburg and 
 
 the province of Upper-Hesse, and to turn over the fortifications of Mayence to Prus- 
 sian soldiers. And in Saxony the Prussians remained until Herr von Beust retired 
 
54. 
 
 AUSTRIAN MAN OP WAR, FERDINAND MAX, ADMIRAL TEGETTHOFF IN COMMAND, RAMMING THE 
 
 ITALIAN IRONCLAD, RE D'iTALIA AT THE BATTLE OF LISSA, 1866. {p2D. Y19.) 
 
720 RECENT HISTORY. 
 
 Oct. XI, is«9. from the ministry; then King John agreed to a peace, in which he 
 was required to pay the costs of the war, to become a member of the North-German 
 Union, and to accept the new military organization. Nothing remained now to hinder 
 the construction of the new NortliCxermau Union. 
 
 § 609. United Italy with her new capital, Rome. The fate of Venice was de- 
 cided at the same time. The Austrians withdrew their troops, and the Italians, xinder 
 Cialdini, soon stood in the heart of Venice. Garibaldi was at Lake Garda, carrying on 
 a petty warfare with his volunteers. Wherever Italian was spoken, there the standard 
 of the King was to be erected. One division of the army approached Trient. A naval 
 
 jmiw 20. force also was collected at Ancona. But in a naval battle at Lissa, the 
 Italian fleet was so utterly defeated, that the Florentine government thought it best 
 
 July US. to accept a peace. Victor Emmanuel gave up his claims to South Tyrol 
 and the Austrians formally acknowledged the kingdom of Italy. An election was or- 
 
 oct. 3. dered in Venice, to determine the question of annexation. As the 
 
 whole population voted in its favor, Victor Emmanuel entered the city in triumph. In 
 December, 1866, the French troops left Rome, and for the first time in centuries, the 
 beautiful peninsula of Italy was free from foreign soldiers. But Garibaldi and the na- 
 tional party insisted upon the possession of Rome. He invaded once more the terri- 
 tory of the pope, but his enterprise failed, and his men were either killed, dispersed, or 
 taken prisoners. The French troops returned to protect the Vatican, and remained 
 Bee. iseo. until August, 1870. This made it possible for Pius IX. to as- 
 semble a general council in the Vatican toward the end of the year 1869. Here the 
 Jesuits succeeded, in spite of a powerful opposition in the council itself, and in spite 
 of the warning of the temporal powers, in procuring a declaration of papal infallibility 
 in all matters of doctrine and morals. ■ 
 
 At the very moment in which the council declared the pope to be the absolute 
 authortity in the church, the kingdom of Italy took possession of his dominions, and 
 made an end of his temporal power. The French garrison had embarked hastily to 
 Beginuuia take part in the Franco-German war. The Florentine government im- 
 sept.,is7o. mediately marched to the papal frontiers, at the same time taking pos- 
 session of Civita Vecchia. The Pope was offered the exclusive possession of the Leo- 
 nine district, on the right bank of the Tiber, but he refused all compromise. The 
 Italians then took possession of the city. A slight resistance was made by the papal 
 troops, but after three hours, the city capitulated. The papal army was disbanded ; 
 the foreign mercenaries were required to leave Italy ; a provisional government was es- 
 tablished, and an election was ordered to decide the question of annexatiou. The peo- 
 ple voted almost unanimously to make Rome the capital of Italy. The Italian govern- 
 ment declared, in a solemn statute, that the pope should still have the dignity of the 
 sovereign, and should still exercise all his rights and functions as the head of the 
 , church, but Pope Pius IX., replied, with the excommunication of Victor Emmanuel. 
 
 § 610. The North German Union. In Prussia, as in Italj', the year 1866 ended 
 with a reconciliation of the monarch and his people. In his speech from the throne, at 
 Aug. 5, isee. the opening of Parliament, King William asked the House of Representa- 
 tives for an act of indemnity, which was passed almost without objection. The system 
 of administration was then reorganized, according to the constitution, and the conflict 
 peaceably concluded. A royal message announced to Parliament the desire of the 
 
FROM THE F0UNDATI0:N OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 721 
 
 ministry to annex i% Prussia, Hanover, Hesse, Nassau, and tlie free city of Frankfort. 
 And early in September, the statute of annexation passed both Houses. In France, 
 this unexpected enlargement of Prussia excited great irritation, and for a time it ap- 
 peared as if the imperial government would ask for compensation, by the cession of the 
 left bank of the Rhine, and of Mayence. But it was soon manifest, that not only Prus- 
 sia, but all Germany would defend every inch of German territorj^ with the last drop 
 of blood ; so that Napoleon thought the price of a war too dear for so small an increase 
 of power. He changed his cabinet and the war clouds dispersed. Meanwhile, the dis- 
 possessed princes of Germany absolved their officers from their oaths of allegiance, and 
 thus enabled them to enter the Prussian service. The Elector of Hesse was guaranteed 
 certain estates and revenues. The Duke of Nassau hesitated for a long time, but fin- 
 ally accepted a similar arrangement. But the King of Hanover refused all terms. In 
 the course of theyear 1867, tlie Prussian constitution, judicial and military system, were 
 introduced into the conquered territory. All the lands of Germany, north of the river 
 
 Dec. 15, isoe. Main, now entered the North German Union, and at the end of the 
 
 year 1866, ambassadors of all the states met at Berlin to deliberate upon the proposed 
 
 issi. constitution for the new confederation. The constitution agreed upon 
 
 Feb. g*.-Apr. 7. loj thcm was submitted to a diet elected by the people. After long de- 
 bates and different amendments, it was adopted by the diet, and then ratified by the 
 legislatures and princes of the different states. It provided that all the states north of 
 the Main, should unite to form a federal union, with the same laws, the same civil 
 rights, the same military system. The army was to be under the command of Prussia; 
 the citizens of the Union were to have nnrestricted intercourse with each other, and 
 equal privileges throughout the Union. In all the important features of political and 
 social life, they were to have institutions in common ; — the same weights and measures, 
 the same coin, the same postal and telegraphic system, the same industrial and com- 
 mercial laws, the same system of revenue and of military service. A federal council, 
 presided over by a chancellor to be appointed by the king of Prussia, was to consist of 
 representatives of the different states. This federal council was to legislate in connec- 
 tion with a federal diet. The federal chancellor was to be responsible to this diet, the 
 members whereof were to be chosen directly by the people, and to serve without com- 
 pensation. The arniy of the Union was to be an army of all the citizens, and to be sub- 
 ject to the Prussian military law. The relations of the South German states were to 
 be regulated by particular treaties. During the progress of this reorganization of North 
 Germany, Europe was startled with the news that the King of Holland intended to sell 
 the dukedom of Luxemburg to the Emperor of France. The excitement was supreme, 
 but Napoleon agreed finally to abandon Luxemburg, if Prussia would evacuate the 
 
 atay 7-11, ise-i. fortifications, and consent to neutralize the land. Prussia accepted and 
 jTiijie, isei. the war cloud again dissolved. Germany then proceeded quietly to 
 perfect her union. A customs-parliament was called into being, and in a short time 
 north and south Germany were united in the same revenue system. The North Ger- 
 man Diet accomplished a colossal work in the first period of its existence. A new in- 
 dustrial order was created; a new criminal code, new corporation laws, and a new sys- 
 tem of weights and measures. In a word, the legislation of 1868 was almost a trans- 
 formation of the social and economic order of Germany. 
 
 § 611. But Austria also underwent a transformation. For many years the Hun- 
 46 
 
722 
 
 KECENT HISTORY. 
 
 garian statesman, Franz Deak, had maintained courageously that 'i^ungary should re- 
 main united to Austria, but should have an independent government, and a constitution 
 based upon the old system of rights, but adapted to existing conditions. He main- 
 tained, -also, that Hungary should be territorially protected, by the addition of frontier 
 lands in the south and the east. Not until after the treaty of Prague were the Aus- 
 trians disposed to listen to such wisdom. But in 1867, the duplex kingdom, Austria- 
 Hungary, came into being. Deak, and the imperial chancellor. Count Beust, agreed 
 upon the new constitution, which had been formulated at Pesth, and it was then sanc- 
 tioned by the Emperor Francis Joseph. Hungary received back her ancient rights ; 
 
 Transylvania, Croatia, and other frontier 
 lands were annexed, and the conditions 
 agreed upon, under which the two king- 
 doms should form one government. The 
 appointment of a new Hungarian ministry, 
 under Count Andrassy, and the solemn 
 jmie s, isa7. coronation of Francis 
 Joseph as king of Hungary, completed the 
 reconciliation. A constitutional monarchy 
 had been created, in which the two king- 
 doms were united in military, diplomatic, 
 and economic institutions. An imperial 
 ministry, with an imperial diet, were en- 
 trusted with the work of administration 
 and legislation, and the two nationalities 
 were bound together in mutual respect 
 Bee. SI. and pacific co-operation. 
 In Austria proper, great changes took 
 place. The February constitution was 
 restored, and in 1868 the first constitutional ministry was appointed. Prince Auers- 
 perg serving as minister — president, while Count Beust became imperial minister for 
 foreign affairs. 
 
 5. The Spanish Revolution of 1868. 
 
 § 612. When the French empire was founded, the court party in Madrid, with 
 the help of the queen mother, Maria-Christina, succeeded in overthrowing Narvaez 
 
 Oct., isBi. and his cabinet. A concordat was then concluded with the Pope, 
 which made great concessions to the Spanish clergy, and the roj'al authority tended rap- 
 idly to absolutism. The reaction was greatly assisted by an attack upon Queen Isabella, 
 
 Feh., isss. made by an insane priest, Martin Marino. The press was put under 
 sharp limitations, the Cortes dissolved, the constitution altered, and Carlists and cler- 
 icals appointed to the influential places in the state and the army. This brought about a 
 union of all the liberals, the progressives, and the moderates. A change of ministry 
 
 jTiiiy, iss*. was the consequence. Espartero, Duke of Vittoria, undertook the 
 formation of a new cabinet. Maria-Christina was escorted bj' Spanish soldiers across 
 the frontier to Portugal. But ministry succeeded ministry. EsiDartero, Narvaez, and 
 O'Donnell, followed each other in rapid succession. The Spaniards, under O'Donnell, 
 
 FRANCIS JOSEPH I. (1889.) 
 
FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 723 
 
 carried on a successful war against Morocco, and an attempt of the Carlists to get pos- 
 session of the Spanish throne, under Ortega and Cabrera, failed miserably. Ortega was 
 made prisoner and shot. Count Montemolin, the claimant of the throne, was also seized 
 
 April, isoo. and compelled to renounce his claims. But when O'Donnell left the 
 ministr}', Spanish affairs rapidl}^ became worse. The uprisings and mutinies of the 
 democrats, and of the soldiers were, with difficulty, suppressed. The ministry seemed 
 to be without rudder and without sailing orders. Narvaez did his utmost to silence the 
 press, to remove liberal teachers from the universities, and liberal officers from their 
 position in the state. But the opposition grew in spite of his attempted terrorism. 
 tso-t. The opinion had taken deep root that there was no salvation for Spain 
 
 under a Bourbon dynasty. Republican ideas entered the minds of all classes ; even 
 found access to the soldiers. One party went so far as to clamor for the union of Spain 
 and Portugal under the House of Braganza. The intrigues of the palace, and the ca- 
 prices of the Queen, whose wanton life and superstitious piety made her an object of re- 
 pugnance to the people, finally provoked an outbreak. 
 
 § 613. Narvaez withdrew, and the government passed once more to the liberals, 
 June ises. among whom O'Donnell and Serrano had the greatest influence. These 
 sought to conciliate the party of progress by abolishing the tyranni\3al measures of 
 their predecessors, and by compelling the Queen to remove from court, Father Claret 
 and Sister Patrocinio, the heads of the Camarilla. At the same time, O'Donnell sought 
 Ai,a. 1S05. the friendship of France. He visited the Emperor Napoleon in his 
 camp at Chalons, and arranged for a meeting of the Spanish and French royal families. 
 But the democrats and progressives were demanding universal suffrage, and the separa- 
 tion of church and state. General Prim was their head and leader. Republican up- 
 jr«it. iseo. risings took place in Catalonia and Valencia, but they came to naught. 
 Prim, with his seven hundred comrades, was pushed across the Portuguese frontier. 
 He retired to England to wait for better times. But military uprisings broke out in 
 Madrid, Salamanca, and other places. The court determined now to put an end to 
 this unrest, Narvaez was recalled, a severe system of military police was adopted, the 
 independence of the cities and of the provinces was abridged, education placed under 
 the control of the clergy, and the Cortes filled with subservient instruments of the 
 crown. Yet in spite of the interference of the ministry with the election, one hun- 
 Bee. Z0.30. isoe. dred and tlurt3--seven members of the Cortes petitioned for the abolition 
 of the military-police system. Thereupon a number of them were arrested and 
 carried to the Canary Islands. Serrano, the president of the Senate, was likewise 
 
 Maieh 1S07. banishcd. O'Donnell and other prominent liberals escaped by flight. 
 The Cortes were dissolved, and the opposition editors threatened with death. A 
 reign of terror spread itself over the whole kingdom. The Cortes abandoned all op- 
 position. Narvaez and his colleagues yielded entirely to the Camarilla, and constitu- 
 tional government was reduced to a shadow. The rumor spread that the secularized 
 
 ji-efc. o. ises. cloisters were to be restored. The Pope presented Queen Isabella with 
 a golden rose, as a token of his satisfaction with her religious feeling. When Narvaez 
 
 Apru 23. ises. dicd, thc new cabinet, under Gonzalez Bravo, continued the reign of 
 terror. Many well-known men were arrested and carried off to the Balearic and Can- 
 ary Islands The Duke of Montpennsier was ordered to leave the country. This was 
 the cap-stone of the reaction. The Spanish nation was embittered with the Bourbon 
 
724 
 
 RECENT HISTORY. 
 
 dynasty, and above all, with Queen Isabella ; but the discord of parties had prevented 
 a general uprising. Now, however, the liberals, the progressives, and the democrats- 
 determined to unite in a common movement against the Queen and the hated ministry, 
 Sept. ises. They opened communications with General Prim, who sailed secretly 
 to Gibraltar. Suddenly, while Queen Isabella was enjoying herself at San Sebastian, 
 the news spread through the land that Admiral Topete had raised the flag of rebellion 
 in the harbor of Cadiz, and in conjunction with General Prim had issued a proclama- 
 tion, calling upon all Spaniards to forget their differences and to overthrow the tyr- 
 anny. Cadiz, Seville, and other 
 cities immediately answered 
 with an uprising. A second 
 manifest of Prim declared uni- 
 versal suffrage to be the founda- 
 tion of the new social and 
 political regeneration. The 
 Queen sought in vain to ap- 
 pease the storm by a change of 
 ministry, but her armies were 
 defeated not far from Cordova, 
 Oct. *. isss. and a few days 
 later, the victorious Serrano 
 entered Madrid in triumph. 
 In connection with Prim and 
 Topete, he established a pro- 
 visional government. The 
 chiefs of this government were 
 monarchists, and Serrano would 
 probably have interfered in 
 favor of Isabella, if she could 
 have consented to exile her 
 hated favorite Marfori, or to 
 abdicate in favor of her son, 
 the prince of Asturia. Isabella 
 however was convinced that a 
 longer stay on Spanish soil might prove dangerous. She therefore departed for 
 France, accompanied by her feeble husband, her favorite, Marfori, her confessor. 
 Father Claret, and a numerous train of courtiers. 
 
 § 611. When the court had departed, the old parties reappeared. While the 
 government held fast to the nionarchj', and, like the Belgians and the Greeks in former 
 da3-s, looked abroad for a king, the republicans grew stronger in the south, and the 
 Carlists of the north proclaimed Don Carlos King of Spain, under the title of Charles 
 VII. The Carlist uprising had little success, but the republicans were, with difficulty, 
 jfov. ises. suppressed by the Government. The election to the Cortes, in 1869, 
 resulted in favor of the monarchists. But whom should they select as king? There 
 were three Bourbon claimants. Prince Alphonso of Asturia, to whom his mother Isa- 
 bella transferred her rights, Don Carlos, the choice of the legitimists, and tlie Duke of 
 
 ISABELLA II. 
 
FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 725 
 
 Montpensier. But no one of the three had any favor with the people. And the king 
 of Portugal showed no desire for the Spanish throne, nor for a union of the two peoples. 
 The government was accordingly conducted as a republic. The Cortes, after stormy 
 debates, adopted a new constitution, which provided for an hereditary king, with a 
 jTH.ie 1, 1S69. senate and a house of representatives, and guaranteed to the nation all 
 the fundamental rights of a free people. A regency now became imperative. Mar- 
 shal Serrano was called to this dignity. Prim was made prime-minister, and General 
 Dulce was made captain general of Cuba, in order to reduce that rebellious island to 
 submission. Many attempts were made to procure a monarch. The offer of the 
 crown to the Prince of Hohenzollern was the occasion of a terrible war between 
 Prance and Germany. Finally the Spanish constitution was crowned by the choice of 
 xov. 1870. Amadeus, the second son of Victor Ennnanuel, king of Italy. But 
 nee. 27. beforc the chosen monarch entered his new kingdom, General Prim 
 was assassinated. The murderers were never discovered. Possibly the "king-maker" 
 was a victim of republican revenge, possibly of an assassin hired by the legitimist 
 «mio'rants. 
 
 II. THE FRANCO-GERMAN WAR OF 1870, AND THE NEW GERMAN 
 
 EMPIRE. 
 
 §615. 
 
 I S we have seen already, France desired to annex the grand-duchy 
 of Luxemburg, and sought to pursuade Prussia to give up the left 
 bank of the Rhine. When these projects failed, she offered an 
 alliance, by means of which she could, herself, get possession of 
 Belgium, while Germany was to be allowed to incorporate the 
 South-German states into the newly formed Union. At the same 
 time, she sought to hinder the building of the St. Gothard railroad 
 which was to unite Germany, Switzerland, and Italy. As all these plans failed, a 
 trivial cause was made the ground of a terrible war. The Spanish people, as we 
 know, drove out their queen in the year 1868, and were looking for a king. In their 
 extremity they offered their crown to Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern. This prince 
 was, through his mother, nearly related to the Bonaparte family, although he belonged 
 to a collateral branch of the Prussian house. The Emperor Napoleon, who would have 
 been glad to have seen the throne of Spain in the hands of Isabella's son, saw, or pre- 
 tended to see, in the candidacy of a Hohenzollern, an attempt to increase the power 
 and influence of Prussia, and threatened war if this plan was not abandoned. The 
 Prince thereupon declined the Spanish crown, and King William approved his course. 
 stiiu t3, ts7o. But the cabinet at Paris was not satisfied. The French ambassador, 
 Benedetti. sought out the aged monarch at ,Ems, and demanded from him a pledge 
 that he would never justif3% in any event, such a disposal of the Spanish crown. The 
 King, indignant at such a demand, refused to receive the ambassador a second time, 
 and this refusal was regarded at Paris as a ground of war. 
 
 § 616. Wcirth, Metz, Sedan. The French government hoped and believed that 
 the war would be at least confined to Prussia and France. Indeed, they hoped to 
 
726 
 
 RECENT HISTORY. 
 
 make alliances with the South German states, and the discontented princes of the 
 North-German Union.' But in this they were greatly disappointed. When war was 
 jTuiy la, 1S70. declared in Paris, all Germany rose against the French undertaking. 
 In his speech from the throne, King William declared that he relied, with the greatest 
 confidence, upon the unanimity of the German princes of the South and of the North, 
 
 PRINCE LEOPOLD. 
 
 and that the patriotism of the German people would not be slow to defend the national 
 honor and independence. Not only in Baden, but in Hesse, in Wiirtemburg, and Ba- 
 varia, the war was accepted as a necessity. The means for its prosecution were imme- 
 diately and enthusiastically voted, and all the armies of Germany united under the 
 banner of the Prussian king, and hurried forward to the field of battle. The- 
 " Watch on the Rhine " became a national anthem. Fortunately for Baden, the- 
 
FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 
 
 727 
 
 French were by no means prepared for war, and were unable to cross the Rhine. 
 Under the splendid strategy of Count Moltke and his staff, the land to the west of the 
 river became the theatre of war. 
 
 In the first week of August a skirmish took place at Saarbriicken, where the 
 heir to the French throne received his "baptism of fire." The French army of the 
 Rhine, under the command of Marshal MacMahon, Duke of Magenta, was attacked 
 
 THE RIDE TO THE DEATH AT THE BATTLE OF SEDAN. {E. Huenten.) 
 
 by the Prussians, Bavarians, and other German troops under the command of the 
 Atig. 4-«, 1S70. Crown-prince at Weissenburg, and completely annihilated at the battle 
 of Worth, while the army of General Frossard was defeated by the army of Prince 
 Frederick Karl in a terrible battle at Spicherer Heights, and driven into the fortified 
 city of Metz. Meanwhile Bazaine pushed further westward, in order to unite with 
 the troops at Chalons. To prevent this the Prussians, under Steinmetz, attacked the 
 
728 
 
 RECENT HISTORY. 
 
 French to the east of the Moselle, while the second army, under Prince Frederick 
 Karl, pushed southward by forced marches to head off the French army. Ra/.aine 
 felt compelled, under 
 these circumstances, 
 to deliver battle be- 
 fore all the German 
 armies could concen- 
 trate. This precipi- 
 tated the decisive 
 battle at Gravelotte, 
 .til!/. IS, 1870. in which 
 the French, in spite 
 of their strong posi- 
 tion on the left bank 
 of the Moselle, were 
 completely beaten by 
 the German forces un- 
 der the King's com- 
 mand. Tlie French 
 Emperor and his son 
 succeeded in escaping 
 to Chalons, whither 
 MacMahon had re- 
 tired, with the rem- 
 nants of the army of 
 the Rhine. The bat- 
 tle of St. Privat, 
 where the victory 
 was won by the deci - 
 sive action of the 
 Saxons under the 
 Crown-prince Albert, 
 put an end forever 
 to the discord be- 
 tween Prussia and 
 Saxony. The bloody 
 battles in front of 
 Metz forced Marshal 
 Bazaine first to shut 
 himself up within (he 
 walls of Metz, and 
 finally to surrender 
 his entire army. But 
 before he capitulated, 
 
 the Emperor attempted to relieve him by a bold march to the north. MacMahon 
 grave doubts of the success of this enterprise. But the regency in Paris, in wl 
 
 had 
 lieh 
 
FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 
 
 729 
 
 the Empress Eugenie had the decisive voice, insisted upon its execution. The plan 
 was clear enough to the German commanders. Their army consequently interrupted 
 its march to the west, and moved northward in order to unite with the army of the 
 
 King Enormous 
 armies were now 
 crowded together in 
 the valley of the 
 Mcuse, where the 
 battle of Sedan was 
 H<-jit. i-x, ts'io. fought 
 on the 1st of Septem- 
 bor, 1870. The 
 French were so com- 
 pletely surrounded, 
 that Napoleon him- 
 self offered liis sword 
 to King William of 
 Prussia, and General 
 Wimpffen, who com- 
 manded the army in 
 place of the wounded 
 Marshal MacMahon, 
 concluded a cafjitula- 
 tion, in which liis 
 whole arniy of one 
 S hundi-ed thfjusand 
 ^ men, forty genei'als 
 ? and five thousand 
 officers, with all the 
 ammunitions of war, 
 cannon, and horses 
 was surrendered to 
 tlie victor. The lines 
 about Metz were now 
 drawn still closer. 
 Before the end of 
 September, the Ger- 
 man armies were in 
 front of Paris, and 
 the Prussian king 
 took up his residence 
 ill the splendid 
 salons of Versailles, 
 where every picture reminded him of the glories of France. 
 
 §617. The French Repullic. pjut the war now took a new direction. The Emperor 
 Napoleon had hardly reached the rooms at Cassel, in which his uncle Jerome had spent 
 
730 
 
 RECENT HISTORY. 
 
 six merry j'ears, before the imperial government was destroyed by a revolution. The 
 Sept. 4, 1S70. Empress fled to England, vi^here the imperial prince soon joined her. 
 In Paris "a Government of National Defence" was formed bymembeis of the opposi- 
 tion, and these immediately announced their determination to surrender, "no foot of 
 our land and no stone of our fortresses." The war pursued its course. The memories 
 of the great revolution filled the men of the third republic with the belief that they 
 too would be invincible. A general conscription was ordered like that which, under 
 Carnot, had led to the conquest of Europe. Gambetta, the hot-blooded young lawj'er 
 from southern France, organized a reign of terror. The entire male population, to 
 the age of forty years, was called out, and France was converted into a camp. Every 
 defeat was branded as treason. But the guillotine was not called into operation. 
 The French republic unfolded an energy which astonished the world. Paris endured 
 the horrors of a four months' siege, sub- 
 mitting willingly to the greatest hard- 
 sliips, and to complete isolation from 
 the rest of the world. Strong armies 
 were collected in the north, and along 
 the Loire, to drive the Germans from 
 the sacred soil of France. Strasburg 
 was surrendered on the 28th of Sep- 
 tember. The starving city of Metz 
 capitulated on the 27th of October. 
 But the spirit of the French was still 
 unbroken ; Bazaine was denounced as 
 a traitor, and even Uhrich, who com- 
 manded at Strasburg. did not escape 
 suspicion. Gambetta, who had escaped 
 from Paris, issued his edicts from Tours 
 and Bordeaux. Even the old Garilialdi 
 left his island, and collected a motley 
 company from all lands and of all 
 tongues, to fight for the independence 
 of France. Many battles were fought ; 
 hunger and cold and disease wasted away the suffering troops ; but they would not 
 Dee. 91, ts7o. give Up the fight. Trochu, who was in command at Paris, sought to 
 break through the line of the besiegers, and to reach the armies in the provinces. 
 Gambetta marched armies from all parts of France toward Paris, and sent, at the same 
 time, an army from the south to relieve Belfort, and to break through into Alsace, 
 and across the Rhine to Baden. But it was all in vain. General Werder and his 
 heroic soldiers, defended the mountain passes with a courage and endurance never to 
 be forgotten. 
 
 § 618. The New G-erman Empire. The true reward for this courage of the German 
 army must be a nobler political existence. The time had now come for the German peo- 
 ples to form one nation. Toward the close of the year, Bismarck, the chancellor of the 
 Union, concluded treaties with the ambassadors of the South German governments, which 
 agreed that the constitution of the North German Union should be introdnced into 
 
 LEON GAMBETTA. 
 
732 
 
 RECENT HISTORY. 
 
 Ijavaria and Wiirtemburg, and into the grand duchies of Baden and Hesse. The leg 
 islatures of all four states ratified these treaties. Tlie King of Bavaria thereupon 
 suggested to the German princes that the imperial crown should be offeied to the King 
 
 of Prussia. A depu- 
 tatioii from the 
 Reichstag, headed by 
 the former president 
 of the National As- 
 sembly, that met at 
 Frankfort, in 1848, 
 proceeded to Ver- 
 sailles to offer their 
 congratulations t o 
 the aged monarch ; 
 and all German}' re- 
 joiced wliea the Ger- 
 man Emjiire was es- 
 tablished, and Will- 
 iam I. was proclaimed 
 the Emperor of Ger- 
 many. The solemn 
 proclamation was 
 jTiiii. IS, 1S71. made 
 in the splendid hall 
 of mirrors, in the 
 castle of Versailles. 
 
 § 619. The Bom- 
 bardment of jPa?-is. 
 During these diplo- 
 matic labors, and 
 great political events, 
 the war proceeded 
 without interruption. 
 Moltke had graduall}' 
 brought together im- 
 mense stores, and can- 
 non of great range, 
 the like of which had 
 never been seen. 
 Twelve batteries, 
 with seventj'-six ter- 
 rible cannon, were 
 
 erected during Cliristmas week, and the cannonading was begun. In two days, Mt. 
 
 Avron, the key of Paris, was abandoned ; and terror and confusion took possession of 
 
 the excited city, as the forts on the east were lained upon by an incessant fire. A few 
 
 j^an. B, tail. days later, the forts on the south were overwhelmed with a shower of 
 
734 RECENT HISTORY. 
 
 iron hail. Bombs exploded in the suburbs and in portions of the city itself, although 
 the batteries were five miles distant. A bombardment from such a distance had been 
 thought^mpossible. A crj' of rage and of horror went up from the people, against the 
 barbarians who were seeking to destroy the metropolis of civilization. With one ac- 
 cord the}' demanded that Trochu, who was still in command, should make an effort to 
 break through the German lines. On the 19th of January, the sally was attempted. 
 One hundred thousand men were brought together, and with heroic courage made the 
 desperate effort. It almost succeeded, but General Ducrot arrived too late ; the vic- 
 torious van-guard was beaten back after a desperate fight of seven murderous hours. 
 The French returned to Paris, having lost more than seven thousand in dead and 
 wounded. The next daj' Trochu sought for a truCe that he might bury his dead. 
 
 § 620. The Truce of Paris. The Parisians had put their last hope in this at- 
 tempt to break through the German lines. When it failed, the starving city gave way 
 to desperation. Capitulation was at hand, but as Trochu had sworn that he would 
 never give up the citj-, he turned over the command to Vinoy. Worn out with hun- 
 ger, shells bursting over their heads, the lower classes of the city ready for an up- 
 jTan. ita, isji. rising, the citizens determined, with great reluctance, to send Jules 
 Favre to negotiate a peace. It was perhajxs the hardest moment in the life of this 
 noble patriot, when he was led through the German lines for an interview with Count 
 Bismarck. It was finally agreed between the two statesmen, that on the 27th of Jan- 
 uary, at midnight, the firing should cease on both sides, and all the forts of Paris be 
 surrendered to the Germans. A three weeks' truce should follow, in order that a 
 National Assembly might be chosen, and the terms of peace agreed upon. Gambetta 
 attempted to restrict the free choice of representatives, by excluding the imperialists 
 from the polls ; but Prince Bismarck protested against this as a violation of the agree- 
 ment, whereupon Gambetta gave up his dictatorship. In Paris, the wagon loads of 
 provisions were greeted with joy. Nevertheless, the population broke out into up- 
 braidings against Trochu, Gambetta, and the Government of the National Defence. 
 All these were traitors. They had surrendered the city without a cause. 
 
 § 621. Destruction of the Army of the East. The Truce of Paris did not include 
 Belfort. Jules Favre agreed to this, upon condition that the army of Bourbaki should 
 also be free to continue operations. 
 
 This was willingly accepted by Von Moltke, as Manteuffel had already received 
 orders to attack Bourbaki, and to drive him to the Swiss frontiers. His retreat soon 
 became a rout. The number of prisoners was fifteen thousand, and the snow fields 
 were covered with dead and wounded. Bourbaki, overwhelmed with reproaches by 
 Gambetta, attempted his own life. General Clinchant then agreed with the Swiss 
 general, Herzog, to disband his army, if his soldiers were permitted to cross into 
 Switzerland. In long trains the disarmed troops moved through the passes of the 
 Jura, and were taken care of by the sympathizing people of the republic. " This is the 
 fourth French armj'," said King William, " which has been put out of the field." 
 
 § 622. Belfort and the Preliminaries of Versailles. The surrender of the forts of 
 Paris, and the destruction of Bouibaki's army, brought the war to a close. Gambetta 
 was denounced as "the organizer of defeats," and the people demanded peace. The 
 National Assembly met at Bordeaux, on the 12th of February. Republicans and 
 monarchists were both agreed that a further prosecution of the war would only in- 
 
736 
 
 RECENT HISTORY. 
 
 crease the national misery. Grevy was elected president, Jules Favre and his col- 
 leagues surrendered their authority to the representatives of the people, and a pro- 
 visional governmeut was created, in which Thiers exercised the chief executive 
 
 authority. But the truce had almost 
 expired. The term was protracted, only 
 upon condition that Belfort should be 
 surrendered. In consideration of their 
 magnificent courage, the garrison were 
 permitted to march, out with the honors 
 of war. But as Gambetta was still lead- 
 ing a war party, and as even General 
 Chanzy was of the opinion that France was 
 strong enough to continue the war, the 
 truce was extended for a short time only. 
 The new government, however, favored an 
 honorable peace. The protest of the 
 Alsatians was passed over, yet with great 
 reluctance. A commission of fifteen 
 jFefc. to, 1811. members was chosen to 
 assist the ministry in their negotiations 
 for peace. These were long and difficult. 
 Count Bismarck insisted upon the cession 
 of Alsace and Lorraine, including Metz. Thiers proposed the destruction of the frontier 
 fortifications, or to refer the question to arbitration, but the Chancellor refused all in- 
 tervention, and reluctantly consented that Belfort should be separated from the rest of 
 
 A. THIERS. 
 
 THE PALACE AT VERSAILLES. 
 
 Alsace, and remain in French possession. The French agreed to pay the costs of the 
 war, amounting to a thousand million dollars, the whole to be paid within three years, 
 and the German troops to remain in France until the final payment was made. To 
 
FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 
 
 737 
 
 appease French pride, only a partial entry was made into Paris. The French were 
 sagacious enough not to accept the German offer, to remain out of Paris if they were 
 permitted to retain Belfort. These preliminaries were agreed upon at Versailles, on 
 the 26th of Feb., and the truce prolonged until the 6th of March. The National As- 
 sembly was reconvened, and Thiers began, amid painful silence, to read the conditions 
 of peace ; but the emotion of the aged statesman was too great for him to finish the 
 reading. Quinet and Victor Hugo protested eloquently and passionately against the 
 mutilation of France, but rhetoric cannot overcome armies, and the preliminaries of 
 
 iH-«.-c/t 1, 1S71. peace were adopted by a vote 
 of five Imndred and forty-six against one hund- 
 red and seven. Thus ended the bloody war 
 between France and Germany. Two hundred 
 thousand French soldiers were in German 
 fortresses and barracks as prisoners of war. 
 Thousands of cannon had been captured and 
 hundreds of battle-flags and imperial eagles. 
 The line of fortifications, extending from the 
 Rhine to the English Channel, upon which the 
 French government had labored for two cen- 
 turies, together with the supposed invincible 
 works of Paris, of Strasburg, and of Metz, 
 were all in the hands of German commanders. 
 
 § 623. The Commune of Paris. On the 
 1st of March, while the National Assembly at 
 Bordeaux was voting upon the conditions of 
 peace, the German troops marched into the 
 western portion of the French capital. A few 
 days afterward, Versailles was abandoned, and 
 the German Emperor started for home. The 
 treaty between France and Germany was re- 
 ceived by the French population with mixed 
 feelings. The monarchists, the moderate re- 
 publicans, and the people of the provinces 
 greeted the news of peace with thankful satis- 
 faction ; but the radicals, the social democrats, 
 and the masses of the great cities, exclaimed 
 passionately about cowardice and treason. And 
 the dethroned Emperor added to the confusion 
 and the irritation, by a manifest protesting 
 against the action of the National Assembly. 
 Certain sections of Paris were full of uproar, and the National Guard refused to lay down 
 their arms and to obey the orders of the National Assembly. A number of republican 
 representatives resigned their places, and the excitement became greater when the 
 National Assembly removed the seat of government from Paris to Versailles. The 
 city of Paris now broke into revolution, A central committee of the National Guard 
 proclaimed the Commune of Paris, and began an armed resistance to the govern- 
 47 
 
 THE GERMANIA MONUMENT ON THE 
 NIEDERWALD. 
 
738 RECENT HISTORY. 
 
 ment. A terrible civil war ensued. The insurgents murdered two generals, Leeomte 
 and Thomas. They fired uj^on unarmed citizens ; they levied contributions upon the 
 banks and the railroad corporations ; they declared the property of religious societies 
 the property of the state ; they devastated the home of Thiers ; they imprisoned the 
 arch-bishop of Paris with many other conspicuous clergymen and citizens ; they tore 
 down the Vendome column, and set fire to the Tuileries, the Louvre, the Luxem- 
 burg, the City Hall, the ministerial buildings ; in short, plundered and destroyed 
 without thought and without restraint. The Arch-bishop Darboy and many others 
 who had been arrested were cruelly shot. The streets were stained with blood and 
 strewn with corpses, and when the government troops finally suppressed the Com- 
 munists, military courts were established, which excited the world for months, by their 
 condemnations to exile and to death. 
 
 § 624. The Peace of Frankfort, and the Feeling in Germany. The Germans did 
 not interfere with the civil war, as both sides carefully avoided the violation of the 
 treaty. The struggle continued, and the negotiations also. At first at Brussels and 
 afterward at Frankfort. A treaty was finally agreed upon, in the latter city, and the 
 news was greeted throughout Germany with great enthusiasm. On the 21st of March, 
 1871, representatives from all Germany, from the north and from the south assembled 
 in Berlin to deliberate upon the laws, and to determine the form of the new Germany ; 
 to establish a government for Alsace and Lorraine ; and to make provision for the in- 
 Talid soldiers, and for the families of those who had fallen in battle. 
 
 in. HISTORICAL SURVEY. 
 
 a. KETEOSPECT OF LITEKAKY AND SCIENTIFIC CULTURE. 
 
 § 625. Literary Changes. Heine. 
 
 I OMANTICISM, with its enthusiasm for the Middle Age, soon be- 
 came a mere reminiscence. Her apostles cared nothing for the 
 people, and the people cared nothing for Romanticism. But the 
 literature of democracy soon aroused the masses, by its attacks 
 upon all existing institutions of church and state. The Jews 
 were conspicuous in the radical ranks. Ludwig Borne, distin- 
 guished for his diction and critical skill, and Heinrich Heine, a 
 gifted poet, were the most eminent of these Semitic writers. Heine especially at- 
 tracted attention by his pathos, his biting wit, his intellectual swiftness and power, the 
 splendor of his diction, and the singular beauty which broke forth from pages often 
 marred by coarse invective and reckless diatribes. Close upon Heine followed Young 
 Germany, in the person of Karl Gutzkow, Heinrich Laube, and many others. They 
 sought a merry life rather than a nobler one ; the old pagan virtues, rather than the 
 Christian ideals. With a wanton enthusiasm 'for their mistress. Progress, they scoffed 
 at self-sacrifice, caring more for the forms of art, than for spiritual significance. They 
 lacked the energy and the sagacity for statecraft, yet delighted in politics. Hence 
 their shrewd and effective criticisms of existing social and political conditions. Hence, 
 
FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 
 
 739 
 
 A.iiei'bach, 
 
 1S12-1SSH. 
 
 too, the vagueness of their political ideals and their feebleness in constructive re- 
 forms. 
 
 A group of serious writers came iiearer to the popular heart, and wrought mightily 
 as producers of unrest. Herwegh, with his " Poems of a Living Soul," Von Fallersleben, 
 with his " Songs of the People," Prutz, Diugelstedt, Freiligrath, and others, gave expres- 
 sion to the passionate longing of the age for social transformation, for a paradise on 
 earth, for an escape from misery, and a share in material pleasure. 
 
 Berthold Auerbach, the translator of Spinoza, and the author of " Little Barefoot," 
 was a Jewish child of the Black Forest. His pictures of German do- 
 mestic life, among the peasants, and in court circles, are a beautiful 
 unhei, 1S1S-1SS2. blcuding of reminiscences of reality and ideal suggestion. Kinkel is 
 
 known for his political martyrdom 
 and his lyrical poetry ; Hebbel for 
 wehhei, tsi3-is63. his wlld, passioH- 
 ate, and powerfully repulsive 
 dramas. Emmanuel Geibel is 
 eieibei, 181S-1SS4. the poet of loyalty 
 and conservative feeling ; so too 
 nedwits, h. 1SS3. is Oscar Von Red- 
 witz. 
 
 Paul Heyse is famous for his 
 
 Hei/se, 6. 1S30-. novcls and ro- 
 
 mances " Children of the World," 
 
 " Paradise," and for his dramatic 
 
 poems, especially the " Sabine 
 
 Boneiiateat, Women." Franz 
 
 jt. 1S10-. Bodenstedt made 
 
 careful studies of the Orient, which 
 
 he reproduced in his poems. Riehl 
 
 niKia, b. 1823-. is the founder of 
 
 the later historical novel, which 
 
 has been brought to perfection hy 
 
 Felix Dahn, in his " Struggle for 
 
 Rome." Spielhagen and Freytag 
 
 are renowned for their novels, but 
 
 Beiiter 1S10-1S14. Fritz Reutcr is 
 
 His Uncle Brosig is as wonderful as Fal- 
 
 ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT. 
 
 easily chief of modern German humorists 
 staff, and a world more lovable. 
 
 The first of Austrian poets in our century is Grillparzer, although his genius re- 
 X3eived little recognition during his lifetime. Hamerling, the author of " Aspasia," and 
 Franzos, who wrote the " Struggle for Justice," are also Austrians. Among the dis- 
 tiuguislied literary women of Germany, in the nineteenth century, were Heine's friend, 
 Rahel, the wife of Varnhagen von Ense, Goethe's friend, Bettina von Arnim, the Count- 
 ess Hahn-Hahn, Fanny Lewald, and Bertha von Suttner, the author of " Ground Arms." 
 
 § 626. In theolog\^ De Wette and Schleiermacher sought to reconcile the eternal 
 antithesis of the natural and supernatural. But Strauss and Feuerbach, both disciples 
 
r40 
 
 RECENT HISTORY. 
 
 sciiieiermacher, of Hegel, Startled the world, the former with his " Life of Jesus," the 
 
 nes-isa-i, latter with his " Essence of Christianity." This led to a reaction, 
 strmiss, isos-1874. which divided into pietism and strict orthodoxy. The latter was 
 strongly supported by the Prussian government. 
 
 Baron von Bunsen struck out a freer path, and the liberal elements of the evan- 
 gelical churjh formed the Protestant Union for mutual help and protection. All ef- 
 forts to enlarge and liberalize the Catholic church were thwarted by the dominant ul- 
 tra montane and Jesuitical influences. 
 
 § 627. Philosophy found great historians in Rittcr, Trendelenburg, Kuno Fischer, 
 
 tito-ts^t. and most won- #";>.-, ~ 
 
 derful of all, Edward Zeller. 
 Herbart, the successor of the 
 immortal Kant, at Konigsberg, 
 sought a basis for pedagogy, in 
 a more thorough acquaintance 
 with the workings of the human 
 
 ScHoitenUaiier, SOul; wllilc 
 
 liss-tseo. Schopenhauer 
 produced his famous treatise 
 " The World as Will and Per- 
 ception." 
 
 But the great triumphs of 
 scientific inquiry, outside of 
 the physical sciences, have been | 
 in the field of history. Von 
 
 Banke, Raukc, Curtius, 
 t7»s-iss6. Mommsen, Ihne, 
 Waitz, Hausser, Giesebrecht 
 are all illustrious names. More 
 recently Harnack, by his mag- 
 nificent work upon Christian 
 dogma, has opened a new epoch 
 in ecclesiastical history. 
 
 Savigny, with his history 
 of " Roman Law in the Middle 
 Ages," Bluntschli, with his 
 "International Law," and 
 Gneist, with his " Studies in Constitutional History," have added new lustre to Ger- 
 man jurisprudence. 
 
 § 628. But the natural and exact sciences have surpassed all the others, even 
 juex. Bumboiat, history not excepted. Alexander von Humboldt leads the splendid 
 
 i7eo-is5». column, and behind him come Arago of France, and Darwin of Eng- 
 narwin, isoo-isss. land. Gauss, the founder of the new mathematics, the astronomers 
 Herschel, father and son, Kirchhoff and Bunsen, the discoverers of spectral analysis, 
 voita, i74s-issi. Volta, inventor of the famous pile, Mayer, the expounder of the con- 
 servation of energy, Gay-Lussac, the chemist of France, and Faraday, the great scien- 
 
 CHARLES DARWIN. 
 
FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 
 
 741 
 
 tific genius of England, Helmholtz, master of many sciences, and Virchow, statesman 
 and physiologist, renowned in both spheres. 
 
 h. The Technical Inventions of Our Time. 
 
 § 629. The application of steam to machinery, and the utilization of electricity 
 have transformed the world. 
 
 James Watt was tlie first to improve the rude steam pump into an instrument of 
 universal power. Arkwright followed with his power loom. And the two Stephen- 
 sons with the locomotive. Robert Fulton invented the side wheel steamboat, which 
 has developed into the twin and triple-screw steamship, that crosses the Atlantic in 
 
 less than a week. The Alps are now 
 crossed by four railroads, and the 
 Rocky Mountains by as many. Som- 
 merring and Morse, Joseph Henry, 
 and George Grove, are names illus- 
 trious in the history of the magnetic 
 telegraph, while Bell is associated in- 
 separably with the telephone ; Edison 
 and Siemens with the electric light 
 and the electric motor. 
 
 §630. Political Economy. Adam 
 Smith was the founder of scientific 
 political economy. His " Wealth of 
 Nations," published in 1776, was an 
 epoch making book. Malthus fol- 
 lowed with a theory of population, 
 exasperatingly true, and Ricardo, 
 with a theory of rent, equally irri- 
 tating and irrefutable. John Stuart 
 Mill synthesized their contributions 
 into a system, and Bastiat, in France, 
 expounded them with optimistic ad- 
 ditions and modifications, and ren- 
 dered them exceedingly attractive 
 by his wit and eloquence. 
 Fichte wrote a treatise, in which he urged a system of national restriction, and 
 List followed him in his opposition to Free Trade. Roscher, of Leipzig, is the chief of 
 the historical school, while Boehm-Bawertz of Vienna, has made an analysis of value, 
 which has attracted great attention. Karl Marx, in his " Capital," attempted a scien- 
 tific basis of socialism, and his difficult but powerful work is tlie Bible of the disorgan- 
 izers of the present industrial system. Schulze-Delitzsch founded in Germany a num- 
 ber of co-operative societies, seeking, by practical measures, to relieve and benefit the 
 working classes. A few have followed him, but the multitudes of Germany have fol- 
 lowed Marx and Lassalle. In France, St. Simon and Fourier are the popular idols ; 
 these taught, early in the century, their theories of communal industry, and equal dis- 
 tribution of the products of labor. In Russia, Bakunin urged a system of Nihilism, or 
 
742 
 
 RECENT HISTORY. 
 
 the destruction of existing institutions as the beginning of a new social state. In 
 England and America, these doctrines are gradually spreading, and their influence 
 upon the democratic institutions of the two countries is watched with solicitude by 
 students of political development. 
 
 § 631. The naturalist, the merchant, the missionary, and the journalist have dis- 
 covered the " Dark Continent." Barth of Hamburg, and Vogel of Leipzig, David 
 Livingstone, and Henrj^ Stanley, have won for themselves imperishable renown, by 
 their African journeys. The coasts of Africa are lined with colonies, and the Free 
 
 DAAaD LIVINGSTONE. 
 
 State of Congo occupies the heart of the continent on both sides of the Congo_ river, 
 Speke, Grant, and Baker discovered the long-hidden sources of the Nile in great lakes 
 beyond the equator, and the snow-clad mountains by which they are fed. 
 
 In 1884, Germany founded colonies in Africa, in spite of the saA^ages and the 
 Arabs, by whom the settlers were harassed. The troubles from these sources led to 
 imperial protection in 1889. The Dutch and the English are strong in southern and 
 eastern Africa, but they, too, have serious difSculty with the climate and the savages. 
 
 § 632. Australia, which was first discovered b}^ 'Captain Cook more than a cen- 
 tury ago, now consists of a number of English colonies. 
 
FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 
 
 743 
 
 Polar expeditions still have their attractions 
 to the expedition of Dr. Kane, and in 
 recent times Nordenskjold, Weyprecht, 
 Greeley, and others have sought knowl- 
 edge and fame among the ice-bergs and 
 the northern lights. 
 
 § 633. The First Reichstag of the 
 Neiv Umpire and the Political Parties. 
 The creation of the German Empire 
 astonished and perplexed the rest of 
 Europe, especially as it was accompanied 
 with the military overthrow of France. 
 The center of political gravity had been 
 removed from Paris to Berlin, and other 
 nations regarded this change with sus- 
 picion and alarm. Within the era^jire, 
 there were not a few who were opposed 
 to a consolidated union under the lead 
 of militarj' Prussia. It was plain there- 
 fore, that the empire must fight for its 
 life. In the first debates, a number of 
 representatives showed a desire' to re- 
 store the papacy to its old authority as 
 compensation for this restoration of the 
 empire. The leaders of this clerical 
 party were Windthorstof Hanover, and 
 Bishop Ketteler of Mayence. They called themselves the 
 
 The fate of Sir Jolm Franklin led 
 
 SIR SAMUEL BAKER. 
 
 Party of the Center," and 
 gathered about them the discontented of every 
 sort. But the Catholic church itself, was not free 
 from dissensions. When the decrees of the Vati- 
 j«r«>-o/. as, is-ii. can Council were published, the 
 great historian, Dollinger, addressed a letter to 
 the arch-bishop of Munich, in which he declared 
 that the new dogma of the infallibility of the pope 
 was contrary to the Holy Scriptures and to the 
 traditions of the Church. If it were adopted by 
 the Catholics of Germany, it would be the begin- 
 ning of a cancer, which would destroy the new 
 empire, as the old one had been destroyed. In 
 most of the German states, great care had been 
 taken in legislation for the schools, and the eman- 
 cipation of the school-system from the church 
 had been partially or wholly completed. When, 
 now, the affairs of Alsace and Lorraine came 
 up for discussion, the clerical party attacked, 
 
f44 RECENT HISTORY. 
 
 with great bitterness, the changes which had been made in the instruction of the 
 young. 
 
 § 634. After the adjournment of the first Reichstag of the Empire, the great tri- 
 June i«, 1S71. umphal cntrj iuto Bcrliu took place. The festival was imitated in 
 several of the German capitals, notably in Munich, where the King of Bavaria and 
 the Crown-prince of the German Empire met together, and cemented the union of the 
 south and of the north in an enduring personal friendship. Bavaria joined Prussia 
 also in her resistance to the Ultra-montane clericals. In 1872, Prince Bismarck began 
 the foreign policy which has preserved the peace of the empire for more than two dec- 
 ades. He convinced the other nations that Germany would not be aggressive, but 
 would always be prepared. New fortifications were erected at Strasburg and in Metz, 
 and the military system of Germany was reorganized according to Prussian models. 
 Bismarck sought also the friendship of Austria, and obtained it in spite of the hostil. 
 it)'^ of the aristocracy, of the ultra-montanes, and of the non-German races. In Russia 
 the population was, for the most part, hostile to the new order 6f things in Germany, 
 while the court was well disposed. This led Bismarck to promote the meeting of the 
 septembei; 1872. thrcB cmperors in Berlin, and led further tt the proclamation of a cor- 
 dial understanding between the three great dynasties of central and eastern Europe. 
 May, isjs. Nor was Italy neglected. A visit of the Crown-prince and of the 
 Crown-princess of Italy gave opportunity to strengtnen he alliance, to which the 
 House of Savoy was so much indebted. The Scandinavian kingdoms were conciliated, 
 and no pains were spared to heal the wounds caused by the struggle over Schleswig- 
 Holstein. 
 
 § 635. King Frederick William IV. had been surrounded by a High-Church party, 
 who had helped him in his efforts to strengthen the Catholic church in Prussia. The 
 Catholic clergy were really freer in Protestant Prussia, than in the Catholic states, and 
 they had established ever3'where in North Germany their monasteries and congrega- 
 tions. The minister of religious affairs. Von Miihler, was one of the leaders of this 
 reaction, and one of the principle supports of the Catholic party. He was finally 
 January, 1S73. drivcn to resigu, and his place taken by Falk, an enei'getic, bold, and 
 sagacious statesman, who introduced a new school law, wliich brought the entire sys- 
 tem of instruction under the control of the state, put an end to the dependence of the 
 public schools upon the church, and regulated carefully the part of the'clergy in relig- 
 ious instruction, and the moral education of the young. This law was passed by the 
 House of Representatives, but met with violent opposition in the upper House, not only 
 from the ultra-montanes, but from all the forces of reaction. It required all the per- 
 sonal influence of Bismarck and Falk to carry through their proposition. An attempt 
 was made to conciliate the Pope, by sending Cardinal Hohenlohe to represent the Ger- 
 man empire at Rome, but the Pope refused to receive him. It was proposed to abol- 
 ish the embass}^ but Prince Bismarck preferred, he said, to regulate the differences of 
 state and church by means of legislation. It was in this connection that he made the 
 famous remark, "We are not going to Canossa! " At the same time he issued a man- 
 ifest, touching the relation of the temporal government to the election of future popes. 
 The German bishops now united in a declaration against the Chancellor. This pro- 
 duced great excitement, and was soon followed by a law abolishing the houses of the 
 Jesuits, and excluding the members of the order from the German empire. 
 
FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 745 
 
 § 636. Reforms, in other spheres, met with like opposition. The six eastern prov- 
 inces of the monarchy suffered greatly from remnants of feudal privilege. These, the 
 Prussian government determined to abolish, and introduced for that purpose a new sys- 
 tem of local government. This was adopted by the lower House, but rejected in the 
 upper by a solid phalanx of the nobility. Thereupon the government created twenty- 
 five new members, by whose help the new S5rstem was voted through. King William 
 consented to this measure with great reluctance, but it was the only means by which 
 the feudal spirit could be broken. In the beginning of 1873, the Prussian bishops and 
 the Prussian government were in deadly strife. New laws became necessary, by which 
 the rights and liberties of the citizens could be protected against a priesthood armed 
 with such great powers of discipline and excommunication. These laws provided for 
 the scientific education of the Catholic clergy, for the confirmation of clerical appoint- 
 ments by the state, and for a tribunal, in which the conduct of the bishops might 
 be revised. They were passed by the House of Representatives by a great major- 
 itjs but in the House of Lords, the personal power and the impressive eloquence 
 of the Chancellor were both needed to overcome the opposition. These laws, known 
 as the Mat Laws, embittered the strife between the bishops and the state. 
 
 § 637. At once the bishops assumed a hostile attitude, issued addresses, memoirs, 
 and declarations, prophesying that neither bishops, priests, nor believers would submit 
 to such laws. They refused to permit the government to inspect the seminaries, 
 in which young priests were educated, and to notify the state when they ap- 
 pointed a priest to a vacant parish, as the laws required. They continued to make 
 their appointments without regard to the laws, whereupon the government forbade 
 their appointees to perform the Church service. This provoked a conflict, which ex- 
 tended throughout the whole kingdom. Many arch-bishops and bishops were sent to 
 prison ; many were deposed, among them the two arch-bishops ; and in the future, 
 bishops were to be recognized and placed in possession of their revenues, only after 
 taking an oath of allegiance, and promising to obey the laws. The first to take this 
 oath was Bishop Reinkens, who was recognized by the Emperor as bishop of the Old 
 Catholics, after he had been consecrated by the Jansenist bishop, He3-camp, in Rotter- 
 dam. The ultramontanes now spread the rumor that King William did not sympa- 
 thize with this new legislation, and the Pope addressed to him a letter, in which he 
 expressed the opinion that the King did not approve of these measures, but "if he did, 
 he should remember that they could only undermine his own throne." To this, 
 William L replied, "that the Holy Father was misinformed of German affairs, if he 
 supposed that the German government was pursuing methods that the Emperor did 
 not approve; the constitution required that all laws must receive his signature. He 
 regretted that many Catholic clergymen persisted in a course of disobedience, making 
 thereby the use of compulsion necessary. But the religion of Jesus Christ and the 
 truth had nothing to do with this conduct. Moreover, he could not refrain from ex- 
 pressing his dissent, when the Holy Father declared that every baptized person be- 
 longed to the Pope ; the evangelical faith which he, like his forefathers, and the most 
 of his subjects, confessed, did not permit him to accept any mediator in his relations to 
 God, except the Lord Jesus Christ." 
 
 § 638. A new House of Representatives for Prussia was elected in 1873 ; the 
 clericals appeared with increased strength, but the House, nevertheless, passed the 
 
746 RECENT HISTORY. 
 
 statute of civil marriage, making a civil ceremony obligatory upon Catholics and 
 Protestants alike. But the bishops and clergy persisted in their opposition, until most 
 of the bishoprics in Prussia were vacant ; the prelates seeking in every way to avoid 
 the application of the laws. The prince bishop, of Breslau, removed to Austria ; the 
 Arch-bishop of Posen went to Rome ; and other deposed bishops left the country, in 
 order to escape punishment. 
 
 The Prussian government closed the vicarages of the disobedient priests, confis- 
 cated the revenues of their parishes, transferred disobedient priests to other parishes, 
 and deprived of citizenship such as persistently disobeyed the laws. The conflict be- 
 tween the Church and the modern State became sharper. The Pope issued a note- 
 worthy encyclical, in which he declared the May laws null and void, and excom- 
 municated all priests who submitted to the government. This led to the refusal of 
 the Prussian state to any longer pay the sums that had been hitherto devoted to the 
 Catholic church, and the constitution was changed so as to abolish the ambiguous 
 clauses, under which the Church maintained her entire independence of the State. A 
 statute against cloisters and religious orders and the various congregations, dissolved 
 the nurseries of ultra-montanism ; and a statute touching church property, placed the 
 management of it in the hands of the laity ; while -still another statute gave the old 
 Catholics a share in the property of the Catholic church. 
 
 § 639. The Reichstag of 1874 contained, for the first time, representatives from 
 Alsace and Lorraine. But the first motion made by any one of them, was a demand 
 that the people of the two provinces should vote upon the question of annexation. 
 At the same session, greater liberty was granted to the press, but the chief event was 
 the passage of a new military law. The government proposed that an annual sum be 
 isTj. determined, which the government might apply without further action 
 
 upon the part of the legislature. This met with violent opposition. The King feared 
 an outbreak of the old conflict. In the critical moment, Herr von Bennigsen offered 
 a comproniise, in which the annual sum asked for was granted for a period of seven 
 years. This compromise was accepted, and a second conflict avoided. But the strug- 
 gle between the Church and the State became all the more exciting, when Kullman 
 attempted the life of Prince Bismarck at Kissingen ; the Prince escaped with a slight 
 wound. In the same year, Count Harry von Arnim, a former friend and ally of 
 Prince Bismarck, was convicted of removing documents from the archives of the Paris 
 embassy. The Count was not satisfied with the policy of the Chancellor toward Rome 
 and France, and doubtless intended to make use of the documents, of which he had 
 taken possession, to the detriment of the Prince. 
 
 § 640. A reform next began in the evangelical church. Hitherto the power had 
 been in the hands of the High-Church party, — a party distinguished for its narrowness 
 and its intolerance, a party that did its utmost to cripple even the Union, the greatest 
 ecclesiastical achievement since the Reformation. But during the ministry of Dr. 
 Falk, a new constitution was established for the church, based upon the principle of 
 self-government and the predominance of the lay element. A system of synods was 
 created for the districts and the provinces, and a general S3mod for the whole mon- 
 archy. But the High Church party opposed quite bitterl}' the new order, and men of 
 liberal views were excluded from all important parishes, and from the theological 
 chairs in the universities. 
 
FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 747 
 
 § 641. Economic questions now pushed to tiie front. The Empire required 
 greater revenues, and free trade was becoming unpopular. The Chancellor proposed 
 an increase of the tax upon tobacco, and would have gladly made of tobacco a state 
 monopoly. The more Prince Bismarck busied liimself with the subject of taxation, the 
 more he inclined to a system of protection. This led to a reorganization of the cabinet, 
 the chief members of which had been ardent free traders. The Chancellor also pro- 
 posed the acquisition of the railways by the empire, but this met with decided opposi- 
 tion from the other states. The railroads were however gradually acquired by the in- 
 dividual states, even Prussia purchasing most of the private lines. In 1876 a new 
 code of laws was adopted for the empire, not however without a great deal of difS- 
 culty, and not until it was agreed that the imperial court should have its seat at Leipzig. 
 The internal administration of Prussia was next subjected to a thorough reform, the 
 purpose being to establish local government, and to introduce into the civil adminis- 
 tration the co-operation of the citizens ; in other words to pass from a system of police 
 to a system of self-government. 
 
 § 642. The alliance of the three emperors produced great anxiety in France, 
 
 and led to a great increase of the French army. The French were evidently prepar- 
 
 ts7s. ing for "a war of revenge." That peace was preserved was to no 
 
 small degree the work of the Czar Alexander. To maintain friendly relations with 
 
 Italy, the Emperor William made a journey to Milan, where the people received 
 
 Oct. ISIS. Kaiser White-beard, as they called him, with great delight. Aus- 
 tria, under the influence of Andrassy, was friendly, both to Prussia and to the German 
 empire. Bismarck refrained from any interference with the oriental question, and 
 pursued a policy of caution and of peace. But in 1877 he announced his determina- 
 isjj. tion to retire, declaring himself worn out with his great labors and 
 
 fatigues. The Etnperor gave him indefinite leave of absence, but would not consent 
 to his resignation. Nevertheless, the nation was greatly disturbed by changes in the 
 ministry, and b}' a great commercial crisis. Something like a panic was spreading 
 
 May ists. through the land, when an attempt was made upon the life of the aged 
 Emperor, by Robert Hcidel, a colporteur of socialist writings and newspapers. Prince 
 Bismarck hastily drew up a statute against revolutionary agitators and societies, but it 
 was not accepted by the Reichstag, as existing laws were deemed sufficient. But 
 hardly had the Reichstag adjourned, when a second attempt was made upon the life of 
 the venerable monarch. Hodel was a tramp from the lower classes, but Dr. Nobling, 
 
 jmie isjs. the second assassin, was an educated man, and doubtless insane ; yet as 
 he had moved in socialistic circles, the socialists were held accountable for his deed. 
 Fortunately the wounds of the Emperor, though painful, were not serious. The 
 Crown-prince acted as regent, and, during his regency, the Reichstag was dissolved. 
 The new assembly was convened in September, 1878, and immediately called to 
 deliberate upon statutes for the suppression of socialism. These statutes provided for 
 something like martial law, and met with violent opposition from the representatives 
 of the people. They were finally passed, but the period of their operation was limited 
 isr». to three years. The financial crisis and the arrest of industry had 
 
 produced a strong reaction against free trade. An alliance between the manufac- 
 turers and the owners of great estates agitated for a protective tariff. This led to an- 
 other change of ministry. Falk, the author of the church and school laws, retired, 
 
748 
 
 RECENT HISTORY. 
 
 and with him other liberal ministers ; and the conservatives returned to power. But 
 the people were not in sympathy with the plans of the Chancellor, as was shown in 
 the next election. The ultra-montanes and the liberals returned in greatly increased 
 issi. numbers. Nevertheless, the session was noteworthy for its attempt at 
 
 social reform, especially for its statute creating a fund for the relief of sick and in- 
 jured artisans. This statute provided for an insurance fund, to be created by compul- 
 sory contributions. The project for tobacco monopoly was rejected ; but the economic 
 unity of Germany was perfected by agreements with Plamburg and Bremen, these 
 issz. two cities becoming members of the customs-union, although retaining 
 
 for themselves a limited district, into which all goods entered free of duty. Alsace 
 and Lorraine were also reorganized, and a viceroy appointed to govern them as im- 
 perial provinces. The colonial policy of the Chancellor met with great opposition, al- 
 though he succeeded in obtaining a subsidy for certain steam-ship lines. France at- 
 tempted, at this time, to form an alliance with Russia, but Bismarck maintained a 
 
 good understanding between the two mon- 
 archs, who met together in the city of Dan- 
 zig, and agreed upon changes in the Russian 
 cabinet, which were a guarantee of peace. 
 Changes in the Austrian ministry brought 
 no change of foreign policy. Austria and 
 Germany continued to be friends. Italy was 
 brought closer by an agreement with the 
 triple alliance ; and the three emperors, with 
 their leading statesmen, met together in 
 friendly intercourse at the Polish town of 
 Skierniewicze, on the Russian frontier. 
 
 § 643. Revision of the Prussian Church 
 Laivs. — The aged Pope Pius IX., after the 
 death of Cardinal Antonelli, became still 
 more subject to the ijifluence of the Com- 
 isss. pany of Jesus, as Cardinal 
 
 Simione, his new secretary of state, was a 
 member of the company. But when Car- 
 dinal Pecci became Pope Leo XIII., a more conciliatory policy was adopted. The 
 death of Bishop Ketteler of Mayence, and the retirement of Minister Falk, made 
 the reaction and the reconciliation easier. The apislication of the May laws was 
 left to the discretion of the government ; the deposed bishops were recalled ; the 
 scientific education of the Catholic clergy was no longer insisted upon ; the ecclesi- 
 astical court was abolished ; the establishment of new seminaries for boys was 
 permitted ; and the charitable orders and congregations were allowed to return. 
 laao. The Church revenues were restored, and Prussia was once more 
 
 represented at the Vatican. In response to these concessions, the Pope agreed 
 that notice should be given to the government whenever a priest was appointed 
 to a vacant parish. Bishop Kopp of Fulda, afterward Prince-bishop of Breslau, 
 contributed greatly to the restoration of peace, by his mild and persuausive inter- 
 vention. In fact, the system built up with so much difficulty had crumbled to pieces; 
 
 POPE LEO XIII. 
 
FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 749 
 
 the weary struggle had ended in the defeat of the State. The Poles were a strong 
 support of the Ultra-montane party, and the Prussian government was compelled to op- 
 pose, with energy, the spread of the anti-German agitation in the eastern provinces. 
 This led to a vote of censure in the Reichstag, but the Prussian House of Representa- 
 tives approved the action of the government, and passed a law for the encouragement 
 of German settlements and the purchase of Polish estates in the eastern provinces. 
 
 1SS4, In 1884 Bismarck proposed that the manufacture of distilled liquors 
 
 should be made a state monopol}-, but the proposition was defeated. In 1886 the 
 
 1S86. the struggle was renewed for the third time, touching the organization 
 
 of the army. Bismarck asked for increased numbers, and for an appropriatiofl cover- 
 ing a period of seven years. The Reichstag refused to extend the period beyond three 
 years, whereupon it was dissolved, and new elections were ordered, which resulted in 
 
 1SS7. favor of the government, and in 1887 the new military law was 
 
 adopted by a large majority. To meet the expenses required by this legislation, a 
 heavy tax was levied upon distilled liquors. A change was made also in the time of 
 military service. The members of the Landwehr were required to serve to their 
 thirty-ninth year. And the members of the Land-sturm until the close of the forty- 
 fifth year. Prince Bismarck, in the discussion of the military laws, pointed out the 
 threatening situation of Europe, and developed, with great frankness, the principles 
 
 lass. of his foreign policies. "We Germans," he said, "fear God, but noth- 
 
 ing else in the world ! " In 1888 the legislative period for the empire was extended 
 from three to five j^ears, and the Prussian constitution was altered in the same way. 
 The frequent elections had caused so much excitement, and developed so much bit- 
 terness, that it was hoped in this way to subdue the political fever that was consuming 
 the nation. 
 
 § 644. Events in Bavaria and Brunswick. King Ludwig II. was a prince of 
 noble endowment, and of great patriotism ; but in 1886 his eccentricities developed 
 into insanity. A regency became necessary, and as his only brother. Prince Otto, was 
 
 isse. also insane, his uncle. Prince Luitpold, was entrusted with the govern- 
 
 ment. The people were informed by proclamation of the tragic condition of affairs, 
 and it was necessary to break the matter to the King. With difficulty he was per- 
 suaded to go with his physician to the Castle Berg, at Lake Starnberg. Arrived there 
 he went with Von Gudden, his physician, for a walk in the park. His medical at- 
 tendant left him for a moment, but returning, discovered the King in the lake. He 
 plunged in to save him, but the King, with his tremendous strength, held him under 
 the water until he drowned, and then drowned himself. Prince Luitpold was for- 
 tunately a sagacious and beneficent prince, whose conduct and bearing enabled Bavaria 
 to pass through this critical period without a revolution. In 1884 Duke William of 
 Brunswick died unmarried, and with him expired the elder House of Guelph. The 
 Duke of Cumberland, son of the deposed King of Hanover, was the next heir to the 
 throne. But the imperial council declared that a government, by the Duke of Cum- 
 
 issj. berland was not compatible with the imperial constitution, in as much 
 
 as he claimed the throne of Hanover, and refused to recognize the imperial consti- 
 tution. The election of a regent was ordered, and the choice fell upon Prince Albert 
 of Prussia. 
 
 § 645. The Death of Emperor William. On the 9th of March, 1888, William, the 
 
750 
 
 RECENT HISTORY. 
 
 isss. first emperor of the new empire, was gathered to his fathers in the 91st 
 
 year of his age. A rich life, full of marvelous successes, was thus brought to an end. 
 The recollections of the monarch reached back to tjie days when Prussia laj^ in ruins 
 at the feet of Napoleon. The shame of Jena and Tilsit were his first memories, and 
 yet he was called, in his old age, to lead his people to a pinnacle of greatness, of which 
 the boldest had hardly ventured to dream. He remained to the last simple and 
 straightforward, benevolent and gentle, always industrious, always faithful and con- 
 scientious. His last words were characteiistic of his whole life. " I have no time 
 now to be tired." A soldier, to his heart's core, he strove to preserve the peace of the 
 
 world, and to obtain the 
 blessings of peace for 
 his beloved country. It 
 was reserved for him, 
 after great unpopularity 
 and misunderstanding, 
 to fulfill the dream of 
 the patriots, and to es- 
 tablish the empire, in 
 wdiieh united Germany 
 might work out a glor- 
 ious destiny. 
 
 § 646." The death 
 of the aged monarch 
 was all the more tragic, 
 because of the certaintj^ 
 that his only son was 
 soon to die also. The 
 crown prince was suffer- 
 ing from a cancer of the 
 throat, to cure which, 
 physicians exercised 
 their skill in vain. He 
 was staying at San 
 Remo, when the death 
 of his father called him 
 to the throne. He left 
 the sunny south, travel- 
 ed quickly to Berlin, 
 and assumed the reins of government. Frederick III., the imperial sufferer, bore his 
 pains with composure and fortitude, but his government lasted onh' ninety-nine daj's. 
 A proclamation to the people, and a communication to Prince Bismarck, explained 
 the principles by which he would be governed. A imiversal amnesty was granted. 
 June IS, ISSS. Von Puttkamer, the reactionary member of the ministry, was dismissed 
 for his interference with elections. On the 15th of June, 1888, Frederick died saying, 
 " Learn to suffer without complaining." The imperial and the royal crown passed 
 to his oldest son, William II. When the new emperor opened the Reichstag, and in 
 
 EMPEROR WILLIAM II. 
 

 FREDERICK in. 
 
 (pp. 751.} 
 
752 RECENT HISTORY. 
 
 his speech declared that he would proceed along the path marked out by his grand- 
 father, he was surrounded by nearly all the princes of Germany — at their head the 
 Prince-regent of Bavaria, and the King of Saxony. 
 
 § 647. The dying advice of William I. related to Russia. A good understand- 
 ing with the Czar, seemed to him essential to the welfare and safety of Germany. 
 This too was the policy of Prince Bismarck. Great therefore was the consternation in 
 Europe, when the distinguished statesman resigned the chancellorship that he had 
 created and made illustrious. The aged Moltke had already retired, but he could no 
 longer " mount a horse." Bismarck, though, was still vigorous. The immediate 
 cause of his retirement is not yet known, but the differences seem to have concerned 
 domestic, rather than foreign policy. General Caprivi succeeded to the vacant position, 
 and Miquel became Minister of Finance. At first it was feared and believed that the 
 changes portended war, especially as Russia and France seemed to be approaching an 
 alliance. But the 3^oung Emperor, in spite of startling speeches made at military 
 banquets, has acted with great circumspection in his dealings with other nations. He 
 has renewed, to some extent, the friendship of his grandfather with the Czar, and 
 maintained the triple alliance with Austria and Italy. The army was further increased 
 and strengthened, although the Reichstag had to be dissolved, and new elections 
 ordered, before this could be accomplished. The statutes against the socialists have 
 been modified, a commercial treaty with Russia negotiated, the state of the schools in- 
 quired into, by a convention of distinguished educators, great public buildings and 
 monuments erected in Berlin, and attempts made to improve the condition of the 
 working classes by legislation and royal influence. Prince Bismarck, whose retire- 
 ment has not withdrawn him from public interest, accepted recently (1894) an in- 
 tss4. vitation to the imperial court. His appearance in Berlin produced an 
 
 ovation, and his formal reconciliation with his sovereign excited the feeling, if it 
 lacked the significance, of a great political event. 
 
 § 648. Austria. In Feb., 1871, Austria was astonished by the appointment of a 
 isji. ministry notoriously hostile to the new German empire. They prom- 
 
 ised to establish a "truly Austrian policy. Their plan was to increase the power of 
 the individual legislatures, to make the provinces more independent, and to diminish 
 the rights of the imperial council and the imperial ministry. The predominance of the 
 German element in the west was to be overcome by a federal system, in which the Sla- 
 vonic peoples would have the decisive word. To accomplish this, the legislatures al- 
 ready in session were dissolved, and new elections ordered. At the very moment 
 when the two emperors met together, and the two imperial chancellors were seeking to 
 bind together Germany and Austria, Francis Joseph signed the degree which forced 
 the Germans of Austria to fight for their political existence. " The United States of 
 Austria " did not however manage to get born. When the Bohemian constitution was 
 laid before the Emperor of Austria, he refused to confirm it, declaring that all changes 
 must be made upon the basis of the existing constitution. The ministry at once re- 
 signed. The action of the Emperor was attributed to the influence of Count Beust ; 
 great was the surprise, therefore, when he was removed from his position as chancel- 
 lor, and sent as ambassador to London. But as he was not Austrian-born, as he was a 
 Protestant, and did not belong to the old nobility ; as he had abolished the concordat, 
 and entered into friendly relations .with the German empire, he had become exceed- 
 
FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 753 
 
 ingly unpopular with the court party, and he was sacrificed to appease their 
 wrath. 
 
 § 649. Nevertheless, Beust's policy was continued by his successor, Count An- 
 drassy. Prince Auersperg became minister-president of Austria, and the two states- 
 men determined to support the constitution and the empire against the decentralizing 
 
 isj3. influences of the Slavonic peoples. In 1872 a reform bill was passed 
 
 by both Houses, which gave the election of the imperial council to the people, instead 
 of the state legislatures, and which limited the latter to purely domestic affairs. This 
 bill was bitterly opposed, but supported by Count Andrassy, it received the imperial 
 sanction. The relations of Church and State were regulated no longer by negotiations 
 with Rome. Statutes' were prepared, which abolished the concordat, and protected the 
 rights of the State against the Church. These statutes were passed by the imperial coun- 
 
 1S73. cil, and signed by the Emperor. In 1873, Austria was shaken by a 
 
 financial panic, a consequence of extravagant speculation, and the hunger for riches 
 everywhere prevalent. All classes of tJie people suffered heavy losses, and many 
 families were completely ruined. The World's Fair, which was opened the same year, 
 could neither conceal nor repair these losses, although it surpassed in magnificence, 
 all that had been done hitherto in this direction in London or in Paris. 
 
 § 650. The creation of the duplex kingdom Austria-Hungary excited the centrif- 
 ugal forces in the mixed races along the Danube. Not only the Magyars in Hungayr, 
 but the Slavs in Bohemia strove for political independence. The creation of Franz 
 Deak found many enemies in the extreme Magyar party. These would fain have broken 
 the bonds that united the two sections of the empire, and have obtained 
 for Hungary a political independence, in which she would have shared nothing in 
 common with Austria, but the personal authority of the Emperor. But Tisza, the leader 
 of this party, found it best to modify his demands, and in 1878 a new agreement 
 was reached, touching the economic affairs of both states. Deak died in 1876. Events 
 in the East made it still more difficult to preserve peace in Hungary, the Magyars 
 
 ists. wishing the empire to form an alliance with the Turks, while the 
 
 Slavs insisted that the empire should co-operate with Russia. But Andrassy carried 
 the government safely through the crisis. His policy was not to abandon the lands of 
 the Balkan to Russia, but to maintain the free navigation of the Danube, and to secure 
 the Austrian frontiers agaiust Slavonic agitators. This led to closer relations with 
 Germany, and Andrassy's successor. Count Kabioky, pursued the same policy. In 
 
 is^a. 1879 however a reaction took place. The old federal-clerical party 
 
 obtained the upper hand. Slavs and Magyars became powerful enough to drive the 
 German language and German literature from the schools, and even the University of 
 Prague was so changed, that lectures were delivered in the Bohemian as well as in the 
 
 lass. German language. The common-schools and gymnasia in Hungary 
 
 and Transylvania were threatened with destruction, and a great bitterness broke out 
 among the Germans of the empire. The imperial house was greatly afflicted by the 
 
 isso. sudden death of the Crown-prince Rudolph, the only son of the Em- 
 
 peror. He died by his own hand. 
 
 § 651. Russia. The Czar Nicholas strove for the dictatorship of Europe, but his 
 son, Alexander II., sought to reform Russia, and to bring it up to the level of other 
 civilized nations. The emancipation of the serfs brought with it great changes of so- 
 48 
 
754 RECENT HISTORY. 
 
 cial life. The army too was reorganized; universal service was introduced, and sub- 
 stitutes were no longer accepted. The railroads were increased in number, and car- 
 ried to completion. The system of taxation was improved ; the privileged classes 
 were taxed, and the different classes of society were brought nearer to a civil equality. 
 Great attention was given to the improvement of the laws and of judicial administration, 
 to the development of commerce, of industry, and to the education of the young. Al- 
 exander II., also desired to alleviate the miseries of war, and to that end convgned a 
 congress of statesmen in Brussels, in the 3'ear 1874 to determine upon the outlines of 
 international law. But while Russia was pursuing a policy of peace toward the west, 
 it was extending its territory in the distant east. The Khan of Khiwa had captured some 
 
 1873. Russian subjects, and refused to give them up. Russia regarded this 
 
 as a case of war. The Prince was conquered, and the Russian military authority was 
 established in central Asia. The Russian columns, under General Kaufman, marched 
 to the capital of the countrj' under incredible difficulties and fatigues, and on the 10th 
 of June, 1873, Gen. Kaufman entered the city as a victor. This campaign greatly in- 
 creased the authority of Russia in central Asia, and England looked with anxiety at 
 the Russian advances. In the following year, Russia annexed Ferghanistan. This 
 isso-isai. opened the way to Merv, long regarded as " the key of India." 
 § 652. The Netherlands and Scandinavia. The Dutch and the Scandinavians 
 have in recent times, little influence upon European politics. In Holland the two 
 sons of William III. died early, and left the king a young daughter, who, according to 
 the constitution, might rule in Holland, but not in Luxemburg. A bitter war took 
 place between Holland and the Sultan of Atchin at Sumatra. The Sultan, trusting to 
 English protection, had inflicted great injury upon the commerce and the colonies of 
 the Dutch. Holland thereupon declared war, but at first suffered great losses. Fin- 
 
 1873. ally she was victorious, and the entire island came into her possession. 
 
 Belgium, under the enlightened King Leopold II. was disturbed by a violent struggle 
 z^eopoia IX. ises- between the liberals and the ultra-montanes. The schools were the 
 bone of contention. Cabinets changed frequently, now composed of liberals, and now 
 of clericals. Repeated labor troubles at the great industrial centres added to the con- 
 fusion and the excitement. In Denmark, under Christian IX. conservative ministries 
 cjiriatian IX. havB quarreled uninterruptedly with the liberal majorities of the House 
 
 1S03- of Commons, over the army and the appropriation bills. This has led 
 to frequent dissolutions, changes of ministry, and refusals of supplies. In Sweden, 
 where Oscar II. succeeded Karl XV., in 1872, the main questions have been the reor- 
 oacar II., 187X- gauization of army and navy, and the reform of the revenue sj'stem. 
 Norway, which is almost independent in its legislation and administration, although 
 united to Sweden nominally, has maintained, in recent times, its old dislike to Sweden, 
 and its inclination for republicanism and for independence. 
 
 § 653. France., Thiers. After the Commune of Paris had been suppressed, the Na- 
 tional Assembly in Versailles presented a picture of confusion and despair. The re- 
 publican form of government was distrusted by the representatives and by the people. 
 Legitimists, Bonapartists, Orleanists, and Republicans of many varieties united to es- 
 tablish a republic, because they could unite to establish nothing else. But this was 
 regarded as a transient expedient, from which each party hoped to emerge a conqueror. 
 The German armies were still in France. The costs of the war were yet unpaid. But 
 
FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 
 
 755 
 
 Thiers had moderation enough to subdue the passions of the people, and to suppress 
 the cry for a war of revenge. A disturbance of the existing order, it was plain, could 
 lead only to anarchy, and to civil war. Thiers was therefore indispensable. And his 
 threat to retire brought the Assembly more than once to terms. He was thus able to 
 retain, for the government, the appointment of the mayors of the largest cities, and he 
 managed to keep on good terms with the republicans and monarchists. The brilliant 
 success of the national loan showed that he possessed the confidence of the people. 
 1S7S. The subscription for this loan proved the exhaustless wealth of the na- 
 
 tion and the splendid credit of France abroad. This enabled Thiers to pay off the 
 war indemnity, and to hasten the removal of the German soldiers from the country, 
 and also to bring order into the National finances, and to fill the empty treasury. 
 
 § 654. Thiers next proceeded to reorganize the French army. He hesitated to 
 introduce universal ser- 
 vice, and compulsory 
 attendance at school, 
 and the richer and more 
 cultivated classes could, 
 under the new system, 
 escape from service in 
 the army. When Jules 
 Simon introduced a { 
 school law of a liberal / 
 character, it was so 
 fiercely attacked by the / 
 clergy, that it was with- 
 drawn. The increased 
 army required increased 
 revenues. An income 
 tax was decided upon, 
 but as this was extreme- 
 ly unpopular among the 
 wealth)' classes, Thiers 
 determined to return to 
 the old protective sys- 
 tem, which had been 
 abolished under the second empire. The ojaposition to this was so violent that 
 Thiers and the whole ministry resigned. But it was impossible to agree upon a 
 successor, and a compromise was reached, according to which the revenue laws" 
 were adojjted with some amendments, and the existing commercial treaties were 
 abrogated. With this increase of revenue, it was possible to reorganize the army. 
 But it soon appeared that the National Assembly no longer represented the nation. 
 The filling of vacancies gradually increased the power of the republicans, but the mon- 
 tsjs. archial elements combined to lay aside the republican character of the 
 
 government, and they baffled all attempts to establish permanently a republican sys- 
 tem. On the other hand, the republicans, with their leader, the fiery Gambetta, were 
 little content with the conservative republic. They demanded new elections, declar- 
 
 CASIMIR PERIER. 
 
756 
 
 RECENT HISTORY, 
 
 ing that the existing assembly had been called to make peace only. Great as were the 
 services of Thiers, he found but little recognition among the violent partisans of either 
 side. The royalists united with the clericals to bring about his overthrow. The Bon- 
 apartists were hunted down by military tribunals. The French were certain thatthej 
 had been conquered, not by German superiority, but by the treason of their own com- 
 manders. Even Ulrich, the hero of Strasburg, was censured by a military court, but 
 Bazaine was chosen as the chief victim. His surrender of Metz was charged as trea- 
 son, and he was held 
 responsible for all the 
 sufferings of France^ 
 For mouths he was held 
 a prisoner, and then 
 brought to trial in a 
 court-martial, presided 
 over by the Due d' Au- 
 male. But before the 
 trial was begun, Europe 
 was bus}' with the fate 
 of President Thiers. At 
 the very moment that 
 he was paying off the 
 last installment of the 
 war indemnity, he lost 
 all favor with the French 
 Assembly. When the 
 Emperor, Napoleon 111.^ 
 died in 1873, the sup- 
 porters of the old mon- 
 archy became even more 
 active. Thiers, who had 
 declared for the conser- 
 vative republic, the re- 
 public of "honest men," 
 was forced to rely upon 
 the left, the conserva- 
 tives having gradually 
 abandoned him. But 
 the left had in it a large 
 number of radicals. Thiers' position was rendered more difficult by the opposition 
 of the church. Pilgrimages had been revived ; superstition was rife ; the Protestants- 
 were attacked. This conduct of the clericals excited great opposition among the 
 republicans. Gre'v}^ resigned his position as president of the National Assembly. 
 This was the prelude to the fall of Thiers. When he called the moderate repub- 
 lican, Casimir Perier, into his cabinet, the assembly passed a vote of censure. 
 Thiers then sent in his resignation, which was accepted, and Marshal MacMahon 
 was chosen president of the republic. The Due de Broglie, the soul of this 
 
 MARSHAL MACMAHON. 
 
FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 
 
 757 
 
 intrigue against Thiers, was now charged with the construction of the new ministry. 
 1SJ3. The schools were left in the control of the clergy, and pilgrimages to 
 
 miraculous places were organized as national festivals. 
 
 § 655. The ruling party in the National Assembly next tried to form a fusion of 
 the two Bourbon parties. The Count of Paris traveled to Frohsdorf, in the name of 
 the Orleans branch, to make submission to the Count de Chambord, the head of the 
 family. But the fusion was by no means complete. One party desired the grandson 
 of Charles X. to be called back without conditions ; the other demanded pledges and 
 assurances that King Henry V. would govern as a constitutional monarch. At last 
 they united in a program which recognized the principle of a hereditary monarchy, 
 but reserved the essential rights of a constitutional state, with two legislative cham- 
 bers, and also re- 
 served for France the 
 tri-colored flag. But 
 the Count declared 
 to his friends that he 
 must retain the white 
 standard of the Bour- 
 bons, that he could 
 not become the legit- 
 imate king of the rev- 
 olution. Thus the 
 great scheme, which 
 had cost so much, 
 was shattered to 
 Oct., ista. pieces 
 upon the obstinate 
 apathy of an aged 
 prince, without am- 
 bition and without 
 energy. Thus there 
 never was in France 
 a King Henry V. 
 
 § 656. Reluctantly enough, the monarchists now united to confer upon MacMahon 
 the dignity of president of the republic, for a period of seven years. While Mac- 
 Mahon was thus elevated to the chief magistracy of France, Bazaine was a prisoner, 
 defending his life and his liberty before a military court. He was found guilty, and 
 condemned to death with the loss of his military honors. But his judges united in a 
 recommendation of mercy. MacMahon thereupon commuted the death-punishment to 
 twenty years' imprisonment, upon the island of St. Marguerite, opposite Cannes. 
 Ajua-, lai*. Bazaine's rich Mexican wife successfully planned his escape from the 
 island, and Bazaine died in Madrid, in 1888. 
 
 § 657. The Duke de Broglie now attempted a change in the constitution, but 
 Tiis plan for a senate found no favor in the eyes of the Assembly, and he was obliged 
 to retire. A period of confusion followed, out of which slowly emerged the party of 
 Republicans, who established the constitution of 1875. This provided for two cham- 
 
 DUC DE BROGLIE. 
 
758 RECENT HISTORY. 
 
 bers, a. chamber of deputies elected by the people, and a senate of three hundred 
 weh., lats. members, of which seventy-five are elected by the National Assembly, 
 and the others by electoral colleges, in the different departments. The two chambers 
 unite to elect the president for a period of seven years. A president may be re- 
 elected. He is commander-in-chief of the"* army; he appoints all officers ; receives all 
 ambassadors; executes the laws: and appoints his cabinet, which is responsible to the 
 Senate and to the House of Deputies. The elections of 1876 were strongly Republican. 
 A liberal ministry, under Dufaure, came into power, and sought, by opportune reforms, 
 lava. to promote the national welfare. Waddington, the minister of educa- 
 
 tion, was especially active to improve the school system. The hierarchy had denied 
 the right of the government to establish universities and to confer degrees, 
 and had acquired this latter right for themselves. Under Waddington it was reclaimed 
 for the state. 
 
 § 658. The president, swept awaj- by the republican excitement, attempted to 
 conduct the government with the help of the liberals. But the clericals began to in- 
 crease, and to acquire a great influence with him. This produced a crisis with the 
 Assembly. Dufaure retired, and Jules Simon took his place. The clerical conservative 
 party made desperate efforts to restore what it called "the government of moral or- 
 der." The bishops and the Catholic priests declared that it was the duty of France 
 to defend the independence of the pope, and even Pius IX. issued an address, de- 
 scribing himself as a prisoner. The Chamber of Deputies petitioned the government 
 to put an end to this agitation of the bishops, and Jules Simon, in the debate, ex- 
 pressed the opinion that the so-called imprisonment of the Pope was a. fable. The 
 result was that Simon was reproached by the president for his conduct, and compelled 
 to resign. A new cabinet was formed, with de Broglie as president. The chamber 
 now declared upon Gambetta's motion that the representatives of the people had no 
 confidence in a cabinet that was not free in its actions, and not determined to govern 
 according to republican principles. A message of the President thereupon prorogued 
 the chamber for a month, in order that "the excitement might subside." Meanwhile 
 the government would maintain the public peace. This was. a prelude to a dissolu- 
 isvi. tion. With the cry, " Vive la republique," and with a dignified ap- 
 
 peal to the people against " this policy of reaction and of adventure " the repre- 
 sentatives dispersed. 
 
 § 659. Now began a reign of proscription. Republican officials were dismissed 
 by the score ; the state's attorneys were commanded to prosecute the journals for 
 every disturbance of the public mind. Next came the dissolution of the Chamber of 
 Deputies. The liberal members answered with an address to the people, urging them 
 to stand by the republic in the coming election, to take place within three months. 
 The watch-word of the Republicans was "re-elect the three hundred and sixty-three." 
 The agitation was furious, and the excitement reached fever heat. The sudden death 
 of Thiers stirred the heart of the whole nation. His last writing was a defence of the 
 republic, and a refutation of the charges made against the liberals by the conservatives. 
 The government and the clergy strained every nerve to win the victory, and although 
 only three hundred and twent}^ Republicans were elected, in October, they were so 
 greatly in excess of the conservatives, that they were able to compel the President 
 either to govern according to the constitution, or to resign his position. Finally, as 
 
FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 759 
 
 the commercial and financial world became exceedingly restless, Marshal MacMahon 
 determined ujDon a parliamentary government. He named a cabinet composed entirely 
 of Republicans, in which Dufaure was president. Waddington was minister of foreign 
 affairs, Leon Say minister of finance, and Bardoux minister of instruction. This was 
 the greatest and most dangerous crisis that the republic had encountered, but it was 
 successfully overcome. The executive and the legislative departments were brought 
 into harmony, the appropriation bills passed, and the revenue system perfected. The 
 great Exposition was then determined upon, and laws were passed to prevent the re- 
 currence of arbitrary government. The public schools were withdrawn more and 
 more from the influence of the clergy, and put into the hands of lay teachers. But 
 all this was repugnant to the feelings of MacMahon, and when it was proposed to 
 make changes in the command of the army, he resigned and retired to his estates. 
 The two chambers came together and elected to the presidency Jules Grevy, the pres- 
 ident of the House of Deputies. Gambetta was chosen president of the chamber. 
 The aged Dufaure retired from the ministry, giving up his position to his colleague, 
 Waddington. 
 
 § 660. Gambetta's Ministry/ and Death. The new cabinet was moderately pro- 
 gressive. Concessions were made to the public demand for an amnesty of the con- 
 demned communists, and a steady resistance was made to the ultra-montane excesses. 
 Ferry, the minister of education, proceeded energetically against the Jesuits, and the 
 other orders of the church. Ferry's measures were rejected by the Senate, yet the govern- 
 ment did not lack weapons wherewith to resist these dangerous societies. Gambetta 
 now began a violent agitation for election reform. He proposed to abolish the dis- 
 tricts, and to elect deputies by departments, hoping thereby to destroy or to neutralize 
 local influences, and thus to increase republican strength. The Senate however re- 
 jected the measure, greatly to Gambetta's chagrin. But the elections were so strongly 
 in his favor, that he was made minister president in a cabinet composed wholly of his 
 issi. creatures. His career was brief. The Chamber of Deputies refused 
 
 to support him, and he resigned in disgust. He died a short time afterward of a 
 wound, the origin of which is wrapped in mystery. 
 
 § 661. Foreign Entanglements. The Neiv President. France perceiving with 
 jealousy the growth of other powers in the Mediterranean Sea, turned to Tunis for 
 compensation. The Bey was compelled to accept a French protectorate. In Mada- 
 gascar, an island of eastern Africa, a war broke out, which cost great sacrifices and 
 1SS2-1SSS. brought little glory. The Tonquin expedition was not more fortunate. 
 The French had obtained a footing in eastern Asia, and established a colony in 
 Cochin China. Eager to possess the Red River, they pressed forward, until they came 
 into conflict with the Emperor of Anam, and afterward with China. They succeed- 
 ing in retaining Tonquin, but at great expense. The expedition and its consequences 
 wrecked the ministry of Ferry, and also that of Brisson. 
 
 § 662. The two chambers united in 1884 to revise the constitution. The repub- 
 isa^t. lie was declared permanent and final. The members of the dynastic 
 
 families were made ineligible to the Presidency. A new system, for the election of 
 senators, was adopted, and Gambetta's project of election by " list " was agreed to. 
 Grt^vy was re-elected president, and a new cabinet was formed, in which Freycinet 
 and Boulanger were the chief figures. General Boulanger, the minister of war, had 
 
760 RECENT HISTORY. 
 
 become exceedinglj^ popular. Many looked upon him as the coming Napoleon, who 
 would soon bury the outworn republic. In 1886 the princes of the former reigning 
 families were expelled from France. But in 1887 a scandal was discovered in the 
 
 is8->. highest circles, which led to the resignation of President Gr^vy. 
 
 His son-in-law, Wilson, "was deeply implicated in a shameful trafSc in decorations, 
 offices, and public contracts. Grevy was guiltless, but the people clamored for a sac- 
 rifice. Sadi Carnot, the grandson of the famous general of the revolutionary epoch, 
 was elected to the vacant place. He is a man of spotless reputation, moderate views, 
 and staunch Republican ideas. Floquet, a radical Republican, became the president of 
 the new cabinet. 
 
 § 663. Switzerland and Italy. The Swiss Confederation was also the theater of 
 violent troubles between Church and State. In Geneva, the home of Calvinism, 
 Mermillod was made bishop by the Pope. This provoked a violent agitation among 
 the Protestants, and the government resolved upon energetic resistance to the ultra- 
 montane aggressions. In Basel and Solothurn, Bishop Lachat excommunicated and 
 deposed a priest, because he would not accept the doctrine of infallibility. Thereupon 
 the cantonal government required him to reinstate the priest, and when he refused, 
 the Bishop was himself deposed. The conflict in Berne was even more violent, but 
 these efforts of the ultra-montanes found little support outside of the German Catholic 
 districts. A revision of the constitution had long seemed necessary to sagacious and 
 patriotic men. The federal authority was too weak ; it was necessary to confer upon 
 the federal government, the control of the army and of the public schools, to establish 
 
 1S13. justice, and to create a uniform system of revenue. The first proposi- 
 
 tion for an amended constitution was defeated by the ultra-montanes and the defenders 
 
 1SJ4. of states rights, but the second attempt succeeded, and the new con- 
 
 stitution was adopted. The federal government assumed control of the railways, and 
 the manufacture of distilled spirits was made a federal monopoly. Switzerland also 
 assisted in the building of the St. Gothard railroad, joining with Germany and Italy 
 
 lasz. to support the company, by which this magnificent work was projected 
 
 and completed. 
 
 § 664. Itali/ and the Vatican. The position of the Pope in Italy, in consequence 
 of the guarantee law, and of the principle of "a free church in a free state," was 
 really more advantageous than that held by him in the days of his temporal sover- 
 eignty. Nevertheless, he spoke of himself as a prisoner, and pleaded poverty. Mean- 
 while, the Italian court took possession of the Quirinal, the foreign ambassadors took 
 up their residence in the eternal city, and the constitutional government developed 
 tranquilly. The names of Victor Emmanuel, Cavour, and Garibaldi appeared in the 
 public places and in the main streets, while their statues and medallions were seen in 
 
 isio. many places. The Mont Cenis tunnel was completed and opened for 
 
 travel about the same time that the Italians entered Rome. This was intended orig- 
 inally to unite Italy and France. But the course of events prornoted an alliance be- 
 tween Italy and Germany. The Italian army was strengthened and reorganized, and 
 new fortifications were erected. Thus protected against attack, the government pro- 
 
 1SI2. ceeded to abolish the monasteries in the old papal states. In spite of 
 
 the opposition of the clerical party, and the threats of a new crusade, the statutes 
 were adopted almost unanimously by the lower House, and with little opposition in 
 
FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 761 
 
 the upper House. While the French were on the point of declaring the Count de 
 Chambord King of France, a ministerial change was taking place in Italy, which 
 seemed to favor the ultra-montanes and a French alliance. General La Marmora 
 published a pamphlet at this juncture, reflecting upon Prussia. Nevertheless, the 
 people clung to Victor Emmanuel, and Victor Emmanuel adhered firmly to the 
 
 isis. alliance with Germany. But in 1878 the first king of modern Italy 
 
 was gathered to his fathers, and Pope Pius IX. soon followed him. Leo XIIL, the 
 new pope, was more conciliatory. The new king, Humbert, inherited his father's 
 popularity, and also his father's earnest desire to maintain the constitution and the 
 liberties of the people. The land was not free from socialistic agitation, and the 
 people were startled and indignant when the King was attacked by a Neapolitan 
 assassin, and his minister Cairoli severely wounded. The death of the old hero, Gar- 
 
 18S2. ibaldi, liberated Italy from many difficulties. But the i^arty struggles 
 
 in Parliament led to many ministerial crises that were injurious to the public welfare. 
 Depretis, a patriotic liberal, was entrusted no less than eight times with the constitu- 
 
 lasi. tion of a ministry. When he died in 1887, Crispi, a man of great 
 
 abilitj^ became minister president and minister for foreign affairs. Touched with the 
 spirit of the time, Italy was active in establishing colonies. One of these brought the 
 government into conflict with King John of Abyssinia, a conflict which lasted several 
 years, and exposed the Italians to serious loss. 
 
 § 665. Spain. KingAmadeus struggled for eighteen months with the Cortes and 
 with the Spanish army, and then resigned his throne. After his departure for Italy, 
 the Spaniards determined upon a republic, in which Castelar, Figueras, and Salmeron 
 were the conspicuous figures. They determined to call a constitutional convention, 
 and to establish the fundamental law of republican Spain. . Meanwdiile, an executive 
 committee, chosen by the Cortes, should assist the government with their council. 
 The members of this committee desired a conservative republic. Castelar and his 
 companions desired a republic like that of the United States of America. This pro- 
 voked a sharp conflict, and the two parties in Madrid appeared armed. This was a 
 
 1SI3. signal for Figueras to dissolve the executive committee. Serrano and 
 
 his adherents fled across the frontiers, and the election for the constitutional conven- 
 tion was completed. As the Conservatives stayed away from the polls, the Democrats 
 were triumphant. When the convention met, it started to transform the ancient Span- 
 ish monarchy into a federal republic of thirteen states, each of the latter having a 
 separate government. But while the convention was debating, the land was approach- 
 ing anarchj' ; and to make things worse, Don Carlos had marched into the mountain 
 
 1SJ3. regions of the north, proclaimed himself to be King Charles VII., 
 
 and demanded the allegiance of all Spain. He soon commanded an army of twelve 
 thousand men, led by bandits and fanatical priests. The Basque population of the 
 Pyrenees, which delighted in civil war and adventure, easily lent itself to the cause 
 of reaction and of religious bigotry. Supported by English moneys, and favored by 
 the French government, Carlos conducted a cruel civil war against the Spanish repub- 
 lic. But affairs in the south and in the populous cities of the coast were no better. 
 The federal republic, for which the Cortes had decided, created some strange illusions, 
 and the population of the south declared their independence of the government at 
 Madrid. In Cadiz, in Malaga, in Carthagena, in Barcelona, the lower classes took pos- 
 
762 RECENT HISTORY. 
 
 session of the government, and began to attack the lives and the property of the 
 wealthier classes. Castelar's ideal republic became a horrible caricature of the Amer- 
 icau system. The ministry was powerless, the Carlists victorious in the north, the red 
 
 ts74. republic triumphant in the south. The government was now compelled 
 
 to make great changes. The centralized monarchy was retained, and the federal sys- 
 tem abandoned ; martial law was proclaimed in the rebellious provinces; Salmeron re- 
 turned to the government, and soon restored tranquility, except in Carthagena, where 
 civil war continued. Castelar was now convinced that his policy was not feasible. 
 He assumed once more the presidency of the ministry, and clothed with dictatorial 
 power, he proceeded against the insurgents with great energy. Yet the agitation con- 
 tinued in the south for a long time, while the Carlists, secretly supported by the mon- 
 archists of France, extended their power and their influence in the north. And now 
 the Cubans rebelled, seeking to separate " the pearl of the Antilles " from Spain. 
 Castelar steered bravely through this sea of difficulty, though men doubted whether he 
 was strong enough to master the radical and democratic elements in the Cortes. Conse- 
 quently, the men of the revolution of 1868, Serrano, Topete, and others quietly formed a 
 committee, and determined to proclaim a dictatorship, if the socialists made it necessary. 
 § 666. And it became necessary soon enough. Castelar was not able to main- 
 tain his authority against the Carlists and the insurgents. His army was too weak, 
 and his leaders too untrustworthy. Moreover, Salmeron, the president of the Cortes, 
 had' no faith in Castelar's policy ; and when the legislative assembly stood by their 
 
 18S4. president in a vital matter, Castelar resigned. The army now came 
 
 forward with a proclamation against anarchy. This was brought about by the com- 
 mittee already spoken of, formed by Serrano, Topete, and Sagasta. Pavia, a determ- 
 ined young general, marched into the hall of the Cortes, at the head of a few soldiers, 
 and dissolved the assembly. He then assembled the chiefs of all parties, and urged 
 them to create a new government. Alfonso, the son of Isabella, was too young to ad- 
 mit of the restoration of the moliarchy, so a kind of military republic was established. 
 Marshal Serrano became the head of the executive power, and Sagasta, the president 
 of the ministerial council. The Carlists were still powerful in the north. Moriones, 
 the republican general, had been compelled to retire southward, but under the new 
 government, the Carlists were driven back. The thought of a Bourbon restoration be- 
 
 isM. came now the topic of discussion. On the 30th of December, 1874, 
 
 General Campos raised the monarchical standard, and proclaimed Alfonso XH. King of 
 Spain. The army of the east was soon joined by the army of central Spain ; the min- 
 isters protested, but resigned; a new government was formed by Canovas del Castillo. 
 Serrano hastened to France, and the young King entered Madrid in triumph. The new 
 King was little inclined to the ideas of the time, but he saw that it was impossible to 
 rule Spain in the spirit, or by the method of his mother Isabella. Only with the 
 standard of constitutional monarchy could he hope to triumph over Don Carlos. The 
 
 isj«. Cortes were convened to establish a new constitution, while he himself 
 
 proceeded with the army to put down the insurrection of the north. Don Carlos 
 was defeated, and compelled to abandon Spain. Meanwhile the government and the 
 Cortes were restoring to the kingdom its former character, the Catholic religion 
 was not re-established just as the papal nuncio desired, but a number of Protestant 
 communities in Madrid and in the provinces were dissolved, and the universities 
 
FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 
 
 763 
 
 deprived of their newly acquired liberty. The revenues of the clergy were 
 increased, and the instruction of the children placed in their hands. Foreigners of 
 Protestant confession might practice their religion and erect their schools in Spain, 
 but bigotted ofBcials and bishops reduced these rights to a shadow. Spain was 
 distressed financially, the Cuban insurrection having deprived the mother country 
 
 1S7S. of much revenue, and the insurrection having led to great outlay. In 
 
 1878, King Alfonso was married to Marie Mercedes, daughter of the Duke de Mont- 
 pensier. But the young and beautiful queen died a few months after. King Alfonso 
 was at first completely under the influence of Canovas and his reactionary ideas. But 
 growing weary of this tyrann}^ he turned to the liberals and called Sagasta to the min- 
 istry. In 1885 a Spanish mob attacked the residence of the German minister in Mad- 
 rid ; the Spanish cabinet apologized, but 
 maintained its right of sovereignty over 
 the Caroline islands, which were claimed 
 by Germany. Prince Bismarck offered 
 to refer the matter to Pope Leo XIII. 
 The Pope decided in favor of Spain, 
 issB. though giving to Germany 
 freedom of navigation and of the fish- 
 eries, and the right to use the island as 
 a naval station. But in 1885 the young 
 King died. It was a great loss to the 
 unfortunate land, for he had shown 
 unusual capacity for government, a 
 clear head, and a strong will. His 
 second wife was Maria Christina of 
 Austria. After his death, she assumed 
 the regency, and soon gave birth to a 
 prince, who, as Alfonso XIII., is the 
 heir of the Spanish throne. 
 
 § 667. The Eastern War and Russia. 
 The inability of the Sublime Porte to 
 establish peace and to maintain order in 
 the empire, the shattered condition of 
 the Turkish finances, and the abuses in the provinces, were used by Russia to separate 
 to herself the provinces back of the Danube, between the Adriatic and the Black Sea. 
 The deep gulf between the Mohammedan land-holders and the Christian peasantry, 
 naturally furthered the Russian agitation. Sometimes the appeal was made to re- 
 ligious prejudice, and sometimes to race hatred. Insurrections began in Herzegovina, 
 
 1SS5. and in Bosnia. Women, children, and old men fled with their herds 
 
 and their possessions into Austria and Montenegro, while the young and middle aged 
 men under Mukhtar Pasha, marched against the Turks. Volunteers hurried to them 
 from Servia and Montenegro, and they were soon in possession of all the mountain 
 passes. Austria urged the mediation of the powers. The mediation was without suc- 
 cess. For the insurgents refused to accept the promises made in Constantinople, 
 unless the European powers became responsible for their fulfillment. Meanwhile 
 
 MUKHTAR PASHA. 
 
764 RECENT HISTORY. 
 
 Austria, Russia, and Germany united to restrain the insurgents, and to relieve the in- 
 habitants of Turkey in Europe from their wretched situation. A note was prepared 
 by Count Andrass}', and submitted to the Turkish government. But although sup- 
 ported by all the great powers, it was without practical effect. Hostilities were re- 
 newed with even greater energy. Bulgaria and Prince Milan appeared ready to join 
 the insurrection. The Slavonic population looked to Russia for guidance and for 
 freedom. The three imperial powers were therefore persuaded that further steps were 
 necessary. Bismarck, Gortschakoff, and Andrassy united in a memorandum which was 
 submitted to the Porte. The Turkish government was urged to carry out the prom- 
 ised reforms in the interests of peace, and intimations were given in the memorandum 
 that delay would lead to energetic action, upon the part of Austria, Russia and 
 Germany. 
 
 § 668. But the uprisings of the Christians and of the Slavs had meanwhile 
 stirred up the fanaticism of the Mohammedans and the hatred of the non-Slavonic 
 races. German and French ambassadors were attacked by Turkish mobs, and even in 
 the city of Constantinople fanaticism attacked the Sultan Abdul Aziz, who, in the eyes 
 of the Moslems, was the source of all calamity, and should therefore be deposed. The 
 softas, or pupils of the priestly schools, marched to the palace, and demanded the re- 
 moval of the Grand- Vizier, Mohammed Pasha. The frightened Sultan yielded, but 
 laia. eager for revenge, he retired to his innermost apartment, when his 
 
 ministerial council determined to depose him also. The Sultan was attacked at night, 
 and murdered in his own apartment. A few daj's afterward, two leaders of the revo- 
 lution, Raschid and Hassein Amri, were themselves murdered. These events provoked 
 a terrible excitement, especially in the army. The uprising in Bulgaria was put down 
 amid horrors that drove Europe into excited protest. The rulers of Servia and Mont- 
 enegro, relying upon the help of Russia, had joined the insurrection, and were march- 
 ing against the Turks. But they were not equal to the combat, and in Constantinople 
 they were determined upon resistance, because they expected help from England. 
 The Tory government sent a fleet to the Dardanelles. The war in the west and in the 
 north continued, while Russian and English diplomacy contended with each other in 
 Constantinople. Murad V., the successor of Abdul Aziz, was now deposed, and the 
 crown given to his brother, Abdul Hamid II. The new Sultan was welcomed as "the 
 reformer of Turkey." Meanwhile the Turkish arms were successful. The Russians 
 proclaimed Prince Milan King of Servia, but the Turkish commander Abdul Kerim 
 broke through the Servian army and marched toward Belgrade. The Czar Alexander 
 now assured himself of the support of Germany and Austria, at any rate, of their 
 friendly neutrality. The European ambassadors, eager to avert war, proposed a series 
 of reforms, to be carried out under the supervision of a European army of six thousand 
 men, stationed in the oppressed provinces. To this the Turkish government would 
 not accede. The conference, which had been convened, was dissolved because of this 
 isin. refusal ; the ambassadors left Constantinople, and the Czar Alexander 
 
 believed that the time had come to follow the voice of his people. 
 
 § 669. In April the Czar left his capital for the army, and the Pruth was crossed 
 at night at three different places. Prince Carl of Roumania declared his kingdom in- 
 dependent, and marched to the field with the Russians. At the same time, Russian 
 troops from Asia crossed the Turkish frontier, and attacked Ardachau. The neglect 
 
FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 
 
 765 
 
 of the Turkish commander-in-chief, Abdul Kerim, made it easy for the Russians to cross 
 the Danube, also and to compel the Turks to retreat. Early in July, the Russians 
 were in possession of all the land from Sistova to Gabrova, so that the Arch-duke, 
 Nicholas, could establish his headquarters at Tinova, and Prince Tscherkaszky could 
 undertake the re-organization of Bulgaria. Nicopolis was besieged and taken. 
 General Gurko next captured the Scliipka Pass, and the Russian cavalry were soon 
 
 ABDUL HAMID. 
 
 in the vicinity of Adrianople. It looked as if the campaign would be over in a few 
 weeks, and the Russians be in Constantinople. At this juncture, Abdul Kerim and the 
 minister of war, Redif Pasha, were removed from their places and banished. Mehemed 
 Ali was appointed to command the army of the Danube, and Osman Pasha took 
 possession of Plevna and surrounded it with strong entrenchments. The Russian 
 general, Kriidener, sought in vain to drive the Turks from these fortifications. He was 
 
766 KECEKT HISTORY. 
 
 forced to retire, after losing eight thousand men. Osman Pasha now surrounded 
 Plevna with a ring of fortifications, which made the city almost impregnable. General 
 Skobeleff displayed great military genius, but not until General Todleben took part 
 in the siege, was any impression made upon the Turkish defences. He determined to 
 
 GRAND DUKE NICHOLAS. 
 
 hold them fast and starve them out. It looked as if the catastrophe of Metz would be 
 repeated. But Osman Pasha was a braver soldier than Bazaine. When food and 
 powder failed him, and hunger and disease was waisting his troojDS, he determined to 
 
FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 
 
 767 
 
 venture all upon a sortie. If he must capitulate, he would capitulate on the battle- 
 field. After a desperate struggle with the Russians and the Roumanians, he was 
 driven back into Plevna, and compelled to surrender. He had defended the city for 
 six long months, and fell covered with glory ; but his fall decided the war. Turkey 
 was in its last gasp. A circular letter to the powers of Europe besought their in- 
 tervention. 
 
 § 670. The Russians did not delay to make the most of their victory. In spite 
 isjj. of the weather and of the winter, they marched forward, surrounded 
 
 the Turkish troops in the Schipka pass, and compelled then to surrender. Thirty thou- 
 sand men fell into the hands of Russia, Adrianople was taken, and the Turkish line of 
 retreat cut off. Suleiman Pasha moved 
 southward with the remnant of his 
 army, hoping to escape by sea. The 
 truce of Adrianople was signed by 
 Turkey in despair, and a few weeks 
 afterward the peace of San Stefano was 
 agreed upon, in which Servia, Rou- 
 mania, and Montenegro were declared 
 independent, and Bulgaria was raised to 
 a tributar}', but otherwise self-existent 
 princedom, with a Christian government 
 and a native militia. Turkey was also 
 required to pay fourteen hundred mil- 
 lion rubles as war indemnity, or if she 
 preferred, to cede to Russia certain 
 tei'ritories in Asia. Bosnia and Her- 
 zegovina were to have a government 
 of their own, with reforms guaranteed 
 by the European powers. Bessarabia 
 was to be returned to Russia. Eng- 
 land, angry at the conduct of Russia, 
 demanded a congress, and Russia 
 thought it best to yield. An assem- 
 bly of notables convened in Berlin, 
 the like of which had not been seen in 
 Europe, since the famous Congress of Vienna 
 represented the three empires. 
 lazs. 
 
 SULEIMAN PASHA. 
 
 Bismarck, Gortschakoff and Andrassy 
 Beaconsfield appeared for England, Waddington for 
 France, Corti for Italy, Mehemed Ali for Turkey. After violent de- 
 bates, it was agreed that Servia and Montenegro should retain their old boundaries, 
 but Bessarabia remain in the hands of Russia. All confessions were to have equal 
 rights, (even the Jews,) in the new independent princedom. Russia was to retain Batoum, 
 but Bulgaria was shorn of nearly all that was given to her in the treaty of San Stefano. 
 In a word Turkey in Europe was restored. The treaty of San Stefano would have de- 
 stroyed it. Nevertheless the fortresses on the Danube were razed to the ground, and 
 the Danube made free to its mouth. South Bulgaria or East Roumelia, as it has since 
 
768 
 
 KECENT HISTORY. 
 
 been called, remained to Turkey, but its future welfare was guaranteed by the Euro- 
 pean powers. 
 
 § 671. The Princes of Servia and Montenegro expected to win Bosnia and Her- 
 zegovina, the provinces in which 
 the rebellion began, but they , 
 
 were disappointed. Andrassy's ! 
 
 policy was to incorporate these ^i 
 
 provinces with Austria, and this 5 ' 
 
 plan met with the favor of the go 
 Congress, for the government at S ^ 
 Vienna obtained permission to g 
 occupy both provinces ; in doing ^ 
 so, however, they encountered 
 a stubborn and a bloody resis- 1 
 
 tance. The following year „ i 
 Austria, with the consent of z ! 
 Turkey, occupied Novi Bazar, g 
 without prejudice to the ^ 
 sovereign rights of the Sultan. "^ 
 The Albanese formed a league « 
 to prevent this, but Turkey, g 
 acting in conjunction with "^ ■ 
 Austria, sent Mehemed Ali to ^ j 
 put down the insurrection. ' ' 
 He was attacked by the peo- ^ | 
 pie and murdered. England §■ S 
 was not satisfied to go from the ^ •" 
 Congress with empty hands, i 
 She obtained from Turkey the ^ 
 island of Cyprus, and the prom- 3 
 ise to introduce reforms into ^s 
 Asia Minor. In return, the 
 English ministry pledged them- 
 selves to support Turkey in 
 retaining her Asiatic provinces. 
 Yet the Congress of Berlin had 
 not established lasting peace. 
 The pan -Slavic party was not 
 satisfied. Many said openly 
 that Russia should defy the 
 Congress. The party of peace 
 prevailed, and a separate treaty 
 was made with Turkey, touch- 
 ing the costs of the war and other unsettled questions. The Congress however 
 created a coldness between Petersburg and Berlin. Prince Bismarck was accused of 
 luke-warmness toward Russia, and the Prussian king of ingratitude ; and the meeting 
 
770 RECENT HISTORY. 
 
 of the two emperors did not remove the misunderstanding. Bulgaria framed a 
 
 1S79. jjarliamentary constitution, and chose the Prince of Battenberg, a 
 
 nephew of the Czar, as hereditary monarch. The Prince accepted the election 
 after it had been ratified by the European powers and in Constantinople. But 
 the new state had to pass through many crises and parliamentary storms. The well- 
 meaning Prince found liis position one of great difficulty and danger. The separation of 
 Bulgaria into North and South Bulgaria was a source of great confusion. The inter- 
 ference of the Russians kept the land in turmoil. Russian generals entered the Bul- 
 garian ministry ; civil and military offices were held by the Russians to such an extent 
 that great jealousy resulted. At last an insurrection broke out in Philipopel. The 
 union of the two Bulgarias, North and South, was proclaimed, and Prince Alexander 
 declared ruler in East Roumelia. This was an open violation of the treaty of Berlin, 
 but Russia, formerly so earnest in the creation of a united Bulgaria, now looked on 
 quite coldly after the national feeling had turned against Russian interference. But 
 the extension of Bulgaria created anxiety in Servia, and the government at Belgrade de- 
 clared war against the neighbor state, alleging a violation of her frontiers. She was 
 
 isso. soon glad to make peace, and Prince Alexander reached an understand- 
 
 ing with Turkey, by which he became ruler over East Roumelia. This completed vir- 
 tually the union of the two Bulgarias, yet in spite of his success. Prince Alexander be- 
 came the victim of a Russian conspiracy ; he was attacked by soldiers and carried into 
 Russian territory. He returned to Sofia and received an enthusiastic welcome from 
 the people, but his humble letter to the Czar received such ungracious answer, that he 
 abandoned all hope of a friendl}' relation with Russia, and gave up his throne. The 
 
 18S7. Bulgarian parliament then chose Prince Ferdinand of Coburg to be 
 
 their ruler, but Russia refused to recognize him, and the Bulgarian confusion contin- 
 ued. 
 
 § 672. While Russia was thus discontented with the results of the war, she was 
 suffering also from the terrors of revolution. The Nihilists had declared war against 
 all existing institutions in state and society. The mixture of civilization and of bar- 
 barism among the wealthier classes greatly furthered this revolutionary movement. 
 The corruption of the administration and of the aristocracy drove manj' of the better 
 minds into opposition. Outbreaks among the students, murderous attacks upon those 
 in high place, defalcations and bribery in ofSce, were all proofs of internal disease. The 
 chief of police. General Trepoff, was shot bya young girl named Vera Sassulitsch, and 
 
 jsis. his successor, General Mesenzeff, was murdei'ed by an unknown hand. 
 
 Vera Sassulitsch was acquitted by the jury and, with the help of her friends, escaped to 
 Switzerland. Prince Krapotkin fell a victim to a Nihilist assassin. The Czar himself 
 was attacked in the vicinity of his palace, and within two months his life was at- 
 tempted, once on a railway journey to Moscow, and once in the winter palace in St. 
 Petersburg. Finally Count Loris Melikoff was made chief of police, and clothed with 
 the powers of a dictator. For a while peace and safety reigned, and the twenty-fifth 
 year of the reign of Alexander II. was celebrated with great pomp and rejoicing. But 
 this jubilee was the last happiness of his life, and the last pleasant incident of his event- 
 
 issi. ful reign. The next year he was mortally wounded by an explosion of 
 
 dynamite, and carried dying to the imperial palace. The trial of the perpetrators dis- 
 covered an abyss of crime and of conspiracy, which included all classes of Russian so- 
 
FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 771 
 
 ci&fcy. The Arch-duke Alexander now became czar. Prince Gortschakoff, who had 
 issa. conducted Russian affairs for thirty years, died not long after. The 
 
 new reign fluctuated between absolutism and liberalism, between peace and war, be- 
 tween pau-slavonic ideals and alliances witli western powers. The old understanding 
 
 ALEXANDER III. 
 
 with Germany could not be restored, and in the Baltic provinces a crusade was beguu 
 against German speech, German school, and German church. Russia, externally im- 
 mense, and internally diseased, is one of the startling problems of the modern world. 
 § 673. England under Crladstone. England, as we have seen, reaped great advant- 
 
772 
 
 RECENT HISTORY. 
 
 ages from the Napoleonic wars, but, with the exception of the Crimean war, she has, 
 since 1815, kept aloof from continental entanglements. Nevertheless, her neutrality- 
 has not been so carefully guarded as to prevent misunderstanding. Her sympathies 
 were evidently with Denmark, but it did not help the Danes ; and Russia took advantage 
 of the Franco-German war to set aside important articles of the treaty of Paris. The 
 sympathies of England were also with the Confederate States of America in the war 
 against the Union, and led to the Alabama question, which was finally submitted to arbi- 
 tration, and decided against Great Britain. This peace policy was not caused alto- 
 gether by a regard for the interests of commerce and of manufacture, but the English 
 
 army was neither as strong nor as well 
 organized as the armies of the Continent, 
 and the English Parliament was little dis- 
 posed to follow the examples of the mili- 
 tary powers. Indeed the House of Peers 
 was not to be persuaded to abolish the pur- 
 chasing of commissions in the army, so 
 that the evil custom was finally destroyed 
 by royal warrant. And yet the progress 
 that Russia was making in Central Asia, 
 and the increasing confusion in Turkey, 
 made war at any moment possible. More- 
 over, ever since the Khiva war, the English 
 have watched Russia with exceeding jeal- 
 ousy. England likewise has had her con- 
 flicts with the Roman Catholic church, and 
 these conflicts have acquired new signifi- 
 cance through the Oxford movements,, 
 which began in 1833. John Henry Newman, Henry Manning, William George Ward, 
 and other powerful leaders of the Anglican church, became Roman Catiiolics ; and of 
 late years the ultra-montanes have acquired great influence among the English people. 
 It was hoped that the disestablishment of the English church in Ireland would lead to 
 peace, but the hope was disappointed. The conciliatory policy of Gladstone, in the 
 Irish question, provoked much opposition in England, while it bore but little fruit in 
 the Emerald Isle. The Tories enlarged their influence, and looked confidently to 
 issj. the next election, and their confidence was well founded. In 1874 
 
 the Tory leader, Benjamin Disraeli, was summoned by the Queen to form a new 
 ministry. Gladstone retired to private life, to his classical and religious studies. He 
 startled both his friends and his enemies by his powerful attack upon the Vatican 
 decrees. Meanwhile the new, minister turned away from domestic affairs, and devoted 
 an attention to foreign politics, unknown in England for many years. 
 
 § 674. Tlie English in Africa and their Colonial Policy. In her naval and colonial 
 system, England held fast to the traditional policy by which she had become the might- 
 isi3. iestof maritime and commercial peoples. As formerly in Abyssinia, so 
 
 now in 1873, on the west coast of Africa, she established her power anew with the native 
 Ashantees. The rich coast, which stretches from the Gulf of Guinea to Sierra Leone, 
 and which comprises the " golden shore," has been the scene of commercial activity 
 
 BEN.IAMIN DISRAELI, LORD BEACONSFIELD. 
 
FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 
 
 773 
 
 ever since the discoveries of the Portuguese. Different nations have established col- 
 onies, built factories and forts along this coast; among the rest, Portuguese, Dutch, 
 Danes, and Englishmen. The neighboring negro tribes were subjugated or made trib- 
 utary to the Europeans. Among these, the wild and warlike Ashautees occupied the 
 chief place. In the course of years, the English became most powerful on the " gold 
 coast," but entered into a war with the Ashantees, which threatened to destroy them 
 in West Africa. Finally the 
 savages wei'e compelled to 
 yield. General Wolseley, 
 with strong forces and pow- 
 erful artillery, defeated them 
 in a series of battles. They 
 were weakened bj' disease 
 and lack of supplies, and 
 finally compelled to retire to 
 their principal city Kumasi. 
 The English now determined 
 to conquer this city, and to 
 attack the King in the heart 
 of his country and of his peo- 
 ple. In spite of the difficul- 
 ties of the territory, inter- 
 sected as it was by swamp 
 and thicket, the march was 
 undertaken and brought to a 
 successful conclusion. The 
 natives fled at Wolseley's 
 approach, and abandoned 
 isi*. Kumasi, set- 
 
 ting fire to it as they fled. 
 The King perceived the 
 
 futility of further warfare, as all the neighbor tribes had joined the English. He 
 sued for peace, renouncing all his claims to the British territory, and agreeing to pay 
 fifty thousand ounces of gold to defray the costs of the war. The English also com- 
 pelled him to abandon human sacrifice, the traces and monuments of which had filled 
 them with horror. A brilliant reception greeted the governor and his troops when 
 they returned to England. A few years later, the same General Garnet Wolseley 
 sailed again to South Africa to put down the Zulus. These had made war upon the 
 English, under their cruel king, Cetewayo. When the Transvaal republic was incor- 
 porated into the English territory, they claimed a portion of the frontiers for them- 
 selves. They fought desperately, but were finally defeated, and Cetewayo was carrie^ 
 a prisoner into Cape Town. Among the volunteers who fought with Wolseley was 
 1S10. the young Prince Napoleon. In a reconnoisance, he met an early death. 
 
 But the English government found its chief difficulty in Egypt. Ismail Pasha, 
 the Khedive of Egypt, had beggared himself and his country, by mad extravagance 
 and hateful misrule. To escape from his difficulties, he sold his share in the Suez 
 
 THOMAS CARLYLE. 
 
774 
 
 RECENT HISTORY. 
 
 canal to the British government, and thus brought the canal under the joint control of 
 the English and the French. The European powers now meddled with the administra- 
 tion of the countr3\ This produced great dissatisfaction among the Egyptian people. 
 They attempted, by a military insurrection and a revolution, to escape this foreign in- 
 fluence. Ismail 
 Pasha was deposed, 
 and his feeble son, 
 Tewfik Pasha, 
 brought to the 
 ts7o. throne. 
 But the national 
 partj^ which de- 
 sired the absolute 
 independence of 
 Egypt, grew 
 every day more 
 dangerous. The 
 head of this partj^ 
 was Arabi, who, 
 ^ by an uprising 
 < of the soldiers, 
 ^ compelled the 
 i Khedive to change 
 5 his ministers, to 
 g establish a new 
 a constitution, and 
 ^ to create a par- 
 liament. Arabi 
 himself became 
 the minister of 
 war. The Egyp- 
 tian fanatics now 
 began a tumult 
 in Alexandria, in 
 which the English 
 consul was wound- 
 e d , and m a n 3^ 
 Europeans were 
 murdered. There- 
 upon the English 
 war vessels bom- 
 barded the city, 
 isas. and Arabi withdrew his troops to Cairo. Alexandria, half consumed, 
 
 was occupied bj' the English. Arabi was deposed by the Khedive, but as he was sup- 
 ported by his arm}', he continued to rule the land ; and he would have given the 
 English great trouble, if he and his troops had not revealed an incompetenc}' and a 
 
FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 
 
 775 
 
 cowardice that exceeded all expectation. At Tel-el-Kebir, the Egyptian army was 
 utterly defeated by General Wolseley, Arabi himself taken prisoner and banished to 
 Ceylon. England then proceeded to bring the land into closer relations, but the task 
 was exceedingly difficult, es- 
 pecially when El Mahdi, the 
 false prophet, lifted the stan- 
 dard of rebellion in Nubia. 
 The English General Gordon 
 was shut up in Khartoum and 
 isss. lost his life. 
 
 Her colonial system is the 
 glory of England. All par- 
 ties agree touching her for- 
 eign possessions, especially 
 touching the Indian empire, 
 which is governed with the 
 utmost sagacity. The re- 
 markable journey that the 
 Prince of Wales made to 
 India, in order to acquaint 
 himself, by personal observa- 
 tion, with the vast empire of 
 the East, strengthened the 
 bond between England and 
 her colonies. Upon his re- 
 turn, the imperial title was 
 added to the English crown, 
 a triumph, which brought to 
 Disraeli his title of Lord 
 Beaconsfield. In the years 
 1878 and 1879, Afghanistan, 
 a frontier land of India, and 
 its great trading cities of 
 Kabul and Kandahar, were the scenes of bloody conflict and rebellion, in vrhich 
 doubtless the Russians played their part. The English finally predominated, but only 
 after a costly and difficult campaign. Burmah too, where the bloodthirsty and insane 
 king, Thibau, spread about him a reign of terror, was conquered in a short campaign 
 and annexed to the British empire. 
 
 § 675. Yet in spite of these successes, the public opinion of England was opposed 
 to the expensive war policy of the Tories. Parliament and press were soon in opposi- 
 tion. To be wandering abroad, while so many wounds were bleeding at home, created 
 discontent; and the imperial policy of Beaconsfield, which increased only the glory of 
 the administration, was in conflict with parliamentary traditions. The Prime-minister 
 was quick to perceive the public mind. He determined to dissolve the lovi^er House 
 and to order a new election. But in vain. The majority of those elected were Whigs, 
 Liberals, and Radicals. He saw that his time was out, and he resigned his office. The 
 
 ^y/UO C^N^JN*''^'^^ ^ 
 
776 
 
 RECENT HISTORY. 
 
 Queen summoned Gladstone, the head of the Liberal opposition, to form a new cabinet. 
 
 isso. Disraeli devoted himself to literature. His romance, Endymion, the 
 
 background of which is the party life and the political current of his time, was the 
 
 fruit of his literary activity, and the conclusion of his long life. He died on the 19th. 
 
 of April, 1881. Gladstone however 
 gave all his strength and experience 
 to the pacification of Ireland. Con- 
 spiracies and secret societies tor- 
 mented the land. Agrarian murders 
 1 and outrages of all kinds were daily 
 I events. The authority of the law 
 had vanished ; society was drifting 
 to anarchy. Home rule was the 
 battle cry of the Irish independents. 
 Parnell, the Irish leader in the Eng- 
 lish Parliament, represented the 
 cause of his people, while the land 
 league in Ireland wielded a power 
 greater than that of the government. 
 Gladstone sought to pacify the 
 country, partly by reform measures, 
 and partly by coercion. An Irish 
 land law was framed, with a view to 
 restore humane relations between 
 the tenant and the landowners. But 
 pacification seemed impossible ; uni- 
 issa. versal horror spread 
 
 through the British kingdom, when 
 the state secretary Lord Cavendish, 
 and the under state-secretarj'' Bourke 
 were murdered in Phoenix Park, Dublin. Gladstone was successful in the passage of 
 a reform bill, perfecting the act of 1867. This bill increased the number of electors, and 
 the representation of the cities. To obtain the parliamentary support of the 
 Irish, Gladstone was inclined to grant Home Rule. He jsroposed a separate Parlia- 
 ment and a separate ipinistrj-, some such relation as now exists between Austria and 
 Hungary. But this project of Gladstone appeared to the English people too bold, too 
 violent, and too dangerous. When new elections were ordered, he was defeated and 
 immediately resigned. Lord Salisbury now formed a Tory cabinet, but the tumult in 
 Ireland continued. Frequent conflicts took place between the government and the 
 Irish nial-contents, which became the subject of violent debates in the House of Com- 
 mons. Parnell, after a triumphant defense of himself against the charges of the Lon- 
 don Times, was driven from public life by an exposure of his private immoralities. 
 This led to a division of the Home Rule party. In 1893 the Liberals returned to 
 power, but early in 1894 Mr. Gladstone was compelled, hy increasing infirmities, to re- 
 tire from the ministrj' and from active life. Lord Roseberrj' succeeded him as Prime- 
 minister, and Sir. William Harcourt as leader of the House of Commons. 
 
 WILLIAM EWART GLADSTONE. 
 
