aass_5.XIj2>1"7 Bnnk ."P^ ^ A'^ HZdNOMit Stfl^VEY JEPH HYDE PRATT, Staie Gsoloyi.st BULLETIN No. 24 IBLOl [ORTH CAROLINA PINE W, W. ASHE F'oiiist InspoctC".-. L' 5. F'c.r--^t S'.iv;.,. e 'and formet Forester ot ilio North C.irJ'ilnn Geol, iilcc'.l .md fconouiic .'r'nivi^y Prepared In Co-operation with tlLi- Forest Service, United States Deportment of A^riculturcf HENRY 5. GSAVE5, Forester EiiWASDg A BBOtraHT Staoti P; N. C. GEOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SURVEY. PLATE I. Frontisi'IECE. Group of loblolly pines two liunE. Loblolly pine is the most important timber tree in southeastern Vir- ginia, in eastern j>J'orth Carolina, and in northeastern South Carolina north of GeorgetOT\Ta ; while to the south of Georgetown not only in South Carolina but in Georgia and westward in the Gulf States its im- portance is yearly increasing with the decrease in the supply of longleaf pine. (See Map, Fig. 1.) Its value and its importance as a commercial tree are best indicated by the extent of the lumber industry which is dependent upon it and by the annual output of ISTorth Carolina pine lumber in southeastern Virginia, in iSTorth Carolina and in the adjacent portion of South Carolina. While no attempt is made in the census figures to separate the cuts of the various pines which are sawed in this region, all of them being grouped under the head of yelloAV pine, it is possible to approximate closely the cut of loblolly pine. The lumber cut of certain counties is entirely from loblolly pine (the shortleaf pine of the coast) and that of other counties is very largely from this species. In southeastern Virginia the cut of pine in 1912 in nine counties whi^h are within the loblolly pine belt was 397,344,000 bd. ft. In N"orth Caro- lina the cut of pine in 40 coastal plain pine counties was 1,079,061,000 bd. ft. In South Carolina in 15 counties the cut north of Georgetown was 548,138,000 bd. ft. A small amount of the pine cut in these nine counties in southeastern Virginia is from the shortleaf pine (of the Piedmont) ; in North Carolina small amounts of the pine cut in the coastal plain are from the shortleaf pine and from the longleaf or pitch pine; in South Carolina probably less than 10 per cent of the pine cut of the counties north of Georgetown is at present from long- LOBLOLLY OK A^ORTH CAROLINA PINE. 6 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. leaf pine. The cut bj counties for nine counties* in Virginia south of the James River is as follows : ^^^^^ ^^^^ Isle of Wight 12,500,000 Norfolk 100,683,000 Nansemond 62,726,000 Prince George 5,600,000 Princess Anne . 5,500,000 Southampton 98,425,000 Surry 58,385,000 Sussex 13,525,000 Greenesville 40,000,000 Total 397,344,000 The cut by counties for 40 counties in eastern North Carolina is as follows : Board Feet. Board Feet. Beaufort 44,428,000 Bertie 34,137,000 Bladen 29,125,000 Brunswick 16,877,000 Camden 1,170,000 Carteret 5,240,000 Chowan 25,824,000 Columbus 67,970,000 Craven 107,209,000 Cumberland 16,700,000 Duplin 60,841,000 Dare 4,000,000 Edgecombe 7,112,000 Gates 14,695,000 Greene 2,600,000 Halifax 41,290,000 Harnett 32,360,000 Hertford 17,980,000 Hoke 1,700,000 Hyde 1,881,000 Johnston 45,460,000 Jones 20,790,000 Lenoir 20,136,000 Martin 9,795,000 Nash 31,778,000 New Hanover 43,432,000 Northampton 7,318,000 Onslow 23,563,000 Pamlico 22,109,000 Pasquotank 49,950,000 Pender 58,700,000 Perquimans 23,627,000 Pitt 8,510,000 Robeson 43,761,000 Sampson 66,917,000 Scotland 2,960,000 Tyrrell 1,390,000 Washington 23,046,000 Wayne 20,810,000 Wilson 21,870,000 Total 1,079,061,000 The cut by counties for 15 counties in South Carolina north of George- town is as follows: „ , r. * Board Feet. Beaufort 8,527,000 Berkeley 13,265,000 Charleston 48,343,000 Colleton 64,384,000 Darlington 82,373,000 Dillon 6,075,000 Dorchester 31,761,000 Florence 21,310,000 Georgetown 129,948,000 Hampton 21,700,000 Horry 28,472,000 Lee 1,000,000 Marion 54,235,000 Marlboro 21,035,000 Williamsburg 15,710,000 Total 548,138,000 •The total cut of yellow pine in the 3G counties of eastern Virginia in which loblolly pine is the prevailing tree is about 1,200,000,000 board feet. It is probable that three-fourths of this cut is from loblolly pine. LOBLOLLY OR NOKTH CAROLINA PINE. 7 The pine industi'ies of southeasteni Virginia and northeastern ISTorth Carolina are so closely associated that it is impossible to separate them. A large portion of the logs cnt in northeastern jSTorth Carolina is manu- factured in Virginia chiefly at or in the vicinity of Norfolk, Suffolk, Franklin, Emporia, and Whaleyville. It is estimated that 175,000,000 feet, or nearly half of the output of the mills in this section of Virginia, are from logs brought from North Carolina, the importations being dis- tributed approximately as follows : 50 per cent of the output of Nanse- mond County; 90 per cent of the output of Norfolk County and 60 per cent of the output of Southampton County. Some of the other counties which lie on or near the state line, such as Greenesville, also obtain small amounts of their timber from North Carolina. It is conservative there- fore to say that the cut of loblolly pine timber in North Carolina in 1912 exceeded 1,250,000,000 board feet. The timber from which this was cut had a stumpage value of not less than $4,000,000, while the value of the entire output of loblolly pine in North Carolina embracing both the lumber delivered on the cars and the round timber which was cut in the State, but manufactured outside, amounted to more than $16,000,000. The cut of North Carolina pine lumber in North Carolina has probably attained its maximum. Small operators still cut a large amount of North Carolina pine lumber. Of the total number of operations there were in 1912 only 22 in North Carolina that had an annual cut in excess of 10,000,000 board feet. These 22 had a combined cut of 384,000,000 board feet, compared with a cut of 695,061,000 board feet for the remaining 600 operations. x\t the same time in the counties north of Georgetown in South Caro- lina there were only six operations that had an output in excess of 10,- 000,000 board feet, and in the nine southeastern counties of Virginia only 12 operations had outputs of this volume. The largest single operation in the North Carolina pine field is at Georgetown, S. C, with, an estimated output of about 100,000,000 board feet a year. A wood alcohol plant is operated in connection with this sawmill to utilize the waste. The Norfolk District embracing the five counties of Norfolk, Nansemond, Princess Anne, Isle of Wight, and Southampton, with an output of more than 180,000,000 board feet a year, still maintains its supremacy not only as a distributing center but also as a producing center. The amount of mature loblolly pine timber in North Carolina is about 15,000,000,000 board feet. This pine occupies in pure growth or asso- ciated with other species more than 8,000 square miles in North Caro- lina. Since the rate of growth of this species even under present un- favorable conditions is not less than 150 board feet per acre of commer- cial saw-timber a year replacement is at the rate of about 800,000,000 board feet a year and consequently is taking place at more than half of the rate of utilization for lumber. It is believed that if the forest lands of eastern North Carolina were being well managed the present cut could be maintained permanently. LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. PHYSIOGRAPHY OF COASTAL PLAIJT AAD PIEDMONT PLATEAU REGIONS. In order to understand the distribution of the loblolly pine in iTorth Carolina, its growth under various conditions and the systems of man- agement best adapted to them, it is necessary to have a clear idea of the topography and other general physical characteristics of the Coastal Plain and of the eastern portions of the Piedmont Plateau regions. THE COASTAL PLAIN REGION. The coastal plain region of ISTorth Carolina extends inland, from the coast for a distance of one hundred to one hundred and fifty miles, and has an aggregate area approximating 24,000 square miles. Its sur- face is that of a gently undulating plain of slight elevation (10 to 50 feet above sea level) and nearly level eastward, becoming more elevated (300 to 500 feet) and rolling along its western border. In the neighbor- hood of the coast, where the drainage is insufficient to remove the rain- fall rapidly, there are extensive areas of lowland or swamp, with clear, slowly flowing, or stagnant water. These are mostly forest covered. Westward the fall permits a more thorough drainage and the swamps are largely restricted to narrow strips of alluvial land contiguous to the streams which have muddy, rapidly flowing water when the streams head beyond the costal plain, and clear, slow-flowing water when the streams head within the coastal plain. These SAvamps of the muddy streams extend in a northwesterly and southeasterly direction through the entire coastal plain. The total swamp area of the coastal plain region in JSTorth Carolina aggregates nearly 4,600 square miles. The upland soils of the coastal plain are unconsolidated sands, sandy loams, silts and loams, and over limited areas stiff clays. To the north of the Neuse River loams and heavier soils are the more widely distrib- uted upland soils; to the south of this river the soils are generally of a sandy type. The water table during the growing season is seldom as much as 20 feet below the surface, except in the tier of counties which lies just east of the Piedmont and in the sandy and hilly region of Moore, Cumberland, Richmond, and the adjoining counties. The soils in the swamps, except those of alluvial origin, are prevailingly of the same general textures as those of the uplands, but with a mucky or peaty top soil, or peaty throughout. The soils of the alluvial swamps border- ing the large streams, which have their headAvaters beyond the coastal plain region, are silty with a varying admixture of vegetable matter. The soils of the coastal plain which are occupied by loblolly pine are practically all available for farming with the exception of the sand dunes on the banks and some of the river swamps which are subject to periodic and deep flooding. Many of the best loblolly pine soils require artificial drainage before they can be profitably farmed. There is little LOBLOLLY OR ISTORTH CAROLINA PIXE. V doubt, however, that eventually the larger portion of all of the land now in loblolly pine will be cleared and placed in cultivation. In the Coastal Plain Region the average annual temperature is about 61° F., with a normal range of 36° F. The winters are com- paratively mild, the temperature seldom falling below 15° F. The average temperature during the five growing months is 74° F. The average annual rainfall is about fifty-five inches, the seasonal distribu- tion being heavier in the spring and summer than in the autumn and winter. The region of heaviest precipitation and greatest humidity lies eastward of a north and south line through N'ew Bern and Wilmington. The rainfall, while heavy, is irregular and concentrated, and the snow- fall scant, although sleet is frequent. The atmospheric humidity is high, especially during the summer. PIEDMONT PLATEAU REGION. The easteni portion of the Piedmont plateau region, which is the portion in which loblolly pine occurs most frequently, is more rugged and its topography rougher than that of the coastal plain. Its eleva- tion varies from 350 to 600 feet above sea level. In general its surface is rolling though along the streams and in some other places there are bold hills. On the uplands the predominating soils may be described as loams and clays, sandy and gravelly in some places, but generally with much stiffer red or yellow subsoil, formed by the decay in situ of slates, gneisses, (hombliende-bearing) schists, pegmatites, and other crystalline rocks; while over some limited areas sandy soils occur derived from sandstone and granite. Along the numerous small streams are narrow, alluvial deposits, moist, dark-colored loams, containing a variable proportion of organic matter. Along the larger streams these fluvial deposits are often clayey or silty. All soils occupied by the loblolly pine in the Piedmont plateau region, except where too rough or steep are suitable for fanning. The average annual temperature for the region is somewhat less than that of the coastal plain, being about 59° F. ; the annual rainfall is only about fifty inches, and the humidity is lower. The water table is from 30 to 50 feet below the surface of the hill summits, while the surface drainage is far superior to that of the coastal plain, swamps being limited to the borders of the streams. The average temperature during the five growing months is 73° F. COMMEECIAL DISTKIBUTIOX. The commercial distribution of the loblolly pine in ISTorth Carolina is from Granville, Person, Orange, Chatham, and Union counties, some- what east of the center of the State, eastward and southeastward to the coast, where it occurs over a total area of not less than 30,000 square miles. As a commercial tree it is largely absent, however, from Cum- berland, Moore, Richmond, and Hoke counties in eastern N'orth Caro- 10 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. lina, "wliicli have prevailing dry saudy soils. There are also less ex- tensive areas of swamp in which it does not occur. But it is capable of growing as a commercial tree on 22,000 square miles of this area (See map, Fig. 2.) In Virginia it is the prevailing species south and east of Petersburg and Lunenburg, covering the southeastern portion of the state, while to the north of Petersburg it is common along and near Chesapeake Bay, on both the eastern and western shores. In South Carolina it is common south and east of Chester wherever the soil and moisture conditions are suitable for its growth. ORIGINAL FOREST. In the coastal plain the loblolly pine was originally largely confined to the following situations: (1) River swamps, where it occurred on the best drained portions, as single trees in mixture with hackberry, sweet gum, red maple, white and red oaks, deep swamp ash, and water gum; (2) shallow interior swamps with loamy soils where it grew in groups of a few trees, or more generally single trees, among maple, water oaks, and gums; (3) shallow swamps with stiif soils, Avhere single trees occurred irregularly distributed among Avhite oaks and red oaks, ash, elm, holly, white bay, beech, and gums; (4) deep swamps, in which it was not com- mon and where it occurred with cypress, water gum, and water ash; (5) hummocks and the edges of swamps, savannas, and pocosons, Avhere on a wide range of moist soils of sand, silt, clay or peat, it grew sparingly with longleaf and pocoson pines; (6) best grade of loams, silts, clays (Portsmouth soil series) and peaty soils seldom subject to flooding, Avith the water table usually from five to eight feet below the surface where it formed compact groups or stands covering many acres; (7) on peaty soils where it occurred with yellow poplar, white cedar (juniper), Avhite bay, sweet bay, and sweet gum. Specimens of best development (Plate I, Frontispiece) are met with in shallow swamps on clayey or loamy soil growing with mixed hard- woods. The pure groves on well-drained peaty soil are mostly formed of comparatively young and small trees from 100 to 150 years old and in even-aged stands. There are traditions supported by other evidence, that these pure groves on the peaty lands have followed old fires. Under natural conditions it is probable that this species did not form extensive pure forests in !Nortli Carolina except in the extreme northeastern sec- tion. Loblolly })ine was absent from the best drained soils Avhich were occupied by the longleaf pine in the coastal plain and by mixed hard- Avoods and shortleaf pine in the Piedmont plateau region. In the Piedmont plateau the original growth of loblolly pine Avas chiefly confined to the forests of the narrow stream SAvamps of the east- ern portion of the plateau. It formed only a A'ery small proportion of the timber in these forests Avhich are distinctively of hardAvoods. "While most abundant in the Piedmont along its eastern edge, isolated trees LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 11 12 LOBLOLLY OK NORTH CAROLINA PINE. have been found on alluvial lands as far west as tlie eastern end of Surry County and at an altitude of about 700 feet, although 500 feet is the IDrevailing altitudinal limit in North Carolina. PRESENT FOREST. Accidental influences, largely circumstances incidental to the settling and development of the country, and other influences which have fol- lowed these, have enabled the tree, by means of its prolific and early seed- ing and rapid growth, to become locally far more widely distributed and much more abundant than in the original forest. The most important of these influences which have facilitated the reproduction and distribu- tion of this species have been the abandonment of farming lands, fires, lumbering, and live stock, especially hogs. On account of its adaptabil- ity^ loblolly pine has increased in abundance in wet situations as well as on dry sites. In swamps it has often followed cypress, when cypress Avas cut, wherever standing water during the growing season did not prevent the pine from establishing itself. When hardwoods on the coastal plain were culled, or severely burned, loblolly pine became more abun- dant in the hardwood forests, until its young growth is now common, both on the uplands and in the swamps. It has extensively replaced the long- leaf pine, except on the dryest or sandiest soils. When the longleaf pine died after being exhausted by turpentine or was broken down by the wind, or where it was burned or thinned by lumbering, the loblolly pine succeeded it on all moist, loamy, or clay soils. At the same time hogs destroyed the seeds and seedlings of the longleaf pine, while both seed and seedlings of loblolly were largely neglected, the former because of their small size and the latter because the roots are tough and fibrous. The loblolly pine now occupies in nearly pure forests, much of it more than 100 years old, practically all of the cutover longleaf pine lands north of the Xeuse River, and a great proportion of the longleaf pine lands south of the J^euse River and east of Fayetteville and Laurinburg, and is gradually invading the sandhills of Moore, Cumberland, and Richmond counties. Worn-out farming lands exhausted of humus, which have been turned to fallow, and lands which have been found too poor or often too wet to cultivate, or which were abandoned on account of scarcity of labor, have been stocked with loblolly pine by means of self-sown seed whenever seed-bearing trees were near by. Thus this pine has become extensively distributed, and while 100 years ago the longleaf pine was the characteristic forest tree in the Coastal Plain Region of ISTorth Caro- lina, at present the loblolly pine is the prevailing tree; and its relative abundance and importance are steadily increasing. The distribution of the loblolly pine has also been extended in the Piedmont plateau, though not to the same extent as in the coastal plain. In the eastern part of the Piedmont plateau it has established itself in old fields, often in association with shortleaf pine, and in stands of hard- woods which have been culled. It is now abundant in the second srrowth LOBLOLLY OR XORTH CAKOLIXA PINE. 13 stands on the hills near the rivers and is gradually extending aAvay from the streams, in spite of the increasing dryness of the soil. The growth in the old fields along the eastern edge of the Piedmont plateau in many places is nearly pure loblolly pine. Where young trees of the shortleaf pine appear they are often overtopped and suppressed, being outnumbered and overgrowm by the loblolly pine. To the west- ward, however, there are fewer seed trees, and where there is competition between the two species, the shortleaf pine has the advantage, except on moist or sandy soils. ASSOCIATED SPECIES. Witb such a wide range of soil adaptability loblolly pine is associated with many species and is a component of many forest types. In the mixed stands in the swamps and on poorly drained sites some of the associated species are fully as valuable as the pine and are well adapted to silvicultural purposes. Other species are less valuable than the lob- lolly. The following list gives the most important associated species. List of the Most Important Species Associated With Loblolly Pine in Order of Their Kelative Importance. TREES. Longleaf pine Pinus palustris. Shortleaf, spruce or rosemary pine Pinus echinata. Sweet or red gum Liquiclamhar styraciflua. Water gum Nyssa aquatica. Southern red oalv Quercus digitata. Swamp red oak Quercus pagodcvfolia. Pocoson, black bark or pond pine Pinus serotina. Red maple Acer rubrum tridens. Yellow poplar Liriodendron tulipifera. Water oak Qxiercus nigra. Green ash Fraxinns lanceolata. Deep swamp ash Fraxinus profunda. Water ash Fraxinus caroliniana. White elm Ulmus americana. White hickory Hicoria alba. Sand hickory Hicora pallida. White oak Quercus alba. Swamp white or swamp chestnut oak Quercus Michauxii. Post oak Quercus minor. Round leaf blackjack oak Quercus marylandica. Forked leaf or sand blackjack oak Quercus Catesbcei. Runner oak Quercus Margaretta. Black gum Nyssa sylvatica. Tupelo gum Nyssa uniflora. Cottonwood Populus deltoides. SHRUBS. Gallberry Hex glabra. Tall gallberry . '. Ilex lucvia. Fetterbush Andromeda, several species. 14 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLIK^A PINE. FOREST TYPES. Wherever similar soil and moisture conditions prevail there is a definite association of species. This association which is called a forest type remains practically constant until the natural conditions are disturhed by fire, cattle, lumbering, or other causes. The type is formed of those species Avhich are best suited to soil and moisture conditions, but this does not necessarily mean that the natural mixture of species would be the most profitable one or the most desirable one economically for that site. The rate of growth of the different species which form a type is practically always the same in that type, and the yield of the type at a given age is constant. Table 1 shows the composition of the important commercial forest types of the coastal plain of jSTorth Carolina and their relation to soil and drainage. The great number of forest types in which loblolly pine occurs is noteworthy as showing the virility and aggressiveness of this species. Table I Characteristic Forest Types of Eastern North Carolina According to Soil AND Drainage. When drained Drainage Best Clay Soils, Fine-grained Stiff Loams or Marls Good Agricultural Soils, Loams, Sandy Loams, Medium to Fine- Grained Sands, Coarse or Medium-grained Peaty Soils, Mucks (1) (2) (3) Very dry and well Hardwoods, small Shortleaf pine with Sand hills with drained; rolling or red, post and small oaks, espe- longleaf pine and hilly, (as stream roundleaf black cially Q- margar- sand blackjack bluffs); water- jack oaks, hickories etta and hickories. oak. Loblolly table below 20 ft. with some short- Occasionally long- pine is infrequent Both surface and leaf pine. (Young leaf pine inter- even in old fields. subsoil drainage loblolly pine ap- mixed. (Young Longleaf pine good. pearing in open- ings.) Oak and pine uplands. loblolly pine in openings.) sand hills. (4) (5) (6) Longleaf piney Longleaf pine of Longleaf pine of Longleaf pine, woods and flat- fine quality pass- best quality, with pure. Pine bar- woods; moist sub- ing with poorer dogwood and post rens. soils; water-table drainage into hard- oak. The longleaf seldom below 20 ft. woods; pine and larg-^ly replaced Surface drainage post oak flat woods. by loblolly pine, good. Subsoil drain- which now forms age slow. extensive forests; or when water table is stable near surface, pure lob- lolly pine. Flat- woods. LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. Table I — Continued. 15 Drainage Best Clay Soils, Fine-grained Stiff Loams or Marls When drained Good Agricultural Soils, Loams, Sandy Loams, Medium to Fine grained Sands, Coarse or Medium-grained Peaty Soils, Mucks Loblolly pine (short- leaf pine of the coast) forest. Very moist subsoil. Water table seldom below 12 ft. Surface drainage poor. | (7) Loblolly pine in large pure groups (7a) Loblolly pine of good quality, pure Natural, perma- nent or reproducing pine lands. (7b) Loblolly pine in pure groups (7c) Loblolly pine in pure groups on best drained sites. Clear or discolored water, shallow swamps; slow drainage, standing water during part of the year. Sub- ject to slight over- flow. Surface drainage very poor even in summer. (8) Oaks, beech, hick- ory, red maple, deep swamp ash, water gum, sweet gum, white bay, cypress, loblolly pine, singly or in groups. The pine less frequent and smaller as the drainage becomes poorer. Flat swamps, hardwood f1at.t. (9) (10) Water oaks, cypress, | Loblolly pine, red maple, water gum; loblolly pine. The pine less fre- quent and smaller, as the drainage becomes poorer and cypress and water gum more abundant. Flat swamps. pure, passing into white cedar, ma- ple, bay, small water gum. 1 Cedar or juniper swamps. (11) Sour peats, white cedar, poplar, red maple and bays. Water table stable. Cedar swamps, Clear or discolored water, deep swamps, ponds, and slow flowing streams. Water sel- dom below the sur- face. (12) (13) (13a) Large cypress, water Large cypress, water Same as No. 13 and tupelo gums, deep swamp ash and rod maple, occasional loblollj pines where drain- age bejt. Cypress swamps. and tupelo gums deep swamp, water ashes and red ma- ple, occasional lob- lolly pines. Cypress swamps. (15) (16) Nearly saturated Small pocoson pine Pocoson pine and level lands; the and bays. Bays. bays. Pocosons. pocosons or briary Pocosons. Where Where best drained, bays, and reedy best drained, savannas. bogs. Water table savannas. fluctuating. Aera- tion deficient. but trees much smaller. Much water ash. (14) Mucks, large cypress, wa- ter and tupelo gums, red maple, occa- sional loblolly pines. (17) Pocoson pine and longleaf pine; loblolly pine scantily replac- ing them on the best sites. Pocosons. (18) Raw peats, pocoson pine and bays. Moss bogs, q^taking bogs. Pocosons. 16 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLIJSTA PINE. Table I — Continued. Alluvial soils along The character of the growth much the same as that on clear water, shaJow the muddy rivers — I swamps (8 and 9), but conifers and evergreen trees are infrequent, prob- overflow irregular [ ably on account of the destruction of their foliage by its being covered with and often deep — 3 ' a coating of mud. Silver maple, hackberry, sycamore, green ash, elm, to 30 feet. oaks and gums. In sloughs where there is much standing water, tupelo. Water surface widely The pine barren ponds which may be deeply flooded during winter and spring fluctuating. No sur- or after rains but in which the water table may sink to 10 feet during face, drainage. droughts, have a growth limited to the pond cypress (Taxodium dis- tichum iinbricarium) water gum and black gum. The optimum conditions for the development of individual trees of loblolly pine are offered by sites S and 9, on which occur trees of large size either in small groups or scattered singly among the hardwoods. The optimum conditions for the development of pure stands are offered by sites 7 to 7c. On these sites there is less competition from the hard- woods and loblolly pine is truly gregarious, dominating to the practical exclusion of other trees. Between the typical conditions there are gradations of all kinds. When the forest is lumbered or severely burned, its distinctive char- acters are often almost obliterated, though the constant tendency, when natural forces are permitted to re-assert themselves, is for the reestab- lishment of the original forest type. Near the coast, a number of these conditions will sometimes be represented on an area of less than an acre. In addition to the above original or permanent types there are four important temporary types: (1) mixed oak and hickory, which have folloAved pine on loams and clays; (2) Quercus Margaretta and round- leaf blackjack oak, which have followed pine on dry sandy loams; (3) sand blackjack oak which has followed longleaf pine on sand hills; (4) loblolly pine in old fields and on cut-over longleaf pine land. These pure stands of loblolly in old fields and on cut-over longleaf pine landiS ai-e very extensive, and occupy -all classes of soils; they are of all ages and are in every condition of thrift and density, and constitute an important source of pine timber. The conditions under which the loblolly pine occurs, as shoAvn in Table 1, may be grouped for convenience under seven heads as follows: ( 1 ) Old field growth on diy sites ; (2) Loblolly pine in pure stands on porous loams and peaty soils (Table 1, numbers 7 and 10, in part) ; (3) Loblolly- pine on longleaf pine flat lands (Table 1. numbers 4 to 6); (4) Loblolly pine Avith hardwoods in swamps chiefly in the coastal plain (Table 1, numbers 8 and 9) ; (5) Loblolly pine with pocoson pine on savannas (Table 1, numbers 15 to 16) ; LOBLOLLY OR JiTORTH CAROLINA PINE. 17 (6) Loblolly pine with cypress in deep swamps (Table 1, numbers 12 to 14) ; (7) Loblolly pine in hardwood and shortleaf pine forests chiefly on the Piedmont uplands (Table 1, numbers 1, 2). OLD FIELD GROWTH ON DRY SITES. These sites were originally occupied by longleaf pine or by shortleaf pine mixed with upland oaks and hickories. The longleaf pine sites, which are confined to the coastal plain, are for the most part heavy upland clays and coarse upland sands (largely Xorfolk sand) ; they are of the greatest extent south of JSTeuse River. The shortleaf pine sites are largely restricted to the eastern tier of Piedmont counties, but ex- tend into the coastal plain in Halifax, Northampton, and Nash coim- ties. The soils for the most part are loams or heavier soils of the Cecil and Durham series, the water table as a rule lying between 20 and 45 feet beneath the surface. These lands have been cultivated, but after the exhaustion of the scant humus they were found too poor and were aban- doned; later they were stocked by wind-sowed seed of loblolly pine. Some stands on sites on which longleaf pine formed the original forest contain an admixture of longleaf pine; and on sites which were origi- nally occupied by shortleaf pine and upland hardwoods, an admixture of shortleaf pine. Table 2 shows the range of diameters and the composition of charac- teristic stands of loblolly pine in upland old fields. 18 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH C.\ROLIXA PINE. Stand 60 years old on Cecil red clay in Orange County following shortleaf pine, southern red oak, Spanish oak, black oak and hickory Other species O i ■ 1 i • ' ' Shortleaf pine 1 1 1 1 1 ! ! 1 1 ! I a ■ft _>. "o T3 ft ft 3 CO • cot-o !«ot- 1 1 1 1 ! . 1 1 1 1 MO > -§•2 c3 ti> TJ g 03 III « o 13 in 11 OS- l:^,0.