Class — Book ^_- / * GEAMMAE OF THE FEENCH LANGUAGE. PART I. FOE BEGINNERS. GRAMMAR FRENCH LANGUAGE. M. SCHELE PE VEKE, LL.D. » i OF THE TTNT/ErSr: I' OF VIRGINIA. NEW YORK: UNIVERSITY PUBLISHING COMPANY, 4 BOND STREET, 1870. Rutered Mending to Act of Confjre", in tin- jmr 1*17, Bt ruhardscn * COMPANY, t;ierk'« Office of the l>i«tn- 1 Oonrl "l tin- lintel Sinlen for Hid Southern District of New York. TABLE OF CONTENTS. ON LETTERS AND SYLLABLES. PAGH I. — Pronunciation. 9 The Alphabet 9 Vowels 10 Sounds of the Vowels 10 Accents Re 10 Form of Accents 10 Purposes of Accents 11 Effect of Accents 11 Nasal Sounds 12 Diphthongs 14 Compound Sounds 14 Three Vowels 16 Four Vowels 17 T 17 Consonants 18 Final Consonants 18 Sounds of the Consonants 18 Pronunciation in Beading and Speaking 29 Changes of Sounds 29 II.— Elision 32 III.— Syllabication 34 IV. — Quantity 35 Words with double meaning 36 V.— Punctuation 37 VI. — List op Abbreviations 38 4 CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. NOTJX8. PAOB Ditinon of Nouns 39 Proper Names 39 Common Nouns .... 39 Collective Nouns 40 Gender of Nouns 40 Determined by Signification 40 Determined by Termination 42 List of Masculine Nouns in mute e 43 HJfimber <>f Nouns 52 Rules on Formation of the Plural 52 Irregular Plurals 5;$ toe 54 CHAPTER II. ARTICLES. Tii. Tkm Artirl,* 54 1. Definite Article 54 Declension of Definite Article 58 •„>. Indefinite Article 50 Di olension of Indefinite Article 56 Exercise H Declension of Proper Names 57 Pot 57 Exercise 57 1. Partitive Article 58 Exercise N Changes of Partitive Article 59 Exercise 59 CHAPTER III. ADJECTIVES. Adjectives agree with their Nouns 60 Participles 60 Formation of the Feminine 60 Exercise 62 CONTENTS. 5 PAOB Adjectives in eur 62 Irregular Feminities 63 Double forms for Masculine 63 Exercise 64 Formation of the Plural 64 Exercise 64 Formation of the Comparative Degrees 65 Comparative of Superiority 65 " Inferiority 65 " Equality 65 Irregular Comparative forms, 66 Exercise 66 Relative Superlative 66 Absolute " 67 Exercise 67 Place of Adjectives 67 Exercise 68 Numeral Adjectives 69 Cardinal Numbers 69 Rules on use of Cardinal Numbers 70 Exercise 71 Ordinal Numbers , 72 Rules on the use of Ordinal Numbers 73 Exercise 73 CHAPTER IY. PRONOUNS. i of Pronouns 74 Personal Pronouns. . . 74 Conjunctive Personal Pronouns 74 Relation to Verbs 75 Rules of ascertaining it 76 Elision of Pronouns 77 Place of Conjunctive Personal Pronouns 78 Exercise 78 Absolute Personal Pronouns 79 Exercise 80 Possessive Pronouns 80 6 CONTENTS. PAGX Conjunctive Possessive Pronouns 80 Agreement with Noun 81 Declension 81 Exercise 82 Absolute Possessive Pronouns 82 Exercise 83 Demonstrative Pronouns 83 Conjunctive Demonstrative Pronouns 83 Agreement with Noun 84 Exercise 84 Absolute Demonstrative Pronouns 84 Exercise 85 Relative Pronouns 85 86 87 Exenaae 87 Interrogative Pronoun 88 Prepositions belonging t<> them 88 Exercise 89 Lnite Pmnouns 89 On 89 How-: 89 Exercise 90 CII A I'TKIl V. VERBS. P nr pOBW Of HM Verb 90 Auxiliary V.rl's HI to have '.i I M .1 •. negatively M A . Interrogatively 98 Interrogatively and negatively 100 } 102 } />, negatively 103 )" ratively 100 v.-iv and negatively 106 Bxerdae 106 rcise 107 CONTENTS. 7 FACIE Eire, to be 10? Eire, negatively 110 Etre, interrogatively 114 Etre, interrogatively and negatively 116 Exercise 118 Exercise 118 Exercise 119 Eules on use of Verbs 119 Four Conjugations 120 Formation of Tenses and Persons, tbat are uniform 120 Modes of Verbs 121 Tenses of Verbs 122 Simple Tenses 122 Compound Tenses 123 Table of Terminations of Verbs 124 First Conjugation, parler 128 Remarks on Verbs of First Conjugation 139 Second Conjugation, finir 144 Third Conjugation, recevoir 156 Remarks on the Verbs of Third Conjugation 167 Fourth Conjugation, vendre 169 Different kinds of Verbs 180 Active Verbs 180 Neuter Verbs 180 List of Neuter Verbs, conjugated with etre 181 Passive Verbs 182 Pronominal Verbs 183 Reflexive 183 Reciprocal 183 Pronominal Proper 184 Impersonal Verbs 184 Reflexive Verb se lever 184 SenaUer 196 Irregular Verbs 203 Of First Conjugation 204 Of Second Conjugation 205 Of Third Conjugation 220 OfFourth Conjugation 230 Exercises on Verbs, [13] 258 CONTENTS. FAOB Participles 264 Use of Participles 264 Exercise 205 CHAPTER VI. ADVERBS. Formation of Adverbs 266 Simple Adverbs 266 Derivative Adverbs 266 Exercise 266 Compound Adverbs 2C.7 Adverbs of Quantity 867 Exercise 207 ive Adverbs 207 Exercise 207 Comparativ. Adverbs 268 Exercise 208 CUAPTER VII. rKi.i-.'-nioNS. Farm of Prepositions 260 Simple Prepositions 260 Compound Prepositions S68 !>■ . d, and par 868 : Prepositions 270 - 270 CII A PT SB VIII. . rumrnoRS. Use of Conjunctions 271 Exercise 272 CHAPTER IX. i i i UK IP ins. Dm <>f Interjections 272 FRENCH GRAMMAR ON LETTERS AND SYLLABLES. I.— PRONUNCIATION. The pronunciation of a foreign language cannot be satisfac- torily learned by comparing it witb that of our own. Such comparisons lead invariably to incorrectness. The teacher ought, therefore, in all cases to begin by pronouncing himself, clearly and distinctly, the sound of each letter and combination of letters, and then make his pupils repeat them one by one. The latter cannot be expected to be able to pronounce well, until their ear has, by practice, been accustomed to the sound ; only when they are perfectly familiar with it, will they succeed in repeating it correctly by themselves. When the sound is once acquired, then the teacher may suggest the resemblance to some similar sound in the pupils' native tongue, in order to assist their memory. The French Alphabet contains the following letters : A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, X, Y, Z. The majority of these letters are taken from the Roman Alphabet. K is only found in foreign words. Q is always accompanied by u, and has the same sound as hard c and k. W is not used in French except in writing foreign words, like whig, and then pronounced like v. X is a compound letter, consisting of e and s, or g and *. Yia called i grec, because it was taken from the Greek. I* 10 ON LETTERS AND SYLLABLES. Five of these letters are called Voioels, from a word which originally suggested that they were produced by a simple utter- ance of the voice, without the aid of other letters; whilst Con- sonants were so called, because they cannot be sounded without the assistance of another sound (con-sono). A has but one sound, which resembles that of a in father. Ex. la, the ; ma, my ; ta, thy ; sa, her ; annales, annals ; carte, card. E has the sound of e in ell, but accents change it slightly, as will be explained under the head of Accents. Ex. mor telle, mortal; href, brief: sept, seven. / lias the sound of ee in eel. Ex. fie, file; minime, smallest; cirl, heaven ; vie, life. has the two sounds which we give to o in the word post- office, the former close, the latter open. Ex. (close) apdtre, apostle; repos, repose ; sitdt, so soon, (open) choc, shock ; social ; soldat, soldier. U has no corresponding sound in English. It is pronounced by pointing the lips aa if preparing for a whistle. It must be heard to l>e imitated, and then requires, like all the sounds, prac- tice to become perfectly correct. Ex. '■<', seen; fatr, Bate; minute, minute; unt, plain. These Vowels, however, suffer certain changes under the influence of three causes: the addition of Accents, their com- bination with in and n, and their combination with other vowels. Y. as a vowel, will be mentioned hereafter. 1. When they arc accented : The French has three accents, viz. : the three signs ( ' ), ( ' ) and ( * ), which are placed over the vowels for different pur- poses : PRONUNCIATION. 11 The Acute Accent, ', (accent aigu) is placed over the let- ter e only, and gives it an acute or sharp sound. Ex. cafe, coffee ; celebre, celebrated ; necessite. The Grave Accent, ", (accent grave) is placed over the vowels a and e and the diphthong ou, and gives them not dif- ferent sounds but makes them long or broad. Ex. la, there ; pere, father ; oil, where. The Circumflex Accent, A , (accent circonflexe) is placed over all five vowels and gives them a very long or broad sound. Jt generally indicates the loss of a letter next to the accented Towel. Ex. hate, haste; hdte, host; meme, self; stir, sure. The purposes for which the accents are used, are : To mark certain inflections, as e. g., the participles past of v irbs : Ex. Sieve, elevated ; ferme, closed. To distinguish two similar words of different meanings : Ex. la, the, and la, there ; ou, or, and oil, where ; des, of the, and des, since ; a, has, and a, to ; notre, our, and le ndtre, ours ; sur, upon, and stir, sure ; du, of the, and dti, due. To indicate the loss of a letter : Ex. mere, from mater ; pdtre, from pastor ; hdte, from hostis ; stir, from securus; epltre, from epistola. The effect of the accents on the vowel e is shown in five dif- ferent ways. The Acute Accent gives it a sharp sound : Ex. celebre, celebrated ; severite, severity. The vowel e has the same sound as if it were thus accented, when, in final syllables, it is followed by a silent consonant : Ex. nez, nose ; placet, petition ; parler, to speak, except in tu es, thou art, and il est, he is, where it has a grave 01 broad sound. The Grave Accent gives it a broad sound : Ex. frire, brother ; prods, process ; des, since. 12 ON" LETTERS AJN T I) SYLLABLES. The Circumflex Accent gives it a very broad sound. Ex. tele, head ; meme, same. The absence of any accent produces in monosyllables the so- called indefinite sound of e. Ex. me, me ; te, thee ; se, one's self; que, that ; le, it ; ne, not. The absence of any accent on final e in other words, not monosyllables, leaves it perfectly silent. Ex. vie, life ; terre, earth ; lane, moon. It retains its silent character even, when in the pural an s is added. Ex. DM, Pt B, lives; hi:,,s, moons ; armeS, arms. The letters 1.1 and ent, in the final syllables of verbs, arealways silent. Ex. tout ititet, yon Bay ; Q fluent, they said. A' is also unite in e found in the first syllable, in the middle nnd at the end of a word. Ex. tt • Ir, to hold : Bamedi, Saturday ; table, table. In the very rare cases, when two or three syllables, each having a muie i, follow each other, the first one, when there are two snob «*■, and the fir-t two, when there are three, are given the Bo-called indefi- nite sound aa in monosyllables. Ex. retenir, to detain; reeewnV, to receive; • becuma In all other words the rule prevails thai no two mute ,'s can follow each oth< r in sue© asion at the end of a word ; and when this should happen as the edict of inflection, e. g., In conjugating verbs, certain orthogzaphica] remedies are prescribed, which will l«- mentioned In their appropriate place. Vowels Buffer certain Ibanges of pronanciation, 2. When they are followed by n or w, in which case they h.-ive a nasal sound, inherited by the French from the Latin. troll-known thai the Romans gave t.. the final syllables itM, MM and others, u nasal sound, which led to their frequent sup- PRONUNCIATION. 13 pression, as was the case always in poetry, where these syllables remained altogether silent, when they were followed by a vowel. This nasal sound is the same before n and m, so that am is pronounced like an, and is produced in the following combina- tions : am : ambre, amber. em : empire, empire, an : roman, novel. en : encre, ink. im : impoli, impolite. om : ombre, shade. in : enfin, at last. on ; salon, parlor. um : parfum, perfume. un : brun, brown. The nasal sound is not given to these syllables: a. When they are followed by a vowel or a second m or n. Ex. imiter, to imitate ; inutile, useless ; amener, to bring ; omettre, to omit ; uni, united ; flamme, flame ; dilemme, dilem- ma; ennemi, enemy ; immobile, immovable; inne, innate ; dom- maye, damage ; bonne, good. Except when emm and enn begin a word. Ex. emmener, to carry off (pronounced as if spelt an-mener) ; ennui, weariness ; ennoblir, to ennoble. b. When they are found in words taken from foreign languages. Ex. Ainmon, Emmanuel, commotidi, Jerusalem, amen, Am- sterdam. Except in the words Adam, Joachim, Quidam, GheruMn and Sera- phin, which have the nasal sound, being thoroughly naturalized. c. AVhen in precedes the letter k, which is always silent. Ex. inhumain, inhuman. The syllable en, on the contrary, remains nasal before h, because it only occurs before an aspirate h. Ex. enhardir, to embolden. d. When ent forms the last syllable of the third person plural of the verb, when it is altogether silent. Ex. Us parlent, they speak ; Us viennent, they come. 14 ON LETTERS AND SYLLABLES. The following words are irregular in their pronunciation : enitrer, to intoxicate, pronounced an-ivrer. enorgueillir, to make proud, pronounced an-orgueillir. ennemi, enemy, " en-nemi (not nasal). i, nay, " nan-ni. hennir, to neigh, " an-nir, solennel, solemn, " solanel. femme, woman, " fam (not nasal). faon, fawn, " fan (nasal). paon, peacock, " pan (nasal). Loon (city of), " Lan (nasal*. 1 (city of), " Can (nasal). (river of), " Sone. monsieur, sir, or Mr. " mosienr. Vowels Buffer certain changes of pronunciation. 3. When they an j<>nnf i/i. Hence pain, bread, and pin, pine-tree, sound alike; so do/aim, hunger, and fin, end : deeeein, design, and destin, draw .1/ i- pronounced like -/ (i being Bilent) in Montaigne, a proper name. . \i has the El. /'"I"'!, m. .How ; jiii'irrc, poor; mhl.tcr, boldness. PEONUKCIATION. 15 Ou has the sound of oo. Ex. clou, nail ; sou, cent ; outil, tool ; boule, bowi. Eu has a sound resembling that of u in spur, but it is always long. Ex. peu, little; seul, alone; meunier, miller. It has the sound of u (e heing silent) in certain forms of the verb avoir. Ex. eu, had ; feus, I had ; que feusse, that I might have. The same is the case in djeun, fasting. (Eu has the same sound as eu. Ex. ceuf, egg ; vceu, vow. Oi, has the sound of French oua. Ex. moi, me ; roi, king ; gloire, glory ; oie, goose. Oi before n is sounded as if it were spelt ouin. Ex. foin, hay ; loin, far ; soin, care. Oi is somewhat like o (i being silent) in oignon, onion ; encoignure, corner angle ; poignard, poniard ; poignee, handful, and a few others. If these combinations of vowels have a circumflex accent over the second vowel, the souud is lengthened considerably. Ex. maitre, master ; voute, vault ; croitre, to grow. If it is desirable, for etymological purposes, to preserve the original sound of each vowel separately, a diaeresis (") is placed over the second vowel. Ex. Saul, Saul ; naif, artless ; Mo'ise, Moses ; bdionnette, bayonet. The same effect is produced when the first vowel of ei and eu is accented. Ex. dbeir, to obey ; reussir, to succeed. N. B. — Oi was formerly used in many nouns, and always in the im- perfect and conditional tenses of verbs, instead of the modern form ai, introduced by Voltaire. It had the same sound as ai, which requires attention, as many works still retain the former spelling. b. All other combinations of vowels produce diphthongs, forming either one or two syllables. If e should be the first of two such vowels and unaccented, it is silent. Ex. Jean, John ; flageolet, flageolet ; geolier, jailer. 16 ON LETTEES AND SYLLABLES. If u be the first, it is also silent, when it follows g and q merely for the purposes of pronunciation, and does not form part of the sub- stance of the word. Ex. bague, ring ; gxurir, to cure ; guide, guide ; qui, who ; quand, when. Tlie pronunciation of diphthongs and the division into syl- lables may be practised in the following words : a-'-ri-en, ethereal. min, anion. borSal, bo-rfi-al, northern. >. vi-o-lon, violin. beatitude, b£*-ti-tu-de, beatitude, reU&r, re-li-er, bind. . 6-0 !i en, eolian. . sd ore, sawdust. . m&t&ore, meteor. '. tu-ant, killing, ft-an-cee, betrothed. ', Ba-la-er, saint.-. . poet bruit, bruit, noise. made, kick. rite, si-nu-o sit.', sinuosity. hen. onfidenoe. •.v//-', iiii-i>.'tu(>si-tr, impet- tirieux, Bl-ri-eux, Berious. unity. When tl'i-ir voweh are combined, two of these will always form B < iponod vow.], rach as oi, at, Ott, >", and oh; the third eowel, which either precedes or follows this combination, ia then pronounced by itael£ If all three form but one syllable, the combination is again called a diphtho It' . be the Bral of three vowels, or the last, and unaccented, it le- nient Landsome; Mat, jackdaw j rota, stripe; aria, Bilk. Tin- pronunciation of three vowel-, thus combined, and the I in the following worda : Kniaire, li txi aire, linear. noui, aon-e\ knotted. biait, bt-ais, elope. DS bon-ln, baboon PRONUNCIATION". 17 Dieu, Di-eu, God. Gor'notiaille, Cor-nou-aille, (Jorn- lueur, lu-eur, light. wallis. miauler, mi-au-ler, mew. fouetter, fou-et-ter, to whip. rouage, rou-age, carriage. The following words containing respectively two and three vowels, are pronounced anomalously : aout, pronounced ou, August. lingual, " lin-gou-al, lingual. joaillicr, " jou-a-lier, jeweller. ceil, ( with liquid I ) pronounced euil, eye. (Billet, " " euil-let, pink. ecueil, " e-ceuil, shoal. accueil, " " ac-ceuil, reception. cercueil, " " cer-ceuil, cofiin. cueillir, " " ceuil-lir, gather. orgueil, " " or-geuil, pride. When four vowels are combined, two form one compound vowel, and two, another, which two succeed each other; they are pronounced separately in two syllables. Ex. je jouai, jou-ai, I played. noueux, nou-eux, knotty. joueur, jou-eur, gambler. bouee, bou-e, buoy. The letter y, which in English serves sometimes as a vowel, as in paymaster, and at other times as a consonant, as in yes, is in French always a vowel, but its pronunciation changes some- what, according to its position in a word. "When it begins a word, or when it is placed between two consonants, it has the sound of i. Ex. yeux, eyes ; systime, system ; sybarite, sybarite. It becomes nasal, like i, before m and n. Ex. symbole, symbol ; syntaxe, syntax. "When it succeeds another vowel, it it pronounced like two successive i's, the former combining with the vowel that pre- cedes it, and the second pronounced by itself, unless it also 18 ON LETTERS AND SYLLABLES. should combine with a folfowing vowel, to form a compound vowel. Ex. ]xiys, pai-i, country. moycn, moi-ien, means. royal, roi-ial, royal. joyeux, joi-ieux, joyeux. In the following proper names, y is pronounced like t : Bayard, Bayonne, Cayenne, Mayence and Mayenne. CONSONANTS. Final consonant* are silent, except r, /, I and r, which are sometimes sounded ; and n and m are nasal, as has been fully explained. Kx. chee, at; brevet, brevet; toil, roof; fois, time; avocat, advocal ; mass, but; awe, \sith ; chef, chief; canal, canal; stfrvtr, to Berve. ( >;' tiro final cottsowints, the first is sounded, but the second is silent. Ex. canard, dnck ; tori, fate; sata^ saint Of three final consonants, the first is sounded, and the last two arc silent Ex. remords, remorse; prompt prompt; tempt, tune. B haa the same Bonnd :is in English. Ex. Babylone, Babylon; bouU, ball; eaoafe, cabal. l'inal o is pronoonced in the proper namei STooft, J"'/*. .7^&, Jacob, and in <•/»//.,• rUfflO, point <>f the Ofimpaw. Sttd radouk, refitting. Doable b is proaoaneed like a single b. tabbat, sabbath; rabbin rabbi; abbe, abbot. C has two sounds, according to the letter that immediately follows. It is hard, like the English k, before the vowels a, o and ", and before consonants. Cologne; cart*, pastor; climal, climate; aetif, active ; era — l a, cravat CONSONANTS. 19 When it is desirable, for etymological purposes, to give to e a soft sound (tLat of s in English) before a, o and u, a cedilla (c) is added. Ex. face, facade ; house-front ; leeon, lesson ; recevoir ; reeu, re- ceived. It is soft, like the English s, before the vowels e, i and y. Ex. cedre, cedar ; Cecile, Caecilia ; cypres, cypress. When it is desirable, for etymological purposes, to give the hard sound of k to e before these vowels, c is changed rinto qu, but u re- mains silent. Ex. vaincre : vous vainquez, you conquer ; puNie, publique, public. C, before a, o and u, and before qu has the sound of k. Ex. accabler, to overwhelm ; accomplir, to accomplish ; ac- cuser, to accuse ; acquerir, to acquire. Both c's are heard mpeccavi, repentance, and the derivatives of the Latin verb peccare. C, before e, i and y, is pronounced as in English. Ex. succes, success ; Occident, west ; acces, attack. C is commonly pronounced at the end of words. Ex. bee, beak ; aqueduc, acqueduct ; Turc, Turk. G is silent, however, although final, in these words: estoma-c, stomach ; echecs, chess ; jonc, reed ; banc, bench ; tronc, trunk ; aecroc, rent ; pore, pork ; tabac, tobacco, and a few others. C has the sound of g in second, second, and its derivatives. C has the sound of ch in the Italian words violoncelle, termicelle. Ch has the sound of English sh. Ex. chat, cat ; cher, dear ; chose, thing ; chute, fall. It is sounded like k, however, in words of Greek or Oriental origin. Ex. archange, archangel ; echo, echo ; chaos, chaos ; choeur, chorus; orchestre, orchestra; patriarchal. When these words have become perfectly naturalized, the sound of sh is substituted for that of Jc. Ex. patriarclie ; archeveque, archbishop ; bachique, bacchic. Hence the difference between archeohgique (k sound) and chirurgien ■20 ON LETTERS AND SYLLABLES. (s7i sound) ; Ohaldee (Jc sound) and AcJiilh (sh sound). Machiavelli is pronounced soft, as Machiavel, but Michele Angelo hard, as Michel- Ange. It is sounded like k also, wherever it precedes a consonant : Ex. Chretien, Christian; technique, technical; Utrecht. It is silent in almanack. In words ending in ct, both consonants are commonly sounded. Ex. exact, err* ct, direct. C only is sounded in aspect, respect, and circoiispcct ; and c and t arc both silent in instinct and amid, amice. J) baa the same sound as in English. Ex. David; Adam; redoubler, to redouble; admirable. Final -/ is silent, except in some proper names, as David, Joady Talmud, snd in eud, south. It takes the sound of t, when it ends a word connected in meaning with the next word, and this begins with a vowel. Ex. gra d homme, great man ; prqfond abUne, deep abyss ; enU ntW, docs In- hear '.' Dd is Bounded like single >K except in addition and its de- rivatives, and in reddition, where both ns. census (when nut followed by commuri) ; distinct, •4, larynx, lynx, tfihynx; and tine, zinc, n is silent in the proper name of Reams. /' baa the Bame Bound as in English. Ex. /<■ /. dang ; pommade, pomatnm. Tt is Bllenl in bapt&m . baptism, and Beveral of its derivatives ; damp- tir, ti> Miii.: ; '■ r, to carve ; sept, seven, and its deiival It is pronoonoed in bo. wre and exemption, . rally in the middle <>f a word. Final /' is silent) except in cap, cape; jalap, jalap ; julep, jalap; W-/>, and in proper names. Both of the final consonants are heard in laps, interval ; relaps, relapse, and rapt, rape. I'll U pronounced I i k . • / '. Ex. phare, lighthoose; phosphore, phosphorus; philosopke. I'ji is Bounded like sing Ex. >i}>i»l> call ; frapp r, fra-per, to strike. Q is always followed by n and pronounced like k-. Ex. quart, fourth ; gui, who; quotidien, daily ; queue, tail. it has ii" u :••' bock : cinq, five ; n'»r in piq&re, pricking, ti. avoid CONSONANTS. 25 It is pronounced like kou before a in the following words : aquatile, aquarelle, aqUatique; equateur, equator ; liquation, loqua- cite, quadruple, and words of the same root, except quadrille, where it has the sound of k, quartz ; and quaere, quaker. Both letters q and u are heard distinctly, like qu in equestre, equestrian ; equilateral and all mathematical words beginning with equi ; liquefaction; questeur, questor ; quiet, and its deriv- atives ; quiproquo, quolibet, quinconce and all words in which quin stands for five, except quincailler, ironmonger, and its derivatives. It has the sound of k in Quinte-Curce, Quintus-Curtius, and Quin- tilien. Both sounds of k and of kou are heard in succession in words like quinquagesime and quinquagenaire, a man of fifty. R has the same sound as in English, but it is more strongly marked and " rolled," as it is commonly called. Ex. ragout; regie, rule; rivage, bank; rouge, red; ordre, order; trace ; vendre, to sell. Final r is silent after e, which is pronounced like e. Ex. dernier, last ; parler, to speak ; officier, officer. Except in cher, dear ; mer, sea ; amer, bitter ; Mer, yesterday ; avant-hier, before yesterday ; cuiller, spoon ; ether, ether ; fer, iron ; enfer, hell ; Jiiver, winter ; lucifer, magister ; outremer, ultramarine ; •pater, Lord's prayer ; ver, worm, and some proper names, as Jupiter, Esther, Niger. Final r is pronounced after the vowels a, i, o and u. Ex. char, car; or, gold ; servir, to serve; erreur, error. Except in monsieur, sir, where it is always silent. R is silent in notre, our, and voire, your, before a consonant. Ex. notre maison not' maison) ; voire sceur (vof soeur), your sister. Rr is pronounced like a single r. Ex. parrain, godfather ; carrosse, carriage ; guerre, war. 2 26 ON LETTERS AND SYLLABLES. Except in aberration; concurrence; abhorrer, to abhor; errata; errer, to err, and its derivatives; horreur, horror ; Iiorrible ; inter- regnc, interregnum: narration; terreur, terror ; torrent; terrifier ; in most -words beginning with ir, as iirreguHer, and in the future and conditional of verbs, like acquerir, to acquire ; mourir, to die, aud ceurir, to run, as will be seen in the chapter of verbs. Rh is pronounced like r alone. Ex. rhume, cold; rt/ihme, rhythmus All final consonants are silent after r. Ex. inert, death; serf, fate; regard, glance. Except man, March ; ours, bear; pare, park, where both are heard. S lias a sharp sound like 88 in English and a soft sound like English t. It is hard at the beginning of words, when followed by a vowel or a consonant. 'our, stay; ton, sound; suae, sugar; scan- dal, ; scorpion; ntotnae, Btomacfa ; squelette, skeleton, When iii the middle of a word it is preceded or followed by :;ant. Ex. absoltt, absolute; converter, to converse; loraque % when. And when it i- double. Ex. coueein, cushion; baese, base; ro»*e % jade; Rueee, Rus- sian ; poisxon, tish. These words must be carefully distinguished from cousin, cousin ; base, base; oison, and ruse, cunning, win-re the s It i> so/V, when single and standing between two vowels or followed by hva Ex. maieon, housi shave; dishonneur, dishonor. 1 cept that it is hard in compound words, where e was original!? Initial, as in ' ■ . likely ; In a few words of fori Ign origin, ai (J and resorption, and in the ten the verb ^Mr, BO lie. CONSONANTS. 27 It is soft in Jersey, Alsace ; balsamine, balsam ; presbytere, and like derivatives, when followed by b, and in tbe syllable trans, as in trans- action; but not in transir, to chill. It is silent in the proper name Duguesclin. See and sci are pronounced like ce and ci. Ex. seine, stage ; science ; scelerat, rascal. St is sounded in est, east; ouest, west; lest, ballast; Chris* (except in Jesus- Christ, when it is silent); in antichrist, test, and the name of the city of Brest. Final s is generally silent, as in the plural of nouns and the verbs; but is is pronounced in fils, son; aloes ; as, ace; atlas; blocus, blockade ; cens, census ; dervis, dervish ; en sus, beside ; iris ; jadis, formerly ; lis, lily ; ma'is, maize ; mars, March ; metis, mongrel ; mceurs, manners ; tous, all (when a pronoun) ; ours, bear ; plus, more (when final) ; vis, screw ; in foreign words, as gratis, tetanos, etc., and in some proper names, as in Rheims, Brutus, Gil Bias, etc., although it is silent in Mathias, Judas, Thomas. T has two sounds: one like the English t in to; the other like the French sound of c before i. It is hard at the beginning and in the middle of words. Ex. tabac, tobacco ; tenebres, darkness ; torrent, tumulte, ana- tomie ; entamer, to touch ; baton, stick. It is soft, in the final syllable tion. Ex. satisfaction; petition, pe-ti-ci-on ; patience, pa-ci-ence. And in the following words : argutie, cavil ; initier, to ini- tiate ; balbutier, to stammer; calvitie, baldness; facetie, jest; inertie, inertness ; imperitie, want of experience ; patient and patience ; minutie, trifle ; peripetie, change of fortune ; pro- phelie ; satiete, satiety ; aristocratie, and all words ending in atie and their derivations, and in some proper names, as Dio- cletien, and Venitien. It retains its hard sound in all combinations of tie. Ex. tien, thine; tiers, third; amitie, friendship; entier, entire. 28 ON LETTERS AND SYLLABLES. Tt is somewhat like a single t, except in attique, attic; atti- cisme, guttural and pittoresque, picturesque, where both are heard. Final t is generally silent. Ex. mot, word; rat, rat; est (pronounced £), is. Except in admit, aconite ; brut, rough; chut, hush; cobalt, comput, accessit ; dot, dowry; deficit ; fat, coxcomb ; fret, freight ; granit ; in sept, seven, and kuit, eight (when they are not followed by a consonant); in indult ; lut, lute; malt; mat, impolished ; net, neat; opiat ; occiput; pat, stale mate; t ; rapt, rape ; rit, rite, and in all Latin words. It is always silent in ct, and in ent, the termination of the third per- son plural of verbs, which is altogether silent, TIi is pronounced like a single /, it being a mere etymo- logical sign of Greek, Hebrew, and foreign words generally. Ex. (hi, tea; t : Intke; than, tunnyfish. It is altogether silent in asthms, pronounced V baa th . Mi. . empty; voleur, thief ; veuve, widow. H\ whirh occurs only in foreign words, with the educated retains the Bound it baa at borne. Ex. N '. Washington, Westphalie, With the mass <>f the people, it is apt to be sounded like .(' words. .■ luxe, luxun ; It is pronounced like gs at the beginning of proper n Ex. X iphon. And in the words beginning with ex, followed by a vowel. ■ heat favorably. It is pronounced like « in six, six ; dix, ten; eoisante, sixty, and in the proper nan, \erre, Auxoi telles. PRONUNCIATION IN READING AND SPEAKING. 29 It is pronounced like z in the derivatives of deux, two ; as deuxicme, second ; of six, as sixieme, sixth ; of dix, as dixieme, tenth ; and their compounds, as dix-se.pt, seventeen. Final x is silent, except in proper names, where it is sounded like ks. Ex. Ajax, Phenix. In cocatrix, cochatrice ; prefix, and Aix la-Chapelle, and in words derived from Latin or Greek, as in lynx, sphynx, index etc. Z is pronounced as the English z in zest. Ex. zone, Zacharie, zephyr. Final z is sounded only in foreign names, as Suez, Cortez, and in Metz. PRONUNCIATION IN READING AND SPEAKING. The consonants have besides the sound which is given to them in the word to which they belong, often another or an ad- ditional sound, when they occur in connected sentences, which are read or spoken. The two principal rules on this subjet are : 1. Final consonants, preceding a word that begins with a vowel or h mute, are generally pronounced as if they were the initial letter of the second word, provided the two words, thus to be connected in sound, are also connected in meaning, as adjectives before nouns or pronouns before verbs. Ex. mon ami, mo-nami ; petit enfant, peti-tenfant ; nous avons, nou-zavons ; Us ont, il-zont. 2. When a word ending in e mute is followed by one begin- ning with a vow T el or h mute, the last consonant of the first is in the same manner pronounced as if it formed the initial of the second word. Ex. la France entiere, la Fran-cen-ti-ere ; Vhonnete homme, 1'honne-tomme. The following words are excepted from this rule, and treated oO OX LETTEE3 AND SYLLABLES. as if they began with a consonant, so that no connection takes place between them and the preceding word : Et, aud ; oui, yes ; onze, eleven, with its derivatives ; uniema, first; yacht, yatayan; yole, yawl; ouest, west, and the interjec- tions beginning with a vowel, as ah ! oh ! ouf! etc. Final consonants, when thus transferred, as it were, to the next word, change their sounds slightly. This is done in the following manner : C becomes k. Ex. franc-arbitre, free will ; pore-epic, porcupine. D becomes /. Ex. un grand-homme, a great man ; pied-h-terre, a place to alight; line grande-ama, a great heart. The following words ending In d t donotonite with the next word: fjh ' il. warm : / /, rang, from rank to rank; un lony acces, a long attack. /. is never connected with the next word, except when it is Bounded already in a single woid. Otherwise, it retains its sound. Ex. // eat, he his; il y <»/, there was. Tlie word //' ntiZ changes tie-' f into a. liquid sound before vowels, ns in nn gantO enfant, s pretty child. This does uol apply, however, to the plural. X, when nasal, changes into the sound of nn, of which the fir.st is nasal and the second united with the next word. Ex. nun ami, my friend; son konnaur, his honor. PKONUJsrciATioisr iisr heading and speaking. 31 If nasal n should end a noun, it retains its original sound and is not connected with the next word. Ex. une passion aveugle, a blind passion. If n should be followed by a final consonant, the latter alone is transferred to the next word, unless it be c or p, which remain silent. Ex. un savant artiste, a learned artist. But un champ ensemence, a sowed field. The letter t of the syllable ent in verbs, which is silent, is nevertheless connected with the next word. Ex. lis parlaient ensemble, they spoke together ; Us sont ici, they are here. P is connected with the next word only in the words coup, blow ; trop, too much, and beaucoup, much. Ex. II a trop aime, he has loved too much ; un coup atrocc, a fearful blow. Q becomes k. • Ex. cinq ans, five years ; coq-a-Vane, cock and bull story. R remains silent in the infinitives in er, except in poetry, and in monsieur. In other cases, it is connected with the next word. When r is followed by a final consonant, the latter remains silent, and r alone is connected with the next word ; c, however, is always sounded. Ex. un sort agreable, a plaisant fate; un tort enorme, grievous wrong ; arc-en-ciel, rainbow. S becomes z. Ex. vous avez, you have ; elles avaient, they had. Final s in the inflections of the verb is carried only in poetry. T at the end of nouns is not carried to the next word, except in but, end, unless it was already previously pronounced, as in fat, coxcomb. All final £'s, however, are sounded in poetry, except in et, and. 32 ON LETTERS AND SYLLABLES. T is carried in fort, when it means very, but r only, when it means strong. Ex. i£ erf /•£ aimable, he is very good. But I? <^ /or£ e£ grand, he is strong and tall. T is always carried in est, is, hut never sounded in et, and. Ex. 11 est excellent, he is excellent ; elle est lieureuse, she is happy. X becomes z. Ex. aux enfants, to the children ; sit hommes, six men. Z is carried only in dignified style and poetry; ordinarily it is heard only in the second person plural of verbs. Ex. vous avez eu, you have had; vous a>:it~ etc, you had been. IT.— ELISION. The three vowels ". * and i are, nnder certain circumstance*, suppressed or elided, and this process is called Elision. It is always indicated by .-i sign I ' ), called an Apostrophe, which takes the place of the elided vowel. The effect of elision is thai the two words, that which h;is lost its final vowel and the in- v t word, which begins with a vowel or h unite, are pro- nounced as one word. . the man; Vhonneur, loncur, the honor. The vowel j is elided only in the word si, if, when it pre- cedes the two prononni il, he, and Us, they. Ex. (si il) s'U vient, if he comes; (si vulent, if they will. The vowel <» is elided only in the feminine of the article hi, the, and the feminine of the personal pronoun /", her, but all vowels and before h n 'amis, the friend; (la habitude), flu/H- the babil ; je (la aime) taime, 1 love her; il (la usurpe) Tusurpe, he osnrps il il (la honore) F honors, he - her. ELISION. 83 The vowel e is elided, when it is unaccented, at the end of a monosyllabic word or of some compounds with que, that, before all vowels and h mute. Ex. (je aspire) f aspire, I aspire; elle (me adore) nC adore, she worships me ; Us (le honorent) Vhonorent, they honor him ; on (se habille) sliabille, they are dressing ; fy cours, I run there; (ce est) c'est bon, that is right; quoiqu'il vienne, although he come ; parce qu'elle lit, because she reads. E ntre elides its final e before reciprocal verbs, with wliicli it forma a compound. Ex. s'entr'aider (se entre aider), to help each other ; s'entr'ouvrir (se entre ouvrir), to commune with each other; s' 'entr 'accuser, to accuse each other. Jusque elides its e before a, au, aux and ici. Ex. jusqu'd Borne, as far as Rome ; jusqu'au del, up to heaven ; jusqu'aux nues, to the clouds ; jusqu'iei, until now. Pidsque and quoique elide their e only when followed by il, Us, elle, elles, on, un and une, or a word with which they are indissolubly connected. Ex. puisqu'ainsi est, since it is so ; puisqu'elle lejoeut, since she willa it so ; quoiqu'on soit, although they be. But we must write : quoique etranger, although a stranger ; puisqm invisible, since invisible. Quelque elides its e only before un, une, quelqu'un, quelqu'une, and in quel qu'il soit and quelle qu'elle soit. Hence we must say quelque He, some island, and quelque espoir, some hope. Quelqu' autre is used by some authors. Presque elides its e only in presqu'ile, peninsula. No elision tabes place when there is no mental connection between the two words, which would otherwise be subject to these rules. Hence, e. g., when le, la and other pronouns are placed after their verbs, they are not elided, although they may be followed by a vowel, because they belong to the verb and not to the next word. Ex. Menez-le a Paris, take him to Paris ; prenez-la avec vous, take it with you. 3 J OX LETTEES AND SYLLABLES. Nor will any elision take place before those exceptional words, which, although beginning with a vowel or h mute, aio treated as if their initial letter were a consonant. Ex. le huitibne, the eighth ; le onzieme, the eleventh ; lea out et non, the ayes and noes. An anomalous elision takes place in the word grands, which loses its final e before certain nouns beginning with a consonant, with which it forms a kind of compound noun. Ex. grand' mire, grandmother ; grand' meese, high mass ; grand' cvtte, mainmast, etc. It must not be forgotten that no elision takes place before aspi- ratod h. Ex. le Jiamcau, the hamlet ; l<: Tliros, the hero. III.— SYLLABICATION. French words are, like English words, divided into syllables, but the maimer of dividing them differs in the two languages. The following rales have to be observed in French : 1. A consonant between t\\<> vowels goes with the secondj and not, h, with the first vowel. Ex. Hti-ri, husband; phi-hsophe, philosopher. This rule i> all the more important as it affects, of course, the pronnnoiation also. The pronounce med-icine, the French mide^dntj they say pol-itics, the French &aj Hque. 2. Two <(.us, .Hants between two vowels divide so that one goes with the . the other with the following rowel Ex. j-ar-ti, party; froo-per, to Btrike; er-reur, error, • two consonants can be produced by one utterance, sach as in; <■/. ,r, and others. These combinations are the same in French as in English, and here the two consonants ■. with the second vowel. Ex. o-ori, shelter ; )i'-c/ain<\ puff; ro-mw, sugar-dish. QUANTITY. 35 3. With three consonants, the syllables divide between the second and third. Ex. obs-cur, obscure ; arc-tique, arctic, unless the three consonants also can be pronounced in one im- pulse of the voice, when the division is made after the first con- sonant. Ex. at-tri-but, attribute ; ac-trice, actress. 4. With four consonants, two go with the first and two with the second syllable. Ex. obs-tructif, obstructive ; abs-trait, abstruse. 5. When two or more vowels meet, the manner of dividing them depends on the rules given before, which state when they form one or more syllables, and examples have been given there as to the proper division. IV.— QUANTITY. Quantity means in French simply the longer or shorter time which is given to the pronunciation of a syllable. It has no- thing to do with the accent of the voice, which raises or lowers the latter, but does not lengthen or shorten the word. The French has very minute and strict rules on this part of pronun- ciation, of which the following are the most important : 1. Every syllable ending in a consonant (except s and z) is short. Ex. sac, sack; nectar; fU, thread; pot, pot; but, en d. 2. Every masculine syllable becomes long in the plural. Ex. sacs ; sels, salts ; pots. 3. Every masculine singular, ending in s, x or z, is long. Ex. temps, time ; riez, nose ; volx, voice. 4. Nasal vowels followed by consonants (except m and n) arc long. Ex. jambe, leg; crainte, fear; humble ; tomber, to fall ; but followed by m and n, they are short. Ex. epigramme ; personne, somebody : premie, take. 36 ON LETTERS AND SYLLABLES. 5. Every syllable ending in r and not followed by r, is short. Ex. barbe, beard ; berceau, cradle ; infirme, ordre, but if followed by r, it is long. Ex. arre% sentence ; bkarre, odd ; tonnerre, thunder. 6. Placed between two vowels, of which the second is mute, s and z lenghthen the first. Ex. Inltt', basis ; bttisr, blunder ; epouse, wife. ling another consonant shortens the syllable be- fore it. Ex. masque, mask ; astre, star ; burlesque. . Snal mute e lengthens the vowel preceding it. Ex. pensee, thought; jb< .]•>)' \ iljoue, he plays, rue, street. !'. Every other vowel following another vowel renders it short 1a. cri ■ . created ; ac&on ; hah; t<> hate ; titer, to kill. In th<; following wmds which arc Bounded alike, quantity ;, bermines the meaning, hut only the more important words and - t ordinarily have been given. ::iri>. tool. ~;id.lle. b~'„ll. 1 chair, i tSte, ri!>. r corse. I , lie foam .Mini it. file feast. 8UOHT. acre, acre ( ol land). breath. . Ivent to rent. b ata . he limps, .• od. r!,: r, ilar. tiire, clerk. in. 00U . numerical murk. Bid, Klir. cn'ir, leather. ddn, gift. faUe, done (pari pnst). PUNCTUATION. 37 faix, burden. j fais (tu), tlioa doest. j foret, forest. fumes (nous), we were. gram, grave. hale, burning air. jais,jet. jeune, fasting. legs, legacy. laisse (je), I let matin, dog. muis, month. munt, mountain. mur, ripe. masse, end of cue. pecher, to sin. pene, part of lock. pleine, plain. saut, leap. saint, saint. scene, scene. cene, Lord's supper. saine, sound. tache, task. tres, very. vaine, vain. vivres, victuals. •ooix, voice. «oZer, to steal. fait (il), he does. /oref, borer. fume (je), I smoke. grave (il), be engraves. /taZfo, ball. jet, throw. jeune, young. ilai, layman. laid, uglay. lait, milk. laisse, leash. matin, morning. mm, me. mdn, my. mwr, wall. masse, mass. pecher, to fish. peine, pain. pleine, full. sctf, fool. cem£, girt. sem#, signature. jSeme, (river). £acAe, spot. trait, feature. mine, vein. ewre, to live. vent, (il), he se vdler, to fly. V.— PUNCTUATION. The marks of Punctuation are the same in French as in Eng- lish, with the addition of a few peculiar to French. They are the following : 38 ON LETTERS AND SYLLABLES. Comma. Semicolon, Colon, Period, Note of exclamation, Note of interrogation, Parenthesis, Dash, Quotation mark, Cedilla, Hyphen, Apostroohr, calied in French Virgule. " Point it cirgule. " " Deux points. Point. " " Point (P exclamation " " Point d' interrogation " " Parenthese. Tin t. " " Gu&emets. CediBe. " " Tremo, " " Trait d' union. " " Apostrophe. A LIST OK THK MOST COMMON ABBREVIATIONS IN* FRENCH. A. P. d protest* r, to be protest* d. A. s. P. a , ''.', ac- oepted withoul protest A. B.F xpte. /.. baron. ironne, ban i I r, knight. ■ ml ci urn toss. !> i). m Deo Optimo Maximo. odor. D m or D. M. doctor of Medi- cine. I.I, A A. II. / t, Their [mperial High- Dest I.:., a \ BB /.. .1 lee, Their Royal Highi Li, Em Leurt Eminences, Their Emm LL. l. Ueneee, Their Bzeelli M '•' / miss. Mgr. '■' marques. Id marchioness. MM. ' s, MesBTB. M" 11, mad ■ ■•■ . Mrs. Mat. manuscrit, MS. \. B. :• N l> ' < Mir I.ady. i. wholesale me* \ •. number, No. N.-S. A . «>ur Lord. N.-S. J.»\ X,S.J,-x„x.< ■/,,-!>(. e ■■'. per •■••nt. P. s. post seriptum, P. S. K P, Se\ r. nd Pere, Revd Father. S. A. I /• . His [mperial Highness. S A I: , His Royal Highi B.A.S. 8 A >'/.'.,<■*«/«., IliuSe nno lIL'huusi NOUN'S. 39 LL. HH. Lews Hautesses, Their Highnesses. LL. MM. Leurs Majestes, Their Majesties. LL. MM. II. LL. MM. Imp' r tales, Their Imperial Majesties. LL. MM. RR. LL. MM. Royales, Their Royal Majesties. M. or M r monsieur, Mr. M. A. maison assuree, insured. M. A. C. I. M. A. contre Vincendie, insured against fire. M d mwrcliand, merchant. S. E. Son Eminence. S. M. Sa Mqjeste, His or Her Maj- esty. S. M. B. S. M. Britannique, His Britannic Majesty. S. M. C. S. M. Gatholique, His Ca- tholic Majesty. S. M. I. S. M. Imperiale, His Im- perial Majesty. S. M. T. C. S. M. Tres Ghretienne, His Most Christian Majesty. S. P. Saint-Pere, Holy Father. S. S. Sa Saintete, His Holiness. ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. According to established usage, the words of the French language are divided into nine classes. These are : 1. Nouns, 2. Articles; 3. Adjectives; 4. Pronouns; 5. Verbs; 6. Adverbs; 7. Prepositions ; 8. Conjunctions ; 9. Interjections. CHAPTER I. Nouns are simply the names of persons or things. Ex. Pierre, Peter ; Londres, London ; Autriche, Austria ; terre, earth ; soleil, sun ; vertu, virtue. Proper Nouns belong to one man or one object only, and hence their name. Ex. Cesar, Caesar; Louis, Lewis ; Russie, Russia ; Vesuve, Vesuvius. Common Nouns are the names which are common to a whole class of objects. Ex. homme, man; arbre, tree; oiseau, bird. 4:0 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Collective Nouns are the names which are common to a cer- tain number, a collection of persons or things, and hence under a singular form represent a plural meaning. Ex. armee t army ; Joule, crowd ; quanlite, quantity ; moilie, half. There are two important points to be considered in connec- tion with nouns: Gender and Number. GENDER OF NOl'XS. French nouns bave two genders Masculine and Feminine. As there is no Neuter in French, all English nouns of that gender must be it. Fren h either masculine or feminine. We ascertain the gender of a French word : 1. by its signi- .. and -. by its termination. ,\<; TO BH NIFICATIOK. 1. Mate l\ e, are the nouns which designate male beingB, and Buch as we are accustomed to consider as male. Ex. komme, man ; /ton, lion ; Renins, rnate female beings, and Bach m we art I to consider as female. . ins which rapresenl qualities belonging to men and to women, change their gender accordingly. Ex. /'.'/•//"/'/-, m., the foreigner; ntrangire, f., the foreign lady. i. Masculine, are the names of days, months and seasons; of tre - meaa- imhers and fractions, weight . ; (March; le printempt, spring; iron; U granit, granite; It Fra , the meti ; U quart, the fourth ; A the hundredth. NOUNS. 41 One tree, yev.se, an oak, is feminine ; and a few shrubs, as epine, thorn ; rcmce, brier , vigne, vine, etc. Collective numbers also are feminine, as la douzccine, dozen ; la moi- tie, half. 5. Masculine, are tne names of mountains and winds, and those of countries and rivers which do not end in e mute. Ex. le Caucase, Caucasus ; le Vesuve, Vesuvius ; le JVord, North wind ; le Piemont, Piedmont ; le Danemarck, Denmark ; le Tage, Tagus. Except the names of mountains used only in the plural, as les AU pes and les Pyrenees ; and of winds the following : la arise, breeze ; la bise, N. E. wind ; la tramontane, N. wind. The names of rivers ending in e mute are masculine or feminine, according to their derivation ; hence le RMne, from Khodanus ; and la Seine, from Sequana. 6. Feminine, are the names of virtues, qualities and festivals. Ex. la vertu, virtue ; la bonte, goodness ; la haine, hatred ; la Saint- Jean, St. John's day. Except Noel, Christmas ; and Pdques, when it means Easter Sun- day ; and courage and merite, all of which are masculine. 7. The gender of Compound Nouns depends upon the na- ture of their composition, which will be explained hereafter. No general rule, applying to all cases, can here be given, though it may be learned that when they contain a noun and an adjective, the noun determines the gender. Ex. eau-forte, aqua-fortis, fem. because eau is feminine ; es- prit-fort, great wit, masc. because esprit is masculine. And when they consist of two nouns, the principal noun determines the gender. Ex. arc-en-ciel, rainbow, masc. ; arriere-boutique, back shop, fem. J2 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. GENDER OF NOUNS ACCORDING TO THEIR TERMINATION. The rules which determine the Gender of Nouns by their form, depend maiuly upon the fact that these nouns are gen- erally derived from the Latin, and retain the gender which tliey had in that language. Hence we obtain the following rules, which are the most important : 1. Feminine, are nouns end- except the Masculines : in ur, happiness ; chaw, chorus; caur, lu'svrt ; dSnomina- lishonor ; rfiri- nii/r. divisor; <'>jnat, ur, equator; ■ : honm ur, honor ; intS- labor; maUmur, misfortune; tr», tears ; rigutar ■f, ur. blasoo ; buton, buzzard gaaon, turf; lyard ; poiton, poison : oiaon, gosling; titon, fire- brand ; pinpon, tugon, <-tc \fascuIno arc D0QD8 « -n ling 10 n i ud. ron, as baron, out, as rajout, stew. ■ . and bJon. NOUNS. 43 ment, as jugement, judgment. au, an vuyau, pipe, (except eau, water, and peau, skin). in, as bassin, basin, (except fin, end, and main, hand). et, as brevet, (except foret, forest). ot, as gigot, leg, (except dot, dowry). 3. Nouns ending in mute e may be considered as feminine. Hence, the names of most countries and all cities are of this gender, when ending in mute e. Ex. la France, France ; la Syrie, Syria ; la Rochelle. Some names of countries ending in mute e aro masculine : U Ben- gale, Bengal ; le Mexique, Mexico ; Ic Peloponese. But among the nouns ending in mute e, many classes are masculine, of which we mention here the most numerous and important only. except the Feminines : Masculine, are those end- ing in !, slavery. {cage, cage ; image ; nage, swim- ming ; page, page of a book ; plage, beach ; rage, rage. alarme ; ame, soul ; amertume, ire, as > itre, chapter. arme, weapon ; cou- tume, custom ; creme, cream ; ecu- me, foam ; enigme, epigramme ; es- time, esteem ; ferme, farm ; flam- me, flame ; forme ; gomme, gum ; lame, blade ; larme, tear ; lime, file ; maxime ; plume, pen ; pom- me, apple ; rame, oar ; reforme ; rime, rhyme ; somme, sum ; victi- me ; cime, summit ; dime, tithe ; enclume, anvil ; escrime, fencing ; gamme, gamut ; prime, premium ; frame, web, and a few others rarely used. (* chartre, constitution ; fenetre, i window ; guetre, gaiter ; liuitre, Ure, letter ; montre, 44 ON THE PAETS OF SPEECH. f watch; piastre; potttre, beam, J rencontre, meeting ; titre, pane • iepitre, epistle; mitre, and a few [ others. affaire : aire, area ; claire, re- fined ashes ; glaire, slime ; gram- maire ; haire, hair-cloth ; j"i- paire, pair, and all names of plants wilding in aire. decrottoire, shoe-brash; Seritoure, inkstand; histoire, history. t"ir, , victory. avari delight : epia . Bpice ; immondice, filth ; j . lists ; . militia ; imtir, ; offto . pantry . firetlin vnrix. cambrio; j office : petti . plague ; pitt . track ; jacket . Cl IJ ; hilr, bile"; etoile, star; file, row; hu&e, pile; A <-. - - ' Ghreekor Latin; rith the names of In i ' tre, as chapltre, chapter. dirt, as statuaire, sculptor. toire, bb purgatoire, purgatory. ire, as i dt', as artiste, artiste. i NOUNS. 45 The following list of nouns ending in mute e, which are masculine for various reasons not mentioned above, is inserted here mainly for purposes of reference ; other words which are purely technical or of rare occurence, have been omitted. abaque abacus are (and com {unity in the new \ system of measure accessoire accessory pounds) acide acid aromate aromatic acre acre ascaride ascarides acrosticlie acrostic aspbalte asphalt acte act aspre asper adininicule slight proof asterisque asterisk adverbe adverb astragale astragal aigle eagle astrolabe astrolabe aise ease atbenee athenceum albatre alabaster augure augury allege ligMer automate automaton alveole j a cell in a honey \ comb - axe axis, axle-tree babeurre buttermilk ambages pi. ambages bagne bagnio ambe (two together) barbe a Barbary horse amble amble barde slice of bacon ainbre amber barege barege amiante amianthus basalte basalt amulette amulet becarre { natural \ (in music) aualectes pi. analects andante andante bejaune booby androgyne androgyne berce robin redbreast angle (and com- \ angle beurre butter pounds) bievre beaver animalcule animalcule bogue boga antidote antidote Bospnore Bosphorus antipode antipode bouge a small room apkelie aphelion branle jogging apocalypse apocalypse cable cable apogee apogeon cadavre corpse apograpbe apographum cadre frame apologue apologue caducee mercury's wand arbre tree calibre bore, size, sort 4G ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. caique counter drawing code code camee cameo codicille codicU camphre camphire coffre chest cancre crab-fish college college candelabre ehandi V r colloque colloquy cantique canticle collyre colly Hum capitole capital colosse colossus capitule capitule colyst'e coliseum capre prirntr, r comble top capricoxne Capricorn comestible eatables caroube ■ cordb bean commerce com mi rre carougo commingo coarse mortar carpe compte bill, account carosse oompnlsolre ant cartouche scroll oondliabale nticte h hm t oonclaye eonel catafalque i'qne oonoombre cucumber catalogue c6ne catarrhs ■ rrh congre conger caostiqae ca eonte tale I'll- taph oontr&le control earne rin'j i eonventicnle nticte dial." eorspuscule rorp'iscitle chamliranlo ft tin >ir chancre c. «ry | eoryp oothurne bo ski il chaovre OOU '.'