FKOM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 777 
 
 IV. POSTSCRIPT. 
 
 1. Germany. 
 § 676. 
 
 JILLLIAM II. succeeded to the thrones of Prussia and the German 
 Empire, June 15, 1888. His father Lad been greatly beloved, and 
 his tragic death caused sincere and almosi. universal grief. This 
 sorrovif was mingled with anxiety, for the young Emperor was be- 
 lieved to be rash, ambitious, greedy of power, restless, and un- 
 reliable. Field marshal. Count Moltke, resigned the command of 
 the army in August, and Count Waldersee was named as his suc- 
 isss. cessor. In September, the publication of extracts from the diary of 
 
 the late emperor produced great excitement ; and this was not allayed in the speeches 
 of the ruling monarch, and the conduct of Prince Bismarck. Widespread strikes, in 
 the coal regions of Westphalia, increased the public concern, especially as the Em- 
 peror's movements were so uncertain. Early in the jea,T 1890, the Reichstag rejected 
 jait. ss, isoo. the bill against the socialists, and was thereupon dissolved. In the 
 same year, an International Labor Congress convened at Berlin at the instance of the 
 Emperor ; but the fruit j)roduced was poor and scanty. On the 18th of March, Prince 
 marcH 18, ISOO. Bismarck resigned his posts. He ceased to be chancellor of the 
 empire that he had created, and prime minister of the Prussia that he had saved. General 
 Caprivi was appointed to succeed him, but the excitement in the country was verv 
 great. The settlement of the Westphalian strikes relieved the people of one reason 
 for alarm, and the policy of the new chancellor toward the socialists gradually justi- 
 fied itself by its results. Laws protecting the laborer were enacted, and the employ- 
 ment of women and children was regulated by carefully framed statutes. On the 
 other hand, the national pride was soothed by the cession of the little patch of island 
 held by Great Britain, in return for German possessions in Africa. Heligoland be- 
 1800. came German territory in 1890. The next year the sequestrated 
 
 funds of the Roman Catholic church were released, and the accumulated fiO,000,000 
 Feh., 1801. appropriated to church uses. Count Moltke died the following April, 
 deeply regretted, because so greatly beloved. Few great soldiers have been so 
 revered ; few have been so simple in their lives, and so little elated by their 
 triumphs. 
 
 In June, 1891, the triple alliance, between Austria, Italy, and Germany, was re- 
 laot. newed for a period of six years, and when the pass regulations on the 
 
 French frontier were greatly relaxed, the people began to believe in peace. Con- 
 fidence in the young emperor, and his good intentions, gradually gained ground. 
 
 The new ministers, however, found their task a hard one. The representatives of 
 
 1503. the people, who are divided into numerous factions, opposed their pro- 
 jects, and they were finally forced to appeal to the nation. After a bitter contest, a 
 majority for the new army bill was obtained, and Caprivi still remains in power. 
 Recent events point to a better understanding with Russia, a new commercial treaty 
 
 1504. having just been completed between the Kaiser and the Czar. And 
 Bismarck, who in his retirement, has been a somewhat savage critic of his successor's 
 
778 RECENT HISTORY. 
 
 policy, made, in 1894, a journey to Berlin, in which great pains were taken to pro- 
 claim the reconciliation of the monarch and the former minister. 
 
 2. France. 
 
 § 677. The two great events in the history of France, since 1888, are the rise 
 and fall of General Boulanger, and the bursting of the Panama mud volcano. Gen- 
 eral Boulanger managed somehow to get himself adored by a great following. Puffed 
 up with popularity, he defied his superiors, who answered with a court of enquiry. 
 sfat-ch 30, isss. The General, though found guilty, was powerful enough to overthrow 
 the existing ministr}', and to bring in M. Floquet. In July, the exasperated soldier 
 offered a resolution, demanding that Parliament dissolve ; and when this was rejected 
 almost unanimously, he ostentatiously resigned. A duel with M. Floquet cost him no 
 little blood, and much reputation ; for the soldier was wounded severely, and the 
 lawyer escaped unhurt. Nevertheless, he was re-elected to the Chamber of Deputies, 
 and succeeded in defeating the Floquet ministr}-, and driving it from power. 
 
 The Tirard cabinet, which followed, proved equally hostile to his intrigues. And 
 1SS9. Boulanger, fearing arrest, fled to Brussels. In August 1889, the 
 
 Senate, acting as a High Court of Justice, found him guilty of plotting against the 
 state, and sentenced him to imprisonment for life. In the October elections, the 
 Boulangists dwindled to forty-five deputies, and when the hero of unfought campaigns, 
 the great soldier of to-morrow, committed suicide, his party, once so pretentious, per- 
 ished like a dream. 
 
 If Boulanger had been a man of pith and purpose, instead of an inflated ad- 
 venturer, the Panama Canal excitement would have made liim great. For it nearlj' 
 wrecked the French republic. The Exposition of 1889 had been a notable triumph. 
 In spite of the absence of crowned guests, the capital had rejoiced in multitudes of 
 visitors, and in a brilliant series of fetes and spectacles. The Pope moreover had sig- 
 nified his acceptance of the republic, and the uprising in Paris and A-icinitj', had been 
 suppressed with ease. The republic had fairly gotten itself established, when the 
 Panama explosion covered it with mud, and threatened to shatter its foundations. In 
 is»2. May, 1892, the company reported that 900,000,000 francs were 
 
 necessar}' to complete their undertaking; just before this, the United States had pro- 
 tested emphatically against the control of the canal, by a non-American state. The 
 supposed suicide of Baron de Reinaeh, led to many startling disclosures, implicating 
 members of the cabinet in gigantic schemes of corruption and briber}', along with 
 senators and deputies, de Lesseps and his son, Eiffel, the great engineer, and many 
 others. JMinistry succeeded ministry in quick succession, and desperate efforts were 
 made to implicate President Carnot. Fortunately for France, the latter had clean 
 hands, and the republic sin-vived the crisis. 
 
 Like German}', France has returned to the system of protective tariffs, and has 
 negotiated a commercial treaty with the United States ; like Germany she has greatly 
 enlarged her army, until it includes practically the able-bodied men of the nation. 
 Each citizen must serve three years, students of science and arts alone excepted; and 
 the total period of service now covers twenty five years. 
 
 Like Germany, she has her social troubles also, her strikes, her bomb-throwers, 
 and her anarchists. Nevertheless, the republic is now in the twenty-fourth year of its 
 
FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 779 
 
 existence, a fact of no mean significance, in a country which has been without a stable 
 government ever since the revolution of 1789. The first empire lasted only fifteen 
 years, the second just nineteen. The restored monarchy endured but fifteen years, and 
 the Orleans dj^nasty a scant eighteen. If France can abandon schemes of conquest 
 and revenge, and devote her genius to the triumphs of philosophy, of art, of literature, 
 and of peace, she will resume her place at the head of civilization, and in the van of 
 human progress. 
 
 3. Italy. 
 
 § 678. The aggressiveness of the church authorities led to a statute, making it 
 isss-isso. a penal offense to claim for the pope any sovereignty in Rome. But 
 the difficulties have not been lessened, and the Roman question is still an irritating and 
 a dangerous problem. The chief difficulties of Italy, however, are financial in their 
 character. Cavour covered the infant kingdom with a colossal debt, and the triple 
 alliance involves enormous outlay for military purposes. Crispi, a man of great 
 ja». is»x. ability, succumbed to the opposition ; who brought in the Marquis di 
 Rudini with a policy of retrenchment, and possible re-action. Rudini proved unequal 
 to the task, and Crispi has just been summoned to his former place. For a brief 
 1S03. period, the relations of amity between Italy and the United States were 
 
 interrupted by the murder of some Italians in New Orleans. The United States dis- 
 avowed the outrage of the lynchers, and proffered compensation. Similar difficulties, 
 though not quite so grave, have disturbed the relations of Italy and France. Popular 
 outbreaks in both countries have led to diplomatic explanations. But no nation in 
 Europe is likely to provoke a war for trivial causes. Europe is a camp, in which the 
 nations sleep upon their arms. 
 
 4. Spain and Portugal. 
 
 § 679. Trial by jury was introduced into Spain in 1888. In 1890 the Cortes 
 passed the bill, granting the elective franchise to everj^ Spaniard of full age, and in 
 possession of civil rights. Sagasta was succeeded by Canovas del Castillo, and the 
 latter was defeated in 1892, for his course in connection with the municipal scandal in 
 Madrid. 
 
 Spain has been seriously troubled by anarchistic disturbances, especially in 
 
 1S98. Barcelona, where labor riots have proved quite serious, and required 
 
 1803. the use of military force. 
 
 The only event in Portuguese history, of great moment, since 1888, has been her 
 
 difficult}- with England ; this resulted in a treaty delimiting and restricting the re- 
 
 1S91. spective territories and spheres of influence, for Portugal and Great 
 
 Britain, on the continent of Africa. 
 
 5. Austria — Hungary. 
 
 § 680. Vienna was the scene of ugly riots in 1889; these could be suppressed by 
 the military only. A new army bill provoked a bitter struggle, and led finally to a 
 reconstruction of the Tisza cabinet, and to the ultimate retirement of Tisza as prime 
 minister. In 1891, Count Taafe found himself so hampered by difficulties, that the 
 Emperor dissolved the House of Deputies, and ordered new elections. 
 
780 RECENT HISTORY. 
 
 The death of the crown-prince, Rudolph, has left the empire in great uncertainty 
 as to the future, and the death of the present monarch is likely to produce a desperate 
 crisis. Hungary is still restless : the Slavs tend toward Russia : the Germans are dis- 
 satisfied, while the Jews are most bitterly hated. 
 
 Meanwhile, the empire is seeking to establish her currency i;pon a gold basis, and 
 to improve her commerce by treaties with Itah" and Germany. She clings to the triple 
 alliance, and does so with reason, for she is most in danger, if Russia and France ever 
 combine to crush the Germans and the Italians, and to divide the rest of Europe with 
 each other. 
 
 6. Russia. 
 
 § 681. The great empire of the north is still in the throes of inward revolution. 
 In 1888 the universities were closed by a decree of the Czar ; hundreds of students 
 were imprisoned, and scores of them exiled to Siberia. Count Tolstoi's efforts to 
 alleviate the condition of the peasantry, received however the earnest support of 
 1SS9. Alexander III. The Baltic provinces and Finland have been Russified 
 
 isoo. by harsh and cruel measures, and the Jews have been expelled in 
 
 droves from Russia. 
 
 The Trans-Siberian railway was begun in 1S91, but the loan of 8100,000,000 
 floated by the government for its construction, produced unusual excitement in finan- 
 cial circles, and led to serious political irritation. The German bankers refusing their 
 support, Russia turned to France, where she proved successful. 
 
 Famine next afflicted the empire, but, owing to the rigid censorship of the press, 
 and the merciless police regulations of the country, the exact condition of the people 
 could not be learned. 
 
 Russia quarreled with Turkey about the Dardanelles, but did not go to war, as 
 isoi. she did with Afghanistan, in a dispute about frontiers : although she 
 
 finally withdi'ew her forces from the invaded territory, and gave up the contention. 
 
 During recent jears, Russia and France have seemed to have a mutual under- 
 standing, but the Czar, like his grandfather Nicholas, has no liking for republics. 
 is9-t. Hence the commercial treat}-, recently negotiated with Germany, may 
 
 indicate a return to the policy that held the emperors, Alexander II. and Kaiser "Wil- 
 helm, in bonds of cordial friendship, and soothed the ancient hatred of Slavonian and 
 Teuton. 
 
 7. Belgium, the Netherlands, Switzeelaxd. 
 
 § 682. Belgium has adjusted her boundary disputes with the Netherlands, but 
 isss. has been the scene of much domestic trouble. Anarchistic outbreaks 
 
 led to an abortive prosecution that disgraced the government, and the laboring classes 
 is9t. resorted to wide-spread strikes, in order to compel, from Parliament, 
 
 the passage of a universal suffrage bill. Parliament refused to yield, but measures 
 for the revision of the constitution were submitted by the ministry. The elections of 
 1892 resulted in a victory for the advocates of universal suffi-age. 
 
 Anarchistic outrages continuing, some of the leaders have been at last convicted. 
 But the little kingdom is shaken by frequent agitations, in which the clergy and the 
 socialists are most conspicuous. The liberal ministry, suffering defeat in the first 
 election held under the new constitution, resigned from oflice. 
 
FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 781 
 
 The king, becoming physically incompetent to reign, Queen Emma was appointed 
 Oct., isoo. regent, a few days before the king's death. 
 
 The government of the anti-liberals proved unpopular, and the elections of 1891 
 
 drove them from power. The only important enactments of their term were the laws 
 
 affecting the laboring classes, determining the hours of the labor-day, and regulating 
 
 work in factories. The liberals, upon their return to office, passed new election laws. 
 
 isoa. and a new army bill. 
 
 The canal, connecting Amsterdam with the Rhine provinces of Germany, was 
 opened in 1892, and marks the beginning of closer intercourse between the two 
 peoples. 
 
 The Swiss Confederation has been sorely troubled by anarchists and political 
 refugees. This led to the expulsion of certain Russian Nihilists in 1889. 
 
 Then again Wohlgemuth, suspected of being a spy, appealed to Germany after 
 3iau. ISOO. his banishment, and a correspondence ensued, which ended amicably 
 in a treaty between the empire and the Confederation. 
 
 Ticino, one of the provinces near Italy, revolted in 1890; after intense excite- 
 ment, order was restored. A council of conciliation was held at Berne, and amnest}' 
 was granted to all the insui-gents. The introduction of the referendum, i. e. the sub- 
 mission of new statutes to a direct vote of the people, has done much to quiet party 
 strife in Switzerland, and the people, after years of agitation, are living in compara- 
 tive prosperity and peace. 
 
 8. Denmaru, Sweden, Norway. 
 
 § 683. The struggle in Denmark for genuine parliamentary government re- 
 sulted, in 1892, in the defeat of the liberal party. This was due, parti}' to the alarm- 
 ing development of socialistic tendencies among the radicals, and to the great increase 
 of socialistic strength at the polls, as revealed in the elections of 1890. Important 
 poor laws have been enacted, and the revenue S3-stem has been carefully revised. But 
 the constitutional crisis of 1888 may be regarded as overcome, at least for a brief 
 period. 
 
 Sweden had adopted definitely the system of protection, having passed a corn 
 law, and a general tariff law in 1888, and having overthrown a ministry too lukewarm 
 in its prosecution of protective measures. In 1890, the Gothenburg license system 
 was established in the kingdom, for the better regulation of the liquor traffic. But 
 the great event of recent Swedish history has been the complete reorganization of the 
 Swedish armj'. The King and his cabinet, alarmed at the rumors of war, and the 
 mighty armaments of neighboring countries, convened the Diet in extraordinary ses- 
 sion, and the measures of the minister of war were adopted in November, 1892. 
 
 The Norwegians are restless under a Swedish king. Bjornson, the poet, and his 
 followers seek the independence of Norway, and desire a republic. The radicals are 
 in a majority in the Storthing, and the Steen cabinet is in sympathy with them. A 
 resolution passed the house, demanding co-equality of Norway with Sweden, and an 
 independent consular service. This resolution King Oscar refused to sanction. Steen 
 and his colleagues thereupon resigned, and the Storthing adjourned. The King re- 
 fused to give way, but was unable to form a new cabinet. Tiie excitement in Christi- 
 
782 RECENT HISTORY. 
 
 ania and vicinity increased to an alarming extent. Finally the Storthing renewed its 
 sessions, agreeing to postpone the consular question, if the Steen ministry were re- 
 called. King Oscar consented, but the agitation for independence and for an extension 
 of tlie elective franchise still continues. 
 
 9. Greece, Turkey, Bulgaria, Roumania, Seevia. 
 
 § 684. King George, like King Oscar, has had no little trouble with his cab- 
 inet. Delyannis proved a failure. The financial condition of the kingdom grew 
 rapidly worse under his management, and the King asked him to resign. Delyannis 
 isoi-isog. refused, and the King dismissed him. The Boule, or legislative coun- 
 cil, sustained the minister, and denounced the conduct of the King. Popular upris- 
 ings followed. The King thereupon dissolved the Bould, and in the elections that fol- 
 lowed, Triconpis triumphed by a large majority, and at the King's summons, formed 
 the present cabinet. 
 
 The chief event in recent Turkish history has been the insurrection of the Yemen 
 tribes of Arabia. After a desperate and bloody struggle, they were finally defeated 
 by the Turkish troops, under Ahmed Fehzy Pasha. Hamid Eddin, the false Iwaum, 
 was killed, and along with him, twenty other chiefs, who acted under him in rebellion 
 against the Turks. 
 
 King Ferdinand of Bulgaria has not yet been recognized by the Sultan, although 
 his last words upon the subject held out hope to the Bulgarian minister. Russia con- 
 tinues to make trouble, but there is no pro-Russian party in Bulgaria, except that pro- 
 duced by panic or pay. Stambuloff was sustained by the elections of 1890, but all 
 Bulgarian leaders are nationalists when in office. An attempt to murder the ministers 
 led to an exciting trial, in which Russia was seriously compromised by documents that 
 the Russian authorities denounce as spurious. Bulgaria, for a while, threatened Servia 
 with war, but the Sultan intervened successfully. France, too, seemed eager to pro- 
 voke a conflict over the expulsion of a newspaper correspondent from the kingdom, 
 but consented later to be appeased. 
 
 The farmers and peasants of Roumania have been relieved by a state loan sys- 
 tem. The relations of the country with England had become more intimate, and a 
 diplomatic difficulty with Greece has kept her statesmen busy and excited. 
 
 In Servia, King Milan and his queen, Natalie, have been the objects of much 
 intrigue and curious legislation. The King agreed to stay away until Aug. 1, 1894, 
 when the prince attains liis majority, but tlie Queen refused all propositions, and was 
 finally expelled from the kingdom. Servia is in sore financial straits, and a recent con- 
 flict with the metropolitan bishop revealed the weakness of her ecclesiastical system. 
 The regency will soon expire, and fresh troubles probably begin. 
 
 10. England. 
 
 § 685. The county governments of England and Wales have been reconstituted 
 since 1888, and a local government bill for Scotland was enacted in 18»9. 
 
 Strikes and lockouts, expensive and exciting, have borne witness to the defective 
 character of the existing industrial system of the world. The chief of these was the 
 isso. strike of the London dock laborers, in 1889 ; this resulted in favor of 
 
 the strikers. 
 
FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 
 
 783 
 
 An anti-tithe war occurred in Wales, in 1890, where a league was formed, which 
 1S90. waged a bitter but unsuccessful opposition to the payment of tithes. 
 
 The failures in Australia and in South America produced a financial crisis in 
 1S03. London, in which the great house of Baring was involved, and in 1893 
 
 the action of the Indian government, suspending silver coinage, still further aggra- 
 vated the fever in commercial circles. England has been, however, free from difficul- 
 ties with other nations, excepting with Portugal and the United States. The former 
 related to boundary disputes m Africa ; the latter to the fisheries of Newfoundland, 
 and seal hunting in the Pacific Ocean. 
 In 1893, a court of arbitration de- 
 cided the controversy between the 
 United States and Great Britain, but 
 the two countries are still discussing 
 the details of the court's award. 
 
 The main feature of English poli- 
 tics however has been, of course, the 
 Irish question. In the summer of 
 1888 grave charges were made against 
 Parnell, the leader of the Irish party, 
 by the London Times. Parnell vindi- 
 cated himself triumphantlj^ before a 
 committee of investigation, appointed 
 by the House of Commons. But 
 hardly had this trial ended, when the 
 revelations of the divorce courts 
 drove him, after a desperate struggle, 
 into defeat and disgrace and death. 
 The Irish parliamentary part}' divided 
 into factions, Parnellites and anti- 
 Parnellites, and the cause of Home 
 Rule suffered severely. 
 
 Mr. Balfour's management of 
 Irish affairs had been bold and par- 
 tially successful; his land-purchase 
 
 bill, passed in 1891, had meritorious features. Yet the riots of Tipperary, and the 
 continued use of force to acconijDlish evictions, distressed the liberals of England, 
 and led to their program of 1892, the chief feature of which, was local government 
 for Ireland. 
 
 The Liberals obtained a majority of forty-two in the parliamentar}- elections of 
 laoa. 1892, and Mr. Gladstone returned to power. The Home Rule bill 
 
 passed the House of Commons after a protracted and vehement struggle, but was 
 thrown out by the House of Lords. Mr. Gladstone then turned to other measures, 
 but his growing infirmities compelled his retirement, and Lord Roseberry, the minister 
 of foreign affairs, succeeded him as prime minister. The liberals are still in office, but 
 on the edge of defeat. 
 
 The retirement of Mr. Gladstone, like that of Prince Bismarck, rounds out an 
 
 GEORGE PEABODY. 
 
784 
 
 RECENT HISTORY. 
 
 epoch of modern history. The former has created a new England, the latter a new 
 Germany Gladstone has been a man of peace, of domestic ideals, seeking the glory 
 
 of England, rather in the concilia- 
 tion of conflicting elements at home, 
 than in startling conquests abroad. 
 Bismarck has been the man of blood 
 and iron, seeking for Prussia the 
 leadership of Germany, and for Ger- 
 many the control of Europe. Glad- 
 stone cared rather for human progress 
 than for national glory ; Bismarck, 
 on the other liand, believed all prog- 
 ress dependent upon the development 
 of the state, and the security and 
 glory of the throne. The English 
 statesman stood for a conservative 
 democracy, for government by the 
 masses, made stable, not by bayonets, 
 but by enlarged intelligence ; the 
 German chancellor for progressive 
 monarchy, for government by princes, 
 made stable by a mutual fidelity and 
 loyality, the king being the chief ser- 
 vant of the people, and the people 
 the faithful dependants upon his 
 energy and paternal care. Each was 
 an idealist ; each was also a man of 
 practical sagacity, content with the 
 feasible and the possible. Along with Cavour and Lincoln they constitute the con- 
 summate flower of modern statesmanship. 
 
 RICHAED ARKRIGHT. 
 
{pp. 786.) 
 
 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 
 
A. THE HISTORY OF NORTH A^^IERICA. 
 
 T. THE EUROPEAN SETTLEMENTS. 
 1. THE SPANISH SETTLEMENTS. 
 
 . Florida and New Spain (Mexico and the Californias.) 
 
 666. 
 
 Y a papal bull issued May 4th., 1493, all newly discovered 
 countries were divided between Spain and Portu- 
 gal ; the line of demarcation, traced by Pope 
 Alexander VL, was subsequently modified by 
 treaty and moved to a point 370 leagues west of 
 the Cape De Verde Islands. This gave Spain all 
 of North and South America except Brazil. But 
 the religious struggles of the sixteenth century 
 made tlie papal authority, which had never been 
 absolute in political affairs, of less than ordinary 
 moment. Yet this being the period of Spanish great- 
 ness, she was able to establish her power in Florida 
 and in New Spain, which latter included Mexico, 
 New Mexico, Texas, and both Californias. She con- 
 trolled of course the West Indies and ruled all of South 
 America, by her governors, except Brazil; and when 
 Portugal became subject to her neighbor kingdom, 
 Brazil also was under Spanish authority from 1582 to 
 1640. 
 I'lorida. — Florida had been discovered by Ponce de Leon, who attempted-, 
 1513. nine years afterward, the founding of a colony. But instead of dis- 
 
 covering there, as he was told he would, the fountain of perpetual youth, he was 
 mortally wounded by the hostile natives and died soon afterward in Cuba. Ponce de 
 Leon was followed by Pampi lo de Narvaez who perished miserably in a futile search 
 1S27. for gold. Ferdinand de Soto, who had been with Pizarro in the con- 
 
 1S30. quest of Peru, now obtained the royal permission to conquer Florida. 
 
 He and his strange companions, priests and cavaliers, traversed great portions of 
 
 (787) 
 
 667. 
 
788 
 
 a]n:eric.\ . 
 
 Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi, and in the third j^ear of their wanderings reached 
 the banks of " the great river."" De Soto died from fever, and his body was sunk in the 
 waters of the mighty stream down whicii his starving comrades floated to the Gulf of 
 Mexico. Notwithstanding these and other misadventures, Spain looked with bitter 
 jealousy upon every attempt of her great rival France to gain a foothold in this vast 
 domain; for by Florida she meant all the country between the Atlantic and New Mex- 
 isa*. ico and from the gulf to the Polar 
 
 i#9y. Sea. France claimed it through the 
 
 discovery of Verrazzani ; England claimed it through 
 ises. the discover}^ of the Cabots ; and now 
 
 ises. France attempted to colonize it with 
 
 a settlements of Huguenots, who built Fort Caro- 
 line (near St. Augustine). These were massacred 
 by Menendez in 1565, a massacre swiftly and 
 thoroughly avenged by Dominique de Gourgues in 
 1568. Menendez founded St. Augustine, and eigh- 
 teen years later Francis Drake, then at the height of 
 his strange career discovered and attacked the 
 Spaniards at St. Augustine and burned their town. 
 From this time forward conflicts took place between 
 the Spaniards of Florida and the English settlers of 
 the South until Florida was ceded to Great Britain 
 in 1763. In the twenty years of English occupation ^°^''^'= °^ ^^o^- 
 
 twenty thousand immigrants arrived who nearly all withdrew when Florida was ceded 
 back to Spain in 1783. In 1821 the Spanish king ratified reluctantly the treaty by 
 which it became the territorj' of the United States of America. 
 b. Mexico and New Spain. 
 
 § 668. Cortez withdrew from Mexico in 1540, and New Spain continued under 
 1550. the sway of her first viceroy Antonio de Mendoza imtil 1550. He 
 
 baptized the natives and wore away their strength by hardships 
 in the mines. Rapacious laws and cruel tyranny depopulated 
 whole towns. Las Casas, the one true frieud of the peopile, 
 appealed in their behalf so urgently that new laws were estab- 
 lished by imperial decree, to mitigate the horrors of the Vice- 
 regal dominion, and "S^alasco, the successor of Mendoza, in spite 
 ' of opposition, executed these decrees with fidelity and some 
 success. He also witnessed the founding of a University at 
 1S08. the capital of Mexico. In 1568 the English 
 
 began to harrass the Spaniards along the coast, and the Span- 
 iards began the torture of the natives with the Inquisition, 
 xsrx. which was regularh^ established in 1571. Pirates 
 
 on the sea, floods on the land, robbers on the liighway, and 
 natives to be christianized kept the Viceroys busy. A nest of English buccaneers 
 was established at Jamaica, and a gang of French free-booters had their rendezvous at 
 coronado. St. Domiugo. Vera Cruz was raided by them in 1681. Meanwhile 
 15-to. the monks and Jesuits had pushed their missions forward into New 
 
 FERDINAND DE SOTO. 
 
THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 789 
 
 Mexico, Arizona, and the regions of the upper Pacific coast. Tucson in Arizona is 
 said to be, after St. Augustine, the oldest European settlement in North America. In 
 
 tjor. 1767 the Jesuits were expelled, but their labors were renewed by the 
 
 Franciscans and Dominicans, who founded mission stations in upper California. 
 
 j7ao. San Francisco Bay was discovered in 1769, and in 1806 the Spaniards. 
 
 isoo. pushing northward, encountered the Russians from Alaska pushing 
 
 toward the South. 
 
 During all this period Spain ruled the people exclusively in the interest of the 
 
 BURIAL OF DK SOTO. 
 
 Spanish crown. Only the Spaniard born in Europe could bear authority in church or 
 state, and no attention was paid to the interests of the Creoles or of the natives. Trade 
 was so restricted, that the products of the colonies could be sold to Spaniards only, and 
 the colonists were allowed to deal in none but Spanish commodities. Tobacco was a 
 royal monopoly; the products of Spain, such as wine and oil, the colonists were for- 
 bidden to raise ; they might not plant sugar-corn, or cultivate the silk-worm, or open 
 up their iron mines. All commodities that came from Spain were subject to oppres- 
 sive import duties. The governor of the province, a born Spaniard, had the privilege 
 of " Repartimientos," that is, he sent to every village a quantity of commodities with 
 fixed prices, which the inhabitants were required to buy. 
 
 No schools were established ; the agents of the Inquisition were extremely vigilant; 
 and with comparatively few troops the Sp»nish rulers were able to suppress every at- 
 
790 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 tempt at insurrection. Nevertheless the population of Mexico increased greatly, and 
 man}' European arts and modes of life were introduced. 
 
 2. Ne\y France. 
 
 a. The French in North America. 
 
 § 669. The Normans, the Bretons, and the Basques discovered quite early the 
 cod-fish banks of Newfoundland. The Basques had been there before the voyage of 
 Cabot in 1497, and in 1517 fifty Castilian, French, and Portuguese vessels were fishing 
 there at the same time. From that daj' to this, these fisheries have been an object of 
 contention : at first, between French, English, Spanish, and Portuguese and in later 
 times, between English, French, and American. 
 
 Francis I. of France, notwithstanding the Papal bull, sought a share of the treas- 
 ures of the New World, and sent out Verrazzano with four ships, which sailed from 
 Dieppe in the winter of 1523. This Florentine navigator reached the shores of what 
 
 OLD SPANISH GATE AT ST. AUGUSTINE, FLA. 
 
 is now North Carolina, and coasted the sea-board from the 34th. to the 50th. degree of 
 is2i. north latitude. Returning to Dieppe on the 8th of Juh', 1524, he 
 
 wrote to the French king the earliest known description of the Atlantic shores of 
 North America. The subsequent fortunes of Verrazzano are unknown, but the rumor 
 of his discoveries led to the expedition of Jacques Cartier, who sailed from St. Malo, 
 1S3*. April 20th, 1534. Cartier passed through the straits of Belle Isle and 
 
 sailed up the St. Lawrence to Anti Costi. Returning to St. Malo, he received a fresh 
 commission ; and with three vessels, the largest of them not above 120 tons, he steered 
 again for tlie St. Lawrence which was called by him, the great river of Hochelaga. 
 At Stadecone the Indians told him of their great metropolis Hochelaga, after which 
 they said the river was called. Stadecone and Hochelaga were the Indian names of 
 the now famous sites, Quebec and Montreal. Jean Francois de la Roque, Sieur de 
 Roberval was, upon Cartier's return, made Viceroy of New France, as the newly dis- 
 covered country was called. Cai-tier as captain-general of a new expedition, preceded 
 him to his vast dominions ; but the colony tif Roberval perished from dissensions and 
 
THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 791 
 
 from famine, and Roberval himself disappeared from history almost without a trace. 
 In 1578, there were 150 French fishing vessels at Newfoundland, but the thrifty sail- 
 ors and merchants of St. Malo had by this time discovered new treasures in the fur- 
 trade, and held it firmly until La Roche, with his band of convicts, attempted a colony 
 which proved ruinous to all concerned. But in the early days of the reign of Henry 
 IV., Aymar de Chastes "resolved to proceed to New France, in person, and dedicate 
 the rest of his days to the service of God and his king." Champlain had just returned 
 from the West Indies, and De Chastes under whom he had served in the Royal navy, 
 offered him a post in the new company. Champlain sought eagerly the king's consent, 
 
 1003. and in 1603 embarked with Pont Grave, a Breton merchant, for the 
 
 Western world. The little vessels in whicli they sailed were of twelve and fifteen tons 
 respectively. But they outrode the rough Atlantic seas and reached Hochelaga, to find 
 hardly a trace of the savage population that thronged about Cartier and his compan- 
 ions sixty-eight years before. ■ When De Chastes died, the Sieur de Monts petitioned the 
 king for leave to colonize La Cadie (Acadia). The region thus designated extended from 
 the fortieth to the forty-sixth degree of north latitude. In spite of the opi^osition of 
 the sagacious Sully, King Henry appointed De Monts lieutenant-general, with Vice- 
 regal powers, and gave him the monopoly of the fur-trade. He sailed from Havre, 
 
 icoj. April 7th, 1604, with a motley collection of vagabonds and volunteers ; 
 
 the .latter consisting of noblemen, catholic priests and Huguenot ministers. Pont- 
 Grave was to follow a few days after. De Monts reached and explored the Bay of 
 Fundy, and chose the Island of St. Croix as the sight of his colony. Scurvy soon 
 broke out among his people and, 
 weary of their ill-fated island, they 
 embarked upon a fruitless search 
 for a better habitation. Finally 
 they removed to Port Royal, and 
 De Monts returned to France. For 
 the merchants and fisherman of 
 Brittan and Normandy had at- 
 tacked his monopoly and, in spite 
 of all his efforts, his patent was an- 
 nulled. But Port Royal had been 
 given by him to Pontrincourt, who 
 was resolved upon a New France, 
 and this grant was confirmed by 
 the king. Accordingly in 1610, 
 
 leio. Pontrincourt sailed 
 
 from Dieppe, followed by the Je- 
 suits, whom he vainly tried to 
 elude. In 1613, this colony at 
 Port Ro3-al was attacked by Sam- 
 uel Argall, an English sea-cajjlain, 
 who turned part of it adrift in an 
 open boat and carried the rest of it in captivity to Virginia. This was the beginning 
 of the struggle between France and England for the possession of North America. 
 
 SAMUEL CHAMPLAIN. 
 
792 AMERICA. 
 
 Champlain, who had abandoned Port Royal when the 23atent of De Monts was re- 
 voked, returned to Canada in 1608 once more, at the instance of his former chief, whose 
 fur mouopoly had been revived for one year. He founded a city at Quebec (the Nar- 
 
 teos. rows), ascended the Richelieu river, discovered the Lake which bears 
 
 leoo. his name, fought the Iroquois Indians, incurring thereby for himself and 
 
 his countrymen their unquenchable hatred, discovered Lake Huron, and won for him- 
 self and for France the undying attachment of the Huron Indians, discovered Lake 
 
 1613. Ontario also, and, crossing the forests of New York to Lake Oneida, 
 
 penetrated to the heart of the Iroquois settlements. On his way back to Quebec, he 
 umpired a desperate quarrel between the Huron and Algonquin tribes that threatened 
 the destruction of the commerce of New France. Arrived at Quebec, lie found few 
 signs of growth, aud much discord and disorder. The Huguenots outside the colony, 
 chiefly merchants from Rochelle, were carrying on defiantly an illicit traffic along the 
 St. Lawrence ; the Huguenots within, although the exercise of their religion was pro- 
 hibited by royal edict, were singing lustily their heretical psalms. Greed and bigotry 
 made Catholic and Huguenot hateful to each other, yet both united in a hearty hatred 
 of Champlain. But the latter was no common adventurer; his purposes were high, 
 his energy and fortitude exceeding great; every year he went to France in the interest 
 of the colony, but his efforts both at Quebec and at Paris were altogether fruitless. 
 In 1627 the mighty Richelieu became supreme in France. He, learning of the mis- 
 management in America, annulled all privileges, and created the Company of New 
 France, consisting of a hundred associates, with himself as president. The company 
 bound itself to convey to the colony before the j^ear 1643, at least four thousand per- 
 sons of both sexes, who were to be lodged and fed for three years at the companies' 
 expense, and subsequently to be allotted lands for their support. These settlers were 
 to be French men and Catholics. The Huguenots were excluded forever. But the 
 Huguenots of France were a sore plague to the colony which they were forbidden to 
 enter. The revolt of Rochelle, their strong cit}^ brought the English King Charles 
 into conflict with Richelieu and his royal master. Quebec was approached by an 
 English fleet in command of David Kirk, a Huguenot of Dieppe, who summoned it to 
 surrender. Champlain refused, although the wretched colonists were almost dead 
 from famine. Kirk sailed away, but his brother Louis returned and the starving rem- 
 nant capitulated. But New France was soon restored by the English and Emery de 
 Caen was sent to reclaim Quebec. He landed in 1632 aud Champlain, re-commissioned 
 by Richelieu, followed in 1633. The Recollet priests were now virtually excluded, and 
 
 1S33. the Jesuits who took their places, soon converted Quebec and in fact 
 
 all New France, into a mission ; — a mission to explore the vast interior country, aud a 
 mission to conquer the savage tribes for the cross of Christ and the crown of France. 
 
 1633. Champlain died on Christmas day, 1635. He is the noblest figure of 
 
 this early time : his splendid courage was tempered by a chastity that excited the 
 wonder of the Huron chiefs ; though credulous he was simply and nobly truthful ; 
 patient always, yet sagacious and daring to the last. For just before he died, he peti- 
 tioned Richelieu for men and means to exterminate the Iroquois. 
 
 Port Royal was founded in 1605, but the contests of ambitious leaders and the 
 incessant invasions of the English, so retarded the French settlements in Acadia, that 
 
 165J. in 1686 the whole population, including thirty soldiers, was only 915. 
 
THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 793 
 
 1C3S. Cromwell had it subjugated in 1654, but it was ceded back to France 
 
 tGoo. in 1668. It was attacked again by Sir William Phipps, who sailed 
 
 from Boston in 1690 ; and when Phipps in 1692 became the first Royal governor of 
 ie»5. Massachussetts, Acadia was a part of the domain included in the new 
 
 charter. But in 1697 it was once more ceded back to France. 
 
 b. French Discoveries Along the Great Lakes. 
 
 § 690. Etienne (Stephen) Brule of Champigny was the first white man to pene- 
 lois. trate the region beyond Lake Huron, which he did in 1618. Jean Nicol- 
 
 i«s3j. let in 1634 passed through the straits of Mackinaw, and discovered 
 
 MVkjLhriE AND JULILI DlbC0ViilUN( IIII 'MIssisMl 1 1 
 
 Lake Michigan. But the death of Champlain in 1635, and the ravages of the terrible 
 Iroquois, led to the abandonment of the French trading ports on Lake Huron and 
 Lake Michigan, and there were no further discoveries until after the peace of 1654. 
 In 1659 Groselliers and Radisson learned from the Hurons of a river as large as the 
 St. Lawrence, lying further to the westward, (and, if we may believe Perrot), Father 
 Menard, and his faithful servant Jean Gudrin, saw the Mississippi twelve years before 
 the great river was seen by Joliet and his companions. Joliet reached the straits of 
 Mackinaw in 1672; there he found Marquette. These two, with five companions, pro- 
 ceeded in birch canoes to the valley of the Fox River and reached the Wisconsin by 
 a short portage. Following its course they entered the Mississippi on the 17th of 
 lera. June, 1673 ; they descended to the mouth of the Arkansas and then 
 
794 AMERICA. 
 
 returned up stream to the Illinois. On the west bank of one of its tributaries Joliet 
 discovered a curious mound of clay, sand, and gravel which he called Mont Joliet.* 
 
 c. Discovery of the Mississippi and Settlement of Loidsiana. 
 
 § 691. In 1672 Count Frontenac arrived at Quebec, governor and lieutenant- 
 general for the king of all New France. Louis Xiy. and his great minister, Colbert, 
 had spent great sums in building up the empire beyond the sea. New settlers were 
 shipped annually to the St. Lawrence, until the drain upon France threatened disaster 
 to the army ; wives were supplied by ro3'al bounty ; farms and new houses were given 
 freelj" to the immigrants. So that when Frontenac assumed control, it was possible 
 
 1072. for him to form the Three Estates of Canada, which he convoked Oct. 
 
 23, 1672. He then set himself to establish a municipal government, with town meet- 
 ings every six months. These were at once abolished by the angry King, and the 
 Jesuits refused at the same time to co-operate with him in his plans to civilize the In- 
 dians. It was in the midst of these and other difficulties, that Frontenac became ac- 
 quainted with La Salle. Each was eager for fortune, fame, and power, and the two 
 
 103J. joined hands. In 1677 La Salle appeared at the court of the Grand 
 
 Monarch, who authorized him to build and own as many forts as he saw fit, provided 
 it was done within five years. He was to discover the country, and find a way to 
 Mexico. But the King gave him no money; He therefore found it where he could, 
 and in Sept., 1678, he with Tonty, an Italian officer, La Motte, a French nobleman, 
 and thirty men arrived at Quebec. Father Hennepin, the adventurous friar and his- 
 torian of the expedition, came down from Fort Frontenac to meet him. In 1679 La 
 Salle was on the upper lakes, in 1680 on the Illinois, whence he sent Accan to explore 
 the Mississippi, whom Father Hennepin, a Franciscan Monk, volunteered to accompany. 
 mao-iasi. These penetrated to the country of the Sioux and discovered the Falls 
 of St. Anthonj', as they were called by the mendacious Franciscan. La Salle reached 
 Lake Huron in October, 1681. His experiences had been of the most trying character, 
 
 last. but his spirit was undaunted. About Christmas time he crossed from 
 
 Fort Miami on Lake Michigan to the Chicago river. The streams were frozen. Tonty 
 and d'Autry had gone before him. They crossed from the Chicago to the Illinois, and 
 dragging their canoes on sledges, they reached at last open water below Lake Peoria. 
 Trusting to their canoes, they floated down the quiet river until on the 6th of Feb- 
 ruary ; then drifted into the floating ice that w^as sweeping down the mighty Mississippi. 
 For a week they could get no further. Resuming their course, thej- came to the 
 muddy torrent of the Missouri. They passed the Ohio and the Arkansas, and on the 
 6th of April they arrived at the three great channels. La Salle kept to the west, Tonty 
 took the middle passage, and d'Autry drifted to the east. Tonty was the first to be- 
 hold the, mighty bosom of the Gulf. . All three united on a spot just above the mouth 
 of the river, where they erected a column inscribed "■Louis le Grand, Roy de France et 
 April », lasn. de Navarre, regne ; le Neuvieme Avril, 1682.'''' The new countrj" was 
 called by La Salle, Louisiana. In the the map of Franquelin made in 1684, it stretches 
 from the Alleghanies to the Rock}^ Mountains and from the Rio Grande to the head 
 waters of the Missouri. 
 
 * This is forty miles soutliwest of Cliicago, near tlie city of Joliet, and is the only station marked on Joliet's map 
 that still retains the name he gave it. 
 
THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 795 
 
 § 692. "Louisiana," wrote Charlevoix, "is the name which M. cle La Salle gave to 
 
 10S2. that portion of the country watered by the Mississippi, lying below the 
 
 river Illinois." When the discoverer returned to Paris, Louis XIV. dreamed splendid 
 dreams of conquests and colonization, of gold and silver and precious products. He 
 gave La Salle a commission to found a colony, and fitted him out with vessels and 
 other requisites. But the expedition ended disastrously. The voyagers reached the 
 Gulf of Mexico, but were compelled to land on the coast of Texas. La Salle per- 
 ished mysteriously, and his associates were massacred by the Indians. 
 
 Pierre le Moyne d'Iberville, a native of Canada, accustomed to adventure and 
 danger from boyhood, was the first to renew tlie interest of the French court in the 
 settlement of the " Great River." He was provided with a small fleet, and succeeded 
 in finding the entrance to the Mississijopi, from the Gulf of Mexico. He chose the 
 
 jeo»s. sand banks of Biloxi Bay for his emigrants, about two hundred in all, 
 
 a choice that proved fatal to their fortunes. No green thing could live on the fine 
 white sand. Supplies had to be brought from France. After the death of Louis 
 XIV., the regent grew tired of the sickly and expensive colony, and sold it, along 
 
 ijis. with exclusive privileges of trade, to Sieur Antony Crozat. This 
 
 wealthy speculator hojjed to make a fortune from his grant, and for a while worked 
 wonders ; but was finally compelled to assign his rights to the 
 
 nit. "Company of the West," the famous "Missis- 
 
 sippi Bubble," of the canny Scotchman, John Law. The 
 bubble burst; Law became a fugitive, and almost a pauper. 
 
 itis. But during its irridescent glorj', the city of New 
 
 Orleans was founded, and Louisiana became the scene of active 
 emigration. In 1721 the population had reached five thousand 
 four hundred and twenty, of whom six hundred were negroes. 
 In 1731, when the colony reverted to the king, the white 
 population numbered five tliousand, and the negroes two 
 thousand. In 1762, the French King presented the colony to 
 his dear cousin, the King of Spain, although the gift was made 
 
 ^. / . ° ° HENRY HUDSON. 
 
 in secret. But it was just in time to prevent its acquisition 
 
 by the English, when Quebec was captured, and New France passed forever into otlier 
 
 hands. 
 
 3. The Dutch Settlements on the Hudson and the Delaware. 
 
 I 693. The Dutch, in the beginning of the seventeenth century, had established 
 a great republic. Their heroic struggle with Spain led them to strike their adversarjr 
 everywhere, and naturally they bethought them of the lands across the sea. William 
 Usselinx, a merchant of Antwerp, proposed a West India Company, as early ^s 1592, 
 and ships of the Greenland Company are said to have entered the Hudson and the 
 Delaware rivers in 1598. The scheme of Usselinx was revived in 1606, but political 
 considerations led to its rejection by Oldenbaruvelt, who was then the ruling mind of 
 Holland, and who eagerly desired peace. In 1608 Henry Hudson, an English sailor, 
 was emploj'ed by the Dutch East India Company to search for a north-east passage to 
 160S. the East Indies. He sailed from the Texel in the yacht " Half-moon " 
 
 in April, 1609. But encountering much ice and fog, he changed his plan into a search 
 
796 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 for a north-west passage, at about the fortieth degree of latitude. He landed suc- 
 eessivelj' at Newfoundland, Penobscot Bay, and Cape Cod. In August he entered 
 the Delaware Bay, and on September 4, sailed into the "Great mouth of the o-reat 
 river " of New Netherland. 
 
 Tiie West India project of Usselinx was now organized into a reality. And the 
 
 Company sent Captain Mey to 
 
 the South River (Delaware), 
 and Tienpont to the North 
 (Hudson) as directors. 
 
 Mey erected Fort Nassau, 
 four miles south-east of what 
 is now Philadelphia, and 
 iese. Tienpont built 
 Fort Orange, M'here Albany 
 now stands. In 1626 Peter 
 Minuit, the successor of 
 Tienpont, bought Manhattan 
 island from the Indians, for 
 which he gave them about 
 twentj-'four dollars. 
 
 Under the charter of 1621, 
 a council was organized, but 
 in 1629 the States-General 
 xinutt, sanctioned a 
 16SS-I633. new charter of 
 '• freedoms and exemptions." 
 The latter however were for 
 the directors of the Company, 
 and not for the colonists. 
 Vast purchases of land were 
 now made from the Indians, 
 and as rapidl}- as possible set- 
 tlers were conveyed to the 
 plantations. The owners of 
 these tracts, the Cortlandts, 
 Livingstons. Schuylers, Van 
 Hennsalaers, were called 
 "patroons," and their hold- 
 ings were known as manors. 
 On the South (Delaware) River, the settlements were destroyed by the Indians, but 
 rail T<riuet; revivcd agaiu under the administration of Wouter Van Twiller, who, 
 1633-1637. by his efforts at expansion, brought the colony on the North (Hudson) 
 River into conflict with the English. Van Twiller so abused his position, that he was 
 Kteft. displaced by William Kieft, in 1637. His conduct however led to the 
 
 1637-iejj. investigation of the colony by their High Mightinesses, and to a change 
 in its administration. The monopolj' of the company was abolished, and the cultiva- 
 
 HESRY HrDSOX IX NORTH RIVER. 
 
THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 797 
 
 tion of the soil opened up to every iniigrant. Throngs now flocked to New Nether- 
 land. From Europe came peasant farmers and wealthy educated families, looking for 
 new homes and larger fortunes ; from New England the disfranchised -victims of eccle- 
 siastical tyranny; from Virginia and the South, the indented servants whose period of 
 bondage had expired. In 1643 eighteen different nationalities were already repre- 
 sented iu'New Amsterdam (New York). 
 
 But Kieft's administration was one of tyranny and folly. He provoked an Indian 
 war; he quarreled with the burghers of New Amsterdam; he exposed the colony to 
 a dangerous and ruinous conflict with the people of New Haven. 
 
 Kieft was succeeded by Peter Stuyvesant, a man of experience and energetic 
 
 DUTCH TRADERS AT MANHATTAN. 
 
 lOfs-toet. 
 
 courage. The colony was revolutionized and liberalized, the rights of 
 the settlers to a share in the government freel}' acknowledged, the car- 
 rying trade thrown open, and morality restored. 
 
 Stuyvesant remained for seventeen years, and had his means been ample enough, 
 his administration might have been a great success. But hostile Indians drained his 
 resources, and reduced his army to one hundred and fifty soldiers, scattered from 
 Albany to PJnladelphia in four little garrisons. He had moreover espoused the cause 
 of Kieft, ar J thereby incurred the hostility of the settlers. Then came an order to 
 admit only the Dutch to public employment. The people clamored for a general 
 assembly of the towns, to which Stuyvesant consented reluctantly and too late. So 
 
798 AMERICA. 
 
 ie«j. when the English came, as they did in 1664, the colonists insisted a-pon 
 
 the surrender, and New Amsterdam became New York. It was retaken by the Dutch 
 
 Collie. in 1673, but after a foolish administration by Anthony Colve, as gov- 
 
 1073-107^. ernor, it was given back to England, and reorganized as an English 
 
 province iu 1674, although a provincial assembly, with limited popular representatives, 
 
 was not established until 1684. 
 
 PETER STUYVESANT. 
 
 4. The Swedish Settlements on the Delaware. 
 
 § 694. The Swedish settlements in America are onl}- an episode in the 
 occupation of the Dutch. They were projected by Willeni Usselinx, the chief 
 founder of the Dutch West India Company, who induced Gustavus Adolphus 
 to institute the Australian Company, with special privileges of trade with 
 America. The death of the great king, and the thirty years' war postponed 
 the settling of Nevf Sweden, but in 1638, Peter Minuit, as comn'ander of a 
 Swedish expedition, sailed up the Delaware River, and purchased land fiom the In- 
 dians living near the river Schuylkill. A fort was built and called, in hoi\or of the 
 
THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 799 
 
 leas. Swedish queen, Fort Christina. " The countiy is troublesome to de- 
 
 fend," wrote Campanius Holm, "both on account of the savages and the Christians, 
 who inflict upon us every kind of harm." 
 
 By the Christians he meant the English, and especiall}' the Dutch. The latter 
 claimed the regions of the Delaware, and Peter Stuyvesant determined to make good 
 the claim. He sent "a ship well manned and equipped with cannon," to close the 
 river to the Swedes ; and when this failed he came from New Amsterdam himself. He 
 did not. however, subjugate New Sweden, until 1655, when he besieged Fort 
 tess. Christina, and compelled the governor to surrender. The Swedish 
 
 government made futile efforts to recover the colony, from both the Dutch and the 
 English. But no trace of connection with the mother country endured, except the 
 Gloria Dei church, in Philadelphia, which had a Swedish pastor until 1831. 
 
 5. The English Settlements on the Atlantic Coast. 
 
 § 695. Tiie English settle- 
 ments in North America were 
 destined to absorb all others ; 
 planted in the beginning, along 
 a comparatively narrow strip of 
 the Atlantic sea-coast, the}' have 
 come to include the whole con- 
 tinent, from the Arctic Ocean t^ 
 the Gulf of Mexico, and from 
 the stormy waters of the Atlantic 
 to the immense expanse of the 
 Pacific Ocean. 
 
 a. The Southern Colonies. 
 
 § Q96.—The Early English 
 Voyages. — "10£ to hym that 
 found the new isle." Thus 
 reads an entry in the expense 
 account 'of Henry VK., of En- 
 gland. Sebastian Cabot was 
 meant by " hym," and the "new 
 isle " was St. John, discovered 
 by "hym" in 1497. 
 
 But not until Here's ill-fated expedition, in 1536, did voyages to America excite 
 IS36. the adventurous spirit of the English gentry. A few j-ears later. 
 
 Drake and Frobisher prowled along the American coasts. In 1565 Sir Humphrey 
 ties. Gilbert projected a colony in America, in which " to settle such needy 
 
 people of our own as now trouble the commonwealth, and through want at home, are 
 enforced to commit outrageous offenses, whereb}' they are daily consumed by the gal- 
 lows." He made two voyages, both of which were unfortunate. In the hitter he per- 
 ished by shipwreck, saying as he parted from his friends, " We are as near heaven by 
 
 SIR WALTER RALEIGH. 
 
800 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 sea as by land." Walter Raleigh, his half-brother, obtained a patent in 1584. He then 
 tss-t. sent out Barlow and Armidas to select a site for his colony. They 
 
 soon returned with glowing accounts of a country, which Queen Elizabeth is said to 
 have named Virginia. Raleigh was knighted by his royal mistress, and settlers were 
 sent out to Roanoke island. But this plantation perished from Indian hostility and 
 lack of supplies. A second colony failed as wretchedly, and Raleigh, after fifteen 
 years of failure, and a loss of ^40,000, abandoned hope. 
 
 § 697. The Settlement of Virginia. — No plantations were attempted again, until 
 
 1606, when certain London 
 merchants and West-coun- 
 try gentlemen formed the 
 Virginia Companj^ " to 
 establish plantations in- 
 America." On New Year's 
 tooi. day, 1607, 
 
 Captain Christopher New- 
 port, with two ships and a 
 pinnace, carrying one hun- 
 dred and forty-three emi- 
 grants, sailed for Virginia, 
 touching at the West 
 Indies. On May 13, 1607, 
 they 'selected for their 
 colony, a peninsula, which 
 they named Jamestown. 
 Among the emigrants was 
 Captain John Smith, the 
 son of a Lincolnshire gen- 
 tleman, who had learned 
 war in the Netherlands, 
 been thrown into the Med- 
 iterranean by French pil- 
 grims, fought with a Turk- 
 ish champion in Hungary, 
 been sold into slavery and, 
 escaping from bondage, 
 had traveled through 
 every civilized country of 
 Europe. This remarkable 
 man, to whose writings we 
 owe our kuowledge of 
 early Virginia, was put in 
 irons during the voyage, but released at its termination. He then went among the 
 Indians, who held him captive for a while, and then sent him back to Jamestown. 
 There he was in more danger than he had been from the Indians, and their chief, 
 Powhatan, whose daughter Pocahontas, according to the well known but contested 
 
 SETTLERS AT JAMESTOWN. 
 
802 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 story, saved him from imminent destruction. But he overcame the hatred of his ene- 
 mies, became soon the actual, and finally the titular head of the colony. 
 
 § 698. In 1609 Lord Delaware vs^as appointed governor, " of the colonies to be 
 leoa-ioii. planted in Virginia." Five hundred emigrants vi'ere also sent out by 
 the company. " They were," wrote Smith, "unruly gallants packed thither by their 
 friends to escape ill destinies." Smith unfortunately was injured seriously by the ex- 
 plosion of a powder-bag, and obliged to leave the colony, to which he never returned ; 
 and it was about to disband, when Lord Delaware arrived. But he too was soon 
 sir Thomas Bale, drivcu liomc hj ill-health. Dale succeeded him and ruled with a high 
 ioii-i«i«. hand, but under his energetic management, the colony prospered. 
 
 satmiei A,gaii. Argall who was little 
 mie-iGi». better than a pirate, 
 ruled in similar fashion. 
 
 Yeardley succeeded Argall, and 
 sii- cieorge his comlng is an 
 venrdiey, epoch lu Amercan 
 leio-ieai. history ; for under 
 the instructions of the re-organized 
 iei». Virginia Company, 
 
 the new governor summoned an 
 Assembly of Bu?;Gesses from the 
 various himdreds and plantations. 
 This was the first representative legis- 
 lative body in America. The mem- 
 bers of it were elected by the free- 
 men of the settlements, each county 
 returning two. The functions of the 
 f; Assembl}' were : 
 
 1. To give legal form to the in- 
 structions of the Company. 
 
 2. To supplement them by laws 
 of their own. 
 
 3. To petition the Company upon certain points. 
 
 In England, Sandys, the real manager of the Virginia company, and the great mis- 
 sionary, Patrick Copeland, had revived interest in the American settlement, and in 
 the conversion of the Indians. The latter, however, had no desire for religion, and 
 the settlers had no missionary zeal. During the life-time of Powhatan, however, the 
 natives remained friendly to the settlers ; but after his death, under his brother 
 lans. Opechancanough, they nearly exterminated the plantation. In 1624 the 
 
 patent of the Virginia company was revoked, and the colony reverted to tlh- ' - 
 not without a protest from the colonists. 
 
 § 699. Virginia Under Royal Rule. — King Charles I. proclaimed a n 
 ions. tion for Virginia, May 13, 16-^5. This provided for two c : : 
 
 resident in England, the other in Virginia. Public servants were made dej • . 
 the crown. The House of Burgesses was not even mentioned by the Kii j, Uaa; 
 "found his Cromwell." The governors, however, found it wise not to suppress the As 
 
 rVITAIN JOHN bMllU 
 
THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 803 
 
 sembl3% and in 1639, they were bold enough to send the King a remonstrance against 
 the restoration of the Virginia company. They had already offended Charles, by their 
 energy and courage, in a quarrel with Lord Baltimore, but this action of 1639 restored 
 1030. them to the royal favor. The colony had now become quite prosper- 
 
 ous, numbering 10,000 souls. These consisted of freemen, indented slaves, and negro 
 slaves, the second class, the bondsmen for a term of years, being more numerous than 
 the Africans. 
 
 ^ 20 Negars came in a Dutch man-of-war about the last of August, 1619." 
 But at first the increase of them was slow, and their value small. But they and their 
 value increased with the discovery that cotton, rice, tobacco and sugar flourished, 
 especially with slave labor. The eleven plantations, of which the colony consisted, 
 
 INDIAN ATTACK. 
 
 lay between the York and the James rivers, except one on the eastern shore of the 
 Chesapeake. These were prosperous enough to export food to New England, and to 
 excite the cupidity of hungry office-seekers in the " Old Home." 
 
 § 700. Sir Wm. Berkeley was appointed governor in 1641. His administration 
 sif Will. jBerkeiey. was uotcd for chaugcs iu the constitution, and a second Indian' 
 le^ii-iori. massacre. The latter led to energetic action by the assembly, and the 
 conquest of a peace that lasted thirty years. The former, by exempting councillors 
 from taxation, separated the financial interests of the large planters from those of the 
 general community, and thus created an aristocratic and a popular party. Berkeley, 
 though by no means a fool, thanked God that there were in Virginia, " no free schools nor 
 pi-inting," and lioped "that there would be none there for a hundred years." Unfor- 
 
804 AMERICA. 
 
 timately his hope was too well grounded. During the protectorate of Cromwell, 
 Berkeley retired. At first Virginia showed symptoms of opposition to the Common- 
 wealth, but soon yielded to the men that killed the king. The House of Burgesses 
 now increased their power, but about the same time the aristocratic element was re- 
 cruited by the arrival of cavaliers, from England, the Lees, the Washingtons, and 
 others. Nevertheless, when the Governor came into collision with the Assembly in 
 1658, the Burgesses asserted stoutly, and even strengthened their authority. This 
 House was indeed the worthy ancestor of the House that passed the Stamp Act 
 resolutions. Four times already it had claimed for itself the exclusive right of imposing 
 less. taxes in the colony, and now in 1658, it denied the right of the Governor 
 
 to dissolve its sessions. It thus prepared the way for Patrick Henry and George 
 Washington, for Thomas Jefferson and Richard Henry Lee. 
 
 § 701. Bacon s Relellion. — Berkeley and Harvey seconded the wishes of Charles 
 I. to establish a regular army in Virginia. But the colonists were a ready-made 
 militia. Charles lost his head, and the popular party in Virginia gained in conse- 
 quence. But the restoration sent Berkeley back as the king's governor. The As- 
 sembly acquiesced without a murmur. 
 
 But the "navigation act " of the protectorate was not repealed. Colonial produce 
 must be exported in English bottoms ; no one might establish himself in the colonies 
 as a merchant ; certain enumerated staples might be exported, but only to England or 
 to English- dependencies ; the colonists were not allowed to receive any goods in 
 foreign vessels. And to make things worse, the statute of 1672 provided that goods sent 
 from one colony to the other must pay the same duties as if sold in England. This 
 drove Virginia to depend wholly upon tobacco. And every cargo of this product 
 must run the risk of seizure by a Dutch privateer. Discontent was therefore rife 
 among the Virginians. And when the long Assembly, whose members were enjoy- 
 i«j«. ing large stipends, continued sitting until 1676, this discontent broke 
 
 into open murmurs. Moreover official fees were exorbitant, and public office was 
 already private spoil. At this juncture, Charles IL rewarded Culpepper and Arling- 
 ton with large grants of Virginia territory. These grants made all land tenures in- 
 secure. The colonists were alarmed and angry, but an arrangement with the 
 grantees, by which the rights of settlers could be safe-guarded, was nearly completed, 
 when au outbreak of popular rage shook the whole community. This began in a 
 quarrel with the Indians, and developed into a war that involved Maryland as well as 
 Virginia. Berkeley behaved badly, and the angry colonists demanded a commission 
 for Nathaniel Bacon. Berkeley refused their demand. The Indians, soon after this, 
 murdered Bacon's favorite servant. Gathering about a hundred planters, Bacon invaded 
 the Indian country, but half of his men deserted him. He was short of supplies, and 
 in his exasperation, he burned a village of friendly Indians, murdering the inhabitants. 
 
 § 702. Berkeley proclaimed him a rebel, dissolving the long Assembly, and issuing 
 writs of election for a new House. Bacon was elected for his own county, but held a 
 prisoner by the Governor. He was soon pardoned, however, and restored to his seat in 
 the Council. The Assembly then attacked abuses. The right to vote was restored to 
 every free man, and the laying of all taxes transferred to the Assembly. One thous- 
 and men were raised, "for carrying on a war against tlie barbarous Indians," and 
 Bacon was nominated to the command. Suddenly however Bacon disappeared. He 
 
THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 805 
 
 had returned home (dreading perliaps some destructive scheme of Berkeley,) and in four 
 days he was in full march upon Jamestown, with four hundred men. With these living 
 arguments he persuaded Berkeley to give him a commission, and the Assembly to pass 
 an act of indemnity, condoning his previous offences. Berkeley left for Gloucester ; 
 Bacon marched against the Indians. Berkeley again proclaimed Bacon a rebel ; 
 Bacon replied with a manifesto, reciting the grievances of the colonists, and summon- 
 ing a convention of freemen. The convention met; the attendance was large ; an 
 oath to support the " rebel" was taken by the freemen present. But Berkeley knew the 
 power of promises. The planters of Accomac should have the confiscated estates of the 
 rebels, and be exempt from all taxes except church dues, if they would only stand by 
 him. And then the servants, and the slaves of the rebels who joined him, should have 
 their freedom for their loyalty. He gathered thus a thousand men. But Bacon be- 
 sieged Jamestown, captured Lady Berkeley, drove her husband awa}', and set fire to 
 the town. He then went across to Gloucester and to Accomac. But his health gave 
 wdy, and he died quite suddenly, and the rebellion died with him. Berkeley glutted 
 his ferocity with the death and ruin of his enemies, although the assemblj- seems to have 
 supported him in his vengeance. The commissioners, sent out from England to inves- 
 tigate the rebellion, found their chief task to be defending the insurgents from the 
 
 1071. furious Governor, and in 1677 he was recalled to end his days in dis- 
 
 grace. But the colonists were very angry when the burden of a military establish- 
 ment was put upon them, and material distress sharpened their exasperation. 
 
 § 703. Lord Oulpepper. The grantee of Charles II., regarded in the colony as an 
 ien-ies4i. enemj' and an extortioner, was made governor in 1677, but came to 
 
 19S2. the colony in 1682. His instructions were to restrict the franchise, 
 
 and to leave only the shadow of self-government. All laws were, in the future, to 
 originate with the governor and the council, then to be submitted to the crown and 
 onlj' when approved, considered by the Assembly. Yet even here one important ex- 
 ception was made: "money bills'" were left to the colonists. Culpepper, however, 
 i^ora Motvard, failed to enforce the royal authority, and was replaced by Lord 
 
 ies4. Howard, the most pliant of all the useful implements of the Stuarts. 
 
 His instructions forbade the setting up of a printing press in Virginia. Yet even he 
 recognized the exclusive right of the assembly to impose taxes. Howard was in- 
 structed also to grant liberty of conscience to non-conformists. This was a new policy 
 in Virginia. For the three parishes of independents that existed in the colony in 
 1642, to whom ministers were sent from Boston, had been persecuted by the Assembly ; 
 the people fined, the ministers banished, and finally all forced to take refuge with 
 Lord Baltimore, in Anne Arundel county. When the English expelled James Stuart, 
 jFiancia mciioison. the Virginians got rid of Howard and his greedy tyranny. Francis 
 Nicholson, the new lieutenant governor, opened for the colonists a new era. He 
 told the truth to his superiors in England; he pointed out unsparingly the defects ami 
 dangers of the English commercial policy ; he urged the certainty of French encroach- 
 ments, the necessity of colonial union, the dilapidated condition of the forts, and the 
 feebleness of the militia. He re-organized the church, fixing the stipends of the clergy, 
 and providing glebes and parsonages in every parish. With the help of Blair, he es- 
 
 lioo. tablished the college of William and Mary, where the first class was 
 
AMERICA. 
 
 graduated in 1700, the year in which de Richebourg and his Huguenots arrived in 
 Virginia. 
 
 § 704. In 1710, Alexander Spotswood, the ablest of all the royal governors, brought 
 the writ of habeas corpus, and received a handsome palace from the grateful colonists. 
 The tobacco-crop was worth, at the time, £20,000 a year. The population was large 
 and varied ; English along the river banks, Germans in the interior. Scotch-Irish in the 
 Shenandoah Valley and on the western frontier. The English planters constituted 
 the aristocracy ; — prodigals when the tobacco market kept them in funds, paupers 
 when the crop failed, or the market fell. Nevertheless, troublesome to Spotswood, 
 because of their political- independence. 
 
 § 705. Governor Gooch granted toleration to the Presbyterians in 1727, Rich- 
 
 1733. mond was laid out in 1733, aud the Virginia Gazette started in 1736. 
 
 George Whitefield stirred up both church-men and dissenters a few years later, and in 
 
 1151. 1751 Robert Dinwiddle began his struggle with the Virginia aristocracy. 
 
 Governor Dinwiddle needed money to defend the frontiers ; the Assembly was stingy 
 
 and suspicious, voting mone)^ only when frightened to it by the shadows and warwhoops 
 
 of approaching Frenchmen and Indians; and even then they 
 
 watched Dinwiddie's fingers with their committee of control. 
 
 § 706. Maryland. — Sir George Calvert, a favorite of 
 James I., became a Catholic in 1618 ; his conversion cost him 
 all chances of a public career in England, so as a consolation 
 from the King, he obtained a patent, or a grant of land in New- 
 foundland, and the title of Lord Baltimore. The frosts of 
 the North and the persecuting zeal of the Puritans drove him 
 to Virginia, whence he was driven by the hostility of the Assem- 
 bly. He thereupon sought and obtained the grant of Mary- 
 laax. land, and then in the same year, 1632, dying, 
 
 left it to his energetic and sagacious son, Cecilius Calvert. 
 The charter of Maryland made the proprietor almost independent of the crown. 
 The only limitation to this, was a requirement that all places of worship in Maryland 
 should be consecrated according to the ecclesiastical laws of the Church of England^ 
 It is pilain therefore that the colony was not intended, either bj'Lord Baltimore or the 
 King, as a stronghold of Romanism, nor were the first colonists exclusively Roman 
 Catholics. Yet they were probably in a majority. They were three hundred in all, 
 mostly artisans and farmers. In 1635, a year after the settlers landed, all the free- 
 men of the colon}'-, met in legislative assembly. In 1638 the freemen, unable to be 
 present at the second assembly, sent their proxies. . A conflict broke out almost im- 
 mediately between the colonists and the proprietor, as to who should propose laws, in 
 which the colonists won. In 1639 the Assembly became a representative bod3% and in 
 1647 it was divided into a House of Burgesses elected by the freemen, and an upper 
 House consisting of the Governor's council, and deputies summoned by the proprietor. 
 § 707. The DisputeWith Virginia. — Clayhorne. — Kent Island, on Cliesapeake Bay, 
 was of especial value to Virginia. Here William Clayboi-ne had established a trading 
 102X. post, from which Governor Calvert, the brother of the proprietor, 
 
 drove him forcibly. In 1625 the King had taken both sides, enjoining Virginia to as- 
 sist Clayborne, and enjoining Harvey, the Governor of Virginia, to support Lord Balti- 
 
 LORII BALTi:\IORE. 
 
THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 807 
 
 more. Clayborne attacked the Mavylanders in 1634, but was defeated. Clayborne 
 then jDetitioiied the King for redress, but Baltimore was finally confirmed in his claims 
 1044. to the Isle of Kent. In 1644 Richard Ingle, apiDarentlj' a Puritan, 
 
 joined Clayborne in an attack upon Maryland. But after a brief success, they were 
 driven from St. Mary's, which they had seized and plundered. 
 
 § 708. The Law Concerning Religion. — The non-conformists, driven from Vir- 
 ginia, took refuge in Maryland. In 1650 their two communities numberetl one hun- 
 dred and forty householders. These and the Kent Island malcontents might at any 
 teso. moment make trouble for a Catholic proprietor. Nevertheless, in 1650, 
 
 the Assembly passed laws to meet the wishes of Lord Baltimore. These laws made it 
 a capital crime to deny the doctrine of the Trinity, punished blasphemy of the Virgin 
 or the saints with fine, whipping, and banishment, but contained a general clause, 
 giving full toleration to all Christians. 
 
 § 709. Maryland Under the Commonwealth. — When the parliamentary commis- 
 sioners finished their task in Virginia, in 1652, they turned to Maryland. The Gover- 
 nor resisted their demands for a season, but soon yielded. But in 1654, Lord Balti- 
 more reasserted his authority as lord proprietor ; whereupon the commissioners of 
 Parliament marched into Maryland, deposed the Governor, disfranchised the Roman 
 Catholics, convened a parliament of Puritans, and attacked the possessory rights of 
 less. Lord Baltimore. In 1655 civil war broke out. Stone, acting for Lord 
 
 Baltimore, set out with two hundred men to attack the Puritans of Anne Arundel. 
 But he was hopelessly defeated. Nearly all were taken prisoners, and four of his chief 
 adherents were put to death. Baltimore however suceeded in persuading the commis- 
 sioners to an agreement containing the following points : (1.) His patent was ac- 
 knowledged: (2.) All disputes were referred to the lord protector; (3.) No confis- 
 cations were to be made ; (4.) The law giving freedom of worship was not to be re- 
 pealed. 
 
 § 710. The Restoration in England produced no change in Mai-yland. But un- 
 der the third Lord Baltimore, dissensions began again. 
 
 Bacon's rebellion in Virginia stirred up the Protestants of Maryland ; the in- 
 creased activity of the Jesuits added to their dislike of a Catholic proprietor : his 
 boundary disputes with William Penn alienated the Quakers of Maryland. In 1683, 
 less. Baltimore left the colony, and in 1689, upon the news of the expul- 
 
 J6SO. sion of King James II. from England, a revolution took place, which, 
 
 brought Maryland under the direct control of tlie crown. Under William and 
 Mary the Church of England was established, in 1692. But not until 1700 was any 
 provision made for the support. of the clergy. In 1715 the fourth Lord Baltimore be- 
 came a Protestant, and his proprietary rights were revived. But although the city of 
 i-ino. Baltimore, founded in 1729, was named after him, his power had gone 
 
 irrecoverably. He had the dignity, but not the authority of his ancestors. 
 
 Francis Nicholson, whose coming to Virginia meant so much for that colony, was 
 for a time governor of Maryland, and persuaded the Assembly, not onh- to endow a 
 io»«. free school at St. Mary's, but to extend the system throughout the 
 
 colony. 
 
 § 711. The Carolinas. Charles II. of England, after w hom the Carolinas and 
 Charleston were named, granted an immense tract of land, in 1663, to Lord Clarendon 
 
808 AMERICA. 
 
 and seven associates. Like all the English grants, it extended westward to the Pa- 
 cific. Cinder this patent of Lord Clarendon, there were originally four settlements. 
 
 1. A settlement for Virginia on the Albemarle river ; this was the germ of 
 looa. North Carolina. 
 
 2. A settlement from New New England near Cape Fear; this was absorbed into 
 the former. 
 
 loes. • 3. A settlement from Barbadoes, near Cape Fear. 
 
 4. An English settlement at Charleston ; this was the nucleus of South Caro- 
 lina. 
 
 In 1667 John Locke drew up, for the proprietors, a scheme of government called 
 the Fundamental Constitution of Carolina. Under it voters and jurymen must have 
 a freehold of at least fifty acres ; members of Parliament, one of five hundred acres. 
 Li short, the government was to be a landed aristocracy, with the proprietors at the 
 head. But these fundamentals were poorly adapted to a growing colony in a new 
 world ; they were inoperative from the beginning. In 1676, contemporaneous with 
 Bacon's rebellion in Virginia, there was a rebellion against the proprietors in " our 
 colony northeast of Cape Fear." 
 
 § 712. North Carolina. The name North Carolina came into use about 1696. In 
 1711 another rebellion occurred. But in each case order was re-established without 
 severe measures. The same year an Indian war resulted in the ruin of the Tuscarora 
 17X3. tribe. In 1713 the Church of England was established by law and 
 
 nine parishes created, but liberty of conscience was granted to dissenters. North Car- 
 olina, in 1720, had little to attract the settler. Horses and swine abounded, as these 
 required no attention ; horned cattle were unknown ; even hunting was not practiced ; 
 and the slothful inhabitants grew weak by living wholly upon pork. Slavery existed, 
 but was an unmixed evil ; alien debtors were protected, and Edenton was the one cap- 
 ital in the world that had no place of worship. 
 
 § 713. South Carolina. The colony in the south had quite a different history. 
 Charleston was settled in 1672. It was regularly laid out in large, convenient and 
 uniform sti'eets. The colonists came from England, the Bahamas and Barbadoes, and 
 from Ireland. They were reinforced by Scotch Presbyterians and French Huguenots. 
 The Scotch were attacked by the Spaniards, who were allied with the Indians, the latter 
 attacking the colonists because of their kidnapping and enslavement of the natives. 
 Ill 1701 the colonists invaded Florida and captured St. Augustine, but were driven 
 away by Spanish vessels; and in 1706 an allied French and Spanish fleet attacked 
 Charleston from the sea. Stout-hearted Governor Johnson, in spite of the yellow 
 fever, refused to surrender and drove the enemy awaj^ - 
 
 But dissensions about religion kept the people apart. A high church party was 
 determined to establish the English church, and to destroy dissent. This was pre- 
 vented, however, bj^ the King's veto of the act of conformitj^, passed by the Assembly, 
 ij/5 in the fall of 1706. Indians and pirates harassed the colony ; to put 
 
 them down cost money. A heav)^ debt was incurred ; paper money was issued to dis- 
 charge it. Misery and dissension followed. The few gained ; the many became poor. 
 Th's bred discontent and rebellion. 
 
 § 714. In 1719 the colonists renounced allegiance to the proprietors, and over- 
 threw their government. The proprietors took no steps, to re-establish their authority, 
 
THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 809 
 
 and Nicholson, whom we have seen already active in Virginia and Maryland, was 
 JJ99. sent to administer the government in the name of the king. In 1729 
 
 the crown and the Parliament of England paid to the proprietors ^17,500 for their 
 claims over both colonies, and these became royal provinces. Rice was introduced 
 into South Carolina before the year 1691 ; it made it ultimately rich, and it 
 fastened Negro slavery upon the people. It made a cheap food for the African, who 
 cultivated it so much better than the Europeans. Charleston became a centre of cul- 
 ture and of aristocratic life, for this profitable slave labor enabled the city population 
 to lead a life of leisure ; and their position on the sea coast kept them in contact with 
 the European world. "Their co-habiting in a town," wrote Lawson, '"had drawn to 
 
 JAMES OGLETHOKPE. 
 
 them ingenious people of most sciences, whereby they have tutors among them that 
 educate their youth a la mode." And rice-growing being adapted to small holdings, 
 this aristocratic class became quite large. Maryland and Virginia were colonies of 
 large plantations and large slave-gangs. In Carolina thirty slaves was the average 
 number to a rice-plantation. The subsequent history of South Carolina is all involved 
 in the laying out of Charleston, and the introduction of the rice plant. 
 
 § 715. Georgia. — " The trustees for establishing the colony of Georgia in Amer- 
 ica," received their charter in 1732. The objects of their association were benevolent, 
 10 provide new opportunities for men who had been unfortunate in England. James 
 Qoiethorpe, the soul of the enterprise, when a member of the House of Commons, had 
 di:Acovered that "not a few of those confined, for debt were guilty of no crime," were 
 
810 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 of respectable families, and might become happy and useful citizens, if given another 
 chance in an American colony. Moreover, he and his associates expected to protect 
 South Carolina from Spanish depredations, and to attract emigrants from among the 
 persecuted Protestants of the continent of Europe. One hundred and fourteen men, 
 women, and children were selected for the first voyage. Oglethorpe conducted the 
 part}^ but paid his own expenses, and gave his entire time to the enterprise that he 
 
 had conceived and inspired. 
 The shij) "Anne" with her 
 thirtj'-five families arrived at 
 1:33. Charleston 
 
 in 1733. They were kindly 
 received hj the governor and 
 council. The king's pilot 
 conducted them to Port 
 Ro\ al, and Ot;lethorpe pro- 
 ceeded to the Savannah river, 
 and chose the site for the 
 to\\ n of the same name. The 
 Indians were treated kindly, 
 and their titles to the land 
 amicably purchased. The 
 settlers were soon joined by 
 Italians from Piedmont. Salz- 
 buigers from Austria, and 
 Moiavians from Germany 
 and Bohemia, and finally by 
 fighting Highlanders, under 
 the Rev. John McLeodof the 
 Isle of Skye. Oglethorpe 
 had induced the trustees to 
 piohibit the importation of 
 rum, brandy and distilled 
 liquors, and the use of negro 
 blades. The colonists peti- 
 tioned long and earnestly for 
 the lemoval of these restric- 
 tions. In 1736 Oglethorpe 
 1730. brought a 
 
 second party to Georgia, 
 among whom were John and 
 Charles Wesley. These were to build and occupy a military town on the southern 
 border to be called Frederica. This soon became the rall3dng point of British 
 colonists on the Spanish frontiers. Oglethorpe, who was made commander-in-chief 
 of His IMajesty's forces in South Carolina and Georgia, had his headquarters in the 
 island of St. Simon (Frederica), which he defended long and successfully against the 
 Spaniards. But the General was compelled to draw upon his private fortune to sus- 
 
 THE MAYFLOWER. 
 
THE HISTORY OF NOKTH AMERICA. 
 
 811 
 
 tain the colon}'. The colonists clamored for Negroes to work in the swamps : the 
 Wesleys quitted the province in discouragement ; Whitefield went about begging for 
 his college at Savannah, and the colonists were far from prosjDerous, or even contented. 
 n-to. The Spanish, threatening to attack them, Oglethorpe invaded Florida, 
 
 but his expedition proved a failure. Two years later. Savannah was attacked by a 
 Spanish fleet, and five thousand troops. But the skill and bravery of Oglethorpe put 
 them both to flight. In 1741 the resti-ictions on the importation of rum and slaves 
 were removed ; the attempts to cultivate silk and the vine were abandoned ; cotton 
 
 TLIMULTII ROCK. 
 
 and rice became the staple products of Georgia, and the colonj' prospered fairly. In 
 irsj. 1754 the trustees gave up their charter, and the colony reverted to the 
 
 crown. In that year the exports were to the amount of £.-J0,000 ; in 1775, they 
 reached £200,000. 
 
 h. The Puritan Colonies. 
 
 § 716. Plymouth. — "Some of the strangers among them had let fall from them 
 in the ship, that when they came ashore they would use their own liberty, for none 
 
81: 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 had power to command them, tlie patent they had being for Virginia and not for New 
 England, which belonged to anotiier government, with' which the Virginia Company 
 had nothing to do." These are the words of William Bradford. " The ship " was the 
 leso. iVIayflower, in which Bradford sailed to Plymouth Bay, in 1620. The 
 
 result of this muttering of strangers was the Mayflower compact, M'hich was signed 
 by all the emigrants. It sets forth that for " the glory of God, the advancement of 
 the Christian faith and the honor of the king and the country of England," the sub- 
 scribers have undertaken "to plant a colony in the northern parts of Virginia." 
 
 These colonists, a hundred and twenty in all, sailed from Southampton, on the 
 5th of August, 1620. The " strangers " were a few recruits who had joined them in 
 
 PILGRIMS RECEIVING MASSASOIT. 
 
 England, the rest were an organized band from the congregation of the Rev. John 
 Robinson in Leyden. This congregation consisted of English indeiDendents or sep- 
 aratists, who had fled from Scroob}^, England, in 1608. TJie refugees, after staying a 
 year in Amsterdam, removed to Leyden, where they " continued for many years in a 
 comfortable condition, enjoying much sweet and delightful society and spiritual com- 
 fort together." But the manners of the Dutch, the diiEcult}^ of training their chil- 
 dren, the fear of the dissolution of their beloved society under foreign influences, 
 their desire to recover their citizenship in England, and their "hope of advancing the 
 gospel of the Kingdom of Christ in the remote parts of the world, Ird them to tliink of 
 America, and to negotiate with the Virginia Company. The conditions imposed upon 
 the "Pilgrims," as they called themselves, were these. At the end of seven years the 
 

 THE PILGRIMS AT PLYMOUTH. 
 
 {pp. 813.) 
 
814 AMERICA. 
 
 fruits of their toil must be divided equally between the emigrants and the company. 
 1627. This partnership, however, did not last, the colonists buying out the 
 
 stocks of the English holders in their plantation. 
 
 § 717. In spite of all efforts to reach Virginia, the Pilgrims were forced to land 
 at Cape Cod. The whole party sailed thence to Plymouth, on December 15, 1620, 
 that site being chosen for the settlement. Their first winter would " have discouraged 
 other men whom small things can discourage, or small discontentment cause to 
 wish themselves home again." Pestilence had thinned out the savages who, more- 
 over, had been warned by a returned captive to dread "the white man's God." They 
 formed an alliance with the Indian chief, Massasoit, which was steadfastly and honor- 
 ably observed on both sides. John Carver was the first governor of Plymouth, but as 
 leai. he died within a year, William Bradford was chosen to fill his place, 
 
 and re-chosen annually thirty-one out of thirty-six times, he sometimes begging for a 
 rest. 
 
 Originally the economic system of the Pilgrims was communistic ; all the products 
 of the toil went into a common stock. The experiment failed. In 1623, a portion of 
 land was allotted annually to each householder ; this also proved unsatisfactory. And 
 in 1624 one acre was allotted permanently to each householder, each holding however 
 to be near the town. 
 
 § 718. This town stood on a ridge about twenty yards from the sea. Two 
 streets crossed each other, and the Governor's house was at their intersection. On a 
 hill behind the town was a building which was at once a fort, a church, and a public 
 store-house. The houses were log-huts. The whole was surrounded by a palisade, 
 and all the entrances, except that from the sea, guarded by gates. The arable land 
 lay to the south, and beyond that the common or everybody's pasture. In 1639 all who 
 became householders were required to obtain the approval of the governor and coun- 
 cil, but before that, " untoward people " had been rigidly excluded. Captain Miles 
 Standish took a leading part in extending the settlement to the North, and in the 
 building of new towns. A representative system followed, the assembly of all the 
 freemen being quietly superseded. A number of private settlements were started up 
 along the shore, among them " Merrymount " where people "frisked like fairies, or 
 rather like furies," round a may-pole, and where strong liquor was drunk early and 
 often. Standish marched against "Merrymount," seized Morton, the head of the 
 offenders, and the Plymouth governor sent him to England. 
 
 § 719. Other settlements grew into Maine and New Hampshire, and a few were 
 swallowed up b}^ the colony of Massachusetts Bay. The settlers of Plymouth estab- 
 lished stations for the fur trades north of the Kennebec ; these were attacked by the 
 French. They appealed for help to Massachusetts, but without success. Not until 
 lejta. 1643 were the Articles of Confederation framed and signed, in which 
 
 Plymouth became one of " The United Colonies of New England." Butit continued 
 i6»a. its separate existence until 1692, when a new charter, sent out by 
 
 Willian III., consolidated Plymouth, Massachusetts, and Maine into a single province. 
 
 § 720. Massachusetts Bay Colony. — The humble fugitives from Scrooby sug- 
 gested to certain wealthy Puritans a larger project and a mightier settlement. They 
 procui-ed from the New England Council of the King a grant of all the territory from 
 the Merrimac to the Charles river. The indented coast included in this grant extends 
 
THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 815 
 
 about forty-five miles ; inland of course the grant stretched indefinitely westward. One 
 of the six grantees was John Endicott, afterward- conspicious as Governor of Massa- 
 chusetts. He was sent out by his associates to spy out the land, and prepare for the 
 1639. future plantation. In March, 1629, they obtained a roj'al charter, 
 
 creating the governor and company of the Massachusetts Bay in New England. This 
 corporation were to elect annually a governor, deputy governor, and eighteen assist- 
 ants, who were to hold meetings monthly. General meetings of the company were to 
 
 .TOHN ENDICOTT. 
 
 be held four times a year. This was the charter, not of a town or of a state, but of a 
 private corporation. The emigrants consisted of shareholders and non-shareholders, 
 the former receiving two hundred acres for every fifty pounds invested, and fifty 
 for each member of his family, the latter fifty acres, with the same quantit}^ for each 
 servant exported by him. Three ministers were engaged, of whom two, Higginson 
 and Skelton, ended their days in the colony. All three were non-conformists, and 
 graduates of Cambridge, but none was a separatist. There were in all three liundred 
 
816 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 and fifty emigrants, amply supplied with live stock and what was needed for success. 
 tens. As soon as they arrived at Salem, the settlers established themselves 
 
 as Puritans, and among their first acts, was to expel two brothers, John and Samuel 
 Browne, who insisted upon using the Book of Common Prayer. The next step was 
 to make the colony an independent commonwealth. This was done by transferring 
 the government of the company to those in America. 
 
 § 721. Influential and wealthy emigrants now appeared, among them John 
 Winthrop, John Humphrey, and Thomas Dudley. These arriving out, found the 
 
 colony in great distress, 
 from which they were 
 saved by dispersing 
 into separate settle- 
 ments. Winthrop had 
 been appointed gover- 
 nor, but the first politi- 
 cal change in the colony 
 was to limit the rights 
 of the freemen : (1), by 
 transferring legislative 
 authority to the gov- 
 ernor and his assistants ; 
 (2), by taking from 
 the freemen the right 
 to elect the governor, 
 and giving it to the 
 assistants. 
 
 Winthrop was no 
 believer in democracy. 
 " The best part of a 
 community," he wrote 
 to Hooker, " is always 
 the least, and of that 
 least part, the wiser are 
 still less." And his 
 blameless character and 
 great mental ability 
 made him dangerous to 
 popular liberty ; yet 
 Dudley and others were vigilant and zealous of their rights. In 1634 a sharp 
 conflict took place, in which the General Court recovered the full power of elec- 
 1034. tion and legislation. And Dudley was elected Governor by a secret 
 
 ballot. In 1631 a law had been passed, confining the freemen of the colony to mem- 
 bers of the church. Others might be received, and obtain certain civic rights, but 
 they could have no share in general or in local government. Even the captain of the 
 town train-bands must be a church-member, though all the inhabitants might join in 
 his election. 
 
 JOHN WINTHROP. 
 
THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 817 
 
 § 722. Roger Williams. — The church of Salem rejoiced in a brilliant, zealous 
 and combative minister, whose peculiarities speedily excited the alarm of leading men. 
 For he maintained that church and state should be separated, that religious acts 
 should not be enforced by civil authority, that the soil belonged to the natives, and 
 that to accept a roj'al patent vi^as a sin. 
 
 It was an inopportune time for such teachings. Laud and the Privy Council 
 were watching Massachusetts with anxious eyes. Emigrants were not allowed to 
 leave England without taking the oath of allegiance, and promising conformity to the 
 Prayer Book. 
 
 And " King Winthrop," with his associates, were warned that a governor would be 
 sent out by tlie crown, and the Church of England established. But Williams, 
 growing more disputatious, exhorted his congregation to renounce communion with all 
 other churches in the colony. They refused, whereupon he withdrew. But Jolni 
 Endicott, " inspired by the notions of Mr. Roger Williams," cut the red cross from the 
 royal colors. For this Endicott was punished by the General Court, and Williams was 
 
 teas. tried the following October. He was sentenced to leave the colony 
 
 within six weeks, then suffered to stay until spring, if he would remain quiet. But 
 for him to propagate his " notions " was as necessai-y as to breathe. He gathered dis- 
 ciples to form a new settlement on the beautiful shores of Narragansett Bay. The 
 General Court determined to prevent this, ordered him to be seized and sent to 
 England. He escaped, and after incredible hardships, made his way to his new home. 
 § 723. Anne Hutchinson. — In 1636 Henry Vane was elected governor. In the 
 same year Anne Hutchinson brought " two dangerous creeds " to Boston, and the 
 colony was soon divided into two religious parties. Wheelwright, a brother of Mrs. 
 Hutchinson, and pastor of the Boston church, was punished for sedition. His people 
 remonstrated. A council of divines at Newtown condemned the new teachings as un- 
 safe. And the General Court " finding that two so opposite parties could not contain 
 in the same body without hazard of ruin to the whole, agreed to send away some of 
 the principals." Wheelwright and Mrs. Hutchinson refused to go. The former was 
 
 io3^. banished. The latter was tried, and the report of her trial shows her 
 
 to have been a woman of extraordinary strength of mind and dignity of soul, brave, 
 
 163S. self-reliant, humble and alive to God. She was excommunicated, 
 
 banished, and, like Roger Williams, found a home near Narragansett Bay. 
 
 § 724. The colony was making enemies quite rapidly at home and abroad ; the 
 King and Laud were about to lay strong hands upon it, when the Scotch rebellion 
 broke out, that brought king and bishop both to the scaffold. 
 
 Boundary disputes, danger from the Indians, from the Dutch on the Hudson, and 
 from the French on the north, led Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New 
 Haven to form the confederation of 1648, " to advance the kingdom of our Lord 
 Jesus Christ, and to enjoy the liberties of the gospel in purity and peace." This 
 was called The United Colonies of New England, although Rhode Island and Maine 
 
 19*3. were haughtily excluded. B}' that year twenty -one thousand two 
 
 hundred emigrants had come out to Massachusetts, Plymouth numbering then about 
 four thousand inhabitants. But the triumph of the revolution in England stayed the 
 tide of emigration for a season. The settlers married early, and their families were 
 large, though many children died in infancy. The man who could find no township 
 52 
 
818 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 to admit liim could not dwell in the colony, and the man who could find no church to 
 receive him could enjoy no civil rights. When a new town was created, a tract of 
 land was A'ested in seven trustees, who agreed to build houses, and to grant plots of 
 land to all settlers who were not of " exorbitant and turbulent spirit, unfit for civil 
 society." Each received two plots, a home lot in the meadow and a piece of " upland." 
 Original settlers paid a rent of six pence an acre, those coming later a shilling. A 
 
 meeting house was 
 built at public cost, a 
 minister chosen, and 
 a church formed be- 
 fore the trustees ex- 
 ercised their powers. 
 The township was 
 the landholder, and 
 watched jealously to 
 prevent the exten- 
 sion of individual 
 rights. 
 
 In 1647 two classes 
 of schools were estab- 
 lished. The elemen- 
 tarj' school in towns 
 of fifty house-holders, 
 and the grammar 
 school wherever there 
 was a hundred. 
 This was really a sup- 
 plement to the act 
 creating Harvard 
 College, which was 
 in the beginning "A 
 Grammar School." 
 The Cambridge 
 scholars and their 
 Oxford colleagues in- 
 leae. ' duced 
 the legislature to 
 grant £400 for the 
 creation of the since 
 famous school. This 
 was followed by John 
 
 Harvard's legacy of £700, and two hundred and sixty volumes. In 1638 the first 
 printing press was set up at Cambridge, and the Bay Psalm book was printed the 
 next year. 
 
 § 725. The Baptists and Quakers. — In 1644, to deny the validity of infant bap- 
 tism, or the necessity of civil magistracy, was made a crime. In 1651 three Baptists 
 
 WAMPANOAG INDIAN. 
 
THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 819 
 
 were arrested, immediately upon their arrival, by Governor Endicott. One of them 
 was flogged, and all of them expelled from the colony. 
 
 In 1656 two Quaker women, Ann Austin and Mary Fisher, were seized and con- 
 leso. fined in jail, their books were burnt, and their persons were searched 
 
 to discover the marks of =-==^_i--=_^s!==========s===BEi 
 
 witches. After five weeks "■"* -\3R!&'i" I^JLiv '^UIIhBw.LVaiindllliBlllliniiliWiili lllllm 
 
 in prison, they were sent 
 to Barbadoes. These two 
 first victims had done 
 absolutely nothing to pro- 
 voke such treatment. 
 During their confinement 
 the windows of the jail 
 were boarded up, and to 
 communicate with them 
 was made a crime. Eight 
 more arrived a little later, 
 and then the General 
 Court passed a law pun- 
 ishing shipmasters who 
 brought Quakers to the 
 colony, imprisoning and 
 flogging any Quaker who 
 might nevertheless arrive, 
 and making it a crime to 
 import or conceal Quaker 
 books, or to defend Quaker 
 opinions. The commis- 
 sioners of the United 
 Colonies even condescend- 
 ed to entreat Rhode Island 
 to exclude all Quakers, a 
 measure to which "the 
 rule of charity did oblige 
 them." Rhode Island an- 
 swered that, "the Quakers 
 least desired to come 
 where they were suffered 
 to declare themselves 
 freely." And the Quakers 
 justified the statement, for they poured into Massachusetts "to bear their testi- 
 mony." 
 
 In 1658 a bill imposing upon Quakers fines, scourgings, imprisonment, banish- 
 
 loss. ment, and death, was passed without opposition by the governor's 
 
 assistants, but earnestly opposed among the deputies where it succeeded only by a 
 
 leso. single vote. Four Quakers were hanged under this enactment, when 
 
 DEATH OP KING PHILIP. 
 
820 
 
 AMERIQA. 
 
 the community revolted and forced the abolition of the law, in spite of Endicott and 
 the men who supported him. 
 
 The restoration now enabled the Quakers to appeal to King Charles II. The 
 latter ordered Endicott to suspend all further proceeding against the Quakers. This 
 order was sent lo the humiliated Governor, by the hand of Shattucks, a Quaker, who 
 had been scourged and banished twice from Massachusetts. The General Court was 
 summoned, and all the Quakers were set at liberty.* 
 
 § 726. 1675 King Philip, the son of Massasoit, having formed an Indian league, 
 
 i«i5. began a war upon the towns of southern and western Massachusetts, 
 
 which wrought great havoc. Eliots " praying Indians " adhered to the whites ; Philip 
 
 i6:e. was finally killed, 
 
 and his head exposed for twenty 
 years on a pole at Plymouth, 
 and his wife and child were 
 sold as slaves. But the Indians 
 never again attacked the south- 
 ern parts of New England. 
 
 § 727. The New Charter. 
 The cruelty to the Quakers was 
 not the only charge against the 
 colony .: they were accused of 
 violating the navigation laws, 
 of coining money without 
 authoritj^ and of harboring the 
 regicide judges. And after a 
 16S4. long and stubborn 
 fight, their charter was with- 
 drawn. 
 
 The agents of Massachu- 
 setts in London were instructed 
 not to consent to any alterations 
 in the qualifications of freemen. 
 The clergy especially bestirred 
 themselves to prevent the de- 
 struction of the theocracj'. For 
 a time it looked as if they might 
 succeed. Sir Edmund Andros, the first royal governor, was far from popular. When 
 the news of the expulsion of James II. reached Boston, Andros was seized and 
 laso. imprisoned, and the colony, or rather the theocracy, resumed its 
 
 sway. 
 
 But the die was cast. A new charter had become necessary, and one came from 
 
 ieo». William III. in 1692. Massachusetts, Maine, Plymouth, and Nova 
 
 Scotia were consolidated, toleration, except for papists, was established, the religious 
 
 qualification was swept away, and a property qualification substituted. The towns 
 
 * This is ii bare recital of facts. A conipaii.son of dates, and a study of conteinpoiaiy defenses ol the Govenior and 
 liis party, will show how flimsy are the modern pleas, in extenuation of this cruelty. 
 
 SIR ED.MUND ANDROS. 
 
THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 821 
 
 continiied to elect the House of Representatives, and the Assembly chose the Council, 
 subject to the approval of the executive. The governor, lieutenant governor, and 
 secretary were appointed by tlie king, who reserved the right to disallow legislation 
 within three years of its passage. 
 
 § 728. The Salem Witc/i craft. The year of the new charter was the year of tlie 
 
 iao2. Salem Witchcraft. In 1683-4 Increase Mather had published his 
 
 "Illustrious Providences."' In the fall of 1688 four children of a Boston mason began 
 to mimic the symptoms described in that exciting book, and spoken of so frequently. 
 The same symptoms appeared in Salem in February 1692. In June, Governor Phips 
 created arbitrarily a court to try witches, placing William Stoughton at its head. Be- 
 fore October nineteen persons had been hanged, eight lay condemned, others had fled 
 or been beggared, while two hundred were accused and in mortal terror of arrest. No 
 one was safe ; pastors and pastors' wives (even the wife of the Governor} were 
 threatened. A few men of steady nerves and stei-ling character resisted the delusion 
 from the outset, but Thomas Biattle was the first to protest openly against the pro- 
 ceedings of the court. A reaction set in ; Phips suspended the sittings of his illegal 
 tribunal ; and the power of the Mathers, father and son, who were the chief supporters 
 of the witchcraft persecutions, waned rapidly. 
 
 § 729. In 1700 the population of Massachusetts was in the neighborhood of fifty 
 thousand and the colony employed two hundred ships, of which twenty were over a 
 hundred tons burden, and sixty more over fifty. Slavery began to spread and to be- 
 come a subject of legislation, and of discussion. Sewall attacked it in his " Selling of 
 Joseph," as contrary to nature, scripture, and sound policy. Early in the centur}-, 
 Harvard college passed from the control of the Mathers, and into liberal hands, which 
 
 t7oo. led to the founding of Yale college, as a new stronghold for the old 
 
 orthodoxy. In 1725 the settlement of western Massachusetts was begun, and in 1734 
 the "■ Great Awakening in New England " started with Jonathan Edwards, and con- 
 tinued under George Whitefield and his helpers. During this time the colony was in 
 constant danger from the French, and their Indian allies, but the population increased 
 with great rapidity, and Boston became a vigorous town. She sent to sea twice as 
 many vessels as New York, and her ship yards were humming with activity. In 
 
 ijij. 1744, a hundred sail of transports sailed from Boston harbor, carrying 
 
 three thousand two hundred and fifty soldiers of the colony to effect tlie capture of 
 Louisburg. The conquest of Canada was at hand. 
 
 § 730. Connecticut. — A movement of Massachusetts farmers to the Connecticut 
 
 i«3J. valley began in 1684. It was at first opposed, but soon acquiesced in 
 
 by the Legislature, which, however, insisted that the emigrants should remain under 
 the control of Massachusetts. Wethersfield and Windsor were settled in 1635 by peo- 
 ple from Boston ; Hartford in 1636, by the congregation of the Eev. Thomas Hooker, 
 who started from Newtown (Cambridge.) This emigration from Massachusetts was 
 resented by the colony of Plymouth, the Dutch of New Amsterdam, and the Pequod 
 
 ioai. Indians. The Pequod's were soon extei'minated, the Dutch were shut out 
 
 by the fort at Saybrook, built by John Winthrop, " Governor of the River of Connecticut," 
 and the settlers from Plymouth were told, by the men of Dorchester, that the territory 
 which thej^ had bought from the Mohicans and held manfully against the Dutch, was the 
 
822 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 " Lord's Waste." Reluctantly enough they compromised with these greedy intruders 
 upon their rights ; but Hooker's people had no part in the quarrel. 
 
 In 1639 the three towns drew up the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut, the 
 1630. first written constitution known in history. This extraordinary docu- 
 
 ment is really a declaration of independence, primarily from the authority of Massa- 
 chusetts, but impliedly from any sovereignty save that of God ; for no mention is 
 made of any other sovereign. It established not a theocracy, however, but a com- 
 munity. 
 
 § 731. New Haven, founded by the congregation of the Rev. John Davenport, 
 in 1638, excluded all but churcli members from voting and from office ; and in 1644 
 this colony declared " the judicial laws of God as they were delivered by Moses," 
 binding upon the people. The Connecticut towns however established a genuine re- 
 public, making all citizens 
 politically equal, and they 
 obtained from Charles II. a 
 laas. charter which 
 
 confirmed their right of self- 
 government. In May 1648, 
 "the Plantacions, under the 
 Government of Connecticut," 
 and "the Government of New 
 Haven," with her " Planta- 
 cions" helped to form the 
 " United Colonies of New 
 England." 
 
 A curious legend, desti- 
 tute unfortunately of any 
 contemporary record, tells of 
 the hiding of the Connecticut 
 charter in the old oak tree 
 at Hartford. Sir Edmund 
 Andros, in the name of King 
 James 11., demanded of the 
 Assembly the surrender of his charter. It was brought in and placed upon the table. 
 i«sj. Suddenly the candles were blown out. When they were relighted the 
 
 charter had disappeared. At the foot of the records for 1687 Andres's proceedings 
 are written out, and beneath this declaration appears the word " Finis." 
 
 § 732. New JETampshire. — The Rev. John Wheelwright, the friend of Anne 
 
 Hutchinson, when driven from Massachusetts in 1628, settled with several of his 
 
 1020. congregation, the town of Exeter, New Hampshire. This name was 
 
 given to the country by Captain John Mason, a native of Hampshire, England, who 
 
 held it under a grant from the " Council for New England." Dover was settled 
 
 as early as 1627, bj^ English colonists ; Londonderry, the home of the Scotch-Irish flax- 
 
 1641. spinners, not until 1719. In 1641 New Hampshire came under the 
 
 jurisdiction and protection of Massachusetts, but in 1679 it became a royal province. 
 
 Maine. — The Popham colony, founded in 1607, ended disastrously ; the region be- 
 
 FIRST PRINTING PRESS IN NEW HAMPSHIRE. — 1742. 
 
THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 823 
 
 tween the Kennebec and Penobscot was settled in 1625, and Portland in 1632. From 
 1652 to 1820 the territor}' was controlled by Massachusetts. 
 
 § 733. Rhode Island. — Roger Williams escaped the perils of the wilderness by 
 the help of his Indian friends. The wigwams of Massasoit received the preacher 
 whom Massachusetts had cast out to the winter storms, and to such food and shelter as 
 he might discover. He and five friends built a cabin on the Seekonk river ; but he was 
 ordered to move on by the authorities of Plymouth. He then crossed the river lower 
 down ; the Indians called out " What cheer," and guided the exile and his party to 
 i«36. the site called by the grateful Christian, Providence. Williams' first 
 
 thought was to Christianize the Indians, not to colonize the country. In fact, 
 Rhode Island colonized itself, and Williams simply gave it splendid opportunities. 
 First he granted toleration to every 
 form of religious belief, and even to 
 forms of unbelief; and secondly he 
 procured, in 1644, a charter uniting 
 the scattered colonies of Rhode Island 
 into a single province, with the priv- 
 ileges and the rights of self-govern- 
 ment. These scattered colonies in- 
 cluded Newport and Portsmouth, 
 teas-teso. which had been set- 
 tled by William Coddington, Anne 
 Hutchinson, and others, whom Mas- 
 sachusetts could not well endure. 
 
 Williams bought the land from j "^^ 
 his Indian friends. He organized the \ ^^ 
 first Baptist church in America, and L.-; 
 in 1640, the government was fairly , — ^ 
 established. In March, 1647, the As- 
 sembly declared formally, that the _ 
 government "is a democrat or popu- it"\^ 
 lar government, that is to say, the "'' 
 freemen, orderly assembled shall make 
 just laws, by which they will be reg- 
 ulated." None was to be "accounted a delinquent for doctrine," who was not 
 " directly repugnant to the government or laws established." Massachusetts looked 
 on in anger and contempt, foreboding and predicting ruin and divine wrath. Neither 
 f came. 
 
 C>' 
 
 WILLIAM PENN. 
 
 c. Pennsylvania. 
 
 § 734. Most of the thirteen colonies bear the names of English monarchs or 
 princes, for example, Virginia, the Carolinas, Maryland, Georgia, New York. Massa- 
 chusetts and Connecticut have Indian names. Pennsylvania alone is a perpetual re- 
 less. minder of its noble founder. Penn's Woods were granted to Wm. Penn 
 
 to extinguish a claim which the distinguished Quaker held against the English king. 
 These woods fronted on the Delaware river, and stretched indefinitely westward. 
 
824 AMERICA. 
 
 Emigrants were sent out in 1681, but Penn himself did not sail with his hundred 
 Quakers until the next year. The Cit}' of Brotherly Love (Philadelphia) had been 
 planned before the company left England. Originally, Delaware belonged to the 
 Duke of York. Penn purchased it before he sailed and landed at New Castle, October 
 less. 27, 1682. Exhibiting his deeds from the Duke of York, he received 
 
 the submission of the inhabitants (mostly Swedes or Finns). 
 
 "The Frame of Government" for Pennsylvania had been signed by Penn, April 
 25, 1682. " Time, place, and singular emergencies," would require, he said, alterations 
 in this Frame. B at this would form a good foundation. It provided for a governor and 
 freemen; a provincial council consisting of seventy-two members, and an assembly of 
 two hundred. All Christians, except bound servants and convicts, who paid taxes or 
 took up land, were declared freemen. The assembly met December 4, 1682 ; the frame 
 of government and the laws agreed upon in England were adopted ; the Swedes were 
 naturalized, and the Delaware counties included. The next year Penn granted a new 
 10S3. charter " of more than was expected liberty," under which the gov- 
 
 ernment was administered till 1796. Liberty of conscience was granted, but the ob- 
 servance of the Sabbath was provided for. Plays and games, sports and lotteries were 
 prohibited. Courts of justice were established, but causes of great importance were 
 tried by the Council. Schools were ordained, and the laws were taught to the 
 children. 
 
 In 1683 the first colony of Germans arrived from Crefeld. These were Mennonite 
 linen weavers, who settled at Germantown, under the guidance of Francis Pastorius. 
 This was the first wave of the great German immigration to America. In 1685 
 there were in all seven thousand two hundred people in the province, of which the 
 English were not quite the half. 
 
 § 735. Just before the Germans arrived, Penn met the principal Indian chiefs at 
 1683. Shackamaxon, on June 23, 1683. He thus describes the events of the 
 
 dav. "We agreed upon the purchase, and then great promises passed between us of 
 kindness and good neighborhood. Indians and English must live in love as long as 
 the sun gave liglit. A speech was made to the Indians in the name of all the 
 Sachamakers or kings ; first to tell them what was done, next to change them to live 
 in peace with me, and the people under my government. At everj^ sentence thej' 
 shouted, and said Ameri in their way." In 1685 Wm. Bradford established in Phila- 
 delphia, the first printing-press of the middle colonies. In 1690 paper and woollen 
 mills were started. The Quakers had nine "meetings" (z. e. societies) in 1683. 
 The Baptists had a church in 1684 or 1685. The Dutch had a church in New Castle, 
 and the Swedes some half-starved, clergymen. " For the love of God, me and the 
 poor country be not so governmentish," wrote Penn, fi'om England, whither he re- 
 turned in 16S4. But the colonists cared little for their founder or his interest. And 
 the expulsion of the Stuarts led to Penn's arrest, and enforced inactivity in the af- 
 fairs of his province. But in 1694 he was released and restored to his rights, so 
 that in 1699 he visited his "woods" once more. He suppressed piracy and restricted 
 the slave trade, but could get no money for the fortification of the king's frontiers. 
 In 1702 the Delaware counties were given a separate Assembly, but quarrelling contin- 
 ued among the " governmentish " people. Penn's governors were rather feeble folk, and 
 
826 AMERICA. 
 
 the proprietor could bring the assembly to terms, only bj^ threatening to sell out to 
 the crown. 
 
 § 736. In 1721 the Iroquois held a great council with the whites at Conestoga, 
 ««i. just after Governor Keith and his councils had determined to grow 
 
 rich with _^ai money. The people never had enough "to do business with." In 1749 
 a Pennsylvania pound was equal to about eleven shillings. Keith, the last governor 
 appointed by Penn, was more popular with the province, than with Hannah Penn, 
 the widow of the founder ; and when displaced by her, he revenged himself by 
 keeping the province in a turmoil. Governors were in frequent conflict with the 
 Assembly, partly because of their instructions from the proprietors, and partly be- 
 cause of their own or the peoples' folly. In 1757 Benjamin Franklin won his first 
 diplomatic victory. As agent of Pennsylvania, he laid the case of the province be- 
 fore the crown authorities, and the proprietors of Pennsylvania were defeated. 
 
 The colony was then the most flourishing in America. The free population 
 numbered two hundred and twenty thousand, half of it from Germany ; Moravians 
 along the Lehigh, Swenckfeklers on the Schuylkill, Dunkers along the Conestoga, 
 Mennonites in Lancaster. Welsh, Irish, and Scotch came also. Yet so many un- 
 desirable elements arrived, that an act restricting immigration was passed early in 
 1729. 
 
 Iron works and forges were started along the Schu3'lkill river in 1718 ; in 1728 
 there were two furnaces in blast in Lancaster county. Philadelphia sent out annually 
 a fleet of four hundred sail, and her Quakers grew rich in trading with the West 
 Indies. Yet the country was more alluring than the town ; ample acres were easily 
 acquired, and labor was too scarce and dear to make manufacturing profitable. 
 
 d. New York and Neiv Jersey. 
 
 § 737. Under English rule New Netherlands became Ncm' York. But the Duke 
 Axio- 25-, 168*. of York would hear of no provincial assembly till 1683, and when he be- 
 came King James II., would hear of it no longer. But when he lost his crown in 1688, 
 Jacob Leisler took possession of the province to hold it for William and Mary, alleging 
 a plot of Papists to deliver the country to the French of Canada. Leisler believed 
 also in " no taxation without representation," and sought more power for the people. 
 He and his son were hanged for their zeal, but Papists were disfranchised, priests and 
 Jesuits excluded from the province, and the struggle for legislative authority started 
 on its triumphant course. Sloughter, the first governor under William and Mary, was 
 directed " to call an assembly of free-holders, and to follow the usage of our other 
 plantations in America." Fletcher, who followed him, was a greedy scamp, who pro- 
 tected pirates and plundered the people. Bellamont came next and grew quite popu- 
 lar, but Cornbury stole the public monies, and provoked the Assembly to a quarrel 
 with the crown. In 1731, Rip Van Dam claimed and received the salary of the gov- 
 ernor, having acte^ in his place. An action was brought against him to compel the 
 restoration of one half, and in order to win it, de Lancey was made chief justice, in 
 place of Lewis Morris, who was summarily removed. Zenger's Weekly Journal there- 
 upon attacked the governor. Zenger, the publisher, was tried for libel, and acquitted 
 through the courage, skill, eloquence, and legal knowledge of Andrew Hamilton, of 
 Philadelphia. His acquittal established the freedom of the press in the colonies, and 
 
{PP- ^^T-) 
 
 BENJAMIN FRANKLIN. 
 
S2S 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 also determined against the right of the king to establish courts, without consulting 
 17^1. the local legislature. During Clarke's administration, occurred the 
 
 negro plot of 1741. There was no plot, only a panic. But the accused were hanged 
 or burned to death, or deported, to appease xhb scared inhabitants of the dirtj- little 
 seaport. Sir Danvers Osborn came to New York as governor, in 1753. He looked 
 sharply at the assembly, and exclaimed, " What have I come here for '? "" He then went 
 out and hanged himself. This made de Lancey acting governor, who has been falsely 
 accused of opposing the Plan of Union, agreed upon by the commissioners of all the 
 colonies at Albany, in July, 1754. 
 
 § 738. The population of the province had reached ninety thousand in 1750, but 
 did not extend beyond tiie Hudson and the Mohawk valleys. New York city, with a 
 population of perhaps twelve thousand, stopped at the present Wall Street, which 
 takes its name from an old palisaded wall that formed the northern limit of the town. 
 
 The English conquered New Nethei'lands in 1664. The territory between 
 the Hudson and the Delaware was then given to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Car- 
 teret. These were bought out by Quakers, who established a colonj- of religious 
 liberty and civil equality. In 1702 the two Jerseys were placed in the hands of the 
 1J3S. king, and in 1738 New Jersey was made a separate province. Complete 
 
 religious freedom prevailing, members of nearly every sect came to the province. The 
 Queen's College, now Rutger's, was established in New Brunswick, and the College 
 of New Jersey at Princeton, the latter in 1746, and the former in 1756. In 1765 New 
 Jersey had one hundred and ninety-two churches of all denominations, except the 
 Roman Catholic, Schools were probably connected with every church. The governor 
 was appointed by the king. 
 
 II. THE ENGLISH CONQUEST OF THE CONTINENT. 
 
 HE events of the eighteenth century determined the fate of the 
 world for ages, probably, and the chief of these events was the 
 triumphs of Frederick the Great and of William Pitt. The con- 
 sequent failure of France gave India to England, and expelled the 
 French from America. Yet the French and Indian war is too 
 tm-nea. important to be regarded merely as an episode in 
 European history. It was a necessary, though not a final step to 
 the formation of the United States of America. The French claimed the valleys of 
 the St. Lawrence and the Mississippi, and rightfully enough. But thej- claimed also 
 the whole continent west of the Alleghuay and forbade the English to cross the 
 mountains. They had captivated all the Indians, except the Iroquois, who occupied 
 the lake regions of Central New York : and with the help of tlieir savage allies, they 
 expected to restrict if not to conquer the English settlements. Duquesne. the gov- 
 17S3. ernor of Canada, sent an expedition to occupy the Ohio valley in 1753. 
 
 Two forts had been already built, when a young militia officer, George Washington 
 by name, arrived to inform the French commander that his forts were built on English 
 territory, and that he would do well to move away. 
 
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 DEATH Of GENERAL BUADDOCK. (P. PlliUpiMtcau X.) ( PP- S20. ) 
 
830 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 
 .1^'^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 The French smiled blandl}-, telling the Virginian that their orders unfortunately 
 required them to remain. When Washington reported this to Dinwiddie, he was sent 
 1754. back bj' the governor, with two hundred men, to build a fort at the 
 
 forks of the Ohio. A large force of Frenchmen moved down upon them, and sug- 
 gested that they also move away, wiiereupon the Virginians thought it discretion to 
 retire. A few days later, however, the impetuous Washington (he was only twenty- 
 three) attacked the French, and thereby began the war. He was soon at the head of 
 three hundred men, entrenched in Fort Necessity. But now the French turned upon 
 him, and compelled him to capitulate. He was permitted to march out with the honors 
 of war, though obliged to return to Virginia. The first encounter had proved 
 disastrous. 
 
 § 740. But early in 1755, 
 General Braddock arrived at 
 Hampton Koads, and at a con- 
 ference in Alexandria, Virginia, 
 it was agreed that Braddock 
 should march against Fort 
 Duquesne, Shirley should cap- 
 ture Niagara, Johnson, with an 
 ai-my of provincials, should seize 
 Crown Point, and the troops of 
 New England should fall upon 
 the Acadian Peninsula. 
 
 But Braddock was defeated 
 and killed, and his frightened 
 troops fled all the way from the 
 j^uiy»,t73s. Monongahela 
 river (Pittsburg) to Fort Cum- 
 berland. 
 
 Braddock's death left Shir- 
 ley, the governor of Massachu- 
 setts, the ranking British officer 
 in the colonies. Keeping the 
 bad news to himself, he pushed 
 on to Oswego, through wood and swamjj. As his men struggled westward, they heard 
 of Braddock's fate. They were worn out, and food was scarce ; their boats were unfit 
 for lake service, and the expedition against Niagara also came to naught. 
 
 William Johnson, a young Irishman, who had settled in the Mohawk Valley, had 
 gained a singular influence with the Indians. To him was given command of the 
 army against Crown Point. Most of the men were from New England, and several of 
 them were men of far more experience in war than their commander. Among these 
 were Phineas Lyman, the second in authorit\% Seth Pomeroy, Israel Putman, and John 
 Stark. Through Lyman's skill and energy, Dieskau, the French general, was defeated 
 1155. and captured. Lyman was not even mentioned in Johnson's report of 
 
 the fight, but William Johnson became a baronet, and received a grant of £5000 from 
 
 ■CJi'J'O 
 
 MONTCALM. 
 
THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 831 
 
 Parliament. Lyman urged a forward movement upon Ticonderoga, but Johnson delayed 
 until it was too late, and then marched home again. 
 
 Montcalm succeeded Dieskau in command of the French. He at once visited 
 Fort Ticonderoga (Carillan), and saw that all was in order. He then hastened to 
 Montreal, gathered together three thousand men, and suddenly appeared at Fort 
 1J50. Oswego. The garrison soon surrendered, and were almost massacred 
 
 by the Indians, who had found much rum among the plunder. Both sides now watched 
 each other, and retired to winter-quarters; the English regulars going to Boston, Phila- 
 delphia, and New York. The Indians and the rangers alone were active. Lake George 
 and Lake Champlain resounded with the savage yells of the French allies, while Captain 
 Rogers and Captain Putnam became famous for their encounters with the red men. 
 
 § 741. Meanwhile Loudoun had succeeded Shirley in command of the English. 
 But his dispositions and movements were absurd and disastrous. Montcalm attacked 
 XSSI, and destroyed Fort William Henry on Lake George, and then retired 
 
 to Montreal. 
 
 William Pitt now came to power in England, and Loudoun was recalled. With 
 the prescience of the future, that made him tlie greatest statesman of his time, Pitt 
 made the colonial officer the equal of the regular, and changed at once the discontent 
 of the provincials into enthusiastic loyalty. He made Colonel Amherst, Major Gen- 
 eral, and sent him to capture Louisbourg ; and he selected invincible John Forbes to 
 attack Fort Duquesne. Abercrombie, however, his choice for the campaign against 
 Crown Point, was a bad misfit. Forbes determined, against the advice of Washington, 
 not to move by Braddock's route, yet he listened carefully to the young Virginian in 
 all other matters. Spending his time " between business and medicine," for he was 
 desperately ill, Forbes pushed forward in spite of the winter and the lack of provisions, 
 and reached Fort Duquesne just in' time to hear the explosion of the French mines. 
 
 1738. The starving garrison blew up the fort and fled. He called the place 
 Pittsburg, and marched back to Philadelphia, where he died a few months later. A 
 new fort was built at Pittsburg ; the garrison left there by Forbes was reinforced by 
 Amherst, and the conquest of the Ohio Valley reasonably secure. 
 
 § 742. Abercrombie meanwhile was disappointing Pitt. He hurled his soldiers 
 uselessly against Fort Ticonderoga, and retreated, though his army was thirteen thou- 
 1758. sand strong. Bradstreet, however, captured and destroyed the French 
 
 fort, Frontenac, thus cutting off supplies from Fort Duquesne, and helping materially 
 the woi'k of General Forbes. General Amherst now assumed command. He had 
 taken Louisbourg, and immediately sent Prideaux to capture Fort Niagara. Johnson 
 and a body of Indian braves were in the English camp. Prideaux was killed early in 
 
 1739. the siege, and Johnson, who succeeded him in command, compelled the 
 surrender of the place. Meanwhile Amherst himself was pushing slowly northward, 
 securing his rear, and driving the French before him. He advanced, however, rather 
 slowly, to be of any service to General Wolfe, whom Pitt had sent to take Quebec. 
 "The town-meeting pitted against bureau-cracy," exists only in the brain of the rhet. 
 orical historian. " The Titan that threw the cripple," was not the town-meeting, but 
 the sagacity of William Pitt, in his choice of men, and the conjuncture of circum- 
 stances that supported the courage and the skill of General James Wolfe. Wolfe's 
 fleet sailed from Louisbourg, in June, 1759. Quebec had ample supplies, and the 
 
832 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 entreaeluuents were manned by fonrteen tlioiisand men, and a nnmber of Indian allies. 
 Gunboats and fire-ships were prepared to support the one hundred and six cannon, 
 tlie city's chief defence. But the Engiisli fieet passed the French guns, which 
 were stationed at the wrong place, and Wolfe landed his army of nine thousand 
 men on the Island of Orleans. Montcalm tried to drive him off, but failed. Wolfe 
 
 occupied Point Levi, and 
 rained shot and shell into 
 the town, but having divid- 
 ed his army, was in no little 
 danger. Montcalm, how- 
 ever, did not attack him. 
 Wolfe divided his forces 
 again, j-et failed to provoke 
 an attack. Then he moved 
 himself, but without suc- 
 cess ; he was obliged to 
 recall his men from sure 
 destruction. Amherst was 
 so slow ! And now a mes- 
 senger came to tell him 
 that Amherst was not com- 
 ing. Nothing remained 
 but an attempt to gain the 
 heights above the town. 
 
 Wolfe's Cove is a 
 ravine not far from the 
 town, leading to the 
 Heights of Abraham. 
 Three thousand six hund- 
 red men went down the 
 river in boats, with their 
 daring general, at the turn 
 of the tide, while the Brit- 
 ish admiral made a dem- 
 onstration in front of Mont- 
 calm. Wolfe, when hailed 
 bj' the French sentries, 
 quieted them with his ex- 
 
 FIRST SETTLEMENT AT QUEBEC. plauatioUS in their OWU 
 
 language, and the commander of the French troops, nt the top of the r;n ine. liad gone 
 to sleep. In a few minutes the English general stood, with his men, in an open held 
 on the Heights of Abraham, where ^lontcalm must fight hiin. The dilatory French 
 general was transformed instantly into an impetuous commander. The French fell 
 furiously upon the English line. Wolfe ordered his grenadiers to charge, himself 
 leading the van. Twice he was struck, but on he rushed. A third sliot bore liim to 
 the ground. " Thev tlv I thev llv I " he heard his men exclaimincf, as he was borne 
 
mSk M\'i^§ 
 
 53 
 
 DEATH OF (lENERAL WOLFE. 
 
 (pp. n:«o 
 
Sa-i AMKKICA. 
 
 dying to the rear. " I die content," ho nuirmurod and oxpivod. Jlontoalni was shot 
 Sept. ta. just before he re-entered the town witli liis panic-stricken troops. The 
 French hehl out for a few days, and then surrendered. Not kmg afterward, Montreal 
 surrendered to Andierst, and on the 18lh of September, 1750, all Canada passed to 
 the English crown. 
 
 ^ 748. Two e|nsodcs connected with the war arc wortiiy of mention. Tlie ex- 
 pulsion of the French from Acadia, and the conspiracy of Pontiae. The genius of 
 Loygfellow has given to the former the false coloring of persecution ; in reality the 
 English were quite justified in the measures they employed. The uprising of the In- 
 nnH-tJoa dian tribes, under Pontiae, wrought great mischief on the tVontiers. 
 It was a faihuc, however, as the plot was betrayed by an Indian girl, to the commander 
 of the I'ort at Pctroit, and Pontiae was forced to sue for peace. By the treaty of 
 1768, the Kiviich gave up all their possessions in North America. The year before, 
 New Orleans and the French territory west of the Mississippi had been transferred 
 secretly to Spain, and was not retrausferred to France until 1801. So that of all his 
 vast domain in the New World, notlung was left to the French King, but two little 
 islands near Newfoundland and his jiossessions in the West Indies. 
 
 III. TIIK AMERICAN KKVOLUTION. 
 
 1. THK STR\^'!CiI,K OF TIIK COLONISTS laHi TllK KUIHTS Ol^ KXCLISHMEX. 
 
 I IF] English colonies in North America had their own legislatures 
 and as we have seen, these legislatures guarded vigilantly the right 
 o( taxation. They had submitted reluctantly to the navigation 
 acts, and the various acts of Parliament restricting their eom- 
 nu'rce and their uuinufactures ; they had more than once eontrib- 
 uiod voluntarily to the King's service; but they were firmly 
 grounded in the Vhiglish princi[)le that taxation and representation 
 are insojiarable ; in other words, thai no taxes could be laid upon a colony without 
 the consent of the eoloiusts themselves, expressed by their representatives. 
 
 Hut ICnglaud was in sore straits for money and for statesmen. George 111. has 
 been described by a great English writer as a "meddling maniac." And the worst re- 
 sult of his disordered mind was his choice of ministers. Pitt heconld not endure. He 
 made peace to prevent his return to power. He sought for tools, not for advisers ; for 
 mariotiettes. not men. It was thus he obtained George Grenville for his minister, and 
 lost the .\meriean colonies for England. F\ir Grenville resolved to tax the colonies 
 without their own consent. At tiist he proceeded cautiously, raising the import du- 
 ties at colonial ports, and enforcing the navigation acts with great severity. In pur- 
 suance of the latter purpose " Writs of Assistance " were granted, which empowered 
 the custom house officer to ei\ter any shop or dwelling house, and search for snuiggled 
 goods. Now, although the illicit trade of the colonies was large and lucrative, the ob- 
 jection to these harsh and illegal measures came, not simply from the interested 
 
THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 885 
 
 smugglers, but from tlie wisest men in tlie colonies. They held that the navigation 
 and revenue laws were exceedingly unjust, and that they could be made tolerable only 
 by lenient and generous administration. 
 
 § 745. Nevertheless, Grenville might have succeeded, if lie had gone no further. 
 But he determined upon the Stamp Act, a scheme that Sir Robert Walpole had re- 
 noB jected as foolish and dangerous. The colonies sent Benjamin Frank- 
 
 lin to England with a protest and an offer. They protested against the passage of the 
 Stamp Act, and offered to vote m their colonial assemblies larger supplies to the crown 
 than the Stamp Act would produce. But Grenville and George 111. were resolved to 
 pass it, and even Franklin counselled submission. The colonists were of different 
 mind and Patrick Henry introduced into tlie House of Burgesses of Virginia a series 
 of resolutions, which denied explicitly and emphaticaliy the right of the British Par- 
 liament to meddle with internal taxation. Massacliusetts followed witli a proposal for 
 a Continental Congress, to be composed 
 1705. of delegates from all the 
 
 Colonial Assemblies. In October, 1765, 
 this Congress met and repeated the pro- 
 test and the petition of Virginia. 
 
 § 746. Meanwhile the people of 
 the colonies compelled the Stamp dis- 
 tributors to resign, and vigorously cir- 
 culated non-importation agreements, 
 pledging themselves to import no goods 
 from England till the Stamp Act was 
 repealed. Pitt, who had been ill and 
 absent from Parliament when the act 
 was passed, now returned and declared, 
 " This kingdom has no right to lay a 
 tax on the colonies. I rejoice tliat 
 America has resisted. Three millions 
 of people so dead to all the feelings of 
 liberty, as voluntarily to be slaves, 
 would have been fit instruments to 
 make slaves of the rest." Pitt's opposition, supported as he was by the great lawyer, 
 Lord Camden, and by Col. Barre, together with the famous examination of Dr. Frank- 
 ijjo. lin by a committee of the House of Commons, compelled the repeal of 
 
 the obnoxious statute, and for a brief season, the colonies were in a tumult of great 
 joy. The imgracious and unwise King persuaded his ministers, however, to put 
 through parliament a declaratory act which Lord Camden denounced as " absolutely 
 illegal." " Taxation and representation are inseparably united," said the future Lord 
 Chancellor. "God hath joined them, and no British Parliament can put them asunder." 
 
 Pitt now returned to power, in spite of the King, but disease soon drove him out 
 of office, and his retirement gave England the worthless ministry of the Duke of Graf- 
 ton and Lord North, the ministry whose stupidity and stubbornness provoked the 
 American revolution, and wliose feebleness helped tlie colonists to their final triumph. 
 
 § 747. Their first measure, in relation to the colonies, was a revenue bill, im- 
 
 PATlUClt HENUY. 
 
S36 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 posing duties on tea, paper, glass, paints, and lead. The colonists determined not to 
 import them, and not to import any British commodities. The British merchants, 
 profonndly affected in their pockets, petitioned for the repeal of the lavr. The duties 
 were thereupon taken from all articles, except tea. The Americans would import no 
 tea. The Assembh" of New York was dissolved on its refusal to provide quarters for 
 British troops, the Assembly of Massachusetts was dissolved on a petty quarrel with 
 the governor, and Boston was occupied with English soldiers. But the excitement in 
 the colonies, and the remonstrances of colonial legislatures, led to the withdrawal of 
 the troops ; not, however, until an affray between the mob and the soldiers in Boston 
 had dangerously intlanied the passions of the people. 
 
 PESTRVCriON OF TEA IN KOSION HAKBOK. 
 
 § 748. But the " meddling maniac." King George III., was fretting and fuming 
 over the " fatal compliance of 17tii>," and lying in wait for an opportunity to strike. 
 It soon came. The East India Company sent several cargoes of tea to the colonies. 
 In New York and in Philadelphia, the people threatened vengeance upon any pilot 
 that shottld guide the ships into the harbor ; the vessels were obliged to return to 
 England. But at Boston, Hutchinson w;^s acting governor, and Hutchinson, being ab- 
 solutely fearless, got the ships into port, and prevented their return. Thereupon a mob, 
 disguised as Indians, boarded the ships, and poured the tea into the waters of the bay. 
 xar. 95. itis. The wisest patriots of America deplored the outrage, but the King was 
 furious. He ■wanted, not redress, but revenge and repression. His obedient ministers 
 and subservient Parliament passed the Boston Port Bill, closing the port of Boston 
 
THE IIISTOKY OF NORTH AMKKICA. 
 
 837 
 
 June 1, «?•*. against all coimnerce. Tliey altered tbe charter to the extent of 
 virtually abrogating the liberties of Massachusetts, and they ordei'ed persons ac 
 cused of murder, to be sent to England for 
 trial. A fourth statute provided for the sending 
 of troops to America. Four regiments were 
 /jjj. sent to Boston ; General Gage 
 
 was appointed governor, and the people were 
 to taste tiie sweets of military rule. " If we 
 take the resolute part," muttered the King, 
 "they will undoubtedly be very weak." And 
 then to excite the colonists still further, the 
 ■Quebec Act was passed, to prevent the Cana- 
 <lians from joining with tlie otlier provinces. 
 
 § 749. The colonists, however, were any- 
 tiiing but weak. All their legislatures, sa\i' 
 that of Georgia, elected deputies to a Congress, 
 in4. whicli, assembled in Carpenters' 
 
 Hall, at Philadelphia, on the 4th of September, 
 1774. This Congress met at tlie appointed 
 time, and is forever memorable for its ability, its patriotism, and its moderation. The 
 Declaration of Rights, adopted by the Congress, stated, with fullness and yet concisely, 
 
 OARI'ENTER S 11AL,L, I'U 1 l-A DKl.l'Ul A. 
 