^,,rtrtii|P(||iij 00 o « g 'ft 3 .3 T3 1 03 llll'«omoolliilill O OS t- 01 c-g 1 1 I 1 1 .c^iocCiOCOii^ ' I I I I o r^ M 13 (A a o Q 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 "t^t^cC^^OC^ « 1 ir^ 00 OO to T}< r- Diameter breast- high Inches ^t^oocso— *c^icC'^»c:ot^«:oo-Hc^i Total over 6 inches.. Per cent of number. . Per cent of volume inbd.ft... c N. 0. GEOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SURVEY. PLATE III. X -2 .5 M- 02 "^ JS — ■ _ .ti '5 5 ^ " 0) U r^ ^ C3 ■" LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 19 Loblolly pine attains on the upland old field sites a height of from 60 to 80 feet, a range of diameters of from 12 to 22 inches, and an age of 75 years. The rate of growth is extremely rapid for several decades, far more rapid than on similar uncultivated soils, after which there is an abrupt decline in the rate of height as well as diameter growth. (Table 14, Column 4, and Table 18, Column 4.) The total volume of the stand culminates between the fortieth and sixtieth years, according to the site. At the time of culmination not only has the growth in height practically ceased and the rate of diameter growth declined to about an inch a decade, but the stand has begun to disintegrate by the dying of the dominant trees. The gro-s^-th of such a stand may be Quality I for the first two decades; Quality II for the third decade; after which it ma^"- decline to Quality III. (See p. 57.) On account of the open crown cover, oaks and other upland hard- woods gradually enter the stand. In stands more than 40 years old these species often form a moderately dense lower story beneath the pines. When the loblolly pine is cut, they partly replace the loblolly pine, being supplemented either by longleaf or shortleaf pine. These species largely form the succeeding stands unless special means are taken to secure loblolly pine. The forest thus tends to revert to the original or permanent types. On account of the rapid thinning out of the stand, the trees are short bodied and scrubby. (Plate III, A.) The trees yield two or three logs mostly of third and fourth grades. The wood is coarse grained and knotty, making largely box lumber. (Plate XII.) Unthinned stands will seldom yield more than 20 per cent lumber of Xo. 3 grade and better. (For description of log grades, see page 98; of lumber grades, page 100.) LOBLOLLY PINE IN PURE STANDS ON POROUS LOAMS AND PEATY SOILS. This type comprises a very large portion of the productive loblolly pine forests of Xorth Carolina. It occurs on small flats or basins which are comparatively well-drained and seldom flooded for a long period or for more than a few inches, or it occupies extensive areas of upland which are mostly near the coast. The soils are largely sandy loams, clayey, or silty (Portsmouth soil series), or they are peaty, humified, with some silt or clay intennixed, or with marl subsoil. The water table seldom sinks below twelve feet. These are the so-called "permanent, natural or reproducing" pine lands. These sites furnish the optimum conditions for the development of pure stands. There is situated within this type a large area of poorly drained old fields on which loblolly pine has the same rate of growth as on forest soils of the same class. A great portion of the soil occupied by this type of forest has been placed under cultivation, and such areas as are suitable for tillage are still being drained and cleared as rapidly as they are logged. It is best suited to the growing of corn. 20 LOBLOLLY OR ISTORTH CAROLINA PINE. In their typical coudition the forests on these lands are in pure even- aged stands or groups, or the pine is associated with occasional gums, water oaks, and yellow poplars, but it is always the predominating spe- cies in the stand. Although the humus is deep the soil is sufficiently moist for young growth to come up freely and young trees appear in large even-aged groups where old trees have died or have been cut. Beneath the pine there is generally a dense undergrowth of gall berries and ericaceous shrubs. The age of the pine seldom exceeds 200 years and individual trees are not so large as in the hardwood swamps. The height of mature trees ranges from 115 to 130 feet and the diameter from 24 to 36 inches. The wood is moderately fine and even-grained. The logs largely grade I and II. The best yield is obtained in this type. It is believed that by thinning stands an increment of from 900 to 1,000 board feet a year can- be obtained, including thinnings. Even in old groups the crown cover maintains a complete canopy. The rate of growth is excellent and stands can generally be classed in Quality I. Table 3 shows the composition of this type on peaty soil, measured in a stand two miles northeast of Leechville, IST. C. The average age of the trees is about 100 years, the height of the dominant trees is from 110 to 120 feet. The stand consists of about 120 merchantable trees per acre and will yield about 30,000 feet, B. M. of pine. Table 3.— Composition op a Pure Loblolly Pine Stand on Peaty Soil, Humified, Near Leechville, North Carolina. Diameter breast- high Average Number of Trees Per Acre. Inches Loblolly Pine Sweet Gum Black Gum Other Species Under 9 2 13 9 11 9 4 4 4 6 4 20 10 20 20 12 10 10 2 1 2 10 1 11 1 12 1 13 1 14 1 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 1 1 Total above 8 126 2 4 1 After lumbering the land normally comes up to heavy young growth of pine seedlings. Areas cut over ten or twenty years ago are noAv covered with a dense stand of young pines. Interspersed among the young trees are the old suppressed trees which were left when the mature stand was cut and which have now recuperated, and many small hardwoods which have been overtopped. N. C. GEOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SURVEY. PLATE IV. LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 21 LOBLOLLY PINE ON LONGLEAF PINE FLAT LANDS. This type forms the great body of productive loblolly pine lands, occupying possibly one-half of the total loblolly pine area. Its yield, however, is not commensurate with the area it occupies on account of understocking. The soils are clayey, loamy, or sandy. The surface of the flat lands is nearly level or slightly rolling and well drained; these areas when stocked in longleaf pine were known as the flatwoods or piney woods. As the moisture in the soil becomes less subject to fluctuations they pass into hardwood flats and flat swamps. As they become more level and less thoroughly drained, they grade into savannas, pocosons, and bog swamps. As they become sandier and more thor- oughly drained and drier they approach in their forest characters the longleaf pine sand hills. Table 4. — Composition of Loblolly Pine Stand on Longleaf Pine Flat Lands. Diameter Average Number op Trees Per Acre. breasthigh Inches Loblolly Pine Longleaf Pine Black Gum Sweet Gum Oak Hickory Maple Dogwood Between 3-6 6 7 8 9 15.42 5.77 4.89 4.27 4.03 3.33 2.67 2.41 2.18 1.84 1.45 1.29 1.18 .94 .83 .53 .52 .44 .43 .31 .21 .21 .19 .13 .06 .07 .04 .05 .04 .01 .05 .63 .22 .13 1.01 .76 .98 L21 .38 1.45 1.03 .64 .32 .43 .17 .18 .04 .11 .07 .05 .06 4.13 1.03 2.13 1.17 .63 .58 .54 .31 .12 .07 .05 .07 .02 .01 .01 .005 .01 .01 .01 3.01 .96 .47 .32 .40 .16 .38 .22 .20 .12 .03 .08 .01 .02 .01 .01 .01 6.01 3.13 3.01 2.11 2.36 1.27 .09 .12 .03 .02 .02 .01 .01 .01 1.50 .58 .41 .17 .22 .15 .08 .11 2.40 .32 .06 .01 .42 .07 .02 .005 10 11 12 13 .09 .02 14 15 .01 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 1 26 .02 27 1 28 1 1 29 30 i 31 ! i 1 32 ' 33 i i 34 1 Total 54. 75 i 9.94 10.905 6.41 18.20 3.34 2.79 .515 22 LOBLOLLY OR NOETH CABOLINA PINE. The original forest was formed of longleaf pine which, after lumber- ing, turpentining, and repeated fires has now nearly or entirely disap- peared. The loblolly pine is not uniformly distributed; it occurs as scattered dense groups varying from a few trees to several or many acres in extent. (Plate VI, A.) In the open spaces the ground is cov- ered with thick grass (chiefly wire grass) 1 to 2 feet high. The irreg- ularity of the stand and its open condition is due to periodic fires, which are particularly damaging where the growth of grass is heavy. Small trees of various kinds of hardwoods, especially black gum, roundleaf blackjack oak, southern red oak, and white and sand hickories occur with the pine in greater or less abundance. A few longleaf pines occur in places, especially south of the jSTeuse Hiver. Table 4 shows the composition o'f this type based on measurements of nearly 700 acres, of both logged and unlogged forest. xlfter logging loblolly pine, usually the same species restocks the ground and generally overtops the hardwoods. In many places, how- ever, the hardwoods by their dense cover tend to prevent the reproduc- tion of the pine after lumbering. (Plate VIII, A.) Under the best conditions the trees attain a height of from 120 to 125 feet and a diameter of 25 to 30 inches when 150 to 200 years old. Usu- ally, however, the height ranges from 95 to 110 feet, and the diameter from 18 to 25 inches. The rate of growth is that of Quality II (Tables 14 and 18, column 3.) The trees are generally sound, but the upper logs in those more than 150 years old are likely to be affected by red- heart. Groups of trees are found 200 years old, which possibly origi- nated in the first extensive breaks in the longleaf pine forests made by the early settlers, such as around old turpentine-distillery sites and upon tar-kiln mounds. When the trees are solitary they are short bodied and yield only coarse lumber; in groups the stems are longer and clear. Logs are largely of Grades II and III. Under management these stands will produce about 600 board feet per acre a year. The lumber sawed from a 60-year old stand Avill grade 35 per cent 'No. 1 and No. 2. LOBLOLLY PIXE WITH HARDWOODS IN SWAMPS CHIEFLY IN THE COASTAL PLAIN. This type is largely confined to the coastal plain and occurs in clear water SAvamps which are seldom flooded deeply or for a long period. The soils are silt clays, marls, or fine-grained, stiff loams or fine sands of the best quality, particularly of the Portsmouth series. These swamps are one of the most common habitats of the loblolly pine, affording the optimum conditions for the development of the individual tree. The pine is associated with water oak, swamp chestnut oak, deep swamp ash, yellow poplar, sweet gum, beech, red maple, holly, cypress, water gum and other less abundant species. The pine occurs either in groups of a few trees which are usually even-aged, or more generally as single trees N. C. GEOLOGICAL AND ECOXOIIIC SURVEY. PLATE V. A. Characteristic stand of loblolly and pocoson pine on savanna. The scattered short-bodied trees are t.vpical. Such a stand yields about 15 per cent of No. 1 and No. 2 grades of lumber. (Photo. U. S. Forest Service.) B. Margin of pine, cypress and gum swamp. Old cypress in center; old pine on left. (Photo. U. S. Forest Service.) LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE, 23 scattered among tlie hardwoods. While it constitutes less than five per cent of the number of trees in the virgin stand it may form 25 per cent of the merchantable saw timber. The old pine trees grow on low mounds or hummocks, 5 to 10 feet wide and two or three feet high, which are largely formed by the trees themselves, by the gradual accu- mulation of bark, cones and leaves, which are yearly deposited about their bases. (Plate I.) Since the pine is very intolerant of shade it comes up only in open- ings. Consequently, young pines as a rule are infrequent except in windfalls or where the oaks were cut for staves. Such cuttings made often as long as 100 years ago, were favorable for the increase of the pine. Table 5.— Composition op Loblollt Pine With Hardwoods in Swamp, Beechgrove, Beaufort County, North Carolina. Diameter i Average Number of Trees on One Acre. breasthigh Inches Loblolly Pine Water Water Gum Oak Deep swamp Ash Swamp Chestnut Oak Yellow Poplar Sweet Gum Red Maple Under 10 1 18 14 4 2 2 1 1 51 1 57 3 2 13 •10 4 5 11 7 12 2 ' 1 13 6 4 2 3 1 14 1 2 15 1 16 6 1 I 17 1 I 18 3 2 2 2 3 1 19 2 1 A.. 1 I 20 21 22 1 ; 23 1 24 1 1 25 1 " 26 27 2 28 1 [ 1 29 1 30 2 1 31 32 1 1 33 ( 34 ' 35 36 1 [ 1 1 Total 7 1 61 1 23 69 2 3 67 21 The first general logging of the pine began about 1880; for a period of 15 or 20 years, up to 1900, the pine was cut but the hardwoods w^ere generally left. This has resulted in reducing the proportion of pine in many of the stands. In later cuttings when it has become the prac- 24 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. tice to cut some of the best hardwoods, the proportion of pine in the restocking has again increased. Table 5 shows the composition of a loblolly pine stand in a virgin hardwood swamp. This area shows a larger proportion of pine by- volume in board feet than occurs in most such swamps, but the distri- bution of the diameter classes is typical. Young pine is not abundant. Loblolly pine in these swamps attains a height of from 135 to 165 feet, a maximum stump diameter inside bark of 54 inches, and an age of over 240 years. The height of the associated broadleaf trees is from 100 to 130 feet, pines overtopping most of them, except possibly yellow poplar and sweet gum. (Plate V, B.) The rate of growth of the pine is rapid. For several years the rate of height growth of dominant trees exceeds four feet a year, and even in old trees an excellent rate of height groAvth is well maintained. The rate of diameter growth of young trees is not rapid since the crowns of young trees are for many" years crowded by the surrounding hardwoods, and receive light only from above. The rate of diameter growth, however, is sustained and a large annual volume increment is produced by many of the oldest trees. (Tables 14 and 18, column 1.) On account of the rapid height growth and the small crowns, the stems are slender with clear boles from 80 to 110 feet in length. The wood is of the best quality, soft and even-grained. Even in the center of the butt logs, the summer bands are comparatively narrow. (Plate IX, B.) It consequently resembles in quality that of the short- leaf pine of the Piedmont, the so-called rosemary or forest pine. It is rich orange in color and rather more pitchy than that growing in other situations. The sapwood is comparatively thin for the species though it forms in trees even two hundred years old one-half of the total volume of the stem. Large trees often yield seteral logs of Grade 1, and cut 60 to 65 per cent of No. 1 and No. 2 lumber. (Plate XII, 0.) LOBLOLLY PINE WITH POCOSON PINE ON SAVANNAS. This type occurs on poorly drained sites saturated with water during most of the year. The stand for the most part is open. It consists of loblolly pines mixed with pocoson pines, occasional stunted longleaf pines, black gums, and white bays. Formerly there was a larger pro- portion of longleaf pine. There is usually a scant undergrowth of fet- terbush and other ericaceous shrubs, and a dense mat of grass, which withers in the autumn and consequently burns with a hot fire during Avinter and spring. (Plate V, A.) Probably one-thirtieth of the lob- lolly forest land of North Carolina belongs to this type. Its producing capacity, however, is low and it yields a relatively small amount of timber. The loblolly pine occurs in even-aged groups of a few trees, or singly, all ages being represented on a small area. Trees 150 years old are between 75 and 105 feet in height, 20 to 25 inches in diameter, and N. C. GEOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SURVEY. PLATE VI. <'£».aBJU£^. Groups of loblolly pine poles with old longleaf nine whirl, it i= fPhnfn TT c V P'°V lepiacm,^ on grassy flat lands. (Fhoto. U. S. Forest Service.) Cut-over loblolly pine land, showing the undesirable character of the seed trees wh.ch are left by the present method of cutting. (Photo, by J. S. Holmes.) LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 25 the largest scale by Doyle-Scribner rule not more than 700 feet. The trees are short bodied and frequently crooked and yield logs largely of Grades III and IV. The rate of growth is slow and irregular, yet the wood is tough and hard and the sapwood generally thick. (Plate X, B.) The wood is fine grained but except in the butt log the quality is not high. Table 6 shows the average condition of more than four hundred acres of savanna land measured by the chain method. Table 6. — Compositiox of Loblolly Pixe With Pocoson Pixe ox Savanxas. Based ox 422 Acres. Diameter Average Number of Trees Per Acre. breasthigh Inches Loblolly Pine Pocoson Pine Longleaf Pine . Black Gum White Bay Maple Between 3-6 10.81 5.67 3.01 2.07 1.53 1.21 1.22 .84 .31 .27 .26 .18 .17 :i; .14 .09 .02 .01 .01 .005 16.15 8.23 3.12 3.24 2.61 2.13 14.33 2.17 1.07 .31 .01 7.21 6 .41 .21 .37 .29 1.03 3.23 7 8 9 10 .31 .43 .26 .46 2.10 .95 .02 11 .13 I .62 .31 .57 .12 : - 28 2.33 1.07 .41 .13 .06 12 13 14 .11 .10 .80 .80 .10 .06 .09 .08 .04 .03 .02 .01 .21 .23 .11 .14 .08 .07 .02 .03 .01 .01 15 16 ' 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 1 Total 28.095 4.26 4.69 39.48 17.89 13.51 LOBLOLLY PINE WITH CYPRESS IN DEEP SWAMPS. This type occurs in non-alluvial as well as in alluvial swamps. These alluvial swamps border clear water streams within the Coastal Plain, and the lower reaches of the muddy streams which head beyond the Coastal Plain, where flooding is always shallpw but may last for several weeks. Around the Dismal Swamp in the Albemarle Sound section and elsewhere there are large areas of non-alluvial swamp, in which a considerable portion of the forest growth is cypress and lobr lolly pine with water gum. The proportion of pine decreases as the flooding becomes deeper. Its growth also becomes slower. The pine and cypress have nearly the same rate of growth. (Tables 14 and IS, column 6.) 26 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. The pine reaches a height of from 80 to 100 feet and a diameter of from 20 inches to 3 feet. The trees yield 3 and 4 logs. The wood is fine grained and the quality of the butt and second logs excellent. Big Bay in Brunswick County and the Lumber River Swamp yielded some excellent pine timber from this type. Plate XII, C shows a pile of No. 1 and jSTo. 2 logs which were cut in Big Bay. The pine tends to reseed and maintain its position and proportion in the forest after lum- bering if it is not cut at too small a diameter. There is no danger of fires on this type. LOBLOLLY PINE IN HARDWOOD AND SHORTLEAF PINE FORESTS CHIEFLY ON THE PIEDMONT UPLANDS. Loblolly pine has appeared in these forests (particularly on the Dur- ham soil series, in Person, Wake and Durham counties and in the sandier phases of the Cecil soils in the eastern Piedmont counties and in Halifax, ^Northampton, and JSTash counties) where the oaks and short- leaf pine have been cut, especially on slopes near streams. The trees of loblolly pine are generally young, varying in age from the smallest seedling to 40 or 60 years old. They seldom form more than five per cent of the entire stand. The number of loblolly pines is increasing, however, as the breaks in the forest cover become larger, and as the number of seed-bearing pines of this species increases. The associated trees are white oak, southern red oak (Quercus digitata), black oak, scarlet or Spanish oak (Quercus coccinea), white hickory, red hickory, sand hickory, yellow poplar, and shortleaf pine. These species are more tolerant of shade than the loblolly pine which, however, makes rapid growth for the first two or three decades, though the rate usually de- creases rapidly after the thirtieth year. When the stand of hardwoods is open, the pines have large crowns, short stems, and knotty and coarse- grained Avood. (Plate VII.) When 60 to 70 years old, which is about the age limit, the trees are 70 to 75 feet high and 14 to 18 inches in diameter, and the scale of the average log is about 55 feet. The logs grade as ISTos. 3, 4, and 5. FOREST CHARACTERISTICS. FORM. Stem. In young trees the stem continues through the crown without divid- ing. In old forest trees the trunk, as a rule, divides into massive spread- ing branches. The division of the main stem into a number of branches usually takes place soon after the period of rapid height growth is well passed. In trees growing in open stands the division of the tiimk into branches takes place earlier and lower on the stem than in crowded stands. As a rule the stems of young trees are nearly straight. Those of old trees, especially when grown in open stands or on poor soil, are N. C. GEOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SURVEY. PLATE VII. Loblolly pine with mixed oaks and shortleaf pine. Three-log tree, eighty years old, cutting 20 per cent of No. 1 and No. 2 grades of lumber. (Photo. N. C. Geological Survey.) LOBLOLLY OR XOETH CAKOLIXA PIJCE. ?/ often slightly curved or crooked, tliougli never to the same extent as those of the pocoson pine. The stems are rarely forked except when the leading shoot is injured by a weevil or by sleet breaking it. The great- est amount of taper in the stem is in the top, consequently the mill cut of top logs of a given diameter inside the bark at the small end is greater than that of logs of the same diameter from the lower part of the stem measured in the same manner. (Table 23.) As the trees in the stand become older they are less tapering. Old trees of the same diameter breasthigh and of the same height as young trees have, therefore, a larger volume in cubic feet and produce more lumber. This is shoA^ii in Table 7. Table 7.— Yield in Board Feet Per Linear Foot op Merchantable Length of Bole from Trees of the Same Diameter and Height at Different Ages. 1-7" Saw Kerf. Diameter breasthigh Inches Yield in Board Feet Per Linear Foot of Used Length Stand 45 years old 65 years old 8 .8 .85 9 .9 .95 10 1.1 1.2 11 1.3 1.5 12 1.7 1.9 13 2.1 2.3 14 2.4 2.6 15 2.9 3.1 16 3.5 3.7 17 4.1 4.3 18 4.7 4.9 19 5.3 5.6 20 6.2 6.5 The larger trees in the 45 year stand are dominant and intermediate. Those of the same diameters in the 65 year old stand, which is on a somewhat poorer quality site, are largely intermediate and suppressed. The difference thus amounts to from 5 to 10 per cent of the contents in board feet. Taper measurements of butts at intervals of 1 foot are given in Table 8. They are useful in converting stump measurements on cut-over land into breasthigh diameter measurements. This table is based on age class over 75 years, Quality II. The taper would be slightly more for younger trees of the same quality, and for Qviality III of the same age class ; but somewhat less for old trees of Quality I. On account of natu- ral individual variation such a table should only be used in considering a number of specimens. 28 LOBLOLLY OR XORTH CAROLINA PINE. Table 8. — Taper of Butts of Loblolly Pine for L'se in Con-vertinq Stump Into Breasthioh Diameters. Height above ground — Feet Diameter breastbigh 1 2 3 4 5 Inches Diameter outside bark — ] nches 9 n.3 10.0 9.4 9.2 8.8 10 12.5 11.3 10.5 10.2 9.8 11 13.8 12.5 11.7 11.2 10.8 12 14.8 13.6 12.7 12.1 11.8 13 16.1 14.7 13.7 13.3 12.8 14 17.2 15.8 14.8 14.3 13.8 15 18.5 16.8 15.7 15.3 14.8 16 19.7 17.9 16.9 16.3 15.8 17 20.8 18.9 17.0 17.3 16.7 IS 22.0 20.0 19.1 18.3 17.7 19 23.2 21.2 20.1 19.4 18.7 20 24.4 22.5 21.2 20.4 19.7 21 25.5 23.7 22.4 21.4 20.7 22 26.7 24.8 23.4 22.4 21.7 23 28.0 25.9 24.5 23.4 22.7 24 29.0 26.9 25.5 24.3 23.7 25 30.0 28.0 26.5 25.3 24.7 26 31.0 28.9 27.3 26.3 25.7 27 32.0 30.0 28.2 27.2 26.7 28 33.0 31.0 29.1 28.2 27.8 29 34.0 32.0 30.1 29.1 28.8 30 35.0 33.0 31.0 30.1 29.7 Taper measurements inside of bark of stems of different diameters and heights for middle-aged and old trees are given in Tables 9 and 9a. The measurements can be used directly in scaling logs of any length which is a multiple of 8.15 feet or for ascertaining the number of ties or poles of a given size which can be obtained from trees of dif- ferent diameters. The height above the stump of any desired diameter can be fixed by intei'polation. Tables 9 and 9a should be employed only in considering a number of specimens on account of individual varia- tion. Age classes less than 50 years have considerably more taper than the table shows for trees under 75 years old; while trees more than 150 years old have less taper than shown for trees over 75 years old. LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 29 Table 9.— Taper Measurements of Loblollt Pine of Different Diameters and Heights. Trees Under 75 Years Old. 40-foot trees At breast- height Height above stump — Feet Diameter breasthigh 8.15 16. 30 24.45 32.60 40.75 Inches Diam3ter inside bark — Inches 50-foot trees 4 2.8 3.7 4.5 5.3 6.2 7.0 7.8 8.6 9.5 2.5 3.3 4-1 4.8 5.6 ; 6.3 7.1 7.8 i 8.6 2.0 2.7 3.4 4.0 4.7 5.3 6.0 6.6 7.2 L5 1.9 2.5 3.0 3.5 3.9 4.4 4.9 5.4 .7 .9 1.2 1.4 1.5 1.9 2.2 2.4 2.7 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 4 2.9 2.6 2.3 2.0 1.5 .8 5 3.8 3.5 3.1 2.7 2.0 1.1 6 4.7 4.3 3.8 3.3 2.5 1.4 7 5.5 5.1 4.6 3.9 3.0 1.6 8 6.4 5.9 5.3 4.6 3.5 1.9 9 7.3 6.7 6.0 5.2 3.9 2.1 10 8.2 7.5 6.9 5.9 4.4 2.4 11 9.0 8.4 7.6 6.5 4.9 2.6 12 9.8 9.1 8.2 7.1 5.4 2.9 13 10.8 9.9 9.0 7.8 5.9 3.2 14 11.6 10.8 9.7 8.4 6.3 3.4 60-foot trees 4 5.1 2.9 2.6 2.4 2.1 1.6 5 3.9 3.7 3.4 3.1 2.7 2.1 6 4.8 4.5 4.2 3.8 3.3 2.6 7 5.7 5.3 4.9 4.5 3.9 3.1 8 6.5 6.1 5.6 5.1 4.5 3.6 9 7.4 7.0 6.4 5.8 5.1 4.1 10 8.3 7.8 7.1 6.5 5.7 4.5 11 9.1 8.6 7.9 7.2 6.2 5.0 12 10.1 9.4 8.6 7.8 6.7 5.3 13 10.9 10.3 9.3 8.4 7.3 5.9 14 11.8 11.1 10.1 9.1 7.9 6.3 15 12.7 11.9 10.7 9.7 8.4 6.8 16 13.5 12.7 11.4 10.3 9.1 7.2 Stump height 1 foot for tress 4 to 16 inches in diameter breasthigh, 1.5 feet for trees 17 to 22 inches. 30 LOBLOLLY OR KOKTH CAKOLIjN'A PINE. -8 I a 1 o > o -i i 12 S •g a •a 13 1 .c^t^co c<3 ■*•<)<■« lO «S O t-^ OO' CO CJ oi O" oocqoiOT^oc-^cioo-^^t^ ■WTiJioioaot^t^Icocioo — — ■*-Ht^Tj<-Hoom(M050i«or- ■«C3O— CC-IC^ § o cOTjf^Ho050co^Hooioeoot*«5 TjilOSOOt-^Oo'cJOJOr-IIM'NeO 00 cot^u5co^H05t^m-*« •c o t^ t^ CO 00 o o CO OS O ^ LOBLOLLY OR NOKTH CAKOLINA PINE. 31 O CC CD O kQ lO lO tO OS o o -^ *M c^ CO ec « O 00 CO M -^ -^ lO O O) t^ CO ■^ -^ W5 CO 00 CO OS 00 •o CO o CO co' 00 CO CO •* CO 00 CO OS OO OB 00 OS 00 OS t- eo OS n 2 - 2 OS o (M (M 32 LOBLOLLY OR ]\"ORTH CAROLINA PINE, 1 I s 3 "to o ! to 1 s o . a 1 s s i i i i i i i i i ; ; ; i 1 S s 00 cooocor^^*oo.COOOOiOO'-'.QOGOOSO'-<^(MCO«'t}io6o6oi «ocot^o6o6oio50 CiCOcOCSCOMOOiO cDt^coodcioo^ t*^ o6 Ci Oi O VH i-I C^l •<»< o 05 •^ oo o o ;=; m £3 2 ■* 00 >ra ■* O e» OJ o ;:; M M> •<*< •^ to ■>*< « ^ 05 j^ to •* en o ^ N « CO ^ o cq ^_, Oi t- to ■^ CO ^_, o ^ ^ 2 M ■^ U3 to ^ lO ■* CO o to to LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 33 !0 C2 o ^- M 00 00 o to Ol o o o o o M ,— t ,^ o> 00 US CM . o CO m CO ,^ C5 CO ^^ ■* as >o CO to •* CO f^ IM o o « 1^ t~ O o r^ t-- 00 t~ CO lO 1^ C5 o c^ C<) cor^-H-*i^OT)w3^r*cor^eocs»ooio iocor^c^oooocaoo*-4^H lOC^CSiONt^-^OcOClQO COt^t^OOCSOlO — — iMcq -^COiOC^OSUSC^OSlONOO r~t^oocjc»o — «Nc«j« 1 o o s t^M<^ocoeooco^»^t^ t^ooocrso-^c^deo-^-^ Mor~iOMcir^-qr5cOt^ t-iO-ailMOOOb-lOCO — o 00-<J- o c3 'S w § o d V § s ^HC^iOiCtOt^CJ'-'COiOb* l-^ccccc-. c:c:0 o ccoc-^c:tc^r*EMr--r}-ci t^ t^ GO cc cr. :z O — — c^i ci o oo rfCt-CMC:iCCCOS-<:t*^t^ ooc;c;oo^(MC^co'*Tt< o CO (N Ci t^ CI O t^ »r5 (M CC iC o: O ^ r* ;^ 00 00 00 C q C-) O C: — ■ t^ CO oc QC 00 1« q o c CO q q " 00 s c. -* - ^ CO q 00 Tj< q 05 CO o :' t^ 3 (N q t-. CO CO 2; ■^ q lO CO CO o q 00 c- 00 q S CO ■* ta '"! ^ °^ 00 oi CO CO q oc o iC U5 uo CO t^ 00 CO q o o ^ ^ CO - 2 C: O — ■ !^) CO LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 35 00 CO -^ r* »-« 1:0 o t^ OC CO 00 Ci CS o t^ CO eo o «o o »o O <-" — I (M cfl CO eo C! iC Ci W5 — O 01 W CO CO ■^ UO »C CO '^ U5 — « C-. cq •"f U5 >o to t~ « • t~ m ^ C-5 t^ iC CO h^ r>- oc cs cs 00 iq c<) OS h- CO <-H so 1^ 00 00 o o -^ ^ T-, ^ ^ ^ C^l C^ r^ io c^ C3 t^ CO CO r- 00 c: Ci o ^^ ci *- ^ — • — .OTjO^»-« •«<.-.-*.-iOOir5OC)C5OMOt^t)< 00^-oooociOO^c^c^cO'*i< OtJI— lOlt^iO — O50iraMOt~IO(MC:>0e0O00lO -He»Oiocoot^«5(Me-»ot^-*e<«oi^c«3«oot^u5 »-'^^C^CC*<*'iOiO:Ot^CO00C:C^(NCMCO-^jH'<^lO5O tOCO*--Ot>-iCC^»-lt^eOIOCOOQO®Tj*-HOt^«OeO — 'Ojcocs'wioor-.t^ooooo — irrairator^ -«Cst^lOTl<(MO!00>O-*C<3^COC^»-i,-(005000cOWi c^eo-^iocoot^cxjoo^-c^ico-^icictot^oocio ! LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLIIN^A PIXE. ■^l0«DC0C0t^t-*C000CaCJOO'-H^HWC^C0C0Tt.t^Q0C50SO»-Hi-(WMC0 r-i<-Hi~lf-li-l^^^Hi-li~t*-li-lr-ti-ii-l^iCsi-00OOO'-H^CNe0C0'*J<»CiO i-ii-ii-tT-ii-)t-iT-ii-ir-4r-irHi-i,-ti-.C^l-t-eOO^M« cn q 00 Mt^qqq--qqq CSCJOOO — -^-HIM 00 CO oo o "5 q o o 00 o " t^C^I^^HCOOSCOS-^ — q 9S t^eoot^Tj*oqc«o» ta CO o CO 00 OS o t- g kCoooiAoosqt^r^ — P»(MCO-*Tjeq«Mcqe«oe^co 00 00 00 00 OS o ^ q q q q-^qmb-qqcj-H iococor^oocso»-oco MMcococoeococoeo C0000000Cs030SOOOO-^-H o lO OS ^ CO OS •* 00 N lO OS IM t~ ra >o lO CO 2 U5 o ■f 00 IM t- — 1 CD o ■* 00 (M t- CO ^ -* ■»< lO lO CO O c^ t^ t^ OO 00 q in q q q CO q q q 00 oo q 00 OS q OS CO g q 2 q q q oo I-; 5 C35 IM g o CO q ^ q CO q CO •<* q q 00 OS OS (M q o IM q q CO CO CO q q CO 00 00 q q OS q o IM q q IM o CO CO q CO o g o (M q c q IM IM CO q CO q h a a p. ^n >. .b a a Jh fi 'be S 13 S <» ^ S 3 .5 " -s o H p. *. ft o >> O o 2 =^ o c3 •)-. -e -^ -^2 ■5 p M c ^ - "^ 'I V, « S . - -" o -. "S ^ £ o *^ -& B -ri ^ C ",:: CO a; •«< 0^ 03 . « C- " o* S ^ ^ .. 5 ° ti O bo ;>» m C „ a M -^ o 'S b£ J "S a -g H « S ^ " '-g i; -^ ti o .a a 2 ^ & g « ^ a ® r3 a M a » S — t. te « -5 a :S -^ o 5 ^ 2 n^ O c3 ? LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 45 Isolated trees begin to produce seed when about 15 years old. In croAvded stands tbe age of cone production is later, between the twen- tieth and twenty-fifth year, and production is restricted to dominant trees. Seed production is relatively scant, however, until stands are 40 to 50 years old. In the regularity and frequency of its seeding the loblolly pine is in strong contrast to the longleaf pine, which bears seed abundantly only at intervals of several years, and often no seed at all over extensive areas during the intervening period. The pocoson pine produces some seed nearly every year, but never any large amount. Its cones often remain on the trees unopened for several years, which interferes with the propagation of that species and the general distribution of its seed. The loblolly pine is more regular and prolific in its seeding than the shortleaf. The loblolly pine produces its flowers about the tenth of iVpril in the vicinity of Chapel Hill, X. C, near the western limits of its distribu- tion, and the last of March in the vicinity of Wilmington, IST. C. This is too late in the season to be injured by late spring frosts which at times interfere with the setting of seed of the longleaf pine in the west- ern part of its range in North Carolina. The cones require two seasons in which to mature. GERMINATION AND PLANT ESTABLISHMENT. Most of the seed germinate the spring after maturing, generally be- tween the first of March and middle of May, the time varying according to the warmth of the season, the distance from the coast and the amount of moisture in the seedbed. A few seed apparently lie over until mid- summer. South of latitude 35 and near the coast, some seed apparently germinate in the fall. Germination takes place either in the shade of old trees, or in the direct sunlight, on barely moist to very wet soils. Naked earth makes the best seedbed, as the roots striking at once into the soil do not dry out. This accounts for the thorough stocking of old fields notwithstanding the exposure of the seed to the sun. Seed will germinate and the young plants take root in soil covered with a heavy sod of coarse grass, such as broom grass which often grows two or three feet high. Though the seed will germinate on damp leaf mould of broadleaf species and on damp pine leaves (straw) and litter, the young seedlings on account of their superficial root system are liable to dry out. The seed will seldom germinate on thick beds of dry leaves or pine needles, and it is generally necessary to destroy a thick layer of litter or to bring the mineral soil to the surface before restocking can be secured in such situations.* Occasionally a mossy log or rotten stump in the damp shade of a deep swamp has young seedlings on it, but during the first drought of summer most of them perish. For the same reason the young seedlings secure a permanent foothold with difficulty on the coarse and dry sands of the pine barrens which are so porous *For full discusi-ion of this see Proceedings Society American Foresters, 1910, page 90 and following. 