■ chevrefetdlle couple rliilTr.- (figure) dboire rra/i cidro riil. r skull ' > /i. r cravate rroot dgare erdpe cimcterre tri, BrepUBCUlfl tuOigkt dmeti&re 'cry crible rim cube dppe eulte h ip cirque cloaqoe eylindre cyl ' cocbe 1 ti a Hon tnd JSTOUNS. 4 decalogue decalogue escompte discount decombres pi. rubbish espace space decompte discount eupborbe euphorbium dedale labyrinth exemple example delice sing. delight exergue exergue delire delirium exode exodus deluge deluge exorde exordium deruerite demerit fascicule fascicle denticule denticles faite top derriere back feurre cJmff desordre disorder fiacre hack dialectp dialect fifre fife diocese diocese filigrane filigree disque disk finale (in music) finale dissyllabe dissyllable flasque ( of > flask distique distich cannon) dithyrainbe dithyrambus fleuve large river divideude dividend fluide fluid divorce divorce foie liver dogue bull-dog follicule (in an-} #i7I)Vi--#7 „ domaine domain atomy) r J UW0VU/1/& double double fonticule fonticulus doute doubt foudre • large tun ecbange • exchange genie genius ellebore hellebore genievre gin eloge encomium genre gender elysee elysium gingembre ginger emetique emetic girofle cloves empire empire gite lodging empire'e empyrean givre hoar-frost encombre encumbrance glaive sword ensemble whole globe globe ephemerides ephemerides globule globtde epilogue epilogue goberge a sort of eodfis't episode episode golfe gulf equilibre equilibrium gone a sort of worm equinoxe equinox goufire abyss erysipele erysipelas grabuge squabble esclandre uproar grade degree eBclavage slavery greffe register's office 47 43 ON THE PAETS OF SPEECH. gnmoire conjuror's book lexique lexicon groupe group libelle libel guide guide, director liege cork gueule gules in heraldry lievre hare gymnase gymnasium limbe limb (edge) gyneceo gyncecium linge linen, clothes hale suubur/iixg liquide liquid hiivre haven litigo litigation hecatombe hecatomb livre book heliotrope turnsol lobe lobe hemisphere h> misphere lobule lobule ln'mi.-ticho licmiMich logogryphe logography hieroglypha hit /•">/! yphic lombes hombre ombt r Lnuvn- palace horoscope horot lucre lucre hymenee wedlock luxe lu.rury liyiiuii- hym \v •,• tyoewn bypoooodrc hypochondria* madrepore madrepora iambe malgre li an immeuble real HialaiM' wneasinem in.-.ii.li,- eonflagration Iiialic-hr handle indiculo slight indication man ige riding-school hilu~uirr8 fnfutory Worms mfinea manipnle mandpU •gnia manque leant tanerUgne interline marbre marble Intermeda intt i mart \ ti> martyrdom JDttTI. intern ign martj rologe martyrologff inti-rvulle intt red mannnn mask acre ma.* Jade jade ■MMMoMe mausoktnm jaspo jasper up' a nilro maiider Je&ne fiut nn'cpinpte in it n rlcon ing kiopque kiosk Hi'' lunge mixture lul>\ rinthe iabyr membra member, limb meadsKng detkee mfcnoiw bill laqoe China varnish nn'iiisque meniscus offing mensonge ■ xf<>ry) learn hurt mercure mercury K-viuquo Uciticus merle b'ackbird merite merit < U IN Q. opuscule small composition mesaise distress orbe orb metailo'ide metalloid ordre order ineteore meteor organ organ meuble piece of furniture orgue, when ) organ, an instru- \ ment nolle mile singular mode mood ovale oval modele model ove onolo module module oxyde oxyd mole pier pact pact monde world pampre leafy nine branch monocorde monochord panache bunch of feathers monologue monologue panegyrique panegyric monopole monopoly pantographe pantograph monosyllabe monosyllables paque easier monticule hillock paradoxe paradox Morne hillock paragraphe paragraph nioufle pulley parallele comparison moule mould parafe or paxaphe flourishinsinging mufle muzzle parapluie umbrella murmure murmw parjure perjury musee museum parterre Spit {in a theatre) niyrthe myrtle ( flower garden naplite naphtha participe participle narcisse daffodil parachute parachute navire ship patrimoine patrimony necrologe { a register vf the \ dead pavie pecule nectarine peculium negoce trade pedicule pedicle nimbe glory, in painting pedoncule the principal stern nombre number, quantity peigne comb obelisque obelisk penates penates 038opbage oesophagus pendule pendulum ceuvre musical work pene bolt of a lock olympe olympus pentacorde pentechord ombre a game of cards pentateuque pentateuch omoplate omoplate pericarde pericardium ongle nail pericarpe pericarpium opercule operculum pericrane pericranium opprobre disgrace perigee perigee 50 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. perihelie periode peritoiue perpendicule personne petale petiole petrole peuple pbalene phare pht'nomrne pll phosphora I pique plyolne planisphere pl6biscfte plelge poflo l*>il«- pole polype polypode polyeyllabe ponche poarahe pore parphyre Jtort.'t'rMillc portiqae poaoe pourpre ]>r.':imltule : preohe perihelium tJu highest j)itch peritonaeum perpendicvbum p tal l>. Hole petiroU '(in Ughth phi re it u in 1" I'l" r dium thumb i ' i ing prelude prestige prfitexte principe privilege prodigue prologue prone propylee protocols proverbe prytanee pygmee pylore qoadrige quadrille quaterne quinoonce rable rale reobange regale relfiche r.iiii'di' remise renne repere reproehe rotable r.'ticuli- reve reverbere rhombo ridicule rieble risque rite prelude prestige pr< text principle privilege prodigy prologue short sermon propylaswm protocol proverb prytanemm pylorus quadriga g me n /•■ mi ill/ mark r, proaeh i'ieee reetteula dream Li ht i rn ridiouk gram risk rite NOUNS. 51 r61e roll stockfiche dried codfish rosace hollyJiock store small blinds rosage rose-bay stygmate stigma rouable rake for an oven , stylobate stylobatum rouble Russian coin subterfuge subterfuge sable sable subside subsidy sabre sabre Sucre sugar sacerdoce sacerdoce symbole symbol sacre consecration synod e synod sacrilege sacrilege tarse tarsus sarigue oposum temple temple scandale public offence tentacule tentacle scarabee searabceus terne terne scolie scolium teste text scrupule scruple thyrse thyrsus seigle rye timbre stamp sepulcre sepulchre tintamarre great noist sexe sex tonnerre thunder sexte sextus topique topic signe sign torse trunk of a etatue silence silence toxique poison sille sillus trapeze trapezium simple medicinal herb trefle trefoil simulacre simulacre triomphe triumph singe ape trisyllabe trisyllable site site trocbisque pill socque overshoe, sandal trochee trochee solde balance of abill troene privet soliloque soliloquy troglodite wren songe dream trombone trombone souffle breath trone throne soufre sulphur trope trope sourire smile tropb.ee trophy siadllle spadille tropique tropic spJcifique specific trouble trouble spondee spondee tube tube squelette skeleton tubercule tubsrcle squirre scirrhus tumulte tumult etade stadium type (and comp ■) type slalle stall ulcere ulcer 52 OK THE PARTS OF SPEECH. vague vague vestige track vase vase, rassd viatique viaticum iballud, a short \ comedy vide vacuum vaudeville ignoble vineyard vehicule vehicle vinaigre vinegar ventricals ventricle violoncello violoncello vepre dusk, < viscere intestines verbe verb vivres pi. victual* vennicelle n rtniedU vote verre giau zMe zeal vertige dizziness zodiaque zodiac vestibule entry NUMBER OF NOUNS. French nouns have two numbers, singular and plural, accord- ing as they designate one object only or a number of them. This applies only to common nouns, as proper names are the exclusive property of one person or one object, and cannot hence be applied to many, as long as they are used as genuine proper nam'-. The ringular ia given by the form of the noun itself. The plural ia invariably made by the addition of », for even when plnraU are found to end in « or x, it must be borne in mind, that a is but a combination of d and », and x of c and *. The manner of forming the plural of nouns ia Bubject to the ing rules : l. All nouns not ending in ». - or *, add a anal t. tabU, p. tool " 7 > P« /" slls > gun ; a, ni /. p. nid*\ neat ■_•. Nouns ending in a, a or x remain unchanged, as they end already in . Ex. a. fit*, p. fiky s. son ; a. m -. p no, nose ; a croiz, p croc* cross j . p. ra/ivrJs. remorse. tiding in on (eon), ra (o»u), and some in r feminine nouna beginning with a K\. r< in--, the friend; fife, the island; Thomme, the man; wr, the bistorj. ARTICLES. 55 Its plural form is les before all nouns without distinction. Ex. les rois, the kings ; les amis, the friends ; les honneurs, the honors ; les reines, the queens ; les habitudes, the habits. It is declined, as all words are declined in French, by means of the preposition de (of), and d (to), but suffers certain con- tractions, which produce the following forms : SINGULAR. Masculine Feminine. Before vowels or h mute. Nominative U la- V Genitive. {de le) die de la del' Dative. (d le) au a la dV Accusative. U la PLURAL. For all Nouns. Nom. les V Gen. {de les) des Dat. {d les) aux Ace. les This gives, with a noun, the following forms : SINGULAR. PLURAL. Masculine Noun. Nom. le roi, the king. les rois, the kings. Gen. du roi, of the king. des rois, of the kings. Dat. au roi, to the king. aux rois, to the kings. Ace. le roi, the king. les rois, the kings. Feminine Noun . Nom. la reine, the queen. les reines, the queens. Gen. de la reine, of the queen. des reines, of the queens. Dat. a la reine, to the queen. aux reines, to the queens. Ace. la reine, the queen. les reines, the queens. Masculine, beginning with a vowel. Nom. Vami, the friend. les amis, the friends. Gen. de Vami, of the friend. des amis, of the friends. Dat. a Vami, to the friend. aux amis, to the friends. Ace. Vami, the friend. lei amis, the friends. 56 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. "** Feminine, beginning with a vowel. Nom. Tome, the soul. les times, the souls. Gen. de I'dme, of the soul. dea dim 8, of the Bonis. Dat. d I'dme, to the soul. a>i.r times, to the souls. Ace. I'dme, the soul. lea times, the souls. Masculine, beginning with mute h. Nom. Vh/xbit, the coat. its, the coats. Gen. d> Vhabit, of the coat. dea habits, of the coats. Dat. << llni'nt, to the ooat. rt'/.r habits, to the coats. Ace. I'/oibit. the ooat Km Ao&to, the coats. line, beginning with aspirated A. Nom. /< //<'/">. tin- hcn>. les hiros, the heroes. Gen. dta aJrot, of the hero. w, of the heroea l»;it. to the hero. o'/j - Wro», to the heroea Ace. V hint, the hero. /<■< /<•'/•<-.<. the heroes. 2, Tbe / '• "' 'U Articlt baa the following tonus: Un before all maSCOline nouns. before all feminine nouns. It is declined bj means of the same preposition, thus: siv.n.u: iiiin-. Feminine. Nom. vn me Sen. {de un) dun (de unt) d'une Dai i MM) 4 MM It has DO plural, KM being the same as the numeral KM, one. iu'ISB. (ix-arn tin- rerb Atetr, to have.) We have the flowers of the garden ; you have the fruits of the onhaid. He has a daughter andason. We had the doctor in tho hense. They will have the friend of the brother, and we will have the nu of the Mend. The children of the ancle ami the paranui of Nom. Cesar, Andre, Gen. de Cesar, d 'Andre, Dat. d Cesar, d Andre, Ace. Cesar. Andre. AKTICLES. 57 the enemy. To the king of the English, and to the emperor of the French. They had a book of the library. You shal. have the pies and the cakes. She had a bouquet. To the lover of the chase. The end of the action and the causes of the retreat. The value of the gold and of the silver of the country. They have had a speech in the church, and they had the ministers of the church in the building. The epistles of the friends to the man in the mask. The gifts of the ambassador to the empress. 1 1- hall have the money or the goods. The surgeons in the hospital, and the doctors at the hotel. The horses of the men, and the swords of the officers. To an aunt of the boys, and to an uncle of the girls. The declension of Proper Names is made by the preposi- tions only, without an article, in which case de elides its e be- fore vowels and mute /*. Anne, Londres, d'Anne, de Londres, d Anne, d Londres, Anne. Londres. Preposition and article must both be repeated before every noun which they qualify, and agree with it in gender and number. Ex. Le Jlls de Louis et d" 'Anne. L'histoire des Romains et des Grecs. Fidele au roi et a la reine. There is no Possessive Case in French. The noun so used in English must be placed after the noun on which it depends, in the genitive case. Paul's book thus becomes the book of Paul ; the brother's hat becomes the hat of the brother. Ex. le livre de Paul, Paul's book ; le chapeau du frere, the .rother's hat; le courage d'un heros, a hero's courage. Exercise. I have the letters of Voltaire to Frederick the Great. He had the philosopher in the palace of Potsdam. The letters to the king had a success. She had a sister's love for the friend of the brother. They had not the measures of the depth of the well. We have an attor- ney's autnority, and you have a lawyer's certificate. They would have had tn^ President's Message, but they had not the time, nor the 3* 58 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. apace in the journal. We have not the partridges of Europe. We had a plan of the city of London and a drawing of the towns of the district. To the friends of the negroes. We bad a storm during the night, and we shall have a rain in the day. The winds and the waves. You have the dedication to the wife of the author. The beginning of the history of the war of Independence. The queens of England and Scotland. To the master of workmen and appren- tices. The; had a horse and chaise. The address of the c omm a nder to the soldiers of the Empire. 3. The Partitive <4 - that not the whole, bat only a part or a certain quantity is spoken of. The English ex- press this either by I n, of the article, as when wo Bay: [have bread, or by the oae of tome in affirmative and any in the interrog itive sentences, «. g. He has some bread. Have you any apples .' I bave not any friends. The partitive arti tbined with the definite article, and thus d :;i ^ : ! \K. I ,111. Before vowels and h mute. (/- V , pain, torn - ""• cream ; dt /V laws; . vi- al 1 Nouns.) :ie pOtfr | and in Dtp Kv ,/ bad ad- It must in mind that a- the pari • with nouns, ARTICLES. 50 the meaning of which precludes the idea of division. Some tea, means a portion of the whole quantity, and some friend*, a fraction of the whole number ; but when we say : I look for some house to suit me, we do not mean a portion of a house, and hence, here, some cannot be translated by the partitive article. Exercise. (Learn the verb Avoir interrogatively.) I have bread and water, and you shall have wine and cakes. Has he any friends in the city ? I had some pens and some ink, but I have not any paper. We shall have oil with the salad, and vinegar with the beets. Had you any ideas ? Has she the end of the list, and some hope of the return of the printer ? Meat and vegetables, coffee and tea, bread and butter. I have cream in the tea, and milk in the coffee. Have you no (not any) sugar ? I have had sugar, and she has had molasses. Friends and enemies, soldiers and citizens. Would you have a friend's advice, or an enemy's warning ? Have they any tragedies and comedies in the literature of the age ? To the friends of the monarch. "Have they had any apples ? They had an apple and some apricots, but they had not any peaches. I have pencils and crayons, but I have not any colors. When the verb is both interrogative and negative, the part- itive article resumes its full form, du, de la, de V and des. Ex. Wavez-vous pas des livres ? Have you not any books ? Exercise. (Learn the verb Avoir interrogatively and negatively.) We had some bread and cheese, but we had no wine and no meat. Had you any dinner or supper to-day ? I have some hope. We shall have some friends and some relations at the feast of St. John. Will you not have some guests at the house ? He shall have some plea- sures and some games, but we shall not have any guests. We had some rye, but we had no oats, affd now we shall have no baker's bread The porter's lodge, and the cry for workmen. He had tears and sighs. You shall have some rewards. Have they not had some difficulties with some soldiers 1 They have not had any medicine, because they had no phial. GO ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. CHAPTER III. ADJECTIVES. Adjectives express permanent or accidental qualities as at- tributed to nouns. As they do not designate a person or a thing, but only something thai belongs to them, they show de- pendence by always agreeing with the nonn which they quality, in gender and number. It matters not, whether they stand by this noun, a> in : the good man, the handsome woman, or are rated from it by other parts of the sentence, as in : The man <■(' the house is good ; the woman who was here is hand- some. They still agree in the aame way. t and past, when not used as parts <»f the . bnl employed t" qualifiy noons, are treated, in all res] I agree alto in gender and nnmber with their they are invariably placed after their noons. IATIOB <>K Til K KKMIMXK (>K AP.I E' ' I 1 V I.S. make their ftmimm invariably by adding a mute masculine. K\. m. .• : in. eharmantf f. cAarmoali, charming : t poftt, po- lite, ran harp. There are, however, besides this general method, certain other changes taking place in the process of forming the femi- nine, which lead t<> tin- following rul<-. \ l. Adjectives endis% in mnte t remain nnchanged in tho feminine, as it woold !■•• ••- add another mnte a Ex. n faithful; m. habile, t habile, skilful; ia. rir' . tOffttSf red. », and OR, bubidcb adding mute f, also double the final OOOtOUDt ADJECTIVES. Ex. m. eternel, f. Uemelle, eternal. muet, muette, mute. pareil, pareille, equal. ancien, ancienne, ancient. bon, bonne, good. CI The following Adjectives, ending in et, also take mute e, but instead of doubling the final consonant, they place a grave accent over the e that precedes the t. . complet, f. complete. m. inquiet, f. inquiete. concret, concrete. incornplet, incomplete. discret, discrete. replet, replete. indiscret, indiscrete. secret, secrete. 3. Adjectives ending in er, besides adding mute e, place a grave accent over the e preceding r. m. fier, singulier, f. fiere, proud, singular. Ex. m. neuf, f. neuve, new. bref, breve, brief. 4. Adjectives ending in / and or, besides adding mute e, change their final letters into v and s. m. Tieureux, f. fieureuse, happy. jaloux, jalouse, jealous. The following Adjectives ending in x, change it differently in the feminine : Ex. m. doux, f. douce, sweet. m. prefix, f. prefixe, prefixed. faux, fausse, false. ronx, rousse, reddish. 5. The following Adjectives, besides adding mute e, double the final consonant, without belonging to the class mentioned under 2 : m. bas, f. basse, low. bellot, bellotte, pretty. gras, grasse, fat. las, lasse, weary. epais, epaisse, thick. expres, expresse, express. gros, grosse, big. m. sot, nul, f. sotte, foolish. nulle, null. gentille, nice. paysan, paysanne, peasant. profes, professe, professed. vieillot, vieillotte, oldish 62 OX THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Exekci.se. (Learn the verb Etre, to be.) lam prudent ami she is indiscreet. We shall be polite but coM to the gentleman of the house. She was angry and we were hupar ti.nt. He will be respected, but Bhe will be hated. Mary's friend lias whims: Bhe is pretty well dresBed, but she is not amiable. They will at. We were content with the brother's account of the story. He had excellent recommendations and letter- from the great men of the country. .at and Mary's ribbons are silk. He is the minister of an Episcopal church in the pretty village of the vail -y. The i high and the rivers are rapid, but the houa • low and dark and the men are not healthy. ! children aro young and pretty; Bhe has a i and her month is large. 1 1 have not any money. He has singular habits and she is Dot proud of the husband. Rome is an ancient city and banco autiful churches. The wounds of the officer were mortal, and the (ever of the child is di atous of the friend of the husband, and the sisters are ashamed she has had a new robe, ■ short l< h r, an I ai pondence. 0. \ j in ear make their feminine by changing r into v, when they are derived from the participle present of I • ',/-. tO lie ; pt the f.-ll'.v. in. i e nch a n ti n g. p,;-;,, BbafuL mttng. make the feminine by changing the last ! oding in tor. protecdng. creative, otlng, make the feminine regularly, when they are derived from the Latin oompara! ADJECTIVES. 63 m. majeur, mineur, meilUur, superieur, anterieur, inferieur, f. majeure, ■min cure, meilleure, superieure, anterieure, inferieur 'e, of age. under age. better. superior. anterior. inferior. f I. The following Adjectives form their feminine irregularly : m. blanc, f. blanche, franc, sec, frais, public, caduc, ture, grec, benin, franche, seche, fraiche, oblongue, oblong. coite, favorite, quiet, favorite. turque, grecque, white. m. long, f. longue, long, frank. dry. fresh. public. frail. Turkish. Greek. benign. malignant oblong, coi, favori, muscat, jumeau, tiers, tors, traitre, muscade, muscat. jumelle, tierce, torse, twin, third, twisted. traitresse, treacherous. 8. Adjectives ending in u place a diaeresis over the mute which they add to preserve the sound of u. Ex. m. aigu, contigu, f. aigue, contigue, sharp, contiguous. Several adjectives have no feminine. Ex. dispos, nimble ; fat, foppish. The following Adjectives have two forms for the masculine ; the first, ending in a vowel (except vieux) is used before nouns beginning with a consonant or aspirated h ; the second, end- ing in I, before nouns beginning with a vowel or mute A. The feminine is made from the latter, by adding mute e and doubling the final consonant. SINGULAR. PLURAL. m. beau and bel, f. belle, m. beaux, f. belles, handsome. fou and/o£, folle, fous, folles, mad. mou and mol, molle, mous, molles, soft. nouveau and nouvel, nouvelle, nouveaux, nouvelles, new. vieux and vieil, vieitte, vieux, vieilles, old. 6± ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. ExKRCISB. The sister is talkative, but the brothers are silent, and two cousins are mute. She has been an enchanting beauty, but now she is ugly. The pen is spoiled, and the ink is thick ; the letter is unlucky. Have you any ink ? I have some ink, and it is better. The old woman is industrious, but the sister is too talkative. She is of age, but the brothers are under age. The handsome man and the handsome woman were husband and wife; they have no children. A superior education and an interior soul. The better history is in the library of the mad man. A Dew friend is better than an old enemy. The new and beautiful dresses of the young la. lies are in the big box. Bhe has white hands and fresh cheeks, with blue eyes and a benign expression. She is a malignant woman and very revengeful. A Turkish custom and a Sleek custom are different things. The while robe is not dry. The Rnglish tongue i> discreet* and the French tongue a favorite in rl 1. rOBMATZOB <>K Tin: PLUBAX OF A.DJE0TOYB8. their plural generally according to the same roles as mums, viz. by adding i to the singular, x when they rod by changing "/ into aux. Ex. a '//•'//r the posseesire pronouns to the comp .■ roper. U plus grand, the greatest : .■ snper. /■ . the least handsome : luper, . ■ When the adjecti I r the Dotm, rlatire from the compel I before the adjective, whether the Boon have a pronoun or an article befop ADJECTIVES. $7 Ex. la personne la plus aimable, the most amiable person ; mes vceux les plus sinceres, my most sincere wishes. The Absolute Superlative expresses the highest degree of the meaning of the adjective absolutely, i. e., without any coinpar ison with others. It is formed by prefixing an adverb, expres- sive of the highest degree, to the adjective, such as ires, fort and bien, very; extremement, extremely; le plus, the most; le moms, the least ; le mieux, the best. Ex. Paris est Men beau, Paris is handsome indeed ; il est fort drole, he is very odd ; elle est extremSment savante, she is ex- tremely learned. Exercise. The uncle is the richest man of the country, but he is not well in- formed. A man is most discreet when he has not any secrets. The handsome sister is the most charming of the two, but she is too talk- ative ; the other is less beautiful but more attractive. Father of all creatures, Thou art infinitely good and merciful ! Who is as good as he ? She was the best woman of all, and her daughters will be as charming as she was. I have a letter for the Eight Eeverend Arch- bishop ; he is the wisest man in the church, and most esteemed of all dignitaries. He has not been very strong, but he is the most skilful of the artisans of the city and does the best work. To the handsomest young lady. To the bravest defenders of the country. I have had the most interesting letter from my dearest friend. My brothers are the worst correspondents ; I have not had any letters since their departure. My brother's wife has the smallest child ; it is smaller than the little girl of my sister. The smartest children are not always the best, and the dullest children are not always the worst. PLACE OF ADJECTIVES. The place of adjectives varies in French, while in English it stands invariably before the noun they qualify. The manner in which the place is determined, depends : 1. On Emphasis : An adjective which is strongly accented, is placed before its noun, all other rules notwithstanding. Ex. cet infortune roi, that unfortunate king ; cette abominable chose, that abominable thing. 6S ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 2. On Size : Long adjectives are placed after short nouns and short adjectives before longer nouns. Ex. une affaire extraordinaire, an extraordinary affair ; un long sejour, a long residence. 3. Ou Special Rules, by which certain classes of adjectives are always placed before, and others after their nouns. The principal rules on this subject are the following : before the ROUfl are always placed : a. Numeral adjectives, both cardinal and ordinal. K\. vingt hommeSy twenty men; la premiere chose, the first thing. b. The following adjectives, autre, other J Iran, handsome; bon, good; digne, worthy (unless followed by a regime) ; grand, great; oro» t big; jeune, young; joli, pretty; mauvais, bad; michant, wicked; meilleur, better ; m6W,&ame; moimfre, less ; petit, small; »h, and w>u.r, old. /.o,,,/ is generally placed before the noun. /• //'o noun are placed by special rule : a. All participles, like tuivant, following; satis/ait, satisfied. 1>. Adjectives conveying an impression made upon the sentem, ■ r : blane, white; noir, black ; of taste : dour, iut, loud ; has, low ; of touch : chaud, warm ; : rond, round, etc. of nationality, like I'nnicais, French ; American, d. Adjectives ending in al, like giniral^ fatal. Tlir adjectives draft, right ; gauehs, left ; ?■;/'. new; ess, dry, are ai^> placed afterthe noon ; dw next, with 'lavs of the week. ■•, last Monday; mardi prarhain, next Tuesday. EXBBOIBB. He hai B good voice, We have a round table and a handsome room. She is n worthy old lady, imd he is a wicked old man. I have a big sum, and you shall have a Biuall Bum. The pretty girl of tho ADJECTIVES. 69 ancle is a bad child. Twenty men on the first day, and forty men on the third day. She will have a white dress and a pink bonnet ; you will have a black dress and a purple shawl. They have warm cloaks in these cold days. My French grammar, and my German diction- ary. Where is the American fleet ? It is in a Spanish harbor. This is a general law, but that is a special exception. Where is the blind woman ? I have a new coat. They will be here next Sunday. I was there last Friday. NUMERICAL ADJECTIVES. The numerals are treated in French as adjectives, and must, therefore, as far as their forms permit it, agree with the noun they qualify, in gender and number. Ex. cinq cents hommes, five hundred men ; la premiere his- toire, the first history. The two principal classes, which alone will be explained here, are the Cardinal Numbers, which express numbers simply and absolutely, as deux, two ; trois, three, etc. ; and the Ordinal Numbers, which express them with regard to order, as second, second ; troisieme, third, etc. • CARDINAL NUMBERS. 1 un, une 18 dix-huit 2 deux 19 dix-neuf 3 trois 20 vingt 4 quatre 21 vingt-un 5 cinq 22 vingt-deux 6 six 23 vingt-trois 7 sept 24 vingt-quatre 8 huit 25 mngt-cinq 9 neuf 26 mngt-six 10 dix 27 mngt-sept 11 onze 28 mngt-Tiuit 12 douze 29 vingt-neuf 13 treize 30 trente 14 quatorse 31 trente-un 15 quinze 40 quarante 16 seize 41 quarante-un 17 dix-sept 50 cinqucmte 70 ON THE PAHTS OF SPEECH. GO soir 95 qvatr?-rinititre-vingt-ilix-scpt I OS quaire-vingt-di/x-h nit 99 quatre-vingt-dix-TU >tf ; i torae 100 «n* 101 ••< nt-nn, une 102 200 (/t".r ri,trante->iniiine 7th tepti&TM 50th ctnguonti&M 8th /' 60th soixantieme ptifiM 7<>th 80ixa,7lti diaiiaU 10th (/< 71st soiaante-oneieme (MflM 72d s^ix'thti-iloiizii'ino IStb tloiizume ?:M 8oixante4re%ei2m6 18th (n 80th quatre-vingti&me 14th 'I'i'it-'iznme 81st quatrt vingt-uniime 16th 7"" 90th v '■'.'>■' '/''.// tli.'i.'me !M~t yutrtj i lTtli <•" 100th 18th '//■•/-"'• IOIbJ r, /,t „, ,;;,/),• 19th d 200th //'('"/ 1800000th The difference between prewiw and umVmi is this, that tlio former i- need only f..>r the first of a Beriea, the latter in com- poand nuiuhcrfi. MM, the first volutin- ; A* rinr, is thai both ••an I" 1 used promiscuously for the second of a scrirs. bnt deuxieme alone can form compound Dnmbera. Ex. la meande or 2a deuxiimefoia, the second time ; /* trente- .<• fepon, the thirty-second le Ordinal Numbers are all declined, bntjwvnMr and afeoml PRONOUNS. 73 alone add mute e in the feminine, as the others end already in mute e ; all take s in the plural. Ex. la premiere annee, the first year; la cinquiime fois, the fifth time; les centiemes parties, the hundredth parts. The Ordinal Numbers are placed before their noun, except when chapters, articles, pages of a book and the like are quoted, in which case they may be placed after the noun, as in English. Ex. le dixieme volume, the tenth volume ; chapitre septieme, chapter the seventh ; article premier, article the first. Exercise. My pretty sister is the first in my affections, and you are the last, for you are the least dear. I lent to the doctor the twenty-third vol- ume of the edition of Voltaire's work. The third chapter is better than the second, but the best of all is the twenty-first. You will find the sentiments of the author in the first volume of the work, chapter seventh, page hundred and seventh. He arranged the men in three ranks, and he gave lances to the first, pistols to the second and mus- kets to the third. The thirteenth and the nineteenth are sound ; the twelfth and the twenty-first are spoilt. He placed the governor in the first seat on the platform, the second was given to the secretary. The eighth company and the first were the best of the regiment, but the officer who commanded the second, was the bravest man of the army. (The) first in war, (the) first in peace, (the) first in the hearts of his countrymen. CHAPTER IV. PRONOUNS. Pronouns are words which take the place of nouns, in order to avoid repetition. Instead of saying John and John 1 s friend, we therefore say, John and his friend ; and instead of Peter came and Peter said, simply Peter came and he said. 4 7i ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. They are divided into the following classes: 1. Personal Pronouns, like ^>, I; tu, thou; i7, he. 2. Possessive Pronouns, like mon, my ; (on, thy ; son, his. 3. Demonstrative Pronouns, like ce, this; celui-ci, this one. 4. Relative Pronouns, like qui, who ; Icquel, who. 5. Interrogative Pronouns, like qui, who I leguel, which ? 6 Indefinite Pronouns, like on; quiconque, whoever; tout, all. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. Personal Pronouns, like all classes of pronouns in French, are divided into two classes : Conjunctive, such as are invariably used in immediate connec- tion with the verb, and Absolute, Buch as arc never need with the verb, hut only standing by themselves or with prepositions. Conjunctive Personal Pronouns stand in various relatione to the veil.. Tiny may be its tubjeet, in which case they arc said to be in the nominative. Ex. }<' parte, I speak; ntnu allons, we go; on dit, they say. < »r they may be its direct object, in which case they arc said to be in the accusative. Kx. Vhomnu me wait, the man sees me; It »tr they may be its indirect <>1,j,ct, in which case they are paid to be iii tli-' dative or genitive. Kv. Pom* lui parte, the friend speaks to him; lr vice lew unit, vice injur, s th. in; /< docteur me parte, the doctor speaks to me. /.' pert n parte, the father speaks of it ; lafilleen itait mm, the daughter was one of tie tin. For these various relations the French language has the fol- lowing forma : PRONOUNS. 75 o s II &? ** .11 II I sill O O O ^ s$ ° J3 CO ln, she has pleased him. Except in the affirmative imperative, when they are placed after the verb, and connected with it by a hyphen. 1a. Voyet-te, see him : j irl s-fat, Bpeak to her; ditee-moi, tell me ; (///':-'/, go to it ; preiws m, take of it When the imperative is negative, the pronoun is placed again before the rerb. K\. Ni me parlt pat, don'l speak to me; n'en prvnes /xu, don*t take of it; "< toi risi rim, tell him nothing. the Second Conjugation.) I'minli if nml give it to your friend; he will Speak of it to ydiu v my l«K»ki i>< her, and Bhe gave her gloves to me. Slio )..\,.. you, iodshe will shot* you her sincerity, If yon love her as PKONOUNS. 79 well. He has spoken to her, but she has not treated him with the same courtesy. Take two of them ; I gave one of them to your friend. Why did you place her in that school ? Because I love her dearly. They paid them two hundred dollars, and they have spent half of them. They deceive themselves if they think of it seriously. My son is in the country ; I sent him to the farm, because he was sick. I sent him his books. We met them in the road ; they saluted us and passed us. Do not thank me, I do not deserve it. You will oblige me, if you lend me a thousand dollars. I will give you so much, but I cannot give them as much. Speak to them and give them my compliments. Have you met them recently, or have you not carried them with you to the country ? I have given him my watch, and he has given it to his sister. (It must be remembered that the French has no neuter gender, and that, therefore, the English it, has to be translated by le or la, accord- ing to the gender of the noun which it represents). ABSOLUTE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. Absolute Personal Pronouns stand only by themselves, entirely unconnected with any verb, or they are joined to prep- ositions. They have, therefore, to be translated according to the use made of them in French. 1st person singular — Moi, I, or me. Ex. Moi, je le veux, I, will it. 11 m'aime, moi, He loves me, me. Venez avec moi, Come with me. 2d person singular — Toi, thou, or thee. Ex. Toi, tu te trompes, Thou, art deceived. 11 t'aime, toi, He loves tliee. C'est a toi, It belongs to thee. 3d person singular — Lui, he, or him. Ex. Lui ? B est ici, He ? He is here. Qui est Id? Elle, Who is there ? She. Vous irez sans elle, You will go without her. 1st person plural — Nous, we, or us. Ex. Nous I'avons, nous, We have it, we. Pour nous il a souffert, For us he lias suffered. 80 OX THE PAETS OF SPEECH. 2d person plural — Vous, you. Ex. Vous y etes vous t You arc there, you. 11 est centre vous, He is against you. j Eur, th( y or them (ui.) ; P e S " 1 elles, they or them (f.) Ex. Qui voycz-viiust Eur? Whom do you see? Them? It est parmi < UX, He is among them. JJne entn i One among them. Reflexive Pronoun — Soi, one's self. Ex. On }>< rue trap d soi, One thinks too much of one's self. E.VKl. (Learn the Verba of the Third Conjugation.) Who was in the honael Be and she. Weretheynot also In the Who ur.- theyl I >i*'nk of the friends <>f the family. For me, I n. •( receive nay guests, but you, who are young und healthy, yon can do it f<>r li-r. 1 will buy these books for them, if oanpay me. When 1 k'> isaid: "Whoisth It is 1." They did nol bear me, and at last he came, 11.'.' Do yon speak of the owner 1 Fee, it was he and oot Bhe, who opened tin- door for me. With whom s with him and with her, Without them I cannol live. Bpeak to them, they art- friends, but be, he is a Berce enemy. These ladies bad among them s great beanty, who spoke to all oar friends, bm ss to us, she did nol notice us. Oame with me and 1 will go with thee to the end of the world. POSSI .n-, wl icfa qualify nouna by mean of refer* ence to the possessor, are, like all pronouns, divided into Con- junctive and Absolute, . ,■ those which are inva> : in immediate connection with s conn, which they ,o. They correspond to those in English, which an a*ed .-ui} , like my, thy t our, and pour. I bave I g Jonas: • PRONOUNS. singular. PLURAL. Masc. Fern. (For both Genders.) 1. mon, my. ma. mes. 2. ton, thy. ta. to. 3. son, Ms, her, its. sa. sea. 1. notre, our. notre. nos. 2. wtre, your. voire. vos. 3. leur, their. leur. leurs. 81 These Pronouns, which, in English agree with the noun which they represent, agree in French in gender and number with the noun which they qualify. Thus we say in English : The man and his daughter — his agreeing with man, in English. Vhomme et sa ftlle — sa agreeing with fille, in French. The mother and her son — her agreeing with mother, in English. La mere et son fils — son agreeing with fils, in French. The three feminine forms ma, ta and sa, when they come to stand before a noun beginning with a vowel or mute h, are ex- changed for the masculine forms mon, ton and son, to avoid the hiatus. Ex. (ma amide), mon amitie, my friendship. (ta histoire), ton histoire, thy history. (sa haleine), son haleine, his breath. These Possessive Pronouns are declined, like all other words in French, by means of the prepositions de (of), for the genitive, and a (to) for the dative. This gives the following forms : SINGULAR. Nom. mon Uvre, my book. Gen. de mon Uvre, of my book. Dat. d mon Uvre, to my book. Ace. mon Uvre, my book. Nom. mafemme, my wife. Gen. de mafemme, of my wife. Dat. a ma femme, to my wife. Ace mafemme, my wife. PLURAL. mes livres, my books. de mes litres, of my books. d mes livres, to my books. mes livres, my books. ses enfants, his children. de ses enfants, of his children. a ses enfants, to his children. ses enfants, his children. 9* 82 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. TSfotre and voire before nouns beginning with a consonant are pro nounced as if they were written ad and wt only. Ex. notre mauon, out house ; wtfrsjpere, your lather. The Possessive Pronouns and their prepositions must be repeated before every noun which they qualify. Ex. To my father and mother, d mon pire et a ma mere; of youi brothers and sisters, de DOSjrSreB orhaps th.v will i..- satisfied with ■■\>\^. He had forgotten his hat, ease and ranis ; he is v.ry absent minded. Give me my letters anil I will give 70a your papers. Are these your children 1 Where is hie His- tory of the Republic! This is my history. Your cousin is a beautiful la.ly, but the i- leSB Charming than her -ister. My aunt and her two pons are with us : your aunt i- still absent in Europe They will be here in the Bummar with their children and their tutor. His hatred ■ma the cause of his terrible rengeance; he will expiate his crimes on the mflbld Oar actions do not always have their effects in this world. ,.}/„.,,/,, are those which are used with- out a 11. -uii, a- substitute* for :i n.-un, like our English mine and thine, by tin' side of my and thy. They ate always accompanied by the article, and present the . ng forms : 1 1 \H. v\ ikai,. 1". m. M:ive Fern. 1. mine. l> runs. B. thine. ii ttt , l.s ' Ii .« ti> num. , his. -.]. hi r-. 'its. let - MM 1. fa ntort /<.< hx 1 n't re*. yours. /,.- hs rt'tn*. 1). their*. In bur. ' tart, \ 'iri. PRONOUNS. bj It must be noticed that the conjunctive forms notre and voire have no accent, and are pronounced with a short o, whilst the absolute forms lendtre and levotrehave a circumflex accent, and are pronounced with a long o. These pronouns agree in gender and number with the noun which they represent, thus : Mon pire et le vdtre, my father and yours. Voire mere et la mienne, your mother and mine. Tes enfauts et les siens, thy children and his. Ses filles et les leurs, her daughters and theirs. Exercise. I see my horses, where are yours? His sons and his daughters are older than mine, hut they are younger than yours. I like his pictures and yours, but I prefer ours. My children and theirs play every day in the same garden. Where is your hat ? this is mine. He gave me a ring, and said : " Is it yours or mine 1" Show him these young horses, they are mine. My farm is small but productive ; after my death it will be his, and he will make it still more fertile. Have you found your friends ? No, but I have seen yours. My country and his have had a long war : his is exhausted, mine is es great as it was before. Bring me his exercises and hers, I will correct them together. Our friends are Protestants, hers are Catholics. I confided this secret to my friends and to theirs. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. Demonstrative Pronouns, which qualify nouns by designating their relation to time or place, are Conjunctive and Absolute. Conjunctive Demonstrative Pronouns are those which are in- variably used in immediate connection with a noun or the verb etre, to be. They have the following forms : Ce, this or that, before masculine nouns beginning with a consonant or aspirated h, and such forms of the verb itre as begin with consonants. Ex. ce livre, this book ; ce heros, that hero ; ce fut lui, this was he ; cc sera demain, that will be to-morrow. Si ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Cet, before nouns beginning with a vowel or mute h. Ex. cet ami, ihis friend ; cet komme, that man. C\ before such forms of the verb etre as begin with a vowel. Ex. c\'st moi, this is I ; c'etait hier, that was yesterday. Cette, before all feminine nouns. Ex. cette femme, this woman ; cette affaire, that affair; cette kabittlde, that habit. . these or those, before all plural nouns. Ex. ces rots, these kings; cet dames, these ladies; ccs amis, these friend -, these souls; ccs habits, these coats; tea harengt, those herrii These Demonstrative forms agree in gender and number with the Donn which they qualify, and most be repeated before even noun to which they are applied. Ex. This man and woman, cet homme et cette femme ; these and papers, cet Uvret it cet papiers. ExKRCISE. This young man is my ooosin, and that young lady is my Mend. I have seen thai great man and those excellent paintings of his hand. They are better than those works >>f ait in the Museum. Then grapes come from tlii- garden and from our farm. Grant ilmt t'a\..r t<> this 111:111 are better than those pencils. This woman il with t Ij . >- . • children she suffers poverty. This intrepid sailor ventured on thai adventure with these two men. That atl. i r was painful t.. those nun in thai country. Give these Bowers t" that .ami tell her that if that man ask- her, I will come t.> her aid. I would live in that house with your friends, if I had that garden. AieoluU Demonstrative Pronouns are those which are 1 with a n. .mi ot a verb, but always stand by tin msclves as substitutes for a noun, They arc form mbination of the Conjunctiva Pip- PKONouisrs. 85 noun ce, with the Absolute Personal Pronoun, and produce the following forms : Masc. ce and lui make celui, this or that one. Fem. ce " elle " celle, " " Masc. ce " eux " ceux, these or those. Fem. ce " ettes " cedes, " " Besides which, there are the two compounds : Ce and id make ceci, this (for things.) Ce " Id " cela, that " The first four, celui, celle, ceux and celles, are always made to agree in gender and number with the noun which they represent. Ex. This general and that of the enemy, ce general et celui de Vennemi ; my wife and that of my friend, ma femme et celle de man ami ; these children and those of my uncle, ces enfants et ceux de mon oncle • our ladies and those of the neighbor, nos dames et celles du voisin. Exercise. My children and those of my sister are the prettiest in the city. These soldiers with their chief were as proud as those of the younger general. These rivers are deep, those are shallow, but these have a short course and those are the longest in the world. Give me these drawings and send those to the bookseller ; I will keep this and give that to your friend. Examine these flowers ; which will you have, this or that ? I prefer these volumes, which are complete ; those, wdiich are disfigured, are for him. Of those ladies, I like those who are modest ; these, which you see here, are too talkative. This house Is handsome ; that, at the corner, is larger but less comfortable. I spoke to him of these amusements ; he said that he loved those which were more quiet. Where is that noise ? Is it this cock which makes it, or those hens in the yard ? When I was here before, I saw these, but those were not in the gallery. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. Relative Pronouns are those which relate to a preceding noun, which is called Antecedent. There are two Relative Pronouns in French, which have 86 OX THE PARTS OF SPEECH. precisely the same meaning, and differ only in the use which is made of them. They correspond both to our English who, what, that, which, etc. The first of these is qui, which has the following forms ■ Num. Qui, who, that or which. Ex. Vhomme qui est ici, the man who is here ; le livre qui 'i paru, the book which has appeared ; la maison qui est au com, the house that is at the corner. Gen. Doni (for pereonsor things), ) ^ fwhoni| of *„;,,,. />. qui ■ for persons onlv , J Ex. /.■ uoldat doni je por/c, the soldier of whom I speak; a J,,,,/!/ eausait, that of which he was speaking; rami dsquijs It fens, the friend from whom I have it; eelui dequi UJU men- of whom he made mention. 1 >at A | ', to whom. i; v , the neighbor to whom I write; . she to whom it belongs. \ . ', ■ whom, Which or what. ].; v f the beggar whom I saw; la chose 'oubliai, the thing whion I foi Irsa qu'U krivait, the letters that be s -»»•"». »»' i - 1 ' «J«T|-"-»- l.| wjl , (lsitinns . what, wlnrli (for things . | | A | those (br whom 1 have done it, ,„,, , v wife to whom I presented him; a h quo* i/sert, that tor which it is good ; BMcgwoitl ten all". With which (wh.i. with) he went away. The pronoun qui with its various forms serves for both gen- ii, r~ and for both numbers alike ! [«»«"**. Uhc is bat / the woman, j , t ., IJlZ . f^eboj, l whomyomiNk , que tout o'y>z. Its fiU<«. ) I *» K'rlN PRONOUNS. 87 The second Demonstrative Pronoun is lequel, which is de clined in both of its parts, in le and quel, and thus produces the following forms : Masc. Fem. Mas. Fem. Nom. lequel, laquette. lesquels, lesqueUe. Gen. duquel, de laquelle. desquels, desqueUes. Dat. auquel, a laquelle. auxquels, auxquelles. Ace. lequel, laquelle. lesquels, lesqueUe. It has the same meanings as the first, but as it shows so much more clearly gender and number by its various forms, it is frequently substituted for qui to avoid ambiguity, and it must always be used when the relative pronoun is dependent on a preposition. It must agree in gender and number with the noun to which it relates. Ex. My friend, without ivhom I cannot live, mon ami, sans lequel je ne saurais vivre ; the books for which you paid, les livres pour lequels vous payates ; the difficulties through which we have passed, les difficultes par lesquelles nous avons passe. Exercise. The person who spoke was not the lady whom you admired. This woman is the same of whom I received a letter, when I was in that city, in which you also have been recently. The pictures for which I paid this high price, are worse than those among which you found your Madonna. I like the man to whom she gave the flowers ; he was one of those for whom I feel sympathy. The friend whose advice was so good is my friend also ; he is a man of whom much has been said. The daughter of the soldier, with whom you came is very pretty, but her cousin, for whom I feel an admiration, is prettier. The thing to which you refer is a trifle, but the sums which you owe to that man are a serious affair. That of which I spoke and that of which I wrote are two different things ; the principal subject is that mar- riage, in which you are so much interested. Nom. qui, Gen. I de qui, Dat. I a qui, I a ij'toi, t '/<"'< Ace. - '/'"'. 88 OX THE PARTS OF SPEECH. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. Interrogative Pronouns are those which enable us to ask questions without a constant repetition of the noun. They are the same in French as the relative, with the exception of don t, which can never be used interrogatively. The first, qui, presents the following forms: who? of whom ? of what ! to whom ? to what .' whom ? what? what ? (when standing alone.) It must be noticed that the prepositions connected with tho interrogative as well as with the relative pronoun are, in English, frequent from the pronoun and placed at In French the preposition must always retain it- pi i be pronoun. k of? Wi . ', , lUST Qui | - "u hat did be treat \\ bom did -1 Thr - '. has the same forma a-> th< em only be used rhea it has the moaning o* which I \'.\. I imea eonnoi Which o:' the dU des saura est Which of thi A third interrogative Pronoun is quel, which has the mean- •' what kind of! and i- declined like lequel, but can only ■ onn. Ex. Quel i ' What kind of man is he I QutUt* PRONOUNS. 89 tortes de marchandises ? What kind of goods? Quelle est cette femme? What kind of woman is she? Exercise. Who has written this hook ? The same author for whom you pro- fessed a great admiration. See tlie four pens : which one do you prefer ? What did he speak of, when he made that great speech, with which he ended his career ? Whom do you take me for ? What do you want of me ? I will tell you who he is and for whom he ap- pears here. Which of the four seasons do you like hest ? I do not know for which I shall decide, I like them all. With whom did she go to Europe, and with what will she occupy her time at Eome ? What did he devote himself to during that year, and what has he written ? I know whom you speak of. What did he write about in his last letter ? Which of these ladies is your sister, and to which must I speak ? Who is this soldier, and what does he say 1 What kind of watch have you bought ? I have heard what kind of statues he makes, but I have forgotten it. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. Indefinite Pronouns are those which refer, not to any one person or object definitely, but to some one vaguely or gener- ally. They are generally the same as in English, e. g., some, quelque ; none, per sonne ; all, tout ; but there is one of them of very great importance, which alone will be mentioned here. This is on, a Personal Indefinite Pronoun, inasmuch as it is a Pronoun, standing instead of a noun ; Personal, because it" can only represent persons, and Indefinite, because it never desig- nates persons individually, but only generally. It has no equiv- alent in English, and is, therefore, translated in various ways. It can only be used as subject of a sentence, in the nominative case, with the third person singular of the verb, and referring to men, i. e., neither to agencies above nor below him. We add the principal ways by which it is rendered into English. On pense trop a soi-meme. People think too much of them- selves. Oupeut-on etre mieux qu'au sein Where can one he happier than in de safamille ? the bosom of one's family? 90 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. On dit que la guerre est finie. It is acrid the war is over. On n'est peis toujour* buns amis. Men are not always good friends. On travaiUe jour it nuit. They work night and day. On se trampe, madame. You are mistaken, madame. On Pa repute partout. It has been repeated everywhere. On acquiert V experience avec le We acquire experience with time. temps. Exercise. They say that he has left his family a large fortune. What did people do when the news was brought ? People said that it was very- sad, but they added, that the punishment was well deserved. Can one lodge in this bote] '.' One is not always young and pretty. One is not always happy, when one is very rich, for (the) happiness is in the heart. It i> repeated to-day thai the emperor has declared war, and it is believed in all circlea Was it said which of these persons bnahend of the lady who perished in the shipwreck ''. It was not known, when I left the ship, but it will be known when the Jour- nals of tin- day are brought CHAPTER V. Verbs are that part <>f speech which servos to express action, and therefore is used to saj something of a person <-r an object The) have a great rarietj of forma in order to express the , wlm i> the sgent of the Verb: the first, second or third, or more : singular <>r plural, of the action : present, past or future, e action : Indicative (po.sitr. juncture (contingent), Imperative and Conditional, Xatnr, of the Verb itself: Active, I I'ronomi- nal and Impersonal, all of which varieties will be explained in their proper place. VEKBS. 