 BATTLE OF BUNKER HILL. 
 
 the principles involved in the conflict ; it stated with equal plainness and brevity the 
 determination of the Americans " not to submit to the grievous acts and measures 
 
AMERICA. 
 
 passed in the last session of Parliament." It claimed for the colonists the rights of 
 Englishmen, and chief among these, the privilege of participation in their own govern- 
 ijjs. ment. In January, 1775, Pitt, now Earl of Chatham, introduced a bill, 
 
 which provided for the repeal of all the protested statutes, abandoned the claim to 
 taxation, secured to the colonists their cherished charters, and ordered the recall of 
 the troops. A colonial assembly was ordered to convene, and provide means by which 
 America might contribute toward the payment of the public debt. But the " meddling 
 maniac "' would have none of Chatham's wisdom, and the ministr}^ echoed the King's 
 decree. The measure of the great statesman was contemptuously rejected. 
 
 § 750. The American Congress had advised another assembly for the following 
 
 May, but before it convened, the king's troops had a conflict with the minute men 
 
 A^prii 10, 1315. of Lexington, Mass. General Gage had sent some men to destro}^ the 
 
 military stores which the patriots 
 had collected at Concord. The 
 British Colonel, Smith, ordered 
 the "minute men" to disperse 
 and fired upon them immedi- 
 ately. Returning to Boston, he 
 found the roads lined with sharp- 
 shooters, and before he reached 
 Charlestown harbor, he lost, in 
 killed, wounded, and missing, 
 two hundred and seventy men. 
 In a few days men poured into 
 Boston from the surrounding 
 country ; without arms or am- 
 munition or organization the)^ 
 expected to reduce the British 
 army, and to conquer their free- 
 dom. 
 
 Ethan Allan and Seth War- 
 ner bethought them of Ticou- 
 deraga and Crown Point. There 
 the garrisons were slender, and 
 the stores were plentj'. In j\lay, 1775, they hurried down to Boston with two hund- 
 red captured cannons, and powder enough to make them efficient. The British 
 army had been increased to ten thousand men, and it was supported by the ships in 
 Charlestown harbor. Colonel Prescott was sent to entrench Bunker Hill. The ships 
 opened fire upon his entrenchments, but he and his men continued building their 
 redoubt and breastworks. The British now came over from Boston to take them by 
 assault, but the fire of the colonists was too hot and steady. Three times the veterans 
 jitiie /}. advanced before they took the hill. The Americans retired in a body, 
 but General Warren was among the slain. The Americans had proved their valor 
 and their steadiness under attack from British regulars, and the King of England had 
 a sample of colonial meekness. 
 
 § 751. But Congress had met in Ma}-, and this time Colonel Washington had 
 
 JSRAEL riT.NAM. 
 
THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 839 
 
 attended its sessions in uniform. Hitherto he had counselled peace and moderation, 
 but now he saw that war was inevitable, and that the time to organize an ainiy had 
 arrived. Upon the motion of John Adams, he was made commander-in-chief of the 
 continental armj'. Ward, Lee, Schuyler, and Putraan were made major-generals, and 
 ten brigadiers were appointed, among them, Gates and Greene. Nearly all these 
 
 INDEPENDENCE HALL. 
 
 oflScers had served in the French and Indian campaigns, and many of the colonists had 
 also seen hard service. 
 
 Congress, at the same time, established a post-ofEce department, and issued bills 
 of credit. In a word, it practically severed the cord that bound the colonies to 
 Great Britain. 
 
 The choice of Washington was an inspiration. Even those who knew him best, 
 like Patrick Henry, had little conception of his greatness. His grave courtesy, his si- 
 
840 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 lence, and his simplicity of manner, were broken occasionally by outbreaks of startling 
 energy. Few so patient as lie, and few so prompt ; defeat could not depress him, nor 
 victory dazzle his judgment. He could endure disaffection and treachery, misunder- 
 standing, and even con- 
 tempt, for tlie sake of 
 his countr}'. He had 
 but one personal long- 
 ing, to return to his own 
 fireside, the acknowl- 
 edged deliverer of his 
 fellow countrymen ; and 
 in the gloomiest hour of 
 the desperate struggle, 
 his calmness, his clear 
 brain, his restless in- 
 dustry, his singleness 
 of purpose, kept him 
 and kept his cause 
 alive. 
 
 § 752. Washington 
 went at once to Boston, 
 and took charge of the 
 suiu3- militia there 
 collected. There were 
 sixteen thousand of 
 them when he arrived, 
 but lack of food and lack 
 of arms and ammuni- 
 tion, soon discouraged 
 them, and they dwin- 
 dled down to ten thou- 
 sand, with forty-five 
 rounds of ammunition 
 to a man. John Adams 
 and other impatient 
 patriots clamored for 
 action, but Washington 
 had no powder, a trifle 
 of which his impetuous 
 critics did not take ac- 
 count. Yet bj- his skill 
 and quiet daring, he 
 compelled the British to withdraw to Xew York, and to concentrate all their 
 forces, British veterans and German mercenaries, under General Howe. Mean- 
 while Montgomery had taken Montreal, and then uniting with a force commanded 
 bv Benedict Arnold, the two had attacked Quebec. But Montgomery was killed, 
 
THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 841 
 
 Bee. 31, 177S. Arnold was severely wounded, and the Americans were finally com- 
 pelled to retire. 
 2. The Struggle fob Independence (1776-1783). 
 
 § 753. And yet 
 there was a party in the 
 colonies opposed to a 
 Declaration of Inde- 
 pendence. Some because 
 they were opposed to 
 resistance, loyal subjects 
 of his majesty, to whom 
 the king was a sacred 
 person, and resistance 
 to Parliament a crime ; 
 some because tliej^ had 
 no faith in the success 
 of the colonists, and 
 feared the consequences 
 of royal wrath ; and 
 some because they still 
 hoped that the King 
 would become sane, and 
 the Parliament grow 
 wise. But to all clear- 
 minded and patriotic 
 Americans, the time had 
 come to declare inde- 
 pendence and to appeal 
 to foreign powers for 
 help. Virginia was 
 again the leader. Pat- 
 rick Henry had led off 
 in 1765 with the 
 " Stamp Act Resolves." 
 Richard Henry Lee now 
 moved that the colonies 
 declare themselves free 
 Suit/ -t. and in- 
 
 dependent. The Dec- 
 laration of Independ- 
 ence was drafted by 
 Thomas Jefferson, 
 amended by Franklin 
 and Adams, and solemnly adopted by a vote of the whole thirteen States, on July 4, 
 .*»». a, /jjo. 1776. It was signed by all the members of the Continental Congress 
 August 2, 1776. 
 
842 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 " We the representa- 
 tives of the United 
 States of America," 
 such are the solemn 
 words, '' in Congress as- 
 sembled, appealing to 
 the Supreme Judge of 
 the world for the recti- 
 tude of our intentions, 
 solemnly publish and 
 declare, that these 
 United Colonies are, 
 and of right ought to 
 be, free and independ- 
 ent states."' 
 
 § 754:. Washington 
 found himself on Long 
 Island, and surrounded 
 by loyalists. His army was weakened by withdrawal, and soon defeated by General 
 
 HOUSE IN WHICH THE DECLARATION OF INDEPEXPENCE WAS WRITTEN. 
 
 .4iifl. «?, iJJ«. 
 
 pA-/6r^>-^ ' 
 
 Howe, whose army outnumbered it, three to one. He retired north- 
 V / ^ ^ ward, but his troops deserted 
 
 
 
 SIGNATURES TO THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 by companies, and he was 
 compelled to retreat with. 
 the wretched remnant 
 through New Jersey to 
 Pennsylvania. Sir William 
 Howe, thinking the war prac- 
 tically over, issued a procla- 
 mation, offering pardon to all 
 who would return to their 
 allegiance within sixty days. 
 Congress fled to Baltimore, 
 and the frightened people 
 clamored for peace. 
 
 But the great commander, 
 with his feeble force, had 
 planned a daring move. On 
 
 nee. S3, ine. Christmas- 
 night he crossed the Dela- 
 ware at Trenton (his bare- 
 footed men stepping upon 
 blocks of floating ice), and 
 captured a body of Hessians 
 stationed on the Jersey side of 
 the river. A few days later,^ 
 Lord Cornwallis bore down 
 
844 
 
 upon liini wirh a nuioh stronger force. Slipi>iiig away from their Inirniiig watch-fires. 
 Washington and his men hurried to the rear of the British, and attacked three regiments 
 at Princeton, driving them from tlie town. Howe, thinking it prudent to keep out of the 
 way of an enemy so active and so ingenious, withdrew to New York. Wi^^shing- 
 ton then encamped in the New Jersey Higldands, and tried to organize his men into 
 the sembhmee of an army. In the Spring of 1777, Howe maneuvered around him, 
 hoping to force a light. But as Washington would not leave his strong position. Howe 
 embarked his army and carried it to Philadelphia. The Americans hurried southward 
 to intercept him. Howe had lauded his men on the Chesapeake shoi-e, and was march- 
 ing northward. Washington met him at Brandywine creek, southwest of Philadel- 
 phia. Here the Americans were forced to retreat, and Howe entered, as conqueror, 
 st'ij/. JM?. the city where the Declaration liad been proclaimed. But the bulk 
 of the British array was stationed at Geruiantown. six miles off. Washington pounced 
 
 _ down upon them ; 
 
 but liis troops fell 
 into disorder, 
 through a failure of 
 iiis generals to carry 
 ort. 3-j, j»j. out his 
 plans. Nevertheless 
 he succeeded in sav- 
 ing every piece of 
 artillery, and in get- 
 ting away his men. 
 Tlie accounts of the 
 battle impressed the 
 great generals of 
 ^JJj** Europe with a sense 
 of Washington's 
 genius. The plan 
 of the battle was 
 acknowledged to be 
 faultless. Howe too 
 was astonished, and 
 ordered Sir Henry Clinton to send him a reinforcement of "full six thousand men." 
 Count Donop, with twelve hundred Hessians, was seut to capture the fort at Red 
 Bank on the Jersey shore, but they were repulsed with great slaughter. The British 
 fleet reached the city of Philadelphia with difficulty, and only after heavy losses in 
 ships and in men. 
 
 WASniSGTOS PKEPARIxa TO CROSS TUE PFLAWAUK. 
 
 § 755. Meanwhile great events were happening in tlie north. The British gen- 
 eral. Burgoyne, had marched with an army of ten thousand men fi-oni Canada to the 
 Hudson, with the intention of cutting off New England from the other colonies. He 
 had the ludituis to help him. aud but a feeble army to oppose him. Schuyler was at 
 Fore Edwai-d; St. Clair was. at Ticonderoga, and the news of Indian outi-ages brought 
 
BURGOYNE'S AllMY MARCHING TO SARATOGA. (pp. 845.) 
 
S-16 
 
 AMKKUW. 
 
 tho niilitisv of New England in 
 grent munbei-s to the field. 
 Sohuvler was supoi-seded by 
 (lonevrtl Gates; but, foi-tunately 
 for Anierioa, this incouipotont 
 commander was supported by 
 Arnold. Morgwi, Lincoln, and 
 other able soldiei"s. As Bm^- 
 goyne pweeeded sonthwani, he 
 unfolded two wing's, the one 
 sweeping Vermont, and the 
 ot her the Mohawk Valley. The 
 left wing eneounteit>d Stark at 
 Renningtou, and wj»s utterly 
 destivyed. The right was niet 
 by Arnold at Fort Schuyler, 
 and forced back upon the main 
 army, at Sjmxtog-a. Lincoln had 
 moved to Bui'gOYne's ivar and 
 cut off his communications with 
 Canada. Sir Henry Clinton had 
 pivmised to march up from the 
 sv>uth, but he performed his pnimis 
 (H-t. ta. i?j7. at Bemis Heitjhts, 
 
 ^\'V^^ 
 
 UVFAYETTF, 
 
 e too tardily to help the British foi-ces. Defeated 
 on September 19, and at Stillwater, October 7, 
 Burgvnne had been driven to Sara- 
 tog"5i, and was being starved into de- 
 feat, and on October lO, 1777, he 
 sunvndered his army of five thou- 
 sand six hundred and forty-two 
 men to the American coninu\nder. 
 The entire li->ss of the Britisli in this 
 ruinous camivtigu was about ten 
 thousand men. But the campaign 
 was decisive as well as ruinous. 
 
 OIlSKRAlL A.VTHONV WAYXK. 
 
 5j 766. For when the news of 
 Sai-atoga and of Germantown ar- 
 rived at Paris, the excitement was 
 pn^found. Vergennes, the French 
 minister, recognized the genius of 
 Washington, The svtccess of the 
 Americans at Saratog-si si>oke vol- 
 umes for the soldiei-s of the colonies, 
 Lafayette, the distinguished young 
 nobleman, who had joined Wash- 
 
Till': lllSrolJV OK NOK'I'll AMKKIOA. 
 
 847 
 
 iiigton the year before, was suclcleiily justified in (lio eyes dl' liis IViciiclB, and Dr. 
 Franklin, who had been sent by Congress to negotiate a treaty witli the French king, 
 was then notified that France would acknowledge the independence of the United 
 *>h. o, iijs. States of America, and would also enter into a conditional alliance 
 with them. 
 
 In a lucid interval, the British Parliament now passed two statutes, declaring that, 
 no tax should hereafter be imposed by Tarlianient upon the colonies, and ap])ointing 
 commissioners to seek a reconciliation. These statutes are the eterniif vindication of 
 the action of the colonists, seeing that they formally recognize the principle for which 
 the Americans contended. 
 
 But Congress and the 
 American jjcople, encouraged 
 by this great success, were de- 
 termined upon independence, 
 and death in removing Chatham, 
 took away the only man in Eng- 
 land who might have averted 
 further conflict. 
 
 In 1778 France and Spain 
 sent a fleet of sixty ships to 
 ride the English channel, and 
 to threaten the English coast. 
 And not long afterward, the 
 Dutch fleet entei'ed the strug- 
 gle for supremacy at sea. Eng- 
 land, however, was not to be 
 beaten on her native element ; 
 and, in spite of her reverses, 
 she nearly succeeded in over- 
 coming llie Americans. Vuv 
 the colonists were destitute of 
 money ; the ti'oops were half- 
 clad and half-starved ; the peo- 
 ple were suffering from famine 
 and commercial ruin; the camp 
 at Valley Forge was the scene 
 of disease and privation, of heroic efforts to endui'e, more wonderful than any efforts 
 to achieve. 
 
 § 757. Steuben, it is true, had succeeded in converting this raw material of 
 patriotic courage into a disciplined army. But Washington was sorely tried by the 
 Conway Cabal, a conspiracy of certain army officers and members of Congress to make 
 Horatio Gates commander-in-chief of the continental forces. The treason of Charles 
 June XH, t77s. Lee lost for him the battle of Monmouth, which ought to have resulted 
 in a splendid victory, while Indian massacres in Pennsylvania and New York had car- 
 ried dread into every frontier hamlet. Yet the British, fearing the arrival of a. Frencli 
 fleet, left Philadelphia for New York, and they captured Stony Point on the Hudson, 
 
848 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 thus interrupting communications between New England and the Middle States. 
 Washington, on the other hand, left Valley Forge and returned to Morristown, New- 
 Jersey, extending his lines northward to West Point. He watched the British with 
 July IS, mo. sleepless vigilance, and sent " Mad Anthony " Wayne to recover Stony 
 Sept. aa, nso. Point, which he accomplished gloriously. But on September 22, 1780, 
 Washington was struck the severest blow received by him in his trying career, for on 
 
 that day his trusted friend. 
 General Benedict Arnold, be- 
 came a traitor. West Point 
 was saved and Major Andre, 
 who negotiated with Arnold, 
 was captured and hanged. 
 But Arnold escaped, to re- 
 appear later in attacks upon 
 Riclnnond, Virginia, and up- 
 on New London, Connnecti- 
 isoo. cut, and to die 
 dishonored and miserable in 
 London, a year after the 
 death of his betrayed and 
 once beloved commander. 
 
 § 758. Meanwhile, the 
 only piece of good news that 
 cheered the hearts of the 
 anxious people came from 
 the sea, where Captain Paul 
 Jones had compelled British 
 Sept. sa. lira, seamen to 
 strike the British flag. The 
 French fleet, from which so 
 mi;ch had been expected, 
 failed to take Savannah, 
 which had been occupied by 
 British troops in the winter 
 of 1778. Georgia was prac- 
 tically conquered, and early 
 in 1780, Charleston, South 
 Carolina, was in the hands 
 of Lord Cornwallis, General 
 Lincoln having surrendered 
 it after a brave resistance,' 
 lasting forty-two days. With it he surrendered all his army, and South Carolina was 
 easily subdued, many of the inhabitants seeking " protections " from Lord Cornwallis. 
 Yet Marion and Sumter gave the British great annoyance by their partisan warfare, 
 oet. J, 17SO. and one band of backwoodsmen, under Shelby and Sevier, defeated 
 
 
THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 849 
 
 Ferguson with his thousand Tories at King's Mountain. Several of Ferguson's men 
 were lianged as traitors by the angry patriots. 
 
 The incompetent Gates liad been appointed by Congress to oppose Cornwallis. 
 Flushed with the recollections of Saratoga, but forgetting that he had no subordinates 
 Alio- in, tjfio. like those who won for liim the victories of the North, he rushed head- 
 long to the battle of Camden, where tliree-fourths of his ainiy perished. General 
 Nathaniel Greene was now sent with a little army of veterans to save, if possible, the 
 South. Greene led his troops with consummate skill. He sent Morgan to Cowpens, 
 
 L'APTAIX PAUL JONES, ON THE BONIIOMME RICUAllD, CAI'TUIIES THE SERAPIS. 
 
 jTan. It, 1^81. whcrc hc defeated Tarleton and his Tories, returning to Greene before 
 Cornwallis could overtake the nimble Americans. Cornwallis pushed to the north ; 
 Greene retreated before him. Suddenly he halted, and then returned to Guilford 
 jiM<i,vhir„nat. Court House, and offered battle. The British held the field, but 
 Greene had all the advantage of the fight. Cornwallis was obliged to move toward 
 the sea-coast. Gieene pushed after him, then swiftly changing Iiis course, marched 
 back to South Carolina and attacked Lord Rawdon. Again he was defeated, but hi.s 
 presence and his fighting courage stirred up the partisans. The inhabitants, tired of 
 the British occupation, rose to "arms, and South Carolina was soon recovered to the 
 54 
 
850 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 GENERAL FRANCIS MARION. 
 
 Americans. The conflict became terribly bitter, the British shooting as deserters all 
 found in arms, who had accepted 
 their "protections." 
 
 § 759. But the war was Hear- 
 ing its close. Cornwallis was 
 about to enter the famous "mouse- 
 trap." Washington had longed 
 for the chance to strike a final 
 blow. His troops had rebelled at 
 Morristown ; and he had, with 
 difficulty, held his little army to- 
 gether, hoping to combine with 
 the French force for an attack 
 upon the British at New York. 
 But divining the plan of Corn- / ^ 
 wallis, which was to join Phillips 
 and Arnold in Virginia, lie pre- 
 pared to crush him by an unex- 
 pected and powerful blow. La- 
 fayette was sent to Virginia, in 
 command of a small force, to hold 
 Cornwallis in check. The French' 
 fleet, under Count de Grasse, was 
 induced to co-ojDerate. Lafayette compelled the British to entrench themselves at 
 Yorktown. Here they were blockaded by the French fleet. They had entered the 
 
 " mouse-trap." Washington deluded 
 Clinton into the belief that he meant 
 to attack them at New York. " If you 
 cannot deceive j-our own men," said the 
 American general, " you cannot deceive 
 the enemy ; " so his own soldiers believed 
 that they were going to the Hudson. 
 Suddenly they were marched to the 
 Chesapeake Bay, and carried thence to 
 Yorktown. The combined French and 
 American armies were sixteen thousand 
 strong. Cornwallis was soon in sore 
 straits ; he tried a sally, but made things 
 worse. Clinton failed to help him, 
 Oct. 19, lisi. and there was nothing 
 left but to surrender. The war was 
 practically over. The British had lost 
 a second army, and a further prosecu- 
 tion of the war meant even greater 
 disaster. 
 
 Greene meanwhile had fought an- 
 
 NATHANIEL GREENE. 
 
JOHX JAY. 
 
 {P2X 851. J 
 
852 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 other "defeat"' in South Carolina, by whicli he was able to confine the British to 
 Charleston and the district between the Cooper and tlie Ashley rivers. After six 
 years of desperate struggle, the British lield only Charleston and New York. When 
 tiie news reached Enghmd, Lord North exclaimed, "It is all over!" and resigned. 
 But for the victories of Admiral Rodney over the Spanish fleet, off Cape Vincent, and 
 over the Frencii fleet at the West Indies, England would liave lost India and Gibraltar. 
 Like Athens, she was saved by her " wooden walls." 
 
 § 760. But though peace was conquered, a great diplomatic struggle yet remained. 
 France and Spain, tlie allies of the United States, were by no means eager to create a 
 colossal reiuiblic, and to endow it with the Valley of the Mississippi. Aranda, the 
 Spaniard, and Vergennes, tiie Frenchman, both contended that tiie territory north of 
 the Ohio should be given to England, and the vast region to the south should be made 
 
 WASUINOTON ON TUE Ul'DSON. 
 
 an Indian tcriitdry. under tlio protection of Spain and the United States. Tiiis would 
 dwarf the rejiublic, and give all but a strip of tiio Atlantic coast to England and Spain. 
 Tlien, too, tlie Americans were to be excluded from the Newfoundland fisheries. 
 
 Fortunately for America, Shelburno had succeeded Lord North. The English, 
 luiving determined to acknowledge tlio independence of the colonies, did not seek to 
 mutilate tlieir future. Through the influence and shrewdness of John Ja_y, who, to- 
 gether witli Franklin and Adams, conducted the negotiations, a separate treaty with 
 England was agreed upon, wiiich was not concluded until the consent of France had 
 been obtained; but about the details of whieli the French minister was not consulted. 
 This treaty can-ied the boundaries of the United States to the Mississippi river, per- 
 mitted the .Vmorieans to eateli fish in Canadian waters, but not to dry tliem on the 
 Ncwfouudhuul coast, voipiirod the payment of all outstanding private debts, and pro- 
 
THK IirSTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 868 
 
 tected the loyalists from i'urtlier prosecution and confiscation. Great Britain Bubse- 
 quently indemnified her loyal subjects in the most creditable manner. 
 
 § 761. This treaty was signed September 3, 1783. During the two years and more 
 Sept. .1, i7s:t. which ekipsed between tiie signing of tlie treaty and the surrender of 
 Cornwallis, guerrilla warfare had been kept up in South Carolina, and on tlie frontier 
 of New York, and the Indians had been busy with tomahawk and knife. But the 
 regular armies liad ([uietly awaited peace. Washington established liis h(;ad(juarters 
 at Newburg on the Hudson ; llocluunbeau, with the French troops, joined him in Sep- 
 tember, 1781. In December of the same year the latter returned to France. But the 
 danger over, the long suffering (dlicers and soldiers began to clamor for their well- 
 
 WASIIINOTON's home at mount VKKNUiN. 
 
 earned pay. It required all the influence and eloquence of Washington "to arrest the 
 feet that stood wavering on a precipice." But he did it grandly, and the officers of 
 the American army " rejected with disdain the infamous proposals contained in a late 
 anonymous address." This address liad suggested " an appeal to the fears of the gov- 
 ernment." But on June 21, 1783, two montiis after this affair at Newburg, a company 
 of Pennsylvania soldiers drove Congress from Philadelphia to Princeton, disgracing 
 the nation, and making the army exceedingly unpopular. Indeed a widespread distrust 
 of the soldiers prevailed. Colonel Nicola had urged Washington to make himself dic- 
 tator. The order of the Cincinnati looked to suspicious minds like the founding of a 
 
864 AMERICA. 
 
 military aristocracy. And then to pay the promised arrears to officers and soldiers, 
 meant high taxes to an impoverished people. Congress had no money ; French sub- 
 sidies had ceased ; the skill and generosity of Robert Morris could work no more fin- 
 ancial miracles ; paper money had run its course to utter worthlessness. Meanwhile, 
 the one man who was equal to these troublous times, was going home to his simple 
 mode of life. At Fraunees' tavern, near South Ferry, in New York, he took leave of 
 his devoted officers. At Philadelphia he filed his accounts. He had spent out of his 
 private fortune, $64,315. He had received and would accept no pay. In eight years, 
 he had seen his liome but once. Threatened with consiunptiou from his early youth, 
 he had shunned no dangers of camp or field. But now journeying to Annapolis, he 
 asked of the Congress there in session, to be allowed to return to private life. 
 
 But before resigning, Washington had addressed a circular letter to the governors 
 of the several States. In this he urged a stronger union, the payment of the public 
 debt to the last penn}', a uniformily organized militia, and a sacrifice of local and sec- 
 tional prejudices. He had saved the cause of indeisendence ; he was now to triumph 
 in a greater task, the formation of a mov6 perfect union. 
 
 3. The Struggle for a More Perfect Unios. 
 
 § 762. From 1783 to 1787 the United States were drifting toward anarchy. New 
 York attempted to opjDress New Jerse}^ and Connecticut ; Connecticut and Pennsyl- 
 vania quarreled over the valley of the Wj'oming, and New Hampshire and New York 
 over the Green Mountains. Congress was unable to protect American citizens : the 
 Barbary pirates demanded money, but Congress could neither pay nor fight. People 
 refused to pay their taxes. Morris, who had beggared himself for his country, ceased 
 to serve a thankless people. Eleven of the thirteen States issued paper money, and 
 clubs were formed to compel its cii'culation. The State of Franklin (now Tennessee) 
 was in a condition of civil war. In Massachusetts and Rhode Island the quarrels about 
 debt and paper money provoked an agitation so furious as to alarm the country. 
 Rhode Island was spoken of as " Rogues' Island," and everywhere mentioned with 
 contempt. Governor Bowdoin, of Massachusetts, was confronted by Daniel Shays 
 and his barn-burning plunderers, wdio were determined to arrest all suits for debt. 
 Yet when the leaders were tried and convicted of treason, they were all pardoned and 
 set free bj' good-natured Governor Hancock. Many sagacious men began to talk 
 quietly of a return to English rule ; but Washington was working industriously for a 
 " More Perfect Union." He corresponded continually with the statesmen of the 
 country ; he furthered every measure, looking to closer relations between the States. 
 "You talk, my good sir," he wrote indignantly, "of employing influence to appease the 
 tumults in Massachusetts. I know not where that influence is to be found ; and if 
 attainable, it would not be a proper remed}-. Influence is not government. Let us 
 have a government by which our lives, liberties, and properties will be secured, or let 
 us know the worst at once." 
 
 The Continental Congress had not agreed upon Articles of Confederation without a 
 struggle ; even the emergencies of war did not bring all the States together until 1781. 
 Congress was a revolutionary body until 1778, and until 1789 a very feeble one. It 
 had no power to compel obedience ; it operated upon States only, and not upon indi- 
 viduals ; the vote required to pass an important measure, practically prohibiting legis- 
 
WASHINGTON'S INAUGURATION. 
 
 (PP- «oo-; 
 
856 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 lation ; it could not regulate foreign commerce ; and it could not remedj^ the defects 
 of the existing Articles. But Maryland had refused to ratif}' tlie Articles for another 
 reason, and thereby rendered vital service to the nation. " She would not ratify the 
 Articles until she should receive some definite assurance that the Northwestern Terri- 
 tory should become the common propert}'^ of the United States." Finally the several 
 States yielded their claims in favor of the United States ; — New York surrendering a 
 shadow}' I'ight, but Virginia giving up a magnificent possession. 
 
 § 763. Washington, foreseeing the coming greatness of the West, sought to bind 
 both sections together by canals. He brought about the appointment of a joint com- 
 mission of Virginia and Maryhmd, which met to consider the project in his own house- 
 The consent of Pennsylvania became necessary. Washington suggested an agreement 
 upon commerce and currenc}^ as well as upon canals. Delaware was next invited. 
 Then Madison moved in Congress a conference of all the thirteen states. His motion 
 was adopted ; the conference met at 
 Annapolis, on September 11, 1786. 
 Five States only were represented. 
 The outlook was gloomy ; the times 
 were dark ; and nothing came of the 
 conference, but the address written by- 
 Hamilton and sent to all the States. 
 
 Nothing else ; but this was much. 
 For the critical wintei' of 1786 revealed 
 the defects of the existing system, and 
 the impending certainty of disruption if 
 important changes were not made at 
 once. Madison, acting under the in- 
 spiration of his great chief, prevailed 
 upon the Virginia legislature to apjDoint 
 delegates to the convention called for 
 by Hamilton's address. Virginia re- 
 sponded, and named a delegation which 
 included Washington. The people sud- 
 denl}' felt the coming of a great light. 
 Massachusetts changed her mind, and her delegates in Congress now urged the formal 
 adoption of the convention plan. All the States except Rhode Island followed the 
 lead of Virginia, and sent delegates to meet at Philadelphia in May, 1787. 
 
 These delegates were in all fifty-five. Among them, Washington and Franklin, 
 Hamilton and Madison, Jay and Wilson, Dickinson and Gouverneur Morris, Sherman, 
 Randolph, Wythe, and Rutledge. Four months they sat with closed doors, and were 
 often on the verge of dissolution. But the patient power that held the armies of the 
 Revolution together during the gloomy days at Valley Forge and Morristown, was 
 Sept. 17, 17S7. equal to this new and trying task. In September, the finished work 
 Avas sent to the different States for their adoption. But it was greeted with violent 
 opposition in all the States, and narrowly escaped rejection. The opposition in Vir- 
 ginia was led by Patrick Henrj% in New York by George Clinton, and for a while 
 Jefferson and Samuel Adams wavered. But over all tlie stormy agitation brooded 
 
 SAMUEL ADAMS. 
 
ALEXANDER HAMILTON. 
 
 ipp. 857.) 
 
858 AMERICA. 
 
 the assuring presence of the man that the people trusted, and the More Perfect Union 
 June, lias. became, in 1788, an established fact of human history. 
 This union was a union of the people of the United States. They united more 
 perfectly in the execution of the laws, creating a president for their due administra- 
 tion ; they united more perfectly in the regulation of commerce, and in the raising of 
 revenues, clothing Congress with authority to legislate on these important topics ; 
 they united more perfectly in the establishment of equal rights for all the citizens ; 
 they luiited finally in the creation of a supreme court, by wliich all conflicts between 
 the States might be avoided. They did not unite to establish an absolute democracy ; 
 on the contrary, many devices of the constitution, like the electoral college, were 
 avowedly intended to check popular feeling, and to restrict popular power. Some of 
 its framers expected the constitution to last, at most, a century ; others were even less 
 hopeful. A few anticipated the glory of the future, but all of them " builded wiser 
 than they knew." For precisely the features that seemed most sagacious to their 
 authors, have been discarded with the growth of years, while others, that were the 
 result of circumstances merely, have proved the saving of the nation, and the pro- 
 moters of her progress. 
 
 IV. THE MORE PERFECT UNION. 
 
 1. THE ADMINISTRATIONS OF WASHINGTON AND ADAMS. 1789-1801. 
 § 764. 
 
 ET many difficulties environed the birth of the new republic. 
 Washington, unanimously elected to the presidency, confronted 
 problems that taxed the abilities of a cabinet, never surpassed in 
 quality. The "new roof" as it was called, excited suspicion and 
 dislike; many distrusted it, many were determined upon a new 
 convention and a new constitution. A large and powerful party 
 insisted upon amendments. Congress had been brought together with no little 
 trouble, and was not easily persuaded to pass the measures absolutely necessary. 
 Alexander Hamilton, the secretary of the treasury, developed a financial policy 
 that excited great opposition. This jDrovided for the payment of $80,000,000 due 
 to France and to other countries, to the soldiers of the Revolutionarj^ army, and 
 to citizens of the several States. The Continental Congress owed much of it; the 
 various States owed the rest. Hamilton provided for it all. A national bank and a 
 mint were established at Philadelphia, and a simple convenient decimal system was 
 adopted for the whole country. These measures of Hamilton led, however, to the 
 July s, noft. transfer of the seat of government to the Potomac, an act that power- 
 fully affected the future of the republic. Only upon condition of this transfer could 
 votes enough be procured to pass the pending bills. 
 
 § 765. Jefferson, meanwhile, was busied with problems that would have taxed 
 any statesman, but were unusually trying to him. One of these grew out of the 
 treaty of 1783, which neither England nor America had observed very scrupulously. 
 
JOHN ADAJIS. 
 
 {pp. 859.) 
 
860 AMERICA. 
 
 The provisions, touching debts due to English citizens and touching the loyalists, were 
 disregarded by the United States ; the frontier forts were still held by the British. 
 American ships were searched, and American seamen carried off at the command of the 
 English naval officers, and war loomed up quite near. Jefferson had a cordial liatred 
 for England, and yet he spoke for " peace with honor." The trouble however was not 
 settled by him, but by Washington and Ja3^ A treaty was negotiated, and finally 
 ij95. ratified in 1795. It provoked a fierce opposition in and out of Con- 
 
 gress. The President was assailed with abuse and calumny, with caricature and 
 suspicion. But he held firmly to his purpose, and the outcome justified his wisdom. 
 He knew the danger of war and the unreliability of popular feeling, and that the 
 men who clamored for the blood of Ba-itain were not the men who would shed 
 their own to procure it. 
 
 The other problem that vexed the Secretary of State, grew out of the 
 startling events in France. Jefferson had imbibed French ideas, and loved the French 
 people. He wished for their success in their struggles with European monarchs, and 
 in this the whole country sympathized with him. Washington, always tranquil and 
 sagacious, issued a proclamation of neutrality. SjDain and England menaced the country ;' 
 the Creek Indians were read}' to spring upon the frontier settlements. And yet the 
 people were mad with the fever of a fight for France, and a hatred for the foes of 
 liberty. 
 
 Fortunately Citizen Genet, who had been sent to tlie United States to represent 
 the French republic, or rather the "men of '93," was a mischievous dunce and 
 nothing more. He formed Jacobin clubs ; he organized military companies ; he defied 
 the President ; he exasperated Hamilton : he provoked Jefferson ; and was, at Wash- 
 ington's request, recalled. He had done some mischief. He had frightened John 
 Adams into thinking that "ten thousand people in Philadelphia were threatening to 
 drag Washington out of the house, and effect a revolution."* 
 
 He widened too the breach between Jefferson and Hamilton, and excited contro- 
 versies, which left their worst traces in the Kentucky Resolutions of 1798. 
 
 § 766. Kifox, the minister of war, had chiefly to face the Indian problem. Wash- 
 ington divided the red men into two classes, the good and the bad, the friendly and the 
 hostile. The former he protected by a wise and far-seeing policy. All subsequent 
 trouble with the good Indians are traceable to a departure fi-om his methods. To the 
 bad Indians he showed no mercy. TJie tribes on the banks of the Ohio made life on 
 jrj»o. the frontiers a terror by their incursions. As there was no regular 
 
 army, militia must be employed. General Harmar was defeated by the savages ; St. Clair 
 noi. was surprised and put to flight. " Mad Anthony " Wayne then in- 
 
 vaded their country at the head of three thousand men, uttei-ly defeating them, and 
 i-)»4. threatening to rise from tlie grave to hunt them down if, after his 
 
 death, they attacked the whites again. 
 
 During the second administration of Washington, the Western counties of Penn- 
 
 ijo4. sylvania rebelled against the excise laws. The rude settlers could see 
 
 )]o justice in the tax upon the products of their stills. They drove out the revenue 
 
 officers, and defied the government, seven thousand insurgents combining to resist the 
 
 execution of the laws. The President thereupon called out the militia of four States, 
 
 * The populatiou of Philadelphia was then about torty-flve thousand men, women, and children ! 
 
THOMAS JEFFERSON. 
 
 {pp. 861.) 
 
862 AMERICA. 
 
 and the insurrection was put down at once, and without bloodshed. The leaders were 
 convicted of treason, but soon pardoned. For Wasliington, though prompt, was 
 patient, never cruel, and never afraid to show mere}-. In 1795 he made a treaty with 
 139B. Spain, in which he obtained for the United States the free navigation 
 
 of the Mississippi, and the privilege of landing at New Orleans. In 1796 he declined 
 a re-election. His second administration had been stormj' and often unpopular ; he 
 had been assailed in pamphlets and in caricatures ; accused of theft and treachery, of 
 aspirations for a crown, of cowardice and arrogance. There was a brief period, in 
 which he found it almost impossible to get a secretary of state, and when he seemed 
 to have lost not only fame, but the affection of the people. But in 1796 it was plain 
 enough that the clamor came from the noisy, and not from the intelligent ; that the 
 people desired him to remain wliere he might shelter them with his courageous wis- 
 dom, and guide them to further progress. But he longed for the pleasures of his quiet 
 home, and he deemed it best for the future of the countr}^ that he should abandon, 
 voluntarily and in the strength of bis manhood, the responsibility that he had 
 neither sought nor shunned. So he set the example tha,t, through the simple force 
 of his character, has become the unwritten law of the land. The president of the 
 United States serves two terms only. 
 
 § 767. John Adams and Thomas Jefferson were the candidates for the succes- 
 sion. Adams, a hot Federalist, was chosen by a small majority, but soon quarreled 
 with Hamilton, the acknowledged leader of his party. France was again the cause of 
 trouble. The Convention and the Reign of Terror had been succeeded bj' the 
 Directory. And the Directory was treating the United States with contemptuous in- 
 solence, rejecting their ambassadors and capturing their vessels upon the slightest 
 pretext. Pinckney, Marshall, and Gerry were sent to the French republic to seek for 
 reconciliation. They were told unofScially that by heavy bribes to the members of 
 the Directory and a heavy loan to the Republic, the difficulties could be arranged. 
 To which America responded "millions for defence but not one cent for tribute."' The 
 iw8-fi»». navy was increased, arms and ammunition were ]nncliased, an 
 army was recruited, Washington was called from his retirement, letters of 
 marque and reprisal were issued, and the aspect threatened war. The alien and 
 sedition acts were passed in the midst of this excitement, but soon became unpopular. 
 The people, jealous of personal liberty and the freedom of the press, condemned, in 
 calmer moments, statutes so dangerous to botli. 
 
 The letters of marque and re[>risal soon bore fruit. Captain Trnxton of the 
 frigate Constellation captured the French frigate LTnsurgente, while the privateers 
 captured and brought into port fifty or more armed vessels of the P'rench. But Pres- 
 ident Adams suddenly determined to have peace ; he sent a new minister to France, 
 who found Napoleon Bonaparte in ])0wer. The young general was too sagacious not 
 to see the value of America's friendship, and war was easily averted. 
 
 But this act of Adams disgusted his party, and especially Hamilton, who desired 
 
 war. After a contest of virulent abuse, Jefferson and Burr received each seventy-three, 
 
 isoo. and Adams and Pinckney each sixty-five electoral votes. A defect of 
 
 the Federal constitution was suddenly disclosed. Who was president? The people 
 
 had meant to have Jefferson. But the Federalists insisted upon having Burr. This 
 
(863) 
 
864 AMERICA. 
 
 they could (so they thought) accomplish, as the constitution required the House of 
 Representatives to chose, when no candidate received a majority of all the votes. 
 
 The House balloted thirty-six times ; at last some of the Federalists gave way, 
 and Jefferson was chosen. To prevent the i-ecurrence of such a difficulty, the con- 
 stitution was amended and each elector now votes separately for president and 
 vice-president. 
 
 2. The Peeiod of Democeatic Rule. 1801-1849. 
 
 § 768. Parties were already clearly defined. During the administration of Wash- 
 ington, they had existed in a half-formed state. But the anti-Federalists gradually dis- 
 appeared. The More Perfect Union succeeded so splendidly under its great promoter 
 and its first president, that few ventured to continue their attacks. But early in the 
 nineties, Jefferson began the creation of the Democratic or Republican party. He had 
 no sympathy with Hamilton, personally or politically. He believed him bent upon a 
 monarchy, upon the destruction of local liberty, and the creation of a government 
 modelled after that of England. The alien and sedition laws excited him to bitter 
 opposition, and he wrote the Kentucky resolutions in the fever of this excitement. 
 But elected to the presidency, his conduct was happily not always consistent with his 
 theories ; and with him began the long period of democratic rule, broken only by the 
 brief interval of the first Harrison administration. 
 
 a. Territorial Expansion and the Admission of New States. 
 
 § 769. The Union, although in possession of a vast domain, was dependent upon 
 Spain for the navigation of the Mississippi, without which the West had no communi- 
 cation with the sea. Louisiana returned, quite unexpectedly, into the hands of 
 France, in 1800. The English threatened to take it. Napoleon, the consul, was glad 
 to sell, and Jefferson was eager to buy. For fifteen millions of dollars he bought all the 
 1S03. territory between the Mississippi river and the Rockj^ mountains. His 
 
 purchase included the present states of Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Kansas, 
 Nebraska, North and South Dakota, with parts of several others. It doubled the area 
 of the United States, kept both England and France out of the southwest, and sep- 
 arated Florida from the other possessions of Spain. Florida was a thorn in the side 
 of Georgia ; it had become a nest of pirates, runawa}'- slaves, and wandering Indians 
 (Seminoles). After futile attempts to clean it out, it was conquered by General Jack- 
 isia. son, in 1818, and the next year purchased from Spain for five million del- 
 
 ists, lars. No further acquisitions of territory were made, until 1845, when 
 
 Texas sought admission into the Union. Austin, Houston, and other Americans had 
 made the country independent of Mexico ; and, in spite of opposition, it was annexed 
 by Congress. Shortly after the election of Pi-esident Polk, Oregon was acquired by 
 discovery and exploration, though the title to it was disputed by Great Britain, and 
 not confirmed until the treaty of 1846, which gave the Union, Oregon, Washington, 
 and Idaho, in all about 250,000 square miles. 
 
 Boundary quarrels with Mexico soon provoked a war which led to a further ex- 
 tension of the national territory. California and New Mexico fell to the victors, upon 
 the payment of 115,000,000. Thus in half a century the area of the country was 
 quadrupled, and the American flag carried westward to the Pacific ocean. 
 
866 AMERICA. 
 
 § 770. But this rapidity of acquisition seems a trivial matter, when compared 
 with the swift movements of emigrants, and the sudden development of the country. 
 About the time of the Revolutionary war, settlers pushed into the southwest, creating 
 the new states of Kentucky and Franklin (now called Tennessee). A movement of 
 greater importance developed Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. The northwest ordinance 
 of 1787 dedicated the. territory of that section to perpetual freedom; a similar ordi- 
 nance touching the southwest might have changed the course of American history. 
 Kentuck)', which was settled by Daniel Boone in 1769, was admitted to the Union in 
 1792, Tennessee in 1796. Ohio entered in 1802, Indiana in 1816, and Illinois in 1818. 
 In 1848 tiie union of the eleven states had become a confederation of thirty, and the 
 pojDulation of three millions had become thirty millions. 
 
 b. Foreign Affairs. War tvith England. Difficulties with England a7id France. War 
 
 with Mexico. Indian Wars. 
 
 § 771. Washington was scrupulously careful to avoid foreign complications ; 
 Adams, at a critical moment, averted war with France. Jefferson desired peace, and 
 bore with patience many insults from the French and English. But he triumphed 
 isoi. easily over the pirates of Tripoli and the north coast of Africa. These 
 
 freebooters cared ]i either for man nor God, but Jefferson taught them to respect the 
 American flag. Tripoli agreed, in 1805, no longer to molest the ships and sailors of 
 the United States of America. 
 
 Far more serious were the difficulties growing out of the M"ars of Europe. En- 
 gland and France were seeking to destroy each other. Each forbade American ships 
 to trade with the enemj-, and the English seized American seamen and forced them to 
 serve under the Union Jack. Jefferson rejected the treaty negotiated with England, by 
 Pincknej'and Monroe, in 1806, because it did not formally prohibit the impressment of 
 seamen. Napoleon declared the British coasts in a state of blockade ; England decreed 
 that neutrals should not trade with France or her allies. Napoleon then added the decree 
 of Milan to that of Berlin, confiscating any vessel that submitted to be searched by 
 British captains. Jefferson, not to be outdone, and believing American products es- 
 sential to European life and welfare, urged and succeeded in getting an embargo act, 
 1S00-1S07. closing American ports to every form of foreign trade. It did not 
 ruin Europe ; it nearly ruined America. Finally Congress modified the act, and lim- 
 ited its prohibitions to trade with France and England. Jefferson's successor, Madison, 
 re-opened commerce with Great Britain, or thought to do so. But the British minister 
 mistook his instructions, and the elated Americans fell into anger and despair. 
 Napoleon next deceived the President, trying to involve him in trouble with Great 
 Britain. The jjeople of the United States, being exasperated, were ready to believe 
 isii. any evil of the English. When the Indians, under Tecumseh, rose 
 
 against the settlers of the west, England was accused of furthering the plot. When 
 a scaiiip named Henry brought a package of forged letters to President Madison, as 
 evidence of England's villany, they were purchased for a good round sum, and believed 
 to be genuine, b}' the credulous haters of perfidious Albion. A j'oung democracy, 
 under the lead of Henry Clay, demanded "sailors' rights and free trade" and began 
 clamoring for war; and in 1811, active preparations for war were begun. These 
 demonstrations failed, of course, to impress a ministry engaged in a desperate struggle 
 
JAMES MADISON. 
 
 {pp. 867.) 
 
868 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 ■n-itli the mighty subverter of monarchies. Xapoleon ,: and the next June, CoDoress, 
 unable to obtain from England redress for the past, or pledges for the future, 
 declared war against her. 
 
 § 772. The priva- 
 teers soon justified 
 the expectations with 
 which this war was 
 begun ; they nearly 
 destroyed the mer- 
 chant marine of Great 
 Britain. The Amer- 
 ican navy was glori- 
 oiisly successful. 
 The Guerricre was 
 shattered by the frig- 
 ate Constitution ; the 
 isxs. Frolic was 
 captured by the 
 Wasp; the Macedo- 
 nian was next taken 
 by Decatur's frigate, 
 the United States ; 
 and the Java struck 
 her flag to Captain 
 B a in b r i d g e, c o m- 
 manding the Consti- 
 tution. 
 
 But on the land 
 the year was one of 
 great disappointment 
 and disaster. Gen- 
 eral Hull marched 
 into Canada ; he was 
 driven back to De- 
 troit, where he was be- 
 sieged and frightened 
 into capitulation. 
 General Van Rensse- 
 laer collected another 
 army on the Xiagara 
 river. He sent over 
 one thousand men to 
 capture the Canadian 
 village of Queens- 
 town. The mUiria however refused to support them, and they too were compelled 
 to surrender. Sis weeks afterward, General Smythe made a second attempt, whicL 
 
f- _ 
 
 -' .r 
 
 > ■- \ 
 
 J 7"' 
 
 .s:S:-c 
 
 
 I'JiKKY S VICTUKY ON LAKK ElUE. ( fV- J?''!!.) 
 
870 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 failed absurdly, and compelled him to resign his command. Dearborn brought up the 
 rear of incompetents. He commanded a large and well-appointed armj% and was con- 
 spicuous for inactivity. 
 isis. The campaign of 
 1813 promised, at first, no 
 great lustre to the Ameri- 
 can arms. Proctor, the 
 English commander in 
 ^Michigan, was obliged to 
 return to Maiden, but 
 Ogdensburgh, New York, 
 was taken bj^ the British. 
 A force of Americans, fall- 
 ing into an ambuscade at 
 Beaver Dams, was com- 
 pelled to surrender. But 
 later in the year, the 
 Americans recovered con- 
 trol of the Great Lakes. 
 Chauncej' first launched a 
 fleet on Lake Ontario, 
 and for a while held it in 
 his control. Commodore 
 Perr}' won a splendid 
 naval victory on Lake 
 Erie. " We have met the 
 enemy and they are ours," 
 was the laconic message 
 in which he announced 
 his mastery of the British 
 and of the upper lakes. 
 Harrison's army could 
 now advance and compel 
 the sui-render of most of 
 Proctor's men who had 
 hastily evacuated Maiden. 
 But when he attempted a 
 march upon Montreal, he 
 encountered a British 
 force that compelled him 
 to abandon his undertak- 
 ing. 
 § 773. While the Amer- 
 icans were thus wasting their strength to no purpose along the frontier, the entier 
 Atlantic sea coast was blockaded by English squadrons. The large cities in the 
 East began to tremble, and Xew England sullenly opposed the war. Suddenly Amer- 
 
872 
 
 AMKKICA. 
 
 ica was startlod l\v tho news of Napoleon's overthrow ; tliat nioant a seiuling of 
 British veterans fresli from their triumphs to cany on tlio war in America. Hut on 
 
 <*«. July 5. 1S14, 
 Gen. Browne fought and 
 won the battle of Cliip- 
 pewa in Canada, compell- 
 ing the British to retreat 
 to their intrenehments. 
 The latter, reinforced by 
 troops from England, met 
 the Americans again at 
 Bridgewater: but the 
 battle, though furious, 
 was not decisive. Browne 
 retired to Fort Erie. 
 Drunimond, the British 
 general, besieged liim. 
 Browne determined upon 
 a sortie, in which he was 
 completely successful. 
 Drummond raised the 
 siege, and the Canadian 
 campaign was over. 
 Meanwhile, Sir George 
 Prevost, the governor of 
 Canada, led an army 
 across to Lake Cham- 
 plain.while a British fleet 
 of sixteen vessels sailed 
 down the lake to meet 
 him at Plattsbnrg. Ma 
 comb, with three thonsand 
 men, Avas posted beliind 
 the Saranac river; ^lac- 
 donough. with a snnvU 
 fleet, was moored at 
 Plattsbnrg. The ten 
 thousand troops of Pro- 
 vost were seized with 
 panic, and fled precipi- 
 tately, when it was 
 learned that the British 
 ships had struck their 
 colors, after two hours 
 and a half hai-d fighting. D^-wnie, the British commander, got away with the 
 gunboats, but his larger vessels were all taken. Elsewhere, though, the Americans 
 
.IDIIN' QIINCV ADAM 
 
 ( pp. 
 
874 AMERICA. 
 
 were overvvhelmed with disaster. In July the British entered the Penobscot and 
 conquered the country east of the river. In August they entered the Chesapeake, 
 passed the Potomac, and landed a force of five thousand men under General Ross, 
 who marched upon Washington, set fire to the Capitol and the White House, and then. 
 hastily returned. British frigates next sailed up the Potomac, and levied contribu- 
 tions upon Alexandria. Gen. Ross then moved upon Baltimore. A fight took place 
 at North Point, in which Ross himself was killed. But as the fleet made little impres- 
 sion upon the fort by their cannonade, and as the militia seemed to be strongly in- 
 trenched, the English determined to abandon the attack. 
 
 § 774. A treaty of peace was signed at Ghent, December 24, 1814. This treaty 
 left things as they were before the war began ; nevertheless, the right of search has 
 not since then been exercised by England, and was finally yielded. But before the 
 Jan. ISIS, news of peace arrived in the United States, General Andrew Jackson won 
 his famous victory of New Orleans. The British expected to strike a final and a fatal 
 blow. If they could conquer the entrance to the Mississippi Valley, the republic 
 would be at their mercy. General Packenham made the attack with twelve thousand 
 men, on Januar}' 8, 1815. General Jackson entrenched be- 
 hind earthbanks and cotton bales, held the invaders at bay. 
 Packenham was killed; his forces lost heavily, and soon 
 gave up the fight. 
 j The Hartford Convention met just before the battle, to 
 
 ^Kk^tftad^ isi*. decide that the war was a failure, and to 
 
 ^IilAH^hhBh^ , propose certain amendments to the constitution. It discred- 
 
 VO^^^^BBBtt. ited New England for many years, being made the subject 
 
 of frequent taunts and reproaches, in the exciting discus- 
 jAMi ^ MiiNKdE. sions between the South and the North. But the war of 
 
 1812 was the last armed conflict of the United States with 
 any European power, although the nation has been several times upon the brink of war. 
 During the administration of James Monroe, the Spanish colonies of Central and 
 South America declared their independence. The king of Spain sought desperately 
 to hold them, and looked to Russia and France for help. Canning, the English minis- 
 ter, proclaimed that he had called " the New World into existence to redress the bal- 
 ance of the old." But what Canning did, was only to join President Monroe in the 
 declaration that the continental powers would not be permitted to reimpose the Span- 
 lana. ish yoke ujDon the self liberated lands. In his message of December 2 
 
 1823, Monroe warned France and Russia that the United States would regard any at- 
 tempts to extend their authority in America as dangerous to our peace and safet3^ It 
 is sheer ignorance to speak of tlie Monroe doctrine as a declaration that Europe must 
 "keep her hands off America." Spain has Cuba, England has Canada. But Monroe, 
 under the advice of John Quincy Adams, gave the continental jaowers to understand, 
 that any attempt to enlarge their influence, would be unfriendly conduct toward the 
 United States. 
 
 § 775. While Andrew Jackson was president, the " Fi-ench Spoliations " caused 
 no little excitement, and for a time it looked like war. The "English Spoliations" 
 were atoned for by the war of 1812, but not until Louis Philippe came to the French 
 throne, did France consider seriously the wj-ong done to American commerce during 
 
ANDREW JACKSON. 
 
 {pp. 875.) 
 
876 
 
 MAKTIX VAX BVKKN. 
 
 tssi. tlie Napoleonic vars. A treaty was concluried in 1831 providing for 
 
 indemnity. But when tlie draft was presented at tlie French treasury, tlie approjiria- 
 tion had been forgotten, and the draft was protested. Tlie King assured the Presi- 
 dent that the money would surely be paid. But kings promise, and Parliaments 
 refuse. General Jackson exploded with wrath, and recom- 
 mended a hiw authorizing reprisals upon French property. 
 ''I know tliom French. Thoy won't pay unless they're 
 made to!" he exclaimed to his famous Kitchen cabinet. 
 But the French were augrier than Jackson. The French 
 minister at Washington received orders to demand his pass- 
 ports ; the American minister received his passports, with 
 out orders, from the government. An apology was de- 
 manded from the President, and preparations were made for 
 war. Jackson stood firm, supported as he was bv the 
 ablest men of the countr)-, John Quincy Adams in the lead. 
 England offered her mediation, and the ancient friendship between Fiance and the 
 United States was at length restored. 
 
 Again the IMaine boundaiy question caused great bitterness, and threatened to 
 i«j*. provoke a war with England. It was finally settled by the Webster- 
 
 Ashbuiton treaty, of 1842. This was not the least achieve- 
 jsjo. nient of those celebrated men. In 18-46 the 
 
 ti\ of "Fifiyfour forty, or fight" went from Oregon to 
 Maine, and from the Lakes to the Gulf. Great Britain ulti- 
 mately yielded all the territory, south of forty-nine degrees, 
 to the California line, and there was no fight. 
 
 But the annexation of Texas produced a war with 
 «.sji. ^Mexico. Texas had won her independence 
 
 under the lead of Sam Houston and Stephen Austin. 
 Reluctantly, the North consented to admit this vast slave 
 territory into the .Vinerican Union, especially with the under- 
 standing that five States might be carved out of its domain. Once- admitted, Texas 
 claimed the Kio Grande river as her boundary line. Mexico placed it on the Nueces 
 river, one hundred miles further east. President Tyler, '• his Accidency," ordered 
 (Teneral Taylor to move to the Rio Grande. Mexico first ordered, then tried to drive 
 him away. Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palnia soon made 
 Zachary Taylor illustrious. The Mexicans retreated before 
 the winner of these two battles, and Taylor took possession 
 of Matamoros. 
 
 § 776. War having been made by the President, Oon- 
 M.ij/ ts. ts-te. gress declared it on May 13, 1846. Taylor 
 took Monterey in September, and with his five thousand 
 men defeated Santa Anna, and his twent}' thousand at 
 Buena Vista. General Scott was now ordei'ed to Mexico with 
 a second army. He landed at Vera Cruz, and took the 
 Gibraltar of Mexico : then pushed forward to Cerro Gordo. 
 
 i.s.t7. In the late summer of 1847 he crossed the mountains, and marched 
 
 \VU,1.1A:M llENKV U.VUUISON. 
 
 AMt> K. I'OLK. 
 
III 'I ' '''I ', '-iiiI'Vil' 
 
878 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 down upon the city of Mexico. But first he must conquer the "King's Mill" 
 Molino del Rey, and then the castle of Chapultepec. Tlie capital saw the stars and 
 stripes waving over the ancient palace of the Montezumas on the morning of Septem- 
 ber 14, 1847. 
 
 Grant, Lee, Sherman, Jefferscni Davis, " Stonewall " Jackson, Kearne3% i" f^^t 
 nearly all the men afterward distinguished in tlie civil war, served in Mexico. But 
 among its sacrifices was the favorite son of Henry Clay. 
 
 § 777. Indian Wars. Reference has been made already to the conspiracy of Te- 
 cumseh. He and his Indians were utterly defeated by General Harrison at Tippeca- 
 noe, in 1811. Three years later, General Jackson marched against the Creeks, and 
 
 drove them before him. They made 
 a stand at Horse Shoe Bend, on a 
 branch of the Alabama river, where 
 they were routed utterlJ^ and com- 
 pelled to give up the larger part of 
 their territory. In 1818 Jackson 
 drove the Seminoles to bay in Flor- 
 ida, and in 1842 these Indians were 
 finallj^ conquered by General Taylor, 
 after a desperate struggle that lasted 
 for seven years. Black Hawk, a 
 chief of the West, attacked the emi- 
 JS3S. grants to Illinois and 
 Wisconsin, but he and his tribe were 
 driven at last beyond the Mississippi 
 river. Thus the Indians were dis- 
 possessed, partly by their own folly, 
 and partly by the energy and the 
 rapacity of the whites, of nearly 
 sixty million acres of land in Geor- 
 gia, Alabama, Missouri, Indiana, 
 Illinois and Michigan. They strug- 
 gled desperately against the west- 
 ward progress of the European set- 
 tlers, provoking a vindictive hostil- 
 ity, from which the wise policj^ of 
 removing tliem to Indian Territory subsequently rescued them. 
 
 c. Political Development. The Constitution in Operation. Political Parties. The Tar- 
 iff^. Currency Questions. Changes in the States. 
 § 778. Thomas Jefferson founded the old Republican or, as it came to be called 
 
 in after years, the Democratic party. Madison joined him in 1796, and Aaron Burr 
 
 soon made the new party triumphant in New York, which has been, ever since, the 
 
 determining factor in presidential contests. 
 
 Three causes combined to produce the result. Personal dislike of Alexander 
 
 Hamilton, the leader of the Federalists ; fear of the centralizing tendencies that were 
 
 GENERAi; WINFIELD SCOTT. 
 
THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 879 
 
 SO marked m the first decade of the More Perfect Union ; and the great impulse given 
 to democratic principles by the French Revolution. Hamilton, though a statesman of 
 the highest rank, could stoop to the meanest intrigue. He could both efface and de- 
 face himself in the piirsuit of lofty purposes and far-reaching plans. It was therefore 
 easy to suspect him of designs that he never cherished, and to attribute selfish and 
 dangerous motives to his most patriotic measures. The centralizing tendencies of 
 Washington's administrations sprang from the instinct of self-preservation. Opposi- 
 tion might, and did annoy and distress him, but his dignity and courage, his sagacity 
 and foresight, lifted the presidential office into commanding authority. John Adams, 
 however, had neither the prestige nor the majestic self-control of his illustrious pred- 
 ecessor. Charges of presidential tyranny made against the "puritan monarchist" 
 found willing ears, — in the North, because the shadow of King George still disturbed 
 the dreams of anxious Republicans; in the South, because the Federal Government 
 might grow strong enough (the planters suspected) to abolish slavery. The paradox 
 of American politics is this dread of tyranny for the wliites, and dread of liberty for 
 the negroes. 
 
 § 779. The Constitution was hardly in operation before the first group of amend- 
 ments passed to adoption. They modified materially the powers of the Federal Gov- 
 ernment, and are perhaps more valuable to-day than they were in 1791. 
 
 The election of 1800 however, revealed a defect in the instrument, that no one 
 had foreseen. And when Burr received the same number of electoral votes as Jef- 
 ferson, there began one of those disgraceful attempts to defeat the popular will by a 
 resort to constitutional chicanery, which are the perpetual scandal of political strife. 
 The wily young " boss " of the New York democracy, the prototype of the American 
 practical politician, "full of strategems and spoils" had been reluctantly accepted as 
 vice-president by the older Jeffersonians. The angry Federalists, in their hatred of 
 Jefferson, were ready to make Burr president, and would have done so, but for Alex- 
 ander Hamilton, who, little as he liked the Virginia statesman, knew him to be what 
 Burr was not, a patriot, a thinker, and so far as a politician could be "indifferent hon- 
 est." That Jefferson contemi:)lated the use of force, can hardly be doubted now; that 
 the crisis came near to a great calamity, is equally clear. Jefferson made light of it 
 in after years, but he was always a little jaunty when the danger lay behind him, and 
 a little flighty when he looked it in the face. Elected finally, and inaugurated with 
 isoi-isoo. ostentatious simplicity, he refused to open Congress in person, and 
 sent a written message. But in the Louisiana purchase and the embargo act, he 
 stretched the power of the Federal government to its utmost limit. So too, in the 
 prosecution of Aaron Burr for treason, he did not scruple to employ all the resources 
 of his mighty office, and that Burr escaped punishment for his daring project to dis- 
 member the Union, was certainly no fault of his former ally. Yet the Virginia presi- 
 dents, Jefferson, j\Iadison, and Monroe, never organized the officers of the government 
 into a personal following ; indeed Madison declared, in a famous debate in 1789, that 
 for a president to remove men from office for other than public leasons, would be in- 
 famous, and a proper ground for impeachment. And it redounds to Jefferson's honor, 
 that even the exasperating conduct of John Adams, who occupied the last minutes of 
 his official life in filling offices with his friends and partisans, could not drive him from 
 the practice of his conviction, that to exclude a man from the public service for cour- 
 
880 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 ageous and conscientious voting, was to transform the Republic into the "spoils" of 
 political hirelings. 
 
 § 780. The bullet buried by Aaron Burr in the breast of Alexander Hamilton 
 destroyed the Federal party. What little remained of it, after the death of its great 
 leader, perished in the War of 1812. But as Jefferson foresaw, the Democrats split 
 inevitably into factions. Yet when the rupture came, it was not about principles, but 
 about persons ; it was not a quarrel about public policj', but about political methods. 
 
 Candidates for the presidency had been nominated by a caucus of congressmen 
 i8g^. In 1821 the choice of the caucus was long foreseen to be William H. 
 
 MMM'i' ""'*s 
 
 DUEL BETWEEN BURR AND HAMILTON. 
 
 Cra\vford of Georgia. All the statesmen of the country were then in the Democratic 
 party. John Quincy Adams and Daniel Webster, Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun, 
 Martin Van Buren and William H. Crawford, Thomas H. Benton and Andrew Jack- 
 son. Under such circumstances, a nomination by a caucus of Congressmen, if ratified 
 by the party leaders, meant the selection of a president by less than a hundred men. 
 The country was in no mood for such a travesty of democratic institutions ; the con- 
 spicuous leaders of the party were too numerous and too able to submit to its perpe- 
 tration. To make the .situation worse, Crawford, the prospective caucus nominee, be- 
 came a paralytic in the crisis of the struggle. But dying is a hard task for a presiden- 
 tial candidate, or for an outworn political system. The crippled chief was nominated, 
 
56 
 
 HENRY CI-AY. 
 
 {pp. 881.) 
 
882 
 
 nevertheless. Thereupon conventions in the different states placed Jackson, Quinc}'' 
 Adams, and Clay before the people. Yet this new birth of American politics took 
 place with painful throes. First of all, the people clamored for the right to choose the 
 presidential electors. In New York the Crawford leaders refused the demand, and 
 lost the state in consequence. And then, none of the four candidates received a ma- 
 jority of all the electors. Owing to the choice of electors in several states by the re- 
 spective legislatures, it is even now impossible to determine who was the popular 
 choice. Andrew Jackson afterward became the most powerful and most popular man 
 in the United States; but he was not so in 1824. Mr. Adams surpassed him in learn- 
 ing, in eloquence, in dignity of character, in all the qualities of a statesman. But the 
 election of the latter, by the House of Representatives, under the influence of Henry 
 Clay, provoked a storm of hatred. Charges of bargain and corruption filled the air, 
 
 and for the first time in our history, a 
 president was cynically and system- 
 lass.iaso. atically opposed, de- 
 nounced, and vilified, at every step of 
 his administration. These charges 
 found an easy credence with the disap- 
 pointed, and soon affected the minds of 
 the great multitude ; cunning politi- 
 cians saw in them the possibilities of 
 future success, and when Martin Van 
 Buren, after the adroitest manipulation, 
 transformed the State of New York into 
 a Jackson stronghold, the fate of Adams 
 and of Clay was settled. 
 
 § 781. The period from 1823 to 
 1828 thus became a determining period 
 in the political development of the 
 United States. It developed the State 
 " boss," of which Mr. Van Buren, the 
 pupil of Aaron Burr, was the first suc- 
 cessful specimen ; it destro3'ed the 
 Congressional caucus, and created the 
 state conventions ; it shifted the interest of presidential elections from public to per- 
 sonal questions; and it led to that system of "understandings" with party leaders, in 
 the several States, from which have proceeded innumerable woes. When therefore 
 1890-1S33. General Jackson was inaugurated in lb29, the " clean sweep " that fol- 
 lowed, was a natural result. " In the first month of the new administration more 
 removals from ofSce were made, than had occurred from the foundation of the govern- 
 ment to tJiat time." Aaron Burr had triumphed. The system introduced bj' him into 
 the politics of New York and adopted by Marcy and Van Buren, the system of Sir 
 Robert Walpole and of George III. had been adopted by the hero of New Orleans, 
 and become the working system of tlie United States of America. " To the victor 
 belong the spoils." Henceforth the ballot box should decide, not between opposing 
 
 CHIEF JUSTICE JOHN MARSHALL. 
 
THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 883 
 
 principles or opposing iDolieies, nor between rival statesmen even, but betvs^een rival 
 armies of place-hunters clamoring for sjjoils. 
 
 The Democratic National Convention for nominating a president followed in 1832. 
 It was the first-born child of the new system, and its first cry was of course for the 
 renoniination of Andrew Jackson. 
 
 § 782. While the President was thus enlarging his authoritj', the Supreme Court 
 of the United States was establishing firmly the national theor}' of the Federal Union. 
 Inspired by the powerful mind of John Maishall, that great tribunal expounded for 
 sixty years the paramount sovereignty of the United States, in a series of decisions 
 b(3th lucid and logical. But this action of the Supreme Court followed, and by no 
 
 BANK OF THE UNITED STATES AT PHILADELPHIA. (NOW CUSTOM HOUSE.) 
 
 means anticipated the action of Congress. 
 
 The Federal Congress has been the shaping energy of our political development. 
 For the second statue of the first Federal Congress established the protective 
 system ; and the Bank of the United States soon followed. Thus the industrial and 
 finar.cial system of the entire people were brought, at the very beginning, under, 
 Federal control, where they still remain. Internal improvements, at the expense of 
 the Union, were ordered at first with hesitiitiug prudence; to make them now is estab- 
 lished public policy. Congressmen have asserted and acquired power in the appoint- 
 ment of public offices, which the framers of the constitution innocently supposed 
 would be impossible; and by entrusting their speaker with the appointment of com- 
 
884 ' AMERICA. 
 
 mittees kave created an officer more powerful for good or evil than any but the President 
 himself. During the period of Democratic rule, anxiety for slavery held in check and 
 sometimes paralyzed these tendencies of Congress to enlarge its authority ; but when 
 slaverj'- could be strengtliened or advantaged by a stretch of legislative power, the 
 subtle brain of Calhoun devised at once the means and the excuse. Witness his ex- 
 traordinary suggestions, touching the right of petition, and excluding from the mails 
 the publications forbidden by the various States. 
 
 § 783. Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun joined hands in 1816 to repair the 
 wastes of war, and to foster infant industries. Later on they parted company upon 
 this and other questions. But the tariff of 1824:, Clay's greatest triumph, encounter'ed 
 the massive blows of Daniel Webster. New England and the cotton States opposed it 
 vehemently, and the " American System," as Clay called it, was established by the 
 grain-growing States, the Middle States of the East and of the West and of the South. 
 General Jackson was for the American system in 1824, for incidental protection in 
 1829, and for tariff reform in 1831. But Clay loaded down the American system with 
 his defence of the U. S. Bank in 1832, and led the Whigs, as he afterward called his 
 
 1S33. followers, to overwhelming defeat. Yet the next year he proposed 
 
 and carried through the compromise tariff of 1833, in order to save Calhoun from hu- 
 miliation and political ruin, — an act that brought him no gratitude and great regret. 
 The tariff of 1828, "the tariff of abominations," as Soutli Carolina called it, was 
 greatly modified ; a sliding scale of reductions was so arranged that in 1842 there 
 
 isjig. \vould be left a general rate of twenty per cent, on dutiable goods. 
 
 When this year arrived, Clay was once more powerful, and the American system was 
 re-establislied. 
 
 In 1844 the position of parties Avas again beclouded by the legend " Polk, 
 
 is^^. Dallas, and the tariff of 1842." But this legend dissolved in 1846, 
 
 jsjo. when Mr. Dallas gave the casting vote that carried the abolition 
 
 of protective duties and established the tariff for revenue onljs which lasted until 
 1861. 
 
 § 784. The financial systam of the country was, as we liave seen, established 
 first by Alexander Hamilton. But the Bank of the United States encountered, from 
 the start, determined opposition. In 1811 Henry Clay defeated an attempt to re- 
 charter it; although in 1816 he and Calhoun joined hands to give it new life and 
 power, and during the administration of Andrew Jackson, he was its indefatigable 
 champion. 
 
 The two men were both children of the people, and both men of genius ; Jackson 
 was incarnate courage ; Clay was embodied conciliation. Jackson loved fight, Cla}' 
 1S33-1S3}. loved victory. Jackson was irascible, incorruptible, self-willed, sus- 
 picious of liis enemies, and intolerant of opposition, even from his friends. Claj^ was 
 imperious, and impetuous, swift to think but swift to change, chivalrous, high-minded, 
 sensitive, passionate, fascinating. The authority of Clay was in his eloquence, his 
 lofty mien, his glowing eyes, the sweep of his gesture, the royal movement of his form, 
 the commanding music of his voice. The authority of Jackson was, in his rugged 
 si)eech, his defiant deeds, his unflinching adherence to his purpose, his belief that the 
 will of Andrew Jackson was the wish of the people and the decree of the Eternal. 
 But though Jackson loved fight and drifted naturally into collision with other men, he 
 
.10HN C. CALHOUN. 
 
 {pp. SS5.) 
 
886 
 
 AMKKICA. 
 
 was always wary at tlio beginning. Clay, on tlio oontravy, was pvocipitato at tlio out- 
 set, and I'om'iliatovy in the crisis of a groat eoiitiior. And to him rather than to ,)aok- 
 son is due tl»e destruction of the bank. Jackson was ready to make terms; Clay 
 refused. The re charter was passed by Congress, but vetoed by the President ; and 
 the government deposits were next withdrawn by a doubtful stretch of executive 
 power. Severed from tlie government, the bank lapsed into speculation, and tinally 
 into complete and ruinous disaster. 
 
 The deposits that had been withdrawn were distributed among -pet" banks of 
 tlio viu'ious states : a policy that produced the destructive panic and widespread bank- 
 ruptcy of 1887. 
 
 Ch>y and Jackson, the one by his precipitancy and the other by Ids obstinate dar- 
 ing, liad sown the wind; Van Bnrcn reaped the whirlwind. The specie circular of 
 i>\tj.<«-4(. Jackson had discredited the paper money of the banks; the people 
 
 reasoned that if Jackson woidd not take it for public lands, it could not have much 
 value. Van Hureu, however, when he became president, refused to recall this "'specie 
 circular." He convened an extra session of Congress, to stare a deficit and a banknij't 
 country in the face. The New York "boss "was a man of great ability : cunning, 
 courageous, conciliatory ; a statesman as well as the creator 
 of a political machine. He proposed that the Government 
 transact its own fiscal business; "collect, guai-d, transfer, 
 and disburse its own monies." This sub-treasui-y scheme, 
 which has now been in operation for more than half a cen- 
 tury, was not passed until 1840. Clay saw in it "the ruin 
 of republican institutions," and thundered against it with 
 solemn prophecies ; Webster opposed it with more foresight 
 and a calmer wisdom. He discerned in it the beginning of 
 that government interference with the curi-ency of the 
 country, which is the constant menace of our commercial life. 
 Overthrown by Clav and his follower's in 1841, the system was re-established in 
 jfsrfw. 1S4(>. and is likely to endure for many year-s to come. 
 
 $5 785. Meanwhile the States of the North and the West were tending to a broader 
 democracy : restrictions upon the franchise were swept away ; judges and officers 
 generally wei-e made elective, and foreigners were admitted readily to a share in the 
 government. Presidential electors, once chosen by legislatures, came to be chosen by 
 the people; and the State constitutions generally were revised in the supposed inter- 
 est of the lai-g^er number. The government of tlte few. founded by our fathers, was 
 shaped by their sons, acting in the several States, into the government of the many. 
 For the constimtion of 1787 wjis so deftly contrived, that the popular basis of it woidd 
 bivaden or conta-aot acotn^ding to the action of the different States. (^Article 1. sec- 
 tion 2, clause 1). 
 
 MU.IAUP t'lllMOUK. 
 
 (f. Fn^HStriai Iht'tplopmenf. The Cfr&wth qf CVfiVs mid (tf JReJi<^ov$ Denominations. 
 
 § 786. The tirst invention that powerfully affected Americaji history was the 
 saw-gin of Eli Whitney, by means of which a slave who could befor-e clean but five or 
 six pounds of cotton in a day, was enabled to clean a thousivnd, Fulton came next 
 with his iuveution of the steamboat, which irtwe new significance to the Hudson and 
 
l>ANIi:i, WKllSTKR. 
 
 (pp. ««7.) 
 
AMERICA. 
 
 the Mississippi, to the Great Lakes and the Gulf of Mexico. The Erie canal was begun 
 in 1817, and finished in 1825, and was speedily followed by canals elsewhere. Light- 
 ing by gas began in 1822, not without bitter opposition from many enlightened citi- 
 zens. Congress constructed a national road from Cumberland, in Maryland, as far as 
 Indiana, to further immigration to the West. But in 1828 an English locomotive 
 made its first trip near Mauch Chunk, in Pennsylvania. Stephenson's " Rocket " 
 aroused the mechanics of America, and the " Arabian " started to run in 1833. The 
 discover}^ that anthracite coal would burn, was diffused about this time, and began a 
 quiet revolution in domestic life. But most wonderful of all, perhaps, was the inven- 
 tiou of farm implements. 
 
 Thomas Jefferson could handle the violin and the plow with equal skill. Writing 
 in 1788,- he indicated the ideas for an improved plow, which were subsequently carried 
 out to perfection by Jetliro Wood (1819), Joel Nourse (1842), and James Oliver 
 
 (1853). But the great triumph of 
 American invention in agricultural im- 
 plements was the reaper of Obed Hus- 
 sey, patented December 31, 1833. The 
 manufacture of this machine began in 
 1834, and its chief feature has been 
 incoi'porated in all harvesting machines 
 made since. A patent was granted 
 Cyrus McCormick, June 21, 1834 ; but 
 the reapers built under this patent were 
 not sufficiently practical for the market. 
 Hussey's, however, were immediately 
 introduced, and their inventor continued 
 to build and sell them until his death. 
 Hussey was pi'obably indebted some- 
 what to the invention of Patrick Bell, 
 an Episcopal clergyman, of Scotland, 
 who made a reaper in 1826. These 
 machines worked well, and one of them 
 was used successfully in Madison 
 County, N. Y., in 1834. McCormick began the manufacture of a practical machine at 
 Brockport, N. Y., in 1845, and his subsequent success, in the introduction of the 
 reaper, obscured obvious facts concerning its development. The Pitts brothers were 
 the first American inventors to make a successful thresher. Their patent is dated 
 December 29, 1837. The " Chicago Pitts," as it was called, found a market wherever 
 grain was raised to any extent. Reaper and thresher determined the development of 
 the West, as the cotton gin determined that of the South. Wliile the latter tended to 
 perpetuate slavery, steamboat and locomotive, reaper and thresher, made possible the 
 States and helped develop the freemen that wrought its ruin. 
 
 Franklin played with the lightning, as Jefferson played with plow and violin. 
 And the impulse given by him to the study of electricity led to the invention of the 
 Morse telegraph, the electro-magnetic, which began to speak in 1844. 
 
 In the same year the copper mines of Michigan were opened, the Indians retiring 
 
 ROBERT FULTON. 
 
ELI WIUTNEY AND THE CUTTUX INDUSTRY. 
 
 'pp. 889.) 
 
890 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 from Lake Superior, and miners rushing thither. The sewing machine was patented 
 by Elias Howe, in 1846, and the Hoe printing press the following year. These two 
 inventions made possible the elaborate gowns and mammoth newspapers of the present 
 day. 
 
 In 1848 gold was discovered in California, along the Sacramento river. Streams 
 of adventurers hastened by sea and land to the "diggings;" and California became a 
 free State. 
 
 § 787. Philadelphia was, in 1790, the largest city in the Union, having a popu- 
 lation of 42,520 souls. Boston, BaltiuK.ire, New York, and Charleston, wei'e then her 
 
 only rivals, though Albany promised 
 to be a city of importance. In 1850 
 Phdadelphia took second place, with 
 a population of 340,045 ; New York 
 had climbed to half a million, and 
 Chicago had bounded into the race 
 with thirty thousand. Six cities re- 
 joiced in more than a hundred thou- 
 sand each, and there were more than 
 thirty growing cities in the Union. 
 The entire population of the nation 
 was 23,191,876, and the centre of 
 population was moving steadily west- 
 ward. Foreign immigration had 
 rapidly increased, owing to the 
 famine in Ireland and the revolutions 
 of 1848. The prospect of home- 
 steads and of liberty, of political 
 equality and free education, brought 
 thousands hither, and these attracted 
 thousands more. 
 
 § 788. The Religious Denomina- 
 tions. The Church of England, sub- 
 sequently the Protestant Episcopal 
 Church, was deprived of its glebe 
 lands and church property by the 
 Virginia legislature, in 1802. But Trinity Church, in New York city, and Christ 
 Church, Philadelphia, were in better case. Under Hobart, Bishop of New York, that 
 diocese became powerful and commanding ; Griswold, of Massachusetts, accomplished 
 much in New England. The " Oxford movement " begun by Keble, Newman, and 
 Pusey in 1833, has powerfullj' affected, almost transformed, the Episcopal Church in 
 America. For this ceased to be predominantly low, and became both high and broad. 
 The Congregationalists of New England divided into many parties : Unitarians, Ortho- 
 dox, Old Calvinists, Hopkinsians, and the like. But by a plan of union formed with 
 the Presbyterians, in 1801, they hindered the extension of their own system and fur- 
 thered dissensions among the Presbyterians. 
 
 PROF. SAMUEL F. B. MORSE. 
 
THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 891 
 
 For the Congregational wine fermented in the old bottles, and in 1838 there was 
 a division into Old Scliool and New School bodies. Princeton Seminary, established 
 in 1812, furnished fire and learning for the Old School churches, while Union 
 Seminary, founded in 1836, inculcated the gentler though less consistent doctrines of 
 the New School divines. The Cumberland Presbytery declared its independence of 
 the General Assembly in 1810; while 
 the United Presb3'terians combined 
 and ijerpetuated in America, seces- 
 sions from the Scottish church, dating 
 back to 1688. 
 
 The Lutherans of the United 
 States formed a Genei-al Synod in 
 1820, and in 1825 the German Re- 
 formed leaders established a seminary 
 at Mercersburg, of wlaich John Nevin 
 and Philip Schaff were the teachers. 
 Here was developed the " Mercers- 2 
 burg theology ; " here began a trans- o 
 formation of tlie doctrine and worship ^ 
 of the Churcli in America. . 
 
 The Methodists were troubled S 
 little b}' doctrinal differences : tlieir ^ 
 creed was too simple, tlieir preaching ^ 
 too urgent, and their purpose too h 
 direct. But they quarrelled much f 
 about church government, about the § 
 power of superintendents, the rights „, 
 of laymen, and the proper attitude > 
 toward slavery. Their free churches p 
 and free spiritual life, the unstudied 
 eloquence and ceaseless movement 
 of the early preachei's, and their 
 insistence upon jjersonal experience, 
 their elastic and efficient organization 
 made them singularly successful. But 
 iii 1844 tliey divided upon the ques- 
 tion of slavery, and gave the first indi- 
 cation of the " irrepressible conflict " 
 already begun in American life. 
 
 The Quakers divided upon doc- 
 trine in 1827. The Baptists, never having been one body, could not separate. 
 Mennonites and Diiiikards and Seventh-day Baptists came fi'om Germany and Hol- 
 land. The Free Will Baptists organized in New England, in 1827. While Alexander 
 Campbell and his followers were disfellowshipped in 1827, an event that led to the 
 " Disciples," or " Campbellites," as they were variously called. 
 
 The Roman Catholics established a metropolitan see in Baltimore, in 1808, and 
 
892 AMERICA. 
 
 held their first provincial council tliere in 1829, and their first plenary council in 
 1852. In 1844 furious riots broke out in Philadelphia, in which some Catholic churches 
 were destroyed. In the same 3-ear. Orestes Brownson joined the ancient church, and 
 John Hughes was developing that administrative skill and political sagacity, to which 
 tiie Roman Catholic church in New York is so much indebted. Of the many curious 
 religious growths in the United States, none is so wonderful as Mormonism. Joseph 
 Smith found the Book of Mormon in Manchester, N. Y., in 1830. An angel (so he 
 said) guided him to the thin gold plates, upon wdiich Mormon, the Jew, had written 
 the divine revelation. In 1843 another revelation was vouchsafed him, this time to 
 sanction a plurality of wives. The " Latter Day Saints "' established their new 
 Jerusalem at Xauvoo, Illinois. But they were driven thence in 1848, and traveled on 
 to Utah, where they founded Salt Lake City. Smith perished at the hands of a mob, 
 and his place was filled by Brigham Young. 
 
 § 789. The Development of Schools. The first half of the centurj- was a period of 
 extraordinary- activitj' in the school life of the United States. The founders of the 
 republic believed that to send ''a son into the world uneducated" was to "defraud 
 the communit}' of a useful citizen, and to bequeath to it a nuisance." And the 
 democratic tendencies of the age soon asserted themselves in the development of 
 common schools. Man}' of the States created permanent school funds from the sale 
 of public lands ; the Western Reserve of Ohio, for instance, which was sold for one 
 million dollars, and devoted to school purposes, testifying to the thrift, the forethouglit 
 and the intelligence of Connecticut statesmen. Taxes upon banks, lotteries, and 
 other devices were also employed. 
 
 The Northwestern Ordinance of 1787 provided that " schools, and the means of 
 education, should be forever encouraged," and the policj- therein begun was steadily 
 maintained by Congress, which made munificent grants of public lands for school pur- 
 poses to all the newly admitted States. Of the thirty million dollars distributed from 
 the treasur}' surplus by the act of 1836, nearlj^ one half was given to education. But 
 these large amounts furnish but a portion of the resources for mental training. 
 Local taxes, paid without a murmur until sectarian strife began, are the life blood of 
 our educational system. 
 
 Horace Mann of Massachusetts stands conspicuousl}- first as the leader in the im- 
 })rovement of our public school system. Henry Barnard of Connecticut comes 
 easily next. Thomas Dorr, the leader of Dorr's rebellion, in Rhode Island, gave to 
 his State not only unrestricted suffrage, but a vigorous management and inspection 
 of her town schools. 
 
 For the better training of teachers, institutes were organized in the West, in 
 1834, and in the East in 1839. The Normal school followed under the urgent pres- 
 sure of James C. Carter, in 1838 ; the first appeared in Massachusetts, and others 
 slowly emerged from a wearisome struggle for existence in other states. 
 
 § 790. For a long time Boston stood alone in the possession of high schools. 
 Philadelphia foUow^ed her example with a Central High School in 1887. Although 
 the Rochester and Buffalo Seminaries, established in 1827, were high schools in reality. 
 Boston succeeded so well with its high school for girls, begun in 1826, that it had to 
 be abandoned. The tax-payers, panic-stricken at the expense involved for educating 
 so many of the other sex, insisted on its closing. Philadelphia opened a high school 
 
THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 893 
 
 for girls in 1840, but under the guise of a training scliool for teachers. Cincinnati 
 built one in 1847, and Boston recovered from its fright in 1852. These schools pro- 
 voked no little opposition, which in Massachusetts took a legal form. The Supreme 
 Court however decided in their favor, a decision now generally accepted by the 
 judges in other States. 
 
 Thirteen state universities were added in fifty years to the four created before 
 1800. Dr. Manassah Cutler, who was the author of the national policy of reserving 
 the public lands for educational purposes, drew the charter for the Oliio University, 
 which was the first in the Northwest. 
 
 But the nation and the state have not done all the work of education. Religious 
 zeal and private munificence have sustained the older institutions, and established 
 new ones with noble self-sacrifice and glorious generosity. But three schools of 
 theology existed in the United States prior to this century. Twenty-eight existed in 
 1850. The first law school began in Maryland in 1812, but the progressive step was 
 taken by the University of Virginia, when it co-ordinated law with language and 
 science in 1825. 
 
 "The College of Physicians and Surgeons of New York Cit}^ " established in 1800, 
 began a new epoch in medical training. Philadelphia however developed the medical 
 department of the University of Pennsylvania so wisely, that for many years the 
 majority of medical students went thither to be trained. 
 
 The Rensselaer School of New York, and the Fellenberg Institute of Con- 
 necticut, opened the pathway to industrial education. Roebling, the builder of 
 Brooklyn Bridge, was an alumnus of the former. 
 
 The West Point Academy and the Naval School were founded respectively in 
 1802 and 1845. The latter is the creation of Chauvenet, the teacher, and Bancroft, 
 the historian, then secretary of the navy under James K. Polk. 
 
 § 791. But while all this stir was making for the education of intelligence, philan- 
 thropic minds were busy planning for the afflicted, the deformed and feeble-minded, 
 and boldly attacking the difficult problem of educating the criminal. 
 
 Gallaudet, a Connecticut clergyman, undertook the education of the deaf mute 
 child of his neighbor ; and God made of him, for his reward, the benefactor of ten 
 thousands. His Connecticut asylum, opened in 1815, gave rise to eleven more in 
 thirty years. 
 
 Dr. Howe of Boston introduced the asylum for the blind into the United States, 
 the Perkins Institute beginning at Boston, in 1832 ; in less than twenty years there 
 were eleven such new skies shining above these liberated souls. 
 
 Reformatories for young criminals and first offenders originated in 1820 ; they 
 were instituted by private beneficence, and regarded with suspicion and as doubtful 
 experiments. 
 
 For the Indian, however, neither Congress nor philanthropists took thought. In 
 1820 ten thousand dollars was appropriated to " civilize " the red man, and the Indian 
 Bureau was established in 1838. But during the period of which we are treating 
 now, he was the victim of treachery, neglect, rapacity, and prejudice. 
 
 The influence of slavery upon the schools of the South requires serious study. 
 De Bow's Review, a southern publication, declared in 1859 that the New England 
 system was not feasible in the South. Yet noble efforts were made, and generous sums 
 
694 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 appropriated annually for public 
 schools, in man}' of the Southern 
 States. That thej' did not succeed 
 is doubtless due in many ways to 
 slavery, but other causes were at 
 work, the chief of wliich date from 
 the old colonial days. 
 
 Auxilary to colleges and schools, 
 were the many libraries and learned 
 societies, which were established in 
 the first half century of our national 
 existence. The powerful and capa- 
 cious brain, the large and generous 
 heart of Benjamin Franklin, gave the 
 first impulse to these currents of in- 
 tellectual energy. Quincy of Bos- 
 ton, Astor of New York, and Smith- 
 son, the founder of the great insti- 
 tute at Washington, must be remem- 
 bered with him. 
 
 § 792. Literature. With all this stir 
 of intellectual movement, literature 
 could not be lacking. Easilv chief of 
 
 RALPH WALDO EMERSON. 
 
 WASHINGTON IRVING. 
 
 American writers of this period was 
 Washington Irving, of New York. 
 iis3-isa9. His " Sketch Book " 
 belongs, not simpl}' to our literature, 
 but to the master-pieces of the Eng- 
 lish language. " Knickerbocker's 
 History of New York " gave the first 
 indications of the rich humor that 
 softens the strenuous energy of the 
 American character, while his biogra- 
 pliies kept alive the faith in Colum- 
 bus and in Washington, dimmed in 
 the one case by critical discovery, 
 and eclipsed in the other by the 
 legends of Napoleon. Heniy Reed 
 opened up for Americans tlie poetrj^ 
 of Wordsworth, Emerson made them 
 acquainted with Carlyle, Longfellow 
 explored the treasures of Continental 
 literature, Bancroft taught them the 
 value of German historical investiga- 
 tion, Ticknor wrote a history of 
 Spanish literature, Felton opened up 
 
\.Mi:s FENIMORE COOl'EK. 17S9-1S51. 
 
 WILLIAM CULLEN BRYANT. — 1794-1 >)78. EUUAU ALLAN I'OE. 1 SU'J-l 84',). 
 
 A.MEUICAN AUTHORS. i^pp. 895. J 
 
896 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 the wealth of classic lore, Hedge of 
 Boston taught them the beginnings 
 of German philosophy, while Dana 
 and Hudson fascinated them bj' 
 their knowledge of the English 
 drama. 
 
 Ralph Waldo Emerson is beyond 
 question the most original uf Ameri- 
 
 1S03-1SSS. can writers, full of in. 
 sight and of inspiration, a child of 
 nature and a man of culture, a calm 
 and courageous thinker, a poet with 
 moments of divine rapture, a philos- 
 opher without a conscious sj^stem, 
 responding to all the influences of 
 his time, but alwa3's maintaining his 
 integrity and individuality. 
 
 James Fenimore Cooper pub- 
 lished his " Pioneers " in 1823, and 
 Europeans began to read American 
 books ; for Cooper taught both them 
 
 17SO-1SS1. and his own country- 
 men the resources of American life, 
 
 HENKY WADSWOKrH LONGrjILLOW. 
 
 NATHANIEL HAWTHORNE. 
 
 the picturesqueness of its traditions, 
 and the phases of human character 
 that developed under such unusual 
 conditions. 
 
 Nathaniel Hawthorne in the 
 " Scarlet Letter " first portrayed the 
 tragedy of guilt, wearing out the lives 
 of men and women in the narrow and 
 sombre surroundings of an old New 
 England town. With a Shakesperian 
 insight into those mysterious influ- 
 
 iso-4-isa-i. ences that " shape our 
 destinies, rougli hew them as we ma}-," 
 he made his readers stand in solemn 
 awe, and yet wove about them too, 
 tlie spell of an enchanting humor. 
 Henr}- Wadsworth Longfellow, 
 
 laot.isss. the most popular of 
 American poets, is also the most artis- 
 tic. Oliver Wendell Holmes, the most 
 isoo- intellectual, the wittiest, 
 and the most concise. William Cul- 
 len Bryant abounds in sympathy with 
 
THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 897 
 
 nature and with noble aspirations, in 
 religious and patriotic feeling, in 
 reverence for beauty and for God. 
 Longfellow's " Evangeline," Holmes' 
 " Old Ironsides " and Bryant's 
 " Thanatopsis " all belong to this ear- 
 lier period of our literature. 
 
 Margaret Fuller Ossoli stood 
 almost alone among the women of 
 
 isto-isso. this time, for her breadth 
 of view, her intrepidity, and her in- 
 tellectual strength. Other literary 
 women appeared, but they were de- 
 voted chiefly to poetic effort. 
 
 Richard Hildreth wrote a His- 
 
 iso7-isas tory of the United 
 States, which has been the guide of 
 every accurate historical writer of 
 American history since its publica- 
 tion. 
 
 Jared Sparks, once president of 
 Harvard College, edited the works of 
 Franklin and Washins'- 
 
 119-t- isao. 
 
 HORACE GBEELEY. 
 
 GEORGE BANCROFT. 
 
 ton, and composed a series of biogra- 
 phies of conspicuous merit. 
 
 George Bancroft enveloped our 
 isoo-isoi. early history in dazzling 
 rhetoric, where great breadth of view, 
 much philosophic speculation, and 
 vast stores of knowledge were hidden 
 in ther glow of flashing phrases. Inac- 
 curacies, however, were not swal- 
 lowed in the flame, and provoked 
 recrimination, and many of Ban- 
 ( loft's judgments have been reversed 
 1)\' sober investigation. 
 
 In the South, William Wirt pub- 
 lished the " Letters of a Spy," and 
 his life of " Patrick Henry ; " John 
 P. Kennedy gave a picture of old 
 Virginia life entitled " Swallow 
 Barn," and Gilmore Simms wrote 
 stories of Southern character and 
 scenery. Edgar A. Poe, the most 
 remarkable of all, produced weird 
 tales and wonderful poems, which 
 
 57 
 
898 AMERICA. 
 
 have made the memory of his early death a perpetual regret. Washington Allston, 
 of South Carolina, is another of those men whose actual achievements are so disap- 
 m9-ts43. pointing. Painter and poet, he lived contented with his visions of 
 the beautiful, and sought neither wealth nor fame. He lived above the world ; was 
 never haunted by the necessity of self-expression, and never hungry for applause. 
 His sonnets and his " Sylphs of the Seasons " are marvelous in diction, rich in fancy 
 and in noble sentiment. 
 
 A brief reference to tlie Daily Newspaper must end these suggestions. Francis 
 P. Blair went to the city of Washington in the days of Jackson, and lifted his journal 
 and himself into places of commanding power. William Cullen Bryant gave his 
 vigorous intellect, his lucid style and his incorruptibility to the New York Evening 
 Post. James Gordon Bennett brought a peculiar conscience, an aggressive temper, 
 and a keen scent for news and public opinion to the creation of the New York 
 Herald. George D. Prentice became the ardent friend of Henry Clay, and with 
 his biting sarcasm, his rich humor, and poetic diction, won for the Louisville Courier 
 a national reputation. Horace Greeley informed tlie New York Tribune with his, pow- 
 isii-isi2. erful and unique personality. Rugged mental vigor, imperious and 
 courageous energy, a fondness for paradox and for progress, a hospitality for new and 
 even strange ideas, made the journal, that was founded and conducted by him, the 
 most influential of his generation. Morton McMichael and Joseph R. Chandler gave 
 to the North American, of Philadelphia, decided character and wide-spread influence. 
 Henry J. Raymond created the New York Times, displaying in the conduct of it, 
 amazing energy and great steadiness of conviction. Thurlow Weed, uniting, as per- 
 haps no other man in America, the skill of the practical politician with the journal- 
 istic genius, conquered for his Albany newspaper a place quite unique in American 
 life. 
 
 The first newspaper in America was the Boston News-Letter, published in 1704, 
 and named apparently in honor of a Boston News-Letter attempted in 1690, but 
 promptly suppressed by the authorities of Massachusetts. The next city to enjoy the 
 privilege was Pliiladelphia, where the Mercurie was started in 1719. Tlie New York 
 Gazette began in 1725, and the Virginia Gazette in 1736. In 1830 the number of 
 newspapers publislied was eight hundred and fifty-two, of which fifty were dailies. 
 In 1850 this number had increased to two thousand five hundred and twenty-six. 
 
 The North American Revieiv, established in 1815, is the only one of the many 
 high-class periodicals attempted in our early history which still survives. Godey's 
 Ladies' Book on the other hand perpetuates a type of magazine once exceedingly jjop- 
 ular and jDOwerful, but now almost extinct. It is, however, in these defunct reviews 
 and magazines that the literary development of the American people can best be 
 traced. 
 
THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 899 
 
 3, The Struggle to Restrict Negro Slavery ajs'd the War to Preserve 
 
 THE Union. 
 
 § 711. From the foundation of "the more perfect union "in 1787 to the election 
 of Abraham Lincoln to the Presidency in 1860, powerful forces tended to sejjarate 
 the United States of America into dissevered sections. The first of these, local jeal- 
 ousies, existed long before the Revolutionary struggle. They had endangered the 
 Colonies in the days of the French and Indian conflict ; they broke out even amid 
 the perils of the war for independence ; they brought the first union of the states to 
 the verge of dissolution, and prevented, almost, the formation and adoption of the 
 constitution of 1787. They were due, partly to the natural disposition of men to 
 prefer their own tribe and their own neighborhood; partly to real diversities of feel- 
 ings, of interests, of character, and historical antecedents ; and partly to suspicions 
 engendered in ignorance and nourished by selfish and ambitious leaders. 
 
 A still more powerful tendency to separation originated in Negro slavery. This 
 existed at one time in all the colonies and its existence was everywJiere deplored ; 
 Washington, Jefferson, Henry, W3'the, the friend and preceptor of Henry Clay, Ran- 
 dolph and Madison, all of them Virginians, looked upon it with undisguised alarm, 
 hoped for its gradual extinction, and Jefferson especially worked ardently but unsuc- 
 cessfully for its abolition. It was abolished in the Northern States at the beginning 
 of the nineteenth century, although the slave-ti'ade was continued until 1808. But 
 the climate and soil of the South favored slave-labor, and the invention of the cotton- 
 gin made the cotton crop the great staple of southern produce. Slavery took on a 
 new aspect, both economically and morally, in the eyes of the southern people; the 
 South became wholly agricultural and great plantations became the rule ; slave-holders, 
 though always a small minority of the citizens of the South, became, by reason of 
 their wealth and culture, the ruling power in the political and social life of their 
 section ; the Negroes were of course brought up in ignorance, but public-schools for 
 the education of the children of the Whites were never or seldom established. 
 
 The North on the other hand became a section of diversified industries ; of com- 
 merce, manufactures, and free-hold farming. In New England, in the free states of 
 the Northwest, in New York and Pennsylvania a system of free schools was established, 
 that brought the power and delight of knowledge within the reach of every intelli- 
 gent child. 
 
 In the South discussion of tlie slavery quest'on became gradually unpopular and 
 finally impossible. 
 
 In the North it was also unpopular at times and in some localities quite dangerous; 
 yet it was always possible and finally broke forth with unquenchable energy. 
 
 §712. That these tendencies vv'rought so mightily for miscliief was due, however, 
 to a political theory of the constitution, and to certain peculiarities in the structure 
 of the Federal government. 
 
 This political theory was the docti'ine of secession, fii'st i^ropounded in a limited 
 form in the Kentucky Resolutions of 1798, which were written by Thomas Jefferson, 
 though not acknowledged by him during his life time. These were subsequently 
 developed and enlarged by Calhoun and others, into the doctrine of State Sovereignty 
 with the derivative riglit of nullification. The doctrine was urged in 1798 in the 
 interests of a Free Press and of personal liberty ; it was revived in 1830 in the 
 
900 AMERICA. 
 
 interests of free trade, and in opposition to a tariff declared to be, by Calhoun, wholly 
 in the interests of Northern industiy. 
 
 In the form given to it in 1830 it made at first but few disciples; in 1860, how- 
 ever, it dominated almost exclusively the press, and the public opinion of the South, 
 except in the border states. A few strong men in the cotton states still held'to the 
 paramount authority of the Union, but the great mass of Southern citizens believed 
 1S30. tlieir first allegiance to be due to the local state government. 
 
 The structural defect in our political sj^stem was the constitution of the Senate and 
 of the electoral colleges ; each state being represented in the Senate by two senators, 
 no matter how small its population, mere territory came to have undue power. When 
 therefore the rapid increase of the population of the North, due to the presence of 
 slavery in the South, threatened to shift the centre of political power from Virginia 
 northwards, southern statesmen became eager to create new slave states and to acquire, 
 bj' purchase and b)' conquests, new territory out of which to make them. The 
 acquisition of Louisiana and of Florida were acts of lofty statesmanship, quite indepen- 
 dent of such considerations, and was as necessar}' and as profitable to the West as to 
 the South. Yet the new states made from these regions kept the balance of power 
 equal until 1820. 
 
 The annexation of Texas, the Mexican war, and the increase of territory 
 consequent upon it, the attempts to acquire Cuba, and to get a foothold in Central 
 America, were all parts of a policy to extend the political power of slavery;— an exten- 
 sion which would have been impossible if population had not been sacrificed to 
 sectional jealousies in the structure of the Senate, and of the electoral system. 
 Finally the patronage system of appointments to public office begun by Aaron Burr, 
 in New York, and developed by Andrew Jackson in the Nation, greatly aggravated 
 these evil tendencies. Congress, which the framers of the Constitution had (they 
 thought) carefully separated from executive interference, could not escape this 
 meanest and most dangerous form of administrative influence. An army of office- 
 holders became obedient vassals of the executive will, and a policy, supported by the 
 President, was sure to find adherents wherever there were offices and office-seekers. A 
 national election came to be a fierce struggle for place and emolument, and a change of 
 administration meant for thousands, sharp, immediate, and in many cases, ruinous loss. 
 
 § 713. How these tendencies co-operated to produce the civil war M'ill appear 
 in the following section — 
 
 In 1784 Thomas Jefferson proposed in Congress the abolition of slavery in the 
 Northwest territory after the year 1800; he failed of success by a single vote. In 1787 
 the proposition was renewed and adopted. This action of the old Congress dedicating 
 so vast an area to perpetual freedom was not challenged anywhere. The feeling 
 against slaver}^ both South and North, was too strong at that time to warrant any 
 stubborn oiDposition. 
 
 In the first Congress in the New Union, the question of the jDower of Congress over 
 slavery in the several states was raised by a memorial of the Pennsylvania Abolition 
 Society ; the debate was vehement, coarse, and even indecent. Yet the House 
 declared Congress incompetent to deal with slavery in the sevei-al states by the nar- 
 row majority of two only, — the vote standing twenty-seven to twenty-five. 
 
 After this tlie question of slavery excited no ill-feeling until 1820. In the mean- 
 
THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 901 
 
 time, however, threats of disunion were by no means uncommon or confined to a 
 single section. Local independence was too firmly rooted in the American character 
 to disappear immediately, and when-c 
 ever a section or a state could not pre- 1 
 vail in the National councils, the speeih-l 
 dissolution of the Union was predicts 
 and sometimes the angry prophets strove j 
 mightily to help along the fulfillment of I 
 their prophecies. On the Southwestern [ 
 frontier and in New England, these! 
 tendencies were marked, and the old an- 
 tagonism between New England and! 
 the South came sharply to the surface I 
 in the second war with Great Britain.] 
 But when the admission of Missouri as 
 a slave state was challenged by the free 
 states in 1820, the conflict of feelings] 
 and of interests brought disunion peril-] 
 ously near. At that time there existed! 
 neither the disposition nor the power in 
 either section to compel the other to re- 
 main. The Missouri compromise there- 1 
 fore saved the Union, and postponed the | 
 separation for nearly half a century. 
 Though not begun, it was carried to a I 
 successful completion by the eloquent 
 and persuasive Henry Clay. But great 
 changes were at hand. Daniel Webster began in 1830 that exposition of the Consti- 
 tution as an indissoluble compact, which became the intellectual basis of the future 
 passion for the Union. 
 
 A few years afterward, Andrew Jackson, then president, uttered his famous 
 
 declaration. " 1'hk Federal Union, It Must and Shall Be Peesi la id," and this 
 
 , ''■ was followed by Iiis decisive conduct 
 
 -f . - ! , lis, toward South Carolina when that 
 
 /■ - *«|||| state, under the influence of Calhoun, 
 
 / " " '.nullified by ordinance the tariff act / 
 
 I . : :j , ,■ -v 5 of 1828. In his proclamation of De- 
 
 ' 1832. cember 10th, 1832 
 
 appealed the notable words " Oui 
 
 Constitution does not contain that 
 
 absurdity of giving power to make 
 
 laws, and another power to resist 
 them ; to say that any state may at pleasure secede from the Union is to say that the 
 United States is not a nation." 
 
 The North hailed this declaration with unanimous enthusiasm, but the South 
 accepted it with misgiving. Outside of South Carolina the motive of the President was 
 
 WM. LLOYD GARRISON. 
 
 JOHN TYLER. 
 
 ZACHARY TAYLOR. 
 
902 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 approved, but his doctrine was seri 
 ously doubted. Jackson's bold de- 
 meanor, the knowledge of his un- 
 flinching courage, the popular en- 
 thusiasm that rallied to his support, 
 the failure of Calhoun's plan to in- 
 volve the other Southern states would 
 have led to the humiliation of South 
 Carolina, but for the interference of 
 Henry Claj^ with the compromise of 
 1833, an interference, the wisdom of 
 which Clay seriously doubted in his 
 later years. In 1831 William Lloyd 
 Garrison began the publication of his 
 " Liberator " and the moral attack 
 upon American slavery. This at 
 first attracted not much attention, 
 but in 1833 a National Anti-Slavery 
 convention was held in Philadelphia, 
 and in the same year Great Britain 
 abolished slavery in the West Indies. 
 A slave insurrection in Virginia about 
 the same time increased the alarm of 
 
 I immrWiWi "S 
 
 74 / ji 
 
 WILLIAM H. SEWARD. 
 
 JOHN Ci. WHITTIBE. 
 
 the slave-holders. They began to 
 demand the suppression of the Abo- 
 lition movement, the exclusion of all 
 anti-slavery documents from the 
 mails, and the punishment by law of 
 all anti-slavery agitators. Neverthe- 
 less petitions were sent to Congress 
 praying the abolition of slavery in 
 the District of Columbia, and the 
 great debate was opened, which was 
 destined not to close, until slavery 
 perished as a consequence of civil 
 war. 
 
 § 714. Calhoun meanwhile 
 propagated eagerly in the Senate and 
 in the Southern States, his theory of 
 State sovereignty, and at the same 
 time developed his plans for the 
 territorial extension of slavery. In 
 1S44 1844 President Tyler 
 
 sent the treaty for the annexation 
 of Texas, to the United States 
 Senate, transmitting with it a mes- 
 
THE HISTORY OP NOETPI AMERICA. 
 
 903 
 
 ■ CHARLES SUMNER. 
 
 was pushed aside for a wliile, and in 
 1847 Calhoun introduced a series of 
 resolutions, affirming that a consti- 
 tution by its own force carried slavery 
 into all the territories belonging to 
 the Union. But in 1848 a Free Soil 
 convention met at Buffalo, in num- 
 bers large enough to prove that the 
 i94:S opposition to slavery 
 
 extension was both powerful and de- 
 termined. In 1849 California applied 
 for admission as a free state, for the 
 discovery of gold had crowded the 
 territory with immigrants who had 
 no desire for slaver3^ And when 
 Taylor, the hero of the Mexican War, 
 a Southerner and a slave-holder, who 
 had been elected to the Presidency 
 in 1848 urged the immediate admis- 
 sion of California, Southern Con- 
 gressmen were angered and surprised. 
 Threats of disunion filled the air. 
 But the conqueror of Buena Vista 
 
 sage of his own and a dispatch of 
 Mr. Calhoun, his Secretary of State, 
 addressed to Lord Aberdeen. Both 
 these documents stated in undisguised 
 language that the annexation was for 
 the protection of the "domestic in- 
 stitutions" of the United States. 
 This protection of slavery hastened 
 its destruction. For the annexation 
 of Texas led to the war with Mexico, 
 to the conquest of California, and 
 the reopening of all the questions 
 relating to our domestic institutions. 
 Sagacious southern Whigs, like Rob- 
 ert Toombs, warned their country 
 men of the inevitable outcome. But 
 they spoke in vain against the storm 
 of popular feeling. The war was not 
 yet closed when David Wilmot, of 
 Pennsylvania, offered a proviso to a 
 pending bill, that in all territories 
 acquired from Mexico, slavery should 
 be forever prohibited. This provisc 
 
 "MRS. H. B. "^TOWE. 
 
904 AMERICA. 
 
 declared emphatically that disunion was treason, and intimated that he would take the 
 field in person against any show of armed resistance. But General Taylor died sud- 
 isso. denly in Julj', 1850, and the change of the political situation enabled 
 
 Clay to accomplish a third great compromise. 
 
 Calhoun, with marvelous astuteness, opposed all compromises, deeming it danger- 
 ous folly in the South to postpone the issue until the North could overwhelm her by 
 sheer force -of numbers. Clay on the other hand, who tolerated, but did not love 
 slavery", and who scouted Calhoun's doctrine of the necessitj^ of a political equilibrium 
 between North and South, was ready for almost any sacrifice that would per^Detuate 
 the Union. But the compromise failed to satisf}^ the active elements of either sec- 
 tion. The South resented the admission of California as a free state, and the numerical 
 superiority of the free states in the Senate ; the North was exasperated by the new 
 fugitive slave law. Attempts to capture alleged slaves provoked riots in Pennsylvania, 
 New York, and Boston ; personal liberty bills were passed in several northern states 
 whereby the law was greatly hampered in its execution. Lowell, and Longfellow, and 
 Whittier stirred the people with their poems ; and the pulpits of the North began to 
 resound with denunciations and defences of slavery, preached to excited congrega- 
 tions. 
 
 § 715. In 1853 Franklin Pierce, the newly elected president, congratulated the 
 country upon the permanent settlement of the slavery ques- 
 tion ; yet his words had hardly died away before the strife 
 blazed out more fiercely than ever. For in 1854, Stephen A. 
 Douglas introduced the famous Kansas and Nebraska bill. 
 1SS4. This repealed the Missouri compromise, 
 
 referring the question of slavery in the territories, to the 
 settlers who organized them into states. The principle of 
 the bill was called by its friends "popular " and by its ene- 
 mies " squatter sovereignty." Immediately upon the pas- 
 sage of the bill the country was divided into hostile camps. 
 
 FRANKLIN PIERCE. , °„ , , . r- i , •, 
 
 A fierce struggle began m Kansas between the pro-slavery 
 settlers from Missouri and the free soilers from the North, which attracted the atten- 
 tion of the entire people. This struggle resulted in two distinct constitutions, one ex- 
 cluding and the other including slavery. 
 
 The Whig Party now dissolved. An attempt to found an American party proved 
 a failure ; and the Democratic party divided into factions. Fierce debates took place 
 in Congress. Chase, and Seward, and Sumner, and Wade astonished the Senate and 
 the South by their opinions and their eloquence, and the anti-Nebraska men of the 
 House emulated their ability and their courage. A violent assault upon Senator 
 Sumner, by a member of the House from South Carolina, startled the entire land; and 
 the publication of " Uncle Tom's Cabin " brought the discussion of slavery into every 
 household of the North. The republican party, made up of anti-slavery Whigs and 
 anti-Nebraska Democrats, was now organized and grew to large proportions in all the 
 Northern states. Its motto was " Free soil for free men," its chief principle, the re- 
 striction of slavery forever to existing limits. Yet, the election of 1856 showed that, 
 isao. in spite of the prevalent excitement, the vast majority of the peojDle 
 
 shrank from a purely sectional party, and not until the Democratic party was rent in 
 
tyvcCcAx.c^r^ 
 
 {pp. 905.) 
 
906 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 JAMES BUCHANAN. 
 
 twain at Charleston, South Carolina, in 1860, was it possible to eleot a Republican to 
 laeo. the presidency of the United States. Abraham Lincoln had a majority 
 
 of the electors, but the combined popular vote of Douglas, Breckenridge and Bell, left 
 
 him in the minority of a million in a total vote of four million six hundred thousand.* 
 § 798. The War for the Union. The Presidential elec- 
 tion of 1860 was peculiar and exciting. That Lincoln would 
 be elected few could fail to see ; but beyond that all was 
 uncertain. Southern leaders pointing to the Dred Scott 
 decision (which had nationalized slavery) asserted the elec- 
 tion of Lincoln to be a violation of the constitution ; point- 
 ing to the personal liberty statutes of the free States, and to 
 the invasion of John Brown at Harper's Ferry, they declared 
 the North to be bent upon the destruction of their institu- 
 tions, i. e. slavery ; relying upon the Kentucky resolutions, 
 which had been made a part of the Democratic platform in 
 
 1856, they proclaimed the constitutionality of secession, and prepared to separate 
 
 from the Union. Yet a strong love 
 
 for the Union existed in the South, 
 
 especially in the border States and in 
 
 Georgia, and a strong sympathj^ with 
 
 the South existed among the northern 
 
 members of the Democratic and Amer- 
 ican parties. 
 
 President Buchanan had been 
 
 the choice of Southern men. In the 
 
 Ostend conference, he had joined 
 
 with them in their lust for Cuba ; 
 
 later on he had furthered their 
 
 schemes to conquer Kansas. His 
 
 Scotch-Irish blood was a gentler 
 
 fluid than that in the veins of Andi-ew 
 
 Jackson, while his cabinet had been 
 
 made up largely of Southern men, 
 
 known to be in sympathy with the 
 
 seceders. 
 
 Lincoln, on the other hand, had 
 
 little experience in public life, and 
 
 entered almost suddenly upon the 
 
 greatest task ever devolved upon the 
 
 ruler of a free people. Many efforts 
 
 were made to satisfy the excited peo- 
 ple of the South, in which the newly- 
 elected President bore a manly part 
 
 * Tlie pouiilai- vote was as follows: 
 Lincoln 1.817,610. 
 Douglass 1.291,514. 
 Bi-eckeniidge, 850,022. 
 Bell, 646,124. 
 
 JOHN BROWN. 
 
 But South Carolina hastened to pass an 
 
THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 907 
 
 nec.ao.isao. Ordinance of Secession, on December 20, 1860, the language of which 
 is sufficient to determine forever the relation of negro slavery to the civil war. Seces- 
 sionists were of three classes : (1) Those who desired to destroy the Federal Union ; 
 (2) those who expected to make better terms out of the Union than in it; and (3) 
 those who believed themselves bound to go with their States, though personally op- 
 posed to secession. Under the influence of the former, in January, 1861, Mississippi, 
 Alabama, Florida, Georgia, and Louisiana seceded. Texas followed tiie next month. 
 
 Delegates were appointed to a convention which met at Montgomery, Alabama, 
 and framed a constitution for the Confederate States of America, which was adopted 
 Feh. 4, isei. February 4, 1861. A comparison of this document with the Constitu- 
 tion of the United States, is likewise 
 sufficient to determine how far negro ww^^-s^w^-.-n^ . 
 slavery was the cause of the war. 
 
 Directly the States seceded, the 
 State authorities seized the forts and 
 custom houses ; in a word, the pro- 
 perty of the Federal Union. Their 
 senators and representatives with- 
 drew from Congress ; many officers 
 resigned from the army and navy. 
 Meanwhile Buchanan and his attor- 
 ney-general. Black, had made a great 
 discovery. Secession they found to 
 be illegal, but the coercion of a State 
 to be also illegal. Nevertheless, such 
 Democrats as Cass and Stanton, who 
 entered the cabinet to fill the places 
 of the seceders, determined to send 
 supplies to Fort Sumter, in Charles- 
 jan. o, isei. ton harbor. The " Star 
 of the West," however, could not 
 land for hostile batteries, and Fort 
 Sumter was abandoned to the drift of 
 circumstances. 
 
 § 799. Lincoln reached Wash- 
 ington late in February, changing his 
 route to escape assassination. On the fourth of March he delivered his inaugural ad- 
 dress, for which the people of the country were waiting in multitudes, feverishly impa- 
 tient to know his policy. Zealots were disappointed, but wiser men recognized a tran- 
 quil strength, a calm invincible purpose, in the quiet periods and the lucid reasoning of 
 this first inaugural. Suddenly, just as men began to hope for some escape. Fort Sumter 
 was attacked, and compelled to surrender. The war had begun. President Lincoln 
 
 Ap,ii ts. called immediately for seventy-five thousand volunteers ; a great cry 
 went through the North, and recruits streamed in from every section. But when a 
 
 Apvii lo. Massachusetts regiment marched through Baltimore, to the defence of 
 Washington, it was assaulted by a mob. The capital of the nation was in imminent peril. 
 
 JEFFERSON DAVIS 
 
908 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 Jefferson Davis, the President of 
 the Confederate States, prompth 
 called for men, and they offered them- 
 selves with eager courage. Noith 
 Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas 
 next seceded and joined the Confeil- 
 eracy, and Virginia soon followed. 
 Davis commissioned privateers : 
 Lincoln proclaimed a blockade. 
 Great Britain recognized the Con- 
 federate States as belligerents ; other 
 nations soon did the same. When 
 Virginia seceded, Riclnnond became 
 the capital of the Confederacy-, and 
 the struggle for the possession of the 
 Potomac then began. General Scott, 
 though a Virginian, refused to aban- 
 don the Union, and remained in com- 
 mand of the army. 
 
 In July, General George B. Mc- 
 Clellan drove the Confederate forces 
 from West Vii-ginia, which soon or- 
 ganized into a separate State. These 
 
 ADMIRAL DAVID G. FARRAGUT. 
 
 GENERAL GEORGE H. THOMAS. 
 
 successes intoxicated the editors of 
 the Nortli, who clamored for a crush- 
 ing victory. Tiie Union arm3% under 
 
 July 31. General McDowell, 
 sought one at Bull Run, where it de- 
 feated Beauregard ; but Patterson, 
 having failed to detain the troops of 
 Johnston in the Shenandoah Valley, 
 they arrived in time to rout Mc- 
 Dowell's men, and drive them panic- 
 stricken back to Washington. 
 
 Scott, grown too old for such a 
 task, now made room for McClellan, 
 
 Attg. HO. who organized the 
 famous Army of the Potomac. No 
 forward movement was made, how- 
 ever, until October, when the disas- 
 ter of Ball's Bluff deepened the 
 anxiety caused by Bull Run. 
 
 §-800. The Struggle for the 
 Mississipin Valley. Fort Henry on 
 the Tennessee, and Fort Donelson on 
 the Cumberland river, were two 
 
THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 909 
 
 strong forts held by Confederate soldiers. The line of the Confederates extended 
 isaa. through southern Kentucky and into northern 'rciinr-sir, and was 
 
 commanded by Albert Sidney 
 
 Johnston. Grant was at Cairo 
 
 (the junction of the Oliio with 
 
 the Mississippi), commanding 
 
 fifteen thousand Union men. 
 
 Buell had a hundred thousand 
 
 men scattered iu manj^ divi- 
 sions tlirough Kentucky. Gen. 
 
 George H. Thomas, a loyal 
 j«ii. 19. Virginian, at- 
 tacked the Confederates with 
 
 a portion of BuelFs forces, at 
 
 Mill Spring, Kentuckj% and 
 
 drove them into Tennessee. 
 
 Commander Foote carried his 
 
 fleet of gunboats up the river 
 
 to Fort Henry, and captured 
 Feh. a. it, before Grant 
 
 could reach it from Cairo. 
 
 But pushing on toFortDonel- 
 
 son Grant, after a desperate 
 weh. le. fight, forced 
 
 Buckner to surrender anarni}^ 
 
 of nine thousand men. Nash- 
 ville was now occupied by 
 Union troops, and Andrew 
 Johnson appointed military 
 governor of the State. Grant 
 then encamped at Pittsburgh 
 Landing, or Shiloh, ou the 
 Tennessee river, close to the 
 corners of Tennessee, Missis- 
 sippi, and Alabama. Hither 
 Api-ii o-i. Johnston fol- 
 lowed and surprised him. But 
 the gun-boats gave his forces 
 time to rally ; Buell arrived 
 with fresh troops toward even- 
 ing ; Johnston was killed in 
 the fight, and the Confeder- 
 ates were driven from the field. 
 Tlie losses on both sides were 
 tei-rible, each side losing one-fourth of the men engaged. 
 
 General Halleck now took command of the Union forces, and forced Beauregard 
 to evacuate Corinth, Mississippi. 
 
910 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 General Bragg then marched northward to Kentucky, fought with Buell at Per- 
 ryville, and returning, fortified himself at Murfreesboro, near Nashville. General 
 Rosecrans set out to attack the place, but met Bragg on the way. Three days the 
 bloody strife endured ; for this battle of Stone River was among the fiercest of the 
 war. Meanwhile the Union gun-beats kept the Mississippi clear as far south as 
 Aptii 7. Vicksburg ; not, however, until they had conquered Island No. 10, 
 
 where the Confederates made a desperate resistance, lasting for a month. 
 
 Commodore David Farragut had sailed from Hampton Roads in February, 1862. 
 General Butler, with fifteen thousand men, went with him. The troops were landed at 
 Ship Island, but Farragut determined to force his way up the river to New Orleans. 
 
 His fleet consisted of thirteen ves- 
 sels ; each went forward fighting for 
 itself, silencing forts and destroying the 
 sliips of the enemy as <,best it could. 
 They started at two o'clock in the morn- 
 Aprii 23-35. lug of April 23rd, and 
 New Orleans surrendered on the 25th. 
 The Union navy was now in possession 
 of the Mississippi river, for the iron- 
 clad ram Arkansas, built especially to 
 destroy the fleet of Farragut, was de- 
 stroyed near Baton Rouge, and the last 
 hoj)e of the enemy buried in the waters. 
 May 11. And the gunboats sailing 
 south met the victorious ships of Farra- 
 gut as they pushed toward Vicksburg. 
 
 § 801. The Struggle for the Poto- 
 mac. McClellan, with an army of two 
 hundred thousand men, moved to the 
 isoi. peninsula between the 
 
 Yoi'kand the James rivers. McDowell 
 was stationed at Fredericksburg to 
 cover Washington, while General Banks 
 marched up the Valley of the Shenan- 
 doah. 
 
 The Confederates, under General Joseph E. Johnston, thereupon moved from 
 Manassas Junction to the Peninsula, so as to cover Richmond. 
 
 Yorktown lay in McClellan's path; it was besieged and taken in May, 1862, the 
 Slay 3. Confederates retiring to their intrenchments close to Richmond. Mc- 
 
 Clellan then divided his army so as to unite with McDowell at Fredericksburg, while 
 the gunboats of the Union controlled the River James almost to the Confederate 
 capital. 
 
 Between the two divisions of McClellan's army ran the Chickahominy creek. 
 
 The May rains swelled this creek to a river, and converted the country to a swamp. 
 
 Johnston seized his chance. He attacked the weaker section of the Union arnij', the 
 
 jTuHe 1. section nearest Richmond, at Seven Pines and Fair Oaks. But he was 
 
 ROBERT E. LEE. 
 
THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 911 
 
 himself badly wounded, and his army worsted. General Robert E. Lee now took com- 
 mand. Lee had "gone with his State " after a severe mental struggle. He graduated 
 at West Point, served in Mexico, and loved the Union. But state sovereignty con- 
 trolled him, and made him the servant of a doomed cause. His first move was to de- 
 tach McDowell from McClellan. This he did by sending Jackson to the Shenandoah, 
 with orders to chase Banks to the Potomac and to threaten Washington. Jackson, 
 
 jTunei'}. the most impetuous soldier of the South, the idolized "Stonewall" of 
 his soldiers, executed his orders with splendid energy. As a consequence McDowell 
 was ordeied back to Washington. 
 
 Lee next pounced upon McClellan, driving him to the James river, fighting the 
 battles of Savage Station on the 29th 
 Seven Bays' of June, and Mal- 
 
 fightiiia, vern Hill on the 1st 
 June 2s-jruiu t- of July This was 
 described by McClellan as a "change 
 of base ; " a phrase that concealed 
 a great disaster. For though Lee's 
 attacks were repulsed, the Union 
 campaign had broken down com- 
 pletely. 
 
 Meanwhile General John Pope 
 made his " headquarters in his sad- 
 dle," in command of the army that 
 covered Washington. In a second 
 Atia- 3o- set>t. i. Bull Run battle, 
 Stonewall Jackson routed completely 
 the commander, who had published 
 beforehand, that he had " no lines of 
 retreat." His soldiers found some 
 for themselves, and gathered together 
 finally at Washington. McClellan 
 was now ordered to bring his army 
 back by water which he did in Sep- 
 tember. 
 
 Lee then crossed the Potomac 
 and started for Baltimore. McClei- 
 
 sei>t. ij. Ian intercepted him and forced him to the mountains. Jackson mean- 
 
 sepf. IS. while captured Harper's Ferry with twelve thousand men and plenty 
 of supplies. 
 
 McClellan marched his men across the mountains and forced Lee to a fight at 
 
 isa2. Antietam creek, near Sharpsburg. After the battle, which was furious 
 
 and destructive, Lee recrossed the Potomac. President Lincoln, at this juncture, is- 
 
 sept. 22. sued his first Emancipation Proclamation. It was a notice that, unless 
 the seceding states returned to the Union, all slaves would be declared free on the 1st 
 of January, 1863. 
 
 Shortly afterward, McClellan was superseded by General Burnside, who attempted 
 
 STONEWALL .TACKSON. 
 
912 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 Dee. 13. in December to storm the hills of Fredericksburg, a disastrous under- 
 1S03. taking that issued in a terrible repulse. General Hooker next took 
 
 May s. command, and after some months fought Lee at Chancellorsville. The 
 
 Union forces lost the battle, but Lee lost " Stonewall " Jackson, whom he named his 
 strong right arm. Jackson's tragic fate (he was killed by his own men blundering in 
 the dark) hovered over Lee's army like an evil omen. For the presence of Stonewall 
 Jackson had seemed to sanctify their cause, while his success filled them with the belief 
 that the God in whom their general trusted, would not suffer them to be put to shame. 
 xau 10. His death at their own hands therefore smote them like a divine judg- 
 ment ; they lost not only their invincible commander, but with him, their faith in the 
 
 invincibilit}' of their cause. But Lee 
 
 f ' '■'■""■".■II n i w> ) iii FfiP-w -T i i ri ' ip« 'i ir i' i i' < i' rr i'i ii i i i M '' ¥i ii"» " w"i" i i"i.„i nioved around the army of Hooker 
 
 and started for the North. Conster- 
 nation seized the people of Phila- 
 delphia and Ne\v York. Washing- 
 ton was hastily covered by Hooker's 
 men, and then a new commander, 
 jr«ne 3J. Gcorge G. Meade was 
 given to lead them into Pennsylvania. 
 Lee marched to Chambersburg in 
 Pennsylvania, thence eastward to 
 Gettysburg, where, after three days 
 jh/i/ 1-8-3. desperate struggle in 
 the decisive battle of the war, he was 
 utterly defeated. On the night of 
 July 3rd, 1863, his routed army re- 
 turned to Virginia, never to fight on 
 northern soil again. 
 
 § 802. The Struggle for the 
 Mississippi Valley. The Mississippi 
 river was fortified by the Confeder- 
 ates at Vicksburg and Port Hudson. 
 3iau IS. Grant moved his troops 
 down the west bank of the river, 
 and first attempted to isolate Vicks- 
 burg by a canal through the great 
 bend. Tiiis plan however failed. He then moved to the south, and ferried his men in 
 gunboats to the Vicksburg side of tlie river. Sherman meanwhile made a feint north 
 of the city along the Yazoo. Having crossed the river, Grant marched toward Jack- 
 son, Miss., fighting as he went. He forced himself thus between two Confederate 
 armies, commanded respectively by Pemberton and Joseph E. Johnston. The former 
 was driven into Vicksburg, the latter back to Jackson. Having accomplished this, he 
 Silly 4. united with Sherman and squeezed Pemberton into surrender. Vicks- 
 burg, with thirty-seven thousand men, was given up on the 4th of July, 1863. 
 
 Port Hudson surrendered to Banks, who had succeeded General Butler at New 
 Orleans, within a vve^k. Thus tiie Confederacy was rent in twain. 
 
 GENERAL GEORGE G. .MEADE. 
 
THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 913 
 
 Bragg, after the bloody but decisive battle of Murfreesboro, retired to Chatta- 
 nooga, and thence to Chickamauga. Thither he was pursued by Rosecians, but the 
 
 Union army was defeated, and would ha\e been annihilated, but for General Thomas 
 
 sept.io, 20. and his invincible columns. Shut up in Chattanooga, the Union forces 
 
 were almost starved, when Grant arrived to take command. Hooker brought rein- 
 
 58 
 
914 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 forceraeiits from the east. Sherman 
 joined him also, and here gathered rap- 
 idly a force sufficient for a daring en- 
 terprise. 
 
 From Lookout Mountain and Mis- 
 sionary Ridge, each half a mile high, 
 the Confederates breathed defiance. 
 But Grant's men fought their way to 
 xov. 114, ss. the heights above the 
 clouds, driving the Confederates before 
 them. Bragg retreated into Georgia, 
 and Longstreet, who had been besieg- 
 ing Knoxville, returned across the 
 mountains to Virginia. 
 
 § 803. The Struggle for the Atlan- 
 tic Coast. The war began in Charles- 
 ton Harbor. " Cotton is king ! " cried 
 the South, hoping to hold the coast, 
 and to procure the help of foreign 
 powers. The Federal government at 
 once declared a blockade, and pro- 
 
 JOHN ERICSSON. 
 
 ULYSSES S. GRANT. 
 
 ceeded to capture the strongholds 
 of the South. In August, 1861, 
 Hatteras Inlet and Fort Hatteras 
 Alia- «». isei. were captured by a 
 joint expedition under Commodore 
 Stringhani and General Butler. In 
 the following November Port Royal 
 and the islands between Charleston 
 and Savannah fell into the hands of 
 Commodore Dupont. 
 
 Ship island, at the mouth of the 
 Mississippi river, had been already 
 taken two months before. But the 
 Confederates expected great things 
 of their cruiser, Merrimac, a power- 
 ful iron-clad, which sailed into 
 Hampton Roads, the 8th of March, 
 1862. With this cruiser they hoped, 
 not only to place the cities of the 
 sea-coast at their mercy, but to end 
 the war right speedily. Nor were 
 their hopes ill-founded. Hardly 
 had the monster entered Hampton 
 Roads, when she attacked and sunk 
 the Cumberland, and as night came 
 
THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 915 
 
 on, four other splendid ships of war lay helpless before her. But the next morning, 
 when the Merrimac returned from Norfolk to complete her conquest, a queer little 
 creature, looking like " a cheese box on a raft," beo-an to fire at her. The " Moni- 
 
 Mni-ph s, o, tor," for " — - " " ~ ^^ ..^^^ 
 
 istt3. that was ' J,' ,i\ 
 
 the name of John 
 Ericsson's strange 
 craft, seemed to be ' 
 
 " full of guns," and 
 
 the Merrimac'sofBcer | "* 
 
 reported, "■ after two 
 hours' firing, I did 
 her as much damage 
 as by snapping my 
 thumb at her every 
 two minutes and a 
 half." The " cheese 
 box " had saved the 
 Union. The Merri- 
 mac retired to Nor- 
 folk, and was after- 
 ward destroyed, to 
 prevent her falling 
 into Union hands. 
 Other iron-clads were 
 built for the defence 
 of the Atlantic har- 
 bors, and cruisers 
 were equipped in 
 England to prey upon 
 the commerce of the 
 loyal States. But the 
 blockade was main- 
 tained strictly 
 enough to prevent a 
 hostile declaration 
 from foreign powers, 
 though England and 
 France were impor- 
 tuned to declare it 
 void. President 
 Lincoln, anxious to 
 
 sept.isea. reduce Charleston, sent against it a fleet of iron-clads, but without 
 
 result. It was next besieged by General Gilmore, assisted by iron-clads and gun-boats. 
 