46 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. and tliorouglily drained that there is frequently insufficient moisture for sprouting^ and if the seed germinate the young plants speedily succumb to drought. Fields which have been abandoned or left a few years to fallow, logged over areas, and burns all form suitable seedbeds. FUNGOUS DLSEASES AND INSECTS. So far as known the older trees of loblolly pine are subject to few destructive fungous diseases. On some low, flat lands, especially where fires have burned around the collar of the trunk, the trees are attacked by a root rot caused by a species of Hydnum, which may gain entrance through fire scars. Only trees large enough to have heartwood are thus affected. The upper portions of the stems are also occasionally affected by redheart, produced by Trametes pini, which gains entrance chiefly at broken limbs and knot holes. Trees less than 75 years old are rarely affected by redheart, which is characteristically a disease of old age. Another fungus, Polyporus Sclnveinitzii, occasionally attacks the heartwood. Seedlings seem to be very free from diseases. They frequently turn an olive green' or copper color in the spring, but this discoloration is not a disease. Wliile comparatively free from fungous diseases, loblolly pine is sub- ject to the attacks of the pine bark beetle (Dendroctonus frontalis, Zimm.), which kills trees through girdling them by the galleries made beneath the bark chiefly in the middle part of the trunk. A few weeks after the attack the leaves begin to brown, generally at the top of the crown. Stands in which rapid natural thinning is taking place are par- ticularly subject to attack. Not only are the dying and weakened inter- mediate and suppressed trees thus attacked, but sometimes also the large and healthy dominant trees are killed. During summer lumbering many young trees which are left become infested by the beetle, which breeds freely in the green slash, particularly that lying in the shade, and spreads from it to living trees. Trees which are bruised by falling timber or in skidding are first attacked. Several broods of the beetle are produced each season. The broods, Avhich develop early in the spring, emerge and attack sound' near-by trees, and as the different broods develop new centers of infection are established. In forests in which there is a large admixture of broadleaf species the damage to the pine by this insect is less than in pure stands, especially in the old-field stands. Many of the old-field stands are connected with farms 'and where the distance is not too great to permit fuel to be hauled, all trees which show by the discoloration of their foliage any signs of being affected by the bark beetles should be promptly removed. If infested trees are located during the winter and are cut and removed before spring the brood will be destroyed. This will check the propagation of the insects and prevent them from increasing in number and passing to other trees. Wherever it is possible to remove such attacked trees without great cost they should be promptly cut. It is more difficult to check an epidemic during the spring and summer after the broods have LOBLOLLY OR Is^ORTH CAROLINA PINE. 47 begun to emerge. The Bureau of Entomology of the United States Department of Agriculture gives the following method of control in the summer when a group of trees is infested and begins to die. Trees which are infested should be promptly cut and the bark peeled and burned. In addition, "if felled and girdled trees are provided at the proper time, so that the beetles will be attracted to them at the period of their greatest flight, they will attack such trees in preference to the living, uninjured ones ; then, after they have entered the inner bark and the broods are partially developed, that is, before they have entered the outer bark, it will only be necessary to remove the bark to effectually destroy them and thus protect the healthy timber. If, however, the removal of the bark is neglected until the broods have entered the outer dry portion, it will be necessary to burn it as soon as it is removed." A weevil occasionally destroys the terminal shoot of the young tree, causing a forked or crooked stem. The wood of trees which are blown down in storms or which are killed by fires is quickly attacked and tunneled by sawyers, the larvae of longiconi and other beetles. In order to save such timber, if it can not be promptly used, it should be cut and put in water, or if this is impos- sible, cut and peeled of the bark. SENSITIVENESS TO FIRE. During the first few years of its life the delicate tissues of the young pine are entirely consumed by even a light grass fire. After the young trees, however, attain a diameter of several inches, the bark around their base thickens so rapidly that they are seldom seriously injured by winter fires. The inner bark or groAving tissue becomes active several weeks later in the spring in the loblolly pine than in the longleaf pine, and for this reason also large loblolly pines are less injured by early spring fires than are longleaf pines. It is an exceptional case, there- fore, for old trees of loblolly pine to be severely injured by early spring fires unless they are crown fires. In winter or early spring before the sap is active, young trees may even have much of the foliage consumed without the fire killing the trees. Late spring and summer fires, after the growth of the tree has begun, are far more destructive. The fact that loblolly pine generally grows on moister soils than the longleaf pine undoubtedly contributes to its greater freedom from fire injury; at times, however, even the wet lands and swamps, particularly those Avith peaty soils, are badly burned during dry periods in summer or in autumn. Such fires are extremely destructive when the humus is thick and undergrowth dense. To protect mature timber from the disastrous fires, it is customary to burn the underbrush during calm Aveather each winter, and in this way to prevent its accumulation. On loose, level, sandy soils having the Avater table near the surface, where the trees do not suffer from drought, the yearly destruction of a large portion of the litter probably affects but slightly the groAvth of the 48 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. trees. Ou drier, and especially ou heavier soils, suck as the Selma loams and Cecil loams and clays, the presence of the forest litter and humus is extremely desirable as a protection against excessive evapora- tion of soil moisture. The litter in pine forests on such soils, therefore, should never be burned. If such stands demand protection from fire it should be given by means of broad fire lanes, which can be annually cleaned, as discussed later. An attempt was made to ascertain the effect of a severe fire upon the growth of loblolly pine when the land was foul Avith the accumu- lated leaves and undergrowth of several years. Nearly all large areas, even the shallower swamps, unless free from underwood, have been burned at some time, and often several times, and traces of fire on charred logs and stumps are in general evidence, except in some of the old fields and fenced areas. A grove which had been severely burned by having all the undergrowth of gallberries and other shrubs destroyed in the early part of the summer seven years before the examination, and which the owner asserted had not been burned before or since that year, furnished some conclusive data. The grove was on a well-drained heavy-loam soil near Kinston, and had an average age of about 50 years. The result of the fire upon the accretion is shown in Table 12. Table 12. — The Effect op a Severe Brush Fire Upon the Growth in Diameter OF Loblolly Pine. Diameter breasthigh Inches Number ot trees measured Width of 7 rings preceding the fire Inches Width ol 7 lings alter the fire Inches 7 2 .3 .2 8 2 .3 .15 9 4 .5 .3 10 3 .7 .3 11 5 1.1 .6 12 2 1.0 .6 13 3 1.1 .9 The trees Avithout an exception show a sharp decrease in the width of the rings in the year following the burning, while their width gradu- ally increased each succeeding year as the trees recovered from the effects of the fire. CATTLE AND HOGS. The chief injury by cattle to loblolly pine is by trampling the seed- lings, although the shoot may be bitten off in grazing. Swine rarely dig up the seedling for its root. Just before restocking, the presence of SAvine in a stand is advantageous since they upturn the mineral soil. Squirrels and wild turkeys do not destroy the seed of loblolly as they do the mast of longleaf pine. LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 49 SLEET AND SNOW. The leaders of loblolly pine are sometimes broken by sleet or Avet snow, particularly in the northeastern counties. On shalloAv soils the trees are in exceiitional cases overturned by the weight of wet snow. WlND-FIRMNESS. On deep mellow soils in Avhich the roots descend to a depth of three feet or more, the loblolly pine is comparatively wind-firm. On dry and shallow soils the roots are not so deeply seated or so firm, and the trees are more subject to windfall. The danger is greatest on heavy upland clays and on shallow sandy soils underlaid by hardpan. In the old fields on the red clays many of the roots often fail to penetrate below the layers loosened in plowing. Stands on such sites, if at all exposed, are particularly liable to suffer severel}^ after a heavy thinning or after culling. The number of windfalls, three years after lumbering on 110 acres of cut-over land having a dry, compact clay soil amounted to 100 trees, 8 inches and over in diameter, or about 4.5 per cent of the trees left. On the deep sandy soils, the loss from windfall after lumbering is negligible. THE WOOD A]VD ITS USES. QUALITIES. . The wood of the loblolly or North Carolina pine is heavy, hard, strong, coarse grained, and decays rapidly in contact with the soil. It shrinks and checks considerably in drying. In kiln drying the shrink- age amounts to about 10 per cent of cross section (not length). From 3 to 4 per cent of the shrinkage is radial and 6 to 7 per cent is around the circumference. In air drying the shrinkage is less.* The shrink- age is greatest in the heavy sapwood from the base of young trees and least in the lighter heartwood from the tops of old trees. The wood, like that of all pine, swells again after commercial kiln-drying whenever exposed to dampness. The heartwood is yellowish to orange brown in color; the thick sapwood much paler. The soft spring wood in each annual layer is nearly white, while the very hard and tough summer band is dark brown, the contrast in color and hardness between these two layers being greatest near the stump and in the center of the log in young, thrifty trees which have fonned no heartwood. Although the wood from the upper part of the stem is coarse grained, the summer band is very narrow. (Plate X, A.) Because of the great differ- ence in density between the spring and summer wood coarse-grained boards, when planed, do not readily dress to a perfectly flat surface. On the other hand there is great adhesion between the two layers which reduces the tendency to split and sliver, so common in many coniferous woods. . _ij •Bui. 99, U. S. Forest Service. 4 so LOBLOLLY OR XORTH CAROLINA PIXE. As would be expected from the rapid groAvth of tlie tree the wood is mostly coarse grained. Thrifty young trees frequently have as few as two rings to the inch near the center (Plate TX, A), while the sapwood of trees more than 100 years of age may exhibit less than ten rings to the inch. Lumber from second growth trees generally has from 5 to S rings of annual growth to the inch ; that from large old trees from 7 to 10. Ten rings to the inch may be considered fine grained for this spe- cies. The green wood weighs about 45 pounds per cubic foot. The kiln- dried wood^ average of the tree, weighs about 31 pounds to the cubic foot, the specific gravity being about .50. It is about five pounds per cubic foot lighter than that of the longleaf pine, five pounds heavier than that of white pine, and slightly heavier than that of the shortleaf pine of the Piedmont. But the Avood varies considerably in weight. That from the lower part of the stem of trees which have hard, compact Avood with Avide summer Avood in the annual ring (Plate IX, A) Aveighs more than 35 pounds per cubic foot; Avhile that from the upper part of the stem of trees with narroAv summer wood in the ring of annual groAvth Aveighs less than the average (Plate X, A), commercial wood being largely from the lower part of the stem averages about 33 pounds to the cubic foot for kiln-dried material. The green Avood has a shipping Aveight of 4,200 pounds for 1,000 feet of inch boards, while the kiln-dried A\^ood AA'eighs about 3,100 pounds per 1,000 feet of inch boards. Moisture forms 50 per cent of the Aveight ot fresh sapAvood and about 25 per cent of the Aveight of the heartA\'ood. While the wood is Aveaker (in proportion to its Aveight) in tensile, shear- ing, and bending strength than that of either longleaf pine or Avhite pine, it is relatively stronger than that of the shortleaf pine. On ac- count of its relatiA'e weakness it is not so desirable a Avood as AA'hite pine for certain uses, such as doors and small packing boxes. ITeartAvood begins to form betAA-een the twentieth and thirtieth years, earlier on good soils and in rapidly growing trees than on poor soils and in slowly growing intermediate or suppressed trees. The number of rings of sapAvood does not remain the same throughout the life of the trees, but increases with age. A tree thirty years old is practically all sapAvood, seldom having more than a small core of heartAvood in the butt log. Trees one hundred years old have from 60 to 65 rings of sapAvood, Avhile trees 200 years old commonly have from 90 to 95 rings. Less than one-third of the volume of trees betAveen seventy and one hun- dred years old is heartAA^ood ; and less than one-half of the volume of trees between 100 and 150 years old. Since the sapAvood of this pine, on account of its clearness of knots, uniformly bright color, and freedom from pitch is esteemed for interior AvoodAvork fully as highly as the heartAvood, the large proportion of sapwood is considered advantageous rather than othei-wise. (Plate XII, B.) The Avood is considerably less resinous than that of the longleaf pine, but more so than that of the shortleaf or white pine. Dr. Chas. H. Ilerty, the AA'ell-knoAvn authority on turpentine, says that the oleoresin N. C. GEOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SURVEY. PLATE IX. Type of wood from lower part of stem in old field stand. The coarsegrained center indicates large knots. This tree became codominant or intermediate when about three inches on the radius. The diameter growth was slow on account of the crowding and the stem cleaned of branches. It was isolated by thinning when three and one-half inches on the radius. The stem at that time resembled that of one of the isolated trees shown on Plate XVI. As a result of this thinning the growth during the past ten years has been at the rate of one inch in diameter every three years. While the wood formed since thinning is coarse grained, it is clear and free from knots. The large amount of hard summerwood is characteristic for flatwoods soils. (Authors illui-tration.) Characteristic wood from lower logs of trees in mixed stands, medium fine and even grained. The crown of this tree overtopped the hardwoods when it was about sixty years old (at 3.3 inches on the radius). Since this period the diameter growth has been at the rate of one inch every four years (seven and one-half rings to the inch of radius). This stem is practically free of knots for sLxty feet and the wood is of high quality. Nearly the same result can be obtained by the method of cutting which is recommended for the best sites which seeks to develop the codominant and intermediate trees to form the mature stand, and by gradual cutting eventually to develop the best of the suppressed trees. Author's illustration.) TYPES OF LOBLOLLY PINE -WOOD. N. C. GEOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SURVEY. PLATE X. A. Characteristic wood from middle and upper section of rapidly growing: tree. The relatively small amount of hard summerwood in this portion of the stem is typical. (Author's illustration.) 2. I'rtik. jZx B. Wood from tree growing on very wet soil, showing characteristic irregularity of grain. (Author's illustration.) TYPES OF LOBLOLLY PINE WOOD. LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 51 (crude turpentine) of loblolly pine is closely allied in all of its proper- ties to that of the longleaf pine, but the volatile oil evaporates from it veiy rapidly and consequently it is difficult to collect the material, as much of it remains in the solid condition on the scarified face of the tree. The relative proportions of volatile oil and resin are practically the same in this material as in that of the longleaf pine, but the total yield per season is much less from the loblolly or ISTorth Carolina pine. The commercijal value of this tree for turpentine is discussed on page 53. DEFECTS. The most common defects in the wood are extreme coarseness of grain, lack of uniformity of texture, and large knots; pitch streaks and small pitch pockets, which, however, affect the grade of less than one-half of one per cent of the boards and are largely limited to butt logs; while in second growth trees, especially those from the open stands in old fields, there are large resinous, but tight knots. The wood is seldom affected by windshake or hollows. Redheart occurs in less than five per cent of the larger logs* and affects less than one per cent of the lumber which is sawed from second growth trees less than 50 years old. The propor- tion of redheart gradually increases with the age of the tree and is higher in trees grown on poor than on good quality sites. The wood decays rapidly on exposure or in contact with the soil. When kiln-dried or even thoroughly a"ir-dried, the coarse grained and more porous sapwood is readily impregnated with preservatives. The two most common methods are creosoting under pressure and impreg- nating with bichloride of zinc. The wood is attacked by several species of wood-destroying fungi when it is exposed to suitable moisture condi- tions, the sapwood being especially susceptible to such attacks. The most prevalent and destructive of these fungi are Schizophyllum com- mune, and the brown root, Lenzites sepiaria, which causes the rapid decay of damp undried wood and is particularly destructive to ties, piling, etc. Merulius lacrimans and Coniophora cerehella are reported as being destructive to large factory timbers, and Polyponis vaporius to sills and flooring near the ground. Various species of Thelephoracew, by attacking the sugar and starch in the cells of the sapwood, cause bluing of undried lumber. "While bluing does not affect the strength of the wood, it lessens the value of sap lumber, which otherAvise could be used for finish in natural grain. Immersion of the lumber in a solution of bicarbonate of soda in water prevent bluing, but it has been aban- doned commercially where tried in favor of kiln drying. •The large proportion of redheart logs which are cut in certain swamps is from the pocoson or black bark pine. 52 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. USES. Loblolly pine lumber under tbe trade name of Xortk Carolina pine is used for finishing, packing boxes and construction purposes. If sawn into boards the lumber is generally kiln dried and graded, a large part being rcAvorked at the mills into finished products. The clearer grades are used for flooring, especially when rift sawn (6 to 12 annual layers to the inch particularly suitable) for which use it is especially adapted on account of the fact that it slivers less than most of the pines, for ceiling, interior woodAvork, styles and panels of doors, for blinds, sashes, weather boarding and trimmings, and the lower grades for box stock, framing and scantling, bridge, factory,* and heavy construction work. It has extensively taken the place of white pine or has supple- mented it for structural uses, being found in all markets from Pittsburg and jSTorth Touawanda to Boston and certain ports in Maine. The ex- ports have likewise been steadily increasing, going chiefly to English and German ports. It enters extensively into car construction, particularly for siding and roofing, and into ship, boat and barge construction. A large amount of medium and low grade stock is used for box-making, slack cooperage, and headings, and it is now one of the best recognized woods in the box and slack cooperage trades. Slabs are resawn into lath and copper sticks for smelter use, and cut on a horizontal band saw into heading and crate stock. A small though constantly increasing amount is used both treated and untreated for mine timbers, chiefly in the anthracite fields of eastern Pennsylvania. Mine timber is sold by the ton, from 4 to 5 tons of green timber being required to produce 1,000 board feet log scale. The price per ton, green at Norfolk, depending upon the size of the timber, varies from $1.50 to $3. It is also cut into veneers, the lower grades being used for fniit and vegetable crates, barrel and keg stock, drawer bottoms, and the backs of cheap furniture. It is be- ing used to a limited extent for chemical paper pulp stock, and this is doubtless one of the most important undeveloped uses for the wood. On account of the resin it cannot be used for ground fiber pulp and for this reason cannot compete successfully with spruce in the manufacture of newspaper and cheap book paper. On account of its great weight, however, unbleached papers can be successfully made. The wood fibers are very long, strong, thickwalled and tough which permits the manufac- ture of very superior wrapping, kraft and imitation Manila papers which are stronger than the real Manilas. The wood can be treated by •Dense wood to meet the proposed yellow pine grading rules for factory structural timber must have between the third and fourth inches from the pith one-fourth of the volume summer wood if there are eight rings to the inch; one-third if there are six or seven rings to the inch; and one-half if the wood averages four rings to the inch. The wood shown in Plate VII, A and B meets these specifications. Such wood is produced on the best class of flatwoods soils. (See Loblolly pine on long- leaf pine flat land^). The Panama Canal requires only six rings to the inch between the third and fourth inches. The Georgia-Florida Sawmill Association requires a minimum of six rings to the inch between the third and fourth inches and one-third summer wood. LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLIXA PIXE. 53 the soda or sulphate processes to effect the destruction or partial destruc- tion of the resin and disintegration of the fiber; or after being chipped the resin can be distilled off. There is a loss in weight by these processes of about 50 per cent; consequently a cord (128 feet) of peeled wood weighing about 3,000 pounds Avill make only about 1,500 pounds of paper. At present comparative prices of kraft paper and iSTo. 4 lum- ber, low grade timber is more profitably converted into paper than into lumber since the very knotty tops can be utilized by the chemical pulp processes. A mill at Eoanoke Rapids is now employing such a process in the manufacture of kraft paper for wrapping purposes. While the Avood of loblolly pine is less suitable than that of spruce for the manufacture of composition board on account of the great loss in weight resulting from the necessity of using a chemical process to disintegrate the fibers, it is, on account of its cheapness and great weight, being successfully employed for this purpose. A plant for the manufac- ture of composition board is also in operation at Roanoke Rapids. It is also being used for the production of Avood alcohol, the resin being first distilled after which the alcohol is produced. A large plant for the production of wood alcohol from sawdust and waste has recently been erected at Georgetown, S. C. The Avaste can also be used for the production of producer gas. This is a recent process the employ- ment of Avhich will enable a large amount of poAver to be obtained from mill Avaste in excess of the requirements of the saAvmill plant. North Carolina pine is extensiA^cly used for cross arms for electric Avires, Avire poles and for light railroad ties, being well suited for these uses after treatment Avith preservatives. On account of its softness and susceptibility of abrasion it can not be used as a tie for heaA\y traffic Avithout a tie plate. iSTear the coast the timber is extensively used for piling; sticks of timber exceeding 100 feet in length being occasionally required for this use. Treated with preservatives it is being used for street paviug blocks, the heaA-y types of Avood with not less than 8 rings to the inch being required. It is very extensively used throughout the coastal plain for fuel for manufacturing as well as domestic use, and to some extent for charcoal. T^ear toAvns such mill Avaste as is otherwise unusable is converted into fuel billets and kindling Avood. COM^rEKCIAL VALUE FOR TURPEXTIXE.* The loblolly pine exudes an oleoresin Avhen Avounded, Avhich is occa- sionally in fairly remunerative quantities, but as a rule the yield of crude turjientine is so much less than from the longleaf and Cuban pines (the common commercial sources of crude turpentine) that no general tapping of this tree is practiced. The oleoresin exudes from the wounded tree as clear limpid drops. However, crystallization of the dissolved acids takes place very rapidly, so that much of the material remains sticking upon the scarified surface •This section has been prepared by Dr. Chaa. H. Herty, of the University of North Carolina. 54 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. of the tree as "scrape." This unusually rapid crystallization of the mass leads to the consequent rapid evaporation of its content of spirits of turpentine. Analysis of the perfectly fresh oleoresin shows a normal amount of spirits of turpentine, but the collected gum, after standing several weeks in the receptacles, as in ordinary practice, shows a much lower per cent of volatile oil. For this reason it seems quite probable that if this pine is ever to be utilized on any large scale as a source of crude turpentine the usual methods employed in gathering must be materially modified. An analysis of the crude turpentine from the first four weeks of chip- ping in July showed 17.58 per cent of spirits of turpentine, the collec- tion at the end of four more weeks of chipping showed only 14.11 per cent. The spirits of turpentine thus obtained was found to have proper- ties identical with those of commercial spirits of turpentine. The oleo- resin is characterized by an unusually small amount, 4.2 per cent, of unsaponifiable matter. The rosin left after distillation of the spirits of turpentine resembles closely commercial rosin and has an acid number of 172. GROWTH. The growth of loblolly varies considerably with the character of soil. In accordance with the rapidity of growth there may be recognized three quality classes which are determined by the character of the soil or site. The maximum* figures of growth and yield are those for better condi- tions than Quality Site I, and the minimum for poorer conditions than Quality Site III. Both the maximum and minimum figures, however, are averages of stands both better and poorer than the figures indicate. The figures of growth which are given for any quality site are averages which embrace stands having a considerable range both above and below these figures, the limit of range being approximately one-half the in- teiwal between a given Quality class and those next to it.f Quality Class I. This class includes stands of loblolly pine that make rapid growth and produce very heavy yields per acre. These are found on loams, sandy loams, and clay loams (particularly those desig- *Details of several oi the best stands are given below: One-fourth acre had a stand 120 years old the yield of which was at the rate of 12,760 cubic feet ot stem wood without bark, and 71,600 board feet mill cut y inch kerf. The total number of trees per acre was at the rat? of 216; basal area including bark, 284 square feet; average diameter of the trees 15.5 inch; and average height of dominant trees 115 feet. (Lenoir County.) Another excellent stand which had an ave;age age of not more than 60 years, had a cubic volume of 9,900 feet of stem wood without bark per acre, 54,200 board feet mill cut, i inch kerf; basal area out- side of bark of 233 square feet; and contained 180 trees 6 inches and over, which had an average diameter of 16.6 inches. The dominant trees were 120 feet high. (Washington County.) The best young stand, 29 years old, was in an old field stand on a moist sit3 in Pitt County. The total cubic volume per acre was 7,480 feet of stem wood without bark; the board measure volume j inch kerf, 37,277 feet; and basal area outside of the bark 249 square feet. There were 320 trees per acre having an average diameter of 11.9 inches. The average height of dominant trees was nearly 80 feet. fThe figures which are given for number of trees per acre, height of stand of dominant trees, vol- ume in board feet or cubic feet, and basal area per acre for stands on different quality sites at differ- ent ages, are averages which would embrace stands having a considerable range both above and be- LOBLOLLY OR XORTH CAROLINA PINE. 55 nated as tlie Portsmouth soil series of the Bureau of Soils of the U. S. Department of Agriculture) in which the water table seldom sinks more than 12 feet below the surface during the growing season, yet which on account of surface drainage or porosity are never flooded for prolonged periods; alluvial lands, particularly those with loamy soils low this average. The wide limits of such variations are shown below in a list of stands of different ages, which were referred to Quality IL A (*) indicates stands which s?emed to be under-stocked; a (t) stands which seemed to hs excessively crowded; stands which have been thinned are indicated by (t). Basal area refers to the area of the cross section (inside or outside of bark) at breasthigh of all trees on an acre. QaALiTT II Sta.n'ds, Showixq Range of Variation in Average Diameter, in Volume, Basal Area and Number of Trees Per Acre. Average Volume per acre Height of dominant trees Feet Diameter breasthigh of all trees 3" and over Number of trees 3" and over Per acre Age of stand Years Cubic feet, wood only Board feet, 1-7' kerf Basal area per acre Square fee Inches 22 45 5.7 2,247 5,120 836 tl46 22 50 4.4 2,437 2,536 1,364 146 23 50 4.9 2,367 2,526 1,076 142 26 50 4.9 2,568 6,211 1,173 156 30 54 6.3 3,128 10,600 800 172 30 63 6.4 2,893 12,362 559 •128 32 62 7.3 3,628 14,928 544 156 34 69 9.1 4.926 23,240 410 tl88 35 78 7.4 4,538 21,692 519 152 35 68 10.9 4,553 21,905 260 •168 35 72 10.0 5,310 26,344 348 tl88 35 74 8.7 4,554 24,432 400 166 37 70 9.1 4,241 20,330 360 161 38 74 9.4 5,918 29,550 440 t212 38 71 7.7 4,299 19,680 480 154 43 85 9.0 4,619 24,730 319 •142 44 85 10.0 5,096 26,779 292 •156 44 85 10.4 5,732 27,374 310 182 45 87 11.2 6,610 34,100 290 200 51 90 15.7 6,575 33,813 140 187 52 87 9.5 6,544 32,290 410 t202 55 85 10.3 5,617 28,774 285 176 60 89 10.7 6,348 32,400 306 193 60 90 12.8 6,277 32,203 203 tl83 62 92 10.1 6,353 32,309 333 183 64 97 13.5 7,581 39,715 210 208 75 94 15.5 7.182 39,958 144 192 80 110 15.8 9,748 52,888 160 225 80 113 15.7 7,896 43,745 1.32 176 88 109 12.4 7,329 39,513 206 tl73 100 98 17.2 6,910 39,0.37 110 •177 110 105 15.5 7,633 41,181 151 197 The relation of number of trees, and average diameter to yield in board feet is shown by a com- parison of the two 22-year old stands and the 60 and 62 year old stands. Some of the stands given as Quality II approach Quality I, others approach Quality III. The second 38-year old stand closely approaches Quality III. The 80-year old stands approach Quality 1. 