91 AUXILIARY VERBS. Auxiliary Verbs sro called those which, besides being used by themselves, are also employed to form the so-called Cora- pound Tenses of other verbs. There are two in French : Avoir, to have, which serves to form the compound tenses of Active and some Neuter Verbs, and Etre, to be, which serves to form the compound tenses of Neuter and Pronominal Verbs, and the passive of Active Verbs. AVOIR.— TO HAVE. INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. Avoir, to have. ayant, having. avoir eu, to have had. ayant eu, having had. eu, had. Simple Tenses. INDICATIVE. PRESENT. Tai I have, I do have, I am having tu as thou hast il or elle a he or she has nous avons we have vous avez you have Us or eUes ont they have IMPERFECT. tTavais I had, I did have, I was having tu amis thou hadst il or elle amit he ox she had nous avions we had vous aviez you had Us or dies a/oaient they had PRETERIT DEFINITE. J'eus I had, I did have, I was having tu eus thou hadst U or elle eut he or she had nous eumes we had vous elites you had Us or dies eurent they had 92 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. tTaurai Pi auras U or eUe aura nous aurons rous ann- ils or elics auront Taurais t>i auarari n trait ■i-n/s tout aurim Us or cU-s 1 1 ur aunt '. ait I n/<>ns 5 I gu't? n HJ0M FUTURE. I shall or will have thou shalt have he or she shall have we shall have you shall have they shall have CONDITIONAL. I should or would have thou shouldst have he or she should have we should have you should have tiny should have SUBJUNCTIVE. not i That I may have thou mayest havo that he Or Bhe may have that we m:iy havo that you may have that they may ha\ B i di i acrra, That 1 might hav- that thou mightest have that he "/• sin- might have that we might ha\ o that you might have that they might have a eu ■ns eu Coin, ICtf. INDICATIVE. PlfllMT IM'I 1 1MTK. I hav.' hail thou hast had ■he hai had we have had bare had tiny have had VEKB3. 03 J 'avals eu tu avals eu U or elle avalt eu nous avians eu vous avlez eu Us or dies avalent eu PLUPERFECT. I had had thou hadst had he or she had had we had had you had had they had had J'eus eu tu eus eu 11 or elle eut eu nous eumes eu vous eutes eu Us or elles eurent eu PBETERIT ANTERIOR. I had had thou hadst had he or she had had we had had you had had they had had tTaurai eu tu auras eu it or elle aura eu nous aurons eu vous aurez eu Us or elles auront eu FUTURE ANTERIOR. I shall or will have had thou shalt have had he or she shall have had we shall have had you shall have had they shall have had tPaurals eu tu aurals eu ■ II or eUe auralt eu nous aurlons eu vous auriez eu Us or elles auralent eu CONDITIONAL ANTERIOR. I should or would have had thou shouldst have had he or she should have had we should have had you should have had they should have had SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT. Que j 'ale eu que tu ales eu qu'U or qu'elle ait eu que nous ayons eu que vous ayez eu qu'Us or qu' elles alent eu that I may have had that thou mayest have had that he or she may have had that we may have had that you may have had that they may have had 94 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. PRETERIT ANTERIOR. Que fame eu that I might have had §"/< (n ensues cu that thou mighteet have had qu'il or qn'dle efit eu that he or she might have had gut notU i lt88iOTU m that we might have had qn,< tout • UMMB ( >i that you might have had qu'Us or qu'dLs eussent eu that they might have had IMPERATIVE. Ate have [thou] qui' or gtftBfl a»* let him or her have OffOHt let as have have [you] yu'ito or qu'dUs aient let thorn have Exercise. I have the same book that you have had. We desired that he might hare ■ speedy end, for be has had a terrible disease. Let bin have all the money thai he derives ; we have had <>ur share. Ymi should bare had patJenoa. I hope that be may have letters from his friends to- day ; JTOU had your- J BSterdaj. Y r OO WOUld have a large estate, and yi a'ow U n'a'ira pat ton* n'.i'in: p Us n'auro.U pas eu MOB. I ■ball or will not lmvo had thou shalt not have had be shall not hare had we shall not hare hud \.ill 11. •[ haw had t ! i • y shall not have had (ONTJITTONAT. VNTI ti n'nuraiA pas eu I should Of would not have had thOD ■hOOldal QOt have hud VETtBS. 97 il n'awrait pas eu nous n'aurions pas eu vous n'auriez pas eu Us n'auraient pas eu Que je n'aie pas que tu n'aies pas qu'il n'ait pas que nous n'ayons pas que vous n'ayez pas qu'ils n'aient pas he should not have had we should not have had you should not have had they should not have had SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT. that I may not have that thou mayest not have that he may not have that we may not have that you may not have that they may not have PRETERIT INDEFINITE. Queje n'aie pas eu que tu n'aies pas eu qu'il n'ait pas eu que nous n'ayons pas eu que vous n'ayezpas eu qu'ils n'aient pas eu Queje neusse pas que tu n'eusses pas qu'il n'eut pas que nous n'eussions pas que vous n'eussiezpas qu'ils n'eussent pas that I may not have had that thou mayest not have had that he may not have had that we may not have had that you may not have had that they may not have had IMPERFECT. that I might not have that thou mightest not have that he might not have that we might not have that you might not have that they might not have Queje n'eusse pas eu que tu n'eusses pas eu qu'il n'eut pas eu que notes n'eussions pas eu que vous n'eussiez pas eu qu'ils n'eussent pas eu PLUPERFECT. that I might not have had ^that thou mightest not have had that he might not have had that we might not have had that you might not have had that they might not have had N'aie pas qu'il n'ait pas IMPERATIVE. have not [thou] let him not have 5 93 OX TIIE TARTS OF SFEECH. n'ayoHs p as n'ayee pat qri'ils n'akid pan let us not have have not [you] let them not have Avoir To Have (Tntcrropatin INDI C A T 1 V E . ran Ai-je a-til Last tllOU Las lie « have we yon r.HT B ': had I • thou had he hud wo Mb had they tllOU i ho ira t-U* had v.ni had they i i ; i A u r i auront - out awout-ils nhall »>■ will I have Bhalt thou have ■hall 1m- Ihivc- hlinll we have ■hall thi ;• have VERBS. 9? aurais-tu aurait-il aurions-nous auriez-vous auraient-ils Ai-je eu as-tu eu a-t-il eu avons-nous eu avez-vous eu ont-ils eu Avais-je eu avais-tu eu avait-il eu avions-nous eu aviez-vous eu avaient-ils eu Eus-je eu eus-tu eu eut-il eu eumes-nous eu eutes-vous eu eurent-ils eu Aurai-je eu auras-tu eu aura-t-il eu aurons-nous eu aurez-vous eu auront-ils eu CONDITIONAL. PRESENT. should or would I have shouldst thou have should he Have should we have should you ha> e should they have Compound Tenses. PRETERIT INDEFINITE. have I had hast thou had has he had have Ave had have you had have they had PLUPERFECT. had I had hadst thou had had he had had we had had you had had they had PRETERIT ANTERIOR. had I had hadst thou had had he had had we had had you had had they had FUTURE ANTERIOR. shall or will I have had shalt thou have Lad shall he have had shall we have had shall you have had shall they have had tore. 100 OX THE PARTS OF SPEECH. CONDITIONAL ANTERIOR. . . ( should or would, could, or might I iWW ^ W \ have had aurafct Idst thou have had fl«r-/i'' should he have had -■■(-no!/* cw should we have had should you have had should they have had Avoir To Have {Negatively and Interrogatively?) IN DICATIVB. ■ » pas < pa* ! ■ ■ I n'aura*4u pas I'KI -T.NT. have I not bast thou not has b liavi- W8 not mrEK h.-i'Ul tlmu nut had I had v l lint had they not had I n>>t lia.lst tlmii not had ha I • had j had tl 9T will I no! luvo hhalt thou not have VERBS. 101 riaura-Hl pas shall he not have riauroiis-nouspas ' shall we not have n'aurez-vous pas shall you not have riauront-Us pas shall they not hav CONDITIONAL. PRESENT. N'aurais-je pas should or would I not have n'aurais-tu pas shouldst thou not ha% e n'aurait-il pas should he not have ri ' aurions-nous pas should we not have riauriez-vous pas should you not have riauraient-ils pas should they not have PRETERIT INDEFINITE. N'ai-je pas eu have I not had n'as-tu pas eu hast thou not had n'a-t-il pas eu has he not had riavons-nous pas eu have we not had n'avez-vous pas eu have you not had riont-ils pas eu have they not had PLUPERFECT. N'avais-je pas eu had I not had riavais-tu pas eu hadst thou not had riavait-il pas eu had he not had riadons-nous pas eu had we not had n'aviez-vous pas eu had you not had ri 'amient-ils pas eu had they not had PRETERIT ANTERIOR. UTeus-je %)as eu had I not had rieus-tu pas eu hadst thou not had rieut-il pas eu had he not had ri etlmes-nous pas eu had we not had rieutes-vous pas eu had you not had rieurent-ils pas eu had they not had FUTURE ANTERIOR. IPaurai-je pas eu shall or will I not have had riauras-tu pas eu shalt thou not have had 102 ON THE TARTS OF SPEECH. n' aura-til prist en n'cnwee-wuB pas eu itauroitt-ih pas eu shall he not hare had shall we not have had shall you not have had shall they not have had CONDITIONAL ANTERIOR. ITaiurai n'tturaia-tu pcu < u n'aurittMwnu pas eu n'awraitnt I', pas eu Bhonld or would I not have liad shouldst thou not have had I be aol have had . we not have had >u aol have had i iuy not have had V won: There To Be I X F IN1TIVE. (Affirmatively.} th. re i" havr been U y a I P i/ am-.i PAK1 OOMPOCHD then [NDICATIVJ th. are IMI'I B then were I til. - :• were . be VERBS. 103 CONDITIONAL. PRESENT. U y aurait there would be PRETERIT INDEFINITE. 11 y a eu there has been or there have been PLUPERFECT. H y avait eu there had been PRETERIT ANTERIOR. It y eut eu there had been FUTURE ANTERIOR. JR y aura eu there will have been CONDITIONAL ANTERIOR. It y aurait eu there would have been SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT. Qu'il y ait that there may be IMPERFECT. Qu'il y e&t that there might be PRETERIT INDEFINITE. Qu'il y ait eu that there may have been PLUPERFECT. Qu'il y efit eu that there might have been. Y Avoir There To Be {Negatively) INFINITIVE. PRESENT. Ne pas y wtoir not there to be PAST. Ne pas y avoir eu not there to have been 104 ON" THE PARTS OF SPEECH. PARTICIPLE PRESENT. 2Py ayant pas there not being COMPOUND OP THE PARTICIPLE PRESENT. 2Ty ayant pas eu there not having been INDICATIVE. PRESENT. II n'y a pas there is not or there are not IMPERFECT. Jl n'y avail pas there was not or there were not FltETEUIT PKflNlTE. 11 n'y at pas there was not or there were not BTJTOBB ABSOLUTE. Jl n'y aura there will not be CONDITIONAL. Jl n'y iiurait pas there would not be I'RETEHIT IM-llIM 1 I.. Bn'gapat tin -re has not been ri.i im : Jl n'y acail pas eu then had not btt B ri:i I l.i:ir IB n.!;!..|i. Jl »'j there had not lteen nri 1:1. ami num. then will not huve beta uumrriuflAi urxHBiaB. Jl ft'jf ensrattpat CU there would not have been SURHNCTIVK. Qii'il n'y nit pas thai there may not be tun eu Qu'U n'y <•,',( pat that there might not be VERBS. 105 PRETERIT INDEFINITE. tii'il n'y ait pas eu that there may not have been PLUPERFECT. Qu'U n'y eut pas eu that there might not have been Y Avoir Ya4-U Yavait-il Yettt-il Y aura-t4l Y auraU-il Ya-t-tt eu Y avait-U eu Yeut4l eu Y aura-Ul eu There To Be {Interrogatively.) INDICATIVE. is there or are there IMPERFECT. was there or were there PRETERIT DEFINITE. was there or were there FUTURE ABSOLUTE. will there be CONDITIONAL. would there be PRETERIT INDEFINITE. has there been or have there been PLUPERFECT. had there been PRETERIT ANTERIOR. had there been FUTURE ANTERIOR. will there have been CONDITIONAL ANTERIOR. Y aurait-il eu would there have been 5* 106 ON THE PARTS Or SPEECH. Y Avoir There To L, ly and Interrogatively.) INDICATIVE. BBHT. N'y a-t-il pas is there not or are there not DfFER] JTy atait-il pas '-re not or were there not > ITE. 2fy cut il »t r wore there not _Y'y cm ra .' . will there not be ONAL, N'y aurait-U pas would there not be FBI i ire not been X"y cm cmH <•' ;*w en had than not been .MR. ,\"i/ 1 had there n<'t been ■TO tOB. jtaseu will there oot ham would there not have been She baa hi ■ nta. H* wfcjhed, when be left u*. that be i iword and ■ pistol ; be arid that he bad eonrage En tea, ' the R vei t\\ Ice, I shall n-. i, ,);. merl Bhonld I not bare hadaemoch aahel la hare health and a long l i f , . . Bad jron kwi aba '' : »l net party 1 I hoped, that aha Bright have had it. when I was there, bat VERBS. 101 she had had one a week before my arrival. To have had an accident ]ike that ! Who could have had an idea of this affair? Would not thev have had more friends, if they had had more discretion ? Let them have their desire, and they might not have had it. Will he have money, when he shall have had a great success ? Would we not have the same master, if we had had the same training ? Should we have good wines, and should we have water for our meals ? I thought that we had had the greatest misfortunes, but she has had even greater. Has she not much wit ? She has had it, but she has it not now that she is old. When we shall have had all, we shall have had little after all. Has he many friends, and has she many relations in that city ? Thou hast had thy will, now let them have theirs. You had riches and you have power now. Which would you have, if you had the choice ? Etke Eire Avoir • To Be INFINITIVE. PRESENT. ti PAST. (Affirmatively.) to have been PARTICIPLE PRESENT. Etant being COMPOUND OP THE PARTICIPLE PRESENT. Ayant ete having been PARTICIPLE PAST. Ete been INDICATIVE. PRESENT. Je suis I am tu es thou art il est he is nous sommes we are vous etes you are Us sont they are 108 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. J'Ctais I was tu Ctnis thou wast il Stmt he was nous etions we were voustti'Z you wire iisitau/it they were PRETERIT DEFINITE. Je fus I waa ( u fui thou wast he was we wen vous / you were ils fart nt they were FUTURE ABSOLUTE. I shall or will 1* tu ft rr would bo thou ■hooldst bo he should i>e ild Ixi V"!l ^li« .11 1*1 lw» they should bo TRETEIUT IMMIIIM I I.. 1 hn\' tlimi I; li.' has boa \w li:i\ .- 1...U I Hi i have i»-<'ii ilsotU Hi they ha T EKBS. 109 PLUPERFECT. J'amis ete I had been tu avais ete thou hadst been il acait ete he had been nous avions eta" we had been vous aviez ete you bad been Us avaient ete they had been PRETERIT ANTERIOR. J'eus ete I had been tu eus ete thou hadst been U eut ete he had been nous eumes ete" we had been vous eiites ete you had been Us eurent ete they had been FUTURE ANTERIOR. Jaurai ete I shall or will have been tu auras ete thou shalt have been il aura ete he shall have been nous aurons Ut we shall have been vous aurez ete you shall have been Us auront ete they shall have been CONDITIONAL ANTERIOR. tTaurais ete I should or would have been tu aurais ete thou shouldst have been U aurait ete he should have been nous aurions ete we should have been vous auriez etS you should have been Us auraient ete they should have been IMPERATIVE. Bois be [thou] qu'il soit let him be soyons let us be goyez be [you] qu'ils soient let them be SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT. Que je sois that I may be que tu sois that thou mayeat be 110 ON THE TARTS OF SPEECH. qu'il suit que no"s ! soyez au'Ua i fusse nisses qn"J f'lt I qn,- tuai that he may be that we may ho that y.>u may be that they may ho PLUPERFECT. that I might be that thou mightest be that he aright be that we might be thai you might be that they might be PKHTBKTI iMM.iiMTK. that I may haw been that thou mayest have hern that he may have been that we may haw been that you may have been that th< y may have bei a 1 ■ I-I.i PI EU I ' T. that 1 might haw been tlmt thon Brightest bays been that in' might have been that we might haw been that ynii mi^lit haw U'l'n that they might have been ''. To Bt (A'..; INTIMTIVK. not tn be not tn have been not being VERBS. m COMPOUND OF THE PARTICIPLE PRESENT. N'ayant pas We not having been INDICATIVE. Je ne suis pas tu n'es pas il n'est pas nous ne sommes pas vous rtetes pas Us ne sont pas Je n'etais pas tu n'etais pas U n'etait pas nous n'etions pas Us n'etaient ■ I am not thou art not he is not we are not you are not they are not IMPERFECT. I was not thou wast not he was not we were not you were not they were not TRETERIT DEFINITE. Je ne fus pas I was not tu ne fus pas thou wast not U ne fut pas he was not nous ne fumes pas we were not vous ne fates pas you were not Us ne furent pas they were not FUTURE. Je ne serai pas tu ne seras pas ii ne sera pas nous ne serous pas vous ne serez pets . Us ne seront pas Je ne serais pas tu ne serais pas I shall or will not be thou shalt not be he shall not be we shall not be you shall not be they shall not be CONDITIONAL. PRESENT, I should or would not be thou shouldst not be 112 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. U ne serait pas he should not be nous ne serious pas we should not be nous ne sericz pas you should not be Us ne seraieut pas they should not be PRETERIT INDEFINITE. Je n'ai pas ete I have not been tu n'as pas Hi thou hast not been ii n'ii | he has not been turns n'dtxmt pus iii we have not been cons it'n nee p you have not been Us no at pas Cti they have not been PLUPERFECT. I had not been tu n' thou hadat not been ho had not been nous we had not been vous it' yon bad noi been they bad not born preterit anterior. Je PI ] had BOi been tu n'tiis pas Hi thoa hadst aol been n'( he bad not i><'«'n ■ Hi we had aol been yon ha ! d >t li '--n they had not been •wuju aramon, ■ / ' I shall or will not have been tli. .11 shall nut hare been be thai! aol have been I :,',i>iri>nx pas Hi we -hall not bave 1 n ' • ■< Y..U shall ri'>t hav. Us n'n tneyahall aol have boea I ehoold "/• would not haw been thoa ihouldsi aol have been been VERBS. 113 nous n aunons pas et vous n'auriez pas ete U n'auraient pas ete we should not have been you should not have been they should not have been Ne sois pas qu'il ne soitpas ne soyons pas ne soyez pas qu'ils ne soient pas IMPERATIVE. be not [thou] let him not be let us not be be not [you] let them not be SUBJUNCTIVE. Que je ne sois pas que tu ne sois pas qu'il ne soit pas que nous ne soyons pas que vovs ne soyez pas qu'ils ne soient pas Que je ne fusse pas que tu ne fusses pas qu'il ne fat pas que nous ne fussions pas que vous nefussiez pas qu'ils ne fussent pas that I may not be that thou mayest not be that he may not be that we may not be that you may not be that they may not be IMPERFECT. that I might not be that thou mightest not be that he might not be that we might not be that you might not be that they might not be PRETERIT Of PAST. Quejen'aiepas lie que tu n'aies pas ilte qu'il n'ait pas ete que nous n'ayons pas ete que vous n'ayez pas ete qu'ils n'aient pas ete, that I may not have been that thou mayest not have been that he may not have been that we may not have been that you may not have been that they may not have been Queje n'eussepas ete que tu n'eusses pas ete qu'il n'eut pas ete PLUPERFECT. that I might not have been that thou mightest not have been that he might not have been 1H ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. que nous ri'eusaiona pas etc que co us n'eussies pas eti qu'ile n'eusscnt pas Ste that we might not have been that you might not have been that they might not have been Etri To Be {Interrogatively.') INDICATIVE. FBBSffirr. am I art thou is he ! nous are we you SOIlt-US are they IMl'l / llii'U ttait tt - lie ■>us m r - \\" yon t Us were they MTl thou - ho <■< Ill • l'KKSKXT. am I not art thou not is he not are we not an- you not utv thoy not DOTBV» T. was I not waM thou not waa be n<>t wan wa not ireia jrou not ware they not i I'lriNm:. was I not wast thou not U M he not wan we not were 70a not t h»-y not FUTl'Ki:. nhall or will 1 not l* hliait I In m D In- not be VERBS. 117 ne serons-nous pas ne serez-wus pas ne seront-ils pas iTt-il da courage ? Exercise. "Was this woman with you here, or were you alone ? Would not the judge be very severe if he were president of the court? Were those girls idle or were they tired ? They have been the one and the otber. Will this week have been a happy (one) for you? It would have been better, if it had been shorter. Had these soldiers been absent from the army ? They had been on furlough. Were the apples ripe ? You have been very polite, but I wished that you might have been more circumspect. I hope that you may be happy. • Was not your birthday yesterday? Where had these three men been during the night ? The verb to do, when used as an auxiliary verb in is not translated into French, but rendered by the simple form of the verb itself. Ex. I do speak: I speak, je parle. Do I speak? parle-je? He did come : he came, il venait. Did he come? venait-il? You did say: you said, vous dites. Did you say, dites-vous ? In like manner the verb to be, when used as an auxiliary in English with the Participle Present, is not translated into French, but rendered by the simple verb. Ex. I was reading : I read, je lisais. She was walking : she walked, elle se promenait. You were snoring : you snored, vous ronfliez. In the Interrogative form of all verbs the third person singu- lar requires, when it ends in a vowel, the insertion of the letter t, preceded and followed by a hyphen, to prevent the hiatus with the initial vowels of il, elle and on. Ex. a-t-il, has he ? a t-elle, has she ? a-t-on, have they ? parle-t-il, does he speak? songe-t-elle, does she dream ? In the Negative form of the verb, the negative invariably 120 OX THE PAHT8 OF SPEECH. consists of two parts, the Negative Adverb pan, point, etc., and the particle ne. The verb is placed between the two, so that ne stands before it ; in compound tenses the auxiliary is the verb, not the participle. Ex. je parte, I speak ; je ne parte pas, I speak not ; elle est la, elle ttest pas la, she is not there; nous am/us <7< ; , nous iti', we have not been; elle eut cu, elle n? ffaipas iU,je n'y at j>as iti, 1 have not been I In the Infinitive both ne and pas may be placed before the verb. Ex. M pat 'ill' r, DOt to The \ mjngated according to four conjugations, which arc distinguished by the termination of the lnfini- • n en la in er t like parler, to speak. la in i>, like servir, to Berve. Third Con] la in >«r, like recevoir, to re- The Fourth CoDJugatioD eoda in re\ like vendre, to sell. After catting off the Infinitive termination, there remains what is called the root ofthe?erb,e.o\jwW - t strt — t recev — and ttaio terminations, which constituto the coDJogatioo of the verb. Borne of these are uniform. The PartidpU I I in ant, added to the root of the \cil-, or in the second conjugation, to the first person riant, speaking , finmant, finishing ; reccvant, receiving; i it, -lling. VERBS. 121 The Imperfect ends always in ais, added to the root of the verb, or in the second conjugation, to the first person present. Ex. je parlais, I spoke ; je fiaissais, I finished ; je recevais, I received ; je vendais, I sold. The Future ends always in rai, and is made from the Infinitive. Ex. je parlerai, I shall speak ; je seruirai, I shall serve ; je recevrai, I shall receive; je vend rai, I shall sell. The Conditional ends always in rais, and is made by adding 3 to the Future. Ex. je parlerais, I should speak ; je servirais, I shall serve ; je recevrais, I should receive; je vendrais, I should sell. The First Person Plural ends always in ons, except in the Preterit Definite, when it always ends in silent mes. Ex. nous parlons, we speak ; nous parlions, we spoke ; nous parlerons, we shall speak; nous parlerions, we should speak; but nous parlames, we did speak. The Second Person Plural ends always in ez, except in the Preterit Definite, where it always ends in silent t s. Ex. vous servez, you serve ; vous serviez, you served ; vous ser- virez, you will serve ; vous serviriez, you would serve ; but vous servitea, you did serve. The Third Person Plural ends always in silent ent, except in the Future, where it always ends in out. Ex. Us recoivent they receive; Us recevaient, they received; Us rccurent, they received ; Us recevraient, they would receive ; but Us recevront, they will receive. The Moods of the French Verb are the following: 1. The Infinitive is simply the name of the verb, and has neither person nor number. Ex. chanter, to sing ; perdrc, to lose. 2. The Indicative states the action of the verb positively, and may do so in the past, present, or future. Ex. je chanle, I sing; je perdais, I lost; je recus, I received; firai, I shall go. 123 OX THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 3. The Subjunctive states the action of the verb contingently, ». c. subject to some other verb. Hence it is always preceded by the conjunction que, which connects it, with the verb on which it depends. This conjunction (that) may be omitte>( the verb in the tone of command, entreaty, wish or permission. let him come ! alluns .' let lis go ! ■, /assent s'ito r.n/.nt, let them do it if they wish. It will be seen that the English Imperative requires, in most esses, the auxiliary verb Cat, which is not translated in French, the Im- perative in 1 already OX] C 'lniiKiiil or permission. The Tei f the Verb are either Simple, when they are made of tin- verb itself, or Compound, when they are formed by the aid of the auxiliary '■■ and Eire. The Simpi.i. Tkksbs are the following: INDICATIVE Moon. 1. Th' - ends in r, \, or z, •j. The Imperfect^ which a waya enda in ais, expresses a past action, continued or frequently repeated. The Ebgttsh employa tor th- same purpose tin' auxiliary I vued to, whieh la aol Into French, as tin- Imported aln-n ly gives tliis m< Y.\. 1 used to sleep: I slept, J* dormaii. 11<- Dead to &ni"ke: he smoked, il fum-iit. VERBS. 123 3. The Preterit Definite, which ends in the first conjugation in ai, in the second in' is, in the third in us, and in the fourth in is, expresses a past action which took place but once, and at a definite period. It is, therefore, the historical tense of the French. Ex. je parlai, I spoke ; il servit alors, he served then ; je recus hier, I received yesterday ; nous vendimes lundi, we sold out on Monday le rot mourut sur Vechafaud, the king died on the scaffold. 4. The Future, which always ends in rai. Ex. je parlerai, I shall speak; firai, I shall go. 5. The Conditional, which always ends in rais. Ex. je vermis, I would see ; je rirais, I would laugh. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 1. The Present, which always ends in a silent e, and is made from the Present Indicative. Ex. j'ai : que j'aie, that I have ; je recois : que je recoive, that I receive. 2. The Past, which always ends in sse, and is made from the Preterit Definite, by changing ai of the first conjugation into asse, and by adding in the other three conjugations se to the Indicative. Ex. je parlai : que je parlasse, that I might speak. je servis : que je servisse, that I might serve. je recus : que je recusse, that I might receive. je vendis : que je vendisse, that I might sell. The Compound Tenses are the following : INDICATIVE MOOD. 1. The Preterit Indefinite, made from the Present of the auxiliary verbs Avoir or Eire, with the Participle Past. Ex. fai parle, I have spoken ; je suis alle, I have gone. 2. The Pluperfect, made from the Imperfect of the auxiliary verbs with the Participle Past. Ex. j'avais parle, I had spoken ; j'etais alle, I had gone. 124 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 3. The Preterit Anterior, made from the Preterit Definite :f the auxiliary verbs with the Participle Past. Ex. feus parte, I had spoken ; je fus alle, I had gone. 4. The Future Anterior, made from the Future of the aux- iliary verbs with the Participle Past. Ex. faurai jmrle, I shall have spoken ; je serai alle, I shall have gone. 5. The Conditional Anterior, made from the Conditional of the auxiliary verbs, with the Participle Past Ex. faurais parte, I would have spoken ; je serais alle, I would have gone. srnjrxcTiVE mood. 1. The Prtterii Indefinite, made from the Subjunctive of the Present of the auxiliary verbs with the Participle Past. Ex. que fait parli, that I mav have Bpoken ; que je sois alle, that I may have gone. 'J. '11 r, male from the Subjunctive of the •in- auxiliary verbs with the Participle l'ast. Ex. q bat [ might have spoken ; que je /asm at I might have ^■f Verbs the termination is separal the root, in order t<> show mors clearly i!i" manner of c mjagating verbs; such a si-|iunitinn does not take place, of course, in ordinary writing, when verb unl root am written in one word. TABLB OF THE T .ILAIl VEKBS. T INTIMTIVK MOOD. nan r, IstConj'n. 2.1 ('nnj. 8d C'onj. 4th OonJ. pari er fin ir ret svotf id re PABTS rii part ant evant I ant l-AKir nil. r\sr. part e fin i r< >; u rend n VERBS. ] INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT. Je pari ! e fin is rec ois vend s tu es is ois 8 il or elk e it oit vend nous ons issons evons ons vous ez issez evez ez Us or elles ent issent IMPERFECT. oivent ent Je pari ais fin issais ree evais vend ais tu ais issais evais ais il or eUe ait issait evait ait. nous ions issions evions ions vous iez issiez eviez iez Us or elles aient issaient evaient aient 125 Je PRETERIT DEFINITE. pari ai fin is rec us vend is il or elle a nous ames vous ates Us or elles erent Je pari FT ' erai tu eras il or elle era nous erons vous erez Us or elles eront irent FUTURE ABSOLUTE. fin irai rec evrai iras ira irons irez iront ut it umes imes utes ites urent irent evras ras evra ra evrons rona evrez rez evront ront CONDITIONAL MOOD. PRESENT Je pari erais fin irais ree evrais vend rais tu erais irais evrai s rais il or elle erait irait evrait rait nous erions irions evrions rions vous eriez iriez evriez riez Us or elles eraient iraient evrai ent raier.t 120 OX THE PARTS OF SPEECH, IMPERATIVE MOOD. pari e fin is re$ ois qu'il or qu'elle g'i'ils or qu'eUes ent lESons issez issent evez oiveut Queje que tn qu'il or 5 y«'#* or j; jrJ e SUBJUNCTIVE Mool) PRESENT. KKQfl iez eut Lsse issiona issdea iasent IMl'l : pari asse _/?/- i-~ ■ asses I qu'il <>r g At it qu, nous ■ /•<$■ oive oivea (UVB evions eviex oivent ■ccnd s ions ies cut asses fit ossiong assiea it issiona issicz [■Bent ■ IN I' IN IT I \' I! Mho I). IgtOonj. BdOonj. BdConj. Jhi i < "\troi m» "i mi PABTS iim.i-.. INIH "ATI V B MOOD. PRB1 I Kl I !M>I MM I I It H <\mj. tend u nd ■ u VERBS. 127 nouSavons pari I e ^« reg u vend u was avez e i u u Us or dies ont 6 i u u PLUPERFECT. J' avail pari e fin i rec u vend u tu avais e i 11 u il or elk avait e i u u ■nous avions e i u u vous aviez e i u u Us or elks avaient e i u u PRETERIT ANTERIOR. feus pari e fin i re$ u vend u tu eus e i u u il or elk eut e i u u nous eumes e i u u vous elites e i XL u Us or elks eurent e i u u FUTURE ANTERIOR. Jaurai pari e fin i reg u vend u tu auras e i u u il or elk aura e i U u nous aurons e i u u votes aurez e i u u Us or elks auront e i u u CONDITIONAL ANTERIOR. tPaurais pari e fin i rec u vend a tu aurais e i u il il or elk aurait e i u u nous aurions e i II u vous auriez e i u u Us or elks auraient e i u u SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. PRETERIT. Que fate p-wl e fin i ree u vend n que tu aies e i u u qu'il or qu'elk ait e i u a 128 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. que nous ayons que vous ayez qu'Us or qu'eUes aienl pari e fin i PRETERIT AXTEKIOR. Quefeusse que tu cusses qu'il or qu'elle cut que nous eussions que vous eussiez qu'ils or qu'elks eussent pari ti fin rec u AY U i\/>d 1 u VERBS OF THE FIRST COXJCGATION. {Affirmatively.) Parler To Speak INFINITIVE MOOD. PRE.sr.NT. . Parler to apeak TAST. Avoir pari & , to have spoken parth in i. FBI D Pari ant king OOMFOOHB Of Tin. PASTS [PI pki>i.nt. A;/int p'irl i having spoken PARIS mm I PACT. P.irf I ken INDICATIVE MOOD. II: I - k, do speak, w an ipeaking thou speal he spaaka Je p'irl e - U0U$ pari at r."/.i p.ir' <•/. We speak y.iu speak VERBS. TJD Je pari ais tu pari ais il pari ait nous pari ions w>tt« pari iez tfoparZaient Je #ar£ ai tu pari a8 # pari a nous pari ames »cws £>aW ates ilparl erent Je _parZ erai *w parJ eras il pari era news ^n, x purl 6 *& ««n rUp 'il >'■ ■ I tu tlU in* nous ounmt vous aunz purl G Us au, FLUPERFB* T. I had spoken or had been speaking thou kadst spoken he had spoken we had spoken yon had spoken they ha.l spoken PRETEKIT ANTERIOR. I had spoken tlioti hadst spoken he had spoken \v<- had spoken j ni had Bpoken they had Bpoken EUOB. I shuU "/• will have sj>okcn thou shah have Bpoken he Bhall have spoken we shall have Bpoken yon Bhall have Bpoken they Bhall have Bpoken J* a u rait ("NnnioN.vi | I Bhould, won] notaottrioiu pur! .'• • ri z j>url t Us mtraitni \ OOnld or thon Bhooldst have Bpoken oken ild have spoken Mm should have Bpoken ken might pari e ',"/<• tu j I sriurNvnvK MOOD. PBJ E lliat I niav - that thou in i\. si tliat hf ma] that we mi j ipi ak that yon may speak thai peak VERBS. V'A Que je pari asse que tu pari asses qu'il pari at que nous pari i que vous pari assiez qu'ilsparl assent Que j'aie pari e que tu aies pari e qu'il ait pari e gwe nous ayons pari e gwe vous ayez pari e gw'j'fe aient pari e Que feusse pari e gwg iw ewsses par? e qu'il eut pari e gwe nous eussions pari e gwe vous eussiez pari e gu'ifc eussent pari e IMPERFECT. tliat I might speak that thou raightest speak that he might speak that we might speak that you might speak that they might speak PAST. that I may have spoken that thou mayest have spoken that he may have spoken that we may have spoken that you may have spoken that they may have spoken PLUPERFECT. that I might have spoken that thou mightest have spoke that he might have spoken that we might have spoken that you might have spoken that they might have spoken IMPEKATIVE MOOD. speak or do speak [thou] let him speak let us speak speak or do speak [you] let them speak Pari e qu^il pari e pari ons pari ez qu'ils pari ent Parler To Spealc. INFINITIVE MOOD. PRESENT. Ne pas pari er not to speak PAST. N avoir pas pari e not to have spoken PARTIdPLE PRESENT. Nr- pari ant pas not speaking {Negatively.) 132 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. COMPOUND OF THE PARTICIPLE PRESENT. N' ay ant pas pari e not having spoken INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT. ( I speak not, do not speak or am Je ne pari e pas tu ne pari es pas trie pas nous ne purl ons pas BOttf TU jiarl cz pas pari ent pas < irl ais pas ir' ais pas ■r' ait pat noun ne par! irms/>a.t I :.t pat < not speaking thou speakest not he Bpeaks not we speak not you speak not they Bpeak not lilPKKl 1( T. 1 1 spoke not, did not speak or wan ! do! speaking thou spokest not he spoke not we Bpoke oot you spoke not ke not PRBTERIT DEFINITE. 1/ it. pari a rent pas I sj>okr imt or did not speak thou spoked not In- s[K,k,- not W6 s|«ik.' not you spoke not they spoke not FUTURE ABSOLUTE. J i -a\ pa* I ■ re* pat tat pas I shall »r will nut Bpeak thou shalt nnt sjM-ak I n .t Bpeak We shall li"t Bpeak you shall in>t Bpeak they shall not *|><-:ik Jc n t pari era is pat CONDITIONAL MOOD. PHI - \ I BhouJ !. would, could or might VERBS. 133 tu ne pari erais pas il ne pari erait pas nous ne pari enomipas vous ne pari eriez pas Us ne pari eraient pas thou sliouldst not speak lie should not speak we sliould not speak you should not speak they should not speak PRETERIT INDEFINITE. Je n'ai pas pari e tu n'as pas pari e il n'a pas pari e nous n'avons pas pari e vous n'avez pas pari e Us n'ont pas pari e ( I have not spoken, did not speak, { or have not been speaking thou hast not spoken he has not spoken we have not spoken you have not spoken they have not spoken Je ri 'avals pas pari e tu n'avais pas pari e il n'avait pas pari e nous n'avions pas pari e ■oous n'aviez pas pari e Us n'avaient pas pari e PLUPERFECT. ( I had not spoken or had not been thou hadst not spoken he had not spoken we had not spoken you had not spoken they had not spoken PRETERIT ANTERIOR. Je n'eus pas pari e tu n'eus pas pari e il n'eut pas pari e nous n'eitmes pas pari e vous n'eiiles pas pari e Us n'eurent pas pari e I had not spoken thou hadst not spoken he had not spoken we had not spoken you had not spoken they had not spoken FUTURE ANTERIOR. Je n'aurai pas pari e tu n' auras pas pari e U n'aura pas pari e nous n'aurons pas pari e, vous n'aurez pas pari e Us n'auront pas pari e I shall or will not have spob^-u thou shalt not have spoken he shall not have spoken we shall not have spoken you shall not have spoken they shall not have spokes 134 OX THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Jen'aurais pas pari e tu n'aurais pas pari e il it'aurait pas pad e -■'/'/ ri'His p,is purl e ixnis n'auritz pas purl e ils n'auraient pas pari e ', e pas que tu iir pari i - qn'il TU /"'/ ' ■■ fj,ir nous n, pari ionsjMH ■ pitrl iez P'ts PAST. { I should, would, could or might not 1 have spoken thou shouldst not have spoken he should not have spoken ■we should not have sjwken yon should not have spoken they should not have spoken SUBJUNCTIVE. I'KI.-l \ I. that I may not speak that thou mayest not speak that he may not Bpeak that we may not speak that yon may not speak that they may not Bpeak b pat ■ 5 qu'Ue n<- pari assent - j hirl t i; wri:i;iT.i r. that I might not speak that thon mightest not speak that lie might not speak that we might t » < > t speak that yon might not Bpeak that they might not speak eABT. that I may not ha v.- spoken that thon mayest not have spoken that he may not have Bpokea that we may not have spoken that you may not have spoken that they may not have spoken out tun' ■ ■ , ■ ri 4 PLUPERl that I ml 'ht not have spoken that thon mightest not have spoken that he mij b< not bave spoken that we mighl not have - that y« ii might not have spoken might not have • VERBS. 135 JTe pari e pas gu'il ne pari e pas ne pari ons pas ne pari ez pas qu'ils ne pari ent pas IMPERATIVE. speak not or do not speak [thou] let him not speak let us not speak speak not or do not speak [you] let tliem not speak Parler To Speak [Interrogatively.) INDICATIVE. Pari e-je ? pari e&-tu pari e-t-U pari oriB-nous pari ez-vous pari ent-ils do I speak or am I speaking dost thou speak does he speak do we speak do you speak do they speak Pari ais-je pari aia-tu pari ait-i'£ pari ions-nous pari iez-vous pari aient-i7s Pari ai-je pari &s-tu pari a-t-il pari simes-nous pari ates-vous pari erent-ils Pari evol-je pari eras-ta pari exa-t-il ', arl erons-nous did I speak or was I speaking didst thou speak did he speak did we speak did you speak did they speak PRETERIT DEFINITE. did I speak didst thou speak did he speak did we speak did you speak did they speak FUTURE ABSOLUTE. shall or will I speak shalt thou speak shall he speak shall we speak 136 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. pari erez-vous pari eiont-ils shall you speak shall they speak CONDITIONAL. Pari erais-Je pari ersis-tu pari erait-tf pari cnons-tioiu pari erii i ;>•»/•/ eraient-tfo iii c trl •'■ i /• • ■ pari c ni u tit pari 6 i paH >'• I pari e pari c t Should, would, could, or might 1 ( speak shouldst thou speak should he speak should we Bpeak should you speak should they Bpeak PIIETEKIT INDKIIN1 Ii:. have I spoken or did I speak hast tlioii Bpokeo bas he spoken have wv Spoken have yon spoken bare they b rLun.Ki ; (had I spoken or hai ( in- hadsl tbou Bpokeo bad he -;*>ki'n had we b\ i bad yon Bpokea had they spoken PRETERIT ANTKUlolt. had I spoken hadsl thon had ha niM.k.n liad we spoktfll had yon spoken had they spoken I ANT! RlOn. shall i will I liave I been sj>cak 137 uuva-t-il pari e aurons-nous pari i aurez-vous pari e auront-ils pari e Aurais-je pari e aurais-tu pari e aurait-il pari e • aitrions-novs pari e auriez-vous pari e auraient-ils pari e sliall lie have spoken shall we have spoken shall you have spoken shall they have spoken PAST. j should, would, could, or might { have spoken shouldst thou have spoken should be have spoken should we have spoken should you have spoken should they have spoken Parler To Speak {Negatively and Interrogatively.) INDICATIVE. Ne pari e-je pas ne pari es-tu pas ne pari e-t-il pas ne pari ons-nous pas ne pari ez-vous pas ne pari ent-ils pas Ne pari ais-je pas ne pari ais4?f pas ne pari axt-il pas ne pari ions-nous pas ne pari iez-vous pas ne pari a.ient-ils pas Ne pari el-je pas ne pari as,-tu pas ne pari a-tilpas j do I not speak or am I not speak- '. hig dost thou not speak does he not speak do we not speak do yo\i not speak do they not speak IMPERFECT. j did I not speak or was I not speak- t ing didst thou not speak did he not speak did we not speak did you not speak did tliey not speak PRETERIT DEFINITE. did I not speak didst thou not did he not speak 138 OX THE TARTS OF SPEECH. ne pari HmeB-nous pas m purl SteB-wms pas ne pari eient-to pas did we not speak did you not speak did they not speak JV7 pari ersl-je pas 7iq pari eras-tu pas I er&-t-il pas 7" pari erons-/(-"/.« pas m pari etea^wus pat tu pari eront-tfs pas FUTURE ABSOLUTE. shall or will not speak shalt thou not Bpeak shall he not Bpeak shall we not speak shall vim not speak shall they not Bpeak CONDITIONAL. ■ ra - tu pat [ should, would, could, or might I I nol Bpeak 1st thou not speak slii old he not Bpeak should we nol Bpeak Bhould you ii"! Bpeak Bhould they not B] iki.ii kit iM-i.i im i •;:. • ri 6 ■ \ ■ (have I u"! Bpoken, did I oot speak, I or have I do! I n speaking ■ p •k'ii have we M >t spokon nol Bpoken have they not Bpoken plup: i (had I ii"' Bpoken or had I not bm hadst thou not Bpoken had he i. A spoken had they cot spoken VEEBS. 139 IT&us-je pas pari e n'eus-tu pas pari e n'eut-il pas pari e n'edmes-nous pas pari e ri 'eutes-vous pas pari e n'eurent-ils pas pari e PRETERIT ANTERIOR. had I not spoken hadst thou not spoken had he not spoken had we not spoken had you not spoken had they not spoken FUTURE ANTERIOR. N'aurai-je pas pari e n'auras-tu pas pari e n'aura-t-il pas pari e n'aurons-nous pas pari e n'aurcz-wus pas pari e n'auront-ils pas pari e shall or will I not have spckL-n shalt thou not have spoken shall he not have spoken shall we not have spoken shall you not have spoken shall they not have spoken ft'aurais-je pas pari e n'aurais-tu pas pari e n'aurait-il pas pari e n' aurions-nous pas pari t n'auriez-vous pas pari e n'auraient-ils pas pari e j should, would, could, or might I ( not have spoken shouldst thou not have spoken should he not have spoken should we not have spoken should you not haA^e spoken should they not have spoken REMARKS OK VERBS OF THE FIRST CONJUGATION. There are several general principles applied in French to all verbs, which seriously affect their orthography. The first is : The pronunciation of the root of a verb in the Infinitive must be preserved throughout its conjugation. Consequently the verb, when conjugated, will have to be so spelt as to produce the sound of the Infinitive, whatever may be the termination that is added to the root. The verb percer, e. g. pronounces its root perc in the Infinitive with a soft c, because it is followed by e ; in forming the Present Participle, the syllable ant has to be added to the. root. Thus the vowel a would follow c, perc-ani, and as c before a has the sound of k, 140 OiS THE PARTS OF SPEECH. the Participle would sound differently from the Infinitive. This is not admissible, and, to avoid it, the orthography of the verb must be so changed, as to produce before ant also the soft r, which, in this case, is done by adding a cedilla and writing the Participle per^ant. Hence the following roles : 1. Verbs ending in eer in the Infinitive add a cedilla to c, whenever, in the course of the conjugation, it comes to stand before a or o. Ex. annonccr QGPEBFBI T. J' an nnn poft t't an il annonfaU nous annonciona (no cedilla Deeded before i.) tout " " " ■ mongaUmt I El i l'l.i: ntBBEHT. I i in r it.i'imte. J'nii tit Of! %1 hi. ils on no oedilla Deeded U-foid e.) BTO.M N( TIM-. Qui- , etc. •j. V( rba ending in £*r in the Infinitive, insert ■ mote i After o, whenever it comei to Btaod before a or o. Ex. ntglt gtr . FBI si.nt. VEKI3S. m nous negligeons (e inserted) vous negligez Us negligent IMPERFECT. Je negligeais tu negligeais il negligeait nous vous Us nigligeaient PARTICIPLE PRESENT, (no e needed before i) ( " " ) A second general principle of this kind, which finds its application here, and influences the orthography of the verb, is this: Two mute e's cannot follow each other in successive syllables. Hence the following rules : Verbs which have a mute e in the penultimate svllable of the Infinitive, change their spelling whenever the termination contains also a mute e, in two ways : 1. Some verbs double the consonant between the two e's. Ex. jeter. Present. Future. Es. appeler. Je jette tu jettes il jette nous jetons \ no double t is required, because no mute vous jetez S Us jettent Je jetterai tu jetteras il jettera nous jetterons vous jetterez Us jetteront Present. is added. Cond. Je jetterais tu jetterais il jetterait nous jetterions vous jetteriez Us jetteraient JappeMe tu appclles U2 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. il appelle nous appclons (no double I required | Future. Tons appckz ( . ', nt i ^'/ uppilleras '4 ra ■ peBaree Cond. J'appelleraU t>t a/ppdk rais U appeUt rait nousappi ' ri - Ba appellerait nt ier verba of this class place a Grave Accent over the first mute '■, whenever it ie followed by a Becond mute t, Ex. a Prbbkht. ./' ■'•■' ',-7, tout a Utaoh Bi M • '' n o accent required.) ( ■• '• ) Si v.j. I'm- ' ij'n tu acti que nous acheti 7'/'i7.i aeh&tcni ■ nt required.) COND. •/ :;. Verba wbicfa b :ent on the - is the pen- nltimate bj llafa whenever t : . • taiun a mnt VEEES. Ex. esperer. Presext. Jespere tu esperes il espere nous esperons (no change of accent.) vous esperez ( " " ) Us esperent Future. Jespererai Cond. J'espererais 143 Subj. Pres. Que j' espere Ex. Present. Je revile Future, Je revelerai Cond. Je revelerais Subj. Pres. Queje revele This same principle, that two mute e's cannot follow each other In successive syllables, has also this effect, that when the first person of the Present ends in mute e and is followed in the Interrogative construction by je, which has also a mute e, the final e of the verb takes an accute accent. Ex. je parle: parle-jef do I speak? j 'espere: espere-je? do I hope? A third general principle of this kind, which influences the orthography of the verb, is this : The letter j cannot be placed before mute e. Hence the fol- lowing rule : Verbs which end in yer (ayer, eyer, oyer and uyer) change y into i, whenever it conies to stand before a mute e. Ex. essayer. Present. Jessaie tu essaies il essaie nous essayons (no change needed.) vous essayez ( " " ) Us essaient Future. Jessaierai nous essaierons tu essaieras vous essaierez U essaiera Us essaiermt U4 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Coxb. JTessaurais tu essaieraU U essaie rait LUPERATIYE. Ex. cmpln/'T. PasEsrr nous essaierums naus essaieriez Us essaieraient Essaie gu'il essaie essayons exsaycz qu'ils essaient TemphAe tu einploies il em. • mployoru (no chango needed.) rous empl"i/cz ( '• " ) ttt l"i< tit Future. J'aitplvurui Oond. JTempMerak Siiu. Pbbb. QpaftmpM* Finally, verba ending in iter require r\ diaeresis over tlic /, which ni.iy be added to the conjugation, in order to preserve the separate Bound of the two vowels. Ex. | lMru:ii, nd w wo yer, to send, which will l>o given hereafter. VERBS OF Tin: BIOOVC OONJUOATIOV. Finir To Finish {Affirmatively.) INFINiTIVK MOOD. I BH1T , Fin ir to finish PAST. Avoir fin 1 to have fisdahed VERBS. U5 PARTICIPLE PRESENT. Fin issant finishing COMPOUND OP THE PARTICIPLE PRESENT. Ayant fin i having finished PARTICIPLE PAST, finished Je fin is tu fin is Ufin it nous fin issons vous fin issez Us fin issent Je fin issais tu fin issais il fin issait nous fin : vous fin Us fin issaient Je fin is tu fin is Ufin it nous fin imes ww^ ./En. ites iEs ./E/i irent Je fin irai £w fin iras £E,/in. ira nous fin irons ®i tu fin i Q a fin i MM ,/fn i B9IM "' '"/i i tV ii ri tit fin i ' nujlfl i if^N i fin i f>/ /■ a* fin l ■ - : n i Mfjlfl i ils eurent fin i J~tiurai fin \ (a aunt* fin i ■ fin i n pat Jin ir fin i _\ 0OXFO1 N £ . ' .'"' i J, in- fin \spcu tu nefin t' Hi' fin iu ne fin iaBftll To Finish {Negatively) INFINITIVE. l'];i>i.vr. n« a to finish PAOP. not t.. have finished PABTK in i: PB1 BED i. li.n finishing I) <•!■• Tin: PARI I' ni.r. n:r.-i vi. i) i>t hu\ ing finished INDIOATTVEL FBI \ I finish not, do iint finish, <?- had not lwt>n ( finishing thou hadst not finished he had not finished we had not finished you had not finished they had not finished PKKTERIT ANTERIOR. I had not finished thou hadst not finished he had not finished we had not finished yon had not finished they had not finished ■ it pis fin i to n'au • 1 1 fin i Hi n\i'i ■ ' -fin i t'l ll'il'l r il it'n a r nous n'a : I rriKi. aBTEBIOB. I shall or will not have finished thon shall not have finished he shall not have finished we -had no) have finished yon shall not have finished they shall not have tin. ocerornm u. past. •old, would, c raid, or might \ not have finished thou - bave finished • finished we should nut have finishe 1 d >'. bave finic the] SUBJUNCTIVE. Q ic je nr fin isso />,/.< q'i'il in PKB81 that I may not finish that thon mayest Dot I'nish we may not finish VERBS. 151 que vous nefin issiez pas qu'Us ne fin issent pas Queje nefin isse pas que tu nefin isses pas qu'U nefin it pas que nous ne fin issions pas que vous nefin issiez pas qu'Us ne fin issent pas Queje n'aie pas fin i que tu n'aies pas fin i qu'U n'ait pas fin i que nous n'ayons pasfin i que vous n'ayez pas fin i qu'ils n'aient pas fin i Queje n'eusse pas fin i que tu n'eusses pas fin i qu'U n'eut pas fin i que nous n'eussions pas fin i que vous n'eussiez pas fin i qu'ils n'eussent - N~e fin is pas qu'U ne fin isse pas ne fin issons pas nefin issez pas qu'ils ne fin issent pas that you may not finish that they may not finish IMPERFECT. that I might not finish that thou mightest not finish that he might not finish that we might not finish that you might not finish that they might not finish PAST. that I may not have finished that thou mayest not have finished that he may not have finished that we may not have finished that you may not have finished that they may not have finished PLUPERFECT. that I might not have finished ( that thou mightest not have finish 1 ed that he might not have finished that we might not have finished that you might not have finished that they might not have finished IMPERATIVE. finisii not or do not finish [thou] let him not finish let us not finish finish not or do not finish [you] let them not finish FlNIR To Finish (Interrogatively.) INDICATIVE. Fin Ss-je fin xa-tu do I finish or am I finishing dost thou finish 152 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. fin St-il fin issons-.now* fiu-issez-vous fiu issent-ifo Fin iBBaaaje fin issais -tu fin issait-i7 ■ >na-nou.i . /.-rout fin Lsaaient-tZi Fin is-je fin Is4u fin \nu-s-hout fin ttee Jin irrntj/.t Fin i r . jin Irat fin Ires mt-A : :ri7 /?/i Irioi til nt-j/j Atjtfin i ostufin 1 does lie finish do we finish do you finish do they finish lill'EKFFXT. did I finish or was I finishing didst thou finish did he finish did we finish did you finish did they finish FltETElUT DKJUJBUTH. di.l I finish didst thou finish did hfi finish did we finish did ymi finish did they finish Ft Tt •i:i:. shall or will I finish •halt tlnm finish shall he finish shall we finish shall you finish shall tiny finish HDITIONAL. nan bt. I would, oonld, or might I ( fin shooldsl thou finish should he finish . I we finish should you finish should they finish MUBHHn iM'i iimi i:. have I finished or did ( finish ha-t thou oished VEEBS. 153 a-t-il fin i awns-nous jin i avez-vous fin i ont-ils fin i lias he finished have we finished have you finished have they finished PLUPERFECT. Avais-je fin i avais-tu fin i amit-ilfini amons-nous fin i aviez-vous fin i avaient-ils fin i (had I finished or had I been ( finishing hadst thou finished had he finished had we finished had you finished had they finished PRETERIT ANTERIOR. Eus-je fin i eus-tu fin i eut-il fin i etimes-nous fin i eutes-vous fin i ewrent-ils fin i had I finished hadst thou finished had he finished had we finished had you finished had they finished FUTURE ANTERIOR. Aurai-je fin i auras-tu fin i aura-t-ilfin\ aurons-nous fin i aurez-vous fin i auront-ils fin i shall or will I have finished shalt thou have finished shall he have finished shall we have finished shall you have finished shall they have finished CONDITIONAL PAST. Aurais-jefini aurais-tu fin i aurait-il fin i aurions-nous fin i auriez-vous fin i auraient-ils fin i j should, would, could, or might I ( have finished shouldst thou have finished should he have finished should we have finished should you have finished should they have finished 7* 154 OX THE PAETS OF SPEECH. Finir To Finish (Negatively and Interrogatively?) INDICATIVE. , --je pas hi fin \SrtU P' (3 h, fin it-// /«'. fin in-/. r,,i/j» pa9 r.< _/i;/ ir.. do I not finish or am I not fiuishinj dost thou not linish does he not finish do we not finish do you not linish do they not linish IMPKRFI'.CT. j did I not finish or was 1 not ( finishing didst thou not finish did he not finish did we not finish did yon nol finish did they not finish PBETHRXT hi.KiM n:. did I not linish diilst thou not linish did he sot finish did we Dot finish did yon nol finish did they sot finish shall or will I not finish Shalt thou not finish shall he not finish Bhall we not finish shall you not finish shall they not Be CONDITIONAL. m s ght I not i finish should?) thou not finish VERBS. 