 Still the city held out. The Atlanta, however, an ironclad built for the defence 
 
 of Charleston and Savannah, was captured by the monitor, Weehawken, after a few 
 
 1 '1 
 
 K 
 
 
 , 1 
 
 .. ri^'^'''^iiiiiiiiiiii^ 
 
 ^V . 
 
 
 r-r- 
 
 ll 
 
 1- 
 
 
 flp~ 
 
 
916 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 minutes firing. While Charleston was blockaded, Mobile, Alabama, and Wilmington, 
 North Carolina, were practically open. It was determined, if possible, to close them. 
 
 Farragut fought his 
 way through the tor- 
 pedoes and gun-boats, 
 and passed the forts 
 ^"sr. s isoj. of Mo- 
 bile harbor. He then 
 attacked and cap- 
 tured with his wood- 
 en ships the iron-clad 
 Tennessee. The city 
 did not surrender, but 
 the port was closed. 
 Admiral Porter was 
 not so successful in 
 attacking Fort Fish- 
 er. General Butler 
 had gone along with 
 a much vaunted pow- 
 der-boat; but the ex- 
 pedition failed. Gen- 
 eral Terry, however, 
 captured the fort soon 
 after, and Wilming- 
 ton surrendered the 
 next month. Mean- 
 jiine IS, 1S04. while 
 the Alabama had 
 been sunk by the 
 Kearsarge, not far 
 from Cherbourg, 
 France; and the 
 Florida captured in 
 Bahia by the Wachu- 
 sett. The Georgia 
 
 June lO, ISOft. was 
 
 sold to prevent cap- 
 ture, but the Niagara 
 captured her not- 
 withstanding. With 
 Charleston closely 
 blockaded, the Con- 
 federate irou-clads ruined, and tire Anglo-Confederate cruisers destroyed, the Union 
 was supreme along the Atlantic coast and the sliores of the Gulf of Mexico. For 
 Galveston alone remained to be blockaded. 
 
918 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 § 804. The Struggle for the Potomac. ( Concluded.') Lee's army, sixty-two thou- 
 sand strong, held the Rapidan river. Grant, whose successes at Vicksburg and Chat- 
 tanooga had made him famous, was now made, by President Lincoln, commander of 
 all the Union armies. Leaving Sherman in the west, he himself, went East, taking- 
 Sheridan with him. The Army of the Potomac numbered, when he reached it, one 
 hundred and twenty thousand men. He had never led it before, nor had he ever con- 
 fronted General Lee. The final struggle was at hand. Sherman had been instructed to 
 operate in concert with the Army of the Potomac, in fact to move on the same day. 
 Johnston, who commanded the Confederates in the West, must be kept too busy to 
 help his comrades in the East. 
 
 Grant sent Butler uji tlie James river to attack Richmond from the neighborhood 
 
 of Petersburg. Sigeland Hunter, march- 
 ing simultaneousljr up the Shenandoah 
 Valley to menace the Confederate capi- 
 tal from Lynchburg, he himself, with the 
 main army, undertook to force his way 
 to Richmond, through the Wilderness. 
 The Wilderness is a tangled swamp in- 
 tersected with creeks. Lee had fortified 
 Slay iso-t. it at every available spot. 
 For two weeks he fought Grant stub- 
 bornly, inflicting upon him frightful 
 losses. Nevertheless, Grant " fought 
 it out on this line, though it took all 
 jfuiie a. summer.'" He flanked 
 and forced Lee to Cold Harbor, where 
 he attempted to carry Lee's defences 
 by assault, but met a terrible repulse. 
 Meanwhile Butler had been " bottled 
 up " near Petersburg, and Sigel and 
 Hunter defeated and driven from the 
 Shenandoah. Early was then despatched 
 GENERAL WM. T. SHERMAN. ^y Lgg to attack Washington. The de- 
 
 fences of the capital were too strong, but he frightened the authorities. Grant, 
 j«iM 12-13. however, would not relax his grip. He had crossed the James river 
 j-««e IS. to attack Richmond from the south. This brought him in front of Pet- 
 ersburg. A line of fortifications, extending to the north of Richmond, and defended 
 by sixty thousand Confederate veterans, blocked his way to the Confederate capital. 
 June IS. One attempt only was made to storm this line. A mine was exploded 
 successfully, but the assault, from which so much was expected, failed utterly. Grant 
 however, pushed slowly but surely along to the southwest of these lines, threatening 
 Lee's railroad communications, until he reached a stream called Hatcher's Run. There 
 he halted, for Sheridan was now to strike the final blow. This gallant soldier had 
 been sent to the Shenandoah Valley, where he rescued the victory of Winchester from 
 Sept. IB. the jaws of defeat, driving Early up the valley before him. At Lynch- 
 burg he turned to the east and joined Grant, destroying canals and railroad bridges. 
 
THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 919 
 
 and cutting off Lee's supplies. He then moved across Hatcher's Run to Five Forks, 
 April 2, ises. threatening to shut the Confederates in. Lee was helpless : his armj' 
 was too feeble to repel the danger. Grant then ordered his whole line to advance, and 
 Lee retreated to Appomatox Court House. Richmond was abandoned, and the Con- 
 federate government fled precipitately southward. Before Lee could reach Lynchburg, 
 Sheridan had " pushed things ; " getting in between him and Johnston, whom he 
 April o, taas. hoped to join. His retreat cut off, he surrendered his hungry and ex- 
 hausted army on the 9th of April, 1865. 
 
 Grant exacted no hard terms. The troops, promising to bear arms no longer 
 against the United States, were given their horses to do their spring plowing, and 
 sent to their homes. " I felt like any- 
 thing," wrote General Grant, "rather 
 than rejoicing over the downfall of a 
 foe who had fought so long and 
 valiantly." La a few words, Lee bade 
 adieu to his army after the surrender. 
 He told his brave men, " to return to 
 their homes and become worthy citi- 
 zens." 
 
 § 805. Sherman and TJiomas. 
 All eyes were now turned to Gen. 
 Johnston, eager to know what he 
 would do; for the struggle in the 
 West had been full of incident, and 
 was not yet over. Sherman had 
 driven his antagonist southward to 
 Atlanta, Georgia. Incenesd at his 
 retreat, Davis removed Johnston, 
 and appointed Hood to take his 
 place. Hood preferred to fight at all 
 hazards. Johnston fought only where 
 there was a chance to win. Hood 
 soon fought himself out of Atlanta, 
 Sept. s, ise*. and Sherman entered 
 in. Thereupon the fighting General 
 pushed northward into Tennessee. 
 
 Sherman, thinking Thomas strong enough to take care of Hood and Tennessee also, 
 pushed boldly into Georgia, no one knowing just whither he had gone. But when he 
 j»ee. SI. gave Savannah as a Christmas gift to the nation, men learned with as- 
 tonishment of his march through Georgia. In four columns his army had covered a 
 strip of country sixty miles wide, between the Savannah and Ogeechee rivers. His 
 men lived upon the country, and left a waste behind them ; railroads were destroyed 
 bridges burned, and, after a siege of eight days, Savannah was captured. Meanwhile 
 fighting General Hood had reached Nashville, Tennessee, and begun a siege. Thomas, 
 who, like Johnston, preferred to win when he fought, was in no hurry to attack him ; 
 but having finished his preparations, he annihilated Hood's army in the completest 
 
 GENERAL PHIL, 
 
920 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 Bee. n.tti. victory of the war. Johnston now returned to gather an army if he 
 could, and to throw himself across the path of Sherman, marching northward. He got 
 together forty thousand men, and attacked tlie Union army at Goldsboro, North Car- 
 olina. Sherman defeated him with difficulty, and the two armies were confronting 
 each other, when tlie news of Lee's surrender reached them. Then Sherman occupied 
 
 Api-ii2G, 1S05. Raleigh and Johnston surrendered. The next montJi the Confederates 
 everj'where laid down their arms and the war was over. 
 
 § 806. Financial Folici/. War is an expensive business. How to raise the 
 money needed perplexed the brains of Mr. Chase, the Union secretary of the treas- 
 ury. Treasury notes of various kinds were issued, some bearing interest, others not. 
 These were made a legal tender for all debts except custom duties. These notes were 
 
THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 921 
 
 promises to pay " dollars on demand " but as " gold dollars " were not paid when de- 
 manded, gold dollars soon commanded a premium, which fluctuated with the fortunes 
 of the war. It was next determined to borrow monej' by the sale of bonds. These 
 bonds were sold for paper money, but made payable in coin. If the Union survived 
 the struggle, they were a fine investment, bringing the buyer almost double what he 
 paid for them. But Mr. Chase went further, believing it necessary to enlist the capi- 
 talists of the country, heart and soul, in the struggle. He proposed the system of 
 
 Feb. 85, 1903. national banks. These were allowed to issue bank notes, secured by 
 national bonds deposited at Washington. The circulation of the state banks was taxed 
 out of existence. At a single stroke, the variegated and complicated paper money 
 system, prevailing before the war, vanished from our commerce, and a currency was 
 furnished, which, when brought to par with gold, would be better than any paper 
 money in the woi'ld. During the four 
 years of the war, the Union spent 
 $3,500,000,000 in its prosecution. The 
 expenses of the Confederacy cannot be 
 accurately estimated. 
 
 §807. Foreign PoUcij. " One job 
 is enough at a time," said Mr. Lincoln ; 
 and to this policy he steadily adhered 
 throughout the war. When Captain 
 Wilkes stopped the Trent, a British 
 mail steamer, and took from her ]\Iason 
 
 xov. 19, 1S61. and Slidell, two Confed- 
 erate commissioners, to Europe, Mr. 
 Lincoln sagely remarked that Captain 
 Wilkes had no right, at any rate, to 
 turn his quarter-deck into an admiralty <^- 
 court, and thereupon directed the re- 
 lease of the captives. Great Britian 
 Jan. 1, isen. had shown great alac- 
 rity in recognizing the seceding States 
 as belligerents, and in the Trent affair, 
 seemed over eager to make trouble. 
 United States. For although a powerful feeling against the Union existed in 
 England, Richard Cobden, John Bright, Jolin Stuart Mill and others argued bravely 
 the Federal cause, and the operatives of Lancashire and Yorkshire refused, in 
 spite of their suffering from the cotton famine, to ally themselves with the cause 
 of slavei'y. Henry Ward Beecher, in a series of magnificent speeches, in various 
 English cities, explained the conflict to the British public, so that no British ministry 
 ventured to follow the suggestions of Napoleon. Russia promptly declined his pro- 
 xov. s, 1892. posal to mediate, taking which hint, Earl Russell declined it also. The 
 Anglo-Confederate cruisers were of course exasperating, and Mr. Lincoln instructed 
 Nov. 13. Mr. Adams, minister to England, to speak decidedly, which produced 
 the detention of two steam i-ams, just read)' to escape from Liverpool. When Napo- 
 oct. 31, ises. leon sent his troops to Mexico to place Maximilian on the throne, Mr. 
 
 SALMON P. CHASE. 
 
 France however, was the real enemy of the 
 
922 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 Lincoln took notice of it as an unfriendly act, but went no further at that time. But 
 the French, having no shipbuilders, were astute enough to permit no iron-clads to be 
 fitted out for the Confederate service at any of their ports. 
 
 § 808. Internal Policy. Mr. Lincoln had been elected by a divided Northern 
 vote. From the outset, he was painfully conscious of the latent sympathy for the 
 Southern people, diffused throughout the loj^al States. And the border States were 
 difficult to hold. Opposition to " the war for the negro " was heard in many places, and 
 during the dark days of 1862, developed into dangerous strength. The President, 
 though supported at the outset by many influential Democrats, like Gushing, Stanton, 
 Reverdy and Andrew Johnson, Douglas, Logan, Dickinson, Dix, and countless others, 
 soon found himself opposed by three powerful elements, those who desired the success 
 of the South, those who believed the war a foredoomed failure, and those who regarded 
 
 him as too slow for so great a crisis. 
 When taxes were increased, and high 
 tariff revived, and when drafts were 
 ordered to fill up the rapidly depleted 
 armies, this opposition grew rapidly. 
 In 1862 New York and several other 
 States gave large majorities against 
 the Republican party, and in 1863 
 Stay 13-ie, laes. v'lots to prevent the 
 draft broke out in New York City. 
 The suspension of the Habeas Corpus 
 was another ground of offence ; like- 
 wise the suppression of sundrj- news- 
 papers, and the arrest and confine- 
 ment of suspected citizens by mili- 
 tary authority. The opposition com- 
 bined and culminated in the nomi- 
 nation of General McClellan for 
 president by the Democratic conven- 
 tion that met at Chicago, in 1864. 
 ALEXANDER H. STEPHENS. Q^ ^^g Other hand, no little dissatis- 
 
 faction with Mr. Lincoln existed in his own party. The Emancipation Proclama- 
 tion put an end to much of this. But the resignation of Mr. Chase in July, 1864, 
 marked the conclusion of an intrigue to push him into Mr. Lincoln's place. Yet in 
 November, 1864, the president was re-elected. His message to Congress the follow- 
 ing December was considered very bold. His meeting with Alexander Stephens, the 
 Confederate vice-president, at Hampton Roads, startled the country with the prospect 
 of peace, and his second inaugural stirred the people to unwonted depths of feeling. 
 Li sublime and solemn words the great leader called upon the nation " to finish the 
 work we are in, to bind up the nation's wounds, to care for him who shall have borne 
 the battle, and for his widow and orphans, to do all which may achieve and cherish a 
 just and lasting peace among ourselves and with all nations." But his work was 
 April i4,isa5. already finished. As he sat in the private box of Ford's theatre, in 
 Washington, trying to forget the anxieties and the triumphs of the hour, John Wilkes 
 
THE HISTORY OF NQRTH AMERICA. 923 
 
 Booth crept to his side, shot him through the head, then leaped upon the stage shout- 
 ing, " Sic semper tyrannis ! " and escaped to Maryland. Sic semper tyrannis ! How 
 insanely blind is human hate ! The gentlest heart that ever beat in human breast,^ 
 magnanimous, patient, forgiving, forbearing, patriotic Lincoln, to be murdered with 
 such a cry I He who had " malice toward none, and charity toward all," whose only 
 " firmness was in the right as God gave him to see the right." Honest without 
 hypocrisy, religious without bigotry or cant, full of strange resources and of high re- 
 solves, far-seeing but humble, majestic in his sublinier moments as though under the 
 guidance of an unseen hand, 3'et child-like, uncouth, and even coarse, when the stress 
 of stern occasion left him free. Much hated, he himself indulged no rancor. His 
 sharpest utterance had no sting but truth, and even that was softened by quaint 
 pathos, and a gleaming humor. Who can quote from him a bitter or a biting word ? 
 Perhaps he was the first typical American. If so, then few have reached the type. 
 Rather let us see in him what he was, a noble nature redeemed from its dross, and 
 transfigured by a great purpose and a holy resijonsibility. A man, who, from strange 
 surroundings, rose far above the level of his contemporaries, and held nobly to an ideal 
 which attracts the faith of few and the mockery of rnanj^ The secret of his unique 
 nature lies with God ; He only knows how blood and circumstance, conscience and 
 inspiration, contact with noble thought, and the presence of divine opportunity, com- 
 bined to make him at once the most heroic and the most lovable figure of a mighty 
 period ! When his countrymen have grown more like him, it will be time enough to 
 call him the typical American. 
 
 § 809. "The actual expenditures of the government of the United States in putting 
 down the rebellion are, of course, a matter of record on the books of the treasury ; but 
 there were various obligations indirectly chargeable to the war Avhich cannot be so 
 accurately ascertained. It is impossible also to give even an estimate of the amount 
 of money exiaended b}'^ the South in its efforts to separate itself from the Union. From 
 1861 to 1866 the expenditures on account of the army amounted to #3,023,213,064.20 ; 
 from 1866 until it was brought down to a peace basis in 1871 about $200,000,000 more 
 was spent ; and on account of the navy $326, 650,068. 58 was spent, which sums com- 
 bined make a total of $3,549,873,132 and represents what was paid out for strictly 
 military purposes. To. this should be added an unknown quantity, to represent the 
 cost ot sustaining the increased civil establishment that was made necessary by the 
 war, perphaps $100,000,000 for the five years. This civil establishment has never been 
 reduced. There are more than one hundred men still at work in the treasury, settling 
 up accounts of paymasters, quartermasters and commissaries of the volunteer army. 
 Then the interest on the money borrowed by the government to carry on the w;ir 
 should be added, and that is a very large item. 
 
 "The average annual interest charge on the public debt, for a dozen yeais before 
 the war was about $2,000,000. It increased rapidly during the Buchanan adminis- 
 tration, until in 1860 it amounted to a little over $3,000,000. The total amount of the 
 public debt on July 1, 1861, when the war may be said to have commenced, was $87,- 
 718,660. The highest point reached by the public debt since was $2,884,649,626, in 
 1865. Since July 1, 1861, we have paid as interest on the debt the stupendous sum 
 of $2,536,097,091.04. The highest payment in any one year was $150,977,697 in 1865, 
 and the lowest payment was $22,893,883 in 1892. The amount of the public debt on 
 
924 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 July 1, 1893, was $1,545,985,686.13, or, deducting the cash in the treasur}' at that 
 time, the outstanding obligations of the United States amounted to the sum of 
 $838,969,475. 
 
 "To the other expenditures made necessary by the war should be added also the 
 premiums paid for loans and the purchase of bonds by the government from 1860 to 
 the present date, which amount to a total of $119,863,386.71. 
 
 " Then comes the enormous item of pensions. In 1860 the pension roll 
 amounted to a little more than $1,000,000, paid to the veterans of the Revolution- 
 ary war, the war of 1812, the Mexican war, and various Indian wars. In 1862 it 
 dropped to $850,000 because the payments to pensioners in the rebellious States 
 had ceased. Then the annual payments on this account begin to mount up again. 
 In 1865 they were over $16,000,000, and continued to increase until 1893, when the 
 
 sum of $159,357,557.87 was paid by a 
 grateful government to its defenders. It 
 is expected that the expenditures on this 
 account will continue to grow for some 
 years, but by the end of the century will 
 commence rapidly to fall off, as the veterans 
 tumble into their graves. The total 
 , amount of money paid for pensions from 
 the beginning of the war to July 1, 1893, 
 was $1,608,209,614. 
 
 " It is impossible to ascertain and it is 
 useless to estimate the amount of money 
 that was jjaid for bounties and other pur- 
 poses by states, cities, counties and towns 
 to encourage and sustain the Union army. 
 It is also impossible to give the amounts 
 expended by the various States in equip- 
 ping troops. But the visible expenditures 
 of the general government, including the 
 array, navy, pensions, the interest on the 
 public debt and premiums paid, amount 
 to a grand total of $7,914,033,223." * 
 § 810. Me construction. The death of Lincoln stunned the nation and startled 
 the world. And when it became known that Secretary Seward was dangerously 
 wounded, and that the conspiracy had contemplated the destruction of all the leading 
 ofificers of the government, the excitement grew deep and dangerous. The few voices 
 that ventured to exult in the dastardly deed hushed instantly ; and for a while a 
 desperate bitterness filled the hearts of thousands. 
 
 The blow that took away the President opened afresh the wounds in hundreds of 
 homes. A hundred thousand Union soldiers had perished on the field, and of their 
 injuries. Twice as many had died of disease and languished away in prisons. And 
 among these victims were the noblest of the generation. Andrew Johnson, who 
 succeeded Mr. Lincoln, though a Southern man, had been outspoken and heroic in his 
 
 *W. E, Curtis, in tiie CliicaKO llecord. 
 
 STEPHEN A. DOUGLAS. 
 
THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMEAICA. 925 
 
 devotion to the Union. But his inaugural speech as vice-president had disconcerted 
 his friends, and his peculiarities of temper and of mind soon provoked opposition to 
 his policy as president. 
 
 The seceded states were disorganized completely. It was (so the sword had de- 
 cided) rebellion to secede ; nevertheless, they had in fact seceded and levied war 
 against the United States. Were there any States left ? Had they not destroyed 
 themselves? If, on the other hand, they were indestructible entities, were they pun- 
 isliable entities? Or could punishment be inflicted upon individuals only? 
 
 These States, moreover, were the scenes of poverty and suffering. The money 
 of the Confederacy had become rapidly and utterly worthless ; the barns were bare of 
 food, and the fields la}^ waste ; the lands had lost their value, and their slaves had 
 ceased to be property ; the freedmen had no legal status, and the whites were as yet 
 uncertain of their fate. 
 
 § 811. President Lincoln had, before his death, established provisional govern- 
 ments in Tennessee, Virginia, Louisiana, and Arkansas. Johnson followed his ex- 
 ample. The governors, appointed by the President, con- 
 vened assemblies elected by the white male citizens, or former 
 voters. To these assemblies, the thirteenth amendment 
 abolishing slavery in the United States, was submitted for 
 ratification. This amendment had been urgently pressed 
 througii Congress by Mr. Lincoln, in order to perfect the 
 acts of emancipation. But it had not yet been adopted 
 by the various States. It became, however, a part of the 
 constitution in December, 1865. In addition to this, the 
 seceding States were required to declare void the ordinances 
 
 ° '■ . ANDREW JOHNSON. 
 
 of secession, and to promise not to pay the debts incurred 
 
 to support the rebellion. To this they all acceded, and Johnson was ready to re-admit 
 
 them to the Union. 
 
 But Congress demurred. The Republican party insisted upon the exclusion of 
 Confederate leaders from citizenship, and upon the admission of the negroes to equal 
 political rights with the former voters, especially as several of the seceded States had 
 passed laws that seemed like attempts to re-enact slavery. Several acts of Congress 
 embodying this policy — the Freedmen's Bureau bill, — the Civil Rights bill — a bill 
 for the education and protection of the freedmen — were vetoed by the President. The 
 man, who had shown himself implacable against those convicted of the murder of 
 Lincoln, was equally implacable against the men who insisted upon citizenship for the 
 emancipated slaves. These vetoed acts were passed by Congress notwithstanding. 
 Military governors were accordingly appointed, and reconstruction proceeded under 
 IS6S. bayonet rule. Virginia and Georgia however did not yield, until the 
 
 ratification of the fourteenth amendment made further resistance futile. 
 
 § 812. The effects of these acts were not what the authors of them anticipated, al- 
 though a bitter quarrel with the President had been foreseen and welcomed. The 
 tenure of office act, passed in 1867, provided that the president must first ask and pro- 
 cure the consent of the Senate, before removing important office-holders. Johnson, 
 ises. believing the act unconstitutional, and dissatisfied with Mr. Stanton, 
 
 the great war secretary of Mr. Lincoln, whose astonishing energy had been of price- 
 
926 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 less value to the country, removed him from the cabinet. The President was at once 
 
 impeached, but as less than two thirds of the Senate voted to sustain the charges, he 
 
 was, after a long trial, acquitted. 
 
 General Grant accepted Stanton's place, 
 
 and soon became the conspicuous figure of the 
 
 countrJ^ In 1868 he was nominated for the 
 
 presidenc_y by the Republicans, and elected by 
 
 a large majority. 
 
 § 813. As the election turned upon the ^,^, , ^I^^^K:^' - ^''T^ 
 
 reconstruction measures of Congress, it looked 
 
 as if the country had responded to Gi'ant's ex- '_ 
 
 hortation, " Let us have peace ! " But the end j 
 
 was not j^et. A fifteenth amendment was next ■ 
 
 adopted, forbidding any State to deprive any 
 
 person of a vote by reason of "race, color, or 'j 
 
 previous condition of servitude." This made, ^ 
 
 of course, an enormous addition to the voting 
 
 population, and brought a strain upon Demo- 
 cratic institutions of the severest kind. And it edwin m. stanton. 
 
 developed two dangerous elements in the Southern States, the Carpet-bagger and 
 
 the Kuklux. The Carpet-bagger sought to control the negro, and to use him for 
 
 corrupt ends ; the Kuklux, on the other hand, terrorized him and attacked the white 
 
 Republicans. Ultimately, the negroes 
 ceased to vote, or voted with the whites. 
 But this end was reached onl}^ after a 
 desperate struggle, in which more than 
 one State government appealed to the 
 President for military support. The 
 Republicans however lost one State 
 after another, and in 1877 the South 
 became " solid " and has remained so 
 ever since. 
 
 Not only so. The enfranchisement 
 of the negro increased the number of 
 representatives alloted to the seceding 
 States, and consequently their power in 
 the electoral college. And gradually 
 the cry of "Universal Amnesty and 
 Universal Suffrage," urged so vehe- 
 mently by Horace Greeley, brought back 
 CAKLxHLuz. ^Q political life most of the ancient 
 
 leaders of the South. 
 
 Jefferson Davis remained in prison 
 laes-iset. two years, but was never tried. He and Robert Toombs refused to 
 return to the old flag; but others took the oath of allegiance, and found their way 
 back to places of power in the nation and tlie state. 
 
THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 927 
 
 RUTHERFORD B II-ilES 
 
 These uniting with the Democratic party of the North which survived the 
 war, and grew rapidly stronger during the struggles over reconstruction, have 
 created a political situation in the United States, both peculiar and perilous. The 
 normal condition of our political life requires two parties, not only nearly equal, but 
 equally distributed over the surface of the country. But sectional feeling produces 
 political blindness. The interests of the commonwealth are common interests, and 
 their protection deisends upon an interchange of thought, 
 upon mutual understanding, and the promotion of harmony, 
 whereas the present situation tends to perpetuate division 
 and to encourage antagonisms, and to confer enormon-^ ^►'llfSt 
 
 power upon a few localities in the North, which are iieithe 
 the wisest nor the best. iiil!lill''i|il'i,iliBBf(J 
 
 4. Recent History. 
 
 § 814. General Grant began his adminstration with a 
 conflict, his appointment of the great merchant A. T. Stewart, 
 of New York, provoking violent opposition. Tliis conflict 
 developed into a dangerous schism of his party, when the San Domingo annexa- 
 tion scheme was pressed upon the country. The use of Federal troops to support the 
 unstable governments of Southern States, added to the dissatisfaction, and the 
 power of certain senators in controlling appointments to office, widened the breach 
 between the two sections of the Republicans. 
 
 Sumner, Greeley, Schurz, and Fenton led the liberals into open revolt, and or- 
 ganized the convention of 1872, which nominated 
 Greeley for the presidency. One great achievement, 
 though, lifted this first administration of the famous 
 isii. soldier into permanent history, the 
 
 treaty of Washington. This treaty between Great 
 Britain and the United States referred all disputes 
 between the two nations to courts of arbitration. The 
 Alabama question, most difficult of all, was settled in 
 isra. favor of the United States, Great Britain 
 
 paying $15,000,000 for the damage done by the Anglo- 
 Confederate cruisers. 
 
 The Northwestern boundary question was also 
 decided against Great Britain by the Emperor of Ger- 
 many, to whom it was referred. In the matter of the 
 fisheries, however, the decision was against the United 
 States. Greeley and Brown, the candidates of the 
 Liberal Republicans, were accepted by the Democratic leaders in convention, but the 
 rank and file of the part}"- supported the ticket without enthusiasm. Grant was re- 
 elected, and Greeley wore away his brain and his life in the excitement of the conflict, 
 and the chagrin of defeat. 
 
 § 815. But the second administration of Grant was a time of financial distress 
 and political reaction. In 1873 a wave of disaster carried down great fortunes, and 
 blighted the prosperity in which the country had rejoiced exultantly. The Northern 
 
 SAMUEL J. TILDEN. 
 
928 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 Pacific Railroad Company defaulted suddenly, and revealed the hoUowness of the 
 railroad building operations going on all over the country. To make the feeling worse, 
 scandals were revealed in Congress and in the cabinet. The Credit Mobilier stock 
 
 1SJ3. placed " where it would do the most good " was traced to the hands 
 
 of leading congressmen ; other strange transactions were discovered, and Belknap, 
 the secretary of war, was impeached for bribery. Whiskey rings and rings of 
 
 isis. Indian contractors were detected and disclosed, so that the cry for re- 
 
 JOI-IN SHERMAN. 
 
 form became clamorous and urgent. Grant declined a nomination for a third term, 
 and General Hayes of Ohio was made the nominee of the Republicans. 
 
 The Democrats nominated Samuel J. Tilden, who had become the most con- 
 spicuous figure of their party, by his destruction of the Tweed gang in New York City, 
 and his desperate struggle with the canal I'ing in the Empire State. 
 
 The election was exceedingly close, and issued in an exciting contest that kept 
 
 the country in excitement for several months. The votes of Florida and Louisiana 
 
 js»e. were disputed, and yet upon them depended the result. The Senate 
 
THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 929 
 
 was Republican, the House of Representatives was Democratic. Plainly therefore 
 these would not agree. Civil war seemed imminent. 
 
 § 816. In the crisis an electoral commission was created, consisting of five sena- 
 tors, five representatives, and five judges of the Supreme Court. By a strict party 
 vote, the majority of the commission decided that Hayes had been elected. His ad- 
 ministration was quiet, clean, and uneventful, excepting that the financial question 
 threw its ominous shadow across the horizon. This question was first brought into 
 prominence by Mr. Pendleton of Ohio, who, early in 1868, had urged the payment of 
 the public debt in legal tender notes, so as to increase the circulating medium of the 
 country. The cry for " more money " began to resound in the land, especially in Ohio. 
 But the enormous production of precious metals in the Pacific States, made them the 
 natural rivals of paper money schemes, and the people began to clamor for the resump- 
 tion of specie payments. In 1875 the act to resume had been passed, and Mr. Sher- 
 man, the secretary of the treasury, determined to make it effective, and in 1879 legal 
 tender notes were exchanged for gold. The Green- 
 backers, as they called themselves, had grown rapidly 
 in numbers, after the panic of 1873. When anybody 
 is scarce of money, he thinks the nation is ; and as 
 the impecunious were numerous from 1873 to 1879, 
 there was a great multitude eager to increase the 
 wealth of the country by increasing the quantity of 
 isjs. circulating medium. But suddenly, 
 
 in 1878, Mr. Bland, of Missouri, discovered that 
 silver had been demonetized in 1873, and ought 
 now to be remonetized. The apostles of silver soon 
 displaced the prophets of paper. Congress ordered 
 the coinage of $2,000,000 a month in silver dollars, 
 in a ratio of sixteen to one of gold. President 
 Hayes vetoed the bill, but it was passed over his 
 veto. This imposed upon the treasury an enormous 
 task. To pay the legal tender notes in gold, and at 
 
 THUMAS 1?'. 
 
 the same time to keep the silver dollar equal to the gold 
 
 dollar in value, in the face of a falling market for silver. Nevertheless specie payments 
 were resumed; the national debt refunded at exceedingly low rates of interest; the 
 voice of the Greenbacker died away in the land ; and prosperity returned to the 
 farmer, the merchant, aud the manufacturer. , Yet the advocates of free coinage (or 
 rather the unlimited coinage of silver at a ratio of sixteen to one), were still restless 
 and unhappy. The Warner silver bill was passed in July, 1879, but defeated by the 
 Democrats of the Senate, under the lead of Mr! Bayard. The last message of Presi- 
 dent Hayes urged emphatically the free coinage of silver dollars at an honest ratio, 
 isso. that is, putting into the silver dollars a market equivalent for the gold 
 
 dollar. But that kind of free coinage seemed not to be desired. 
 
 § 817. The election of 1880 made James A. Garfield president, and Chester A. 
 
 Arthur vice-president of the United States. But quarrels about appointments led 
 
 to a fierce excitement and strife between the Republican factions of New York, the 
 
 supporters of Grant and of Blaine, whose favorites had been both defeated for the 
 
 59 
 
930 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 JAMES A. GARFIELD. 
 
 nomination. When the conflict was fiercest, the President was shot by Guiteau, a dis- 
 tssi. appointed ofEce-seeker. Garfield died on tlie 19th of September, deeply 
 
 regretted everywhere. His successor ruled amid general prosperity. The public debt 
 was rapidly reduced, and a surplus began to fill the treasury. Crops were enormous 
 and easilj^ marketable ; manufactures and commerce flourished. Under these circum- 
 stances the tariff question excited attention. It had entered _ -_j-rr=^^ 
 largely into the struggle of 1880, and in 1883 a tariff com- 
 mission reported in favor of lower duties. Congi-ess 
 adopted their reports, but the tariff reformers were not satis- 
 fied, and demanded greater reductions. 
 
 Meanwhile Congress passed an act to reform the civil 
 
 1553. service. In Jackson's day, offices came to 
 be regarded as the property of the president, to be dis- 
 tributed to his friends ; gradually, senators and representa- 
 tives acquired liens upon this patronage, which they com- 
 pelled the president to recognize ; but lower down, the 
 party workers obtained a " pull " upon their representatives, the creatures of their 
 political energy, and demanded consideration. Integrity, fitness, patriotic service, 
 availed but little against the man who had a " pull." Civil service reform received 
 the support of able men in both parties, conspicuously, Mr. Pendleton, of Ohio, Mr. 
 Jenkces, of Rhode Island, and Mr. Curtis, of New York. But the practical politician 
 
 endured it reluctantly in party platforms, 
 and expelled it sedulously from appropria- 
 tion bills at every opportunity. 
 
 § 818. The Panama Canal company, 
 since collapsed, caused a long and eager 
 correspondence between France and the 
 Union. Chili refused to listen to the remon- 
 strances of the United States, and punished 
 Peru with great severity, after conquering 
 her neighbor in armed conflict. But in gen- 
 eral, foreign relations were exceedinglj' tran- 
 quil. 
 
 Silver dollars were piling up in the 
 vaults of the treasury, nobody prefer- 
 ing them to the paper notes, and the im- 
 pecunious not having discovered just how to 
 get them to their pockets. No efforts were 
 made, however, in the face of general pros- 
 perity to go further with free coinage at six- 
 
 parties were preparing for a desperate struggle ; the Greenbackers had vanished ; the 
 Prohibitionist was making himself heard ; Republicans and Democrats were alike 
 
 1554. aware of the value of a few votes, especially in New York, and hence 
 avoided risks, while they combined to increase appropriations. 
 
 § 819. In 1884 Grover Cleveland, of New York, who had been nominated by the 
 
THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 931 
 
 CHESTER A. ARTHUR. 
 
 Democratic convention in spite of the vehement opposition of Tammany Hall, defeated 
 James G. Blaine for the presidency, by a few votes in the State of New York. The 
 contest was bitterly personal, perplexed by many cross currents, and illuminated by 
 no great principles on either side. 
 
 § 820. But the administration of Cleveland soon 
 created changes in the political situation. The President 
 demanded a change in the existing tariff system, which he 
 described as "a vicious, inequitable, and illogical source 
 of unnecessary taxation," although he found it impossible 
 to carrj' all the members of his party with him. 
 
 On the other hand, as the people did not care to circu- 
 late the silver dollar, silver certificates, based on the idle 
 silver dollars sleeping in the treasury vaults, were issued to 
 the country. The Mormons were disfranchised ; the Inter- 
 State Commerce bill was passed. This established a commission to regulate the rail- 
 way traffic between the various States, and to relieve the people of secret and perni- 
 cious combinations. 
 
 Chinese immigration was prohibited for a period of 
 twentj^ years, and the Tenure-of-Office law was repealed. 
 For the first time since the war, men, prominent in the 
 lebellion, became officers of the National government, while 
 tsss. the Dependent Pension bill, which involved 
 
 lui immense expenditure for Union soldiers was vetoed b}' 
 the President, and finally defeated. 
 
 The Canadian fisheries became, in 1887, again the cause 
 i«ss. of trouble. American ships were seized quite 
 
 frequently. Finally a treaty was agreed to by the President, 
 but rejected by the Senate, as altogether too concessive. 
 Mr. Seward had purchased Alaska from Russia for ^7,000,000, in 1867. The seal 
 fisheries of the Behring Sea were found to be exceedingly jjrofitable, and the Cana- 
 dians refused to be excluded from them. This led to furtlier correspondence with 
 Great Britain. And finallj^ the British minister at Wash- 
 ington meddled foolislily in the Presidential election of 1888, 
 isas. and at the request of Mr. Cleveland, re- 
 
 ceived his recall. 
 
 § 821. For Mr. Cleveland had been renominated by 
 his part}', and the tariff issue made by him accepted, though 
 not with any great moral enthusiasm. Conspicuous among 
 the frigid advocates of his election was Governor Hill of 
 New York ; and other leaders were almost or quite as cold. 
 Accordingly, he was defeated by Benjamin Harrison, of 
 Indiana, the Republican nominee, under wlinse administra- 
 tion a positive and aggressive policy at once began. 
 
 In foreign affairs the Samoan difficulty with Germany led to a reassertion of the 
 
 iss». Monroe doctrine, and avtreaty with Germany and England, most 
 
 popular at the time, but now of somewhat doubtful value. The Behring Sea ques- 
 
 GROVER CLEVELAND. 
 
 BENJAMIN UAKKISON. 
 
932 AMERICA. 
 
 tion, after long discussion, was referred to a court of arbitration. The murder of 
 isoi. Italians, by a mob in New Orleans, led to serious trouble with Italy. 
 
 But the Italian government receded from peremptory demands, and consented to be 
 appeased. 
 
 The most serious difficulty of all, however, occurred with Chili where President 
 Balmaceda and his Congress were engaged in civil war. Tlie United States cruiser, 
 Baltimore, lying in the harbor of Valparaiso was attacked by a mob of " Insurgents " 
 or "Congressionals," who killed an officer, and wounded several seamen. Balmaceda 
 had been displaced by the insurgents, and when the United States asked apology and 
 reparation for this outrage on the Baltimore, thej' sent back an insolent reply. The 
 President immediately prepared for war. The Chilian authorities, grown saner by this 
 time, apologized fully, and offered ample satisfaction for the injuries committed. These 
 were accepted, and peaceful relations reestablished. 
 
 The Pan-American Congress, which met at Washington, in 1889, made their final 
 report in June, 1890. Ten republics were represented in this body, but its influence 
 upon affairs was hardly noticeable. 
 
 § 822. But the great event of the Harrison administration was the passage of 
 the McKinley tariff bill. This increased duties on one hundred and fifteen articles 
 left them unchanged on two hundred and forty-nine. It enlarged the free list, 
 giving up entirely the revenue for sugar, and giving a bounty to sugar-growers in 
 the South and Southwest. But it provoked a strong reaction, and produced a Demo- 
 cratic Congress in 1890. And now the silver question returned to plague the people. 
 isoi. The Sherman coinage act was passed, requiring the purchase of fifty- 
 
 four million ounces of silver annually, not for coinage, but for storage and the issue 
 of silver certificates therefore. This, of course, made the United States government 
 the purchaser of a depreciating comrnodity, and provoked a number of similar schemes 
 to use the nation as a steadier of values. For wheat and, in fact, all sorts of grain 
 were falling in price as rapidly as silver, and if the government could interpose to 
 help the miner, why not relieve the farmer also ? Why not store his wheat and issue 
 wheat certificates? Suddenly a new political party was formed, whose storm-centre 
 seemed to be Kansas. It drew largely from the Republicans, and captured that state, 
 and showed great power in the adjoining regions. And from this party proceeded 
 demands for government interference in the business of the country, whi'ch indicated, 
 on the one hand, immense distress and discontent among the farming jDopulation, and, 
 on the other, that invincible belief in legislative jDanaceas that characterizes the polit- 
 ical movements of recent years all over the world. " If I can only see the Czar, he 
 will set all things right! " says the Russian moujik. "If I can only prevail upon Con- 
 gress to pass my bill, that will set all things right," says the American voter. But 
 the Czar is not easily found, and Congress grinds out wisdom most exceedingly slow. 
 
 § 823. When therefore Mr. Hariison was re-nominated against his old antagonist 
 — Mr. Cleveland, these forces of discontent combined to bring about a change. The 
 Republicans were defeated as never before in their history, and Mr. Cleveland en- 
 tered upon a second administration. 
 
 But before his inauguration, signs of a coming storhi appeared. And hardly 
 was his cabinet appointed, when the storm broke loose. Yet for a while the dif- 
 ficult}' in Hawaii absorbed attention. A revolution on the island had deposed 
 
THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 933 
 
 the Queen. Mr. Hanison concluded a treaty of annexation with the provisional 
 gevernment, and sent it to the Senate. This was withdrawn at once by Mr. Cleve- 
 land, who sent a special commissioner to investigate the circumstances of the change, 
 and the existing situation. The commissioner reported against the wisdom of annex- 
 ation ; the President coincided with this view, and tlie government of Hawaii can 
 hardly be accounted stable, although a new constitution has been proclaimed. 
 
 But this question was soon overshadowed by financial troubles. The task im- 
 posed upon the government, of keeping gold and silver dollars at par, when the intrin- 
 sic value of the one was double that of the other, began to prove quite haril. The 
 gold reserve in the treasury steadily decreased. Men grew anxious and ceased to 
 trade. American securities poured across the ocean in a steady stream. Then the 
 rottenness of certain trusts and railroads and banks was disclosed in defaults and 
 suspensions. Money suddenly disappeared from circulation. The ordinary opera- 
 tions of commerce were blocked. Loans could not be negotiated ; exchanges stopped. 
 
 Congress was asked by the President to repeal the Sherman bill. The House re- 
 is»3. sponded with alacrity ; the Senate dallied until the disaster was be- 
 
 yond the reach of this or any other legislative remedy. The country was in the 
 throes of a financial crisis. 
 
 A tariff bill, framed by Representative Wilson, passed the House of Representa- 
 tives, but lingered in the Senate. If this had been enacted promptly, no such 
 issj. mischief could have been wrought as followed upon the long delay. 
 
 Meanwhile the mills were idle, the prices of grain unprecedentedly low, strikes abounded, 
 and idle men marched toward Washington to seek relief. 
 
 § 824. Industrial Development. (1849-1894.) Yet the secret of this condition, is 
 to be sought, not in our political, but in our industrial history. 
 
 The invention of the telegraph furthered amazingly the development of the rail- 
 road, and the discovery of precious metals on the Pacific coast led finally to the trans- 
 ts9»-iss3. continental railroads. To construct these, the government assisted 
 and gave away vast tracts of land (public). Homestead bills were passed, and settlers 
 enticed into the Western country, wherever railroads penetrated. The agricultural 
 population was thus spread over vast areas, and in many places was absolutely de- 
 pendent upon a single railroad for access to the markets of the woi'ld. Tlie soil was in 
 man}' places exceedingly fertile, the harvesters, invented by Marsh and improved into 
 the twine-binders by Appleby, made the gathering of crops a holiday task, so tliat pro- 
 duction increased enormously, while the farmer did not always reap the profits of his 
 industr3^ Even when grain brought high prices at the sea-board, it often sold quite 
 low at the nearest railroad station. Next came the consolidation of railroads, and a 
 few great corporations soon covered the whole land with the network of their tracks, 
 and their influence. Statutes in their interest were passed without difficult}' ; their 
 power and wealth excited env}' ; and a reaction began, which led to drastic legislation, 
 that wrought more mischief than it remedied. But the feeling engendered by the 
 strife lived on, even after these statutes were repealed. 
 
 § 825. Meanwhile trusts developed, exciting, at first, surprise and then intense 
 hostility. The discovery of petroleum in Pennsylvania and elsewhere, in 1859, estab- 
 
934 AMERICA. 
 
 lislied a new and lucrative industiy. The price of oil, however, fluctuated extremely, 
 isss. and led to speculation of the wildest sort. A few shrewd men com- 
 
 bined to buj' up all the wells, and thus control the price. These constituted the 
 Standard Oil trust, first, most powerful, and parent of them all. Their example spread 
 with exceeding rapidity, and combinations to control prices confronted the buyer 
 everywhere, and the seller too. For having acquired control of the market, the trust 
 could face both ways, dictating the price of what it bought and what it sold. Small 
 establishments ceased to be profitable, and were easily driven to the wall or absorbed ; 
 the country entered into a new and startling phase of industrial development. Again, 
 the protective tariffs, made necessary by the war, developed rapidly a multitude of im- 
 portant manufacturing interests. And the march of science and invention increased 
 their number and their efficiency. Tiie millionaire appeared and multiplied. And tlie 
 newspaper, penetrating into every hamlet of the countrj^ made him the envy and the 
 apparent eneni}' of many an industrious household. For was not all this wealth ac- 
 cumulated at the expense of the tiller of the soil? Was there not some evil necro- 
 mancy, b}' which the sweat of the farmer was converted into the stocks of the capital- 
 ist, and the coupons of the bondholder ? 
 
 § 826. Coincident with this development of bitterness among the farmers, came 
 the growth of discontent among the artisans and operatives of the large cities and 
 manufacturing towns. The tides of immigration had filled the cities as well as the 
 prairies and the mines, with a pohglot multitude struggling for life and wages. Tiiese 
 too formed their combinations to regulate the price of the one thing they have to sell, 
 their time and energy. Strikes became both frequent and destructive. The great 
 railroad strikes of 1877 have been succeeded almost annually with labor troubles of 
 some kind ; now in the mines and now in the mills, now on the street cars, now on 
 some great railway-line, now in the coke regions, now in the coal-fields, now in the 
 car shops ; among masons, carpenters, shoemakers, and tailors, men and women and 
 children. The inevitable result has been the gradual diffusion of tlie belief that the 
 present system is an organized and legalized wrong, to be abolished and reshaped by 
 legislative enactment. 
 
 § 827. The socialistic ideas, disseminated so rapidlj' through Europe, began to 
 spread through America. Marx, though not studied, was quoted and adored. Capti- 
 vating books, like " Progress and Poverty," and " Looking Backwards," diffused 
 quickly distrust and discontent. College students began to declaim against the ine- 
 qualities of the social order, and popular preachers to clamor for a readjustment of 
 society. The flaunting of wealtli, the follies and luxuries of fashionable idlers, the 
 occasional insolence of the powerful, asking " M'hat are j-ou going to do about it ? " or 
 exclaiming, " damn the public," the escape of colossal criminals from condign punish- 
 ment, the invasion of the United States Senate by millionaires, the enormous fortunes 
 acquired bj' practical politicians, and by gamblers in stocks and grain, increased the 
 general irritation. . Deep answered deep. The distress of the farmer to the discon- 
 tent of the artisan. The agitated surface of society began so cast up all manner of 
 schemes, while splendid speculations built on the sand perished suddenly. Real diffi- 
 culties were multiplied by exaggerated rhetoric and unwholesome fear. And the 
 people, having learned to trust in legislation, began to cry for a miracle. 
 
 Yet the progress of our industries has been amazing. The telephone, the electric 
 
THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 935 
 
 motor, and the electric light, the rapid and daring application of machinerj' to every 
 kind of production and manufacture, the discovery of oil, and coal and minerals of 
 every kind, have made us the richest people in the world.* The destruction of slavery, 
 though fatal to the virealth of the former slaveholder, did not destroy the productive 
 energy of the former slave. The nation gained economically by his emancipation, for 
 the negro is more productive than ever. The new South is richer than the old, while 
 the creative enterprises of the North are various, and numerous, and bold, giving em- 
 ployment to thousands, and adding annually to the permanent wealth and welfare of 
 the people. 
 
 Tlie tallpw dip has been replaced by the coal-oil lamp, the tapestry carpet costs 
 no more than the ancient product of the rag-bag and the hand loom, the faces of the 
 "loved and lost" look down upon the poorest, from the neatly papered walls, the fur- 
 niture of a room costs hardly more than our fathers paid for a table ; children carry 
 watches, for which Queen Elizabeth would have given a fortune, and the literature of 
 the world can -be had for less than she paid to get half a dozen books. The luxuries of 
 former centuries have become the necessities of American life ; so that the discontent 
 of American society is but the friction generated by our tremendous progress, a wit- 
 ness of our power, and a warning of our danger. For the development of the intelli- 
 gent citizen and the happy home is the only worthy goal of human progress; free in- 
 stitutions neither create nor preserve themselves ; population is not the measure of 
 prosperity ; and it is far more important to study and to learn the immutable laws that 
 regulate human movement, than to elect legislators, or even to control their legisla- 
 tion. The best and wisest rulers can but follow the leadings of that higher law, upon 
 which depends the peace of mankind, and the haiDpiness of the world. 
 
 § 82§. The extent to which the American people have realized their ideals was 
 shown in the two great celebrations of 1876 and 1893; eachamarvelof its kind, the lat- 
 ter the wonder of th^ century. Its vast extent and noble architecture excited universal 
 astonishment. Its varied display of material and intellectual achievements startled the 
 spectator with the growth of human jDower, and the possibilities of the future. Where, 
 two decades before, the flames had devoured a city, there appeared a prodigy of strength 
 and beauty, that seemed to challenge distant generations. 
 
 The rise of Chicago is but one marvelous chapter in the history of American cities. 
 From 1850 to 1890 they have grown in number and in population, until they have be- 
 come a source of great anxiety. Occasional riots, like those of Cincinnati, in 1884, of 
 
 *Tlie valuation of the prnperty of the United States made in the Eleventh 
 544,333: Live Stocic aiirt Faim nnplements, $2,703,015,040; Mines and Quarries. 
 94S; Railroads and Kailways, $8,685,407,323: Telegraphs and Telephones, $701,755,712; Miscellaneous, $7,893,708,821 ; Total, 
 865,037,091,197. 
 
 From a bulletin issued by tlie census bureau it i.s shown that the entire receipts by the national, state, connty, town- 
 ship and municipal governments of the United States combined, iucluriing schools and postal service and all forms o£ 
 taxation, reached in 1890 an aggregate of $1,040,473,013. The total expenditures for the government of the people, from 
 the support of the district school to the payment of tlie expenses of Congress and the interest on the public debt in the 
 same year, amounted to $915,954,055, leaving a balance of $124,518,958 in the treasuries of the various states, cities and 
 counties. The revenues are made up from various sources, the l;u-gest being local taxation upon real and personal prop- 
 ertv. which was $443,096,574. Tlie liquor dealers of the United States contributed to the support of government thesum of 
 824;786,496. 
 
 The largest expenditures of the people of the United States are for charities, amounting in 1S90 to $146,895,671. The 
 second largest sum is paid for education. $145,583,115. Omitting interest on the public debt, the next item in amount is 
 foi' roads, sewers and bridges, $72,262,023. The postal service cost $66,000,000. the army and militia $35,500,000. and $15,174,- 
 403 was paid for the support of the na.vv. The cost of sustaining the police in all the cities aud towns of the United States 
 aggregated $24,000,000, and the tire departments $16,500,000. The indiciarv system of the country cost $23,000,000; $12,000,- 
 000 was paid for the support of prisons and reformatories, $11,000,000 for ligliting the streets of the towns and cities of the 
 United States: $3 280.294 was paid for protecting the public liealth. $2,962,697 for sustaining parks aud public resorts. It 
 costs the United States government $6,608,047 to support the Indians, and $11,737,738 for the improvement of rivers and 
 harbors. It cost every man, woman aud child in the United States the sum of $13.15 to maintain the national, state and 
 local governmeuts in tlie year 1890. 
 
936 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 New York and Brooklyji, in 18-86 and 1887, and of Chicago, in the same year, have cre- 
 ated much alarm ; the development of the Tweed ring in New York city, the Gas ring 
 in Philadelphia, and of city '• bosses," in nearly every city of the Union, has excited 
 earnest reflection, which has thus far borne not much fruit ; although various States, 
 conspicuously New York and Pennsylvania, have created able commissions to report 
 upon the best methods of municipal government, and Brooklyn and Philadelphia are 
 now living under improved charters. But the radical defect has not been reached. 
 Municipal charters must be made independent of legislative caprice ; no structure can 
 ever rest secure upon the shifting sands of party exigency. Tweeds may die in prison, 
 and Jacob Sharps within the shadow of the jail ; yet their tribe increases. ,For the spoils 
 are greater than the peril ; to plunder a city is, under existing charters and circum- 
 stances, less difficult and less dangerous than any other kind of pillage, as it happens 
 mostlj' under cover and color of the law.* Nevertheless, the people are alive to these 
 defects of political structure, and are striving to remove them. In many States new 
 constitutions have been adopted for the redress of evils, and the ballot reform move- 
 ment has swept before it the combined and cunning opposition of the mercenary politi- 
 cians. The most that these could do, was to check and mutilate the measures adopted 
 in several of the States, and to impede their successful operation. The American citi- 
 zen has ceased to boasrt of his institutions, and begun- to study them ; he is discovering 
 their value and their failures ; he is learning the limits of law, and the necessity of 
 political training. Citizens, he sees, are neither born nor naturalized, but made. 
 When the magnitude and glory, the difSculties and dangers of self-government in the 
 United States are fully discerned, there will doubtless be a flow of energy into public 
 life, such as marked the conduct of the civil war ; an application of intelligence to 
 political problems, like that which has conquered mountains and achieved the 
 triumphs of American industry. Our fathers, as this history shows, fought, from the 
 beginning, the battle of self-government; and yet reached a crisis, in 1784, that threat- 
 ened the destruction of their future welfare. Then they wei'e three millions onlj', and 
 almost all of one stock. Under the pressure of its own weight, and the condemnation 
 of progressive intelligence, slavery gave way, almost destroying the nation in its wreck. 
 But the people rallied from the calamities of civil war, and developed a prosperity that 
 challenged and received the admiration of the world. They now confront pi-oblems 
 of a different kind, as yet but dimly grasped and feebly stated. To attempt the solu- 
 tion of "them has been the chief glory of the noblest epochs hitherto ; to solve them 
 approximately, only, will make the American people the saviors of civil liberty. 
 
 *The foUowing table shows Uie principal cities of the United States arranged in the order of the expenditure per 
 capita for the maintenance of their city governments: it does not sliow, however, what each city gets for its money. 
 
 St. Paul $39.07 
 
 Boston 32.63 
 
 New York 24.5S 
 
 Columbus (0.) 24.23 
 
 Buffalo 23.41 
 
 Minneapolis 22.95 
 
 Los Angeles 21 59 
 
 San Francisco 18.86 
 
 Hartford (Conn.) 17.64 
 
 Lynn (Mass.) 17.29 
 
 Providence 17.23 
 
 Cambridge J6.94 
 
 Worcester 16.73 
 
 Detroit 16.61 
 
 Rocliester 15.91 
 
 Atlanta 15.75 
 
 Albany (N.Y.) 15.73 
 
 Richmond (Va.) 15.43 
 
 Newark (N. J.) ; $14.E 
 
 Cleveland 14.E 
 
 Lowell 14.4 
 
 St. Louis 14.4 
 
 Omaha 14.1 
 
 Baltimore 14. C 
 
 Grand itapids 13. £ 
 
 Cliieago 13.f 
 
 Brooklvn 13.6 
 
 Syracuse >. 1.3.S 
 
 Cliarleston 13.5 
 
 Philadelphia 13.1 
 
 Dayton 13.C 
 
 Jer.sey City ]2.f 
 
 Pittsburg 12.C 
 
 Fall River ll.E 
 
 Toledo 11.4 
 
 New Haven S11.33 
 
 Troy 11.18 
 
 Louisville 10.89 
 
 Nashville 10.88 
 
 Memphis 10.82 
 
 St. Joseph (Mo.) 10.44 
 
 Allegheny 10.20 
 
 Evansvilie 9.32 
 
 Indianapolis 9.27 
 
 Trenton 9.25 
 
 New Orleans 8.65 
 
 Wilmington 8.44 
 
 Paterson 8 41 
 
 Kansas City 8.17 
 
 Des Moines 7.38 
 
 Scranton 6.20 
 
 Reading 5.07 
 
THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 937 
 
 § 829. Educational Progress. — The older universities of the United States have 
 been munificent!}- endowed and intellectually transformed in recent years. As wealth 
 accumulated, it began to pour into the treasuries of learning ; as science triumphed 
 over matter and bigotry, it forced its way into the halls of education, and compelled 
 a change in the topics and methods of instruction ; as intercourse with Europe in- 
 creased through the development of steamships, and the laying of the Atlantic cable, 
 the influence of Germany led to innovation and imitation, startling and almost revolu- 
 tionary. The lecture displaced the text-book; special investigation took the place of 
 the older training in the classics and mathematics ; the student elected his pursuits 
 and his professors ; and a multitude of subjects were provived for his choice. This 
 movement pervades the whole country, and has wrought both good and evil. It has 
 filled the land with callow specialists, and has developed a few great scholars; it has 
 led to much parade of erudition, and to a few displays of specialized intellectual power ; 
 but the modern Harvard can boast neither of an Emerson or a Lowell, a Prescott, a 
 Motley, a Parkman, or a Holmes. Alongside of tlie older institutions, new and splen- 
 did f(nindations, like Johns Hopkins, Cornell, and Lehigh have appeared, and with 
 them, colleges for women, like Vassar, Wellesley, Smith, and Bryn Mawr. 
 
 In no respect is the change so marked, as in this eagerness to provide the high- 
 est education for young girls. Many of the universities and colleges admit both sexes 
 to their classes, and others provide means for their separate instruction. 
 
 The State universities of the West are firmly rooted in the affections of the 
 people, and the common school system still remains intact.* Yet the latter is shaken 
 occasionally by demands, from the Roman Catholics, for a division of the funds. In 
 various localities the parochial school has insisted upon recognition by the State. In 
 1893 the Pope sent as legate to America, Archbishop SatoUi, whose utterances and 
 movements attracted much attention; and for the present the school question 
 seems to sleep. Meanwhile, the new Catholic University at Washington excites the 
 eager interest of Catholic and Protestant. The growth of Catholic schools and col- 
 leges has been commensurate with the rapid development of the Catholic church in 
 recent years. The floods of immigration have lifted Romanism in the United States 
 into commanding power, and their schools and seminaries are conducted with great 
 skill, and supported with great liberality. 
 
 The theological schools of the country have multiplied rapidly, and two of them. 
 Andover and Union, have been the centres of unusual interest. The attempts of 
 their teachers to restate theology, in the light of modern scientific and historical re- 
 searches, have provoked fierce criticism and angry debate. 
 
 Law schools and medical schools have likewise multiplied, and industrial schools 
 
 *0f all the States New Yoi-l< expends tlie most monev for scliool purimses, $18,438,164. Pennsylvania is second. $13,370- 
 459. Then come Illinois. Sll.416,703; Ohio, $11,069,264: Massachnsetts, $8,527,656; Iowa, $6,570,063; Indiana, $6,191,009. 01 
 the Southern States, not including Missouri, Texas stands first in the expenditure of money for education with 33.307,320; 
 Kentuclty second, $2,088,165. Tlien come Maryland, $2,012,868; Virginia, $1,816,214; West Virginia, $1,372,191, and 
 Tennessee, $1,324,441. Alabama spends but$613,662, Louisiana $754,728 and South Carolina but $545,755 for schools. 
 
 Tlie average cost of education in the United States per capita of population is $2.24, while in 1880 it was only $1.S9. 
 California pays more tlian any other State for the education per capita ot her population, $4.24, and Colorado per capita 
 of her pupils enrolled, wliile Alabama pays the least, 37 cents per capita of population, and SI. 85 per capila of pupils 
 enrolled. 
 
 The average cost of education per capita ot population in New Engl;xnd and the North Atlantic States is $2.74, a little 
 above the average for the country; in the South Atlantic States, 98 cents; in the North Central States. $2. SI ; in the Soutli- 
 em States, S2.74. while in the Rockv Mountain and Pacific States it is S3.3o. The cost per capita of pupils enrolled for the 
 United States is $11.03. In the North Atlantic and New England States it is 815.35: in the Soutli Atlantic Stales, $4.96; in 
 the Northern Oi'iiual St.-ites $12.66; in the Southern Central States, $4 39, and in the Rocky Mountain .and Pacific States, 
 $19.71. 
 
 The total expenditures for school purposes in tlie United States increased from $79,528,736 in 1880 to $139,065,537 in 
 1890. 
 
938 AMERICA. 
 
 have been liberallj' endowed. The Drexel Institute of Philadelphia, and the Armour 
 Institute of Chicago are splendid gifts to their respective communities, and to the 
 future of America. 
 
 § 830. Indian Education. — The Sioux Indians of western Minnesota, after 
 frequently complaining of their treatment b}' the whites, attacked the frontier settle- 
 ments in August, 1862. General Pope was hastily despatched to drive them from 
 the State, and a number of the leaders were subsequently hanged. When Sitting Bull 
 became their chief, they rose once more, but were driven into southern Montana, to- 
 ward the Big Horn river. General Custer was surprised by them, and he and his 
 regiment of cavalry completely destroyed. 
 
 Three years before, the Modocs of southern Oregon had resisted desperately an 
 attempt to drive them from their "lava-beds." They killed the peace-commissioners 
 sent out to pursue them, and fought for a whole year in their country of volcanic 
 ruins and subterranean fortresses. 
 
 In 1877 the Nez Perce Indians also refused to leave their reservation, and took 
 up arms. They were pursued from Idaho through Montana, but fought like a brave 
 and honorable foe. They were finally compelled to surrender. But under the pres- 
 sure of public opinion, the administration of General Grant started a policy of peace, 
 and a system of Indian education. The reservation lines had come to be regarded as 
 " a wall that fences out law and social order, and admits only greed, and despotism, 
 and lawlessness." The government agent, living within this wall, was usually some 
 precious product of the spoils system ; the creature of an Indian ring. The resixlt was 
 inevitable ; discontent and frequent Indian war. In 1878 Congress, therefore, passed 
 the general land and severalty bill, which authorized the President to allot the land 
 of a reservation to the Indians located ou it. In 1882 the education division of the 
 Indian bureau was created, and the work of instruction thoroughly organized. 
 
 Bureau SoJiools, comprising boarding, daj', and industrial training schools have an 
 enrolled attendance of ten thousand one hundred and seventy-two pupils. 
 
 iSpeoial Schools, like those of Hampton, Va.. and Carlisle, Pa., have an enrolled 
 attendance of two thousand one hundred and thirty-seven scholars, and the Contract 
 Schools, maintained by missionary and church organizations, but receiving stipulated 
 sums from the government, enroll three thousand five hundred and ninety-seven 
 Indian children. Industrial training is a conspicuous feature of all these institutions ; 
 the children are of all tribes, and both sexes, and vary in age from eight to eighteen. 
 The Pine Ridge and the Osage Indians have compulsory education laws, of their own 
 adoption and administration, while the civilized tribes of the Indian Territory have, 
 each of them, an independent school system, where instruction is given in the English 
 language only. These five nations enroll, in their jDrimary schools, eight thousand 
 pupils ; and in their secondary schools, fifteen hundred. 
 
 In fact, the history of the Five Nations throws more light upon the Indian 
 problem, than all the pamphlets written on the Indian question ; and the departure 
 from the policy that established them so firmly in their homes, has been the fruitful 
 source of all our Indian miseries. 
 
 I 831. Public Libraries also have been munificently provided for — the Ridgway- 
 Rush of Philadelphia, the Carter-Browne of Providence, the Lenox and the Tilden of 
 
THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 939 
 
 New York, the Peabody and the Pratt of Baltimore, the Newberry of Chicago are but 
 a few of these great lights that bring knowledge to the reach of all that read. 
 
 Literature. The conspicuous feature of recent literary life in America is the develop- 
 ment of the magazines. Harpers, the Atlantic, Scribners, the Century, have created 
 for themselves an influence co-extensive with the country. These and other 
 periodicals have discovered talent, and fostered the literary spirit; they have brought 
 to American homes the genius of the old world, and filled the homes of Europe with 
 the echoes of the wqw^ While personality has vanished from the great dailies, it has 
 reappeared in the weeklies and the monthlies. Men and women are heard, not only 
 for what they say, but for what they are ; and questions of prime importance are il- 
 luminated b}' those in whom the people have, for some reason, learned to trust. 
 
 James Russell Lowell, George William Curtis, William D. Howells, Charles 
 Dudley Warner, J. G. Holland, R. W. Gilder, have all distinguished themselves in the 
 conduct of these magazines. Holmes wrote for the Atlantic his famous "Autocrat" 
 papers, Henry James has contributed to it and to others, striking stories and 
 criticism. " Mark Twain " has made them the vehicle of his peculiar humor ; Har- 
 riet Beecher Stowe wrote for them novels and sketches of New England life ; Con- 
 stance Woolson and Helen Hunt Jackson and Sara Jewett have adorned their pages 
 with stories of rare beauty ; Stedman and Stoddai-d have given us alternately fine 
 poetry and noble criticism ; Aldrich furnished verses and charming prose ; Hopkinson 
 Smith, bright sketches of travel, and attractive stories of American life. Nelson Page 
 has painted for their pages tlie South before the war. George W. Cable has mingled 
 truth and fiction in strange impressions of the " Old Creole "times in Louisiana. "Charles 
 Egbert Craddock " ( ) has depicted for their readers the mountaineers 
 
 of Tennessee, while James Whitcomb Riley and Edward Eggleston have made them 
 familiar with Hoosier schools, and the pathos of life upon the Indiana prairies. Joel 
 Harris made "Uncle Remus" the joy of all the children, Bret Harte brought to their 
 pages the mining camp of the Pacific, and Walt Whitman chanted through them his 
 rude and powerful lines. 
 
 These magazines are the chief educators of the American people, the meeting 
 places of their noblest minds, the intellectual inspiration of aspiring youth, the sup- 
 port of all good causes, and the promise of a glorious literature of the future. 
 
 Of the older literary men. Holmes alone survives. Longfellow died with Morit- 
 tiri Salutamus streaming from his golden lips, Whittier covered tlie nation with his ben- 
 ediction of the " Etei-nal Goodness," and Lowell left us, breathing out lofty indigna- 
 tion against the men that betray the hopes of mankind. Often misunderstood, but al- 
 ways faithful, his essays will abide, and his poems will endure ; the one to show tlie 
 breadth of his mind and the wealth of his culture, the other to reveal the depth of his 
 feeling, the tenderness and sweetness of his humor, the beauty of his intellectual vis- 
 ions, and the nobility of his ideals. 
 
 § 8-32. Flistory. Francis Parkman began, in 1849, a marvellous series of histori- 
 cal narrations, dealing with the discoveries and settlements of the French in America. 
 Their learning, their accuracy, their impartiality, their vivid and luminous stjde, won 
 for them instant recognition, and placed their author at the head of the splendid com- 
 pan}' of historical writers. John Lothrop Motley devoted himself with enthusiasm 
 isi-t-is7i. and with brilliant success, to the story of the Dutch struggle for civil 
 
940 AMERICA. 
 
 and religious libert3\ Hubert Howe Bancroft began, in 1869, to collect materials for 
 a complete history of the Pacific slope, which has proven voluminous and valuable. 
 
 Justin Windsor planned and executed, in co-operation with many leading inves- 
 isso. tigators, a " Narrative and Critical History of America," which abounds 
 
 in learning and splendid disquisitions. John Fiske has told the story of the American 
 Revolution with great charm and power, Moses Coit Tyler has recovered for us the 
 true soul and nature of Patrick Henr}^ John Bach McMaster has wi'ought into a pic- 
 turesque narrative, the newspapers, memoirs, and pamphlets of former periods ; Carl 
 Schurz has recreated the political environment of Henry Clay, and made the great 
 Kentuckiau move before our fascinated fanc}', while Hay and Nicolay have wrought 
 the life of Lincoln into a "History of the Causes and Conduct of the Civil War." 
 
 § 833. Theology. Horace Buslmell wrote books on great themes that made 
 for him a name in the world; Philip Schaff contributed a splendid " Historj^ of the 
 Christian Church ; " Henry Ward Beecher poured forth sermons and essa3's full of po- 
 eti'3' and philosophj^ and at once profound and popular ; Elisha Mulford described the 
 republic of God as conceived by a noble Christian thinker; Theodore Munger has 
 dealt with the problems of life and immortality; Henry M. Dexter told, with splendid 
 erudition, the story of the Congregationalists ; Abel Stevens has depicted with mar- 
 velous power the rise and progress of Methodism ; Charles A. Briggs has interpreted 
 the " Higher Criticism ; " Arthur McGiffert has enriched us with the finest edition of 
 Eusebius ever published ; George P. Fisher has made valuable contribution to Christ- 
 ian history ; McClintock and Strong have published a valuable encyclopedia, and 
 James Freeman Clarke has enlarged our knowledge of the great religions. 
 
 § 834. Philosophy has been cultivated with unusual energj'. Dewey of Michi- 
 igan has given us a fine ijsj'chology, and so did Porter of Yale. Ladd has quite re- 
 cently opened np to Americans the j)ath of physiological psychology explored by 
 Wundt and Lotze of German}^, and Bowne of Boston has expounded the views of his 
 great German teaclier with unusual success. McCosh of Princeton has given us the 
 fruits of a vigorous old age, and Stanley Hall of Clark has brought to us the inspira- 
 tion of his great Leipzig instructor. William T. Harris has won for himself a high 
 place as the expounder of German philosophy, and James of Harvard has published a 
 treatise on ps3'chology, brilliant, acute, and profound. 
 
 Francis Lieber gave the first impulse to the stud3- of political philosophy in the 
 United States, in his work on "Civil Libert3'; " Theodore Woolse3- and Elisha Mulford 
 have followed him with contributions of great value. Wayland and Bowen, Carey and 
 Perry, Newcomb and Walker have written ably but inharmoniously, upon economic 
 subjects, and have been followed by a multitude of others. The bewildering confu- 
 sion, prevailing among American students of economics, is re-echoed in the national 
 legislature and in the public mind. Hence dogmatic vehemence and exasperating 
 controversy, mixed with bold assertion, gilded platitudes and cunninglj' manipulated 
 statistics, strut about as scientific demonstrations. For as yet we have no science, but 
 onl3' attempts at a science of political economy. 
 
 § 835. Inventions and the Sciences. The Marsh harvester, which has supplanted 
 almost every other form of reaping machine, was first built in 1858, and has not been 
 changed materially since then, in principle or in form. It was the invention of the 
 
THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 941 
 
 two brothers Marsh, of De Kalb county, Illinois. A multitude of inventors next began 
 to think out an automatic binder, in order to perfect the Marsh harvester; and finally 
 John F. Appl.eb}^ swept ahead of all the rest, with the twine binder, now in general 
 use. Marshs and Appleby were greatly furthered in their effoits by William 
 Deering of Chicago. " He established," writes Mr. C. W. Marsh, " twine binding 
 machines as the grain harvesters of the time and the future." 
 
 Elisha Gray and Alexander Graham Bell perfected the telephone of Philip Reis 
 of Frankfort ; and the speaking wires now vibrate all over the globe. Bond, of Cam- 
 bridge, and Henry Draper, of New York, photographed the moon and the sjyectra of 
 the stars. Edison invented the incandescent light, and he ami Tesla have astonished 
 the world with their electric discoveries. Thesleeping cars of Pullman and of Wagner, 
 air-brakes and continuous platforms, have made long journej's eas}' and comparatively 
 safe ; and the transforming mind, of the inventor has introduced most startling changes 
 into every form of manufacture. 
 
 Louis Agassiz gathered about him at Cambridge a compnny of eager young biolo- 
 gists, who are now at work in every corner of the land. Asa Gray acquired, in botany, 
 a renown of equal splendor. Joseph Henry, of the Smithsonian Institute, ranked with 
 Michael Farada}^ and his successor, Langley, is an acknowledged expounder of the 
 new astronomy and the recent theories of solar energ}-. Newcomb of Washington, 
 Young of Princeton, and Holden of the Lick observatory, are famous in both hemis- 
 pheres for their knowledge of the skies, while Cooke of Cambridge expounds, with 
 clearness and beauty, the wonders of the new chemistr}^ Whitney, and Gildersleeve, 
 and Goodwin have won recognition from the philologists of Germany. Bache made a 
 survey of the coast of the United States, marvellously complete and accurate ; Hayden 
 explored the Rocky Mountains ; and Major Powell has published a complete descrip- 
 tion of the geology, botany, zoology, and ethnology of the Colorado river. Elisha Kane 
 explored the arctic regions in search of Sir John Franklin ; Commodore Perry opened 
 up Japan ; Hall and Howgate, and finally Greely, surpassed all others in their discov- 
 eries among the ice-bergs and the northern lights, while an American editor sent Stan- 
 ley to the heart of Africa to discover David Livingstone. 
 
 a. The goltl produced in the UnRed States from 1792 to 1892 is estiniated at $1,937,881,769 ; the silver at $1,148,161,465 ; or 
 $789,720,304 more ol gold than silver. The production in 1892 was ol silver $74,989,390 ; gold $33,000,000 ; $41,989,390, more 
 tlvm twice as mnch silver as gold. In Ave years, 1889—1893, we exported in eold, $322,000,000 and imported in gold $112,- 
 000,00ft; $210,000,000 more exported than imported ; in silver, exported $164,000,000. Imported $100,000,000: $64,000,000, more 
 exported than imported. Tliat is we have lost nearly seven times one year's gold product, and less than a single year's 
 silver product in tliese five years. 
 
 b. In 1890 there were 221,087 hands employed in the woolen, and 140,978 in the iron and steel industries. The manufac- 
 ture ol cotton goods has nearly doubled in a' decade, but so it Ii.ts throughout tlie world, [or two-thirds of our cotton crop, 
 which has also doubled in the last twelve years, still goes abroad. The total area under cotton was, in 1890, 19,566,271 
 acres: under cereals. 141.704.000 acres. The total value of all mineral products reached $674,356,848, as follows : Coal, 
 $207,637,139 ; pig iron, $131,161,039: silver, 874,989,390; copper, $37,977,142 ; gold, $33,000,000; petroleum, $26,034,196. 
 
 c. Population of the United States: 
 
 1790 3.929,214 11830 12,866,020 l 1870, ....38,558,371 
 
 1800, 5.308,483 1840, 17,069,453 1880, 50,165.783 
 
 1810 7.239,881 I 1850 23,191.876 1890, 62,622,260 
 
 1820 9,633,822 i860, 31,443,321- 
 
 d. The immigrants, since June 30, 1868, aggregate 12.875,876, not including those from Canada and Mexico, nor aliens 
 not registered as immigrants. 
 
 e. New States have been admitted in the following order. 
 
 1. Vermont Mar. 4. 1791 12. Arkansas June 1.5, 1836 22. West Virginia June 39, 1863 
 
 2. Kentucky* June 1, 1792 13. Michigan Jan. 26, 1837 23. Nevada Oct. 31, 1864 
 
 3. Tennessee June 1, 1796 14. Florida March 3, 1845 24. Nebraska Mar. 1, 1867 
 
 4. Ohio Nov. 29, 1802 16. Texas Dec. 29. 1845 25. Colorado Aug 1, 1876 
 
 5. Louisiana April 30, 1812 16. Iowa Dee. 28, 1846 26. North Dakota 1 
 
 6. Indiana Dec. 11, 1816 17. Wisconsin May 29, 1848 27. South Dakota ( ,„„„ 
 
 7. Mississippi Dec. 10, 1817 18. Cnlifornia Sept. 9, 1850 28. Mont.aua f ^°™ 
 
 8. Illinois Dec. 3, 1818 19. Minnesota May 11, 1858 29. Washingt(m J 
 
 9. Alabama Dec. 14, 1819 20. Oregon Feb. 14, 18.59 30. Wyomingi ..on 
 
 10. Maine Mar. 15. 1820 21. Kansas Jan. 29, 1861 31 Idaho J ^"^ 
 
 U. Missouri Aug. 10, 1821 I 
 
 — * Slave states in italics. 
 
942 AMERICA. 
 
 V. CANADA. 
 
 § 836. a. From the Conquest to the Union of the Two Canadas. 
 
 UEBEC passed to England in 1763, and with it all the territory now 
 lioa. known as British North America. Although the 
 
 English made liberal promises to the French inhabitants, j-et many 
 of them left the country. Their places were taken by English 
 from across the sea and from New England. But General jMurray, 
 who governed the province with the rule of the soldiery, respected 
 the religion and customs of the French, and the latter reluctantly 
 accepted the situation. Sir Guy Carleton, an exceedingly popular general and diplo- 
 mat, became governor in 1766. He conciliated the French without weakening his own 
 ITT* control. In 1774 the Quebec act was enacted by the English Parlia- 
 
 ment. This was opposed by London merchants, and by the Continental Congress. 
 New England objected to it as a covert attack upon the Protestant religion ; Pennsyl- 
 vania and New York because of its boundary provisions. 
 The chief features of the Quebec act were : — 
 
 The preservation of the Catholic religion to the French Canadians ; the establish- 
 ment in the province of the criminal law of England ; the continuance of the French 
 civil code and practice ; and the creation of an executive council. 
 
 The Quebec act and the wise administration of Sir Guy Carleton so strengthened 
 the loyalty of the Canadians, that the expedition of Arnold and Montgomery, against 
 Quebec, ended most disastrouslj^ for the Americans. 
 
 "When, however, Sir Guy was superseded in command of the army by General Bur- 
 goyue, he resigned angrily. The defeat of Burgoyne at Saratoga, and the success of 
 the American Revolution, drove thousands of loyalists into Canada. They settled 
 f)st. along Lake Erie as far as Detroit. Haldimand, the new governor of 
 
 the province, fearing their republican opinions, permitted none of them to dwell on 
 the frontier. Especially anxious did he become, upon learning that certain dissatisfied 
 men in Canada were in secret correspondence with eminent citizens of the United 
 States. After eight years of Haldiniand"s suspicious and narrow polic}^ Sir Guy Carle- 
 ton came back as Lord Dorchester. , His second administration was one of great pros- 
 perity. He favored free institutions, and was therefore not displeased when the loyal- 
 ist settlers petitioned for a share in the government. The)' were, however, violently 
 opposed by the English speaking people of Montreal and Quebec. This opposition, 
 1701. though, proved unsuccessful, and Parliament passed the Act of 1791, 
 
 dividing the province of Quebec into Upper and Lower Canada. Each division re- 
 ceived two houses of parliament ; a council appointed by the crown, an assembly chosen 
 by the people. This act provided also for the support of " a Protestant clerg3^" em- 
 powering the governors to erect and endow parsonages. 
 
 § 837. The settlers of Upper Canada at first endured great suffering ; the famine 
 
 of 1788 was long remembered among them. The countiy was then but a vast forest, 
 
 without towns, without roads, and without direct communication with the world. 
 
 When John Graves Simcoe, a loyalist ofScer of the Revolutionary war, summoned his 
 
 1192. first Parliament in 1792, two only of the five councillors, and five only 
 
THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 943 
 
 of the sixteen assemblymen, answered tlie governor's call. Thej' met in a misera- 
 ble log hut at Niagara. It was harvest time, and hence the absence of their colleagues. 
 Nevertheless, tlie little company passed eight important statutes. They established 
 the law of England in the province, divided the country into counties, opened the 
 lands to settlers, and invited thousands to cross the Niagara river and make a home 
 among them. They chose London to be the military station, and Toronto (York) to 
 be the capital of the province. The population of the new province rose rapidly from 
 twelve to thirty thousand; settlers flocked in from all quarters, Scotchmen, English- 
 men, Highlanders, Huguenots, French emigres, and Thomas Talbot's bold frontiers- 
 men. And yet the "sedition act " of 1804, gave jDOwer to arrest any person under 
 suspicion, wlio had been less than six mouths in the province. 
 
 Gov. Simcoe's successors were conspicuously incompetent. And Upper Canada 
 soon became a scene of jiarty strife. The original settlers, the loyalists from the 
 States, proscribed the later emigrants, and drove them to their defence. And as all of 
 them were contentious and fund of fight there was no lack of turbulence. 
 
 This quarrel was silenced temporarily by the war between Great Bi-itain and the 
 
 1512. United States, iu 1812. The capture of General Hull, and the victory 
 of the Canadians at Queenstown heights, marked the first j^ear of the war. But in the 
 
 1513. second, Niagara was burned ami the Canadian fleet destroyed by Com- 
 modore Perry. Toronto, then called York, also fell into the hands of the Americans, 
 and when the year closed, they were in possession of all the western peninsula of Up- 
 
 1514. per Canada. The Niagara frontier was fought for in 1814. Tlie Cana- 
 dians lost Fort Erie, and were repulsed at Chippewa, and the bloodiest battle of the 
 war was fought at Lundy's Lane. But in November, the Americans withdrew entirely 
 from Canada, and have never since returned. 
 
 § 838. The Family Compact. John Sti-achan, rector of York (Toronto), was a 
 leader of public opinion during this three years' struggle with the United States. 
 Straclian, though an English clergj'man, was a fighting Scotchman, pugnacious, perse- 
 vering, courageous, indefatigable, cunning, and greedy of power. He, in conjunction 
 with Chief Justice Powell, John Beverly Robinson, and others of like minds, formed, 
 
 isno. in 1820, a part}' which was known for many years as the Family Com- 
 
 pact. These men ruled the governor and the council. Thej"- drove Robert Gourlay, 
 an honest and capable man, from the province, because, in prosecuting his business, he 
 dared to circulate a list of questions that seemed to reflect upon their conduct ; and 
 the}' filled the offices with their favorites and tools. They became, however, so obnox- 
 
 isaj. ious to the people, that in 1824, an Assembly was elected, hostile to their 
 
 tyran^}^ 'Y\\%Golonial Advocate was started at the same time by William Lyon Macken- 
 zie, an impetuous Scotchman, whose vehement opposition soon brought down upon him 
 the hatred of the Compact and their adherents. The Advocate office was gutted bj' a 
 mob; but tlie damages recovered by Mackenzie from his persecutors, lifted him from 
 poverty, and public sympathy made him a member of the Assembly. And Robert 
 Baldwin, a man of integrity and of noble character, was chosen to represent York 
 (Toronto) in opposition to the candidate of the Cabal. But Sir John Colborne, who 
 succeeded Maitland as governor, was like him enamored of oligarchic measures, and 
 like him helped, of course, the Family Compact. 
 
 § 839. The Clergy Reaerve Controversy. And a religious quarrel intensified the 
 
944 AMERICA. 
 
 strife of parties. The Act of 1791 provided for the maintenance of a clergy by the 
 state. One-seventh of the crown lands was alloted for the support of a Protestant 
 clergy. When, however, a Scottish Presbyterian congregation asked for the loan of 
 one hundred pounds from the clergy reserve fund, a furious fight began, that lasted 
 through thirty years. Lord Bathurst, the British secretary for the colonies, decided, 
 wlien appealed to, that the terra "a Protestant clergy," might include the Scottish 
 church, but not Dissenters, although Lord Grenville had declared, at the time of its pas- 
 sage, that the bill meant to provide for any clergy that was not Roman Catholic. Dr. 
 Strachan was in 1823 chairman of the Upper Canada Reserves Corporation. He threw 
 himself with untiring energy into the battle. He claimed for the Episcopalians of the 
 province a monopoly of loyalty to England, and he insinuated that the Methodists of 
 the province were saturated with republican ideas, imbibed from their American 
 preachers. This brought Egerton Rj'erson and the Methodists, whose avowed leader 
 he' soon became, into a quarrel hitherto confined to Episcopalians and Presbyterians. 
 Strachan petitioned the Ci-own authorities that the Church of England be alone 
 allowed the benefits of the act. The Assembly there upon declared that the Scottish 
 church was entitled to a share of the funds. But the legislative council supported 
 Strachan, and refused to concur in this declaration of the Assembly. The latter 
 thereupon appealed to the King, but his majesty decided that the " clergy reserve fund " 
 had been created by Parliament exclusively for a clergy of the established church. 
 Sir soHn Col- Elated by this success, Strachan now hastened to England and obtaiiied 
 home, the charter, a land endowment and a money grant of one thousand 
 
 ts3s-is3o. pounds a j'ear, for a King's College, grounded on the thirty-nine articles 
 of the English churcli. His conduct provoked intense excitement and violent recrim- 
 inations, which grew furious when Sir John Colborne erected secretly forty-four rec- 
 tories of the Church of England, under the "glebe clause'" of the act of 1791, and en- 
 dowed them with extensive and valuable lands. Tlie Assembly in 1840 denied again 
 the exclusive claim of the Church of England ; and the authorities of the crown, eager 
 to compromise this bitter quarrel, procuied the passage of an act vesting the revenues 
 of tlie public lands in the imperial parliament for religious purposes. Strachan now 
 become Bishop, entered immediately upon a series of devices that resulted in the 
 transfer of the fund to Canada in 1853. And in 1854, the controvers)' was finally 
 settled by an act securing their life interests to the clergy already in the enjoj^ment of 
 grants, and devoting the remainder of the fund to public education. 
 
 § 840. Papineau's Rebellion. While Upper Canada Christians were quarreling 
 about the mammon of unrighteousness, Louis Papineau was elected year after year 
 speaker of the Assembly of the French-speaking province. Lord Dalhousie, the gov- 
 ernor-general, refused to recognize him, whereupon he was himself transferred to India. 
 A committee of the British Parliament then recommended a reform in the government of 
 the province, and in 1832 the local revenues were passed over to the control of the 
 Assembly. The French Canadians seized them eagerly, and started at once to starve 
 out the Engilsh judges and civil officers. Salaries were unpaid ; the government 
 seemed blocked. The French Canadians confronted tlie "Constitutional Associations" 
 of the English. Lord Russell next intensified the strife by the four resolutions that 
 he introduced into the House of Commons, in which the legislative assembly of Lower 
 Canada was condemned, and the oligarchic council defended. Both provinces were 
 
THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 945 
 
 DOW demanding that councillors should be elected by the people. Excited meetings 
 were held in Lower Canada ; Papineau tribute was collected ; liberty caps displayed ; 
 homespun coats and gowns became the fashion ; drilling begun ; and fighting took 
 place between angry groups of " Constitutionalists " and " Sons of Liberty." But Sir 
 John Colborne acted promptly and decisively. He attacked the insurgents wherever 
 1837. they collected. Dr. Nelson, the leader of one band, was captured, and 
 
 Papineau escaped across the border. 
 
 § 841. Mackenzie's Rebellion. William Lyon Mackenzie, excited by this move- 
 ment in Lower Canada, broke suddenl}^ into an insurrection that led to much ruin and 
 distress in Upper Canada. 
 
 He had been for years bitterly assailed by the forces of the Family Compact ; and 
 had been too radical and too straight-forward to hold the opposition solid. In 1830 the 
 oligarchy was strong enough to pass the " everlasting salary " bill, which made judges 
 and councillors independent of the Assembly for their pay. Mackenzie, though three 
 times elected to the House, was three times expelled by the tyrannical majority. All 
 this added to his popularity. The law officers of Great Britain pronounced his expul- 
 sion illegal. Re-elected by a large majority, the House once more refused to admit 
 him. But Toronto made him the first mayor of the city, and his triumph was assured, 
 when an unfortunate expression of Joseph Hume, adopted by Mackenzie, enabled his 
 enemies to cry out " disloyalty ! " Nevertheless, he and his adherents controlled the 
 Assembly of 1835, which exposed the Family Compact, and compelled the recall of 
 Sir John Colborne. But Sir Francis Head, Colborne's successor, threw his entire 
 strength against Mackenzie; Hume's expression, "the baneful domination of the 
 mother countrj^," was quoted against him continually ; "Hurrah for the British con- 
 nection ! " shouted the servants of the " Family Compact." This shout carried the 
 discredited oligarchy back to place and power, and the overwhelmed Mackenzie began 
 to lose his head. He entered into communication with Louis Papineau ; he formed a 
 committee of vigilance, and he agreed with Papineau to head an uprising in Toronto, 
 on the same day that the insurgents met their enemies in Montreal. He proclaimed a 
 "Provisional Government of the State of Upper Canada," and assembled eight hun- 
 dred adherents a few miles from Toronto. But while he hesitated to take the city, 
 Colonel McNab dispersed his men, and put a price upon Mackenzie's head. He fled 
 to Navy Island, where he flung his flag to the breeze ; but the flag soon ceased to 
 flutter, and Mackenzie had thrown away the chances of a patriotic and useful career, by 
 his lack of patience and political sense. 
 
 § 842. Durham and the Act of Union. In 1838 the Earl of Durham became 
 governor-general of Upper Canada. He was swift to perceive the conditions and 
 needs of the province. Yet his rule was hardly successful. Sixteen rebels were ex- 
 iled by his decree, among them Dr. Nelson, conspicuous in connection with Mackenzie. 
 " Lord High Seditioner ! " cried Durham's enemies in England. And the government 
 disallowed and disavowed him ; Durham attacked in turn his British superiors ; the 
 ministry thereupon recalled their angry (in)subordinate. But his report on Canada 
 is invaluable. Upper and Lower Canada differ, he said, in their political conditions ; 
 in the one there is a conflict of principles, in the other a conflict of races. He recom- 
 laso. mended a union of the two. In 1839 Lord John Russell introduced into 
 
 Parliament a bill embodying his suggestions. To ascertain the sense of the Canadians, 
 60 
 
946 AMERICA. 
 
 is-to. a special envoy of great tact and ability •was sent over from England, 
 
 John Poulett Thompson. Upon his return, the union was accomplished. This act of 
 union of 1840 contained the following features : 
 
 The legislature was to consist of an equal number of members from each 
 province. 
 
 English alone should be spoken in Parliament (this was subsequently modified). 
 A civil list over which the Assembly had no control was made out. and made perma- 
 nent. 
 
 The relation of the Executive to the Legislature was not clearly defined, but to 
 prevent a recurrence of the former troubles, it was provided that the governor should 
 onlv exercise power according to instructions from the crown. This act satisfied 
 neither the rebels nor the Family Compact. But the moderates were highly pleased. 
 
 b. Fro}}i the Union to the Formation of the Dominion. {lS^O-1867.) 
 
 § 843. Thompson, to whose report as envoy the passage of the act was due, came 
 again to Canada as Governor-General, and Lord Sydenham. He chose his cabinet 
 from the moderate membei-s of both factions. Baldwin, the liberal chief, and Draper, 
 afterward chief-justice, were the ministerial leaders. But the Assembly aflirmed, 
 plainly and emphatically, that the governor was subject to the advice of the council. 
 Sydenham skillfully avoided and evaded difficulty. But his successor. Lord ^letcaKe, 
 is4,3-is*6. refused to listen to the council, and made his own appointments. The 
 ministry at once resigned. The assembly denied him the prerogatives that he claimed, 
 and the struggle terminated only with his death. 
 
 The coast provinces had similar struggles. Nova Scotia was ruled by an olig- 
 archy, and Xew Brunswick rejected a new constitution sent over by Lord John Rus- 
 is^o. sell. In Nova Scotia, however, the Assembly led by Joseph Howe 
 
 demanded a responsible government, declared a want of confidence in the governor of 
 the provinces. Sir Colin Campbell, and asked for his recall. The struggle in each 
 province was long and difficult, but they were both organized finally on the same 
 principle as L'pper and Lower Canada. 
 
 § 844. The Losses Bill. — The new Parliament of Canada met in 1844. It opened 
 jsjj. with a quarrel. Upper Canada had obtained ten thousand pounds, in 
 
 order to pay losses incurred during the rebellion. Lower Canada now demanded an 
 equal sum. The ministry granted the settlement of losses in Lower Canada ; and 
 Upper Canada thereupon broke out in wrath. Lord Elgin became governor-general in 
 the midst of the tumult. Great excitement greeted him at Montreal. The English 
 minoritj- failing to defeat the ministry (La Fontaine — Baldwin), signed a manifesto, 
 demanding annexation to the United States. Nevertheless, the losses bill was carried. 
 tsso. Wild excesses followed. Lord Elgin was mobbed on his way home 
 
 by the minoritv, and the Parliament house was sacked and burned. But the new gov- 
 ernor-general was calm and wise. He developed the resources of the country, encour- 
 aged canals and railroads, and greatly furthered the cause of education. 
 
 §845. The Land aiid Bent Fxcitement. — The losses bill trouble was followed by 
 a sharp conflict about land and rent charges. Lands in Canada had been divided orig- 
 inally into seigniories ; these were owned at first by membei-s of the French nobility, 
 and the Canadian tenant farmers were compelled to pay large revenues to their de- 
 
THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 947 
 
 scendants. These rents had become exceedinglj'' onerous and oppressive ; finally the 
 seigniors were induced to accept two million five hundred thousand dollars, in lieu of 
 all their claims. Lord Elgin's administration was also memorable for the reciprocity 
 
 1SS4. treaty, negotiated with the United States. The adoption of free trade 
 
 by England had greatly depressed Canadian industry, so that this treaty was hailed 
 with great delight, yet the prosjDerity that rushed in like a flood, was soon followed by 
 disaster. The " clergy reserve " question "was also settled in Lord Elgin's time ; the 
 reserves were secularized, and the Church of England in Canada made practically 
 independent. 
 
 § 846. The Clear Grits. — Upper Canada, which had been growing rapidly since 
 the union, now demanded increased representation in Parliament. George Brown, 
 the leader of the " Clear Grits," a split from the liberal party, put the Conservatives 
 in the minority, on the question of a capital site. But Sir Edmund Head, the gover- 
 nor, refused to dissolve Parliament. The Cartier ministry was then defeated on the 
 
 isa2. militia bill and a dead -lock ensued. Ministry followed ministry in quick 
 
 succession. Confusion prevailed, until the three leaders, Brown, MacDonald, and 
 Cartier formed a coalition ministry, which set about the deliverance of the country 
 from the dead-lock, and the formation of a union of all the Canadian colonies. The 
 warfare that ensued was bitter and demoralizing, but finally a conference met at 
 Quebec, composed of delegates from both Canadas and Nova Scotia, New Brunswick 
 and Prince Edward's Island. Seventy-two articles were here agreed upon, for sub- 
 mission to the various legislatures. During this contest in Canada, the civil war was 
 raging in the United States, and Canada was threatened with serious difficulties. Ref- 
 ugees and conspirators from the South gathered upon the borders and in the Canadian 
 
 isas. cities ; Fenian raids were attemjDted from the States, and incursions 
 
 made from Canada into Vermont. Nothing came of it all, but alarm, and irritation, 
 and diplomatic correspondence. 
 
 c. The Dominion. (1867-1894.'). 
 
 § 847. In 1867 the English Parliament passed the British North American Act, 
 
 isoi. which created the Dominion of Canada. This act, the passage of which 
 
 called forth great rejoicing, united in one confederation, Ontario, Quebec, New Bruns- 
 wick and Nova Scotia. Four years later Manitoba and British Columbia were in- 
 cluded. Prince Edward's Island followed in 1874. The Dominion's Parliament con- 
 sists of two chambers ; a Senate and a popular Assembly. The members of the Senate 
 are nominated by the prime minister, and hold office for life. The chief features of 
 government are described in the act creating the Dominion, but the British constitu- 
 tion is referred to as the authoritative guide in questions of peculiar difficulty. After 
 the formation of the Dominion, Sir John MacDonald became conspicuous in Canadian 
 
 isio. politics. He was prime minister during Kiel's short first rebellion in 
 
 Manitoba. He was one of the commissioners who arranged the treaty of Washington, 
 by which the Alabama claim and other outstanding questions between England and 
 
 isji. the United States were referred to arbitration. But as the parts of 
 
 this treaty relating to Canada were exceedingly unpopular in the Dominion, Sir John 
 and his party bai-ely escaped defeat the following year. To carry the elections for 
 MacDonald and the Conservatives, Sir Hugh Allan contributed enormous sums of 
 money, receiving in return the pledge of the ministry to put through Parliament the 
 
 r 
 
948 AMERICA. 
 
 charter of the Canadian Pacific Railroad Company, of which Sir Hugh was president. 
 
 lais. When Parliament met an investigation was demanded; Sir John 
 
 offered no defence, but his majority defeated the resolutions appointing a committee. 
 Finally he was compelled to yield, and a committee was appointed, which brought in 
 i.o,a nufferin. a rcport incriminating the Premier and his colleagues. Lord Dufferin, 
 1S73-1S7S. the Governor-general, was obliged to convene a special session of Par- 
 liament, which met, discharged the comriiittee, and appointed a royal commission of 
 three judges to report to the House in October. When Parliament reconvened, in- 
 tense excitement prevailed. A motion of censure was introduced and debated hotly ; 
 but before the vote was taken, the ministry resigned. Alexander Mackenzie now be- 
 came prime minister, and under the administration of the Liberals, the Dominion pros- 
 pered exceedingly. Notwithstanding the scandal that overthrew the Conservatives, the 
 construction of the Canadian Pacific road was gradually pushed forward. But when a 
 
 isse. period of financial stringency set in, the country began to clamor for 
 
 protection. Mackenzie refused to adopt a change of policy, but MacDonald was more 
 than willing. He strode forward as the champion of a national system. ' Rallying the 
 entire Conservative party to his new standard, in two years time he regained the con- 
 
 jsjs. trol of Canada. Lord Dufferin's term of office now expired. He had 
 
 been exceedingly popular, having managed affairs with exquisite tact. Sir Jolin Mac 
 Donald carried his national policy into effect. A high protective tariff was enacted, a 
 revival of trade followed, general prosperity returned, and the Canadian Pacific rail- 
 
 laao. way was completed, regardless of expense. In 1880 the British Par- 
 
 liament transferred the dominion and jurisdiction of all the British jjossessions in 
 Canada, except Newfoundland and its dependencies, to the Parliament of the Domin- 
 ion. But the inexcusable neglect of department officials in adjusting the claims of 
 settlers in the Northwest, led to an uprising of Lidians and half-breeds under Riel. 
 The insurrection was promptly suppressed. Riel and ten Indians were arrested, tried, 
 convicted and sentenced to death. The leader and eight of the others suffered tlie 
 extreme penalt}^ and more than a score expiated their offence in jail. 
 
 § 848. The Canadian Pacific railway, after desperate financial struggles, was com- 
 
 issa. pleted in 188(3. In 1887 the Dominion received another grant of 
 
 power from the imperial Parliament. Henceforth she might negotiate her own com- 
 mercial treaties, in connection with the ministry representing Her Majesty. At the 
 
 isss. same time delegates from the various provinces met to consider amend- 
 
 ments to the act of 1876 ; they recommended an enlargement of the powers of provin- 
 cial officers. The question of reciprocity with the United States provoked a hot dis- 
 cussion, but the administration triumphantly opposed the policy. Difficulties, touch- 
 ing the rights of American fishermen on the banks of Newfoundland, severely 
 strained the relations between the Dominion and the United States, while the destruc- 
 tion of seals in the Alaskan waters, by Canadian fishermen, produced another sharp 
 and dangerous controversy. These differences, are now in process of final settlement; 
 the British and American government having submitted them to a court of arbitra- 
 tion, which met and passed upon them in the summer of 1893. Sir John MacDonald 
 
 isox. died in 1891. In a few months investigations were demanded into the 
 
 conduct of various departments, and unpleasant revelations led to the overthrow of 
 several popular leaders : — conspicuous among them being Mercier, the hitherto all 
 powerful leader of the French in Lower Canada. 
 
IIM^MM^MM^MPM^IIIIMMM^M^MMMMMMJI 
 
 B. CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 I. MEXICO. 
 
 The Struggle foe Independence and the Subsequent Revolutions. 
 
 §729. 
 
 0S£ DE ITURRIGARAY was Spanish Viceroy in 
 Mexico when Napoleon I. drove the Bourbon king from 
 isos. Spain. He sought to conciliate the 
 
 Mexicans while pursuing his exactions, partly for his 
 own advantage and partly to satisfy the demands of 
 the Bonapartes. A conspiracy was framed against him 
 and he was sent back to Spain a prisoner. His suc- 
 cessors were timid and irresolute. This brought to the 
 Sept. isto. front Miguel Hidalgo, a native priest, 
 strong with the clergy and trusted by the discon- 
 tented. He was supported bylgnacio de Allende, a man 
 of some skill as a soldier. After a brief period of suc- 
 cess Hidalgo was defeated by Calleja, in 1811, and 
 obliged to fly with his broken army. And he with his com- 
 panions, Jimenes and Allende, were soon captured and 
 promptly shot hy the victorious royalists. Jose Maria 
 Morelos, however, continued the struggle with a valiant 
 remnant of the insurgents. He too failed, was captured 
 and executed in 1815. But his stubbornness and courage 
 had increased the strength of the insurgents, and in 1816 
 they held their own against a force of 80,000. But in 1817 the leaders were obliged 
 to succumb. In 1820 the news readied Mexico that Ferdinand VII. was once more 
 King of Spain. The revolutionists now made overtures to a man who had been most 
 active in suppressing the former rebellion, Augustin de Iturbide. The latter accepted, 
 and in 1821 entered the gates of the capital as the conqueror of Mexico. For in spite 
 ts22.is23. of the opposition of the republicans, he proclaimed himself Emperor 
 and compelled the Congress to acquiesce. 
 
 Santa Anna organized an army of liberators ; the soldiers deserted to the re- 
 (949) 
 
950 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 public ; Iturbide abdicated and gladly accepted permisson to embark for Italy. The 
 isna-isno. United States of Mexico opened their history in 1824, with Guadaloupe 
 Victoria as president of the republic. 
 
 Spain, however, did not jdeld until 1836, and then only after an ignominious failure 
 to reconquer the country made in 1829. 
 
 Part}^ struggles disgraced the new Union and kept the people in unceasing turmoil. 
 In 1841 Santa Anna entered the capital at the head of an army ; but his stay was 
 short ; in 1842 Herrera proclaimed him a rebel and he fled the country. 
 
 JMeanwhile the Americans had entered Texas. In 1833 there were already 
 20,000 of them there. The United States offered repeatedly to purchase the terri- 
 tory, but Mexico refused to sell, and Santa Anna was sent to bring the Texans to 
 obedience. He was met at San Jacinto by General Samuel Houston, taken prisoner 
 and compelled to agree to the independence of Texas. Mexico repudiated the con- 
 ts4e.is4,s. tract ; and in attempting to regain control, was obliged to do battle 
 with the United States, and this resulted in the additional loss of Upper California, 
 New Mexico, and Arizona. 
 
 § 730. Santa Anna, who had been compelled to fly in 1842, returned during the 
 war with the United States to the presidency of the Republic and to the control of 
 the army, but proved so weak that in 1855 he was compelled to abdicate once more. 
 A period of anarchy then followed. Finally General Alvarez obtained the presidency, 
 and with the help of the liberals and radicals ruled with dictatorial violence. He 
 sketched a new constitution in which the clergy especially were great sufferers ; the 
 property of the church being in many cases confiscated. A reaction soon took place, 
 in consequence of which Zuloaga, a Conservative, became president and the constitu- 
 tion of 1857 was abolished. The radicals, however, stuck to their principles, stirred up 
 the people of the provinces against the 
 ''reactionary classes" of the capital, and 
 made Juarez their president. There were 
 now two governments, one at Vera Cruz 
 lass. and one at Mexico, and a 
 
 civil war ensued between the Guerilla 
 bands of Juarez and the regular troops of 
 General Miramon. 
 
 The United States demanded the right 
 of transit across the Isthmus of Tehuan- 
 tepec. Zuloaga refused this demand, 
 whereupon the government at Washing- 
 ton recognized Juarez as president. Jua- 
 rez confiscated the properties of the 
 church, and prosecuted energetically the 
 war against the Conservatives ; and in 
 December 1860 his General, Ortega, made 
 a triumphal entry into the capital. 
 
 But meanwhile Mexico had become greatly indebted to the bankers of Europe ; 
 besides this the European residents of Mexico clamored for compensation, for the losses 
 incurred by them during the civil war. This led to the convention at London, in 
 
 MAXIMILIAN. 
 
CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 961 
 
 which England, France, and Spain declared that, owing to the weakness of the Mexican 
 authorities, they were compelled to demand better protection for their citizens resident 
 in Mexico, and to require the fulfillment of the financial obligation entered into by 
 the Mexican state. Three squadrons were sent to America to demand satisfaction for 
 the past and security for the future ; the}' took possession of Vera Cruz together with 
 Dec. isGi. other harbors ; the Spanish under General Prim encamped at Orizaba, 
 the French at Tehuacan, and the English at Cordova. But the allies soon disagreed 
 Aptii o, ISO*, and the English and Spanish withdrew. But the honor of France 
 and of the French Emperor, required that an undertaking so ostentatiouslj' begun 
 should not be ingloriously abandoned, notwithstanding the attacks which were made 
 upon it by the French Republicans and the opposition that it encountered in Mexico. 
 aray IS, 1S63. After much suffering and many difSculties, the French overcame all 
 resistance; capital and provinces alike surrendered. A triumvirate was chosen and 
 an assembly of notables convened. The republic was abolished, a limited hereditary 
 monarchy was established, and the imperial crown was offered to Maximilian, of 
 Austria. The choice was, a prudent one. Maximilian was a younger brother of the 
 Emperor of Austria ; was finely educated, had traveled much, was full of energy, of 
 courage, and of ambition. His wife, Marie Charlotte, supported him in this great 
 ise^. ■ adventure, and they departed for Mexico with eager expectations. The 
 United States at once made known its discontent, and their Congress declared that the 
 people of the United States found it irreconcilable with their principles, to recognize 
 an imperial government that had been established upon the ruins of the Mexican 
 
 republic, under the auspices of a European 
 power. Maximilian soon found that the 
 Mexicans would not support him, and that 
 the French army of occupation were un- 
 able to put down the guerilla bands of 
 Juarez and the Republicans. The reve- 
 nues of the land were insufScient, and it 
 was impossible to borrow money in Eu- 
 rope. The United States had reached the 
 close of the Civil War, and now demanded 
 the withdrawal of the French from Mex- 
 ico. Maximilian was thereupon aban- 
 doned, first by the French Emperor and 
 then by his Mexican supporters. The 
 Empress Charlotte journeyed in vain to 
 Paris and to Rome, seeking help from Na- 
 poleon and from the Pope. The only re- 
 sult of her mission was her own insanity. 
 Bazaine, the French commander in Mexico, 
 MARSHAL BAZAINE. advised Maximilian to abdicate, but he re- 
 
 iser, fused. For the Mexicans who had been faithful to him, saw in his re- 
 
 maining, their only hope of safety. In 1867 the French troops returned to Europe. 
 The last of them had scarcely left Vera Cruz, when the army of the liberals and the 
 o-uerilla bands attacked the empire. The inhabitants of the capital urged the Emperor 
 
952 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 to withdraw, and Maximilian acceded to their wishes. He retired to Queretaro where 
 he was soon surrounded. But he and his little army defended themselves with des- 
 perate courage. He was finally betrayed for money by Colonel Lopez, a man whom 
 he had distinguished and rewarded above all others. A court-martial was convened 
 and Maximilian was condemned to be shot. On the day of his execution the capital 
 ^ime 19, ise7. Surrendered to Diaz, and eight days after Juarez entered Vera Cruz in 
 triumph. Juarez retained the chief magistracy until his death. A few attempts at 
 rebellion were promptly suppressed. Under his successor Tejada, however, Diaz raised 
 the standard of rebellion, overthrew the existing government and began a period of 
 liberal reform. This old guerilla chieftain, the right hand of Juarez, and the de- 
 1SS4. struction of Maximilian's empire, was re-elected to the presidency in 
 
 1884. 
 
 POKFIRIO DIAZ. 
 
SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 953 
 
 II. SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 The Struggles foe Independence and the Formation op the Republics. 
 
 §735. 
 
 HE Spanish dominion in South America was one of cruelty, selfish- 
 ness, and extortionate greed. As in Mexico, so everywhere, only 
 Spaniards from the mother country could bear rule. The Creole 
 population suffered for the most part in sullen silence, the natives 
 with the patience of despair. The War of the Spanish Succession 
 made the former restless, and the War of American Independence 
 opened the eyes of the Americans, to the immense profits that 
 were drawn by the Spaniards from their colonies. For their intercourse with the 
 French revealed to them the enormous gains of the Spanish system of colonial monop- 
 olies. Nevertheless, the attempt of Miranda of Caraccas to stir the people of South 
 America to energetic resistance, failed entirely. The interests of the different provinces 
 were too various, the population was political^ too ignorant, and the antagonism 
 between Spaniard, Creole, and Native was too irreconcilable for him and. his French 
 and English supporters to succeed. 
 
 But in the beginning of this century, the career of Napoleon Bonaparte reshaped 
 the American as well as the European world. It gave Louisiana to the United States, 
 which carried with it the surrender of Florida by Spain, and it broke the bond that 
 united Mexico and South Ameiica to the mother country. When the Bourbons were 
 driven from the Spanish throne, and Joseph Bonaparte placed there by his powerful 
 brother, the Spanisli jDOSsessions in America consisted of four vice-roj'alties (New 
 Granada, New Spaia or Mexico, Rio de la Plata or Buenos Ayres, and Peru), and of 
 five general captaincies (Chili, Venezuela, Guatemala, Cuba and Porto Rico). For a 
 while the Spanish authorities in the colonies were undecided and discordant. Mariana 
 Morena, an enterprising, educated and resolute citizen of Buenos Ayres, sought to use 
 this want of promptness and of harmon}' among the Spanish rulers for the creation of 
 a patriotic party, and to win the people generally for freedom and independence. But 
 he and his adherents encountered a fearful enemy in the Guachos, the wild sons of the 
 Pampas. On these great grass plains, stretching from the torrid regions of the palm 
 tree to the ice fields of Patagonia, roved a multitude of savage herdsmen upon their 
 half-tamed horses, whose wild life knew nought of any moral code ; who hated ever}' 
 social organization, and looked with contempt upon the " tenderfeet " that dwell in 
 cities. 
 
 § 7.36. In Chili the Captain-General Carrasco was opposed by Martinez de Kosas, 
 
 jTuty isio. an influential man who organized the patriots, and in Venezuela Simon 
 
 tsi4. Bolivar raised the standard of independence at the head of a powerful 
 
954 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 and intelligent jriait}-. Napoleon's demand that the colonies should recognize the new- 
 King Joseph found there the same reception as in the mother conntr}-. His governors 
 were everywhere expelled, and in most cities juntas were formed, which acted for 
 
 'T4i?''. 
 
 ^'vT*'! 
 
 BIRD S-EYE VIEW OF THE ANPES. 
 
 Ferdinand A"II., but desired and worked really for independence. The separation was 
 accomplished in most of the colonies without blood-shed : Quito was an exception, for 
 their twenty-eight patriots were slaughtered, and their homes plundered by the Spanish 
 garrison. 
 
 When the Cortes were called together at Cadiz to form a liberal constitution for 
 Spain, the Amei'ican representatives, who were present upon invitation, desired for the 
 colonies equal rights with the mother country ; equality of representation in the 
 Cortes and full liberty of trade. These demands foxind no response ; for to haA"e con- 
 ceded them, would have ti'ansferred the political superiority to the Americans, and 
 would have given a mortal blow to the opulent trade at Cadiz. Equal rights were 
 granted to all the races of South America, and the old restrictions upon agiiculture 
 and industry were abolished. But the dissatisfied Americans declared themselves in- 
 dependent of the Cortes, organized themselves as independent states, and, although 
 not everywhere victorious, maintained themselves with honor against the Spanish Gov- 
 ernors and their troops, and would have conquered even greater results if the jealousy 
 of the cities and tlie discord of the sections had not prevented concerted action. 
 
SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 965 
 
 § 737. After the restoration of 
 Ferdinand, the Spanish colonies 
 would have returned to their allegi- 
 ance, if the ill-advised king had not 
 refused their just demands and re- 
 isn. quired of them uncon- 
 
 ditional submission to his roj'al will. 
 Buf the South Americans put no 
 confidence in the monarch who, by 
 cruel persecution of the Spanish lib- 
 erals, had displayed such hatred to 
 all political progress. Instead of 
 yielding to the royal will, they re- 
 newed their claim for equality of 
 rights with the mother country, and, 
 when this was refused them, they 
 unsheathed the sword to fight for in- 
 dependence. A life-and-death strug- 
 gle began in which the South Ameri- 
 cans disjDlayed virtues which no one 
 had expected of them ; their fortitude 
 in misfortune, their self-denial, their 
 enduring of unspeakable distresses, their 
 and of life, have been seldom paralleled 
 
 INDIAN OP THE AMAZON. 
 
 NATIVi. or UUAZIL. 
 
 sacrifice of peace and prosperity, of strength 
 in human history. Assembling in masses 
 they would attempt a blow and, if it 
 failed, they scattered like dust before 
 the wind. Their troops were com- 
 posed of peasant farmers, of workers 
 in the sugar mills and in the mines, 
 who were accustomed to live on hoii'se- 
 back, and in the open air, and who 
 passed readily, by long habit, from 
 plenty to want ; they had the advan- 
 tage of requiring no fixed centre of 
 operations, no strategy, no organiza- 
 tion' and no commissary. To-day 
 they might be in the depths of want 
 and to-morrow rejoicing in a lucky 
 conquest ; and this wild life was their 
 vital breath, for it gave them oppor- 
 tunity to satisfy, now a private re- 
 venge, and now the longing of a sud- 
 den impulse. Ferdinand sent his 
 ISIS. cruel general Morillo 
 
 (a second Alba), to South America, 
 and with him the Inquisitor Torries, 
 
956 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 charged \Yith extraordinary powers. But Rio de la Plata had so solidly established 
 her independence and her republican constitution, that her success encouraged the 
 other states to persevere even though their struggle was a harder one. Three re- 
 publics, La Plata, Bolivia, and Uruguay were established, 
 ism. and Paraguay was for a long time gov- 
 
 erned b}- the astute advocate, Dr. Francia, with dictatorial 
 power. The war for freedom in New Granada and Peru 
 is connected with the Creole Simon Bolivar, of Caraccas. 
 This distinguished general and statesman chose Wash- 
 ington for his model, and dedicated his energy and his 
 fortune to the redemption of his people, not departing 
 from his great purpose even when ingratitude was heaped 
 upon him. Venezuela had declared her independence as 
 early as 1811, but a terrible earthquake almost totally 
 destroyed the capital Caracas, and killed in Valencia 
 .vni-oA isis. twenty thousand people. This was inter- 
 preted by the priests as the punishment of heaven for 
 tlieir rebellion, and used cunningly to bi-ing the land back 
 to Spanish rule. The unsparing cruelt}- with which the 
 vindictive Spaniards hunted down the republicans, brought 
 the extinquished fire to a fresh conflagration. Bolivar led 
 600 men across the Andes ; thousands rushed to his stand- 
 ard to avenge the death of the slaughtered patriots ; the 
 National Assembly of New Granada hailed him as their 
 saviour and appointed him Dictator ; and he organized at 
 once a war to the knife, in the decree of Trujillo, con- 
 
 PAEAGTJAY INDIAN. 
 
 demning to death every Spaniard 
 found supporting the royal cause. 
 A fearful, fluctuating, dangerous, 
 arduous and wasting war arose be- 
 tween Bolivar and Morillo, Bolivar 
 being supported by the black gen- 
 eral, Paez.. When the Spaniards 
 conquered, the blood of Republi- 
 cans flowed in streams : to revenue 
 
 SI.MOX BOLIVAR. 
 
SOUTH AMERICA. 957 
 
 them, Bolivar executed eight hundi-ed Spanish prisoners. The Spaniards acquii-ed a 
 terrible ally in the Lhineros, who like the Gauchos of the Pampas, lived a Bedouin 
 life on the grass plains of Terra Firma, who were capable of great endurance and 
 abstinence, and who as troopers fought with the pike, the lasso, and tlie fire-brand. 
 Bolivar was compelled to lay down his command and to seek safety in flight to 
 San Domingo. The Royalists exalted now in corpses, iu confiscation, and in 
 forced contributions. But Bolivar soon returned ; his appearance restored the sink- 
 ing courage of the Republicans and victories increased his power. Venezuela and 
 New Grenada formed a union, choosing Bolivar as captain-general, and at the Con- 
 Dec M7, isio. gress of Angostura the two republics were united into the single free 
 state, Colombia. The Spaniards now determined to send a new army to America. 
 This was the same which, by raising the standard of rebellion, had brought about the 
 rule of the Cortes in Spain. But even the Cortes would not recognize the independ- 
 ence of the colonies. So the war was I'enewed, but to the disadvantage of the dis- 
 . cordant Spaniards. Colombia conquered her liberty and chose Bolivar as president. 
 A treaty of commerce united the young republic to North America. Bolivar next 
 appeared as the savior and liberator of Peru. This land with the help of St. Mar- 
 tin, the cunning and enterprising liberator of Chili, and of the Englishman Cochrane, 
 had adopted a republfcan constitution and named St. Martin as protector. Discord 
 however weakened the power of the Republicans; St. Martin resigned and returned to 
 Chili ; the Spaniards prevailed ; the i-epublic seemed lost. At this crisis Bolivar appeared. 
 The discordant Spaniards were beaten and forced to withdraw, and the liberator was 
 lag*. named protector for life by the Congress in Lima. This heaping of 
 
 power and of honor upon Bolivar awakened the envy and the anxiety of the Repub- 
 licans. Conspirators lay in wait to kill him ; he was accused of ambitious designs and 
 treasonable purposes. He resigned his oiSce with deep sorrow, and death soon freed 
 him from labor and from care. But this did not establish harmony among the shat- 
 tered and dissevered states. Their history, since their independence, is painfully 
 marked with jealousies and discord. 
 
 § 854. The Chilian, Civil War. — Chili adopted a constitution in 1838 resembling 
 1833. that of the United States. This constitution was revised in 1874, so 
 
 1S7*. that the voting franchise was extended, public education provided for, 
 
 and religious tolei-ance secured. But the Liberal party, as it became supreme, split 
 into factions, and quarreled about leadership and the " spoils." The radicals, under 
 the lead of Balmaceda, soon became more numerous than the moderates, their leader 
 being the most popular man in Chili, and indeed in South America. He had been 
 minister of war during the campaigns against Peru, and minister of the Argentine Re- 
 public in a period of great importance. He was easily elected president by an over- 
 whelming majority, and for a while received enthusiastic support. He established 
 a complete system of popular education, secularized tlie cemeteries, separated church 
 and state, and banished sectarian teaching from the schools. He built railroads, 
 dredged harbors, erected wharves, and lifted the country into great prosperity. 
 
 But who can appease the hunger of the office-seeker? The moderate Liberals 
 joined forces with the Nationalists or Monntvarists to drive the President from power. 
 An opposition Congress passed hostile laws which he vetoed, and by a vote of censure 
 forced his cabinet to resign. Balmaceda now resorted to violent and unconstitutional 
 
958 AMERICA. 
 
 measures, and finally declared himself dictator and proclaimed martial law. A des- 
 perate civil war ensued, whicli ended in the defeat of Balmaceda, and the ruin of his 
 adherents. 
 
 The provisional government, established at Santiago b}' the revolutionary Junta, 
 
 1S9X. was then formerlj' recognized by foreign governments, and the recon- 
 
 struction of Chili begun. Admiral Jorge Montt was inaugurated first president under 
 the new constitution', December 26, 1891. 
 
 Since then amnesty has been granted to most of those who took part in the rebel- 
 lion. And as Balmaceda committed suicide, he has ceased to trouble the country. 
 § 855. Brazil. — Brazil was discovered in 1499, by Vincent Pencon, who sailed 
 
 1490. as far as the Amazon, and thence to the mouth of the Orinoco. But 
 
 Cabral, a Portuguese commander, reached the Brazilian coast the next year, and sent 
 word of his discovery to the King at Lisbon. Emanuel sent Amerigo Vespucci to ex- 
 plore the country, but no attempt to introduce organized authority was made, until 
 
 ts3i. Martin de Sousa discovered Rio de Janeiro on the first of January 
 
 1531. Captaincies were then established, and settlements begun. Thome de Sousa 
 
 1540. became governor-general, and arrived at Bahia in April, 1549, with 
 
 three hundred and twenty persons in the King's paj^ three hundred colonists, four 
 hundred convicts, and six Jesuits. Nobrega, one of these Jesuits, established the col- 
 lege of St. Paul, which diffused knowledge through Brazil, and became at once the 
 centre of colonization and of civilization. 
 
 The French occupied Rio Janeiro in 1558, but the treacherous conduct of Vil- 
 
 isss. ligagnou toward the Huguenot settlers, weakened their settlement, and 
 
 ise7. the Portuguese acquired it in 1567. 
 
 From 1578 to 1640 Brazil, along with Portugal, was under the Spanish crown. 
 Accordingly, the Dutch attacked it in the period of their strength, and Maurice, 
 of Nassau, established Dutch supremacy along the Brazilian coast, from the San Fran- 
 cisco River to iMaranhao. 
 
 But in 1640 a revolution restored the throne of Portugal to the house of 
 
 isjo. Braganza, just in time to rescue Brazil from the hands of Holland. 
 
 The inhabitants of San Paulo however longed for independence, and would have 
 achieved it, but for their chosen king, Amador, who declared for Portugal, and retired 
 to a convent, leaving them without a leader. Yet fourteen )'ears elapsed before the 
 Dutch were driven out of the countrj-, and in 1710 the Portuguese were compelled to 
 defend Rio de Janeiro against a French invasion commanded by Duclerc. 
 
 San Paulo attracted settlers, and the colonists married frequently with the natives 
 of the vicinit}'. New colonies were settled in the north and west ; and a hardy and 
 adventurous people spread over the countr}'. 
 
 The Portuguese minister, Pombal, the enemj' of the Jesuits, attacked them in 
 Brazil, and expelled them from the country in 1760 ; and reorganized the country, 
 abolishing feudal privileges, and admitting all races to equal rights before the law. In 
 
 irso. 1789 a project was formed in Minas to throw off the yoke of Portugal, 
 
 but the conspirators wei'e detected and banished, except their leader, Silva Xavier, 
 who died upon the scaffold. When Napoleon Bonaparte resolved to conquer Spain, 
 the prince regent of Portugal, afterward King John VI., took refuge in Brazil. 
 
SOUTH AMERICA. 959 
 
 isos. He and the Queen, Maria, arrived at Baliia on the 21st of January, 
 
 1808, and were welcomed with great enthusiasm. 
 
 Dora John opened the ports of Brazil to foreign commerce, excepting from the 
 general privilege of export under any flag, only diamonds and Brazil wood. English 
 artisans and shijjbuilders, German engineers, French manufacturers, and Swedish iron 
 founders entered the country, and created plants of industry. But the Brazilians paid 
 the expenses of the kingdom, and the Portuguese governed the court. The foreign 
 nobility were ignorant and profligate and greedy ; they delayed and perverted justice, 
 and confusion reigned in all departments of government. Republican feeling devel- 
 oped rapidly, and the King surrounded himself with troops from Portugal. These re- 
 volted in 1821, and compelled Dom John to accept the system established by the Lis- 
 bon revolution of 1820. Deputies were elected to the Cortes of Lisbon, and arriving 
 there, rebuked the Portuguese for beginning to frame a constitution in tlieir absence. 
 
 tagi. Angry scenes resulted. Dom Pedro, the prince and favorite of Brazil, 
 
 was ordered to Europe. The news excited great uproar in Brazil. The Portuguese 
 were driven out; Dom Pedro, the prince regent, was proclaimed emperor, and before 
 the end of 1823 the independence of Brazil and the imperial authority were every- 
 where acknowledged. 
 
 § 856. In 1824 the Emperor adopted a liberal constitution, saving himself from 
 
 1S2-4. overthrow, and Brazil from anarchy. But in 1828 his popularity 
 
 lass. waned ; the defeat of his army by the Argentines, troubles with foreign 
 
 powers, and financial embarrassments combined to ruin him. A bold attempt to destroy 
 the liberal party ended in his own abdication. 
 
 A regenc}^ now administered the government, until Dom Pedro II. became 
 
 la^o. emperor in 1840. Order was established, the slave- trade abolished, 
 
 and Rosas, the dictator of Buenos Ayres, effectually crushed. In 1870 Lopez, the dar- 1 
 ing dictator of Paraguay, was destroyed by the Brazilians, after a desperate struggle of 
 
 isii. six years, involving an immense expenditure of life and money. In 1871 
 
 the first step was taken toward the abolition of slavery ; enterprises of all kinds began 
 to multiply, and public instruction advanced quite rapidly. But the frequent absences 
 of the Emperor, and the popular dislike of his daughter and heir, led to the conspiracy 
 
 isso. that drove him from the throne, and established the republic of 1889. 
 
 Fonseca convened a Congress elected by universal suffrage, and a new constitution was 
 
 isoi. proclaimed February 24, 1891. A federal republic was established, 
 
 with a president and two houses. But in Novemjjer, Peixoto, the vice-president, 
 drove Fonseca from office, and a period of confusion followed. Rio Grande do Sul 
 revolted, and the movement spread to other States. Peixoto struggled desperately with 
 his difficulties, but finally Admiral Mello withdrew from his cabinet, and, forming a 
 conspiracy of naval officers, demanded of Peixoto that he resign. This the latter re- 
 fused, and the intervention of foreign officers was necessary to prevent Mello shelling 
 the cit}- of Rio de Janeiro. A Brazilian ship, assailing an American vessel, was 
 fired into by Admiral Benham of the United States Navy, and compelled to strike her 
 
 1893. colors. Mello however retired wounded from the conflict, and Da 
 
 Gama took command of the forces combined against Peixoto, who maintained himself 
 with difficulty. 
 
TABLE OF 
 
 SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 
 
 Assyrian Kings. 
 
 Nimrod or Belus, 
 
 Ninas, 
 
 Ninyas, 
 
 Semiramis, 
 
 Ninyas, 
 
 Arius, 
 
 Aral i us, 
 
 Belocli lis, 
 Belatores, 
 
 Eimmon-niiari I. 
 fialmanasser I., 
 Tiglatb-adar I., 
 
 TiglatUpileser I., 
 Assur-bel-Kala, . 
 
 Assur-dan II., 
 Rimmou nirari II., 
 Assur-natsii'-pal, . 
 Salmanasser II., 
 Samas Eimmon II., 
 
 Assur-niravi, .... 
 
 Tiglath-pilesev II., 
 Salmanasser IV., .... 
 Sargon II.. (the Tartan), 
 Sennacherib, ..... 
 As.su r-h ad on, .... 
 
 Assur-bani-pal, .... 
 Assur-hadon II , (Sardanapaliis), . 
 
 Babylonian Kings. 
 Nabonassar, ..... 
 
 Ukinziru, 
 
 Tiglath-pileser (of Assyria), . 
 Merodaeb-baladau II., . 
 Assyrian "Viceroys, .... 
 Nabu-abhi-utzar (Nabopolassar), . 
 Nebuchadnezzar, 
 £vil Jlerodacb, 
 Neirglissar, 
 Labynetiis, 
 Nabonadius. . 
 61 
 
 2245 
 
 2069 
 2017 
 2007 
 1965 
 1927 
 1897 
 
 * 
 
 1446 
 1421 
 
 » 
 
 1320 
 1300 
 1280 
 
 1140 
 1110 
 
 911 
 
 889 
 883 
 858 
 
 823-810 
 
 * 
 
 753 
 745 
 727 
 722 
 705 
 681 
 668 
 
 625 605 
 
 B. c. 
 
 747 
 
 733-729 
 
 729-722 
 
 722 
 
 705-640 
 
 640 
 
 625 
 
 561 
 
 559 
 
 556 
 
 551 
 
 B. C. 
 
 Belshazzar 539-538 
 
 Egyptian Kings (Pharaohs). b. c. 
 Menes, abt. 3000 
 
 Kliufir (Cheops), 
 Moris, . 
 
 2500 
 2200 
 
 Hyksos, or Shepherd Kings, 
 
 Aahmes I., . 
 
 Amenbotep, 
 
 Thothmes I., . . . 
 
 Thothmes II. and Hatasoo, 
 
 Thothmes III., . 
 
 Amenbotep 11., . 
 
 Thothmes IV., . 
 
 Amenbotep III., . 
 
 Amenbotep IV., . 
 
 Eameses I.. ... 
 
 Seti Sesostris, 
 
 Rameses II., 
 
 Meneptah, .... 
 
 Eameses III., 
 
 Shabat, 
 
 Tirhakab, 
 
 Psamraetichus I., ... 
 
 Necbo II., 
 
 Psammeticbns II., 
 
 Hophra, ..... 
 
 Araasis, 
 
 Psammetichus III., 
 
 Persian Rule, 
 
 Arniyrlseus, .... 
 
 Hebeew itlNGS. 
 
 Saul 
 
 David, 
 
 Solomon, ..... 
 
 Kings of Judah. 
 Eehoboam, ..... 
 
 Alijah, 
 
 A.sa, 
 
 Jehosbapbat, .... 
 Jehoram, .... 
 
 2100-1580 
 
 1580 
 
 abt. 1560 
 
 . " 1540 
 
 . " 1520 
 
 . " 1500 
 
 . " 1480 
 
 . " 1460 
 
 . " 1410 
 
 . " 1420 
 
 . " 1400 
 
 1400 
 
 1388 
 
 1300 
 
 1200 
 
 700 
 693 
 653 
 610 
 595 
 590 
 570 
 526 
 525-424 
 424-406 
 
 B. C. 
 1050 
 1030 
 1000 
 
 B. C. 
 
 975 
 958 
 955 
 914 
 
 (961) 
 
962 
 
 SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 
 
 B. c. 
 
 885 
 884 
 878 
 839 
 810 
 758 
 742 
 725 
 695 
 643 
 638 
 608 
 608 
 598 
 Zedekiah, 596-588 
 
 Ahaziali, 
 
 Athaliab, 
 
 Joaz or Jehoahaz, 
 
 Amaziah, 
 
 Uzziah or Azariah, 
 
 Jotham, 
 
 Ahaz, 
 
 Hezekiah, . 
 
 Mauasseh, . 
 
 Amon, 
 
 Josiah, 
 
 Jehoahaz, 
 
 Jehoiakin, . 
 
 Jehoiachim, 
 
 Kings of Iseael. 
 
 Jeroboam, . 
 
 Nadab, 
 
 Baashab, 
 
 Elah, . 
 
 Zimri, 
 
 Omri, . 
 
 Ahab, . 
 
 Ahaziah, 
 
 Jehoram or Jorani, 
 
 Jehu, . 
 
 Jehoahaz, 
 
 Jehoasb, 
 
 Jeroboam II., 
 
 Auarchy, 
 
 Zechariah, . 
 
 Shallum, 
 
 Menahem, 
 
 Pekahiah, . 
 
 Pekah, 
 
 Hoshea, 
 
 Kings of Media. 
 
 Arbaces, 
 
 Deioces, 
 
 Phraortes or Arphaxad, 
 
 Cyaxares, 
 
 Kings of Peesia. 
 