56 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. which are subject to flooding for only a few days at a time; moist peaty soils, where the peat is in process of humification and along the margin of swamps. Normal m Quality HI T. Maximum I HE Fig. 5. Kolation between loblolly pine quality sites and depth of water table in soils of (Jiflferent texture. (Author's illu.'tratioii.) Quality Class II. This class embraces the stands of medium growth on the great body of the upland soils of eastern North Carolina. The soils of this quality class include the greater portion of the flat woods (consisting of the more level tracts of JSTorfolk fine sands, loams, and silts, as designated by the Bureau of Soils) the Selma silt and Selma loam, with the water table usually about 20 feet below the surface, formerly largely occupied by the longleaf pine; compact clays occupied by hardwood swamps; the rolling loams and clay loams of the N'orfolk series, largely north of the Eoanoke River and in Chowan, Gates, and Northampton counties, formerly partly occupied by shortleaf pine. The usual depth of the Avater table in these soils is from 20 to 25 feet below the surface. It is lowest for this quality in the fine grained sands and loams. Quality Class III. This includes loblolly pine stands of very slow growth. The soils characteristic of these are the better drained parts of the flat woods, particularly the areas with compact clay soils (char- acterized by roundleaf blackjack oak and post oak); the rolling piney lands and the Piedmont uplands ; the savannas, edges of pocosons, sand hills, and swamps subject to prolonged overflow, or difficult to drain. The upland soils as a rule have the water table during the growing season from 20 to 45 feet below the surface. The soils of some of the poorly drained areas (very level clays, silts and peats are frequently satu- rated for long periods during the growing season, alternating in the case of clays with periods of semi-drought on account of the large N. C. GEOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SURVEY. PLATE XI. Fully-stocked stand thirty -fi\e jears old, Quality II, in old field on upland of good quality, following oak, hickory and shortleaf pine. The density is good; the growth, however, is beginning to decline, and the stand would be much benefited by a thinning. (Author's illustration.) LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 57 amount of hygroscopic water held by heavy clays which is not available for plant growth. Old Field Stands. The old field stands on very sandy uplands and on clay uplands, particularly those on the Piedmont red clays (Cecil soil series) when young fall for the most part into Quality I or Quality II, but their rate of growth declines rapidly after a few decades, some- times before the end of the second decade, and they eventually fall into Quality III. The chief cause for this is that the demands of the stand upon soil moisture soon reach the limits of available supply. Moreover, on the upland clays the top soil in the old cul- tivated fields is at first loose, permitting the roots freely to pene- trate it, and has a high moisture carrying capacity. In a few years this soil becomes more compact and its water carrying capacity declines. This checks the growth of the lateral roots and as the taproot descends deeper into the unbroken layer which has never been disturbed by the plow, the rate of growth of the tree declines. DETERMINATION OF QUALITY SITES. The rate of height growth or the height of dominant trees at a given age in fully stocked groups is the most ready method of ascertaining the quality site when there is growing timber (Table 13). It is de- sirable in the case of middle-aged or old stands to correlate height with volume and basal area per acre (Table 35), relative height, relation of diameter to total height (Table 15). In the case of young stands espe- cially on dry upland sites all of these are unreliable factors for predict- ing the capacity of the soil to sustain old stands and they should be sup- plemented by ascertaining the texture of the soil and depth of water table. The original forest type where indications of it remain should be examined to determine the uudershrubs and to compare with Table 1. Abundance of particular undershrubs is a general guide to this extent; a rank growth of gallberry (Ilex glabra) indicates a site highly favor- able for the rapid growth of the pine; wire grass (Aristida stricta) and loAV bush black huckleberry (Vaccinium tenellum) indicates sites which are becoming too dry; sphagnam mosses and evergreen fetter bush (Andromeda or Pieris nitida) sites which are becoming too wet. The approximate relation of the height of the water table in different kinds of soil to the quality site for loblolly pine is shown in Figure 3 which gives the results of a preliminai-y study of these important problems. The impossibility of depending solely upon height at younger ages for interpreting quality site is illustrated in the stand which is presented in Tables 14, 18 and 20, column 4. The rapid diameter and height growth of this stand during the early decades is followed during the fifth decade by an abrupt decline which is reflected by an equally abrupt cul- mination in the volume of the stand. On the other hand, the growth of the trees in column 1 in the same tables shows a slower but sustained rate of height growth, while the decline does not begin until a much later period. 58 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. Since loblolly pine normally grows in a large part of its range in pure even-aged stands or groups, there is given not only the rate of growth of trees as individual specimens but also the growth and development of the average tree in even-aged stands, and the groAvth of the average tree of each of the different crown classes, dominant, intermediate, and sup- pressed.* GROWTH IN HEIGHT. Loblolly pine attains on an average a height of about only two feet during the first two to four years. After that it at once begins to grow rapidly in height. The stage of rapid growth lasts until the thirtieth or fortieth year on best sites and until the fiftieth or even sixtieth year on inferior sites. Table 13 gives the heights of the different crown classes in fully stocked unthinned stands at different ages on different quality sites and the periodic annual growth. The periodic annual growth which is the annual growth during five-year periods shows that after the fiftieth year the growth in height is less than one foot a year. *The dominant trees in a stand are such as overtop, even slightly, all others and whose large crowns are in full sunlight; intermediate trees are lower in height than the dominant and have slender stems and narrow, compressed crowns which receive only a scant amount of direct sunlight; suppressed trees are entirely overtopped and receive only such sunlight as filters through the foliage of the taller trees. Dominant trees are making most rapid growth both in height and diameter; inteniediate trees are yet making rapid height growth, but their diameter growth has fallen behind; suppressed trees are making very little growth either in height or diameter. LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 59 g H H 1 t. Q Z a: c? c a Ha -d 3 CO £ a a) -3 a J^ S A d Q 0== O !X3 rt* C^ CCJ (M O C^ CO CO -rt* (M O O CO O 00 -^ -^ O O Os?Deocri-^Oiror^oc.t^t^t^cooooo MOt--C^Ci»OO^t~*»-'C*5iOOt*-COCSO CO-^JfTj^iOiO^Ot-^C^t^OOOOGOCOCOCOCOOS ^C!0--t^t^t^t^t^r^t^t^i~^oooocOGO C5t^-^}<,— (t-^M:OOCO»or^CiO-^ClMCO^'«*'»OiO CO -^ lO ?o o 30000C00300305O0SC>CSOO^ ^»0O«0t>-t^00C0C5Ci0i0i05OOOOOOOO cO^QO'^OiOOOO'-'-^JiSDt^OOOOsOO';;;;';;;;;^^^ ^»OiOOb*t>-C~^X)30300000COCOCOO>OlO>01CSOiQ305 ^O00iO^t^^-^t^00O^-^(MMc0C0'^Ttir*ccb-Mior--c'i>.cooooocsc5asooooooO'^T-i^^H >- Per cent of mer- chantable length 1 1 t .0500«C<10»C^HU^COOC^COCOeOC.t^i:^t^b-ir^i--t^t^t— t^r>-t^ Merchant- able length Feet , 1 , i,-^,-.CCOOOOCiOCCCCCCGOCiOC5 c3 3 Ratio of diameter to total height ^OOOOOOOSOsCSOOOOOOGOt^Ir-t^Ir^cOcDOOOOiOiOiO 1 ■p'w)*^ 5? Oit^oioocOf^MC5.<*iC5cor^-^'^r^o3 H a t H K Ik O o 1^ o ;z: S o o z w D " i§ f-H t^ oo cc o T-i lO O lO lO o o o _ _ ^H ^H t^ (M T-l i-i IM CO CC -^ ... 00 »0 '— • O - .-« i-H CIooci»^cc"^ot^oooi 00OO00C^G0»0OO i-t ^H (M -^ »0 c Wp to ■* IM t~ •* CO o cq n t- 05 o M ^ t- '"' o (M is 0) 1 o i O J, "S a) « a 5 '- 1 a o a a o Q B 3 1 i§ D " ■13 03 O 0) ^ J Q n -§ e9 02 •s 1 fl ce a "s o P a 3 > ii 1 -2 05 O pq 5 " Height of Dominant Trees Feet 1 ^ c t~ t- N H CO 00 CO eq CO i ■* CO 00 CO o « eo eo >o co' o CO a> g to CO CO CO 00 o o i o CO 00 o CO 1 05 o CO • 5 § 00 03 CO o o CO C<1 CI QO" oi d eo 00 eo eo lO es> CO OS cq s m g t^ e-1 CO CO ■^ U5 CO 00 00 00 00 o 00 U5 3 o» o 00 03 Tjt s 3 00 o s 00 o o o g (M o o o § o o o I c? cq o g ■>1< o 1 1 eo - CO rj* 00 o oo !>. CO 00 CO CO oi o t^ CO CO c o ca >o CT> ■* o o ira 2 e t^ co' CO ■* s ^ CO «n § CO 00 s g s g o o o o o oo LOBLOLLY OK NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 71 O^ o ^ . o S J o < « o K 'Z M < ^H M --3-3 >> CO " — S fi ffi I* 5 to S -^ •O |o P5 « a ■■s&s ^S ft ft O O C 60 t5 "-S 03 •73— g O" C) •-< tf ft -a ^ o c "w ftqa « Q g £ I c 4, c o J > 05 rj ^ i-i So OS Q5 i§ Q« P ^ P s <; CO ^ CO Ci CM t^ iC lO O lO o *-i O OO »-< 00 C^ CO - t^ ^ lO C3 0> m OS oo 11 CO W3 OO »-« Cooooo CC-<(<-Hc»05oooot~r~to 1 1 1 1 1 ki ::i t-a3ioiraira-*-*-*->»<.^t^t^t^t>^t^t^t--^t^t^ 1 I 1 1 I §2 ^-^ Numb board f« cubic f (miU fa CQ ^•g "if £ io»-ooo^H-^r^o-tO^U500^t^'*C-lrt,-iCq(N-lrtCSC^(MIMMM-*Tj<.*OIOlO csT-av «-> - '-' qM t. t, Pn lT)<02coiratoai-*i-iOT-i.o"^ U r-J<-o*-<{M.o LQ lO ? 3 bD 3 s a s » o -a ^ o o 1-2 as « .2 ® o S s § ■« ^ > ^^ « M ^ -i^ f e3 rj O o >> U M 2 ^ > -2 -^ » >; 03 fl 3 P _, « "^ w b cJ .2 o 12 J^ a -i £ fe - o t> ^ >o ^ " S o XH t: a 03 "3 o a t " o o ^ (-> o a f4 •^t* -^ o Xi j3 O a 03 >> a s 3 5 a a a « o 0! 03 J3 .2 ^ > hJ LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. Table 23a — Log Rule for Loblolly Pine. Actual Mill Cut, Circular Saw, 14-lNCH Kerf, Loos With Less Than Two Inches Crook. Average diameter Length of log— Feet inside bark at small end 8 10 12 14 16 Inches Volume in board feet 5 5 6 7 8 10 6 8 10 12 14 16 7 12 15 18 21 25 8 18 22 26 30 35 9 22 27 32 38 44 10 28 35 42 49 56 11 34 42 51 59 68 12 40 50 61 71 82 13 48 60 72 85 98 14 58 72 86 101 116 15 68 85 102 119 136 IG 78 98 118 138 158 17 90 112 134 157 180 18 100 125 151 176 202 19 . 114 142 171 199 228 20 128 160 192 224 256 £1 142 178 214 250 286 22 158 197 236 274 316 23 174 217 261 304 348 24 190 237 285 332 380 25 206 257 309 360 412 26 222 277 . 333 389 445 27 240 300 361 421 482 28 258 322 387 451 516 29 274 342 411 480 549 30 292 365 439 511 585 Table 23a. gives a proposed log rule for loblolly pine. It is based on actual mill cut, circular saw, i^ inch saw kerf. This may be used for calculating the amount of lumber which may be cut from logs of differ- ent diameters and lengths. Tables 24 to 31, inclusive, were made from taper curves by scaling the merchantable length in log lengths to the top diameters shown. Logs were 16.3 feet long whenever possible, with some 14.3 feet, 12.3 feet, and 10.3 feet long to avoid waste. The assumed stump height was 1 foot for trees 6 to 16 inches in diameter breasthigh, and 1.5 feet for trees 17 to 25 inches. LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 77 Table 24.— Volume in Board Feet, Band-sawed 1-7 Inch Kerf, of Trees of Loblolly Pine of Different Diameters and Heights. No Allowance for Breakage, Excessive Crook or Waste, Which Amount to 25 Per Cent for 7 and 8 Inch Trees; 15 Per Cent for 9 and 10 Inch Trees; and 5 Per Cent for 12 Inch Trees. Trees Less than 75 Years Old. Diameter Height of tree— Feet Diameter breaat- high 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 inside bark of top Inches Volume — Board feet Inches 7 8 13 19 25 30 38 16 23 33 41 50 58 67 78 25 35 42 58 70 80 93 120 130 140 34 48 61 74 89 100 120 140 160 180 210 240 5 8 60 75 90 110 120 140 170 190 220 260 290 330 380 5 9 83 100 120 140 160 190 220 260 300 340 390 440 490 550 6 10 110 130 150 180 210 250 290 330 380 430 480 540 600 6 11 12 13 14 15 130 160 190 230 270 310 360 410 460 520 580 640 170 200 240 280 330 380 440 500 560 620 680 6 7 7 7 8 16 8 17 9 18 9 19 9 20 10 21 10 22 11 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. Table 25. — Volume in Board Feet, Band-sawed 1-7 Inch Kerp, of Trees of Loblolly Pine of Different Diameters and Heights. No Allowance for Breakage, Excessive Crook or Waste. Trees Over 75 Years Old. Height of tree— Feet Diameter breast- high 90 100 110 120 130 140 inside bark of top Inches Volume— Board feet in tens Inches 14 20 23 26 30 35 39 44 51 56 63 69 22 26 30 34 39 44 50 56 62 69 76 84 91 99 106 114 122 24 29 33 38 43 49 55 60 68 75 83 92 100 108 117 126 136 146 157 16i9 181 27 32 37 43 49 55 61 66 74 82 91 100 109 118 128 138 150 161 172 183 195 207 218 7 15 8 16 8 17 8 18 9 19 9 20 9 21 72 81 90 102 110 120 130 140 151 162 173 185 196 208 221 ■ 235 10 22 10 23 10 24 25 114 123 131 142 152 163 174 185 195 208 221 235 250 11 11 26 11 27 12 28 12 29" 13 30 13 31 13 32 U 33 .... 14 34 15 35 15 36 15 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 79 Table 26. — *Volume in Board Feet (Circular-sawed 1-4 Inch Kerf) of Trees of Loblolly Pine OF Different Diameters and Heights. No Allowance for Breakage, Excessive Crook or Waste Which Amount to 25 Per Cent for 7 and S Inch Trees; 15 Per Cent for 9 and 10 Inch; and 5 Per Cent for 12 Inch. Trees Under 75 Years Old. Diameter Height of tree— Feet Diameter breast- high 40 50 60 70 80 ' 90 100 110 120 inside bark of top Inches Volume — Board feet Inches 7 7 11 17 22 26 33 14 20 29 36 44 51 59 69 22 31 37 51 62 70 82 106 114 123 30 42 54 65 79 88 106 123 139 157 185 210 5 8 53 66 79 97 106 121 148 167 194 229 255 290 334 5 9 71 88 106 123 141 167 194 220 264 299 343 387 431 484 6 10 97 114 132 158 185 220 255 290 334 378 422 493 528 6 11 12 13 14 15 114 141 167 202 238 273 317 361 ,405 458 510 563 150 176 211 264 290 334 387 440 493 548 598 6 7 7 7 g 16 g 17 g 18 9 19 9 20 10 21 10 22 11 •An operation in Gates County, North Carolina, yielded at the mill from two stands, one aver- aging 45 years old (Quality site I), and one averaging 60 years old (Quality site II to III), the following volumes in board feet (circular saw 1-4 inch kerf). As was to be expected, the younger trees, although taller, gave the lower yield. Diameter Top dia- meter Inches Age 45 years Age 60 years breast- high Inches Height of tree Feet Used length Feet Actual mill cut Board feet Basis Height of tree Feet Used length Feet Actual mill cut Board feet Basis 8 4.9 5.5 5.9 6.3 6.7 7.1 7.5 7.9 8.2 8.5 8.8 77 79 81 82 83 81 85 86 86 88 89 40 43 46 48 50 53 55 57 59 60 61 27 43 49 64 83 112 145 180 216 256 290 1 7 23 39 27 38 20 7 7 2 3 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 77 78 79 80 82 84 86 88 90 57 60 62 64 66 68 70 71 72 54 71 92 116 155 188 224 247 330 15 27 27 29 25 21 22 8 3 The mill loss in this case could have been considerably bssened by a better disposition of log lengths. Logs were chiefly cut in 16 foot lengths. By cutting more shorter logs fewer crooks would have been left in the middle of the logs and the loss in slabbing reduced. In this operation there was an average of 11 linear feet of sound stem, 5 inches and over in diameter at the small end left in the tops. This additional volume, entirely box and cull, amounted to about 7 board feet (circular- sawed) per tree. so LOBLOLLY OK NORTH CAROLINA PINE. Table 27. — Volume ik' Board Feet (Circular-sawed 1-4 Inch Kerf) of Trees of Loblolly Pine of Different Diameters and Heights. No Allowance for Excessive Crook, Waste or Break.\ge. Trees Over 75 Years Old. Diameter breast- high Height of tree— Feet Diameter 90 100 ; 110 1 120 130 140 inside bark of top Inches Volume — ^Board feet Inches 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 176 202 229 264 308 ' 343 387 449 493 554 607 194 229 264 299 343 387 440 493 548 607 669 739 801 870 933 1,003 1,074 211 255 290 334 378 431 484 528 598 660 730 820 880 950 1,030 1,109 1,197 1,285 1,382 1,482 1,583 238 282 326 373 431 484 537 581 651 722 810 880 959 1,038 1,126 1,214 1,320 1,417 1,514 1,610 1,716 1,822 1,918 7 8 8 8 9 9 9 634 713 792 898 968 1,056 1,144 1,232 1,329 1,426 1,522 1,628 1,725 1,830 1,944 2,068 10 10 10 1,003 1,082 1,153 1,250 1,338 1,434 1,531 1,628 1,716 1,830 1,944 2,068 2,200 11 11 26 11 27 12 28 12 29 13 30 13 31 13 32 14 33 14 34 15 35 15 • 36 15 LOBLOLLY OK NOKTH CAKOLINA PINE. 81 Table 28.-Volumb Scaled by Doyle-Scribner Rule of Trees op Loblolly Pine of Differ- ent Diameters and Heights. No Allowance for Excessive Crook. Trees Less Than 75 Years Old. Diameter breast- high Height of tree— Feet Diameter inside bark of top 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 Inches Volume — ^Board feet Inches 2 3 5 8 12 3 7 9 15 23 30 40 4 9 15 23 34 45 59 69 83 6 13 21 32 45 60 77 98 120 150 170 8 16. 27 39 55 73 94 120 150 180 220 260 300 5 6 9 32 45 63 84 110 140 170 210 250 300 350 410 470 35 51 71 95 120 150 190 240 280 330 390 450 520 6 10 6 11 12 13 14 15 79 110 130 170 210 260 310 360 420 490 560 88 120 150 180 220 270 330 390 450 520 600 7 7 7 8 16 8 17 9 18 9 19 20 21 22 9 10 10 11 1 - Table 29.— Volume Scaled by Doyle-Scribner Rule of Trees of Loblolly Pine[of Different Diameters and Heights. No Allowance for Excessive Crook. Trees Over 75 Years Old. Diameter breast- high Inches 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 Height of tree— Feet Approximate diameter 90 100 110 120 130 140 inside bark of top V( )lume— Board feet in ten s Inches 11 14 18 22 26 31 36 42 47 53 58 13 17 21 25 30 35 41 47 54 60 67 75 83 91 99 108 116 15 20 24 29 34 39 46 52 60 67 75 83 92 101 111 121 131 141 153 164 175 17 22 26 32 37 43 49 57 64 73 81 91 101 111 121 132 143 155 167 179 191 204 216 8 8 8 8 9 9 52 61 69 77 87 98 108 119 131 143 155 167 179 192 204 217 229 9 10 10 10 93 104 115 127 141 154 166 178 190 203 215 228 241 11 11 11 12 12 13 13 13 14 14 15 15 15 82 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLIXA PIXE. Table 30. — Volume Scaled by Scribn'er Decimal C Rule op Trees of Loblolly Pine or Dif- ferent Diameters and Heights. No Allowance for Excessive Crook. Trees Less Than 75 Years Old. Height of tree — Feet Diameter breast- high 40 50 60 70 80 I 90 i 1 100 1 110 120 insitle bark of top Inches Volume— Board feet Inches 8 5 12 IS 25 32 40 13 22 30 40 50 60 70 21 32 42 54 66 81 97 110 120 27 42 55 68 83 100 120 140 160 190 220 5 9 52 65 81 99 120 150 170 200 230 270 300 330 6 10 6 11 93 110 140 170 200 230 270 310 350 400 460 520 6 12 13 14 15 130 160 190 220 260 300 350 400 460 510 570 140 170 200 240 280 330 380 430 490 550 620 150 180 220 260 300 350 410 460 520 590 660 7 7 7 8 16 8 17 9 18 -- 9 19 9 20 10 21 10 22 11 Table 30a. — Volume Scaled by Scribner Decimal C Rule of Tree.s of Loblolly Pine op Dif- ferent Diameters and Heights. No Allowance for Excessive Crook. Trees Over 75 Years Old. Height of tree — ^Feet Diameter breast- high 90 100 110 120 130 140 inside bark of top Inches Volume — ^Board feet in tens Inches 14 18 21 24 27 31 36 41 46 51 57 62 20 23 27 31 36 41 47 53 60 66 73 81 89 97 106 115 124 22 26 30 35 40 46 52 59 66 74 82 91 99 109 118 128 138 150 161 172 24 29 33 38 44 50 57 64 72 81 90 99 109 119 129 140 151 163 175 187 8 15 8 16 s 17 8 18 9 19 53 61 69 78 87 96 106 117 128 139 150 162 175 188 201 214 227 240 9 20 9 21 10 22 10 23 10 24 25 102 113 124 135 147 159 171 186 198 213 225 238 251 11 11 26 11 27 12 28 12 29 13 30 13 31 13 32 14 33 14 34 184 1 200 15 35 213 227 15 36 15 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 83 Table 31. — Volume Scaled by Tiemann Log Rule (1-8 Inch Saw Kerf) op Trees of Loblolly Pine of Different Diameters and Heights. No Allowance for Excessive Crgok. Trees Less Than 75 Years Old. Height of tree^Feet Approximate breast- high 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 inside bark of Inches Volume— Board feet in tens Inches 7 .5 1 2 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 1 2 4 5 7 8 10 12 14 2 3 5 6 8 10 13 15 18 21 24 28 5 8 4 6 8 10 12 15 18 21 25 29 33 37 42 5 9 6 10 9 11 13 17 20 24 28 32 37 42 48 6 11 6 12 13 14 15 14 18 22 26 31 35 40 46 53 60 67 15 19 23 28 33 38 44 50 57 64 72 20 25 30 35 40 46 53 60 67 76 7 7 7 g 16 g 17 9 * 18 g 19 9 20 10 21 10 22 11 Table 31a. — Volume Scaled by Tiemann Log Rule (1-8 Inch Saw Kerf) of Trees of Loblolly Pine of Different Diameters and Heights. No Allowance for Excessive Crook. Trees Over 75 Years Old. Height of tree— Feet Approximate breast- high 90 100 110 120 130 140 inside bark of top Inches Volume— Board feet in tens Inches 14 18 23 27 32 37 43 48 54 59 66 72 23 27 32 37 43 49 54 61 68 75 83 91 99 108 117 125 134 26 31 35 41 47 53 60 68 76 83 92 101 109 118 129 138 147 157 168 179 190 8 15 8 16 8 17 8 18 50 57 65 73 82 91 100 109 119 129 140 150 161 171 183 195 208 221 233 9 19 9 20 69 79 88 98 107 118 128 139 150 161 173 185 197 210 222 235 249 9 21 10 22 10 23 10 24 25 115 126 137 148 159 171 185 198 210 222 235 248 261 11 11 26 11 27 12 28 12 29 13 30 13 31 13 32 14 33 14 34 15 35 15 36 15 84 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. ■s 1 o 2; do; IB :iai3q apis -ni ja^aniBTQ 3noi -jaaj g -gj SSOJ JO -OfsJ i do; ;b JiJBq 3pts -ui as^araBiQ - - 3noi ;33J g Ql s3o] JO -0^ o do; ;b jjjuq apis -HI ja'jani'BiQ 6.7 7.2 7.4 7.9 8.2 8.8 9,1 9.6 9.8 10.3 10.8 Sno] ;aaj g -gx s3o| JO -0^ is; iS :s :s ^ ;s? ^ ^ :^ o do; ;i; ijjEq apis -HI aa;awBiQ edt^t'^odoooooiosooo Suoj ;aaj g -gj b3o| jo -o^i ;:^ is; :s; :s iS is^ i^ o o do; ;b JlJ^q apis -ni ja;aui'BiQ Oc5D cdeocot^t^t^cdoooioso o o 3uoi;aajg-9i b3oj jo -ojs^ o do; %-e JjaBq apis -ni ja;ani'BiQ osM^H(NioooioOcoooeOkOO 2uo| ;aaj g -gi s3o| JO "0^ is; :s :5^ :jj ^ ;^ ;^ ;55; :st ;^ McococoeoecrtcococoMcoco o 00 do; ;b Jjj'Bq apis -ui ja;aniBiQ CCCOi'^0>'<**0-^000 id»ocooi>Io6ccoio5oiooo 3uoi ;aaj g -gi SSO] JO -0^ ;^;s^ :s: :s: is: :s :^ o do; ;'B T[i'Bq apis -m ja;ata'BiQ ir-csiiooc^oo-Ht^oiriiooeo 3no| ;aaj g -gx eSoj JO -o^ § do; ;b m'eq apis -ui ja;aniT3iQ 3noi ;aaj g -gi S30| JO -0^ - - o "5 do; ;■(! ij^j^eq apis -ni ja;ara'BiQ 3uoi ;aaj g gt e3o| JO '0^ ^^2^^^^^^ - - - - — o do; ■ ;'B Jijcq apis -HI ja;am'eiQ oo »-i 00 o CO e^ Tt* id ui «o ^ Suo] ;aaj g -gx SS0| JO •Of<[ ^^^^^^ qSiqas saqouj Baiq j3;am'BiQ t- CO « o - IM CO •* in 2 - oo o> o (M (N LOBLOLLY OK NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 85 s o X >l dot ^■B y[ivq apis -ui ja^gui'BiQ ooc<^■^c^«Doseo^-»-*^co .-1 in lo-^ — ^coco2:2i222 o -ut i3iaraBici '''ill '^ *" Suox ?aaj g -QT s3oi JO -o^i ; ; ; ! ; i ^f> v? n^ n? \t :s? ^ 2s? : 1 1 : ; :s-wts-toSj5otoSo«oooo«oooo o ^°^ ►,0(M«r~ot--<cooo | ; ; t-IododoooJoioioooO^^^ie^cJMco ; ; ; o " 3U01 133} £ -91 eSoi JO oj^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ i ; i "3 § do-^ *« 3(jBq apis -ni ja^araBici CO ^ •* « -< rt t- «> -< bJododoooioJoiosc to ^ ' ' 1 ; 1 1 ; ; J o -< 1 1 ; ; 1 ; 1 ; 1 3uonaajg-9: s3oi JO -on •* •* i ; ; ; 1 1 I 1 I ■a K s (10% *B jjjBq apis -HI ja^auiBici 3uoi laaj g -gx eSoi JO ON o do* *B :^jBq apis -ni ja^araBia 8no] *a9j g -91 8301 JO on s do* *B Jji-Bq apis -ui ja*3nii!ia 1 8uoi*a3jg-9X b3ox jo om do* *B 3iJBq apis -ut a3*araBia : ; : : : 1 1 . in 3noi *33j g -91 s3ox JO -0^ o ■~* H y. iz; *-« u e a H Id '-' CO ^ & s < H P CM Q M 03 a) Ha d, >. 2ga ooooooooo »-t i-H C^ C^ CO CO CO M c^ ■* 00 «o 05 cq CO "^ i-* 0> 00 «0 «3 CO CO t^ oo -^ N o» CO t>- t>- oo oo 00 r* oooooooo C^COCSeOiOOOCSiO osioc^oocot^oeo ^H CJ CO ■* O Tt< »-<" W CO -^ *Ci lO O O 00 c^ C5 Oi 1^ ^ *-Hcoc**ooeooO'-.b* OOOOOOOO OOOiOOOOOO t--OGOOOOCOt>.'ield Entire Past 10 period years Standard cords, 128 cubic feet, with bark 20 37 1.8 24 1.2 25 58 2.3 .. 40 1.6 .. 22 .9 30 75 2.5 3.8 53 1.8 2.9 33 1.1 2.2 40 96 2.4 1.9 72 1.8 1.9 50 1.3 1.7 50 105 2.1 .8 83 1.7 1.1 60 1.2 1. 60 -- -- -- -- -- -- 66 1.1 .6 Long cords, 160 cubic feet, without bark 20 21 1. 13 .7 25 33 1.5 .. 22 .9 .. 1.2 .5 30 43 1.45 2.3 30 1. 1.7 18 .6 1.2 40 57 1.4 1.4 42 1.1 1.2 28 .7 .1 50 64 1.3 .7 49 1. .8 35 .7 .6 60 - -- -- - -- 39 .65 .5 for breakage. Table 39 is tbe same as Table 38 except that the yield is given circular sawed, 1/4 iiic"li kerf. Table 40 gives the yield of all trees 6 inches and over in diameter scaled by Doyle-Scribner rule and also the average annual increment. The largest average annual increment in board feet is obtained on Quality I by cutting the stand when 50 years old; on Quality II Avhen between 50 and 60 years old; on Quality III when between 60 and 70 years old. Tables 41 and 41a give the yield in board feet band-sawed with 1-7 inch kerf by cutting to 9 and 11 inches in diameter, respectively. Cut- ting to 9 inches in diameter gives the yield of all trees which make 92 LOBLOLLY OK NORTH CAROLINA PINE. standard 7x7 inch ties. The greatest average annual yield of tie tim- ber is obtained on Quality I Avhen the stand is about 40 years old; on Quality II when about 50 years old ; and on Quality III when about 55 years old. Cutting to 11 inches in diameter gives the yield of all trees large enough for crate veneer stock. (Plate XIV shows a Quality II stand, culled, 60 years old, yielding about 30,000 feet per acre ; Plate XV an unthinned stand about 80 years old, yielding about 40,000 feet per acre.) Table 42 gives the total number of trees 6 inches and over, the average diameter of all trees and the annual rate of decrease in the number of trees with the increase in the age of the stand. This table is of value in showing which portion of the yield is contributed by the trees in the dominant crown class. It shows the approximate number of trees which would be removed in thinning unthinned stands by deducting the num- ber of dominant trees from the total number of trees. (See page 159.) Tables 43 and 44 show the number of trees 9 inches and over and 11 inches and over per acre respectively and their average diameters at different ages in fully stocked stands. By combining Table 42 with Tables 43 and 44 the number of trees over 6 inches in diameter left per acre after cutting to 9 and 11 inches in diameter breasthigh can be obtained. Table 38. — Yield Per Acre in B0.4.RD Feet of All Trees Six Inches and Over in Diameter Breasthigh to Top Diameter Given in Table 32, in Fully Stocked Unthinned Stands op Loblolly Pine at Different Ages on Different Quality Sites. No Allowance for Exces- sive Crook, Waste or Breakage. Bo.vRDS 1 1-16 Inch Thick, Band-sawed, Kerf 1-7 Inch. Maximum Bd. ft. per acre Quality Age Years I II III Bd. ft. per acre Annual Per cent of increase in volume preceding decade Bd. ft. per acre Annual Per cent of _ increase in volumte preceding decade Bd. ft. per acre Annual Per cent of increase in volume preceding decade Bd. ft. per acre 20 19,700 28,600 35,100 40,100 44,200 47,500 50,300 52,650 54,600 56,250 57,650 58,900 60,000 61,000 62,000 62,900 63,750 14,500 22,300 28,850 34.000 38,150 41,600 44,500 46,850 48,750 50,300 51,550 52,650 53,600 54,400 55,200 56,000 56,700 25 8,800 16,000 21,850 26,850 30,850 33,900 36,300 38.200 39,700 40,900 41,850 42,650 43,200 43,700 44,100 44,500 30 7.1 7,170 12,700 17,000 20,400 23,000 25,200 26,850 28,200 35 2,600 40 45 2.8 5.3 9.0 12,050 15,400 50 55 1.6 2.4 3.1 18,050 20,150 60 65 .9 1.2 1.6 21,900 23,200 70 75 .6 .7 29,250 30,150 30,750 31,000 31,650 .9 24,250 25,000 80 85 .4 .4 .5 25,650 26,100 90 95 .3 .2 .3 26,500 100 .3 .2 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 93 Table 39. — ^Yield Per Acre in Board Feet op All Trees op Loblolly Pine, Six Inches and Over in Diameter Breasthigh to Top Diameter Given in Table 32 in Fully Stocked Unthinned Stands at Different Ages on Different Quality Sites. No Allowance for Excessive Crook, Waste or Bre.^k.^ge. Boards 1 1-8 Inches Thick, Circular S.\.wed, Kerf >4 Inch. Quality Aee of stand Years I II III Board feet per acre 20 12,700 25,200 30 14.000 6,300 40 33,300 23.500 14,900 50 38,900 30,000 20,100 60 42,600 33,400 23,500 70 45,100 35,800 25,600 80 46,900 37,300 26,900 Table 40. — ^Yield Per Acre in Board Feet (Doyle-Scribner) of All Trees Six Inches .\nd Over in Diameter in Fully Stocked St.vnds of Loblolly Pine at Different Ages on Different Quality Sites. Top Diameters .^s in Table 32. No Allowance for Excessive Crook, Waste or Breakage. Quality Age Years I II III Volume Average annual increment Volume Average annual increment Volume Average annual increment Board feet per acre 25 7,368 16,143 28,365 36.689 41,811 43,601 44,868 45,180 295 535 709 734 697 1,310 6,824 16,419 23,716 28,130 30,568 32,201 33,205 52 227 410 474 469 436 30 40 50 60 70 652 6,024 12,391 16,228 18,939 20,149 20,827 22 150 247 270 270 80 252 90 94 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. Table 41. — Yield Per Acre in Board Feet of All Trees Nine Inches and Over in Diameter Breasthigh in Fully Stocked Stands of Loblolly Pine at Different Ages and on Different Quality Sites. No Allowance for Excessive Crook, Waste or Breakage. Boards 1 1-16 Inch Thick, Band-sawed, 1-7 Inch Kerf. (To reduce to oircular-.sawixl 1-4 inch korf, divide by 1.144.) Maximum Quality Age Years I II III Minimum Volume— Board feet 20 10,500 25,200 34,500 40,000 44,100 47,500 50,300 25 16,200 26,600 32,200 37,800 41,400 44,500 30 12,700 20,650 25,900 29,800 32,800 35,200 37,000 38,700 35 40 45 50 55 7,700 13,800 18,250 21.350 23,700 25,400 26,850 28,150 29,200 30,100 30,800 1,500 8,000 12,500 15,600 17,750 60 19,400 65 20,800 70 22,000 75 23,000 80 23,800 85 24,650 1 Table 41a. — ^Yield Per Acre in Board Feet op All Trees 11 Inches and Over in Diameter Breasthigh in Fully Stocked Stands op Loblolly^ Pine at Different Ages and on Dif- ferent Quality Sites. No Allowance for Excessive Crook, Waste or Breakage. Boards 1 1-16 Inches Thick, Band-sawed, 1-7 Inch Kerf. (To reduce to circular-sawed, 1-4 inch kerf, divide by 1.144.) Quality Age I II III Years Volume— Board feet 25 5,450 30 16,500 25,300 2 200 35 12,250 1,400 40 31,800 19,400 7,750 45 36,650 24,400 12,700 50 40,350 28,300 16,650 55 43,500 31,400 19,800 60 46,200 34,150 22,300 65 48,600 36,450 24,6.50 70 50,500 38.500 26,650 75 52,100 40,200 28,350 80 53,350 41,600 29,800 85 54.350 42,700 .30,900 90 55,200 43,500 31,700 95 56 000 44 200 100 56,700 44,700 LOBLOLLY OR NOKTH CABOLIIs^A PIXE. 95 Table 42.— Total Number of Loblolly Pine Trees of All Crowx Classes Per Acre Six Inches AND Over in Diameter, Their Average Diameter and Per Cent of Decrease in Number, Total Number of Dominant Trees Six Inches and Over, and Their Average Diameter AT Different Ages on Different Quality Sites. Trees of all crown classes 6 inches and over Dominant trees 6 inches and over Age Years Number of trees per acre Per cent of decrease in number of trees Average diameter Inches Number of trees per acre Average diameter Inches Quality I 25 486 8.2 1 230 9.1 30 449 7.6 9.3 248 10.4 40 273 39.2 11.4 ( 179 13.2 50 199 27.1 13.2 125 15.7 60 169 15.1 14.8 100 17.4 70 150 10.6 16.1 89 18.8 80 134 120 17.3 18.3 77 71 20.0 21.2 90 100 108 19.1 64 22.3 Quality II 25 476 469 7.5 8.5 262 273 7.8 30 1.5 8.8 40 342 27.8 10.3 217 10.8 50 244 28.3 11.9 151 12.8 60 187 21.8 13.2 118 14.5 70 160 12.4 14.3 101 15.7 80 142 129 118 15.3 16.2 17.0 86 77 70 17.0 90 18.1 100 19.1 Quality III 30 482 357 7.6 40 17.9 9.1 50 256 28.3 10.5 60 199 17.0 11.7 70 167 12.6 12.7 80 150 13.6 96 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. Table 43. — Total Number of Trees Per Acre Nine Inches and Over in Diameter Breast- high AND Their Average Diameter in Dense, Unthinned Stands of Loblolly Pine at Different Ages on Different Quality Sites. Age of stand Years Number of trees 9 inches in diameter and over Average diameter Quality I 25 234 10.3 30 254 11.4 40 204 13.2 50 173 14.6 60 154 15.6 70 140 16.4 80 130 17.1 90 121 17.6 100 115 18.0 110 109 18.4 120 105 18.6 Quality II 25 68 9.4 30 153 9.9 40 197 11.2 50 179 12.6 60 161 13.9 70 145 14.9 80 135 15.6 90 126 16.2 100 118 16.7 110 112 17.0 120 108 17.4 Quality III 30 46 9.1 40 234 9.7 50 173 11.0 60 146 12.5 70 126 13.6 80 113 14.4 90 102 15.1 100 94 15.6 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 97 Table 44. — Total Number of Trees Per Acre Eleven Inches and Over in Diameter Breasthigh AND Their Average Diameter in Dense, Unthinned Stands of Loblolly Pine at Differ- ent Ages on Different Quality Sites. Age of stand Years Number of trees 11 inches in diameter and over Average diameter Quality I 25 156 11.8 30 173 12.6 ■ 40 163 , 14.2 50 150 15.4 60 135 16.4 70 125 17.2 80 117 17.8 90 109 18.3 100 104 18.7 110 101 18.9 120 98 19.1 Quality II 30 50 11.5 40 120 12.8 50 131 14.1 60 127 15.2 70 120 16.0 80 114 16.7 90 107 17.3 100 102 17.7 110 98 18.0 120 95 18.3 Quality III 40 80 11.7 50 96 13.0 60 94 14.2 70 90 15.1 80 85 15.8 90 81 16.3 100 78 16.7 98 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. GRADED VOLUME TABLES. Tables 45 to 54 give the actual amounts, values, and percentages of the different grades of lumber sawed from logs of different grades and from logs from different parts of the stem. The results were secured by a large number of measurements of the logs in the woods and their cut at the mill. The logs were carefully measured as to diameter and length, and marked, those in each tree being given a specific designation, which showed not only that they were from the same tree, but indicated the relative position of each log in the trunk of the tree, whether butt, second, third, or top. About 1,000 logs were sawed at a mill with a daily cut of 30,000 board feet by a circular saw taking a y4,-mch kerf. An exact tally was kept not only of the number of feet but of the grade of each board which was sawed from each log. These logs ranging in diameter at the small end from 5 inches to 20 inches were largely from second-growth stands between 40 and 70 years old. The utilization was close and the amount of mill waste small ; somewhat closer utilization would have been possible in the tops, but at the expense of reducing the grades. About 1,000 other logs ranging in diameter at the small end from 7 to 30 inches were marked and numbered in the woods and were carefully graded. These were sawed at three different mills and, with the exception of a small number, were band-saAved. An exact tally was kept of the number of board feet and the amovmt of each grade of lumber which was sawed from the logs of different diameters in each grade of logs. These logs were from trees in stands which varied in age between 45 and 250 years. The cut of all logs was brought to a uniform basis as regards saw thick- ness and allowance for shrinkage by the use of converting factors (see note to table 23). GRADING OF LOGS. Six grades of logs were recognized as follows : Grade 1. Logs smooth-barked, the centers not coarse-grained, and entirely free from such surface indications of defects as knot signs or red heart. While they are chiefly butt logs, second and even third logs from large 5 and 6-logged trees, particularly those from intermediate and suppressed trees, were included in this grade. Even butt logs of this grade if less than 10 inches in diameter must as a rule come from intermediate and suppressed trees. They have less taper than any other grade of logs and consequently saw out less lumber above the log scale. The f. o. b. value (first quarter 1913) of the lumber which is sawed from Grade 1 logs at points which have the Norfolk, Virginia, price basis is from $22.46 per 1,000 board feet for lumber from 7-inch logs to $30 per 3,000 board feet for lumber from 30-inch logs. (Plate XII, C.) Grade 2. Logs free from indications of red heart, smooth barked, but showing slight signs of knots on one side or quarter of the log. N. C. GEOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SURVEY. PLATE XII. ^:;^BJJ^SP[_ ; LOOS OF DIFFEREXT GRADES. A. Logs chiefly of Grades 3 and 4, diameters 5 to 16 inches. These are the prevailing gi-ades and sizes now coming to the mills. Average log about 38 feet, D.