155 ne fin vc&ii-il pas Tie fin irions-/i or nii S ht X i not have finished n'awrafatu pas fin i Bhooldst thou not have finished n'awraitil pas fin i should he not have finished n'auriona-notu pa* fin i should we not have finished n'auru z-rous pat fin i should you not have finished n'auraunt-il* pas fin i should they not have finished. REMARKS ON VERBS OF THE SECOND CONJUGATION. The majority of those verbs are regular and follow the ter- minations of finir. The Irregular Verbs of this conjugation, which are very numerous, arc given elsewhere. III. — VERHS OF THE THIRD CONJCG ATIO N. von; To l; {Affirmatively.) INFINITIVE MOOD. PB1 BBS P. i: ■ t.. n reive rtf u to have received PABT1 i.i'. PRBBBHT. ant receiving fUHD Of Tin: PAW tl iri.i: PSBBBXT, Ayaut havij I'M. in 1 1 • i . i ; PAW. received [JUDICATIVE MOOD. PBBfl "i» I reeeive.don Lve,oran r. «>is tlmu reo \ fl reg «'it l],- r. VEEBS. 157 nous rec evons wus rec evez Us rec oivent we receive you receive they receive Je rec evais tu rec evais il rec evait nous rec evions wus rec eviez Us rec evaient IMPERFECT. j I received, did receive, or was re ( ceiving thou receivedst lie received we received you received they received PRETERIT DEFINITE. Je rec us tu rec us il rec ut nous rec linies wus rec utes Us reg ureut I received or did receive thou receivedst he received we received you received they received Je rec evrai tu rec evras il rec evra nous rec evrons vous rec evrez Us rec evront I shall or will receive thou shalt receive he shall receive we shall receive you shall receive they shall receive CONDITIONAL MOOD. Je rec evrais tu rec evrais il rec evrait nous rec evrions wus rec evriez Us rec evraient { I should, would, could, or might I receive thou shouldst receive he should receive we should receive you should receive they should receive 158 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Jai re? u tu as reg u il •*• U U atait req u new " i a nap u f r~defe\~ite. jl have received, did receive, or ( Lave been receiving thou Last received lie has received ■we have received you have received they have received FLUTERFEC T. I had received or had been receiving thou hadsl r he had received we had received yon had received tiny had received PBEEKBIT ANTERXOB, 1 had received thou ha lal re ■ dved he had received we liail received yon had received tiny had r< c 1 shall or will have received thou Bhalt have received he — 1 1 ;i 1 1 have received we shall have received von shall have received tlnv shall have received • "\i>m oral y I Bhonld, would, could, or might / have n • thon shonldsl ha\ he should liave received we sh >uld 1 nve r oeived • c Ived VERBS. 159 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. PRESENT Queje reg oive que tu reg oives qu'il reg oWe que nous rec evions que vous rec eviez qu'ils reg oivent that I may receive that tliou mayest receive that he may receive that we may receive that you may receive that they may receive IMPERFECT. Queje reg usse que tu reg usses qu'il reg ut que nous reg ussions que vous reg ussiez qu'ils reg ussent that I might receive that thou mightest receive that he might receive that we might receive that you might receive that they might receiv Que j'aie reg u que tu aies reg u qu'il ait reg u que nous ayons reg u que vous ayez reg u qu'ils aient reg u Que j'eusse reg u que tu eusses reg u qu'il eut reg u que nous eussions reg u que vous eussiez reg u qu'ils eusscnt reg u that I may have received that thou mayest have received that he may have received that we may have received that you may have received that they may have received PLUPERFECT. that I might have received that thou mightest have received that he might have received that we might have received that you might have received that thev might have received Reg ois qu'il reg oive ree evons rec evez qu'ils reg oivent IMPERATIVE MOOD.. receive [thou] let him receive let lis receive receive [you] let them receive 160 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Recevoiii Ife pas rec evoir pas re$ u Xf<6 rec evant pas H" ay ant pas rec u rec ois pas n •• < .is poj ■ \* pas I .<•.<• evions ;> U ■ pen ■ •Is m n tu nc r<>- uvr^ To Receive (Negatively) INFINITIVE. not to receive PAST. not to have received PARTICIPLE PRESENT. not receiving COMPOUND OF THE PARTICIPLE. not having received INDICATIVE. PRESENT. S I receive not, do not receive, or am ( not receiving tli<.u receivest not he receives not we receive d >t von receive not they receive not IMl'KIU T.( T. (I received not, did not receive,** ( wus not receiving thou receivedst not lie received not ire received not yon received not they received not l ki.iimii:. 1 received not or <1M not t t'.ui p odvedsl not he received not wv received not I not i not I ulinil or will not receive VERBS. 101 U ne rec evra pas nous ne rec evrons pas vous ne rec evrez pas Us ne rec evront pas he shall not receive we shall not receive you shall not receive they shall not receive Je ne rec evrais pas tu ne rec evrais pas il ne rec evrait pas nous ne rec evrions pas vous ne rec evriez pas ils ne rec evraient pas CONDITIONAL MOOD. PRESENT. jl should, would, could, or might 1 not receive thou shouldst not receive he should not receive we should not receive you should not receive they should not receive PRETERIT INDEFINITE. Je n'ai pas rec u tu n'as pas rec u il n'a pas rec u nous n'avojis pas rec u vous n'avez pas rec u ils n'ont pas rec u j I have not received, did not receive, ! or have not been receiving thou hast not received he has not received we have not received you have not received they have not received Je navais pas rec u tu n' avals pas rec u il n'avait pas rec u nous n' avians pas rec u vous n'aviez pas rec u ils n'avaient pas rec u PLUPERFECT. j I had not received, or had not been t receiving thou hadst not received he had not received we had not received you had not received they had not receivcu PRETERIT ANTERIOR. Je n'eus pas rec u I had not received tu n'eus pas rec u thou hadst not received il n'eut pas rec u he had not received nous n'eumes pas rec u we had not received vous n'eutes pas rec u you had not received ils n'eurent pas rec u they had not received 162 OX THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Je riaurai pas rcr u ■ as pas rcr u U n'aura pas r< p a rumt n'uurons pas rcc u tout n'auree pas reg u ■2s u'aiiront pus nc u Jc h'a'trais pas re? u tn n'avrais pat r<<; a : : u* Huuniniit J FUTURE AXTEBTOK. I shall or will not have received tliou shalt not have received he shall not have received we shall not have received yon shall not have received they shall not have received CONDITIONAL IWsT. u receive should they receive .int'i r ; u tut rer u i ne u Atat»J6 rer u ciT.iixtu rrr u rrr u «U ree u « rrr u ree u fuj^u r^f u TKI.TIKIT IM'I IIMI !'.. have 1 received or did 1 receive luu«t thou r. C has he r> -i-rivi d have »v received have j have ihrv r . I'MT! Bl I I T (had I received or had I heen re- tving hadet thou r had h<- reoeived had we reoeived lmd J had t" rnETEIUT AJRTUUOB. had I receivi d had?t thou reed VEEBS. 165 eut-il reg u ( Receive [Negatively and Interrogatively.) INDICATIVE MOOD. Jfe reg ois-je pas ne reg ois-tu pas ne reg oit-il pas ne rec evons-nous pa ne rec evez-vous pas ne reg oivent-its pas Sfe ree ev&is-je pas ne rez ev&is-tu pas 716 rec evait- # pas j do I not receive or am I not re- ( ceiving dost thou not receive does he not receive do we not receive do you not receive do they not receive IMPERFECT. ( did I not receive or was I not re- ( ceiving didst thou not receive did he not receive 166 0:N~ THE PAETS OF SPEECH. -ve rec evions-?;ow5 pas ne rec eviez-iws i^as ne rec evaient-iYs pas Ne rec v&-je pas ne rec ns-tii pas ne rer ut-il pas ne rer umes-7ious pas ne rer fLte&vous p"s ne n .<; urent-iVs pas did we not receive did you not receive, did they not receive PRETERIT DEFINITE. did I not receive didst tliou not receive did he not receive did we not receive did you not receive did they not receive Ne rec evrai-j* pas ne rec evras-fu pat evra til pas ■ ne rec evront-Us pas shall or will I not receivo eliiilt thou not re*>y'' PbSBBBT. «/. / BUBJ. PBXa Qhc je r^,>y-e Pabt. Past. Bapu The Participle Tast of d< >■■,;,-, which is ( /ii, requires the Cir- cumfl< d order to distinguish it from the Genitive of Masculine Article '/". No accent i- given tu the Feminine there i-* do ambiguity here. All the other Verb! of this Conjugation arc irregular and will be given hereafter ; VEKBS. 160 IV. VERBS OF THE FOURTH CONJUGATION. Vendre To Sell (Affirmatively.) INFINITIVE MOOD. PRESENT. Vend re to sell Avoir vend u Vend ant to have sold PARTICIPLE PRESENT, selling COMPOUND OF THE PARTICIPLE PRESENT. Ayant vend u having sold Vendu Je vend s tu vend s U vend nous vend ons vous vend ez Us vend ent Je vend ais tu vend ais il vend ait nous vend ions vous vend iez Us vend aient Je vend is tu vend is il vend it PARTICIPLE PAST. sold INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT. I sell, do sell, or am selling thou sellest he sells we sell you sell they sell IMPERFECT. I sold, did sell, or was selling thou soldest he sold ■we sold you sold they sold PRETERIT DEFINITE. I sold or did sel thou soldest he sold 8 170 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. nom vend imes vous vend ites Us vend ircnt Je vend rni tu vend ras il vend ra nous vend rons VOtU r< iid rez its vend rout Jd rend rais •' rais I rait ,ns n'avons pas vend u vous n'avcz pas rend u Us n'ont pas vend u PRETERIT rNDEFIXTTE. $1 have not sold ^id not sell, or ( have not been selling thou hast not sold he has not sold we have not sold you have not sold they have not sold Je n'tnau pas vend a r! a U n'awrit pas >•. ,,d a nous vous ;,' ' u Us n'ar id a VhVVF.llYFXT. I had not sold or had not been selling thou hadst not sold he had not sold we had not sold yon had not sold they had not sold PBBTEBZI J, %\ '/.« (MM ftf /,'- ".< pOI IN id i? n'aid pa* Dend u -' u d u ANTERIOR. I had not sold thou liadst not sold he had not Bold we had ool Bold yon had n A s iid they had QOt Sold RE ANTERIOR. H0VI I t liav- gold yon sfa sold VERBS. 175 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Que je ne vend e pas that I may not sell que tu ne vend es pas that thou mayest not sell qu'il ne vend e pas that he may not sell que nous ne vend ions pas that we may not sell que vous ne vend iez pas that you may not sell qu'ils ne vend ent pas that they may not sell IMPERFECT. Queje ne vend isse pas that I might not sell que tu ne vend isses pas that thou mightest not sell qu'il ne vend it pas that he might not sell que nous ne vend issions pas that we might not sell que votes ne vend issiez pas that you might not sell qu'ils ne vend issent pas that they might not sell Queje n'aie pas vend u that I may not have sold que tu n'aiespas vend u that thou mayest not have sold qu'il n'ait pas vend u that he may not have sold que nous n'ayons pas vend u that we may not have sold que vous n'ayez pas vend U that you may not have sold qu'ils n'aient pas vend u that they may not have sold PLUPERFECT. Queje n'eussepas vend u that I might not have sold que tu n'eusses pas vend u that thou mightest not have sold qu'il n'eilt pas vend u that he might not have sold que nous n 'eussions pas vend u that we might not have sold que vous n'eussiez pas vend u that you might not have sold qu'ils n'eussent pas vend u that they might not have sold IMPERATIVE MOOD. Ne vend s pas sell not or do not sell [thou] §u'il ne vend e pas let him not sell ne vend ons pas let us not sell ne vend ez pas sell not or do not sell [you] qu'ils ne vend ent pas let them not sell ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Tenure To Sell INDICATIVE MOOD. (Interrogatively.) Est-ce queje vend s vend s-tu vend-il vend ons-noua vend ez-rous vend eut-ils Vend tds-je vend a.\s-tu r, nd ait-fZ n nd ions-notM r< nd i' i rc'/c/ uient-tZ* 1' ' is-j« rt-il vend u aurons-nous vend u avrez-vous vend u auront-ils vend u Aurais-je vend u aurais-tu vend u auraitil vend u FDTORE ANTERIOR. shall or wi'l I have sold shalt thou have sold shall he have sold shall we have sold shall you have sold shall they have sold CONDITIONAL PAST. ( should, would, could, or might J ( have sold shouldst thou have sold should he have sold 8* ITS OX THE PARTS OF SPEECH. aurions-nous vend u auriez-vous tend u auraient-ils vend u should we have sold should you have sold should thev have sold Veni To Sell [Negatively and Interrogatively.) INDICATIVE MOOD. EeUee queje ne tend s pas id B4u pas ne vend 4 ooB-iunu pat Ji'tS do I not sell or am I not selling dost thou not sell does he not sell do we not s 11 do you nol Bell do they not sell iMiT.r.ir.cT. / ait Jul* ■ne tend icz-rous pat I aient i's pas did I not sell or was I not selling di.lst thou not sell did be Dot sell did we not sell dir.l-TSITE. X pas ne tend I did I not s.-ll didst tliou not sell did he not si-11 I'.i-l we i. ; not - 'II did tliev not soil d rni-/'< pi't ■ - ne tend rcz-rous pas ne oiu! Kmtdb pas shall Of "ill 1 I elialt thou not nil shall h<- no; - shall We not Sill m doI -ill YEKBS. 179 CONDITIONAL MOOD. Ne vend rais-je pas ne vendnds-tu pas ne vend mit-il pt\~ ne vend vions-nous pas ne vend riez-voi/s pas ne vend laient-ils pas t should, would, could, or might I ( not sell shouldst thou not sell should he not sell should we not sell should you not sell should they not sell N'ai-je pas vend u PRETERIT INDEFINITE. j have I not sold, did I not sell or \ have I not b«en selling n'as-tu pas vend u hast thou not sold n'a-t-il pas vend u has he not sold n'av&ns-nous pas vend u have we not sold n'avez-vous pas vend u have you not sold n'ont Us pas vend u have they not sold PLUPERFECT. N' avais-je pas vend u n'avais-tu pas vend u n'avait-il pas vend u n'avions-nous pas vend u n'avicz-vous pas vend u n' awient-ils pas vend u j had I not sold, or had I not been \ selling hadst thou not sold had he not sold had we not sold had you not sold had they not sold N'exts-je pas vend u n'eus-tu pas vend u n'eut-il pas vend u n'eumes-nous pas vend u n'eutes-vous pas vend u n'eurent-ils pas vend u UTaurai-je pas vend u n'auras-tupas vend u n'aura-t-il pas vend u PRETERIT ANTERIOR. had I not sold hadst thou not sold had he not sold had we not sold had you not sold had they not sold FUTURE ANTERIOR. shall or will I not have sold shalt thou not have sold shall he not have sold n'aurons-nouspas vend u shall we not have sold 180 OX THE PA I ITS OF SPEECH n'aurez-vous pas vend u 6liall you not Lave sold n'auront-ils pas tend u shall they not have sold CONDITIONAL PAST. . . , ( should, would, could, or might I A aurais-je pas vend u \ . . ,, ( not have sold n'aurais-tn pus vend u shouldst thou not have sold n'auradt-il pan vend u should he not have sold n'aurions-nous pas vend u should we not have sold n'auriez-rous pus vend u should you not have sold n'auraient-Us pas vend u should they not have sold THE DIFFF.KENT KINDS OF VKRBS. After having thus shown the manner in which the verbs arc conjugated according to the tour conjugations, it becomes ne- & Bsary to learn that French verbs differ not in Conn only, but in nature also. We find accordingly, 1. At. iii.-h express an action directed upon an immediate object. They are often called Transitive Verbs, as it were becaui : over (transire) upon the obr ject, which is their -t object, and consequently always in the accusative case. To Rod out if a verb is an active verb in h, take tin- first person, and it' the words personne, some- body, <>r quel que chose, something, can be added, the verbis ; it' not, it is neuter, Ex. fni],j> r: s I strike somebody. Active. .1 read something. Active. . ,, (somebody marcher: je march ■ I walk • ( V- i ithing cannot be said, hence i iter. nponnd tens.-. i, v meana of tin Auxiliary Verb avoir. Ex. / I have struck I have read 2. X ther an action that boa no 181 direct object, or no action at all, but merely a state or a condi- tion. They are also called Intransitive Verbs. Ex. enlrer, to enter, can only be used with in : entrer dans lo salon, to enter into the parlor; emhellir, to grow handsome, ex- presses no action, but merely a condition. , Neuter Verbs make their compound '.enses by means of the Auxiliary avoir or etre, according to established usage ; a few take either avoir or etre, changing in signification accordingly. The following neuter verbs are conjugated with ttre, all otbers with avoir : aborder* accoucher accourvr* accroitre* aller apparai're* arriver augmenter* avenir or adve- tdr baisser* cesser* (1) changer* (2) choir convenir to land ia verb used in surgery to run to to increase to go to appear to arrive to increase to happen to fall, to decrease to cease to change to fall to agree croitre* diborder* dt'camper* decider dechoir* decroitre* degenerer* demeurer* descendre* (3) devenir diminuer disconvenir disparaitre* echapper* (4) echoir* echouer* to grow to overflow to decamp to die to decay- to decrease to degenerate to stay or remain to go down to become to decrease to deny or disown to disappear to escape to become due to run aground (1) Cesser takes etre when there is no expectation of a return. (2) Changer, applied to persons takes etre, when used to express a change in the physiognomy, and avoir when it alludes to a moral change. (S) It is very easy to distinguish with all these verbs, which auxiliary must be selected ; for it is customary in English, to substitute the verb to !>e tor to go, when the action has entirely ceased. This substitution cannot take place in French : thus, he has gone down, as it implies that he is still down, must be translated by il est descendu, while he has ler-.n down, will be translated by il a descendu, etc. (4) Echapper signifies to pass unperceived, and then takes avoir ; it has besides the meaning of to let slip, -vh^n it takes etre. 182 OX THE PARTS OF SPEECH. embdlir* empire?* entrer* (3) expir, r* (5) grandir* monter* (3) mourir naitre partir* parvi i ir passer* (G) pCrir* (7) to blow to grow handsome to grow worse to enter to expire to grow tall to intervene to go up to die to be born to set out to attain to pass away to perish to come from ow jronng (3) to go down again redevenir remonter* (3) rentrer* repattir* ressortir* (3) rester* rcsulkr* retomber retoumer sonner* (8) sortir* (3) turvenir cm UUr to become again to go up again to come in again to set out again to go out again to stay to result to fall again to return to come back to ring to go out tO befall to fall to come to grow old 8. /'< Fieri , which express an action, which the subject (nominative) of the verb Buffers From an agent, which may be Us fun lit butt us pur leu- I am persecuted Qty Bomebody.) they wen- beaten by the enemy. ■ Verbs Consist of the auxiliary verb itr* with tho participle past, which must agree in gender and number with the BUl I •prise they were wounded I Mid Urt when it mentis to ctata ■\ •■ I )>\ par, Mil menus, d wixh prrir. when tl i I to; uroir, whet i hen it is in - . rtain nlntiot the riugiug at I other mentioned in ths VERBS. 1S3 4. Pronominal Verbs are so called in French, because they are always accompanied in the infinitive by the pronoun se, and throughout their conjugation by two personal pronouns. Ex. se promener, to walk. Present. Je me promene tu te promenes il se promene nous nous promenons vous voit-s promenez Us se prominent They are divided into three classes, according to their meaning : a. Reflexive Verbs, which express an action that is reflected upon the subject of the verb. The pronoun se in the infinitive is here translated by one's self, and the second pronoun in the course of conjugation by myself] thyself, himself, etc. Ex. se tromper, to deceive one's self. PRESENT. Je me trompe I deceive myself tu te trompes thou deceivest thyself il se trompe he deceives himself nous nous trompons we deceive ourselves tous vous trompez you deceive yourselves Us se trompent they deceive themselves b. Reciprocal Verbs, which express an action that is mutually affecting two or more persons. The pronoun se in the infin itive is here translated by each other or one another, and the second pronoun in the course of conjugation by the same words. Ex. s'entr'aimer, to love each other. PRESENT. Kous nous entfaimons we love each other vous vous entr'aitnes you love each other ils s'entr'aiment they love each other 184 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. c. Pronominal Verbs Proper are such as are peculiar to the French language and are not so used in English. The pronoun se in the infinitive, and the second pronoun in the course of conjugation, are here not translated at all, because their use is peculiar to French and not required iu English. Ex. se lever, to rise. PRESENT. Je me live I rise tu te I thou risest il se tice he rises nous nous letons we rise you rise ■Lilt they rise All pronominal Verbs are conjugated by means of the aux i'.iarv verb lire. 5. Impersonal Vnhs, which express an action performed, not by a person, bul by some ether agency. They are used only in the third person singular. Ex. il j'l, nl, it rains; il ghU, it freezes; il arrive, it happens; il ii rise In 6 to have risen PASTS ifi.i: i'Ki:-i.NT. 8cktia.nl rising VERBS. • 185 COMPOUND OF THE PARTICIPLE PRESENT. S'etant lev e Laving risen Lev e PARTICIPLE PAST risen INDICATIVE MOOD. Je me lev e tu te lev es il se lev e nous nous lev ons vous vous lev ez Us se lev ent I rise, do rise, or am rising thou risest lie rises we rise you rise they rise Je me lev ais tu te lev ais il se lev ait nous nous lev ions vous vous lev iez Us se lev aient I rose, did rise, thou rosest he rose we rose you rose they rose , or was rising Je me lev ai tu te lev as •U se lev a nous nous lev ames vous vous lev ates Us se lev erent PRETERIT DEFINITE. I rose or did rise thou rosest he rose we rose you rose they rose Je me lev erai tu te lev eras il se Uv era nous nous lev erons wus vous lev erez Us se lev eront I shall or will rise thou shalt rise he shall rise we shall rise you shall rise they shall rise 186 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. CONDITIONAL MOOD. Je me lev erais til te lev erais U se lev erait nous nous lev erions nous vous lev eriez Us se lev eraient PRESENT. \ I should, would, could, or might ( rise thou shouldst rise he should rise we should rise you should rise they should rise Je me suis lev e mETERIT INDEFINITE. < I have risen, did rise, or have been ( rising tu fes lev e Usse tout I, c t's taen the; had risen ./ I Bhall or will 1 1 : i \ : Bhalt hare i |] have risen nous nous serous h VERBS. 187 vous vous serez lev is Us se seront lev es Je me serais lev e tu te serais lev e il se serait lev e nous nous serious lev es vous vous seriez lev es Us se seraient lev es you shall have risen they shall have risen CONDITIONAL PAST. ( I should, would, could or might, ( have risen thou shouldst have risen he should have risen we should have risen you should have risen they should have risen SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Que je me lev e que tu te lev es qu'il se lev e que nous nous foe- ions que vous vous lev iez qu'ils se lev ent Que je me lev asse que tu te lev asses qu'il se lev at que nous nous lev assions que vous vous lev assiez qu'ils se i that I may rise that thou mayest rise that he may rise that we may rise that you may rise that they may rise IMPEKFECT. that I might rise that thou mightest rise that he might rise that we might rise that you might rise that they might rise Que je me sois lev e que tu te sois lev e qu'il se soit lev e que nous nous soyons lev es que vous vous soyez lev es qu'ils se soient lev es PAST. that I may have risen that thou mayest have risen that he may have risen that we may have risen that you may have risen that they may have risen Que je me fusse lev e que tu te fusses lev 6 qu'il se fffl lev 4 PLUPERFECT. that I might have risen that thou mightest have risen that he might have risen > 188 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. que nous nous fussions lev es que rous vous fussiez lev es qu'tts se fussent lev es IMPERATIVE MOOD. Lev e-toi rise [thou] qu'il se lev e let him rise lev ons-nous let us rise lev ezrvous rise [you] qu'tts se tiv ent let them rise that we might have risen that you might have risen that they might have risen Re Lever Ne pas se lev er Jfi pat fftrt let 6 Ne se lev ant />c IS h B «'s ih ne sef'tinit jiris let 6s PRETERIT ANTERIOR. I had not risen thou hadst not risen he had not risen we had not risen you had not risen thev had not risen PTJTUHH M pas lev e tn m I U m m n ra pas lev e" nous n ■ now >'■•* il* ne H ANTERIOR. I shall or will not have risen thou shalt not have risen ho shall not have risen we shall nut have risen yOU shall not have ri-en they Bhall nol have risen • i [ON \i. PAST. jt m dm terait pas tu a r tr *< rats pas Us ne se seraientpat \ 1 should, would, could, or might ( not have risen thou shoulds< not have risen he should not have risen old no' have risen you should not have risen they should not have risen SUIUr.NCTIVK MOOR em -i rt. e pas flM »»>■ on? ;.">< that I may not rise that thou mayesl not rise thai be may not ri>e fi.Ht we may nor ri->- VERBS. 191 que vous ne vous lev iez pas that you may not rise qu'ils ne se lev ent pas that they may not rise IMPERFECT. Queje ne me lev asse^as that I might not rise que tu ne te lev asses pas that thou mightest not rise qu'il ne se lev sit pas that he might not rise que nous ne nous lev assions pas that we might not rise que vous ne vous lev assiez pas that you might not rise qu'ils ne se lev assent pas that they might not rise PAST. Queje ne rue sois pas lev e that I may not have risen que tu ne te sois pas lev e that thou mayest not have risen qu'il ne se soitpas lev e that he may not have risen que nous ne nous soyons pas lev es that we may not have risen que wus ne vous soyez pas lev es that you may not have risen qu'ils ne se soient pas lev es that they may not have risen PLUPERFECT Queje ne me fusse pas lev e that I might not have risen que tu ne te fusses pas lev e that thou mightest not have risen qu'il ne se fut pas lev e that he might not have risen que nous ne nous fussions pas lev es that we might not have risen que vous ne vousfussiez pas lev es that you might not have risen qu'ils ne sefussent pas lev es that they might not have risen IMPERATIVE MOOD. Ne te lev e pas rise not or do not rise [thou] qu'il roe se lev e pas let him not rise ne nous lev ons pas let us not rise ne vous lev ez pas rise not or do not rise [you] qu'ils ne se lev ent pas let them not rise Se Lever To Rise (Interrogatively.) INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT. Me lev e-je do I rise or am I rising te lev es-ta dost thou rise 192 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. se lev e-t-il nous lev ons-nous tous lev ez-vous se lev ent-ils Me lev ais-je te lev &is-tu se lev ait-il nous lev ions-nous nous lev ie&eotu se lev aient-tfs Me lev ai-je te lev as-tu se lev aAU RJUes-nOUl '■ c utcs-cou* • mils > ■ r:\\jf ru til I rait il nous U tout lev Brim B9MI m i-'r .TiiH'nt A Mit tuU fet tu Isv e" does lie rise do we rise do you rise do they rise IMPERFECT. did I rise or was I rising didst thou rise did he rise did we rise did you rise did they rise PRETERIT DEFINITE. dill I rise didst thou rise did he rise did we rise did you rise did they rise shall or will I rise shall thoa rise shall he rise shall \v ri^ 1 ' \"U rise shall they rise CONDITIONAL MOOD. PHI. SI NT should, would, onld, nr might I rise Bhouldsl thou should lie rise should ire rise should you riso should tiny rise PKETKKIT INlU.riMTK. have 1 risi-n or did I risn liast thou ri*'ii VERBS. 193 s'est-il lev e nous sommes-nous lev es dous etes-vous lev es se sont-ils lev es lias he risen have we risen had you risen had they risen PLUPERFECT M'etais-je lev e t'etais-tu lev e s'etait-il lev e nous etions-nous lev es vous etiez-vous lev es s'etaient-ils lev es had I risen or had I been rising hadst thou risen had he risen had we risen had you risen had they risen Me fus-je lev e te fus-tu lev e se fut-il lev e nous fames-nous lev es vous futes-vous lev es se furent-ils lev es PRETERIT ANTERIOR had I risen hadst thou risen had he risen had we risen had you risen had they risen FUTURE ANTERIOR. Me s&rai-je lev e te serastu lev e se sera-t-il lev e nous serons-nous lev es vous serez-vous lev es se seront-ils lev es shall or will I have risen shalt thou have risen shall he have risen shall we have risen shall you have risen shall theyhave risen CONDITIONAL PAST. Me serais-je iet> e te serais-tu lev e se serait-il lev e nous serions-nous lev es vous seriez-vous lev es se seraient-ils lev es j should, would, could, or mia;ht I ( have risen shouldst thou have risen should he have risen should we have risen should you have risen should they have risen 9 194 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Se Lever To Rise (Xegatively and Interrogatively.) 'indicative MOOD. Ne me let e-je pas ne te lev es-tu pat ne se lev e-t-il pas ne nous lev ons-nous pas ne vous lev ez-r ne se lev ent-ils pas Neme Uv ais-je pas ne tr hv ai^-t'i pat r ait-iV ;»/•< tw runtt I, >■ laaa-nout pas ne 90UM '• ne se h r aient-tfa pat do I not rise or am I not rising dost thou not rise does he not rise do we not rise do you not rise do they not rise IMPERFECT. did I not rise or was I not rising didst thou not rise did he not rise did we not rise did you doI rise did they not rise Ne me lev ai->' pas lie t> V ne se !• ne «*"< ■ ne te lev ferent im Ti 1:1 1 DSFXHTTB. did I not rise didst thou ii. it rise did In- not rise did we nut rise did you DOl rise did they not rise Ne me U I ne n»« \tt pas ne to" • idiall Of will I n>.t rise slmlt tlinii not rise shall he not rise shall WS not ri*- shall ymi not rise shall they not ris«- CONDITIONAL M«>(>1>. ne te Uc fie III p'■ should he not have risen ne jums serions-noua pas lev es should we not have risen ne vous seriez-vous pas lee es should you not have risen ne se seraient-ils pas h r ea should they not have risen For the purpose of practising Pronominal Verbs, s'en aller % which contains the pronoun en, is lure added, CONJUGATION OF THE VERB b'bN ALLBR. S'kn Ai.i.ku To <• Affirmatively.) 1MTMTIVK MOOD. riu.-EXT. ■'br to go away S'en it.-, to have gone away TARTU DPI lOoni away I HFOinn) Of Tin: iwnric in.r. PR] - y,n Uant alii having gone away PASTD 1 1 -i .1. PAOT. En alii away INK ATI vi; MOOD. •■> away, do ^o nwnv. oj am van ( away tho ■way iUicntont Any go away VERBS. 107 Je m'en allais tu t'en allais il s'en allait nous nous en allions vous vous en alliez Us s'en allaient Je m'en allai tu ten alias il s'en alia nous nous en alldmes vous vous en alldtes Us s'en allerent IMPERFECT. ( I went away, did go away, or was ( going away thou wentest away lie went away we went away you went away they went away PRETERIT DEFINITE. I went away or did go away thou wentest away he went away we went away you went away they went away Je m'en irai tu t'en iras il s'en ira nous nous en irons vous vous en ires Us s'en iront I shall or will go away thou shalt go away he shall go away we shall go away you shall go away they shall go away Je m'en irais tu t'en irais il s'en irait nous nous en irions vous vous en iriez Us s'en iraient Je m'en suis alle tu t'en es alle il s'en est alle CONDITIONAL MOOD. PRESENT. ^1 should, would, could, or might ( go away thou shouldst go away he should go away we should go away you should go away they should go away PRETERIT INDEFINITE. 1 1 went away, did go away, or have ( gone away thou hast gone away he has gone away 198 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. nous nous en sommes alles tons tous en etis altis Us s'en sont alles Je m'en etais alle tu fen etais alle il s'en etait alle iuxis nous en etiojis alles tous vous en ttkz alles tta (ten etoimt altts J, in', a fus alle t'i t'i n fus alle AMM """•* ' " fumes alle*. tous vous en fiit es alles we have gone away you have gone away they have gone away PLUPERFECT. I had gone away thou hadst gone away lie had gone away we had gone away you had gone away they had gone away TERIT ANTERIOR. I had gone away tin ni hadst gone away he had gone away we had gone away ymi had gone away ■ 'in' away tu ten terasaBS T"ll* I ./ Is ' il ne ft t tile vous ne tous ■ CONDITIONAL PAST j I should would, couM, or / not have gone away thou Bhooldst not have gone away he should not have gone away Jd not have gone away lid not. have gone away • have gone away qn, /■/ qu'iU ne s'en aQUmt pas BUBJUNCTD jo away that thou mayeel not go away away away that y.. ; away that thi am I away i]n. (>i that thou i! jo away thai he mi away (J thai We DO -way o away away qnr tn qu'H m ■ may not have gone away that thoumaj oneaway that he may not haw gone away VERBS. 203 que nousne nous en soyons pas (dies that we may not have gone away que vous ne vous en soyezpas alles that you may not have gone away qu'ils ne s'en soient pas alles that they may not have gone away PLUPERFECT. Queje ne m'enfiisse pas alle that I might not have gone away ( that thou mightest not have gone que tu ne ten fusses pas (die ■{ * J ■>* { away qu'il ne s'en f tit pas alle that he might not have gone away que nous ne nous en fussions pas ) , .. V that we might not have gone away que vous ne vous enfussiezpas alles that you might not have gone away qu'ils ne s'en fussent jws alles that they might not have gone away IMPERATIVE MOOD. Ne fen va pas do not go away [thou] qu'il ne s'en aille pas let him not go away ne nous en allons pas let us not go away ne vous en aliez pas do not go away [you] qu'ils ne s'en aillent pas let them not go IRREGULAR VERBS. Irregular Verbs are those which differ in their conjugation from the models which have been given heretofore, and which regulate those that are called Regular Verbs. The difference can, of course, only apply to the simple tenses, as the compound tenses of all verbs are made alike. Various methods have been attempted to arrange the very considerable number of Irregular Verbs in certain classes, but experience has proven that after all the student benefits more by learning them singly, as he will soon obtain a sufficient knowledge of the nature of the irregularities to feel where to expect them, and to know what they are likely to be. The principal Irregular Verbs are given here, omitting those that are of rare use, and with the understanding that derivatives follow the irregularities of those verbs, from which, they are derived. 201 OX THE PARTS OF SPEECH. -FIRST CONJUGATION. Aller Inf. Aller Je vuis nous aHona J'allais allions J'allai nous all aines J'irai .I'irais umiuj irions dQe ■ aHiona To Go Part. pres. allant PART, past, all<* TRESKNT. tu vas il va vous allez ils vont MFEBFBCT. tu allais il allait vous alliez ils allaient KIT DEFINITE tu alias il alia vous a.; ils allerent FrTiKi:. tu iras ilira vous irez ils iront BBTSVBBAL. tu irais il brail liia il.-. irai.'Ut im;-i.k\tiyi:. V.i qui] ailla all./. qu'ila aillent -i mi \, nvi: i-i.i qoe tu ■iHei qui] ■ Sfllll N. I !\ I. Pi que tu allossea I | it Ink. BBVoyoC P.\kt I'm ~ Knvovnnt rni. ~i. nt. Pesvoie tu • n . ■■ Ojaat vous eiivoye* qu'fl all'it qu'ill allasscnt To S Part. Past, Ekivqpfl il IllVnir Ua tan VERBS. 205 J'envoyais nous envoyions J 'envoyai nous envoy times J'enverrai nous enverrons J'enverrais nous enverrions IMPERFECT. tu envoyais vous envoyiez PRETERIT DEFINITE. tu envoyas vous envoyiltes FUTURE. tu enverras vous enverrez CONDITIONAL. tu enverrais vous enverriez il envoyait ils envoyaient il envoya ils envoyerent il enverra ils enverront il enverrait Us enverraient envoyons Que j'envoie que nous envoyions Que j'envoyasse que nous envoyassions Conjugate after the The compound IMPERATIVE. envoie qu'il envoie envoyez qu'ils envoient SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. que tu envoies qu'il envoie que vous envoyiez qu'ils envoient SUBJUNCTIVE PAST, que tu envoyasses qu'il envoyat que vous envoyassiez qu'ils envoyassent same manner, renvoyer, to send back, are conjugated with Avoir, to have. II. SECOND CONJUGATION. Acquerir To Acquire. Inf. Acquerir Part. Pres. Acquerant Part. Past, Acquis J'acquiers nous acquerons J'acquerais nous acquarions tu acquiers vous acquerez IMPERFECT. tu acquerais vous acqueriez il acquiert ils acquierent il acquerait ils acqueraient 200 OX THE PARTS OF SPEECH. J'acquia nous aequimes J'acquerrai nous acquerrona J'acquerrais nous acquerrions acqut'rons Quej'acquiere que noa.- acqoerions TKETERIT DEFENTITE. tu acquis il acquit vous acquires FUTURE. tu acquerras vous acquerrez CONDITIONAL tu acquerrais vous acquerriez IMPERATIVE acquiera acquire/. I'KEBENT. que tu : r'.cz ■ i. PAST. Us acquirent il acquerra ils acquerront il acqut^rrait rraii-nt qu'il acquiere qu'ils acquiereat qu'il acquiere qu'il.-i acqui< rent que tu acmisses - aoquiaaionfl que \ ■ have. • manner: inlre toiaqnira raw to (etch • I fective) only used in the present of ibo Infinitive, in the pi te, in the imperfect -•!' the subjunctive, unt in the Infinitive, an 1 In 1 1 1 » ■ c impoond I qu'il acquit ASSAII.I.IR 1'V! To . UMtt/J I'Mir. Past ■ isaillea aille 207 J'assaillais nous assaillions nous assaillimes J'assaillirai nous assaillirons nous assaillirions assaillons Que j'assaille que nous assaillions IMPERFECT. tu assaillais vous illiez il assaillait ils assaillaient PRETERIT DEFINITE. tu assaillis il assaillit vous assaillites ils assaillirent FUTURE. tu assailliras vous assaillirez il assaillira ils assailliront CONDITIONAL, tu assaillirais il assaillirait vous assailliriez ils assailliraient IMPERATIVE. qu'il assaille qu'ils assaillent SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. que tu assailles qu'il assaille que vous assailliez qu'ils assaillent SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. Que j 'assail! isse que tu assaillisses qu'il assaillit que nous assaillissions que vous assaillissiez qu'ils assaillissent Conjugate after the same manner, tressaillir, to start. The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. BOUILLIR Tnf. Bouillir Je bous nous bouillons Je bouillais nous bouillions Part. Pres. Bouillant PRESENT. tu bous vous bouillez . IMPERFECT. tu bouillais vous bouilliez To Boil Part. Past, Bouilli il bout ils bouillent il bouillait ils bouillaient 208 ON THE TARTS OF SPEECH. PRETERIT DEFINITE. Je bouillis tu bouillis il bouillit nous bouillimes vous bouillites FUTURE. ils bouillhent Je bouillirai tu bouilliras il bouillira nous bouillirons vous bouillirez CONDITIONAL. ils bouilliront Je bouillirai s tu bnuillirais il bouillirait nous bouillirions vous bouilliriez IMI'KUUIYI. ils bouilliraient bous qu'il bouille bouillons bouilles qu'ils bouillont BDBJl -V iivi: PBBBBNT. Que je bouille que tu bouQlea qu'il bouille que uous bouillons que vous bouilliea qu'ils bouillont scan tli n\ H PAST. Queje Imuillisse qno tn boniTHmnn qu'il bouillit que nous boul qu'ils bouilliat i boil iiway ; rebouOir t«> i»>il again. mpound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to bam Con I burir Pakt. PBI -. ('"iirant Part. Past, ('<>uru •I >urs lurona tu coure am il court ils oo urent Je ooui nous couri "ns rais iirii-z il ooanit lie con irus 1 rr i'.i> iimi':. tu <•' . intrant VERBS. 209 FUTURE. Je courrai tu courras il courra nous courrons vous courrez CONDITIONAL. ils courront Je courrai s tu courrais il courrait nous courrions vous courriez IMPERATIVE. ils courraient cours qu'il coure courons courez qu'ils courent SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. Que je coure que tu coures qu'il coure que nous courions que vous couriez qu'ils courent qu'il couriit qu'ils courussent SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. Que je courusse que tu courusses que nous courussions que vous courussiez Conjugate after the same manner : Accourir, to run to. Encourir, Concourir, to concur. Parcourir, Discourir, to discourse. Recourir, Secourir, to succor, to help. The compound tenses of the above verbs are conjugated with Avoir, to have ; those of accourir, to run to, are also sometimes con- jugated with Eire, to be. to incur. to run over. to nave recourse. Cukillir To Gather Inf. Cueillir Part. Pres. Cueillant Part. Past, Cueilli Je cueille nous cueillons PRESENT. tu cueilles vous cueillez il cueille ils cueillent Je cueillais nous cueillions IMPERFECT. tu cueillais vous cueilliez il cueillait ils cueillaient Je cueillis nous cueillimes PRETERIT DEFTNTTE. tu cueillis il cueillit vous cueillites ils cueiliirent 210 OX THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Je cucillerai uous cueillerons Je cueillerais nous cueillerion8 cueillons Que je c que doub caeiHions ■ teilli&se FUTURE, tu cueilleras vous cucillerez COXDITIOXAL. tu cueillerais vous cueilleriez TMPKliATIVE. cueille ciuillez BTJBJTJN< Tivk FBBSBNT. que tu cueillea que vous cueilliez ST7BJ1 N( Ti\ r. PAST. il cueillera ils cueilleront il cueillerait ils cueilleraient qu'il cueille qu'ils cueillent qu'il cueille qu'ils cueillent qui" tu cueilliBses qu'il eueillit que ooufi cueillissions que vous cueillissiez qu'ils cueillissent ated wiili Avoir, to have. Conjugate after the Baroe manner: . ! to gather, to n-ap. DORMIB I-.iv I >■ »rm i r nousd • Pabt, Pbb8 Dormanl tu don . ! i :• T. vous dormiee T« Sleep. Pabt. Past, Dormi il ilort Us donnent il dormail Us dormaient Je dormiral ormlrona PBI i : Rl i DJBKLN1TJG. tu <1 • il dormlt tu dorm! ils dormlrent il donnin Ms dormiroct VERBS. 211 CONDITIONAL. Je dormirais tu dormirais il dormixait nous dorinirions vous dormiriez IMPERATIVE. ils dormiraieut dors qu'il dorme dormons dormez qu'ils dorment . SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. queje dorme que tu dormes qu'il dorme que nous dormions que vous dormiez qu'ils dorment SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. Queje dormisse que tu dormisses qu'il dormit que nous dormissions que vous dormissiez qu'ils dormissent The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. Conjugate after the same manner : Endormir, to lull asleep. Redormir, to sleep again. S'endormir, to fall asleep. Se r endormir, to fall asleep again. The compound tenses of s'endormir, and se rendormir, are conju- gated with Eire, to be, as all pronominal verbs are. Faillir To Fail Inf. Faillir Part. Pres. Faillant Part. Past, Failli present. Je faiUis tu faillis il faillit nous faillimes vous faillites ils faillirent This verb is defective, and only used in the above tenses, and in all the compound tenses, which are conjugated with Avoir, to have. Fleurir To blossom, to flourish. This verb is regular and conjugated like finir, when speaking of plants and flowers ; but when speaking of the prosperity of a king- dom, or of a town, the participle present is florissant, and the im- perfect of the indicative, je florissais, tu florissais, etc. Befleurir, to blossom, or to flourish again, follows the same rule. 212 OX THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Ixf. Fuir Part. Pkes. Fuyant PRESENT. Part. Past, I Je fiiis tu fuis ilfuit nous fuyona vous fuyez IMPERFECT. Us fuient Je fuyais tu fuyais il fuyait nous fuyions vous fuyiez PRETERIT DEFINITE. ils fuyaient Je fuis tu fuis il fuit nous fuimes vous fuites FITURE. ils fuirent Je (bind tu fuiras il fuira nous fuirons vous fuirez CONIHTI'NAI,. Qfl tu i rout Je fuirais tu fuirais il fuirait ji'>u> UnoM vous fuiriez WBATm ils fuiraient fuis qu*il fuie hjoni fllVeZ qu'ils fuient bcrjiv tivi: rt:' Qneje ftde quo tu (juil fuie que nous fayioni qu.- rang fuvi.-z MJJWUJU rivr. PACT. • in ils fuieut Qneje ' que tu fuisees qn il fuit que nous fbJaekxta que voni (U quHfl fuissent Ifce compo u nd tent ' -/r, to have. Conjugate nft.T the same manner, x'fifiiir, to run away. Gkmk To Lie This verb (defective), wfaleh formerly signified to ho lyinir doWB a is no l"!iu r, T i" dm : WBj however, nay sometime*, ttgU : c&jft, hero lien, ootninon form i»y wiiich an epitaph bagtiif, VERBS. 213 Hair To Hate This verb is regular, and conjugated like finir, except in tlie first three persons singular of the present of the indicative, je hats, I hate ; t u liais, thou hatest ; U Tiait, he hates ; and in the second person singular of the imperative, Jmis, hate. A diteresis (•') is required over the % in all tenses and person? except in those above-mentioned ; this dseresis is to cause the a and i to be pronounced as two syllables. Inf. Mourir Part. Pees. Mourant PRESENT. Part. Past, Je meurs tu meurs il meurt nous mourons vous mourez IMPERFECT. ils meurent Je mourais tu mourais il mourait nous mourions vous mouriez PRETERIT DEFINITE. ils mouraient Je rnourus tu mourus il mourut nous mourumes vous mourutea FUTURE. ils mourui-ent Je mourrai tu mourras il mourra nous mourrons vous mourrez CONDITIONAL. ils mourront Je mourrais tu mourrais il mourrait nous mourrions vous mourriez IMPERATIVE. ils mourraient meurs qu'il meure mourons mourez quil meurent Que je meure que nous mourions subjunctive present. que tu meures qu'il meure que vous mouriez qu'ils meurent 214 OX THE PARTS OF SPEECH. SUBjrXCTIVE PAST. Que je rnourusse que tu mourusses qu'il mourut que nous mourussions que vous mourussiez qu'ils raourussent The compound tenses are conjugated with Etre, to be. Conjugate after the same manner, 86 mourir, to be dying. OUIR To Hear. This verb (defective) can only be used in the present of the infin- itive, oulr, to hear : in the preterit definite, j'outs, I heard ; il ouit, he heard ; in the imperfect of the subjunctive, que j'oui886, that 1 might hear ; qu'il ouit, that he might hear ; and in its compound tenses, which are formed with the simple tenses of Avoir, to have, and its past participle ou'i, asj'ai <>u'i, tu at <>u"t, etc. I N I". Oiiv rir OuVBXR To Open. PABT.FBBB. OuvranJ Paut. Pasx Ouv ert J'oav re J'OUV J'ouv ril uoui ovn J'oav rirai J'ouv riraii PBBssarr. tu ouv rM vous ouv m I DfFEBFB r. tu ouv rail VOU8 Oll\ PRRTKBl r iuv ru ils ouv il ouv rira ils ouv riraai il ouv rvraA [Is OUV riraii nt IMTI R qu'il ouv r>" qu'ila ouv rwtf VERBS. 215 Qu' /'ouv re que nous ouv rions SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. que tu ouv res qu'il ouv re que vous ouv riez qu'ils ouv rent SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. Quq j'ouv risse que tu ouv risses qu'il ouv rit qua nous ouv fissions que vous ouv rissiez qu'ils ouv rissent Compound tenses are conjugated witli Avoir, to have. Conj ugate after the same manner : Bouvrir, to open again. Decouvrir, to discover. Entr'ouvrir, to half open. Offrir, to offer. Couvrir, to cover. Misoffrir, to underbid. Recouvrir, to cover again. Souffrir, to suffer. Inf. Sen for Sentir ^o Feel. Part. Pres. Sen tan.£ Pakt. Past, Sen ti Je sen s nous sen forcs Je sen tais nous sen tions Je sen fos nous sen times Je sen forai nouo sen tirons Je sen tirais nous sen iirions PRESENT. tu sen s il sen t vous sen tez ils sen tent IMPERFECT. tu sen tais il sen tait vous sen tiez ils sen taient PRETERIT DEFINITE tu sen Us ii sen fo'£ vous sen tites ils sen tirent FUTURE. tu sen tiras il sen tira vous sen tirez ils sen fo'nmf CONDITIONAL. tu sen tirais il sen tirait vous sen tiriez ils sen tvraient IMPERATIVE. sen s qu'il sen fe sen tez qu'ils sen tent i;16 OX THE PAETS OF SPEECH. Que je sen te que nous sen tioiia SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. que tu sen tes qua vous sen tkz qu'il sen te qu'ils sen te/ii SUBJUNCTIVE FAST. Que je sen tisae que tu sen hisses qu'ils sen tit que nous sen fissions que vous sen tissit z qu'ils sen tissent The compound tenses are conjugated with J.r, to have. Conjug te affe r ;he same manner: at, to agree, Repartir, ■ BessenUr, to resent* to fee] tp$ntir, to lie. /' Ttir, to give the lie, to be- 7? p f >7/r, lie, to contradict. Sortir, Mmtir, to reply, to feel still. to repent. to Bet out. at again. -lit. tir, to go out again. mpound tenses of the first six of the above verbs, are con- jugated with At ir, to have, Those I tir and M r ; ; 1 pronominal verbs, an conjugated with 2 an I those of partir, r ep art i r , sortir, metunea w'nh Eire. Sk.kvm; To Serve. PAST. PW I\\ki\ Past, Ser w tu ser s VOW BBC M Dwl .)<■ ml MM nous ser tiuns l.Ml'l.Kl i:cT. tu mt vous ser vita ■ tit ils Ber rnicnt l III 1 BRIT I'KllMTB. il ser r/7 VERBS. 217 FUTURE. Je ser virai tu ser viras il ser vira nous ser virons vous ser virez CONDITIONAL. ils ser viront Je ser virais tu ser virais il ser virait nous ser virions vous ser viriez IMPERATIVE. ils ser viraient ser s qu'il ser we ser wns ser vez qu'ils ser vent SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. Que je serwe que tu ser ves qu'il ser we que nous ser vions que vous serviez qu'ils eer vent SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. Que je ser visse que tu ser visses qu'il ser vit que nous ser vissions que vous ser vissiez qu'ils ser visscnt Conjugate after the same manner : Desservir, to clear the table, to do an ill office to somebody. Se servir, to make use, to use. The compound tenses of servir and desservir, are conjugated with Avoir ; those of se servir, with Etre. Asservir, to subject, is regular, and conjugated lUkefinir. Inf. T envr Tenir To Hold. Part. Pres. T enant Part. Past, T enu Je t iens noiis t enons Je t enais nous t enions Je tww nous t inmes tu t iens il t ient VOUS t 67162 ils t iennent IMPERFECT. tu t enais il t e«,a# vous t eniez ils t enaient PRETERIT DEFINITE. tutins il t m£ vous t intes ils tinrent 1 213 ON THE PAETS OF SPEECH. FUTURE. Je tiendrai tu t iendras il t iendra nous t iendrons vous t icndrcz CONDITIONAL. ils t kndront Je t icndrais tu t nndrais il t iendrait nous 1 i' :,drions vous tu'hdriiZ IMPERATIVE. ils Xhndraient t iens qu'il t fams tenons qu'ils tic intent SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. Que je 1 que tu t if lines qu*il t ;'( , «7)<- que nous i ' -■■ ' que vous 1 1 B1 r.irx. 1 ; qu'ils t ft /(/(. n| Que je t que tn t i qae vous t qu'il t qu'ils I The oompoui bo have Conjugate after the Bamo manner: : entertain. ■. to Inten *Mainienir, t<> maintain. succeed ill. Main. . to proc i (ram. /' ' ■. : i prevent, t<> inf. >rru. /' to .'Wain. -, to sustain, to support. In r. cnllort. i) r.iiKinbcr. *s>d>r, nir, tu relieve, •. to aiotain. i come unexpectedly, me. Those of the above verhe, which are marked with un asterlak ("^ ted in their compound ten I and tho . to happen. < , to circumvent i. tain. i contravene. *Depr&vmir, to un prepossess. /> ' :r, to ■ Lain. VERBS. 219 Advenir, to happen, is only used in the third person singular of the present of the indicative, as s'il adcient, if it happens. Provenir, to proceed from, is only employed in its third persons sin- gular and plural. Inf. Vet ir Part. Pres. Vet awrf PRESENT. Part. Pas Je vet s nous vet ons tu vet S vous vet ez IMPERFECT. il vet ils vet ent Je vet aia nous vet ions tu vet ais vous vet iez PRETERIT DEFINITE il vet ait ils vet aient Je vet is nous vet hues tu vet is vous vet ites FUTURE. il vet it ils vet irent Je vet irai nous vet irons tu vet iras vous vet irez CONDITIONAL. il vet ira ils vet i«>ft£ Je vet irais nous vet irions tu vet irais vous vet iriez IMPERATIVE. il vet irait ' ils vet ir aient vet ores vet s vet ez qu'il vet qu'ils vet ent SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. Que je vet e que nous vet ions que tu vet es que vous vet iez SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. qu'il vet qu'ils vet ent Que je vet isse que nous vet issions que tu vet isses que vous vet issiez qu'il vet it qu'ils vet me?j£ The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have 220 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Conjugate after the same manner : 11 cttir, to clothe. Se velir, to dress, or clothe one's self. Devetir, to strip, to undress. Si deoetir, to divest one's self. The compound tenses of se dCcetlr, are conjugated with Eire, to be. as all pronominal verbs are. III. TI1IUD CONJUGATION'. S'asseoir To Sit doxon. Inf. S'asaeoir Pabt. Pbes. S'asseyant Past. Past. siadfl Uuus nous a.- - Je in';'. PBB8BNT. tu t'aaE vous vous asst yez DOT : tu t'asseyata rui.i , ,:i i !■:.! imi i:. I VOUfl sded ilss'asseyent or ils b'asseient yait aoyaieat ■ 1 1 . or je m'aneiera] tu t'a or je : tu t ;t or ootua ooufl M--i -rona voua il s'asscvcra dera ViTDUt lieront Bieroat orjfl ■ dittos \i.. il B'aflseyenil il B'n— oinrnH rairiit * tenuent rairut VEEBS. 221 IMPERATIVE. -toi qu'il s'asseye or qu'il s'asseic asseyons-nous asseyez-vous qu'ils s'asseyent or qu'ils s'asseient SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. Que je m'asseye que tu t'asseyes qu'il s'asseye or que je m'asseie or que tu t'asseies or qu'il s'asseic que nous nous asseyions que vous vous asseyiez qu'ils s'asseyent or qu'ils s'asseient SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. Que je m'assisse que tu t'assisses qu'il s'assit que nous nous assissions que vous vous assissiez qu'ils s'assissent Conjugate after the same manner, se rasseoir, to sit down again. The compound tenses of these two verbs are conjugated with Etre, to be, as all pronominal verbs are. Conjugate after the same manner, without the second pronoun me, te, se, etc., asseoir, to sit down. The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to havo. Choir To Fall. This verb is not used except in the present of the infinitive. Dechoir To Decay. This verb is seldom used, except in the present of the infinitive and in its compound tenses, which are conjugated sometimes with Etre, sometimes with Avoir. Echoir To fall, to exjrire, to be due, to fall due. This verb is only used in the third person of the indicative, il echoit, sometimes pronounced il echet ; in il ecliut, in il echerra, in il eclierrait, in qu'il echut, etc., in echoir, in echeant, in ecliu, and in the compound tenses, which are conjugated sometimes with Avoir, some- times with Etre. 222 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Falloir 11 faut H fallait J? fallut dra 11 faudrait To be necessary. PKESENT. it is necessary IMPERFECT. it was necessary PRETERIT DEFINITE. it was necessary FUTURE. it shall or will be necessary CONDITIONAL. (it should, would, or might be ' necessary SUClUNi'in i. PRESENT. faille that it may be neo ,', B PAST. ■'ill'it that it might be necessary The compound tenses of this verb, I unip irsonal and defective) are I by the addition of its partidpl to tin- third person iias been necessary. e:r. ft, f/OU must, they must, etc., adered by it mutt ''"it I— it mutt that If. etc ; the verb which follows is (nit in the subjunctive mood, and in the person indicated by the personal pronoun, which is before mutt in English, as I tnu-t write, ; you must drink, il faut que tout To M ••>;>. \ uvoir tvsia mvioni I'\kt. I'lii.s. Moiivant FBI -int. to DO v.'iis niouvez IMl'I ' tu niouvnis louvlei Part. Paf its participle passive, plu, to the third person ningnlai of the simple t n , it has rained, etc 1'ocnvom F > i ' Inf. I'ourv.iir I rvois uoua ponrvoyons J.' ponn J.