 Cyrus, 
 
 Cambyses, . 
 
 Darius Hystaspes, 
 
 Xerxes, 
 
 Artaxerxes I., Loiigimanus, 
 
 Darius II., Nothus, 
 
 Artaxerxes II , Miienon, 
 
 Artaxerxes III., Ochus, 
 
 Arses, .... 
 
 Darius III., Codoiiiauus, 
 
 975 
 954 
 953 
 930 
 929 
 925 
 918 
 897. 
 
 857 
 841 
 825 
 
 -773 
 773 
 772 
 772 
 761 
 759 
 
 -721 
 
 842 
 
 * 
 
 709 
 656 
 632 
 
 694-558 
 
 558 
 529 
 521 
 485 
 465 
 425 
 405 
 359 
 338 
 336-331 
 
 B. C. 
 Kings of Macedon. 
 
 Caranns, 761 
 
 Perdiceas I., 729 
 
 Argffius I. 684 
 
 Philip !.,...._... 640 
 ****** 
 
 Amyntas I., 540 
 
 Alexander I., 500 
 
 Perdiceas II., 454 
 
 Archelaus, 4l'i 
 
 Pausanias, 394 
 
 Amyntas II., 393 
 
 ArgEeus II., 392 
 
 Amyntas II., 390 
 
 Alexander II., 369 
 
 Perdiceas III., 364 
 
 Philip II., 360 
 
 Alexander III., tlie Great 336 
 
 Philip III., A ridseus, 323 
 
 Kassander, 3I6 
 
 Alexander "V. 298 
 
 Demetrius I., Poliorcetes, .... 294 
 
 Antigonus Gonatas, 277 
 
 Demetrius II., 239' 
 
 Philip IV., 232 
 
 Antigonus Doson, 229 
 
 Philip v., 220 
 
 Perseus 178-168 
 
 Seleucids of Syria. 
 
 Seleucus Nicator, 301 
 
 Antiochus I., Soter, 280 
 
 Antiochus II., Theos 261 
 
 Seleucus II., 246 
 
 Seleucus III., Ceraunus 226 
 
 Antiochus III., the Great, .... 224 
 
 Seleucus Philopator, 187 
 
 Antiochus IV., Theos-Epiphanes, . . 176 
 
 Antiochus V., Eupator, .... 164 
 
 Demetrius Soter, 162 
 
 Alexander Bala, 150 
 
 Demetrius Nicator, 14G 
 
 Antiochus VI., Sidetes, .... 137 
 
 Demetrius Nicator, 128 
 
 Antiochus VII., Grypus 125 
 
 Antiochus VIII., m 
 
 Seleucus V., 95 
 
 Antiochus IX., Eusebea, .... 94 
 
 Philip, 85 
 
 Tigranes of Armenia, 83 
 
 Antiochus X., 69-65 
 
 Ptolemies of Egyi;". 
 
 Ptolemy I., Soter 323 
 
 Ptolemy II., Philadelphus, . . . 280 
 
 Ptolemy III., Eiiergetes, .... 247 
 
 Ptolemy IV., Philopator, .... 221 
 
SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 
 
 963 
 
 Ptolemy V., Epiphanes, .... 205 
 
 Ptolemj' VI., Philoiuetor, .... 181 
 
 Ptolemy VII., Euergetes, .... 146 
 
 Ptolemy VIII., Soter II. and Cleopatra I., . 117 
 
 Alexander I,, and Cleopatra I., . . ■ 107 
 
 Ptolemy VIII 89 
 
 Ale.xauder II., and Cleopatra I., . . . 81 
 
 Ptolemy IX., Auletes, .... 80 
 
 Berenice and Tryphasna, 58 
 
 Ptolemy IX., ....... 55 
 
 Ptolemy X , and Cleopatra II., ... 51 
 
 Cleopatra II., 43-30 
 
 Maccabees of JxjD.i;A. 
 
 Judas Maccabseiis, 165 
 
 Jonathan Maccab»iis, .... 160 
 
 Simon Maccabasus, ..... 143 
 
 John Hyrcauus I., .... . 135 
 
 Judas, Aristobuhis, ..... 107-70 
 
 Kings of Rome. 
 
 Romulus, ....... 753 
 
 Numa Pompilius, ..... 715 
 
 Tulhis Hostilms, 672 
 
 Ancus Marcius, ...... 640 
 
 Tarquinius Priscus, ..... 615 
 
 Serving TuUius, 578 
 
 Tarquinius Superhus, ..... 534-509 
 
 ROMAN" EmPEEOES. 
 
 The Csssars. 
 
 Augustus, 
 
 Tiberius, ..... 
 Caligula, ..... 
 Claudius, ..... 
 
 Nero, 
 
 Galba, 
 
 Otho, 
 
 Vitellius, 
 
 Vespasian, 
 
 Titus, 
 
 Domitian, . . . . 
 
 The Good Emperors. 
 Nerva, ..... 
 
 Trajan, ..... 
 
 Hadrian, 
 
 Antoninus Pius, .... 
 Marcus Aurelius, 
 
 The Military Despots. 
 Commodus, .... 
 
 Pertinax, ..... 
 Septimius Severus, 
 
 Caracalla, 
 
 Heliogabalus, .... 
 
 Alexander Severus, 
 
 Maximinus, .... 
 
 30 
 
 A. D. 
 
 14 
 37 
 41 
 
 54 
 68 
 
 in 
 
 138 
 161 
 
 180 
 193 
 193 
 211 
 218 
 222 
 235 
 
 Gordianiis, . 
 
 Balbinus and Pnpieuus, 
 
 Gordian III., 
 
 Philip Arabs, 
 
 Decins, 
 
 Gallienus, 
 
 Claudius II., 
 
 Aurelianus, 
 
 Tacitus, 
 
 Probus, 
 
 Cams, . 
 
 Diocletian, . 
 
 Constantius I., Chlorus, 
 
 Constantine, the Great, 
 
 Constantius II., . 
 
 Julian, the Apostate, . 
 
 Jovian, 
 
 Empeeoes of the West. 
 Valentinian, , . . . . 
 
 Gratian, ...... 
 
 Valentinian II., 
 
 Engenius, ...... 
 
 Theodosius, the Great, 
 
 Honorius, ...... 
 
 Valentinian III., .... 
 
 Maximus, ...... 
 
 Avitus, ...... 
 
 Marjorian, ...... 
 
 Severus, ...... 
 
 Autemius, ...... 
 
 Olybrius, 
 
 Glycerius, ...... 
 
 Nepos, 
 
 Romulus Augustulu?, 
 
 Ejipeeoes of the East. 
 
 Valens, 
 
 Theodosius, the Great, 
 
 Arcadius, 
 
 Theodosius II., 
 
 Marcian, 
 
 Leo I., . . . . 
 
 LeoIL, 
 
 Zeno, 
 
 Auastasius I., .... . 
 
 Justin I., . . . 
 
 Justinian I., ..... 
 
 Justin II 
 
 Tiberius II., ..... 
 
 Maurice, ...... 
 
 Phocas, ...... 
 
 Heraclius, 
 
 Constantine III., Heraeleonas, 
 Constans II., ..... 
 Constantine IV., Pogonatus, 
 Justinian II., 
 
 237 
 238 
 238 
 244 
 249 
 
 270 
 275 
 276 
 282 
 284 
 305 
 306 
 337 
 361 
 363-364 
 
 364 
 375 
 383 
 392 
 394 
 395 
 425 
 455 
 455 
 457 
 461 
 467 
 472 
 473 
 473 
 
 364 
 379 
 395 
 408 
 450 
 457 
 474 
 474 
 491 
 518 
 527 
 565 
 578 
 582 
 602 
 610 
 641 
 641 
 668 
 685 
 
964 
 
 SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 
 
 Leontias, .... 
 Tiberius III., Aspimar, 
 Jnstiniau II., 
 Pliilippicus-Bardanes, 
 Anastasius II., 
 Theodosius III., . 
 
 The Isaurians 
 Leo III., the Isanriau, 
 Coustantine V., Copronymu.'!, 
 Leo IV., .... 
 Coustantine VI., 
 
 Irene, 
 
 Nicephorus I., Logothetes, . 
 
 Staiiracius, . 
 
 Michael I., . 
 
 Leo v., the Armeniau, 
 
 Michael II., the Stammerer, 
 
 Theophilus, 
 
 Michael III., PorpbyrogeDituR, 
 
 The 3Iacedonians. 
 Basilius I., the Macedonian, 
 Leo VI , .... 
 Constautine VII. and Alexander, 
 Romanus Lecapenus, . 
 Coustantine VIII., 
 Romanus II., . . : 
 Nicephorus II., Pliocas, 
 .Tolm I., Zimisces, 
 Basilius II., 
 Constautine IX , 
 Romanus III., Argyropulus, 
 Michael IV., Paphlagoniau, 
 Michael V., Calapbates, 
 Constautine X., Monomaclnis, 
 Theodora, .... 
 Michael VI., Stratiotes, 
 
 The Comneiii. 
 Isaac I., Comnenus, 
 Constautine XI , Ducas, 
 Romanus IV., Diogenes, 
 Michael VII., Parapinaces, 
 Nicephorus III., . 
 Alexius I., Comnenus, 
 John Comnenus, . 
 Manuel I., Comnenus, 
 Alexius II., Comnenus, 
 Andronicns I., Comnenus, . 
 Lsaac II., Angelus-Comrienus, 
 Alexius III., Angelus, 
 Isaac II., and Alexius IV., . 
 Alexius v., ... 
 
 Latin Emperors. 
 Baldwin I., of Flanders, 
 Henry I, . 
 
 705 
 711 
 713 
 716 
 
 718 
 741 
 775 
 
 811 
 811 
 813 
 820 
 829 
 842 
 
 911 
 919 
 928 
 959 
 963 
 969 
 976 
 1025 
 1028 
 1034 
 1041 
 1042 
 1054 
 1056 
 
 1057 
 1059 
 1067 
 1071 
 1078 
 1081 
 1118 
 1143 
 1180 
 1183 
 1185 
 1195 
 1203 
 1204 
 
 1204 
 1206 
 
 A. D. 
 
 "Peter de Courtenay, 1216 
 
 Rol)ert de Courtenay, 1221 
 
 Baldwin II 1228 
 
 The PaJseologi. 
 
 Michael VIII , 1261 
 
 Andronicns II., Paljeologus, . . . 1282 
 
 Andronicns III. 1328 
 
 John Palseologus I., 1341 
 
 Manuel II., Palseologus, .... 1391 
 
 John PalaBologus II., 1425 
 
 Constautine XIII., Palseologus,. . 1448-1453 
 
 Kings of Persia (Sassanides). 
 
 Artaxerxes I., 226 
 
 Sapor I., 240 
 
 Hormisdas I., "272 
 
 Varanes I., 273 
 
 Varanes II., 277 
 
 Varanes III. 293 
 
 Narses, . . . . . . . 294 
 
 Hormisdas II., 301 
 
 Sapor II., 309 
 
 Artaxerxes II., 380 
 
 Sapor III. 385 
 
 Varanes IV., 390 
 
 Yezde.iird I., 404 
 
 Varanes V., 420 
 
 YezdejirdlL, ...... 440 
 
 Hormisdas III., 457 
 
 Feroze, . 458 
 
 P.allas 484 
 
 Kohad 486 
 
 Jamaspes, ........ 497 
 
 Kobad, 497 
 
 Cbosroes I , ...... 531 
 
 Hormisdas IV., 590 
 
 Cbosroes II , 591 
 
 Siroes, 628 
 
 Artaxerxes III., 629 
 
 Purandokt, ...... 630 
 
 Shenendeh 631 
 
 Arzemdokt, ...... 631 
 
 Kesra, 631 
 
 Feroklidad, 632 
 
 Yezdejird III., 632-641 
 
 Kings of Italy (Mediaeval). 
 
 Odoacer, 476 
 
 Gothic Kings, 
 
 Tbeodoric 493 
 
 Athalario 526 
 
 Theodatus, 534 
 
 Vitiges, 536 
 
 Theodebald (Hildebald), .... 540 
 
 Totila 541-552 
 
 Lombard Kings. 
 
 Alboin, 568 
 
SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 
 
 965 
 
 A. D. 
 
 Cleoph '573 
 
 Autharis, . 575 
 
 Agilulph, 591 
 
 AdaloaU, ; 615 
 
 Arioald 625 
 
 Rotharis, 636 
 
 Eodoald 652 
 
 Aribert I., 653 
 
 Bertharit and Godebert, .... 661 
 
 Grimoald, 662 
 
 Bertharit, 671 
 
 Cuuibert 686 
 
 Luitbert, 700 
 
 Ragimbert, . . . ' . . . . 701 
 
 Aribert II., 701 
 
 Ansprand, . . . . . . . 712 
 
 Luitpraud, 712 
 
 Hildebrand, 744 
 
 Raebis, . 744 
 
 Astolpb, 749 
 
 Desiderius, 756-774 
 
 The Popes. 
 
 Gregory the Great, ..... 590 
 
 Sabiuiauus, 604 
 
 Boniface III., 606 
 
 Boniface IV, 607 
 
 Deusdedit, ....... 614 
 
 Boniface V 617 
 
 Honorius I., 625 
 
 Severiiius, . . . . ' . . . 640 
 
 John IV. 640 
 
 Tlieodorus I., 642 
 
 Martin I., 649 
 
 Eugeuius I., 654 
 
 Vitaliauus, ....... 657 
 
 Adeodatus, . 672 
 
 Dominus I., 676 
 
 Agathon, 678 
 
 Leo II 682 
 
 Benedict II.. 684 
 
 John v., 685 
 
 Couon, 686 
 
 Sergius, 687 
 
 John VI., 701 
 
 John VII. 705 
 
 Sisinnius 708 
 
 Constantine, ...... 708 
 
 Gregory II., 715 
 
 Gregory III., 731 
 
 Zacharias, ....... 741 
 
 Stephen II., ' 752 
 
 Paul I., ...... . 7,57 
 
 Stephen III , 768 
 
 Adrian I., 772 
 
 Leo III., 795 
 
 A. D. 
 
 Stephen IV., 816 
 
 Pascal I., . . . . : . . 817 
 
 Eugenius, 824 
 
 Valentinus, 827 
 
 Gregory IV., 827 
 
 Sergius II., 844 
 
 Leo IV., 847 
 
 Benedict IIL, 855 
 
 Nicholas I., the Great, .... 858 
 
 Adrian II., 867 
 
 John VIII., 872 
 
 Marinus, Martin II., 882 
 
 Adrian III. 884 
 
 Stephen V., ...... 885 
 
 Formosus, . 891 
 
 Boniface, 896 
 
 Stephen VI. 897 
 
 Eoinauus, . , 897 
 
 Theodorus II., 898 
 
 John IX., 898 
 
 Benedict IV., 900 
 
 Leo v., . . . , . . . 903 
 
 Sergius III , 904 
 
 Auastasius III , ...... 911 
 
 Landonius, 913 
 
 John X., 914 
 
 Leo VI., 928 
 
 Stephen VIL, . . . . . . 929 
 
 John XL, 931 
 
 Leo VIL, 936 
 
 Stephen VIII., 9.39 
 
 Marinus II., (Mariin III.) .... 942 
 
 Agapetus II , 946 
 
 John XII., 956 
 
 LeoVIIL, 963 
 
 Benedict V. 964 
 
 John XIII 965 
 
 Benedict VI., 973 
 
 Doranus II 974 
 
 Benedict VIL, 975 
 
 John XIV., 984 
 
 John XV., 984 
 
 John XVI., 985 
 
 Gregory v., 996 
 
 Silvester IL, 999 
 
 John XVIL, , 1003 
 
 John XVIIL, 1003 
 
 Sergius IV., 1009 
 
 Benedict VIII , ..."... 1012 
 
 John XIX., 1024 
 
 Benedict IX., 1033 
 
 Gregory VI., 1044 
 
 Clement IL, 1046 
 
 Damasus IL, 1048 
 
 Leo IX 1048 
 
 Victor IL, 1055 
 
SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 
 
 A. n. 
 
 Stephen IX. 1057 
 
 Nicholas II., 1058 
 
 Alexander II., . . . . . . 1061 
 
 Gregory VII., (Hiliiebrand] . . . 1073 
 
 Victor III. Didier, 1086 
 
 Urban II., 1088 
 
 Pascal II., Eauieri 1099 
 
 Gelasius II., 1118 ' 
 
 Calixtus II., 1119 
 
 HonoriusII., 1124 
 
 lunocentlL, 1130 
 
 Celestine II., 1143 
 
 Lucius II., 1144 
 
 Eugenius III., 1145 
 
 Anastasius IV., ...... 1153 
 
 Adrian IV 1154 
 
 Alexander III., 1159 
 
 Lucius IIL, . . . . . . 1181 
 
 Urban HI., 1185 
 
 Gregory VIII., 1187 
 
 Clement IIL, 1187 
 
 Celestine III , . . . . . . 1191 
 
 Innocent III., . . . . . . 1198 
 
 Honorius III 1216 
 
 Gregory IX 1227 
 
 Celestine IV. 1241 
 
 Innocent IV., 1243 
 
 Alexander IV., 1254 
 
 Urban IV., 1261 
 
 Clement IV., 1265 
 
 Gregory X., 1271 
 
 Innocent v., 1276 
 
 Adrian V., 1276 
 
 ,Tohn XX 1276 
 
 Nicholas III., 1277 
 
 Martin IV., 1281 
 
 Honorius IV., 1285 
 
 Nicholas IV., ...... 1288 
 
 St. Celestine V., . .' . . . . ' 1294 
 
 Boniface VIII. 1294 
 
 Benedict XL 1303 
 
 Clement v., 1305 
 
 John XXII., 1316 
 
 Benedict XII 1334 
 
 Clement VL, 1342 
 
 Innocent VI., 1352 
 
 Urban V., 1362 
 
 Gregory XL, 1370 
 
 Urban VL, . 1378 
 
 Boniface IX 1389 
 
 Innocent VII., 1404 
 
 Alexander V., 1409 
 
 .John XXIIL, . . . . . . 1410 
 
 Martin v., 1417 
 
 Eugenius IV. 1431 
 
 Nicholas V., 1447 
 
 Calixtus III • . . . 1455 
 
 PiusIL 
 
 1458 
 
 PaulJL, 
 
 1464 
 
 Sixtus IV., ...... 
 
 1471 
 
 Innocent VIII. 
 
 1484 
 
 Alexander VI 
 
 1492 
 
 Pius IIL 
 
 1503 
 
 .Julius II., ...... 
 
 1503 
 
 LeoX 
 
 1513 
 
 Adrian VI. , . . . . . 
 
 1522 
 
 Clement VII. 
 
 1523 
 
 Paul IIL, 
 
 1534 
 
 Julius III 
 
 1550 
 
 Marcellus II., .... 
 
 1555 
 
 Paul IV. 
 
 1555 
 
 Pius IV. 
 
 1559 
 
 St. Pius v., . . . . . 
 
 1566 
 
 Gregory XIIL, .... 
 
 1572 
 
 Sixtus V. 
 
 1585 
 
 Urban VIL, .... 
 
 1590 
 
 Gregory XIV., .... 
 
 1590 
 
 Innocent IX., .... 
 
 1591 
 
 Clement VIIL, . . 
 
 1592 
 
 Leo XI 
 
 1605 
 
 Paul v., 
 
 1605 
 
 Gregory XV., .... 
 
 1621 
 
 Urban VIIL, .... 
 
 1623 
 
 Innocent X., 
 
 1644 
 
 Alexander VII , . 
 
 1655 
 
 Clement IX., 
 
 1667 
 
 Clement X., .... 
 
 1670 
 
 Innocent XL, . ." . . 
 
 1676 
 
 Alexander VIIL, 
 
 1689 
 
 Innocent XIL, .... 
 
 1691 
 
 Clement XL, .... 
 
 1700 
 
 Innocent XIIL, .... 
 
 1721 
 
 Benedict XIII 
 
 1724 
 
 Clement XIL, .... 
 
 1730 
 
 Benedict XIV. 
 
 1740 
 
 Clement XIIL, .... 
 
 1758 
 
 Clement XIV. 
 
 1769 
 
 PiusVL, 
 
 1775 
 
 Pius VIL, 
 
 1800 
 
 Leo XIL, 
 
 1823 
 
 Pius VIII 
 
 1829 
 
 Gregory XVI., .... 
 
 1831 
 
 Pius IX., 
 
 1846 
 
 Leo XIIL, 
 
 . 1878- 
 
 Caliphs of Arabia. 
 
 
 Abu Bekr, 
 
 632 
 
 Omar I., 
 
 634 
 
 Othnian, 
 
 644 
 
 Ali 
 
 656 
 
 Hassan, 
 
 661 
 
 The Ommiads, .... 
 
 . 661-750 
 
 The Abbassides 
 
 750-1258 
 
 Harun-alRaschid. 
 
 . 786-809 
 
SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 
 
 967 
 
 House 
 
 Heury lY., . 
 Henry V., . 
 Henry VI., . 
 
 Edward IV., 
 Edward V., 
 Richard III., 
 
 Henry VII., 
 Henry VIII., 
 Edward VI., 
 Mary, 
 Elizabeth, . 
 
 of Lancaster. 
 
 House of 
 
 House of 
 
 Kings and Queens of England. 
 Anglo Saxon Kings. 
 
 Egbert, 
 Ethelwolf, . 
 Ethelbald, . 
 Ethelbert, . 
 Ethelred I., 
 Alfred the Great, 
 Edward the Elder, 
 Athelstan, . 
 Edmund I., 
 Edred, 
 Edwy, 
 
 Edgar, ' . 
 Edward the Martyr, 
 Ethelred II., 
 Smeyn, 
 Ethelred II., 
 Edmund Ironside, 
 
 Danish King 
 Canute the Great, 
 Harold I., Harefoot, 
 Hardicanute, 
 
 Saxon Kings 
 Edward the Confessor, 
 Harold II., . 
 
 Norman Kings 
 William the Conqueror, 
 William Rufas, . 
 Henry I, . 
 Stephen, 
 
 The P'antagends 
 Henry II., Plantagenet, 
 Richard I., Coeur de Lion, 
 John, . 
 Henry III., . 
 Edward I., . 
 Edward II., 
 Edward III., 
 Richard II., 
 
 A. D. 
 827 
 837 
 857 
 860 
 866 
 871 
 901 
 925 
 940 
 946 
 955 
 957 
 975 
 979 
 1013 
 1014 
 1016 
 
 1017 
 1035 
 1039 
 
 1043 
 1066 
 
 1066 
 1087 
 1100 
 1135 
 
 1154 
 1189 
 1199 
 1216 
 1272 
 1307 
 1327 
 1377 
 
 1399 
 1413 
 1422 
 
 1461 
 1483 
 1483 
 
 1485 
 1509 
 1547 
 1553 
 1558 
 
 House of Stuart. 
 
 A. D. , 
 
 James I. 1603 
 
 Charles I. 1625 
 
 The Commonweallh, 1649 
 
 Charles II., 1660 
 
 James II., 1685 
 
 William III. 1689 
 
 Anne 1™2 
 
 House of Brunswick. 
 
 George I., 1714 
 
 George II., • 1'727 
 
 George III. 1760 
 
 George IV., 1820 
 
 William IV., 1830 
 
 Victoria, 1837 
 
 Kings and Queens of Scotland. 
 House of Kenneth. 
 
 Fergus II., , • 404 
 
 Eugenius II., 420 
 
 DoDgardus, 451 
 
 Constantine I , 457 
 
 Congallus I., 479 
 
 Goran us, ^'^1 
 
 Eugenius III., ^■^^ 
 
 Congallus II., 558 
 
 Kinnatellus, 569 
 
 Aidanus, . 570 
 
 Kenneth, 605 
 
 Eugenius IV., 606 
 
 Ferchard T., ...--• 621 
 
 Donald IV., 632 
 
 Ferchard II., 646 
 
 Malduinus, 664 
 
 Eugenius V., 684 
 
 Eugenius VI., 688 
 
 Amberkeletus, 698 
 
 Eugenius VII., 699 
 
 Mordachus, 715 
 
 Etfinus 730 
 
 Eugenius VIII., "61 
 
 Fergus III., . . ... . 764 
 
 Solvathius, 767 
 
 Achaius, 787 
 
 Congallus III., ■ 819 
 
 Dongal, 824 
 
 Alpine, 831 
 
 Kenneth II., 834 
 
 Donald V., 854 
 
 Constantine II., 858 
 
 Eth, 874 
 
 Gregory, the Great, 876 
 
 Donald VI., 893 
 
 Constantine III, ..... 904 
 
 Malcolm I., 944 
 
 Indulfus, 953 
 
968 
 
 SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 
 
 Duff, 961 
 
 Cullen, 965 
 
 Kenneth III 970 
 
 CoDstantine IV., 994 
 
 Kenneth IV., ...... 995 
 
 Malcolm II., . . . . . . 1003 
 
 Dancm I., 1033 
 
 Macbeth, . . . . . . . 1039 
 
 Malcolm III., . . . . . . 1057 
 
 Donald VII., 1093 
 
 Duncan II., 1094 
 
 Donald VII., 1094 
 
 Edgar, 1098 
 
 Alexander I., 1107 
 
 David I., 1124 
 
 Malcolm IV 1153 
 
 "William, the Lion 1165 
 
 Alexander II., 1214 
 
 Alexander III., 1249 
 
 Interregnum, 1285-1292 
 
 Houses of Baliol and Bruce. 
 
 John Baliol, 1292 
 
 Interregnum, 1296-1306 
 
 Robert I., Bruce, 1306 
 
 David II., Bruce, 1329 
 
 Edward Baliol, 1332 
 
 David II., 1334 
 
 House of Siuart. 
 
 Robert II., Stuart 1371 
 
 Robert III., John Stuart, .... 1390 
 
 James I., 1406 
 
 James II., . . . . . . 1437 
 
 James III., 1460 
 
 James IV., 1488 
 
 James V., 1513 
 
 Mary, 1542 
 
 James VI., (James I. of Eugland), . 1567-1603 
 
 Sovereigns of France. 
 Merovingians. 
 
 Pharamond, 420 
 
 Clodiou, 428 
 
 Merovaeus, ...... 447 
 
 Childeric, 458 
 
 Clovis I., the Great, 481 
 
 Childebert, Clodorair, Thierry and Clotaire, 511 
 
 Clotaire 558 
 
 Charibert, Gontram, Sigebert and Chilperic, 561 
 
 Childebert II., ...... 575 
 
 Clotaire I^., 613 
 
 P -gobert I., 628 
 
 Clovis II. and Sigebert II., ... 638 
 
 Clotaire III., 656 
 
 Childeric II., 670 
 
 Thierry III 670 
 
 A. D 
 
 Clovis III., 691 
 
 Childebert III., 695 
 
 Dagobert III., 711 
 
 Chilperic II., ...... 715 
 
 Clotaire IV., ...... 717 
 
 Chilperic 11., 720 
 
 Thierry IV., 720 
 
 Interrej^num 737-741 
 
 Childeric III., 742 
 
 CarloviHcjians. 
 
 Pepin, the Short, 752 
 
 Karl the Great, Charlemagne, . . . 767 
 
 Louis I., le Debonnaire, .... 814 
 
 Karl, the Bald, 840 
 
 Louis II., the Stammerer, . . . 877 
 
 Louis III. and Carloman II., . . . 879 
 
 Karl, the Fat 884 
 
 Eudes, or Hugh, 887 
 
 Karl, the Simple 898 
 
 Robert 922 
 
 Rudolf, or Raoul, 923 
 
 Louis IV., d'Outre Mer 936 
 
 Lothair, 954 
 
 Louis v., 986 
 
 House of Capet. 
 
 Hugh Capet, 987 
 
 Robert IL, 996 
 
 Henry I., 1031 
 
 Philip I., the Fair, 1060 
 
 Louis VL, the Fat 1108 
 
 Louis VII., the Young, .... 1137 
 
 Philip II., Augustus, .... 1180 
 
 Louis VIII., Coeur de Lion, . . . 1223 
 
 Louis IX., Saint, 1226 
 
 Philip III., the Hardy 1270 
 
 Philip IV., the Fair, 1285 
 
 Louis X., the Headstrong, . . . 1314 
 
 John I., . . . . ■ . . . 1314 
 
 Philip v., the Long 1316 
 
 Charles IV„, the Handsome, . . . 1322 
 
 House of Valois. 
 
 Philip VI., the Fortunate, . . . 1328 
 
 John IL, the Good, . . . . . 1350 
 
 Charles V., the Wise 1364 
 
 Charles VL, the Beloved, .... 1380 
 
 Charles VII., the Victorious, . . . 1422 
 
 Louis XL, 1461 
 
 Charles VIII., the Affable, . . . 1483 
 
 Louis XII 1498 
 
 Francis 1 1515 
 
 Henry IL, 1547 
 
 Francis II 1559 
 
 Charles IX., 1560 
 
 Henry III., 1574 
 
SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 
 
 969 
 
 House of Bourbon. 
 
 Henry IV., the Great, 
 
 1589 
 
 Louis XIII., the Just, 
 
 1610 
 
 Louis XIV., the Great, 
 
 1643 
 
 Louis XV., the Well Beloved, . 
 
 1715 
 
 Louis XVI., .... 
 
 1774 
 
 Louis XVII 
 
 1793 
 
 First Republic. 
 
 
 The National Convention, . 
 
 1793 
 
 The Directory, .... 
 
 1795 
 
 The Consulate, .... 
 
 1799 
 
 First Empire. 
 Napoleon I., Bonaparte, 
 
 House of Bourhon. 
 Louis XVIII., . . . 
 Charles X., 
 
 House of Orleans. 
 Louis Philippe, .... 
 Second Bejiuhlic. 
 Louis Napoleon, President, 
 
 Secoiid Empire. 
 
 Napoleon III., .... 
 
 Tliird Bepiiblic. 
 
 Thiers, . . . ' . 
 
 MacMahon, .... 
 
 Grevy, 
 
 Carnot, ..... 
 
 German Empeeoes. 
 Carlovingians. 
 Karl, the Great, 
 Louis I., le Dfibounaiie, 
 Lothair I., . . ... 
 
 Louis II 
 
 Karl II., the Bald, 
 Karl III., the Fat, 
 
 Arnulf, 
 
 Louis III., the Blind, 
 Louis IV., the Child, 
 
 Saxon Emperors. 
 
 Conrad I., 
 
 Henry I., the Fowler, 
 
 Otho I., the Great, 
 
 Otho II., the Bloody, . 
 
 Otho III., the Red, . . . 
 
 Heury II., the Saint, 
 
 House of Franconia. 
 Conrad II., the Salique, 
 Henry, III., the Black, 
 Henry IV., .... 
 
 Henry V., 
 
 Lothair II., the Suxon, 
 
 1814 
 1824 
 
 1871 
 1873 
 1879 
 
 800 
 814 
 840 
 855 
 875 
 881 
 887 
 
 911 
 918 
 936 
 973 
 
 983 
 1002 
 
 1024 
 1039 
 1056 
 1106 
 1126 
 
 House of Hohenstaufen, or Suah'a. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 Conrad III 1138 
 
 Frederick I., Barbarossa, .... 1152 
 
 Henry VI 1190 
 
 Philip 1198 
 
 Otho IV., the Superb, .... 1208 
 
 Frederick II 1215 
 
 William, 1247 
 
 Conrad IV., 1250 
 
 Conradin 1250 
 
 Interregnum, ..... 1268 1273 
 House of Hapshurg. 
 
 Rudolph 1273 
 
 Adolphus, 1292 
 
 Albert I., 1298 
 
 Henry VII., of Luxemburg, . . . 1308 
 
 Louis IV., of Bavaria, .... 1314 
 
 Charles IV., of Luxemburg, . . . 1347 
 
 Weuceslas, of Bohemia, .... 1378 
 
 Rupert 1400 
 
 Sigismund, 1410 
 
 House of Austria. 
 
 Albert II., the Great, .... 1438 
 
 Frederick III., the Pacific, . . . 1440 
 
 Maximilian I., 1493 
 
 Charles V., 1519 
 
 Ferdinand I., 1556 
 
 Maximilian II., 1564 
 
 Rudolph II . 1576 
 
 Matthias, 1612 
 
 Ferdinand 11., 1619 
 
 Ferdinand III., 1637 
 
 Leopold L, 1658 
 
 Joseph 1 1705 
 
 Charles VI., 1711 
 
 Maria Theresa, 1740 
 
 Francis I., of Lorraine, .... 1745 
 
 Joseph II., 1765 
 
 Leopold II., 1790 
 
 Francis II., 1792-1806 
 
 Confederation of the Bhine, 1806-1815. 
 
 Germanic Confederation, 1815-1866. 
 
 Korth German Confederation, 1866-1871. 
 
 House of Holienzollern. 
 
 William I, 1871 
 
 Frederick (William) III., . ... 1888 
 
 William II., 1888 
 
 Kings of Peussia. 
 
 Frederick I., 1701 
 
 Frederick William I., .... 1713 
 
 Frederick II., the Great, .... 1740 
 
 Frederick William II., .... 1786 
 
 Frederick William III., .... 1797 
 
 Frederick William IV., .... 1840 
 
 William I., 1861-1871 
 
970 
 
 SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 
 
 Kings of Poland. 
 Souse of Fiast. 
 
 Bolesliis I., 
 
 Miecislas II., 
 
 Casimir I., 
 
 Boleslas II., tbelutrepui, 
 
 Ladislas I., the Careless, 
 
 Bolesl.as III., Wry-mouth, 
 
 Ladislas II., 
 
 Boleslas IV., the Curled, 
 
 Miecislas III., the Old, 
 
 Casimir II., the Just, 
 
 Lesko v., the Wliite, 
 
 Miecislas IV., 
 
 Ladislas III., 
 
 Lesko v., . 
 
 Boleslas V., the Chaste, 
 
 Lesko VI., the Black, 
 
 Anarchy, 
 
 Premislas, 
 
 Ladislas IV., the Short, 
 
 Weueeslas, 
 
 Ladislas IV., 
 
 Casimir III., the Great, 
 
 Louis of Hungary, 
 
 Maria, 
 
 The Jagellon, 
 Ladislas V., 
 Ladislas VL, 
 Casimir IV., 
 John I., Albert, 
 Alexander, 
 
 Sigismund I., the Great, 
 Sigismuud II., Augustus, 
 
 Elected Monarch 
 Henry, de Valois, 
 Stephen, Bathori, 
 Sigismuud III., . 
 Ladislas VII., Vasa, 
 Jolin II., Casimir V., 
 Michael Wiesuowiski, 
 John III., Sobieski, . 
 Frederick Augustus I., 
 Stanislas I., Lesczinski, 
 Frederick Augustus I., 
 Frederick Augustus II., 
 Stanislas II., Poniatowski, 
 
 Kings of Aeagon. 
 Eamiro I, . . . 
 Sancho Ramirez, 
 Peter I., of Navarre, . 
 Alphouzo I., the Warrior, 
 Ramiro, the Monk, 
 Protronilla, 
 Alphonso II., 
 Peter IL, . 
 
 A. n. 
 992 
 1025 
 1041 
 1058 
 1081 
 1102 
 1138 
 1146 
 1173 
 1177 
 1194 
 1200 
 1202 
 1206 
 1227 
 1279 
 1289-1295 
 1295 
 1296 
 1300 
 1304 
 1333 
 1370 
 1383 
 
 1384 
 1434 
 1445 
 1492 
 1501 
 1506 
 1548 
 
 1573 
 
 1575 
 1587 
 1632 
 1G48 
 1669 
 1674 
 1697 
 1704 
 1709 
 1733 
 1764-1795 
 
 1035 
 1065 
 1094 
 1104 
 1134 
 1137 
 1163 
 1196 
 
 
 A. D. 
 
 James I., 
 
 1213 
 
 Peter IIL, 
 
 1276 
 
 Alphonso III., the Beneficent, . 
 
 1285 
 
 James IL, the Just., 
 
 1291 
 
 Alphonso IV., the Meek, . 
 
 1327 
 
 Peter IV., the Ceremonious, 
 
 1336 
 
 John L, 
 
 1387 
 
 Martin, ...... 
 
 1395 
 
 Interregnum, ] 
 
 410-1412 
 
 Ferdinand I., the Just, 
 
 1412 
 
 Alphonso v., the Wise, 
 
 1416 
 
 John IL, 
 
 1458 
 
 Ferdinand II., the Catholic, . . ] 
 
 479-1512 
 
 Kings of Castile and Leon. 
 
 
 Ferdinand I, the Great, 
 
 1035 
 
 Sancho II., the Strong, 
 
 1065 
 
 Alphonso VI., the' Valiant, 
 
 1072 
 
 Uraca, and Alphonso VII., 
 
 1109 
 
 Alphonso VII., RaymoDd, 
 
 1126 
 
 Sancho III., the Beloved, . 
 
 1157 
 
 Alphonso VIII., the Noble, 
 
 1158 
 
 Alphonso IX., . . . . 
 
 1188 
 
 Henry I., 
 
 1214 
 
 Ferdinand IIL, the Saint, 
 
 1217 
 
 Alphonso X., the Wise, 
 
 1252 
 
 Sancho IV., the Brave, 
 
 1284 
 
 Ferdinand IV., 
 
 1295 
 
 Alphonso XL, 
 
 1312 
 
 Peter, the Cruel, .... 
 
 1350 
 
 Henry II., the Gracious, 
 
 1369 
 
 John L, 
 
 1379 
 
 Henry III., the Sickly, 
 
 1390 
 
 JohnlL, 
 
 1406 
 
 Henry IV., the Impotent, . 
 
 1454 
 
 Isabella, 
 
 1474 
 
 Joanna and Philip I., of Austria, 
 
 1504 
 
 Ferdinand V., 1 
 
 506-1512 
 
 Kings of Spain. 
 
 
 ITonse of Trastamora. 
 
 House of Hapsbiirg. 
 
 Ferdinand V. 
 
 Charles I., 
 Philip IL, 
 Philip IIL, 
 Philip IV., 
 Charles IL, 
 
 House of Bourhon. 
 Philip v., ..... 
 Ferdinand VI., the Wise, . 
 
 Charles III 
 
 Charles IV 
 
 House of Bonaparte. 
 Joseph Bonaparte, 
 
 1516 
 1556 
 1598 
 1621 
 166r, 
 
 1700 
 1746 
 1759 
 
 1788 
 
SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 
 
 971 
 
 House of Bourbon. 
 
 
 
 
 A. D. 
 
 Frederick A'll., 
 
 1813 
 
 Isabella II,, 
 
 1833 
 
 House of Savoy. 
 
 
 Amadeo I., . . . 
 
 1870 
 
 Eepublic 1873-1874 
 
 House of Bourhon. 
 
 
 Alphouso XII., 
 
 1874 
 
 Alphouso XIII., . . . . 
 
 1886 
 
 Kings of Portugal. 
 
 
 
 
 Alphouso I., 
 
 1139 
 
 Sauchol., . 
 
 
 
 1185 
 
 AlpboDso II., the Fat, 
 
 
 
 1212 
 
 Saucbo II., the Idle, . 
 
 
 
 1223 
 
 Alphonso III., 
 
 
 
 1248 
 
 Dennis, 
 
 
 
 1279 
 
 Alphonso IV., 
 
 
 
 1325 
 
 Pedro, the Severe, 
 
 
 
 1357 
 
 Ferdinand I., 
 
 
 
 1367 
 
 John I., the Great, 
 
 
 
 1385 
 
 Edward, 
 
 
 
 1433 
 
 Alphonso v., the African, 
 
 
 
 1438 
 
 John II., the Perfect, 
 
 
 
 1481 
 
 Emanuel, the Fortunate, 
 
 
 
 1495 
 
 .lobuIII., . 
 
 
 
 1521 
 
 Sebastian, 
 
 
 
 1557 
 
 Henrj', 
 
 
 
 1578 
 
 Anthony. 
 
 
 
 1580 
 
 United with Spat 
 
 n. ^ 
 
 580-1640 
 
 House of Bi 
 
 agan 
 
 ;a. 
 
 
 John IV 
 
 
 
 1640 
 
 Alphonso VI., 
 
 
 
 1656 
 
 Peter II., . 
 
 
 
 1683 
 
 John V 
 
 
 
 1706 
 
 Joseph Emanuel, 
 
 
 
 1750 
 
 Peter III., and Maria I., 
 
 
 
 1777 
 
 Maria I., . 
 
 
 
 1786 
 
 John VI., . 
 
 
 
 1816 
 
 Peter IV., Dom Pedro, 
 
 
 
 1826 
 
 Maria II., da Gloria, . 
 
 
 
 1826 
 
 Dom Miguel, 
 
 
 
 1828 
 
 Maria 11 
 
 
 
 1833 
 
 Peter V., Dom Pedio, 
 
 
 
 1853 
 
 Louis I., . 
 
 
 
 1861 
 
 Dom Carlos, 
 
 
 
 18S9 
 
 Kings of Denmark. 
 
 
 House of Skiold. 
 
 
 Sigurd Snogoje 
 
 794 
 
 Hardicanute 
 
 
 
 803 
 
 A. D. 
 
 l'"-ric 1 850 
 
 Eric II 854 
 
 Gormo, the Old, 883 
 
 Harold, Bluetooth, 941 
 
 Sweyn, the Forked Beard .... 991 
 
 Canute II., the Great, .... 1014 
 
 Canute III., 10.35 
 
 Magnus, of Norway, . . . . '. 1042 
 
 Sweyn II., 1047 
 
 Interregnum, 1073-1076 
 
 Harold, the Simple, 1076 
 
 Canute IV., 1080 
 
 . Olaus IV., the Hungry 1086 
 
 Eric I., the Good 1095 
 
 Interregnum, . . . . . 1103-1105 
 
 Nicholas I., 1105 
 
 Eric II., Barefoot, 1135 
 
 Eric III., the Lamb, 1137 
 
 Sweyn III., 1147 
 
 Canute V., 1147 
 
 Waldemar, the Great, . . . . 1157 
 
 Canute VI., the Pious 1182 
 
 Waldemar II., the Vicloiious, . . . 1202 
 
 Eric IV., . 1241 
 
 Abel, 1250 
 
 Christopher I., 1252 
 
 Erie V 1259 
 
 Eric VI., '. . 1286 
 
 Christopher II., 1320 
 
 Interregnum, 1334-1340 
 
 Waldemar III., 1340 
 
 Olaus v., 1376 
 
 Margaret, 1387 
 
 Margaret and Eric VII 1397 
 
 Eric VII 1412 
 
 Interregnum 1438-1440 
 
 Christopher III 1440 
 
 House of Ohlenhurg. 
 
 Christian I., . , 1448 
 
 John, . . . . . . . 1481 
 
 Christian II., the Cruel, .... 1513 
 
 Frederick I., 1523 
 
 Christian III., 1533 
 
 Frederick II., 1559 
 
 Christian IV 1588 
 
 Frederick III . . 1648 
 
 Christian V., 1670 
 
 Frederick IV., 1699 
 
 Christian VI . 1730 
 
 Frederick V., 1746 
 
 Christian VII., 1766 
 
 Frederick VI., 1808 
 
 Christian VIII. 1839 
 
 Frederick VII., 1848 
 
 Christian IX., 1863 
 
972 
 
 SOVEREIGNS AND RULEKS. 
 
 Kings of Sweden. 
 
 Olaf Sehotkouung, 
 
 Edmuud Colbi'enner, 
 
 Ediuuud Sleinme, 
 
 Stenkill, 
 
 Halstan, 
 
 Ingo I., the Good 
 
 Philip, 
 
 Ingo II., 
 
 Swerker I., 
 
 Saint Eiic IX., 
 
 Charles VII., 
 
 Canute, 
 
 Swerker II., 
 
 Eric X., 
 
 John I., 
 
 Eric XI., . 
 
 Waldemar I., 
 
 Magnus I., Ladnlses, 
 
 Birgerll., . 
 
 Magnus II., Sinseli 
 
 Eric XII., . 
 
 Magnus II., 
 
 Albert of Meckleubur 
 
 United with DenmarJc, 1397-1523. 
 House of Vasa. 
 Gustavus I., Vasa, .... 
 
 Eric XIV., 
 
 John III., 
 
 Sigismund III., . . . . .^ 
 
 Charles IX 
 
 Gustavus II., Adolplius, the Great, . 
 Christina, ...... 
 
 Charles X.,' Gustavus, 
 
 Charles XI 
 
 Charles XII., 
 
 Ulrica Eleanora, .... 
 
 Frederick I., .... . 
 Adolphus Frederick, 
 Gustavus III., Adolphus, . 
 Gustavus IV., Adolplius, . 
 
 Charles XIII., 
 
 Souse of BernadoUe. 
 Charles XIV., John, .... 
 Oscar I., . 
 
 Charles XV., 
 
 Oscar II 
 
 Kings of Naples and Sicily, 
 Normans. 
 Eoger I., ..... . 
 
 William I., the Bad, .... 
 
 William 11., the Good, 
 
 Tancred, ...... 
 
 William III 
 
 Constance, 
 
 Dukes of Burgundy. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1001 
 1026 
 1051 
 1056 
 1066 
 1090' 
 1112 
 1118 
 1129 
 1155 
 1161 
 1167 
 1199 
 1210 
 1216 
 1223 
 1250 
 1275 
 1290 
 1319 
 1350 
 1359 
 1363 1397 
 
 1523 
 1560 
 1569 
 1592 
 1604 
 1611 
 1633 
 1654 
 1660 
 1697 
 1718 
 1741 
 1751 
 1771 
 1792 
 1809 
 
 1818 
 1844 
 1859 
 
 1131 
 
 1154 
 1166 
 1189 
 1194 
 1194-1197 
 
 Philip, the Bold, 
 John, the Fearless, 
 Philip, the Good, 
 Charles, the Bold, 
 
 SULTAKS OF TUEKEY. 
 
 Osiuan I, . . . . 
 
 Orchan, .... 
 
 Amurath I., 
 
 Bajazet I., Ilderim, 
 
 Solomon, .... 
 
 Musa-Chelebi, 
 
 Mahomet I., ... 
 
 Amurath II., 
 
 Mahomet II., 
 
 Bajazet II., 
 
 Selim I., . . . . 
 
 Solomon II., the Magnificent, 
 
 Selim II., .... 
 
 Amuratli III., 
 
 Mahomet III 
 
 Achmet I., 
 
 Mustapha I., . . . 
 
 Oiman II., 
 
 Mustapha I., 
 
 Amurath IV., 
 
 Ibrahim, .... 
 
 Mahomet IV., 
 
 Solomon III., 
 
 Achmet II., 
 
 Mustapha II., 
 
 Achmet III., 
 
 Mohammed v., Malimud, . 
 
 Osraan III., 
 
 Mustapha III., . 
 
 Achmet IV., Abdul-Ahmed, 
 
 Selim III., 
 
 Mustapha IV., . 
 
 Mahmud II., Mahomet VI., 
 
 Abdul Medjid, . 
 
 Abdul Aziz, 
 
 Amurath v., 
 
 Abdul Hamid, 
 
 Czars of Eussia. 
 House of Buric. 
 
 a. d. 
 1363 
 
 1404 
 
 1419 
 
 1467-1477 
 
 1299 
 1326 
 1360 
 
 1389 
 1403 
 1410 
 1413 
 1421 
 1451 
 1481 
 1512 
 1520 
 1566 
 1574 
 1595 
 1603 
 1617 
 1618 
 1622 
 1623 
 1640 
 1649 
 1687 
 1691 
 1695 
 1703 
 1730 
 1754 
 1757 
 1774 
 1789 
 1807 
 1808 
 1839 
 1851 
 1867 
 1876 
 
 Ivan, the Great, Basilovitz, 
 Vasali, Basil V., 
 Ivan IV., the Terrible, 
 
 Feodor I 
 
 Boris-Godonoflf, . 
 Feodor II., . 
 Demetrius, the Impostor, 
 Zouinski, Vasali-Chouiski, 
 Ladislaus, of Poland, 
 
 1462 
 1505 
 1533 
 1584 
 1598 
 1605 
 1606 
 1606 
 1610 
 
SOVEREIGNS AND RU(>ERS. 
 
 973 
 
 House of Romanoff- 
 
 Mioliael, Feodorovitz, 
 
 Alexis, 
 
 Feodor II., 
 
 Ivan v., and Peter I., 
 
 Peter I., the Great, 
 
 Catliarine I., 
 
 Peter II., . 
 
 Anne, 
 
 Ivan VI., . 
 
 Elizabeth, 
 
 Peter III., 
 
 Catharine II., 
 
 Paul, 
 
 Alexander!., 
 
 Nicholas I., 
 
 Alexander II., 
 
 Alexander III., 
 
 Empeeoes of Austria 
 House of Hapshurg. 
 Francis I., . . . . . 
 Ferdinand, .... 
 
 Francis Joseph, 
 
 Kings of Holland. 
 House of Orange. 
 William Frederick, 
 William II., . • . . 
 
 William III , . 
 Wilhelmina, .... 
 
 A. D. 
 1613 
 1645 
 1676 
 1682 
 1689 
 1725 
 1727 
 1730 
 1740 
 1741 
 1762 
 1762 
 1796 
 1801 
 1825 
 1855 
 
 1804 
 
 1835 
 
 1848 
 
 1813 
 
 1840 
 1849 
 
 Leopold I., 
 Leopold II., 
 
 Otho I., 
 George I., 
 
 Kings of Belgium. 
 House of Saxe- Cohurg. 
 
 Kings of Geeece. 
 House of Bavaria. 
 
 House of Denmark. 
 
 1831 
 1865 
 
 1863 
 
 Kings of Italy. 
 House of Savoy. 
 
 Victor Emmanuel 1861 
 
 Humbert, 1878 
 
 Pkinces of Rousiania. 
 
 Alexander Couza, 1859 
 
 Charles I., 1866 
 
 Peinces of Bulgaria. 
 
 Alexander I., 1879 
 
 Ferdiuaud, 1887 
 
 Princes of Seevia. 
 Milosch I., Obrenovitch, .... 1829 
 
 Michael II., 1839 
 
 Michael III., 1840 
 
 Alexander, 
 Miloscb I., 
 Michael III., 
 Milan IV., 
 Alexander, 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1842 
 1858 
 1860 
 1868 
 
 Pkisces of Montenegro. 
 
 Daniel, 
 Nicholas 
 
 Shahs of Peesia. 
 Suffean Dynasty. 
 Ismail, 
 Tarn asp, 
 
 Ismail II., Meerza, 
 Mahommed, Meerza, 
 Abbas I., the Great, 
 Sophi, 
 Abbas II., 
 Sophi II., . 
 Hussein, 
 Mahmoud, 
 
 Ashratf, the Usurper, 
 Tamasp II., 
 Abbas III., 
 Nadir, 
 Eokh, 
 
 •Interregnum, 
 Knreem Khan, 
 Anarchy, 
 
 Turkoman Dynasty. 
 Aga-Mabomraed Khan, 
 
 Futteh Ali, 
 
 Malnmmed, 
 
 Nasr-nl-Deen 
 
 Mogul Empeeoes of India. 
 
 Baber, ...... 
 
 HumayuD, ..... 
 
 Akbar, ...... 
 
 Jebanghir, ..... 
 
 Shah Jehan, . . . . . 
 
 Aurungzebe, ..... 
 
 Babadoor Shah, .... 
 
 Jehander Shah, . . ; . 
 
 Mahomed Sbab, .... 
 
 Empeeoes of China. 
 
 Chwang-Lei 
 
 Shuu-che, 
 
 Kang-hi, 
 
 Yaug-ching, 
 
 Keen-lung, 
 
 Kea-king, 
 
 Taou-Kwang, 
 
 Hieng-fuug, 
 
 Ki-tsiang, Toung-chi, 
 
 Kwang Sn, ...... 
 
 1502 
 1523 
 1576 
 1577 
 1585 
 1628 
 1641 
 1666 
 1694 
 1722 
 1725 
 1730 
 1732 
 1736 
 1749 
 
 1751-1759 
 1759 
 
 17,9-1795 
 
 1795 
 
 1798 
 1834 
 
 1526 
 1531 
 1556 
 1605 
 1627 
 1658 
 1707 
 1713 
 1719-1748 
 
 1627 
 1643 
 1662 
 1723 
 1736 
 1795 
 1820 
 1850 
 1861 
 
974 
 
 SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 
 
 MiKADos OF Japan. 
 
 Komei Tenno, 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mutsu Hito 1867 
 
 Khedives of Egypt. 
 
 Mehemet Ali Pasba 1806 
 
 Ibrabim, 
 
 
 
 
 1848 
 
 Abbas, 
 
 
 
 
 1848 
 
 Said, .... 
 
 
 
 
 1854 
 
 Ismail, 
 
 
 
 
 1863 
 
 Mecbmet Tewfik, 
 
 
 
 
 1879 
 
 Abbas Hilmi, 
 
 
 
 1892 
 
 British Governors of India. 
 
 Warren Hastings, 1772 
 
 Sir John Macpberson, 
 
 
 
 
 1785 
 
 Lord Cornwallis, 
 
 
 
 
 1786 
 
 Sir Jolin Shore, 
 
 
 
 
 1793 
 
 Marquis Wellesley, 
 
 
 
 
 1798 
 
 Lord Cornwallis, 
 
 
 
 
 1805 
 
 Sir George Hilaro Barlow 
 
 
 
 
 1805 
 
 Lord Minto, 
 
 
 
 
 1807 
 
 Marquis of Hastings, 
 
 
 
 
 1813 
 
 Lord Amberst, . 
 
 
 
 
 1823 
 
 Lord William Bentnick 
 
 
 
 
 1828 
 
 Lord Metcalfe, . 
 
 
 
 
 1835 
 
 Lord Auckland, 
 
 
 
 
 1836 
 
 Lord Ellenborougb, 
 
 
 
 
 1842 
 
 Sir Henry Hardinge, 
 
 
 
 
 1844 
 
 Lord Dalhousie, 
 
 
 
 
 1848 
 
 Lord Canning, . 
 
 
 
 
 1855 
 
 Lord Elgin, 
 
 
 
 
 1861 
 
 Lord Lawrence, 
 
 
 
 
 1863 
 
 Lord Mayo, 
 
 
 
 
 1868 
 
 Lord Northbrook, 
 
 
 
 
 1872 
 
 Lord Lytton, 
 
 
 
 
 1876 
 
 Marqnis of Eipon, 
 
 
 
 
 1880 
 
 Earl of Dufferin, 
 
 
 
 
 1884 
 
 Marquis of Lansdowiip, 
 
 
 
 1888 
 
 Presidents of the United States. 
 
 George Washington, 1789 
 
 Jobn Adams, 
 
 
 
 
 1797 
 
 Tbomas Jefferson, 
 
 
 
 
 1801 
 
 James Madison, 
 
 
 
 
 1809 
 
 James Monroe, . 
 
 
 
 
 1817 
 
 John Quincy Adams, 
 
 
 
 
 1825 
 
 Andrew Jackson, 
 
 
 
 
 1829 
 
 Martin Van Bnren, 
 
 
 
 
 1837 
 
 William Henry Harrisin, 
 
 
 
 
 1841 
 
 John Tyler, 
 
 
 
 
 , 1841 
 
 James Knox Polk, 
 
 
 
 
 1845 
 
 Zachary Taylor, 
 
 
 
 
 1849 
 
 Millard Fillmore, 
 
 
 
 
 1850 
 
 Franklin Pierce, 
 
 
 
 
 1853 
 
 James Buchanan, 
 
 
 
 
 1857 
 
 Abraham Lincoln, 
 
 
 
 
 1861 
 
 Andrew Johnson, 
 
 
 
 ]865 
 
 Ulysses S. Grant, 
 
 
 
 
 1869 
 
 A. D. 
 
 Entherford B. Hayes, .... 1877 
 
 James A. Garfield, . ■ . . . . 1881 
 
 Chester A. Arthur, . . . ... 1881 
 
 Grover Cleveland, 1885 
 
 Benjamin Harrison, 1889 
 
 Grover Cleveland 1893 
 
 Governors General of Canada. 
 
 Earl of Durham, 1838 
 
 Sir John Colborne, 1838 
 
 Lord Sydenham, 1839 
 
 Sir Charles Bngot, 1841 
 
 Lord Metcalfe, . . " . . . . 1843 
 
 Earl Cathcart, 1846 
 
 Earl of Elgin, 1846 
 
 LordMouck, 1861 
 
 Lord Lisgar, 1864 
 
 Earl of Dufferin, 1872 
 
 Marquis of Lome, ..... 1878 
 
 Marquis of Lansdowuc, .... 1884 
 
 Lord Stanley of Prestou, . . . 1888 
 
 EoLERS of Mexico. 
 
 EiiijKror. 
 
 Augustin Itnrbide 1822-1823 
 
 Presidents. 
 
 Guadalupe Victoria 1825 
 
 Guerrero, ....... 1829 
 
 Bustaraeute, 1830 
 
 Pedraza, 1832 
 
 Santa Anna, ...... 1833 
 
 Bustamente, 1837 
 
 Santa Anna, 1841 
 
 Herrera, 1845 
 
 Paredes, 1846 
 
 Santa Anna, 1846 
 
 Herrera, . 1848 
 
 Arista, 1851 
 
 Santa Anna, 1853 
 
 Alvarez, . 1855 
 
 Comonfort, ...... 1856 
 
 Zuloaga, 1858 
 
 Benito Juarez, 1861 
 
 Emperor. 
 Maximilian, of Austria, . . . 1864-1867 
 
 Presidents. 
 
 Benito Juarez, 18G4 
 
 Lerdo de Tejado, 1S72 
 
 Porfirio Diaz 1877 
 
 Gonzalez 1880 
 
 Porflrio Diaz 1884 
 
 Rulers of Brazil. 
 Sotise of Braganza. 
 
 Dom Pedro I., 1822 
 
 DomPedrolI., 1831-1889 
 
 Presidents. 
 
 Deodora da Fonseca 1889 
 
 Floriano Peixoto 1891 
 
OHROTOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 B. C. 
 
 2500 
 2205 
 2200 
 2100 
 2000 
 1900 
 1800 
 1580 
 1500 
 1550 
 
 1451 
 
 1300 
 
 1263 
 
 1250 
 
 119i 
 
 1104 
 
 1100 
 
 1100 
 
 1068 
 
 1068 
 
 1004 
 
 1000 
 
 975 
 
 962- 
 
 950 
 
 884 
 
 880 
 
 858- 
 
 850 
 800 
 
 77G 
 754 
 
 753 
 750 
 730 
 729 
 
 721 
 
 710 
 683 
 675 
 
 Bnildiugof the great pyramid in Egypt, 
 
 Fouuding of Cliiua, 
 
 Coustructiou of Lake Moris in Egypt, 
 
 Egypt subdued by tbe Hyksos, 
 
 Time of Abraham, 
 
 Time of Isaac and Jacob, 
 
 Time of Joseph, 
 
 Egypt delivered from the Ilyksos, 
 
 Time of Moses, .... 
 
 Hellenes conquer the Peloponnesus from 
 
 the Pelasgi, 
 
 Israelites enter Palestine, 
 
 Israel governed by the Judges, . 
 
 Argonautic expedition. 
 
 Conquest of India by Hindus, 
 
 Trojan war begun. 
 
 Dorians enter Peloponnesus, 
 
 Cadiz settled by PhcEuiciaus, 
 
 Time of Samuel, 
 
 Dorians defeated by Codrus, 
 
 First Archoa appointed in Greece, 
 
 Consecration of Solomon's Temple, 
 
 The Vedas written in India, 
 
 Kingdom of Israel divided, 
 
 469 Laws of Jlenu written in India 
 Time of Homer, 
 Time of Lycurgus in Greece, 
 Carthage founded by Queen Dido, 
 
 810 Conquest of Babylonia and Syria 
 by Assyria, . ... 
 
 Time of Hesiod, 
 
 Phido of Argos unites jEgina and north 
 eastern states of Peloponnesus against 
 Sparta, . . . . . 
 
 Founding of Olympian games, 
 Of&ce of Arohou opened to all noble 
 families in Greece, 
 Fouuding of Rome, 
 Rape of the Sabines, 
 First Messenian war begins, 
 Tiglath-pileser conquers Babylon and 
 Samaria, . . . . 
 
 Sargon II., of Assyria, conquers Samaria 
 and Phrenicia and carries the Israel- 
 ites into captivity, 
 Sennacherib invades Judea, 
 Archons elected annually in Greece, 
 Assurhadon, of Assy ria, conquers Egypt, 
 
 PAGE 
 
 B. C. 
 
 47 
 
 670 
 
 31 
 
 670 i 
 
 47 
 
 665 
 
 47 
 
 627 
 
 52 
 
 620 
 
 52 
 
 605 
 
 52 
 
 
 48 
 
 600 
 
 54 
 
 600-5C 
 
 81 
 
 597 
 
 56 
 
 594 
 
 56 
 
 590 
 
 82 
 
 588 
 
 32 
 
 560 
 
 82 
 
 560 
 
 86 
 
 551-4' 
 
 50 
 
 550 
 
 58 
 
 549 
 
 87 
 
 540 
 
 96 
 
 533 
 
 62 
 
 
 35 
 
 538 
 
 62 
 
 530 
 
 35 
 
 529 
 
 84 
 
 527 
 
 92 
 
 527 
 
 51 
 
 
 1 
 
 510 
 
 37 
 
 509 
 
 507 
 
 96 
 
 504 
 
 92 
 
 500 
 
 
 499 
 
 96 
 
 
 150 
 
 495 
 
 150 
 
 494 
 
 95 
 
 
 484 
 481 
 
 Psammelichus of Sais conquers Egypt, 
 
 Second Messenian war begins, . 
 
 Destruction of Alba Longa by Rome, 
 
 Ostia built by Anciis Marcins, . 
 
 Draco compiles code of laws in Greece, 
 
 Death of Sardanapalus and destruction 
 
 of Nineveh, 
 
 Periauder tyrant in Coiinth, 
 
 DO Time of "seven wise men" 
 
 Greece, .... 
 
 Nebuchadnezzar takes Jerusalem, 
 
 Solon establishes the lawsof Greece, 
 
 Nebuchadnezzar takes Tyre, 
 
 Judah carried captive to Babylon, 
 
 Cyrus conquers Media, . 
 
 Pisistratus tyrant of Atheus, 
 
 79 Reign of Confucius, 
 
 Spread of Buddhism in India, 
 
 Cyrus conquers Lydia,^ . 
 
 Persians conquer Phoenicia, 
 
 Cyrus permits some of the Jews to re^ 
 
 turn, .... 
 
 Cyrus conquers Babylon, 
 
 Polycrates tyrant in Samos, 
 
 Cyrus destroyed by Tomyris, 
 
 Cambyses conquers Egypt, 
 
 Hippias and Hipparchus tyrants in 
 
 Atliens, .... 
 
 A republic established at Athens, 
 
 Overthrow of tbe Tarquins, and estab 
 
 lishmeut of the Roman republic, 
 
 Lars Porsenna repulsed through the 
 
 bravery of Horatius Codes, 
 
 Persian invasion of Greece, 
 
 Death of Pythagoras of Samos, 
 
 First Roman dictator appointed (7V<«3 
 
 Lartius.) .... 
 
 Destruction of Miletus, 
 
 First secession of the Plebeians to the 
 
 Sacred Mount, 
 
 Coriolanus besieges Rome, but is in 
 
 duced to retire, . 
 
 Persian invasion of Greece, 
 
 Battle of Marathon, Sept. 12, . 
 
 Spurius Cassius hurled fi-om the Tar 
 
 peian Rock, 
 
 Birth of Herodotus, 
 
 Invasion of Greece by Xerxes, . 
 
 (975) 
 
 PAGE 
 
 48 
 95 
 154 
 156 
 
 159 
 101 
 100 
 
 159 
 101 
 
 160 
 101 
 102 
 
 161 
 
 88 
 
 103 
 
976 
 
 CHROKOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 B. C. 
 
 480 
 480 
 480 
 479 
 479 
 477 
 
 471 
 4G6 
 465 
 465 
 
 463 
 
 458 
 
 457 
 456 
 455 
 
 451 
 
 450 
 450 
 449 
 449 
 
 449 
 447 
 
 445 
 415 
 
 441 
 443 
 442 
 431 
 429 
 427 
 425 
 421 
 
 418 
 415 
 
 413 
 413 
 
 407 
 406 
 406 
 406 
 405 
 404 
 404 
 
 Buttle of ThermopylEe, Aupr., 
 
 Athens burned by the Persians, 
 
 Battle of Salamls, Oct. 20, 
 
 Battle of Mycale, Sept. 22, 
 
 Battle of Plataea, Sept. 22, 
 
 War between Rome and Veiiiand deaili 
 
 oftheFabii, 
 
 Themistocles banished from Athens, 
 
 End of Persian war. 
 
 Terrible earthquake in Sparta, 
 
 Eebellion of the Messenians and Ilelots 
 
 in Sparta, 
 
 Cimon ostracized, 
 
 Cincinnatus, dictator, conquers the 
 
 ^qui, .... 
 
 Jerusalem rebuilt, under Ezra and No 
 
 bemiah, 
 
 Battle of Tanagra, 
 
 Death of ^schylus, 
 
 Messenians compelled to give up 
 
 Ithorae, .... 
 
 Appointment of decemvirs iu Kome, 
 
 Age of Pericles, . 
 
 Birth of Herodotus, 
 
 Death of Cimon at Cyprus, 
 
 Death of Virginia and overthrow of 
 
 Appius Claudius, 
 
 Decemvirs abolished. 
 
 Battle of Coronea, between Athens and 
 
 Bceotia, .... 
 
 Peace of Pericles, 
 
 Marriage between Patricians and Pie 
 
 beians permitted, 
 
 Military tribunes created in Rome, 
 
 First censors appointed in Rome, 
 
 Parthenon buill by Pericles, 
 
 Peloponnesian war begins, 
 
 Terrible plague in Athens, 
 
 Plateaus yield to the Sparlans 
 
 Demosthenes takes possession of Pylos, 
 
 Peace of Nicias concluded between 
 
 Athens and Sparta, 
 
 Battle of Mantinea, 
 
 Athenian * expedition against Syra 
 
 cuse, .... 
 
 Athenians defeated at Syracuse, 
 
 Death of generals Deraostlienes and 
 
 Nicias, .... 
 
 Battle of Ephesus, 
 
 Death of Sophocles, 
 
 Death of Euripides, 
 
 Battle of Lesbos, 
 
 Battle of jEgospotamos, 
 
 Athens surrenders to Sparta, 
 
 Government of the " Thirty Tyrants " 
 
 iu Athens est.ablished by Lysauder, 
 
 PAGE 
 
 105 
 105 
 106 
 107 
 107 
 
 169 
 110 
 110 
 110 
 
 110 
 110 
 
 66 
 110 
 123 
 
 110 
 161 
 111 
 124 
 111 
 
 162 
 161 
 
 111 
 111 
 
 1S2 
 162 
 162 
 111 
 111 
 112 
 112 
 112 
 
 112 
 113 
 
 113 
 113 
 
 113 
 113 
 123 
 123 
 114 
 114 
 114 
 
 402 
 401 
 400 
 
 399 
 396 
 
 395 
 394 
 394 
 390 
 389 
 388 
 387 
 385 
 383 
 383 
 380 
 
 373 
 371 
 
 370 
 369 
 366 
 364 
 
 358 
 358 
 
 358 
 357 
 356 
 318 
 343 
 342 
 342 
 340 
 339 
 338 
 
 338 
 337 
 335 
 334 
 334 
 333 
 332 
 332 
 332 
 331 
 
 Democracy restored in Athens through 
 
 Thrasybulus, 
 
 Death of Thucydides, 
 
 Battle of Cunaxa, 
 
 Retreat of the ten tliousand, under Xen 
 
 ophon. 
 
 Death of Socrates, 
 
 Conquest of Veii by Rome, and ove 
 
 throw of the power of Etruria, 
 
 Battle of Haliartus, 
 
 Battle of Coronea, 
 
 Sea-fight at Cnidus, 
 
 Rome taken by the Gauls, 
 
 War between Corinth and Sparta, 
 
 Death of Aristophanes, 
 
 Peace of Autalcidas, 
 
 Spartans destroy Mantinea, 
 
 Thebaii war begins. 
 
 Execution of Marcus Manlius, 
 
 Spartans compel the submission of 
 
 Olynthia, 
 
 P)at»a subjected by Thebes, 
 
 Battle of Leuctra, 
 
 Rise of the Thebau power in Greece, 
 
 Messene rebuilt by Eparainondas, 
 
 Passage of the Licinian laws, . 
 
 Death of Pelopidas, 
 
 Battle of JIantinea ; death of Epami 
 
 nondas, .... 
 
 Death of Agesilaus, 
 
 The Athenians attempt to subjugate the 
 
 maritime cities. 
 
 Death of Agesilaus, 
 
 Sacred wars begun in Greece, 
 
 Death of Xenophon, 
 
 Death of Plato, . 
 
 First Samnite war begins. 
 
 Defeat of the Satnnites at Cumse 
 
 War between Rome and the Latins, 
 
 End of Samnite war, 
 
 Locrian war. 
 
 Defeat of the Latins by Decius Mus in 
 
 tlie Battle of Vesuvius, 
 
 Death of Isocratcs, 
 
 Battle of Chseronea, 
 
 Council of Corinth, 
 
 Rebellion of Thebes against Alexander, 
 
 Alexander marches against Persia, 
 
 Battle of Grauicus, 
 
 Darius defeated iu the Battle of Issus, 
 
 Conquest of Tyre by Alexander, 
 
 Destruction of Gaza, 
 
 Founding of Alexandria in Egypt, 
 
 Battle of Arbela and fall of Persia, 
 
 Oct. 1., . 
 
 Battle of Megalopolis, . 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 977 
 
 329 Couspiracy of Parraenio and Pliilefns, 
 
 328 Deatli of Clitus, 
 
 327 Second SaranUe war begins, 
 
 327 Conquest of India by Alexander, 
 
 326 Battle witli Porus, Callistlienes, (pnt 
 
 to death) ..... 
 325 Voyage of Nearcli in the Persian Gulf, 
 324 Alexander celebrates the feast of Diou- 
 
 ysos in Equitana, 
 324 Death of Diogenes, 
 323 Reign of the Ptolemies in Egypt begin 
 323 Death of Alexander, the Great, 
 322 Death of Demosthenes, 
 321 Perdiceas murdered by his army, 
 321 Romans defeated by the Samnites, and 
 
 compelled to pass under the yoke 
 318 Death of Phocion, 
 317 Demetrius, the Plialerian, rules Athens 
 317 Syracuse besieged by Carthage, 
 314 Death of ^schiiies, 
 312 Conquest of Syria by Seleucus, 
 312 Seleucus conquers Babylon, 
 306 Ptolemy defeated by Demetrius nea 
 
 Cyprus, .... 
 304 End of second Samnite war, 
 301 Battle of Ipsus; death of Antigonns 
 298 Third Samnite war begins, 
 290 Subjection of the Samnites by Rome, 
 289 Mamertiues sieze Mepsina, and devas- 
 tate Syracuse, ... 
 281 Pyrrhus makes war with Rome, 
 277 Greek translation of the Old Testa 
 
 raent, known as the Septuagint, 
 275 Defeat of Pyrrhus at Beneventum, 
 272 Death of Pyrrhus at Argoa, 
 272 Conquest of Tarentum by Rome, 
 264 First Punic war begins, 
 260 First Roman fleet built; naval battle of 
 
 MyliE, .... 
 255 Defeat of Rimie by Carthage; cnptiviiy 
 
 of Reguliis, 
 250 Formation of the Achaian League, 
 211 End of first Punic war, 
 211 Death of Agis IV., of Sparta, 
 240 AVar with the mercenaries of Carthag 
 238 Sicily made the first Roman junvinc 
 228 Conquest of the Illyrians, 
 222 Battle of Sellasia; defeat of Sparta, 
 222 Rome subdues the Cis-Alpine Gauls, 
 220 D-ath of Cleoraenes, 
 219 Siege of Saguntum by Hannibal, 
 21S Second Punic war begins, 
 218 Hannibal crosses the Alps, 
 217 Battle at Lake Trasimene ; defeat of 
 
 the Romans, 
 213 Defeat of the Romans at Cannae, 
 
 62 
 
 AGE 
 
 B. C. 
 
 136 
 
 215 
 
 136 
 
 212 
 
 166 
 
 212 
 
 138 
 
 211 
 
 
 211 
 
 138 
 
 208 
 
 138 
 
 
 
 207 
 
 141 
 
 203 
 
 145 
 
 
 143 
 
 202 
 
 141 
 
 200 
 
 142 
 
 197 
 
 141 
 
 
 
 192 
 
 166 
 
 183 
 
 142 
 
 183 
 
 142 
 
 
 167 
 
 
 126 
 
 172 
 
 143 
 
 168 
 
 141 
 
 
 
 149 
 
 141 
 
 146 
 
 166 
 
 146 
 
 142 
 
 144 
 
 166 
 
 135 
 
 166 
 
 133 
 
 167 
 
 123 
 
 166 
 
 
 
 121 
 
 144 
 
 
 166 
 
 113 
 
 137 
 
 
 137 
 
 112 
 
 167 
 
 107 
 
 
 106 
 
 168 
 
 102 
 
 168 
 
 90 
 
 142 
 
 88 
 
 141 
 
 88 
 
 142 
 
 87 
 
 171 
 
 86 
 
 171 
 
 
 171 
 
 86 
 
 113 
 
 84 
 
 171 
 
 78 
 
 142 
 
 74 
 
 171 
 
 75 
 
 171 
 
 72 
 
 172 
 
 71 
 
 
 70 
 
 172 
 
 69 
 
 174 
 
 
 First Macedonian war begins, . 
 
 Syracuse taken by Marcellus, . 
 
 Death of Archimedes, 
 
 Great wall of China completed 
 
 Destruction of Capua, . 
 
 Conquest of Sparta by the Achaian 
 
 League, .... 
 
 Defeat and death of Hasdrubal, 
 
 Defeat of Hannibal in the battle of 
 
 Zania, .... 
 
 End of second Punic war. 
 
 Second Macedonian war begun. 
 
 Defeat of Philip at Kyuoskephala ; In 
 
 dependence of Greece acknowledged, 
 
 Roman war with Antiochus, 
 
 Death of Hannibal andScipio Africanus, 
 
 Death of Philopsemon, " the last of the 
 
 Greeks," in a war against the Mes- 
 
 senians, .... 
 
 Third Macedonian war begun, 
 
 Perseus defeated at Pydna; Macedon 
 
 made a Roman province. 
 
 Third Punic war begins. 
 
 Destruclicm of Corinth, 
 
 Destruction of Carthage, 
 
 Death of Judas Maccabaens, 
 
 Death of Simon Maccabseus, 
 
 Tiberius Gracchus renews the Licinian 
 
 laws, .... 
 
 Cains Gracchus renews the proposal of 
 
 Tiberius, 
 
 Agrarian disturbances in Rome ; death 
 
 of Fulvius and Gracchus, 
 
 Cimbrians and Teutouians defeat the 
 
 Romans, 
 
 Jugnrthine war begins, 
 
 IMaiius elected Consul, . 
 
 Eud of Jugurthine war. 
 
 Defeat of the Teutons by Marius at 
 
 Aquse Sextise, 
 
 War against the allies, 
 
 First war against Mithridates, 
 
 Sylla chosen consul, 
 
 First civil war in Rome, 
 
 Athens conquered by Sylla; Delpli 
 
 plundered. 
 
 Death of Marius, 
 
 Death of Cinna, 
 
 Death of Sylla, 
 
 Second war against Mithridates begun 
 
 Rebellion of Sertorius in Spain, 
 
 Revolt of the gladiators. 
 
 Overthrow and death of Spartacus 
 
 Pompey and Crassus, consuls of Rome, 
 
 Tigranes of Parthia defeated hy 
 
 Lucullus, . . . . 
 
 PAGE 
 179 
 174 
 145 
 31 
 176 
 
978 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 B. c. 
 
 67 Pompey made dictator over all seas and 
 
 shores, .... 
 64 Syria conquered by Pompey, 
 63 Death of Mithridates, . 
 63 Jerusalem taken by the Romans, 
 
 63 Conspiracy of Cataline, 
 60 Formation of first triumvirate by Csesar, 
 
 Pompey and Crassus, 
 58 Banishment of Cicero, . 
 58 Caesar's Gallic wars, 
 55 Caesar's first invasion of Britain, 
 54 Caesar's second invasion of Britain 
 53 Crassus overthrown and killed by Par- 
 
 thians, .... 
 52 Complete subjection of Gaul, 
 49 Second civil war. 
 49 Caesar crosses the Rubicon, 
 48 Death of Pompey, 
 48 Caesar proclaimed dictator, 
 47 Caesar conquers Egypt, . 
 47 Overthrow of Pharnaces by Caesar, 
 44 Death of Caesar, 
 43 Formation of second triumvirate by Oc 
 
 tavius, Antony and Lepidus, 
 43 Death of Cicero, 
 
 42 Defeat and death of Cassius at Philippi 
 42 Death of Brutus, 
 31 Defeat of Antony by Oclavius at Ac 
 
 tium, .... 
 
 30 Death of Cleopatra; Egypt becomes a 
 
 Eoman province. 
 
 13 Formation of Praetorian Guards, 
 4 Birth of Jesus Christ, 
 
 A. D. 
 
 6 Tiberius completes the conquest of 
 
 West Germany, 
 9 Destruction of Varus and three legions 
 
 by Hermann in the Teutoburger forest 
 
 14 Germanicus in Germany, 
 
 64 Rome burned to the ground under 
 Nero, .... 
 
 69 Brief civil war between Vitellius and 
 Vespasian, 
 
 70 Destruction of Jerusalem by Titus 
 75 Coliseum built by Vespasian, 
 
 79 Destruction of Herculaneum and Pom 
 
 peii by an eruption of Vesuvius, 
 84 Conquest of Britain by Agricola, 
 102 Pliny, the Younger, governor of Bithy 
 
 nia, .... 
 
 106 Dacia conquered by Trajan, 
 114 Erection of column of Trajan, 
 121 Hadrian visits Britain, 
 136 Final overthrow of Jewish nation, 
 162 Marcus Aurelius, conducts a war against 
 the Parthians, .... 
 
 PAGE 
 
 A. D. 
 
 d 
 
 226 
 
 . 197 
 
 
 . 197 
 
 250 
 
 . 198 
 
 269 
 
 . 145 
 
 
 . 198 
 
 270 
 
 r. 
 
 273 
 
 . 1S9 
 
 312 
 
 . 199 
 
 313 
 
 . 199 
 
 
 . 200 
 
 321 
 
 . 200 
 
 
 r- 
 
 325 
 
 . 202 
 
 330 
 
 . 200 
 
 
 . 202 
 
 364 
 
 . 202 
 
 
 . 203 
 
 375 
 
 . 203 
 
 
 . 204 
 
 376 
 
 . 204 
 
 
 . 206 
 
 378 
 
 . 206 
 
 402 
 
 . 206 
 
 406 
 
 I, 206 
 
 
 . 207 
 
 408 
 
 
 410 
 
 . 208 
 
 
 a 
 
 411 
 
 . 208 
 
 412 
 
 . 210 
 
 414 
 
 . 145 
 
 430 
 
 
 419 
 
 213 
 
 214 
 
 452 
 455 
 
 222 
 
 486 
 
 224 
 
 
 224 
 
 493 
 
 226 
 
 496 
 
 226 
 
 
 
 507 
 
 227 
 
 
 227 
 
 529 
 
 227 
 
 536 
 
 230 
 
 544 
 
 226 
 
 568 
 
 Artaxerxes I., founds Sassanides dynasty 
 in Persia, 
 
 Invasion of Korae by Goths, 
 Claudius II., conquers the Goths in 
 Panuonia, 
 
 Dacia Relinquished by Aurelian 
 Conquest of Palmyra by Aurelian, 
 Conetantine overthrows Maxentius, 
 Constantine issues the decree of Milan 
 protecting the Christians, 
 Observance of Sunday established by 
 Constantine, Mar. 7, 
 First general council at Nicea, 
 Constantine founds Constantinople and 
 makes it the capital. 
 Division of the Roman Empire between 
 Valens and Valentiuian I., 
 Valens allows the West Goths to settle 
 south of the Danube, 
 The Huns invade Europe, driving the 
 Goths before them, 
 Valens defeated by the Goths at Adrian 
 ople, .... 
 
 Alaric invades upper Italy, 
 Duke Eadegais and the Germans de 
 feated by Stilicho, 
 Stilicho forms an alliance with Alaric, 
 Rome jilundered by the Goths under 
 Alaric, Aug. 24. 
 
 Spain conquered by the Vandals, 
 West Goths invade south Gaul, 
 Spain conquered by the West Goths, 
 Vandals conquer north Africa, 
 Conquest of Bfitaiu by the Angles and 
 Saxons, .... 
 Tlie Huns under Attila invade upper 
 Italy, .... 
 Destruction of Aquileja by Attila, 
 Rome conquered by the Vandals under 
 Genseric, July 15, . . . 
 
 Odoacer terminales the Western Em- 
 pire, .... 
 Clovis, king of (he Franks, conquers 
 Gaul, .... 
 Theodoric establishes his kingdom at 
 Ravenna, 
 
 Clovis defeats the Alenianni and em- 
 braces Christiatiity, 
 Clovis puts to death the other chiefs of 
 the Franks, 
 
 Justinian code published, 
 Conquest of Rome by Belisarius, 
 Totila, the Golh, reconquers Italy, 
 Lombards enter Italy ac the invitation 
 of Narses, .... 
 
 Conversion of England to Christianity, 
 
 264 
 261 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 979 
 
 A. D. 
 622 Flight of Mohammed from Mecca to 
 Medina (Heuira,) July 16, 
 
 932 Death of Mohammed, 
 634 Piiblieatiou of Koran, 
 638 Moslems conquer Ejiypt, Palestine and 
 
 Syria, . . ' . 
 
 650 Islam invades India, 
 675 Conquest of north Africa by Saracens, 
 637 Pi pin of Heristal establishes the ofiSce 
 
 of " Duke of the Fraulcs," 
 711 Conquest of Spain by Moors, 
 732 Decisive defeat of the Saracens by 
 
 Charles Martel, at Tours, 
 
 754 Destruction of images decreed by Leo, 
 
 755 Foundation of the Caliphate of Cordova 
 in Spain, ..... 
 
 755 "Donation of Pipin," establishing the 
 
 temporal power of the Pope, 
 744 Karl the Great conquers Saxony and 
 
 Lombardy, .... 
 
 777 Defeat and death of Roland at Konces- 
 
 valles, ..... 
 783 England invaded by the Danes, 
 787 Images restored to the churches by 
 
 Irene, ..... 
 800 Karl the Great, crowned Emperor of 
 
 Rome, December, 
 827 Union of the Saxon heptarchy by 
 
 Egbert of Wessex, forming the kingdom 
 
 of England, .... 
 
 843 Treaty of Verdun and separation of Ger- 
 many from France, 
 862 Founding of Russia by Ruric at Nov 
 
 govod .... 
 875 Denmark founded by Gorm, the Old, 
 875 Norway founded by Harold Fairhair, 
 891 Arnnlf of Germany defeats the Nor 
 
 mans, and destroys the kingdom o 
 
 Moravia, 
 900 Sweden founded by the Yiuglings, 
 
 911 Germany becomes an elective monarchy, 
 
 912 Charles the Simple grams Normandy to 
 Rollo, 
 
 933 Henry the Fowler of Germany defeats 
 the Magyars at Mer.seburg, 
 
 955 Otto I. defeats the Magyars at Lechfeld, 
 
 and ends their westward progress, 292, 331 
 
 962 Coronation of Otto as emperor of Ger- 
 many, ..... 
 
 966 Conversion of Duke iMisco of Poland, 
 by German missionaries, 
 
 973 Geisa, king of Hungary, converted to , 
 
 Christianity, . . . -381 
 
 980 Greenland discovered by Icelanders, . 285 
 
 988 Vladimir the Great introduces Chris- 
 tianity into Russia, . . . 385 
 
 267 
 
 
 266 
 
 1000 
 
 267 
 
 
 
 1002 
 
 268 
 
 1016 
 
 268 
 
 1018 
 
 270 
 
 
 
 1025 
 
 261 
 
 
 270 
 
 1028 
 
 271 
 
 1042 
 
 264 
 
 1060 
 
 271 
 
 1066 
 
 
 1077 
 
 275 
 
 280 
 286 
 
 265 
 
 280 
 
 261 
 
 282 
 
 285 
 379 
 379 
 
 284 
 379 
 
 284 
 
 285, 379 
 290 
 
 292 
 
 383 
 
 1084 
 1085 
 
 1096 
 1098 
 1099 
 1099 
 
 1130 
 
 1138 
 1140 
 1147 
 1157 
 1155 
 1162 
 
 1164 
 
 1170 
 1176 
 
 1177 
 
 1180 
 
 1187 
 1189 
 1192 
 
 1203 
 1203 
 1209 
 1212 
 
 Introduction of Christianity intoSweden 
 by Olaf Lapking, 
 
 Stephen, the Saint, establishes the 
 Roman Catholic religion in Hungary, . 
 Massacre of the Danes in England, 
 Canute of Denmark conquers England, 
 Olaf the Saint diifuses Christianity in 
 Norway, . . . . . 
 
 Canute the Great of Denmark converted 
 to Christianity, . . . . 
 
 Canute the Great of Denmark, conquers 
 Norway, . . . . . 
 
 Saxon Dynasty restored in England, 
 Robert Guiscard, a Norman duke, con- 
 quers lower Italy, 
 
 Conquest of England by the Normans, 
 Henry IV., of Germany, humiliated by 
 Pope Gregory VII. (Hildebrand) at 
 Canossa, . . . . . 
 
 Henry IV. of Germany leads an ex- 
 pedition across the Alps against Gre- 
 gory, .... 
 Rnme taken by Henry IV. of Germany, 
 Pope Urban II. begins to preach the 
 iirst crusade, 
 First crusade undertaken, 
 Crusaders take Antiocli, 
 Death of the Cid in Spain, 
 Capture of Jerusalem by crusaders 
 July 15. .... 
 Roger II. founds the kingdom of Naples 
 and Sicily, 
 
 Separation of Austria from Bavaria 
 Guelph and Ghibelline feuds begin, 
 Second crusade, 
 
 Frederick Barbarossa invades Italy, 
 Death of Arnold of Brescia, 
 Destruction of Milan by Frederick Bar- 
 barossa, .... 
 Constitutions of Clarendon issued in 
 England by Henry IT. . 
 Murder of Thomas a Becket, 
 Battle of Legnauo and defeat of Ger- 
 many by Italy, ... 
 English conquest of Ireland under 
 Henry IL 
 
 Barbarossa deposes Henry, the Lion, of 
 Bavaria and Saxony, 
 Saladin takes Jerusalem, 
 Third crusade, 
 
 Richard Lion-Heart imprisoned in Ger 
 many, .... 
 Fourth crusade, 
 Normandy seized by Philip, 
 Crusade against the Albigenses, 
 Crusade of children. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 370 
 
 381 
 286 
 286 
 
 379 
 
 379 
 
 380 
 
 302 
 302 
 306 
 272 
 
 321 
 320 
 310 
 321 
 321 
 
 359 
 360 
 
 323 
 312 
 312 
 
 312 
 314 
 360 
 319 
 314 
 
980 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1215 Magna Cliarfa signed by King John of 
 of England, . . . . 
 
 1222 "The Golden Privilege" granted to 
 Hungary by Andreas II., 
 
 1223 Waldemar II., of Denmark, imprisoned 
 bj' Count Henry of Scbweriu, 
 
 1224 Moguls overrun Russia, 
 
 1227 Ghengis KliaTi, chief of the Moguls, be- 
 gins bis career of conquests, 
 
 1228 Fifth crusade, .... 
 
 1229 Othman founds the Ottoman empire at 
 Prusa, Bithynia, 
 
 1233 The Holy Inquisition established, 
 
 1241 Moguls defeat Duke Henry of Silesia at 
 Lignitz, ..... 
 
 1242 Russia made tributary to the Khan of 
 the Golden Horde, 
 
 1245 Hanseatic League established, 
 
 1250 Egypt comes under control of the 
 Mamelukes, .... 
 
 1254 Naples conquered by Conrad IV. of Ger- 
 many. ..... 
 
 1258 The Moguls overthrow the Caliphate 
 of I'.agdad, 
 
 1265 English Parliament divided into Peers 
 and Commons, . . . , 
 
 1266 Florentine guilds established, . 
 
 1266 Battle of Beneventum, and end of the 
 power of the Ghibellines in Italy, 
 
 1266 Naples and Sicily conquered by Charles 
 of Anjou, .... 
 
 1239 Westminster Abbey rebuilt by Henry 
 III., 
 
 1270 Sixth crusade, .... 
 
 1277 The Visconti become paramount in Mi- 
 lan, ..... 
 
 1282 The ma.ssacre of the Sicilian V&spers, 
 
 1282 Conquest of Sicily by Peter III. of Ar- 
 agou, ..... 
 
 1283 AVales annexed to England, 
 
 1291 Mamelukes take Antioch and Acre, 
 1291 Robert Bruce and John Baliol contend 
 for the Scottish crown, 
 
 1300 Party struggles of the Giielphs and 
 Ghibellines in Florence, 
 
 1301 Hungary becomes an elective monarchy, 
 
 1302 Invention of the compass by Flavio 
 Gioja, ..... 
 
 1302 Quarrel between Philip the Fair of 
 France and Pope Boniface, 
 
 1305 William Wallace of Scotland defeated 
 by the English and executed, . 
 
 1305 Avignon in France becomes the seat of 
 the papacy, 
 
 1310 The order of Knights Templar abol- 
 ished iu Fiance, 
 
 AGE 
 
 A. D. 
 
 
 1310 
 
 362 
 
 
 
 1315 
 
 3S2 
 
 
 
 1322 
 
 380 
 
 
 385 
 
 1330 
 
 
 1346 
 
 386 
 
 1347 
 
 316 
 
 1347 
 
 388 
 
 
 268 
 
 1348 
 
 386 
 
 1354 
 
 385 
 
 1355 
 
 337 
 
 
 316 
 
 1356 
 
 326 
 
 1356 
 
 
 1356 
 
 386 
 
 1358 
 
 
 1360 
 
 363 
 
 
 375 
 
 1361 
 
 328 
 
 1370 
 
 
 1377 
 
 328 
 
 1378 
 
 
 1380 
 
 362 
 
 
 316 
 
 
 
 1381 
 
 374 
 
 1386 
 
 330 
 
 
 
 13S9 
 
 367 
 
 
 362 
 
 1396 
 
 318 
 
 
 
 1397 
 
 362 
 
 
 
 1397 
 
 375 
 
 
 382 
 
 1402 
 
 395 
 
 1404 
 
 339 
 
 1406 
 
 
 1409 
 
 362 
 
 1410 
 
 340 
 
 1414 
 
 341 
 
 
 Henry VII. of Germany unites Bohe- 
 mia to the Empire, 
 
 Austrians defeated by the Swiss at the 
 Battle of Morgarlen, 
 Frederick of Austria taken prisoner at 
 the Battle of Miihldorf, 
 Organization of Janissaries by Oscar, 
 Battle of Crecy, 
 
 Calais taken by Edward III. of England, 
 Cola di Rienzi establishes a new Ro- 
 man Republic, May 20. Abdicat(5S, 
 Dec 15, . 
 First German university established at 
 
 Pnigue, 
 
 Assassination of Cola di Rienzi, the last 
 of the tribunes, .... 
 Failure of the conspiracy against the 
 Republic of Venice and execution of 
 the leader, Marino Faliero, April 17, 
 John Wyclif translates the Bible into 
 English, 
 
 Karl IV. issues the Golden Bull, 
 Battle of Poitiers, 
 Insurrection in Paris, 
 Calais and southwest France ceded to 
 England, 
 
 Turks enter Thrace and take Adrian- 
 ople, .... 
 
 Poland becomes an elective monarchy. 
 Papal court returns to Rome, 
 Two popes reign, at Avignon and Rome, 344 
 Genoese fleet sails victoriously through 
 the lagoons of Venice in the Chioggia 
 war, . . . . .372 
 
 Insurrection of Wat Tyler suppressed 363 
 Battle of Sempach and death of Arnold 
 von Wiukelried, . . . 344 
 
 Bnjazet overuns provinces of the East- 
 ern Empire, .... 388 
 Christians defeated by the Turks at the 
 Battle of Nicopolis, . . .388 
 Genoa conies under the protection of 
 foreign lords, .... 372 
 Union of Calmar, unites Norway, Swed- 
 en and Denmark under Margarethe, . 380 
 Bajazet defeated and taken prisoner at 
 Angora by Tamerlane, . . • 389 
 Conquest of Padua and Verona by Ven- 
 ice, . . . .' . 372 
 Pisa becomes subject to Florence, . 375 
 University of Leipzig founded, 347,404 
 Poland subdues the Teutonic Order of 
 Knights in the Battle of Tannenburg, 384 
 Henry of Plauen, grand master of the 
 Teutonic Knights is deprived of liis 
 dignity, and conspires with the Poles, 384 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 981 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1414 Council of Coustance, . 
 
 1415 Martyrdom of Jobn Huss, 
 141.5 Battle of Aginconit, 
 
 1416 Savoy made a duclij', 
 1416 Martyrdom of Jerome of Prague, 
 
 1419 The Hussite or Holy war iu Geriuaiiy 
 
 1420 Cosmo de Medici rules Florence, 
 
 1421 Murad II. restores the Ottoman empire 
 1426 University of Lyons erected, 
 1429 Order of Golden Fleece founded 
 1429 Joan of Arc delivers Orleans, . 
 1431 Council of Basel, 
 1431 Beath of Joan of Arc, . 
 
 1435 Alfonzo V. of Aragon seizes Naples, 
 
 1436 Charles VII. enters Pans, 
 
 1439 CouDci) of Florence, 
 
 1440 lutroduction of the art of printing liy 
 John Guttenberg of Mayeuce, 
 
 1444 Ladislaus of Hungary and Hunyad de 
 feated and slain at Varna by Sultan 
 Amurath, 
 
 Francesco Sforza subdues Milan and be- 
 comes duke, . . . . 
 Constantinople taken by the Turks un- 
 der Moliammed II., whicli ends the 
 Eastern Roman empire, . . 31 
 Wars of the Roses begin, 
 Hunyad rescues Hungary from the 
 Turks, ... 31 
 Greece subjected to the Turks, 
 Hunyad victorious over the Turks at 
 Belgrade, . . . . 
 Cosmo de Medici dies. 
 Peace of Thorn, 
 Death of Scanderberg, . 
 End of Wars of the Roses, 
 University of Upsala founded, 
 Defeat of Charles the Bold of Burgun- 
 dy in the battles of Grauson and Mor- 
 ten, . . . . . 
 University of Tiihiugen established, . 
 Charles the Bold of Burgundy defeated 
 and slain at the Battle of Nancy, Janu- 
 ary 5, . . . 
 Louis XI. annexes Burgundy to France, 
 Aragon and Castile united. 
 Conspiracy of Louis XI. against Maxi- 
 milian, guardian of Philip of Bur- 
 gundy, ..... 
 Death of Maria, Duchess of Burgundy, 
 Birth of Martin Luther, November 10, 
 Richard III., of England, murders the 
 young princes in the tower. 
 Battle of Bosworth, Aug. 22, 
 Bartholemew Diaz discovers the Cape 
 of Good Hope, .... 
 
 1450 
 1453 
 
 1455 
 1456 
 
 1456 
 
 1456 
 
 1464 
 1466 
 1467 
 1471 
 1476 
 1476 
 
 1477 
 1477 
 
 1479 
 1479 
 1482 
 
 1482 
 1483 
 1483 
 
 1485 
 1486 
 
 PAGE 
 
 A. D 
 
 . 347 
 
 1488 
 
 . 348 
 
 
 . 356 
 
 14S2 
 
 . 374 
 
 1492 
 
 . 348 
 
 1492 
 
 348 
 
 1492 
 
 . 375 
 
 1492 
 
 e 389 
 
 1492 
 
 . 378 
 
 
 . 378 
 
 1492 
 
 . 356 
 
 
 . 349 
 
 1495 
 
 . 358 
 
 1495 
 
 . 377 
 
 
 . 359 
 
 1497 
 
 . 390 
 
 1498 
 
 y 
 
 1498 
 
 . 395 
 
 
 
 1498 
 
 1 
 
 . 390 
 
 1499 
 
 
 1497 
 
 404 
 
 1499 
 
 364 
 
 1500 
 
 390 
 
 1500 
 
 390 
 
 1500 
 
 390 
 
 1500 
 
 375 
 
 
 385 
 
 1501 
 
 390 
 
 
 364 
 
 1502 
 
 380 
 
 1502 
 
 
 1504 
 
 
 1506 
 
 378 
 
 1506 
 
 421 
 
 
 
 1507 
 
 378 
 
 1.508 
 
 379 
 
 1.508 
 
 367 
 
 1510 
 
 
 1512 
 
 379 
 
 
 379 
 
 1513 
 
 406 
 
 
 364 
 
 1513 
 
 364 
 
 1513 
 
 
 1514 
 
 Rebellion of Ghent and the guilds of 
 Bruges, . . . . 
 
 Death of Lorenzo de Medici, 
 ExpuLsion of the Moors from Spain, 
 Expulsion of tiie Jews from Spain, 
 Lorenzo, the Magnificent, dies, 
 Columbus sails from Palos, Aug. 3. 
 Columbus discovers the Island of San 
 Salvador, Oct. 12. ... 
 
 Founding of Hi.spaniola liy Columbus, 
 Dec, .... 
 
 Diet of Worms, .... 
 Naples conquered by Charles VIII., of 
 Frauce, ..... 
 Discovery of Labrador by the Cabots, . 
 Savonarola burned at the stake. May 23, 
 Vasco de Gama discovers the sea route 
 to India, .... 
 
 Discovery of South America by Co- 
 lumbus, ..... 
 Milan conquered by Louis XII., of 
 Frauce, ..... 
 Maximilian acknowledges the independ- 
 ence of the Swiss, 
 Sebastian Cabot discovers St. John, 790, 799 
 Discovery of Brazil by Vincent Peucon, 958 
 Ludovico, the Moor, led captive to 
 France, ..... 
 Birth of Charles V., Duke of Burgundy, 
 Brazil discovered and acquired for 
 Portugal, .... 
 
 Columbus deposed and sent in chains to 
 Spain, .... 
 Louis XII. of France and Ferdinand of 
 Spain subjugate and divide Naples. 
 Fourth voyage of Columbus to America 
 University of Wittenberg founded, 
 Spain acquires Naples and Sicily, 
 Death of Philip of Burgundy, . 
 Death of Columbus at Valladolid, Spain 
 May 2., . 
 
 City of Orniuz, Persia, cotiquered by 
 Albuquerque, 
 
 League of Cambray against Venice, 
 Luther goes to Wittenberg, 
 Albuquerque founds a Portuguese 
 colony iu India, 
 
 Ponce de Leon discovers Florida 
 April 4, . 
 
 James IV., of Scotland defeated by 
 Henry VIII., of England in Flodden 
 Field, Sept. 9, . 
 Alliance of Scotland with Frauce, 
 Balboa discovers the Pacific Ocean, 
 Reuchlin accused of heresy by the Do- 
 minicans, . • • • 405 
 
 379 
 376 
 368 
 370 
 376 
 398 
 
 400 
 
 400 
 3.50 
 
 377 
 402 
 376 
 
 396 
 
 400 
 
 374 
 
 351 
 
 374 
 379 
 
 398 
 
 400 
 
 377 
 400 
 406 
 378 
 379 
 
 400 
 
 406 
 
 398 
 
 787 
 
 366 
 366 
 
 402 
 
982 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1515 Death of Albuquerque, . 
 1515 Battle of Mariguano, . . 3'; 
 
 1517 Leo X. publi.^lies general indulgences 
 throughout Europe, . 
 
 1517 Commeacemeiit of the Reformation, 
 
 1518 Luther defends himself at Augsburg, 
 October, ..... 
 
 1519 Debate between Luther and John Eck 
 at Leipzig, .... 
 
 1519 Duke Ulric driven from Wurtemberg by 
 the Swabiau union, 
 
 1519 Death of Leonardo da Vinci, 
 
 1520 Magellan circumnavigates the globe, . 
 1520 Luiher appears before the Diet of 
 
 Worms, April, .... 
 
 1520 Luther ex-commuuicated by the Pope 
 and his writings condemned, June 16, 
 
 1520 Luther burns the Papal bull of condem- 
 nation, Dec. 10, .... 
 
 1520 First war between Charles V. and 
 Francis I., 
 
 1520 Christian II., of Denmark, massacres 
 
 the Swedish nobility at Stockholm, 381, 436 
 
 1520 Death of Raphael, . . 377,464 
 
 1521 Conquest of Mexico bj' Cortez, . 402 
 1521 Luther excommunicated by the Diet of 
 
 Worms, May 26, 
 
 1521 Gnstavus Vasa takes XJpsala, 
 
 1522 Knights of St. John compelled to sur- 
 render the Island of Rhodes to the 
 Turks, . . . . .318 
 
 1522 French lose Milan and Geneva, . 418 
 
 1523 Final separation of Denmark and 
 Sweden, .... 381, 436 
 
 1523 Verrazzano explores coast of North 
 Carolina, .... 
 
 1524 League of the Pope and Ferdinand of 
 Austria against the Reformation, 
 
 1524 Death of Chevalier Bayard, 
 
 1525 French driven from Milan by the Span- 
 iards, ..... 
 
 1525 The peasant war, 
 
 1525 Battle of Pavia, 
 
 1526 Louis II., of Hungary, defeated by the 
 Turks at Mohacz, . . 383, 418 
 
 1526 Hungary united with Austria, . 3S3 
 
 1526 Peace of Madrid ; France gives up Milan 
 and Burgundy, .... 
 
 1527 The Holy League formed against 
 Charles v., .... 
 
 1527 Second war between Charles V. and 
 Francis I. .... 
 
 1527 Rome taken and pillaged by the Ger- 
 mans and Spaniards, May 6, 
 
 1527 Gustavus introduces Reformation in 
 
 Sweden, ..... 436 
 
 iGE 
 
 A. D 
 
 398 
 
 1527 
 
 416 
 
 
 406 
 
 1527 
 
 406 
 
 1528 
 
 406 
 
 1528 
 
 
 1529 
 
 407 
 
 
 
 1529 
 
 421 
 
 1529 
 
 464 
 
 
 402 
 
 1529 
 
 
 1529 
 
 408 
 
 408 
 
 416 
 
 408 
 436 
 
 790 
 
 410 
 418 
 
 374 
 410 
 418 
 
 418 
 
 418 
 
 418 
 
 418 
 
 1530 
 1530 
 
 1531 
 
 1531 
 
 1531 
 
 1532 
 
 1532 
 1533 
 1533 
 
 1533 
 
 1534 
 
 1531 
 
 1534 
 
 1534 
 1535 
 1535 
 
 1535 
 1535 
 1535 
 1536 
 
 1536 
 1536 
 1536 
 1538 
 
 1538 
 
 Frederick I., of Denmark, concedes to 
 the Protestants equality with the 
 Catholics, .... 
 Pampi lo deNarvaezperishesiu Florida, 
 Andreas Doria restores the independ- 
 ence of Genoa, .... 
 Death of AlbrechtDiirer, 
 Siege of Vienna by Solomon, the Splen- 
 did, 
 
 Discovery of Peru by Francis Pizarro, 
 
 Protestation of the German reformers 
 
 at the Diet of Speyer, 
 
 Conference at Marburg, 
 
 Ladies' Peace of Cambray between 
 
 Charles V., and Francis I., 
 
 Alexander de Medici made Duke of 
 
 Florence, 
 
 Confession of Augsburg adopted, 
 
 Cardinal Wolsey deposed by Henry 
 
 VIII., .... 
 
 Religious war in Switzerland ; battle 
 
 of Cappel and death of Zwingli, 
 
 Protestant league of Schmalkald, Dec. 
 
 31, .... 
 
 Discovery of Rio de Janeiro by Martin 
 
 de Sousa, .... 
 
 Conquest of Peru by Pizarro and Alma- 
 
 gro, .... 
 
 Peace at Nuremberg, 
 
 Death of Ariosto, 
 
 Thomas Cranmer made Archbishop of 
 
 Canterbury, . . 
 
 Henry VIII., divorces Catherine of Ara 
 
 gon, and marries Anne Boleyn, 
 
 Luther publishes a German Bible and 
 
 liturgy, .... 409, 462 
 
 Philip of Hesse overcomes the Aus- 
 
 triansal Wurtemberg and restores Ulric, 
 
 Henry VIII., recognized as the head of 
 
 the church in England, . . 
 
 Cartier explores the St. Lawrence, 
 
 Pizarro builds Lima, capital of Peru, 
 
 Francis L, makes an alliance with the 
 
 Turks, to gain Milan, . 
 
 Charles V., conquers Tunis, 
 
 Auababtists sieze Munster, 
 
 Execution of Sir Thomas More, July 6, 
 
 Third war between Charles V. and 
 
 Francis I., . . . , . 
 
 Anne Boleyn beheaded, May 19, 
 
 Lutheranism established in Denmark . 
 
 Hoie's expedition to America, 
 
 Almagro conquered and beheaded by 
 
 Pizarro, ..... 
 
 Tiuce of Nice, between Charles V., and 
 
 Francis I., . . . .420 
 
 787 
 
 372 
 466 
 
 390 
 403 
 
 412 
 413 
 
 419 
 
 379 
 413 
 
 430 
 
 414 
 
 421 
 
 958 
 
 403 
 421 
 377 
 
 430 
 
 430 
 
 421 
 
 430 
 790 
 403 
 
 420 
 420 
 421 
 430 
 
 420 
 432 
 436 
 799 
 
 403 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 983 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1539 The " Bloody Articles" adopted iu Eq- 
 glaud, .... 
 
 1539 Ferdinand de Soto explores Florida, 
 15i0 Milan annexed to Spain, 
 
 1540 Orellauo sails up the Amazon, 
 1540 Cromwell beheaded, 
 1540 Order of Jesuits founded by Ignatius 
 
 Loyola, .... 
 
 1540 Cortez withdraws from Mexico, 
 
 1541 Hungary annexed to the Ottoman Em 
 pire, .... 
 
 1541 Death of Francis Pizarro, 
 1541 Second African expedition of Charles 
 v., .... 
 
 1541 Discovery of the Mississippi by De 
 Soto, .... 
 
 1542 Fourth war between Charles V-, and 
 Francis I., ... 
 
 1542 Henry of Brunswick conquered by Sax 
 ous and Hessians, 
 
 1543 Death of Copernicus, 
 
 1544 Peace of Crespy between Charles V. 
 and Francis I., . 
 
 1545 Council of Trent opened, Dec 13, 423, 424 
 
 1546 Pedro de la Gasca made governor of 
 Pern by Charles V., 
 
 1546 Death of Martin Luther, Feb. 18, 
 
 1546 Beginning of the religious war in Ger 
 many, .... 
 
 1547 Death of Cortez, 
 1547 Battle of Miihlberg, 
 
 1547 Paul III., removes the Council of Trent 
 to Bologna, 
 
 1548 Augsburg Interim published by Charles 
 v., .... 
 
 1548 Book of Common Prayer composed, 
 
 1551 The Council returns to Trent, . 
 
 1552 Religious peace of Passau, 
 1552 Maurice of Saxony makes war oi 
 
 Charles V., March, 
 
 1552 Execution of Someiset in England 
 
 1553 Servetus suffers martyrdom in Spain, 
 
 1554 Execution of Lady Jane Grey in En- 
 gland, ..... 
 
 1551 Mary Tudor of England m:irries Philip 
 of Spain, .... 
 
 1555 Religious peace of Augsburg, 
 
 1556 Thomas Cranmer burned to death at 
 Oxford, ..... 
 
 1558 French occupy Brazil, . 
 
 1559 Peace of Chateau Cambresis, between 
 France and Spain, 
 
 1559 Heidelberg catechism adopted, 
 1559 Margaret of Parma appointed regent in 
 Brussels, .... 
 
 1559 Statutes of Paul IV., mutilated. 
 
 AGE 
 
 A. D 
 
 
 1560 
 
 430 
 
 1561 
 
 787 
 
 1562 
 
 374 
 
 
 403 
 
 1562 
 
 432 
 
 1562 
 
 
 1563 
 
 439 
 
 
 788 
 
 1564 
 
 
 1564 
 
 382 
 
 1564 
 
 4U3 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 409, 427 
 . 429 
 
 420 
 
 420 
 
 422 
 460 
 
 420 
 
 403 
 423 
 
 423 
 403 
 424 
 
 425 
 
 425 
 432 
 
 425 
 425 
 
 425 
 433 
 437 
 
 433 
 
 434 
 426 
 
 434 
 
 958 
 
 421 
 
 427 
 
 442 
 438 
 
 1565 
 1566 
 
 1566 
 1567 
 1567 
 
 1567 
 1568 
 
 1570 
 1570 
 1571 
 
 1571 
 
 1572 
 1572 
 1573 
 1573 
 1574 
 1576 
 1576 
 
 1576 
 1578 
 
 1579 
 1580 
 1582 
 1584 
 
 1584 
 
 1587 
 1588 
 1588 
 
 1588 
 1590 
 
 Death of Pliilip Melancthon, . 
 Death of Mary of Guise, 
 Act of uniformity decreed by Eliza- 
 beth, ..... 
 Council ofTrent begins its tliiid session. 
 Massacre of Protestants at Vassy, 
 Francis of Guise murdered at the siege 
 of Orleans, .... 
 Death of John Calvin, 
 Death of Michael Angelo, 
 French settlement at Fort Caroline near 
 St- Augustine, June, 
 Four hundred nobles' petition for the 
 suspension of the inquisition iu the 
 Netherlands, 
 
 Founding of St. Augustine, Sept., 
 Destruction of images in Antwerp and 
 Brussels, 
 
 Murder of David Rizzio, 
 Murder of Lord Darnley, 
 Duke of Alba enters the Netberland 
 with a Spanish army, 
 Brazil acquired by Portugal, 
 Counts Egmont and Horn beheaded by 
 the Duke of Alba, 
 Austria united to Germany, 
 Peace of St. Germain, 
 Battle of Lcpauto — Don Juan over 
 throws the Turks, Oct. 7, 
 Establishment of the Inquisition in 
 Mexico, .... 
 William of Orange made Stadtholder. 
 Massacre of St. Bartholemew, Aug. 24, 
 Zuniga governor of the Netherlands, 
 Recall of .Mba from the Netberlauds, 
 Foundatiou-of University of Leyden, 
 Don Juan governor of the Netherlands, 
 "Holy Catholic League" established 
 in France, .... 
 
 Death of Titian, 
 
 Alexander Faruese, of Parma, governor 
 of the Netherlands, 
 Union of Utrecht formed, 
 Portugal united to Spain, 
 Gregory XIII. reforms the calendar. 
 Assassination of William of Orange, 
 July 10, . 
 
 Raleigh seuds the first colony to Vir- 
 ginia, ..... 
 Execution of Mary, queen of Scots, 447, 458 
 Insurrection in Paris against Henry III., 453 
 Assassination of the Duke of Guise 
 and Cardinal Louis, . . . 454 
 
 Destruction of the Spanish Armada, 448, 459 
 Battle of Ivry and siege of Paris by 
 Henry IV .... 456 
 
 435 
 438 
 450 
 
 450 
 427 
 464 
 
 788 
 
 442 
 
 442 
 457 
 458 
 
 442 
 958 
 
 442 
 426 
 450 
 
 440 
 
 444 
 452 
 444 
 444 
 444 
 446 
 
 452 
 464 
 
 446 
 446 
 441 
 438 
 
 447 
 
 800 
 
984 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 A. D. PAGE 
 
 1592 Dutch West lailia Company proposed, 795 
 
 1593 Henry IV. becomes a Catholic, . 456 
 1595 Death of Tasso, . . .377 
 1598 Edict of Nantes issued, April 13, . 456 
 1598 Earl of Tyrone heads a Catholic re- 
 bellion in Ireland, . . ■ 460 
 
 1598 Ships of the Greenland Company said 
 to have entered Hudson and Delaware 
 rivers, ..... 
 
 1600 War between Sweden and Poland, 
 
 1601 Earl of Essex beheaded, 
 
 1602 Dutch East India Company established, 
 
 1603 Champlain and Pont Grave reach 
 Hochelaga, .... 
 
 1604 De Mouts explores the Bay of Fuudy, 
 
 1605 Gunpowder Plot in London, 
 1603 Founding of Port Royal, 
 1607 Euglish settlement at Jamestown, 
 
 ]\Iay 13, 
 
 1607 The Popbam colony founded in Maine, 
 
 1608 The Elector Palatine forms the Protest- 
 ant union, .... 
 
 160S Champlain founds Quebec, 
 
 1609 Truce of Antwerp, 
 1609 Netherlands become independent of 
 
 Spain, ..... 
 1609 Maximilian, of Bavaria, forms the 
 
 Catholic League, 
 1609 Champlain discovers Lakes Champlain 
 
 and Huron, .... 
 
 1609 Henry Hudson explores Newfoundland, 
 
 Cape Cod, Delaware Bay, and Hudson 
 
 River, . . . . .796 
 
 1609 Lord Delaware appointed governor of 
 Virginia, . . .' .802 
 
 1610 Poutrincourt settles Port Royal, . 791 
 
 1611 Sir Thomas Dale governor of Virginia, 802 
 1613 Port Royal att.aeked by Samuel Argall, 791 
 
 1615 Champlain discovers Lake Ontario, . 792 
 
 1616 Death of Cervantes, . . .462 
 1616 Death of William Shakespeare, . 464 
 1616 Samuel Argall appointed governor of 
 
 Virginia, . . . .802 
 
 1618 Synod of Dort assembled, . . 448 
 
 1618 Tliirty Years' war begins, . . 466 
 
 1618 Etienne Brul6 explores Michigan, . 793 
 
 1619 Sir George Yeardley becomes governor 
 
 of Virginia, . . . .802 
 
 1619 First legislative assembly iu America 
 
 at Jamestown, June 28, . . 802 
 
 1619 Introduciiou of slavery iu America, 
 August, . . . . .803 
 
 1620 Battle of Prague, which ruins the Elec- 
 tor, Palatine, . . . .467 
 
 1620 Pilgrims sail from Southamplon on the 
 
 Mayflower, August 5, . . . 812 
 
 795 
 437 
 460 
 448 
 
 791 
 791 
 480 
 792 
 
 466 
 792 
 448 
 
 448 
 
 466 
 
 792 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1620 
 1621 
 
 1622 
 
 1622 
 
 1624 
 
 1625 
 1626 
 
 1627 
 
 1627 
 1628 
 1628 
 
 1628 
 1028 
 
 1629 
 1629 
 
 1629 
 1630 
 
 1631 
 1632 
 
 1632 
 1632 
 
 1632 
 1633 
 
 1634 
 1634 
 1634 
 1634 
 1634 
 1634 
 
 1634 
 1635 
 1635 
 
 1635 
 1635 
 
 Pilgrims land at Plymouth, Dec. 21, 
 William Bradford chosen governor of 
 Plymouth, .... 
 
 Virginia colony nearly exterminated by 
 Indians ..... 
 Chiyborue driven from Kent Island by 
 Governor Calvert 
 
 Cardinal Richelieu becomes prime min- 
 ister of France, .... 
 Settlement of Maine, 
 Peter Minuit buys Manhattan Island 
 from the Indians, 
 
 Colonists purchase the English interest 
 in the Plymouth plantation. 
 Settlement of Dover, N. H., 
 Duke of Buckingham assassinated. 
 The "Petition of Right" signed b3' 
 diaries L, . . . . 
 
 Rochelle taken by Cardinal Richelieu, 
 Massachusetts Bay Colony established 
 at'Salem, . . . . 
 
 Edict of Restitution published by Ferdi- 
 nand II., .... 
 Quebec reduced by the English, 
 Massachusetts Bay colony obtains a 
 charter, March, .... 
 Founding of New Hampshire, at Exeter, 
 Gustavus-Adolphus of Sweden invades 
 Germany, . . . . 
 Magdeburg taken and destroyed by 
 Tilly, May 16, . 
 
 Tilly defeated by Gustavus at Leipzig, 
 B.ittle of Liitzen — victory and death of 
 Gustavus-Adolphus, Nov. 16, 
 Quebec restored to France, 
 Lord Baltimore obtains the grant of 
 Maryland, . . . . 
 
 Settlement of Portland, . 
 Treaty of Heilbronu between the 
 Swedes and the Germans, 
 Assas-sination of Wallenstein, Feb. 25 . 
 Battle of Nordlingen, 
 Jean Nicollet discovers Lake Michigan, 
 First colony in Maryland established, . 
 Clayborne attacks Maryland, 
 Thomas Dudley chosen governor of 
 Massachusetts Bay colony. 
 First settlements in Connecticnt valley. 
 Peace of Prague, 
 
 Richelieu organizes the French 
 Academy, . . . . 
 
 Death of Samuel Champlaiu, Dec. 25, . 
 Roger Williams banished from Mas- 
 sachusetts, .... 
 Settlement of Wealh. isfield and 
 Windsor, .... 
 
 PAGE 
 814 
 
 496 
 823 
 
 814 
 821 
 481 
 
 481 
 496 
 
 470 
 792 
 
 815 
 821 
 
 472 
 472 
 
 473 
 
 792 
 
 474 
 474 
 476 
 
 816 
 821 
 476 
 
 606 
 792 
 
 817 
 
 821 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 985 
 
 A. D. 
 
 Ifi36 
 
 1G38 
 1636 
 1636 
 
 1637 
 1637 
 
 1637 
 1638 
 
 1639 
 
 1638 
 
 1633 
 1638 
 1639 
 
 1639 
 
 1640 
 16iO 
 1610 
 1640 
 
 1641 
 1641 
 
 1641 
 
 1642 
 1642 
 1642 
 1643 
 
 1644 
 1644 
 
 1644 
 
 1544 
 1645 
 1645 
 1647 
 
 1647 
 
 1648 
 
 1648 
 1648 
 
 Henry Vaue elected governor of Mas- 
 sachusetts, .... 
 Founding of Harvard College, . 
 Settlement of Hartford, Conn., 
 Settlement of Rhode Island by Roger 
 Williams, .... 
 Presbyterian rebellion in Scotland, 
 Wheelwright banished from Massa- 
 chusetts, .... 
 Extermination of the Pequod Indians, 
 First Swedish settlement on the Dela- 
 ware, at Fort Christina, 
 Anne Hutchinson banished from Massa- 
 chusetts, . . . . ' 
 First printing press in New England 
 set up at Cambridge, 
 Founding of New Haven, 
 Settlement of Newport, Rhode Island 
 First written constitution in history 
 drawn in Connecticut, . 
 Settlement of Portsmouth, Rhodi 
 Island, 
 
 Portugal recovers her independence, 
 Death of Rubens, 
 The Long Parliament assembled. 
 Revolution separates Portugal from 
 Spain, .... 
 Catholic rebellion in Ireland, 
 Impeachment and execution of Lord 
 Straftbrd, May 11, 
 
 Sir William Berkeley appointed gov- 
 ernor of Virginia, 
 
 New Hampshire united with Massa- 
 chusetts, .... 
 Death of Galileo, 
 Beginning of the civil war in England, 
 Death of Cardinal Richelieu, Dec. 4, . 
 " United colonies of New England " 
 formed, .... 814, 
 
 Battle of Marsten Moor, July 2, 
 Richard Ingle joins Clay borne in an at- 
 tack upon Maryland, 
 Denial of validity of infant baptism 
 made a crime in New England, 
 Rhode Island obtains a charter, 
 Archbishop Laud beheaded, 
 Battle of Naseby, June 14, 
 Peter Stuyvesant becomes governor of 
 New Amsterdam, 
 
 Establishment of grammar schools in 
 New England, .... 
 Peace of Westphalia ends the thirty 
 year's war, . . . 448, 
 
 Colonel Pride's purge, Dec, 
 Civil wars of the Fronde commence in 
 France, . . . 
 
 AGE A. D. PAGE 
 
 1649 Execution of Charles I., of England, 
 
 817 Jan. 30, . . .' . - 488 
 
 818 1659 Battle of Dunbar, Sept. 3, . . 488 
 821 1650 Maryland Assembly passes severe laws 
 
 regarding religion, . . - 807 
 
 823 1651 Navigation act passed by the English 
 
 481 Parliament, .... 490 
 1651 Naval war between England and Hol- 
 
 817 land, . . . . .490 
 
 821 1651 Cromwell's victory atWorcester, Sept. 3, 490 
 
 1651 Three Baptists arrested by Governor 
 
 798 Eudicott in Massachusetts, . . 818 
 
 1652 Maine comes under the control of 
 
 817 Massachusetts, .... 823 
 
 1653 Cromwell dissolves the Long Parlia- 
 
 818 meut, April, .... 490 
 821 1653 " Barebones Parliament" assembled 
 
 823 April, . . . . .490 
 
 1653 Oliver Cromwell, Protector of the Com- 
 
 821 monwealth, Dec, . . . 490 
 
 1654 Port Royal subjugated by Cromwell, . 793 
 823 1655 New Sweden surrenders to the Dutch, 798 
 441 1655 Civil war in Maryland, - . .807 
 464 1656 Three days' battle of Warsaw, . 478 
 
 482 1656 Two Quaker women seized in Boston, 819 
 1658 Carl X., invades Denmark, . . 478 
 
 958 1658 Death of Oliver Cromwell, Sept. 3, - 491 
 
 482 1658 Bill passed in Massachusetts persecut- 
 ing Quakers, .... 819 
 
 482 1659 Treaty of the Pyrenees between France 
 
 and Spain, .... 498 
 
 803 1659 Four Quakers hung in Boston, . . 819 
 
 1660 Proceedings against the Quakers in 
 
 821 Massachusetts suspended by order of 
 
 460 Charles II., . . . .820 
 
 486 1661 Death of Cardinal Mazarin, . . 498 
 
 498 1662 Church of England restored, . .492 
 
 1662 Connecticut obtains a charter from 
 
 817 Charles II., . . . - 821 
 486 1663 Charles II. grants the Carolinas to Lord 
 
 Clarendon, . . . .807 
 
 807 1664 Death of Rembrandt . . .464 
 
 1664 Hungary rebels against Austria, . 503 
 
 818 1664 New Amsterdam surrenders to the 
 
 823 English and becomes New York, . 798 
 
 482 1664 New Netherlands becomes New York, 
 
 486 Aug. 27, . . . . . 826 
 
 1665 Great plague in London, . . 492 
 797 1666 Fire destroys two-thirds of London, . 492 
 
 1667 Disgrace of Lord Clarendon, . . 492 
 818 1667 Louis XIV., makes conquests in the 
 
 Spanish Netherlands, . . . 499 
 
 477 1667 Fundamental constitution of Carolina 
 
 486 drawn up by John Locke, . . 808 
 
 1668 Triple alliance against France, . 499 
 498 1668 Port Royal ceded to France, . .793 
 
986 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 A. D. 1 
 
 1670 Cbai'Ies If., makes a secret treaty with 
 France, ..... 
 
 1671 Subjugation of the Cossacks by Rus- 
 sia, .... 516, 
 
 1672 Louis XIV., invades Holland, 
 
 1672 Count Frouteuac becomes governor of 
 New France, .... 
 
 1672 Charleston settled, 
 
 1673 Roman Catholics excluded from the 
 English Parliament, 
 
 1673 Maiquette and Joliet discover the 
 Mississippi, June 17, . . 
 
 1673 New York retaken by the Dutch, 
 
 1674 Spain and Germanyjoin Holland against 
 France, ..... 
 
 1674 New York given back to England, 
 
 1675 Battle of Fehrbellin, . 
 
 1675 Beginning of King Philip's war, 
 
 1676 Nathaniel Bacons' rebellion in Virginia, 
 1676 Rebellion in North Caroliua, . 
 
 1676 Death of King Philip, . 
 
 1677 Louis XIV., authorizes La Salle to ex- 
 plore the New World, 
 
 1679 Habeas-Corpus Act i>assed in England, 
 
 May 27, 
 
 1679 Peace of Nymwegen, 
 
 1679 New Hampshire becomes a royal prov- 
 ince, ..... 
 
 1680 La Salle discovers the Falls of St. 
 Anthony, .... 
 
 1681 Strasburg annexed to France, Sept., 
 1681 La Salle and Father Heuuepiu explore 
 
 the Mississippi River, . 
 1681 " Peun's woods" granted to William 
 Penn, . . . 
 
 1681 First settlers sent to Pennsylvania, 
 
 1682 La Salle discovers and names Louisiana 
 April, ..... 
 
 1682 Penu signs the fraiiie of government for 
 
 Pennsylvania, April 25, 
 1682 William Penn lands at New Castle, 
 
 Oct. 27, .... 
 
 1682 First assembly meets in Pennsylvania, 
 Dec. 4, . 
 
 1683 Rye House plot-Execution of Russell 
 and Sidney, .... 
 
 1683 John Sobieski defeats the Turks and 
 raises the siege of Vienna, 
 
 1683 Baltimore leaves the colony of Mary- 
 land, . 
 
 1683 First colony of Germans settle German- 
 town, ..... 
 
 1683 Penn's treaty with the Indians, June 
 23, 
 
 1683 First provincial assembly in New York, 
 
 1684 Truce of Regensburg, Aug. 15, 
 
 AGE 
 
 A. n. 
 
 
 1684 
 
 492 
 
 1684 
 
 
 1685 
 
 385 
 
 1685 
 
 500 
 
 1685 
 
 794 
 
 1685 
 
 808 
 
 
 
 1687 
 
 492 
 
 
 
 1688 
 
 793 
 
 
 798 
 
 1688 
 
 
 1689 
 
 502 
 
 
 798 
 
 1689 
 
 502 
 
 
 820 
 
 1689 
 
 804 
 
 1689 
 
 808 
 
 1689 
 
 820 
 
 
 
 1690 
 
 794 
 
 
 
 1690 
 
 493 
 
 
 502 
 
 1692 
 
 
 1692 
 
 821 
 
 
 
 1692 
 
 794 
 
 
 505 
 
 
 
 1692 
 
 794 
 
 1693 
 
 823 
 
 1694 
 
 824 
 
 1694 
 
 
 1697 
 
 794 
 
 1697 
 
 
 1698 
 
 824 
 
 
 
 1699 
 
 824 
 
 1699 
 
 
 1700 
 
 824 
 
 1700 
 
 
 1700 
 
 493 
 
 1700 
 
 
 1701 
 
 503 
 
 1701 
 
 807 
 
 1702 
 
 824 
 
 1702 
 
 
 1702 
 
 824 
 
 
 826 
 
 1703 
 
 503 
 
 
 PAGE 
 820 
 821 
 493 
 493 
 
 Charter of Massachusetts withdrawn, 
 Penn returns to England, 
 Duke of MoumoutU's rebellion, 
 " The Bloody Assizes " of Judge Jeffries, 
 Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, Oc- 
 tober, ..... 
 First printing-press in the middle col- 
 onies established at Philadelphia, 
 Reputed hiding of Connecticut charter 
 at Hartford, .... 
 
 Desolation of the Palatinate by the 
 French, . 
 
 Vera Cruz raided by French freebooters. 
 Catholic rebellion in Ireland in favor of 
 James II., .... 
 
 The Bill of Rights passed by the Eng- 
 lish Parliament, 
 Beginning of the Orleans war. 
 Revolution in Maryland, 
 Sir Edmund Andros imprisoned in Bos- 
 ton, ..... 
 Paperand woollen inillsstartediu Penn- 
 sylvania, .... 
 Unsuccessful attempt to establish a 
 newspaper in iSostou, . . . 
 Acadia made part of Massachusetts, 
 Church of England established in Mary- 
 land, ..... 
 Consolidation of Massachusetts, Maine, 
 Plymouth, and Nova Scotia under a 
 new charter, . . . 814-820 
 
 508 
 
 821 
 
 .504 
 788 
 
 494 
 
 494 
 '504 
 807 
 
 820 
 
 824 
 
 793 
 
 807 
 
 Salem witchcraft. 
 
 Battle of Neerwindeu. Defeat of Will- 
 iam III., by the French, Mar. 18, 
 Uuiversity of Halle established, 
 Penn released from imprisonment, 
 Peace of Ryswick, Dec. 20, 
 Acadia ceded to France, 
 D'Iberville founds a colony at Biloxi 
 
 Bay, 
 
 Peace of Carlowitz, 
 
 Penn visits his colony again, 
 
 War between Sweden and Russia, 
 
 Russians defeated at Narva, 
 
 College of William aud Mary founded, 
 
 Yale College founded. 
 
 War of the Spanish Succession begins. 
 
 Colonists from Charleston capture St. 
 
 Augustine, .... 
 
 Warsaw surrenders to Charles XII., of 
 
 Sweden, ..... 
 
 Delaware given a separate Assembly, 
 
 The two Jerseys placed in the hands of 
 
 the king, .... 
 
 St. Petersburg founded by Peter the 
 
 Great, . 
 
 821 
 
 568 
 525 
 824 
 505 
 793 
 
 795 
 504 
 824 
 518 
 518 
 805 
 821 
 510 
 
 518 
 
 824 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 987 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1704 English capture Gibraltar, 
 
 1704 Battle of Blenheim, Aug. 13, . 
 
 1704 First newspaper iu America published 
 in Boston, 
 
 1706 Battle of Eamillies, May 23, . 
 
 1706 Battle of Turin, Sept. 7, 
 
 1706 Peace of Altranstadt between Charles 
 Xn., of Sweden and Augustus of Sax- 
 ony, Sept. 24, . 
 
 1706 French and Spanish fleet unsuccessfully 
 attack Charleston, 
 
 1707 Devastation of Valencia, 
 
 1708 Battle of Oudeuarde, July 11, 
 
 1708 Charles XII., of Sweden invades Russia, 
 
 1709 Charles XII., of Sweden defeated at 
 Pultawa, July 8, ... 
 
 1703 Battle of Malplaquet, Sept. 11, 
 
 1710 Ale,\ander Spotswood brings the writ 
 of habeas corpus to Virginia, 
 
 1710 Freuch invasion of Brazil under Du- 
 clerc, ..... 
 
 1711 Russian war with Turkey, 
 
 1712 Lousiana sold to Antony Ciozat, 
 
 1713 Treaty of Utrecht, April 11, . 
 
 1713 Church of England establishtd in Car- 
 olina, ..... 
 
 1714 Peace of Eastatt, 
 1714 Charles XII. returns to Sweden, 
 
 1716 Charles XII. of Sweden invades Nor- 
 way, . . 
 
 1717 John Law forms the Company of the 
 AVest, 
 
 1717 New Orleans founded, . 
 
 1718 Mississippi Bubble bursts, 
 
 1718 lion works started along the Schuyl- 
 kill River, .... 
 