-S. (Author's illustration.) B. Logs chiefly of Grades 2 and 3, diameters 10 to 24 inches. Tliese are the prevailing grades and sizes which were cut by the mills between 1895 and 1910. Average log about 90 feet, D.-S. The small size of the heartwood is noteworthy. (Author's illustration.) C. Logs chiefly of Grades 1 and 2, diameters 12 to 36 inches. These were the prevailing grades and sizes which were sawed until 1895. Average log about 200 feet, D.-S. 100 LOBLOLLY OR JN^ORTH CAROLINA PIIs'E. GRADING OF LUMBER. All lumber was graded according to the 1911 standard for the inspec- tion of iSTorth Carolina pine. The basis of inspection is the best or face side. Stock sizes below 12-inch are 6-inch, 8-inch and 10-inch widths. Other widths are grouped as edge. A pin knot is not over i/o inch; a standard knot not over II/2 inches; a large knot is over 1%' inches. Standard lengths of lumber are 8 to 16 feet, not to exceed 5 per cent 8 feet lengths ; widths, other than bark strips 3 inches and over. The following is a brief description of the grades of kiln-dried lumber. Air dried lumber admits more stain than kiln-dried; 25 per cent in No. 2 ; 50 per cent in iSTo. 3 ; 75 per cent in No. 4. By stain is meant blued sap wood. This does not affect the strength of the wood. No. 1 Grade. This grade includes boards 8 inches and under in width having one side clear of all defects, except 2 small defects such as pitch streaks, and the other side grading up to a No. 2 board. Lum- ber over 8 inches wide may have in addition one small pitch pocket, sound pin knot, or other slight defect for each additional 2 inches of width. (Plate XIII, A.) No. 2 Grade. — This grade consists of boards with small tight knots on the best side and less than one-sixth of the area of pitch streaks ; the other side grades up to No. 3 or better. Pieces 8 inches in Avidth or under may have 3 pin knots, or 3 small pitch pockets; pieces over 8 inches wide may have for each additional 2 inches of width one stand- ard knot, 3 pin knots or 3 pitch pockets or small pitch streaks. (Plate XIII, B.) No. 3 Grade. — This grade consists of tight knotted boards below No. 2, one edge No. 2 or better on the best face, and not to exceed 15 per cent of stain. Pieces 6 inches and over admit sound knots to a diameter of not over ^^4 o^ the width of the piece, or other defects such as pin knots, pitch pockets, or pitch streaks; pitchy boards which would otherwise grade No. 1 or No. 2. No. 1 and No. 2 boards which are pitchy, No. 2, allowing 33 per cent. No. 1, 50 per cent of pitch; No. 1 and No. 2 boards having 50 per cent stained surface or firm redheart not to exceed 20 per cent are admitted to this grade. (Plate XIII, C.) No. Jj. Grade (Box).— Box consists of sound lumber below the grade of No. 3, containing pin, standard, and large reasonably sound knots, and Avill admit other knots which do not seriously affect the strength of the pieces; a larger amount of pitchy, stained, or redheart surface than No. 3, or a greater aggregate of knots or pitch pockety than is ad- missible in No. 3 boards. (Plate XIII, D.) No. 5 Grade (Culls). — Culls consist of lumber lower than No. 4 (excepting redheart or box strips), either knottier or with more pitch, which can be used without a waste exceeding 25 per cent and may con- tain 50 per cent of firm redheart. LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 101 Firm redheart admits pieces containing any amount of firm redheart which can not be classed as No. 1, 2, 3, or 4. (Plate XIII, E.) Nos. 1 and 2 harh strips consist of edging lumber faced with bark on one side and shall not show less than i/^ inch of wood on both edges from end to end of piece, and shall otherwise equal the grades of ISTos. 1 and 2 lumber. Box hark strip. This grade consists of bark strips falling below IN'o. 1 and ^0. 2 bark strip. (Plate XIII, F.) T.^BLE 45. — Per Cent of Different Grades of North C.vholin.^ Pine Lumber Sawed from Grade One Logs of Loblolly Pine op Different Diameters. Logs 16.3 feet long, perfect, sound, usually from the lower part of stem, free from knot signs, with smooth bark and fine-grained centers. Boards 1 1-16 inch thick, band-sawed, kerf 1-7 inch. Diameter inside Per cent of each grade bark at small end of log Inches No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 Box Red heart and cull Bark strips Nos. 1 and 2 Total 7 25.0 23.5 24.4 28.3 28.4 31.9 33.6 35.9 25.0 32.4 37.8 38.3 40.5 39.6 39.1 38.2 20.8 23.5 22.2 21.7 21.6 20.8 20.1 19.1 16.7 11.8 8.9 6.7 5.4 4.4 3.6 3.0 12.5 8.8 6.7 5.0 4.1 3.3 3.6 3.0 100 8 100 9 100 10 100 11 100 12 100 13 100 14 .8 100 15 37.5 36.8 19.1 2.6 .7 3.3 100 16 40.1 35.6 18.0 2.3 .6 3.4 100 17 41.6 34.7 17.7 2.0 .5 3.5 100 18 43.0 34.3 17.6 1.7 .4 3.0 100 19 43.8 33.8 17.4 1.5 .4 3.1 100 • 20 44.2 33.2 17.5 1.7 .3 3.1 100 21 44.0 33.0 17.8 1.8 .3 3.1 100 22 43.7 32.7 18.1 2.2 .3 3.0 100 23 43.6 32.7 18.6 2.2 .2 2.7 100 24 43.2 32.2 18.9 2.5 .5 2.7 100 25 42.9 32.2 19.5 2.5 .4 2.5 100 26 42.9 32.2 19.7 2.5 .4 2.3 100 27 42.7 32.2 20.1 2.4 .4 2.2 100 28 42.6 32.1 20.6 2.4 .3 2.0 100 29 42.4 32.2 20.8 2.4 .3 1.9 100 30 42.2 32.2 21.0 2.5 .3 1.8 100 102 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. Table 46. — Per Cent of Different Grades of North Carolina Pine Lumber S.\wed from Grade Two Logs of Loblolly Pine of Different Diameters. Logs 16.3 feet long, slightly knotty, sound, usually from the lower part of stem, with smooth bark, and moderately fine-grained centers. Boards 1 1-16 inch thick, band-sawed, kerf 1-7 inch. Diameter inside Per cent of each grade bark at small end of log Inches No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 Box Red heart and cull Bark strips Nos. 1 and 2 Total 7 16.6 17.6 20.0 21.7 23.0 25.3 25.0 32.4 37.8 39.9 40.5 39.6 29.3 29.4 26.6 26.7 27.0 25.2 16.6 11.8 8.9 6.7 5.4 5.5 . 12.5 8.8 6.7 5.0 4.1 3.3 100 & 100 9 100 10 100 11 100 12 1.1 100 13 27.3 38.2 24.5 5.5 .9 3.6 100 14 29.8 37.4 24.3 4.6 .8 3.1 100 15 32.2 35.5 23.7 4.6 .7 3.3 100 16 34.5 33.9 23.1 4.5 .6 3.4 100 17 36.1 33.2 22.2 4.0 1.0 3.5 100 18 37.4 32.2 22.2 3.9 1.3 3.0 100 19 38.5 31.5 21.5 4.2 1.2 3.1 100 20 39.7 30.8 21.3 4.1 1.0 3.1 100 21 40.4 30.6 20.7 4.3 .9 3.1 100 22 40.9 30.2 20.7 4.4 .8 3.0 100 23 41.4 30.4 20.3 4.5 .7 2.7 100 24 42.0 30.1 20.2 4.3 .7 2.7 100 25 42.5 30.1 19.9 4.4 .6 2.5 100 26 42.9 30.0 19.7 4.5 .6 2.3 100 27 43.3 30.0 19.6 4.4 .5 2.2 100 28 43.3 30.1 19.5 4.4 .7 2.0 100 29 43.7 30.0 19.5 4.3 .6 1.9 100 30 43.7 29.9 19.6 4.3 .7 1.8 100 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 103 Table 47. — Per Cent of Different Grades of North Carolina Pine Lumber Sawed From Grade Three Logs of Loblolly Pine op Different Diameters. Logs 16.3 feet long, slightly knotty, chiefly from the middle part of the stem. Boards 1 1-16 inch thick, band-sawed, kerf 1-7 inch. Diameter inside Per cent of each grade bark at small end of log Inches No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 Box Red heart and cull Bark strips Nos. 1 and 2 Total 5 77.0 52.4 50.0 48.8 46.2 23.0 14.3 9.4 7.3 5.8 100 6 33.3 31.2 31.7 30.8 100 7 6.3 9.8 11.5 3.1 2.4 1.9 100 8 100 9 3.8 100 10 4.7 12.5 29.7 45.3 3.1 4.7 100 11 7.6 12.7 27.8 44.3 3.8 3.8 100 12 9.4 13.5 27.1 42.7 4.2 3.1 100 13 11.4 14.0 25.4 40.4 5.3 3.5 100 14 12.6 14.1 25.2 39.2 5.9 3.0 100 15 13.9 14.6 24.0 37.3 7.0 3.2 100 16 15.5 14.9 23.8 35.4 7.7 2.7 100 17 16.9 15.5 23.2 33.8 8.2 2.4 100 18 18.0 15.8 23.1 32.0 9.0 2.1 100 19 19.5 16.0 22.9 30.2 9.5 1.9 100 20 20.5 16.4 22.6 28.5 10.3 1.7 100 21 21.9 16.7 22.2 26.5 11.1 1.6 100 22 23.2 16.5 22.4 25.0 11.5 1.4 100 23 24.8 16.4 22.2 23.3 12.0 1.3 100 24 25.9 16.3 22.0 22.0 12.6 1.2 100 25 27.6 16.1 21.7 20.6 12.9 1.1 100 26 29.0 15.9 21.5 19.3 13.3 1.0 100 27 30.5 15.4 21.4 18.0 13.8 .9 100 28 31.9 15.2 21.2 16.9 13.9 .9 100 29 33.1 14.9 21.0 16.0 14.2 .8 100 30 34.3 14.4 20.9 15.2 14.4 .8 100 J 04 LOBLOLLY OR JSTORTH CAROLINA PINE. Table 48. — Pee Cent of Different Grades of North Carolina Pine Lumber Sawed from Grade 4 Logs op Loblolly Pine of Different Diameters. These are Logs from Below the Top Log. Diameter inside bark at small end of Log No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 Box or No. 4 Cull Box bark strip Total Inches 4 74 82 85 88 88 89 88 26 16 10 7 5 4 3 100 5 2 6 5 5 5 5 100 6 100 7 100 8 2 2 2 100 9 100 10 2 100 11 2 2 5 5 88 87 2 2 3 3 100 12 1 100 13 2 2 6 86 2 2 100 14 2 2 6 86 2 2 100 15 2 3 6 85 2 2 100 16 2 3 6 85 2 2 100 17 3 3 6 84 3 100 18 3 4 6 82 4 100 19 3 4 7 81 4 100 20 4 4 7 80 4 100 21 5 5 7 77 5 .100 22 5 5 7 77 5 100 Grade 5 logs, which are knotty top logs, yield at least 95 per cent of No, 4 lumber and cull. Cull logs, which are very knotty top logs from large trees and have coarse knots, yield at least 50 per cent cull lumber, (l^ote the log within the cro'mi of tree in Plate VII.) N. C. GEOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SURVEY. PLATE XIII. pi.Trr:: Xrfr- %^ PLATE XIII. Typical boards of important grades of North Carolina pine lumljer 12 feet long. A to D, inclusive, are dressed boards; E and F are rough. (Photographs made under direction of author.) A. No. 1 grade board, 16 inches wide, from a large, old, fine-grained heart tree of the qual- ity known as "slash pine." A narrow margin of sapwood is shown on either edge of the board. B. No. 2 grade board, 12 inches wide. The defects are a small pin knot and a narrow pitch streak in the upper one-half of the board. Board from an old growth, fine-grained tree, very largely heartwood. C. No. 3 grade board, 12 inches wide. The defects are a pitch pocket in the lower one- fourth, two pin knots near the middle of the board, a pitch streak at the upper end of the board, and a sliver in the coarse flat grain of its center. Board is from a second-growth forest tree, coarse-grained in the center and medium-grained on the edges. D. Box or No. 4 grade board, 12 inches wide. Very knotty and coarse-grained. Tliis board is from a rapid growth tree of the old-field type and is all sapwood e.\cept a narrow ribbon of heart down the center. E. Merchantable red heart grade board, 10 inches wide. This board would have graded as a No. 3 but for the red heart which shows as the dark streaks in the heartwood. F. Box bark strip. The bark edge shows along the upper right-hand edge of the strip; the bark has been trimmed from the lower portion of the piece. LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 105 Table 49.— Pen Cent op Different Grades of North Carolina Pine Lumber Sawed From Red Heart Logs of Loblolly Pine of Different Diameters. Diameter inside bark at small end of log No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 t>„^ Red heart ^°^ and cull Box bark strip Total Inches Per cent of each grade 7 6.2 9.4 31.3 37.5 6.2 9.4 100 8 4.9 7.3 24.4 41.5 14.6 7.3 100 9 3.8 7.7 19.2 46.2 17.3 5.8 100 10 3.1 6.3 17.2 48.4 18.7 6.3 100 11 3.8 6.3 13.9 48.1 22.8 5.1 100 12 4.2 5.2 12.5 48.9 24.0 5.2 100 13 5.3 5.3 11.4 48.2 25.4 4.4 100 14 5.2 5.2 10.4 47.4 28.1 3.7 100 15 5.7 5.1 9.5 46.2 30.3 3.2 100 16 6.0 5.0 9.4 44.8 32.0 2.8 100 17 6.3 4.8 9.2 43.5 33.8 2.4 100 18 6.9 4.7 9.4 41.9 35.0 2.1 100 19 6.9 4.6 9.5 40.5 36.6 1.9 100 20 7.2 4.5 9.6 39.0 38.0 1.7 100 21 7.1 4.3 9.9 38.0 39.2 1.5 100 22 7.0 4.2 10.4 37.2 39.8 1.4 100 23 6.6 4.1 10.5 36.8 40.7 1.3 100 24 6.5 3.7 10.8 36.7 41.1 1.2 100 25 6.2 3.7 10.7 36.6 41.7 1.1 100 26 6.0 3.4 10.5 36.7 42.4 1.0 100 27 5.9 3.1 10.3 37.2 42.6 .9 100 28 5.5 2.9 10.0 37.8 42.9 .9 100 29 5.2 2.7 9.5 38.5 43.3 .8 100 30 5.0 2.6 9.3 39.1 43.2 .8 100 106 LOBLOLLY OK NORTH CAROLINA PINE. Q I S a 05 5 >. DO 3; PM a >:; > 2 -H^H-HC^C^COrJ<-.J0.-tC^CO'*iO«0000 » rt « « — 1 1 ^ a PQ > < ' ' IM(M OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO — — 1 — — IC^ICMCTC-IC^M T3 M d 12; u "3 OCCOOOtON010(MOr~10-*-*l^-HOOU5M(M^ -Ht^ioc30roc500o-^iO'M'^u50cocqco-<*OtO- fq ico!i50o^^r^^H05r^i^t^T-H-^Oi-^05-»j*os»cosTt a . a H > i-ii-ii-Hdc^eo'^'^io'Ot^oooiO-^Mco^jo ic o -^ *-• O '-' C^CC^^t^Oi'— - 00 ci O ^ -- <>> C^ c^cocococococococococo Ci O O M "* ■<»• oc5'-'»ocoMcor-o oooooO'-;'-; ^ ^ ^^ ^ ^ (>> c^ =:^SS22S^SS HO 2 2 2 ^ o? « r^ OS Tj< <» ^H o 2 2 S 55 § !* S 5 K S S 5 ^ S S S S S S - c^ oo ** *-< go ^222gSS?3^55oS3SK3SSoo ,— .c^^*«eDr-Os»-'CO tOCOtOOC^'"^^^*^ i-( c 1-1 »-H C5 C^ CO CO ^ lO ^ CO OS CO S^SS^SSKggS^SS t>, 00 C5 O ^^ oo en o — < iM « rt i-. C^ CM O CM 108 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 5 H o ■< W s f^ Q gH Z £! W I-; 2 a o a C<5 O C « in m Id U & 2: ■< Ph > ■< (it O ^5 7^ ■* 00 OS CO r^ Eh > *^ '^ *"• L^ ■* ■>»< •o UJ t^ 00 Oi o •-« C4 CO ■* w CO «» "se I CO _ c^ „ IM ^ Oi to •^ •o on ^ ,^ CJ _ ■s^ u> to ■>»< ta "O to CO HO Q) ;» o CO CO CO to to to oo o C o o <-> o ■-> o o <-> > Ojrt £ 1 n CO CO e>5 CO 05 CO to ■* Tt" >o •o l!> o « lO >o lO n 3 1 1 n >n CO o 00 c3 > 03 r3 4> 5 '^ — ' '-' —" — ' ^ '21 ^ (M CO CO 00 M" r^ >n o r^ o on TJ* lO on 00 ■s n « 1 >o ^ ■o 00 I-- 00 t-> m to o > 1 ""• ""t **i "•'■i 1^ '■^ •^ ■c i"^ t^ ti t~ — " " -- — — -^ — — — -^ — — '- « '^ M O «s 1 o 1-H to o ■* a> lO ,_, to m <-i in m CO ^^ 1^ CO ■* ■a< "5 « to 00 00 CS c: c; Cl a-. C35 o •B m '• 0) CC (-» to on en o t-i r^ 1 '~J •~J •-■J '''•> *^^ u_j ^ i-^ »— < ■«** ui r* 6 e© ■ '"' *"* '"' '" '"' ^^ *"* '~' (M (N c^ in o lO nn lO to O to (-M c^l CO -»< in to 00 O CO >o C5i CO ■^ CO 6 e» 1 '"' '"' *"* *"* '"' ^^ *"* i CO CO •«< ■* «« US 00 00 Oi ■a m 1 > r^ CO o O ^ IC i^ '— ' ■^ r^ tji C5 6 «e 1 ^^ ^ *"* cv> (N N CO CO ■* ■* «5 to to •^ iz; 4^ ^ « to a> CO ^ ?3 00 lO •-HC5to^oco>ooaoooco-3;t~.oo2S;^ C US a ■< U 2| r' J > gg§§SS3SS§SSS§g§oSS 2 C o 13 CCOm«C<5C-JC^MM«M 55 a* S 2 1 1 1 '< l^-.C0Mt«0iOi0!OOiO1^00gg; ^ 1 1 1 . lOOOOOOOO— . '^. — . — . Ci=^ OS 1 1 ', 1 '. T3 PQ ', 1 1 I Irtrt«e §2S555SS32:5?2§'=?§§^K^5g ^ b. •6 P3 ta o « § S * •«! . CO 6 "3 > ; g g's S g § § 2 2 :: 2 S5 ^ S S ^ :§ 5. "5'«00»^J222°Mc5c5 2 o IS ^ li pa o 6 > •* ' 1 1 •a PQ ; ; 1 !^rtrtNCMNcoiototoffloc222 d "3 > i ; i ; i ; i ;§§g22gS?5S;SS J ; 1 ; ; 1 I 1 °6 a z < ^ i ; i i i i i ; z O s t ij n < .2 6, 5^ tiD ! 2 o 'S ^«ot^c»=>o-c22:^-2C;22g?3S 110 LOBLOLLY OR IS'ORTH CAROLIN^A PINE. PQ g 5 J in 6, w ° ro s Pi BS Q b) bl K p: O 9 fe r1 "a (U S '=' — in C5 (M CO o "d •^ TC o IC C/J M> «-< c« O ^ 03 PQ -»^ CO TP -rj< 1/5 O U5 lO "5 U5 in "5 to lO to to to to ic to to to to T3 P9 e^COOlfMCCeOOSQOOOOOOIM^^I^'MCiOTjNrJ^lM-Hr^cO '— JC*ieOiCcOCOOS»-HC^'-:J^- co lo 1— « r-- ,— I CO r^ CSl 1 I 1 1 ^ ^ ^ ^ »-( < 1 1 I ioc^oooiC'«j«eoeo^^c222?5S?3 C^I'^COOOO'-HCO'^CDt^ to ^l *-H ^H c? IcQ-^ooooc^-^ior-- I I^cc^ot-O^rj^eo .QOO C^ O O CD -^ d ^H '-I i-< CO N c^ •^COlMWC^WC^ClCM 10 lO U5 ooooooooGOoooor^c^ 0>»OMOO00t^0500 1— *"* PL, o Z -d pa Sl-gc ,g -g ca CI S c ^ fl .-.-^. ^^ -H 00 t^ OO Oi - ««H T3 « < H 4^ d eo d ■^ fe ;? ■J ■a ^ a 0) '^ PM :2: 05 S ^ c« a Ja o— g-^- M CO c^ — -H eo oo N 1-1 C^ CO ■'I* lO o oo •- 00 UD •* CO IM cq >o lO >o -H Ul o 1 iO lO 1 1 1 1 >0 00 O M IM (M —1 00 00 OS 05 03 03 CJ (M O OO 00 0> CJ ■* ^H r-t cq CO -^ CO l^ ^^ (M (N (M CO ■^ Tj< 1 kO ao U3 lO 1 o o o -< cq CO 1 1 .H rt -H rt (N I 1 >0 lO >o 1 1 O O O »-H > m .2 « t> O 3 Eh w LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 117 Table 56. — Per Cent of Grades of Lttmber in Trees of Different Diameters Growing in Fully Stocked Stands of Different Ages and on Different Quality Sites. Stands 40 to 50 Years Old. Quality I Bark strips Cull and red heart Diameter Height of tree No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 or box Total breast- high 1 and 2 Box Feet Inches Per cent 7 70 75 80 84 5 8 9 8 76 75 74 73 11 10 9 7 8 7 6 6 100 8 100 9 1 2 1 3 100 10 100 11 88 3 4 9 73 5 5 100 12 91 3 5 10 74 4 3 100 13 93 4 6 11 73 3 2 100 14 94 5 7 11 72 2 2 100 15 95 6 7 12 71 2 1 100 16 96 7 8 12 69 2 1 100 17 97 98 99 99 8 9 10 11 9 9 10 11 12 12 12 12 68 67 65 63 2 2 2 2 100 18 100 19 100 20 100 Quality II 7 59 64 68 2 6 7 79 78 78 10 9 8 9 7 6 100 8 100 9 100 10 72 1 8 78 6 6 100 11 76 2 8 79 5 5 100 12 79 1 3 8 79 4 4 100 13 81 2 4 9 79 3 2 100 14 83 3 5 9 78 2 2 100 15 84 4 6 10 76 2 1 100 16 85 5 7 10 74 2 1 100 17 85 6 8 10 72 2 1 100 18 85 84 7 8 8 9 10 10 72 70 2 2 100 19 100 Quality III 7 52 57 61 64 67 82 81 80 80 80 9 8 7 5 4 9 8 7 6 5 100 8 3 6 8 8 100 9 100 10 100 11 2 100 12 69 1 2 8 81 3 4 100 13 70 1 3 8 82 2 3 100 14 71 2 5 8 79 2 3 100 15 71 3 5 9 78 2 2 100 16 71 4 5 9 78. 2 1 100 17 71 4 6 9 77 2 1 100 18 70 5 6 9 76 2 1 100 118 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. Table 57. — ^Per Cent of Grades of Lumber in Trees of Different Diameters, in Fully Stocked Stands of Different Ages and on Different Quality Sites. Stands 60 to 70 Years Old. Quality I Height of tree Feet No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 or box Bark strips Cull and red heart Total breast- high 1 and 2 Box Inches Per cent 11 87 92 96 100 103 105 106 107 108 109 110 no 110 111 111 11 15 18 20 21 22 23 23 24 24 25 25 26 26 26 9 12 13 13 14 14 15 16 16 17 17 19 20 21 21 25 26 26 27 28 28 28 28 29 29 29 29 30 30 30 45 38 36 34 31 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 22 21 21 7 6 5 4 4 3 3 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 3 2 1 1 1 1 100 12 13 14 15 16 17 100 100 100 100 100 100 18 100 19 100 20 100 21 100 22 100 23 100 24 100 25 100 Quality II 9 1 5 6 6 22 21 56 54 8 7 7 6 100 10 74 100 11 78 9 8- 21 51 6 4 100 12 82 12 9 21 49 5 3 100 13 85 14 10 21 48 4 2 100 14 86 15 11 21 47 4 1 100 15 90 16 13 21 44 4 1 100 16 92 18 13 21 43 3 1 100 17 93 19 14 21 41 3 1 100 18 94 95 95 95 95 20 21 21 22 22 14 14 15 15 15 21 21 21 21 22 41 40 39 38 38 3 3 3 3 2 100 19 100 20 100 21 100 22 100 Quality III 9 63 5 20 58 7 9 100 10 67 3 4 20 58 6 8 100 11 71 6 5 19 59 5 5 100 12 74 9 7 18 57 4 4 100 13 76 11 8 18 55 4 3 100 14 78 12 9 18 55 3 2 100 15 80 13 10 18 53 3 2 100 16 81 14 11 18 51 3 2 100 17 81 16 12 18 49 3 100 18 81 17 12 18 48 3 100 19 82 18 12 18 48 2 100 20 82 18 13 17 48 2 100 21 82 19 13 17 47 2 100 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLHSTA PINE. 119 INCREASE m VALUE OF TRllES. A tree increases in value by: (l)Increase in volume; (2) increase in the width of the boards which are cut from the tree, since the wider the board the greater its price even in the same grade; (3) increase in the proportion of the higher priced grades, Avhich are free from knots and other defects; (4) increase in the price of stumpage; and (5) closer utilization or lowering the specifications of grades of lumber. In a fully- stocked stand the effects of these factors progressively increase with the age of the stand and the size of the trees except in the case of price change in specifications and utilization, Avhich increase irregularly. Increase in volume (page 66) and increase in the proportion of the higher priced grades (page 101) have already been discussed. The other factors which influence value will be considered below. INCREASE IN QUALITY OF SAW TIMBER. The prices which have been used for the different grades and widths of lumber are figures based on actual sales (Weekly Sales Reports, JN". C. Pine Association), f. o. b. Norfolk, Virginia, during the first quarter of 1913. They are shown in the following table: Width of boards Inches Grades of rough, kiln-dried lumber and price per 1,000 board feet, 4-4 stock No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 or Box Red heart and mill cull Edge* 6 8 10 12 Over 12 J 29.00 29.50 31.00 32.00 36.00 41.00 $ 25 .00 25.50 26.00 27.00 29.00 35.00 $ 19.00 20.00 20.25 21.00 21.00 S 15.00 16.00 16.50 17.50 18.00 S 13.25 14.25 15.75 16.75 17.25 Bark strips Nos. 1 and 2 $19.00 per 1,000 board feet. Box bark strips - 11.00 per 1,000 board feet. •See page 100. 120 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. The average price of N"orth Carolina pine lumber f. o, b. !N'orfolk, Va., for first quarter 1913 was about $18 per 1,000 board feet. In June, 1914, this average price had declined to about $16.50 per 1,000 board feet as shown by the following record of weekly sales, issued June 19,1914: Width of boards Grades of rough lumber and price per 1,000 board feet, kiln dried, 4-4 stock, f. o. b. Norfolk, Va. Inches No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 or box Red heart and mill cull Edge* 6 $ 25.81 $ 23.23 S 16.06 $ 13.30 14.10 14.99 16.31 16.99 $ 11 .55 8 31.00 18.13 13 47 10 14 13 12 34.00 20.93 14 00 Bark strips Nos. 1 and 2... $18.07 Box bark strips 10.10 This decline, which is probably only temporary, should be considered in connection with all tables of average lumber prices or stumpage values based thereon. Table 58 shows the increase in value of boards of the same grade with the increase in the diameter of the log from which they were cut. This is due to a wide board having a higher price than a narrow board of the same grade. These data were computed for upper as well as for lower logs, and as the greatest difference in the value of any one grade was found to be less than two per cent, the two sets of figures were combined. By multiplying the amounts of different grades obtained from logs and trees of different diameters (Tables 55, 56 and 57) by the respective values of these grades (Table 58) the values of trees of different diameters were obtained (Tables 59 to 64). It is possible to obtain from this the value per 1,000 board feet of logs of different diameters of each grade. Table 56 was obtained from data in Table 55, which is derived from the mill cut. The stands of the future, which will be managed for the production of sawtimber, will as a rule be cut between the ages of 40 and 70 years. On some of the best sites where thinnings are possible cutting may be as early as 25 years. It is consequently necessary to give full informa- tion in regard to composition, volume and value of such stands only. This is contained in Tables 55, 56, 57 Avhich have already been given and in Tables 59 to 64. Tables 59 to 61 give the comparative volumes on different quality sites of trees of different diameters in 40 to 50-year old stands, band- *See page 100. LOBLOLLY OR IS'ORTH CAROLINA PINE. 121 sawed l-T-inch kerf, circular sawed 14-iiich kerf and scaled by Doyle- Scribner rule ; the value f . o. b. Norfolk, Virginia, of lumber sawed from trees, and the stumpage value per tree under different costs of operation calculated on the basis of actual contents and Doyle-Scribner rule. Tables 62 to 64 give the same data for trees in stands 60 to 70 years old. The salient feature in these tables is the value per 1,000 board feet of the lumber from different sized trees and the value of their stumpage as derived from the value of the lumber. Under a high cost of opera- tion the stumpage value per 1,000 board feet more than doubles when the diameter doubles. For a discussion of the three costs of operation ($11, $13, and $15), and the import of stumpage value under Doyle- Scribner scale and mill cut see page 137. Table 58.— The F. O. B. Value (1st Qcarter, 1913) Per 1,000 Board Feet, at Points Which Have the Norfolk Price Basis, of Different Grades of Lumber Sawed from Logs of Dif- ferent Diameters. Diameter inside of bark at small end of log No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 Box Red heart and cull Inches Vail le per 1,000 board feet 5 S 29.00 $ 25 .00 S 19.00 $ 15.00 $ 13.00 6 29.00 25.00 19.00 15.00 13.00 7 29.00 25.00 19.00 15.00 13.00 8 29.10 25.10 19.20 15.20 13.20 9 29.40 25.30 19.50 15.50 13.60 10 29.80 25.50 19.80 15.80 14.20 11 30.50 25.90 20.20 16.30 15.00 12 31.00 26.60 20.50 17.00 16.00 13 31.40 26.60 20.80 17.10 16.20 14 32.30 27.00 20.80 17.20 16.20 15 32.70 27.20 20.80 17.30 16.40 16 33.50 27.60 20.80 17.40 16.60 17 34.00 27.80 20.80 17.50 16.70 18 34.00 27.90 20.90 17.50 16.70 19 34.00 28.00 20.90 17.50 16.70 20 34.20 28.00 20.90 17.60 16.80 21 34.20 28.10 20.90 17.60 16.80 22 34.20 28.10 20.90 17.60 16.80 23 34.20 28.10 20.90 17.60 16.80 24 34.30 28.10 20.90 17.60 16.80 25 34.30 28.10 20.90 17.60 16.80 26 34.30 28.10 20.90 17.60 16.80 27 34.30 28.10 20.90 17.60 16.80 122 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. . u iSo, „ IM CO to r^ ^ 1^1 'O f^ &^1 -S" o 05 t^ "-•oo ^^ ^^ ^^ CM CO CO ■* 1 «« 0) Jii h _ — N — J< U5 u-5 CO p r~ i s te •O '^ CD "*. p m CM p t-; •^ a "^ " (N CO Til ■>»< >o u _^ a> s. CO lO r~ ^ r^ r^ _ Hi ^ ^ _ M-t u »— ' •—I I.M ■^ Oi kC CO CO CO 13 3 o (i o -' -^ '^ N CO CO -Sf U5 CO m CO 00 CO o ,_, l,^ on an o IM CO ,_, t-> "3 n (.■J ■* 05 CO «» 3> ,^l. Tf IM (M h- «o o o 1^ « ■^ ■•J' o ■<*« 00 P. (M IM eo U5 CO t~ t~ oo CR O o CO m IK ii a o CO on CO &a3 "•'! CO •o '■^ Ol >n OO *~^ '"' 1 ^ e© >ra on CO o on CO ^ en o ■O ,n ^ ro U ^ A u m; "5 <3 IM C^ IM CO °5 ■* p U5 CO OS ^__i CM 05 fvi ^^ 1^ „ CO m ■* ■^ «» PQg-^ «* " " " CNI Csl CO ■* >o CO t^ oo t-S 1^ ^ ^ ^!-^ €@ Tj< ■* >o >o lO o CO o 00 Oi o p •^ oq _^ >-p.o- :i:S rsl ^ 1-1 ^ no r.1 ^ 00 o> to to to o b- 00 00 ■^ g i CM CKl CM CM » 1 Si -p T) m a "ea fc o aJ CO 11 " " CM n o ^ -a a a V a > 0, e 3 Q " ■ 1 •OOOOO — C-lMrJ.V? 0) o o a 2 I w» 1 ! slflS 6» 111 irt— lN«^~•-loo^~o>^~ooo iOOOOO»-«-HC^eO»Ot^Ol «» ■*T(ii0O0005n00IMf-M-ai O NNCCO o «> : ;s§S§2;3;;3D;gS s& 1 Og|2^ oooo-^— iCTccTi-asao — CO B9 0000»-HWW-^10^-OSCsllO .•1^ !M(NO»OU:i<:o«3i:DI^t^G0ac ©& Volume Doyle- Scribner rule Bd. ft. 1 iiOOSCOCD^HCTsOOOOO 1 1 »-HC^-^JiW3GOO(M»Ob- B %% < (Full allowance for breakage, crook and defect) Cir- cular sawed 1-4" kerf Bd. ft. -H T^ T-l ^ d M Band sawed 1-7" kerf Bd. ft. *-i ^ —< W CM C^J 3f„ "S ■wj-r^i>.t^i>. Diameter breast- high Inches cot--oocio^co >r> t-> i'a-3 ". "-"! 00 lO ■^ •<** •<** T*« •^ lO 0) ^r «» o lO to ^~ 05 o o o CO in CM CO ro Cir- ■ular awed 1-4" kerf ^^ oo to _ Cd 03 t^ r«l _ '^ *■; L»J '^ I^ d •^ '- 00 '"' '^ ■?'^: "C CO r» OS to o ^ o ^ 1^ j^ ^ 05 o> o o o == = - ^ CCC »-Nc^coiocib-^«o^-'50c^or«-*o^eO'^r*»-'oo co-^-^ioor^ooos— « -rt* CO OS *-< ^^ ,_( r-. i-H »-l eq (S5- O00C^"3CD»O***C^C0CC000^«Ot-*0^«C0McDOO'-«^coo'-Hecto lft.r-»OOC 4) . ^ « =^ S3 C^-, o 3 O " o = S-!..5 2 P3 g' C 03 bC ,_. CO '-H to POCOOiMCOCO-^i— Id 00lOC0C0C0^OC7^CO^O OO Oi O I— < CO "^ r^trHSo^por— '-^csicDOc2i2;2^2SS22Srir^r^r^!l! — ^ t^t--OOOOOSOiOOOOOOO^-HT|H^T-^^w^^^ 00 Ci O — lO CO t^ 00 C5 O '-H co-^»oeor--.oooO 126 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE, « O O O 1-* ^ or^h»oiocico-^ ^' CO OC C^ CO i-< o W5 O iC 00 C^ Ci o »— <•— lC(jii^d5 ^1— .t--t-»QOOOOOOO »£50^-QOcs)Oeoecw5coTj.oeocoot^ocONcoeooo»-HTt*oOi-H COCO'*-<*<'^iO»CCDCOI>-l>-OOOOOiCftOSOOOo' cor^-^icoooo^H t* OO «0 CO Cq 1-1 c« coooooooooo »-«i-i(N- COTj«iOiOCOb-OOOS CO CD -^ r^ 1-1 ^H C^ CO OO00-^'^000S(MC00sOC0C0i-i'*« OOr-<'«JtOST}.OS»-H »-lr-lCflCOCOT}- 0.2" ■S 3g« i o3 «- ^ ■<- M-I TO CO 0»OCOrt lO OS ■«*< oc lO CO CD t— t-^ KO CO O 03 CO »OkO»0»OiOiO»OiO 00 OS OS OS OSOSOsOsQSOSo^os ID 00 J3 d ca bo t-^-OOOSO^C^CO-^iOCO OOOSO— '(MCO"rt*W5CD LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 127 z - Stumpage value under operating cost of 1 o^2 i.-<(M'^t^CO^J£<3r»l-ai Cir- cular sawed 1-4" kerf OOOO'^CflOOTPeOOOT-icOCOOtMtOCCt^N Band sawed 1-7" kerf O rt-H.HMN«COT)<-* ^1^ — rtrtC^)C-»C-JCO« •>»<-•♦ lOUStOtOCOOOOOOOO a Doyle- Scribner rule l(M-i0 Band sawed 1-7" kerf o Mi-ii-ioNMcom-iittoio ^ o • coeocO'^-^'^»o»o«0!C»t^t^ooooooooooo .2 o g i (2 o-c 2 1 rti-cMMeoeOTitujcoto •• Cir- cular sawed 1-4" kerf oi-SNcoint^oiMtoosmt-e-jtooiotoc^ Band sawed 1-7" kerf OCO*-«0'^eO»OC005'^«l^^<35«0'^000'^ O — — i-«nj lo W3 r* r* ■k' (SO n .2.5 " lO CO ^^ *H 00 t^ lO ** « S eS ea (B « "S.s**.; 0) 0) ^ u ^ ti n <^ ^ kO 40 O CO t* *-• U5 Cs O lO -^ OO o « « d a <3 eococo-^^iocoo Ci ira ic CO OiCco»nr^C50^ w °2 m c> K C A ki CO CC C5 ^ ^ CJlOOO-^tOOiCOOO c^e^joicococo^'^ v oo-d J. 5 23 (5^ -HC^IC^-^iCOt^OO 142 LOBLOLLY OK NORTH CAROLINA PINE. Open Pure Uneven-aged Stands. The per cent of increase in the value of the individual tree can also be applied in fixing a diameter limit for cutting in open pure or slightly mixed uneven-aged stands or groups in Avhich the openness is caused by fires and unregulated cutting. Table 73 gives the rate per cent of increase in value for one inch increase in diameter of the dominant trees in irregular open stands on different quality sites. The diameters which correspond to a six per cent rate of increase are 18 inches on Quality I, 17 inches on Quality II, and 16 inches on Quality III. DETERMINATION OF YIELD. One of the most important problems in connection with the proper management of loblolly pine lands is the determination of the yield which could be secured from a ti'act within a definite period; or in the case of larger tracts, it might be desirable to know the amount of timber which could be felled yearly to supply a mill without lessening the producing capacity of the forest during a subsequent period. In the case of small tracts which are fully stocked, the quality site can be ascertained and the yield determined from the yield tables for the class of timber desired, and the age at which it would be necessary to fell. In the case of large tracts, not only will it be necessary to map and determine the areas of the different forest types and quality sites, but to indicate the age and condition of each stand. Waste and unproductive land and young stands from which no yield can be expected within the period to be considered should be eliminated. The productive lands should be grouped according to their growing capacity, and the quantity of the material into : 1. Very open, pure, even-aged stands in Avhich the trees are somewhat short-bodied. The yield of these stands can be obtained by means of Table 73. 2. Pure, even-aged sapling and pole stands of good density. The yields of these can be secured direct from the yield tables. (Tables 35 to 41.) 