- pour? us nous pourvumes Pabt. Pbb& Poarvoyant Part. Past. Pmirvu I'ki.-i.n r. tu pom MP] tu poor! FBI i i.Kil DKVUUTH. ii po or vo i t irvoieut tu |-uirvus il ponrvoyait ils ponn il poorvot ils ponrvnreat Js ponrvoini irvoirons tu ponn unrobes il ponrvoira il poarvoiront VERBS. 225 Je pourvoirais nous pourvoirions pourvoyons Que je pourvoie que nous pourvoyions Que je pourvusse que nous pourvussions The compound il pourvoirait ils pourvoiraient qu'il pourvoie qu'ils pourvoient CONDITIONAL. tu pourvoirais vous pourvoiriez IMPERATIVE. pourvois pourvoyez SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. que tu pourvoies qu'il pourvoie que vous pourvoyiez qu'ils pourvoient SUBJUNCTIVE PAST, que tu pourvusses qu'il pourvut que vous pourvussiez qu'ils pourvussent are conjugated with Avoir, to have. Pouvoir To be able. Inf. Pouvoir Part. Pres. Pouvant Part. Past, Pu present. Je puis or je peux tu peux il peut nous pouvons vous pouvez IMPERFECT. ils peuvent Je pouvais tu pouvais il pouvait nous pouvions vous pouviez PRETERIT DEFINITE ils pouvaient Je pus tupus il put nous p times vous piites FUTURE. ils purent Je pourrai tu pourras il pourra nous pourrons vous pourrez CONDITIONAL. ils pourront Je pourrais tu pourrais il pourrait nous pourrions vous pourriez ils pourraient SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. Que je puisse que tu puisss qu'il puisse que nous puissions que vous puissiez SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. qu'ils puissent Que je pusse que tu pusses qu'il put que nous pussions que vous pussiez qu'ils pussent The compound tenses are conjugate! with Avoir, to have. 10* ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Inf. Savoir Part. Pres. Sachant PRESENT. Part. Past. Je saia tu sais il sait nous savons vous savez IMFEKFECT. ils savent Je 6avais tu savais il savait nous savions vous saviez PRETERIT DEFINITE ils savaient Je sua tu sua il snt nous sumcs vous sutes FUTURE. ils surent Je saurai tu sauraa il saura nous still mns vous saurez l nM.riln.VAL. ils sauront Je sau mis tu >aurais il saurait nous sauriuiis vous sau rii-z IMIM.KATlVi;. ils saura'unt ■Ufa qu'il sache sacbons sachcz qu'ils sacbent N< 1 IVK I'Kl Quoje sache OJM tu saches < j n i I sache quo nous sachions que vous Mchlfli SUBJUNCTIVE TAST. qu'ils sachent que tu susses qu*B sut quo nous suasions que root ni qu'ils Bussent The compound tenses are OOnjngftted with Avoir, to have. Se con foun ded with .■■•■nnitrr, to know. C'liwutre is mostly osed in tlie Dense of t<> be nrquainted with; and tmtkr, to know ly heart. VERBS. 2,27 Inf. Seoir II sied Seoir To Jit, to become, to Jit well. Pakt. Pres. Seyant Part. Past, Sis 11 seyait it fitted 11 siera it will fit mit it would PRESENT. its sieent IMPERFECT. Us seyaient FUTURE. Us sieront CONDITIONAL. Us sieraient they fit they fitted they will fit. they would fit that they may fit SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. tyu'U siee that it may fit qu'Us sieent This verb, which is only employed in the third person of the singu- lar, and of the plural of some tenses, has no compound tenses. Surseoir " To reprieve, to put off . This verb is seldom used, except in the present of the infinitive. Inf. Valoir Part. Pres. Valant PRESENT Part. Past Je vaus tu vaux il vaut nous valons vous valez IMPERFECT. ils valent Je valais tu valais il valait nous valions vous valiez PRETERIT DEFINITE ils valaieut Je valus tu valus il valut nous valumes vous valutes ils valurent 228 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. FUTCKE. Je vaadrai 1u vaudras il vaudra nous vaudrons vous vaudrcz CONDITIONAL. ils vaudront %Te vaudraig tu vaudrais il vaudrait nous vaudrions vous vaudriez IMPERATIVE. ils vaudraient vaux qu'il Yaffle valons vales qu'ils vaillent PCBJENCTIVE TKESENT. Qui- je raffle quo tu vailles qu'il vaille que nous valions alioz qu'ils vaillent BCTUi \nrvi: iwst. Que je valusse que tu vain qu'il valut ratusaiei qu'ils valussent Tin- oompoui I ited with .1 ■. to have. • ionjugate after •'. retorn like for like. to be equivalent. /' /' ir, t.. prevaJL que tu pr,'rale8 ■ilt, que nougpr'r.i'i'iif, qattait -' ' i>n3 row 1 i'i;i i i BIX D ils Ivattaii-nt Je battle tu 1'. il hattit none bettl roue ! I.K. ils battirent Je i>. ttnJ tu b ■ il l.attra it rone Mttn-z ils battront VERBS. 231 Je battrais nous battrions battons Que je batte CONDITIONAL. tu battrais il battrait vous battriez Us battraient IMPERATIVE. bats qu'il batte battez qu'ils battent SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. que tu battes qu'il batte que nous battions que vous battiez qu'ils battent SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. Que je battisse que tu battisses qu'il battit que nous battissions que vous battissiez qu'ils battissent The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. Conjugate after the same manner : Abattre, to pull down. Bebattre, to beat again. Combative, to fight. S'ebattre, to make or be merry. Debattre, to debate. Se debattre, to struggle. Babattre, to pull down again, to abate. The compound tenses of s'ebattre and se debattre, are conjugated with Eire, to be. BoiftE To Drink. Inf. Boire Part. Pres. Buvant PRESENT. Part. Past, By Je bois tu bois il boit nous buvons vous buvez IMPERFECT. ils boivent Je buvais tu buvais il buvait nous buvions vous buviez ils buvaient PRETERIT DEFINITE. Je bus tu bus ilbut nous biimes vous biites FUTURE. ils burent Je boirai tu boiras ii boira nous boirons vous boirez ils boiront 232 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. COXDITIONAL. Je boirais tu boirais il boirait nous boixions vous boiriez IMPERATIVE. ils boiraient bois qu'il boive buvons buvoz qu'ils boivent SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. Que je boive que tu boives qu'il boive que nous buvions que vous buries BURJIUICUVJH PAST. qu'ils boivent Que je busse que tu boss qu'il but que Qoafl i:ii— i 11- que VOUS busdes qu'ils bussent 'I'll.- compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. Conjugate aft.-r the Bame manner, reboire, to drink again. Je clos ■ '.irons tu clos l ii ORB. ' ■ vous < To < I PART. Past, Clos il clot il don Us cloront Je d< I tu c] il «-1 • >r:i i t orions il.- oloraient only ii-.-. l in the above few i. ■ ; n.l in all tli<- compound tenses, which an- formed with ■ bare Conjugate after 1 to inclose. . i i.i: To < 'onclude. adore Pars I'm-. Conduant Past. Past, Couclu nous coucluons l il oonclut lu. -at VEEBS. 233 Je concluais nous conclui'ons Je conclus nous eonclumes IMPERFECT. tu concluais vous conclui'ez PEETEEIT DEFINITE. tu conclus vous concludes il concluait ils concluaient il conclut ils conclurent Je conclurai nous conclurons FUTUBE. tu concluras vous conclurez il conclura ils concluront Je conclurais nous conclurions CONDITIONAL. tu conclurais vous concluriez il conclurait ils concluraient concluons Que je conclue que nous conclui'ons Que je conclusse IMPKEATIVE. conclus concluez SUBJUNCTIVE PEESENT. que tu conclues que vous conclui'ez SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. qu'il conclue qu'ils concluent qu'il conclue qu'ils concluent que tu conciusses qu'il conclut que nous conclussions que vous conclussiez qu'ils conclussent The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. Conj ugate after the same manner, exclure, to exclude. CONFIRE To Pickle. Inf. Conf ire Part. Pees. Conf isant Paht. Past, Conf it Je conf is nous conf isons Je conf isais nous conf PEESENT. tu conf is vous conf isez IMPERFECT. tu conf isais vous conf isiez il conf it ils conf ient il conf isait ils conf isaient 234 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Je conf is nous conf imes Je conf irai nous conf irons Je conf trots nous conf irions conf isons Que jo c que nous eon! PRETERIT DEFIX] tu conf is vous conf ites FUTURE. tu conf iras vous conf in 2 CONDITIONAL. tu conf irais vous conf ii-iz IMPERATIVE. conf is il conf it ils conf ircnt il conf ira ils conf iront il conf iraii ils conf indent qu'il conf ise qu'ils conf fa nt SUB.irMin k PBB8KNT. que tu conf UM qu'il conf fa] que vous coni' fa! a qu'ils conf famt 8tTn.ir.win k past. Que je conf isse qu'il conf <7 f i -■■' : qu'ils conf issent impound tensee are conju jal id with 4wir, to have, oner : JSuj/irc, to i" circumciae I.NK. C Je couds nous cousons luatona 1 7".. S Part. P RBI lUdfl vous e DOT ' luaiea Part. Past, Coubu il ooud .■ il oousait ils COUslli. lit Je cougia nous o ER] 1 !>!.! IM I 1.. il cuusit He oousirent VERBS. 235 FUTCEE. Je coudrai tu coudras il coudra nous coudrons vous coudrez CONDITIONAL. ils coudront Je coudrais tu coudrais il coudrait nous coudrioDg vous coudriez IMPERATIVE. ils coudraient couds qu'il couse cousona cousez qu'ils cousent SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. que je cou3e que tu couses qu'il couse que nous cousions que vous cousiez qu'ils cousent SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. que je cousisse que tu cousisses qu'il cousit que nous cousissions que vous cousissiez qu'ils cousissent. The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. Conjugate after the same manner : Dccoudre, to rip. Recoudre, to sew again. Inf. Croire Je crois nous croyons Je croyais nous croyions Je crus nous crdmes Je croirai nous croirons CroipvE To Believe. Part. Pees. Croyant Part. Past, Cru PEESENT. tu crois vous croyez IMPERFECT. tu croyais vous croyiez PRETERIT DEFINITE. tu crus vous criites FUTURE. tu croiras vous croirez il croit ils croient il croyait ils croyaient il crut ils crurent il croira ils croiront 236 OX THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Je croirais nous croirions croyons Queje croic que nous crovi<>us Que je crusse que nous missions CONDITIONAL. tu croirais vous croiriez IMPERATIVE. crois croyez il croirait iis croiraient qu'il croie qu'ils croient SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. que tu CTCdee que vous croyiez BUBJUNCTIVK PAST. que tu crusses que vous crussiez qu'il croie qu'ils croient qu'il criit qu'ils croBBent Ckoitke To Grow. Int. t'roitre Part. Pres. Croissant PBBSKBT. Part. Pa Je crois tu crois il croit nous croiasons vous croisscz IMITIM-I-CT. Us eraisBent tu en il croissait nous croissions Vii . TRET: ils croia tU ITU8 il .-rut DOW 'Tumea vons i KIT iis crQrent Je ipiitrai tU CT- il croitra nous cr<> vnus croltrei DITiaXAX. ils croi trout •r:iis tu eroltraifl il rnrtrait nous croitri'me vouscn'itrii/. II\ K. ils croitraii-nt croie i[u'i! en croisst-z qu'ils ■ ' VERBS. 237 Que je croisse que nous croissions SUBJUNCTIVE PP.ESENT. que tu croisses que vous croissiez SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. qu'il coisse qu'ils croissent quejecriisse que tu crusses qu'il crut que nous criissions que vous crdssiez qu'ils crussent The compound tenses are conjugated sometimes with Avoir, some- times with Etre ; with Avoir, when it expresses the action of grow- ing, and with Etre, when it denotes the state in which one is. Conjugate after the same manner : Accroitre, to increase. DecroUrc, to decrease. Inf. Dire Je dis nous Je disais nous disions Je dis nous dimes Je dirai nous dirons Je dirais nous dirions disons Que jedise que nous disions Dire To Say. Part. Pees. Disant PRESENT. Part. Past, Dit tu dis ildit vous dites ils disent IMPERFECT. tu disais il disait vous disiez ils disaient PRETERIT DEFINITE. tu dis ildit vous dites ils dirent FUTURE. tu diras il dira vous direz ils diront CONDITIONAL. tu dirais il dirait vous diriez ils diraient IMPERATIVE. dis qu'il dise dites qu'ils disent SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. que tu discs qu'il dise que vous disie?. qu'ils disent 238 OX THE PARTS OF SPEECH. SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. que je disse que tu dieses qu'il dit que nous dissions que vous dissiez qu*ils disseat Tlie compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to hare. Conjugate after the same manner, redire, to say agaiu, The following verhs, Contredire, to contradict. Medire, to slander, Dedi to disown, Predire, to foretell, Interdire, to interdict, Se d'dire, to recant, Maudire, to curse, arc also conjugated like- dire, except in the second person plural of the indicative present, an 1 the imperative, in which they make Mi Did PrSd Di M Maudire, takes two te In mtmdmani : in the three persons plural t, r<"/-< mlore PABT. Past. pAdoe 11 .'riot i!- ecloseaJ lo\\T, iis gcloronl II .'riorait loraienf ■ have. VEEBS. 239 E.crire To Write. Inf. Ecr ire Part. Pres. Ecr ivant Part. Past, Ecr it J'ecr is nous ecr i J'ecr ivais nous ecr iviom J'ecr iuw nous ecr ivimes PRESENT. tu ecr is vous ecr ioez IMPERFECT. tu ecr ivais vous ecr iviez il ecr it ils ecr £«?#,£ il ecr £»i0?is IMPERATIVE. ecr is ecr tofij qu'il ecr ive qu'ils ecr ivent SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. que tu ecr iws qu'il ecr ive que vous ecr iviez qu'ils ecr ivent SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. Que j'ecr ivisse que tu ecr ivisses qu'il ecr ivit que nous ecr ivissions que vous ecr ivissisz qu'ils ecr idssent The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. Conjugate after the same manner : Circonscrire, to circumscribe. Proscrire, to proscribe. Decrire, to describe. Recrire, to -write again. Inscrire, to inscribe. Souscrire, to subscribe. Prescrire, to prescribe. Transcrire, to transcribe. 240 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Ln'F. Faire Faire To ?nuke, to do, to cause. Part. Pees. Faisaut Part. Past, Fait Je fais nous faisons J to undo, to undo i Rtftire, to do again. . to s.itisfy. o moon VEKBS. 241 Inf. Frire Fkirb To Ft >■'ar. as Pei to paint. as iV to dawn. i,iii,ilrr loindn as Attn i '■> overtake. ('< imlrr. to gbd. to constrain, ; Eteindre, to put out, to extinguish. . to feign, to pretend. v. to pity. to r. strain. 2fi indre, to dye. Ini\ Lire Je lis nous lisons .Tp linaia nous lisions Ltbi To h I'akt. l'ni.s. [isanl I'mjt. Past, tu lis il lit ils lisrnt tu Usais il li^.it VOUS 1 ils lisaleni VERBS. 243 PRETERIT DEFINITE. ." e lus tulus illut nous lumes vous lutes FUTURE. lis lurent Je lirai tu liras 'jllira nous lirons vous lirez CONDITIONAL. ils liront Je lirais tu lirais il lirait nous lirions vous liriez IMPERATIVE. ils liraient lis qu'il lise lisons lisez qu'ils lisent SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. Que je lise que tu lises qu'il lise que nous lisions que vous lisiez SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. qu'ils lisent Que je lusse que tulusses qu'il lut que nous lussions que vous lussiez qu'ils * .ssent The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. Conj agate after the same manner : Belire, to read again. Mire, to elect. Mettre To Put. Inf. Mettre Part. Pres. Mettant Part. Past, Mis Je mets nous mettons Je mettais nous mettions Je mis nous mimes PRESENT. tu mets vous mettez IMPERFECT, tu mettais il met ils mettent il mettait vous mettiez ils mettaient PRETERIT DEFINITE. tu mis il mit vous mites ils mirent 214 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH.. TXTCKE. Je mettrai tu mettras il mettra nous niettrons vous mettrez CONDITIONAL. ils mettront Je mettrais tu mettrais il mettrait nous mettrions vous mettriez IMPERATIVE. Us mettraient mets qu'il mette mettons mettez qu'ils mettent 8CBJVNCTIYE PRESENT. Que je mette que tu mettcs qu'il mette que nous mettions que vous mettiez BERJrNCTrVE PAST. qu'ils mettent Que je niisae que tu mi — qu'il mit que nous missions que vous KUBBiea qu'ils missent Compo un d teasel ue oonjugated with Avoir, to have. Conjugate after the kdn mannm" Ad m e tt r e, to admit. Promtttre, to promise. tbmmettre, toeommii Bemettre, to pat again, to set again, to replace. Dtmettrt, to disjoint, to put out. Otume ttr e, to submit. Oiii'ttn. to Inter] Tlu- two last havo their compound tenses conjugated with .E(r«. M'Hdre To Grind. Ixp. Moudre Part. Pre*. Moulant Part. Past, Moulu Je moods nous moulone tn mouds ▼ous moulc-z il moud ils moulent Je ITl'illais nous moulioos ikpei:fi:(T. tn moulnis vous mouHcz il moulait ils mouluiv-ct VERBS. 245 Je moulus nous moulumes Je moudrai nous moudrons Je moudrais nous moudrions PRETERIT DEFINITE. tu moulus il moulut vous mouliites ils moulurent moulons Que je moule que nous moulions FUTURE, tu moudras vous moudrez CONDITIONAL. tu moudrais vous moudriez IMPERATIVE, mouds moulez SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. il moudra ils moudront il moudrait ils moudraient qu'il moule qu'ils moulent que tu moules que vous mouliez qu'il moule qu*ils moulent SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. Que je moulusse, que tu moulusses qu'il moulut que nous moulussions que vous moulussiez qu'ils moulussent The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. Conjugate after the same manner : Remoudre, to grind again. Emoudre, to grind, to whet. Inf. Naitre Je nais nous naissons Je naissais nous naissions Je naquis nous naquimes Naitre To be born. Part. Pres. Naissant Part. Past, Ne PRESENT. tu nais vous naissez IMPERFECT. tu naissais vous naissiez PRETERIT DEFINITE, tu naquis vous naquites il nait ils naissent il naissait ils naissaient il naquit ils naquirent 246 OX THE PAETS OF SPEECH. Je naitrai nous naitrons Je naitrais nous naitrions JTUIUJCUS. tu naitras il naltra vous naitrez ils naitront CONDITIONAL. tu naitrais il naitrait vous naitriez ils naitraient IMPERATIVE. nais qu'il naisse naissez qu'ils naissent suiurNcrcvE present. Qaeje naisse que tu naif qu'il naisse que nous naissiona que vous naissiez qu'ils naissent 8tT5.ii H( ri \ i: r.vsT. Quej ■ naquiase que tu oaquisBee qu'il nnquit que nana aaquisBlona que tous naquissiea qu'ils naquieeenl The coiiij.«juiul tecseaare conjugated with Etre to be. Conjugate after tli<- Bame man] t<> revive. 1.M-. Paitre Je ptia DOOfl i 1'a'h re To Graze. Past. Pr.r.s. Paiasant Past. Past, Pu PBBBBHT. tu pall il pall Da palwanl Je paiaaaia ll"iis J ■n't- - !• •!..-» til |>:L!--;iis TtUl-i | il palaaaii ils paiaaaient '.rai OOUa I'aitrons DOU | tu pa ■ ; a tr z ( "Muiimn \i.. tu ] aitra i paitriea il paltra ils paitroni il i n'trait ■ ::ii>nt VERBS. U\ IMPERATIVE. pais qu'il paisse qu'ils paissent SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. Que jo paisse, quetupaisses qu'il paisse que nous paissions que vous paissiez qu'ils paissent Conj ugate after the same manner : Repaitre, to feed. Se repaitre, to feed one's self. These last two verbs have a preterit definite, and an imperfect of the subjunctive. Je repus tu repus il reput nous repumes vous reputes ils repurent Que je repusse que tu repusses qu'il reput que nous repussions que vous repussiez qu'ils repussent The compound tenses of repaitre, are conjugated with Avoir, and those of se repaitre, with Eire. Paraitre To Appear. Inf. Par aitre Part. Pres. Par aissant Part. Past. Par u Je par ais nous par aissons Je par aissais nous par aissions Je par us nous par umes tu par ais vous par aissez IMPERFECT. tu par aissais vous par aissiez PRETERIT DEFINITE. tu par us vous par vies il par ait ils par aissent il par aissait ils par aissaient il par ut ils par urent Je par aitrai nous par aitrons Je par aitrais nous par aitrions tu par aitras vous par aitrez CONDITIONAL. tu par aitrais vous par aitriez il par attra ils par aitront il par aitrait ils par aitraient 248 OS THE PARTS OF SPEECH. IMPERATIVE. par cis qu'il par aisse par aissons par uissez qu'ils par aissent 6UBJUXCTIYE PRESENT. Que je par aisse que tu par aisses qu'il par aisse que nous par aissions que vous pur aissiez qu'ils par aissent SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. Que je par UBSt que tu par USS6S qu'il par ut que nous par uszions que vous par ussicz qu'ils par assent The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. Conjugate after the same manner: i'lr, . t<> appear. litre, to recognize, to know ' , to appear. I know. irattre, to appear again. par. S '■-/.-,./, >„/iy ;-,-, to forget one's self. altn . to mistake, to forget, to neglect. The com pound ten.-es ate conjugated with A7/v. [hf. n air* Pi.airb To Please. Taut. PBX8. PI maoitf Part. Past, PI u ■ ■ Je pi Ut 1 li/TU** »V7l tu pi a is Vnll- pi IMP tu pi a VOOfl pi ii pi all Da pi aiscnt il pi m's 'it lis pi ai.ntit/it ran i I'- ll pi wf l i i u:K. tu pi ' ils \.\ uiritt il | 1 red i i' r'd'i 251 PRETERIT DEFINITE. Je redid sis tu redui sis il redui sit nous redui simes vous redui siles FUTURE. ils redui sirent Je redui rai tu redui ras il redui ra nous redui rons vous redui rez CONDITIONAL. ils redui ront Je redui rais tu redui rais il redui rait nous redui rions vous redui riez IMPERATIVE. ils redui raient redui s qu'il redui se redui sons redui sez qu'ils redui serc£ SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. Que je redui se que tu redui ses qu'il redui se que nous redui sions que vous redui siez qu'ils redui sent SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. Que je redui sisse que tu redui sisses qu'il redui sit que nous redui sissions que vous redui sissiez qu'ils redui sissent The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. Conjugate in the same manner: Conduire, to conduct, to lead. Gonstruire, to construct. Cuire, to bake. Deduire, to deduct, to take from. Diitruire, to destroy. Econduire, to discard in polite manner. Enduire, to plaster. Entreluire, to shine a little, to glow a little. Induire, to induce. Instruire, to instruct. Introduire, to introduce. Luire, to shine, to glow. Waive, to hurt. Produire, to produce. Beconduire, to reconduct, to lead back. Reconstruire, to construct again. Reeuire, to bake again. Relidre, to shine, to glow. Renduire, to plaster again. Reproduire, to reproduce. Seduire, to seduce. Traduire, to translate. 252 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Resoudre To Dissolve, to Resolve. Inf. Resoudre Part. Pres. Rt'solvant Part. Past, Resolu or resotis Je re sous nous re solvons Je re solvais nous re 6olvions Je re solus nous re sol iimes "idrai nous re soudrons Je i'.' soodraia - ludrioni re* solvous Qoeje rf v Ivb II t<- xilvions tu re sous vous re solvez IMPERFECT, tu re" solvais vous re Bolvies il re sout ils re solvent il re solvait ils re solvaient PRETERIT DEFINITE. tu iv solus il re solut vous re solutes ils n' solurent FUTURE. in ti Boudraa vous re so ml rex I "MM noXAI.. in re" s"ii Irais Iriei iMi'i.i:\ 1 1\ B. ■ I il re soudra ils re soudront il re" Boodrait ils re soudraient qu'il rt' solve qu'ila re* solvent sum H rr. H PBBffl (|u • i'i ti BOlvefl qu'U re" solve BOlvia qu'ila n'.sol vent ; i\ 1: PAST. Qoeje r' >'>ius8o que I qu'il re" aolftt ia cim- v.Mis i qu'ila r' BOloOHDt The oompoond tens - ue e mju pate l with Avoir, to have. The above verb dab two pai Iciplee past /.'-'.W'/, is and when whin employed Ire, toal Diftmidre, to dissolve. These two last verba have no preterit definite, nor imperfect of the 6U1'JU11 VERBS. 253 Inf. Eire Je ris nous rions Je riais nous riions Kike To Laugh. Part. Pres. Eiaut Part. Past. Ri PRESENT. tu ris ilrit vous riez ils rient IMPERFECT. tu riais il riait vous riiez ils riaient Je ris nous rimes Je rirai nous rirons Je rirais nous ririons PRETERIT DEFINITE. tu ris il rit vous rites ils rirent FUTURE. tu riras il rira vous rirez ils riront CONDITIONAL. tu rirais il rirait vous ririez ils riraient IMPERATIVE. ris qu'il rie riez qu'ils rient SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. que tu ries qu'il rie que vous riiez qu'ils rient SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. que tu risses qu'il rit que vous rissiez qu'ils rissent Queje rie que nous riions Queje risse que nous rissions Compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. Conj ugate after the same manner : Sourire, to smile. Se rire de, to laugh at. The compound tenses of se rire de, are conjugated with Eire. 254 OX THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Ixf. Rompre Romprb To Break. Part. Pees. Rompant Part. Past, Rompu Te romps nous rompons Je rompais nous rompinns J.' rompis D Je rompraJ improns Je rompraie : :ipli«>us r vanquithy in conquer. Past. Pbbb. 7ainquant Part. Past, Vaincn J \ : i tu raincs il vaine nou» vain. pons vous vainqiiez ■ jueut VERBS. 257 Je vainquais nous vainquions Je vainquis nous vainquimes Je vaincrai nous vaincrons Je vaincraia nous vaincrions vamquons Que je vainque que nous vainquions IMPERFECT. tu vainquaia vous vainquiez PRETERIT DEFINITE, tu vainquis vous vainquites FUTURE, tu vaincras vous vaincrez CONDITIONAL, tu vaincrais vous vaincriez il vainquait ils vainquaient il vainquit ils vainquirent il vaincra ils vaincront il vaincrait ils vaincraient IMPERATIVE, vaincs vainquez SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. que tu vainques qu'il vainque que vous vainquiez qu'ils vainque SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. que tu vainquisses qu'il vainquit qu'il vainque qu'ils vainquent Que je vainquisse que nous vainquissions que vous vainquissiez qu'ils vainquissent The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. Conjugate after the same manner : Convaincre, to convince. Inf Vivre Part. Pres. Vivant PRESENT. Part. Past Je vis tu vis ilvit nous vivons vous vivez IMPERFECT. ils vivenfc Je vivais tu vivais il vivait nous vivions vous viviez ils vivaient 25S OX THE PAET3 OF SPEECH. PRETERIT DEFINITE. Te vt'cus tu v'cus il vecut lous w'carues vous VLcites FUTURE. ils vt-cuient Jo vivrai tu vivras il vivra nous vivrons vous vivrcz conditional. ils vivront Je vivraia tu vivraia il vivrait nuus vivriona vous vivriez DCFEBATIVS. Us vivraiont vis qu'U vive vivons vivos qu'ils viv. nt subjuni tivi: pbi Qneje viva m I wished that he might rather prefer i( i r ri *:i t.- thi> man ; he is drunk, and _v>u • liiii propose a i'«-i t<-r plan, I have our friends ; let as think more of t!i J . -.\ Imlred h.-r. bat I loved her. We won] bat -h • refased "nr sympathy. or did you not rather w the most Importai I an I they wil] Bupport any r.-mdi- dase, ..r by whom Is b< wi Bsl ing in the strosni VERES. 259 when he caught that big fish. He awoke late and found that all his friends had gone in the morning. Would you not have flown to her assistance, if she had cried ? He ate too much, and now he has dined a second time. I wish that you may remain here for a week ; I will stay with you. That he should oblige my brother and offend his own, was a great surprise to all. He warned me that I should not copy his example. We expected that they would have burnt the ship. II. — SECOND CONJUGATION. Choose your seat and do not leave for an hour. Warn your friends that they convert themselves or it will be too late. They served him well, but they slept too much. Did not the enemies invade an im- mense country, and did they not invest several fortresses ? He softened his father by his submission, and I foresaw that he might succeed if he came back in time. I wished that you would not sully your glory by these mean deeds. He obtains all Ms money from his wife ; she retains nothing, and thus she suffers frequently ; but he blemishes his reputation. Let us finish this work ; he will punish us if we are not ready. They predicted that we would disobey the laws and that we would weaken the strength of onr party. Hold this sword and do not let it fall. He left this morning, and we shall leave to-morrow ; when will you leave ? Let him maintain himself by his labor and all will honor hju. III. — THIRD CONJUGATION. He receives a large salary, bat he owes large sums of money. When he owed jie a hundred dollars, I feared that he would not pay me, bat he has ialfllled his [jomise. Let them conceive these ideas and they will perceive soon their errors. We perceived the house from the top of the mountain, kut they did not perceive us. We shall conceive hopes of her recovery if she suffers less to-night than yester- day ; the doctor said that he perceived good symptoms. He told us that we should not receive vhis officer with too much politeness, because he was not a friend of our nation, but that we should be polite to those who come to our house. IV. — FOURTH CONJUGATION. We knew him well when he sold goods in this city, but he did not know us, for we lived in another part of the city. Let them be silent or they will render themselves hateful to the enemy. We lost all our money, and you would lose yours if you sold your paintings 260 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. now. Did this dog bite you or had you been bitten before? He did not please by his manners but by his conduct. Pity us, my friends, for we have pitied you when you were unfortunate. You fear an idle threat, why did you not fear the real danger ? He con- soled me, that I might not melt in tears. I would recognize him where, but he will not recognize his own brother. I said it that you might hear the opinion of an honest man, but you heard only the half of my speech. They appeared surprised, but it surprised them not. for they had heard it yesterday. Let us take patience and let us seem contented with our lot, if we cannot be so. He expected us at the gate and we heard his voice, but he seemed (to be) angry. That he may depend on me and on my friends, is my sincere wish. T. PIIONOMINAL TORB& They walked for several hours in the garden, and when they had walked enough, they proposed to each other to withdraw into the house. Why did Bhe not prepare herself for this event, she knew that it might come s..,,n We have mined ourselves In this enter- . and yon would ruin yourself if you engaged In the same. applauded themselves, bnl they were mistaken ; they had y.-t l>o not forget yourselves when you are in his - told she betray herself by her tears, or should she sol rather control herself and hide her sorrow? They Ibnga* each other all thai day, and when evening came they withdrew to their camp. Let as not reproach ourselves with (de) faults of others; wo have eoou rh to do with "nr own faults. You would degrade yourself If yon were not deceived; they have loved each other all their life. Will not that man Bubmit to BOJUBt a law. She will dishonor her- self, if >he ■ He grew rich by tin- misfortunes of . and now , hanee ha- reduced him to poverty. Do not expose • and we made our- YL PASBTVl 7SBB& He I by ill his friends, but now he is hated and de- lf they were stronger, I wish that tb Ince yester- day, will have been discovered, and the author, no doubt, has b My father was respected and my m Lred, although thoy VERBS. 261 were recognized. He performed with so much ability that he was applauded universally. Would he have been praised, as he was, if he had been less modest ? He is known by nobody, but, still, he is very happy. How many countries, unknown to the ancients, have been discovered in our days ? VII. — IMPERSONAL VERBS. Does it rain this morning or does it freeze ? It did not snow during the winter, but it snows this morning. When did it hail in your city ? Do you think (that) it will freeze again to-morrow ? It hap- pened that I was present at that remarkable adventure, and it appears now that I was the only witness. Would it be proper that I should speak to her, or would it appear presumptuous ? It thundered twice when I was absent ; has it thundered again ? It will lighten after several seconds. vm. — ON THE verb "By a." There was a great difference of age between these two persons. Was there a great crowd at the theatre ? I wish there could be a law to prevent this ; there has been too much of it. What has there been better than this in the history of our country ? There being so many difficulties, the affair has been abandoned. There was one woman in the company, but there were a hundred men, and there would have been many children also, if it had been permitted. There has been a festival every day, and there will be a solemn feast to-mor- row. 1 v.Lli that there might be a larger crowd. IX. — ON THE VERB " B faut." [All expressions implying necessity, duty, obligation, or want, are in French expressed by falloir, followed by que with the verb in the Sub- junctive. I must remain; it is necessary that I remain: il faut que je teste. He had to work ; it was necessary that he worked : il fallait quHl travallldt.] You must speak to him about this affair, and he must answer you politely or there will be a difficulty. We were obliged to set out yes- terday, for we had to be in the city before Thursday. What must I do in order to please you ? You must do your duty faithfully and you will please everybody. What does he want ? He wants something to eat and something to drink. I had to abandon all hope of seeing him again. You must not forget that you promised me a letter ; you must, on the contrary, remember your promise and write very often 262 ON THE PAETS OF SPEECH. I do lot think that it is necessary to be a magician, to yuess your seereU. You ought to ask pardon for your faults, and they will be readily forgiven. X. — OX TUE IRREGULAR YERRS OF THE FIRST CONJUGATION. ne will go this evening into the country — will you go with him '? I will go when you go ; lor I would have gone yesterday, if I had not preferred to go with you. Well, let us go at once, for if we go later it will he too hot. Let him go with us, he is a pleasant companion, and if we go together we shall have a pleasant walk. When will yon send those flowers to your sister, or have you sent them already? No, 1 would have sent them this morning, hut the gardener had given them to a friend : 1 shall send my bouquet this evening. 1 would not Bend them BO late, she will not heat home then. Did you send tho See '. "^ . -. I sent all by the servant. 1 wish that you would Bend me a little money, 1 have none. XI.— iki:i:<;i-i.\k VERBS OT mi; SECOND CONJUGATION. be the man who has converted so many heathens! The lourished at Ath< na in 'he tun.- of Periclea They (1 d from the battle-field, and 1 fled with them ; you Baw us. perhaps, in our Bight ; we acted not with prudence and care, lor we were i ormoua force, and when ■ •■ COUld. Would he not hate that man, if he knew all '.' He hat. d him h. fore, hut now he will de- i|> and i orade of worldly greatn obI They discoui aother life, and that we .should not run alter shadows. He is very sick, and his strength him i v. -r.v day more ; he came near dj How did I have Inquired after it and requested his it ii. Would you dress your children bett r if you could collect your moi nly? Let us • h i.i with be "ill receive as well when wet antry. xn.— ransom \k ■ > conj II »w did ho tall into poverty, and why ha- he fa) nly in public? He baa put in th< lottery, and he b< dm. 1 did i ' ii "a- net lor is. r you would havo VERBS. 263 had to pay much more hereafter. Shall we see you to-night? I would see you again, if I could, and I hope that I shall he able to come. We moved him by our prayers to tears, and he promised that he would promote our interests. It will not rain to-day, for it rained yesterday, and it is rare that it rains two days one after the other.. Let us sit down here ; you, madam, seat yourself in a chair, and I will sit on the turf. We sat where we could, and when the usher said Sit down, gentlemen, we were much embarrassed. To conclude this business it would be necessary that they should see each other at once ; I foresaw this, and provided for the interview. One ounce of gold is equivalent to fifteen ounces of silver — what would ten ounces be equivalent to? Doubt not that truth and justice will prevail in the end. If she is willing, we are willing, too. He says that he can do what he will do, because men will do nothing more than what they can do, if they are wise. XIII. — IRREGULAR VERBS OP THE FOURTH CONJUGATION. These substances resolve themselves into ashes when they are burnt ; but this matter does not resolve itself at all. Who would absolve him if he should commit a great crime ? Have they resolved on war or peace ? My sister sewed all the day, and yet, when the evening came, the dress was not sewed, and some pieces which were finished have to be sewed over again. Let him take his share; I took mine yesterday, and you have taken yours before us. What news have you learnt ? I learnt that the city was taken, and that the enemy would live at the expense of the inhabitants for a month. Would you undertake this business if I placed it in your hands ? You reproved him too sharply ; bad company has corrupted him, perhaps, but he is not wicked by nature. They followed us for two days, but then they pursued us no longer, and we escaped. They fought with fury, and after they had beaten the enemy and vanquished their fa- mous generals, they made a triumphal procession. He did his best, you did not so well, and they would have done better if they had wished it. Could it be possible that we should make such a mistake? He must make a better use of his talents. They satisfied themselves that they would do mischief if they went. He was born in this city, where his parents were born also. They wrote their letters this morning ; I shall write mine now ; will you not write yours also ? Did you think me capable of a crime, when you made that remark ? I would not bvlieve it of you, even if somebody said so. 2G4 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. PARTICIPLES. Participles derive tbeir name from the fact that they partake of the nature of the verbs from which they derive their origin and meaning, and of the adjective, which they resemble in form and use. The verb has two participles : A participle jiresent, which invariably ends in ant, has its feminine in a/ttr, and its two plural forms in ants and antes, Ex. charmant ; unefemme charmante, a charming woman ; ifants charmants, charming children: deux histoires char- . two charming Btories. A participle past, which ends in the first conjugation in k second in i (ie, is, ies), in the third and fourth in " (i . a concealed man ; < < ; lebrte, a oelebi desperate people. Both participles are declined like adjectives, and have to onn they qualify, whenever they arc not used a> mere par i of the \oil>, bat have the meaning of adjectives. The : e will easily determine in what capacity they d. 1, They are j>arts of the verb when they express an action, and consequently have an object. In this ease they remain unchanged P\. Je harmani tout le monde, I have seen her charming (who charm lonnant let . ' mba sur > ux, my friend, astonishing the bystanders, feh upon them. _. I when they t an aetion, bat a quality. Then they agree with the noun which they qualify. Y.\. I "•.-■! ut saying a word, sans dire mot ; he whs scolded for having od for eating, il est l»>>t < . which is followed by tho Part, l'r \.\. I . he fell while coming down; oil Vapprenden Vetm I by studying it. I snail nr>! leave yon wtthonl explaining to yon my motirea not found nil book while looking for the other things 1 sin- will have ...a well by giving j ■• yon noi oontenl with ■ hundred dollars 1 I for the winter, but it in not nool enough for the Bummer. He was not found In the suburbs, lmt they discovered him within Parla I went there before them, and tliu- ! ■ the concert we «lis- ..ut wr did d . any thing. Did j ■ CONJUNCTIONS. 271 vb Mil wlicn you passed through that country, or did you return with- out having met them'? He was punished because he said the laws were good to punish but not to prevent crime. As for me, I know nothing of it ; but as for you, you know every thing. He lives oppo- site us, and we see him often fall asleep while reading. CHAPTER VIII. CONJUNCTIONS. Conjunctions serve to connect words in the same sentence, or sentences and parts of sentences with each other. Ex. Pierre et Paul, Peter and Paul ; je le vis et je le saluai, I saw him and spoke to him ; il fa fait et elle ne Va pas fait, he has done it and she has not done it. Et besides meaning and, is also repeated, and then corres- ponds to the English as well — as, or both. Ex. Je Vai et vu et admire, I have both seen and admired him ; on a pris et le pere et lefts, they have caught the father as well as the son. Ou, meaning or, may also be repeated, and then corresponds to the English either — or. Ex. On le roi ou le ministre va parler, either the king or the minister will speak ; ou il s'est trompe ou il nous a depus, he has either been mistaken or he has deceived us. The negative alternative is expressed by ni — ni, which requires, like all negative expressions, the additional use ot ne before the verb. Ex. Ni le roi ni le ministre ne parlera, neither the king nor the minister will speak ; je ne Vai ni vu ni salue, I have neither seen him nor greeted him ; ni Vun ni V autre, neither the one nor the other. Que corresponds to the English that and loses its e before words beginning with a vowel or mute h ; it cannot be omitted in 272 OX THE PAETS OF SPEECH. French as in English, but must be used (and supplied) when- ever two verbs are connected with each other. Ex. I know he is here, je sals quil est ici ; I hope von will come, fespere que vous viendiez ; he said he would go, V dit quil irait. Si, when it corresponds to the English conditional if, can in French be followed only by two tenses of the Verb; by the Present Indicative, for the English Present and Future; and by the [mperfect Indicative, for any other Tenses or Moods that may be used in English : Ex. If he comes, tfil vient : if he will say yes, s'il dit qu'oui ; if he should come to-morrow, s'il venait demain ; if she were -; lit s she will BUlg today. since bl.e says she is quito _• ain. CHAPTER IX I IONS. Interjections are short, indeclinable words which serve to the sodden emotions of man. They are, of course, ai .1 as the latter. The following are the INTERJECTIONS. 273 most familiar, whilst others are either of rare occurrence, as e. <]., only in poets, or of objectionable nature : Ah, ai, ouf — of pain ; helas, alas ; Ji, fi done, fie ; gare, hem, hold, ho — of warning ; bravo, viual — of applause ; ouais ? of surprise ; hola, hem, ho, eh — of calling ; chut, hush ! — &Uons, alerte, vile — of encouragement ; liens — look, look here ! 12* GBAMMAK OF THE FBMCH LANGUAGE. PART II. FOE ADVANCED SCHOLAES. In the First Part of this Grammar the different parts of speech have been considered simply with B view to their form and ordi- nary meaning. In the Second Part they will be treated as forming part of a \ ! with a view t<> their relatione to each other. The eame order will !*• observed as in the First Part, ami the Btndent Mnally t.. refer to the elementary explanations . which will not be repealed. TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE Pkeface °< CHAPTER I. NOUNS. Gender of Nouns 9 By Signification 10 By Termination 12 Exercise 17 Number of Nouns 18 Exercise 20 Plural of Proper Names. 21 Exercise 22 Plural of Compound Nouns 22 Exercise «, 25 Plural of Abstract Nouns 26 CHAPTER II. ARTICLES. Formation 26 Place of the Article 28 Repetition of the Article 28 Use of the Article 29 Use of the Definite Article '. 30 Use of the Indefinite Article 30 Exercise 31 Use of the Partitive Article 32 Exercise 32 Exercise 33 4 CONTENTS. The Article with Proper Names 34 Exercise 35 The Article with Names of Countries, etc 36 Exercise 37 The Article with Names of Mouths, etc 3t> Exercise The Article with Nouns in Apposition 39 Exercise 39 Exercise 40 The Article with Names of Measure 41 Exercise 41 Exercise 42 don of the Article 42 Exercise 43 Exercise 48 tpoand Nonas in French 45 Exercise 47 48 52 CHAPTER III. a i ■.: i arm i :• l.t Of \'lj'--'!ivrs 53 53 iba 56 56 66 Noons 67 58 The Place of Adjectives 58 •• it li doable meaning 58 68 68 l!5 07 09 CONTENTS. 5 PAOR List of Adjectives and their Prepositions 70 Exercise 72 Adjectives of Measure 72 Exercise "4 Adjectives of Number 74 Cardinal Numbers 74 Definitions of Time 75 Exercise 78 Ordinal Numbers and other Numerals 79 Exercise 81 CHAPTER IV. PRONOUNS. Personal Pronouns 82 Conjunctive Personal Pronouns 84 Subjects (as nominatives) 84 Direct Object (accusative) 87 Exercise 90 Indirect Object (Dative) 90 Exercise 93 Indirect Object (Genitive) 93 Meaning and use of en 93 Exercise 96 Place of Conjunctive Personal Pronouns 97 As Subject 97 Exercise r. 99 As Object 99 Exercise 100 Repetition of Personal Pronouns 101 Exercise 102 Personal Pronouns for Possessive Pronouns 102 Exercise 104 How to tra nslate it 1 04 Exercise 106 Personal Pronouns with Neuter Verbs 106 Reflexive Personal Pronouns 107 Absolute Personal Pronouns 108 Exercise 109 Exercise HI b CORTES j S. PAGB The Pronoun soi Ill Exercise 112 Po*$cmce Pronouns 113 Exercise 114 With Articles, etc 114 Exercise 116 Demonstrative Pronouns 110 Exercise 118 Absolute forms 119 Exercise 120 With et and hi 120 Exercise 122 9 188 Exercise 196 Quoi and oh 120 127 Absol rogatite Pronouns 127 12!) 188 181 L81 : lone i::i 184 with Noma 1 10 1 1 1 Used with ;> CONTENTS. 7 PAQR The Verb and Collective Nouns 1G0 Exercise , 101 The Place of the Subject 102 Exercise '. 104 The Place of the Object 1G4 Exercise , 167 The Tenses and Moods of the Verb 107 The Infinitive 107 Exercise 171 The Present 172 Exercise 173 The Past Tenses 173 Exercise 176 The Compound Past Tenses 177 Exercise 179 The Future. 179 Exercise 181 The Conditional 181 Exercise 182 The Imperative 182 The Subjunctive Mood 183 The Sequence of Tenses 184 The Use of the Subjunctive 185 Four Exercises 192 The Participle Present 194 Exercise 195 The Participle Past 196 Exercise 199 Special Eules on the same subject 200 Exercise 202 The English Auxiliary Verbs in French 202 Pouvoir 202 Exercise 204 Vouloir 205 Exercise 206 Devoir 207 Exercise 208 Lamer 209 Exercise 210 8 CONTENTS. PAGE Falloir 210 Exercise 212 Idiomatic Use of Verbs 212 Avoir and y avoir 212 Exercise 212 Kir. 217 220 Exercise 222 Ail i. r and Venir 22:! Exercise 224 CB A PTER VI. Al>\ i.r.r.s. 1' of Advert* 227 tiftant, and atttant 238 .rose 229 ad lit it 229 Interrogative Adverbs 281 se 888 rerbs *- >;i: > CHAPTER VII. 889 Bame cnbjecl continued 2 12 i v. rbs with tli- IrP lee 848 CH \ PT ER VIII. c ii \ i-ii: i; i x. 881 FRENCH GRAMMAR. PART II. CHAPTER I. The two most important relations, which influence the form of French Nouns in a sentence, and through them affect all words connected with them, are their Gender and their Number, the manner in which they convey the idea of sex, and that of a singular or plural number. I.— GENDER OF NOUNS. The idea of sex is expressed by the Gender of Nouns, which in French is double : Masculine and Feminine. The Neuter Gender of the Latin language, from which most French Nouns are derived, has been lost at a time when all Latin termina- tions were lost ; and hence, to the eye and to the ear, the dis- tinction between Masculine and Neuter ceased to be clear. Hence, Nouns which were Neuter in Latin, are either Masculine or Feminine in French, though the majority belong to the former class. Hence, also, Nouns which are Neuter in English, are either Masculine or Feminine in French. 10 OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. The Gender, in French, is determined — a. By the Meaning of the nouns. This gives the following rules : Masculine are: 1. The names of male beings. Ex. Alexandre; Cesar ; cheval, horse; elephant, elephant. Except the following words, which, for etymological reasons, are feminine, although they designate men : scntindie, sentinel ; . mounted sentinel, and vigie, lookout a <*:casionlly used as a masculine. 2. The names of beings generally considered as male. Ex ""//', angel; genie, genius ; centaure, centaur. This includes all diminutive names of animals, even when tlii- original i .'mine. Ex. ■• a young lion ; u, a young mouse; . 'I . ■ nan - of days, m.>: Eg. dime 9 ■ ■ . summer. . bare la fit* \- J ohn'fl day ; / . All Saints' l>:iy. 4. The \\<>nl> of decimal nomenclature, .-,. The" oam - of metal* and BO-called elementary h ; /• ,\ iron : Iphate, 0. T: and shrubs. . hawthorn; bourdaine, alder, 7. '. Ex. fi , West"; M \ North. . monsoon. GENDER OF NOUNS. 1 L 8. The names of mountains. Ex. Chimboraso ; Cents ; Liban, Lebanon ; Etna. Except those used only in the plural : Alpes, Pyrenees, Cordil Ures and Vosges. 9. The names of cities, towns and villages. Ex. Londres, Paris, Berlin, Vienne. Except those derived from a Latin feminine, as Eoma: Rome ; Mantua : Mantoue ; and those which are used with a fem- inine article, as La BocJielle, La Nouvelle Orleans. When towns are personified, they are always addressed as feminines. Ex. Oh malheureuse Tyr! dans-quelles mains es-tu tombeef Oh, unhappy Tyre, in whose hands art thou fallen ! 10. The names of countries which do not end in mute e. Ex. Danemarck, Denmark; Piemont, Piedmont. 11. All other parts of speech, like numerals, verbs, adjectives, prepositions, etc., when used as nouns. Ex. le manger, eating ; le pourquoi, the wherefore ; un si, an if; le tiers, the third ; le noir, the black. Except la moitie, half ; and technical terms like une parallele, a parallel (ligne being understood). .Feminine are : 1. The names of female beings. Ex. Venus ; decsse, goddess ; nymphe ; femme, woman. 2. The names of virtues and qualities. Ex. la bonte, kindness ; Vopiniatrete, obstinacy. Except courage and merite. b. By the Termination of the noun. This gives the follow- ing rule : Nouns ending in mute e are generally feminine, and all others generally masculine. This rule is, however, subject to numerous exception*. 12 OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. most of which have been given in the First Part of this Gram mar. They arise mainly from these two considerations, which will guide the educated foreigner better in ascertaining the gender of French nouns than a multitude of rules : 1st. The meaning of a noun prevails over the mere form. 2d. The derivation of a noun from a Latin word aids in so much, as the original gender is generally preserved, the neuter, of course, being excepted. It must be borne in mind, also, that these and other rules in French are Bubject to the influence of fashion and caprice. Thus affaire and rencontre were formerly both masculine, the latter as late as the date of J. B. Rousseau ; they are now feminine. IimUte, Age and art have changed their gender in more recent times. Garrosse t formerly a feminine noun, became masculine, ise Louis XIV., aa a boy, forgot its gender, and called tor .' This uncertainty oi genders has led to the fact, that many no d now of both genders. An important class ^i nouns are those which have to bo applied to both sexes. We observe here the following rules: 1. When they end in mute ', they remain unchanged: : cygnt\ Bwan; csclave, slave; taut Except d . <• i aruide, Fern, thrviiemt. , Fern. daim, Fen data* ,,. n/r is Bubetitut.-.i • Ex. I a pair of gloi both*,* /' tin original, the peculiarity of being gular and feminine in the plural. Ex perfect delight ; craianea s>s ichorous charms, '; it gives the femi- hich innii. diat< l\ precede it. iple; inttruiU tai _iit by ex* . mn, is feminii e when used to I bristian 1 1 \ inii". and masculine in all othei cases. belles hymnu eh Luther, [el us dog those beautiful hymns by Luther'; ta< hymn a Vinut, a h) urn to Venus. GENDER OF NOUNS. 15 Orge, barley, is feminine as long as it means barley stand- ing, and becomes masculine when barley is prepared for use. Ex. Voila de belles orges, that is fine barley ; Forge monde, pealed barley. Orgue, organ, is, like delice, masculine in the singular and feminine in the plural. Ex. Get orgue est excellent, this organ is excellent ; y a-t-il de bonnes orgues ? are there fine organs there ? (Euvre, work, is feminine when it means any one great work of art, etc., and masculine when it has the sense of deed or creation. In the plural, where it means the works of an author, it is always feminine. Ex. Cest une ceuvre brillante, cet opera, this opera is a bril- liant work. Les ceuvres completes de Voltaire, Voltaire's com- plete works. 5. The following nouns occur, also, as masculines and as femi- nines, but they change their meaning with their gender : MASCULINE. FEMININE. Aide aid, adjutant aide assistance Aigle j eagle, a reading \ desk (at church) aigle j the Eoman stand- ( ard barbs a Barbary horse barbe beard berce redbreast berce cow-parsnip capre privateer capre caper carpe wrist (in anatomy) carpe carp cartouche scroll cartouche cartridge cloaque sink cloaque ancient aqueduct r stage-coach, or \ notch eoche < packet-boat on ( a river. coclte ] fat sow cravate Croat cravate cravat crepe crape crepe pancake espace space espace space (in printing) follicule follicle follicule pod foret drill foret forest 16 OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. foudre gure greffe heliotrope ft lout re mhnoire tnvufie moule office ombre | | ( large tun, thun- 3 derbolt (in ele- ( vated style) hoar-frost register's office guide gales, in heraldry turnsoll (.flower) interline rainbow China varnish lily book (bat or muff of : hair handle 1 i II thanks mole, pier of pulleys mould office, 1 ■■•• (a game at ranis, / a Bab Jam IP i| bice) pper I foudre gure greffe guide gueule interligne Im or Ljft lie re in,' hi < dri- ll, < rci motile ■ jiique FEMININE. \ thunderbolt (lite- ( rally) ( snake (in her- | aldry) graft rein mouth of animals (heliotrope, (pre- \ cious stone) lead (in printing) Bprig-crystal gum-lac 1 .ys | a river) pound otter -.the British ) Gbannel memory mere; fashion word) (muscle (a shell- '( Gab) pantry, larder shade parallel clock poh'.p, P period piqne, grudge peony (a Bower) i tool) Frying-pan laying cd GENDER OF NOUNS. 