 1719 Carolina colonists overthrow the pro- 
 prietors, ..... 
 
 1719 Settlement of Londonderry, N. H. 
 
 1719 Second newspaper in United States es- 
 tablished in Philadelphia, 
 
 1720 The Duke of Savoy acquires Sardinia 
 with the title of King, 
 
 1720 Law's bubble bursts, in France, 
 
 1721 Iroquois hold a council with the whites 
 at Conestoga, . . , . 
 
 1723 Ddath of Isaac Newton, 
 
 1724 Massacre of Protestants at Thorn, 
 1729 Founding of Baltimore, 
 1729 The Carolinas become royal provinces, 
 1729 Act restricting immigration passed in 
 
 Pennsylvania, . . . . 
 
 1731 Louisiana reverts to the kingdom of 
 France, . . . . . 
 
 1732 Trustees for colony of Georgia receive 
 their charter, .... 
 
 PAGE 
 
 A. D. 
 
 511 
 
 1733 
 
 511 
 
 1733 
 
 
 1733 
 
 898 
 
 1734 
 
 511 
 
 X736 
 
 511 
 
 
 
 1738 
 
 519 
 
 1738 
 
 
 1739 
 
 808 
 
 
 511 
 
 1740 
 
 512 
 
 
 519 
 
 1740 
 
 
 1740 
 
 519 
 
 1741 
 
 512 
 
 
 
 1741 
 
 806 
 
 
 
 1741 
 
 958 
 
 1743 
 
 520 
 
 1744 
 
 795 
 
 1744 
 
 512 
 
 
 
 1745 
 
 808 
 
 
 513 
 
 1745 
 
 522 
 
 1745 
 
 522 
 
 1746 
 
 
 1746 
 
 795 
 
 
 795 
 
 1748 
 
 795 
 
 
 
 1753 
 
 826 
 
 
 
 1753 
 
 808 
 
 
 821 
 
 1754 
 
 
 1754 
 
 898 
 
 
 374 
 
 1754 
 
 513 
 
 
 
 1754 
 
 826 
 
 
 462 
 
 1755 
 
 524 
 
 1755 
 
 807 
 
 
 809 
 
 1755 
 
 826 
 
 1756 
 
 
 1756 
 
 795 
 
 
 
 1756 
 
 809 
 
 
 War of the Polish succession begins, 
 Richmond laid out, 
 
 Oglethorpe founds a colony at Savannah, 
 Great awakening in New England 
 Oglethorpe brings a second colony to 
 Georgia, ..... 
 France agrees to the Pragmatic Sanc- 
 tion, ..... 
 New Jersey made a separate province, 
 Peace of Belgrade between Austria and 
 Turkey, ..... 
 Frederick the Great begins the first 
 Silesian war, .... 
 War of the Austrian succce^sion begins, 
 Oglethorpe invades Florida, 
 BattleofMollwitz — the Prussians defeat 
 the Austrians, April 10, 
 Restrictions on the importation of rum 
 and slaves to Georgia removed, 
 Negro plot in New York, 
 England's alliance with Maria Theresa, 
 Second Silesian war, 
 Sailing of expedition from Boston to 
 capture Louisbourg, 
 Edward, the Protender, invades En- 
 gland, ..... 
 Battle of Hohenfriedberg, June 4, 
 Peace of Dresden between Frederick II. 
 and Maria Theresa, Dec. 25, 
 Battle of Culloden, 
 
 College of New Jersey established at 
 Princeton, . . . . 
 
 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ends the 
 war of the Austrian succession, 
 Sir Danvers Osborn comes to New York 
 as governor, and liangs himself, 
 Duquesne sends an expedition to occu- 
 py the Ohio valley, 
 Georgia becomes a royal province, 
 Plan of union agreed upon by commis- 
 sioners of all the colonies at Albany, 
 July, . . . 
 
 Beginning of the French and Indian 
 war, . . . . . 
 
 Washington sent by Dinwiddle to 
 build a fort at the forks of the Ohio 
 Great earthquake at Lisbon, Nov. 
 Defeat and death of General Braddock 
 July 9, . 
 
 Defeat and capture of Dieskau by 
 Phineas Lyman, 
 
 Beginning of the Seven Years' war, 
 Frederick II. invades. Saxony, whose 
 army surrenders. 
 
 Queens College, no%v Rutgers, estab- 
 lished in New Brunswick, 
 
 PAGE 
 
 524 
 
 806 
 810 
 821 
 
 810 
 
 526 
 
 828 
 
 526 
 528 
 811 
 
 811 
 
 828 
 528 
 528 
 
 514 
 
 528 
 
 528 
 516 
 
 528 
 828 
 
 828 
 811 
 
 831 
 547 
 
 830 
 530 
 
988 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1756 
 1757 
 
 1757 
 
 1757 
 
 1757 
 
 1758 
 
 1758 
 
 1758 
 
 1758 
 
 1759 
 1759 
 1759 
 1759 
 
 1759 
 
 1759 
 
 1760 
 
 1760 
 
 1760 
 1762 
 1763 
 
 1763 
 1763 
 1763 
 
 1763 
 1763 
 1763 
 
 1765 
 1765 
 
 1766 
 1767 
 1767 
 1768 
 1769 
 1769 
 
 1769 
 1769 
 1771 
 
 PAGE 
 831 
 
 532 
 
 532 
 
 831 
 
 532 
 
 533 
 
 831 
 
 . 831 
 . 533 
 546, 547 
 . 831 
 
 : to 
 
 Fort Oswego snrreDders to Moutcalm, 
 Predeiick II. victorious at tlie Battles 
 of Prague, Rossbacli and Leutheu, 
 Frederick II. defeated at Kolliu aud 
 Hasteubeck, .... 
 
 Fraukliu wins a diplomatic victory for 
 Pennsylvania, .... 
 Moutcalm destroys Fort William Henry 
 on Lake George, 
 
 Ferdinand of Brunswick drives the 
 French from North Germany, . 
 Frederick II. defeats the Russians at 
 Zorndorf, Aug. 24, 
 
 Bradstreet captures and destroys Fort 
 Frontenac, .... 
 
 Fort Duqnesne occupied by the English 
 and called Pittsburg, 
 French army defeated at Minden, 
 .lesaits expelled from Portugal, 
 Johnson takes Fort Niagara, 
 Wolfe's fleet sails from Louisbour 
 take Quebec, June, 
 
 Death of Wolf and Moutcalm at Que- 
 bec, Sept. 13, . 
 
 Canada passes to tlie English crown, 
 Sept. 18 . 
 
 Frederick II- recovers Silesia by the 
 victory at Liegnitz, Aug- 15, 
 Frederick II. conquers Saxony in the 
 Battle of Torgau, Nov. 3, 
 Jesuits expelled from Brazil, 
 Louisiana presented to King of Spain, 795, 834 
 Peace of Hubertsburg ends tlie Seven 
 Years' War, Feb. 15, . . . 534 
 
 England acquires Canada, 534, 834, 942 
 
 Reign of Terror in France, . . 571 
 
 Marat stabbed by Cliarlotle Corday, 
 
 July 13 571 
 
 Execution of the Girondists, Oct. 31, . 571 
 Florida ceded to Great Britain, . 788 
 
 Uprising of Indian tribes under Pou- 
 tiac, . . . . .8.34 
 
 Passage of the Stamp Act, . . 835 
 
 Meeting of the first Continental Con- 
 gress in Oct., .... 835 
 Repeal of the Stamp Act, March 6, . 835 
 Civil war in Poland, . . . 551 
 Jesuits expelled from Mexico, . 789 
 War between Russia and Turkey, . 551 
 James Watt invents the steam engine, 514 
 Invention of the spinning-jenny by 
 Arkwright, .... 514 
 Discovery of San Francisco Bay, . 789 
 Kentucky settled by Daniel Boone, . 866 
 Gustavus III. breaks the power of the 
 Swedish aristocracy, . . . 548 
 
 831 
 
 834 
 
 834 
 
 534 
 
 534 
 958 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1772 Count Strueusee beheaded, 
 
 1772 Partition of Poland, 
 
 1773 Society of Jesus abolished by Clem- 
 ent XIV., . . . . 
 
 1773 Destruction of tea in Boston harbor, 
 Nov. 25, . 
 
 1774 Peace of Kudschuck Kainardsche be- 
 tween Russia and Turkey, 
 
 1774 Parliament passes the Boston Port bill, 
 
 June 1, . 
 1774 Four regiments of British troops sent 
 
 to Boston, . . . . 
 
 1774 Meeting of a Congress in Carpenter's 
 
 Hall, Philadelphia, Sept., 4, . . 
 
 1774 Quebec Act enacted by the English 
 Parliament, . . . . 
 
 1775 Rebellion of the Cossacks in Russia sup- 
 pressed, ... 
 
 1775 Conflict between British troops and 
 minute men at Lexington, Mass., 
 April 19, . . . . 
 
 1775 Ethan Allen captures Ticonderoga, 
 May 10, . 
 
 1775 Seth Warner captures Crown Point, 
 May 12, . 
 
 1775 Battle of Bunker Hill, June 17, 
 
 1775 Washington takes charge of American 
 Army, . . . . . 
 
 1775 Capture of Montreal by Montgomery, 
 Nov. 13, . . . . 
 
 1775 Defeat of Americans aud death of Mont- 
 gomery at Quebec, Dec. 31, 
 
 1776 Examination of Dr. Franklin by a com- 
 mittee of the House of Commons, 
 
 1776 Declaration of American independence, 
 July 4, 
 
 1776 .Signing of the Declaration by ilie Con- 
 tinental Congress, August 2, 
 
 1776 Defeat of Washington on Long Island, 
 August 27, ... . 
 
 1776 Washington crosses the Delaware, 
 Dec 25, . . . . 
 
 1777 Repulse of Burgoyne at Fort Schuyler, 
 Aug., 
 
 1777 Victory of Stark at Bennington, Aug. 
 
 16, 
 
 1777 Washington defeated at Philadelphia, 
 
 and Howe enters the city, Sept., 
 1777 Defeat of Burgoyne at Bemis Heights, 
 
 Sept. 19, . . . . 
 
 1777 Battle of Germantown, Oct. 4, 
 1777 Defeat of Burgoyne at Stillwater, Oct. 7, 
 
 1777 Surrender of Bnrgoyne's army at Sara- 
 toga, Oct. 16, . 
 
 1778 War of the Bavarian Succession, 
 1778 Death of Voltaire, 
 
 PiGE 
 
 548 
 551 
 
 546 
 
 836 
 
 552 
 
 836 
 
 837 
 
 837 
 
 942 
 
 551 
 
 840 
 840 
 841 
 835 
 841 
 841 
 842 
 842 
 846 
 846 
 844 
 
 844 
 846 
 
 846 
 537 
 544 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 989 
 
 A. D. 1' 
 
 1778 Dentil of Rousseau, 
 
 1778 Indepeudence of United States acknoivl- 
 
 edged by Fiance, Feb. 6, 
 1778 Battle of Moumoutb, June 28, 
 1778 France, Spain, and the Dutch contest 
 
 British supremacy at sea, 
 
 1778 British occupy Savannah, Dec. 23, 
 1773 Capture of Stony Point by General 
 
 Wayne, July 15, ... 
 
 1779 Capture of the Serapis by the Bon- 
 homnie Richard, Sept. 23, 
 
 1780 Charleston surrenders to the British, 
 May 12, . 
 
 1780 Battle of Caindeu, August 16, 
 
 1780 Treason of Benedict Arnold, Sept. 22, 
 
 1780 Execution of Major Andr6, Oct. 2, 
 
 1780 Defeat of the British at King's Mount- 
 ain, Oct. 7, .... 
 
 1781 Death of Lessiug, 
 
 1781 Morgan defeats Tarleloii at Covppeus, 
 
 Jan. 17, . 
 1781 Battle between Greene and Cornwallis 
 
 at Guilford Court House, March 15, 
 
 1781 Surrender of Coruwallis at Yorktown, 
 Oct. 19, 
 
 1782 Lord North resigns as premier of En- 
 gland, March, 
 
 1782 Naval victory of Admiral Rodney in 
 the "West Indies, April 12, 
 
 1782 Tlie populace make demands on Louis 
 XVL,Juue20, .... 
 
 1783 Conquest of Crimea by Russians. under 
 Potemkiu, .... 
 
 1783 Florida ceded back to Spain, 
 
 1783 Congress driven from Philadelphia to 
 
 Princeton, June 21, . 
 
 1783 Signing of Peace of Paris, Sept 3, 
 
 1786 Conference of the thirteen Stales meets 
 at Aunapolis, Sept. 11, . 
 
 1787 Rebellious in the Austrian Netherlands 
 and Hungary, .... 
 
 1787 War of Austria and Russia against 
 
 Turkey, ..... 
 1787 Assembly of notables convened in 
 
 France, Feb., .... 
 1787 Constitutional convention meets in 
 
 Philadelphia, May, 
 1787 Constitution il convention completes its 
 
 labors, Sept. 17, . . 
 
 1787 Passage of the Northwest ordiDanoe 
 restricting slavery, . . 866, 
 
 1788 Gustavus III., of Sweden, makes war 
 ou Russia, .... 
 
 1788 Second assembly of notables in France, 
 
 1788 The Uniou becomes an established fact, 
 
 June, ..... 
 
 AGE 
 
 545 
 
 847 
 848 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1789 
 
 1789 
 
 1789 
 
 1789 
 
 1790 
 1790 
 
 849 
 
 1791 
 
 848 
 
 1791 
 
 848 
 
 
 
 1791 
 
 849 
 
 
 538 
 
 1791 
 
 849 
 
 1791 
 
 849 
 
 1791 
 
 850 
 
 1791 
 
 
 1792 
 
 852 
 
 
 
 1792 
 
 852 
 
 
 
 1792 
 
 565 
 
 
 
 1792 
 
 552 
 
 
 788 
 
 
 
 1792 
 
 853 
 
 
 853 
 
 1792 
 
 856 
 
 1792 
 
 549 
 
 1792 
 
 552 
 
 1792 
 
 557 
 
 1792 
 
 856 
 
 1792 
 
 856 
 
 1792 
 
 
 1792 
 
 900 
 
 1792 
 
 
 1792 
 
 548 
 
 
 560 
 
 1792 
 
 
 1792 
 
 858 
 
 1793 
 
 The States General, of France, declares 
 itself a National Assembly, June 17, . 560 
 The French Revolution begun by the 
 storming of the Bastile, July 14, . 561 
 
 The Paris mob ibices Louis XVI. to re- 
 move to Paris, Oct. 5, . . . 563 
 Revolution in Brazil under Silva Xav- 
 ier, . . . . .958 
 Confederation of the Champ de Mar.i, 563 
 Defeat of General Harmer by Indians 
 on the Ohio, Nov. 4, . . . 860 
 New monarchical constitution adopted 
 in Poland, . . . .552 
 Death of Mirabeau, April 2, . • 564 
 Louis XVI. sanctions the national con- 
 stitution, .... 564 
 Unsuccessful attempt of Louis XVI. to 
 escape from France, June 21, . . 564 
 The French Legislative Assembly con- 
 venes in Paris, Oct. 1, . . . 564 
 General St. Clair defeated by Indians in 
 Ohio, Nov. 4, . . . .860 
 First amendments to American constitu- 
 tion adopted, . . . .879 
 Division of Canada, . . . 942 
 Peace of Jassy between Russia and 
 Turkey, Jan., .... 552 
 France declares War against Austria 
 and Prussia, April 20, . . . 565 
 Poland invaded by Prussian troops. 
 May, . . . . .552 
 Passage of act transferring the seat of 
 American government to tlie J'otomac, 
 July 8, . . . . .858 
 Iiisuirection and massacre in Paris, 
 Aug. 10, ■ . . . . 565 
 Massacre of the prisons in Paris, Sept. 
 2-5, . . . . .566 
 The National Convention of France 
 opens Sept. 17, ... 566 
 Duke of Brunswick defeated atValmy, 
 Sept. 20, .... 568 
 The National Convention proclaims 
 Fiance a republic. Sept, 22, . . 566 
 Revolutionary tribunal set up in 
 Paris, . . . . .566 
 Flight and imprisonment of General 
 Lafayette, . . . .566 
 Battle of Jemappes, Nov. 1, . . 5C8 
 Flanders conquered by the French, . 568 
 First coalition against France, . 568, 5''6 
 Establishment of United States bank 
 in Philadelphia, . . .858 
 Kentucky admitted to the Union, . 866 
 First Parliament conveued in Canada 943 
 Execution of Louis XVI, .Ian. 21, . 568 
 
990 
 
 CHHOXOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 A. D. ] 
 
 1793 Dumouriez defeated at Neerwinden, 
 
 March 18, ... 568 
 
 1793 War in La Vendue, Murcli, 
 1793 Second partition of Poland, April, 
 1793 Insarrection of the Jacobins iu Paris, 
 
 May 31, 
 
 1793 Committee of Public Safety established 
 in France, .... 
 
 1793 Execution of Marie Antoinette, Oct. 16, 
 1793 Insurrection in Lyons, Marseilles and 
 'J'oulon, .... 
 
 1793 The French National Convention alters 
 the calendar and establishes the wor- 
 ship of reason, Nov. 10, 
 
 1793 Invention of cotton gin by Eli Whitney, 
 
 1794 Rise of the Poles under Kosciuszko 
 against the Russians, 
 
 1794 Execution of Danton and Desmoulins, 
 April 5, . 
 
 1794 Robespierre makes an end to the wor- 
 ship of reason, .... 
 
 1794 Robespierre guillotined, Jnly 28, 
 
 1794 General Wayne thoroughly defeats the 
 Ohio Indians, Aug. 20, 
 
 1794 Defeat of Kosciuszko by the Russians, 
 Oct. 10, . 
 
 1794 Abolition of the revolutionary tribu- 
 nal, Dec. 15, . 
 
 1795 Third partition of Poland, 
 
 1795 Holland erected into the Bataviau Re- 
 public by General Pichegru, Jan. 
 
 1795 Bread riots in Paris, JIar. 31, 
 
 1795 Peace of Basle between France and 
 Prussia, April 5, ■ . . 
 
 1795 Dangerous insurrection in Paris, May 
 20, 
 
 1795 The Austrians take Heidelberg and 
 Mannheim Sept. .... 
 
 1795 Insurrection of the sections in Paris put 
 down by Napoleon Bonaparte, Oct. 5, 
 
 1795 French Directory chosen, Oct. 26, 
 
 1795 Ratification of treaty between Eu^^land 
 and America, .... 
 
 1795 Washington makes a treaty with Spain, 
 gaining free navigation of the Missis- 
 sippi, . 
 
 1796 Moreau's masterly retreat through the 
 Black Forest, Sept. 19, . 
 
 1796 Napoleon Bonaparte's successful cam- 
 paigns in Italy, .... 
 
 1796 Bonaparte defeats the Austrians at Ar- 
 eola, Nov. 15, . 
 
 1796 Babeuf's conspiracy suppressed in 
 France, ..... 
 
 1796 Tennessee admitted to the Union 
 
 1797 Cis-alpine Republic formed in Italy, 
 
 AGE 
 
 A. D. 
 
 
 1797 
 
 569 
 
 
 573 
 
 1797 
 
 553 
 
 
 
 1797 
 
 571 
 
 
 
 1797 
 
 571 
 
 
 572 
 
 1797 
 
 
 1798 
 
 573 
 
 
 
 1798 
 
 574 
 
 1798 
 
 886 
 
 
 
 1798 
 
 553 
 
 1798 
 
 
 1798 
 
 576 
 
 1798 
 
 
 1798 
 
 578 
 
 
 578 
 
 1798 
 
 860 
 
 1799 
 
 
 1799 
 
 554 
 
 
 
 1799 
 
 578 
 
 1799 
 
 554 
 
 
 
 1799 
 
 576 
 
 
 580 
 
 1799 
 
 576 
 
 1799 
 
 580 
 
 1799 
 
 578 
 
 1800 
 
 580 
 
 1809 
 
 580 
 
 1800 
 
 860 
 
 1800 
 
 
 1800 
 
 862 
 
 1800 
 
 
 1801 
 
 578 
 
 
 
 1801 
 
 580 
 
 
 
 1801 
 
 582 
 
 
 
 1601 
 
 583 
 
 
 866 
 
 1801 
 
 The Venetian Republic destroyed by 
 Bonaparte, .... 
 
 Treaty of Leoben between France and 
 Austria, April 18, . . . 
 
 The Riyalist deputies banished from 
 France, Sept. .... 
 
 Peaceof Campio Formio between France 
 and Austria, Oct. 17, . 
 Congress of Rustadt, Biiden, Dec. 
 Switzerland converted into the Helvetic 
 Republic, .... 
 
 The French proclaim a Roman Repub- 
 lic, Feb. ..... 
 
 Rebellion in Ireland against British au- 
 thority, ..... 
 
 European coalition .ajjainst France 
 Bonaparte invades Egypt, July 1, 
 Battle of the Pyramids, July 21, 
 Passage of Kentucky resolutions. 
 Passage of the Alien and Sedition laws 
 by United States Congress, 
 War threateued between France and 
 America, .... 
 
 Death of Kant, 
 
 The Parthenopian Republic established 
 
 iu Naples, Jan. .... 
 
 Bonaparte's invasion of Syria, Feb. 
 
 Siege of St. John d' Acre, Syria, by 
 
 Bonaparte. March, 
 
 French defeated at Cassano, Trebia 
 
 and Novi, Italy, June, . 
 
 The Parthenopian Republic overthrown 
 
 June 13, . 
 
 Russians defeated by the French at 
 
 Zurich, Switzerland, Sep. 25, 
 
 Bonaparte overthrows the Directory in 
 
 France, Nov. 10, . • . 
 
 Napoleon Bonaparte created first con- 
 
 .snl of the French Republic, Jan. 
 
 Napoleon crosses the Alps, May, 
 
 Austrians defeated by Napoleon at 
 
 Montebello and Marengo, Italy, June, 
 
 r-atlle of Hohehlinden, Bavaria, Dec. 3, 
 
 Attempted assassination of Bonaparte, 
 
 Dec. 24, ■ . 
 
 Death of Benedict Arnold, 
 
 Peace of Luneville between France 
 
 and Austria, Feb. 9, . 
 
 Death of General Abercombie at the 
 
 battle of Canopns, March 21, . 
 
 Observance of Snuday restored in 
 
 France, ..... 
 
 Louisiana retransferred by Spain to 
 France, .... 834, 864 
 
 War between United States and Trip- 
 oli, . . . • .866 
 
 582 
 
 582 
 
 583 
 
 582 
 583 
 
 584 
 
 584 
 
 . 585 
 . 585 
 . 588 
 . 588 
 860, 899 
 
 862 
 
 862 
 540 
 
 585 
 
 585 
 
 586 
 
 590 
 
 592 
 592 
 
 595 
 
 592 
 
 593 
 
 595 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 991 
 
 A. T>. 
 
 1802 r.ace of Amiens, Mar. 27, 
 1802 The Coiioordat in Fiance, April 18, 
 1802 Legion of Lonov instituted, May 19, . 
 1802 Bonaparte made Cousnl for life, Aug. 2, 
 180^ Oliio admitted to the Union, Nov. 
 29, 
 
 1802 Cliurch of England deprived of its 
 glebe lands in Virginia, 
 
 1803 West Point military academy founded, 
 1803 French invasion and conquest of Han- 
 over, ..... 
 
 1803 Purchase of Louisiana by the United 
 States, .... 86i 
 
 1804 Napoleon I. proclaimed Emperor of the 
 French, May 18, ... 
 
 1804 Conspiracy against Bonaparte and exe- 
 cution of Duke d' Eughien, May 21, . 
 1804 Napoleon crowned by the pope, Dec. 2, 
 
 1804 Duel between Burr and Hamilton, 
 
 1805 Death of Schiller, 
 1805 Coalition of England, Russia, Austria 
 
 and Sweden against France, 
 1805 Napoleon crowned King of Italy, May 
 
 26, 
 
 1805 The Austrian general. Mack, surrenders 
 
 Ulm to Napoleon, Oct. 20, 
 1805 Naval victory of English at Trafalgar. 
 
 Death of Lord Nelson, Oct. 21, 
 1805 Murat enters Vienna, Nov. 1? 
 1805 Battle of Austerlitz, Dec. 2, 
 1805 Peace of Pressburg between France 
 
 and Austria, Dec. 26, . 
 
 1805 Tripoli agrees not to further molest the 
 United States, .... 
 
 1806 End of the German Empire and Ibrma- 
 tioD of the Confederation of the Rhine, 
 
 1806 Joseph Bonaparte made King of Naples, 
 and Louis, King of Holland, 
 
 1806 War breaks out between France and 
 Prussia, Aug. . . 
 
 1806 Napoleon defeats the Prussians at Jena, 
 Oct. 14, 
 
 1806 Napoleon enters Berlin Oct. 25, and is- 
 sues the Berlin decree, Nov. 21, 
 
 1806 Jefferson rejects a treaty witli England, 
 
 1806 Passage of the Embargo act, 
 
 1807 Battle of Eylau, Prussia, Feb. 8, 
 1807 Peace of Tilsit between France, Russia 
 
 and Prussia, July 7, . 
 1807 .Terome Bonaparte, becomes King of 
 
 Westphalia, . . . 6i 
 
 1807 War of Prussia, France and Denmark 
 
 against Sweden, 
 1807 Bombardment of Copenhagen by the 
 
 British navy, Sept. 2-5, 
 1807 Trial of Aaron Burr for treason, Nov. . 879 
 
 PAGE 
 
 A. D. 
 
 593 
 
 1807 
 
 595 
 
 
 595 
 
 1807 
 
 596 
 
 
 
 180S 
 
 866 
 
 
 
 1808 
 
 890 
 
 
 893 
 
 1808 
 
 
 1808 
 
 503 
 
 
 
 1808 
 
 4, 879 
 
 
 
 1808 
 
 597 
 
 
 
 1808 
 
 597 
 
 1808 
 
 597 
 
 
 880 
 
 1808 
 
 539 
 
 1809 
 
 598 
 
 1809 
 
 598 
 
 1E09 
 
 600 
 
 1809 
 
 
 1809 
 
 600 
 
 
 600 
 
 1809 
 
 600 
 
 
 
 1809 
 
 600 
 
 
 
 1810 
 
 866 
 
 
 
 1810 
 
 601 
 
 
 
 1810 
 
 601 
 
 
 
 1810 
 
 _ 602 
 
 
 
 ISU 
 
 602 
 
 
 
 1811 
 
 602 
 
 1811 
 
 866 
 
 1811 
 
 866 
 
 
 602 
 
 1811 
 
 603 
 
 1811 
 
 
 1812 
 
 03-605 
 
 
 
 1812 
 
 604 
 
 1812 
 
 
 1812 
 
 601 
 
 1812 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Napoleon issues the Milan decree, Dec. 
 17, ..... 685 
 
 Invention of steamboat by Robert Ful- 
 ton, ..... 886 
 John VI. of Portugal takes refuge in 
 Brazil, Jan. 21, . . . . 959 
 Joseph Bonaparte made King of Spain, 
 June 6, . . • • .601 
 Commencement of the Peninsular War, 604 
 Surrender of Dupont to the Spanish in 
 Andalusia, July 22, . • . 606 
 Capitulation of Cintra and French evac- 
 uation of Portugal, Aug. 30, . . 608 
 Napolton and Alexander meet at Erfurt, 
 Sept. 27, . . ■ .604 
 Napoleon enters Madrid, Dec. 4, . 608 
 First Roman Catholic see established 
 in Baltimore, . . . .891 
 End of slave trade in the North. . 899 
 Sweden cedes Finland to Russia by the 
 peace of Fredericksbamn, . . 604 
 Surrender of Saragossa to the French, 
 
 Feb. 20, 608 
 
 War breaks out between France and 
 Austria, April, . . . 608, 609 
 
 Napoleon enters Vienna, May 13, • 609 
 
 Pope Pius VII. imprisoned in France, 
 July, . . • . .609 
 
 Revolt of the Tyrolese against the Ba- 
 varian government, . . . 609 
 Napoleon divorced from Josephine, Dec. 
 16, ..... 612 
 Napoleon marries Maria Louisa of Aus- 
 tria, April 2, . . . .612 
 Rebellion in Chili headed by de Kosas, 
 July, . . . . .953 
 North Germany and Holland annexed 
 to France, July 9, . . .612 
 Hidalgo defeated and shot by Calleja in 
 Mexico, . . . . .949 
 Ma.ssena's unsuccessful campaign in Por- 
 lugal, . . . . .608 
 Preparations for war begun in America, 866 
 Indian insurrection under Tecuniseh, 866 
 Utter defeat of Tecumseh at Tippeca- 
 noe, Nov. 7, . . . .878 
 Henry Clay defeats an attempt to re- 
 charter the United States bank, . 884 
 Venezuela declares her independence, 956 
 Earthquake in Caraccas kills 20,000 
 people, March, .... 956 
 Constitution of the Cortes, May 8, . 608 
 Napoleon declares war against Russia, 614 
 Napoleon invades Russia, June, 608, 614 
 Congress declares war against England, 
 June 19, . . . . .868' 
 
992 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 A. D. PAGE A. D. 
 
 1812 Peace of Bucharest between Russia and 1814 
 Tnikey, . . . . .614 
 
 1812 General Hull surrenders at Detroit, 1814 
 
 Aug. 16, .... 868 1814 
 
 1812 Battle of Smolensk, Aug. 17, . . 616 1814 
 
 1812 Destruction of tlie Guerriere by tlie 
 
 Constitutiou, Ang. 19, . . 868 1815 
 
 1812 French victory at Borodino, Sept. 7, 610 
 
 1812 French enter Moscow, which is burned 1815 
 
 by the Russians, Sept. 15, . . 616 1815 
 
 1812 Retreat of the French from Russia be- 
 gins, Oct. . . . .616 1815 
 
 1812 Battle of Queenstown, Canada, Oct. 
 
 13, ... . 868, 943 1815 
 
 1812 Capture of the Frolic by the Wasp, ISIS 
 Nov. 18, . , . . 868 
 
 1812 Terrible passage of tho Beresina, Nov. 1815 
 
 26 29, . . . . .618 1815 
 
 1812 Princeton Seminary established, . 891 1815 
 
 1813 Wellington drives the French' from 1815 
 Spain, . . . . .608 1815 
 
 1813 Prussia joins Russia and Sweden against 1815 
 
 Napoleon, Fel). 3, . . . 619 
 
 1813 Order of the Iron Cross founded, 1815 
 
 ftlarcb 10, .... 620 
 
 1813 Austria joins the Allies against Napo- 1815 
 
 leou, August 10, . . . 620 
 
 1813 Napoleou victorious at the battle of 1816 
 
 Dresden, August 26-27, . . 620 1816 
 
 1813 Perry's victory on Lake Erie, Sept. 10, 870 
 
 1813 Battle of Leipzig and retreat of Napo- 1817 
 
 leou, Oct. 16-18, . . .622 1817 
 
 1813 Btiruiug of Niagara bj' Commodore 
 
 Perry, . . . . .943 1817 
 
 1814 Invasion of France by the allied armies, 1818 
 Jan. 1, . . . . .623 1818 
 
 1814 Genoa united to the Kingdom of 1818 
 
 Sardinia, .... 374 
 
 1814 Denmark cedes Norway to Sweden by 1819 
 
 the peace of Kiel, Jan. 14, . . 622 
 
 1814 Pope Pius VII. restored to his autliority 1819 
 
 in Rome, Jan., .... 622 
 
 1814 Abolition of the Confederation of the 1819 
 
 Rhine . . . . .622 1819 
 
 1814 First capitulutiou of Paris to the allies, 
 
 March 31, .... 624 1820 
 
 1814 Abdication of Napoleon, April 11, . 625 1820 
 1814 Napoleou arrives at Elba, May 4, . 625 
 
 1814 First treaty of Paris, May 30, . . 625 1820 
 
 1814 Constitution overthrown in Spain, . . 638 
 
 1811 Battle of Chippewa and defeat of the 1820 
 
 British, July 5, ... 872 
 
 1814 British enter the Penobscot, July, . 874 1820 
 
 1814 Meeting of the Hartford convention, . 874 1820 
 1814 Brilish enter Washington aud burn 
 
 the Capilol, August 24, ■ . . 874 1820 
 
 A congress of European powers meets 
 at Vienna, Sept. 25, 
 Canadians lose Fort Erie, 
 Rebellion in Venezuela, 
 Treaty of peace signed at Ghent, 
 Dec. 24, . 
 General Jackson wins the battle of 
 New Orleans, Jan. 8, 
 Napo'eon arrives in France, March 1, 
 England, Anstria, Russia, and Prussia 
 combine against Napoleon, March, 
 Battles of Liguy and Quatrebras, 
 Juuel6, .... 
 Battle of Waterloo, June 18, . 
 Abdication aud flight of Napoleon 
 June 22, ... 
 
 Second capitulation of Paris, July 8, 
 The Holy Alliance formed, Sept. 26, 
 Napoleou arrives at St. Helena, Oct. 18, 
 Second peace of Paris, Nov. 20, 
 Execution of Marshal Ney, Dec. 7, 
 Establishment of North American Re^ 
 view. 
 
 Morelos defeated and executed in 
 Mexico, .... 
 Ferdinand VIL, of Spaiu, sends Geu 
 eral Morillo to South America, 
 Indiana admitted to the Union, 
 Republics of La Plata, Uraguay, and 
 Bolivia established in South America, 
 Death of Kosciuszko, 
 Demonstration at (lie Festival of the 
 Wartburg, Oct. 18, . 
 
 Erie canal begun. 
 
 Conquest of Florida by General Jackson 
 Illinois admitted to the Union, 
 Jackson brings the Seminoles to baj' ii 
 Florida, Nov. 18, 
 
 Popular uprising at Manchester, Eu- 
 gland, .... 
 Minder of the Poet Kotzebue by Cai 
 Sand, March 23, . . 
 
 Purchase of Florida from Spain, 
 Venezuela and New Granada uuited to 
 form Colombia, Dec. 17, 
 Murder of the Duke de Berri, Feb, 13 
 Spanish revolution and re-establish 
 ment of the Cortes constitution, 
 Revolution in Naples and establi-shmen 
 of a liberal constitution, July 13, 
 Revolution in Portugal and establish 
 nient of a liberal constitution, 
 Maine separated from Massachusetts, 
 Lutherans of the Uuited States form a 
 General Synod, .... 
 Missouri Compromise agreed to, 
 
 901 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 993 
 
 A. D. P 
 
 1820 Forraatiou of the "Family Compact," 
 
 1821 Tlie Holy Alliance restores absolute 
 monarchy in Naples, Jan., 
 
 1821 Rise of the Greeks against Turkey, 
 
 March, ..... 
 1821 Revolution in Piedmont crushed by 
 
 Austrian power, April, . 
 1821 Death of Napoleon Bonaparte, at St. 
 
 Helena, May 5, . 
 1821 Destruction of Ypsilanti's baud in 
 
 Greece, June 19, ... 
 
 1821 Treaty ratilied, by which Florida is 
 
 ceded to Uuited States, . 
 1821 Iturbide conquers Mexico, 
 
 1821 Revolt of Portuguese troops in Brazil, 
 
 1822 Lighting by gas begun iu America, 
 
 1823 A French army restores absolutism in 
 Spain, .... 637 
 
 1823 President Monroe warns Europe against 
 extentiou of its territory iu America, 
 Dec. 2, . 
 
 1823 ludepeudence of Brazil acknowledged, 
 182i Rebellion of Dom Miguel iu Portugal, 
 
 April, ..... 
 
 1824 Death of Lord Byron in Greece, April 
 19, ..... 
 
 1824 Mexico becomes a Republic, 
 
 1824 Bolivar named " Protector for Life " by 
 the congress in Lima, . . 
 
 1825 Erie canal fini,«hed, 
 
 1825 Mercersburg seminary established, 
 1828 Fall of Missolonghi and end of Greek 
 
 insurrection. April 22, . 
 
 1826 Abolition of jauissaries in Turkey, 
 June, ..... 
 
 1827 Naval battle of Navarino, Oct. 20, 
 1827 Division of the Quakers, 
 
 1827 Organizatiou of Free Will Baptists and 
 Campbell! tes, .... 
 
 1828 Dom Miguel overthrows the Portuguese 
 constitution, Jnue, 
 
 182S War declared between Russia and 
 Turkey, ..... 
 
 1828 First locomotive in America, 
 
 1829 Emancipation Act in England admitting 
 Catholics to Parliament, 
 
 1829 Peace of Adrianople — Greek independ- 
 ence acknowledged, Sept. 14, 
 
 1829 First Catholic provincial council in 
 Baltimore, .... 
 
 1829 Spniu fails in an attempt to reconquer 
 Mexico, ..... 
 
 1830 Salic law aboli-shed in Spain, March 29, 
 1830 Capture of Algiers, July 5, 
 1830 Revolution iu Paris and dethronement 
 
 ofCharlesX., July 23-30, 
 63 
 
 •AGE 
 
 A. D. 
 
 943 
 
 1830 
 
 
 1830 
 
 639 
 
 1830 
 
 646 
 
 1830 
 
 
 1831 
 
 639 
 
 1831 
 
 
 183] 
 
 632 
 
 
 
 1831 
 
 647 
 
 
 
 1831 
 
 788 
 
 
 949 
 
 1832 
 
 9.59 
 
 1832 
 
 888 
 
 
 
 1832 
 
 ',639 
 
 1832 
 
 
 1832 
 
 874 
 
 
 959 
 
 1832 
 
 640 
 
 1833 
 
 
 1833 
 
 647 
 
 1833 
 
 950 
 
 
 
 1833 
 
 957 
 
 
 888 
 
 1833 
 
 891 
 
 
 
 1833 
 
 647 
 
 
 
 1833 
 
 648 
 
 
 648 
 
 1834 
 
 801 
 
 
 
 1835 
 
 891 
 
 
 
 1S36 
 
 641 
 
 1836 
 
 
 1837 
 
 648 
 
 1837 
 
 888 
 
 1839 
 
 
 1840 
 
 644 
 
 
 
 1840 
 
 648 
 
 1840 
 
 
 1941 
 
 892 
 
 
 
 1842 
 
 950 
 
 
 664 
 
 1842 
 
 660 
 
 
 
 1843 
 
 Revolution in Belgium, Aug. 25, 
 Revolution in Warsaw, Poland, Nov. 29, 
 Joseph Smith says he finds the book of 
 Mormon, . . . . . 
 
 Death of Simon Bolivar, 
 Reform of English Parliament, 
 Death of Duke de Berri, February, 
 Formation of the kingdom of Belgium, 
 June, . . . . . 
 
 Fall of Warsaw and Prague and end of 
 Polish insurrection, Sept. 6-7, . 
 Conclusion of a treaty providing for in- 
 demnity for French spoliations, 
 Death of Goethe, 
 French take possession of Ancona, Feb. 
 
 23, 
 
 Kingdom of Greece established. May, . 
 Black Hawk war iu Illinois and Wis- 
 consin, ..... 
 First national convention for nominat- 
 ing a president, .... 
 vSouth Carolina nullifies the tariff act 
 of 1828 by ordinance, Nov. 19, . 
 Abolition of .slavery in English colonies. 
 Passage of Irish coercion bill, . 
 Founding of the German customs union 
 (Zollverein), 
 
 Civil war begun in Spain between 
 Christinos and Carlists, . 
 Beginning of Oxford movement in En- 
 gland, . . . 
 Removal of deposits from United States 
 bank, ..... 
 National anti-slavery convention held at 
 Philadelphia, .... 
 Dom Pedro restores the Cortes constitu- 
 tion in Portugal, 
 
 Attempt of Fieschi on the life of Louis 
 Philippe, July 28, 
 
 PAGE 
 661 
 662 
 
 892 
 957 
 642 
 665 
 
 901 
 642 
 644 
 
 772 
 
 666 
 
 Texas becomes iudependcntof Mexico, 876, 950 
 
 Union seminary founded, . . 891 
 
 McKenzie's rebellion in Canada, . 945 
 
 Papineau's rebellion in Cauada, . 945 
 
 End of civil war iu Spain, . . 665 
 Marriage of Queen Victoria of England 
 
 to Prince Albert of Coburg, Feb. 10, . 643 
 
 Establishment of the sub-treasury, . 886 
 
 Union of the provinces of Cauada, . 946 
 Santa Anna enters the City of i\Iexico 
 
 at the head of an army, . . 950 
 Maine boundary question settled by 
 treaty, Aug. . . . .876 
 General Taylor finally conquers the 
 
 Seminoles, .... 878 
 Revelation to Joseph Smith sanctions 
 
 plural marriage, .... 892 
 
994 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1844 
 1844 
 1844 
 
 1844 
 1845 
 
 1845 
 1846 
 
 1846 
 
 1846 
 1846 
 1846 
 1846 
 
 1846 
 1846 
 
 1846 
 1847 
 1847 
 
 1847 
 
 1847 
 1847 
 
 1847 
 1848 
 1848 
 
 1848 
 
 1848 
 
 1848 
 
 1848 
 1848 
 1848 
 1848 
 
 1848 
 
 18 18 
 1848 
 
 1848 
 1848 
 
 1848 
 1849 
 
 First use of electro mngnetic telegraph, 
 Opening of the Michigan copper mines, 
 Methodists divide on the slavery ques- 
 tion, ..... 
 Furious Catholic riots in Philadelphi.T, 
 Annexation of Texas by the United 
 States, July 4, . . . 8( 
 Annapolis naval academy fonnded 
 Conflict between Radicals and Jesuits 
 in Switzerland, .... 
 Title of Orefton confirmed to the United 
 States, ..... 
 Settlement of Oregon boundary dispute, 
 Battle of Palo Alto, May 8, 
 Battle of Resaca de la I'alma, May 9, 
 United States declares war against 
 Mexico, May 13, ... 
 Rebellion in Schleswig-Holstein, Julj', 
 General Taylor captures Monterey, 
 Sept. 24, .... 
 Elias Howe v>atents the sewing machine, 
 Battle of Bnena Vista, Feb. 23, 
 Capture of Vera Cruz by General Scott, 
 March, ..... 
 General Scott takes Moliuo del Rpy, 
 Sept. 8, . 
 
 Scott takes Chapnltepec, Sept. 13, 
 General Scott enters the city of Mexico, 
 Sept. 14, .... 
 
 Hoe printing press patented, 
 Revolution in Sicily, January, 
 California and New Mexico ceded to 
 the United States, Feb. 2, 
 Insurrection of students in Bavaria, 
 Febiuary, .... 
 
 Revolution in Paris, and overthrow of 
 Louis Pliilippe, February 24, 
 Insurrection in Vienna and overthrow 
 of Prince Metternich, March, . 
 Insun-ection in Berlin, March 18, 
 Revolution in Palis, June 22, . 
 Financial panic in Germanj', 
 Truce of Malmo, between Prussia and 
 Denmark, negotiated, August, . 
 Hungarian struggle for independence, 
 Sept., ..... 
 Insurrection in Vienna, Oct., 
 Vienna besieged and taken from insur- 
 gents liy General Windischgratz, Oct., 
 Emperir Francis Joseph proclaims a 
 new constitution for Austria, Dec, 
 Gold discovered in California, . 
 Mormons driven from Nauvoo 111., and 
 settle in Utah, .... 
 Free soil convention in Bnff;ilo, 
 Revolution in Rome, February, 
 
 'AGE 
 
 A. n. 
 
 888 
 
 1849 
 
 888 
 
 
 
 1849 
 
 801 
 
 
 892 
 
 1849 
 
 L876 
 
 1849 
 
 893 
 
 
 
 1849 
 
 670 
 
 
 
 1849 
 
 8G4 
 
 1849 
 
 876 
 
 
 876 
 
 1849 
 
 876 
 
 
 
 1850 
 
 87S 
 
 
 677 
 
 1850 
 
 876 
 
 1850 
 
 800 
 
 
 876 
 
 1850 
 
 
 1851 
 
 876 
 
 1851 
 
 878 
 
 1851 
 
 878 
 
 1852 
 
 878 
 
 1852 
 
 890 
 
 
 606 
 
 1853 
 
 864 
 
 1853 
 
 670 
 
 1853 
 
 670 
 
 1853 
 
 673 
 
 1853 
 
 674 
 
 
 672 
 
 1854 
 
 670 
 
 1854 
 
 677 
 
 1854 
 
 
 1854 
 
 677 
 
 
 677 
 
 1854 
 
 
 1854 
 
 677 
 
 1854 
 
 
 1854 
 
 678 
 
 
 800 
 
 1855 
 
 892 
 
 1855 
 
 903 
 
 1856 
 
 676 
 
 
 End of National Assembly at Frank- 
 fort, March, . . , . 
 Independence of Hungary proclaimed, 
 April 14, . . . . 
 Frederick William IV., of Prussia de- 
 clines the imperial dignity, April, 
 Charles Albert of Sardinia defeated by 
 Radetzky at Verona, May 6, 
 Mutiny among the soldiers at Baden, 
 
 May, 
 
 Rome taken by French army, July 3, 
 Surrender of Gorgey and fall of Hun- 
 gary, August 13, ... 
 Venice takeu by an Austrian Army, 
 August 25, ... . 
 Prussia becomes a constitutional mon- 
 archy, Feb. 6, . 
 
 Schleswig-Holstein snrrendeied to the 
 Danes, July, .... 
 Humiliation of the Prussian ministry 
 at Olmiitz, Nov., 
 
 Passage of the Losses bill, in Canada, 
 World's Fair held in London, . 
 Coup d'Etat of Louis Mapoleon, De- 
 cember, 2, .... 
 Death of James Fenimure Cooper, 
 Second French Empire proclaimed. 
 Dee. 2, . 
 
 First Catholic plenary council in Balti- 
 more, ..... 
 Marriage of Napoleon III., to Eugenie 
 Montijo, Jan. 30, 
 
 War declared between Russia and Tur- 
 key, Oct. 4, . . . . 
 Defeat of Turkish squadron atSiuope, 
 
 Nov. 30 
 
 Attempt to assassinate the Emperor of 
 Austria, ..... 
 Reorganization of the customs union, 
 (ZoUverein), .... 
 Opening of Paris Exposition, May, 
 English fleet under Admiral Charles 
 Napier enters the Baltic, August, 
 Battle of the Alma, Sept. 20, . 
 Charge of the six hundred at Balak- 
 tava, Oct, .... 
 
 Battle of Inkermann, Nov. 5, 
 Press law estabished in Germany, 
 War in Schleswig-Holstein, 
 Passage of Kansas and Nebraska bill 
 repealing the Missouri compromise. 
 Storming of the Malakofif tower l)y the 
 French, Sept. 8, ... 
 
 Fall of Sebastopol, Sept. 9, 
 Peace of Paris and end of the Crimean 
 war, March 30, . 
 
 PAGE 
 
 679 
 
 678 
 
 679 
 
 676 
 
 679 
 676 
 
 678 
 
 677 
 
 702 
 
 679 
 947 
 
 680 
 896 
 
 690 
 
 690 
 
 701 
 
 702 
 685 
 
 690 
 691 
 
 691 
 691 
 700 
 704 
 
 692 
 694 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 995 
 
 711 
 
 907 
 
 A. D. PAGE 
 
 1857 Dred-Scott decision of the Uuited 
 
 States Supreme Court, March 6, • 906 
 
 1857 Massacre of the English by Sepoys iu 
 
 Delhi, April C.87 
 
 1857 Uprising in Nenenbnrg . ■ 702 
 
 1858 Attempt of the Italian, Orsiiii, upon 
 
 tlie life of Napoleon III, Jiiue U, 685, 707 
 
 1858 First Marshharvester hnilt, . 910 
 
 1859 War between Austria and Sardinia 
 begun, April, .... 708 
 
 1859 Defeat of the Anstrians at the battle of 
 Magenta, June 4, . . • 
 
 1859 Battle of Solferino. Defeat of the Ans- 
 trians, June 24, ... 
 
 1859 Peace of Villa Franca, July, . 
 
 1859 Scluimyl taken a prisoner, Aug., 
 
 1859 War between Spain and Morocco, Oct., 
 
 1859 John Brown's insurrection iu Virginia, 
 Oct. 19, 
 
 1859 Death of Washington Irving, . 
 
 1859 Discovery of petroleum in Pennsylva- 
 nia, ..... 
 
 1860 Garibaldi overthrows the kingdom of 
 Naples, Sept. 7, ... 
 
 1860 South Carolina, passes an ordinance ot 
 secession, Deo. 20, . . . 
 
 1860 General Ortega enters the city of Mex- 
 ico iu triumph, .... 
 
 1861 Mississippi, Al.abama, Florida, Georgia 
 and Louisiana secede from the Union, 
 Jan., ..... 
 
 1861 Uuited States steamer, Stair of the West, 
 fired upon in Charleston harbor, Jan. 9, 
 
 1861 Insurrection in Warsaw, Feb., . 
 
 1861 Austria becomes a constitutional state, 
 Feb., 
 
 186] Texas secedes, Feb., 
 
 1861 Constitution of Confederate States of 
 America adopted, Feb. 4, 
 
 1861 Victor Emmanuel proclaimed Kiug of 
 Italy, Feb. 18, . 
 
 1861 Abolition of Serfdom iu Russia, March 
 3, ..... 
 
 1861 Lincoln calls for seventy-five thousand 
 volunteers, April 15, . 
 
 1861 Virginia secedes from the Union, April 
 17, ..... 
 
 1861 Massachusetts regiment assaulted by a 
 mob in Baltimore, April 19, 
 
 1861 Death of Count Cavour, June 6, 
 
 1861 Attempt of Oscar Becker to assassinate 
 King William I. of Prussia iu Baden- 
 Baden, July 14, ... 
 
 1861 General McClellan drives the Confeder- 
 ates from West Virginia, July, 
 
 1861 Battle at Bull Euu, July 21, 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1861 
 
 1861 
 1861 
 
 1861 
 J 861 
 
 708 
 
 1861 
 
 708 
 
 1861 
 
 709 
 
 
 696 
 
 1861 
 
 723 
 
 
 
 1862 
 
 906 
 
 
 894 
 
 1862 
 
 933 
 
 1862 
 
 
 1862 
 
 
 1862 
 
 950 
 
 1862 
 
 
 1862 
 
 907 
 
 1862 
 
 
 1862 
 
 907 
 
 
 690 
 
 1862 
 
 701 
 
 1862 
 
 701 
 
 
 907 
 
 1862 
 
 907 
 
 1862 
 
 
 1862 
 
 711 
 
 1862 
 
 695 
 
 1862 
 
 
 1862 
 
 907 
 
 1862 
 
 908 
 
 1862 
 
 
 1862 
 
 907 
 
 
 712 
 
 1863 
 
 
 1863 
 
 703 
 
 1863 
 
 McClellan organizes the Army of the 
 Potomac, Aug. 20, . . . 908 
 
 Capture of Hatteras Inlet, Aug. 29, . 914 
 Coronation of William I- of Piussia in 
 Konigsberg, Oct. 18, . . . 703 
 
 Battle of Ball's Blufi', Oct. 21, . 908 
 
 Capture of Port Royal by Admiral Du- 
 pont, Nov. 7, . . . .914 
 
 Captain Wilkes takes two Confederate 
 commissioners from a British steamer, 
 Nov. 19, . . . . • 921 
 
 Death of Albert, Prince Consort, Dec. 
 
 14, ..... G88 
 
 Uuion of Moldavia and Wallachia to 
 
 form Rouraauia, Dec. 23, . . 694 
 
 Allies take possession of Vera Cruz, 
 
 Dec. . . . . .951 
 
 Great Britain recognizes the Confed- 
 erate States as belligerents, Jan. 1, . 921 
 Battle of Mill Spring, Kentucky, Jan. 
 19, ..... 909 
 
 Capture of Fort Heury, Feb. 6, . 909 
 
 Surrender of General Buckuer at Fort 
 Donelson, Feb. 16, . . . 909 
 
 Victory of Monitor over Merrimac in 
 Hamptou Roads, March 8, . . 915 
 
 Battle of Shiloh, April 6 7,. . 909 
 
 Union forces take Island No. 10, April 7, 910 
 English and Spanish withdraw from 
 Mexico, April 9, . . . 951 
 
 Surrender of New Orleans, April 25, . 910 
 Yorklown surrenders to Geueral Mc- 
 Clellan, May 3, .... 910 
 
 Battle of Fair Oaks, June 1, . • 910 
 Beginning of seven days' fighting be- 
 fore Richmond, June 25, . . 911 
 Conflict of Garibaldi with Italian troops 
 at Aspromonte, Aug. 28, . • 713 
 Second battle of Bull Run, Aug. 30, . 911 
 Bismarck called to the ministry, Sept. 704 
 Capture of Harper's Ferry by Geueral 
 Jackson, Sept. 15, . . .911 
 Battle of Antietam, Sept. 17, . . 911 
 Revolution in Greece, Oct., . . 695 
 Two steam rams destined for the Con- 
 federacy detained at Liverpool, Nov. 13, 921 
 Battle of Fredericksburg, Dec. 13, . 912 
 Sioux Indians of western Minuesota at- 
 tack the settlements, . . . 938 
 Emancipation proclamation issued by 
 President Liucoln, Jan. 1, . . 911 
 Russian con,scriptiou in Poland, Jan. 14, 698 
 Attempt of Emperor Francis Joseph to 
 reform the German Union, . . 701 
 National bank system established, 
 Feb. 25 821 
 
996 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1863 Battle of Cliaucellorsville and cleatli of 
 
 Stonewall Jackson, May 2-5, 
 1863 Completion of French conquest of 
 
 Mexico, May 18, ... 
 
 1863 Battle of Gettysburg, July 1-3, 
 1863 Surrender of Vicksburg to General 
 
 Grant, July 4, . 
 1863 Draft riots in New York city, July 
 
 13-15, . . . . . 
 
 1863 Battle of Cliickaraauga, Sept. 19-20, . 
 1863 Siege of Charleston, Sept., 
 1863 Napoleon III. sends troops to Mexico, 
 
 Oct. 31, 
 
 1863 Battle of Chattanooga, Nov. 23-25, 
 
 1863 Troops of Saxony and Hanover occupy 
 Holstein and Lauenberg, Dec. 7, 
 
 1864 Troops of Prussia and Austria enter 
 Holstein, Jan., .... 
 
 1864 Prussians take Diippel, April 18, 
 
 1864 Death of Hawthorne, 
 
 1864 Battle of the Wilderness, May 5-13, . 
 
 1864 Battle of Cold Harbor, June 1-3, 
 
 1864 Sinking of the Alabama by the Kear- 
 
 sarge, June 15, . 
 1864 Grant begins the siege, of Petersburg 
 
 and Richmond, June 15, 
 1864 Danes driven from Jutland, June 29, . 
 1864 Eesignatiou of Secretary Chase, July, 
 1864 Farragut enters Mobile Bay, August 5, 
 1864 Sherman enters Atlanta, Sept., 2, 
 1864 Sheridan wins the battle of Winchester, 
 
 Sept. 19, . 
 1864 Peace of Vienna between Austria aud 
 
 Prussia, and Denmark, Oct., 
 1864 General Thomas annihilates Hood's 
 
 army at Nashville. Dec. 16, 
 1864 Sherniau captures Savannah, Dec. 21, . 
 
 1864 Maximilian enters Me.xico, 
 
 1865 Overthrow of the Polish revolution, 
 1865 Capital of Italy transferred to Florence, 
 1865 Lee's surrender at Appomatox Court 
 
 House, April 9, . 
 1865 Assassination of President Lincoln, 
 
 April 14, .... 
 
 1865 Surrender of Johnston's army, April 26, 
 
 1865 Amendment abolishing slavery becomes 
 a part of the constitution, Dec, 
 
 1866 Eepublican uprisings in Catalonia and 
 Valencia, Jan., . . . , 
 
 1865 Rebellion in Bucharest, Feb., . 
 
 1866 Insurrection in island of Candia, 
 
 1866 Seven weeks war of Prussia and Italy 
 
 Trith Austria begun, June 14, 
 1866 B:itile of Custozza, June 24, 
 1866 Bnttle of Sadowa, July 3, 
 1866 Naval battle of Lissa, July 20, . 
 
 PAGE 
 
 A. D. 
 
 
 1866 
 
 912 
 
 
 
 1866 
 
 951 
 
 
 912 
 
 1866 
 
 
 1866 
 
 912 
 
 
 
 1867 
 
 922 
 
 
 913 
 
 1867 
 
 915 
 
 1867 
 
 921 
 
 1867 
 
 914 
 
 
 
 1867 
 
 705 
 
 
 
 1867 
 
 705 
 
 1867 
 
 705 
 
 
 896 
 
 1868 
 
 918 
 
 
 918 
 
 1868 
 
 916 
 
 1868 
 
 918 
 
 1868 
 
 705 
 
 1868 
 
 922 
 
 1869 
 
 915 
 
 
 919 
 
 1869 
 
 918 
 
 1869 
 
 706 
 
 1869 
 
 
 1870 
 
 919 
 
 
 919 
 
 
 951 
 
 1870 
 
 700 
 
 
 713 
 
 1870 
 
 
 1870 
 
 919 
 
 1870 
 
 
 1870 
 
 923 
 
 1870 
 
 920 
 
 
 
 1870 
 
 925 
 
 1870 
 
 
 1870 
 
 723 
 
 
 694 
 
 1870 
 
 695 
 
 
 
 1870 
 
 716 
 
 1870 
 
 717 
 
 1870 
 
 716 
 
 1871 
 
 720 
 
 
 P.4GE 
 Peace of Prague between Austria and 
 Prussia, August 23, . . . 718 
 
 Kingdom of Italy acknowledged by 
 Austria, Oct. 3, . . . .720 
 
 French troops leave Rome, Dec, . 720 
 
 Formation of North German Union, 
 Dec. 15, . . . . . 721 
 
 Creation of the Dominion of Canada, 
 Feb., . . . . .947 
 
 Purchase of Alaska from Russia, March, 931 
 Attempt to assassinate Alexander II., 
 of Russia, June 6, . . . 700 
 
 Huugarj' given a separate constilittion 
 from Austria, .... 722 
 Coronation of Francis Joseph as king 
 of Hungary, June 8, . . . 722 
 
 Jeffer.sou Davis released from prison, 926 
 Execution of Maximilian, of Mexico, 
 June 19, . . . . . 952 
 
 Impeachment of President Johnson, 
 Feb., . . . . .926 
 
 End of English War with Abyssinia, 
 April, . . . . .688 
 
 Revolution in Spain and flight of Isa- 
 bella II., Sept., . . . .724 
 Serrauo enters iMadrid, Oct. 4, . . 724 
 Insurrection in Cuba, Nov., ■ . 763 
 Final repeal of the Corn laws in En- 
 gland, . . . . .643 
 Completion of the first trans-continental 
 railroad, May, . . . . 933 
 Adoption of new constitution in Spaiu, 
 June 1, , . . . . 724 
 Opening of Suez canal, Nov. 15. . 695 
 Prince Leopold of Hohenznllern Sigmar- 
 ingeu nominated as King of Spaiu, July 
 
 6 725 
 
 War declared between France and Prus- 
 sia, July 19, . . . . 726 
 Battle of Wiirth, Aug. 4 6, . . 727 
 Battle of Gravelotte, Aug. 18, . . 728 
 Battle of Sedan, Sept. 1-2, . . 729 
 Overthrow of French Empire, Sept. 4, . 730 
 Italians occupy Rome, ending temporal 
 power of the Pope, Sept. 20, ■ . 720 
 Surrender of Strasburg, Sept. 28, . 730 
 Capitulation of Metz, Oct. 27, . 728, 730 
 Amadeus, .second son of Victor Emman- 
 uel, chosen king of Spain, Nov., . 725 
 Mont Cenis tunnel completed connect- 
 ing Italy and France, Dec. 25, . . 760 
 Assassination of General Prim, Dec 27, 725 
 Eiel's first rebellion in Manitoba, . 947 
 Lopez, dictator of Paraguay, . . 959 
 William I. proclaimed Emperor of Ger- 
 many at Versailles, Jan. 18, . . 732 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 997 
 
 A. D. PAGE A. D. 
 
 1871 Truce of Paris agreed upon, Jan. 23, . 734 187i 
 1871 National Assembly convened at Bor- 1874 
 
 deaux, Feb. 14, . . . • 737 
 
 1871 Anstviau ministry bostile to new Ger- 1874 
 
 man Empire appointed, Feb. . . 752 
 
 1871 Peace of Paris between France and 1874 
 
 Germany, Marcb 2, . . . 737 
 
 1871 Insurrection of Red Republicans in 1874 
 
 Paris, Marcli 17, ... 738 
 
 1871 Representatives from all German States 1875 
 
 convened at Berlin, Marcb 21, . . 738 1875 
 
 1871 Treaty of Wasbington between Great 
 
 Britain and United States, May, . 927 1875 
 
 1871 Triumpbal entry of William I. into 
 
 Berlin, June 16, . . • • 744 1876 
 
 1S71 Meeting of Emperor Francis Josepli of 
 
 Austria witli Emperor William of Ger- 1876 
 
 many, Sept. 6-8, . • • .752 
 
 1871 Count Benst removed from the office of 
 
 cbancellor of Austria, Nov. 6, . ■ 752 1876 
 
 1871 Manitoba and British Columbia enter 
 
 tbe Dominion of Canada, . . 947 1876 
 
 1871 First steps taken toward abolition of 
 
 slavery in Brazil, . . . 959 1876 
 
 1872 Beginning of conflict between cburch 
 
 and state in Germany, Jan., . . 744 1876 
 
 1872 Visit of Crown Prince and Princess of 
 
 Italy to Germany, May, . . 734 1877 
 
 1872 Meeting of the Emperors of Russia, 1877 
 
 Austria and Germany at Berlin, Sept., 744 1877 
 
 1872 Settlement of the Alabama question in 
 
 favor of United States, . . .927 1877 
 
 1873 Death of Emperor Napoleon III., Jan. 1877 
 9, 756 
 
 1873 Spain becomes a republic, Feb. 11, . 761 1878 
 1S73 Passage of the Reform Bill in Austria, 1878 
 
 March 10, .... 753 
 
 1873 Civil war in Spain commences, April, . 761 1878 
 1873 Financial crisis in Austria, May, . 753 
 
 1873 World's Fair in Austria, . . 753 
 
 1873 Russian war with the Khan of Khiva, 754 1878 
 1873 War between Holland and the Sultan 
 
 of Atchin at Sumatra, . . . 754 
 
 1873 Don Carlos of Spain proclaims himself 1878 
 
 King Charles VII., July, . . .761 1878 
 
 1873 Last iustallment of war indemnity paid 
 
 by France, Sept. 5, . . . 755 1878 
 
 1873 Trial of Marshal Bazaine for treason be- 
 gins, Sept. 6, . . . .756 1878 
 1873 Count de Chambord declines the king- 1878 
 
 dom of France, Oct., . . .757 1878 
 
 1873 England establishes her power on west 
 
 coast of Africa, . . . .772 1879 
 
 1873 Risingof the Modocs of Oregon, . 938 
 
 1873 Resignation of Sir John McDonald as 1879 
 
 prime minister of Canada, . . 948 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Ferghanistan annexed by Russia, . 754 
 
 Marshal Bazaine escapes from the isle 
 of St. Marguerite, Aug. 9, . . 757 
 
 Alfonso XIL, iirodaimed king of Spain, 
 Dec. 30, . . . . . 762 
 
 Return of Tories to power under Dis- 
 raeli, in England, . . . 772 
 Prince Edwards Island enters the Do- 
 minion of Canada, . . . 947 
 Emperor William journeys to Milan, . 747 
 Insurrections in Herzegovina and 
 Bosnia, July, . . . .763 
 Passage of the act for the resumption of 
 specie payment in the United States, . 929 
 Don Carlos defeated and compelled to 
 abandon Spain, Feb. 27, . . 762 
 Bismarck, Gortschakotf, and Andrassy 
 unite in a memorandum to (he Sub- 
 lime Porte, Feb., . . . .764 
 Sultan Abdul Aziz consents to the re- 
 moval of his grand visier, May, . 764 
 Presidential election decided by an 
 electoral commission, . . . 929 
 Centennial exhibition in Philadelphia, 
 May 10-Nov. 10, ... 935 
 Murder of General Custer by Indians, 
 June 25, . . . . . 938 
 Russian Army invades Turkey, April, 764 
 Roumania declared independent. May, 764 
 Great railroad strikes in Pittsburgh 
 and elsewhere, July, . . . 934 
 Rebellion of Nez Perce Indians, Sep., 938 
 Fall of Plevna and end of Russo-Turk- 
 ish war, Dec. 10, ... 767 
 Russians take Adrianople, Jan. 20, . 767 
 Peace of San Stefano between Russia 
 and Turkey, Mar. 3, . . . 767 
 Robert Hcidel makes an attempt upon 
 the life of Emperor William of Ger- 
 many, May, .... 747 
 Dr. Nobling makes an atlempt upon the 
 life of Emperor William of Germany, 
 June, . . ■ . .747 
 Congress of Berlin meets, June 13, . 767 
 Austria occupies Bosnia and Herzego- 
 vina, July, . . . .768 
 Passage of the anti-socialist laws in 
 Germany, Oct. 19, . . . 747 
 Rebellion in Aff-ihanistan, . . 775 
 Passage of tbe Bland silver bill, . 929 
 Sir .John McDonald returns to power 
 in Canada, . . . .948 
 Parliamentary constitution framed for 
 Bulgaria, Feb. 22, . . . 770 
 General Wolseley puts down the Zulus 
 under Cetewayo in South Africa. . 773 
 
998 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1879 
 
 1882 
 1882 
 
 1885 
 1885 
 
 Ismail Pasha succeeded by Tewfikk 
 
 Paslia ill Egypt, June 26, 
 
 Retuvu of tlie Liberals to power under 
 
 Gladstoue, April, 
 
 Rebellion uuder El Mahdi in Nubia, 
 
 July, 
 
 Assassination of President Garfield, 
 Sept. 19, .... 
 
 Hamburg and Bienien become members 
 of the Customs-UuioD, . 
 Murder of Lord Cavendish and Bourke 
 in PhcEuix Park, Dublin, May 6, 
 Completion of St. Gothard railroad and 
 tunnel uniting Germany and Italy, June, 
 Death of Garibaldi at Caprera, June, 2, 
 Alexandria liombarded by English War 
 vessels, July 11, ... 
 
 Egyptian Army under Arabi Pasha de- 
 feated at Tel-el Kebir by General 
 Wolseley, Aug. 31, . • • 
 
 Death of Leon Gambetta, Dec. 31 
 Death of Longfellow and Emerson, 
 Formation of the Standard Oil trust, . 
 Organization of the educational divis- 
 ion of the Indian Bureau, 
 Sagasta called to the Spanish ministry, 
 Jan. 8, . 
 
 Death of Prince Gortschakoff of Russia, 
 March 11, .... 
 
 Fiench war with Tonquin, Aug.-Sept. 
 French war with Madagascar, 
 Passage of the civil service reform act 
 in United States, 
 Riot in Cincinnati, 
 
 Death of General Gordon in Khartoum, 
 Jan. 26, . 
 
 Riel's Rebellion in the northwest, March, 
 Return of the Tories to power under 
 Lord Salisbury, June, 
 German legation in Madrid attacked by 
 a mob, Sept. i, . 
 
 Pope Leo XIII. decides the affair of the 
 Caroline Islands in favor of Spain, Sept. 
 Insurrection in Bulgaria, Sept., 
 War between Servia and Bulgaria, Nov. 
 Conquest of Burniali by England, 
 Passage of tlm inter-state commerce bill, 
 Mormons disfranchised. 
 Death of Victor Hugo, 
 Ludwig II. of Bavaria, becomes iu.sane, 
 Expulsion of princes from France, 
 Riot in Brooklyn, 
 
 Completion of Canadian Pacific Rail- 
 way, . . . . . 
 War between Italy and Abyssinia be- 
 gun, Jan., . . . . 
 
 PAGE 
 
 774 
 
 776 
 
 775 
 
 930 
 
 74S 
 
 776 
 
 760 
 761 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1887 
 
 1887 
 1887 
 
 1887 
 
 1888 
 
 775 
 
 1888 
 
 759 
 
 
 896 
 
 1888 
 
 934 
 
 
 
 1889 
 
 938 
 
 
 
 1889 
 
 763 
 
 1889 
 
 771 
 
 1889 
 
 759 
 
 
 759 
 
 1889 
 
 930 
 
 1889 
 
 935 
 
 
 
 1889 
 
 775 
 
 
 948 
 
 1890 
 
 776 
 
 1890 
 
 765 
 
 1890 
 
 
 1890 
 
 763 
 
 1890 
 
 770 
 
 
 770 
 
 1890 
 
 775 
 
 
 931 
 
 1891 
 
 931 
 
 1891 
 
 656 
 
 
 749 
 
 1891 
 
 760 
 
 
 936 
 
 1891 
 
 948 
 
 1891 
 
 
 1891 
 
 761 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 New military law adopted in Germany, 
 March 11, .... 
 
 Scandal on account of shameful traffic in 
 decorations in France, 
 Crispi becomes prime minister of Italy, 
 Aug., ..... 
 Riots in Brooklyn and Chicago, 
 Trial by jury introduced into Spain, 
 
 Feb. 27, 
 
 Death of Emperor William of Germany, 
 March 8, . 
 
 Trial of General Bnulanger in France, 
 for insubordination, March 26, 
 Overthrow of Tirard's ministry in 
 Fiance, March 30, . . . 
 
 Overthrow of Fliquet's ministry in 
 France, April 19, ... 
 
 Death of Emperor Frederick of Ger- 
 many, June 15, ... 
 Duel between Boulanger and Floquet, 
 July 13, .... 
 Local Government Act passed in En- 
 gland, Aug. 13, ... 
 Suicide of Ciowu Priuce Rudolph of 
 Austria, Feb. 5, 7, . 
 Opening of the Paris Exposition, May 6, 
 General Boulanger Ibuud guilty of plot- 
 ting against the state, Aug. 14, 
 Expulsion of Nihilists from Switzer- 
 land, ..... 
 Treaty between Germany, England and 
 United States regarding Samoa 
 Pan-American Congress meets in Wash- 
 ington ..... 
 Revolution in Brazil and overthrow of 
 imperial government, 
 Resignation of Prince Bismarck as clian- 
 cellorof theGermau Empire, March 18, 752 
 Heligoland becomes part of Germany, 
 Aug., ..... 
 Anti-tithe war in Wales, Aug., 
 Revolt atTicioo, Switzerland, Sept. 12, 
 Passage of the McKiuley tariff bill, 
 Sept. 30, .... 
 Queen Emma appointed regent of Hol- 
 land, Nov. 13, . 
 Death of George Bancroft, 
 Defeat of Crispi's Ministry in Italy, 
 Jan. 31, . 
 
 Release of the sequestrated funds of the 
 Roman Catholic churches, Feb. 
 Murder of eleven Sicillians in New Or- 
 leans, March 14, ... 
 Death of Count von Moltke, April 24, 
 Beginning of the Trans Siberian rail- 
 way, May, .... 
 
 749 
 
 761 
 936 
 
 779 
 
 749 
 
 78 
 
 778 
 
 778 
 
 750 
 
 778 
 
 782 
 
 753 
 778 
 
 781 
 
 £31 
 
 932 
 
 959 
 
 777 
 
 781 
 
 732 
 
 779 
 
 777 
 
 779 
 
 777 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 999 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1891 Renewal of tlie Triple Alliiince for six 
 
 years, June 28, . 
 1891 Settleraeut of the diflSculties between 
 
 England and Portugal, June, 
 1891 Suicide of Boulanger near Brussels, Sep 
 
 30, . . . 
 
 1891 Passage of the Sherman silver bill 
 1891 United States cruiser Baltimore at 
 
 tacked by a mob in Valparaiso, Oct 
 
 16, .... 
 
 1831 Death of Sir Jolm McDonald, . 
 
 1891 Civil war in Chili, 
 
 1892 Rebellion of Yemen tribes of Arabia 
 under Hamid Eddin, Jan., 
 
 1892 Defeat of the Liberals in Denmark: 
 April 20, ... 
 
 1892 Collapse of the Panama canal project 
 May. 
 
 1892 Defeat of Rudiui's ministry. May 5, 
 
 1892 Frontier war between Russia and Af- 
 ghanistan, 
 
 1892 Openingofcauul connecting Amsterdam 
 Avilh Rliine provinces of Germany, 
 
 1892 Murder of Italians by a mob in New 
 Orleans, 
 
 PAGE A. n. PAGE 
 
 1893 Death of Alfred Tennyson, . . 654 
 
 777 1893 Return of liberals to power under 
 
 Gladstone, . . • -776 
 
 779 1S93 Adoption of new army bill in Germany, 777 
 
 1893 Failure of the Barings in Loudon . 783 
 
 778 1M93 Behriug Sea disputes settled by arbitra- 
 
 932 lion, .... 783, 948 
 
 1893 Passage of the Home Rule bill by Eng- 
 lish House of Commons, • ■ 783 
 
 932 1893 Revolution in Hawaii, . . 932 
 
 948 1893 Repeal of the Sherman silver bill, . 933 
 958 1893 World's Fair in Chicago, May 1 to Oct. 
 
 30, ..... 935 
 
 782 1893 Archbishop Satoili sent to America as 
 
 papal legate, .... 937 
 781 1893 Brazilian revolution headed by Ad- 
 miral Mello, . . . .959 
 
 778 1894 Prince Bismarck accepts an invitation 
 
 779 to the imperial court . . . 752 
 
 1894 Gladstone succeeded by Lord Roseberry 
 
 780 as prime minister of England, . 776,783 
 1894 Commercial treaty concluded between 
 
 781 Russia and Germany, . . 777, 78l> 
 1894 Reconciliation between Bismarck and 
 
 932 Emperor William II. . . . 778 
 
ALPHABETICAL 
 
 AND 
 
 PRONOUI^CmG INDEX. 
 
 Aachen. See Aix la Ohapelle. 
 
 ^ar'gaii (-gow), 670. 
 
 ^a'ron, 54, 56. 
 
 Ab-bas'i-dcs, 271. 
 
 Abd'el Ka'der, 660. 
 
 Ab-de'ra. 88. 
 
 Abd'eria/i'maii. 271. 
 
 Ab'diil A-7AZ', 694, 764. 
 
 Ab'diil Ha'mid II., 764. 
 
 Ab'diil Ke'riiii, 704. 765. 
 
 Ab'diil Med-scliid', 689, 694. 
 
 Ab'e-laid, 321. 
 
 Ab'er-croin-bie (■kiuin). General, 593. 
 
 Ab'er-crom-bie (-kruiii-). General 
 
 James, 831. 
 Ab-er-dcen', Lord, 903. 
 Ab-6w-kir', Battle at, 589. 
 A'bra-liam, 62, 54. 
 A'bra-liani, Heights of. 832. 
 A-bran'tes, Duke of. See Jnnot, 6C4. 
 Ab'sa-Iom, 60, 62. 
 A'bii Bek'r, 267, 268. 
 Ab'y-dos, 104. 
 Ab'ys-sin'i-a, 688, 761, 772. 
 Academy, 110. 
 
 A-ca'di-a, 791, 792, 793, 830, 834. 
 Ao'ar-na'ni-a, 76. 
 Ac-ca'di-an Races, 37. 
 Ac-can', 794. 
 Ac-co-mac'p 805. 
 Ac/i'ae-meu'i-des, 73. 
 A-cfta'la» (-yan), League, 77, 143, 182. 
 
 Ad-ri-an-u'ple, 249, 388, 765, 7C7. 
 
 Ad-ri-au-iTple, Peace of, 648. 
 
 Ad'ri-at'ic Sea, 370, 372. 
 
 JEA'u-i (ed'), 200. 
 
 M'gx, 127, 130. 
 
 M-se'aa Sea, 52, 78, 80, 102, 111, 170, 369, 
 
 ^-gi'na, 76, 96, 101, 106, 111. 
 
 .ffi'gos-pot'a-mos, 114. 
 
 ^•niil-i-aVi'a, 171. 
 
 JE-ne'as, 83, 147, 150. 
 
 ^E'ne-ils Sil'vi-Qs, see Silviiis jEneiis. 
 
 .E-u'li-ans, 82. 
 
 ^'qiii, 147, 160, 165. 
 
 jEs'c/il-nes, 126. 128. 
 
 jEs'c7iy-liis, 123, 124. 
 
 M'suiy, 100. 
 
 A-e'ti-iis (-shi), 254, C55. 
 
 Mt'niu 88. 
 
 ^•tO'li-a, 76, 179, 180. 
 
 Af'fre, Archbishop, 672. 
 
 Af-glu"in-is-tan', 775, 780. 
 
 Africa, 23, 48, 184, 244, 252, 2-54, 270, 641, Al'bu-querqiie (-kerk) 
 
 742, 759, 772, 773, 777, 779, 941. Al-cas'siir, 441 
 
 Af-ri-ca'niis, Scip'i-0, 179, ISO. Al-ca-va'la, 36' 
 
 Af-ri-ca'niis, the Younger. See Scipio, Al-caz'ar, 272, 
 
 Al'ban-ese, 768. 
 
 Al-bfi'nJ-a, 390. 
 
 Al-bii'nj-an Mountain, 150. 
 
 Al'ba-ny (awl'), 796, 828, 890. 
 
 Al-be-niarle', 808. 
 
 Al-be-ro'ni, 514. 
 
 Al'bert, Arch-bishop of May-euce' 
 
 (-ONS') 405, 406, 409. 
 Al'bert, Archduke of Aus'tri-;i (aws'), 
 
 713, 717. 
 Al'biirt, Crown Prince of Sa.x'o-ny, 728. 
 Al'bert of Bran'deu-biirg, 385. 426. 
 ll'b(>rt of Co'burg (-boorg), 613. 
 Al'bert. Prince Consort, 688. 
 Al'biirt, Prince of Prils'sia (sha), 749. 
 Al'ber-tfls Mag'nis, 335. 
 Al'brecAt I. of Aus'tri-a (aws'), 339. 
 Al'brec/it II. of Aus'tri-a (aws'), 350. 
 Al-bi-gen'ses, 319, 332. 351. 
 Al'bi-ou, Duke of Sax'O-uy, 280. 
 Al'boin, 264. 
 
 the Younger, 1S4. 
 Ag'il-mem'non, 77, 80, 123. 
 Ag'as-siz, Loii'is, 941. 
 A-gfith'o-cles, 167. 
 A-ges-1-la'iis, 119, 120, 121. 125. 
 A-giu-coiirJ' (-zhiiN), Battle of, 356. 
 A'gis XL, 142. 
 
 A-cfta'iaiis (-yaus), 77, 84, f 6, 87, 179, A'gis IV., 142. 
 
 182. Ag'nesof Aiigs'biirg (Owgs'), 350. 
 
 A-cftil'les, 83, 131. A gric'6-la, 226. 
 
 A'cre, 312, 316. 318. Ag-ri-gen'tfnn, 168. 
 
 Ac'ti-um (-shi-), Sea-hght at, 207. A grip'pa, 207, 210. 
 
 A-dal'gis, 279. A grip-pi'na, 214, 219, 220. 
 
 Ad'ani, 23. A grip-pi'na, the Younger, 221. 
 
 Ad'ams, Charles F., 921. A'hab. 64, 65. 
 
 Ad'anis, John, 839, 840, 841, 852, 860, S32, A/i'med Feft'zy Paslia', 782. 
 
 S66, 879. Ah-ri-man', 68. 
 
 Ad'ams, Joftn Quin'cy (-zi), 874, 876, ALK-la-fha-pelle', 282. 
 
 880, 882. Atx-lii-pha-pelle', Treaty of, 528. 
 
 Ad'ams, Sara'ii-e!, 856. A-jac'cio (-yat'cho), 594. 
 
 Ad'-el-bert, Archbisliop of Brem'en, A'jax. 83. 
 
 Al-a-ba'ma, 788, 878. 907, 909, 937. 
 
 Al-a-bii'ma River 
 
 Al-:Vbii'nia (vessel), 916, 927. 
 
 A-la'ni, 249. 
 
 Al'a-ric, 251, 252, 254. 
 
 Alas'ka,780, 931, 948. 
 
 Al'bii. Duke of. 424. 441, 442, 444 
 
 Al'ba Lon'ga, 148, 160, 164. 
 
 Ale, care, Sm, arm. tinal ; eve. obey, end. her. recent : tee, ill, pique ; old, orb, odd, move ; use, iirn, tip, riide ; foCd, foot 
 by; <;ell; K=ng; italic letters silent or obscure. 
 
 Ad'el-heid, 292. 
 
 Ad'i-ge, 692. 
 
 Adolf, Fred'ijr-ick of Swe'den, 548, 
 
 X-dolph' of Nas'sau (saw), 338, 339. 
 
 A-dolph', the Goth. 2.54. 
 
 A-dram'me-lec/i. 39. 
 
 A'dria, 709. 
 
 Al-(;es'tis, 123. 
 
 Al'ci-bi'a-des, 113, 114, 116. 
 
 Alc'niae-on'i-ds, 99. 
 
 Al'cuin (-kwin), 282. 
 
 Al'drich (awl'), Thfim'Ss Baz'ley, 9.39. 
 
 Al-e-man'ni, 247, 248, 2-58 
 
 A-lem-beri' (-Ion), d'. 545. 
 
 A-lep'po, 386. 
 
 A-le'si-a (-shi-), 200. 
 
 Al-es-siin'dri-a, 322, 639. 70S. 
 
 Al-ex-iin'der I. Czar, 594, 600. 602, 604, 
 
 612, 614, 616, 620, 630, 635, 646. 647, 6Q0. 
 Al-(!X-an'der II.. Czar, 691,695,696,700, 
 
 753, 754, 771, -JSO. 
 Al-ex-an'diir III., Czar, 747, 764, 771, 780. 
 Al-ex-Sn'der de Med'i-ci (e-che), 376. 
 Al-ex-an'der of Par'ma, 456. 
 Al-ex-an'diir, Papal Ambassador, 408. 
 Al-ex-an'der III., Pope, 321, 322. 359, S68, 
 Al-ex-an'der VI., Bor'gia (-ja). Pope, 
 
 377, 787. 
 Al-ex-an'der Preacher, 246. 
 Al-ex-an'der, Prince of He.s.se. 716. 
 Al-ex-an'der, Prince of Roii-me'li-a, 770. 
 Al-ex-an'der Sev-e'riis, 235, 236. 
 Al-ex-an'der, the Great, 42, 52, 126, 131, 
 
 132, 134, 136. 138, 140, 141, 145. 
 Al-ex-an'dri-a, E'gypt, 52, 132, 136, 141, 
 
 143, 144, 203. 207. 208, 268, 588, 569, 774. 
 
 (1001) 
 
1002 
 
 ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. 
 
 Al-ex-an'rlri-fl, Vir-gin'i-i',, S30, 874. 
 
 Al-ex-rni'tlriricl, 335. 
 
 Al-ex-un'clri-aii Age, 14.5. 
 
 Al-ex'is Coni-ne'nus, 3J4. 
 
 Al-ex is of llus'sia (-slia), 524. 
 
 Al-ex-is, Eij-ina'uoll, 516. 
 
 Al-n-e'n,650. 
 
 Al-fCiii'sO of Ar'a-gon, 377. 
 
 Al-toii'su X., of Cas-tile', 337, 338, 307. 
 
 Al-fOii'so XI., of Cas-tile', 367. 
 
 Al-fon'so I., of P5i''tu-gal, 368. 
 
 Al-fuii'su XII., of Spain, 762. 763. 
 
 Al-foii'sO XII]., of Spain, 763. 
 
 Al-fOn'sO, Prince of As-liir'i-a, 724. 
 
 Al'fi-ed, tlie Great, 2S6. 
 
 Al-gi'dus Jlonntain, 147, 160. 
 
 Al-gzers', 390, 420.660. 
 
 Al'gou'qnin, Indians, 792. 
 
 Al-liam'bni. 272. 
 
 A'li, Son-in-law of MO-liam'niecl, 268. 
 
 A'li, Uncle of Mo-liani'niecl, 267. 
 
 Arian, E'tlian,838. 
 
 Arinn.Sii-Hury/i, 947. 
 
 Al7e-g;ia-ny Monntains, 7P4, 828. 
 
 Al-lende'. Ig-na'ti-O (-the) d', 949. 
 
 Arii-a,164, 174. 
 
 Alliance, Holy, 635, 637, 639, 643, 647, 660, 
 
 686. 
 All'ston (awl'), Wasli'ing-ton (wosli'), 
 
 898. 
 Al'nia, Battle of tlie. 691. 
 Al-nia'gif), 40.3. 
 Al-nie'i-da, 398. 
 Alps', 147, 171, 176, 191, 279, 374, 586, .592, 
 
 698. 
 Al-sa9e', 378, 412, 426, 477, 512, 576, 7,30, 
 
 736, 738, 743, 746, 748. 
 Al'sen, 705. 
 Al'vii, 181. 
 
 AI'va-rez, General, 950. 
 Am-;i.d5'ns, 72.5, 761. 
 A-nia-dCa' of Bra-zil', 958. 
 A-nia-Ia-sfln'ta, 262. 
 Am'a-lek-ites. 56. 
 A-marri, 28S, 395. 
 A-nia'sis, 48, 49. 98. 
 Aarn-zon River, 403, 958. 
 Anrbruse, 251. 
 A-mer'i-ca, 26. 285, 395, 396, 404, 429. 562, 
 
 591, 645. 742, 761, 772. 
 Amer'i-ca. Centr.al, 400.638, 874, 900. 
 A-mer'i-ca, North, 787, 790, 791. 
 Ainer'i-can Race, 24. 
 A-nier'i-ca, South, 400, 638, 783, 787, 874, 
 
 953. 
 Am'/ierst, Colonel, 831, 832, 834. 
 A'mi-ens, (-aif), Peace of, 592, 593, 
 
 694. 
 Ani'mon.46. 
 Am'nion-ites, 56, 58. 
 Ani-nio'ni-um, 73. 
 A'nior. See Eros. 
 Ani'o-rite, 56. 
 A'nios, 65. 
 
 Ani-pliic'ty-on'ic Conncil, 90, 127, 128. 
 Ain-phip'o-lis, 88, 112, 125, 128. 
 Am'ru, 268. 
 
 Am'ster-dani, 500, 781, 812. 
 A inu'li-us, 150. 
 
 A'niii-ratft I., 388. 
 
 A'niii-rat/i II., 389. 
 
 Anabaptists, 409, 421, 422. 
 
 A.niic're-on, 99, 100, 
 
 A-nam' 759. 
 
 Ancients, Council of, 93. 
 
 An-cO'na, 664, 711, 722. 
 
 An'cijs Mar'cius (-shus), 134, 154, 
 
 156. 
 An-dii-Hi-si'a (-the'), 60S, 608. 
 An'der-sen, Hans CAris'tian (chan), 
 
 657. 
 An'do-ver Seminary, 937. 
 An'dras-sy (On'dra-she), Count 722, 747, 
 
 753, 764. 767, 763. 
 An'dre-as II., of HiJN'ga-ry, 314, 382. 
 An'dre-as III., of Hus'ga-ry, 382. 
 An'dre, J6;in,84S. 
 An'Uros, .Sir Ed'niund, 820, 822. 
 An'ge-lo, Mi'c/iael. See Buonarotti. 
 All 'ge. Ins, Al-ex'i-us, 314. 
 An'ge-lus, I'saoc, 314. 
 AN'gle-liind. See England. 
 AN'gles, 218, 261. 
 AN'gli-can Church. See English 
 
 Church. 
 AN'glO Sax'ons, 261, 286. 
 An-go'ra, 389. 
 
 An-gos-tii'ra, Congress of, 957. 
 An-g6t(-lenie'. d', (doN-) Due, 624, 637, 
 
 Duchess 572, 626, 637. 
 A '111-6,147. 
 
 An-jou' (ON-zhoo'), House of, 377, 382. 
 Aii'na, of Rus'sia (-sha), 524. 
 AiMiap'O-lis, 854, 856. 
 Anne Ar'iin-del, 805, 807. 
 Anne of Aus'tri-a (aws'), 498. 
 Aline of Cleves, 432. 
 Anne, of En'glaud (ing'), 494, 510, 
 
 512. 
 Ans'gar, Bishop, 286, 379. 
 Aii-tal'ijl-aas, 120. 
 Aii'ta-ra, 274. 
 Aii-the'nii-us, 256. 
 Aii'tl Cfis'ti, 790. 
 Aii-tdf'tam Creek, 911. 
 Aii.fig'o-nus, 131, 141, 142. 
 Aii-tll'les, 762. 
 An'ti-uc7i. 143, 268, 306, 318. 
 Aii-ti'o-c/ius Epiph'a-nes, 144. 
 Aii-ti'o-cAus III., Tlie Great, 143, 144, 
 
 . 179, 180. 
 Aii-tip'a-ter, 142. 
 Aii-tis'the-nes, 145. • 
 An-tO-nel'li, Cardinal, 748. 
 An'to-nine Batlis, 235. 
 An'to-nines, 223. 
 Aii'tu-ni'iius Column, 231. 
 An'to-ni'niis, Mar'cus Au-re'li-us (Aw-), 
 
 230, 232, 243. 
 An'tO-ni'nus, Pi'us, 230. 
 Aii-to'n'i-O, 441. 
 Aii-tu'ni-iJs, 202. 
 
 Aii't.>ny, Marc, 204, 206, 207, 208. 
 Aii'to-ny, E gyp'ti.an (-shall) Hermit, 
 
 331. 
 Aiit'werp, 378, 442, 444, 661, 795. 
 A-pC-ries, 127. 
 A])'cn-nines, 147, 165, 172. 
 
 Aph'rO-di'te, 77, 79. 
 
 A'pis, 46, 73. 
 
 A poI'lO, 76, 78, 79, 90, 92, 127. 
 
 Apostles, 247. 
 
 Apostolic Fathers, 247. 
 
 Ap'pi-iin Way, 202. 
 
 Ap'piiis, Clau'di-us (claw'), 162, 166, 
 
 168. 
 Ap'ple-by, J6<m F., 9.33, 941. 
 Ap-po-inat'ox Court House, 919. 
 A-pd'li-n, 173, 288, 324. 
 A'qua?-Au-re'li-ae (aw-), 227. 
 A'quae Sex'ti-ae, 191. 
 A qui-le'ja (-ya), 249, 255. 
 A-qui'nils, Tlioin'ils, 334. 
 A-rab'i-a, 47, 50, 141, 266, 267, 782. 
 A-ra'bi Pa-sha', 774, 775. 
 Ar'abs, 52, 104, 266, 267, 268, 271, 272, 284, 
 
 288, 302. 368, 395. 
 Ar';Vgo, 672. 740. 
 Ar'a-gon, 272, 367, 377, 511. 
 A-ran'da, Count, 852. 
 A -ran 'da, Don, 547. 
 A.ra'tus, 142. 
 Ar-be'Ia, 134. 
 Ar-bO-gast', 249. 
 Ar-ca'ili-a, 76, 86, 121. 
 Ar-ca'di-iis, 251. 
 Ar-e/ii-da'iniis, 112. 
 Ar-oMl'6-chus, 100. 
 Ar-c/ii-me'des, 145, 174. 
 Ar'c/(i-pel'a-go, Gre-<;ian (shan),77, ICl, 
 
 370, 648. 
 Ar'clions, 96, 97, 114. 
 Ar'cis, 624. 
 Ar.da-c/ian', 764. 
 Ar'dp-a,157. 
 A-rr-6p'a-gus, 97, 99. 
 Ar'gall. Sam'u-el, 781, 802. 
 Ar'gen-tine Republic, 957, 959. 
 Ar'go-lis, 77, 86. 
 Ar'gfi-nauts (-iiawts), 82. 
 Ar'gos, 70, 77, 82, 83, 87, 96,104, 113, 127, 
 
 167. ■ 
 A'ri-firt'ne, 82. 
 A'ri'an-iBin, 246, 251, 264. 
 A'ri-ans, 246, 262. 
 A-ri'6n, of Les'bos, 98. 
 A-l i-6s'to, 377, 462. 
 A'ri-o-vis'tus, 200. 
 Ar-is-ti'des, 102, 103, 107, 110, 121. 
 Ar-is-tip'pus, 146. 
 A-ris'to-crats, 113, 114, 120, 142, 566, 
 
 A-ris'to-de'mus, 95. 
 
 Ar'is-tag'o-ras, 101. 
 
 Ar'is-tOm'e-nes, 95. 
 
 Ar-is-toph'a-nes, 124. 
 
 Ar'is-tot-le, 138, 145, 274. 
 
 A'ri-us, 246. 
 
 Ar-i-zO'na, 789,'9o0. 
 
 Ar'Uan-sas' (-saw'), 864, 908, 925. 
 
 Ar'kiin-sas' (-saw'), 910. 
 
 Ar'Uan-sas' (-saw'), Kiver, 793, 794. 
 
 Ar-UO'na, 266. 
 
 Ark'wri!//it, Rich'ard. 514, 741. 
 
 Ar'ling-tOn,804. 
 
 Ai-nia'da, Span'isli, 447, 448, 459. 
 
 Ai-nia£/n-ac' (yak'), Count d', 356. 
 
 Ale, care, am, arm, final ; eve, obey, end, her, recent ; ice, ill, pique ; old, orb, odd, move ; 
 
ALPHABETICAL AND PROXOUXCING INDEX. 
 
 1003 
 
 Ar-me'iii-a, 38, 65, 197, 227. 
 Ai'-mi'das, 800. 
 
 Ar-moui-' (niOor') Institute, 93S- 
 Ai-iiaml' (-nO'), Marshal Saint, 680, 690, 
 I 691. 
 
 Aindt. 601, 64G. 650. 
 Ar'nim, Bet-ti'na von, 739. 
 Ai'iiiin, Count Har'ry von, 746. 
 Ai'nokl, Ben'edict, 840, 841, 846, 848, 850, 
 
 942. 
 Ai'nold, Mat'thew, (Matli'yu), 124, 655. 
 Ar'nokl o£ Bres'ci-a, (Bi'esh'e-il), 321. 
 Ai'udkl, von Wiuk'el-ried (-ret), 344. 
 Ar'nulf of Ba-va'ri-fi, 284. 
 Ar'pad. House of, 382. 
 Ar'ta-pliiir'nes, 101, 102. 
 Ai'tax-eix'es, 66, 118, 235. 
 Ar'te-mis. 7S, 79, 83, 87. 
 Ar'te-niis'i-uui, 106. 
 Ai'tliur, Clies'tei' A., 929. 
 Ar'tlmr, Kins. 261. 
 Ai'ticles, Six, 430. 
 Ar-tois' (-twii). Count d', 562, 596, 624, 
 
 626, 628. 6S7. 
 Ar'yans, 32, 33. 
 As'c;\-16n 308. 
 A'sen,218. 
 
 Asli-an-tees', 772, 773. 
 Ash'dod, 38. 
 Asiriey River, 852. 
 A'si-a (-slii-), 23. 29, 38, 39, 68, 180, 890. 
 A'si-ii (slii-) Mi'nor, 52, 120, 131, 143, 194, 
 
 268, 388, 768. 
 AS-p5'si-a (slii-). 111. 
 As'pern and Ess'Iin;;, Battle of, 609. 
 As-])ro-racjnfe', 713. 
 Assassins, 318. 
 As'sur, 37. 
 
 As'sir-ban'i-pal, "9,41, 48. 
 As'sur-lia'dou I., 39. 
 As'sur-lia'don II., (Sar-da-ua-pu'lus), 41. 
 As-syr'i-a, 37, 41, 65. 
 As-tar'te, 51. 
 As'tor, Jo/iu Ja'cob, 894. 
 As-tra-k/(an'. 3*5. 
 As-tii'ri-a, Prince of, 724. 
 As-tii'ri-as, 272. 
 AS-ty'a-ges. 68. 70. 
 A'sy'iue-tes, 97. 
 A-ta-hual'iia (liwal'), 403. 
 At-chin', Sultan of, "54. 
 Ath'a-li'a/i.W. 65. 
 Atli'a-na'si-us, 246, 247. 
 Ath'ault (-owlf). See Adnlpli. 
 A-the'ne, Pill'lns, 99, 110. 111. 
 AtlL'ens, 76, 81, 82, 86, 87, 89, 96, 99, 
 
 101, 102, 105, 107. 108 110, 111, 112, 114, 
 
 119, 120, 121, 124, 125, 126, 130. 131, 142. 
 
 145. 150, 161, 183, 192, 194, 198, 314, 375, 
 
 695. 
 Ath'os, 101, 104. 
 At'lan-ta, 919. 
 At'lan-ta, (vessel), 915. 
 At-lan'tie Magazine, 939. 
 At'ti-ca, 76, 81, 82, 86. 102. 105, 107, 112. 
 At'ti-cus, Pom-pO'ni-us, 212. 
 At'ni-a. 255, 336. 
 Aftys, 70. 
 Au'er-bacb (OW), Ber't/iOld, 739. 
 
 Au'er-sperg (Ow'), Prince, 600, 722, 753. 
 
 Augereau (Ozli-ro'), 583, 622. 
 
 Augs'biirg (Owgs'), 406, 407, 424, 425, 
 472, 716; Confession, 413; Diet, 413, 
 414, 420, 421; Interim, 425; Peace, 
 466, 477. 
 
 Au'gust (aw') IT. See Augustus III., 
 Fredericl<. 
 
 Au-gus'ten-biirg (aw-), UuUe of, 677. 
 
 Au'gus tine (aw') Benedicitine Monk, 
 261. 
 
 Au'gi"is-tine (aw'), Bisliop of Hippo, 
 246, 247, 427. 
 
 Au'gustine (aw'). Saint, 788. 789, 808. 
 
 Au-gus'tus (aw-), fae'sar, 181, 206, 207, 
 208, 210, 211, 212, 214, 216, 219, 222. 
 
 Au-gus'tus (aw-) II., Fred'iir-ick, 518, 
 519, 520, 524, 526. 
 
 Au-giis'tus (aw-) III., Fred'er-ick, 524, 
 528, 5,51. 
 
 Au-gfls'tiis (aw-) IV., Fred'iir-ick, 602. 
 
 Au'lis (aw'), 83. 
 
 Au-niale' (dO-), Due d'. 756. 
 
 Au-re'Ii-an (aw-) 236, 238. 
 
 Au-re'li-us (aw-), Marcus. See Anto- 
 ninus. 
 
 Au-so'ni-us (aw-), 249. 
 
 Aus'ter-Iitz (aws-), 598, 600, 601, 603. 
 
 Aus'tin (aws'-), Ann, 819. 
 
 Aus'tin (aws'-), Ste'plien, (-v'n), 864, 876. 
 
 Aus-tra'li-a (aws'), 644, 742, 783. 
 
 Aus-tra'si-a (aws-) (-shi-), 260, 261. 
 
 Aus'tri-a, (aws'-), 321, 426, 44.S, 503, 334, 
 537, 552, 565, 582, 583, 585, .592, 598, 60, 
 603, 609, 614. 620, 622, 628, 630, 636, 645, 
 
 , 668, 676, 673, 679, 6S0, 686, 688, 691, 700, 
 701, 702, 704, 705, 706, 707, 703, 709, 713, 
 714, 716, 717, 718, 720, 721, 722, 744, 747, 
 748, 752, 753, 763, 764, 768, 776, 777, 779. 
 
 Aus'tri-a (aws'-) Hun'gar-y, 722, 753. 
 
 Aus'tri-an (aws'-), Warof Succesiou,526. 
 
 Au'try (do'tri) d', 794. 
 
 Au'to (aw') da fe, 368. 
 
 Au-tun' (0-), 199. 
 
 Au-tuu (o-), Bishop of, 563. 
 
 A-vars', 280, 284. 
 
 A-ver'ro-es, 274. 
 
 Av-i-ijen'na, 274. 
 
 A-vig-non' (-vcn-yoN'), 340, 314, 376, 563, 
 637. 
 
 Av'ron, Mt.. 732. 
 
 Ax'el, Arch-bishop, 380. 
 
 A;/'e-sIia, 267. 
 
 A-zof, Sea of, 692. 
 
 A-z6res', 3C6. 
 
 B.l'al, 42, 61, 64, 234. 
 
 B.l'bel, 23. 
 
 Ba-beuf, Grac'cAQs, 583. 
 
 B.lb'ing-ton, 458. 
 
 Bab'y-lon. 37, 42, 65, 66, 70, 74,134,140, 
 
 141, 227. 
 B'.b y-Ion'i-fi, S7, SH, 39, 42, 70, 141, 
 Bilb y-lon'i-iln Captivity, 340. 
 Biic'c/iae. 80. 
 Bac'c/ia-nii'li-a, SO. 
 Bae'eftus, 80, 81, 190. 
 Bac-cio'cfti (bat-cho') feli'sa, 594, 597, 
 
 593. 
 
 Bac/i, Sj-bas'tian (chan), 538. 
 
 Ba'con, Lord, 479. 
 
 Ba'con, Nii-than'i-el, 804, 805, 807, 808. 
 
 Bac'tri-a, 136. 
 
 Ba'den, 412, 599, 600, 622, 605, 673, 676, 079, 
 
 718, 726, 730, 732. 
 Ba'deu-Ba'den. 227, 702. 
 Bag-dad', 268, 271, 386, 389. 
 B.i-gis'tan. 74. 
 
 Ba-gra'tion (-shun), General, 600,614. 
 Ba-ha'inas, 808. 
 Baft-i'a, 916, 958, 959. 
 Bfi/ny, 560, 561, 572. 
 Bfu'n'bridge. Captain, 868. 
 Baj-a-zet', 388, 389. 
 Ba'ker, Sir Sam'fi-el, 742. 
 Ba-kfi'nin, 741. 
 Bal'a-kla-va, 691. 
 Bal-bo'a, 402. 
 Bal'ea, 386. 
 Bal'der (bawl'), 218. 
 Bald'win (bavvld'), of Flan'ders, 306. 
 
 308, 314. 
 Bald'win (bawld'), Kob'ert, 944, 946. 
 Bal-e-ar'ic Islands, 254, 723. 
 Bal'four, 783. 
 Ba'li-ol, Jnftn, 362. 
 Ball's (bawls) Bluff, Battle of, 908. 
 BaI'ma-Qe-da, 932, 958. 
 Bal'tic (bawl'), 50, 380,426, 518,520,593, 
 
 604, 619. 677. 
 Barti-niOrel (bawl'). City, 807, 842, 874, 
 
 890, 891, 907, 911, 939. 
 Bal 'ti-niore (bawl), Lord, 803, 805. 806, 807. 
 B.un'biJrg, 294, 634. 
 BaN'crdft, George, 893, 894,897. 
 BaN'croft, Hu'bert Howe, 940. 
 B;i-nar',477. 
 
 Brinks, General, 910, 911, 912. 
 Bfip'tists, 818, 823, 891. 
 Bap'tists, Free Will, 891. 
 Bar-ba'does, 808, 819. 
 Barbarians, 89. 
 Bar-ba-roiia;', S64, 671. 
 Bar'ba-ry, 854. 
 Bar-ge-10'ua, 254, 279, 511, 512, 639, 761, 
 
 779 
 Bar'claj/ de Tol-ly' (le). General, 614, 
 
 616, 622. 
 Bar, Confederation of, 551. 
 Bard, Fort, 592. 
 Bare'bones, Piaise God, 490. 
 Ba-rere, 578. 
 Ba'ring, 783. 
 Bar'loto, 800. 
 Bar'nord, Hen'ry, 892. 
 Bar-nave' 572. 
 Bar-ne'veld, Ol'den, 448. 
 Bac-ras', 580. 
 
 Bar-re', Colonel I's.aac, 835. 
 Bar-roC. O'dil-o.N, 659. 
 Bart/i, of Hani'burg, 742. 
 Bar-thol'o-niew (-inu). Massacre of 
 
 Saint, 438, 452. 
 Ba-siin-tel'lo, 292. 
 Ba'sedoiy, 540. 
 Ba'sel, 349. 414. 576, 760. 
 Bas-a-lis'cus, 256. 
 Ba-sil'i-us, 265. 
 
 use, lirn, Qp, riide; tojd, foot; by; (jell; N-ng; italic letters silent or obscure. 
 
1004 
 
 ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. 
 
 Basques (basks), 665, 761, 790. 
 
 Bris'ra,26S. 
 
 Bas-ti-aC, 741. 
 
 Bas-tile', 561, 562. 
 
 B.l-ta'vi-a, 448, 576. 
 
 B.Vta'vi-ans, 224. 
 
 Batli'A,urst, Lord, 944. 
 
 Bfit'On Rouge (rOOzli), 910. 
 
 Ba-toiim', 767. 
 
 BiU'ten-bei-g, Prince of, 770. 
 
 Baut'zeii (bowt'sen), 620. 
 
 B.i-va'ri-a, 276, 284, 296, 319, 321, 323, 348, 
 
 426, 472, 474, 477, 511, 528, 535, 537, 546, 
 
 699, 600, 609, 622, 675, 679, 716, 71S, 726, 
 
 732. 744, 7«, 752. 
 BA-va'ri-a, Elector of, 510, 511, 513. 
 Bay'ard, Chevalier, 418. 
 Bay'cad, TAom'as F., 929. 
 Bayle, 507. 
 Ba-zaine', Marshal, 727, 728, 730, 756, 757. 
 
 766, 951. 
 Beac'Ons-Keld, Lord, 767, 775. 
 BSa'toii, Cardinal, 428. 
 Beau-ftar-nats' (bo-), Vicomtede,576. 580_ 
 Beau-Aar-nats' (bO-), .BQ'gene, 594, 598, 
 
 622. 
 Beau-ftar-najs' (bo-), JTor-tense' (-taNs') 
 
 594. 
 Beau-h'eu' (bo-), 582. 
 Beau're-gard (bo'), General, 908, 909. 
 B3a'ver Dams, 870. 
 Beck'er, Os'ear, 703. 
 Beck'et. Tftoni'as a, 359, ,360. 
 " Bed of Justice," 656, 558. 
 Bed'-oii-in Tribes, 270. 
 Beech'cr, Hen'ry Ward (wawrd), 921, 
 
 940. 
 Bee't/io-ven, 658. 
 Be/i'ring Sea, 931. 
 BeI-for«', 730, 734, 736, 737. 
 Bel'gi-an Revolution, 661, 662. 
 Bel'gi-uni, 200, 448, 537, 549, 563, 576, 582, 
 
 628, 658, 660, 661 , 662, 725, 754. 780. 
 Bel-'griide', 304, 383, 390, 503, 526, 770 
 Bel-i-sa'ri-us, 262. 
 Bel'fcnap, Wil'liam (yam) W., 928. 
 Bell, Al-ex-an'der Gra'/iani, 741. 941. 
 BeU'a-mont, Kieli'ard CoOte, 826. 
 Belle-Isle', 528. 
 Belle Isle', Straits of, 790. 
 Bel-ler'o-phon, 632. 
 Bell, Joftn, 906. 
 Bell, Pat'rick, 888. 
 Bel-shaz'zar, 70. 
 Be' mis Heights. 846. 
 Biin'der, 520, 522, 551. 
 Be'ne-dek, 713, 714, 716. 
 Be-ne-det'ti, 725. 
 Ben-e-die'tine Monks, 379. 
 Ben'e-dictof Nur'si-a, 331. 
 Ben'e-dict, Order of Saint, 332. 
 Ben'e-dict VIII., Pope, 294. 
 Ben'e-dict XII., Pope, 342. 
 Ben-e-ven'tum, 166, 328. 
 Ben'ftam, Admiral, 959. 
 Ben'ja-min, 58, 64. 
 Ben'nett, Jiinies Gor'don, 893. 
 Ben-nig'sen, 602, 622, 746. 
 Ben'ning-ton, 846. 
 
 Ben'fon T/ioni',as H., 880. 
 
 Be-raii-ger' (rON-zha'), 638, 656, 685. 
 
 Biirc/i't/ioltl, Count, 288. 
 
 B(ir-en-gar',202. 
 
 Ber'esford, Lord, 639. 
 
 Ber-e-si'nii (ze') River, 618. 
 
 Berg, Castle, 749. 
 
 Berg, Dukedom, 466. 
 
 Berg, General, 698. 
 
 Berke'ley, Sir Wil'liam (-yam), 803, 804 
 
 805, 82S. 
 BLn'lin, 525, 534, 602, 620. 658, 668, 670, 678, 
 
 679. 721, 738, 743, 744, 750, 752, 768, 770, 
 • 777, 778. 
 Ber'lin, Congress of, 767, 768. 
 B jr'lin Decree, 685, 866. 
 Bir'lin, University of, 612. 
 Bir-na-dOtte', Marshall, 553,591*, 604, 614, 
 
 622. 
 Biir'nard of An'halt, 323. 
 Bar'nard of C'lau-'vaiix (-vo), 308, 310, 
 
 334. 
 Biirn.Dncde, 624, 637. 
 Berne, 339, 378, 414, 584, 671, 760, 781. 
 Bern'hard (-hart) of Wei'nier, 474, 476, 
 
 477. 
 Bern 'storff. Count, 548. 
 Bern'ward, Bishop, 294. 
 Ber'ri, Due de, 665. 
 Ber'ri, Duchess de, 665. 
 Ber'tha of Sa-voy', 296. 
 B/r-t/ii-e)-', 584, 625, 634. 
 B:'r-t/iold', Arclibishop, 350. 
 B'S-sa-ra'bi-a, 767. 
 Bes si-eres', 606. 
 Bes'sus, 136. 
 Bpth'le-hem,3l6. 
 
 Beust (boist). Count, 718, 722, 752, 753. 
 Beuve, Saint, 655. 
 BL'X-tu-sclieff',532. 
 15i-an'c/ii, 375. 
 Big Horn, 938. 
 lli-lox'i Bay, 795. 
 Bis'niarck, Prince Ot'to von, 704, 713, 
 
 714, 716, 730, 734, 736, 744, 746, 747, 748, 
 
 749, 750, 752, 703, 764, 767, 768, 777, 783, 
 
 784. 
 Bitli-yn'i-a, 227, 388. 
 Bi'ton, 70. 
 
 Bjorn'son, (B'yorn-), 657, 781. 
 Black Death, 335,343. 
 Black Forest. 600. 
 Black Hawk, 878. 
 Black, Jer-e-mi'a/i S., 907. 
 Black Sea, 82, 192, 211. 
 Blaine, James G. 929, 931. 
 Blair, Fran'9is, P., 898, 
 Blafr, of Vir-gin'i-a (viir-), 805. 
 Blake, Admiral. 490. 
 Blanc, (BloK) Loii is', 072. 
 Bland, Silver Bill, 929. 
 Blen'/teini, Battle of. 511. 
 Blois, (Blwa),454, 624. 
 BloN-del', 312. 
 
 Blii'cfter, 602, 620, 6:2, 623, 630, 632. 
 "Blues," 261. 
 
 Blum (Bloom). Rob'ijrt, 677. 
 Bllintsch'li, 740. 
 BO-badiJl'la, (-ya),400. 
 
 Bac-cac'cio, ( bat'cho) 336. 
 
 Boc'e/iiis, 190, 
 
 Bo'c/iar, 386. 
 
 BO'Ueu-steeZt, Franz (frants), 739. 
 
 Boii/(in-Ba-wertz'. (-vertz'), 741. 
 
 Bo-e'muud, 288. 
 
 Boe-o'ti-a, (-slji-), 76, 80, 81, 82, 86, 104 
 119, 120, 192. 
 
 Bfi-e'thi-iis, 258, 286. 
 
 Bo-he'mi-a, 296, 341, 343, 348, 350, 424, 426, 
 466, 467, 472, 474, 477, 702, 714, 716, 753. 
 
 Boi-leau' (bwa-lo'), 507. 
 
 Bois'sy, (bwa') d'AN'glas. 580. 
 
 BOk'old, 421. 
 
 Bol'cyn, (bool'), Inne, 430, 432, 434. 
 
 Bol'ing-broke, (brook), 512. 
 
 Bul'i-var, Si'mou, 638, 953, 956, 957. 
 
 Bo liv'i-a, 956. 
 
 BC-Kgn'-.i ( ya), 326, 377, 425, 664, 709. 
 
 BO-niar'siind, 690. 
 
 Bom-biij/', 36. 
 
 Bo-iia-parte', Car'Io, 594. 
 
 BO-na-parte', Jer'Ome, 594, 601, 603, '?29. 
 
 Bo-na-parte', JO'seph, 594, 601, 605, 006, 
 008, 038, 953. 
 
 BO-iia-partc', Loii-is', 594. 
 
 BO-nix-parte', Lii'cian (-shan), 589, 594. 
 
 Bo-na-parte', Na-po'le-ou I„ 573, 680, 582, 
 583, 585, 588, 589, 590, 591, 592, 693, 594, 
 595, 590, 597, 598, 599, 600, 601, 602, C03, 
 601, 606, 608, 609, 610, 612, 614, 616, 618, 
 619, 620, 622, 623, 626, 626, 630, 632, 634, 
 635, 750, 862, ^64, 866, 868, 872, 894, 949, 
 951, 953, 954, 958. 
 
 BO'na-par-tists, 637. 
 
 Bo-iia-ven-tii'ra, 334. 
 
 Bon'ifa(;e VIII., 339. 
 
 Bon'iffKje, Win'fred, 275. 
 
 Bon-i-fa(;'i-iis, 254, 255. 
 
 BoOne, Dan'iel (-yel), 866. 
 
 Booth, Jo/iu Wilkes, 923. 
 
 Bor'a, Catli'er-ine von, 412. 
 
 Bordeaux (do'), 573, 730, 734, 737. 
 
 Bor deanx (do'). Due de, 624. 
 
 B6r-g/ie'se, Pau-line' (paw-), 594. 
 
 Bor'gia, Qds'sar, 377. 
 
 Bor'g/a, Lu-cre'zi-a (loo-krat'se-), 377. 
 
 Bor'ne (bijr'), Lud'wig (liit'veg), 738. 
 
 B6r-odi-no, Battle of, 610. 
 
 Bos'ni-a, 265, 763, 767, 768. 
 
 BOs-su-eC, 507. 
 
 Bos'ton, 805, 820, 821, 831, 836, 837, 838, 
 840, 890, 892. 893, 904. 
 
 Bos'worth (-wiirtli), 364. 
 
 Both'well, Earl of, 458. 
 
 Boii-ille' (-ya'). General, 564. 
 
 Boii-lan-ger', (-loN-zhii'), General, 759, 
 V78. 
 
 Boii-lo£?ne', 599. 
 
 Boiir-ba'ki, 734 
 
 Boiir'bon, Constable, 418. 
 
 Boiir'bons, 450, 454, 546, 591, 601, 603, 624, 
 626, 628. 632, 637, 659, 665, 757, 953. 
 
 Boiir-geoi-sie' (-zhwii-ze'), 290. 
 
 Boiir-get' (zha'), 657. 
 
 Boiirke, 776. 
 
 Bo-vines', 360. 
 
 B'lto'doin, Governor, 854. 
 
 Bojo'en, Fran'^is, 940. 
 
 Ale, care, am, arm, final; eve, obey, end, hiir, recent; fee, ill, piq\ie; old, orb, Odd, move; 
 
ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. 
 
 1006 
 
 Boyne, Battle o£ tlie, 494. 
 Bra-biiiit', 378, 379, 661. 
 iJiilcl'dock, General, 830, 831. 
 Bi-ad'ford, Wil'Iiam (-yam), Pliil-a-del'- 
 
 phi-fi, 824. 
 Bnid'ford, Wil'Iiam (-yam), Ply'moutli, 
 
 812,814. 
 Bi-ad'sti-eet, General, 831. 
 Bra-RSn'za, House of, 441, 604, 723, 958. 
 Bragg, General, 910, 913, 914. 
 Bra/i'ina, 34. 
 Bra/i'mc/ns. 33,34,35. 
 Bran'den-bijrg, 280, 342, 344, 348, 422, 427, 
 
 477, 502, 532, 534, 536, 678. 
 Brandt, Se-bas'tian (clian), 462, 548. 
 Bran'dy-wiiie Creek, 844. 
 Bras'i-das. 112. 
 Brat'tle, T/wm'as, 821. 
 Bra'vO, Gonza'-lez (tlia'leth), 723. 
 Bra-zil', 398, 604, 639, 040, 787, 958, 959. 
 Bre'a. Gener.il, 672. 
 Breck'in-rldge, Joftn C, 906. 
 Brem'en, 294, 427, 477, 602, 612, 748. 
 Bren'nus, 164. 
 Bren-ta'no, 650. 
 Bres'ci-a (bresli'), 372. 
 Bres'lau (-low). 386, 619, 746. 
 Bret'cms (brit'uns), 790. 
 Breiij;, Battle of, 450. 
 Bri-bae'te, 199. 
 
 Bridge' wa-ter (waw). Battle of, 872. 
 Briel, 444. 
 
 Bri-enne', Lo-nie-nze' de, 558. 
 Briggs, Charles A., 940. 
 Blight, Jo/ui, 921. 
 Bris-soN', 759. 
 Bri.s-sot', 564. 
 Brit'ani. Great, 200, 222, 226, 239, 244, 261, 
 
 783, 788. 
 Bri-taii'i-cus, 221. 
 Brit'ons, 220. 226. 234, 261. 
 Brit'ta-ny, 261, 359, 571, 573, 791. 
 Broc-te'ri, 212. 
 
 Bro'glie (-ye). Duo de, 756, 757, 758. 
 Brook'lyn. 935. 
 Bron'te, fliar'lot^e, 655. 
 Broiifi'/j'ani. 642. 
 Brown, B. Gratz, 927. 
 Browne. General, 872. 
 Browne, Sani'u-el, 816. 
 Brown, George, 947. 
 Brown'ing, Rdb'ert, 654. 
 Brown. Jo/in. 816, 906. 
 Brown 'son res'tes, 892. 
 Briicje. Rdb'ert, 362. 
 Brii'ges. 379. 
 Bru'le, Ste'phen, 793. 
 Briin-dii'si-uin, 202. 
 Brflne, Marshal, 584, 637. 
 Brfln/alde', 260. 
 Brii'no. 292. 
 
 Bruns'wick, 323. 532, 003, 665, 749. 
 Brnns'wiek, Dulte of, 568, 002, 622. 
 Brus'sels, 378, 426, 442, 444, 549, 661, 738, 
 
 784. 
 Bru'tus, i\Iar'cu3 Jun'ins (yus), 157, 
 
 158, 159, 204, 206, 207. 
 Bry'aut, Wil'Iiam (yam) Cull'en, 896, 
 
 Bryii Mawr (brun-mowr'), 937. 
 
 Ba (;en'to-ro, 372. 
 
 Bu-gepli'ft-ia, 138. 
 
 Biic/i-iln'an, James, 906, 907, 923. 
 
 Bu-cfta-rest', 694. 
 
 Buck'iiig-/iam, Duke of, 479, 480, 481. 
 
 Bii'da, 3S3, 390. 
 
 Bud'd/ia (bood'), 34. 
 
 BCi'ell, General, 909, 910. 
 
 Biie'ni^ Vis'ta, 876, 903. 
 
 Biie'nos .\y'res (bO'niis A'riz), 953, 938. 
 
 BQf'fa-lo, 903. 
 
 Buffalo Seminary. 892. 
 
 Bid-ga'ri-a (bool), 764, 765, 767, 770, 782, 
 
 787. 
 Bull (bool) Run, Battle of, 908, 911. 
 Bii'loiti, 623. 
 Bunk'er Hill, 838. 
 Bun'sen (boon). Baron von, 740. 
 Bmi'sen (boon'), Chemist, 740. 
 Bii-o'nar-rot'ti, MfcActel Au'ge-lo (-ja), 
 
 376, 464. 
 Bflr-goyne', General, 844, 846, 942. 
 BCir'gun-dy, 216, 251, 252, 255, 258, 260, 
 
 282, 292, 294, 356, 359, 378, 379, 418, 
 
 419. 
 Bilrke, fid'mund, 508. 
 Bi'lr'lei(7/i, Lord, 457, 459. 
 Bi1r'ma/i, 775. 
 Bilrn'side, General, 911. 
 Bfirns.^Rnb'iin, 652. 
 Burr, Aar'on, 862, 878, 879, 880, 882, 900. 
 Bii-sen'to River, 254. 
 Bush'nell (boOsh'), Hor'ace, 940. 
 BiVsi'ris, 44. 
 But'ler, General Ben'ja-min, 910, 912, 
 
 914, 910, 918. 
 But'ler, General W. F., 474. 
 Bux'ton, 042. 
 
 Ey'ron, Lord, 647, 652, 654. 
 By-zan'ti-um, 88, 107, 118, 243, 244. 
 Ca-bal', 492, 612. 
 Ca'ble, George W., 939. 
 Cfib'ot, JoAn, 402, 783. 
 Cab'ot, Se-bas'tian (-ehan), 402, 7SS, 799, 
 
 799. 
 Ca-bral', 398. 958. 
 Ca-brii'ra, 723. 
 Ca-di'e', la, see Acadia. 
 Ca'diz, 50, 367, 608, 638, 639, 724, 761, 954. 
 Cad'mus, 81. 
 
 Ca-doii-dal', George, 596, 597. 
 Ca'en, £m'e-ry de, 792. 
 f .-E're, 14S. 
 faj'snr, Ca'ius (yus) Ju'li-us, 198, 206, 
 
 210. 
 Cai'ro (Egypt), 268, 316, 588, 589, 593, 774. 
 Can-'o (Illinois), 909. 
 Ccn-ro'li. 761. 
 CfiJ'e-tan,406, 407. 
 Ca-la'bri-a,288, 630. 
 Ca-lai's', 352, 354, 356, 359. 
 Cril-ciit't.i, 396. 
 Calde-roN', 464. 
 CriMioiin', Jo/ni C, 830,884, 899, 900, 001, 
 
 902, 903, 904. 
 
 CaM-for'ni-n, 403. 787, 789, 864, 876,890, 
 
 903, 904. 937, 950. 
 Ca-Iig'u4a, 220. 
 
 Cii-lix'tus (-tdOs) II., Pope. 300. 
 Cal-le'.ia (-ya'yij), 949. 
 Ciil-lis'the-nes, 138. 
 Cal'mor, Union of, 380, 436. 
 Ca-lcmne', 557. 
 Cal'vert, pe-cjil'i-us, 806. 
 Cal'vi^rt, Sir George, 806. 
 CfU'vin-ism, 426, 427, 428, <'29, 444, 
 
 454. 45fi, 477, 496, 503, 549. 
 Ciil'vin-ists, Old, 890. 
 Cal'vln, Jo/ai, 426, 428, 429, 435, 486. 
 Co-ma-ril'Ia (-ya), 638, 723. 
 Cani-ba-(;e-res' (kon-), 591. 
 Cam-bra;/' (kon), 372, 419. 
 Cam'bridge, Massachusetts, 817,818, 
 Cam'bridge, University, 815, 818. 
 Cam-bronne' (kon-), Gen., 632. 
 Cam-by'ses, 49, 72, 73, 74. 
 Cam'den, Battle of, 849. 
 Cam'den, Lord, 835. 
 Ca-mil'lus, 102, 164. 
 Cam'o-ens, 464. 
 Cam-pau'ia (-ya), 147, 174. 
 Cim\p'be\], Al-ex-an'dijr, 891, 
 Camp'Sell-ites, 891. 
 CilniiJ'6ell, Sir Co'lin, 946, 
 Camp'6eIl,Tftom'as, 652. 
 Cam'pe, 640. 
 
 Cam-pe-a-dor', (-thor'), see Cld. 
 Cam'pi-o For'mi-o, Peace of, 532. 
 Cam'pos, General, 762. 
 Ca'naan, 52, 56,65. 
 Can'a-da, 534, 641, 644, 792, 794, 821, 
 
 828, 834, 837, 844, 846, 852, 863, 872, 
 
 931,941,942. 
 Ca-na'di-an, Pa-(;if'ic Railroad, 9.7, 9 
 Ca-nii'ry, Islands, 398, 723. 
 Ciin'di-a, 695. 
 Can'na', 174,048. 
 Cannes, 757. 
 
 Ciin'ning, George, 647,874, 
 Ca-no'pus, 593. 
 Ca-nos'sa, 298. 
 Ca-nd'va, 658. 
 Can-o'vas del Cas-til'Io (-yO), 762, 
 
 '63, 
 
 Can-rr)-bert'(koN-ro-bar'), General, 691, 
 
 692, 708. 
 Can'ter bur-y (-ber-), 261, 360. 
 Ca-nCite' II., of Den'mark, 286, 204, 379. 
 CA-nute VI., of Den'mark, 380. 
 Cape Cod, 796, 814. 
 Cape de Verde Islands, 787. 
 Cilpe Town, 773. 
 Ca-p'is-tra'no. 390. 
 Cap'i-td-UneHill, 150. 
 Cap-i-td-ll'nus, 164. 
 Cap-i-to-ll'na. Al'i-a, 224. 
 Ca-pit'u-la-rie.s, 282. 
 Cap-pel', Battle of, 414. 
 Ca-pre'ra, 707. 
 Ca'pri, 220. 
 
 Ca-pr'i'vi, General, 711. 752. 757. 
 Cap'u-a, 165, 174, 176, 196, 711. 
 Car-a-cal'ia, 231. 
 Ca-i'a'cas, 956. 
 
 Ca-rac'cio-li (-rat'clid), Prince, 586. 
 Car'a-van, 29. 
 Car-bo-na'ri, 638, 639. 
 
 Qae, firu, iip, riide; food, foot; by; 9ell; N=ng; italic letters silent or obscure. 
 
1006 
 
 ALPHABETICAL AND PROKOUNCIKG IKDEX. 
 
 Cur e-iiu'ni-a, 638. 
 
 Cil'rey, Heii'ry Cliaiies, 940. 
 
 Ca-ii'srii-a'iio (ya'), riince of, 639, 
 
 Ciir-iu'tlii-a, 190, 466. 
 
 Cai-I, Aroliduke, 609. 
 
 Caii, Duke of Bruns'wick, 653. 
 
 Carl, Elector, f,04, 
 
 Carle'ton, Sir Guy, 942. 
 
 Car'Iings. See Karliiigs. 
 
 Car-lisle', 938. 
 
 Carl'lsts, 66.5, 722, 723, 724, 762. 
 
 Carl VI., o£ Aus'tri-a (aws'),510, 512, 513. 
 
 Carl, of Ba'Ueu, 601. 
 
 Carl X., of Swe'deii, 478. 
 
 Carl XIII., of Swe'clen, 604. 
 
 Carl XIV., of Svve'den, 604. 
 
 Carro-maii, See Karlmaiin. 
 
 Car'lOs, Don, 441, 664, G65, 724, 761, 762. 
 
 Car'lO-witz (vitz), Treaty of, 504. 
 
 Carl, Piince of Kou-ma'nI-a. 764. 
 
 CSrls'bad (-bat) Decrees, 646. 
 
 Carl'stadt, An'drS-as Kii'dolpli, 407, 409, 
 
 Carl T/ie'O-dOr, of Ba-va'rl-S, 537. 
 
 Car-lyle', T/lOm'ils, 654, 894. 
 
 Car-maffii-o'Ia (yf)'), General, 374. 
 
 Car'mel, Jlouiit, 64. 
 
 Car'o-line, Fort, 788. 
 
 Car'o-line, Islands, 763. 
 
 car'o-line Ma-t/iil'da, of Deu'mark, 547, 
 
 548. 
 Car'o-line, of Brflns'wick, 642. 
 Car-noC, Sfidi, 760. 778. 
 Car-nOr, the Elder, 576, 634, 730. 
 Car-pa'tlii-fin Jlonntains, 265. 
 Car-ras'co, 053. 
 Car-rasco'sfi, 639. 
 Car'sfens, 657, 658. 
 Ciir'ter-Brownc Mbrary, 93S. 
 Car'ter-et, Sir George, 828. 
 Car'ter, James C, 892. 
 Car'tliage (-thIJ), 51, 52, 166, 167, 168, 171, 
 
 174. 178, 179, 183, 104, 254. 
 Car-lUagS'na, 761, 762. 
 Car-tlifi'slan (-zbon) Monks, 332. 
 Car-ti-er', Jacques (zliak), 790, 791. 
 Ca'rus ( roos), 239. 
 Car'ver. John, 814. 
 Ca'sas, Las, 788. 
 Cas'1-nur II , of Po'land, 384. 
 Casi mir III., of Pf.'land, 384. 
 Cas'i-mir-Pe-ri-e)-', 659. 
 Cas'pi an Sea, 70. 
 Gas sa'no, 826, 585. 
 Cassel, 603, 729. 
 Cfis'si, 37. 
 
 Caa'sia (It.isli'yii), 199. 
 Cas-si'no, Mon'te (-ti), 331. 
 Cas-si-Odo'rus, 258. 
 Cass'i-Cis (kiisli'), Cii'ius (-yiis), 206. 
 Cass'i-i)s (kasli'), Spu'ri-us, 161. 
 Cass, Lew'is (loo'), 907. 
 Caste, 26, 30, 31, 33. 
 Cas-te-lar', 761, 762. 
 Cas-tipl-lo'ne (-yo'), Battle at, 582, 
 Cas-tile', 272, 367, E68, 511, 512. 
 Cas-til'lo (yo). See Canovas. 
 Cas-de-reag'/t', 642. 
 Cas'tor, 82. 
 Cat'a-cOnibs, 244. 
 
 Cat-ii-lo'ni-a, 611, 723. 
 
 Ca-tii'ni-a, 713. 
 
 Catli'a-rine of Ar'a-gon, 430, 432. 
 
 cath'ii-rine, of Na'ples, 684. 
 
 Catli'a-rine I., of Rfis'sia ( slia), 520, 524. 
 
 Catli'a-rine II. of Rus'sia ( slif,), 534, 546, 
 
 549, 550, 551, 552, 554, 688. 
 Cath'er-ine dc Me'di-ci (cUe), 450. 
 Catliolic Cliurcli. Ko'mon, 246, 247,276, 
 
 282, 412, 421, 430, 437, 438. 
 Catholic League, 447, 464, 456,466. 
 Cath'olics, Eo'man, 255, 258, 426, 436, 
 
 447, 450, 452, 467, 470, 480, 549, 644, 828, 
 
 891, 892, 937, 944. 
 Cat'i-Iine, 198. 
 Cat'i-na, 88. 
 