3. Pure and mixed old stands. Growth is practically stationary in such stands, such increment as takes place in young trees being bal- anced by the death or decay of old ones. 4. Mixed young and middle-aged stands ; and pure, uneven-aged stands, which usually have been culled, but the trees in which have stems of nearly normal length. By means of Table 73 it is possible to determine approximately the smallest sized dominant trees of loblolly pine which will attain merchantable diameter by a designated year. Trees of this diameter and larger can be tallied on a known percentage LOBLOLLY OR XORTH CAROLINA PIXE. 143 of the area by means of strips. After obtaining the average number of trees of each diameter per acre the proportion of the total area which is occupied by these trees can be ascertained by means of Table 74, which which gives the crown space in per cent of an area required for the growth of trees of different diameters. If these trees are separated into diameter groups and the diameter of the average tree in each group determined, the average age of the trees in each diameter group can be calculated by means of Tables 42, 43, and 44. Knowing the quality site, and the approximate age of the groups, and the proportion each group contributes to the stocking, it is possible, by means of the yield tables to obtain the approximate yield from the subordinate as well as the domi- nant crown classes at the period desired. Table 74. — Crown ?pace in Per Cent of Acre Required bv Do.minant Trees of Loblolly Pine of Different Diameters on Different Quality Sites. Diameter Breasthigh Quality I Quality II Quality III Inches 8 .0019 .0027 .0026 9 .0024 .0037 .0035 10 .0031 .0048 .0045 11 .0038 .0058 .0055 12 .0046 .0070 .0065 13 .0054 .0083 .0080 14 .0064 .0096 .0096 15 .0073 .0109 .0109 16 .0084 .0122 .0122 17 .0094 .0135 .0135 18 .0104 .0149 .0149 19 .0115 .0163 .0163 20 .0127 .0179 .0179 21 .0139 .0151 .0168 .0211 .0195 .0212 22 23 24 IXCREASINO THE REVENUE FROM TIMBERLAXD. Eeducing Waste in Logging. A considerable source of loss of timber is the cutting of extra long logs. The usual length of allowance is four inches above the scale length of the log. Logs are frequently cut, however, with 6 or 8 inches extra length. If cutting is carefully done a 3-inch allowance is suf- ficient for logs less than 14 inches in diameter and 4 inches for logs of lai'ger diameter. Another source of loss is in cutting extra high stumps. This is sel- dom done now, however, except by contractors, small mill men, or unskilled farm laborers, hired during the winter months. As a rule, stumps are cut as low in loblolly pine logging as is possible. One rea- 144 LOBLOLLY OK NOKTH CAROLINA PINE. son for this is that the trees often grow on small hillocks or mounds, which enables the sawyer to cut low without too much discomfort in stooping. Some loggers require stumps of all trees less than 16 inches in diameter to be less than a foot high. A reasonable height for stumps is one equal to the diameter of the tree up to 18 inches. There is no necessity, however, for increasing the height of the stump above 18 inches; even large trees can be sawn as low as that without making the sawyer stoop. (Plate XXIII.) Table 75. — Value op Lumber, F. O. B., Norfolk, Va., Contained in One Foot of Sound Stump. Diameter breast- high of tree Inches Value of lumber f. 0. b. Norfolk Diameter breasthigh of tree Inches Value of lumber f. 0. b. Norfolk 8 $ 0.05 15 $ 0.27 9 .06 16 .31 10 .08 17 .36 11 .11 18 .41 12 .15 19 .46 13 .18 20 .53 14 .22 21 .59 The loss from high stumps, as from long logs, although trifling for each tree, in the aggregate amounts to a great deal at the end of a year in large cuttings. The stump contains the very best quality of timber in the tree, and eveiy inch of it should be taken when possible. Table 75 shows the loss in lumber in every linear foot of sound stump which is left unused. These values are based on the N^o. 1 grade butt logs. If an additional linear foot could be utilized from only one-fourth of the trees cut in a year's operation, it would add to the Norfolk value of the output $360 for every million feet sawed. This is on the basis of a 13-inch tree, scaling 125 board feet Doyle-Scribner. By lowering the height of the stumps and cutting the logs as short as possible, not only an additional 2 feet of height may be obtained but the scale yield from the tree may often be increased by throwing the logs in a larger diameter class. By shortening the upper logs large knots will often be thrown into the log above, which is usually of lower grade, and in this way raise the grades of several boards sawed from the log below. (Page 106.) Another source of loss in cutting is the injuiy done to small trees by breaking them down. This loss is not reflected in immediate operations but it lessens the future yield, since it destroys trees which would prob- ably have yielded several saw logs by the time of the second cut. (Plate XXI.) One of the greatest wastes in logging and one which can be greatly reduced, is using vigorous young trees of pine and other valuable spe- LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. . 145 cies for cross-ties in trams and logging roads. A tree large enough to make such a cross-tie is from 8 to 12 inches in diameter on the stump, and there are about 500 such trees used in laying one mile of tramway. If the increment on these trees amounts to 2,850 feet, board measure, a year until the time of the second cutting in ten years, there has been a loss of 28,000 feet of timber from the 320 acres -which was logged by means of this spur road. This loss amounts to 85 board feet per acre. Some loggers, especially where the mill men own the timber, take up the cross-ties and relay them several times. Others, however, never use a tie the second time, after the spikes are drawn. The loss of this young timber is an immense drain on the future yield of the forest and goes far toward keeping it in its depleted condition, as it destroys so many trees which Avould be the largest trees at the time of the next cutting. Over the greater portion of the pine land there is sufficient scrubby hardwood to be used for ties. Where the track is temporary and there is an abundant supply of small hardwood, owners of tim- berland should specify in their sale contracts, or in logging contracts, that all cross-ties and bridge timbers are to be cut from the cheaper class of hardwoods; black gum, oaks, and maples. Where there is an insufficient supply of hardwood timber, the best portion of the tops of medium grade pines which are cut for saw logs should be used, or short bodied or defective pines which will not make good milling trees by the next cutting, or trees thinned from dense groups of pine. There is also some waste of timber in skidding, a considerable portion of which should be avoided, by using for skidways and loading tables, logs of a poor class of hardwoods, defective pines or trees from thick groups of pines which need thinning. The same applies to the use of timber for the construction of corduroy roads, small bridges, cribbing, and trusses. Another item in which there is great waste of young timber is fuel for logging locomotives. The contractors or cutters, who supply fuel, generally take out the clearest and straightest young trees on account of the ease with which they can be split. Defective trees, whenever pos- sible, should be used for such fuel, and where the locomotive boiler furnace is large enough to take round wood, the knotty part of the tops Avhich can not be split, should be utilized^ in that way, together with the limbs. Where all the fuel for the logging locomotives can not be supplied in this way, the rest of it should be cut from groups of young trees which require thinning. In fact this offers, together with the use of young trees for cross-ties, the best means of making, at no expense, thinnings which will be of great benefit to the forest and largely improve its condition, and increase, instead of decreasing, the yield at the time of the next cutting. In logging over a large tract 20,000 to 50,000 acres, nearly one cord of fuel is required for moving 10,000 feet of logs from the forest to the sa^wmill. If even one-half of this is young timber, it means the removal of four 8-inch trees, or their equivalent, per acre for 10 146 LOBLOLLY OK NORTH CAROLINA PINE. locomotive fuel. If these trees are 8 inches in diameter, ttere is a loss at the next cutting in ten years of 160 feet, board measure, per acre. Large numbers of small trees are also needlessly broken down by saw- yers ; by careless felling, or are cut for bed trees. Rules to Govern Logging. Owniers of timberland who wish to (1) prevent waste of their timber and (2) cut to the most advantageous size for securing the greatest present yields from the forest and maintain it on a producing basis should require of loggers the observance of the following regulations : (1) Rigid protection from fires must be afforded all cut-over lands during re-stocking, since probably one-fifth of all the young timber, except on wet soil, is destroyed or injured by fires. (2) Sound young pines unless suppressed, must not be used for tram- road cross-ties, for fuel for locomotives, corduroy roads, skidAvays, etc., unless it is impossible to obtain other timber. (3) When no other timber is available for the above uses young pines in dense groups and crooked, limby, short-bodied, or oppressed trees which will not make clear merchantable logs of good size by the next cutting must be used in preference to other trees. (4) Large trees must not be thrown in clumps of young trees. (5) No dominant or codominant trees less than 16 inches in diameter breasthigh must be cut unless taken from a dcase group. (6) In case of clean cutting seed trees must be left. (7) Stumps must not be higher than the diameter in the case of trees under 18 inches in diameter on the stump, and not more than 18 inches in larger trees. (8) Sound merchantable logs 6 inches or more in diameter used for skidAvays and loading platforms must not be left in the woods. Increase in Cost of Handling Small Timber. The increase in the cost of handling and converting was found to be about 3.3 per cent for each decrease of 10 board feet in the Doyle-Scrib- ner scale of the log in the smaller diameters. The size of the mill-run h)g between the years 1895 and 1900 was more than 80 feet. It is now between 30 and 40 feet, Doyle-Scribner, in many of the larger mills operating in the ISTorfolk district. If the cost of logging and milling a 13-inch log, scaling 81 feet by the Doyle-Scribner rule, is regarded as 100 per cent, then the increase in the cost of logging and milling smaller logs can be showTi by the per cent of increase over the cost for this size log. Table 76 shows the cost of logging and manufacture of logs of different sizes allowing a 3.3 per cent increase in cost for every decrease of 10 feet in the scale of the log. f LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 147 Table 76. — Incuease ix the Cost of Manufacturing Lumber With Decrease in the Size of THE Log. Diameter of log • Scale of log Cost of logging and milling Inches Feet b. m. Per cent 13 81 100 12 64 105 11 49 110 10 36 115 9 25 120 It would cost 15 per cent more to manufacture lumber from lO-inch logs than from 13-incli logs, consequently, disregarding the oven-un, the larger logs might be regarded as 15 per cent more valuable than the small ones even if the value of the lumber per 1,000 feet Avere the same from logs of both sizes. RELATIVE VALUE OF TREES FOR DIFFERENT USES. The wood of loblolly pine is commonly measured either as logs, scaled by Doyle-Scribner rule, or as cords of 128 cubic feet with the bark on, or as cords of 160 cubic feet with the bark peeled. Piling is now usually purchased on the same basis as logs for lumber — the diam- eter of the log being taken in the middle (the average of the two ends) and the volume of the log scaled by a log rule. Since only the straightest and longest bodied trees are used for piling, the stumpage value of tim- ber selected for this use should be higher than that of the same size sold for milling purposes. Veneer is generalh' cut from logs 16 inches and over in diameter. In smaller logs there is too large a proportion of waste in the wood which is left in the core. Small coarse grained and somewhat knotty stock can be used for crate veneers, but for panel veneer fine grained timber, either free from knots or with only a few knots, is desired. Pine veneer stock is purchased entirely by log scale, and its value, consequently, is that of the appropriate grades and sizes of logs which are purchased. (Tables 50 to 54.) (Plate XII, C shows excel- lent veneer logs.) Only small timber is purchased by the cord. Bolts for boxes and crates, staves and headings are purchased by the cord Avith the bark on. Pulpwood stock is purchased by the cord generally with the bark re- moved or rossed. (For proportion of bark see Table 34.) The relative value of small trees of different sizes for cordwood, both rossed and with the bark on and for sawtimber is shown in Table 77. Stumpage values in the table are placed at $1.00 per thousand feet for lumber; at $1.00 a long cord for wood measured after it is rossed, dried and racked ; and at $1.00 a cord for wood measured with the bark on. To use this table it is necessary to multiply the volumes which are given in the table for trees of each diameter by the relation of the stumpage at $1.00 to the 148 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. actual stumpage price whicli is offered, using as a basal diameter the diameter breasthigh of the average sized tree on the tract. For ex- ample : If board measure stumpage were worth $1.50 per thousand feet, the volume which is given for the average tree in the board measure column should be multiplied by 1.50. If the cordwood stumpage meas- ured after peeling were worth 50 cents a cord, the value given of the average sized tree which is under this head should be multiplied by .50. A comparison of the two resultant figures will show in which form the timber could be marketed most profitably. Cords of 128 cubic feet with bark on can be converted to cords of 160 cubic feet with bark on by deducting one-fifth from the value per cord of 128 feet. The table is based on all trees in stands 6 inches and over in diameter breasthigh. Cordwood is cut to 3 inches inside the bark at the top for small trees and 6 inches for large trees. If knotty tops are not used the values of the trees must be reduced about one-tenth. Table 77. — Comparative Value of Trees op Different Sizes for Cordwood With the Bark ON, Cordwood Peeled, and fob Lumber (Scaled by Doyle-Scribner Rule). (Based on the average tree. Quality II) Diameter Breasthigh Inches Cordwood, 128 cubic feet, with the bark on at Jl a cord Cordwood, 160 cubic feet, measured after peeling, at $1 a cord Saw logs scaled by Doyle- Scribner rule, at $1 a 1,000 board feet 6 S .065 S .036 $ .01 7 .08 .045 .013 8 .126 .07 .023 9 .174 .95 .04 10 .225 .12 .056 11 .28 .17 .076 12 .325 .205 .10 13 .40 .25 .122 14 .475 .29 .156 15 .54 .34 .18 16 .625 .40 .22 17 .71 .46 .25 18 .79 .51 .29 SILVICULTURAL SYSTEMS OF CUTTING IN DIFFERENT TYPES. The widely different conditions under which loblolly pine grows re- quire different methods of cutting in order to obtain the most thorough restocking. At times, however, it is not possible to adopt what is re- garded as the most suitable system of restocking on account of the method of logging which is employed, and there must be a compromise in order to meet the logging requirements. There are in common use tliree different methods of logging loblolly pine. On wet land logging railroads are used with cable skidding, gen- erally with overhead cable; or sometimes skidding is done by cable direct from the streams or canals dug for the purpose. On uplands log- ging railroads are used, particularly on large tracts in extensive opera- tions with slack cable skidding or drag skidding. This is frequently N. 0. GEOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SURVEY. PLATE XVII. Staud shown in Plate XVI after a combined first cutting and improvement thinning. Most of the knotty dominant trees have been cut, leaving the stand formed entirely of slender, clean-stemmed codomi- nant and intermediate trees. These, with increased diameters, will yield from 3 to 3% nearly clear logs, which will saw out approximately the same type of wood as that shown in Plate IX-B. More than 3,000 feet D.-S. per acre were removed from the stand in this cutting. The average log, however, scaled less than 12 feet. (Author's illustration.) N. C. GEOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SURVEY. PLATE XVI. Stand 25 to 30 years old, Quality II, before being thinned. The large knots on the dominant trees are noteworthy. Trees to be removed in first improvement thinning marked "X." (Author's illustration.) LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 149 supplemented with wheel logging. Wheels alone are used by farmers in logging woodlots. They are also often used exclusively in logging such tracts as are near floating water, in which case the timber is logged by wheels to the water and then rafted to the mill. Logging with railroad and overhead cable on wet land necessitates either clear cutting or cutting in strips since the breakage of small trees is very large. The cost of construction is comparatively heavy. Man- agement consequently can not be intensive since relatively long intervals must elapse between cutting periods. Logging with railroad on upland with ground cable skidding is not so expensive as swamp logging and the breakage of small timber is not so gi'eat ; consequently it can be re- peated at more frequent inteiwals. (Plate XXI.) Logging Avith wheels permits cutting at short intervals in veiy intensive operations. (Plates XIV and XX.) In deciding on the method of cutting it is necessary to take into consideration the method of logging. The object is to afford the most frequent cutting periods, Avhich are consistent with high earn- ing power. The following methods of cutting on different types of forests are recommended. (1) UiAand Old Fichh. On dry soils loblolly pine forms pure stands only on old fields or on longleaf pine or shortleaf pine land, which have been cut clean and burned, and where the naked soil conditions resemble those of old fields. The small intermediate and suppressed trees in such stands recuperate slowly after logging. Since the suppressed trees are invariably short- bodied, a second cutting must be deferred for a long time. This results in the crowns of these trees becoming large and interfering with the growth of the young stand Avhich appears in the openings after the first cut. For this reason clean cutting is preferable on all such sites, (Plate III.) The mature stand should be removed in one or two cuttings. In case two cuttings are made, the smaller and less promising trees, as well as the knottiest trees, should be removed at the first cutting. The scat- tered seed tree system of reproduction should be used ; from 3 to 6 trees should be left per acre, unless there are near-by dominant trees in mature stands which can be relied upon. The best formed trees should be re- served for seed trees. If the trees are wind-firm, isolated seed trees of the dominant class may be left. If, as is frequently the case, on dry, heavy clays of the Piedmont, or when sand in the Coastal Plain is under- lain by hardpan, the trees are not wind-firm (Pig. 3, a and h), seed trees should be left only in groups. If these seed trees have slender, clean stems, they can be carried over until the succeeding stand is cut, when their large diameters and clear timber will render them extremely valu- able. 150 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLIXA PINE. On the dry sandhills or Piedmont uplands loblolly pine reproduces thoroughly only when its seed come in direct contact with mineral soil. Stands on very sandy soil are frequently destitute of undergrowth, and the leaf litter is extremely thin. (Plate III.) When 50 years old the cover in such stands will often be so open that if the mineral soil is exposed, dense mats of seedlings appear during wet periods. In the Piedmont, where the undergrowth is heavy it may be necessary to cut the small broadleaf trees which have appeared. (Plate VIII, A.) In open stands the undergrowth is desirable for lessening the evaporation of soil moisture both by sun and wind. When logging is carried on during wet weather, particularly during the winter, enough mineral soil may be brought to the surface to make a suitable mineral seed- bed. On small tracts, a proper seedbed may be prepared by raking up the leaf litter and using it for farm purposes, such as compost, stable absorbent or mulch. This is frequently done, and while it is not intended for securing restocking, the latter follows as a natural consequence. On such sites, where a suitable mineral seedbed is found, reproduction of loblolly pine begins to take place by the time the stands are forty or fifty years old, although most of the seedlings die after a few years, since the shade of the old trees is still too dense. On the other hand, where the leaf litter is deep and has not been disturbed, young gro-Ri;h comes in slowly. This is well shown by stands at Grimes- land, Pitt County, North Carolina, examined in the spring of 1909. Loblolly pine had partially replaced longleaf pine on sandy-loam upland (N'orfolk loam). The tract, Avhich was near a dwelling, had been pro- tected from fire, and hogs had been excluded from it for more than twenty years. The leaf litter had accumulated to a depth of from six to eight inches. Although there were large openings, and the surround- ing loblolly pines bore seed abundantly, the stocking was not complete on account of the dryness of the thick leaf litter. On the other hand near-by open lands, on which the deep humus and litter had been de- stroyed by fire and hogs, were well stocked. It may be desirable in the case of farm forests to cut clean, cultivate the soil a few years until the humus is partially exhausted, and then restock. In such a case if there are no near-by seed trees it will be necessary to plant. While the destruction of litter on this type is desirable for securing restocking, it is not necessary as a protective measure for old timber. The ground cover rarely becomes sufficiently dense for a spring fire to endanger the stand. It is undesirable to destroy the humus on the clay soils of the Piedmont region for the reason that the water table is 30 to 45 feet from the surface during dry periods. During the autumn the amount of available soil moistiire in the fine-grained clay soils is small on account of their high hygroscopicity. The humus covering, there- fore, acts as a protection against evaporation of soil moisture and should never be destroyed except when necessary to obtain natural reproduction. LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 151 (2) Permanent or "Natural" Lohlolly Pine Type. Ou the so-called "natural" or permanent loblolly soils which occupy Quality 1 sites and some of the best Quality II sites, loblolly pine forms pure even-aged groups or stands. On such sites the pine is very tolerant of shade (Plate IV) and has a greater power of recuperation from suppression (Plate VIII, B), and a thrifty young stand is easily obtained in the partial shade resulting from the successive removal of trees in the old stand. The stand, therefore, lends itself to a diameter limit cutting. By such cutting the waste in cutting the slender inter- mediate trees (Plate XVII) is prevented and a greater profit in holding them for additional diameter growth is assured. On "natural" sites the mature stand may be removed by gradual cutting in two or more succes- sive fellings. The first removes the larger trees to a minimum diameter of from 14 to 16 inches, according to the quality site. The second, made from 10 to 20 years later, should remove the remaining timber, unless the small trees will still show sufficient increment to justify holding them for a third cut, which Avill often be the case. If the stand is more than 45 years old when the first felling is made, the intermediate and suppressed trees, since by that time they have passed the stage of most rapid height growth, can gain very little in height after lumbering. With logging operations costing $13 per 1,000 feet the maximum rate of interest (8 per cent) is obtained on Quality I site by clean cutting when the stand is 40 years old. The number of trees per acre 6 inches and over in diameter breasthigh in a stand at this age is 273, the aver- age diameter 11.4 inches, the average volume 98 board feet, and total yield 26,754 feet per acre by Doyle-Scribner rule; the average stumpage value per tree, 35 cents, or the total stumpage value per acre $94.05. In a normal stand at this age the average number of dominant trees is about 123, having an average diameter breasthigh of 13.2 inches, an average volume of 191 board feet, and an average log scale of 59 feet. If instead of cutting clean only the dominant trees are cut, the yield would be 23,400 board feet, having a Norfolk, Va., value of $17.16 per 1,000 feet, or a stumpage value of $77.49 per acre, under an operating cost of $13 per 1,000 feet. The remaining portion of the stand above six inches in diameter, including the intermediate and suppressed trees, have an approximate stumpage value of $18.06 per acre. This value is made up of 150 trees, with an average volume of 54 board feet, an average diameter breasthigh of 9.1 inches, and a stumpage value of about 12 cents per tree. The examination of old cuttings indicates that in stands of Quality I the intermediate and suppressed trees, because of the improved light conditions and greater amount of soil moisture, made available by the removal of the dominant trees, will make almost as rapid growth in diameter as dominant trees of the same diameters. In 15 years they may, therefore, attain an average diameter breasthigh 152 LOBLOLLY OK iS*ORTH CAROLINA FIXE. of 12.5 inches, an average volume of 128 board feet, or a total yield per acre of 19,200 board feet. Since, however, the value of the timber of the intermediate trees Avill be greater than that of the dominant trees of the same diameter, they will have an approximate value of $17.50 or $18.00 per 1,000 board feet at ISTorfolk, and a stumpage value of 55 cents each, under an operating cost of $13, or a total stumpage value of $82.50 per acre. This amount represents the accunuilated compound in- terest for 15 years on the trees left for growth, plus the original invest- ment in these trees of $18.06. The original investment has thus yielded 10.7 per cent compound interest as against 8.6 which would have been obtained by cutting clear at 40 years. Moreover, the average size log under gradual felling is much larger. By cutting clean at 40 years the average log is 34 feet. By making two fellings the average log of the first cutting is 89 feet; that of the second felling 40 feet. The average annual yield per acre by clean felling at 40 years is 669 board feet; by removing the timber in two cuts it is 775 board feet. In this calculation only the trees which were 6 inches and over in diameter at the time of the first cutting are considered. In addition there are many suppressed trees, which were less than 6 inches in diameter at the time of the first cutting. Many of these will have diameters of from 7 to 9 inches at the time of the second cut and will be merchantable in a third cutting. Since the crown cover of the stand will be only about one-half complete, even up to the time when the second felling is made, a thorough re- stocking will have taken place. Within 15 years after the felling the young stand which will have appeared should be from 30 to 50 feet in height, the two age-classes resembling a two-storied stand. In the sec- ond felling it is often possible to remove some of the largest trees in the young stand — those with coarse knots. The second felling in the old stand will have the same effect upon the young growth as that of a heavy .irregular thinning and improvement cutting. The successive removal of the larger trees was in vogue in cutting loblolly pine in eastern Virginia and North Carolina until after 1900. It was customary up to that date to cut to a stump diameter of from 14 to 16 inches, which removed in the first cutting chiefly the dominant trees. After 1900 this method was superseded either by clean cutting, where the conditions justified it, or by reducing the diameter limit to 8 or 10 inch on the stump. Gradual felling under present market con- ditions and methods of logging, seems best suited to pure stands of loblolly pine on good sites. In place, however, of merely cutting to a diameter limit or of removing only the dominant trees as was the custom and as was the method used in the example, only large trees, whose increment has begun to decline, should be removed in the first cutting. The amount of the first cut should be so adjusted as to equalize the two cuts, either in volume or in value, taking interest into consid- eration. It should be possible to obtain at the second cutting a large LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 153 number of trees of relatively high grade. By uniform spacing to secure the fullest individual growth, trees of large diameters and yielding a valuable product could be obtained. (Table 78.) While not without drawbacks, this method of cutting has many advantages in its favor. The advantages and disadvantages of this method are as follows: 1. The cut per acre which can be made at one time by a logging crew is less with two cuttings than with clean cutting. This, however, is fully compensated for by the larger size of the logs, resulting in cheaper logging and cheaper millwork. 2. Logging the old trees in young stands is somewhat more costly than clean cutting. This, however, is again compensated for by the cleaning and thinning of the young growth. 3. Some of the young trees are broken down by felling the larger trees. "With careful felling the damage is small, since the old sup- pressed and intermediate trees have very long, rather than wide-spread- ing, heavy crowns. 