17 MASCDMNB. FEMtNINE. poste post poste \ letter or horse ( post pourpre purple, a color, pourpre purple, a fabric pretexts pretext prctexte Eonian virile robe reclame ( calling back a ( hawk reclame j catch word (in ( printing) reldche relaxation reldche shelter (for a ship) remise livery coacli remise coach-house serpentaire Serpentarius serpentaire snake -root sexte . sextus sexte sexte (in theology) solde j balance of an ac- \ count solde p»y somme nap, slumber somme sum, load souris smile souris mouse tour turn, trick tour tower triomplie triumph triomphe trumps (in cards) irompette trumpeter trompelte trumpet vague vague, airy plains vague wave, surge VKS 1 vase vase mud, slime vigogne j cloth of Vigone | hair vigogne Llama voile veil voile sail Exercise. This great singer was a beautiful lady ; she was a stranger here, but your cousin and her husband had seen her before. There was hoar- frost this morning, and later it rained; this will spoil the wheat and the barley. Mme. de Genlis was the governess of one of the kings of France and the author of several books. Her collected works have been published. Has your neighbor, the grocer, many customers now ? He has lost many who have gone to my other neighbor, the corporal's widow. When I was in that country I admired the excellent organs for which Holland is famous. He has paid for that book one pound sterling, and he thinks it cheap. She has played us a bad trick and deserves to be punished. That tower is very old ; it was probably built by the Romans. Our guide was a peasant woman, and when I lost the reins of my horse she helped me better than a man would have done. The trumpeter sounded his trumpet and summoned them 18 OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. to surrender. We were all in the boat, when the wind tore the sail and my sister's veil was carried off. II.— NUMBER OF NOUNS. Common Nouns can represent one person or object, or several persons or objects, and, having a form for each, arc said to be in the singular or plural. Proper Names, designating but one person or object, can therefore have no plural as long as they are used as genuine pp. per names. It will be Been, hereafter, that they are fre- quently used as Common Nouns, and that they then occur in the plural also. The rules on the formation o( the plural have been fully given in tin' First Tart ■•( this < dammar. .'. e no plural iii French : 1. The names of metals and Bo-called elements, when used in their general meaning. Ex. ('■■>-. gold ; la '. mercury. •j. The names of virtues and vices, and certain conditions of man, being used a* abstract nouns. Ex. Vara\ »r, eeal ; la /«/', faith ; fa youth ; U l>>n- . marriage. ;:. . ! .i : /• mri, truth. 4. / D8I 1 a- tiMlins. Ex. It i j nid retiring; ledormir, sleeping. I •• wh< ii :h i bj an sdjeedve, Ex. Us boi. • /""', ironical laughs. i orda take a plural form when they have become fully naturalized; a> are considered as genuine : onl) in th< 1 1"' follow* NUMBER OF NOUNS. 10 ing words of such origin appear to have been naturalized, and occur in the plural form in standard authors : panorama panorama, lady lady, opera opera, deficit deficit, impromptu impromptu, examen examination, debet balance imbroglio dimculty, duo duo, incognito incognito, echo echo, macaroni macaroni, alinea paragraph, whig ■whig, aparte aside, numero number, bravo bravo, piano piano, zero zero, pensum task, quolibet quodlibet, recepisse receipt. placet petition, 6. Other parts of speech, used for the occasion as nouns. Ex. Trois un de suite, three ones in succession ; les oui et les nous, the ayes and noes. The following nouns are singular in French and plural in Eno-lish : avoine oats, metaphysique metaphysics, compensation amends, optique optics, cresson cresses, politique politics, fraisil cinders, pneumatique pneumatics, lie dregs, pourpre purples (a fever), linge clothes, rougeole measles. morale ethics, morals, The following nouns are plural in French and singular i: Inglish : , PLTXBAIi. SmGTJLAK. ELUKAL. SmGTJLAE. accordailles marriage (articles). confins boundary, alentours neighborhood, connaissances knowledge, armoiries coat of arms, decombres rubbish, assistants audience, depens expense, atours dress, epinards spinach, broussaillcs thicket, errements tracks, broutUles brushwood, fiangailles betrothal. 20 OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. PZiUBAIi. SINGULAR. PLCRAL. SINGULAR. haptcme) font (baptis maJ), meuUes furniture, fnt is expense, (small wearing ( apparel, immeiMa real estate, 11 tppes ■ diet s filth, dbseques funeral, entreaty, te/u'brcs darkness, buu miary, vergettes brush. ghost, The following nouns have both numbers in Fiench and are used in only one in English : PLURAL. AN!) PLUB. SINGULAR SING. AND PLCR. Alius Property bien, biena, kindness bonte, f< ndre, a ndres, hair . ■ advice peopl frogria, progrto, poetry Who bore th>' '.i- enterprise? Burke's most fain" itiful and the Sublime.' boondaryhi I thi war hash gun. Wben did his betrothal I will the wedding follow soon i It ii • g f illowed irame- - the precious privili who " e wise. 1 o the widow. My know ' iliil:i •: law II re noble, but I have liis father, who need I the forests and • i".r fuel. We stayed with her until dark ; when tl ey brought . we I. ii her. Wbl I NUMBEK OF NOUNS. 21 PLURAL OF PROPER NAMES. Proper Names, as has been mentioned before, do not form a plural as long as they serve to designate but one person or object. Thus they remain unchanged even when they repre- sent two or more members of the same family, without forming a class of them. Ex. Les deux Corneille se sont distingues, both Corneilles have been distinguished ; VEspagne aproduit les deux Seueque, Spain has given birth to the two Senecas. They retain the singular form even before a plural article in elevated style, when their merit is referred to, by using a forci- ble ellipsis. Ex. Le merite des Homere, des Virgile et des Milton, the merit of (poets like) Homer, Virgil and Milton. Proper names, however, are frequently used as common nouns, and then they will appear in the plural form. This is done — 1. When they are applied to whole classes of men, so that the individuality is completely sunk in the number. Ex. LVnstoire des douze Cesars, the history of the twelve Csesars ; les Stuarts rHy rentrereni plus, the Stuarts did not return there any more; parlous des Pharaons, let us speak of the Pharaos. 2. When they are used to designate character or qualities taken from the bearer of the proper name. Ex. Metne aux Nerons on doit Vobeissance, we must obey even (men like) the Neros. Louis fit des Boilea.ux — Auguste des Virgiles, Louis made (poets like) Boileaus — Augustus, Vir- gils. 3. When they are used to designate the works of the bearers of these proper names. Ex. Ce Musee possede deux Raphaels, that museum possesses two (paintings by) Piaphael. Les vrais Elzevirs sont rares, genuine (editions by the) Elzevirs are scarce. 22 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Exercise. My brother Las bought two Horaces, one in Latin and one in Eng- lish ; I bought for myself a fine Listory of the twelve Caesars, in four volumes, which are hound like my Virgils and my Juvenals. Great generals are forgotten, but the people will never forget the "Washingtons and the Lafayettes. The last of the Bourbons, who has yet a throne in Europe, is the Queen of Spain ; the Stuarts have long ceased to be a reigning family. The Christians taught the pagans to respect their rulers, and that we owe obedience even to men like Nero. It is a curious fact in the history of French literature that there were two Boileaus and two Racines. The Catos never travelled otherwise, Di ither alone nor with their armies. PLURAL Compound Noons are in Preoch only those which consist ot three words coooected with each other by a hyphen. Ex. J/----- /<-<•<'•/, rainbow | , funny story; * w rite the two component elements in one word, as fireman, pompier, and bookseller, French componnd nouns, which are not united by hyphens, but written in one word, are of coarse Bubject to the elemen< tary rales on the formation of the plural, and simply add an i to the i . librairtt, . i blemi d which n>lds n t<> iM.th parts ! The general principles which alone can guide foreigners safely in learning how to form the plural of compound nouns are NUMBER OF NOUNS. 23 f. Only such parts of a compound noun as are declinable when standing alone, can take the sign of the plural. Ex. desfausses clefs, false keys : adjective and noun. des chefs-lieux, principal towns : noun and noun. des vice-presidents, vice-presidents : noun only. des passe-partout, master keys : neither part. 2. Those parts only take the sign of the plural, which are used with a plural meaning. Ex. des arcs-en-ciel, rainbows ; del is not plural. des tete-a-tete, private interview ; tele is taken in the singu- lar meaning. Hence are obtained the fo'lowing rules : In compound nouns consisting of a noun and an adjective or a noun and a noun, without preposition, both parts take the sign of the plural. Ex. les francs-ma cons, the free-masons. les basses-cours, the poultry -yards. des choux-fleurs, cauliflowers. les chefs-lieux, the principal towns. Except the following : des Uanc-seings, blanks. des terre-pleins, platforms. des cJiemu-legers, liglithorse men. des Jwtels-dieu, hospitals (God's houses), and a few others of rare occurrence. Except, also, that the Adjective demi remains unchanged in compound nouns. Ex. des demi-7ieures, half-hours ; les demi-dieux, the demigods. Compound nouns, consisting of nouns connected by a pre- position, give the sign of the plural to the first only. Ex. des arcs-en-ciel, rainbows ; deux chefs d'eeuvre, two master- pieces ; les eaux-de-vie, the brandies ; des vers-a-soie, silkworms. Except des coq-d-l'dne, idle tales ; des pied-d-terre, temporarv residences ; des tete-d-tete, private interviews 2± OX THE PAETS OF A SENTENCE. Compound nouns consisting partly or wholly of indechna- ble parts of speech like adverbs, verbs or prepositions, take the sign of the plural only where it is admissible or not at all. Ex. les porte-huiliers (verb and noun), the castors. les avant-gardes (preposition and noun), the vanguards. des essuie-mains (verb and noun), the towels. des cure-dents (verb and noun), the toothpicks. des passe-partout (verb and preposition), master-keys. des pour-boin (preposition and verb), servants' fees. Except that when the mi-aning is not plural, even the declina- ble parts of such compound nouns will not take the sign of the plural. Ex. les ■■■ n U '■ , the night-caps (for <>m- head only). des i< alarm-clocks (the morning only). connter-poison (not against many poisons.) '1 1.- word garde, of frequent i ccurrence in compound nouns, - \ plural when it is the noun ff'trde, a keeper, but it remains anch^nged when it i- the verb irring to a thing. ic-ke spera. i-,>,.\ the screen (preserve-eight). [i ments, remain nn- _ I in the plural. 8 i< forman). ■ il ions 1 1 'ortuguese). itin). A list of certain compound nouns, with their plural appended, kin component parts of rare .: meaning : : I \K. l'Ui:\l.. marine aig butti Uants i ings lint.-t'M-K. /-"/'■ li 'hthone I'grrs NUMBER OF NOUNS. 25 SINGULAR. PLURAL. contre-danse cotillion contre-danses epine-vinette raspberry epines-vineties e/x-president (and others compounded with ex) [■ ex-president ex presidents fesfte-mathieu miser fesse-mathieu fier-diras bully fier-diras franc-alleu freehold francs-atteux franc-real a sort of pear francs-reals gomme-gutte gamboge gommes-guttes guet-apens ambush guets-apens grand'mere (and all others ) in which grand is fol- >• grandmother grand'mires lowed by an apostrophe) ) havre-sac knapsack havresacs loup-cervier lynx loups-cerviers loup-garou were-wolf loups-garous maitre-es-arts ) and others com- master of arts , V bined with &s . , , m%-careme \ or mi mid-lent maitres-es-arts mi-caremes nerf-ferure overreach nerfs-ferures orang-outang orang-outang orangs-outangs passe-port passport passe-ports pore-epic porcupine pores-epics pie-grieche speckled magpie pies-grieches semi-ton (and all combined with semi) \ > semi-tone semi-tons tragi-comedie tragi-comedy tragi-comedi-es vice-roi (and all combined with vice) >• viceroy nce-rois Exercise. Have you ever seen silkworms? they eat more voraciously than any other animals. These young ladies were his granddaughters, and there were two grandmothers in the house. We have lost the key to our room ; perhaps you have a master-key, with which we can open the door. Send the game-keepers and let them come up to-morrow early ; I want to go out shooting ; tell them especially to see if there are any hedgehogs in the garden ; I have never seen those animals. After the polonaise they danced several cotillions, and at last they 26 ON THE PAETS OF A SENTENCE. finished with a reel. Dandies are not contemptible, because they may be very good men ; but they are often very ridiculous. Have you heard that the thieves broke last night into the poultry -yards of our neighbors and stole all their fowls ? The vanguards of the two armies met when the rearguards were at the distance of twenty miles the one from the other. The masons of this country have done a great deal of good to both parties during the last war. PLURAL OF ABSTRACT NOUNS. Abstract Nouns which designate a quality, virtue or vice, a condition or a general idea, independent of any connection with actual life, can have no plural as long as they arc strictly used in that sense. Ex. La bonle nous rend aimables, kindness makes us agreeable ; la beauti passs, V esprit rate, beauty fades, wit remains; la re- eherehe da bonheur, tlie search after happiness; la chariU cut la pra/ticrc d,a vertus, charity is the first virtue. These same nouns are, however, frequently employed as common nouns, t<> designate Bpecial ads, tbe effects of such qualities <>r the actual results of general ideas, and then they appear in the plural form. K\. Elk >"'a eombU dc softie's, she has overwhelmed me with kind sets; U >j a de% bmtutie d» tout l< temps, there arc beauties for all seasons ; o bonheun tu l"i devons^nout patf how many momenta of bappinesa we owe him! faitet vo» chart tit m sservf, perform your charities in secret. CHAPTER II ART1CI IS. The three Articles wttch the French language employs for the purpose of defining accurately the extent of the significa- tion »>f nouns arc derived from other parts of speech, as the Latin, the original form of the Flench, possessed no such part ARTICLES. 27 of speech. There, on the contrary, the duty of the modern article was performed by the great variety of terminations, which formed the so-called declensions of Latin nouns. The complicated system of these varied and numerous forms was accessible neither to the dull ear of the barbarians, who con- quered the Roman Empire, nor to their uncultivated intellect. Hence the total loss of all inflections and the reduction of French nouns to one single form. The latter was now no longer capable of expressing case or number, and yet, as the newly formed language, arising from a mixture of Latin words with German forms, regained slowly its former power, a necessity arose for expressing the more delicate shades of meaning, and the relations which nouns had to other words in the same sen- tence. To supply the lost inflections, all the idioms that were descended from the Latin, the so-called Romance languages, began to place certain words before the nouns, which gradually fulfilled the same purpose. These were pronouns or numerals and prepositions. They took uniformly — 1. The Demonstrative Pronoun, Me, ilia, Mud, and placed it before the noun to give it a more definite meaning. By con- stant use it lost part of its substance when thus employed, and soon nothing was left but the forms now in use, le, la, V and les. Before these pronouns they placed the two prepositions de, of, and ad, to, which from the same frequency of joined use, combined and produced the forms du, de la, de V and des, au, a la, a V and aux. So that de Vhomme literally means de ille homo, of that man, and a, lafemme, ad ilia femina, to that woman. 2. The Numeral Adjective unus, una, unura, to give to the noun before which it was placed an indefinite meaning. This 28 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. also lost, with all other words, its termination, retaining onl)' for the feminine a mute e, and thus producing the forms u n, ttne, and with the same prepositions (Tun, (Tune, a un, a une, so that cCun homme is literally de units homo, of one man, and dune f< inme, de una femina, of one woman. This is the origin of the forms of the Definite and Indefinite Article. The Partitive Article consists, as has been shown in the 1 first Part of this Grammar, simply of the preposition ut, all, and the componnd nonna " ur, Afonrieur, ■ place the article after them- Ex. T»ut If mondt\ the whole world ; toute tannei, tli«> whole vear; Monneur le Prendent^ Mr. President ; Madame led f«>r the occasion as nouns. Ex. Vavart Ut misinit,!,, misers are unhappy (Adjective). Lt manger >t l< boirt, drinking and eating (Verb). R demand* I' j aaka whv (Adverb). U8K OF Till IMiUMIE AICTI. IK. The Indefinite A: I in French as in English, when- ever a vague, indefinite meaning is to be given to the noun. Ex. ATOM * OV0M Ml »u toUat, wr saw a soldier. Y a-t-il KM t'ylise ' is there a church there 1 ARTICLES. 31 It supplies the place of the partitive article, when a quality, virtue or vice is taken in a partitive sense and qualified by an adjective or other word following it. Ex. Get homme a du talent, that man has talent (Partitive Article). Cet homme a un talent remarquable, that man has re- markable talent. II montre un grand courage, he shows great courage. It is used, also, with the meaning of the English a certain hind of, when the noun is accompanied by an adjective. Ex. Nous y avons bu un vin delicieux, we drank there a de- licious (kind of) wine. II fit tin temps atroce, it was horrible weather. Exercise. Poverty is often the fruit of vice, but wealth is rarely the result of wisdom. Men are credulous, they believe every story that is told them with an air of authority. Bad books are often more dangerous than bad men ; they have subtle poison in their most charming pages. These laws give encouragement to industry, and agriculture is not neglected. Children are often unhappier than they appear, for griefa and sorrows are not measured by years. Youth is a happy age, but it passes away swifter than all other seasons of our life. Patience is one of those virtues which it is most difficult to acquire. Do you like strawberries ? I like raspberries better, but I cannot procure any at this season of the year ; spring is the only season when we have an abundance of them. The husband teaches mathematics and the wife music, but who teaches Latin and Greek ? Wine is very dear, and therefore beer is recommended by many physicians, but I like wine best. If we wish to distinguish truth from falsehood we must be very prudent, for fiction is often stranger than truth. Weak men are governed by their passions, and good men endeavor to follow princi- ples ; but men generally act more by impulse than from conviction. Young children are exposed to many dangers, yet, how many escape ! Life is a joy in youth, a duty in later years, and a burden in old age. 32 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. USE OF THE PAKT1T1VE Alt IICLIC. The Partitive Article serves to designate some part of a species, some individuals of a class, or some portions of a whole. As there is ho such article in English, the end is here obtained by the use of some and any, or by the suppression of the article, leaving some or any to be understood. Ex. Tax du pain et du frontage, I have (some) bread and cheese. Voulcz-vous de la crtme / will you take (some) cream 1 Nous n\umcs pas de chevaux, we had uo (not any) horses* II a moittre de la eagesse, he has shown (some) wisdom. Avez-rous du the et da cafe .' have you any tea and coffi The difference between this article and the definite article i- especially striking, when verb- like manger, toea^ooire, to drink, prendre, to take, I by their object. Ex. Prem i-wmt du tl i ' do yoa take tea I Prensz-vout U titff do you eat suj The partitive art: adjectives and in uces. Ex. H ■! a '■'• 6 '"/j" el rses there. de pain, we has.- no bread. ITeut-il j id he no < reditorel KxEliriSK. Bare patience and you •will overcome all these diffleoHlei me breed and b a tt e r and I want do eake Do yon take tea <>r uii eel ■ sapper, bal I like tea better than e any Mends with berl I know- thai she lias no for everybody hues h»»r; but there ore always envi rnv. and I had no i bnl he said he had n bread. Do yoa Bke rmujI wlneal Dome and 1 will give you iu order to try my wine. II.- has shown seme courage la this affair, ARTICLES. 33 bat I expected that he would also nave prudence. Are there any slaves in that country 2 There are no slaves there now, they have given them their liberty. I have seen men who had never known fear, but I have always doubted their courage. I wish I had pens, ink and paper, I would write letters to all my friends ; I have leisure now, and to-morrow I shall have work to do during the whole day. They have shown profound wisdom in the management of their affairs if we had had experience we would have succeeded. The rule that the partitive article consists of de only before adjectives, does not apply to compound nouns, consisting of an adjective and a noun, because here the former is a part of the noun itself. Ex. Ce sont des petits-maitres, they are dandies. JYous connaissohs des franc macons, we know some frea masons. Nor to adjectives, used as nouns. Ex Y a-t-il du nouveau? is there any news ? Melez du rouge et du bleu, mix some red and blue. The partitive article is, in a few instances, expressed in English by some of the, all of which is rendered by du, etc., only. Ex. Donnez-moi du doux, give me some of the sweet (wine). Aurez-vous des dores ? will you have some of tbe gilt 1 Exercise. Will you not buy good lemons ? they are fresh and better than lemons are generally. The children are going to have new aprons, and their mother will buy linen for them. He told us long stories about the war, and wonderful adventures through which he had passed. We received them with hesitation, for although he loves Truth generally, he sometimes tells things which are not strictly true. Do you like novels, or do you think they do harm to young people ? This author shows that he has imagination, but he lacks judgment. That man has bad children and he does not punish them, although 3i ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. lie knows that bad examples are pernicious. Do you not think that even soldiers are tired of long wars ? The Prussian troops have, bet- ter guns than the Austrians, but these have more experienced gen- erals. When he sat down at table he found himself surrounded by children and grandchildren, sons-in-law and daughters-in-law. The partitive article resumes its full form, du, de la, de T, and des after negative verbs, when they arc used interroga- tively at the same time. This is also the case when the nega- tive is not absolute, but only added with regard to the object of the verb. Ex. Ne juuez pas dts airs trop lonys, do not play too long tunes. Je ne vous do nne r ai pas da vers, I will give you no verses. N^a-t tl pas du amis qui puissent venir a sou aide? has he no friends that could come to his aid .' JPsurent-ellespasdesehapeauxf did they Dot wear bonnets? The partitive article is altogether suppressed, for the sake of euphony, when it is piece. led by the preposition de. Ex. La deposition de {des) tfmoins subomfa\ the evidence of bribed witnesses. On lui donna du vinaigre au lieu d'eau, they gave him vinegar inatead of water. Je dSelars mfaveur c/< biert\ I declare in favor of beer. THEAKTICLE WITH CERTAIN CLASSES OF NOUN& I.— with PBOPXB NAMI.S. Proper Names, m has already been seen in the chapter on nouns, take no article us long as they are Deed as genuine proper names. l.\. '' trop tdt ; Caesar waa killed too soon. 11 rraawwfr/i uu j Alexandre du Nerd, Charles XII. was the Alexander of the North. Cest tin vrai Caton, he is a real Cato. Donnez-moi le Virgile annote, give me the (copy of) Virgil with notes. Ou est V Horace de monjrere ? where is my brother's Horace ? Tai vendu le Guide que vous avez vu, I have sold the (painting by) Guido which you saw. Italian artists and writers are, after the manner of their country, spoken of with the article. Female singers also are thus quoted. Ex. Le Tasse est VHomere de Vltalie, Tasso is the Homer of Italy. Le Michel Ange n'aurait pas mieux/ait, Michael Angelo could not have done better. La Grisi va reparaitre, Madame Grisi is going to perform again. Proper names, preceded by titles, require the article before the latter, contrary to English usage. Ex. Le General Washington et les deputes, General Wash- ington and the Representatives. Oil est le docteur N. ? where is Dr. K? The article is also required before adjectives which qualify proper names, except Saint, which is considered as forming part of the name itself. Ex. Allez chercher le jeune Pierre, go and look for young Peter. OUt est done la petite Marie? where is little Mary ? Cest la fete de St. Jean, this is St. John's day. Exekcise. Marshal Lannes was the friend of the Emperor Napoleon and received many favors from his patron. Doctor Johnson was one of the first writers of England, and one of her most remarkable men. Have you read the history of Cardinal Woolsey, of his brilliant career, and his 36 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. sudden downfall ? I went to see poor James and his sick brother to-day ; they were both very sad. King Richard went to the Holy Land, and when he returned he was made prisoner by his enemy, the Duke of Austria. "Where is young Lewis now ? I have not seen him for many years ; he and pretty Mary came every day to my house, and brought me a bouquet of flowers. II. — WITH THE NAMES OF COUNTRIES AND CITIES. The names of Countries are used in French with the definite article. a. When the countries are taken as a whole, or in any way individualized, as by ascribing to them certain qualities or t'une- tions. Ex. La France est i> J MR in M.-x. II< in-, all •' - Dion, lee State-Unit, an accon> panicd by thf ar . Kx. J' '/ • from Maine t . . T< nia and Booth Carolina; (V vitnt d> la -.1 Louisiana. The names of coantri without the article — a. When "ii'.v a part, and not the whole, is referred to. E\. // '/■ /. r y<-/i. ARTICLES. 37 b. When they are used to qualify another noun in the man- ner of an adjective. Ex. Les rois de France en faisaient de meme, the kings of France (French kings) did the same. II pre/ere le tubac d?J£s- pagne, he prefers Spanish tobacco. Achetez-vous du colon d'Amerique ? do you buy American cottou ? The names of Cities take no article, when they are genuine proper names. Ex. Londres est plus grand que Paris, London is larger than Paris. II y a leplus beau musee a Dresde, there is a most beautiful museum at Dresden. // demeure a Vienne, he lives in Vienna. The prepositions in and at with the names of cities are both rendered, in French by a, unless they have the meaning of within, when it is dans. Ex. Qui est votre banquier a Paris t who is your banker in Paris ? II mourut d Naples, he died at Naples. La Revolution etait dans Paris, the revolution was in (inside of) Paris. But when they are made like common nouns, they are ac- companied by the arjicle. Ex. Le Havre de Grace (harbor of refuge) est un grand port, Havre is a large port. Nous irons a la Nouvelle Orleans, we shall go to New Orleans. La Haye est une grande ville en Hol- lande, The Hague is a large city in Holland. Exercise. Italy is truly the garden of Europe, and Norway the most sterile of all countries. Prussia and Austria are old and bitter enemies, but France induced them to make war against each other for her own benefit. The Pyrenees separate France from Spain and the Alps from Italy. I had lived ten years in Germany, when I emigrated to the United States and settled in North Carolina. Michigan is a pen insula, surrounded by great lakes and traversed by railroads. We landed at Havre, when we first came to France, and from thence we went to La Rochelle, where we remained two years ; after that we lived in Lyons and Marseilles. Have you ever been in New Orleans ? It is not the capital of Louisiana. The Bourbons were at one time kings of France, of Spain, and of Naples ; now the Queen of Spain is 38 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. the only member of that family on a throne. He likes Burgundy wines better than any other ■nines ; for my part, I prefer Italian wines, and after them, the light French wines. The goldsmiths melt down Spanish dollars and French crowns. Iir. — WITH THE NAMES OF MONTHS AND DAYS. The names of Months in definitions of time are never used with the article, but accompanied by the preposition en, even when there is no preposition used in English. Ex. // arrivera ici in Aoid procltain, he will reach here next August ; la balaille fat livree en Jain, the battle was fought in June; nous y resterons jusqu'en Avril, we shall stay there till April. The names of Days, used as definitions of time, have no article nor preposition before them. Ex. Elk fit ici dimanche, she was here on Sun. lav ; nous nous reverrotu mereredi prochain, we shall meet again on next Wednesday. The addition of the Definite Article gives the meaning either — a. Of a definite day of that name. Ex II nit prit h Lundi >t il eckappa U Mardi, he was taken on Monday and escaped on Tuesday; je I'ai vu I, Vendredi Saint, 1 saw him Oti Good Friday. /.. Or of every t" the name of the day. K\. /.■ umrrier arrive U Jeudi, the mail comes on every Thursday. A & Samedi \ a name <>r a designation it will be accompanied, as in English, by the indefinite or the partitive article. K\. i' \ ' ,. ■•■■ eti n„ ffercttfy that man is a Hercules. I .,.,(,',.-•, those young ladies are i /./A r&pon \Multe t such an answer is an insult. With the third person singular odtn the aubjeel is, in such i .i bj a and not bj it. \.\. i | drunkard. C'itltit uurfmnne , ,i y , i, a pen, she was a woman Buch as there ale few ; .... praii amit^ they are your true friends, K\ki:i iss, [talian t<> him, us he is an Italian; it' ho oriog teee, i could ool do the aune, us I dislike Portugaeafi ■ ;,.,[ CsinOenS, the uuilmr of ARTICLES. 41 the Lusiades, or you would not say that. Do you see those two ladies? They were nuns, but they have escaped from Cosenza, a famous convent ; now they are ladies of the great world, without that awkwardness, the effect of long seclusion. He was a man of genius and of great merit, and when he was chosen Governor of the State, the citizens were rejoiced at it. I thought you were a Spaniard, but I have learned since that you are a German. That man deserves no respect ; he is a gambler and leads a disreputable life. She is an excellent woman, and I hope that she will earn a livelihood ; she has been appointed governess to the Queen's children. He would have been a captain if he had not been a drunkard. V. WITH NOUNS OF MEASURE. The definite article is used in French with nouns, express- ing measurement in weight, time or money, where the English uses the indefinite article or a preposition. Ex. Coffee costs twenty cents a pound, le cafe coute vinyt sous la livre. We pay him ten dollars a week, nous lui payons dix dollars la semalne. Four times a year, quatrefois Van. Give them three francs for each person, donnez-leur trois francs la per Sonne. Exercise. These men agreed to work for a dollar a day, but they ask now ten dollars a week, which is nearly two dollars a day. How do you sell your coffee ? I can tell you some for thirty cents a pound or for ninety dollars a bag. The mail used to arrive here twice a week ; now we get it five times a week. I see him twice a day, in the morning at breakfast and at night before going to bed. I will give you twenty- one pounds per barrel, if you can sell me a hundred and twenty each year. These engravings were very cheap ; they only cost twelve cents a piece or ten dollars a hundred. There was one pineapple for each person, but several guests did not eat that dangerous fruit. 42 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Per cent, is translated in French by pour cent. Ex. I will pay you ten per cent., Je vouapayerai diz pour ant. The English usage of employing names of relationship, like father, mother, etc., without any article, is inadmissible in French. There the possessive pronoun is used before such words. Ex. Father says it is so, monpere dit que e'en est ainsi. Where is uncle gone to ? voire oncle, ou est-il alle ? Call sister at once, appdez votre sueur de suite. The English usage of employing the preposition to in terms expressive of blood or business relations and the like, is also not found in French. The preposition de is used in all such cases. Ex. He is physician to tlie Queen, r\s( U medecitt de In Rein*. He was appointed architect to the Institute, on Ca noav i/u' urc/uhctc de FZlUtUut, EnBOzax. Brother said he would never consent to the captain's marriage with slater, because she was too young yet It la considered a great honor in England to be appointed physician to the Queen. She is the only heir to iliut iiiiinriisr property, tor the prince, s man of genius, but v.ry miserly, bad acquired vast i states in Spain and in Portugal. What dot .- mothi r say to this extraordinary Brent ! THE OMISSION OF THE ABTICLE, Lrticle is omitted before Nouns, contrary to the general principle that every noon in French must be preceded l>y aa article <»r its equivalent, in the following cases: • 1. In addressing peaaona <>r things, by apostrophe. Ex, Homme ijui tu SOU, man, whoever thou art; jUurt c/uirmni.tis, qui urntz la campujuc .' charming llowers, adorning the field* ! ARTICLES. 43 2. To give greater energy to animated style, as e. g. in enumerating several persons or objects, in proverbial expres- sions, etc. Ex. Je ne trouve par tout que lache fatlerie, Qu 1 injustice, interet, trahison, fourberie. Everywhere I meet with nothing but mean flattery, Injustice, selfishness, treachery, dishonesty. Plus fait douceur que violence, we can do more by gentle means than by violence. Contentement passe richesse, contentedness is better than riches. 3T. In giving titles to books and addresses of persons. Ex. Preface. Reflexions generales. II demeure rue Piccadilly f Quartier St. James, a Londres. He lives in Piccadilly, St. James', London. 4. After the following conjunctions and adverbs: ni, soit, jamais and tout, when the nouns following them are used in a partitive sense. Ex. Le sage n'a ni amour ni haine, wise men know neither love nor hatred ; soit inspiration de Dieu, soit erreur de Phomme, either divine inspiration or human error ; jamais, peut-etre, his- torien n'a ete plus attrayant, never perhaps was a historian more attractive ; tout est vanite, all is vanity. The indefinite article used in English after what is omitted in French. Ex. Quel liomme ! what a man ! Quelle aventure ! what an adventure ! Exercise. Man, whoever thou art, remember, wlien pride tempts thee, that thy existenee was a play of Nature, that life is but a play of Fate, and that thou wilt soon be the play of Death ! When Flechier spoke of him in his sermon he said : Citizens, foreigners, enemies, nations, kings, emperors, weep for him and revere him ! Nations, praise the Lord ! Why do you not speak, brother John, are you sick ? He gave me a list of the books, which he had lent you : Voltaire's novels, La 44 ON THE PABTS OF A SENTENCE. Fontaine's Fables, Boileau's Poems and Flt'chier's Funeral Sermons. I saw written on this sheet of paper, French Exercises, but I think it was a letter. What a beautiful landscape! It is the loveliest I have ever seen in all my journeyings. He did it unconsciously ; and his motive was neither ignorance nor malice. Never has general earned a purer renown and never were battles fought more carefully. Every thing was confusion and terror, and never was nation more seriously frightened. The Article is omitted also, when a noun forms with another part of speech such :i close union as to represent but one idea. This is done by joining a Noun — 1. To another Noun, which it qualifies after the manner of an adjective, thus forming a compound noun. The union ia shed by means of the preposition de or « or en, after which, then, no articlo is used. Ex. nnc cloche (Talarme, an alarm-bell. ni,r brone .• afraid. • • be thirsty. take leave. porter lence. ::. To a Prej oeition, by which union a. Kerbs are made. Ei. en rffi t, in par force, fore life, immedi If th<- purpose is nut to form an adverb, but if e. g. thr> noaa . from the preposition by an adjective, the general rnleapi and^tne article must be supplied I . bravely ; aoee "" grand r. , \<\ superior tone. article is, also, emitted for euphony's sake before the two ARTICLES. 45 adjectives dicers and different, to avoid the immediate repetition of two d's. Ex. Nous awns employe differents moyens, we have used differ- ent means; diverses personnes me Vont recommande, various people have recommended him to me. Exercise. Soldiers, this day of glory has been crowned with complete success ; continue fb serve your country zealously and courageously and you will restore peace to your fellow citizens. Let us receive them with politeness, for Machiavelli, an Italian writer, says we must treat our enemies as if they might become our friends, and our friends as if they might become our enemies. We were hungry and thirsty, but she was even more thirsty than the others. Different persons use different words, for some think with rapidity, others with grave con- sideration. "Windmills are unknown in this country, but steam-mills are not rare. Have you any coffee-cups or teacups in your sideboard ? I would like a cup of tea before supper, for I am quite exhausted ENGLISH" COMPOUND NOUNS IN FRENCH. English Compound Nouns are generally made by uniting simply two nouns in one and writing them in one word, as penman, nightcap, windmill, &c. In French a preposition is required to unite the two nouns, and this preposition varies according to the precise relation in which, according to the meaning, one noun stands to the other. That noun which qualifies the other is placed after it, and is, as has been stated above, not preceded by an article, because it forms with the first but one idea, that of the new compound. The prepositions which serve for this purpose are principally en, a and de, which are used in the following manner: The preposition en expresses the material of which the first noun is made, and this only in such cases where special atten- tion is called to the substance — in ordinary cases de suffices. 46 ON" THE PAETS OF A SENTENCE. Ex. Cette coupe est en or, et point en argent dore, this cup is of gold, and not of silver gilt. Une grille en bronze cotiterait plus qii'une grille en fer, a bronze railing would cost more than an iron railing. Une eglise en pierre taillee, a church built of cut rock. The preposition a expresses — 1. The purpose for which the first noun is intended. Ex. Une tasse a the et un verre a rin, a teacup and a wine-glass. (Test u» moulin a farine, this is a flour-mill. Des b&teaux u vapeur, a voiles, a mines, steamers, sailing- Is, rowboats. 2. The main characteristic by which the first noun ia distin- guished from others of the same class. Ex. J*ai etc mania par un serpent a sonnettes, I have been bitten by a rattlesnake. 'ii homme t conveyed by en and /">•. Will von take ;i eup of tea or of coffee f Voulet-vou in.' Urns '/' the" mi de ea/i f If the second nonn should express something that enters into the composiuoa of the first) it retains, in its meaning, its inde- pendence, and will, then fore, have to be preceded by the arti- cle, siii'-'- it does not produce a new idea, nor form a genuine Compound noun. Ex. Vbus aura >< t huttres << omelette aux eon- fitureSf you shall have oyster soup and an omelet with prosenri -. ARTICLES. 47 Donnez-moi un pot de pommade au jasmin, give me a box of pojnatum of jasmine. Des tableaux a Vhuile et au pastel, oil paintings and pas- tel paintings. English compound nouns have occasionally a present par- ticiple for their first part. According to the rules on the use of prepositions, they can only be followed by the Infinitive, and this is, therefore, the form that must be given to these par- ticiples. Ex. He wants a frying-pan, il luifaut un poele afrire. They are in the dining-room, Us sont dans la salle a manger. In English, the words man, woman, boy and girl are often used in compound nouns to designate the vendor of the article expressed by the first noun. In French, marchand or marchonde are used for this purpose. Ex. Here comes the milkman with his bells, voila le marchand de lait avec sa sonnette. The little apple-girl did not come to-day, la petite mar- ckande de pommes n'est pas venue aujourdhui. In English compound nouns the first part is left in the singular number, although it may have a plural meaning. No such anomaly exists in French, where the noun takes its proper form. Ex. A five-dollar bill, un billet de cinq dollars. Where is the ox-stall ? oil est Vetable a boeufs ? Exercise. It is strange for so rich a man to wear a silver watch, and especially when it is fastened to a costly gold chain. The fashion for this sum- mer is to wear silk dresses, straw bonnets and thread gloves ; in win- ter I prefer buckskin gloves. They stole all our silver spoons, and we were compelled for some days to use iron spoons, which we found with uur servants. Have you ever drunk goat's milk ? It is very rich, but ■iS OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. the odor is unpleasant. "When the enemy entered the town, one man ran out with a table-knife, another with a kitchen-knife in his hand ; but everybody had a weapon. He has in his store excellent printing- paper, but he has no fine letter-paper. I would like to give you some wine, but I have not a wine-glass nor any glass in the house ; the dwelling-house was burnt, and this is nothing but a tool-house, which serves me for a week. She hid the note in the dining-room on the tea table under a flower-pot, and we were all looking for it in the sleeping-rooms up stairs. Steamers and screws of every kind cross the Atlantic during the whole year, and some are iron vessels ; sailing- ships and wooden vessels diminish constantly in number. I saw in Venice two beautiful alabaster columns before the high altar of an old church ; they arc far more beautiful than marble pillars. Are these really gold chandeliers, <>r is it only an imitation in silver? I can give you a ten-dollar bill, if you can repay me to-morrow; I cannot pay my hill at tl and I owe a one money to the sign-painter. Dave you ever heard a charcoal-man in London? his cry is very peculiar. MONBIEl'R, MADAME, ETC. When it became the custom to address persons by some title expressive of reverence, the nations tint bad spoken Latin emplo v the wo ler, for that purpose. its full form is in French preserve 1 in the Boftened word seigneur, which still holds the preeminence as "the Lord" by excellence. Ex. v S hrist, This was united to the \ essive pronoun and formed the title Monmgneur, formerly given to the princes of the royal I and still bestowed on very high personages, such us Cardinals. , however, proved too long and camber- t'..r daily use and soon dwindled down into Sieur, which wu formei it now occurs only in legal docu- r .V. X. fit eiti de pa . ■■ . Mr. N N. u summoned t" a] IhbsMwr again was still farther shortened into wr, which ARTICLES. 40 also, once very generally used, is now strictly confined to sover- eign rulers. Ex. Sire, les sujets de Voire Mujeste la felicilent, Sire, the subjects of your Majesty congratulate you. Through the Norman French, finally, this sire became familiar to the English people, by whom it was reduced to its present form of sir, now the universal title given to man. In like manner was the word domina, lady or mistress, chosen to address women, and with it a spurious diminutive form, do- micella, little lady. Softened and slightly changed, these words have become dame and demoiselle, and are in this form used together with sieur. All four words are habitually combined with the possessive pro- nouns mon, ma, and mes, and thus produce the words Monseigneur. and Messeigncurs, Monsieur and Messieurs, Madame and Mes- dames, Mademoiselle and Mesdemoiselles. As the use of these words is somewhat different from English words of the kind, the following rules will be given : Monsieur and Messieurs are used — 1. Before proper names, like the English Mr. and Messrs. Ex. Connaissez-vous Mr. Lefebvre ? do you know Mr. Le- febvre ? Cette lettre est adressee a M.M. Blond & Vie., this letter is directed to Messrs. Blond & Co. 2. Without a name, like the English Sir ;ind Gentlemen, in addressing others. Ex. Monsieur, je ne vous comprends pas, Sir, I do not under- stand you. Mais, Messieurs, vous demandcz trop. but, Gentlemen, you ask for too much. 3. With the article or pronoun, like the English gentleman and gentlemen, to designate persons as such. Ex. Ext-ce un monsieur, qui desire me voir? is it a gentler man who wants to see me ? 50 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. // y eut plus de dames que de messieurs, there were more ladies there than gentlemen. Ce tnonsieur-la pourrait vous le dire, that gentleman there might be able to tell you. Monsieur does not express the English gentleman, -when this has any other meaning, but that of man in contrast with child or woman. When gentleman is used to express a man of good manners, well- dressed, etc., the French say un hommt cornnu Ufaut,& man as he onght to be. When it is used to convey the idea of a man of high principles and sterling character, they say un h. nr, a man of honor. Madam* and Mesdetmet are used — 1. Before proper name?, like the English Mrs. and the plural. Ex. Mine. Vieuztemp* oA demeure-t-elle f where does Mrs. Vieuxtemps live I - Vi irdot, that Bchool is kepi by the ladies Viardot •_'. Without a name, like the English Madam and Ladies in addressing ol Ex. '4 bonies, Madam, yon over- whelm me with kindness, Wesdamn ■. please follow me, ladies. The v. . ;.] ladies, ased in speaking not t<> but of third persons, are rendered by dorm and dames without the . •• pronoun, Ex. I t que vont-elles /aire ? just look at those ladies, w bat ar 1 thej aboul ! CetU ''/', that lady seems to know me. M ds( '1 precisely in the same way u \ia I ai d bf im, but apply only to unmar- ried ladies, without regard t<> their Ex. ./'<" Vhonm i 1/ /I have the bo of speaking to Miss B ARTICLES. 51 Je ne saurai rim vous refuser, Mademoiselle, I can refuse you nothing, young lady. The simple word demoiselle and its plural, are used to desig- nate unmarried ladies. Ex. Sa soeur est encore demoiselle, his sister is still unmarried. Les dames attendront id; les mariees de ce cote, les demoiselles de Vautre, the ladies will wait here — the married ladies on this side, the unmarried on that. All three forms, Monsieur, Madame and Mademoiselle, and their plurals, are in French prefixed to titles of dignity and of relationship, the latter, however, only when referring to rela- tives of the person to whom we speak. Ex. Monsieur le comte est parti ce matin, the count left this morning. Madame la baronne est-elle ches elle ? is the baroness at home ? Messieurs les Senateurs se sont rassembles, the Senators have reassembled. Comment se porte Mme, voire mere ? how is your mother ? J'ai vu Mesdemoiselles vox soeurs qui viennent de rentrer. I have seen your sisters who have just come back. The same words are used occasionally instead of the pro- nouns, as expressions of extreme politeness, from motives of great courtesy or of bitter irony. Ex. Monsieur voudrait-il me rendre ce service ? could you render me this service ? Madame n'est-elle pas Francaise ? are you not French, Madam ? On ne saurait rendre trop de graces a Monsieur, we cannot be too grateful to you, Sir. Que Madame ne sefdche, on s'en va de ce pas, do not get angry, Madam, T am going at once. 52 OX THE PAET3 OF A SEETTENCE. Exercise. I know these ladies, but they do not know me ; two of them were the same young ladies we met last night after the opera. lie intro- duced me to two gentlemen from Mexico, who are here on a political in, with a letter from the Cardinal. Here are seats for the ladies, but where are you going to place the gentlemen - .' A man who can act thus is not a gentleman, -whatever may be his wealth and his social position. Who was it that rang the bell : was it a beggar or a gentleman'.' It was your father, Sir. accompanied by jrour grandmother. Did y>>u meet your sisters, Madam', they were taking a walk by the sea-shore. When he had done this, he said in a low tone: Captain. I am s^rry for it, and I beg your pardon. Doctor, 1 wish you would have the kii le and see my daughter; she is now witli ynur -wife, and awaits your return with impatience, bays met your mother in Paris; the young': well and enjoyed the pleasures of that great audbrilliimt d v. CHAPTER III _ <'at principle which determines the form under which ippcara in a - tlii- : that the Adjective, being, tfa '■• ''li it in it ii. , |j( ctivo or noon stand tide l-v -id«- or are ach other; if in meaning i i:i form. ben they are little. that part which i: M.j i high. ADJECTIVES. 53 lis portaient des bus (M.) de sole (F.) blancs (M.), they used to wear white silk stockings. Dovtus-moi une brosse (S.) a afente (P.) molle (S.), give me a soft tooth-brush. A few adjectives appear to be exceptions to this fundamental rule, but the exceptions are only apparent, and the non-agree- ment of these adjectives with their nouns is easily explained. They are the following : 1. JVu, demi and feu, under certain circumstances, remain unchanged before feminine or plural nouns. J\ ~u, bare, is placed before nouns, connected with them by a hyphen, and forms, then, so far a part of the noun that it re- mains unchanged. If it is placed after a noun, it becomes again a common adjective, subject to the rule. Ex. On Va vu qui marckait nu-tete et nu-pieds, he has been seen walking bare-headed and bare-footed. II avail la tete nue et point de gants, his head was bare and he had no gloves. 2. Demi, half, is in like manner prefixed to nouns, and then forms part of them. When separated, it is declined like all adjectives. Ex. Restez ici une demi-keure jicsqu'd mon reiour, stay here half an hour until I return. Un homme issu d'un sang fecond en demi-dieux, a man born of a race fertile in demigods. Le discours a dure une heure et demie, the speech lasted an hour and a half. Demi may also sometimes be used before adjectives, as demi- mort, half dead, bat generally its place is supplied by a moitie, or d demi, because in these cases it becomes a genuine adverb. When half is repeated, it is rendered by moitie. Ex. Le drapeau est moitie rouge moitie Mane, the flag is half white half red. 51 ON THE PAETS OF A SENTENCE. Half before a noun is expressed, when not forming-, as demi, part of the noun, by d moitie. Ex Apres le drome "u est admU J moitie prix, after the drama, ad- mittance at half price. Feu, late, is used either before the article or after it; in the former case it remains unchanged, in the latter, which occurs when we wish to distinguish a deceased person from a living one of the same rank or name, it is declined. Ex. J'ui out dire a feu hat tour, 1 have heard my late sistOI /. 'en usaii pas rrr,„i//< la Reine actuelle, the late Queen did Dot act like the present Queen. _'. Cfrand, great, in its feminine form, grunde, is occasionally used as part of a compound noun. It is then written orantP and remains nucha! Ex. II y aura deux graruTft . there will be two il holidays this month. Tl ports trots grand? voiles aux grand 'vergues, she carries .! the mainyards, quent expressions of this kind : ' s, grandmother. . bard labor. 1. ar. ■ ■ inch, Qrand'rus, main street banger. < I ball ' laid. i Ktreme thirst. \ postpaid, is used adverbially, and then re- ma 08 tin.': itlVO it is BUbject to the •_ ■ ttres, 1 lia\e you, prepaid, all y>ur lettres. 1 ut apporta /• deux lettres frauche* i mail brought you onl\ two prepaid lctt< rs. !. ci-joint, enclosed, y oem- i, although participles, and ADJECTIVES. 