 Ca'to, JIar'cus For'ci-us (-shi-), 183, 185. 
 Ca'to, Mar'cus POr'ci-fis (-shl-), the 
 
 Younger. 199, 204, 207. 
 Ca-tul'«us, 211. 
 
 Ca'tu-lus Lu-ta'tl-iis (-shi-), 170, 19L 
 Cau-ca'slans, (caw-ca'shnns), 24. 
 Cau'ca-sfis (caw'), 104, 197, 385. 
 Can'dine (caw') Passes, 165, 166. 
 Ca-va/pn-ac' (yak'). General, 672. 
 Cav'on-disli, Lord, 776. 
 Ca-voiir', Ca-niil'IO, 707, 712, 760, 779, 
 
 784. 
 Cawu-pore', 687. % 
 
 (^■v'erops, 81. 
 gelts, 199, 218, 261,265. 
 5 e-nis'. UO-nt. 700. 
 fen'taurs, (-tawrs). 80. 
 Century Magazine, 939. 
 fer'o-siis, 88. 
 fo'rcs, 52, 76. 81. 
 f er'rO GOr'do. 876. 
 gcr-van'tes, 462, 464,648. 
 CD-tewa'yo (-eliwa'), 773. 
 <?i^.-ven?ies' Moiuitalns, 508. 
 f e!y-lon', 36, 398, 775. 
 CIi»r-o-ne'a (ker-), 76, 130, 142. 
 C/ial'(;is, 78. 
 
 C7ial-dEe'a,37, 41, 42, 65, 243, 
 fhal-uN.'!', 255, 723, 727, 728. 
 Chani'bers-bflrg, 912. 
 Chauibord' (shoN ), Count de, 624, 665, 
 
 685,757, 761. 
 Cham-pagn'e (shoN-pan'ye), 568, 623- 
 Cham-pi on ntt' (shdN-), 564. 
 pham pla(n', L.ake, 792, 831. 
 giiani-plani', Sam'u-cl, 791,792,793, 872. 
 Champs (shoN) de Maz, Festival, 628. 
 Chan'i;eMors-ville. Battle of, 912. 
 Chand'ler, Jo'seph R.,898. 
 C/han'ning, 642. 
 
 Chan zy' (shoN-ze') General, 736. 
 Cha-piil'te-pec, 878. 
 f liar'le-niaf/ne, see Karl the Great. 
 Charles, see Karl. 
 
 Cliarles Al'bcrt, of Sar-din'i-a, 668, 676. 
 Charles Ed'ward, 516. 
 Charles Ed'wcird, the Pretender, 514. 
 Cliarles Em-an'u-ellV., 580. 
 Charles Fe'lix, 639. 
 Charles of An-jou' (oN-zhli'), 326, 329, 
 
 330, 377. 
 Charles I., of Eu'giand, (ing'), 480, 481, 
 
 484, 486, 488, 492, 792, 802, 803, 804. 
 
 Charles II.. of En'gland (ing'), 458. 490, 
 
 492, 493, 510, 516, 804, 805, 807, 820, 822. 
 Charles VI., of Fran9e, 356. 
 Charles VII., of Fran9e, 356, 358, 369. 
 Charles VIII., of France, 359, 377. 
 Charles IX., of Fran9e, 450, 452, 
 Charles X., of Fran9e, 624, 637, 669, 660, 
 
 757. 
 Charles V., of Ger'ma-ny, 318, 874, 376, 
 
 879, 403, 408, 415, 416, 419, 420, 428, 424, 
 
 426, 429, 441. 
 Charles VII., of Giir'lufi-ny, 528. 
 Charles of Lor-raine', 285, 503. 
 Charles of Na'ple,? and Si(;'il-y, 318, 514. 
 Charles III., of Spain, 545, 547. 
 Charles IV., of Spain, 604, 605. 
 Charles VII., of Spain, 724, 761. 
 Charles XL, of Swe'den, 479, 516. 
 Charles XII., of Swe'den, 516, 518, 519, 
 
 520, 522. 
 Charles, Prince of Ba-va'ri-a, 716. 
 Charles River, 814. 
 Charles, the Bold, of Bflr'gun-dy, 350, 
 
 359, 378, 379. 
 Charles, the Simple, of France, 284, 285. 
 Charles V., the Wise, of Fran9e, 352, 
 
 354. 
 Charles'ton, 807, 808, 809, 810, 848, 852, 
 
 890, 906, 907, 914, 915, 916. 
 Charles'town, 838. 
 f har-le-voia:', 795. 
 f har-lot'ten-burg (-boorg), 525. 
 fhar'loUe, Princess, of En'gland (iug'), 
 
 6i2. 
 Chart'ists, 642. 
 
 Chase, Sal'mon P., 904, 920, 921, 922. 
 Cha-S-sO', 661. 
 
 f has'tes, Aj/-mar' d6, 791. 
 piui-tpan bri-and' (-to-bre-oN'), 595, 65f, 
 
 605. 
 flia-teau' (to') Cam-bre'sis, Peace of 
 
 421. 
 Chat'/icim, Earl, See William Pitt. 
 Cliat-ta-noo'ga, 913, 918. 
 Chat'ti, 214. 
 Chau-mStfe' (sho), 574. 
 Chai(n'9ey, I'saac, 870. 
 Cliau've-neJ (sho'), Wil'liam (yam), 893. 
 Cftei-ros'o-phiis, 118. 
 piie-ni-er, AN-drS', 572, 655. 
 Cfte'ops, 47. 
 f her'boftrg, 916. 
 Cher-us'ki, 212, 213. 
 Ches'a-peake Bay, 844, 850, 874. 
 fhi-ca'go (-caw'), 794, 890, 922, 935, 936, 
 
 938, 9.39. 
 piii-ca'go (-caw') River, 794. 
 Chick-aiiom'iny Creek, 910. 
 Clilck-a-niau'ga (maw'), 913. 
 Clill'l, 403, 930, 932, 953, 957, 958. 
 C/ii'lo, 100. 
 
 Chi'na, 31, 32, 395, 759, 931. 
 Chi nese' Wall, 386, 389. 
 C/ii-og'gia (-od') War, 372. 
 C/ii'os, 73, 87. 
 
 Chip'pe-wa. Battle of, 872, 943. 
 Cliivalry, 330. 
 
 C/ilo'dO-wIg (-vig), 257, 258, 260. 
 C/ilo-pic'ki (pits'), 6G2, 663. 
 
 Ale, care, am, arm, Riuil ; eve, obey, end, h6r, recent j ice, ill, pique ; Old, orb, odd, mOve ! 
 
ALPHABETICAL AND PROXOUXCING IXDEX. 
 
 1007 
 
 Cftlo'tai I,. 2C0. 
 
 C/ilo'tar II., 260. 
 
 C/iiO-tU'cIa, 258. 
 
 Clioi-seul' (sliwa-zftl'), 547. 
 
 C/irist Cluiicli, Pliil-il-clel'plii-a, 890. 
 
 CAris'ti-an'a, 781. 
 
 Christian Clim-ch, 246. 
 
 ClirisUauitj', 29, 235, 240, 243, 244, 248, 251, 
 261, 271, 277, 280, 286, 292, 574, 635. 
 
 C/u-is['ian (-ynn), of Brfins'wlck. 468. 
 
 C'lrist'ian (-yaii) I., of Den'mavk, 380. 
 
 C/i.-ist'ian (-yan) II., of Den'mark, 381. 
 
 CArist'ian (-ycai) IV., of Den'mark, 468, 
 470. 
 
 Cfti-ist'ian (ynn) VII., of Den'mark, 547, 
 548. 
 
 C/irist'ian (yan) IX., of Den'mark, 704, 
 TO5, 754. 
 
 Cftrist'ian (-ynn) II., of Swe'den, 436. 
 
 CArist'ian (-ynn) III., of Swe'den, 436. 
 Christians, 221, 236, 239, 248, 272, 306, 308, 
 
 312, 316. 
 C/u'is-ti'na, Port, 799. 
 Cftris-ti'na, of Swe'den, 478. 
 Cftrls'ti-nOs, 665. 
 C/iris'to-pher, of Grim'mels-hau'sen 
 
 (-how'), 478. 
 C?irys'6s-toin, Jo/in, 247. 
 Clnu'cli Fatliers, 246, 247. 
 Church of tlie West, 346. 
 Cial-di'ni (chal). General. 711,720. 
 9i(;'e-ro, Tul'li-us, 195, 198, 199, 202, 206. 
 pid Cani-pe-a-dor' (-tliOr'), 272, 506. 
 Cim'bri-ans, 190, 191. 
 fi'mon, 103, 110, 111. 
 gUi-cfin-na'ti, 893, 935. 
 <;;in-(;in-na'ti, Order of the, 853. 
 ijin-pin-na'tus, 160. 
 ^lin'na, 194. 
 
 Cinq (sank) Mars, Marquis de 498. 
 (Jin'tril, Capitulation of, 608. 
 CIr-cas'si-a (ser-kash'), 696. 
 Cir'cus (ser') Max'i-miis, 156, 195. 
 f is-ftl'pine Republic, 682, 585. 
 pis-tijr'oiau (-slian) Monks, 319, 332. 
 Ci'vi-ta (Che') Vec'c/ii-a, 226, 720. 
 Clar'a, of Spain, 448. 
 CUw'euqe, 364. 
 
 Ciar'endon, Constitutions of, 359, 360. 
 Cl;ir'en-don, Lord, 492, 807, 808. 
 Clar'et, Fatlier, 723, 724. 
 Clarke, James Free'rann, 940. 
 Clarke, Governor, 828. 
 Clas-tid'i-iim, 171. 
 Clau'di-iis (claw') II., 236. 
 Clau'di-us (claw') Ap'pi-us, 162, 166, 
 
 168. 
 Clau'-li-fis (claw') Ne'ro, Consul, 176. 
 Clau'di-us, (claw'), Ti-be'ri-iis Dru'sus, 
 
 220, 221. 
 Clat/'borne, Wil'Iiam (yam), 806, 807. 
 Claj/, Hen'ry, 866, 878, 880, 882, 884, 886, 
 
 898 899, 901, 902, 904, 940. 
 Cle-ar'c/ms, 118. 
 Cle-Is'the UPS, 99. 
 Clem'ent of Al-ex-an'drl-a, 247. 
 Clem'ent III., Pope, 298. 
 Clem'ent IV., Pope, 326. 
 Clem'ent V., Pope, 340. 
 Clem'ent VII,, Pope, 418, 4i!0, 430. 
 
 Clem'ent XIV,, Pope, 546. 
 
 Cle'o-bis, 70. 
 
 Cle-Om'brO-tiis, 120. 
 
 Cle'on, 124. 
 
 Cle-0'nae, 92. 
 
 Cle-o-pa'tra, 203, 204, 207, 208. 
 
 rier-ta«', 578. 
 
 Cler-mout', Council at, 302. 
 
 Cleve, 466. 
 
 Clevc'Iand, Grfl'ver, 930. 931, 932, 9.33. 
 
 Clin-chant' (shoN'), General, 734. 
 
 Clin'ton, George, 856. 
 
 Clin'ton, Sir Hen'ry, 844, 846, 850. 
 
 Cli'tus, 131, 136. 
 
 Clo-a'oil Max'i-nia, 156. 
 
 Clo'di-us, 199. 
 
 ClOots, 574. 
 
 Clo-tMlde', Princess, 707. 
 
 CliVn-y' (-ye'), 332. 
 
 Clu-si'um, 148, 162. 
 
 Clyt-em-nes'tra, 83. 
 
 Cnl'diis, 120. 
 
 Coalition, First, 568, 576. 
 
 Coalition, Second War of the, 585. 
 
 Cob'den, Eich'nrd, 643, 921 
 
 Co'blentz, 248, 564, 623, 710. 
 
 Co'blentz, Diet of, 319. 
 
 Co'cliln, Clii'na, 759. 
 
 Coc/i'raue, 957. 
 
 Cod'ding-ton, Wil'Iiam (-yam), 823. 
 
 Code, Na-po'le-ou, 591. 
 
 CO'driis, 87, 96. 
 
 gce'li-an Hill, 152. 
 
 Col-Uerr, 499. 606, 508, 794. 
 
 Col'borne, Sir JOftn, 943, 944, 915. 
 
 Col'cftis, 82. 
 
 Cold Har'bor (-ber)i 918. 
 
 Cole'ridge, 652. 
 
 Col'et, 405. 
 
 Co-liffn'y (ye), Admiral, 4.50, 450. 
 
 College of Physicians and Surgeons, 
 
 893. 
 Co-lo.9ne', 214, 280, 408, 498. 
 CO-loffue', Elector of, 500, 510, 611, 513. 
 Co-lom'bi-a, 957. 
 C0-16n'na, 376. 
 Col'o-phon, 87. 
 CoI-6-ra'do, 937, 
 Col-os-se'um, 224. 
 Co-lilm'bi-a, District of, 902. 
 C6-luni'bus, Bar-thol'o-niew (-mu), 398. 
 CO-lum'bus, Cftris'to-plier, 398, 400, 402, 
 
 894. 
 Co-lum'bus, Di-6'go, 402. 
 Col've, An'tAo-ny, 798. 
 Co-mines'. Pliil'ip, 335. 
 Com'mo-diJs, 232. 
 Conc'ord, 838. 
 
 Cou'd6, Prince de, 450, 498, 499, 562, 596. 
 Con-dor'pgf, 564, 571. 
 Con-es-to'ga, 826. 
 Confederacy, 907, 908, 909, 910, 912, 914, 
 
 918, 919, 920, 921, 922, 925, 927. 
 C6n-fu'ci-us (-she-), 32. 
 Con 'go, 390, 742. 
 
 Congregational Cliurch, 890, 891. 
 Con-nect'i-cut, 817, 821, 822, 823, 854, 892. 
 Co'non, 120. 
 Con'rnd II., 286, 294. 
 Con'rnd III., 310, 319, 320, 321. 
 
 Con'rnd IV., 325, 326. 
 
 COn-rad'in, 329. 
 
 Cuii'rnd, of Fran-co'ni-ii, 284, 288, 290. 
 
 Con'stan<;e, Lake, 248, 410. 
 
 Con'stan^e, ofNa'ples and Siij-i-ly, 323, 
 324. 
 
 C0n'stan9e, Peace of, 227. 322, 347, 349, 
 
 Con'stan-tine, 239, 240, 244, 246, 247. 
 
 Con'stnn-tine, Co-prOn'y-mfls, 265, 
 
 Con'stan-tine, Grand Duke, 698. 
 
 Con'stau-tine, Piil-Be-ol'o-giis. 390. 
 
 Con-stan-ti-no'ple, 88, 107, 244, 248. 261, 
 262, 264, 268, 275, 304, 314, 350, .385, 389, 
 390, 404, 646, 689, 763, 764, 765, 770. 
 
 Con-stan'ti-fls, (-siii-), 247, 248. 
 
 Cun-stan'ti-us (-slii-), CWor'us, 239. 
 
 Constellation, (frigate), 862, 868. 
 
 Con'waj/ Ca-bal', 847. 
 
 Cook, Captain, 641, 742. 
 
 Cooke, Jo-si'a/i P., 941. 
 
 Coop'er, .Tames Fen'i-jnore, 896. 
 
 Coop'er River, 852. 
 
 Co-OS', 78. 
 
 Cope'land, Pat'rick, 802. 
 
 Co-pen-ha'gen, 478, 479, 513, 604, 658. 
 
 Co-piir'ni-eus, 460. 
 
 Cor-?y'j-a, 77, 112, 171. 
 
 Cor-day', fhar'loKe, 571. 
 
 Cor-de-Iiers', 563. 
 
 Cor-dil'ler-as, 403. 
 
 Cor'do-va, 271, 272, 357, 724, 951. 
 
 Cor-tin'i-iim, 192. 
 
 Cor-tii', 77. 
 
 Cor'intli, 77, 86, 87, 112, 113, 119, 120, ]30> 
 
 179, 182, 695. 
 Co-rin'thi-an Order, 126. 
 Cor'inth, Isthmus of, 106. 
 Cor'inth, Mis-sis-sip'pi, 909. 
 C6r-i-6-la'nus, 58, 160. 
 Corn'bur-y (-ber-). Governor, 826. 
 Cdr-nmie', Pe'ter, 506. 
 Cor-ne'li-a, 188. 
 Cor-nel'ian (-ynn) Laws, 195. 
 Cor-ne'li-iis, Pet'er, 657. 
 Cor-nell' University, 937. 
 Corn-wal'ns (-w6r),Lord, 842, 848, 849, 
 
 850, 853. 
 C'or-o-man'dcl, 398. 
 C6r-o-ne'a, 111, 120. 
 Cor-reg'gi'O (-ed'), 464. 
 Cor'si-ca, 171, 594, 630. 
 Cor-te-nil'o-va, 325. 
 Cor'tez, 402, 403, 788. 
 Cor'ti, 767. 
 Cort'lnn(2t, 796. 
 
 Cor-vt'nus, Mat-thias (math-), 382. 
 Cos'sacks, 385, 516. 
 Coii-ri-er'. 638, 656. 
 Colir'land, 385, 426. 
 Coii-t/ioN', 568, 571,578. 
 Cow'pens, Battle of, 849. 
 Cra'cfrti), 384, 386, 661, 553, 651, 663. 
 Cran'ac/t, Lii'cas, 466. 
 Crad'dock, Charles Eg'bert, 939. 
 Cran'mer, T/iom'as, 430, 432, 434. 
 Cras'siis, Mar'cus, 196, 197, 199. 
 Crawford, Wil'liani (yam) IL, 880,882, 
 Cre9'y. 352. 
 
 Cr6-di(' M6-bil-ler (-ya), 928. 
 Creek Indians, 860, 878. 
 
 use, flrn, up, riide ; food, foot; bj; (jell; N=ng; italic letters silent or obscure, 
 
1008 
 
 ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. 
 
 Ci-e'feld (-felt), 821. 
 
 Ci'ell, Chancellor, 427. 
 
 Cre'oles, 789, 953. 
 
 Ci'es'py, Peace of, 420. 
 
 Ci-etc, 60, 52, 77, 82, 92, 95, 695. 
 
 Cri-me-a, 552, 690, 691. 
 
 Cri-me'an War, 690. 
 
 Ci'i-ine'siis, 167. 
 
 Cr'is'pi, 761. 779. 
 
 Cris'pus, 240. 
 
 Crit'i-as, 114, 116. 
 
 Cri'tO, 116. 
 
 CrO-a'ti-a, (-slii-) 265,722. 
 
 Croe'sus, 70. 
 
 Crom'well, Ol'i-ver, 120, 432, 482, 486, 488, 
 
 490, 492, 793, 802, 804. 
 Crom'well, Kicli'ard, 491. 
 Cron'startt, 519, 690. 
 Cro-tO'ua, 88, 100, 176. 
 Crown Point, 6.33, 830, 831. 
 CrO'zat, Sieur (.soor) Au'tO-ny, 795. 
 Crusade, First, 302. 
 Crusade, Second, 308, 352. 
 Crusade, Third, 312. 
 Crusade, Fourth, 314. 
 Crusade, Fiftli, 316. 
 Crusade of Cliildren, 314. 
 Cryp'to Cal'vin-ists, 427. 
 Cii'ba, 400, 402, 725, 762, 787, 874, 900, 906, 
 
 953. 
 Cu'fa, 26S. 
 
 CuMo-den, Battle of, 516. 
 Cul'pepiier, Lord, 804, 805. 
 CCi'mse, 88, 147, 159, 165. 
 Cum'ber-kaid, Dulte of, 749. 
 Cuni'ber-land, Fort, 830. 
 Cuni'ber.land Ma'ry-lnnd, 888. 
 CiJm'ber-lnnd, Presbytery, 891. 
 Cinn'ber-land, (vessel), 9U. 
 Cu-uax'a. 118. 
 Cu-ne'i-tonn Writing, 37. 
 Cu'pid, 79. 
 Cu-rat'i-i, 154. 
 Cu'ri-O, 202. 
 
 CQr'tis, George Wil'liani (yam), 930, 939 
 Ciir'ti-us (-tse-ous), 740. 
 Cu'.sa, Al-e.\-an'd(jr, 694. 
 Cusli'ing (IcOosh'), Ca'leb, 922. 
 Cus'ter, George A. 938. 
 Cfls-tine, General, 568, 676. 
 Cus-toz'Zii, Battle of, 717. 
 Cut'ler, "Jla-nas'se/i, 893. 
 t!y-ax'a-res. 41. 
 fyc'la-des. 78, 101. 
 gyd'nus, 131. 
 ^yn i03, 145. 
 
 ?y'prus, 50, 77, 111, 141, 268, 768. 
 ^,"y-rene', 88. 
 t;y'rils of Piir'si-a (-shi-), 66, 68, 70, 72, 100. 
 
 125, 134. 
 fy'riis, tlie Younger, 114, 118, 119. 
 9y-the'ra, 77. 
 gyz'i-cus,88, 197. 
 
 Czar-t6-rys'l<i (cliar-), Prince, 663, 696. 
 Czechs (cheks), 265. 
 Czer'na-bog, 266. 
 
 Da'ci-a (-sin-) 227, 238. 
 D£e'in6u,80. 
 
 Da/ui, Fe'lix, 739. 
 
 Dal'berg, 601, 622. 
 
 Dale, Sir X/iom'as, 802. 
 
 Dril-lioii'sie (-zi). Lord, 944. 
 
 Balsas, George M., 884. 
 
 Dal-mii'ti-a (-shi-), 222, 239, 265, 370, 583, 
 
 628. 
 Dii-mas'cus, 38, 60, 132, 268, 386, 389. 
 DSni-i-et'ta, 316. 
 Da'na, Hich'ard Hen'ry, 896. 
 Dan'dO-lo, 314. 
 Danes, 279, 285, 286, 292, 379, 380, 436, 458, 
 
 478, 479, 773. 
 Dan'ne-berg, 330. 
 Dan'necli-er, 658. 
 
 Dan'te A-li-gfti-e'ri, 326, 336,341,648.658 
 Dan'ton, 563, 666, 567, 572, 573, 574, 576, 
 
 578. 
 Dan'Cibe, 74, 101, 238, 247, 249, 284, 350, 
 
 382, 338, 609, 688, 690, 694, 753, 767. 
 Dan'zig (dant'sig), 563, 603, 630, 745. 
 Dar-boy' (-bwa',) Arclibishop, 738. 
 Dar-da-nelles', 378, 652, 641, 689. 764, 780. 
 Da-vi'ils C6d-0-man'us, 132, 134, 140. 
 Da-ri'us Hys-tSs'pes, 66, 73, 74, 101, 103. 
 Darn'ley. 457, 458. 
 Diir'win, Cliarles, 740. 
 Da'tis, 101,102. 
 Dau-deC (do-), 657. 
 
 Daun (down). Field Marshal, 5,32, 534. 
 Diiv-en-Bort, Rev. John, 822. 
 Da'vid, King of Is'ra-el, 58, 60, 62, 66. 
 Da'vid. Jacques (zliak) Loii-is', 657, 658. 
 Da'-viil-sou, 458. 
 
 Da'vis, Jef'fer-son, 878, 90S, 919, 926. 
 Da-voiis<, 626. 
 
 Dij'ak. Fr.auz (frants), 722, 753. 
 Dear'boru, Hen'ry, 870. 
 Deb'o-r.i/j, 56, 58. 
 De-ca'tvir, Ste'phen (-v'n), 86S. 
 De-cazes'. 637. 
 
 De-geni'virs (-vers), 160, 161. 
 De9'i-us, 236, 243. 
 De9'i-us Mus, 165, 166. 
 De-cle'a, 113. 
 
 Deer'ing, Wil'liaui (-yam), 941. 
 D6-treg'ge)', 657. 
 De-Iii-croix' (-krwa'), 653. 
 De-la-ro(;lie'. 658. 
 De-lau'na)/'(l()'), 561. 
 Del'ii-ware, 824. 856. 
 Del'a-w5reBay, 796. 
 Del'a-ware, Lord, 802. 
 Del'a-ware River, 795, 796, 798, 799, 823, 
 
 828, 842. 
 Delft. 447. 
 Del'Iii, 687, 
 Da'los, 78, 110. 
 
 Del'phi, 76, 80, 90,93, 106, 127, 128, 194. 
 Del'tii, 44,47. 
 Deluge, 23. 
 Del-yau'nis, 782. 
 Deni-bin'ski, 663, 678. 
 De-me'ter. 81. 
 De-me-tri-us. 141, 142, 181. 
 De'nios, 96, 97. 
 
 De-ni6s'the-nes, General, 112, 113. 
 Ds-mos'the-nes, Orator, 125, 126, 130, 142, 
 
 198. 
 
 Den'mark, 379, 380, 381, 436, 4.",7, 478, 547, 
 593, 604, 622, 645, 677, 680, 704, 754. 772, 
 781. 
 
 Den-ta'tus Cu'ri-ns, 166. 
 
 Den-tii'tus, Sii;'(;i-us, 161. 
 
 De-saz'x', General, 592. 
 
 Des-i-de'ri-us, 276, 279, 
 
 Des inoii-lins' (-liiN'), Ca-miUe', 561. 56-3, 
 573, 574, 576. 
 
 De So'to, Fijr'di-nSnd. 787, 788. 
 
 Des'sau (-saw), 468, 640. 
 
 Des'sati (-saw), Le'o-pold vmi, 526. 
 
 Det'mold, 214. 
 
 De-troit', 834, 868, 942. 
 
 Det'ting-en. Battle of, 528. 
 
 Deii-ter-On'0-niy, 65. 
 
 ".Deutsche " (doi' che), 282. 
 
 "Devil's Wall," 258. 
 
 De Wet'te (vet'), 739. 
 
 Dew'ey (du'i), Or'viUe, 910. 
 
 De Witt, Joftu and Cor-ne'li-us, 500. 
 
 Dex'ter, Hen'ry M.,940 
 
 Di-iin'a, 78, 79,83. 87. 
 
 Di'az (-ath), Bar'thul'o-inevv (-mu), 
 
 396. 
 
 Di'az (-as), Per-fir'i-0, 952. 
 
 Dick'ens, Charles, 655. 
 
 DIck'in-aou, Dan'iel (-yel) S., 922. 
 
 Dick'iu-son, Jo/in, 856, 
 
 Diderot', 545, 549. 
 
 Di'dO, 51. 
 
 Die'bitsch, 619, 663. 
 
 Dieppe', 790, 791, 792. 
 
 Djes'kau (-kow). General, 830, 831. 
 
 Die'tricft, of Bijrne, 336. 
 
 Diug'el-stecZt, 739. 
 
 Diu-wid'die, EOb'ert, 8'fi, 830. 
 
 Di-o-cle'ti,an (-shan), 239, 243. 
 
 Di-Og'e-ues, 145. 
 
 Di-o-me'des, 83. 
 
 Di-C-nys'i-iis (Bie'chus), 80, 81, 123. 141. 
 
 Dl-o-nys'i-us of Ilal-i-car-nas'sus, 212. 
 
 Di-o nys'i-us of Syr'a-cuse, 167. 
 
 Di-u-uys'i-us, the Younger, 168. 
 
 Directoi-y, 680, 083, 584, 585, 589. 
 
 Disciples, 891. 
 
 DIs-rae'li, Ben'ja-niin, 772, 775, 776.. 
 
 Dit'niar-seu,380. 
 
 Dix, John Ad'ams. 922. 
 
 Duie'per, 74,335, 552, 618. 
 
 Do-de-kar'c/iy, 39. 
 
 Do-do'na,81. 
 
 Dol'Iinger (Del'), 743. 
 
 Dom-brow'sUi, General, 554,602. 
 
 Domin'i-cans, 332, 405, 789. 
 
 Dom'i-nic, of Span), 332. 
 
 Do-mit'i-a, 226. 
 
 Do-niit'i-au (-niish'), 226. 
 
 Don, Eiver, 335. 
 
 Don-au'worth (-ow'wertli),406. ' 
 
 Don'el-son, Fort, 908, 909. 
 
 Do'no|), Count, 844. 
 
 Do'ra Bal-te'a, 592. 
 
 Dor'ches-ter, 821. 
 
 Dor'clies-ter, Lord, see Sir Guy Carlton, 
 
 Do'ri-a, An'dre-as, 372. 
 
 Do'ri-ans, 81, 86. 87, SS, 92, 93. 
 
 Dor'lc, Order, 126. 
 
 Do'ris, 76. 
 
 Ale, care, ain.iirin, flual; eve, obey, end, Utir, recent; ice, ill, pique; old, orb, odd, move; 
 
ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. 
 
 1009 
 
 Doit, TftOm'as, 892. 
 
 Dor-y-lae'iim, 306. 
 
 DouK'las, Ste'phen (-v'n) A., 904, 900, 
 
 922. 
 Do'ver, 822. 
 
 Dow'iiie, Comraander, 872. 
 Diil'cO, 96. 
 Dia-gat-scliaii', 647. 
 Drake, Sii- Fian'Qis, 4.'i9, 788, 799. 
 Dia'per, Cliier Justice, 946. 
 Dia'per. Heu'ry, 941. 
 Diep'a-iium, 170. 
 Dres'deii, 424, 519,524,528,530,533,614, 
 
 679, 716. 
 Dres'deii, Battle of, 620. 
 Dies'ileii. Peace of, 528. 
 Diex'el Institute, 938. 
 Diii'iUs, 199, 200, 226. 
 Drum'iiioucl, Sir Gor'doii, 872. 
 DrCi'sus, Liv'i-us, ISO, 192, 212, 214, 
 
 220. 
 Dsche'luiii, 137. 
 Dii-bar-tas', 464. 
 Dub'liii, 366, 776. 
 Du Bols (bwa), Cardinal, 513. 
 Du-9liesiie, Pere, 571. 
 Dii-elerc', General, 958. 
 Dfl-ciOC, General, 734. 
 Dud'ley, T/ioiu'as, 433, 816. 
 Dfl-faiire' (-for'), 758. 759. 
 Duf/er-in, Lord, 948. 
 Dul'ce (-si). General, 725. 
 DCi-iiias', Al-e.K-an'der. Oo.i. 
 Dii-iiioii-ri-ez', 564, o6S. ."j70. 
 Dun-bar', Battle of, 488, 490, 491. 
 Duii'kiirs, 826, 891. 
 Du-pont', 606. 
 
 I)Q poN-r de rEnre (lur). G72. 
 Da-pont', Siiin'u-el F., 91i. 
 Dup'pel, 705. 
 
 Du qnesne' (kfiii'). Fort, 830. 831. 
 Dii-quesne' (-kail'), Guveriuir, 828. 
 DCi'rer, Arbrecht, 466 
 Dur'liani (-uiii), Earl of, 945. 
 Du-rOc', 620. 
 Dus'sel-dorf, 601. 
 Dutcli, 448. 576, 661, 742, 754. 773, 795, 798, 
 
 799, 817, 821, 824, 847, HbS. 
 Dwer-nick'i, 663. 
 Dw'i'na, 552. 
 
 Earl'y, Jii'bAl A., 918. 
 Eastern Cliurcli, 314. 
 I'^astern Empire, 392. 
 East In'di-a Cnmpaiiy, 448. ,573. 836. 
 E.ist lu'dies, 374. 395, 396, 402, 687. 
 E'bro, 171, 203, 279. 
 Ec-bat'a-ua, 74, 134, 136, 141. 
 Eck, Joftn, 407, 408. 
 Ed'da, 285. 
 E'den, 29. 
 E'den-toii, 808. 
 £ des'sa, 306, 308. 
 
 Eil'ai-burgli (-bur-ro), 458, 481, 488. 
 Ed'i-son, T/uim'fts Al'va, 741, 941. 
 Edoiii-ites (-duni-),144. 
 E.l'wctrd. Fort, 844. 
 
 Ed'ward I., of En'gliud (ing'), 318, 339, 
 362. 
 
 fid'wcird II., of En'giand (ing'), 362, 
 Ed'ward III., o£ En'glaud (in^'') 352, 
 
 354, 362. 
 Ed'ward IV., of En'gland (ing'), 364. 
 Ed'ward VI., of Eu'glfuid (ing'), 432, 
 
 433, 435. 
 Ed'wnrds, Joii'a-tliaii. 821. 
 Ed'ward, the Black Prince, 352. 
 Ed'ward, tlie Confessor, 286. 
 Eg'bert,261. 
 fe'ger, 474, 523. 
 Ege'ri-ft, 154. 
 Eg£/'les-ton, Ed 'word, 939. 
 Eg'in-liard, 282. 
 Eg-inONC, Count, 442. 
 E'gypt, 26, 33, 39, 43. 44, 46, 47. 48, 49, 52, 
 
 54, 65, 66,72, 73, 81, 97, 98, 103, 132,134, 
 
 141, 142, 143, 144, 203, 204, 208, 243. 244, 
 
 ■-68, 310, 316, 3J0, 5B5, 688, 692, 593, 647, 
 
 773, 774. 
 .Ei'der, Iliver, 280, 294. 
 Eif-lel', 778. 
 .Bi'seu-iic/1,615. 
 £is'le-ben, 423. 
 E'lain, 37. 
 El-a-te'a, 130. 
 El'ba, 625, 030. 
 
 Elbe, 212, 277, 280, 598, 622, 716. 
 El'bing, 318. 
 £l-do-ra'do, 403. 
 E-lec'tiTi, 123. 
 El-S-plian'ta, 36. 
 £l-eu-siu'i-au Mysteries, 113. 
 £ leu'sis, 76. 
 El'gin, Lord, 946, 947. 
 £ li, 58. 
 E-li'as, 64. 
 E'iot, George, 655. 
 £l'i-ot, of Mass-a cliu'setts, 820. 
 E lis, 77, 92, 113, 251. 
 E li'slia, 05. 
 E lis'sa, 51. 
 
 £-liz'a-betli, of Bn-h?'nii a, 467. 
 Eliz'a-betli, of Eii'glSnd (ing'), 434, 435, 
 
 447, 457, 458, 460, 480, 800, 935. 
 E liz-a-betli, of Par'iiia, 514. 
 £-liz';\-betli, of Eus'sia (slifi), 524, 528, 
 
 532, 534. 
 E liz'il-betli. Sister of Loii'is XVI., 572. 
 El-kafr', 42. 
 £l-lor'a, 36. 
 El'ster, 408. 
 El'ster Bridge, 622. 
 E-ly'sium ( zliuiii), 80. 
 Emancipation Proclamation, 911. 
 Ein-an'u-el, of Por-tu'gal, 398, 958. 
 Em'er-Bon, Knipli Wal'do, 894, 896, 937. 
 Em'e-sa, God of, 235. 
 £m-inan'u-el tlie Great, of Spain, 368. 
 Ern'ma, Queen ol tlie Neth'er-lauds, 781. 
 Ems, 725. 
 
 Eii'dl-cott, Jo/m, 815, 817, 819. 820. 
 Eii( )gliien' (doN-gaN'), Duke d',596, 655. 
 En'gland (ing'), 261, 275, 285, 286, £88, 356, 
 
 360, 362, 363, 364, 306, 367, 398, 404, 405, 
 429, 430, -132, 447, 448, 450, 457. 458, 459, 
 464, 479, 481, 490, 499, 510, 534, 652, 668, 
 ,576, 585, 591, .'■i92, 593. 514. 593, 635, 630, 
 611, 642, 644, 648, 652, 6:8, 177, (f6 687, 
 
 688, 6S9, 690, 091, C98, 705. 708, 742, 764, 
 767, 768, 771, 772, 773, 775, 779. 782, 78 
 784, 783, 791, 795, 798, 799, S08, 812, 81 
 828, 831, 832, 834, 835, 836, 837, 838, 839, 
 840, 844, 847, 852, 853, 858, 860, 864, 866, 
 868, 872, 874, 876, 901, 908, 915. 921, 927, 
 931, 942, 951, 959. 
 En'gland (ing'), Churcli of, 429, 430, 432, 
 435, 479, 492, 688, 806, 807, SOS, 817, 890, 
 944. 
 En'glisli (ing') Channel, 200. 
 En'gllsh (ing') Constitntion, 362. 
 En'zi-o, 325, 326, 330. 
 
 E-pam-i-uon'das, 77, 119. 120, 121, 125, 127- 
 Eph'e-sus, 87, loi, 113, 645. 
 Eph'Ors, 93. 
 E'phra-iin, 56. 
 £p-i-cu-re'ans, 145. 
 Ep-i-cu'riis, 146, 211. 
 £ pi'rus, 75, 81, 202, 300. 
 £pis'co-pal Churcli. Ste Church of 
 
 England. 
 E-ras'miis, 404, 405. 
 £r- -tos'tliC'ues, 145. 
 ftr-c/ian'ger. Count, 288. 
 E'rC'S-bui'g, 279. 
 E re'tri-a, 78, lul. 
 Er'tiirt, 406, 604. 
 E'rio XIV., 437. 
 Er'ic sson, .luftii, 915. 
 Eric, the Saint, 379. 
 E rid'a-iiu-i, 82. 
 E'rie Canal, 883. 
 E'rie, Fort, 872, 943. 
 E'rie, Lake, 870, 942. 
 Er'nest, Duke of Mii'nic/i, 350. 
 Er'nest of Mans'feld (-feldt), 468. 
 Ernst Au'gust (ow'goost). King of 
 
 Hfui'Cver, 664. 
 Ernst of Schwa'bi-a, 294. 
 E'ros, 78, 79. 
 E'ryx, 170. 
 E'sau (saw), 52. 
 Es-par-te'ro, General, 665. 
 Es-p'i nasse' 685. 
 Es-senes', 144. 
 Es'sex, Earl of, 460, 484, 486, 
 Ess'ling, see Aspern. 
 Es'te, House of, .377. 
 Es-tho'ni-a., 380, 522. 
 E thi-o'pi-a, 24, 39, 48. 104. 
 E-trii'ri-a, 147, 14S, 102, 166, 171, 172, 192, 
 
 198. 
 £t'(en-heini, 597. 
 Etsch, 191. 
 Eii-h(B'a, 78. 
 .Eii'clid, 145. 
 £u-cli'des, 114. 
 .Bu-dox'i-a, 256. 
 .ECi-er'ge-tes, 143. 
 Eygewe. of Ba-va'ri-a, 600. 
 .Hu'geue IV., Pope, 349. 
 .Ea'gene, Prince of Sa-voy',505, 510, 511 
 
 512. 
 £flge-nie' (zlia-). Empress, 694, 695,729. 
 £";-ge'ni-us, 249. 
 i?ii len-spie'gel, Till, 162. 
 £.i'me-nes, 141. 
 S.'.'pat-ri-dje, 06. 
 
 64 
 
 use, (irn, up, rii.le; food, fjjt; by; 9JII ; N=iig; italic letters silent or obscure. 
 
1010 
 
 ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. 
 
 £j-l)lirrt'tes, Sr, 12, 65, 70, 134, 197, 199, 
 
 218. 
 ^Ci-i-ip'l-des, 12S, 124, 507. 
 
 zra-io'ia*, 77, 96^ ua, 
 
 J?a-ify-b.i'a-des, 106. 
 ^Bu-s&'toj-ua, 217, 9401. 
 
 Ev'ans, Miai''!raB, 655i 
 
 Eve, 23. 
 
 i;.>:'e-tei-, 822 
 
 JSy'lau (-16), KwitfeoS, 6021 
 
 .Cv'naid, 647. 
 
 fe'ra, 66. 
 
 fe-zg.Ii'iiO, of Ve-DB'HHvSffil 32«. 
 
 Fa'bi-ans, 160. 
 Fa'bi-us, General, 166. 
 Fa'bi-us Miix'i-mus, 173i 176.. 
 Fa'bi-us Quiii'tus, 171. 
 Fa-bi-i(;'i-us, 166. 
 Faii-'iax, 486. 
 Fail- Oaks, Battle of, 910. 
 Fa-l'i-e'ri, Ala-ri'nO, 372. 
 Talk, Dr., 744, 746, 747, 748. 
 Fal'keii-steui, 716. 
 FaMers-leben, Von, 739. 
 Far-a-day, 740. 
 Fav'a-da?/, Mi'c/iael, 941. 
 Fa-rel', 427. 
 
 Far-nese', Al-ex-aii'der, 446. 
 Far-nl-gut, Da'vid, 910. 
 Far-sis-tau', 68. 
 Fa'ti-me, 268. 
 Fauns (fawns), 80. 
 Faust (lowst), 395. 
 Faus'ta (fows'), 240. 
 
 Faus-ti'na (fows-), 230. 
 
 Fiivre, Jules, 734, 735. 
 
 Fawkes, Gjiy, 480. 
 
 Fear, Cape, 808. 
 
 Federation, Festival of, 563. 
 
 Fe/im'ge-ric/it, 337. 
 
 Fe/tr'bel-lin, Battle of, 502. 
 
 Fe'lixV., Pope, 349. 
 
 Fel'ien-berg Institute, 893. 
 
 Fell'ner, 716. 
 
 Fel'ton, Cor-nel'ius (-yils) C, 894. 
 
 Fe-ne-loN', 507. 
 
 Fe'ni-auR, 68" 
 
 Fe'O-dor, of Riis'sia (-slia), 385, 516. 
 
 Fer'di-nand, Archduke, 466. 
 
 Fijr'di-nand of Aus'tria (aws'), 678. 
 
 Fijr'di-nand of Bruns'wick, 63!!, 533, 565. 
 
 FiJr'dl-nand of Bul-ga'ri-a (bool-), 782. 
 
 FiJr'di-nand of Cas-tile', 272. 
 
 Fer'di-nand I., of Gijr'ma-ny, 383, 410, 425, 
 426, 466. 
 
 FSr'di-nand II., of Ger'nia-ny, 467, 468, 
 471, 477. 
 
 Fiir'di-nand III., of Ger'ma-ny, 477. 
 
 Fer'di-nand I., of Na'ples and Si9'i-Iy, 
 (IV., of Naples), 584, 630, 639. 
 
 Fer'di-nand II., of Na'ples and Si?'lly, 
 707, 710. 
 
 FiJr'di-nand V., of Spain, 367, 363, 372, 
 377, 400, 415. 
 
 Fer'di-nand VI., of Spain, 514. 
 
 Fer'di-nand VII., of Spain. C04, 605, 608, 
 63", 610, 604, 949, 954, 955. 
 
 Fer'di-nand III., of Tiis'cany, 622. 
 
 Fer'di-nand, Prince of Cu'burg (boorg), 
 770. 
 
 Fere-Champe-no-ise' (sliaN-pe-no-az')621. 
 
 Fer-g/ian-is-tau', 754. 
 
 Fer'gO-son, Pat'rick, 849. 
 
 Fer'nior. 5.12. 
 
 Fer-ra'ra, 377. 
 
 Fer'ry, 759. 
 
 Feudalism, 330. 
 
 Feu'er-bac7i (foi'j, An'drg-as, 739. 
 
 Feu'er-bacli (foi'), An'selm, 657. 
 
 Fiiu-illants' (yaN'), 563. 
 
 Ficli'te, 540. 741. 
 
 Fe-de'uEe, 220. 
 
 Fi-es'co, 372. 
 
 Fi-es'clii (ke). Cardinal, 325. 
 
 Fi-es'chi (ke), of Cor'si-c.a, 325, 666. 
 
 Fi-gwe'ras, 761. 
 
 Fin 'land, 379,604. 780. 
 
 Fin'iand, Gulf of, 384. 
 
 Fir-dii'si, S74. 
 
 Fiscli'art, John, 462. 
 
 Fiseh'er, Ku'no, 710. 
 
 Fisli'er, Bisbop, 430. 
 
 Fish'er, Fort, 916. 
 
 Fisli'er. George P., 940. 
 
 Fisli'er, Ma'ry, 819. 
 
 Fiske, John, 940. 
 
 Five Forks, 919. 
 
 Five Nations, 938. 
 
 Fiac'ciis, Ful'vi-us, 189. 
 
 Flag'el-lants, 335. 
 
 Fia-min'l-a, Vi'a, 171. 
 
 Fia-niin'i-iis, Qnin'tus, 172, 179, 184. 
 
 Flan'ders, 356, 363, 378, 576, 661. 
 
 Flau-bert' (Ho bar'), 657. 
 
 Fla'vi-ans, 223. 
 
 Fla'vi-ds Fim'bria, 194. 
 
 Fleteb'er, Governor, 826. 
 
 Flod'den Field, 366. 
 
 FlO-quet' (-ka'), 760, 778. 
 
 FlOi-'en^e, 375. 376, 390, 404, 420, 70S, 713. 
 
 Flor'i-da, 787, 788, 808, 811, 864, 878, 900, 
 907, 928, 953. 
 
 Flor'i-<ta, (vessel), 916. 
 
 FlO'rus, Ges'si-us, 224. 
 
 Folk'ungs (-oungs). House of, 380. 
 
 F6n-se'ca, da, 959. 
 
 Fu.\--taine-bleau' (-bio), 609. 625. 
 
 Fuote, An'drew (-drii) H., 9u9. 
 
 Forbes, Jo/ai, 831. 
 
 For'uin, KO'mau, 150, 154, 156, 234. 
 
 Fos'co-10,650. 
 
 Foii-cjlie, 578, 591, 595, 626, 632, 634 
 
 Foil que' (ka'), 050. 
 
 Foii-qui-e)-' (-Ice-), Tin-vilie' (tax-), 571. 
 
 Foii'ri-er, 741. 
 
 Fox, River, 793. 
 
 France, 199, 271, 282, 284, 285, 339, 356, 
 363, 366, 372, 374, 378, 415, 416, 418, 419, 
 420, 421, 427. 428, 450, 452, 454, 456, 464, 
 481, 494, 502, 505, 510, 543. 544. ,547, 551, 
 555, S57, 560, 561, 563, 564. 568, 576, 578, 
 580, 582, 585, 591, 592, 693, 594, 595, 598, 
 599, 612, 619, 620, 622, 625, 626, 630, 632, 
 636, 641, 648, 655, 657, 658, 660, 665, 671, 
 680, 683, 684, 635, 086, 688, 689, 690, 691, 
 698, 709, 713, 717, 721, 722, 723, 725, 726, 
 
 727, 729, 730, 736, 741, 743, 746, 747, 748, 
 
 7^2, 754, 755, 756. 757, 760, 761, 762, 778, 
 
 779, 780, 782, 788, 791. 792, 793, 794, 826, 
 
 828, 830. 831, 832, 834, 847, 850, 852, 853, 
 
 858, 860, 862, 864, £66, 874, 876, 915, 921, 
 
 922, 930, 942, 951, 959. 
 Frau'(;i-a, Doctor, 956. 
 Fran'gis, Duke of Guise, 450 
 rran'(;is JO'sepli, of Aus'tri-a (aws') 
 
 678, 695, 700, 708, 717, 722, 752. 
 Fran'(jis of As-si'si, 332. 
 Fran'Qis I., of France, 374, 416, 418, 419, 
 
 42 1, 790. 
 Fran'(;is II., of Frange, 448. 
 Fran'(;is I., of Ger'ina-ny, 528. 
 Fran'9is II., of Gijr'ma-uy, 582, 600, 601, 
 
 612, 614, 635. 
 Fran'ijis II., of Na'ples ,and Siij'i-ly, 710, 
 
 711. 
 Franclie (froNsb) Com-te (koN-), 502. 
 Francis'cans, 332, 342, 789. 
 FraN'co-Ger'inan War, 725. 
 FraN-co'ni-a, 296, 410, 412, 426, 502. 716. 
 Frauk'fort, 424, 526, 528, 622, 645, 676, 677, 
 
 630. 705, 716, 721, 732, 738. 
 Frank'fort, Council at, 622. 
 Frank'tort, Diet of, 664. 
 Frank'fort-on-the-Main, :;82. 
 Fran'ki-a, West, 282. 
 Fraiik'lin, see Ten'nes-sJ^. 
 FrankTm, Beii'ja-niin, 820, 835, 841, 847, 
 
 852, 856, 888. 894. 897. 
 Frank'lin, Sir Joiin. 743, 941. 
 Franks. 248, 254, 255, 257, 258, 261, 264,275, 
 
 276, '279, 280, 282, 284, 314, 316. 
 Franque'lin (frank'), 794. 
 Fran'zos, 739. 
 Fraternities, 645. 
 Fred-er-ii'ca. Geor'gi-a. 810. 
 Fred-e-ric'i-a (risli') 478, 630. 
 Fred-er-i'ca Cath'er-ine of Wur'ten-bflrg 
 
 (woor), 600. 
 Fred'iir-ick, Au-giis'tus (aw-), of Sax'- 
 
 o-ny.620. 
 Fred'iir-ick I, Bar -ba-ros'sa, 312,321, 322, 
 
 323. 
 Fred'fjr-ick Cliarles, Prince of FriJs'sia 
 
 (-Sba), 705.727, 728. 
 Fred'ier ick of Au-giis'ten-biirg (ow-), 
 
 704. 705, 706. 
 Fred'er-ick I.,of Ans'tri-a, (aws') 311, 342. 
 Fred'iir-ick of Ba'deii. 329. 
 Fred'cr-ick I., of Bran'dcn-biirg, 344. 
 Fred'iir-ick IV., of Den'mark, 518, 520. 
 Fred'iir-ick VI., of Den'mark, 548. 
 Fred'iir-ick VII., of Den'mark, 704. 
 Fred'iir-ick II., of Ger'nia-ny, 316, 324, 
 
 325. 326, 330, 337, 383. 
 Fred'iir-ick III , of Ger'ma-ny, 349, 350. 
 Fred'iir-ick III., " The Noble," of Ger'- 
 ma-ny, 750. 
 Fred'iir-ick of Ho'/ien-stau-feu (-stow-), 
 
 289. 
 Fred'fir-ick of Hol'siein, 522. 
 Fred'er-ick I., of Prds'sia (sha), 510. 
 
 525. 
 Fred'iii'-ick II., of Prfls'sia (-.sba), 52.'). 
 626, 528, 530, 532, 533, 534, 536, 537, 545, 
 
 551. 
 
 Ale, care, am, arm, final , eve, obey, end, hijr, recent ; ice, ill, pique ; old, orb. Odd, move ; 
 
ALrHABETICAL AND PROXOUNCIXG INDEX. 
 
 1011 
 
 Fred'er-ick I., ot Scliles'wig-HOl'steiii, 
 
 436. 
 Frecl'ei'-ick, ot S\va'bi-;i, 312, 318, 322. 
 Fred'er-ick, of Swe'deii. 522 
 Fied'er-ick, "of tlie Bitten Cheek." 330. 
 
 339. 
 Fred'er-ick III.: of t'le Pa-lit i-uatc, 
 
 408. 427. 
 Fred'er-icic V., of the Pa-lat'I-natc 4G7, 
 
 472, 477. 4-0. 494. 
 Fred'er-icks-burg, 910. 912. 
 Fred'er-ick, the Great. 828. 
 Fred'er-ick, tlie Wise, 40B, 407. 
 Fred'er-ick Wil'liam (-yam), of Braii'- 
 
 deii-biirg, 478, 600, 502, 524, 
 Fred'er-ick Wil'liam (-.yarn) I., Prus'sia 
 
 (-slia),525, 526. 
 Fred'er-ick Wil'liam (-yam) II., of 
 
 Pris'sia (-shil), 536, 537, 552, 5(55. 
 Fred'ei-lck Wil'liam (-yain) 111., of 
 
 Prus'siii (-sha), 599, 603, 635. 
 Fred'er-ick Wil'liam (-yam) IV., ot 
 
 Prus'sia (-sha), 657, 668, 702, 744. 
 Frel'a, 21s. 
 
 Frei'burg (-bOorg), 502, 671. 
 Frei'li-grat/i, 739. 
 Fre'rON,57S. 
 Friy-qi-nH', 759. 
 Frey'tag 739. 
 
 Fried'land (tret'laut), 468. 
 Fried'laiid (Iret'laiit), Battle of, 603. 
 Fried'i-iclis-hall, Siege ot, 522. 
 Fri'sians (-zhaiis), 218,276, 323, 337. 
 Frob'isli-er, 799. 
 Froe'bel, 540. 
 Fro/is'dort, 757. 
 Frois'sart, 335. 
 Frolic (vessel), 868. 
 FrOnde, War ot the, 498. 
 Fioii-te-iiac', Count 794. 
 FrOu-te-uaC, Fort, 794. 831. 
 FrOs-sard', General, 727, 
 Frunds'berg, 418. 
 Fii'ad Pa-slia', 694. 
 Fu-en'en, 478. 
 
 Ful'da (foul-), Abbey of, 276, 280, 332. 
 Ful'ton (tool-) Rob'ert, 741, 886. 
 Ful'vi-a, 207. 
 Fun'dy, Bay of, 791. 
 
 Fur'sten-berg, Wil'liam (-yam) of, 504. 
 Fyl'ken, Kings, 379. 
 
 Ga-bin'i-an Law, 197. 
 
 Gab'lenz, General, 714. 
 
 Ga-bro'na, 765. 
 
 Gad, 56 
 
 Ga'des, 50, 176. 
 
 Ga-e'ta, 676, 711. 
 
 Gage, T/iom'as, 837, 
 
 Ga'gern, 678, 679. 
 
 Ga'ius (-yiis), 232. 
 
 Ga-la'ti-a (-shi-), 628. 
 
 Gil'ba, 221. 
 
 Gii-le'ri-us, 239, 213. 
 
 Ga-Iic'i-a (-lisli'), 381, 552. 
 
 Gal-i-Ie'o, ot Pi-sa, 460, 462. 
 
 Gal-/au-det' (aw-), T/inm'as H., 893. 
 
 Gal'Iic Wars. 199, 200, 202. 
 
 Gal-li-e'uiis, 236. 
 
 Gal'ves-ton, 910. 
 
 Ga'ma. Admiral da. 959. 
 
 Ga'ma, Vas'cO da, 396, 398. 
 
 Giiin-bet'ta, 730. 734, 7.36, 755, 758, 759. 
 
 Gan'ges, 32. 34. 138,687. 
 
 Gar'da, Lake. 720. 
 
 Gar'tield, James A., 929, 930. 
 
 Gar-i-bal'di, 676, 707, 710, 711,712, 713, 720' 
 730, 760, 761. 
 
 Ga-rOii7!e', 351, 369. 
 
 Gar'ci-son, Wil'liam (-y.ini) LJoyd, 902. 
 
 Gas'cil, Fe'drO de la, 403. 
 
 Gas'kell, Mrs., 655. 
 
 Gas-tein', 706, 713. 
 
 Gates, HO-ra'ti-u (slii-), 838, 846, 847, S49. 
 
 Gau'chos (goW), 953, 957. 
 
 Gaul (gawl), 88. 162, 164, 165, 166, 171, 172, 
 191, 199, 200. 239. 244, 247, 248, 249, 251, 
 252, 254, 255, 257. 
 
 Gauss (gows), 710. 
 
 GfiiZ-Lus-sac', 740. 
 
 Ga'za, 38. 132, 316. 
 
 Geb'liard. Archbishop, 466. 
 
 Gei'bel, Ein-niriu'Ci-el, 739. 
 
 Gei'sa I., ot HiiN'gi'i-ry, 3S1. 
 
 Gei'sa II., of HuN'ga-ry, 381. 
 
 Ge'la, 88. 
 
 Gel'i-mer, 262. 
 
 Gel'/ert, 538. 
 
 Geu'e-sis, 23. 
 
 Ge-ne'v.i, 279, 374. 427, 428, 429, 585, 760. 
 
 Ge-nc'va, Lake, 191, 199, 592. 
 
 Geu'o-a, 370, 372, 374, 418, 503, 584, 592, 
 630. 
 
 Gcn'ser-ie, 254, 255, 256. 
 
 George Fred'er-ick, of Ba'den, 40S. 
 
 George, Lake, 831. 
 
 George I., of En'glaud (ing'), 494, 514. 
 
 George II., ot En'gland (ing'), 528. 
 
 George III., ot En'gland (ing'), 514, 534, 
 547, 834, 835, 836, 879, 882. 
 
 George IV., of En'gland (liig'), 642. 
 
 George 1., of Greeks, 695. 
 
 Geoige, of Hau'o-ver, 716. 
 
 George, of Sax'o-ny, 422. 
 
 Geor'gi-a. 78S, 809, 810, 811, 823, 837, 848, 
 864, 878, OOG, 907, 914, 925. 
 
 Ge-iiet' (zhe-), fid-m6N(2', 860. 
 
 Gen'g/us Khan, 386, 3S9. 
 
 Gep'i-da;, 264. 
 
 Ge-rard' (zha-). Assassin, 447. 
 
 Ge-rard (zha-), FraN-coIs' (-swa'), 658. 
 
 Ger'bert, 294. 
 
 Ger'hard, Paul (pawl), 462. 
 
 Ger-mau'i-cus, 214, 219, 220. 
 
 Ger'mau-town, 824, 844, 846. 
 
 Ger'ma-ny, 44, 191, 199, 200, 212, 213, 214, 
 216, 218, 219, 220, 236, 247, 251, 255, 265, 
 266, 276, 280, 284, 285, 288, 292, 294, 296, 
 321. 322, 324, 335, 337, 341, 350, 356, 379, 
 381, 405, 406, 408, 410, 416, 418, 420, 421, 
 425, 426, 442, 450. 452, 472, 502, 503, 505, 
 5S5, 537, 546, -555, 576, 585, 592, 598, 599, 
 601. 602, 620, 636, 645, 646, 643, 657, 660, 
 663, 608, 070, 673, 675, C76, 677, 679, 700, 
 701, 700, 708, 714, 721, 725, 726, 730, 732, 
 734, 737, 738, 742, 743, 744, 748, 752, 753, 
 760, 761, 763, 764, 771. 777, 778, 780, 781, 
 784, 826, 927, 931, 937, 959. 
 
 Giir'ma-ny, Literature of, 460. 
 
 Ge-roii'si-.i, 93. 
 
 Ger'j-y, El'bridge, 862. 
 
 Ge'ta, 234. 
 
 Get'<ys-burg, Battle of, 912. 
 
 G/ient, 378, 628. 
 
 Gftent, Treaty of, 874. 
 
 G/iib'el-lines, 319, 324, 325. 326, 328, 329, 
 
 341, 342, 343, 372, 375, 377. 
 Gi-bral'tor (-brawl'), 270, 511, 512, 641, 
 
 852. 
 Gi-bral'tar (-brawl'), Sti-ait ot, 252. 
 Gid-e-on. 56. 
 Gee'se-brecAt, 740. 
 Gil'bert, Sir Hnm'phrey, 799. 
 Gil-bO'a, 58. 
 
 Gil'der, Rich'ard Wat'son (wof), 939. 
 Gil'der -sleeve, Bas'll L., 941. 
 Gil'more, Har'ry, 915. 
 GiO-ber'ti, 668. 
 Gio'ja (jo'-e-a), Fla'vi-o, 395. 
 Gi-ronde' (zhe-), 565, 570, 571. 
 Gi-ron'dists, 564, 567, 570, 571, 573. 
 Glad'stone Wil'liam (yam), Ew'art 
 
 (u'art) 771, 772. 776, 783, 7S4. 
 Gla'rus (-roos), 414. 
 Glau'^i-a (glaW), 191. 
 GlO'rI-a Dei Church, 799. 
 Glo'ri-a, Ma-ri'il da, 640. 
 Glowces'ter, 805. 
 Gliick, 658, 
 
 Gnei'se-nau (-ze-iiow), 623. 
 Gnefst, 740. 
 Go'a. 398. 
 
 Gocjh, Governor, 806. 
 God'frey de Bo«JI'-lon (yon'), 301, 306, 
 
 308. 
 God'frey of Lor'raine, 296. 
 Go-do'y (tho'e), 604. 
 GO-ersz', Baron von, 522. 
 Goe't/ie, 539, 540. 
 Golden Age, 210. 
 Golden Bull, 343. 
 Golden Fleece, Order of, 378. 
 Golden Horde, 385, 3S8. 
 Gulds'bor-O (-bur-), 920. 
 Guild Hope, Cape of, 396. 
 Good'win, Wil'liam (-yam-) W., 941. 
 Gor'di-iJni, 131. 
 Gor'don, Cliarles George, 775. 
 Gor'ge-y (gijr'ge-e), 678. 
 Gorm, the Old, 379. 
 Gort-.sclia-ko££, Prince, 689, 692, 696, 764, 
 
 767, 
 
 GO'shen, 52, 54. 
 
 Gos'lar, 296. 
 
 Go't/ia, 532. 
 
 Go-tftard', Saint, 725, 7^0. 
 
 Go-tftenbdrg, 781. 
 
 Goths, 218, 236, 238, 246, 249, 251, 254, 255, 
 
 257, 258, 262, 270. 
 Gotli'ic Architecture, 336. 
 Got'ting-en, University of, 664. 
 Goti'schalk. 304. 
 Gotz, ot Ber'licft-eng-en, 412. 
 Gourg?(es, D6m-in-ique' (-ek'), de, 788. 
 Goiir'la)/, Rob'ert, 943. 
 Grac'c/ius, Ca'ius (yQs). 186, 188, 189. 
 Grac'cftiis, Ti-be'ri-us, 188, 
 
 use, flrn, up, riide; fOOd, foot; by: ijell; N=ns; italic letters silent or obscure. 
 
1012 
 
 ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. 
 
 , Giaf'ton, Dukeol, S35. 
 
 Gra-na'da, 272, 368, 398. 
 
 Gran'i-cus, 131, 136. 
 
 Gran-son', (graN-suN') Battle of, 373. 
 
 Grant, (African explorer), 742. 
 
 Grant, tJ-lys'ses S., 878, 909, 912, 913, 918, 
 919, 926, 927, 928, 9i9, 938. 
 
 Gran'veUe, Cardinal, 442. 
 
 Grape Monntaiu, 111. 
 
 Grasse, Count dfi, 850. 
 
 Gra'tl-an (-slii-), 249. 
 
 Grav'e-lotfe, Battle of, 728. 
 
 (ira-ve', P6n(, 791. 
 
 Gray, A'sa, 941. 
 
 Gray, E-li'slia, 941. 
 
 Greece. 27. 47, 48, 52, 75. 77, 78, 80, 81, 
 83, 84, 86, 88, 89, 90, 92, 100, 101, 102, 
 104, 105, 106, 107, 110, 11-2, 118, 119, 121, 
 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 130, 131, 136,140, 
 141, 142, 144, 147, 166 167, 179, 182, 184, 
 192, 202, 207, 212, 240, 213, 244, 251,265, 
 292, 370, 388, 420, 551, 646, 647, 648, 695, 
 782. 
 
 Greek Catholic Clinrcli, 282, 549, 551, 616. 
 
 Greek (language), 404, 405. 
 
 Gree'ley, Hor'a<;e, 898, 926, 927. 
 
 Gree'ly. A. W., 743, 941. 
 
 Greenbackers, 929, 930. 
 
 Greene, Na-tlian'a-el, 839, 849, 850. 
 
 Green'land, 285. 
 
 Green Mountains, 854. 
 
 Greg'o-ry, Hisliop, 260. 
 
 Greg'o-ry VII., Pope, 275, 288, 276, 298, 
 300. 
 
 Greg'0-ry, IX., 325. 
 
 Gi-eg'iVry XIII., 43S. 
 
 Gre-no'ble, 628. 
 
 Gren'viUe. George. 834. 835, 944. 
 
 Gre-vy' (-ve'), 736, 756, 759, 760. 
 
 Grey, Lady Jane, 433. 
 
 Grill'par-zer (-tzer), 739. 
 
 Grimm Brothers, 650. 
 
 Gris'vvold (-wuld), Bishop, 890. 
 
 Gro'nin-gen (hrO'ning-hen), 500. 
 
 Gro-sel'liers (-ya), 793. 
 
 Gro'ti-us (-Shi-), lli'go, 44S. 
 
 Gr6i(-c;hy', 632. 
 
 Grove, George, 741. 
 
 Gua'chos (gvva'). see Gauchos. 
 
 Gua-na-ha'ni (gwa-), 40«i. 
 
 Gua-te-ma'la (gaw-), 953. 
 
 Gua-te-nio'zin (gwa-), 403. 
 
 Gwer'ri-ere, 868. 
 
 Gud'den, Von, 749. 
 
 Guelph (gwelf). House of, 319. 749, 
 
 Guelphs (gwelfs), 320, 321, 324, 326, 341, 
 343, 372, 375, 377. 
 
 Guer-ll'las, 605, 608, 639. 
 
 G«e-rin (-ras'), Jean (zhan), 793. 
 
 Giieux, 442. 
 
 Gui'dO (gweO, of A-rez'zo (-ret'so), 272. 
 
 Gui'do (pwe'), of Je-rfi'sa-lem, 312. 
 
 Guil'fonI Court House, Battle of, 849. 
 
 Gi(in'e-a. 396. 
 
 Gwis-card', Rob'ert, 2»S, 298. 
 
 Guis-card', Rog'er, 2SS. 
 
 Guise (gwez), Heu'ry of, 450, 452, 453, 
 
 454. 
 Gtti-teau' (tC), Charles J., 930. 
 
 Gui-zoC, 638, 671, 685. 
 
 Gunpowdei'. 395. 
 
 Gunpowder Plot, 479. 
 
 Gur'ko, General. 765. 
 
 Giis-tav'son, Colonel. 604. 
 
 Gus-ta'vus A-dol-phus, ol Swe'den,437, 
 
 471, 472, 477, 478, 798. 
 Giis-ta'viis III., of Swe'den, 545, 548, 552. 
 Gus-ta'vus IV., of Swe'den, 603, 604. 
 Gus-ta'vus Va'sa, of Swe'den, 436. 
 Giit'en-berg, Joftn, 395, 658. 
 Giitz'koM. Karl, 738. 
 Gy-lip'pis, 113. 
 Gyu lai (dyoo'). Field Marshal, 708. 
 
 Haa'se, 2S0. 
 
 Habeas Corpus Act, 493. 
 
 lla'des, 78, 80. 
 
 Ha'dri-an, Emperor, 224, 226, 230. 
 
 Ha'dri-an I., Pone, 279. 
 
 H.i'dri-an VI., Pope, 438. 
 
 Hae'mus, 388. 
 
 Ha'fiz, 274. 
 
 Ha'gar, 52. 
 
 Ha'ge dorn, 538. 
 
 Ha'gel-berg, 622. 
 
 HagMe, 494. 
 
 HaAn-Haftn, Countess, 739. 
 
 Hal-ber-stadt', 323, 477. 
 
 Hill'dj-mand, Governor, 942. 
 
 Ha-li ar'tus, 120. 
 
 Hal-i-car-nas'sus, 88, 124, 131. 
 
 Hall (liawl), Charles Fran'^is, 941. 
 
 Hiirie, 294. 
 
 Ilal'ieck, Hen'ry W.,909.. 
 
 Hal'ier, 538. 
 
 Hal'le, University of, 525. 
 
 Hall (hawl), Stan'Iey, 91C. 
 
 Ham, 23. 
 
 Ha'matli, 38. 
 
 Ham 'bach, 664. 
 
 Ilain'biirg, 380, 602, 612, 622, 680, 748. 
 
 lla'nifr-ling, 7.39. 
 
 Ilam'id Ed'dai, 782. 
 
 Ha-niil'car Bar'cas, 170. 171. 
 
 Hiim'z'I-ton, Al'ex-an'der, 856, 853, 860 
 
 862. 864, 878, 879, 880, 834. 
 Ham'il-ton, An'drew (-drii), 826. 
 Ham'il-ton, Lady. 584. 
 Hanip'den. Jo/iu, 481, 482, 486. 
 Hamp'ton, 938. 
 
 Ilamp'ton Koads, 830, 910, 914, 922. 
 Ha'nau (-now). Battle of, 622. 
 Han'cock, Governor, 8.54. 
 Han'del, George Fred'er-icK, .538. 
 Han'ni-bal, 171, 172, 173, 174, 176, 178, 179, 
 
 180. 
 Han'nO, Archbishop, of Co-16ffne', 296. 
 Han'0-ver, 494, 510, 514, 520, 532, 533, 698, 
 
 fOl, 602, 603, 663, 064, 675, 679, 700, 705, 
 
 716, 721, 749. 
 Hiln'sa, see Hanseatic League. 
 Han-se-at'ic League, 337, 380, 385, 422. 
 Haps'bnrg (boorg). House of, 338, 339, 
 
 350, 383, 415, 4-26, 466, 467, 472, 496, 603, 
 
 510, 512, 530, 701. 
 Har'court, Sir Wil'liam (-yam), 776. 
 Har'den-berg, 612. 
 Har'mar, Jo-si'aA, 860. 
 
 Har-mo'di-us, 99. 
 Har'niick, 710. 
 Hlr'old, Blue-tooth, 379. 
 Har'old, Fairhair, 379. 
 llar'old, of En'gland, (ii)g') 266. 
 Ha-roiin' al Rasch'id, 271, 282. 
 Iliir'pa-gus, 68. 
 Har'piir's Ferry, 906, 911. 
 Har'piir's Magazine, 939. 
 Har'?-is, Jo'el Chand'Ier, 939. 
 Har'ri-son, Ben'ja-niin, 931. 932. 
 Har'ri-son, Wil'liam (-yam) Heu'ry,864, 
 
 870, 378. 
 Har'ris, Wil'liam (-yam), Tor'rey, 910. 
 Harfe, F. Bret, 939. 
 Ilart'ford, 822. 
 Hart'ford Convention, 874. 
 Ha-rus'pi-9es, 148. 
 Ilar'vard College, 937. 
 Har'vcird, Jo/iii,818. 
 Har'vey, 804, 806. 
 Harz (Harts), Mountains, '294. 412. 
 Has'drii-bal, 171, 172, 176, 178, 134. 
 Has'san, 318. 
 Has'sein Ani'ri, 764. 
 Has'ten-beck, Battle of, 5,32. 
 Hast'ings, Battle of, 286. 
 Hatch'er's Eun, 918, 919. 
 Hat'<er-as, Fort, 914. 
 Hau'es-ser (how'), 740. 
 Hau'gwitz (haw'), 600. 601. 
 Hilv'el-ock, Hen'ry, 687. 
 Ha'vre. 791. 
 Ha-woi'i, 932, 933. 
 Haw'thorne, Na-tlian'i-el, 896. 
 Hayes, Ruth'er-ford B., 928, 929. 
 Hiiy, John, 940. 
 Hoy'nau (-now), 678. 
 Hay-rad'diii, 420. 
 Hay'ti, 400. 
 
 Head, Sir Ed'mund. 947. 
 Head, Sir Fran'gis, 945. 
 Heb'ftel, 739. 
 JJe'-bert, 571, 574. 
 He'brew (-brii), (language), 405. 
 He'brews (-briis), 52, 54. 
 Heb'ri-des, 458. 
 Hec'a-tomfts, 27. 
 Heck'er, 676. 
 Hector, 83. 
 
 Hedge, Freiri3r-!ck Hen'ry, 896. 
 Ile'gel, 540, 740. 
 He-gem'o ny, 89, 107, 121. 
 He-gi'ra, 267. 
 
 Hei'del-bijrg, 468, 504. 578, 673. 
 Hei'del-berg Catechism. 42T. 
 Hei'del-biirg, University of, 344. 
 Heil-bronn', Treaty of, 474. 
 Hel'ne, Hein'ricA, 738. 
 Hein'sms, 512. 
 He'la, 219. 
 Hel'en of Troy, 82. 
 Hel'e-na, Empress. 302. 
 Hel'e-na, Mother of Cou'stan-tine, 239. 
 He'li-asts, 99. 
 Hel'i-con, 76. 
 Hel'i-go-land, 777. 
 He-U-o-gab'a-lfls, 235. 
 He-li-6p'6-lis, 44, 52, 593. 
 
 Ale, care, am, arm, final ; eve, obey, end, her, recent ; ice, ill, pique ; old, orb, Add, move ; 
 
ALniABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. 
 
 1013 
 
 Hel'lSs, 75,76, 7S. 
 
 Hel'le, S2. 
 
 Hel-Ie'ncs, 81, £9, 118. 
 
 Hel-les-pOnt, 82, 88, 104, 107, 114, 131, 143, 
 388. 
 
 Helm'hOltz, 741. 
 
 He'IOts, 87, 93, 94, 110, 112. 
 
 Hpl-ve'ti-a (-slii), 199,584. 
 
 HeN'gist, 261. 
 
 Hen'ne-piii. Fatlier, 794. 
 
 ITenii-efta of FraiKje, 480. 
 
 Hen-ri-or (ast-), 571, 578. 
 
 Heu'ry, Brother of Fred'ei-ick II., of 
 Prus'sia (-sha), 533. 
 
 Heii'ry, Fi)it, 903, 909. 
 
 Heii'iy, Duke of Ba-va'ri-a, 292. 
 
 Hen'ry, Jo'sepli, 741. 941. 
 
 Heii'ry of An-jou' (oN-zliuo'), 450. 
 
 Heu'ry of Bruns'wick, 422. 
 
 Hen'ry of Bur'gun dy, 3CS. 
 
 Hen'ry II., of Cas-tile', 367. 
 
 Heu'ry XL, of Eii'g.aucl (iug'), 359, 366. 
 
 Heu'ry III., of Eu'glaiul (iug'), 362. 
 
 Hen'ry IV., of Eu'gland (iug'), 363. 
 
 Hen'ry V., of F.u'giand (ing'), 356, 363. 
 
 Heu'ry VI., of En'gliiud (mg'), 356, 
 363. 
 
 Hen'ry VII., of Eu'glaud (ing'), C61,398, 
 799. 
 
 Hen'ry VIII., .of Eu'glaud (ing'), 366, 
 430, 432, 433, 459. 
 
 Hen'ry II., of Francje. 420. 425, 448. 
 
 Heu'ry III., of Fran(;e, 452, 4.54. 
 
 Heu'ry IV., of France. 448, 466, 494, 791. 
 
 Heu'ry V., of France, 624, 665, 757. 
 
 Hen'ry III., of Ger'iua-ny, 296. 
 
 Hen'ry IV., of Gur'nm-uy, 28S, 296, 298, 
 300. 
 
 Heu'ry V., of Ger'ma-ny, 300. • 
 
 Hen'ry VI., of Ger'ma-ny. 312, 325, 324. 
 Heu'ry VII., of Ger'ina-uy, 841. 
 
 Hen'ry of Nil-varj'e', 450, 462, 453, 454, 
 
 456. 
 Hen'ry of Plan'en (plow') 384. 
 Hen'ry of Sax'iVuy, 422. 
 Hen'ry of Scliwe-rin', 380. 
 Hen'ry of Si-le'siil (slii-), 386. 
 Hen'ry of Thu-rin'gi-a, 326. 
 Heu'ry, Pat'riek, 804, 835, 839, 841, 856, 
 
 897, 899, 940. 
 Heu'iy, Prince of Prus'sia (-slia), 551. 
 Hen'ry, Snu of Fred'er-ick II., of Ger'- 
 
 luiiny, 325. 
 Hen'ry, the Fowler, of Sftx'ony, 290. 
 Hen'ry, the Lion, of Ba-va'ri-a, 321, 322, 
 
 323, 324. 
 Heu'ry, the Proud, of Ba-va'ri-a, 300, 
 
 319, 320. 
 He-ph£ES'ti.on (fes'), 141. 
 Heptarchy, 261. 
 Jle'ra, 78. 
 Her-a-cli'des, 127, 
 Her'bart. 740. 
 
 Her-bois' d' (der-bwa'),578. 
 Hcr-cu-la'ne-um, 226. 
 Her'cu-les, 51. 82, 86. 
 Her'eii-les, Pillars of, DO. 
 Her'der, 537, 538, 648. 
 Her'mann, 213, 214. 
 
 Iler'niaun of Salm, 300. 
 
 Iler'uian'ric, 249. 
 
 Her'iue.s, 80, 113. 
 
 Her'ni-(;i, 147, 165. 
 
 He-rud'0-tus, 88, 92, 124, 125. 
 
 Iler'Od, the Great. 145. 
 
 Z?er-re'ra, Jo-se (yO-za), 950. 
 
 Her'schel, 740. 
 
 Iler'wegh (-veg), 739. 
 
 Iler-ze-go-vi'na (hert-se), 763, 767, 76S. 
 
 Herz'og (herts'), General, 734. 
 
 Hi3'si-od, 86. 
 
 Hesse, 214, 276, 280, 332, 4^2, 4'36, 427, 600, 
 
 602. 603, 622, 716, 718, 721, 726, 732. 
 Hesse Cas'sel, 532, 663, 700. 
 Hesse-Dariu'sta<Zt, 622, 675, 718. 
 Hes'siaus (hesh'),S42, 844, 
 Hes'ti-a,80. 
 Ilei/'camp, Bishop, 745. 
 Hey'se, Paul (pawl) 739. 
 Hez-e-ki'a/i, 65. 
 Hi-dal'gf), Mig-«el',949. 
 Hid'schra/i, 267. 
 Hierarchy, 293, 331. 
 Hi'e-ro, 167, 168. 
 Hieroglyphics, 46. 
 Hig'ffiu-son, 815. 
 
 Hil'de-brand, Archdeacon. 296, 298. 
 Hil'dreth, Eicli'ard, 897. 
 Hill, Da'vid B., 931. 
 Hini-a'Ia'ya,29, 32, 
 Hiu'diis, 32. 33,34, 35. 36. 
 Hiu'dii Mountains, 136. 
 Hlu-dii-stan', 386. 
 Hippar'c/ius, 99, 145. 
 Hip'pi-ds, 99, 101, 102. 
 Hip'pij, 246, 254. 
 Hip-poc'ra-tes, 145. 
 Hippodrome, 261, 262. 
 His-pan-i-O-la, 400. 
 His-ti-se'us, 100, 101. 
 Ho'bort, Joftn Hen'ry, 890. 
 Ilu(;he, 573, 576. 
 IIocA-e-la'ga, 790, 791 . 
 Ilo'del diti'), Rob'ert, 747. 
 Hee, Kicli'ard March, 890. 
 Ho'fcr, Jin'dre-as,609, 610. 
 Ho'ften-fried'berg (borg), Battle at, 
 
 528. 
 Ho'/ien-lin'den, 591, 592. 
 Ho'hcu-Io'Ae, Cardinal, 744. 
 Ho'/ienstan-tens (-stow-), 288, SCO, 320, 
 
 329, 332, 377. 
 Ho'Aen-zol'lcrn (tsol'), Carl JSn'ton 
 
 von, 696. 
 Ho'/ien-zol'lern (-tsol'). House of, 703. 
 Ho'/iC'u-zol'lern (-tsOl'), Prince, 725. 
 HO'ften-zol'lern (tsol'), Sig-mar-ing'en, 
 
 702. 
 H61'6etn,464. 
 
 Hold'en, Ed'ward SiN'gle-tou, 941. 
 Hol'land, .378, 435, 448, 490, 499, 500, 505, 
 
 510, 570, 594, 598, 601, 602, 612, 623,661. 
 
 721,754.958. 
 norland, JO-si'ah Gil'bert, 939. 
 Ilol'fls. 482. 
 
 Iliilni, Cam-pa-ni'us. 799. 
 IlOiuics, Ol'i-ver Wen'dell, 896, 897, 937, 
 
 939. 
 
 HOl'stciu, 380, 436, 470. 477, 518, 645, 677, 
 
 680, 684, 704. 705, 713, 714, 717, 744. 
 Holy Land, 302, 312. 
 Holy Sepulchre, 316. 
 Holy War, 348. 
 Hom'burg (bOOrg), 700, 718. 
 Ho'mer, 77, 83, 84, 86. 99, 131, 211. 
 H(5-mer'i-des, 86. 
 Home Rule, 776, 783. 
 IlOndu'ras, 403. 
 Ho-nu'ri-us, 251, 254. 
 Hood, General, 919. 
 Hook'er, Jo'seph, 912, 913. 
 HOOk'er, Rev. TA(5m'as, 816, 821. 822. 
 Hup-kin'si-ans, S90. 
 Hop'lites, 94, 112. 
 Hor'a9€, 211. 
 H6-ra'ti-i (slii-), 154. 
 HO-ra'ti-ns (-slii'), CO'cles, 358, 159. 
 Horn, Count, 44'i. 
 Horn, General, 474. 
 Hor'sa, 261. 
 Hors«'sh6e Beiid,S78. 
 Ho-se'a,65. 
 
 Hospital, Order of the, 318. 
 H0t't<u-t6ts, 398. 
 ifotirs, 19. 
 
 Ilou'stou, Sam, 864, 876. 959. 
 Kow'ard, C:ith',i-riue, 432. 
 How'ard, Loi'd, 805. 
 Howe, E li'as, 890. 
 Howe, .lo'sepli. 946. 
 How'cll, srim'u-el G., S93. 
 How'ells, Wil'liam (yam) Demi, 939. 
 Howe, Sir Wil'liain (yam), 840, 842, 844. 
 Huas'cor (hwas'), 403. 
 Hu'berts-buig, Peace of, 534, 535. 
 Hijd'son, Heii'ry, 795. 
 Hud'son, Hen'ry Nor'mnn. 896. 
 Hiid'son Itivec, 795, 796, 828, 844, 850, 886. 
 Hugh Ca'pet, 285. 
 Hiighes, Joftii, 892. 
 Uugh of Par'is, 284. 285. 
 Hu'g<5, Brother of Phil'ip I., of France, 
 
 304. 
 Hu-gH'. Vic'tor, 655, 656, 685. 737. 
 Hu'gJie-nots. 428, 447, 448, 450, 452, 454, 
 
 496, 607, 508. 624. 792, 803. 
 Huitz'il-O-poc/t'tli (Invitz'), 403. 
 HOll, Wil'liain (-yam), 868, 943. 
 Hum-berr (iIn-), General, 685. 
 Hum'bert, of It'a-ly, 761. 
 HQin'b(5Idt, Al-ex-aii'der viin, 740. 
 Uiim'phrey, .lOftn, 816. 
 Hundred Days, 628. 
 Hiime, Jo'sepli, 945. 
 HuN'ga-ry, 239, 284, 283, 292, 296, 350, 381, 
 
 382, 383, 386, 388, 390, 426, 466. 467, 503, 
 
 526, 549, 673, 677, 678, 679, 688, 701, 702, 
 
 722, 753, 776, 779, 7S0. 
 Huns, 249, 255. 
 Hun'ter, General, 918. 
 Hiiu'yad, 382, 390. 
 Hu'ron. Inrtiaus. 792. 
 Hii'rou, Lake. 792, 793, 794. 
 Hus'sey, O'bert, 888. 
 Huss'ites, 348, 426, 467. 
 Hiiss, Joftii, 346, 348, 408. 
 Hiitcli'in-son, Anne, 817, 822, 823. 
 
 use, flrn, up, riide ; food, foot; by; (jell; J!=ng; italic letters silent or obscure. 
 
1014 
 
 ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING' INDEX. 
 
 Hutcli'in-soii, T/mm'as, 8?,6. 
 Hut'teii (lioof), t'l'i-ic vOii, 40J, 410. 
 Ily das'pes, 138. 
 Hyk'sos. 48. 
 Hypli'a-sis, 138. 
 Hys-tas'pes, 74. 
 
 I-ber-vTIle', Pierre' le Moyne (F, 795. 
 
 IbTa-liim', 647, 648. 
 
 Ib'sen, 657. 
 
 196'laiid, 285, 380. 
 
 I-(;iri-us, Lu'9i-us, 1G2. 
 
 I-cO'ni-uni. 312. 
 
 Iconoclast.'!, 2G5, 275. 
 
 I'da-hO, 864. 
 
 lA'ne, 740. 
 
 1-ler'dii, 203. 
 
 Il'i-ad, 84, 211. 
 
 Il'i-um, 82, S3, ]03, 194. 
 
 Il-li-nois', 866, 878, 937. 
 
 Il-li-nois', Eiver, 794. 
 
 Il-lu-mi-na'tl, 546. 
 
 ll-lyr'i-a, 171, 239, 251, 628. 
 
 Il-lyr'i-cuni, 214. 
 
 Image Bieaker.s, see Iconoclasts. 
 
 Ijnage Woisliippeis, 264. 
 
 Iin'bros, 78. 
 
 Is eas, 403. 
 
 Indepeiicleiice, Declaration of, 841. 
 
 In di-a, 26. 33, 35, 36, 37, 50, 138, 143, 268, 
 
 372, 389, 398, 641, 754, 775, 783. 
 In'di-a, 828, 852, 944. 
 Indi-an'a, .'■66, 878, 8S8, 937, 939. 
 In'di-an Ocean, 396. 
 In'dl-ans, 32, 40', 808, 817, 823, 828, 830, 831, 
 
 832. 836, 844. 847, 853, 860, 864, 866, 878, 
 
 888, 893, 924, 938. 
 In-di'an Teiritory, 878. 
 Indra (aNd'r), 34. 
 In'dus, 32, 138. 
 I'nez, of Spain, 368. 
 Ing'el-lieini, '2S2. 
 Ing'eMieim, Diet of, 300. 
 Ing'el-sti'oni, 553. 
 In'gle (ing'), Kicli'cad, 807. 
 Ing'lings, 379. 
 
 In'gol-stadt, (ing'), 407, 426, 646. 
 Iiik-ei-man, Battle of, 691. 
 InnO-gent III., Pope, 319. 324, 325, 360. 
 In'mo-QSnt IV., Pope, 325, 326. 
 Inn, Itivev, 609. 
 Inns'briick, 425, 609, 610, 674. 
 Inquisition, 368, 370, 372. 437, 438, 441,442, 
 
 516, 547, 638, 788, 789. 
 Insui'gent, L' (laN-soor-glioN'), 862. 
 Interstate Commeice Bill, 931. 
 In-va-lides' (aN-), HO'tel des, 606, 561, 632. 
 I'odelte, 464. 
 1-o'ni-a, 82, 88, 101. 
 I-o'ni-an Islands, 641. 
 1-u'ni-an Sea, 203. 
 1-on'ic Oi-der, 126. 
 I'o-wa, 864, 9.37. 
 Iph-i-genl'a, 83, 123. 
 Ip'sus, 142. 
 t-van', 33, 101. 
 li-e'land, 366, 367, 460, 481, 482, 488, 5S5, 
 
 644, 045, 687, 688, 772, 776, 808, 820, 8J0. 
 I-rene', 205. 
 
 Ii-min-saul' (-.sawl'), 270. 
 
 lion Cioss, Order of the, 620. 
 
 I'ron-sides (-urn-), 486. 
 
 Ir-o-quois' Indians, 792, 793, 826, 828. 
 
 Ir'ving (er'),Wasli'iug-ton (wush'), 894. 
 
 I'.saac, 62. 
 
 Is-a-bel'la, of Cas-tile', 367, 368, 398, 400. 
 
 Is-a-bel'la, of Fritinje, 3"6. 
 
 Is-a-bel'Ia II., of Spam, 664, 665, 722, 723, 
 724. 
 
 Isa'iah (-y.a), 63, 66. 
 
 Ish'mfi-el, 52. 
 
 Is'a-dore, of Spain, 331. 
 
 I'sis, 40, 114. 
 
 Is'lam,267, 268, 593. 
 
 Is-ina-il' Pa-slia', 773, 774. 
 
 I-s6c'ia-tes, 125. 
 
 I-solde', 335. 
 
 Is'ia-cl, 41, 52, 64, 65. 
 
 Is'ra-el-ites, 27, 38, 54, 56. 
 
 IVs-is, 132. 
 
 Is'tri-a, Ca'pod', 648. 
 
 I-tal'i-ca, 192. 
 
 It'a-ly, 78, 80, 88, 98, 100, 113, 136, 140,147, 
 148, 161, 166, 167, 171, 172, 173, 174, 176, 
 ISO, 1S8, 191, 194, 196, 197, 206, 239, 244, 
 249, 251, 254, 255, 262, 264, 275, 279, 282, 
 284, 288, 292, 321, 322, 326, 333, 339, 341, 
 351, 370, 372, 374, 375, 377, 404, 416, 418, 
 419, 420, 437, 444, 503, 505, 511, 580, 582, 
 584, 585, 586, 592, 594, 598. 600, 601, 602, 
 609, 622, 636, 638, 639, 646, 650, 660, 664, 
 668, 673, 676, 6S4, 701, 706, 707, 708, 710, 
 712, 713, 717, 720, 725, 744, 748, 752, 760, 
 761, 777, 779, 780, 932, 950. 
 
 It'a-ly, Art and Literature, 462. 
 
 Itli'a-ca, 77, 83. 
 
 llho'ine, 77, 95, 110. 
 
 I-tiir-bi'de (-the), Au-gils-tin' (0-g1is- 
 taN') de, 949, 960. 
 
 I-fur-ri-ga'ra?/, Jo'se (yo'za) de, 949. 
 
 1-van' I., of Kiis'sia (-sha), the Great, 
 385. 
 
 l-van' II., of Eus'sia (-sha), 385. 
 
 I- van III., of Riis'sia (-sha), 524. 
 
 Iv'ry, Battle at, 456. 
 
 Jack 'son, 912. 
 
 Jaek'son, An'drew ( drii), 864, 874, 876, 
 8S0, 882, 883, 884, 886, 898, 900, 901, 902, 
 906, 930. 
 
 Jaek'son, Hel'en Hunt, 939. 
 
 Jaek'son, Tftom'as Jon'a-than, (" Stone- 
 wall"), 878, 911,912. 
 
 Ja'cob, 52. 
 
 Ja-cO'W (ya-), 540. 
 
 Jac'o-bins. 656, 565, 566, 667, 668, 570, 571, 
 572, 573, 578, 580, 583, 595, 637, 860. 
 
 Jac'o-bite^. 516. 
 
 Ja'cob of Mo'laj/, 341. 
 
 Ja-gel'IO (ya-), of PO'Iand, 384. 
 
 J,a-gel'lon (ya-). House of, 384. 
 
 JaAn (yan), 646. 
 
 Ja'mafca, 400, 788. 
 
 James, Hen'ry, 939. 
 
 James I., of En'gland (ing'), (VI., of 
 Scot'land), 468, 460, 479, 481, 805, 806. 
 
 James II., of En'glfuid (ing'), 492, 493. 
 494, 807, 820, 822, 826. 
 
 James I., of Scot'land, 364. 
 
 James II., of Scot'land, 364. 
 
 James III., of Scot'land, 364. 
 
 James IV., of Scot'land. 366. 
 
 J.lmes v., of Scot'land, 306. 
 
 James River, 803 910, 911, 91.8. 
 
 James III., tlie Pretender, 510, 514. 
 
 Janies'town, 800, 805. 
 
 Ja-nic'u-luni, 168. 
 
 Jan'is-sa-ries, 388, 392, 522, 618. 
 
 Jan'sen-ists, 507. 
 
 Ja'nus, 124. 
 
 Ja-pan', 941. 
 
 Ja'phet, 23. 
 
 Ja'son, 82. 
 
 Jas'sy (ya'). Peace of, 552. 
 
 Ja'va, 448. 
 
 JSi/, J0;in,-852, 866,860. 
 
 Jean (zlian) Paul (pawl), 650. 
 
 Jeb'u-sites, 60. 
 
 Jefferson, Tftom'Ss, 804. 841, 856, 858, 
 
 800, 862, 864, 866, 878, 879, 880, 888, t99, 
 
 900. 
 Jeffries, Judge, 493. 
 Je'hu, 65. 
 
 Jel'la-cliicli (yel'), 677. 678. 
 Je'maiipe-S (zha'). Battle of, 568. 
 Jen'a, 539, 603, 620. 
 Jen'a, Battle of, 602. 7F0. 
 Jen'a, University of, 645. 
 Jenk'(;es, 930. 
 Jepli'llia,56, 58. 
 Jer-e-nii'aft, 65. 
 Jer'i-cfto, 198. 
 Jer-o-bo'am. 64. 
 Jer-o-bo'am II., 65. 
 Je'rfime, 247. 
 
 Je-ronie', of Pragt(e, 347, 348. 
 Jer'sey,'Isle of. 656. 
 Je-ru-sa-lem, 60, 65, 144, 224, 268, 306, 310, 
 
 312, 314, 316. 
 Jes'u-its,439, 447, 452. 466,467, 507,524, 
 
 516, 547, 637, 638, 668,670, 671, 788, 789, 
 
 791, 792, 794, 807. 
 Je-sus, Company of, 546. 
 Jew'ett (jii') Sa'ra/i Orne, 939. 
 Jews (Juz), 29, 62, 54, 66. 144, 145, 224,226, 
 
 267, 304, 306, 368, 384, 551, 695, 696, 738, 
 
 767, 780. 
 Jezde-gerd', 263. 
 Je7.'e-bei, 64. 
 Jini'e-nes, 949. 
 
 Jo'a-c/iim (yO'j, of Bran'den-biirg, 424. 
 Jo-an' of Arc. 356, 358, 303. 
 Jo-an' I., of Na'ples, 377. 
 Jo-an' II., of Na'ples, 377. 
 Jo-an', of Spain, 379. 
 Jo'az, 65. 
 Job, 66. 
 Jo'el, 65. 
 
 Jo/ai, Archduke of Aiis'trl-a (aws'), 676. 
 Joftn. Elector of Sax'o-ny, 412. 
 Jo/in Fred'cr-ick, Elector of Sax'o ny, 
 
 423, 424, 425. 
 Juhn, King of Sax'o-ny, 720. 
 Jo/ni of Ab-ys-sin'i-a, 761. 
 John of l!o-Iie'mi-a, 342. 
 Jo/m of Biiv'giindy, 356, 378, 388. 
 JoTin of En'gland (ing'), 324, 351, 360. 
 
 Ale, care, am, arm, final ; eve, obey, end, hijr, recent ; Ice, ill, pique ; old, orb, odd, move ; 
 
ALPHAB>/riCAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. 
 
 1015 
 
 Joftn II., of Por'tu-gal, 368. 396. 39S. 
 
 J6/m VI., of Pui-'ta-B-al, 639, 640, 958, 959. 
 
 Jo/ui of PiO'ci-rta (clie), 330. 
 
 J6/ai II., of Spfun, 368. 
 
 Ju/iii of Swil'bi-a, 339. 
 
 Joftii III., of Swe'den, 437. 
 
 JoAii, Pa-lEe-ol'u-gus, 389. 
 
 Jo/in XXII., Pope, 311, 342. 
 
 Jo/tii XXIII., Pope, 347. 
 
 Joftns Hop'kiiis University, 937. 
 
 J6/ti\'soii, Au'drew (drii), 909, 922, 924, 
 
 925. 
 Joftii'son, Governor, 808. 
 JOAii'soii, Eev'ei-dy, 922. 
 JO/iii'son, Sir Wil'liani (yam), 833,' S31. 
 Jii/ai'ston, Al'biirt Sid'ney, 909. 
 Ju/ai'ston, Jo'sepli £u'cles-tou, 90S, 910, 
 
 912, 918, 919, 920. 
 Jo/ai, tlie Evangelist, 78. 
 Jo/ai, the Good, 352, 354, 378. 
 Joiii-viUe', (zliwau-) 335. 
 Jo-lie(, 794. 
 
 Jo li-e< (zlio-), Loii-is', 793, 794. 
 Jo-li-e« (zlio), JIoN<, 794. 
 JO'na/i, 51. 
 
 Jones, Captain Paul (pawl), 848. 
 Jop'pa, 312, 588. 
 J5r'dan, 56, 58, 62, 303. 
 Jo'sepli, 52, 54, B24. 
 
 Jo'seph,£ni-man'a-el,otPrir'ta'gal,547. 
 JO'sepli, Fatiier, 498. 
 .lo'se-pliine. Empress, 580, 594, 612. 
 Jo'sepli I., of Giir'nia-uy, 511, 512. 
 Jo'sepli II., of Ger'iua-uy, 52S, 500, 537, 
 
 549, 551, 552. 
 Jo-se'plius, 224. 
 Josli'u-a, 56. 
 JO-si'a/i, 65. 
 
 Jour-dan' (z\iof)r-doN'),570, 578. 
 Jo'vi-an. 248. 
 
 Ju-iiu' (yii-), Don, 440, 446. 
 Jii-a'rez (hii-), Be-ni'to Pab'lO, 050, 952. 
 Ju'd;i/t, 33, 42, 68, 64, 65. 
 Ju-de'a, 144, 145, 224. 
 Ju-g(ir'tlia, 190. 
 Ja-gar'tliine War 189, 190. 
 Jul'ia, (-ya). 219. 
 JQl'ian (-yan), 244, 247, 248. 
 JCil'ian (-yan) Alps. 249. 
 Jai'ian (-yfin) House, 219. 
 JQl'i-an-a, of Den'niarU, 548. 
 Jul'ius (-yus) II., Pope, 372, 377. 
 Ju'no, 56, 78. 
 Ju-noC (zlifl), 604, 60S. 
 Jfln'ta, 605, COS. 
 Ju'pi-tijr, 78, 156, 224. 
 Ju'l-a, 734. 
 Jus-tin'i-an, 262, 264. 
 Jiis-tin'i-an Code, 202, 362. 
 Jut'land, 478. 
 Ju've-nal, 232. 
 
 Ka-a'ba. 266. 
 
 Ka-biir, 775. 
 
 Ka-di'ja/i, 207. 
 
 Kair-wan', 270. 
 
 Kai'sers-Iau'tern (low'), Bailie at, 576. 
 
 Kii'liscli, Proclamation of, 620. 
 
 Kal-li-krat'idas, 114. 
 
 Kfil-iio'ky, Count, 753. 
 
 Kane, E li'slia Kent, 743, 941. 
 
 Kiiii'sfis, 864, 904, 806. 
 
 Kant. Iin inan'uel, 540, 740. 
 
 Kapt'scliak, 385. 
 
 Kav'is-nians, 386. 
 
 Karl Al'biirt, of Ba-va'ii-a, 526, 528. 
 
 Karl, Archduke, 578, 582, 585. 
 
 Kiir'liiigs, 275, 276, 284, 2.5, 453. 
 
 Karl'inann, 276, 279. 
 
 Karl Mar-tel', 271,275. 
 
 Karl IV., of Giir'ina-ny, 343. 
 
 Karl VI., of Gi?r'ma-ny, 526. 
 
 Karl IX., of Swe'den. 437. 
 
 Karl XV., of Swe'den, 754. 
 
 Karl, the Bald, 2S3. 
 
 Karl, the Great, 205,276,279, 280, 232, 284, 
 
 294, 415, 604. 
 Karl, the Rit, iSl. 
 Kars, 694. 
 Kfi-san', 385. 
 Kiis-sau'der, 141. 
 
 Katte (ket). Lieutenant von, 525. 
 Katz'bacA, Battle of, 620. 
 Kandii-har'. 775. 
 Kaufman (kowf), Gener.al, 754. 
 Kaul'bac/i (kowr), Wil'liani (-yam). 6.57. 
 Kau'nitz (kow'). Prince vou, 528, 64S. 
 Keiir'ney, Fliil'ip, 877. 
 Kenr'sage, (vessel), 916. 
 Ke'ble, JO/ai, 890. 
 Keith, Governor. 826. 
 Kell'er-inann, 568, 592. 
 Kein'pis, TftOm'iis A., 334. 
 Ken'ne-bec', Kiver, 814, 823. 
 Ken'«e-dy, J6/ai Peii'dle-ton, 897. 
 Kent, En'gland (ing'), 201. 
 K'nt, Island, 8%, 807. 
 KSii-tiick'y, SCO. 909, 910, 937. 
 Keii-tucU'y Resolutions, 860, 804, 890, 
 
 906. 
 Kep'lcr, JO/ai, 469, 462. 
 Ket'(el-er, Bishop, 743, 748. 
 Kett'ler, Gott'liard (-hart),3S5. 
 K/ia'lid,2C8. 
 K/iar-toiim', 775. 
 K/ii'va, 754, 772. 
 K'i-eff', 385. 
 
 Kieft, Wil'liani (-yam), 796, 797. 
 Kijl, Treaty of, 022. 
 Kiersey, Deed of, 275. 
 Kings JMountain, Battle of, 849. 
 Kink'el, Jo'Iiaiin{yO'-) Gott'Iried (-fret), 
 
 739. 
 Kirc'lioff, Gus-tav' (g5c"is-) Eob'ert, 740. 
 Kirk (keik),Da'vid, 792. 
 Kiss'iu-gen 746 
 KiiVbArg, 294. 
 
 Kle'ber. General, 573, 589, 593. 
 Kle-om'e-nes, 142. 
 Kle'on, 112. 
 
 KlOp'stock, Frz'e'drie/i GOtt'Iieb, 538. 
 A'nox, Hen'ry, 860. 
 A'uox, Jo/m. 429. 
 JiTuox'viUe. 914. 
 Ka-lih', Battle of. 532. 
 Ko'iiig-ratz (kii'nig-retz), Battle of, 716. 
 Ko'nigs-berg (kti' ), 31S, 385, 524, 525, 540, 
 
 602, 603, 703, 740. 
 
 Kopp, Bishop, 743. 
 
 Ko'ran, 267, 268. 
 
 KO-reJ-shi'tes, 266, 267. 
 
 Ko'resli, 70. 
 
 KO'sas. Mar-ti'nez (neMi) de. 953. 
 
 Kos-cji-iisz'ko, 'I'liad'de-iis, 652, 55", 554, 
 
 602. 698. 
 Kos'siit/i (kosh'), I-oii-is', 678. 
 Kot'ze-biie. 645. 
 Kratn, 338. 
 Kra-pot'kiu, Prince. 
 Krem'lin, 385, 016. 
 Kriem'liilde, 330. 
 Kril'dener, General, 703. 
 Ku-kli'ix', 926. 
 Kru-ko-wick'i (-vick'), 663. 
 /fschat'ri-ja, S3. 
 Kues-trin' (kiis-). Fort, 526. 
 Kulm (koulMi), 318. 
 Kiilm (kooliii). Battle of, 620. 
 Ku-nia'si, 773. 
 Ku'ni-giinde, 294. 
 Ku'ni-iniliui, 264. 
 Kii'ni. 35. 
 
 Kii-tii'soil, 600, 616. 618. 
 Ky'nos-kepii'a-la, 179. 
 
 La-be-do-'yere' (dwa-), Colonel, 028, 632. 
 
 Lab-ra-dor', 402. 
 
 Lab'y-riuth, 43. 
 
 La Ciir o-li'na. Colony of, 54 
 
 La(;'ed£e'nioii, 77, 82, 87. 
 
 La fhfu'se, 5r8. 
 
 La'c/ia<, Bishop, 760. 
 
 La-co'ni-a, 77, 121. 3Se. 
 
 La-cOn'ica, 86, 87, 93. 
 
 Lii'de, 101. 
 
 La'den-bilrg. 227. 
 
 Lad'is-Iaus (-laws), of IiaN'ga-ry, 390. 
 
 Lse'li-iis, 184. 
 
 La-fil-yet^e', ir.avfiuis dc, 562, 503, 504, 
 
 SCfl, 660, 846, 850. 
 Laf'lit/c, .Jacques (zhak), 659. 
 La-foutaaie', Jean (zliaN), 507. 
 Lii F6n-ta«i6', of Cau'a-da, 946. 
 lii/ni, 248. 
 
 Lai'bac/i, Congress of, 639. 
 Lani'a;C/iiis, 113. 
 La Mar'nio-ia. Gener.al, 761. 
 La-inar-tine', 655, 656, 672. 
 Lani-balie' (loN-), Princess. 566. 
 Lani'bert, Jo/in, 490, 491. 492. 
 La-inO-ri-(;i-ere', General, 711. 
 Lii Mo«c, 794. 
 Lanc'a-shiie, 921. 
 Lanc'os-ter, 826. 
 Lanc'os-ter, House of, 3C3. 
 Lan'(;ey, de. 826, 828. 
 Lan'dfini-man, 594. 
 Land'sta/a (liint'), 410. 
 Laiid'slunn (liint'), 749. 
 Land'welir (liint' var), 622, 749. 
 Lixng'ley, Siiin'fl-el Pier'pont, 941. 
 Lan-g!ie-d6c' (Ion-), 319. 
 I.an-jiii-nfus' (16n-z1iwb-), Count, 163. 
 Liinncs, Marshal, 599. 
 Liin'za, General, 710. 
 La-6c'o-on, 127. 
 La-oN', 285. 
 
 use, lira, up, lude; fOCd, foot; by; ijell ; N=i)g; italic letters silent or obscure. 
 
1010 
 
 Al,riIAIU:TlCAL AND niONOUNCING INDEX. 
 
 I.ii riii'tii, 956. 
 
 I.;"i'r(''S, 80. 
 
 Liii'-is'sii, 75. 
 
 Mi lt(").(;lieHc', -150. 
 
 Lii KiVmrtii'ii.OOI.OO.s, 
 
 Lii RM/i U-vc'. Biitdo of, C23. 
 
 LiiSuKc. 791, 7'.I5. 
 
 Liis Cii'.siis, 40-1. 
 
 Ijuf-.siil/f', 741. 
 
 Lii.s.s'u, Ur-lfin'dO, 400. 
 
 LiUl liun'di-fi, ISS. 
 
 LiU'iii (luniiiiam'), 401. 
 
 l.Ht'llls, 117. US, iri7, l«i, 192, 247, SI I 
 
 l-;iflim;r, Ilii,.//i, 4;!4. 
 
 Lfi'tium (Shi), 147. 
 
 I.au'bi' (low'), Hciii'i'ic/i, 73S. 
 
 Liuid (lawd), Wiriliim (-yilni), 4S1, 
 
 817. 
 
 4S2, 
 
 Linrcn-biii'g (low'cii-bOurg), 701, 705, 
 
 70G. 
 LiiN'uie-wlcz (-vlksj.OOS. 
 LaviiU'Kc', CdHiit, C34. 
 Lii-vii-tCi", 540. 
 La-vol-si-ec (-vwii-), AN-toiiio' (twiin') 
 
 Lau-ient' (lO-riiN'), 572. 
 Law, JtViii, 513, 795. 
 Law'son, gf''i;ll.80y. 
 LA.I/'lli'Z, 439. 
 lA'li'a-noii, 41, 49. 
 1,0-liniN', ,591, 
 l.i'C/rfrlil (-tOlt). 381. 
 li'c/i, KiviM-, 472. 
 Lo-fonitc', (loiH'fal, 73S. 
 Le-iUQ'-KCiMiir (IrtN'), AK'X-iiN'iIrc A»- 
 
 Bflstc' (0-), 672, CS3. 
 l.i'ti, Clliirles, 839, 84* 
 LOc, K(")l)'ei't E , 878, 911, 912, 918, 919, 920. 
 W'C, Uloli'nnl HC'ii'ry, 804, 841. 
 Loniou of Honor, 595, 020. 
 UVii-a'K" (J'a'),70S. 
 UVii a'liO (.vii'), Biiltlo Of, 322. 
 LO'lil.i;/! River, 826. 
 l-i'''lii.f;/i Univi'i'slty, 937. 
 Li'ibiiil/. UU'' ). Hiinin, ,525. 
 U-ii'.'s'l,r, l';ail of. 447. 
 U'l-iuVntii, IC niU' CO vdii, 304. 
 Lcip'zig (-slk), 424, 472, 477, 530, 534, 602, 
 
 622, 747. 
 Lf.ip'zlK (-sIU). Battle of, 472. 
 Lci|>'zig (slk), Intoi'hn, 425. 
 Ufp'zlt; (-slk). University of, 317. 
 Lcis'ler, ja'cob, 82(i. 
 Lfiirniw, 78. 
 Lt-ii'ox Library, 93S. 
 LiVil'licn, Truce of, 582. 
 Le'on, 039. 
 Lo<)ii'l-il;Vs, 105. 
 LC'-o-piirMl, Count, (W. 
 Le'O-pold 1I„ of Aus'trl-il (aws'), 33.1, 311, 
 
 342, ,344. 
 Le'o-poUi v., of Aus'tri-a (aws'), 312. 
 l.e'dpolil I., of noi'Bi-uni, O-i.'i. 
 Lo'o-polil 11., of Ildl'ui.nni. 7.">4. 
 Le'o-polil 1,, of (.iOr'inA-ny, 600, 603.510, 
 
 625. 
 Lf'o-piMil II., of GCr'inAny, ,549, 5G">, 
 Le'OpMil, of ilO /len-zol'lern (-t-siM'), 725 
 Ld'dpdUl, of Silxo Co'bflri;, (Wl, 662. 
 L:'0-piik1, of Tiis'cfiny, 60S, TOS. 
 
 Ld'o I., I\ipi',255. 
 
 LO'dlll., rope, 280, 
 
 L':''oIV..l'o|H', 265. 
 
 Le'O X., I'ope. 377. -106. 
 
 L-yoXI11..71.s, 701,703. 
 
 LO'O, tlie Ar-inO'ninn. 205. 
 
 Le'O, the I-san'ri-:iii (saw'), 204. 
 
 L6-I)iln'tO,140. 
 
 JA'P'l-dus. 206, 207. 
 
 Ler'idu.Sll. 
 
 Liis'bus, 78, S7, 98, 112, JM. 
 
 Less'i'ps, de, 6.5, 778. 
 
 Li'S'.'iini;, Gott'hold (.holt), Ephrii-im- 
 
 538, 539. 
 f.eiio'tra, 76, 120. 
 Leu't/icii (li)i'), Uattlo of, 532. 
 l,C'-vant', 041. 
 Lo'vi, 56. 
 Le'vi, Point. 832, 
 I.o'vilcs, ,50, (M. 
 LO'waUl (viiit). Ffm'ny, 739. 
 Lex'lngtoii, S3.s. 
 
 Lcy'dCIl, 812. 
 
 I.eJ'dcn, University of, 444. 
 
 Lib'y-il, 73. 
 
 Li(;ln'i.i1n Laws, 188. 
 
 Li-9ln'I-as, 240. 
 
 Li'e'ber, FrAii'<;is,940. 
 
 Lieg'nlt7.,3,S0. 
 
 Lieg'niti!, Battle at, 534. 
 
 Li.r/n'y (-ye'), 630. 
 
 Li gii'ri-ii, 172. 
 
 Li'ni5, 9fi7. 
 
 Liiic'o/n, A'brA-li;\n). 784, .899, 900, 907, 
 
 908, 911, 915, 918, 922, 923, 924, 925, 940. 
 Line'o;n, I!on'ji\-niin, 846,848. 
 Liiiz (lints), ,50;">, ,520. 
 I.ip'pellet'nidlcl, 700. 
 Lls'boii. 30S, 39S, 411, 001, 0,39, 9,58, 9.59. 
 Lis'bon, KiirtliqnaUo at, 517, 
 Lls'sii, Battle of, 720. 
 List, Fri:d'ric/i, 711, 
 Literature, 33, 60, 123, l.|5, 
 l.ilhu ;Viii-;i. 3.s4. 
 Lit lair tlaw'). 003. 
 Livadi'a,040, 047. 
 Liv'cr-pool,921. 
 Liv'i-a, 219, 403. 
 
 Llv'Ing-stonc, Di'vid, 742, 790, 941. 
 Llv'I-fis, Si\l-I-na'tOr, 176. 
 Llv'ifis, Ti'tus. 212. 
 Liv'Iilnd, 426, 4.37. 
 Li-vo'Iii-il, 618, 522. 
 Llani>'ri5s(lyiV),957. 
 Loe/i LOv'ln. 458. 
 Locke. .IdAn, 808. 
 Ldcris, 76, 128, 130. 
 Ld'di, 682. 
 
 Ld'di, Bridge of, 5.S2. 
 L")'gan. Jd/in A„ 922. 
 Loire (Iwiir), 351. 359, 7.30. 
 UM'Iards (-UMds), 3i'.3, 
 Ldm'b«rd Leasiie, 322. 
 Ldin'bordy, 216. 210, 204.275, 279.292, 
 
 294, 322, 325. 350, 374, 420, 510, 511,582, 
 
 592, 628, 676. 706, 707, 70S, 709. 
 Lon'don (li'in'dfin), En'gliind (ing'^, 362, 
 
 492, 5,5S, ,591. 753. 782, 7,8S, 820. 
 Lon'don (lun'dun), Onta'ri d, 913. 
 
 Lon'iion-deiT-y (lijn'dnu), 822. 
 Liiiig'fi'll-d'W, .Hi.'11'ry Wads'worth, 
 
 (wddz'wurtb), 834, 894,890,897,904, 
 
 9.!9. 
 Ldii gi'm'is, 238. 
 Long r.s-lfdid, 842. 
 Ldn'gdbiirds, '2,55. 
 L'jiig'strrct, James, 914. 
 Lddk'out (owt) Mountain, 914. 
 Ld'pez, Colonel, 9,52, 9,59. 
 Ld ren'zd, the IMagnillcent, 370, 377. 
 Ldr-ra('ii(;'. 282. 290, '292, S50, 378, 426, 60'2, 
 
 6-24, 604, 565, 068, 730, 733, 743, 746, 748. 
 Ldt, 52. 
 
 LdtAiir', of FrfiiKjc, 285, 292. 
 Ld-t/i.iir', of It'iVly, 282. 
 Ld't/iiir'. IheSax'oii.aon, :;19. 
 LOt'ze, Rii'ddlph ller'niiinii, 940. 
 Lon'don (low'), (iid'e-on Ernst, 533. 
 Lon'doHii (low'), Ceneral. 831. 
 Loii-i'sa, Dnelicss of Piir'miL 703. 
 Loii-i,<' Blanc (bldN),6S5. 
 Loii'is-bonrg (brH>rg), 821, 831. 
 Loii-iji' Cilp'et, 404. 
 Loii-i.'J', Cardinal, 454. 
 Loi'i-i.'i' d'(mirf-Mer,'2S5. 
 Loii isc of I'lu.s sia ( slia), ,598, 020. 
 Loii-isi-ii'na, 513, 794, 795, 864, 879, 900, 
 
 907, 1 '26, 928, 937, 939, 953. 
 Loi\-i,>:', or Bii'deii, 603, 510. 
 Loii-is', of Ha-va'ri-il, 075. 
 Loii 1,'i' v., of Fran9e, 285. 
 Loii is' VII., of Frilnve, 310, ,351. 
 Loii i.s-' VI II., of Fnin(;e, 319, 361. 
 Loi'i-i,<i' IX., of FriliKjc, 316, 326. 
 Loii i.s-' XL, of France, ;559, ' 64, 378, 379. 
 Loiiis' XII.. of FrAiKj'c, 359, 372, 374, S77 
 XIII. , of Fiance, 4'.M. 490, 498. 
 XIV.. o( FriliKjc, 492, 494. 498, 
 , 502, 503, ,501, 605, 506, 507, 508, 510, 
 , 613, 794, 795. 
 XV., of FrAnije, 513, 
 
 r>56, 556, 6'24. 
 Loiiijf' XVI., of FiaiKjc, .547, 
 
 50.'!, 601, 505. 600, .508. 024. 626, 634. 
 I.oiii.s' XVII.. of Fiance, 6'24. 
 Loii-i.f' XVIIL, of Franije, 624, 025, 6'26, 
 
 Lim-i 
 Loii-i 
 
 Loii is 
 
 i30, 547. 
 
 167, 560. 
 
 , 637, 
 
 Loii-is', of Hdl'Innil. 612. 
 
 Loii is' I., of lICiK'g;! ry, 38.3. 384. 
 
 I.oii-is' 11., u( IhiN'ga-ry, 3S3. 
 
 Loii-is'.of Xa'pU-s, ,''S'2. 
 
 Loii-is' rin-lipyjc', 659, 660, 061, 065, 666, 
 
 072, 673, 683, 874. 
 I.oiivois' (-vwa'). Marquis, 508. 
 Loii'vre (vi'r), r.9S, 733. 
 Ldic'cll. .lainrs liris'.scd. 904, 937, 939. 
 Lo'wen-lianpt (Ui'vciUiowp*), General, 
 
 519.520. 
 Loy-d'lil, Ig-liiVtI-us ( sl:i-) 439. 
 Lfl'bi^ck. 8'23, 880, 422, 436, G02, 612. 
 Lfl'con. 221. 
 La-ca'nk\, 147, 196. 
 Liic'cii. 584, 598. 
 Li\-(;i.'ruc', Lake, 414. 
 Lil'cian (-sbnn), 232. 
 Liiek'now, 687. 
 Lii-cd iiid'nC's, 148. 
 Liicre'ti-iis (-shi) C'a'rus. ill. 
 
 Ale 
 
 e. Am. arm. fluol ; ove, obDy, end, lior, recent; ice, ill, pique ; Old, orb, odd, move; 
 
ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. 
 
 1017 
 
 Lu-cre'zia (-zha), 57. 
 
 Lu-cul'iiis, 197. 
 
 LuilOvi'oO, 374. 
 
 i.iid'wig (-vigj) ri}r'(liii;'inil, Pi-ince of 
 
 Prussia C-sliA), 099, 
 LiiU'wig (-vlg) I., of B;V-va'l-l-:'i, 070. 
 Liiil'ttig (-Vlg) II., ol Bii-vfi'llfi, 749. 
 Liiil'wig (vig) IV., of Gcr'nifi-iiy, 341, 
 
 342, 343. 
 Liid'wig (-vig), of Thu-rin-gi-i'i, 323. 
 Liiil'wig (-vig), tlie Cliiid, 284. 
 I.Uil'wig (-vig), llie (ier'iiKMi, 2S2. 
 LUU'wig (-vig), tlie Pious, 282. 
 Lflet'tic/», 300, DOS. 
 l.ii'it-pold (poll,), ol Ba-vfi'i'i-A, 749. 
 Lun'dy's L.ane, Battle of, 943. 
 Lii'iien-bfiigft, 323. 
 Lfl-iie-ville', Treaty of, 592. 
 Lu si-ta'ni-ans, 187. 
 J.u'thijr-an Ciiin-cii, 413, 420, 437. 
 Lu'tll<5l'-aiis, 420, 427, 400, 407, 649. Ri)l. 
 Lu'tlier, Har'tiii, 405, 406, 407, 408, 400, 
 
 412, 413. 423, 427, 429, 4G2. 
 Lut'zeii (loot'sen), 020. 
 Lufzeii (ii'iot'sen). Battloof, 472. 
 LQx't'ni-bflrg, G45, 721, 725, 754. 
 Lux'cin bfli'g Palace, 738. 
 Lu-zerue', 058, 670. 
 Ly.c(lr'giis, 95, 97, 99, 142, 143. 
 l.yd'i-a, 68. 
 
 I.y'maii, Pliin'e-ils. 830, 831. 
 I.yucli'bQrg, 918, 919. 
 Ly'oiis, 408, 57S, 628. 66'), 680. 
 I.y'oiis, Council of, 325. 
 Ly'ons, University of, 378. 
 Lysan'Uer, 114. 120. 
 Ly-sip'pus, 126. 
 
 Ma-cau'lay (caw'), T/jom'as Bali'ing- 
 
 ton, 655. 
 Miic-cfi-bai'us, Ju'dfis, 144. 
 jlc-CIei7an, George Brin'ton, 908,910, 
 
 911, 922. 
 Mc-C6r'mick (nia), fy'rus Hull (liawl), 
 
 888. 
 Mc-Q'isli' (nia-), Jinies, 940. 
 Mac-Du nal(Z', General, 585, 592, 608, 614, 
 
 619. 622. 
 Mac-Do-uald', Sir Joftn. 047, 948. 
 Macd6n'im.(7/i, T/iOni'as, 872. 
 Mc-Dow'e/1, Ir'vin (cr'), 908, 910, 911. 
 Ma^-e-do'ui-a, 88, 104. 107, 12U, 127, 128, 
 
 130, 131, 132, 1.38, 140, 141, 142, 179, 181, 
 
 182, 194. 200, 205, 314. 388. 
 Ma(;-e-do'ni-fin (vessel). 868. 
 Mc-Giffert. Ar'tlmr, 94i, 
 Mac/i-i-a-vel'li. Nic-eO-lo', 370, 462. 
 Mac/i'i-niolT, 692. 
 
 Mac ken'zie, Ai-ex-an'dijr Sli-dell', 948. 
 Macken'zie, Wil'liani (-yam) Ly'on, 
 
 943, 945. 
 JIack. General, 584, 000. 
 Mack'i-naw, Straits of, 793. 
 JMc-Kin'Iey Bill, 932. 
 Mc-I,eml' (-lowil'), Rev. J6/in, 810. 
 Mac-Ma-/ioN'. rresiilent,708, 727, 728,729, 
 
 756, 757, 759. 
 Mc-Mas'ter, ,J(Vin Bac/i, 940. 
 Mac-Mi'c/iael, Mor'ton, M8. 
 
 M.'i-e6iu6', Al-cx'-an'diir, 872. 
 
 Mail-a-gas'car, 759. 
 
 JIa-dOf'ra, 395. 
 
 Mad'i-sun, James, 850, 800, 878, 879, 899. 
 
 Mad'rid, 418, 444, 604, 605. 600, 608, 639, 
 
 722, 757, 761, 762, 763, 779. 
 Mae-pe'uas, Cii'ius (yus) fil'ni-iJs, 210, 
 
 211. 
 Mag'de-burg (-buirg), 294, 425, 471, 472, 
 
 477. 530, 566. 
 I\Iag-ili'l'la, 688. 
 Jla-gi-l'fuu. Fer-nan'do, 402. 
 Jla-gen'ta, 707. 
 Ma-gen'tii, Battle of, 708. 
 I\Ia-gen'ta, Duke of, 727. 
 Ma'gi, 42. 68. 
 MAg'na C/iiir'ta, 362. 
 Mag'na Grffi'(;l-a (-slii-), 88. 
 Magnc'si-a (-slii), 93, 110, 180. 
 Miig'nus (-nuos) II., of SwG'den, 380. 
 JIag'yars, 284, 290, 292, 331, 677, 673, 702, 
 
 753. 
 Ma-lia-b/ia'ra-tii, 35. 
 Ma/i'di, El, 775. 
 Mtti-nion'i-des, Mo'ses, 274. 
 Mfu''notes, 647. 
 ]\I,"i/ne, 814, 817, 820, 822, 870. 
 MaAic, Uiver, 716, 718, 721. 
 M.'u'N-tO'noN', Madame dC, 508, 510. 
 I\Ia;t'land, Governor, 943. 
 Ma'Jor (-Jer) Do'nius, 461, 275. 
 Jl.ikart', IMiis, 657. 
 JIal-abar', ,390. 
 Ma-lac'cil, 393. 
 Miil'a-ga, 761. 
 Mal'a-kolt. 692 
 Mai-e-vOn'tiini, 160. 
 Jla-lay', 24. 
 Mal'den (niol'), 870, 
 Malc-,s/iarbe.s', dO, 547, .5.57, .507, 572. 
 Miil'nio (-me). Truce of, 077. 
 iMalpla-f|Uet' (-iia'), Baltic of, 512 
 Mal'ta (niawl'), 50, 318, 585, 5U3, 041. 
 Mai'ta (mawl'). Kniglits of, 68"). 
 Mai'tliQs, T/ioni'as Kob'iirt, 741. 
 IMal'veru Hill, 911. 
 Mam'iVlukes, 310, 318, .389, 588, C47. 
 Mam'er-tines, 107. 
 Mam-mae'a, 235. 
 Wa-nas'si'/t, 56, 05. 
 IMa-nas'sas Junction, 910. 
 Man'chester, En'gland (ing'). 642. 
 Man'elies-ter, New (ni'i) York, 892. 
 Man'da(,.565. 
 Ma'ncs, 80. 
 Man'frcd, Prince, 326. 
 Mi'in-liritVan Island, 796. 
 Miin'litim, 504,578. 623. 
 Ma-nil'i an Law, 197. 
 Miinnin' Da-ni-el'O, 707. 
 Man-itoba', 947. 
 Man'li-us, Tor-qua'tus, 165. 
 Mann, HorTi^e, 892. 
 Manning, Hcn'ry Ed'ward, 772. 
 Man'teuf-tel (-toi ), Baron, 702, 713,714, 
 
 734, 
 JIan-tine'a. 77, 113, 120, 121, 125. 
 Man'tu-a, 582, 610, 708. 
 Mii'iiii, 35. 
 
 Miiufl-ei,' Jacques (zliiik), AN-toino' 
 
 (-twan'),637. 
 Man-zo'nl (-dzo'). Count, 652. 
 Mar-acan'da, 136. 
 Miiriin-lia'o (.yii'oN), 9.58. 
 Ma raC, Jean (zliiiN), P.aui (pawl), ,56.3, 
 
 571. 
 Mar'a-IIl6n,76, li 2, 103. 
 Mar'bude, 214. 
 Mar'burg(-b6org), 413. 
 Marker, 362, 354. 
 Miircel'lus (cliel'), Miir'cus Clan'di u9 
 
 (claw'), 174, 176, 184. 
 Mar'qi-a-nO-pel, 249. 
 Mar co-milu'iii, 214. 216, 230. 
 Miir'cu.s A'u-re'li-us (aw-), see Antoni- 
 nus. 
 Mar'ciis Man'li-us, 164. 
 Mar-do'nius, 101, 107. 
 Ma-reN'gu, .591, ,592, .593. 
 Ma.-rer,6i6. 
 Miir-fo'ri, 724. 
 Miir'ga-ret, of Frfin^e, 4F0. 
 Mar'gii-ret, of Par'mil, 442, 444. 
 Miirgri-rct, of Tliu-rln'gi-a, 330. 
 Marga-rii't/iij, of Den'mark, 380. 
 Ma-ri'ii fliiir'lotfe, of Mex'ico, 951. 
 Mari'a C/iriB-ti'nii, of Aus'trl-a (aws'), 
 
 763. 
 Ma-ri'a C/irlsti'na, of Spa/n, 004, 005, 
 
 722. 
 Mari-am'nv", 14.5. 
 Miiri'a, of Bflr'giin ily. 379. 
 Ma ri'a II., of Por'tu-gal, 547, 041. 
 Ma-ri'a, Phi-lip'po, 374. 
 Ma-ri'a, Queen of P,')r'tfi-goI, 959. 
 Ma-ri-a T/ie-nVsii, of Aus'tri-;\ (aws'), 
 
 526, 528, 530, 533, 534, 537, 540, 548, 556, 
 
 621. 
 Ma-r/r'Ant()l-net(e'(oN-twa),of Tnln^e, 
 
 .550, 506, 572, 624. 
 Mil r/i"'', of Ba-va'ri:l, 711. 
 Mii-rtu' Loii'ise, of France, 612, 025, 
 
 008. 
 Ma-riffu-.a'no (-yii'). Battle of, 374, 410. 
 Ma-ri'no, Mar'tin, 722. 
 Mar'i on, Fran'9is, 848. 
 Ma'ri-us, Ca'ius (-yus), 189, 190, 191, 192. 
 
 194. 
 Ma'ri-us, the Yoiniger, 191. 
 Miirk ncis'sen, 290. 
 Marl'borougli (nuiwl'b'rO), Duke of, 
 
 510, 511. .512. 
 Mar-nir,N(. Marshal. 599, 608, 021, 625. 
 War'mo-ra, 88. 
 Jliirne. 023. 
 
 Ma-roC, CI(:'m'6nt, 404. 
 Marquette (kef), 793. 
 Mars, 148, 150. 
 Mar-sii'la, 710. 
 Mar-se«les,41R, .573, 637. 
 Mjirs. Field of, 256. 
 Miir'shall. JoAn,802. 883. 
 Marsh. C. W., 933, 940, 941. 
 Marsli'feld, Battle of, 338. 
 Mar's Hill, 97. 
 Mar'si'an, 147, 192. 
 Mar'ston Mnnr, Battle of, 486. 
 Miir'tiu V„ Pope, 347. 
 
 use, flrn, iiii, riide; food, foot; by; (jell; N-ng; italic letters silent or obscure. 
 
1018 
 
 ALrilABKTICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. 
 
 Mai-X, Kiii'l, 741, 934. 
 
 Mar'y-land (m6r'-), 804, S06, 807, 809, 823, 
 
 856, 893, 923, 937. 
 Mii'ry of Biii''guii<ly, 351. 
 Mfi'ry or Guise, 423. 
 Ma'fy Stu'art, 447, 448, 457, 458, 459, 460, 
 
 479. 
 Ma'ry, Tii'ilov, 434. 
 
 Mfi'iy II., or Eii'glaml (ill!;'), 4D3,807,S2G. 
 Mas-i-nis'sa, 17S. 179, 1S3, 193. 
 Ma'son, Captain .IiViii. S22. 
 Ma'sou, Ooufeileiate Ooiiiinlssinnci', 921. 
 Masons, Fi'ee, 63S. 639, 640. 
 Mass-a-cliu'setts, 793, 814, 815, 817, 819, 
 
 820, 821, 822, 830, 835, S36, 837, 854, 892, 
 
 893, 907, 937. 
 Mass-fi-chfi'setts Bay, 814. 
 Mi\s-SiVe'etae, 70. 
 Mas'sil-soit, 814, 820. 823. 
 Mas-sO-na', 688, 608. 
 Mas-sil'i-a, 203. 
 MiltA-mOTfis, 876. 
 Math'61', Cot/ton, 821. 
 Matli'iT, Iii'i'rOase, 821. 
 Ma-tViUihi, of Tuscany, 2t~8. 
 Mat-ta-t/ii'as, 141. 
 Mat-t/ii'ds, 406, 407. 
 Hat-r/i«- .■iiM,,In/ni,722. 
 Jlaucli (niawk) Chunk, S8S. 
 Jlau'inis (nio'),6S0. 
 
 MaH-i'i(;c' (niO-), of Bvan'den-ljiirg, 424. 
 iMau-ricjc' (niO-), of Nas'siiH, 958. 
 Mau-i-i(;e', (niO-),of S;\x'0-iiy, 423, 424, 425, 
 
 426. 
 Man-i'i-tfi'ni-a. (maw-), 190. 
 WausOiiis (maw-), 121. 
 IMax-C'n'ti iis (slii-), 239. 
 Max-inii-a'nus, 239. 
 Max-i-mirian (-ynn) I., Duke of Ba- 
 
 va'ri-a, 466. 468, 471, 476. 477. 
 Max-i-miriau (yon) JiVseiili I., Duke of 
 
 Bil-va'ii-ii, 528, 537. 
 Milx-i-iuil-ian (-yan) JO'sepli I., King of 
 
 B.i-va'lia, 600. 
 Max-i-n\il-iaii (yon) Jo'seph II., Kingot 
 
 BiVva'na, 675. 
 Mfix-i-miriau I,, of Ger'ma-ny, 350, 352 
 
 372, 379, 407, 408, 415. 
 Mftx-i-miran (-yan) II., of Gei-'ma-ny, 
 
 426, 466. 
 Mix-i-niirian (yan), of Mex'i-co, 921, 
 
 951, 952. 
 Miix'i-nius, 249. 
 M.'iyence' (-6ns'), 236,276,280,282,408, 
 
 663, 570, 576, 582, 658, 718, 721. 
 Ma'yennp, Geneial do, 456. 
 Moy'er, 740. 
 Mayficiwer, 812. 
 