4. The reduction in the volume which is cut per acre also increases the cost of railroad construction per 1,000 feet cut. This, however, is far more than met by the enhanced value of the product. In practice it should be easy to determine Avhether the increased value per 1,000 feet of the stand ^nll be greater or less than the increased cost of production per 1,000 feet. Since too many trees in the old stand will retard the height growth of near-by groups of young trees, the first cutting must be moderately heavy. The retarding of the dominant trees in the young stand, how- ever, is desirable since the trunk is freer of knots, the knots are smaller, and the proportion of high grade lumber is greater in dominant trees, particularly in the lower logs, when they are crowded. This system of cutting is one which has been satisfactory to the lumbermen for many years, and which helped to maintain the supply of loblolly piiie in the Norfolk (Va.), Albemarle Sound, Plymouth (N". C), and "Washing- ton (N. C.) sections. It has further the advantage of affording heavy cuttings at intervals of not more than twenty years and, therefore, should be practiced in place of clear cutting, Avhich makes logging pos- sible only at from 40 to 50 year intervals, and yields a lower grade of logs. In following gradual felling, however, the suppressed trees which are left for additional growth should not be relied upon for seed trees, but these should be reserved from the dominant part of the stand. These should be trees Avith the choicest stems and should be carried to large diameters, if their rate of growth is satisfactory, to furnish high grade veneer stock, or large size piling, or choice sawlogs which will yield 70 per cent of ISTo. 1 and ^o. 2 lumber. The form of forest sought should be large even-aged blocks. In log- ging with railroad it is possible to thin one block when the adjoining block is being cut for larger timber. This makes thinnings possible and yet maintains the cut.. 154 LOBLOLLY OR JS'OBTH CAROLIIS^A PINE. (3) Longhaf Pine Flat Lands. The first step in connection with the management of these lands should be to increase the density of the stands by protection against fire. (Plate VI, A.) At present on account of the irregularity of the stands only selection culling or cutting clean in small groups is possible. The diameter for cutting should be controlled as indicated in the discussion of the method of cutting in open pure uneven-aged stands. The method of cutting in large even-aged groups should be governed by the quality site. On best sites cutting to a diameter limit may be followed. On the dry sites the stands should be thinned in the manner described under thinnings, provided thinnings can be conducted without loss, the ob- ject of thinning being to develop the best formed dominant and the codominant trees, and the stands should be cut clean in one cutting or in two cuttings at intervals of 10 to 15 years. Some of the best de- veloped dominant trees should be left for seeding, unless mature and heavy groups are near enough to assure thorough stocking. The ulti- mate form of forest which should be sought should be large even-aged groups or blocks, varying in age by 15 to 20 years, confonning to the inten^al between cuttings. In man_y places there is already an excellent basis for this form and the present distribution of age classes enables it to be readily obtained. Seeding would take place from near-by mature groups or seed trees could be left. Under good management these lands are capable of yielding between 450 and 500 board feet a year. At present the yield is much less, probably not over 300 feet a year. On some of the medium dry sites with compact loamy, clayey, or silty soils having a low humifying or oxidizing capacity, the pine straw and leaf litter accumulates under heavy stands of timber to a depth of six to eight inches. This litter dries out so thoroughly during the autumn that seedlings, which were established on it during the damp spring, die. Consequently, it is necessary when the mineral soil has not been brought to the surface during lumbering or by hogs, to destroy the leaf litter immediately after or during lumbering, in order to expose the mineral soil sufficiently to secure restocking. (J^) Mixed With Hardivoods in Flat Swamps. The present manner of cutting this type removes all of the pine and the best trees of the more valuable hardwoods and leaves a large number of old defective and small trees, chiefly water gum, SAveet gum, and red maples. Many of these are suppressed trees which fail to recuperate and make additional height groAvth. They serve, however, largely as seed trees. The resultant forest is a young, even-aged stand fonned chiefly of red maple, water gum, and sweet gTim, but containing some pine over- topped by the trees which were left at the first cutting. It is an unde- sirable mixture on the whole, but a convenient form which permits con- LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 155 version either into even-aged mixed stands or into group selection stands. Either of these is desirable. In the event of conversion into even-aged stands, the next cutting would be deferred until the young age class was large enough to be cut, at which time all trees except select seed trees would be cut. These seed trees, three to four to the acre, could remain uncut until the next felling period, when, if well selected, they would have attained large diameters and be extremely valuable. Large areas of even-aged stands, however, do not admit of thinnings, under present conditions, and consequently the best individual development of the tree is not obtained. A group selection form can be developed by felling the oldest age class before the younger class reaches merchantable size, by the removal of only a portion of the young growth, and cutting clean in groups as much as possible in order to establish even-aged groups. In this manner three or four age classes can be established, each occupying groups which might consist of only a few trees or might be an acre in extent. This is a very desirable form, since at the same time that the oldest age class is felled thinnings and cleanings could be conducted in the younger groups. This Avould enable the trees in each group to obtain the maxi- mum growth, and at the same time by means of cleanings to eradicate gradually the inferior species. The forest should be managed for the production of large sized oak, poplar, ash, and pine. Since the soil conditions are not perfectly uniform in these swamps, certain areas, often less than one-fourth of an acre in extent, are better adapted to the growth- of some species than of others. So far as is economically possible an attempt should be made to localize the species on the sites on which they make the heaviest yield, by leaving near-by seed trees of these species. The present complex mixture should also be converted into a more simple one by eliminating those species which are of least value, such as water gum, red maple, and beech. (Plate I.) The following species are the most valuable both silviculturally and for lumber, and preference should be given them in forming mixed stands on appropriate sites — loblolly pine, SAvamp chestnut oak, yellow poplar, ash, sweet gum, water oak, and elm. Except sweet gum and elm, these species are all rather intolerant of shade and require plenty of light for seedling establishment. (5) Loblolly Pine With Cypress in Deep Swamps. These stands of mixed cypress, pine, and black gum (Plate V, B) are logged either from canals, from streams, or from logging railroads by means of steam skidders and overhead, cable ways. Since there is a large breakage of small timber with this system of logging, it is recom- mended that clear cutting be practiced and that seed trees be left both of cypress and of pine. (Plate XXI.) The establishment of both species. 156 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. however, takes place only during the drier seasons, consequently there is no assurance that they will ionxi a large part of the stand. Their yield and value is so much greater than that of the gum and water ash with which they are associated that management should look to eradi- cating or reducing these species and supplanting them with cypress and pine. (6) Loblolly Pine Witli Pocoson Pine on Savannas. The open stands of this type, which consists of scattered trees, require that the density be increased in order to utilize fully the soil. (Plate V, A.) Where the stands are open and the age classes are very irregular, selection cutting (culling) must continue at present. The diameter for cutting should be controlled as indicated in selection cutting in open stands in Qualities II and III. Old even-aged groups should be cut clean, leaving seed trees. There are numerous, though scattered, even- aged groups of young trees, and with these as nuclei a group selection form of forest should be developed. If the cutting interval is 20 years, these can eventually be merged into definite even-aged blocks, the age interval between them being 20 to 30 years. As these even-aged blocks mature they should he cut clean, the immature blocks being thinned during. each cutting. It is necessary to destroy moss during dry seasons since its accumula- tion retards aeration and renders the soil more acid, thus rendering it less suitable for loblolly pine Avhich has no visible mycorrhiza on its roots. It also prevents the establishment of loblolly pine seedlings on thick carpets of living sphagnum or on its raw humus, although the pocoson pine can establish itself. Likewise the heavy sod of grasses and herbaceous plants materially interferes at times with the establishment of seedlings, although the presence of water on these lands during the spring genninating period tends to limit their occupancy by loblolly pine. The mixture on these sites, should consist of longleaf , pocoson, and loblolly pines. These lands are capable of yielding from 300 to 350 board feet a year in a rotation of 60 to 80 years, Avith cutting intervals of 20 to 25 years. At present the annual yield is less than 200 feet. (7) Lohlolly Pine With Shorthaf Pine and Hardwoods on Uplands. The forests of this type should be managed as selection, preferably as group selection stands. (Plate VII.) The loblolly pine should be cut when it is about 16 inches in diameter breasthigh and when not more than 70 years old. The trees will yield about 3 logs, the average log scaling about 55 feet. Although loblolly pine makes more rapid growth than shortleaf in this type it is not so desirable a tree as the latter on account of its coarse, knotty wood, except on lower slopes, where the moist soils are suited to its growth. The ideal mixture which should be N. C. GEOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SURVEY. PLATE XVIII. N. C. GEOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SURVEY. PLATE XIX. N. C. GEOLOGICAL AKD ECOXOMIC SURVEY. PLATE XX. fe o S g aj g- — — o S « 1-1 *i) — . — ^ C "J ti S =3 O O g ^ C ^ C^ CO S -e 2 -2 > O '2 ^ o ^ "-I »j .a . r3 Si C 02 1 = =; -^ "" ;§ ^ ti = -t I i "^ I I 5 a- -^ O! to a g a 2 a- ;n '-' .5 — . j- 'J C C tf ^ QJ > fc. 7i ■? ~ ° 5 '^ '•= r-i i " CJ "^ " ^ ^ O '^ o SX-t-t .*J ^ O C 1* r- >> " X ^ 5" -2 ^ 2 N. C. GEOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SURVEY. PLATE XXI. N. C. GEOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SURVEY. PLATE XXII. ""So 1 TS 2 I § S N. C. GEOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SURVEY. PLATE XXIII. S 02 P. t) ^ >. CO d "S 2 IE £ s n^c LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 157 sought should be loblolly pine, shortleaf pine, yellow poplar, and south- ern red oak. In order to obtain restocking, it is necessary to bring the mineral soil to the surface, to cut heavily, and afford plenty of light. PROTECTION FRO.M FIRES. The greatest destruction of young timber in the loblolly pineries is caused by forest fires. The tendency of the pine is to seek open places where it secures full sunlight; these places are generally grassy, and if a ground fire occuTs before the pine is large enough to withstand it the young growth is injured or destroyed. The frequent fires on the heavy sod on the longleaf pine flat land and the pocoson pine savannas are responsible to a large extent for the open stands on such lands. (Plates V, A ; V, B ; VI, A ; XX and XXII.) The same is true of the grassy, peaty lands, and the logged-over swamp lands in which grass and short- lived shrubs have secured a foothold and which diy out sufficiently to burn. The difiiculties of checking a forest fire in this region during a dry season, when it is under headway before a wind, are evident. The avail- able force for fighting fire is limited; the areas are large and often difficult of access on account of undergrowth in the swamps. The most satisfactory way of reducing loss from forest fire is to prevent the fires from starting or from getting under headway. While some fires undoubtedly originate from lightning, which can not be prevented, the greater number start from one or another of the fol- lowing sources: (1) Locomotives, especially logging locomotives. (2) Logging crews or from logging camps. (3) Farm laborers, especially in the spring when new ground is being cleared, brush burned, or fence lines cleaned. (4) Burning dead grass on grazing land, from which the fire spreads to woodland, or burning the woodland for pasturage. (5) Hunters and fishermen. (6) Carelessness on the part of other persons. The fires from all these causes can be prevented or reduced in number through using greater care in handling fire in the forest, posting notices, and general education of the people to the losses from fires. The law of IN'orth Carolina in regard to setting fire to woodland, brush land or gi-ass land, reads as follows : Section 8 of Chapter 2'f3, Public Laics of 1915. — If any person shall inten- tionally set fire to any grass land, brush land, or woodland, except it be his own property, or in that case without first giving notice to all persons own- ing or in charge of lands adjoining the land intended to be fired, and also taking care to watch such fire while burning and taking effectual care to extinguish such fire before it shall reach any lands near to or adjoining the lands so fired, he shall for every such offense be guilty of a misdemeanor and shall be fined not less than ten dollars, nor more than fifty dollars, or imprisoned not exceeding thirty days. This shall not prevent action for damages sustained by the owner of any property from such fires. 158 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. In the portions of the State whore this hnv lias been publicly posted and arrests and prosecutions made under its provisions, it has had the effect of greatly lessening the number of fires from carelessness. (7) In addition, o\\Tiers should require persons wishing to hunt, especially to hunt at night with torch, to obtain a permit, with the understanding that the services of the holder of the permit shall be available for fighting fire without pay. (8) 'No grazing should be permitted on land Avhich was burned that season. The most satisfactory way to protect forest land from outside fires is to burn in the fall, as soon as the leaves have fallen and are sufficiently dry, a strip 100 feet wide around the area to be protected. Sometimes it is sufficient to plow only several furrows around the area or two furrows 100 feet apart and burn the intervening strip. (Plate XVIII.) It is essential to protect all young pine trees from fire until they are from 20 to 30 feet high and their stems are well cleaned for 10 or 15 feet. (Plate IV.) This means a period of from 10 to 15 years after lumbering and restocking. Areas containing young growth should be surrounded by fire lines, kept clear by annual burning during damp weather. During very dry weather it is advisable to patrol large bodies of well established young growth, if at all exposed to fire, l^eighborhood associations should be formed in sections of counties where the damage from fire is great, and these associations assume the responsibility of protection. The members can issue permits for grazing and night hunt- ing on their lands, prohibiting during the year the use of areas which have been burned for these purposes, appoint patrols during dry, windy seasons and organize forces for fighting fires in ease one starts. BRUSH LOPPING. Wherever clean cutting is practiced and seed trees left, or where cut- ting is done to a diameter limit and only small trees are left, it is desir- able tliat the branches be lopped from the tops in order to reduce the danger from fire. The lopped branches lie close to the earth and soon decay. Tops Avhich are unlopped may remain a fire menace for many years. (Plate XIX.) Lopping is not necessary on very wet lands or Avhere pine is mixed with hardwoods, unless cutting is clean and the amount of slash is large. Lopping without burning is generally suf- ficient; only in exceptional cases is it necessary to burn the slash. Whether it should be piled before burning depends upon the conditions, but piling is generally advisable. No slash should be left touching seed trees or groups of young trees. Damp weather without wind should be selected for burning. There should always be an ample force on hand to look after the fire. N. C. GEOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SURVEY. PLATE XXIV. Crown cover of loblolly pine. Quality I stand, 70 years old. Its density is noteworthy. (Author's illustration.) N. C. GEOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SURVEY. PLATE XXV. Crown cover of loblolly pine. Quality III stand in old field, age 50 years. The complete isolation of the crowns is characteristic. Groups of seedlings are beginning to estab- lish themselves under such a canopy. (Author's illustration.) LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA FIXE. 159 THINXIXGS. Thinnings are made in crowded even-aged stands in order to concen- trate the productive power of the soil in a few best trees, accelerate their growth, and in this way shorten the time necessary for them to reach maturity. Since only the smaller or defective large trees are removed, the mature stand eventually consists of large well-developed trees. In the natural process of thinning the elimination of the weaker specimens takes place too slowly for the best development of the stand. (Plates IV; XVII; XXVII.) In the struggle for light and food both the sup- pressed and dominant trees suffer. A certain amount of crowding, how- ever, is necessary, particularly during the period of rapid height growth, to develop long straight stems reasonably free from knots in the lower logs. (Plate XVII.) Thinnings, therefore, should Be light during the period of rapid growth in height, and should be largely limited to removing the knottiest trees. After the clear length of stem, however, has been developed (see Table 15) thinnings should be heavy in order to favor the rapid development in diameter of individual stems, the diame- ter of the tree has an important influence; not only on the amount of material in it but also on the high value of the lumber which is ob- tained from it. (See page 120, and Tables 59 to 64, and 71.) It is commonly held that when the larger trees are removed as they come to merchantable size, the smaller trees left will begin to grow fast. Such a thinning may be of benefit to the stand, but not to the same extent as thinnings of the small trees; by thinning the small trees not only a larger amount, but a higher quality is secured. It has already been noted (page 42) that loblolly pine exhibits with age a progressive increase in its light requirements and a corresponding decline in its capacity to endure crown compression. (Plates IV; XI.) This decline is especially marked on the dryer sites. (Plates III, and XXV.) On good sites one effect of this characteristic is that in middle- aged stands, 50 to 75 years, the suppressed and intermediate trees and even such codominant trees as have endured prolonged crown compres- sion lose their capacity to recover rapidly or even at all after their crowns are freed ; on dry sites this inertness of the dominated classes extends to much younger trees. The relative tolerance which the domi- nant trees of different diameters and on different quality sites exhibit as expressed by the demands of the crown for light, is shown numeri- cally by the index of tolerance (Table 78) which is the ratio of the sur- face of the crown space to the area of the surface of the stem of the tree inside the bark. (Plates XXIV; XXV; XXVI; XXVII.) On account of its comparative intolerance of shade the natural thin- 160 LOBLOLLY OK NORTH CAROLINA PINE. ning which takes place in stands is rapid as is shown by the decrease iu the number of trees per acre (Table 42). (Plates IV; XI; XV.) Stands of loblolly pine consequently are less benefited by artificial thin- ning than those of such species as endure more crowding and in which the struggle of the individual trees for supremacy is more prolonged. Stands of this species on good sites (moist soil) are most responsive to thinning (Plate IV) ; those on dry sites are less responsive (Plate III). On very Avet soils thinnings increase but little the growth of the remain- ing trees and for this reason are hardly justifiable. Since tbe power of recuperation of the intermediate and suppressed trees decreases with the age of the stands and with the length of the period of overcrowding, thinnings in old .stands which have never been previously thinned, must be entirely limited to the subordinate classes. In young stands which are thinned when not more than 25 or 30 years old, many dominant trees can be removed, since the codominant and intermediate trees of these ages still retain great recuperative power (Plate IX, A), have approximately the same height as dominant trees, and straighter, clearer, and better formed stems (Plate XVII). Such a thinning constitutes a combined thinning and improvement 'cutting. A thinning of the dominant trees at this age will remove stems with coarse knots which would saw out a large amount of low grade lumber, even after they attained large diameters. (Plate XVI.) It also has the advantage of yielding some sawlog timber, thus making cutting at an early age remunerative. On the poorer, and particularly, on the drier, sites, subsequent thinnings should be made only with the object of forc- ing the development in diameter of the largest and choicest of the trees in the stand. The smaller trees which are crowding the better trees, which are to form the final stand, should be removed^ Thinnings should be repeated, dependent upon their severity, at intervals of from 5 to 15 years. Frequent and light thinnings are preferable to heavy ones made at long intei'vals. The number of trees per acre on the different quality sites decreases in natural stands at different rates in accordance with the age of the stand (Table 42). This rate may serve as a guide in making thinnings at any age. Thinnings are less effective when the first one is deferred until the stand is 40 or more years old. Artificial thinnings should be heavier than natural thinnings, but never so heavy as to leave large openings on all sides of the best trees selected for the final stand. The trees which are removed in older stands should be in the intermediate and codominant crown classes. The openings which are made by removals should be closed before the time of the next thinning in order to secure some lateral crowding and the clearing of the stems of branches before they become too stout and horizontal. Since the development of knots li/i inches in diameter causes a reduction in grade. N. C. GEOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SURVEY. PLATE XXVI. Crowu cover of loblolly pine, Quality II, age 35 years. Crowns small but stems clean. Stand crowded, in urgent need of thinning to develop larger crowns. (Author's illustration.) N. C. GEOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SURVEY. PLATE XXVII. Crown cover of loblolly pine, Quality II, age 35 years. Crowns well developed and sym- metrical. Excellent condition for rapid individual growth. (Author's illustration.) LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 161 sufficient density should be maintained to prevent the development of limbs which would make knots of this size on the lower three logs on Quality I and the lower two logs on Qualities II and III. The sup- pressed trees need not be removed. They make small demand upon soil moisture, yet serve a very useful purpose on account of their low crowns in shading the soil and lessening drying winds. This is particularly applicable to very dry clay sites; less so to very sandy sites. When the mature stand is fully developed, it can be removed in one cutting or in several cuttings made at short intervals. I^otwithstanding that the pure even-aged stands of loblolly pine offer unexcelled inducements for thinnings made for the purpose of acceler- ating the growth of the individual tree, no adequate data are available, either as the result of experience in commercial forests or in experi- mental plots which show the preferable manner in which thinnings should be executed, their cost or their effects upon the yield of the stand. It is believed that by proper thinning the rate of diameter gi-owth of all trees in a stand can be stimulated well beyond that given in Table 71 for dominant trees. There would not be as many trees per acre on such thinned stands as there are in the dominant class of crowded stands (Table 42), but the larger volume per tree and the larger amount of saw timber would more than compensate for the smaller number of trees. A stand containing 6,000 cubic feet per acre in 60 trees, each of which will yield 560 board feet (Tables 19 and 21) or 36,000 feet per acre is far more valuable than one containing 6,000 cubic feet formed of 100 trees, each containing 300 board feet and yielding 31,000 feet per acre, l^ot only is the cost of operation less, there being 50 per cent more logs to handle in the stand containing the larger number of trees, but in addition to the larger yield per acre the stumpage of the larger trees is intrinsically more valuable per unit on account of the larger proportion of wide stock and high grades it will yield. (Pages 119 to 127.) It is possible however to determine approximately the results upon yield of very intensive thinnings by means of data obtained from fully stocked unthinned stands. Certain trees in such stands on account of the fact that they are less crowded and have more growing space have outstripped all others "both in height and diameter. These are the pre- dominant trees which constitute in the normal unthinned fully stocked stand from one-fifth to one-fourth of the number of dominant trees. Xot only have they larger diameters than the other dominant trees but they are also taller. The wide range of diameters of trees in interme- diate and dominant crown classes which enter into the crown cover is shown in Table 1. Had the density of the more crowded portions of the stand been reduced so that the spacing of all the trees equaled that of those of the favored predominant class there would have been fewer 11 J 62 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. trees in the stand but their individual growth should have equaled that of the predominant trees. Careful measurements have been made to determine the area of the optimum crown space required for the growth of dominant trees of different diameters (at different ages) on different quality sites. Table 78 gives the crown space of dominant trees and the distance between trees, while in Table 79 is given the number of .such trees of different diameters which would occupy an acre without retarding accretion. Table 78. — Crown Space, Distance Between Trees and Index of Tolerance of Dominant Trees of Loblolly Pine of Different Diameters on Different Quality Sites. Quality Dia- meter breast- I II III high Inches Crown space Sq. feet Distance between trees Feet Index of toler- ance Crown space Sq. feet Distance between trees Feet Index of toler- ance Crown space Sq. feet Distance between trees Feet Index of toler- ance 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 82 108 137 167 200 235 279 329 366 409 453 501 553 605 659 733 920 10 12 13 15 16 17 19 20 22 23 24 25 27 28 29 31 34 7.2 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.8 7.9 8.1 8.4 8.7 9.0 9.4 9.9 10.4 11.0 11.5 102 137 170 210 240 296 345 396 450 506 563 622 680 742 802 11 13 15 16 17 19 21 22 24 25 27 28 29 31 32 8.6 8.7 8.9 9.1 9.3 9.5 9.8 10.2 10.6 11.1 11.6 12.1 12.7 13.3 13.9 115 152 194 242 296 355 415 474 532 590 648 710 780 12 14 16 18 19 21 23 25 26 27 29 30 32 11.1 11.3 11.4 11.7 11.9 12.2 12.6 13.0 13.4 13.9 14.4 ■ 15.0 15.6 22 23 24 1 The trees which enter into the crown cover can be so thinned as to give each tree the optimum crown space required for that diameter: if the crown space is less than the optimum (Plate XXVII), although there are more trees per acre, the accretion of the individual tree is retarded; if it exceeds the optimum the stand is understocked. (Plate VI, A.) Table 79, to show yield of thinned stand and yield of thinnings, gives the average diameter of the predominant trees in stands of different ages on different quality sites; the number of such trees which could occupy an acre as determined by the areas of their crown spaces; the total yield of such stands, and the yield of the trees removed in thin- ning ; the full value of the entire stand at different ages, and the value of LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 163 the trees removed in thiiinings. In fixing stumpage values for the trees in the younger stands a deduction has been made from the values given in Tables 59 to 64 to allow for the difference in age. It is believed, how- ever, that the stumpage in thinned stands at all ages after the first thin- ning will be more valuable than that in unthinned stands of the same age if, as recommended, the roughest dominant trees are removed in the preliminary thinning and improvement cutting leaving as the basis for the ultimate mature stand the clean stemmed intermediate and codomi- nant trees. (Plates XVI; XVII.) On account of the high cost of making thinnings the stumpage value of the trees removed in making them has been placed at $2 per 1,000 board feet less than the stumpage value of the timber in the entire stand. 16-i LOBLOLLY OR NOKTH CAROLINA PINE. AKKrcgate value of stand and thinnings m H Z o .S <«'0 .2 "^-S > (3 oo S fl 13 "" 02 >■ -5 >s> a C3 a 13 ., , a >^ 03 X! ^Oft o S oils ■§ > S o S fl o o o o o o o o c o o o o o to S tJ! o S •«> ■>)< O O O O O O 1 O C O O O O ] ^ .^}< ift IC CO -^ « ^« « « t^ o I O O O O O O 1 O O O O O O 1 o to co_ •* cj_ >a<_ 1 U5 cT oo" l>." O O 1 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o C3 t^ CO ^H lO 00 t^ CO 00 "^ W5 t^ oo 05 »H (M CO -"K ■»«< S 2.75 3.50 5.00 6.75 9.25 11.00 11.50 22,400 25,000 31,200 37,200 40,600 44,400 43,200 O 00 O c^ 00 o o 00 -H cc r^ o -^ -^ T-H C»< J o o o o o 1 o o o o o ] lo lo ■ai' in" tJ' 1 o o o o o o es o cs o o o O CO to CO 00 1^ ■^ r^ o o CO »o T-H M C^ CO l-H "cS O O O O lO o lO CD kO m t^ O eq CO ■* w 00 o 3 o o o o o o o o o o o o (M .* T)< « «^ t^ CO o CO r-T o io r-1 Cq -i -H 10.4 12.6 14.7 16.5 18.8 •21.8 o o o o o o CO ■* lO CO 00 o o o o o o o o o o o '— r^ '-l c: o o o CO t^ o o o o o o o o ■91 U5 lO CO CO CO ■* o o o o o o o o o o r^ ,_) CO CO o o o o o i^ N CO CO o t- ,_4 t—i >, a d 3 c o ^ o o rsi M< h~ (M I-) oo r." o o 00 o M H E5 :3 to ^ 5 S .S -S 3 '^ g C C3 C3 o a o +^ > M « ;^ » ;-H c e-^ inte sum lues o o >> m 03 H H pa w 3 -S LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 165 By comparing the values of the thinned stands in Table 79 with those given for unthinned stands in Table 71 it is seen that thinnings increase the value of the stands on Qualities I and II. The values of Quality III stands, however, are reduced. This shows as has been pointed out in a previous paper* that "the chief value of the thinnings in the older stands on dry soils is to save the tree which would be lost by dying. There would be comparatively little accelerated growth on this quality for natural thinning takes place so rapidly that there is no prolonged crowding to retard the diameter increment of the dominant trees." Thinnings, however, add greatly to the value of the stands on good sites, and if the value of the material saved in the thinnings is taken into con- sideration they are probably profitable on all sites except the very wet. (Table 79, last column.) It should be understood, however, that the theoretical yields for thinned stands which are given in Table 79 are obtainable only under ideal conditions of equal spacing which could not be realized in practice. The crown space for each tree can not be progressively increased to meet its requirements; some trees or some sides of certain trees will at times invariably be crowded ; while on account of the removal of large interven- ing crowns some other trees will have too much space. In practice it is possible to be guided only in a general way by the distance between adja- cent trees, or by the number of trees per acre. The real guide at all times of what trees to remove and how heavily to thin must be the interference of crowns (Plates XI, XI Y, XV, XVI, XXVII) and the less promis- ing trees must be removed here and there where the conditions allow it to be done without making extremely large openings in the crown cover. (Plate XXII.) Mere thinnings can seldom be made on large tracts which are managed for the production of sawmill timber and require the building of rail- roads for profitable logging. (Page 137.) Loblolly pine occupies, how- ever, in pure, even-aged stands a large area of fann forest in thickly settled communities, either near towns or near factories which assure a continuous market for cordwood. Such conditions not only render thin- nings possible and profitable for their influence upon the development of the mature stand, but in many cases will be financially profitable by themselves. The farmer, however, can profitably apply intensive meth- ods of management, which are impossible on large tracts. Under certain conditions thinnings can undoubtedly also be made in stands managed for the production of timber for pulp, stave, crate, and heading stock; or for the production of timber for these uses in connection with the pro- duction of large sized timber for saw logs. The gradual felling of the larger trees in the even aged loblolly pine stands which has been recommended (pages 151 and following) as a ♦Management of Loblolly and Shortleaf Pines, Proc. Soc. Am. Foresters, 1910, Page 97. 