55 as such subject to the same rules as adjectives, remain un- changed when they are used as adverbs, before their nouns. Ex. Excepte ces cas, il rCy a pas de difference, except in these cases, there is no difference. Ces cas sont exceptes, these cases are excepted. Vous trouverez ci-joint deux lettres cacketees, you will find enclosed two sealed letters. Beaucoup and peu, being adverbs, cannot be used for many and few as adjectives, but their place is supplied by rare and nombreux. Ex. True friends are few, les vrais amis sont rares. The book is good but its faults are many, le livre est bort, mais les f antes sont nombreuses. A large number of adjectives are used adverbially in French, i. e., without any change of form. They are mainly such as express an impression made upon the senses, like haut, loud, bus, low, bon, good, and mauvais, bad (of odor), vite, quick, lent, slow, and those representing languages, Erancais, French, Anglais, English, etc. Being true adverbs in these cases, where they qualify, not a noun but a verb, they remain unchanged. Ex. Elle chante trop bas pour une sulle de concert, she sings too low for a concert-room. Paries done plus haut, on ne vous entend pas, speak louder, they do not hear you. r Allez vite chercher le medecin, go quickly for the doctor. II parle Italien, Espagnol, et deux autres langues, he speaks Italian, Spanish and two other languages. Adjectives of color, finally, are sometimes nothing else but nouns used adverbially. In that case they remain unchanged,, the expression being evidently elliptical and the words couleur de, color of, supplied in mind. Ex. Elle avait une robe rouge et des rubans marron, she had on a red dress and chestnut colored ribbons. 56 OX THE PARTS OF A BENTBNCE. II parte toujours des gants paille, he always wears straw colored gloves. Exercise. I went to my tailor and told kirn to make me a dress-coat of hit. bust black cloth. St. Louis carried a crown of tliorns, barefooted and bareheaded, from the wood of Vincennes to Xotre-Dame. I waited there half an hour, and I would have waited an hour and a half, but ii after my arrival. Two pounds and a half of meat make a very good Boap, especially if you have an abundance of vegetables. was as well as the late princess of Conti among those who flattered themselves with this hope. He has studied three years and a half in some of the German universities. The Spanish flag is half r.'d ani half yellow, the French flag is the tricolor. He is much to 1h- pitied, for, although thi Lb ruin are many, such cae honesty as his are few. It is an order of the Gods, that ia never broken, that they sell as very dear the gifts which they make if you walk fast, y< . take him, but when yon I <>r he will nol hoar you. These flowen smell had ; I wish you w< uld bring me some that smell good. COMPol NI» 1DJB0TIVX8. ound Adjecl I of two adjectives connected, lik<- compound nouns, by a hyphen. The manner in which with the noun they qualify depends not on their form but on their meaning. [f both adj . both will agree with it. 1\. .V des perdrix grisea blanches, we have in this country white and gray partridges. If <■: the latter alone is declined. . this field has thin. - in it. i piupart meurt, of new-born children the majority ADJECTIVES. 57 If the two adjectives qualify each other, which is the case in adjectives of color, both remain unchanged. Ex. J'aime beaucoup la sole bleu-clair, I am very fond of lioditrblue silk. ADJECTIVES QUALIFYING SEVERAL NOUNS. The manner in which adjectives that qualify two or more nouns agree with the kvter, is determined by the following rules : An adjective which qualifies two or more nouns of the same gender is put in the plural and agrees in gender with them. Ex. Le riche et Vindigent sont sujets a la mfcme lot, rich and poor are subject to the same law. J" 1 admire sa douceur et son egalite d' 'esprit merveilleuses, I admire her marvellous gentleness and equanimity. If the nouns are of different gender, the adjective is put in the plural masculine, but care is taken to place the masculine noun nearest to the adjective. Ex. // avail sa vie el son bonheur attaches au succes, his life and his happiness depended on success. J\vi trouve ma plume et mon papier gates, I found paper and pen spoilt. An adjective placed after several nouns which are syno- nyms, agrees with the last only. Ex. Touie sa vie iHa ele qii'un travail, qiCune occupation con- tinue, all his life has been but one continued work and labor. Le fer, le bandeau, la flamme est toute prtte, the sword, the bandage, the pile is quite ready. An adjective qualifying two nouns, connected by a conjunc- tion so as to exclude one another, appears in the plural mascu- line. Ex. II y a un homme ou une femme ages, there is an old man or an old woman. 58 OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. ADJECTIVES USED AS NOUNS. Many French adjectives can be used as nouns by the simple addition of the article. Their form will be that of the noun which is understood. Ex. Le saye (Thomme sage) se sert des fous jyour alter a ses fins, the wise man uses the fool to attain his end. Unecoupable (femme coupable) aimee est bientot iunocente, a beloved criminal is easily (thought) innocent Les menteurs les plus grands duent le vrai quelquefois t the greatest liars tell the truth sometimes. Attention must be had, however, to the fact that in French, aa in English, not all adjectives can be used as nouns alike ; some r\ ate men only, as l> riche, the rich, lepauvre, the poor, le notr then ■, the white man, h sage, the wise man, Vavare^ the miser, while others designate abstract qualities only, as U beau, the beautiful, U prat, all that is true, le faux, all that is latter, expressing abstract ideas, cannot take the plural form. Km RCXBS. Yuur brot] ■ ra are present, but your mother has not yet c in ; how long "Hi she ox your father i»- aheent v The \»»n and tin- rich, the Imprudent and the prudent, subject n> the tame law, undergo the same G I cj and majestj depicted on the face of ppineea of his people. 1! there, Listening t" the sermon, moutb an I eyes or* d and all attention. Rome with a sustained gentleness and sweetness. ■v. tl lilt Improper confidence will inak<- you [ore vour old friends, withoul w inn the firemen rushed from the house, they bad their faces ami hands burnt un \i> ous men are B the whole world, s] are only their own euemiea. The rich owe help to the i r. but the rich are <>t't.Mi too lazy to ■ -r:. n t it ami the poor too proud to accept it We ought alwaj for the . .ihior the I ADJECTIVES. 5£J THE PLACE OF ADJECTIVES. The general rules on the place of Adjectives have been given in the First Part of this Grammar, and it remains here only to repeat, that no absolute law exists on the subject, the place depending more on the peculiar genius of the language and the established usage than on any general principle. The adjec- tive placed before the noun is considered as more intimately connected with it, and as making, by falling first upon the ear of the listener, a stronger impression. Hence accented adjectives are placed before the noun. In the next place, the laws of euphony forbid long adjectives being placed before monosyllabic nouns; and generally, shorter adjectives precede longer nouns. Les champetres airs, country air ; des terrestres soins, earthly cares, and the like, are intolerable in French. On the other hand, plural adjectives have to precede nouns beginning with a vowel, as de brillants atoms, brilliant surroundings, de cou- rageux amis, bold friends. The construction of the sentence has its influence on the piace of the adjective in so far as an adjective followed by its regimen must necessarily be placed after the noun, else it would be separated from its regimen. Ex. C'est un malheur commun a tous, that is a misfortune common to all. Quels sont les fiefs dependants de ce duche? which are the fiefs that belong to this duchy? The place of the adjective depends, finally, so completely on the genius of the language, that large numbers of these words actually change their signification with their place, having one meaning before and another after the noun. The following are the most important adjectives of this class, accompanied generally by those nouns in connection with which alone they have the double meaning : Un bon Iiomme un Jwmme bon a simple artless man a good, affectionate man. 60 OX THE PARTS OF A SEXTEXCE. tin brave homme an honest man itne certaixe nonvelle some sort of news mon cher ami my dear friend in,, CoMMUXE udx a unanimous voice quel cruel, homme ! what a tiresome fellow ! la derm ere the last year of any period •rde '>ut of tune \ I'Ur a bad light in, kiki; pottron oward Ml n KD nn excessive liar in, i;ai vn r lonnme a clever man MM ■ man the air of high boc /. ii \ i ; a hanght; an honest man Sdpio • MM thai contemptible wretch mme n dishonest man M uv US bad appearance B \nt homme tin homme brave a brave man. une nouveUe certaixe sure news. un Tiabilkment cher an expensive dress. Wl DOME COMMUNE an indifferent voice. quel homrm cruel! what a cruel man ! phi; M HUE last year. •i F.Vl'SSE a false string. unjour faux an ill-painted light. un pottron BIER a proud coward. tffl lion FCRIEUX a falioilB lion. '.! V\T a man who is complaiaant to the nn honum QB \n» a tall man. : \M> a noble countenance I \ I T a loud tone vn homr, a polite man. \r. Sdpio the younger. ui, hommt M vi ni:ri:i BUS ate. un horn* • U vi BOBD polite man. i ran wicked appearance. m, homnu mi • ma nt ADJECTIVES. m a bad man une mechante epigramme a miserable epigram un miserable enfant an ill-natured child MORT-&0JS wood of little value, sucli as brooms, brambles, etc. morte eau the lowest tides une mortelle heure an excessively long hour un nouveau livre a new boot ; another book un pauvre auteur an author without merit pauvre petit ! poor child ! un plaisant homme a whimsical, ridiculous man un petit homme a small man les propres termes the same words propres mains own hands SATST-EspHt Holy Ghost femme sage a prudent woman un sexto enfant an only child un simple domestique a single servant un trtste homme a worthless man • unique tableau single painting un vilain homme an unpleasant man an ill-thinking man une epigramme mechante. a wicked epigram. un enfant miserable a destitute child. hois mort dead wood. eau morte standing water. cette vie mortelle this mortal life. un livre nouveau a book lately published. un auteur pauvre an author without fortune. un petit pauvre a little beggar. un homme plaisant an agreeable, merry man. un homme petit a mean man. les termes propres the proper words. mains propres clean hands. Esprit saint Spirit of God. sage femme a midwife. un enfant seul a child alone. un domestique simple a foolish servant. un homme triste a sad man. tableau unique unparalleled painting. un homme vilain a wicked man. 62 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. itra yrai conte vu conte thai a mere story, a true story. When two adjectives quality one noun, they are generally placed after ii for the same reason which places long adjectives after short nouns. Ex. (Tent un voyage long ct fatigant, that is a long and fatiguing journey. Ces tableaux nobles adjectives ref< r to two different nouns, although but on-- may be mentioned, the article must bo repeal 10I1. Ex. L ■/,/", the first and the second me, l.i langw Tta ' <<< ux to ars, the Italian and Spanish languages are Bisters. //■ / ix, bappy, is perhaps the only adjective which, in inter* one, may \»- placed before article and noun. Otherwise it is only allowed t.> poetical license to place sometimes an ad- jective before the verb Ex Heureux Vkon me qui Bait endurhrf happy the man who know - lure I fi • //y touch* , sacred thej are ■ m. ADJECTIVES. 6 ON THE PAETS OF A SENTENCE. With regard to the construction of the Relative Superlative, the following rules have to be observed : 1 . If the second term of the comparison consists of a noun, tlie connection with the first term is made in French by tfe, in- stead of any other preposition, unless the latter be emphasized. Ex. C'cst rhomme le plus savant du pays, he is tlie most learned man in the country. Elle est toujour* la premiert <'< Fecole, she is always the first in her school. 'il y a dt mu t'.r dans Paris ; il y en a d'autree dehors, this is the best to be bad inside of Paris ; there are others outside. 2. If the Becond term contains a verb, this must be used in the form of the subjunctive. Ex. ' ' jrand navire qu'on ait jamais eonstruit^ this is the largest vessel that has ever been built »sf l> meillsur vin rjue runs puissiez me donmr! Which is the best wine you can give me? Attention must !"■ paid t<» the form of the article before die superlative, especially with regard to the following two points: 1. 'I he definite article being the only mark of distinction aid tin 1 superlative, it can neither be omitted nor supplied by the indefinite article, as in English. nv ii /'/'is aimable, she is be- ll doubt the most lovely woman. 1' i >i.r A .v plus sincsres, you will - have my best « ishes. ■ d\ Pair U plus ajffectueux, she looked .-it me w ith a most affectionate look. 2, The art irse, with tho adjective and its noun, but frequently U plus and . . ( '■ ' a /< no:" la ■ is the gaj est ladj 1 ki ADJECTIVES. 67 Elle a I- air triste, meme quand elle est le plus gate, she looks sad even when she is most gay. Les arbres les plus hauts sont le 2?lus exposes a lafoudre, the highest trees are most exposed to lightning. Elle est le mieux mise quand elle est le moins paree, she is best dressed when she is least adorned. Exercise. They say she is the best singer in the world now, but I like her the least of all I have heard, although her voice is the most cultivated I know. That enigma has been given to the most learned men in the city, and they have not guessed it : it is the best I have ever read. I have noticed that, even when she is least attentive to what happens around her, nothing escapes her attention. The first cotton-press that was introduced in this country is not as old as the oldest man in the State. He said to me, with a most affected manner : I cannot imagine that he is a better tailor than mine ; when I tried him, I found him less skilful than I had hoped. She is much prettier than we had thought, but she is the worst educated young lady we have ever known. The best-established opinions are often overthrown in times of revolutions. Of all these musicians, she is the one who pleases me best, for she sings more correctly than the best singer I have ever heard sing; . Certain classes of adjectives have no degrees of comparison ; but as this arises simply from their signification and not from any peculiarity of form, no rules for their use are required. They are principally such as express an absolute quality, as eternel, eternal ; mortel, mortal ; divin, divine ; supreme, su- preme ; unique, and negative adjectives, as immortel, immor- tal ; impuni, unpunished ; immense, immeasurable, etc. Their meaning can never be made relative to others, as what is unique or immortal cannot possibly be more or less so, and this is the only reason why they are said to have no comparatives or superlatives. 6^ ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. The Absolute Superlative, made by prefixing- an adverb expressive of ibe highest degree to the adjective, employs for that purpose most frequently tres, fort and bien, all three of which correspond to the English very, with this distinction : Tres expresses simply a generally admitted opinion, without nny special emphasis. Ex. Tres bien, vous pouvez vousen aller, very well, you may go une terre tres fertile, that is very rich soil. Fori is stronger in its effect, and is, alone, employed before iples past, when it expresses the English very mark. Ex. dtaii tin hommefort savant, he was a very learned man. V vous rc»r id, 1 am very much surprised to see you b i is used to express onr personal conviction, and repre- muc h indeed, or similar ex ble, madam, you are very kind indei „•, /,„„ /,„.,. nhlait de bontis, he used to 1„. extremely civil and loaded me with kindn rj^ ( . when used without an ad- mply by beaua up ; trhs beaucoup, or any auCOUp is an ad- 1 by another adv< rb. \ ./ ■ . him eery much. beaucoup, /'his que jt Why, very raach : than I thought. n French which make . lative by addii \ I •'' formed in imitation of the irdinal Kichelien made, by hi- own will and authority, when he wont to take command of the French army in Italy. The termination cornea, through ADJECTIVES. 69 the Italian, from the Latin issimus, and is confined to adjectives used as titles. They are mainly the following ; Ulustrissime, most illustrious ; revirendissime, most reverend ; ezceUentisxime, most excellent ; eminentissime, most eminent, and serenissime, most serene (highness). Others, which have occasionally been formed after the same manner, belong exclusively to the familiar or comic style. Exercise. These two brothers were not very much esteemed in spite of their riches, since everybody knew how they gained their wealth. This wine is very good, but after all only an ordinary wine ; I like some- thing better. I told him that he had been very imprudent indeed, and that his best friends would show him less sympathy than they would have done if he had been more cautious. She was very much interested in the proceedings and watched them with a most attentive eye ; she was perhaps the best-informed person in the audience. I am extremely sorry, Madam, if I have said any thing that could give you a worse opinion of him ; he is the most excellent man in the world and the best friend 1 have upon earth. When the ambassador approached, the master of ceremonies said : Will your Serene High- ness permit me to present the minister of his majesty the king ? You are very polite indeed, gentlemen, and I am most sincerely obliged to you for all your kindness. REGIMEN OF ADJECTIVES. Certain adjectives in French, as in English, do not have a complete meaning, unless a noun or a verb be added. The word ^o added is called their regime, regimen, and is always connected ith the adjective by a preposition. Ex. Cest une arme peu propre a la guerre, that is a weapon hardly fit for war. La charrue est V instrument le plus utile a fhomme, the plough is the most useful instrument for man. Cet empereur rfHait pas diyne de regner, that emperor was not worthy to reign. 70 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Other adjectives have no regimen, their signification being complete in itself, as intrepide, vertueux, virtuous, inviolable^ brave, sage, etc. Still others may be used with or without a regimen, accord- ing to the meaning which they have in the sentence. Ex. Un duine vieillard s'approcha dc nous, a worthy old man came near us. C'est une fault dipne de la plus severe punition, that fault deserves the severest punishment. The following adjectives use different prepositions for their connection with the regimen, from the English. In all other cases the same prepositions are used in both langnag II 869 enfant*, I I de '•'• crime, < \ ■ I' >i di / i - maun, Ineonei I Skilful in profiting. Approaching to truth. Good to his children. MIS. Civil to all. Accomplice in tliis crime. Carious I Who <. learn. [gnoranl Unacquainted with intrigna, Obvioos to oa. Sorry for the accident prini lpl< s. Baperior in pli Well ■ -'TV. < "ra/.y at to arrive, [ncompatible with onr mannen I • tOSB, Indulgent to his children. one of affidra. in. children. [nBenaiblc /■- ahaine, Tntoltnt i.\ iiis lather. ADJECTIVES. 71 Intercast a voire succes, Interested in your success. Occupe a ecrire, Busy writing. Parent du roi, Related to the king. Paresseux d' ecrire, Lazy in, -writing. Pr rank whi-jh persona and things hold among them- from the Cardinal Numbers an 1 express, a uuiuher collectively. Such aro ilix- ADJECTIVES. 75 aine, half a score ; douzaine, dozen ; vingtaine, score ; ccntaine, a hundred. Distributive Numerals express a portion of a whole, such as un demi, a half; un tiers, a third ; un quart, a fourth. Proportional Numerals express the multiplication of the cardinals, le double, le triple, le quadruple ; le centuple, a hun- dred-fold.* With regard to the use -which is made of these different classes of numerals, the following rules are to be observed : The Cardinal Numbers are used in definitions of time some- what differently from the English, as will be seen in these points : 1. The date of the year is invariably given in cardinal num- bers preceded by en, or, more formally, en Van, in the year, writing a thousand mil (not mille), and using no conjunction. Ex. Nous sommes en Van mil huit cent soixante-sept, we are in the year 1867. II mourut en dix-sept cent quatre-vingt-seize, he died in 1 796. 2. The date of the month is given in cardinal numbers, ex- cept the first, which is always le premier, and the second, which may be le second, though le deux is more frequent. The pre- position on is never translated. Ex. Nous reviendrons le onze de ce mois, we shall return on the eleventh of this month. Le vingt-cinq du mois prochain i.l y aura une tempete, on the twenty-fifth of next month there will be a storm. The preposition of before the names of months is generally omitted. Ex. II naquit le treize Avril, il y a trente ans, he was born on the thirteenth of April, thirty years ago. La. bataille fut livree le trois Mars, the battle w r as foughf on the third of March. 70 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 3. The hour of the dciyh given in cardinal numbers, accord- ing to the nature of the question: Quelle heure esl-il ? what time is it \ Ex. II est une hcure, it is one o'clock. Nous y in runs a train hemes, we shall be there at three o'clock. The fractions of an hour are simply placed after the numeral ; the expressions : a quarter to or before half-past two, etc., being unknown to the French. Ex. // arrioa ici a deux /nuns ct demie, he got here at half- past two o'clock. No "' m i 'i owe Inures tt quart, we shall finish at a quarter pasl eleven. II est lent keures trois quarts a ma montre, it is a quarter to nine by my watch. rnps qu'ilfttutest huit //< arcs cinguante-cinq [in inn Its), the required time is five minutes to nine. Tw in the daytime is not douzi heures, but midi, and twi ..; night is minuit. 1a. ht it midi ei i< minuit, the great bell is rung at noon and at midnight. On y dine it ini'/i ou a midi tt demie, they dine there at or at balf pasl tw< The day, mornin ag are expressed by jour, matin mi'l .-(•>-. when the th . counted, and by journit, . • .. iradou is to be expressed. The . ■ Ex. 1 t, I e cams every morning al six o'cl( uly twico daring tho whole \<.ar. ADJECTIVES. 77 To-night, when it means this evening, and last night in the same sense, are translated by ee soir and Mar soir, the noun mat being used only for the night proper. The evening or the night before is rendered by la veille, as the morning or the day fol- ing, by la landemain. Ex. Je I'ai vu amnt Mer soir et je la raverrai ce soir, I saw him night before last, and I shall see him again to- night. 11 dormit et la veilh et la lendemain de la oatailla, he slept both on the day before and the day after the battle. 4. The names of Sovereigns are accompanied by the cardinal numbers without article, except Premier and Second, but these also have no article. Ex. George Trois succeda a George Second, George III. suc- ceeded George II. Louis Onze et Louis Quatorze ont fait beaucoup pour la France, Louis XI. and Louis XIV. have done much for France. The great Emperor Charles V. and the famous Pope Sixtus V. are both quoted as Charles Quint and Sixte Quint. When cardinal and ordinal numbers are coupled together, the former must precede the latter. Ex. Les deux premiers jours de ce mois, the first two days of this month. If cardinal numbers follow the verb etre, they may be placed immediately after it, when the noun belonging to the cardinal may be easily supplied ; if this is not the case, the words au nombre de, to the number of, must be added. Ex. Nous etions cinq au depart ; nous sommes deux, we were five of us on starting ; we are two of us. Les fautes sont trop nombreuses ; elles sont au nombre de vingt, there are too many mistakes; they are twenty. Both, when immediately followed by a noun, is translated by les deux. 78 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Ex. tPai achele les deux volumes a lafois, I have bought both volumes at the same time. Voulez-vous les deux chiens ou settlement un? Do you want both dogs or only one? But if both is not followed by any noun, it is translated by tous deux, when both are represented as acting together, and by tons Us deux, when acting separately. Ex. lis sortirent tous deux, they both went out (together.) lis stmt sortis tuus les deux, both have left (one after another.) This great general died on the nineteenth of August, and was buried •with much haste on 'l" - twenty first : his obsequies were noi cele- brated until the thirteenth of the next month. The physician had left him apparently in good health at half-past eleven o'clock at night, and at a quarter to ii\<- on the next morning he was found dead. The unfortunate Look the Bixteenth was led to the scaffold on the twenty-first of June, one thousand seven hundred and ninety-three. She was Beventy Bt when 1 saw her, and Bll6 had walked the. whole morning In her garden. Whal time was it when vou saw her? It was last nighl at half-past eight. Charles the Fifth and the supreme power in Europe ; it is difficult to tell which enjoyed the most, l was absent on the fourth of July, "r i not return until late at night ; we had ■ nlea little supper, and s few minutes after midnight we all retired. The Oral three volumes of this work are far superior to the others, and I think tweir appeared. There were twenty of us In that cluh. I survived; wears rarely foor of us at table, When the noun to which the cardinal number refers is not d i ", the numeral must be il ./ - n « ".' cent de ' of ti\e hundred combatants there were one hundred killed. ADJECTIVES. 79 Cetaient ses gravures et il iCy en avait que deux de bonnes, they were his engravings, and there were only two good ones among them. Bat if the noun itself is given after the numeral, de is not added. Ex. II y eut cent hommes tues et deux cent blesses, one hundred men were killed and two hundred wounded. The Ordinal Numbers are used in English in all cases where the difference has not already been stated, and where their place is not supplied by the cardinal numbers. It will be remembered that the ordinal numbers are always placed before their nouns, except wheu volume, chapter or page of a book and the like are quoted. Ex. tFai recu le troisieme tome, qui vient de paraitre, I have received the third volume, which has just been pub- lished. Vous le trouverez, Livre troisieme, chapitre premier, you will find it, Book third, Chapter first. It must not be forgotten that le premier and le dernier are con- sidered as superlatives, and hence have the same effect upon the construction of the sentence as that class of words. Thus they require the verb to appear in the subjunctive mood. Ex. (Test la derniere gravure qvHil ait faite, this is the last engraving he has made. Je suis le premier qui soit venu, I am the first who has come. The Collective Nouns are the following : Unite, couple, unit, couple. quinzaine, ( about fifteen, a fort- ( night. trio, demi-douzaine. trio, three. , half a dozen. vingtaine, ( a score, about twen 1 ty. huitaine, a week. . trentaine. { a seore and a half neumine nine days of prayer ( about thirty. dizaine, douzaine, half a score, dozen. quarantaine, (two score, about ( forty. 80 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. (two score and a _. ( one thousand, about cinquantainc, ] , .. , . ... vn m&her, - ( naif, about nitv. ( one thousand. soixantaine, un cent contains, t three score, about myriade, one myriad. ( sixty. million, one million. (one hundred, pre- milliard, or) one thousand mil- ( cisely. billion, ) lions. ( one hundred, about trillion, trillion. { one hundred. Except in commercial transactions, these words do not represent the precise number they express, but only a number nearly approaching to it. Thus une vinytaine may be a few more or less than twenty. As they are nouns, they require the preposition dc to connect them with other nouns. Ex. II n',i vendu une douzaine cTarufs, be has sold me a dozen Ccla ■( une dizains de tnille dollars, that will cost you abont $10,000. Le cn,t ilc paille que vou* me fournites, the hundred- bt of straw you furnished me. ; used to designate the :ige of ..Miit any other word. ixantaine, tins old man is over six!; The Distribute Number* are la moitie, le tiers, Is quart^u* rinquihne, and the ordinal numbers as in English, Ex. /- plus grand* ir la moitii, two-thirds are more than one-half. On I u " ■'"■■■> - le* quatre ci i profit, they have '. him four-tilths of the profit. Le ir . the thn e hundredth (,,',„>. troi* CCnti&mes, three- hundredths (-j-j,,). It must be borne in mind that moitic, half, is a noun and inbject to the rules on nouns. ADJECTIVES. 81 Ex. II a pris la plus grosse moitie, he has taken the largest half. La moitie ne suffirait pus, half of it would not be enough. While demi is an adjective, which is always used with a noun, whether that noun be expressed or understood. Ex. Je lui donne une demi-gourde le jour, I give him half a dollar a day. Trois heures et demie (heure) s'etaient ecoulees, three and a half hours had passed. Exercise. Did you not find that sentence in Bacon's Works, Book fifth, Chap- ter second, page one hundred and first ? It was the thirty-second year after that glorious peace when war broke out again, and inun- dated all Europe with blood. Sixtus the Fifth lived at the same time as Henry the Fourth ; both were very famous men, but in very dif- ferent ways. I have seen both brothers ; the likeness is indeed so great that one can well take the one for the other. There were only three-hundred, but in spite of their inferiority, they resisted the enemy for several hours ; they only gave way when they had two hundred killed and about fifty wounded. Has he passed sixty years, or does he look older than he really is ? Nine-tenths of those who have heard it will not know the purport of his speech. It lasted three-quarters of an hour, and half was filled with statistics which interested nobody. I w T as there half an hour before him, when there were only about twenty persons in the hall ; later in the evening, there were perhaps a hundred. I have bought two hundred-weight of straw for my cows ; they cost me already more than ninety-three dollars, and this morning the servant told me that they had both run away. He obtained her father's consent on the tenth of July, and he became her husband before a fortnight had passed away. The wed- ding took place at night in the church, and after that they spent about twenty days at a friend's house in the country. 82 ON THE PAETS OF A SENTENCE. CHAPTER IV. PRONOUNS. I. — PERSONAL PRONOUNS. Personal Pronoun.?, the forms of which have been given in the Fir.-t Part of this Grammar, have their name from their original purpose, that of supplying the place of names of per- sons, in order to avoid their frequent repetition. Although this is still their principal duty, their use is by no means con- fined to persons, and they represent not only lifeless objects, as Ex. Quant a la maisonje la trouve detestable, as to the house, I think it detestable, but even whole Bentenees : Ex. // m me salue jamais, et mot je ne Vaperfois jamais, he never Bpeaka to me, and I never notice it (that he does not Bpeak i ; in which cases the Bentence is not nnfrequently represented in a different construction. Ex. VouUz-vous que faille vous voir i Oui, je le veux (que \ <>ii w Mi me i" go and Bee yon I S -. 1 wish it (that yon conn and see me). Personal IV. nns differ : 1. A- tar as th< \ three persons, the first, or the d who is Bpeaking, jV, I. nous, «<■; the second, or the person spoken t«-. tu, ti . ; and ibe third, or the person tpok< be, she and it; ils,elles, thoj ; on, some one, etc. ie first and second persons are always in sight of each other, then sing their gondcr ; it is dif- I with the third person, which is absent, and hence the pronoun representing it forma for the gondera, 2. A- bras they are • onlj to I"' used in immediate connection with a verb like je, me, tu, te, le, lui, or PRONOUNS. 83 absolute, i. e., only to be used by themselves, without a verb, or united to a preposition, like viol, toi, eux, etc. Some pronouns are conjunctive and absolute without change of form — Jike elle, she ; nous, we ; vous, you ; elles, they. Ex. Elle (conj.) a assez, la maison est d elle (abs.), she has enough, the house belongs to her. Saoegrwus (conj.) qu'il l'a fait pour vous (abs.), do you know that he did it for you ? Quant d dies (abs.) dies (conj.), n'ensavent Hen, as for them, they know nothing of it. 3. As far as they represent the subject (nominative) of a verb, like je, tu, il and elle, or the direct object (accusative), like me, te, le and la, or the indirect object (genitive and dative), like en, y, lui, leu?; etc. Some pronouns serve for all three purposes : Nous and vous mean we and you, nom. " " us and you, ace. to us and to you, dat. Ex. Nous (nom.) nous (ace.) aimons et vous (nom.) vous (ace.) flattez, we love ourselves and you flatter yourselves. Nous vous (dat.) donnerons ce que vous nous (dat.) donneres, we will give you what you will give us. Me, te, and se mean me, thee, one's self (ace.) " " to me, to thee, to one's self (dat.) Ex. II me dit d moi ce qu'il te dit d toi, he told me what he told thee. II me Jiait car U te prefere, toi, he hates me for he prefers thee. On se (ace.) trompe toujour s quand on se (dat.) plait trop, one always deceives one's self, when one is too well pleased with one's self. 84 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. I.— CONJUNCTIVE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. PERSONAL PRONOUNS AS SUBJECTS. (Nominative.) Je, not written, as in English, with a capital initial, when it does not begin a sentence, suffers elision when immediately preceding a verb, beginning with a vowel or mute h, and has the gender of the person it represents. Ex. Je stiissatisfaitc, dit la reine, de vos services, I am satisfied, said the queen, with your services. "When placed in interrogative sentences, after a verb which ends in mute c, it compels the verb to place an acute accent on this e to avoid two mute <'s following each other. Ex. VeiU ■ an pareil dessein $ Am I awake! Can I believe Bach a plan I DussS-je en mourir, je Vessaieraiy even if I were to die of it, T will try it. When the mi1» in the present is monosyllabic, it is not used interrogatively with/*, hut the question is asked by means of est-re q Ex. E don on csi-cc que jc veillet Am I asleep or am I awake / Tu, also, i^ of Loth genders aeronling to the person it rep- resent^. Br. 7 r, par mi let /emmet, thou art blessed, Madonna, among women. The use of to— which is expressed by the verb tvUn/er guelqu'un, to thou a person — is not a> rare as in English, but still limited. 7 i — In addressing God : Ex. Grand Dieuf i enl# eont remplis rPiquite\ Giant God! thy judgments are full of joe PRONOUNS. 85 In elevated and poetical style : Ex. Grand roi, cease de vaincre ou je cesse d'ecrire, great king, cease conquering, or I must cease writing. In addressing very intimate friends, and, generally, members of the same family : Ex. Mon ami, je ie supplie, ne fais pas cela, my friend, I pray thee, don't do that. Tiens, mon enfant, que fais-tu la ? Why, child, what are you doing there? To address inferior persons, servants, etc., by tu, is no longer usage. Except in remote provinces, it lias been aban- doned since the Revolution of 1848. In expressing contempt or intentional insult : Ex. Connais-tu Vheritier du plus saint des monarques, reine ? Dost thou know the heir of the holiest of monarchs, queen ? II and elle, derived, like the definite article, from the Latin demonstrative pronoun Me, ilia, represent the three pronouns he, she and it, as the French has no neuter. // also represents the it which is the vague subject of impersonal verbs. Ex. 11 chante, il danse, il s'amuse ious les jours, he sings, he dances, he amuses himself every day. Ce tableau me plait, il est original, I like this painting ; it is original. Cette table est trop petite, elle ne me convient pas, this table is too small, it does not suit me. H neige, ou il va neiger tout-a-Vheure, it snows, or is going to snow directly. Nous, we, from the Latin nos, is used for both genders and for both numbers, according as it represents a masculine or feminine noun, and as it is used in the plural, or by a figure of speech, for the singular, as is done by sovereigns, editors, etc. 86 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Ex. Nbussommes Unites preserves, dirent-elks, we are all here, they said. Nous, George Premier, par la grace de Dieu, etc., we, George the First, by the grace of God, etc. Yous, von, from the Latin row, is in like manner used for both genders and numbers, as it is now-a-days the only pronoun employed in addi K>ns. Ex. Votts ties savant, Monsit ur, rout savez tout, you are learned, Sir, you know every thing. Vous vous trompez, Messieurs, on ne passe pas! You are mistaken, Gentlemen, you cannot pass here! Pert j Vites, vous devez lefaire,M you • •!i\ inced, yon ought to do it. Both of these pton and w> w, arc rarely plaeed directly before a noun expressive of character, Btation, or ■;. oality. In such cases the wor inse r ted be- tu. .n and the noun. ■ soldiers do not mind it. 1 ■. von ]>liil<> - know that better. jg re, we • v. t arrived there. Its and rf/< . from the Latin Uli and dice, represent the I tiah they in s i; v /. m soniils retiris dejhf Have tho doctors i y sont seuleS) Bpeak to the ladies, they are alone there. j-,,, ■ ■'■ . 1 like those ; the] i< 'it. 0/»,from the . which is a I as a subject, will be mentioned under the head of indefinite pronouns to which it belong-, being the indefinite persona] pronoun of the French. PEOKOUNS. 87 PERSONAL PRONOUNS AS DIRECT OBJECT. (Accusative.) Me is the accusative of je, and elides like the latter before a verb beginning with a vowel or mute h. Ex. // me plaint car il m'aime, he pities me, for he loves me. Bajazei aujourdhui rrChonore et me caresse, Bajazet now honors and caresses me. After the imperative, me is always exchanged for moi, unless it should be followed by en or y, when it resumes its original form. Ex. II me hue ; louez-moi (not me) done aussi vous, he praises me ; do you praise me also. Suivez-ni'y (not moi), s'il vous plait, follow me there, if you please. Te is the accusative of tu, and used like me. Ex. Tu te trompes, mon ami, il est tard, thou art mistaken, friend, it is late. Te, also, has to be exchanged for tei after the imperative, and like me, resumes its original form before en. It is not used before y. Ex. Tais-toi ! (not te) tu fais un fracas enorme, hush ! thou makest a terrible noise. Va-t-en (not toi), coquin, que je ne fassomme pas! Be off, rascal, or I shall kill thee ! Le is the accusative of il, and represents the English him or it. Ex. (fest Dieu qui me Va donne, mon mari cheri, it is God who has given him to me, my beloved husband. Ce livre ? Je le tiens de mon ancien precepteur, this book ? I received it from my former teacher. Le is the pronoun which is added to all active verbs in order to comply with the rule, that every active verb in French 88 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. must have its object expressed, which is not the case in English. Ex. Is this your house ? Yes, it is. Est-ce la votre dcmcure ? Oui, ce Pest. Will" you do me this favor .' No, I cannot. Voulez-vous me /aire cette fuveur ? /< m le peux pas. Did they do it yesterday ' Yes, they did. Est-ee quits runt fait hier? Oai, Us Font fait. Le answers also for the English so, when it can be exchanged for it and does not mean thus, in this manner. Ex. I thought BO, but I did nut i iko to say so, jt le pen mis, r in voulais pas U It appears bo, and perhaps it is so, il paralt et pevt-Urs il i , La is the accusative of eltt and represents the English her or if. Ex. r Ha la dam* : jt la ' eke, there is the lady; I Bee her coming. /.'/.' / • /• a ■■ ii it rend heureux, the Km- peror loves Prance, he makes it (her) bappy. Je it vote, ii ii .1 see it, the house o( my fill It is not a'v. . to decide when the object of ai i i" English and t<< be supplied in translated ; or la <>r lea. rale is. that when the object is an adjective, A alone is supplied; when it is a noun, that form of the pronoun is sup- plied which corresponds with the noun in gen ler and number. Ex. E ■■ ! iladt ). Is he sick . ; z*ea, / aeant) t since he says we are exacting, let us b PRONOUNS- 89 Voire soeur sera-t-elle votre heritidre ? Oui, die la sera {fheriliere). Will your sister be yuur heir? Yes, she will. Sont-ce la vos robes? Non, ce ne les son I pas (les robes'). Are those your dresses ? N o, they are not. Hence the difference between Etes-vous mariee ? Oui, je le suis (adjective). Are you married ? Yes, I am. Etes-vous la mariee ? Oui, je la suis (noun). Are you the bride ? Yes, I am. Even the (English) auxiliary verbs are active verbs in French and require the addition of their direct object, like other verbs of this class. Ex. Je sais que je le dois, I know I ought. Je le pourrais, s'il lefaut, I could if I must 11 (Lit qu'U le veut t He says he will. Je vous le dlrai, I will tell you. Nous, unchanged, is used as accusative of the nominative Ex. Nous (nom.) nous apercevons qu'on nous (ace.) trompe, we are aware that we are deceived. Vous, unchanged, is accusative also of vous. Ex. Vous (nom.) etes riche, je vous (ace.) en felicite, you are rich, I congratulate you. Les is the common accusative of Us or elles, and represents the English them in all three genders. Ex. Voyez-vous ces hommes ? Je les crains. Do you see those men ? I am afraid of them. .Les malheurs disparaissent quand on les brave, misfor- tunes vanish if we face them. 90 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Exercise. It hails and snows very hard and it is not possible to go out. Come in and stand by the stove, it is warm and comfortable. I offer you my hand, and I hope you will not refuse it. Help me and I will help you, but after all it is with God to help us both. You ought to take exercise every day, your health demands it. I know I ought, and the doctor says so too, but I cannot force myself to do it. Will you come to-ni ght and take tea with us '? Yes, I will, with pleasure, if I may bring my sister also Certainly you may, and we shall be very happy to see her. Be silent, and go away, you are in a passion and know not what you say. He is not asleep. Yes, be is, and lie will be for an hour, if nobody awakes him. Well, young ladies, are you ready at last ! Yes. we an', and altogether at your service. Since you say so, let 08 go and take our walk. She was not veiy amusing to-day, per- ahe will !«• more so to-morrow, when there will be more company nt our house. I- your master at Lome v No, sir, be is not ; be has left for Europe two days ago. 1 thoughl bo, and would have come sooner, but 1 had not time, and now I am boity for it. \- INDIRECT OBJKOT. dative a- well a- accusative, like the English nt«, and for " moi. I ; in-!,' t,.us !,s ma I i us, ho rj morning. On n<- taurail me reproch tf aimer la tables ach me with a fondness for the table. it cannot 1» omitted 1 ad verb, if it should ut differ nt objects with the tv.<> verbs. cannot be said, bat ich r*s0 In- repeated with the auxiliary veil, ; d charmed me. itive, i- changed into mot, after tho imperative, m PRONOUNS. 91 Ex. Donnez-moi (a moi) deux, give me two. Donnez-irten deux, give me two of theui. Suivez-m , y, follow me there. Te, in like manner, is dative as well as accusative of tu, and means to thee and thee. Ex. Tais-toi, pendard, hush (thyself), scoundrel. Prends-fen tant que tu voudras, take as much of it as thou wantest. (Such a sentence as this would not be used in French, on account of it3 unpleasant sound — it is added simply as an illustration and a warning with regard to the laws of euphony.) Lui is the dative of il and elle, and corresponds to the Eng- lish to him, to her, and to it, standing, as it does, for a lui and a elle. Ex. Je lui parlais franchement, I spoke frankly to him. On lui a rendu son mari, they have restored her husband to her. Quand le vaisseau fut lance on lui mit les mats, when the vessel was launched, they put the masts in (to) it. If, however, two pronouns representing persons should be connected with the same verb, lui cannot be used for to him or to her, but its place must be supplied by a lui and a elle. Ex. He compares me to him, il me compare a lui. Shall I introduce you to her ? Dois-je vous presenter a elle? He gave himself entirely up to her, il s'adonna entiere- ment a elle. Y (from the Latin ibi) is also a conjunctive personal pro- noun, representing as such mainly the indirect object of il or elle, when applied to things. It can be applied to persons only in connection with the two verbs, penser, to think, and se fier, to trust. 02 ON THE PAKTS OF A SENTENCE. Ex. Pensez-vous a votre bien-aimee? Oai, fy pense. jour et nuit. Do you think of }-our lady-love \ Yes, I think of her day and night. Ne vous y fiez pas, elle a des caprices, do not rely on her, she is fickle. A lui and a elle can, however, be used equally well with these verbs. Applied to things, y means to it or to them. Ex. Ajoulez-y un j>cu desucre, s'il vous plait, add a little sugar to it, if you pleas II j\t at y donner toute votre attention, you ought to give your whole attention to it. toni graves, fuites-y attention, these are grave - pay attention to them. and rous are used as datives as well as accusatives, and their precise meaning can be ascertained only from the position in th ■ lat.) fait des compliments, they praise and compliment ( ,•/,,_- toujour* a runs [dat.) /aire des amis, you always try to win (make) friends (for yourselves), dative of the nominative Us and elles, and repre- i them in all gendi mis, on li ur don) ok at inv children, they are receiving presi avail parli, my dangh* old me that they had Bpoken t" them about it. )■ . i as a substitute for d tux and a elles, under the condition, under which it can !><• used for t\a dit que J 'u bien. "What did she say of me ? She said nothing but what was good of you. B - immediate purposes for which <» is used as a pi reona] pronoun, it Berves to express various other words, which have a kindred meaning in English. Of these the fol- lowing are the most important : J.'n is used foi . when these words are employed a» pronouns, and consequently not accompanied by any noun; the manner of expression being that the French say, e.g,, (live theml instead of the English, Give me Bomel Ex. /' i give me some, it' \ oil lia\ 6 ] ./- /,', is a conjunctive personal pronoun, ai ntly can be used only in immediate con- nection with a verb. In such cases, the French either repeat the verb, <"• substitute (Pentre (from amongst) for e». Ex. How many did yoo Bee! Two of them. Combien en ./'. n at i u ris que quatre. I I tomes thai thi* young man will l friend, for von aro alwaji \ him. I like these men, and I say of then what your friend told yon ' ■ I number of them, if you p] mil food ha her, she will make a better use I urn Bony, 1 have not any, but I win l il" not like thai ■■ have trii -l :i smnll quantity an>u • 'II. if Vnll |.. but If I tin 1 . >-'ut of PKONOUNS. 97 a hundred men that buy lottery tickets, one wins a prize and ninety- nine lose their money. I want a knife, and I want a large one, for I have lost all the small ones I have ever bought. You have not treated me fairly, you sold me an old one for a new one. PLACE OP CONJUNCTIVE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. a. As Subject. The elementary rules on the place of personal pronouns have already been given, and it has been seen that, as nominatives of the verb, they precede it, except in the interrogative form, when they are placed, as in English, after the verb. Ex. Je Vai salue, pourquoi ne me salue-t-il pas ? I have bowed to him, why does he not bow to me ? It has also been stated that if in questions the subject be a noun, it must be placed at the head of the sentence, and then repeated after the verb in the form of the corresponding pro- noun. Ex. U Empereur est-il parti pour Fontainebleau ? Has the Emperor left for Fontainebleau ? Les hommes ne seront-ils jamais plus sages qu'a present, "Will men never be any wiser than they are now ? To these general rules must now be added the following, which refer to more particular constructions : In English a condition may be expressed by simply giving to the verb the interrogative form, and instead of saying : If he had been here, this would not have happened, we may say : Had he only been here, this would not have happened. In general, such constructions are not admissible in French aiW must be rendered by employing si, if. Ex. Should you go there now, it would be too late, sivous y alliez maintenant, il serait trop tard. But in cases in which great emphasis is laid upon the con- dition, as when we say or can say even if, the French employ 98 OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. the interrogative form of the whole of the subjunctive of the verbs avoir, etre and devoir, and the third person singular of the same tense and mood of all verbs, like the English, for the same purpose. Ex. Dmse-je en mourir,je le ferais neanmoins, even if I were to die of it, I would do it nevertheless. Fut-il plus riche que Cresus, il ne serait pas heiorur, even if he were richer than Croesus, he would not be happy. J$ussent-ils eu six cents canons, Us vc Faitniieni pas tmporti, even if they had had six hundred guns, they would not have gained the battle. Donnat-il lout xon bien anx pauvres, il ne gagnerait pas le cat, even it" he were to give all he has to the poor, ho would Dot enter into heaven. Personal pronouns are, also, generally placed after the verb, when for the sake of emphasis one of the following adverbs is placed at the beginning of the Bentencc : a peii <, scarcely ; en join, in vain; at) memo, at least; encore, yet; toujours, still; peut-itre, perhaps, and several others, expressing a conclusion. Ex. -1 /■ ■ fuUU into', ijn'il Sclata en injures, hardly had he OOme in, when he broke forth in insults. ours sera-t-U suspect a tous ceux qui /'< him and then give it back to them, montrez- h-l'ii it ", -leur, Kit and y will be found, in Accordance with these rules, alwavs nearest to the verb, when before it, and farthest from it. after the imperati • Ex. // aurmt da AMtff auhtnt, ho OUghl to have TOO |fl many. ;' be avoided bv I ; When li" taw thai I mar, he said to mo : I cannot trust vc.u. a nd me a native. When he bed res I the i"H.u, he gave it to ma wih tin ! Jd return it to him to-morrow or I PRONOUNS. 101 day. Did you see that beautiful rose ? I gathered it this morning in my garden : I presented it to her politely at breakfast ; she took the leaves of it and placed them into a vase, where she collects a large quantity of rose-leaves, in order to make a perfume of them. Send her to him, he will know what she can do to it. If you have your books here, take this pretty one, add it to them, and they will appear twice as handsome as before. What did he tell you about it ? He told me no more of it than he had told you, but he promised that he would carry me there and show it to me himself. Take the dol- lar and give it to them, and then take this letter and send it to her ; she will read it at once. When you have looked at all the engravings, return them to her, and tell her that I wish to see them also, if she can lend them to me for some time. Sell me a hundred of them and I will give you a good price. REPETITION OF CONJUNCTIVE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. Personal Pronouns must be repeated before every verb, to which they serve as an object. This rule has no exception with regard to the pronouns of the first and second person. Ex. I saw and recognized her before you did^'e la vis etje la reconnus avuni. vous. I will study and learn it by heart to-night, je vais I'etudier ct Vapprendre par coeur ce soir. The pronouns of the third person, however, may be used but once, instead of being repeated, when the two verbs which they qualify are of the same nature. Ex. II vint et dit, he came and said. Je la vis et saluai, I saw and saluted her. But if the two verbs have different objects, or one is affirma- tive and the other negative, or if they are separated by incidental sentences, the pronouns of the third person also must be Ex. Elle voidut et elle ne voulut pus, she would and she would not. 102 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Je Vai rencontre et je lui ai parle, I Lave met him and spoken to him. II la cassu quandfetais absent, et il ne Fa pas fait raccom- moder, he broke it when I was away, and has not had it mended. If the two verbs thus used with the same pronouns are in the imperative mood, the usage is to repeat the pronoun, but to place it before, instead of after, the second verb. Ex. Tcnez ee Kvre ; lisez-U et le relisez, take this book ; read and re-read it. Nettoyezrlei et Uspolissez tantgue vous pourrez, clean and polish them as well as yon can. Exi RCT8K. T Uke tliis young lady as well as yon, but I think yon flatter and plains her too much. He Bpoke to me for half an hour, and did not say a single word which I had not heard before, sin- wenl ami oama bank ten times; at last sin- mads an efibrl and really went away. Speak to him or write to him on the Bubject ; be will give you 1 1 • • - beat and accompany il with a sum of money. I will give you yon* - letter; read it and r.-. iad it. it is full of g 1 advice, and yon ought to study and follow it luring your whole life Sin- saw it but she did not recognize it, and yet it was her own child, I tld«>k of it and remember it every day when I come t" your house — how I loved and cherished it ! pi k-..