 Milz-iVnu', Caiilinal, 4D4, 498, 499. 
 J!a-zep'^ia, 519. 
 
 Maz-zi'ni (niat-se"), 676, 707, 710. 
 Meode, Geoige Goi'don, 912. 
 Mec'csY, 266. 267.2i8. 
 Meek'len-bai-g, 470, 700. 
 Me'dkl, 38, 39, 41, 42, 65, 66, 6S, 82, 102, 
 
 123. 134. 
 MWi-Ci 1-Cllt">),375, 376. 404, 420. 
 Med'i-ci I cluM,Ous'nio do, 375, 376. 
 Med'i-ci ( oho), Mii r;o' do, -196. 
 
 Modi'na, 267, 26S. 
 Mod-i-ter-ra'ne-an, 38, 49. ,50, 77, 117, ; 
 
 173, 178, 184, 197, 252, 641. 
 Heg'a clos, 99. 
 Meg-a-h'>p'o-l»s, 77, 121, 142. 
 Jlog'a-rft, 86. 87, 112. 
 Mp-gid'dO, 65. 
 
 Mo'ho-iuod A'li, 765, 767, 768. 
 Mo'ho-mot A'li, 647. 
 Mois'scn, 339. 
 Jleis-torsing'Crs, 462. 
 M6-laiio/rtlion, Phil'ip, 409, 413, 413, "1 
 
 427, 460. 
 MiJ'las, 592. 
 
 Mol'ikoff, Count Lor'is, 770. 
 Mel-i'tO, 713. ■ 
 Mol'kait, 49, 51. 
 Mel'lo, Adniiial, 959. 
 Me'lOs, 113. 
 Me'niel, 603. 
 Mem'non, 43. 
 Mem'phis, 43, 47, 49, 2C8. 
 Mc-niirrf'. Fatlier, 793. 
 Men'dels-siVni, 658. 
 Mun'dMi, Battlo at, 533. 
 M&n-dO'zfi, An-to'ni-O de, 788. 
 Meu-e-la'us, 82. 
 
 Me-nen'dez (doth), Po'dio, 788. 
 Mc-ne'ni-iis A-giip'pa, 159. 
 Me'iios, 47. 
 
 MtMigs, Raph'a-el, 657. 
 IMiMi'nO, 422. 
 Mon'non-ites, 422, 824, 826, 891. 
 
 Mex'i-co (city), 878. 
 
 Mex'i-co, Gulf of. 888. 
 
 Mcj/, Captain, 796. 
 
 Mey'er-lieer, 658. 
 
 Me'za, do, 705. 
 
 Jli-am'i, Fort, 794. 
 
 Mi'cM-ol An'ge-io, See Buonafotti. 
 
 Mi'e/irtol I'a-liis-ol'o gus, 314. 
 
 Mi(;li'i g«il, 878, SS8. 
 
 Mi(;li'i-gan, Lake, 793. 
 
 Mi'das. 131. 
 
 Mid'i-an-ites, 58. 
 
 Mie-ro-slaw'ski (niye-ro-slav'), General, 
 
 69S. 
 Mir/n-et' (y.V), 638. 
 Mi'gHol, Dom, 640, 641. 
 Mi'lnn, 255, 279, 321, 344. 350. 372, 374, 377, 
 
 418, 419, 420, 503, 511, 612, 582, 592, 
 
 676, 70S. 747. 
 Mi'lan Decree, 240, 685,866. 
 Mi'lan, King, 782. 
 Mi'iau, Prince, 695, 7o4. 
 Mi-lo'sians (-slians), 107. 
 Mi-lo'tus, 87, lUl. 
 Mill, Jo/Ill Stii'ffrt, G55, 741, 921. 
 Mill Spring, 909. 
 Mi'io, 202, 
 
 Mil-ti'ados, 101, 102, 103, 110, 
 Mil'titz, 407. 
 Mil'ton, Jo/in,464, 488. 
 Mil'vi-rtu Bridge, 239. 
 
 JIi'i 
 
 Mo 
 
 . 598. 
 
 Men'sdii koU, Prince, 520, 524, 689. 691, 
 
 692. 
 Mt'ii'zel (-tsel). 657. 
 JIer'(;e-des, Ma-Vi'e', 763. 
 Mar'(;ers-bftrg Seminary, 891, 
 Mer-(^i-ei-, of CAn'ada, 948. 
 Mijr'cu-ry, SO. 
 Mor'mil-lod, Bisliop, 760. 
 Mor'Oo, 48 73. 
 jMe-ro vi^-fis, 25S. 
 Mor'o-vings, 258, 260. 261, 275. 
 Mer'i'i -nirtc Kiver, 814. 
 Mcr'ri-niac (vessel), 914, 915. 
 Mer'ry-inount (-mownt), 814. 
 IMor'se-burg (-boorg), 290. 
 Jlorv. 754. 
 
 Mos'tfn-zeff, General, 770. 
 Jles-o-po-ta'mi-a, 37, 48, 52, 199, 227, 234. 
 Mos-saOf'na, 221. 
 
 Mos-solu", T7, fi6. 93. no, 112, 121, 143. 
 Mos-srii:i, SS, 167. 16S, 288, 312, 711, 713. 
 Mo-tau'rus (-taw'), 176. 
 lU-t'oa(r. Lord, 946. 
 MC'-tol'liis, 182, 190, 191. 
 Metliodist Churoli, 891, 944. 
 Jlot'^er-nio/i, Prince, 620, 635, 639, 645. 
 
 646, 673. 
 Mi'tz, 260, 425, 727, 728, 729, 730, 736, 737, 
 
 744, 756, 766. 
 Motzior, Gforgc, 412. 
 Mouse (muz). River, 729. 
 Jlox'i-ean War. 876. 924. 
 :Mox'i-co, 402, 40.!, 6S4, 787, 788, 790, 794, 
 
 864, 866, 876, S7S, 903, 911, 921, 941, 949, 
 
 950, 951, 953. 
 
 , 639. 
 
 Mi'iiiis, of Bra-zil', 958. 
 
 Min'eio (-obo), 708. 
 
 Mi iior'va, 56, 78. 
 
 Miniio sins ors, 331, 336. 
 
 Mill HO s(Vta,9:!S. 
 
 IMin olaur ( tawr), SS. 
 
 Miiru-it, I'o'tor, 790, 798. 
 
 Mi-qtloL ( kol), 7.^2. 
 
 Mi-ra-boau' (-bO), Count rte, 560, 564, 
 
 667. 
 Mi-ra inon'. General, 950, 
 Rliriin'da, of Cii-ra'cas, 953, 
 Mir'i-oin, 54. 
 
 Mis'cO, Duke of Po'land, 383. 
 Miss'ion-a-ry (Misb'fm-) Ridge, 914. 
 Miss-iss-ipp'i, 788, 907, 909. 
 Mississ-ipp'i Bubble, 795. 
 Miss-iss-ipp'i River, 793, 794, 795, 828. 834. 
 
 852, 862, 864, 874, S8S, 90S, 909, 910. 914. 
 Mis-sO-loN'gfti, 647. 
 Jliss-oii'ri, 864, 878, 901, 904, 929. 937. 
 Miss oii'ri River, 7;U. 
 iMitli ri-da'los, 192, 194, 196, 197, 204. 
 Mitli ri-datio Wars, 192, 197. 
 Mit-y-loue (-0-), 112. 
 iMo-bile', 916. 
 Mod'e-nii, G64, 707, 709. 
 Mod'e-mi, Duke of, 582, 66S, 70S. 
 Mo'doc Indians, 938. 
 Moe'ris, 47. 
 Slre'si-a (-zhi-), 222. 
 Moguls', 385. 386, 388, 389. 
 Mo-haos' (4iach'), Battle of, 383, 390. 
 Mo-liiiin'incd. 266, 26"', 268. 
 Mo-bani'med 11., 390. 
 MO-liAin'inod-«us, 29, 316, 368, 588,646, 
 
 689. 
 
 Ale, care, am, iirm, flnal; Ove, oboy, end, liiir, recent; ice, ill, pique; Old, Orb, Odd, move; 
 
ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. 
 
 1019 
 
 Moliam'fned Pa-sliii', 764. 
 
 MO'hawk Itiver, 82», 830, 846. 
 
 MO-hi'cans, 821. 
 
 MO/t'ra, 406. 
 
 Mol-dfi'vi-a, 520, 551, 552, 604, 694. 
 
 MO-li-eie', 506. 
 
 Mo-li'no del Key, 878. 
 
 M611'witz(-vitz), B;ittle of, 526. 
 
 MO'loc/t, 28, 51. 
 
 Molt'ke, Count voii, 716, 727, 732, 734, 
 
 752, 777. 
 Momm'seii. 740. 
 Mo iiio-ru', 574. 
 ..MoN (;ei/', 592. 
 Mou-gO li-cms, 24, 31. 
 Mou-i-teiir', 593, 658. 
 Jloiri-toi- ( ter), 915. 
 Monk (niuiik), George, 490, 491, 492. 
 Monks, 40'i. 
 Mon'nioutli, 493. 
 MOn'nioutli, Battle ol, 847. 
 Mo-n6n-g;i-lie'Ia (-law) River, 830. 
 Moiiotlieism, 243. 
 Moii-ioe' (hiun-) Doctrine, B74, 931. 
 Mou-rue' (inuii-), James, 806, S74, 879. 
 Mon-ta'ii;"i, 938. 
 
 Mout-caini', General, 831, 832, 834. 
 Mon-te-b61-lo, 592. 
 Mon-te-mo'lin, Count, 723. 
 Mou'tii-nc-grO, 703, 764, 707, 768. 
 RlOn'tS Not'te, 580. 
 Mon'ti-retj' 876. 
 Mon-tes-quieii' (-ku'), 543, 544. 
 Mou'tez, LiVla, 670. 
 Mon-te-zii'nia, 402. 
 MoNf-fer-raC, 314. 
 Mont'fort, Si'mon d6, 362. 
 Mont-goni'er-y (-gCini'), 907, 
 Mont-goni'er-y(-guni'),Ricliard,840,943. 
 M6.s-ti-jo'(-zli6'), .S:i-ge-nie'(-zlia-), CS4. 
 MoNMiiar'tre, 624. 
 JlontmO-ren'iji, General, 420. 
 M6nt'nio-ren'9y, Duke of, 496. 
 MoNt-pen-si-gr' (-poN-), 723, 725, 763. 
 Mont-re-al' (-awl'), 790, 831, 834, 8^10, 870, 
 
 942, 946. 
 Mo.Nfs, Sieiir dg, 791, 792. 
 MouM, Admiral Jor'ge (zliOr'zlia), 058. 
 aioore. General, 608. 
 Moore, Tftom'.ls, 654. 
 Moors. 272, 279, 367, 363, 370, 441. 
 Mo-ra'via, 284. 348, 467, 526, 600. 
 Mora'vi-ans, 826. 
 More, Sir T/ioni'fc, 405, 430. 
 llo-re'a, 76, 646, 647, 648. 
 Mo-reau' (-ro'), 578, 585, 591, 592, 620. 
 Mo-re'los, 949. 
 RIo-re'nu, Ma-ri-a'na, 953. 
 Mor'gon, D.'m'iel (-yel),816, 819. 
 Mor-gar'tcn, Battle ol', 339, 341. 
 Mo-ri'a/i, Mount, 62. 
 Morilio (yo). Genera!, 955, 956. 
 Mo-ri-mi'es, General, 762. 
 Mor'inon-ism (-miin-), 892, 931. 
 Mor-ny' (-ne'). Due de, 680. 
 Mo-roe'co, 723. 
 Mor'cis, Goii'vernefir, 856. 
 Mor'j'is, Lewis (loo'), 826. 
 Mor'cis, Rob'iJrt, 854. 
 
 MOr'iis-town, 848, 850, 856. 
 
 Morse, Sani'u-el F. B. 741, 888. 
 
 Mor-ti-c)'' Marslial, 624. 
 
 Mor'ton, of Mer'ry-mount (mownt), 814. 
 
 Mo'sclier-Oscli, Plii-liln'diir vOn. 478. 
 
 Mos'cow), 385, 519, 522, 551, 614, 616, 618, 770. 
 
 Mo-sel(e', 502, 728. 
 
 MO'ses, 54. 56. 
 
 Mos'lems, 267, 26S, 270, 368, 386. 
 
 Mot'lcy, J6/m Lo'tlirop, 937, 939. 
 
 Mountain, 504, 567, 570, 571, 6S0. 
 
 MO-zart', Wolfgang (woolf) Ain-a-dc5' 
 
 us, 658. 
 Mae/tl'dOrf, Battle of, 341. 
 Mu'eu-nic/i, 524. 
 Ma/il'berg, 424. 
 Mil/il'er, von, 744. 
 Mfl/il-hau'sen ( liow'), 412. 
 Mukli tar' Pa-sliii', 763. 
 MulTord, E-li'slKl, 940. 
 MuCler, H;lns, 410. 
 Miini'mi-us, 1S2. 
 Miln'da, 204. 
 
 MuN'ger, Tlie'o-dore. 940. 
 Mu'uic/i,472, 528, 657, 670, 743, 744. 
 Mttn'ster, -121.422, 500. 
 Miin-t.'i-ni-e)'', 335. 
 Mun'zer, (Mfinf), T/iom'as, 410, 412, 421, 
 
 422. 
 Mii'rad I., Sultan, 388. 
 Mii'rad II., Sultnn, 389, 390, 
 Mii'rad V., Sultan, 764. 
 Mft-ral', Car'o-line. 594. 
 MQ-rat', Jo'a-c/tim (yC), ,599, 600, 601. 
 
 604, 618, G22, 030. 
 Miir'frcesbor-o (-bur-rO), 910, 913. 
 Mii rii'lo (lyo), Bar-tliO-lo-ni6' Es-tg-ban 
 
 (-van'), 466. 
 JIur'iier (moor'), TAom'ils, 462. 
 Mur'cay, James Stii'tirt, 458. 
 Mflr'ray, General, 942, 
 Mur'ten (niOr'), Battle of, 378. 
 Mfi'ti-ua, 200. 
 Mu'tin-ab-bi, 274. 
 Myc'a-le, 88, 107. 
 My'(;i}-nEe, 77, S3, 
 My'laj, 168. 
 Mys'lics, 334. 
 My-tlioro-gy, 23, 78. 
 
 Na-bou-e'tos, 70. 
 
 Nft-bo-pO-las'sar, 41. 
 
 Nac/i'i-moff. Admiral, 692. 
 
 Na'na Sii'liib. 687. 
 
 Nan'(;y. .378, 524. 
 
 Nantes, Edict of, 456, 508. 
 
 Na'pi-er, Charles, 690. 
 
 Na'pi-er, Sir Rob'ert, 688. 
 
 Na'plcs. 88, 288, 292. 323, 325, 326, 328, 329, 
 330, 367, 377, 378, 415, 419, 420, 441, 513, 
 514, 534, 585, 601, 622, 630, 639, 668, 676, 
 707, 710, 711. 
 
 Na-po'le-on II., 632. 
 
 Na-po'ie-on Bo'na-parte. See Bona- 
 parte. 
 
 Na-po'lc-on III., Loii is', 594. 601, 656, 672, 
 680. 083, 684, 685, 686, 688, 094, 698, 702, 
 707, 708, 709, 717, 721, 723, 725, 729, 756, 
 921. 
 
 Na-po'lc-on, Prince, 773. 
 
 Nar-9is'sus, 220. 
 
 Nar-ca-gan'sett Bay, 817. 
 
 Nar'ses, 274. 
 
 Nar'va, 518. 
 
 Niir-va'pz (-etli), General, 665, 722, 723. 
 
 Nar-vii'cz (-eth), I'am-fi'lOde, 787. 
 
 Nase'by, Battle of, 486. 
 
 Nasli'ville, 909, 910,919. 
 
 Nas'sau (-a\V), 600, 721. 
 
 Nas'.sau (-aw) Fort, 796. 
 
 .Na-ta'lic, Queen, 782. 
 
 Nau'kra tis (naw'), 44. 
 
 Niuipac'tus (naw-), 110. 
 
 Nau-voo' (naw-), 892. 
 
 Na-vari'ud, Battle of, 648. 
 
 Na'vy Island, 945. 
 
 Na.\'Os, 78. , 
 
 Naz'a-rcth, 316. 
 
 Nu'iirc/i, 138, 140. 
 
 Nij'bu, 56. 
 
 Nebras'ka, 864, 904. 
 
 Ncb-u-e/iad-nez'znr, 42, 52, 65. 
 
 Nu-(;es'sl-ty, Fort, 830. 
 
 No'cAo, 48, 50, 65. 
 
 Neck'ar River, 410, 422, 604. 
 
 Ncck'er, Jacques (zliak), 557, 558, 560, 
 561, 564, 595, 655. 
 
 Ncer'win-den, 503. 
 
 Ncg'ro-ponte, 78. 
 
 Nc-he-mi'aii, 06. 
 
 Nel'son, Doctor, 945. 
 
 Ncl'son, Lord, 585, 588, 600. 
 
 Nc'me-a, 92. 
 
 Nepli'c-le, 82. 
 
 Nr'pos, Cor-ne'li-iis, 212. 
 
 Ncp'tfnie, 78. 
 
 N"''re'ids, 79. 
 
 NO'ri, 375. 
 
 Nr'ro, Cl.-vu'di-Cis (claw'), 221, 243. 
 
 Niir'va, Mar'cus Coe-pe-ius (-yus), 226. 
 
 N('-r'vi-i, 200. 
 
 Kcs'tor, 83. 
 
 NctU'er-lands, 218, 3-51, .378, .379, 404, 41.5, 
 420, 423, 450, 428, 441, 442, 444, 446, 448, 
 448, 432, 459, 477, 499, 504, 511, 513. 528, 
 549, 608, 570, 585, 586, 628, 645, 601, 754, 
 780. 
 
 Nen'en-burg (noi'en-boorg), 7C2. 
 
 Neus'tri-a, 260, 261. 
 
 Nc'va, 519. 
 
 Nuv'iu, JiVni, 831. 
 
 New ;nu) Am'ster-daui, 797, 798, 799, 821. 
 
 New'berr-y (nu) Library, 939. 
 
 New (nu) Bruns'wick, 828, 946, 947. 
 
 New'bflrg (nu'), 853. 
 
 New (ml) Car'tliage (-lliij), 171. 
 
 New'c;"[,s(le, (nu'), .s24. 
 
 New'comb (nu'kCini), .Simon, 940. 941. 
 
 New (nu) En'gland (ing'), 797, 803, 808, 
 812, 814, 817, 820, 822, 830, 844, 846, 818, 
 870, 874, 890, 891, 893, 899, 901, 937, 942. 
 
 New'foJind-land (nu'), 78i, 790, 791, 796, 
 806, 834, 852, 948. 
 
 New (nil) France, 790, 791. 792, 791, 795. 
 
 New (nil) Gra na'da. 953, 956, 957. 
 
 New (nu) Hamp'shire, 814, 822, 854. 
 
 New (nu) ria'ven, 797, 817,822. 
 
 New (nu) Jiir'sey, 826, 828, 842, 844, 854. 
 
 use, (irn, up, riide; fOOd, foot; by; 9ell; N=ng; italic letters silent or obscure. 
 
1020 
 
 AMMIAHKl'lOAL AND PHONOUNCIXC; INDKX. 
 
 New (uO) JOi-'scy, College of, S2S. 
 Now (nrt) Loii'don (Ifin'), fvl8. 
 New'mau (m"i'), Jo/m IK'H'iy. "!'-• S'M. 
 Uiuv (iiO) MO>x'l-ci\ 7ST, 7SS, 7«i, 801, 1150. 
 New (iiO) NiMU'cr-loiKls. TiW,7iiT,S2ti,S'JS, 
 Now (ml) Or'IC'-aiis, 779, 7M, 831, 80li, 
 
 910, 912, 932. 
 Now (nil) Oi"Io-ans, Battle of, 874, 882. 
 Now'pOrt (nil'), 82S 
 Newport (nil'), CaptiUn C/iiis'tdplioi-, 
 
 800. 
 Now (lui) Spfiin, 7S7. 7SS, 9,i3. 
 New.sp:>pois, .Vnu'ru'im, SUS. 
 New (nil) Swe'ili'ii, 798. 
 New'ton (nil'), Sir I's-^ac, 4.62. 
 Now'town (nil'), S17, 821. 
 Now (nil) YOrlt (oily), 797, 79S, 821. 828, 
 
 831, S:U'., 810, 841, 817, 850, So2, 8o4, 890, 
 
 904, 91-', 922, 9'JS, 9;iii, 936, 9S9. 
 New (nil) York (stale), "92, S2S, 820, 828, 
 
 830, 817, S;->;i, 8.^.4, S.'^iG, 878, 882, 892, 899, 
 
 900. 922, 928, 9J9, 9;!0. 9".l, 9Sli, 937, 942. 
 NOi', Marshal, 599, 008, 010,618,022,025, 
 
 028, CSO, 082. 
 NCl Per-(;6'. 9SS. 
 Ni-ilg'iVriV, Fort, 830, 831. 
 NHVK'iVlM, Kiver, 80S. 913. 
 Ni-i^K'A-ia aown),942. 
 Ni-iig'iVra (vessel). 910. 
 Ni^e, 874. SvSO, 084. 709. 
 Ni-(;f'A, 1S8, 246, S'X. 306, 8M. 
 Niije, Truce of, 420, 
 Nic/t'O-las, ArelHlukc. 7Cw. 
 Nlo/i'tVlas. Czar, 647, (ksS, 6,89, 099, 691, 
 
 702, 7.'i3, 780. 
 Nlc/i'iVlos v., I'ope. 349, ,<i77, SIH1. 
 Nlc/i'ol-son, FrAii'ijls, 805, 807, 809. 
 Nlij'l-ils, 112, IIS. 
 Nlc'Ci-lA, Colonel, S5S. 
 Ni'oo-lni, C/iris'tOpli Frio'itiic/i, ,'i40. 
 NlO'O-lilj/. SHO. 
 Ni-oOI-lM',Jean (/.liiiN) 79.3. 
 Nio-0-in,'''iIl-A,640. 
 Ni05p'0Hs, 765. 
 Nl-odp'illls, llattle of, 8,88. 
 Niel>'(;l-iin(;-en l.i'.-d, 335. 
 Ni-i-r, Marsliul,70S. 
 Nltf/ifingAlf, Flor'C-n(;o, 691. 
 Nl'lilMsts, 770, 781. 
 Nilf, 43, 44, 46. 47, 48, 54, 204, 74'2. 
 N lines, 6S7. 
 Nlni'riHl, 87. 
 
 Nhre-vf/l,S7, 38,39,41,05. 
 Ni'nus, S7, 
 NSr-V!Vlu\, S4. 
 Nis'it^cA. S9. 
 NiVAft. 2S. 
 Nob'llng. l>r., 747. 
 NO-br^VgA, 958. 
 NCi'lil, 214. 
 Nfiin'atls, 24, 20, SO. 
 NOril Xlbiii8'i-i\, 380. 
 NorMon-slvjoia (-shOUl), 743. 
 Noril'Unseii (ni'if). Battle of, 470. 
 Nflr'fom^ l)«ke of, 4r>S. 
 NOr'tofk, Vlr-sln'i-a (vSv-) , 915. 
 NOr'nian-ily, 2S5, Sol, So9, S60, S79, 571, 
 
 B7S,791. 
 NC^r'muns. 284, 285. 286. 288, 2<iS, S7J», 790. 
 
 Niirth Cilr-o-li'nA, 790, 807, 808, 823, SOS. 
 
 North m-ko'tA, 804. 
 
 North. Lord Ifroil'tir-lck, 835, 852. 
 
 North Sea, 077. 
 
 Nor-thiini'l)er-l((nil, 280. S03, 43S, 458. 
 
 Nortliwost Territory, 850, 892. 
 
 Nor'waj/, 285, S79, 380, 437, 522, 622, 781. 
 
 NiVtic UiMnc, .574, 507. 
 
 Noiirse (nCiOrs), .lo'el, 8SS. 
 
 Novii'lis. 048, 651. 
 
 No-vii'rii, 039. 
 
 No'vil Sco'tl-il (-sill), r.l2. 820, 910, 9-17. 
 
 Nov'go-ruil, 2S5, 385. 
 
 No'vl-Jl Do'liuin, 199. 
 
 Nii'vi, Battle of. 685. 
 
 No'vi Bii-ziir'. 70S. 
 
 Nil'bi-il, 48. 73.775. 
 
 Nno'ijes (nwa'). River, 876. 
 
 Niim:1n'ti-;\ (-shi-), ISO, 187. 
 
 Nfi-in;\n-ti'niis. 187. 
 
 NlViiia Fiim-pirifis, 154. 
 
 Nil'mlil'l-;!, 178, 179. 
 
 Nil'ini-tor, 150 
 
 Nun, 66. 
 
 Na'ri>ra-bl>rs, 421, 472. 
 
 Nymplis, 79. 
 
 Nym weK'eii (vog'), Toace of, 502, ,W". 
 
 Ny'oii, 199. 
 
 Ob'e-lisks, 40, 47. 
 
 0-bre no'wltsch (-vieli), rrinoo Mi 
 
 o/inol, 094. 
 Oo'iji (lent, 244. 
 
 OOoirnell. Ililn'iel (yel), 644. 
 Oota'vi-iV. 221. 
 Oeta'vifln, or OetiX'vi iis. See Align 
 
 tiis Cajsar. 
 Cid-ilua'tliiis. 236, 
 Oiler, 883. 3S4, SS6, 620. 
 Oiles'sA, 552. 
 (^■ilin.21S, 286.379. 
 (to :Vi;cr, 'jS?, 258. 
 O'lViii iifll.722, 723. 
 ilys'seiis, 77, S;!, 84. 
 Odys-sey. 84. 
 OSd'i-piis (fil'-), 123. 
 CE/riou-sfhliT-gdr, Ail'idn, 0,57. 
 CE no phytA. 111. 
 UCtil.75. 10\ 
 fen. 503. 
 Osdens-bOrg. 870. 
 giVoliee River, 919. 
 glfthdrpe. ■lames. 809. 810, Sll. 
 ill o, 866, 892, 928, 929. 937. 
 Olii'o River, 7W, S28, 830. 831, 852, 81 
 
 909. 
 
 lii'O Oniversity. 893. 
 Oliit Lilp'kini;. 379. 
 Oliif. tlie Saint. 379. 
 
 01 den-barnvMt, 795. 
 Olden bilrg. 319. 612. 622. 
 Olilenbilrg, House of, 380, 677. 
 li'vii. Peace of. 47'i. 
 Oliver. James, SSS. 
 OMi-vifr'. 6S6. 
 
 Ol'miltx, 566, 677, 679, 700. 708. 
 Olym'pi-iV, 77. 92, lai. 
 0-lym'pi-ilds. 92. 
 O-lym'pi-rtn, Games, 92, 105, 127. 
 
 lyin'ivi-iis, 2.52. 
 
 lyin'piis, 75,78. 
 
 Olyn-tlii-A, 88, 120, 128. 
 
 O'lnar, 268. 
 
 O'lnnr I'asbii', 690. 
 
 Oinmi'rids, 268. 271. 272. 
 
 0-neiM;'i, Lake, 792. 
 
 On-u-iiK'ir'e/iiis, 128. 
 
 On'tari-o, Lake, 792, 870. 
 
 0>n ta'ri-o, SM7. 
 
 0|i-e e/iaii ■(AuCtugli, 802. 
 
 pini'iiis. 189. 
 
 iior'lu. 039. 
 
 Oirpen-lieini, 472. 
 
 Ops, l."i0. 
 
 Op'ti -mates. '80, 188, 191. 
 
 Oraeles. 2r>l. 
 
 Or'iinge. 500. 
 
 Or'diige, Fort, 7S)6, 
 
 OrdiiKo. llonse of, 001. 
 
 Or'cinge, Man-rnje' (mo) of. 447, 448. 
 
 Ordiigt-nien, 044. 
 
 Oriinge,\Virilaiii(yfiin)of. See William 
 
 of Orange. 
 Or'cfis, SO. 
 
 Or'f-goii, 864, 876, 938. 
 Oiella'uii (■yii'),413. 
 0-ivs'tes, 256. 2.57. 
 Oil out. 29. 30. 31, 248, 244, 404. 
 Or'i-gen. 247. 
 Orinooo River. 400. 9.58. 
 ri zaba ( tliiiva), 951. 
 orlenn'ists, 685. 
 Or-lc-ans' (-on'), 358, 490. 004, ,^01.508, ,'•72, 
 
 606. 
 Orle^ins' (^lN'). Diet of. 450. 
 Or-le-ans' (hiN'), (Island), 882 
 Orleans' (on'). Maid of, See JoaK oi 
 
 Arc. 
 Orle-ans' (-on'), Siege ot, 450. 
 Or-lf^uis' (-iSN') War. 504. 
 6r loft', Grf-gOi", 549. 
 Oriiifiz. SilS. 
 Or'miizd, 66. 
 ron'tes, 143. 
 Or'phe-ns. 82. 
 Or.si'ni. 376 
 
 6rsi'ni, Feli'ce (-chC-), 686, 707. 
 6r-tC-'giV 7-23. 
 6i--te'gil, General, O.'iO. 
 OrtlKidox Ohnreli. 8;i0. 
 Osfige' Indians, 9:i8. 
 Osboni ( bi'irn). Sir Dau'vi'is, 828. 
 Os e,ni, 147. 
 
 Os'e.ir IL, of Swe'den, 754, 781, 782. 
 Osi lis, 40. 
 
 Os-iniin' Pii-slia'. 765, 760. 
 Ossein (osir». 5;». 
 
 Os .sv-li. Margaret Fnl7er (RVd'), 897. 
 Ost-end' Oonferenee, 9*;. 
 Os'ter-miuin.624. 
 Osti-ii, 56. 
 
 Os-we'go. Fort, 880, 831. 
 OtU'man. 20S, 388. 
 Otho. 222. 
 Ot'tiVcJir. SSS. 
 OftiVninn Empire, S?i 374, 390, 421, 694, 
 
 695. 
 Ot'to. of Fre.vsing, 335. 
 
 Ale, ofire, )\in.t)rm, Bual; ove, obey, ei'd, her, recent; ioe, ill, pique; Old, orb. Mil move; 
 
ALl'lIAliKTICArv AND rUONOUNCING INDEX. 
 
 1021 
 
 Ot'tO I., of Ger'nifi-iiy, 200, 292, 381. 
 Ot'ti) II,, of Ger'nul-ny, 292. 
 Ot'tO III., or Ger'niiliiy, 292, 291. 
 Ot'to IV., ot UOl'ma-ny, 321, 
 Ot'tO I., of GrOeije, 648, 69ij, 
 Ot'tO, of NorU'lielm (norf), 290, 30O. 
 Ot'tO. of Wit'tels-bic/i, 324. 
 Ot'tO, Prince of Bil-va'ii-a, 749. 
 Otiinrbu, Buttle of, 402. 
 Oiide'iianle, Battle <it, 512. 
 Oil (ti-iior, 625. 
 O-vaii'do, 400. 
 O'vci-bc'ck, 057. 
 Ov'ul, 211, 
 
 O.veii stj.-rii, Ax'cl, S7.1. 
 Ox'foi'd, 405, 434, 772. 818. 
 Ox'forU iiiovcMiieiit, 890. 
 
 Pa-cfto'nii-us, 331. 
 
 I'a-^if'lc Ocean. 402, 78^. 
 
 VftcU'enhfini General, 874. 
 
 rii'ilei'-bOrn, 279, 280. 
 
 Pad'Q-a, 255, 293, 372. 
 
 Pa'dus, 147, 
 
 Pa ez' (etb'), General, 956. 
 
 Pii-gani', 251. 
 
 Paganism, 243, 248, 251, 262. 
 
 Pager-ie' (zliiir-). TascU'ci' dC lu, 580, 
 594. 
 
 Page, TAOm'As Nel'son. 909, 
 
 Pairien (par'). Count, 593. 
 
 Pa-liu-oro-gus, Mi'c/ia-el, 314. 
 
 Pa-Iai,s' Roy-al', ."iei. 
 
 P.\-li\t'i-iirite, 427. im. 467. 477, .'■)02, 504. 
 
 Pi\l'a-tine Hill, 150. 210, 221, 235. 
 
 Pa-lei'')nO, 168, 288, 324, 710, 711. 
 
 Pares-tiMC, 38, 70, 132, 208, 302, 310, 313, 
 689, 
 
 Pa-les-tri'na, 464. 466. 
 
 I'i'il'las A-the'ne, 70, 73, 220. 
 
 Pal-Iii-vi-cl'nO (-die') Tri-vurzi-O, 039, 
 707. 
 
 Paim'ei'-slon, Lord, 642, 688. 
 
 Piiijn, of Nfi'rOnibfli'g, 2. 
 
 Pfllmy'ra, 230. 238. 
 
 I'a'lO Al'tO, Battle of, 870. 
 
 Pa'IOs, 398. 
 
 Pain-l)e-lfl'na,279. 
 
 Pitn-iY-nia' Canal, 778, 930. 
 
 Pan A niOi'i can Congress, 9,S2. 
 
 Pfin'dOcts, 202. 
 
 Pan'du, 35, 
 
 Pan-nO'nl-fi, 230, 255, 280. 
 
 PiVn'tlie-on, 210, 583. 
 
 Papacy, 280, 288. 
 
 Pii-iii-nean' (-nO), Loii-is', 944, 945. 
 
 Pa-|)in'i-an, 232, 234. 
 
 Pa-plr'l-i']s, 106. 
 
 Piip'pen-lieiin, Count von, 472, 
 
 Pa-ra guay' (-gwi'), 950, 959. 
 
 I'a'iia/i, X3. 
 
 Par'ls, 248, 350, 420. 4.39. 4.50. 453, 4.54,4.50, 
 493, 501, 502. 563. 504, 565, 566, 570, 572, 
 5-0, ,589, 589, 595, 597, 598, 602, 608, 618, 
 624, 632, 659, 005. 671, 673, 680, 634, 725, 
 720, 7'28, 7'29, 730, 732, 734, 737, 743, 753, 
 751, 778, 792. 
 
 PAr'is, Congress of, 094, 707. 
 
 I'iir'is, Count of, 7ri7. 
 
 Pfir'is, of Troy, 82. 
 
 Par'is. Parliament of. .550. 558. 
 
 Par'ls. Suconil Pence ol. 632, 
 
 Par'is. Treaty of, 025, 030, 772. 
 
 Par'ls, University of, 638. 
 
 Parliament, Barebones, 490, 
 
 rarliament. Long, 482. 
 
 Parliament. Uump, 488. 491, 492. 
 
 PiirU'inctn, Fr:^ii'(;is, 939. 
 
 rar'ma, 514, 582, 593, 025, 004, 668, 707, 
 
 709. 
 Pilr-inG'ni-o, 131. 132, 136, 
 Par-nas'iiis, 70, SO, 100. 
 Piir'nell, Cliiirles Slew'art (stu'), 776, 
 
 783. 
 Pa'rOs, 78. 102. 
 Piirr, Ciitirer-inc, 432. 
 Par-r/irrsi-us (-shi), 127. 
 Par'thO-non.lll. 
 
 Piir-tlK!n'o-pi-nn Kepiibllc. ,584, ,585. 
 Par'tlil-il, 143, 197, 207, 221 , 230, 234, 235. 
 Pas'col, BUKsC, 607. 
 Pas'cal 11., Poiie, 300. 
 Piis'cal HI., Anli-Pope, 322. 
 PiJs-kiiS'witscii (vicb). Prince, 603, 078, 
 
 090, 696. 
 Piis'sau (-sow), Treaty of, 425, 426. 
 Passover, 64. 
 
 Pas tor'i-ijs, Fr:\n'ijis, 824. 
 Pat'it-gO'ni-a, 953. 
 Pat'kul (-koOl). 619. 
 Pat'mOs. 78. 
 Patricians, 150, 157, 158, 159, 100, 101, 162, 
 
 104. 
 Pa-tri-niO'nI-fMii Pe'tri, 275. 
 Pa'trO-cjin-i-O, Sister, 723. 
 Pa-trO'clus, 83. 
 Pat'(er-son, Ellz'a-betli, 601. 
 Pat'(cr.son, General, 908. 
 Paul (pawl). Apostle, '243. 
 Paul, (|)awl). Czar. 534, 585,591, 592, 593. 
 Pan! (pawl) III.. Poi'e, 420, 423, 425, 438. 
 Paul (pawl) IV., Pope, 4.38. 
 I'an'lus (paw'). Jurist, 232. 
 Pau'lus (paw'), Lu'cl us ( slil) ^Kniil'i- 
 
 U8, 174,181, 184. 
 Pausa'nl-as (iiaw-), 107, 103, 110, 114. 
 I'a-vi'a, 204, 276, 279, 418. 
 Pa-vi'ii, Battle of, 418. 
 Pavi'ii, General, 702. 
 POa'bod-y Library, 939. 
 Peasant War, 3.52. 
 Pec'cl (Pet'che), Cardln.al, See Leo 
 
 XIIL, Pope. 
 PO'dro II., or Bl-i\-zll', Dom, 969. 
 Pc'dro IV., of POr'tu-gal, (I. of Brazil') 
 
 641, 959. 
 Pu'drO, of POr'tu-gal, The Stern, 363. 
 Pci-xo'lo (-aO'), 909. 
 Pe-Ia'Bl-i"is, 2.7. 
 Pe-las'gi, 81. 
 
 Pe-lis-si-Cr', General, 692, 
 Pcl'JA, 127. 
 
 Pel'li-co,Sil'vi-a, 639,652. 
 PcJ-lOp'l diis, 120, 121, 125. 
 Pel-opOn-ne'siis, 75, 76, 78, 81, 87. 95. 96, 
 
 107, 112, 113, 119, 120, 1'21, 131, 142, 186, 
 
 251,205, 646. 
 Pel-opCn-uS'si-an War, 111, 112, 125. 
 
 P(!'lops, 81. 
 
 Pe-lu'sl-Om, 49, 203. 
 
 Puin'ber-ton, General, 912. 
 
 Pe-na'tes, 80. 
 
 I'cncon' (pilN-.sON), Vln'(;eiit, 958. 
 
 Pen'dleton, of lii'0, 929, 'no. 
 
 Pe-nel'o-pe, 83. 
 
 Pe-ne'us, 75. 
 
 Peuln'su-lar (-IlSr) War, 004. 
 
 Peiiu, Han'na/i, 826. 
 
 Penu'syl-va'nl-i\, 823, 826, 842, 847, 853, 
 
 854, 806, 800, 899, 900, 904, 933, 936, 937, 
 
 942. 
 Peiin'syl-va'nl-a, Uulverally of. 893, 
 I'enu, Wil'llani (-yi'iin), 8U7, 8'28, 824, 828. 
 Pc-nob'scot, 874. 
 Po-nOb'scOt Bay, 796. 
 Pe-nOb'scOt Illver, 823. 
 Pensions, 924, 931. 
 Pe-O'rl-a, Lake, 794. 
 Pe|)e, Wii'llain (yam), 039. 
 Pe'quod Indians, 8'21, 
 Pi!r'<;y Hotspur, 363. 
 Perdle'cas, 141. 
 I'er'gilinOs, 143, 194. 
 Per-i-ilu'der, »«, 99, 100. 
 Per'i-cles, 110, 111, 112, 125, 126. 
 PC-ri-D)'' CAs-iinir', 756. 
 Per-l-oo'-(;l, 87, 93, 94, 120. 
 Piir'kins InstltulB, 893. 
 PfiiMOr, Georges (zliOrzli), 793. 
 PCM-'i-y, On viir Uflz'ard, 870, 941, 943, 
 Per'»7-viUe, 010. 
 Per-sop'olls, 74, 134. 
 Per'.se-iJs, 180, 181,182,281. 
 Piir'sl-a (-shl-), 49, 52, 66, 08, 70, 72. 74, 81, 
 
 99. 101, 102, 104, 105, 107, HI, 118. 119, 
 
 I'JO, 121, 123, 124, J30, 131. 132, 134, 140, 
 
 230. 238, 243, 248, 202. SOS, 380, 389. 
 Pcr'si-iin (-sill-) Gulf, 393. 
 Plir'ti-mU, '234. 
 
 Pe-rii', 403, 787, 930, 953, 950, 957. 
 Purun', '206. 
 PO-n'i'sl-il, 148, 207. 
 Pescii'ra, 218. 
 Pes-clii-6'ra, 708. 
 Pesta-loz'zi, (•10t'3e),640. 
 Pest/i, 722. 
 
 Pe'tL'r, Apostle, '243, 255. 
 Pe'tiir, Miir'tyr, 437. 
 Pe'tiir of A'mi-ens (-fiN), 302. 
 Pe'tcr 111., of Ar'a gon, 330, 307. 
 Pe'tiir, of Ciis-tile', the Cruel, 307. 
 Pe'ttir I., of Ki'is'sla (slifi), (ho Great, 
 
 516, 517, 518, 519, 520, 622, 524. 
 Pe'tiir II., of Kiis'sia (sinl), 5^4. 
 Pe'tiir III., of Kiis'sia (-slifi), 534. 
 Pe'tiir, of Viu'e-i\, 326. 
 Pe'ters bflrg, 918. 
 Pe'tiir, the Hermit, 304. 
 PC-ti-oN', 505, 571. 
 Pe-toe'fi, Al-ex-iin'dOr, 057. 
 Pe'trurc/i, 336, 343. 
 PS'tri, 436. 
 
 P(';-tro'nl-us Miix'i mu9, 256. 
 Pfalz (pliilts) New'burg, (nol'bOOrg), 
 
 604. 
 Phse'drus, 211. 
 Pha'lanx, 130. 
 
 use, (lin, up, riidc; fCCd.fOOt; bji (;el! ; N=ng; Italic letters silent or obscure. 
 
1022 ALniAr.lCTICAL AND rRONOUNCTXG IXDKX. 
 
 I'liruTi-nii'md. 258. rip'in. Donation of, 275, 270. To ni ii-tow'ski (-tiiv'), Ju'sC'iih, 054. 
 
 I'lifi'rad/i, 4;!, 40, 48, 52, 04. Piji'in, of //er'is-tal, 201, 271, 275. POn'ti-fic, S34. 
 
 Plii^r'l-sues, 141. Pip'ln, the Little, 275, 27C, 27'J. POii'li-us, 166. 
 
 l'h;M'na-90s, 107, 204. ril)iii. Son of Lud'wiB (lut'vig) the PoN-tiiii coiirr (-tniN), 791. 
 
 Pll;'i'l'os, 204. Pious, 282. Poii'ti'is, 102, 194, 197. 
 
 PiiiVr-sfi'li-ft, 75, 203. Pi-rte'fis, 76, lOS, 113, 120. Po(ie, Joint, 911, 038. 
 
 Pliar-sii'liis, 179. Pif'nii dier'), 530. r6|p7iuni. Sii- JO/in, S22. 
 
 Plild'l-!\9, 92, 111, 126. Pi'sii, 341,375. Por'^iu, 207. 
 
 Piii'do, 90. I'i'sii, Council of, 316. Pur-siMrnfi, Lfirs, 68, 09, 130. 
 
 Pilil-!l-(lBi'|>iii-fi, 79G, 799, 824, 828, 831, PKsi.s'tra-tus, 98, 99. Portf, 052. 
 
 83G, 837, 844, 847. 850, 803, 854, S56,S58, Pitls, Bidtlieis, 888. PCii-'ter, Dfi'viil Dix'on, 916. 
 
 860, 890, 692, 893, 902, 912, 936, 938. PlIts'bfli'K, 830, 831. POr'tsr, NO':\/i, 940. 
 
 Pli!l-Ailel'i)lius, 143, Pitts'baiH; Landing, 909. Port Hi'ul'son, 912. 
 
 Plii'ltf'tas, 130. Pitt, tlie Younger, 068. POrt'l«n<i, 823. 
 
 Piiil'il), Ar'iUis, 236. Pilt, Wil'llani (yilni), 032, 594, 001, 8 8, Por'to Ki'co, 400, 953. 
 
 Pliil'ip ists, 427. S3I, 834, 835, 838, 847. I Vir'to Siiu'to, 395. 
 
 Pliil'ip, ludiim King, 820, Pi'fis II., Pope, 377, 390, Port Ko.y'al, 791, 702, 810, 914. 
 
 Pliil'ip of Bilr'giMidy, Sonof Milx-i-niil'- Pi'Cis IV., Pope, 433. Purts'niofltli, 823. 
 
 inn (ynu) of Aus'tri-il (aws'), 379. Pi'us VI., Pope, 049, 582, 584. I'or'tu-gal, 187, 272, 367, 368, 395, SOU. 39S, 
 
 Phil'ili, of Uftr'gundy, the Hold, 378. Pi'us VII., Pope, 586, COO, 622. 404, 441, 418, 462, 517, 604, 60S, 630, 638, 
 
 Plill'ip,ofl3flr'gun-dy the Good, 356, 359, Pi'us IX., Pope, 606, 676, 720, 748, 758, 630,610,723,72.5,773,779,783,787,958, 
 
 378. 761. 959. 
 
 Pliilil) II., of Fri1n(;e, 812, 324, 351, 360. Pi-zar'ro, Fi'An'9is, 403, 787. Po'nis, 138. 
 
 Pliil'ip IV., of Fr5ii<;e, 3,39, 341, 351, 352. PIz'zo (pet'sO), 630. Po-se'ldou, 78, 87, 92. 
 
 Pliil'ip VI., of Frriii(;e,3.52. Pia(;id'i-a, 254. Po'scn, 030, 003, 746. 
 
 PhU'ip, of Qiir'inil-iiy, 324. PMn-tag'e-nOls, ,359, 364. Pos-tliu'iui-us, 166. 
 
 PliU'ip of Hesse, 410, 412, 413,421,423, rifi-ta!';!, 70, 102, 107, 112, 120. Po-teiii'kiu Prince, 550, 552. 
 
 424. Pla'to, US, 1'24, 145, 248. Pot-i-da;';!, 112. 
 
 Phil'lp II., of Mii-96-do'ni-a, 125, 127, 128, PliUts'bflrg, 872. Po-to'iuac, Army of the, 908, 918. 
 
 130, 131, IS'2. Plau'tus (plaw'), 184. Po-to'niac Kiver, 858, 874, 90S, 910, 911, 
 
 PiiU'ip III., of Mfi-(;6-do'ul-a, 179, 180. Plebeians, 150, 167, 159, 160, 101, 162, 164. 918. 
 
 PiiU'ip «t Or-le-ans (-on'), 513. Plev'na, 760, 707. Pots'dilm, 600. 
 
 Pliiril) of Piir'niil, 514, 6'28. Pliii'y, the Elder, 226. Pots'dain Guard, 525. 
 
 Pliil'i|) 11., of 81)11(11,370, 421. 426,434, Piin'y, the 'i'ounger, 227, 2C0. Pow'ell, Cliief Justice, 943. 
 
 440, 441, 412, 440, 448, 452, <56, 459. rirnu'bi eres, 107. Pow'ell, Major, 941. 
 
 Ph;l'ip 111., of Spa/ii, 370. PUi'tare/i, '230. Po\v-lia-t5n', 800, 802. 
 
 Phil'ili v., of Spain, 510, 611, 612, 513, Plii'lo, 78. Pric iies'te, 191. 
 
 niil'ip-O-prl. 770. Plyin'oiilh, 811,514, 817, 820, 821, 823. Prse-to'ri an Guards, 219, 220,222, 224, 
 
 Phi lip';?!, 128, '200, 207. riyiu'ofitii Bay, 812. 234,235,201. 
 
 Phil ippiiu' Islands, 402. Po, 147, 171.172,201,622. Pra'gn, 554. 
 
 Phil'lp, son of Per's5-us, 182. Po-ca-hon'tils. 800. Prag-uifit'ic Sanction, 526. 
 
 Plil-lis'tines, 38, 56, 58, 132. Pue, Ed'gar ll'lun, 897. Pragjic, 460, 467, 526, 528, 603. 
 
 Phli-o-ine'liis, 128. Pol-ti-e)'s' (pwa-), 271. Prag!(C, Battle of, 632. 
 
 Piill-O-poo'nien, 14,3, ISO. Poi-ti-6i-s (pwa-), Battle'of, a'")2. Prag»c, Peace of, 470, 718. 
 
 Plilps, Sir Wil'llani (•yam), 793, 821. Pu'lcdid, ■26b. '296, SS'2, SS.'i, 384, S85, S.S6, PragKC, Treaty of. 732. 
 
 Pllo■(;a^'^\, 87. 127, r2S. 388, 390, 4'26, 437, 402, 478, 479, 518, .5'24, Prague, I'liivorsity of, 343, 7.53. 
 
 PllO'(jI.on, 142. 551, ,552, 553, 554, 568, 602, 614, 626, 630, rriis-lin' (-laN') Duchess do, G71. 
 
 Pllo'(;Is, 76, 105, 127? 128. COO, 602, 663, 688, 696, 698. Pratt Library, 939 
 
 PluB-nlc'1-a (-iiislrl), '28, 42, 49, 50, 51, 52, POte, Cardinal, 432, 434. Pra-x-it'e-les, 126. 
 
 62, 70, 77,H'4, 132, 1S4. Po-lii/ii-ao' (-yiik'), 502,659. Pre-mdN-tre', Order ot, 332. 
 
 Phce'iiix Park, 776. Pu-li-,'ir-ke'tcs, 141. Pren'tiije, (ieorgc Den'i-soii, 898. 
 
 Phrii, 4C. Polk, .Tames A'nox, 664, SS4, 893. Pres-by-te'ri-«n Cliurch, 4'29, 435, 479, 
 
 Phii.\'ns, 62. Pol'lio, 210. 436. 488, 492, 800, 890, 944. 
 
 Phul, 38. Poi'iiix, 82. Pres-by-te'n-ous, Scotch. 808. 
 
 Phy'lOs, 99. PiMyb'iiis, 182. -212. Pres-by-te'ri'aiis, United, S91. 
 
 Pi-iis'-ti, House of, SS4. Po-lyci fi-tOs, 9». Pres'cott Colonel Wil'liam (yam), 838. 
 
 Pi(;he-grft', Chiirles, 670, 578,580, 583,596, Polygamy, 31. Pres'cott, Wil'liam (yam), Hick'liiig, 
 
 597. Polytheism, 78. 937. 
 
 Plots, 226, 234, 201. Pom-bal', Marquis dS, 646, 547, 958. Press'burg (boorg), 528. 598. 718. 
 
 Pted'nioiit, 374. 4-20, 510, 580, 639. Pom e-ra'ni-a, 265, 472, 477, 502, 522, 614. Prii-ss'bnrg (-boorg), Peace of, 600,601, 
 
 P(Jvi;eFi-<"iiik'rni,904. Pome'roy, Setli, 830. 609. 
 
 Pi'6-io, of Flor'eii9e, 376. Poni-pa-doiir'. (poN-), Marquise do, 630, Pi'ess Law, 700. 
 
 Pilgrims, 812, SU. 632, 655. Pre-vosC, Sir GcQrge, 872. 
 
 Pili'iiitz, Castle of. 565. Pdmpe'il (ye), 226. Prfam, 82, S3. 
 
 Pi-lo'ty (-te), ICiirl 'IVie'oddr voii, 607. POm-pj'ius (-yus), OmB'iis, 195, 197, 198, Prld'eaux (-o). General, 831, 
 
 Pinek'ney, Cliiirles C. 802, 806. 199, '202, 204. ' Pride, Colonel, 4S0. 
 
 Pin'dnr, 92, 100, 131. P,-iiii-pe-l-o|)'d-lis. 197. Piide's Purge, 486. 
 
 Pin'dus, 75. Pdin'pej/, 196, 2ns, 2o6, Prim. General, 723, 724, 725. 
 
 Pine Kidge Indians, 938, Pou'ce (-tha) de Lij-oN', 78", Piimjo Ed'ward's Island, 947. 
 
 Ale, cflre, am, iirin, filial; eve, obey, end, liiir, recent; Ice, 111, p'ique; old, orb, odd, move; 
 
ALPHABETICAL AND niONOUNCING IXJ)EX. 
 
 1023 
 
 Prin(;e'toii,828, S53. 
 
 l-rin(;6'toii Semiuaiy, 891. 
 
 PiO'bus, 238. 
 
 Proc'toi-, General, 870. 
 
 Prohibitionists, 930. 
 
 Piule-ta'i'i-at, 156. 
 
 PiO-pei-'ti-Os (-slii-), Sex'tus Aiire'li-us 
 (aw-), 211. 
 
 Pi-o-pon'lis, 88. 
 
 Prup-y-lEE'uin, HI. 
 
 Protestants. 412, 421, 423, 424, 425,436, 
 439, 140, 447, 466, 467, 463, 481, 482, 525 
 551, C37. 
 
 PrO-vence' {voNS'), 319, 420, 624. 
 
 Proveibs, 6(5. 
 
 Prov'i-Uencjc, 938. 
 
 Pi-u'sa. 388. 
 
 Pru'si-a.s, 180. 
 
 Pi'U.s'sia (-sliil), 265, 3M, 385, 426, 478, 479, 
 502, 520, 536, 651, 552, 563, 654, 506, 667, 
 570, 578, 59J, .'i98, 599, 001, G02, 003, 612, 
 014, 620, 622, 626, 63i), 632, 636, 645, 610, 
 678, 679, 680, 688, 691, 700, 702, 701, 705, 
 700, 708, 713, 714, 716, 717, 718, 720, 721, 
 725, 728, 732, 743, 744, 945, 747, 748, 750, 
 761, 777, 784. 
 
 Priitli, Rivei-, 689, 764. 
 
 Priitz, 739. 
 
 Pryime, Wil'liam (yilm), 481. 
 
 Pi-yt'a-nes, 99. 
 
 Pryt-il-nS'ilni, 99. 
 
 r.ialms, 60, 66. 
 
 P.sani-iiiet'i-cftus, 48, 49, 72, 73. 
 
 Ptaft, 46. 
 
 Ptol'e-inies, 142, 143, 144. 
 
 Ptol'e-niy I., of E'gypt, 131, 141, 143. 
 
 Ptol'e-iny II., of E'gypt, Pliil-a-dc-1'- 
 plius, 167. 
 
 Pt.m'e-niy X., ot E^ypt, 203, 204. 
 
 Pab'li-us, 199. 
 
 Pu-gat'sclieff, 551. 
 
 Pull 'moil (pool'), Gejige Slor'ti-nier, 
 941. 
 
 Pul-tO'wa (pol-), B.atlle ot, 519 524. 
 
 Pan'ic Wars, 167, 171, 179, 212. 
 
 PQ'ra, 138. 
 
 Pu'ri-taiis, 429, 435, 481, 486, 492, 800, 807, 
 816. 
 
 Piiseli'kiii (pfiusir-), Al-ex-an'der, 657. 
 
 Pjs'ey, Ecl'waii' 15.. 890. 
 
 Pat'nam, Is'i-il-el, 830, 831, 839. 
 
 I'litt'ka-niei' (puOt'-), von, 750. 
 
 Pyd'nfi, 181. 
 
 Py'los, 77, 83, 112 
 
 Pyni, Joftn,482, 
 
 Pyi'.iinifls, 47. 
 
 Pyr'a-inUls, Battle of the, 588. 
 
 Pyi''e-nfies. 172. 199, 203, 252, 27., 198, 510, 
 574, 637. 639. 
 
 Pyr')-ftus,i65, 166, 167 
 
 Py-thflg'iViTis, 100. 
 
 Pyth'i-a, 90. 
 
 Qiia'di, 230. 
 
 Qurik'iir.s, 807, 818, 819, 820, 824, 820, 823, 
 
 891. 
 ynatrebrfis' (katr-), 630. 
 Que-hec',535, 790, 792, 791, 795,831, 840, 
 
 942, 947. 
 
 Quebec' Act, 837. 
 
 Queen's C'Dllege, 828. 
 
 Que:'iis'tc)\vn, 808, 943. 
 
 Quei'e'ta-i-O (Ua-), 962. 
 
 Quesnaj/' (ka->, FraN-cois (-swii'), 515. 
 
 Quin'cy (zi), Jo-siTi/i, 891. 
 
 Qui-nor (ke-), Ed'gar, 686, 737. 
 
 Quir'i nil, 7£0. 
 
 Qiiii'i'nus. 162. 
 
 Qui-ri'tes, 152, 
 
 Qni-i-o'ga (ke-), Jose' (yO-), 633, 639. 
 
 Qul'to (ke'), 954. 
 
 Quix'ote, Don, 462. 
 
 na, 46. 
 
 Ra-bel.lts', FriiNcoiS' (-swii'), 404. 
 
 Ra'chel, 52. 
 
 Ra-<;iiie', Jean (zliiis), 586 
 
 Rad'a-ga<s, Duke, 2.51. 
 
 lia-detz'ky (ke), Count, 070, 700. 
 
 Rfid-is-soN', 793. 
 
 Rii'doui, Confederation of, 551. 
 
 Rad'z'i-vil, Prince of, 662. 
 
 Rag'lan, Lord, 690, 692. 
 
 Ra'liel, 739. 
 
 Rai-iiald', Archblsliop, 322. 
 
 lia'lelgh (raw'la), 920. 
 
 Ra'leiffA (raw'). Sir Wal'tor (wawl'), 
 
 800. 
 Ra'nia, 36. 
 
 Ka-nia']a-na (yii-), 35. 
 Ra-mel', General, 637. 
 Ril-nie'ses, the Great, 48. 
 Kfi-imi'iles (-ye'), Hattle of. 511. 
 Ra-mo-li'ni, Le-tifia ( tisli'), 694. 
 Ra-ino-ri'no General, 0''4. 
 IWu'dOlpli, J(Viii,85o, 890. 
 Riin'ke, Le'o-pfild von, 740. 
 Raph'a-el, 377, 404. 
 rv..pid-an' River, 018. 
 R.iScli'id, 701. 
 Ras'tadt, 683. 686. 
 Ras'tadt', Peace of. r,i3. 
 Riit-taz'zi (Uit'se). Urba'tio, 712. 
 Raucli (rowk), Fred'iir-icU Au-gus'tU3 
 
 (aw->. 658. 
 Rau'mer (row'). FriS'drie/i, 650. 
 Ka-vail-lac' (yak'), FraN'cols (-swa), 
 
 467. 
 Ra-ven'na, 214, 251, 252, 254, 255, 258, 262, 
 
 264, 275. 
 Raw'dou, Lord. 849. 
 Ray'inond, Hen'iy Jar'vis, 898. 
 Riiy'mond. ot Toii-louae', 306, 819. 
 U3-bek'a/i.53. 
 Kec'ol-let, 792. 
 Red B.lnk, 814. 
 R-'ditpa-.sliii'. 76i. 
 lied Sea, 48, 50, 54. cm. 
 Red'wltz (vitz), Oi'car vOn, 739. 
 R.'ed, Hen'ry, 894. 
 Reformation. 371. 405, 409, 412, 426, 437, 
 
 441,459,460,045. 
 Rygensburg, (bWrg), 410, 46S, 470, 535. 
 Reg'gio(rad').711. 
 R''g'u-lus. 168. 
 R.";-Lr>.bO'oiii, 62. 
 Rci'c/i-en-bach, Conntpss, (i63 
 Keigii of Terror, 671, 673, 676, 584. 
 
 Rei'iiiich, Baron de. 778. 
 
 Itein'keiis, Bishop, 745. 
 
 Iteiiis'berg, 526. 
 
 Keis, Phil'lp, 941. 
 
 Ej'nius, 150. 
 
 Ue-niy, (nie'), Don, 356. 
 
 Rens'burg (-bmrg), 080. 
 
 Rens'se-laer School, 893. 
 
 Re-qnes'ens (rcg-ne.s'acnz), 444. 
 
 Rcsa'ca de la Piil'nia, 876. 
 
 Retz, Cardinal de, 498. 
 
 Reii'ben, 56. 
 
 Reuch'liu (Rolcli') Joftn, 401. 40.1. 
 
 Reu'tcr (roi'), Fritz, 739. 
 
 Revolution, Anicrlcaii. 834, 924. 
 
 Revolution, French, 565, 036, 038. 069,001 
 
 002, 663, 664. 
 RS-vo-lu-ti-oN (-tsi-), PliKjede la, 608. 
 R/tap'so-dists, W, 99. 
 R/ie'SSll'vi-a. 150. 
 R/ie'gl-um, 88. 
 Rhelins (raNs), 339, 358, 637. 
 l;/t;'tri-a, 95. 
 R/line, 200, 212, 214,239, 217, 248, 252, 280, 
 
 337, 412, 414. 422, 668, 676, 683, 583,592. 
 
 001, 022, 023, 630, 603, 679, 721, 725. 
 R/iiuc Confederation, 598, 601, 602, 609, 
 
 614, 022. 
 R7iode Is'land, 817, 819, 823, 851, 892. 
 R/iOdes, 77, 88, 126, 198, 208, 818, 390. 
 R/iO'dds, 62. 
 R/ioiie, 171, 172. 
 Ri-car'do, Da'vid, 741. 
 Ri-ca'.so-li, Baron, 712. 
 Rich'ord, of Corn'vvall (-wawl),3;7. 
 Rich'ard 1., of En'gland (ing'-), Cceflr 
 
 de I^i-i"iN', 312, 324, 360. 
 Ricii'ard II., ot En'gland (ing'-), 303. 
 Rich'ard III., of Eii'gliind (ing'-), 363. 
 
 364. 
 Ztiqhe-honrg', fe mile' de, 806. 
 Righ'e-Heii. Cardinal, 472, 476, 494, 496, 
 
 498, 506, 792. 
 Ri(;h'e-h'eii, Duke of, 632. 
 Ri9h'e-l(eu River, 792. 
 Ricli'inond, 806, S48, 908, 910, 918, 919. 
 Ricii'ter, Fri_'d'ric/t, 660. 
 Ri9'i-incr, 256. 
 
 Ridg' way Rush Library, 938. 
 Rid'ley, Nic/t'o-las, 434. 
 RI-6'gu, Colonel, 638, 64J. 
 Rii/i 1,739. 
 Ri-el', 947, 918, 
 Ri-en'zj, Co'la di, 376. 
 Ri'it'BCliel. 068. 
 Ri'ga, 516. 
 
 Ri'ley, James WAlt'comb (-cum), 939. 
 Ri'ij fec'co, Battle at, 606. 
 Ri'odaiaPla'ta, 953. 950. 
 Ri'o Gran'de do SUi, 9.59. 
 Ri'oGran'de, River, 791, 876. 
 Ri'o Ja-nefro, 958. 
 Rit'^er, Au'guste (ovv'goost) llein'ric/i, 
 
 740. 
 Kiz'zl-o(rlt'se-o),4.57. 
 RiKi-noke', Island, 800. 
 Roli'ert, Artist. 058. 
 Rob'ert, ot Nor'man-dy. 306. 
 Ru-ber-val', S/eiir d6, 790, 791. 
 
 use, flrn, up, riide; foJd, foat; bf; qeU; N=ug; itallcletters silent or obscure. 
 
1024 
 
 ALl'IIABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INUKX. 
 
 Ro'bes pievre ile, 507, 571, 572, 674, 578. 
 
 Rob'in-soji, JO/ai Bev'er-ly, 943. 
 
 Rib'iii-sou, Rev. J6/ai, 812. 
 
 ROcliam-beau' (-sIiOn bO'), 853. 
 
 UJ?h6-fort', 632. 
 
 Rj-(;UeU6'. 49fi, 792. 
 
 E)Cli'e.s-ler Seminary, 692. 
 
 KiJcU'y Mountains, 794. 
 
 14ud-ei-i'i,'fl, 270, 271. 
 
 Kod'iiey, Adniinil, 852. 
 
 Boe'bliiig, Wasli'inu ton (wOali') Au- 
 gUB'tus (aw-), 893. 
 
 Eog'6i-iI.,of Sl(;'My, 288. 
 
 Rog'eis, Sam'fi-el, 652. 
 
 Kjg'eis, Captain, 831. 
 
 ii(yiand,280. 
 
 Ko-land (-16N') de la Pla-tiere (tyer')' 
 564,566,671. 
 
 EO'land, Madaine, 565, 671, C55. 
 
 Km' 10, 285. 379. 
 
 llfi'nian Catholic Cliurcli, 276, 282, 408. 
 
 Ko-nian(;e' I.anguages, 335. 
 
 Ro'man Hieiaicliy, 428. 
 
 Ko-nia'nofl, House of, 516, 662. 
 
 Kojne, 47, 77, 78, 143, 145, 147, l.TO. 152, 154, 
 156, 157, 158, 169, 160, 161, 162, 164, 16"., 
 166, 167, 168, 171, 173. 174, 176. 178, 179, 
 ISO, 182, T83, 187, 188, 190, 191, 192, 194, 
 196, 197, 198, 199. 202. 203, 204, 208, 210, 
 212, 213, 214, 219, 220, 221, 222, 224. 226, 
 231. 232. 234. 23.'), 2;i6. 238, 240, 243. 244, 
 248, 254, 2.55, 256, 25S, 262, 264, 265, 280, 
 292, 294. 298, 300, 321, 329, 344, 376, 390, 
 406, 410. 420. 430, 434, 4.39, 4.i0, 616, 584, 
 686, 609. 612, 666, 6"6, 685, 710, 712, 713, 
 720, 746. 753, 779, 780. 
 
 Ro'iner (re'), OU'i'us. 679. 
 
 Koni u lus, 150, 152, 154. 
 
 Ri'iin'u lu.s, Angus tu-lus (aw-), 2-56, 257. 
 
 Kon <;esval'Ies, 280. 
 
 ]triN-sin' (-sax'), 573. 
 
 UoOn, General von, 716. 
 
 Koque (rok), Jean (zhaN) Fran-cois' 
 ( swii') de la, 790, 791. 
 
 Eo'sa niunde, 264. 
 
 Ko'.sas, de. Dictator, 959. 
 
 Eoscli'cr (riisii). 741 
 
 ROse'ber ry. Lord, 776, 783. 
 
 Ro'secrAns, Wil'liani (yam) Starke, 
 910. 913. 
 
 Koses. Wars of the, 363, 364. 
 
 Ross'bac/i, Battle ot, 532. 
 
 Ross, Rib'ert, 874. 
 
 Kos'.si, 676. 
 
 ROs-sig'n-or (-yol'), 573. 
 
 Rjs si'ni. 658. 
 
 ltc«-top* scliin'. Count, 616. 
 
 R')t'(cr d.'im, 745. 
 
 Hott'nian,421. 
 
 Koiien' (-fiN'), 338. 
 
 Rou/ier', 685. 
 
 ItoiS-ma'ni-a, 694, 767, 782. 
 
 llou-me'11-a, 767, 770. 
 
 Uoundheads, 482. 
 
 Rou.s-.seair (-so'), .Jean (zhan), Jacques 
 (zbak). 540, 543, 544, 545, 665. 
 
 R'lX'an-a, 136. 
 
 Roy-er' (rwii-ya'), Collard', 63^. 
 
 Itabens, 404. 
 
 Rii'bi-a-nus Cro'tus, 405. 
 
 Ku'bi-con, 202. 
 
 Ruck'ert, 630. 
 
 Rii-di'ni, Marquis di, 779. 
 
 Kii'dolpli. Crown Prince of Aus'tii-a, 
 (aws'-). 753, 780. 
 
 Rii'dolph, ot Bflr'gun dy, 294. 
 
 Uu'dolph I., of Giir'ma ny, 338. 
 
 Rii'dolph II,, of Ger'ma-ny, 466, 467. 
 
 Rii'dulpli of Swa'bi-ii, 298. 
 
 Euffo, Cardinal, 585. 
 
 Kii-fi'nus, 251. 
 
 Rfi'gen, Island of 522. 
 
 Runes, 218, 379. 
 
 Rii'prec/tt, of Ger'ma-ny, 344. 
 
 Eu'prec/it, Prince ol En'glfind (ing'-), 
 486. 
 
 Itu'ric, House of, 385. 
 
 Ru'ric, of Kiis'sia (-slia), 285, 385. 
 
 Rfis'sell, Lord Wil'liam (yam), 493. 
 
 Rus'sell, Lord Jo/m, 642, 921, 944,945,916, 
 
 Kus'.sia (-sha), 265,285,381,385,383.522 
 624, 534, 549, 551, 652, 653, 554, 585, 691, 
 693, 598, 614, 619, 622, 626, 630, 636. G4S, 
 662. 663, 677, 686, 688. 690, 695, 696, 693, 
 708, 741, 744, 748, 762, 753, 754, 763, 764, 
 765. 767, 768, 770, 771, 772, 777, 780, 789, 
 674, 921, 931. 
 
 Riis'sia (sha), Eed, 384. 
 
 Kns'tem (ro'is'), 274. 
 
 Rut'gers College, 828. 
 
 Riit'ledge, Eil'ward, 853. 
 
 Riiy'ter, D:\ 490. 
 
 Ey'er-son, A-dol'phus Eg'er-ton, 944. 
 
 Rys'wick, Peace of, 605. 
 
 Saa'di. 274. 
 
 SnalTeld (felt), 602. 
 
 Saar, 502. 
 
 Snar'brflck en, 727. 
 
 Sa-bel'li, 147, 148, 166, 192. 
 
 Sab'incs, 147, 148, 150, 152, 211. 
 
 Sacfts, Hans, 462. 
 
 Sac-ra-nien'tO Eiver, 690. 
 
 S.ul'(ia-9ies, 144. 
 
 Sa-dO'wa (-va). Battle of, 716. 
 
 Sii-gSs'ta, 762, 763, 779. 
 
 Sa-gun'tuni, 171. 
 
 S.'init An't/io-ny, Falls of, 794 
 
 Sa?nt Au'gus-tine (aW), 2.'i4. 
 
 Saint Bar-thoro-inew (-niu), Massacre 
 
 of, 438, 452. 
 Sa?nt Ben'e-dict, Order of. 332. 
 S.lint Ber'nnrd, 172, 279, 592. 
 Saint Clair, Ar'thiir, 844, 860. 
 Saint Cloud (clowd), 6'JO. 
 Siiiut Croix, 791. 
 
 WaiN/ Denis (due). Battle of, 450. 
 SaiN( Denis (due), Cathedral ot, 275, 
 
 456. 
 SaiNi Gall, Cloister of, 332. 414. 
 S.lint George, Biuik of. 372. 
 S.'iisi Ger-niaiN (zlier). Treaty of, 450. 
 SaiNi Go t/iiird', 592, 668. 
 Saint (sent) lle-le'na, 632. 
 SruN( Jean (zIiSn), M6n«, 6.32. 
 Saint .T.Vni d'Acre (dakr). Siege of, 588. 
 Sfiint J.Vin. Hospital of. .318. 
 Saint Jo/in, Island, 799. 
 
 Saint Jo/m, Knights of, 318, 341. 390, 593. 
 SaiNj Just (zhust), 567, 571, 574, 678. 
 Saint Law'ren9e River, 790, 792, 793, 794, 
 
 828. 
 SaiN< Leu, Duchess of, 626. 
 Saint Loii'is. Cliurch of, 560. 
 Satiit Ma-lo', 790, 791. 
 Saint Mar-gue-rite' Island, 757. 
 Saint Maik's Church, 322, 370. 
 SaiNj Mar-tin' (taN), 957. 
 Saint Mil'ry's School, 807. 
 Saint Paul (pawl), College of, 958. 
 Saint Paul's (pawls), 4S1. 
 Saint Pe'tiir's, 280, 300, 377, 406. 
 S.iint Pe'ters-bfirg, 516, 519, 522, 549, 551, 
 
 554, 690, 768, 770. 
 S.iiNi Pi-en'e', Jacques (zhak), 655. 
 S.iiNi Pri-vii«', Battle of, 728. 
 SaiNi Sf'mon, Count dS, 741, 810. 
 S.iint Su-phi'a, Church of, 202, 390. 
 S.l'is,44, 48,49. 
 Sa-kOn-ta'la, 30. 
 S.U'a-din, 310, 312. 
 S.ll-a-nian'ca, 439. 60S, 723. 
 Sal-a-man'ea, University of, 367. 
 Sai'a-mis, 76, lOO, 107. 123. 
 Sal-man-as'sar IV., of As-syr'i-a, 38. 
 Sal-me'ron, 761, 762. 
 S.l'lem, 816, 817, 821. 
 Sa-ler'no, 2 8, 292, 308. 
 Sa'lic Law, 352, GG4. 
 Halis'bur-y (sawlz'), Lord, 776. 
 Sal'lust, 211. 
 Sa-lo'mo, 2S8. 
 Sal-seMe', 36. 
 
 Salt (sawlt) Lake City, 892. 
 Salz'burg (salts' baorg), 525, 628. 
 Salz'niann, 540. 
 Sam-ar-cand', 386. 389. 
 Sil-nia'n-a, 38. 65, 66 
 SAm'nites, 147, 148, 1G5, 166, 192, 194. 
 Sa-nio'a, 931. 
 Sa'mos, 78, 87. 
 Sa-nio-thrai;e'. 78, 181. 
 Sam'son, 56, 58. 
 Sam'smi, Monk, 413. 
 Sam'u-el. 58. 
 
 San'ciw I., ot Por'tu-gal, 368. 
 Sand (sant), Carl, 645. 
 S.lnd, George. 656. 
 San'dys. George. 802. 
 San Frrin-9is'co Bay, 789. 
 San Fran (;is'co Eiver, 958. 
 San'he-drini. 144. 
 San Ja (;in'to, 950. 
 San Juste (zliiist), 426. 
 Siiu Pan'lo (|iaw'), 958. 
 San Re'iiK"). 750. 
 Siin Sal'vador, 400. 
 San'.serit. 35. 
 
 SaNS Cu-Iiit^es, 567. 572, 573. 
 San Se-bSs ti-an'. 724. 
 San Ste-fa'no, 767. 
 Siinta An'na, General, 876, 949, 950. 
 San-ta'rem (-rpN). 368. 
 San'ta Ro'sa. 639. 
 San ti-a'go. 958. 
 
 San'to Do inin'go, 400, 788, 927, 95". 
 Sap-pho', 100. 
 
 Ale, care, am, arm, llnal ; eve, obey, end, h2r, recent; ice, ill, pique; Old, orb. Cud, move; " 
 
ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. 
 
 1025 
 
 S."ir'a-(;eiis, 270, 271, 272, 292, 298, 306, 316, 
 
 318, 325. 
 Sa-ra-gos'sa, 279, 511, 608. 
 Sa'rfift, 52. 
 Sili'ii-nic River, 872. 
 Sa-ras-va'ti, 32. 
 Sar-a-tO'ga, 846, 849, 942. 
 Sai-da-na-pii'lus. See Assuihadon II. 
 Sar'diii-i-a, 171, 325, 367, 374, 513, 576, 630, 
 
 639, 661, 691. 706, 707, 708, 709, 711, 
 Sar'Uis, 68, 101, 103. 
 Sar'goti I., of Assyr'i-a, 37. 
 Sar'gOn II., of As-syr'i-a, 38, 51, 65. 
 Sar-ma'ti-ans (•shi-),265. 
 Sa-rO'ni-an Bay, 106. 
 Sas-saii'l^ies, 235. 
 Sass'bacft, 502. 
 Sas'su-lUseli, Ve'rii, 770. 
 Sa-tol'l'i', Archbishop, 937. 
 Sat'iirn, 150. 
 Sat-iir-ni'tms, 191. 
 Sa'tyrs (-teis),80. 
 Saul (sawl), 58. 
 
 Sav'ageSta'tion, (-shun) Battle of, 911. 
 Sa-viiii'na/i, 811, 818, 914, 913, 919. 
 Sa-van'naA Rivei-, 810, 919. 
 Sa-viffii-y' (-ye'), 740. 
 Sa-vO-iia-i'o'la. 376. 
 Sa-voy', 374, 378, 420, 504, 513, 580,004,684, 
 
 709. 
 sa-voy'. House of, 339, 374, 707, 710, 744. 
 Saxe, Marshal, 528. 
 Sax'o-ny, 218, 261, 277, 279, 280, 284, 296, 
 
 298, 319, 321, 348, 350, 381, 406, 408, 410, 
 
 412, 422, 424, 425, 426, 427, 472, 47C, 477, 
 
 519, 526, 530, 533, 534, 602, 622. 626, C30, 
 663, 673, 679, 705, 716, 718, 728, 752. 
 
 Sa^'brook, 821. 
 
 Siij/, Le-oN', 759. 
 
 So!Ev'o-la (sev') Mu'oi-us (-slii-), 159. 
 
 Scsev'0-la (sev'j.l'ojitile.x Maxiiuus, 195, 
 
 Scan'der-beg, 390. 
 
 Sean-di-iia'vi-a, 2S5, 285, 379, 380, 754, 
 
 Scel-e-ra'ta, Vi'a, 156, 157. 
 
 ScIia'doMj, Jo'liann (yO') Goti'lried 
 
 (-fret), 657, 658. 
 Schaff-hau'seu (-liow'), 414. 
 Scliaffi, rmi'ip, 891, 910. 
 Scliani'yl, 696. 
 Scliani'horst, 612, 620. 
 Schart'lin, 423. 
 Sclierjing, von. 540. 
 Schil'Ier, Fred'ijr-iclc von, 539, 540, 650, 
 
 658, 701. 
 Scliill. Mayor viin, 610. 
 Schip'ka, Pass, 765, 767. 
 Schle'gel, Au-giis'tus (aw-), 648. 
 Schle'gel, Frjed'ric/i 648. 
 Sclilei'er-nia-elier, 733. 
 Scles'wig, 290, 294, 380. 436, 470, 477, 478, 
 
 520, 077. C80, 684, 704, 705, 706, 713, 714, 
 717. 744. 
 
 Schniiil'kald, 421, 423. 
 
 Schmer'liug, 702. 
 
 Schoni-berg (shoN), Marshal, 404. 
 
 Schop'per (shef), Pe'ter, 395. 
 
 Scho'pen-hau-er (-how), 740. 
 
 Selm'bert, 658. 
 
 Sehul'ze (shuortse)-De'li(2SCh, 741. 
 
 Schii'niaim, 658. 
 
 Schurz (shoorts), Carl, 927, 940. 
 
 Sc/ray'lers, 796. 
 
 Se/i«y'ler, Fort, 846. 
 
 Se/tuy'ler, Pliil'ip John, 844, 846. 
 
 Scft%rkill River, 798, 826. 
 
 Schwau't/ia-Ier (shviin'), Lud'wig (lOoV- 
 
 veg) Mi'c/iael, 658. 
 Schwartz (shvarts), Ber'tftOld, 395. 
 Schwartz'en-berg, Prince von, 614, 622, 
 
 623. 
 Schwe-rin', Count von, 520, 703. 
 Schwytz (shvits), 339. 
 Scip'i-o, jEm'i-ii-ii'niis (em-), 187, 189. 
 Scip'i-0, Cor-neTi-iis, 172, 176, 178, 179, 
 
 180. 184, 188. 
 Sco'lots, 74. 
 Sco'pas, 126. 
 Scot, Dred, 906. 
 
 Scot'laiid, 362. 364. 366, 428. 429, 448, 4.58, 
 479, 481, 488, 490, 494, 652, 782, 808,826. 
 Scots, 226, 234, 261. 
 Scott, Win'fiikl, 876, 908. 
 Scott, Sir Wal'tiir (wawl'), 652, 
 SeO'tiis, DiJns, 334. 
 Scrib'nijr's Magazine, 930. 
 Scruo'by, 812, 814. 
 Scyth'i-aus, 74, 100, 265. 
 Se-bast'ian (-yan). Mm, 441. 
 Seb-as-to'pol, 689, 690, 691, 692, 694. 
 Se-dan (doN') Battle ol, 729. 
 See'konk River, 823. 
 See'laud, 478. 
 Se-gest', 213. 
 Seine, 351, 023. 
 Se-i-sacft-thfa, 97. 
 Se-ja'nus, 219, 220. 
 Sel-eu-(;i'a, 143. 
 Se-leu'cids, 143, 144,197. 
 Se-leCi'cus, 141, 142. 
 
 Sel-juk' Tflrks, 302. 
 
 Sel-Ui'si-a (-shl-), 143. 
 
 Sem'i-noles, 804, 878. 
 
 Se-mir'a-mis, 37, 42. 
 
 Sein'ites, 521. 
 
 Sem'paeh, Battle of, 339, 344. 
 
 Sem-prO'ui-iis, 172. 
 
 Sen'e-ca, 221. 
 
 Sen-nac7t'e-rib, 38, 65. 
 
 Sen-ti'nijm, 166. 
 
 Sa'poys, 687. 
 
 Sep'tu-a-glnt, 144. 
 
 Sepulchre, Holy, 059. 
 
 Seq'ua-ni (sek'wii-), 200. 
 
 Se-ra'pis, 143. 
 
 Ser-ra'no, 723, 724. 725. 761, 762. 
 
 Ser-to'ri-us Quin'tus, 194, 195. 
 
 Ser-ve'tiis, Mi'c/iael, 437. 
 
 Siir'vi-a, 694, 763, 764. 767, 768, 770,782. 
 
 Ser'vi-iis Tfll'li-iis, 156. 
 
 Se-s6s'tris, 48. 
 
 Sev'en Pines, Battle of. 910. 
 
 Seven Years War, 628, 536. 
 
 Se-ve'riis, Sep-tini'i-iis, 234. 
 
 Se-vil7.e', 367, 608, 724. 
 
 Se-vier', J6ftn,848. 
 
 Sew'all (su'), Sim'u-el, 821. 
 
 Sew'ard (su'), Wil'liam (yam) Hen'ry, 
 904, 924, 931. 
 
 Sex'ti-us Lu'ci-iis (-shi-), 164. 
 
 SC'j/'moilr, Jane, 432. 
 
 Seyd'Iitz, 532. 
 
 Sfor'za (sfort'sa), Fran'ijis, 374. 
 
 Sfor'za (sfort'sa), Max-i-mll'iau (-yan), 
 
 419, 420. 
 Shack'a-niax-on, 262. 
 Shaftes'bur-y, Earl of, 493. 
 Sliakes'peare, Wil'liam (yam), 363, 464, 
 
 539. 648. 
 Shal-ma-ue'siir IV., 65. 
 Slia-re'zer, 38. 
 Sharp. Ja'cob, 936, 
 Sharps'blirg/i, 911. 
 Shat'tMcks, 820. 
 Shays, Dan'iel (■yeU,854. 
 She'cAem, 64. 
 Shel'biirne, Earl, 852. 
 Sliel'by, General, 813. 
 Shel'^ey, Piir'9y Bysslie, 654, 
 Sliem, 23. 
 
 Slien-au-do'a7i Valley, 908, 910, 911, 918, 
 Sher'i-dan, Phil'ip Hen'ry, 918, 
 Sliiir'man, Eog'er, 856. 
 Slier'man Silver Bill, 932, 933. 
 Sliiir'man, Wil'liam (-yam) Te-ciim'seft, 
 
 878, 912, 914, 917, 919, 920, 
 Shi'lo/i, 909. 
 Sliip Island, 910. 
 
 Shir'l«y (shijr'). Wil'liam (y?im), 830, 
 Si-be'rl-ii, 385, 516, 620, 663, 780. 
 Sib'yl-line Books, 157, 
 
 Sib'yis, 251. 
 
 Si-cani'bri, 212. 
 
 Si-c;iri-aii Vespers, 330. 
 
 Sii;'il-y, 50, 84, 83, 96, 93, 166, 167, 168, 170. 
 171, 174, 178, 254, 270, 2S8, 323, 325, 326, 
 328, 367, 377, 378, 41d, 511, 513, 514, 584, 
 585, 601, 666, 676, 707, 710, 711, 
 
 Sick'ing-en, Franz, 410. 
 
 Sic'y-oii<sish'), 77, 86, 87. 
 
 Si'dnn,49, 52, 312. 
 
 Sld'ncy, Al'giir-non, 493, 
 
 Si-do'ni-a, Me-di'na, 448, 
 
 SJeg'fried, 336. 
 
 Sie'niens, 741. 
 
 Sie-yes, Abbe, 560, 634. 
 
 Si'gel, Krilnz, 918. 
 
 Sig'is-mund of Ger'ma-ny, 344, 348, 349, 
 382, 388. 
 
 Sig'is-miind, of Po'land, 385.437. 
 
 Si'la, 196. 
 
 Sil'a-riis, 196. 
 
 Si-le'si-a (-shi-), 526, 628, 533, 634, 536, 
 
 Si-le'si-,iii (-shi-) War, 520, 528. 
 
 Si-lis'tri-a, 690. 
 
 Silk Culture, 262. 
 
 Sil'vi-HS, .ffi'ne-us, 348, 349, 377 
 
 Sim'coe, Joftn Graves, 942. 
 
 Sim-i-o'ne, Cardinal, 748. 
 
 Simms, Wil'liam (yam) Gil'more, 897. 
 
 Si-mon'i-des, 92, 100. 
 
 Si-moN', Jules (zhirl), 705, 758. 
 
 Si'mon, of Ju-de'a, 144, 224. 
 
 Sim'plOn, 592. 
 
 Simp'son, James, 692. 
 
 Si'nar, 54. 
 
 Sin-6'pe, 88, 118. 690. 
 
 Sionx, Indians, 794, 938 
 
 use, flrn,up, riide; food, fout; by;9ell; N-ng; italic letters silent or obscure. 
 
 65 
 
102G 
 
 ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. 
 
 Sirens, 79. 
 
 Sis'e-i'ii, 53. 
 
 SiS-tO'va, 765. 
 
 Sifting Bull (boOl), 265, 438. 
 
 Si-waA', 73, 132. 
 
 Six'tus v., Pope, 439. 
 
 Skalds, 285. 
 
 Skel'ton, Jolm, 815. 
 
 Skier-nie-wic'ze (skyer-ne-vet'sS), 748. 
 
 SkO'be-lett, General, '^66. 
 
 Slavery, 803, 811, 821, 899. 
 
 Slavs, 265, 266, 280, 284, 290, 292, 323, 380, 
 384, 702, 763, 780 
 
 Slide'l' JO/ai, 921. 
 
 Slougli'ier (slaw'), Governor, 826. 
 
 Siner'dis, 7S. 
 
 Smith, AU'ani, 547, 741. 
 
 Smith, Captain JCi/m, 800, 802. 
 
 Smith College, 937. 
 
 Smith, Colonel, SSS. 
 
 Smitli, Hop'kinson, 939. 
 
 Smith, Jo'seph, 892. 
 
 Sniith'son, Jnmes, L. M., 894. 
 
 Smo-lensk', 516, 519, 616, 618. 
 
 Smyr'na (snier'j, 87. 
 
 Smytlie, General, 868. 
 
 Sr)-bi.es'ki, JoAn, 503, 518. 
 
 So.^in'i-ans. 437, 551. 
 
 SO-ci'nOs, Faus'tus, (taws'). 437. 
 
 SOc'ra-tes, 114, 116, 118, 124, 145, 146. 
 
 So-fi'a. 770. 
 
 Sois^soNs' (swas), 25S. 
 
 SoMcr-'i'iiO, 70S. 
 
 So'li, 197. 
 
 SOrO-mon, of Is'ra-el, 62, 224. 
 
 SorO-niOn, the Magnilicent, 390, S92. 
 
 SO'lon, 70, 96. 97, 98, 99, 100. 
 
 So'lO-thftrn, 760. 
 
 Som'er-set (sum'), Duke of, 432, 433. 
 
 Som'mer-rin;.; (siirn'), 741. 
 
 S6n'dcr-burg(siiOu'),Glucks'burg,C/iris'- 
 tian ( chnn) vim, 704. 705. 
 
 Soph'ists, 114, 116. 124, 136. 
 
 Soph'o-cles, 123, 124. 
 
 SopliHi-nis'be, 178. 
 
 So'ter, 143. 
 
 Soiibise', Prince of, 532. 
 
 Soiilt, Marshal. 599, 60S, 632. 
 
 Soii'sii. Miir'tin de. 958. 
 
 SoU'sii Tlio'iiio lie. 95S. 
 
 South anip'ton (hfinip'), 812, 
 
 South C;'UMJ-Ii'na, 807, 808, 809. 810, 823, 
 848, 849, 852, 853, 901, 902, 904, 906, 937. 
 
 South Dako'ta, 864. 
 
 Soutli'cy (sowtli'), 652. 
 
 South Sea, 402. 
 
 Spiiin, 167, 171, 176, 179, 187. 191. 195, 203, 
 204. 239, 244, 249, 252. 254, 271. 2?2, 
 279, 367, 368, 374. 398. 400. 402. 403, 4t>4, 
 419, 421. 426, 437. 441, 444. 448, 450, 452. 
 472, 5113, 504, 505. 510. 547, 576. 598, 
 604, 608, 630, 636. 637, 638, 646, 664, 722, 
 723. ?25, 761. 762. 763. 779. 787, 788, 789, 
 795, 808, 834, 847. S52, 860, 862, 864, 874, 
 919. 950, 951, K3. 957, 958. 
 
 Spain, Art and Literature. 462. 
 
 Spiin'dau (■dow),4'22, 
 
 Spin'ish Succession, War of the, 510. 
 
 Spaiks, Ja'red, 897. 
 
 Spar'ta, 77, 67, 89, 92, 94, 95. 96, 97. 99, 
 
 101, 102, 105, 107, 108, 110, HI, 112, 113, 
 
 114, 119, 120, 121, 125, 142, 143, 133. 
 Cpar'ta-cus, 196. 
 Speke, JCiftn Han'ning, 742. 
 Speu'(;er, Ht'r'bCrt, 655. 
 Spcy^er, 282, 300, 412, 
 Sphac-te'ri-a, 112. 
 Spic/i-er'er Heights, Battle of, 727. 
 Spierhii-zeu Frie'dric/i. 739. 
 Spi-nO'za, Ben'O-dict, 739. 
 SpH'tler, 540. 
 Spo-le'ti-iini, 173. 
 Spo'ts'woOd, Al-ux-au'dcr, 806. 
 Stad'e-co-nij, 790, 
 Sliiel, Madame ile, 595, 655. 
 St;"im'bu-10«, 782. 
 Stamp Act, 835. 
 Standard Oil 'I'TOst, 934. 
 Stnndish. Captain Miles, 814. 
 Staii-is-la'ds, Les-czin'sld (lesh-ehin'), 
 
 518, 524. 
 StAn-iS-la'!(s, Po-ni-a-to\v'ski (tuv'), 551, 
 
 554. 
 Stan'ley, Hen'ry Mor'ton, 742. 941. 
 Stan'ton, Ed'wiu Mc-Mastiirs, 907, 922, 
 
 925. 
 Staps, 610. 
 Star Chamber, 4S2. 
 Stark, JoAn, 830, 816. 
 Stjirn'berg, Lake, 749. 
 Star of the West, 907. 
 Stau'pitz (stow'), 406. 
 Sted'niger, 319. 
 
 Sted'nian, Ed'nmnd Clar'encje, 939. 
 Steen, Jan (yan), 781, 782. 
 Stein, Baron, 610, 612, 019. 
 Stein'metz. 727. 
 Sten'bdck, Gener.il, 520. 
 Ste'phen (-ven), of Blois (blwa), 630. 
 Ste'phen (ven) III., Pope, 275. 
 Ste'phens (-venz), 687. 
 Ste'pliens (-veuz), Al-e.xan'der Ham'il- 
 
 ton, 922. 
 Ste'plien.son (-ven-) GeSrgc. 888. 
 Ste'phen (-veil), the Saint, 292,- 381, 382. 
 Steppes, 74, 552. 
 Stet-tin', 477, 516. 716. 
 Steu'ben, Fred'iir-ick Wil'liam (yam), 
 
 847. 
 Ste'vens. A'bel. 940. 
 Stew'art (stu'). Al-e.\-au'der Tur'ncy. 
 
 927. 
 Stey'er-miirk. SSS. 466. 
 Stili-cAo, 198, 251,252. 
 Stillwater (-waw-), 846. 
 Stofi, 110, 145. 
 StOck'holm, 436, 4.37. 604. 
 Stod'dard, Rieh'ord Hen'ry, 939. 
 StO'ics, 145, 230. 
 
 Stol'berg, Fri'ed'ricA Le'o-pold, 540. 
 Sto'lo, Li-(;in'i-(is. 164. 
 Stone, of Mar'yiand (iner'), 807. 
 StCme River, Battle of, 910- 
 Sto'ny Point, 847, S4S. 
 Storms. Cape of. 396. 
 StCnigh'loii, Wil'liam (yam), 821. 
 Stowf. Harri-et Beech'cr, 939. 
 Stifi'bC), 212. 
 
 Stra-chan', Jo/ui, 943. 944, 
 
 Striifford (-iird), Tftom'as Went'worth 
 
 (-wfirth), 481,482. 
 Stral'sinid ( soont), 470, 516, 522, 604,610. 
 Striis'burg, 248, 282, 424, 426, 502, 505, 512, 
 
 730, 737, 744, 756. 
 Strauss (strows) Da'vid Frt3'diic/i, 739. 
 Strel'itz. 38o. 
 
 String'/iam, Si'las Hor'ton, 914. 
 Strii'en-see Jo'hiinu (yC), Frie'dric/i, 
 
 547, 548. 
 Strii've of Ba'deu, 676. 
 S*ry',m6n, 107 
 
 Stii'arts. 362, 364, 435, 479, 492, 494, 516. 
 Stu' re, Sten, 380, 437. 
 Stfi're, Sten, the Younger. 38ii. 381. 
 Stutt'giirt (stoof), 65S. 670. 679, 
 Stuy've sunt, Pe'tijr, 797, 799. 
 Sub-treasury. 886. 
 Su qhit', Loii-is' Ga'bri-el, 60S. 
 Sii'dra, 33, 
 Sue, .EJu'gf'ne, 656. 
 Sne'vi (swe'), 212, 210, 2E1, 252. 
 Sii-ez' Canal, 695, 773. 
 Sii-lei'nian Pa'sha', 767. 
 Sul'iy, Due de, 456, 791, 
 Siil-pi(;'i-iis, 192. 
 Siilt'ncr, Ber'tha von,739 
 Sii-ma'tra, 754. 
 Su-mer'i-«u, 37. 
 Suni'ner, Charles. 904, 927. 
 Siini'ter, Fort, 907. 
 Sum'ter. T/iunras, 848. 
 Sun'dii Islands, 398, 
 Sunday, 246, 573, 595. 
 Su'ni-uin, 102. 
 Suu'tal, 2S0. 
 
 Su-pe'ri-or (-er). Lake, 890. 
 Sii'sa, 73, 74, 100, 101, 106, 134, 140, 334. 
 Sii-san'na, 41. 
 
 Sii-wa'roff (-va'). Count, 552, 554, 586. 
 Swa'bi-a, 284, 296, 344, 350, 412, 421, 426, 
 
 599. 
 Swan-toto'il, S65. 
 Swe'den, 379, 380, 381. 436. 437, 471. 473. 
 
 474. 477, 478, 479, 499, 502, 522, 592, 59S, 
 
 604, 622, 657. 754. 781, 959. 
 Swenek-feld'ers, 826. 
 SwC'i/n, the Lucky. 286. 
 Swiss Confeileration, 781. 
 Swiss Guards, 566. 
 Swiss League, 339. 344. 350. 
 Swit'zer-Iand, 199, 339, 351, 356. 378, 414, 
 
 415, 416, 4-27. 428. 450, 452, 477. 584, 585. 
 
 586. 594. 597, 601, 670, 671, 709, 725, 760, 
 
 780, 781. 
 Sword. Order of the. 385, 426. 
 Sy-a'gri-us. 258. 
 Syd'cu-/iam, Lord, 916. 
 Syria, Cor-ne'li-us, 189, 190, 191. 192, 194' 
 
 195. 198. 
 Sym'ma-c/iiis. 258. 
 Synod. Holy. 524. 
 Synod of Dort, 448. 
 Sy'phax, 178. 
 
 Syr'a-cuse, SS, 113, 166, 167, 174. 178. 324. 
 Syr'l-a. 28, 38, 42, 47. 48. 70, 141. 142. 143, 
 
 144, 197, 199, 213, 26S, 302, 318, 386, 389, 
 
 390, 588. 
 
 Ale, edie, aiu, arm, final ; eve, obey, end, her, recent ; ice, ill, pique ; old, orb. Odd, move ; 
 
ALPHABETICAL AND PROXOUNCTNG INDEX. 
 
 1027 
 
 Sys-sit'i-ii, 94. 
 Sji'get/i, 392. 
 
 Taa'fe, Count, 779. 
 
 Ta9'i-tus Ca'ius (-yus) Cor-ne'li-us, 214, 
 
 216, 219, 226, 227, 23S. 
 Ta-gi'iiii, 264. 
 Ta-la-ve'ra, Battle ot, 608. 
 Tal'bot (tawl'), Tftom'as. 943, 
 Tal'ley-i-find, Prince, 563, 566, 597, 619, 
 
 624, 630. 
 Tal-li-eii' (-ilN'). 578. 
 Tain ei-lane', .389. 
 Tain'ina-ny Hall, 931. 
 Tan'a-gifi. 
 TaN'cred, 304, 324. 
 Tanlt'nmi-, 290. 
 Tan'nen-berg, Battle of, 384. 
 Tai-'a-Uo, 39. 
 Ta-ren'tines, 166. 
 Ta-ren'tum. 88, 166, 167, 176, 292. 
 Ta'i-iU, 270. 
 
 Taiie'ton, General, 849. 
 Tar-pe'ian (yan) Koclc, 161. 
 Tar-quin'i i, 148. 
 Tar-quin'i-us, A'runs, 159. 
 Tar-qiiin'i-us, C61-Ia-ti'nus, 157, 158. 
 Tar-quin'i-us, Pris'cQs, 156. 
 Tar-quin'i-iis, Su-per'bus, 156, 157, 158, 
 
 159. 
 Tar'shisli, 51. 
 Tar'tars (-ters), 386. 
 Tar'ta-n'is, 78, 80. 
 Tar'sus, 248. 
 Tas'sf), 377, 462. 
 
 Tau'ler (tow'-), .To'hann (yo'), 334. 
 Tau'rus (taw'-). 180, 549. 
 Ta-yg'e-tus, 77, 93. 
 THy'ior, Zficft'ii-ry, 876, 878, 903, 904. 
 Te-cum'seh. 866, 878. 
 Te'ge-a, 77. 
 
 Teg-ner' E-sai'as (-za'),657. 
 Te-liua-can' (-wa-), 951. 
 Te-huaii-te-pec' (-wan-) Isthmus of, 950. 
 Te-ja'da (-ha'), Ser'dO dg, 952. 
 Te'jfts,264. 
 T61'a-m6n, 171. 
 Tel-el-Ke'bir, 775. 
 Tere-ma-cftiis, 83, 507. 
 Tem'pe, 75. 
 
 Tem'plar (-pier), Knights, 318, 340, 341. 
 Teni'ple, Order ot the, 318. 
 Ten'iers (-yeiz) Da'vid, 46i. 
 Teu-nes-see', 854, 896, 908, 909, 919, 925, 
 
 937, 939. 
 Ten-nes-see' River, 909. 
 Ten-nes-see' (ves.sel), 916. 
 Ten'«y-son, Al'fred, 654. 
 Ter'en9e, 184. 
 Ter'ra Fir'ma (fer'), 957. 
 Ter')-y, Al-fred, Howe, 916. 
 Ter-tul'H-an, 247. 
 Tesch'en, Peace of, 537. 
 Tes'la, 941, 
 
 Tet'zel (-sel), Jo'hann (yf)'),406. 
 Teu-to-biir'ger (toi-) Forest, 213, 214, 
 
 279. 
 Teii-to'nl-ans, 190. 
 Teu-ton'ic Kniglits, Order of, 318. 
 
 Teu'tons, 265. 
 
 Tew'filf (tfl') Pasha', 774. 
 
 Tex'as, 787, 795, 864, 870, 900, 902, 903, 907, 
 
 937, 950. 
 Tex'el, 795. 
 Thack'e-ray, Wil'liam (-yam) Malce'- 
 
 pea(;e, 655. 
 Tha'les, 99. 
 Thflp'sus, 204. 
 Tha'sCis, 52, 78. 
 Thas',si-lo of Bft-va'ri-a, 280. 
 Thebes, 39, 48, 49,73, 76, 8), 82,89,10,5, 
 
 111, 120, 121, 127, 130, 131. 
 TAeiss, 255. 
 
 The-mis'to-cles, 103, 105, 106, 107, 108. 
 The-oc'ri-tus, 146, 211. 
 The-o-da'tus, 262, 
 The-6-do'ra, 262. 
 The'6-dore, of Ab ys-sin'i-a, 688. 
 The-od'0-ric, 2,57, 258. 262. 
 The-0-d(J'si-us (shi-), Fla'vi-fls, 249, 251. 
 The-og'nis, 100. 
 The-o-pha'ni-a, 292, 
 The-ram'e-nes, 114. 
 T/iSr-mi-dor'i-ans, 578. 
 Ther-niop'y-ls (-e-), 75, 105, 128, 180. 
 Tlie'se-iis, 76, 82. 
 Thes'pi-ae, 105. 
 Thes-sa-10-ni'oa, 251. 
 Thes'sa-ly, 75, 83, 104, 107, 110, 127, 180, 
 
 251. 388, 646. 
 T7»i-bet'. 32. 
 Thi-ers',Loii-is'A-d61ph'. 638, 685, 736, 737, 
 
 738, 755, 756, 757, 758. 
 Tliirty Tyrants, 114. 
 Tliirty Years' War, 466, 477, 484, 496. 
 TftonVas, George Hen'ry, 909, 912, 919. 
 T/iom'a.s' General (of France), 738. 
 T/iomp'son, John Poii'lett, 945, 946. 
 Thor, 218. 
 TAorn, 318, 524, 553, 
 TAorn, Peace of, 384. 
 TAor'wald-sen (wawld-), Al'bert Ber'tel 
 
 658. 
 Thrace, 88,104, 107, 112, 113, 119, 194,. 239, 
 
 244. 
 Thras-y-bu'lus, 114. 
 Three Emperors, Battle of, 600. 
 Tlm-i;yd'i-des, 92, 124, 125. 
 T/iU-rin'gi-a, 276, 279, 280, 332, 339, 350, 412, 
 
 477, 602. 
 Thurn (torn), Count von, 467. 
 Thiis-nel'da, 213, 214. 
 Ti'ber, 147, 150, 156, 158, 159, 160, 166, 167. 
 
 189, 222, 298, 326. 
 Ti-be'ri-us, 186, 213, 214, 219, 220. 
 Ti-be'ri-as, Battle of, 310. 
 Ti-bul'lus, 211. 
 Ti-ci'no (-Che'), 708, 781. 
 Ti-ci'nus River, 172. 
 Tick'nor, George, 894. 
 Ti-con-der-o'ga, 831. 838, 844. 
 Tteck, Lud'wig (lOot'veg), 618, 050. 
 Tig'Iflth Pi-le'ser II,, 38, 65, 
 Ti-gra'nes. 197. 
 Ti-gran-6 cer'ta, 197. 
 Ti'gris, 37, 134, 143, 248, 390. 
 Til'den Library, 938. 
 Til'den, Sam'u-el Jones, 928. 
 
 Til'Iy, Count von, 466.467,468,470,471 
 
 472. 
 Til'sit. 750, 
 
 Til'sit, Peace of, 603, 630. 
 Ti-mO'le-on, 167. 
 Ti-no'va, 765. 
 Tip-pe-ca-noe', 87a 
 Tipj)er-a-ry, 783. 
 Ti-rard', 778. 
 Ti-rynth'. 77. 
 Tis-'sft-pher'nes, 118. 
 Tis'za (-so), 753, 779. 
 Ti'tans, 78. 
 Titheland, 227, 247. 
 ti'tiaw (tish'), 372, 464. 
 Tl'liis, Emperor, 224, 226. 
 Ti'tiis Man'li-iis, 165. 
 Ti'tlis Ta'tl-iis (-shi), 152. 
 Tiu, 218. 
 Tod'le-ben (tOf), Franz (frants) fc'du- 
 
 ard Cdoo-art), 691,692. 
 Toe-koe'Ii, Ern'mer-icA, 503. 
 Tog'gen-berg (-boSrg), 413. 
 To-ka2/', 382. 
 
 To-len-ti'no, Battle of, 630. 
 T6-len-t'i'no, Peace of, 582. 
 TO-lo'sa, 254, 272. 
 Tol'stoi, Count, 657, 780. 
 Tom'y-ris, 72. 
 Ton-quin' (-ken'), 759. 
 Ton'ty (-te), Hen'ry, 794. 
 ToomSs, Rob'ert, 903, 026. 
 To-pe'te, Admiral, 724, 762. 
 Tor'gau (-gow). Battle of, 534. 
 To'ries, 493, 512, 568. 
 To-ron'tO, 943, 945. 
 Tor'ries, Inquisitor, 955. 
 Tor'rgs V6'dras, 608. 
 Tor'sten-son, Count, 477. 
 Tot'i-la, 262, 264, 
 Toii'lon, 573, 637. 
 Toii-loiise, 608. 037. 
 Toiirs, 271, 730, 
 Tower of London, 364, 460. 
 Traf-al-gar',600. 
 Tra']an,226, 227,230. 
 Trans-vaal', 773. 
 
 Tran-sj/1-va'ni-a, 381, 426, 504, 722, 753. 
 Tra-pe'zi-iim, 118. 
 Tras-i-me'ne, Lake. 148, 172. 
 Tre'bi-a, 172, 585. 
 
 Tren'de-Ien-bijrg, Frie'dric/t A'dolf, 740. 
 Ti-en-poNC (-aN-), 796. 
 Trent, Council ot, 423, 424, 425, 438. 
 Tren'ton, 842. 
 Trent, (vessel), 921. 
 Tre'pijft, General, 770. 
 Tri-bO'ni-an, 262. 
 Tribunes, 58, 59, 60. 
 Tri'bur, 298. 
 Tri-coii'pis, 782. 
 Tri-ent' {-aN'), 720. 
 Trin'i-ty Church, 890. 
 Trip'6-li, 390, 866. 
 Tri'tons, 79. 
 
 TriVcjhtl', Loii-is' Jules (zhfll), 730, 734. 
 Tro'jan War, 82, 83, 86. 
 Tromp, Cor-nel'ius (-yus) von, 490 
 Troii'ba-doiirs, 319, 336. 
 
 use, flrn , fip, riide ; food, foot ; by ; (;ell ; K=ng ; italic letters silent or obscure. 
 
1028 
 
 ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. 
 
 Troy, 81, 82, S3, 84, 131, 147. 
 
 Troyes (trvva), 558. 
 
 Truch'sess (triif), von Wald'biirg 
 
 (val(l'b6oi-g).'H2. 
 Tru-jil'lo (liel'yo-), 956, 
 Ti'ux'ton, Tliom'as, 862. 
 rs^haii 'da-la, 33. 
 rsQher-kasz'ky Prince, 765. 
 Tfl'bing-en Dniversity of, 421, 
 Tucson', 789. 
 Tu'dor, Ma'ry. 
 Tuil-er-ies' (twel-), 563, 565, .'567, 571, 583, 
 
 594, 628. 738, 
 TuI'lus, H6s-tll'i-us, 154. 
 Ta'iiis, 168, 270, 316, 390, 420. 759. 
 Tu-renne', Maish.il, 477, 498, 499. 
 Tiir-geii'teff, I-van', 657, 
 Tflr-gor, Baron, 54", 557. 
 Tu'riii, 374, 502, 511, 639, 707, 711. 713. 
 Tfir'key, 551, 652, 646. 647, 648, 688, 689, 
 
 690, 695, 763, 764, 767, 768, 770, 772, 780, 
 
 782. , 
 Tljrks, 306, 308, 318, 350, 372, 376, 382. 383, 
 
 385, 386, 3S8, 389, 390, 392, 404, 420. 421, 
 
 440, 503, 520, 661, 688, 593, 614, 646, 648, 
 
 753, 763, 765. 
 Tflrn'er, Jo'seph, 658. 
 Tus'ca-ny, 375, 582, 676, 707. 709. 
 Tus'cu-lum. 
 Twain, Mark, 939. 
 Tweed, " Boss," 928. 
 Ty'ler. J6/in.876,902. 
 Ty'Ier, MiJ'ses Coit, 940. 
 Ty'ler, Wat (wot), 366. 
 Tyrants. 97, 98, 100. 
 Tyre, 38, 42, 49, 50, 61, 52, 64, 132, 312. 
 Tyr'ol, 191, 342, 423, 425, 510, 528, 600, 609, 
 
 610, 628, 720. 
 Ty-rone, Earl of, 450. 
 Tyr-toe'us, 95. 
 
 tJft'land (-lant) Jo'liann (yC) Ludwig, 
 
 (loot'veg), 660. 
 tJ/i'ricft, 730, 766. 
 XJ'kratne, 519. 
 trrfi-ias. Bishop, 249. 
 Ulm (661m), 326, 424, 600. 
 tJi'pi-an, 232,235. 
 ttl-ri'ca, ft-lS-a-no'ra, 622. 
 til'ricft, Duke, 421, 424. 
 U-lys'ses, 83. 
 
 Um-bri-a' (66m-), 166, 176, 192. 
 XJn'ion (-yiin). Seminary, 891, 937. 
 Cni-ta'ri-an (^liurcli. 890. 
 tT-nf'ted States. 687, 761, 778, 779, 783, 788, 
 
 828, 847, 852, 864, 856, 868, 862. 
 tJ-ni'ted States Bank, 883, 884. 
 C-ni'ted States (frigate), 868. 
 Un-ter-wal'den (66n-ter-val'), 339. 
 tJp-sa'la, 436. 
 
 tTp-sa'la, University of, 380. 
 ■frr'ban II., Pope, 302. 
 tr'ban IV., Pope, 326. 
 ti'ri, 339. 
 tJ-rr'a/i, 60. 
 0rii-guay (-gwa), 956. 
 tJs'sS-linx, Wil'liam (-yam), 795, 796, 793. 
 Ctah (-taw), 892. 
 tJ'ti-ca, 60, 178. 
 
 tr.to'pi-a, 430. 
 C-tra-quists, War of, 34S. 
 C'trecftt, 379, 
 tJ'ti-ec/it, Treaty of, 512, 513. 
 
 Va-di-gr', 578, 
 
 Vae'ri-ge'r (v;"i'), 285. 
 
 Vais'ja (-ya), 33. 
 
 Va-liis'c6, 788. 
 
 Va-Ien'ci-a (-shi-), Sll, 723, 9E6. 
 
 Va'lens, 24S, 249. 
 
 Vai-en-tin'i-an I., 24S. 
 
 Val-en-tin'i-an II., 249. 
 
 Val-en-tin'i-an III., 264. 25.'j. 
 
 Va-le'ri-iis, Mar'cus, 105. 
 
 Val-hal'ia, 219. 
 
 Val-ia-do-lid' (-ya-tho-Ietli'), 400, 
 
 Val'Iey Forge, 847, 848, 856. 
 
 Val-my' (-me'), Battle at, 568. 
 
 Val-ois' (-wa'). House of, 352. 
 
 Val-pa-rai's6, 932. 
 
 Van BQ'ren, Mar'tin. 880, 882, 886. 
 
 Van'dals, 26, 246, 251, 252, 254, 255, 256, 
 
 262. 
 van Dam, Rip, 826. 
 Vandamme' (von-), Count, 620. 
 Van Dyck, Sir An't/io-ny, 464. 
 Vane, Hen'ry, 817. 
 Van Rens'se-laer, General, 868. 
 van Rens'se-lsers, 796. 
 Van Tvvil-!er, Wal'ter (wawl'), 796. 
 Va-rennes', 564. 
 Va'rings, 379. 
 Var'na, 690. 
 Var'na, Battle of, 390. 
 Varn'lia-gen (farn'), von En'se, 739. 
 Var'ro, Ta-ren'ti-iis (-slii-), 174. 
 Va-rii'na, 3'. 
 
 Va'rus, Lfi'ci-us (-slii-), 230. 
 Va'rus, Quin-til'lus, 213, 214. 
 Vas'sar College, 937. 
 Vas'sy, 450. 
 
 Vat'i-can, 377, 586, 720, 748, 760, 772. 
 Vau-ban (vo-baN'), Marquis d6, 499, 
 Ve'da, 34, 35. 
 Ve'ga de Lope, 464. 
 Ve'ii (-yi), 148, 159, 160, 162, 164. 
 Ven-dee' (v6n-). La, 573, 665. 
 Ven-dome' (von) Column, 738. 
 Ven-e-zue'ia (-zwe'), 953. 966, 967. 
 Ven'ige, 256, 314, 370, 372, 374, 377, 382, 
 
 682, 683, 600, 628, 676, 677, 707, 712, 713, 
 
 717, 720. 
 Ven'iQe, Congress at, 322, 323. 
 Ve'nus, 77, 79. 
 Ve'nus de mi'lO, 127. 
 Ve'niis, Med-i-(;e'«n, 127. 
 Ve-nu'si-a (-shi-), 176. 
 Ve'rii Cruz, 788, 876, 950, 951. 
 Ver-cel'lae, 191. 
 Ver-cin-get'o-rix, 200. 
 Verd, Cape de, 396. 
 Ver'di, 653. 
 Ver-duN, 568. 
 
 Ver-duN, Treaty of, 282, 284. 
 Ver-gennes' (-zhen') Count de, 846, 862. 
 Ver-ff-ni-aud' (nye-o'), Pi-erre, 564. 
 VS-riffn-a-nO (-ya-), 713. 
 Ver-mont', 846, 947. 
 
 Ver-nei', Hor'a^e, 658. 
 
 Ve-ro'na, 265, 279, 372, 582, 676, 708, 788, 
 
 790. 
 VersaiUes, 499, 506, 525, 528, 537. 657, 660, 
 
 661, 663, 729, 732, 734, 737, 754. 
 Ver-vins' (-vaN'), Peace of, 456. 
 Ves-pa'si-an (zlii-), Fla'vi-us, 222, 223, 
 
 224, 226. 
 Ves-puo'ci (-poot'che), A-me-ri'go, 400, 
 
 953. 
 Ves'ta, 80, 150. 
 Ves'tals, 261. 
 Ve-su'vi-us, 165, 226. 
 Ve-tu'ri-us, 166. 
 Vicks'burg, 910, 912, 918. 
 Vic'tor IV., Anti-Pope, 321, 322. 
 Victor Ata-a-de'us, of Spain, 580. 
 Victor Em-nian'u-el, of It'a-ly, 639, 677, 
 
 707, 708, 709, 710, 711, 712, 717, 720, 725. 
 
 760, 761. 
 Vic-to'ri-a, Gua-da-lii'pe (gwa-), 950. 
 Vic-to'ri-a, of En'giand (ing'), 642,664, 
 
 687, 688. 
 Vi-en'na, 390, 467, 474, 477, 503. 549, 585, 
 
 591, 600, 609, 673, 677, 716, 768, 779. 
 Vi-en'na, Congress of, 625,628,645,660, 
 
 661, 662, 767. 
 Vi-en'na, Peace of, 609. 
 Vi-en'wa, Treaty of, 706. 
 Vi'kings, 285, 379. 
 Vi-la-gos' (-lo-gosh'), 678. 
 Vil'la (-yii) Fran'ca, Peace of, 703. 
 Vil-la'ni, 335. 
 ViUe-Aar-doii-in (-aN'), Geof-froy' (zho- 
 
 frwa'), 335. 
 ViUe, iJTi-tel' de, 565. 
 ViUe-maiN', A'bel FraN-cois' (-swa'), 
 
 638. 
 ViUe-roi' (-rwa'). Marshal, 611. 
 Vil'liers (-yerz),, George, 479. 
 ViMi ga^n-on' (-yoN'), 988. 
 Vin-Qenncs', Sieiir de, 660. 
 Vin'ijent, Cape, 852. 
 Vin'ei (che), Le-o-nar'do da, 464. 
 Vi-noy', General, 734. 
 Vir'chow (-ver'), Rii'dolf, 741. 
 Vir'gil (-viir'), 210, 668. 
 Vir-gin'i-a (v(;r-),791, 797, 800, 802, 804, 
 
 805, 807, 808, 809, 812, 814, 823, 830, 835, 
 
 841, 860, 856, 890, 900, 902, 908, 912, 914, 
 
 925, 937. 
 Vir-gin'i-a (ver-), of Rome, 162. 
 Vir-gin'i-a (ver-). University of, 893. 
 Vir-gin'i-iis (ver-), 162. 
 Vir-i-a'thus, 187. 
 Vis-con'ti, 374. 
 
 Vi!'tu-ia, 383, 384, 426, 452, 518, 602. 
 Vi-telTi-us, Au'lus (aW), 222, '223. 
 Vit'i-ges, 262. 
 Vit-to'ri-a, 608, 722. 
 Via-di'mir, the Great, 3S5. 
 Vo'gel (fo'), of Leip'zig (-tsig), 742. 
 Voi-wo'de-schStt, 384. 
 Vol'ney, 655. 
 Vol'sci, 147, 167, 160, 165. 
 Vol'ta, 740. 
 
 Vol-taire, 526, 543, 544, 546, 649, 638. 
 Vosges (vOzh), 252. 
 Viil'gate, 247. 
 
 Ale, care, am, arm, final; eve, obey, end, her, recent; ice, ill, p^que; old, orb, odd, move; 
 
ALniABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. 
 
 1029 
 
 Waadt'land, 584. 
 
 Wa-cluYsett (-waw-) (vessel), 916. 
 
 Wad'ding-tou (wOd') Wil'liam (yam) 
 
 Heii-ri' (aN), 758, 759, 767. 
 Wade Beu'ja-min Fiaiik'lin, 904. 
 Wag'iiei' (sleeping car), 941. 
 Wag'ner, RicU'ard, 658. 
 Wa'gram, (va') Battle of, 609. 
 Waitz (vitz), 740. 
 Wal'de-inar (wol') I., of Den'maik, 
 
 380. 
 W.vrde-mar (wol') II., of Den'maik, 
 
 380. 
 Wal'de-mar (wol') IV., of Den'niark, 
 
 380. 
 Wal-den'ses (-wol), 319, 508. 
 Wal'der-see (vol'). Count, 777. 
 Wales, 362, 782, 783, 826. 
 Wales, Prince of. 362. 
 Wa-lew'ski (va-Iev'), 694. 
 Wal'ker (waw'), Fran'fis Ani',a-sa, 940. 
 Wal'laee (wol'is). Wil'liani (yam), 362. 
 Wal-la'cAi-a (wol), 551, 552, 604, 694. 
 Wal'ien-steln (wol'), Al'bcrt of, 466, 468, 
 
 470, 471, 472, 473, 474, 476. 
 Wal'li-a (vol'), 254. 
 Wall (wawl) Street, 82S. 
 Wal'pole (wol'). Sir Rob'iirt, 835. 882. 
 Wal'ter (wawl'), the Penniless, S04. 
 Ward (wawrd), General Ar'te-mas, 839. 
 Ward (wawrd), Wil'liani (-yam), 
 
 George, 772. 
 War'ner, (wawr'), Charles Diid'ley, 949, 
 War'ner (wawr'), Seth, 83S. 
 War'ner (wawr') Silver Bill, 929- 
 War'j-en (wor') JO'seph, 838. 
 Wart'biirg (varf), 326. 336. 40S. 409, 645. 
 War'tAa (varf), (river), 383, 384. 
 War'saw (wawr'), 518, 524, 553, 554, 002, 
 
 603, 614, 630, 662, 663. 664, 696, 698. 
 War'saw (wawr') Battle of. 478. 
 War'saw (wawr'), University of, 696. 
 War'teu-biirg (var), 622. 
 Wash'ing-ton (wosh'), George, 804, 82S, 
 830, 831, 838, 839, 840, 842, 844, 840, 847, 
 848, 850, 854, 856, 858, 860, 862, 864, 866, 
 879, 894, 897, 899, 956. 
 Wash'ing-ton (wosh') (city), 874, 808, 
 907, 908, 910, 912, 918, 921, 922, 932, 937. 
 Wash'iiig-ton (wosli') (state), 864, 911. 
 Wash'ing-ton (wosh'), Treaty ol, 927. 
 Wasp (wosp) (vessel), 868. 
 Wa-ter-loo' (waw-), 630, 632, 634. 
 Watt (wot), James, 614, 741. 
 Way'Iand, Fran'(;is, 940. 
 Wayne, An'tftO-ny, 818, SCO. 
 Web'er, Baron von, 658. 
 Web'ster, Drin'iel(-yel), 880, 884, 887, 901. 
 Weed, Thur'low, 898. 
 Wee'haw'ken (monitor), 915. 
 Weins'berg (vins'), 320. 
 Weis'sen-burg (vrsen-bijorg). 727. 
 Weiss'haupt (vis' liowpt), Adam, 546. 
 Welf of Schwa'bi-a, 294. 
 WelJes'ley, Ar'tliflr, See Wellington. 
 WeUes'ley College, 937. 
 Wel'ling-ton, Duke of. 608, 630, 632, 634, 
 Wen'fes-las (-lawss), 343, 344. 
 Wends, See Slavs. 
 
 Wi'nt'worth (-wflrtli), T/iom'as, 481. 
 Wer'der (ver'),Au'gust(ow'goost), von, 
 
 730. 
 Wer'ner of Kilt'burg (-buorg), 294. 
 Wer'ner (artist), 658. 
 We'ser, 277, 598. 
 Wes'Iey, Charles, 810. 811. 
 Wes'ley, Jo/m, 810, 811. 
 Wes'termann, 573. 
 West'ern Empire, 239, 240, 249, 251, 255, 
 
 257. 
 West'ern Reserve, 892. 
 West In'dies, 400, 404, 641, 787, 791,800, 
 
 826, 834, 852. 902. 
 West'min-ster Abbey, 362. 
 West-more'land, Duke of, 458. 
 Westpha'li-a, 337, 533, 603, 610, 622. 
 
 777. 
 West-pha'!i-a, Peace of, 448, 476, 477. 
 West Point, 848. 
 West Point Academy, 803, 911. 
 West ■Vir-gin'i-a.'(ver-), 908, 937. 
 Weth'ers-field, 821. 
 Wetz'lar, (vets'), 536. 
 Wfy'pri-cht, 743. 
 Wheel'ioriff/it (hwel'). Rev. Jo/m, 817, 
 
 822. 
 Whigs (hwigs), 493. 512, 642. 
 White'tteld (hwif). Rev. George, 806, 
 White'hilU (hwit'hawl), 4S8. 
 White (liwit) Mountain, Battle of, 467. 
 Whit'man (hwif), W.-ilt (wawlt),939. 
 Whif ney (hwif), E'li, SS6. 
 Whifney (hwif), Wil'liam (yam), 
 
 Dwi^ftt, 941. 
 Whifder (hwif),J6An Grcen'lOaf, 939, 
 
 904. 
 Wie'land, CAris'toph Miir'tin, 539. 
 Wi-el-o-pol'ski, Count, 096, 698. 
 Wies'locft (ves'), 468. 
 Wies'nar (ves'), 477. 
 Wil'ber-fortje, Wil'liam (-yiim), 642. 
 Wil'der-ness, 918. 
 Wil'i-e-kii (vel'), 552. 
 Wilkes, Charles, 921. 
 Wil'kie', Da'vid, 658. 
 AVil'liam (-y.im) and Ma'ry College, 805. 
 Wil'liam (-yam), Count of Ilol'Iand, 
 
 314, 326, 337. 
 Wil'liam (-yam) V., Duke of Bruns'- 
 
 wick, 610. 
 Wil'liam (yam) VII., Duke of Briins'- 
 
 wick, 663, 749. 
 Wil'liam (-yam) II., Elector of Hesse 
 
 Cas'sel, 663. 
 Wil'liam (-yam) Hen'ry, Fort, 831. 
 William (yam) I., of En'gland (ing'), 
 
 the Conqueror, 286. 
 Wil'liam (yam) III., of En'gland (ing'), 
 
 494, 500, 807, 814, 820, 826. 
 Wil'liam (yam) IV., oIEn'gl.ana (ing'), 
 
 642. 
 Wil'liam (-yam) I., of Ggr'ma-ny, 702, 
 
 703, 716, 717, 720, 725, 726, 729, 732, 745, 
 
 747, 739, 752, 780. 
 Wil'liam (-yam) II., ot Ger'ma-ny, 750, 
 
 777. 
 Wil'liam (-yam) I., ot Hul'laiid, 628. 
 Wil'liam (-yam) III., of Hol'laud, 754. 
 
 Wil'liam (-yam), of Or'ange, 442, 444, 
 
 446, 447. 
 Wil'liam (-yiim) ot Tyre, 335. 
 Wil'liams (-y.Ains), Ro'gijr, 817, 823. 
 Wil'ming-ton, 916. 
 Wil'mot, Da'vid, 903. 
 Wil'na, 614. 
 
 Wil'son, ot Fian9e, 760. 
 Wil'son Bill, 933. 
 Wil'son, James, 856. 
 Wimp'ten (viin'pten). Battle of, 468. 
 Wimpf-feu' (vaNp-faN), Em-mau'u"el 
 
 Fe'lix, 729. 
 Wiu'disch-gratz (viu'), 677, 678. 
 Wind'sor, 821. 
 
 Wiiid'diorst, Lud'wig (loOf veg), 743. 
 Win'fred, 275. 
 Wink'el-man, Jo/in, 538, 539. 
 Wink'el-ried (ret), Ar'nold von; 344. 
 Wiu'rich (veil'), of ifiiip'rode, 384. 
 Win'sor, Jiis'tlne, 940. 
 Win'throp, JoAn, 816, 817, 821. 
 Wirt (wert), Wil'liam (yam), 897. 
 Wiseon'sin, 878. 
 Wis-con'sin, River, 793. 
 Wis'mar, 516. 
 Witchcraft, 821. 
 Wif e-na-ge-mot, 286. 
 Wi-tepsk' (ve-), 614. 
 Wi-tid'za (ve-tits'che), 270. 
 Wif tels-bac*, House of, 527. 
 Wif ten-berg, 406, 408, 409, 410. 
 Wif u-kind (vet), 279, 280. 
 Wo'dan, see Odin. 
 Wohl'ge-mfltA (vol') 731. 
 WoU (woolf), C/iris'tian, (-Chan), 525, 52G. 
 Wolfe (woolf), James, 535, 831, 832. 
 Wolfe's (wOolfs) Cove, 832. 
 Wolsc'ley (woolz'), Gar'uet Jo's?ph. 
 
 773, 775. 
 Wol'sey (wool'). Cardinal TAom'as, 43U. 
 Wood, Jeth'ro, 8S8. 
 Wool'sey, Tlie'0-dOre DwlffAt, 940. 
 WoOl'son, Con'stan9e Fen'i-more, 939. 
 Woccester, 490, 491. 
 Words'worth (wflrdz'wflrth), VVil'liaiu 
 
 (-yam-), 652, 894. 
 Worms (vorms), 255, 282, 300, 408. 
 Worms (vorms). Diet of, 350. 
 Worth (wiirth),727. 
 Wrang'el (vraiig'), Count, 477, 478. 
 Wrang'el (vrang'), Field-marshal, 705. 
 Wul'len-we-ber (vool'), 422. 
 Wnrm'ser (voorm'), 582. 
 Wurf em-berg (vQrf), 421.599, 600,622 
 
 673, 679, 718, 726, 732. 
 Wurz'burg (viirts'bOfirg), 412, 573. 
 Wyc'lif, Jo/m, 346, 363. 
 Wy-o'ming Valley, 854. 
 Wythe, George, 856. 899. 
 
 Xan-t/iip'pils (zan-), 168. 
 Xa-vi-er' (sha-), Sil'va, 858. 
 Xen'o-phon (zen'), 118, 119, 125. 
 Xer.x'es (ziirks'), 103, 104, 105, 107, 270. 
 Xi-me'ues (zi). Cardinal, 368. 
 
 Yale College, 821. 
 Yamoii'iia, 33. 
 Yax'iir-tes, 72. 
 
 use, firu, up, riide ; food, foot ; by ; gell ; N-ng ; italic letters silent or obscure. 
 
1030 
 
 ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. 
 
 Ya-znu-, 912. 
 
 Yeard'ley, Sii- George, 802. 
 
 Yem'en, 782. 
 
 York, 234. 
 
 York, Count, 622. 
 
 York, Duke of, 492, 49S, 586, 824, 826. 
 
 York, House of, 363, 364. 
 
 York, General, 619. 
 
 York, On-tfi'ri-Ci, See Toronto. 
 
 York River, 803, 910. 
 
 York'shire, 362,921. 
 
 York'town. 850, 010. 
 
 Young, Brig'/iniTi, 892. 
 
 Young, Charles .\u-gus'tus (aw-), 941. 
 
 Yp-sMan'ti Al-ex-Su'der, 646, 647. 
 
 Yp-si-lan'ti, De-me'trl-us, 647. 
 
 Zieh-r'mg'en, House uf, 339. 
 
 Za'ma, 179. 
 
 Zed-e-ki'aft, 65. 
 
 Zel7er (tsel'), Ed'ward, 740. 
 
 Zend-A- ves'tfv, 66. 
 
 Zends. 66. 
 
 ZeN'ger, 826. 
 
 Z.Vno, 145. 
 
 Ze-no'bi-a, 238. 
 
 Zo-rub'ba-bel, ra. 
 
 Zeus, 78,81,92,108. 
 
 Zeus Ain'mOn, 73, 132. 
 
 Zeux'is, 127. 
 
 Zi'on (-un),6a. 
 
 Zis'ka, 343. 
 
 Znciim, Truce of, 609, 610. 
 
 Zo'la, 657. 
 
 ZoU'verein (tsol'fe), 664. 
 Zj-ro-as'ter, 66, 74. 
 Zorn'dorf (tsorn'), Battle of, 53". 
 Zu'ny, 392. 
 Ziig. 339. 
 Zii-lo'a-ga, 950. 
 Zii'liis, 773. 
 
 Zun'i-ga, (tlioon'ye-), 444. 
 Zu'rich (tsft), 339, 405, 413, 414. 709. 
 ZU'ricli (tsfl'). Battle of, 586. 
 Zu'rich (tsfl'). Council of. 413. 
 Zwic'kau (tsvik'kow),409. 
 ZwingTi (tsving'), Ul'rich (oor),;413, 
 414, 426, 427. 
 
 Ale, care, am, arm, final ; eve, obey, end, her, recent ; ice, ill, pique ; old, orb, odd, move ; use, flrn, up, rude ; food, foot; 
 by; 9ell; K=ng; italic letters silent or obscure. 
 
 LRpJa78