166 LOBLOLLY OB NORTH CAROLINA PINE. tentative method of cutting, that will result in larger yields than clean cutting, is not thinning. It has the effect of freeing the smaller trees which on certain sites are stimulated into accelerated growth, but the ultimate results are very different from those obtained by thinning. Under gradual felling the merchantable trees are removed while yet of medium diameter in order to obtain early cuttings. The object of thin- nings is to obtain timber of large diameters; the removal of the main stand consequently is deferred. ARTIFICIAL RESTOCKING. Gathering of Seed. Seed should be collected in September or early in October before heavy frosts have opened the cones. (Plate II.) The cones are fre- quently still green in September but if the seed are firm they will germi- nate. Cones can be secured from trees which are being cut where lum- bering is in progress, and should be taken fi-om dominant, thrifty, mid- dle-aged, or older trees rather than from young trees or from codominant or suppressed ones, since not only is the percentage of sound seed higher from such trees but it is genetically undesirable that the specimens of poorest growth should be the source of seed. Not less than 50 per cent of fresh seed from such trees should be germinable. The cones after sunning until they begin to open should be placed in sacks or loose barrels in a dry but well ventilated building until they are fully open, when the seed can be flailed out. To prevent the seed from mildewing, the sacks or barrels should be occasionally turned, or the cones can be stored in shallow trays with bottoms of slats or wire net- ting, the trays being on racks in an airy chamber so as to secure ven- tilation. The seed are flattened, about 1/4 i^ch long, nearly black, and are attached to a shining brown wing % inch long. There are about 20,000 cleaned seed to a pound. The price per pound usually varies from $1.50 when bought directly from collectors, to $2.50 if bought from dealers. The collection of seed should be profitable. It is estimated that two bushels of unopened cones will yield a pound of seed. Seedbeds. Seedbeds should be prepared in fertile, loamy, or mellow soil, prefer- ably on a rather moist site. The soil is best prepared by cultivating several times during the year preceding planting. The Aveed seed can be killed by burning the soil as is done in preparing tobacco beds. Beds are usually made 4 or 5 feet wide, the rows being located across the bed. The seed should be planted in February or March, or, near the coast, early in autumn, about 1/4 i^ch deep in thin rows about 8 inches LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 167 apart. A pound of seed is sufficient to plant 300 feet of drill. The seeds sprout^ in a few weeks and the seedlings should be from 8 to 12 inches high by the end of the first season, when they should be perma- nently planted. If the bed is located on moist soil or where it receives partial shade, as in a' small clearing in the forest, no shading will be required. On very dry soil it will be desirable to shade lightly by a screen made of slats or boughs on a frame 2 or 3 feet above the seedbed. If the bed is located in the forest a deep trench should be dug around it to prevent the roots of nearby trees from draining it of moisture. A liberal application of ashes to the seedbed two or three weeks before planting and well worked in makes the plants more thrifty and stockier and gives a more compact and better developed root system. The soil of the seedbed must not be wet, since this may lead to "damping off" of the plants when very young. This is a disease caused by a fungus which may attack and destroy the stem if plants are over-crowded in seedbeds although so far it has not been known to attack loblolly pine. Planting. Loblolly pine reproduces only from seed. Plantations can be started either by young plants or by direct seeding. Direct seeding is cheaper and under most conditions is more satisfactory on account of the diffi- culty of transplanting the young pines. It is desirable to use plants only on land which is very foul and on which young seedlings might be smothered. One-year-old wild seedling plants can be used in place of nursery grown stock. Planting should be done during late winter or early in the spring. Fall planting, except on wet soils, is not advisable. Planting is most quickly done by two persons, one making the holes with a mattock, the other carrying the plants in a box strapped over the left shoulder. The plant is held upright in the hole with one hand; the roots are spread out with the other; the earth is drawn up to the plant with the foot and firmly pressed around it on both sides with the feet. Every precaution must be taken to prevent the roots of the plants in the box from drying out; they should, therefore, be kept all the time covered Avith a thick wet cloth. It is preferable to puddle the roots on lifting the plants from the seedbed by dipping them in a thick mud, so as to coat them thoroughly. On the better soils planting can well be made 6 by 6 feet; on the poorer, 5 by 5 feet. When the condition of the surface will permit it, furrows can be laid off with a plow the desired distance apart, and one man can plant in these furrows without assistance. On account of the rapidity of its growth it would seldom be necessary to cultivate a plantation unless on dry and heavy clay soils. Direct Seeding. On account of the large proportion of sound seed, the ease of germina- tion and the hardiness and rapidity of growth of the young plant, direct seeding succeeds remarkably well. This can be either broadcast sowing or by seed spot planting. 168 LOBLOLLY OR NOKTH CAROLINA PIXE. Broadcast sowing should be made early in March. If the surface is very foul Txith weeds or brush, the larger brush should be cut with axes or brush hooks in strips early in winter and piled in windrows against living brush. In early spring, when thoroughly dry, it should be burned clean and the seed sown after the first rain. From three to four pounds of seed per acre are required for direct seeding without covering. If there is a heavy sod, it can be burnt and the ground harrowed with a disk or tooth harrow before seeding and the seed covered with a weeder after seeding two or three pounds of seed per acre. On plowed ground seed should be broadcast at the rate of II/2 to 2 pounds to the acre and covered with a weeder. It is desirable to mix the seed with one-half bushel of slacked ashes or earth, as is done with turnip seed, in order to secure a uniform distribution. Seed spot sowing requires less seed than broadcast. Droppings can be done either like com or peas at places 4 by 4 feet, or furrows can be laid off four feet apart, the seed dropped at distances of 4 feet in the furrows and lightly covered % to ^/^ inch with earth. The soil can be either j^lowed or unploAved. Plowing is seldom justified. On smooth, clean, sandy land where there are few bushes, stumps, or little sod, it is possible to plant with a horse corn or pea-planter, such as the Cole com- bination planter. A plate with one small hole can be used which will drop several seed every 4 feet. The seed should be thoroughly mixed with dry ashes. It is necessary to adjust plow point and coverer so that the seed are covered the necessary depth. On rough soil a hand corn- planter can be used, adjusted for the small pine seed. If planting is done by hand the soil should be loosened with a mattock for 6 inches square and to a depth of 3 to 5 inches and from 10 to 15 seed should be dropped in each spot and covered not more than one-half inch. From one to two pounds of seed is ample for seed spot planting. On most portions of the sandy longleaf pine lands the conditions permit the use of a planter. Since from 3 to 6 acres of land can be planted in a day by this means, the planting of these lands in loblolly pine, at a total cost of planting of $2 to $3 an acre, would be, with adequate pro- tection from fire, advisable from an investment standpoint. It is nec- essary in all plantations to furnish absolute protection against fire. AdvisahilitTj of Lohlolly Pine Planting, At the present prices of pine stumpage it is possible to grow loblolly pine in plantations profitably in places where land of good growing capacity can be purchased cheaply. Plantations should never be made on land which naturally stocks in pine, since in such a case the cost of planting adds unnecessary expense, l^either should it be undertaken on land which has a value greater than $10 an acre. If the land has a value of $10 an acre and a producing capacity equal to that of upland old fields of good quality, about Quality Site IT, and the cost of seed spot LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 169 planting, including seed and labor, does not exceed $3 an acre, the cost of growing 1,000 board feet of timber under an interest rate of 6 per cent a year, in an untbinned stand, is as shown in Table 80. Table 80.— Cost Per 1,000 Board Feet of Growing Loblolly Pine in Plantations. Quality II. Age of stand Years Accumulated costs on an initial investment of $13 an acre, interest at 6 per cent a year, less the value of the land Yield of stand in board feet Cost of growing stumpage per 1,000 board feet Value (Jan. 1913) per 1,000 feet B. M., of stumpage based on Quality II, operating cost $13 per 1,000 30 35 40 45 $ 64.62 89.84 123.77 168.88 16,000 21,850 26,850 30,850 $ 4.04 4.10 4.58 5.45 S 2.50 2.60 2.85 3.20 Plantations can be made consequently with an initial investment of $13 an acre Avith the expectation of netting at least 5 per cent, com- pounded, provided there is an increase of $1.50 per 1,000 feet in the price of stumpage in a stand at 35 years; an increase of $1.75 in a stand at 40 years old, and an increase of $2.25 in a stand at 45 years. The increase of $1.50 in 35 years is less than % of one per cent a year on the present value of stumpage per 1,000 feet. The cost of growing on other quality sites can be easily calculated by means of Table 38. The present value of stumpage can be approximated from Tables 59 to 64. Tn case stands are thinned the cost of growing is affected as shown in Table 79. PUBLICATIONS OF THE NORTH CAROLINA GEOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SURVEY BULLETINS. 1. Iron Ores of North Carolina, by Henry B. C. Nitze, 1893. 8°, 239 pp., 20 pi., and map. Out of print. 2. Building and Ornamental Stones in North Carolina, by T. L. Watson and F. B. Laney in collaboration with George P. Merrill, 1906. 8°, 283 pp., 32 pi., 2 figs. Postage 25 cents. Cloth-bound copy SO cents extra. 3. Gold Deposits in North Carolina, by Henry B. C. Nitze and George B. Hanna, 1896. 8°, 196 pp., 14 pi., and map. Out of print. 4. Road Material and Road Construction in North Carolina, by J. A. Holmes and William Cain, 1893. 8°, 88 pp. Out of print. 5. The Forests, Forest Lands and Forest Products of Eastern North Caro- lina, by W. W. Ashe, 1894. 8°, 128 pp., 5 pi. Postage 5 cents. 6. The Timber Trees of North Carolina, by Gifford Pinchot and W. W. Ashe, 1897. 8°, 227 pp., 22 pi. Out of print. 7. Forest Fires: Their Destructive Work, Causes and Prevention, by W. W. Ashe, 1895. 8°, 66 pp., 1 pi. Postage 5 cents. 8. Water-powers in North Carolina, by George F. Swain, Joseph A. Holmes and E. W. Myers, 1899. 8°, 362 pp., 16 pi. Postage 16 cents. 9. Monazite and Monazite Deposits in North Carolina, by Henry B. C. Nitze, 1895. 8°, 47 pp., 5 pi. Out of print. 10. Gold Mining in North Carolina and other Appalachian States, by Henry B. C. Nitze and A. J. Wilkins, 1897. 8°, 164 pp., 10 pi. Out of print. 11. Corundum and the Basic Magnesian Rocks of Western North Carolina, by J. Volney Lewis, 1895. 8°, 107 pp., 6 pi. Out of print. 12. History of the Gems Found in North Carolina, by George Frederick Kunz, 1907. 8°, 60 pp., 15 pi. Postage S cents. Cloth-bound copy 30 cents extra. 13. Clay Deposits and Clay Industries in North Carolina, by Heinrich Ries, 1897. 8°, 157 pp., 12 pi. Postage 10 cents. 14. The Cultivation of the Diamond-back Terrapin, by R. E. Coker, 1906. 8°, 67 pp., 23 pi., 2 figs. Out of print. 15. Experiments in Oyster Culture in Pamlico Sound, North Carolina, by Robert E. Coker, 1907. 8°, 74 pp., 17 pi., 11 figs. Postage 6 cents. 16. Shade Trees for North Carolina, by W. W. Ashe, 1908. 8°, 74 pp., 10 pi., 16 figs. Postage 6 cents. 17. Terracing of Farm Lands, by W. W. Ashe, 1908. 8°, 38 pp., 6 pi., 2 figs. Postage 4 cents. 18. Bibliography of North Carolina Geology, Mineralogy and Geography, with a list of Maps, by Francis Baker Laney and Katherine Hill Wood, 1909. 8°, 428 pp. Postage 25 cents. Cloth-bound copy SO cents extra. 19. The Tin Deposits of the Carolinas, by Joseph Hyde Pratt and Douglas B. Sterrett, 1905. 8°, 64 pp., 8 figs. Postage Jf cents. 20. Water-powers of North Carolina: An Appendix to Bulletin 8, 1910. 8°, 383 pp. Postage 25 cents. 21. The Gold Hill Mining District of North Carolina, by Francis Baker Laney, 1910. 8°, 137 pp., 23 pi., 5 figs. Postage 15 cents. 22. A Report on the Cid Mining District, Davidson County, N. C, by J. E. Pogue, Jr., 1911. 8°, 144 pp., 22 pi., 5 figs. Postage 15 cents. 23. Forest Conditions in Western North Carolina, by J. S. Holmes 1911. 8°, 115 pp., 8 pi. Postage 15 cents. 172 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 24. Loblolly or North Carolina Pine, by W. W. Ashe, Forest Inspector, U. S. Forest Service (and former Forester of the North Carolina Geological and Economic Survey). Pepared in Cooperation with the Forest Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1914. 8°, 176 pp., 27 plates, 5 figs. Postage 10 cents. ECONOMIC PAPERS. 1. The Maple sugar Industry in Western North Carolina, by W. W. Ashe, 1897. 8"*, 34 pp. Postage 2 cents. 2. Recent Road Legislation in North Carolina, by J. A. Holmes. Out of print. 3. Talc and Pyrophyllite Deposits in North Carolina, by Joseph Hyde Pratt, 1900. 8°, 29 pp., 2 maps. Postage 2 cents. 4. The Mining Industry in North Carolina During 1900, by Joseph Hyde Pratt, 1901. 8°, 36 pp., and map. Postage 2 cents. Takes up in some detail Occurrences of GoU, Silver, Lead and Zinc, Copper, Iron Mangan- ese, Corundum, Granite, Mica, Talc, Pyrophyllite, Graphite, Kaolin, Gem Minerals, Monazite, Tungsten, Building Stones, and Coal in North Carolina. 5. Road Laws of North Carolina, by J. A. Holmes. Out of print. 6. The Mining Industry in North Carolina During 1901, by Joseph Hyde Pratt, 1902. 8°, 102 pp. Postage 4 cents. Gives a List of Minerals found in North Carolina: describes the Treatment of Sulphuret Gold Ores, giving localities; takes up the Occurrence of Copper in the Virgilina, Gold Hill, and Ore Knob districts; gives Occurrence and Uses of Corundum; a List of Garnets, describ- ing Localities; the Occurrence, Associated Minerals, Uses and Localities of Mica; the Occur- rence of North Carolina Feldspar, with Analyses ; an extended description of North Carolina Gems and Gem Minerals; Occurrences of Monazite, Barytes, Ocher; describes and gives Oc- currences of Graphite and Coal; describes and gives Occurrences of Building Stones, including Limestone; describes and gives Uses for the various forms of Clay; and under the head of "Other Economic Minerals," describes and gives Occurrences of Chromite, Asbestos and Zircon. 7. Mining Industry in North Carolina During 1902, by Joseph Hyde Pratt, 1903. 8°, 27 pp. Oiit of print. 8. The Mining Industry in North Carolina During 1903, by Joseph Hyde Pratt, 1904. 8°, 74 pp. Postage 4 cents. Gives descriptions of Mines worked for Gold in 1903 ; descriptions of Properties woi'ked for Copper during 1903, together with assay of ore from Twin-Edwards Mine; Analyses of Limon- ite ore from Wilson Sline; the Occurrence of Tin; in some detail the Occurrences of Abrasives; Occurrences of Monazite and Zircon; Occurrences and Varieties of Graphite, giving Methods of Cleaning; Occurrences of Marble and other forms of Limestone; Analyses of Kaolin from Barber Creek, Jackson County, North Carolina. 9. The Mining Industry in North Carolina During 1904, by Joseph Hyde Pratt, 1905. 8°, 95 pp. Postage k cents. Gives Mines Producing Gold and Silver during 1903 and 1904 and Sources of the Gold Produced during 1904; describes the mineral Chromite, giving Analyses of Selected Samples of Chromite from Mines in Yancey County; describes Commercial Varieties of Mica, giving the manner in which it occurs in North Carolina, Percentage of Mica in the Dikes, Methods of Mining, Associated Minerals, Localities, Uses; describes the mineral Barytes, giving Method of Cleaning and Preparing Barytes for Market; describes the use of Monazite as used in connec- tion with the Preparation of the Bunsen Burner, and goes into the use of Zircon in connection with the Nernst Lamp, giving a List of the Principal Yttrium Minerals; describes the minerals containing Corundum Gems, Hiddenite and Other Gem Minerals, and gives New Occurrences of these Gems ; describes the mineral Graphite and gives new Uses for same. 10. Oyster Culture in North Carolina, by Robert E. Coker, 1905. 8°, 39 pp. Out of print. 11. The Mining Industry in North Carolina During 1905, by Joseph Hyde Pratt, 1906. 8°, 95 pp. Postage 4 cents. Describes the mineral Cobalt and the principal minerals that contain Cobalt; Corundum Localities; Monazite and Zircon in considerable detail, giving Analyses of Thorianite; describes Tantalum Minerals and gives description of the Tantalum Lamp; gives brief description of Peat Deposits; the manufacture of Sand-lime Brick; Operations of Concentrating Plant in Black Sand Investigations; gives Laws Relating to Mines, Coal Mines, Mining, Mineral Inter- est in Land, Phosphate Rock, Marl Beds. 12. Investigations Relative to the Shad Fisheries of North Carolina, by John N. Cobb, 1906. 8°, 74 pp., 8 maps. Postage 6 cents. 13. Report of Committee on Fisheries in North Carolina. Compiled by Joseph Hyde Pratt, 1906. 8°, 78 pp. Out of print. 14. The Mining Industry in North Carolina During 1906, by Joseph Hyde Pratt, 1907. 8°, 144 pp., 20 pi., and 5 figs. Postage 10 cents. Under the head of "Recent Changes in Gold Mining in North Carolina," gives methods of mining, describing Log Washers, Square Sets, Cyanide Plants, etc., and detailed descriptions LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE, 173 of Gold Deposits and Mines are eiven; Copper Deposits of Swain County are described; Mica Deposits of western North Carolina are described, giving distribution and General Character, General Geology, Occurrence, Associated Minerals, Mining and Treatment of Mica, Origin, together with a description of many of the mines; Monazite is taken up in considerable detail as to Location and Occurrence, Geology, including classes of Rocks, Age, Associations, Weath- ering, method of Mining and Cleaning, description of Monazite in Original Matrix. 15. The Mining Industry in North Carolina During 1907, by Joseph Hyde Pratt, 1908. 8°, 176 pp., 13 pi., and 4 figs. Postage 15 cents. Takes up in detail the Copper of the Gold Hill Copper District; a description of the Uses of Monazite and its Associated Minerals; descriptions of Ruby, Emerald, Beryl, Hiddenite, and Amethyst Localities; a detailed description with Analyses of the Principal Mineral Springs of North Carolina ; a description of the Peat Formations in North Carolina, together with a de- tailed account of the Uses of Peat and the Results of an Experiment Conducted by the United States Geological Survey on Peat from Elizabeth City, North Carolina. 16. Report of Convention called by Governor R. B. Glenn to Investigate the Fishing Industries in North Carolina, compiled by Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist, 1908. 8°, 45 pp. Out of print. 17. Proceedings of Drainage Convention held at New Bern, North Carolina, September 9, 1908. Compiled by Joseph Hyde Pratt, 1908. 8°, 94 pp. Out of print. 18. Proceedings of Second Annual Drainage Convention held at New Bern, North Carolina, November 11 and 12, 1909, compiled by Joseph Hyde Pratt, and containing North Carolina Drainage Law, 1909. 8°, 50 pp. Out of print. 19. Forest Fires in North Carolina During 1909, by J. S. Holmes, Forester, 1910. 8°, 52 pp., 9 pi. OiU of print. 20. Wood-using Industries of North Carolina, by Roger E. Simmons, under the direction of J. S. Holmes and H. S. Sackett, 1910. 8°, 74 pp., 6 pi. Postage 7 cents. 21. Proceedings of the Third Annual Drainage Convention, held under Auspices of the North Carolina Drainage Association; and the North Carolina Drainage Law (codified). Compiled by Joseph Hyde Pratt, 1911. 8°, 67 pp., 3 pi. Out of print. 22. Forest Fires in North Carolina During 1910, by J. S. Holmes, Forester, 1911. 8°, 48 pp. Out of print. 23. Mining Industry in North Carolina During 1908, '09, and '10, by Joseph Hyde Pratt and Miss H. M. Berry, 1911. 8°, 134 pp., 1 pi., 27 figs. Postage 10 cents. Gives report on Virgilina Copper District of North Carolina and Virginia, by F. B. Laney; Detailed report on Mica Deposits of North Carolina, by Douglas B. Sterrett; Detailed report on Monazite, by Douglas B. Sterrett; Reports on various Gem Minerals, by Douglas B. Ster- rett; Information and Analyses concerning certain Mineral Springs; Extract from Chance Report of the Dan River and Deep River Coal Fields; Some notes on the Peat Industry, by Professor Charles A. Davis; Extract from report of Arthur Keith on the Nantahala Marble; Description of the manufacture of Sand-lime Brick. 24. Fishing Industry of North Carolina, by Joseph Hyde Pratt, 1911. 8°, 44 pp. Out of print. 25. Proceedings of Second Annual Convention of the North Carolina For- estry Association, held at Raleigh, North Carolina, February 21, 1912. Forest Fires in North Carolina During 1911. Suggested Forestry Legislation. Com- piled by J. S. Holmes, Forester, 1912. 8°, 71 pp. Postage 5 cents. 26. Proceedings of Fourth Annual Drainage Convention, held at Elizabeth City, North Carolina, November 15 and 16, 1911, compiled by Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist, 1912, 8°, 45 pp. Postage 3 cents. 27. Highway Work in North Carolina, containing a Statistical Report of Road Work during 1911 by Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist, and Miss H. M. Berry, Secretary, 1912. 8°, 145 pp., 11 figs. Postage 10 cents. 28. Culverts and Small Bridges for Country Roads in North Carolina, by C. R. Thomas and T, F. Hickerson, 1912. 8°, 56 pp., 14 figs., 20 pi. Postage 10 cents. 29. Report of the Fisheries Convention held at New Bern, N. C, December 13, 1911, compiled by Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist, together with a Compendium of the Stenographic Notes of the Meetings Held on the Two trips taken by the Legislative Fish Committee Appointed by the General As- 174 LOBLOLLY OK XORTH CAROLINA PINE. sembly of 1909, and the Legislation Recommended by this Committee, 1912. 8°, 302 pp. Postage 15 cents. 30. Proceedings of the Annual Convention of the North Carolina Good Roads Association held at Charlotte, N. C, August 1 and 2, 1912, in Coopera- tion with the North Carolina Geological and Economic Survey. Compiled by Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist, and Miss H. M. Berry, Secretary, 1912. 8°, 109 pp. Postage 10 cents. 31. Proceedings of Fifth Annual Drainage Convention held at Raleigh, N. C, November 26 and 27, 1912. Compiled by Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist. 8°, 56 pp., 6 pi. Postage 5 cents. 32. Public Roads are Public Necessities, by Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist, 1913. 8°, 62 pp. Postage 5 cents. 33. Forest Fires In North Carolina during 1912 and National and Associa- tion Cooperative Fire Control, by J. S. Holmes, Forester, 1913. 8°, 63 pp. Postage 5 cents. 34. Mining Industry in North Carolina during 1911-12, by Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist, 1914. 8°, 314 pp., 23 pi., 12 figs. Postage 30 cents. Gives detailed report on Gold Mining in various counties with special report on Metal- lurgical Processes used at the Tola Mine, by Claud Hafer; description of a Cyanide Mill, by Percy Barbour; The new Milling Process for treating North Carolina Siliceous Gold Ores at the Montgomery Mine, including a description of the Uwarrie Mining Company's Plant; notes on the Carter Mine, Montgomery County, by Claud Hafer; also a description of the Howie Mine and its mill; a detailed report on the Coggins (Appalachian) Gold Mine, by Joseph Hyde Pratt; a list of gems and gem minerals occurring in the United States; s-pecial descriptions of Localities where the Amethyst, Beryl, Emerald, and Quartz Gems Occur as taken from United States Geological Survey Report by Douglas B. Sterrett ; a report on the Dan River Coal Field, by R. W. Stone, as reprinted from Bulletin 471-B of the United States Geological Survey; a special report on Graphite, by Edson S. Bastin and reprinted from Min- eral Resources of United States for 1912; a special report on Asbestos describing both the Amphibole and Chrysotile varieties; a report on the Mount Airy Granite Quarry; special report on Sand and Gravel, giving Uses, Definitions of Various Sands, etc. ; the portion of a Bulletin on Feldspar and Kaolin of the United States Bureau of Mines, which relates to North Carolina, and which takes up in detail Occurrences, Methods of Mining, and Descriptions of Localities of Feldspar and Kaolin mines in North Carolina, prepared by Mr. A. S. Watts. In this Eco- nomic Paper are also given the names and addresses of Producers of the various minerals during the years covered by the report. 35. Good Roads Days, November 5th and 6th, 1913, compiled by Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist, and Miss H. M. Berry, Secretary. 8°, 102 pp., 11 pi. Postage 10 cents. 36. Proceedings of the North Carolina Good Roads Association, held at Morehead City, N. C, July 31st and August 1st, 1913. In Cooperation with the North Carolina Geological and Economic Survey. — Statistical Report of Highway Work in North Carolina during 1912. Compiled by Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist, and Miss H. M. Berry, Secretary. 8°, 127 pp., 7 figs. Postage 10 cents. 37. Forest Fires in North Carolina During 1913 and a Summary of State Forest Fire Prevention in the United States, by J. S. Holmes, Forester, 1914. 8°, 82 pp. Postage S cents. 38. Forms covering the Organization of Drainage Districts under the North Carolina Drainage Law, Chapter 442, Public Laws of 1909, and Amendments. And Forms for Minutes of Board of Drainage Commissioners covering the Organization of the Board up to and Including the Issuing of the Drainage Bonds. Compiled by Geo. R. Boyd, Drainage Engineer, 1914. 8°, 133 pp. Postage 10 cents. 39. Proceedings of the Good Roads Institute held at the University of North Carolina, March 17-19, 1914. Held under the auspices of the Departments of Civil and Highway Engineering of the University of North Carolina and The North Carolina Geological and Economic Survey, 1914. 8°, 117 pp., 15 figs., 4 pi. Postage 10 cents. VOLUMES. Vol. I. Corundum and the Basic Magnesian Rocks in Western North Caro- lina, by Joseph Hyde Pratt and J. Volney Lewis, 1905. 8°, 464 pp., 44 pi., 35 figs. Postage 32 cents. Cloth-hoiind copy 30 cents extra. Vol. II. Fishes of North Carolina, by H. M. Smith, 1907. 8°, 453 pp., 21 pi., 188 figs. Postage 30 cents. LOBLOLLY OR NOKTH CAROLIiSrA PINE. 175 Vol. III. The Coastal Plain Deposits of North Carolina, by William Bullock Clark, Benjamin L. Miller, L. W. Stephenson, B. L. Johnson and Horatio N. Parker, 1912. 8°, 509 pp., 62 pi., 21 figs. Postage S5 cents. Pt. I. — The Physiography and Geology of the Coastal Plain of North Carolina, by Wm. Bullock Clark, Benjamin L. Miller, and L. W. Stephenson. Pt. II. — The Water Resources of the Coastal Plain of North Carolina, by L. W. Steph- enson and B. L. Johnson. Vol. IV. Birds of North Carolina. In press. BIENNIAL BEPOBTS. First Biennial Report, 1891-1892, J. A. Holmes, State Geologist, 1893. 8°, 111 pp., 12 pi., 2 figs. Postage 6 cents. Administrative report, giving Object and Organization of the Survey; Investigations of Iron Ores, Building Stone, Geological Work in Coastal Plain Region, including supplies of drinking waters in eastern counties. Report on Forests and Forest Products, Coal and Marble, Investigations of Diamond Drill Biennial Report 1893-1894, J. A. Holmes, State Geologist, 1894. 8" 15 pp. Postage 1 cent. Administrative report Biennial Report, 1895-1896, J. A. Holmes, State Geologist, 1896. 8°, 17 pp. Postage 1 cent. Administrative report. Biennial Report, 1897-1898, J. A. Holmes, State Geologst, 1898. 8°, 28 pp. Postage 2 cents. Administrative report. Biennial Report, 1899-1900, J. A. Holmes, State Geologist, 1900. 8°, 20 pp. Postage 2 cents. Administrative report. Biennial Report 1901-1902, J. A. Holmes, State Geologist, 1902. 8°, 15 pp. Postage 1 cent. Administrative report. Biennial Report, 1903-1904, J. A. Holmes, State Geologist, 1905. 8°, 32 pp. Postage 2 cents. Administrative report. Biennial Report, 1905-1906, Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist, 1907. 8°, 60 pp. Postage 3 cents. Administrative report; report on certain swamp lands belonging to the State, by W. W. Ashe; it also gives certain magnetic observations at North Carolina stations. Biennial Report, 1907-1908, Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist, 1908. 8°. 60 pp., 2 pi. Postage 5 cents. Administrative report. Contains Special Report on an examination of the Sand Banks along the North Carolina Coast, by Jay F. Bond, Forest Assistant, United States Forest Serv- ice; certain magnetic observations at North Carolina stations; Results of an Investigation Relating to Clam Cultivation, by Howard E. Enders of Purdue University. Biennial Report 1909-1910, Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist, 1911. 8°, 152 pp. Postage 10 cents. Administrative rpport, and contains Agreements for Cooperation in Statistical Work, and Topographical and Traverse Mapping Work with the United States Geological Survey; Forest Work with the United States Department of Agriculture (Forest Service) ; List of Topo- graphic maps of North Carolina and counties partly or wholly topographically mapped; de- scription of special Highways in North Carolina; suggested Road Legislation; list of Drainage Districts and Results of Third Annual Drainage Convention: Forestry reports relating to Connolly Tract. Buncombe County and Transylvania County State Farms; certain Watersheds; Reforestation of Cntover and Abandoned Farm Lands on the Woodlands of the Salem Acad- emy and College; Recommendations for the Artificial Regeneration of Longleaf Pine at Pine- hurst; Act regulating the use of and for the Protection of Meridian Monuments and Standards of Measure at the several county seats of North Carolina; list of Magnetic Declinations at the county seats, January 1, 1910; letter of Fish Commissioner of the United States Bureau of Fisheries relating to the conditions of the North Carolina fish industries; report of the Survey for the North Carolina Fish Commission referring to dutch or pound-net fishing in Albemarle and Croatan sounds and Chowan River, by Gilbert T. Rude, of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey; Historical Sketch of the several North Carolina Geological Surveys, with list of publications of each. Biennial Report, 1911-1912, Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist, 1913. 8°, 118 pp. Postage 7 cents. Administrative report, and contains reports on method of construction and estimate of cost of road improvement in Stantonsburg Township, Wilson County; report on road conditions in Lee County; report on preliminary location of section of Spartanburg-Hendersonville Highway ^-s 176 LOBLOLLY OR NORTH CAROLINA PINE. between Trvon and Tuxedo; report of road work done by U. S. Office of Public Roads during biennial period; experiments with glutrin on the sand-clay road; report on Central Highway, giving Act establishing and report of trip over this Highway; suggested road legislation; report on the Asheville Citv watershed; report on the Struan property at Arden, Buncombe County; report on the woodlands on the farm of Dr. J. W. Kilgore, Iredell County; report on examination of the woodlands on the Berrj- place, Orange County; report on the forest prop- erty of Miss Julia A. Thorne, Asheboro, Randolph County; report on the examination of the forest lands of the Butters Lumber Company, Columbus County; proposed forestry legislation; swamp lands and drainage, giving drainage districts; suggested drainage legislation; proposed Fisheries Commission bill. Biennial Report, 1913-1914, Joseph Hyde Pratt, State Geologist, 1915. 8°, 190 pp. Postage l-'t cents. Samples of any mineral found in the State may be sent to the oflBce of the Geological and Economic Survey for identification, and the same will be clas- sified free of charge. It must be understood, however, that no assays oe QUANTITATIVE DETERMINATIONS WILL BE MADE. Samples should be in a lump form if possible, and marked plainly on outside of package with name of sender, postoffice address, etc.; a letter should accompany sample and stamp should be enclosed for reply. These publications are mailed to libraries and to individuals who may desire information on any of the special subjects named, free of charge, except that in each case applicants for the reports should forward the amount of postage needed, as indicated above, for mailing the bulletins desired, to the State Geologist, Chapel Hill, N. C. \ ^9