\ ll proko era si - ■ arts of the body of the person Bpeaking or spoken of and to, are not rendered in bv the corresponding words, bnt their place is supplied by the article before the ntnn, and the indirect object of the proper persona] prononn before the verb. Instead of mal ; the French sa_\ : '1 i. aches to him, la ttU lui fait mal. PRONOUNS. 103 Ex. I washed my facp, je me laved le visage. I will break his head, ye lui casserai la tete. She has cut her finger, elle s'est blesse au doigi. The verb, to beg pardon, is in French used after the same man- ner, substituting the personal for the possessive pronoun. Ex. I beg your pardon, je vous demande pardon. With passive verbs, the nominative of which is a person, the pronoun is superfluous, as there can arise no ambiguity in such a case. Ex. I was wounded in my shoulder, jefus blesse a Vepaule. The general rule of thus substituting one class of pronouns for another is, however, set aside whenever there could either an ambiguity arise as to the person whose parts are spoken of, or when special emphasis is resting on the possessive pronoun. In these cases the latter is translated literally. Ex. Push your feet (not anybody else's), pousxez vos pieds. Show me your teeth, montrez-moi vos dents. Having wept so much, their eyes were red, ayant tant pleure, leurs yeux etaient rouges. On the other hand, the article alone suffices to represent the possessive pronoun, without the addition of a personal pronoun, when we speak of an action natural to the part of the body referred to, and when there can be no ambiguity. Ex. I opened my mouth, fouvris la bouche Shut your eyes, fermez les yeux. If the noun expressing a part of the body, be accompanied by an adjective, the possessive pronoun must be used. Ex. Give me your beautiful hand, donnez-moi votre belle main. What has become of her bright eyes ? ses yeux brillanls que sont-ils devenus ? It must be borne in mind here, that in French the singular of 104 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. nouns expressing a part of the body is used, instead of the Eng- lish plurals, when each person has but one such part. Ex. They all lost their ]ive8,&8 perctirmt torn la vie. The savages cut off their noses and ears, les sau cages leur coupa-i it le net et les oreilles. Exercise. You pull my hair too severely in combing it; take care, or my head will ache for several hours. He was wounded lightly in the arm, hut he lost his leg. Go into the chamber ami wash your hands and bee. When the robbers had entered his room, they tied his arms and bandaged b - bat he could neither Bee nor hear. She said Bhe felt a alight pain in hex IV m 1 1 . perhaps she has sprained it. Please J ears, I cannot endure that dreadful noise. Show me your teeth, the di d I will tell yon if it is necessary to draw them. I opened my month, bat he insisted that he could not ace my teeth yet. Ih ■ will certainly not i nnish you this time, if you go at once to him and beg his pardon. i*«> not put your feet on the cushion; your boots are not dean, and you will soil the cover. He raised his to heaven and his unbounded astonishment. In his iii'-t duel hewas vronnded in the shoulder and his adversary Lost his left h-^ ; both combatants lost their lives during the war. He cannot s; < .ik. of it. En as Boon as he mentions it, the ;• ars come Into his ty as. II" w lO Ti: vs- . ffOB. The personal prODOUD ' either a noun or a whole sentence <>r a part of In the first ease it is transla- ted by < der of the noun which it represents; in the latter case, before Hre, by cs. An additional teel to know when e ibstitnted for *7, is to see if the English tf can be supplied by that, in which case it is invariably r« adored bj Ex. Try this beer, it is excellent, goblet cettt biere, tile «*• i urct 11, i, U . PKONOUNS. 105 Try it again ; it is better already, essay ez de nouveau ; c'est micux dejit. Tell me seriously, is it (that) really so ? Dites-moi serieu- se??ie?it, est-c'e vraiment ainsi ? It has been the same each time he has come, pV. ete la menie chose chaquefois qu'il est venu. Ce is not used before an adjective followed by de. Ex. It is useless to go there now, il (not c'est) est inutile d?y aller maintenant. Nor in the familiar exclamation : est-il possible ? But in all definitions of time with etre, ce will be required, as in such expressions that can always be substituted for it. Ex. It was in June when I saw him last, c'etait en Jain que je Vai vu la dernier e fois. Was it yesterday that he came to your house ? Est-ce que ce fu,t hier qu'il est venu chez vous? Ce may be separated from the verb etre in these cases, when the two verbs pouvoir and devoir are connected with it. Ex. It cannot be he, for I have seen him myself, ce ne peut pas Ure lui, car je Vai vu moi-mkme. It must be a queer thing, ce doit etre une drole de chose. Another peculiarity in this use of ce for it, is that it is fol- lowed by the plural of the verb, when connected with nouns or personal pronouns of the third person, whilst with all other persons it remains singular. Ex. It is they who ought to be blamed for it, ce sont eux qiCon doit blamer. It was you who told me so, c'etait vous qui me Vavez dit. Is it your children or mine whom he wants to see ? Sonl- ce vos enfants ou les miens qiCil veut voir ? It must not be forgotten, in this connection, that it may not 106 ON THE PAKTS OF A SENTENCE. only be the subject (nominative) but also the direct object (accusative) of the verb, in which case it has to be translated by le. Ex. Ride out, your health requires it, sortez a cheval, voire sante le demande. Don't do so, you know the master prohibits it, ne le failes pas, vous savez que le muitre le defend. Do you think this is it ? Croytz-vous que ce Vest ? Exercise, When I hoard it first. I thought it wns not true, but the papers say that it is surely so, and I fear that it cannot be doubted any longer. It is difficult to understand their reasons for these measures, but it was so last J ■ ar. and I [immillll it is so in all great crises. He offered me his credit in t'nut eity. and 1 knew thnt it was not small, but 1 madu no use of it, because [had money enough. It is we whom they blame, and yet yon know very well that it is they Who are the cause of all these misfortunes, fa it really you, my dear friend, whom I have not- seen for so many yeara ': It was not difficult to guess what would lie theCOD I bis manner of living', for it was clear that he spent twice as much as he t4«>k in. You are mistaken, Sir. it cannot be sh.- irhom you saw, for she was at my house at thai hour, and slm fa there now. [1 was balf-pasl ten when 1 saw her, and 1 am sure it was bin'. It baa been so in all revolutions: success is the only test i>y which rights are ded led It was s very cunning trick, and it will not •• . even hereafter, V Ksotly how it was dons Is it have committed such a blunder, and you speak of it as If it were a mere trifle i Do yon not know that it will be a cans i of great loss and much regret to you and your family i OVAI run mi v, wiru mitkii VERBS, .-ire some neuter verbs iii French followed by the preposition ". the meaning of which is such as not to i with their object; hence the conjunctive form of the personal pronouns cannot be used with them, but they require PBONOUNS. 1<»7 the preposition a to be expressed, and the proper form of the (absolute) personal pronoun to be used after them. These verbs are principally aller a, to go to ; boire a, to drink to ; ttre a, to belong to ; penser a, to think of (and other verbs express- ing thoughts, like mediter a, etc.) ; recourir a, to have recourse to, and viser a, to aim at. Ex. I went to him and told him what I wanted, fallai a lui etje lui dis ce quHl me fullait. Think of me when you are in Venice, pensez a moi quand vous serez a Venise. This belongs to him, for he has bought it, c'est a lui, car il Va achete. REFLEXIVE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. The conjunctive reflexive pronoun of the French is se, which represents all English forms of the third person, himself, herself, itself, themselves and one's self, without translating the word self, which is only used when there is an emphasis resting on it. Ex. She deceives herself if she thinks so, elle se trompe, si die le pense. They love themselves too well and others too little, Us Raiment trop et les autres trop peu. He has killed himself in a moment of rage, il s'est tue dans un moment de rage. Se is the only pronoun which can be used to represent the nominative on, in the oblique cases. Ex. On se trouve en danger quand on y pense le moins, we find ourselves in danger, when we least think of it. It has already been stated in the First Part of this Grammar that this conjunctive pronoun se is used with all pronominal verbs in French alike, but that it is differently translated into English according to the special nature of these verbs, viz. in reflexivo verbs by one's self, in reciprocal verbs by each other, and in pro- nominal verbs proper not at all. 108 OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Ex. On peut Hre savant et se t romper neanmotns, one may- be learned and yet be mistaken. lis allaient se titer tout de bon, they were about to kill each other in good earnest. II faitdra se lever de bonne heure domain, we will have to rise early to-morrow. II.— ABSOLUTE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. Personal pronouns are called absolute, when they have no connection with the verb, but stand either entirely alone or are dependent on a preposition. Ex. Who is there I It is T, who come to sec you, gut est l,i f (Teat 1 - vous voir. Be, who had been my friend, abandoned mo, fat, qui .■"ii ami, m'aband* (in with them, they will show you the way, allez avee mx, \U voni vous »/ mtrer la r>>>ite. In these examples, / and he arc used without connection with any verb, and them depends on the preposition with. The forms of the absolute personal pronouns arc : l-t person, singular : mot, I or me. 2d " " tot, thou or thee. ( fat, he "i- him. . she or her. 1st person, plural : m M, we or us. 2d M " " '■• you. . or them. . th. j (!'■ in.) or thru). Although tl nsed in connection with a verb, they may be added to th.' conjunctive form — l-t. In order to express i m\ Ex. I, I saw it. and I assure you it Is bo, moi,je Vai m it je PRONOUNS. 109 I do not see hi m, whom I wished most to see, je ne le vols pus lui, que je desirais voir le 'plus. 2. Tii order to express distinction between several persons. Ex. He was here, but she was absent, lui, il fat ici mais elle, ellefut absente. I have seen him and her, but they have forgotten me,je les ai vus, lui et elle, mais Us m'ont oublie. 3. In order to couple a pronoun with a noun, both being subject or object of the same verb. Ex. I know them and their neighbor, je les connais, eux et leur voisin. She and her brother live together, elle et son frere Us demeurent ensemble. You and I who were there know it well, vous et moi qui etions la, nous le savons Men. It will be seen from these examples, that whenever pronouns are the subject or object of a verb, the conjunctive form must be used in the first place — and can never be omitted — and the absolute form is only superadded afterwards for such specific purposes as have been mentioned. Ex. // nous invita vous et moi, he invited (us), you and me. Je vous parlai a vous et a elle, I spoke (to you), to you and to her. Nous les recevrons lui et sa femme, we will receive (them), him and his wife. Exercise. x, whose reputation he tries to ruin, I have never done him any- thing but good services. You and I are content with our fate, hut 1 believe that is a rare exception. Speak for me, if you can find an opportuni ty, and I will speak for you whenever I can. He went away with them and he came back with them, but he did not think of them after they had parted. These ladies and I were together at the theatre last night ; they like the opera, but I, I was tired and nearly fell asleep. 110 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. You an 1 jour brother will see that I was right when I told you that you ventured too much. I know him and her, for I have known their whole family since I have been in this country ; he is a nice fellow, but 6he is a shrew. We had invited her and her sisters, but only she an I one of her brothers came, the others were sick. You may tall him this secret to-morrow, but you cannot tell her any thing of it until the affair is over. Did she not receive you and her very well, when she discovered who you were V Yes, she was very kind to me, and so were her parents, and I thanked both her and them. The absolute forms of the personal pronouns are, moreover, used whenever they are followed by a relative pronoun, because the latter separates the personal pronoun from its verb, and permits it thus no longer to be conjunctive. Ex. ifoi, qui suit snu fi/s.jr U declare coupuble, I, who am his son, 1 declare him guilty. Qucstcc que c'ett •/'/<■ In 'i'ii nous traite si indianement f Who i- be, who treats us so badly ? JBuz qui nut net/ calculi, devraienl payer, they who have calculated wrong ought to pay. The absolute forms are, also, used whenever the pronoun is separated from tin- rerb bj a noun <>r an adjective, because then also to be trulj conjunctive. I..v .'■/ ■ .• 'I mourut, 1 alone saw him as be died. J. in, L him., pouvait-il a'oublier ri triatemenl} lie, the hero, Badly I forms are, finally, placed by ellip>is Ixfore the infinitivi at emphasis i" the expression. Ex. J/w, trahir U tmiet 1 (should) betray the hot of 1 1 1 \ li Lnt, fain um t>il> lacketi ti n malt IT: (could) act ao meanly and conduct himself SO bally < PRONOUNS. 11 L EXER( She who takes such good care of lier health when she is well, is very imprudent when she is the least indisposed. I know him and her, both have been my. friends for many years ; he is almost a brother *o me, and she will be my wife next week. They should have forgot- ten so far all that we have done for them, and repay us with such ingratitude ? I cannot and will not believe it, for they have ever been my best friends. He who is your brother would not lend you this small sum, and I whom you have hardly known am willing to give you all you may want. It is she who is always complaining of her health and not he, for he is never sick ; and both he and she will live yet many years. Yes, I shall punish him and no one else, for he alone is guilty ; and the others who were caught with him,were not his accomplices but his victims. He was on horseback and I was on foot, nevertheless I was first at the rendezvous, and when the seconds came we saw that it was they who had given him false directions. THE PRONOUN SOI. Soi is the absolute form of the reflexive pronoun, which, from the nature of its meaning, can never occur by itself, but is only- used in connection with prepositions or the. conjunction que, where it has, of course, all the various meanings that have been mentioned in the explanation of the conjunctive form se. Ex. On pense tovjours plus a soi qu'a autrui, we always think more of ourselves than of others. II est facile d'etre riche quand on n'a que soi, it is easy to be rich when one has only one's self. Heureux qui vit chez soi ! Happy he who has a home 1 Generally the use of soi is avoided, except after on, and lui or elle are used instead ; still, in cases in which an ambiguity might arise, soi must be employed to mark the person of the subject in contradistinction to that of a third person spoken of. Ex. II ne parle que de soi, or better, que de lui-mime, ho only speaks of himself. ISavare qui a un fils prodigue rCamasse ni pour soi m 113 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. pour lui. The miser who has a prodigal son, hoards neither for himself nor for hiin. When aoi is joined to meme, it loses its pronominal character and may be used like a noun. Ex. Un lei ami est tin autre soi-mdmc. Such .a friend is another self [alter ego.) Ou man amour me trumpe ou Zaire aujourJltui pour Velever a sot, descendrait jusqu'a lui. If my passion does not deceive me, Zaire would now, in order to raise him up to herself, lower herself to him. Soi is also very generally used in reference to lifeLss objects. Ex. J. limablt < n sot, virtue is attractive ,n itself. La/ranchim est bonne de soi, mats elle a ses »rcc«, frank- 3C is goou in itself, but it may ^o too lai When one speake - neighbor, hi rinst himself. think i"" muchol - and rely too much mi them* hence tiny are n i red himself with disgrace, and ashamed when he thinks of himself. He n he can do without the In order to •■•• nauBt >e in ■ with God, with our n ighb m and w These things uro importance. •tain meanness, which it is nol .il from un observant eye. This young man. v-hile doing the «ill of his lather, works tot himself. It will be reooUeeted that thi and Un take the pit : key should I ■ truth. Iti ' •• hare said too much already. *. me *~ mud' as you PRONOUNS. 113 Moi, however, is placed after y, contrary to general rules, fur the sake of euphony. Ex. Tu vas d I'opera, menes-y-moi, you are going to the opera, take me with you. In familiar language moi is sometimes added to the imperative, as a mere expletive, to give, as it were, greater force to tha expression Ex. Faites-moi taire cesgens-ld! Make those people keep silence there ! Frappez-le moi un peu sur le dos, strike him a little on the back. IT.— POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. Possessive Pronouns have their name from the fact that they generally qualify nouns by means of their relation to the owner or possessor. It will be seen, however, that in French this original purpose is by no means accomplished by the use ot possessive pronouns, except in a few limited cases. These pronouns are, like all others, divided into conjunctive, or such as are invariably used in close connection with a noun, and absolute, or such as stand instead of a noun and are conse- quently always accompanied by an article. The elementary rules on the use of both classes have already been given in the First Part of this Grammar. It will be borne in mind that the conjunctive agree with the noun which they qualify, while the absolute agree with the noun which they represent. Ex. Gette homme parla a sa mere et a la mienne, this man spoke to his mother and to mine. C'etait sa fille et point la votre, this was his daughter and not yours. S'il prend ma bague, je prendrai la sienne, if he takes my ring, I'll take his. Possession is in French expressed, not by means of the pos- sessive pronouns as in English, but by meuns of the verb etre, 114 ON THE PARIS OF A SENTENCE. in the signification of, to belong, followed by a and the absolute form of the personal pronoun. Ex. This house is mine, but it will be yours, cette maison est a moi, mais elle sera a vous. "Whose watch was it ? It was hers. Cette montre a qui fut-elle? Elle etait a elle. The only exception to this rule applies to the cases in which possessive pronouns are used, not to express possession itself, but rather distinction between two objects by means of pos- session. Ex. N't pitnes pus ce chapeau, c'est le mien, do not take that hat, that is mine. Lagvelle a-t-il perdue, la vdtre ou la leur ? Which has he lost, yours 01 theirs I E!xxb< This Is my brother's sentiment and mini 1 ; I hope yours is not dif- ferent from oura I have returned you your books, what have you The booh which 1 lost yesterday was not mine l.ui my wife's; sip loss bitterly. Here are all the jewels you have ever given nn-: now Bay, which are to be yours and which mine? Your servants and ours are frequently quarrelling j we shall •n all, or there will l»' no peace for you or me, This if you wish to see mine you musl go to the stable, ■ vi it!i y, ii. but I Bhould like to Bee youra, they aro famous in the whole town. Whose cottage is this ? My dear friendi mine, bul UMnorrow it may be yours, for I mean to leave it to you uft. r my death. Why, my friend, do uol speak so, tor your life may be longer than mine, She Bhall noi have then bracelets; L . ■ hex mine, but I «iil never give her tl In English, ronouna may be placed, by moans of the prep in which thtfy qualify, and the latter can, in - ompanied by an indefinite article or ■ demonstrative pronoun, as in — A friend of mine, ur These PRONOUNS. . 115 books of his. Both modes of expression are not known to the French, and when they have to be translated, a choice must be made between the demonstrative and the possessive pronouns, as only one can be used. The less important will be omitted, and we will say either : These books, or His books. For A friend of mine, we say, One of my friends. Ex. Un de mes amis, a friend of mine. Ces livres or vos livres, those books of yours. Take these pictures of mine and sell them at auction, prenez ces tableaux et vendez-les a Vencan. Was that a friend of yours ? Est-ce que c'etait un de vos amis ? The possessive pronouns its and theirs, when referring to life- less objects, are not translated by le sien, etc., but by en, unless the objects are personified by having some quality or action applied to them. Ex. Voyez cet arbre ; les fruits en sont excellents, look at this tree ; its fruit is excellent. Est-ce que man cheval a deja mange sonavoine ? Has my hor^e eaten its oats already ? The possessive pronouns are not used before nouns followed by a relative pronoun, but are exchanged, in that case, for the definite article. Ex. J'ai recu la (not votre) lettre que vous m'avez ecrite, I have received your letter which you have written me. Tenez les (not vos) promesses que vous m'avez faites, keep your promises which you have made me. Le mien, le tien, and occasionally le sici, are used to express ray, thy, his or her property, and treated as nouns. Ex. Le mien et le tien, sont la source de toutes les querelles, what is mine and what is thine, this is the source of all troubles. II a mange tout le sien, he has spent all his property. 116 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Les miens, les vdtres and all the plurals are used to express tuy parents, friends, adherents, etc., and treated as nouns. Ex. Les miens ne ni'ont pas secouru dans ce danger, my friends have not stood by me in this danger. II faut amener Mmc. voire epouse et tous les vdtres, you must bring your wife and all your family. Exercise. A clerk of his has defrauded him largely and brought about his failure by his dishonesty. Was this man ever a friend of yours, or did he only pretend to be acquainted withyou? I am surprised at your : a man like him never could be a friend of mine. These : ■ and very fast, but they are not sound, they will not live long, especially if you do not change that groom of yours, who treats them badly. A neighbor of yours heard the noise the b 8 in breaking the kitchen window, and : this aid of his, the whole i, stripped of every thing valuable and we would have lost all our property. When this news read es our country, what will <>ur ; ml it'.' Yiui and yours will alwa at my bouse, and 1 -had ever l"- delighted to * e you there. m— DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOl iy been explained in the Firsl Part of ibis Gram< mar that tbe demonstrative pr» i are divided into two onnected with a noan <>r the verb itre, and absolute, or such as stand alone and represent theme j. The former were represented latti r by compounds of a with . '•' //'', etc. It ii the two I : bis and That, bad t<> l from id) and Ut t either to the or to tlio PRONOUNS. 117 llouns preceded by these pronouns, as cet homme-ci, this man, and cet homme-la, that man. The conjunctive forms agree, of course, 'with the noun which they qualify, the absolute with that which they represent. Ex. Cet homme et cette femme ne sont pas maries, this man and this woman are not married. Cette maison et celle que vons m'avez vendue, this house and that which you have sold me. Mes filles et cellesde noire voisin, my daughters and those of our neighbors. Ce is conjunctive to the verb Ure only, although in familiar conversation a few other verbs occur with it, as ce me semble, it seems to me. It has the peculiarity of leaving the verb in the singular, even when referring to a plural, unless the latter should be a pronoun of the third person plural, or a word pre- ceded by a preposition. In these two cases the verb is used in the plural. Ex. Ce sera nous tons qui lui en seront redevables, we all of us will be obliged to him for it. Cest vous qui etes cherts, it is you who are beloved. Ce sont eux qui ont ordonne tout, it is they who havo arranged all. Quoi ! c'est a ces dieux que vous sacrifiez ? What ! is it these gods you worship ? Whenever ce and etre are followed by a noun or pronoun preceded by a preposition, they must be connected by que with the following verb. Ex. Cest a vous que je parle, it is to you I speak. Ce it 'est pas de cela qriiliagit aujourdhui, that is not the question to-day. When ce is followed by a relative pronoun, ce must be repeated before the next verb, of which it forms the subject. 118 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Ex. Ce que je crains c'est d'etre surpris, what I fear is to be taken in. Ce que faime le mieux Jest de vous voir ici, what I like best, is to see you here. Ce must be supplied in French before etre, when the subject of the latter verb is the preceding part of the sentence. Ex. Le mieux dans ces cas Jest de se taire, the best in such cases is to be quiet. Vtvre lout s< ul c'est trop triste, to live quite alone is too Bad. Although many classic authors omit the ce when etre is fol- lowed by the nominative, as Ex. Venfer dt ift mmes est Li vieillesse, old age is the hell of women. ExBROISX. s to me that this wine is not s<> good as that in Hie cask. Thai la not possible, for this is much older and more costly, and the other is a wine of very little value. It Is the Dumber of people and the abundance of food which make the true strength and the true wealth of a country. It Is indifferent works that one ought to •t would be an act of injustice to shorten a work of great merit It la they who have done all this, and now they have th<> Impudent we who are responsible fox the result, It is aeitherihe arts n<>r the handicrafts that can degrade man: it is that .-.in do that. The trui- praise <>r ■ poet hi to retain his i to bear them recited In the streets The only way t<> <"m- ]m-i men to s;'.:ik weD "f n> is t-> act welL \<- truth, It la hardly by yon that they have bet n accomplished. What] have told you la the simple truth ; you may behave it or n<>t, as yon choose. What we endure with hast patience, are calumnies and treachi I The afcaofai ive nol only the genera] meaning of »!>•' English demonstrative pronouns, but are used, PRONOUNS. 1 i 9 besides, to render various other expressions, of which the follow- ing are the most important : They represent the one, when followed by a relative pronoun. Ex. The one for whom I work, is a better master, celui pour qui je travaille, moi, est un meilleur mattre. This is not the one whom I love best, ce n'est pas celle que faime le mieux. They represent, also, the English personal pronoun, when it is employed in a general sense and followed by a relative pronoun. Ex. He who weeps 'will be consoled, celui qui pleure sera console. He who will not labor must suffer, ceux qui ne veulent pas travailler doivent souffrir. But when the personal pronoun refers to an individual, it ia literally translated. Ex. He, who was rich, has lost every thing, lui, qui etait riche a perdu tout. They represent, also, the English one, followed by a relative pronoun. Ex. I do not like one who tells stories, je rfo.ime pas ceux qui font des contes. One who knows so well ought not to say that, celui qui le sait si bien ne devrait pas le dire. They represent, finally, the English which, when it has the signification of whichever. Ex. Take which of these papers you prefer, prenez celui de ces journaux que vous preferez. Celui, etc., must be supplied in French when in English the nominative of a possessive case is omitted idiomatically. Ex. These horses and my father's (horses) are alike, ces che- vaux et ceux de mon pere sont pareils. I will send you yours and your wife's, je vous enverrai les vdtres et ceux de votre femrne 120 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Exercise. He who wishes to be happy in this world is not always so, because we rarely know what makes our true happiness. You can read which of these books you choose, only put them back again in their places in the library. He who says so is either mistaken or he says delib- erately what is not true ; you may take your choice. There is an old proverb in various languages which says : He to whom fortune pipes, dances well. Will you please show me your picture, I mean the one which you bought a year ago, when you were in Italy. I cannot show you that, because it is in the hands of an artist, but I can show you the one I brought from Italy when I was there before. He who wants to reap where he lias not sowed, is a dishonest man. They who talk will be punished, and the one who is first discovered will be punished very severely. Do you think yon ever could love one who has done such on act ? Do you reooQecl the young lady I wanted to introduce >, the one with the auburn hair and tin' majestic figure? Well 1 am sorry for it, but sin- has married ami Id"; our city. ; , celuirlh and tin- other absolute forms connecte with <-; and A'/, lose by that combination their general characto and are used to point out more individually and directly, those with ci representing tin- English this one, those with In the English thai one, and kindred expressions. Kx. /' lui .■'•'/, give me this one and t i k- thai . these are worth nothing. ;t and its various forms represent the English the latter, b^ being nearer !■> the momei j, and cefo»-/&, etc., the former, as being n* Ex. D ' inrn, lf ,>i, of th. - former i* old, the hitter unknown. pronoun in their cotnper only. The latter i> in familiar oom PRONOUNS. 121 Ex. Ccci me plait, et je vous dis cela tout franckement, I like that, and I tell you that quite openly. Bonjour, Monsieur, comment ca va-t-il ? Good-morning, Sir : how are you ? Hence also the first words of the revolutionary song, Ca ira, etc. In very familiar conversation cela occasionally answers to repre- sent persons only, but this rare use of cela is not to be imitated. Thus, upon seeing children at play, one may say : Cela at heureux, cela ne fait quejouer, are they happy, they have nothing to do but to play ! Cela is used for the English it, when that pronoun repre- sents not a noun, but a whole sentence, and is not the nomina- tive of the verb to be (in which case it would be translated by ce simply.) Ex. iV'y allez pas, puisque cela lui deplairait fort, do not go there, since it would displease him much. Cela me plait qiCil V a fait lui-mSme, it pleases me that he has done it himself. The English demonstrative pronouns this and that, where followed by the verb to be, are frequently expressed in French, by the two words void and voila, which thus serve, in a manner, as demonstrative pronouns. They consist of the imperative of the verb voir, vois, see or behold, and the words id and la. Hence they can only be used for objects virtually in sight, and are not admissible in interrogative sentences. Their verbal origin produces, moreover, the peculiar effect, that whilst nouns, which are the object, are placed after them, pronouns under the same circumstances are placed before them. Ex. Void rues enfants, ou sont les votres? Here or these are my children, where are yours ? Voila mon ami qui arrive enfin, there is my friend coming at last. Sonl-ce la vos enfants ou les miens ? Are those your children or mine ? Les voici,je Pavais bien dit quails ne nous manqueraient 122 ON THE PA11TS OF A SENTENCE. pas ! There they are ; had I not said that they would not disappoint us ! Void and voila may be followed by an adjective or an adverb. Ex. Nous voila sauves pour cette fois, now we are safe for this time. Les voila a Vendroil meme ou nous les attemlions, there they are, at the very spot where we expected them. But they cannot, as in English, be followed by a participle present, which must be rendered in French by qui and the proper tense of the verb. Ex. Li voila qui vicnt a noire rencontre, there she is, coming to meet us. When the two words are followed by an expression of quan- tity, they require m m trompt pas, there is one of them, if I am nut mistaken. There is virtually n<> difference of meaning between void and POttt, except that voila refers to what has been mentioned o what ia coming after. Ex. Vo ' ' a ■/ t'il ' j" ••■_ 101, that is what he proposed, and this IS what 1 want. In familiar style voilh . ly used interrogatively. Ex. En voila-t-tl tout t Is that all | i-i:. A faithful magistrate and a brave officer are equally worthy of i . the (tanner makes war span enemies al home, the latter apoa > n.-nm-s abroad. This machine is BBOVed by aprillga end is very Imperfeet, th and is quite new. When be earns Into the rk the boy by the ban I, and leading him lather, I said: "Tarn la your s..n, whom you though! loaf ;and thia is your daughter, whom yon have aererseen. These appl< otter tlian inv neighbor's; where mv those yen ha/("/nt.r. ii the verb m.i\ be separated from the relative pi. an • tig words. In French it must he | in its proper place, immediate]) after the relative pronoun, E , Thia is ■• il tli pri »l al Brussels has told me, voila re n'a Jit U /■ • lit i. w in ii yonr charming sister uin. .-jLur ckarmanU, PBOKOUNS. 125 The only exception to this general rule is furnished by dont, which is followed by its nominative, instead of by its verb, although, when the following noun is in any other case, the rule again applies. Ex. You whose kindness has been so great, vous dont les bonles ont ete si grandes. But, You whose kindness I feel so deeply, vous dont je sens tant les bonles. I paid for the book whose cover I spoilt, fai payi le livre dontfai gate la couverture. It must not be forgotten that qui, etc., cannot be used whenever the relative pronoun is subject to a preposition, but that in all such cases lequel, etc., must be substituted. Ex. The monarch in whose States we were, le monarque dans les etats duquel nous etions. The crime for which he is condemned, le crime pozir lequel il a ete condamne. Exercise. If you cannot do it, the persons who are my true friends will obtain for me all the money I want, for my credit is what I rely on in this crisis. I know what would be the best medicine for you : fresh air and an abundance of exercise ; they are all I would prescribe for you. I cannot remember against whom he spoke, but it was the best speech I ever heard in my life. These men whose abominable crime has been so severety punished, will not be allowed to re-enter society — which is not severity but simple j ustice. When he returned to this country he went to see the mayor of the fortress from which he had escaped, and spoke to all who had known him during his captivity. This has brought us at last a peace, the sweetness of which surpasses all other pleasures, and for which we cannot be too grateful. You whose brilliant talents we all acknowledge, ought not, on that account, cease to make the greatest efforts. Were you in the ship the main- mast of which was struck by lightning and in which so many pas- sengers were killed ? 126 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. What is occasionally used in English before nouns, with tl*e doable power of an adjective and a pronoun, as in the phrase : What money he had. In French it has to be rendered as if it meant : All the money. Ex. "What clothes they had left him were wet, tons Its vile- menis qiCon lux avail lainsis, etaient mouilles. Give him what money he may want, donnez-lui tout V argent qu'il luifaudra. . as relative pronoun, can be used only as indirect object, consequently it will be always accompanied by a prepo- sition. Ex. La chose a (]>!<>', ravare pense Ic mains, the thing of which sera think least I' rnns parler, this is what I wanted to -peak t.> yon about U •' ait jilnx t'rrit, there is nothing abonf which more baa been \\ ritten. is not need, bat its place is supplied I Dit a ni- toil Vautt ur, there is nothing of ] > Go I is ii'.i tin- author. ised relatively, but withoul nn antecedent, has the and kindred • . give me something to writo about ' '. he is rich, In- has rea.«>n lob The adv. tIi '"/ (from the Latin "''/), literally meaning, where, itivc pronouns preceded bj a preposition, but it- use i- .'united t<> definitions of time and • •t la moment in which . is a step towards death, 1' ■ • i oH nuquit Afvliert, this is the hou which Kloliera was born. PRONOUNS. 127 Oil admits of the two prepositions de and par. Ex. Le per'd d'oii vous ni'uvez sauve fat terrible, the danger from which you have rescued me was a terrible one. Les mot/ens par oil cet intrigant est arrive a la fortune, the means by which this intriguer has been so forlunate. Exercise. The city in which he arrived was full of sympathizing friends, and the dangers through which he had passed endeared them to him still more. He was received with shouts, and the house in which he took his lodgings was surrounded from morning till night by en- thusiastic crowds. Happy is he who, content with his humble fate, lives in the obscure condition in which Heaven has concealed hini! He woidd not tell us the country from which he came, and although we were sure enough that he was a foreigner, we could not tell where he was born. Tell me what you are thinking of and I will tell you what was in my thoughts. Henry IV., to whose kindness of heart so much praise has been given, was in reality a very selfish man. The diseases of the soul are the most dangerous ; we ought to work at curing them ; still, this is what we rarely think of. We have always something to amuse ourselves with ; and when that fails us, we go out into the streets, and there is no lack of oddities there. There is nothing of which we know less than the true state of our neighbor's heart. Time would fail us to tell you all the dangers through which we have passed and all the difficulties from which Providence has rescued us during our last journey. V.— ABSOLUTE AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. The same pronouns serve in English as relative and as interro- gative pronouns, the only difference being that in the former capacity they have an antecedent to which they relate, while in the latter they arc used without an antecedent, so that they are called interrogative, when they are used in questions. In French the relative and the absolute pronouns resemble each other, but there are certain striking differences in the use 12?, ON THE PARTS OF A SEXTEXCE. of both classes, which have been already stated in the First Part of this Grammar. Thus qui, as an absolute pronoun, is accusative as well as nominative, when referring to persons, and can never be used except as a relative pronoun. These and similar points of importance must here be recalled. Qui, as an absolute pronoun, contains its antecedent in the shape of a personal pronoun, which must be supplied in English. Ex. Qui veut purler de lout, souvent park an hazard, he who wants to speak of every thing, often speaks at hap- hazard. Lachi qui veut mourir, courogeux qui pad vivre, a coward who l?aotS t" die, brave is he who can live on. u an interrogative pronoun, may be subject or object of the sentence, and thus answers lor the English who? or whom | Ex. Q ti /< mrit eompatir aux mauz qu'on a souffertsf Who can- not feel for the Bufferings which be has endured ! i^i'i- ehoiti pour compaction dt voyagef Whom have yon chosen for your travelling companion ! repeated, has in proverbial ami rimiliar expressions the manning ol hen. urait qui riait, matt tout itaient emut, some went and others laughed, but nil win- moved, employed absolutely, is also never used as the nominative of a verb, for which is substituted, for the sake of Ex. w li.it made you come so late I Qu'ett-ct qui vout afaii "./ ' What has pleased you besl ? (jiCst-,-, qui vout a plu le in i' Que is need vti'.y M accusative of a verb, for the EnglLj what | PRONOUNS. 129 Ex. Que voulut-il dire, en parlant si brusquement ? What did he mean by speaking so rudely ? Que voulez-vous que je fasse pour lui ? What do you want me to do for him ? Quoi, from the Latin quod, may be an absolute and an inter- rogative pronoun. In the former capacity it is used either alone or with a preposition. Ex. Elle chante mais je ne saurais vous dire quoi, she is sing- ing, but I cannot tell you what. A quoi vous attendez-vous defdcheux? What unpleasant event do you expect ? Quoi, followed by a comparative, has the meaning of What is? Ex. Quoi de jilus conusant que de les voir jouer? What is more amusing than to see them play? Je ne sais quoi is often used in French for the words : A cer- tain something. Ex. II y a dans cette affaire je ne sais quoi que je n'entends pas, there is something in this matter which I do not un- derstand. Exercise. To whom were you speaking when I saw you this morning ? I can tell you who it was, but I cannot tell you what we were speaking of, for that was my friend's secret. He has always something mys- terious about him, which I do not like, but this time it was an important secret which he confided to me. What do you want and what can I do for you ? Nothing, Sir, I thank you, for he who wishes to be independent must learn to help himself. When the news of our delivery arrived, some cried out and others were silent, but the cause of this different behavior was the same in all. What belongs to you here 1 Show it to me and I will send it to your house with \vha,t belongs to your sister. Will that glass contain what is in this phial, or must I send for a larger one ? Tell me whom you frequent and i 130 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. will tell who you are. "Whom did you do that for ? I worked for inyself, which is the true policy of a man who wants to make his fortune. Lequel and its various forms can be used as interrogative pronouns only in the signification of "Which of several I Ex. Lwjui lie de ces dt ux so u rs prifert --cons / Which of these two sisters do you like best ? De tous ces livres, lesquels sont les vttrest Among all these books, which are yours? Qnd and its forma have the same meaning when used in reference to a pr mn; but when used in connection with a noun, they mean What kind of! Ex. Qurl est U vdtrt f Je voudrai /<• voir. Which is yours? I should like to Bee it. Quel est eel hommet II n'a pas Fair eomme il font. What kind of a man is he? He does not look like a gentleman. Q ell* est ■■"■ tnusique que fentends de hint What music is that I hear from afar .' It must be borne in mind, from what has been said in con- witfa the poMeesive pronoun, that the interrogative form, Whose! is in French expressed by n qui when stand* He or whi ii follow* d bj sur la route .' Whose is that beautiful bouse by the roadside ? Whose do you say ? But when Whose! is u»ed without the verb To be, it n ren- dered either by quel of !•; ording to the construction required. Ex. 1 know whose dttugl ter would suit him, js sais quells est it JUL qui lui conviendrait. PRONOUNS. 131 Can you tell me whose portrait this is? Sauriez-vous me dire quel est ce portrait ? Whose ring ? La bague de qui ? Exercise. What was it you wanted to tell me when we were interrupted ? I have entirely forgotten what I intended to mention to you, but it was nothing very important or I would remember it now. Which of these two young ladies is his sister, the light-haired or the dark haired ? I can see which of them is the prettiest, but I cannot tell which is the cleverest. What success has he had in his enterprise ? Whose horses are these two bays which we have seen pass our house several times to-day ? They are my cousin's, who is very fond of fine horses, and if you show him a number he will tell you at once which are sound and which are not. What a wonderful tale ! and you hope that we or anybody else will believe it ? VI.— INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. There is a class of pronouns in French, whose special purpose it is to designate persons and things, not individually but vaguely and generally, and hence their name of indefinite pronouns. They differ in their use, inasmuch as some are never employed in connection with a noun, but stand alone and are substitutes for nouns, whilst others are only found before nouns, and a third class are used sometimes with and sometimes without a noun. 1. — Indefinite Pronouns used alone. The principal pronoun of this class is on, a word of frequent use and great importance in French. It is derived from the Latin homo, now homme, and has passed through the various shortenings of horn, on?, and on. This derivation is still very influential, having the following practical effects : On cannot be used for any agency but that of man, hence 132 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. excludes God, mechanical or indefinite agencies. It cannot be said, on crea le monde, the world was created, because the agent is not indefinite but known, and is not man, but God. Nor can it be said, on pleuvail hier, there was rain yesterday, because here the agency, though indefinite, is not a personal one. On can only be used as a nominative, the subject of a sen- tence, as it is derived from a nominative, and not, like all other nouns, from an oblique c On has a way of its own to avoid the hiatus, which is every- where else remedied by the insertion of a / between two hyphens, or the addition of an s to the first word ending in a vowel. With on, the remedy is to place an /', the article A, before it, when it i.> preceded by . according to euphony. Ex. Si l'"n peui vivrt tranquility <>n doit se taire, if we wish to live quietly, we must be discreet. < . ment, what is well coders! 1 i-. clearly expressed. Tin- same I i- also frequently placed before on when it begins a ■ - < ''/"'/. they come ami go and ootbJng is done. But, aa this is done for the sake of euphony, care must be had not t<> insert thifl /. when the sain.' letter OCCUra already. ta repetition vronld I-- more offensive to the em- than the i K\. ./ '-. I <\" n«.t want him to DC troubled. // nil, i i. u ,-i'i/ devait alter, he went where ho was told he ought to It has alreadj been explained in the l"ir-t Part of this Oram* mar. that <>/' cannol be translated literally into Kng h word a- an indefinite personal pronoun. The substitutes ;ir ,. many, suofa a- : people, men, ' body. illy the passu e comti PEONOUNS. 133 Ex. On rfest pas toujours mat Ire de soi, we are not always masters of ourselves. Onfrappe a la parte, si je ne me trompe pas, somebody knocks, if I am not mistaken. Ce qiton admire le plus rfest pas toujours ce qiCil y a de mieux, what is most admired is not always the best. When on is referred to in the same sentence, this can only be done by the reflexive pronoun se and sol, as le and lui would be too definite to correspond to the indefinite character of on. Ex. On pense toujours plus a soi qu'a autrui, people always think more of themselves than of others. On s'en est beaucoup emerveille a la cour, they have wondered very much at it at court. On is naturally masculine singular; nevertheless, when it so evidently refers to women or to a plural as to leave no doubt on the mind, it may be accompanied by an adjective or parti- ciple in the feminine or the plural. Ex. Ah, Madame, on vCest pas toujours jeune et jolie, ah, Madam, people (you) are not always young and pretty. On n'est pas des esclaves pour etre si maltraites, we are not slaves to be so badly treated. On must be repeated before every verb for which it serves as subject. Ex. On le loue, on le menace et on n'obtient rien, he is praised, he is threatened, and nothing is gained by it. On may be placed before every kind of verb, except imper- verbs, because their agency is not that of man. Ex. On aime et Von est aime, we love and we are loved. On tombe dans de mauvaises habitudes et on s'en repent, people fall into bad habits and repent. On couvient qu'on s'est trompe, they admit that they have been mistaken. 134 OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. When on occurs twice in the same sentence it must necessa- rily refer to the same subject, or the construction would bo incorrect. It cannot be said, on dit qu'oa a pris la ville, because the subject of dit is not the same as that of a pris. It must be expressed thus : on dit que la ville a ete prise, they say that the city has been taken. Although or may be translated by on?, it cannot be used for the English one, followed by a relative pronoun. This must be translated, when indefinite, by quelqu^un, and when definite by cclui. Ex. I know one who would do it,/e sais quclquun qui pour- rail le /aire. One who COnld say so would say anything, cclui qui dirait c-ld, dirait tout ce qu'on voudruit. On is frequently used in conversation to designate persom •it, either the speaker himself or the person Bpokcn to. This i- especially done when ironical politeness or downright rudeness is to \«- conveyed and yet the directness of the personal pronoun i> to qu'on pourrail me reprendre, you are that you could reprove me. On '•""< at infinimeni oblige, Monsieur, 1 am infinitely oblig Ironical.) Vice can only be ovemotne l>y fleeing from it. People often think thai men irho look benevolent rod receive everybody with a smile, are very kind, but they ai I thai thewarkad •..mi end, inn unfortunately the last news by the telegraph is o hopeful, and it i- >ai health la the service of 1 » i — country. What «lo people think of hi* la>t work, do tin-, admin it aa lunch as his format writings, or d« PRONOUNS. 135 they say it is inferior ? I do not know what has been done for him, but I know that something has been given to him, either an estate or a large sum of money. It is a maxim of French philosophers that men do not love those to whom they owe much, because gratitude is the heaviest burden that can oppress men. What a sad sentiment ! If we wish to live quietly we must learn to despise the talk of fools, the hatred of the envious and the insolence of the rich. Six', she said with a mocking courtesy, I am your humble servant, and I will not trouble you any more. Paris is an admirable place : a hundred things happen there every day which are unknown in the provinces and admired even in the great capital. Quelqu'un, from the Latin qualis and unus, is used absolute- ly, i. e. without reference to any noun, and then occurs only in the masculine singular and plural (quelques-uns), for persons. Ex. Quelqu'un a dit que Vdme du monde est le soleil, some- body has said the sun is the soul of the world. Quelques-uns Jen sont deja alles, some have already left. In this sense it can only be used as subject of a verb ; and when Somebody is to be translated as object of a verb, the French substitute for it quelques personnes. Ex. I have spoken to some, fat parle a quelques personnes. That may surprise some, it has not surprised me, cela •pent surprendre quelques personnes, il ne m\i pas sur~ pris, moi. Quelqu'un will be translated by Any or Anybody, in interro- gative sentences. In this case it must be treated, when the subject of the sentence, like a noun, and repeated after the verb in the form of the proper pronoun. Ex. ISavez-vous dit a quelqu'un ? Have you told anybody so? Quelqu'un est-il venu pendant mon absence ? Has anybody been here during my absence ? Quelqu'un cannot be used in connection with a negation, in which case personne must be substituted. J 36 OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Ex. I have not mentioned it to anybody, je ne I'ai mention- ne dpereonne. Anybody, standing alone in English, and meaning, that there is no choice, is rendered in French by riimporte qui. Ex. As for me, you may tell it to anybody, quant d moi, vow pourrez I dire a n'impai I Quelqu'un, also, represents the English one, followed by a relative pronoun. Ex. Je »e saurais estimer quelqu'un qui agirait ainsi, I could not esteem one who could act so. When tiiis pronoun is referred to in the same sentence, this is done by the reflexive pronoun a 01 Ex. < "• i quelqu'un qui ne penm qu'h mm, that is some one who thinks only of himself. - mebody lias made a mistake bj going thi Quelqu'un may be, secondly, used relatively, i. e. with refer- to a DOUn, and in that CSS* ii has a feminine as wvll as a dine, and relates to things as well as to persons, but the da or tilings must be either mentioned in the same sen* ted by en. 1 1 • you im .- 1 1 1 \ of these gontlenm i » avoir quelquet-unet, H.,\ o you ve 1 have some. When Hccompaniod by an ad, ju'un requires the addition of ]. N // ome fresh . in contradiction to n aueun n a me ait le micux, everybody thinks he knows best. Dans ces cas-la, chacun ve pense qua soi, in such cases everybody thinks but of himself. Un chacun anil t""t chacun are antiquated expressions, occur- rinu r in ol", which is also need as a noun, is employed as as indefinite pronoun in the sense of anybody. It becomes ncga* live, meaning nobody, only when accompanied l>\ »■. Ex. Pertontu •<■'■ matin t lias anybody been here this morning I Hoint ji n'ai vu pertonne t no, Sir; .il nobody. • <1 by an adjective requires, like all pronouns, the pn Ex. D • )■ tu eonnaU pertonne tTheureux^ in thai know nobody w ln> is happy. from the Latin quia and cunque, means whoever, whir but «:ui be used with n erence to pel only. It lias n<» plural, but it may be used with reference to feminine nouns, if they are mentioned in the same sentence. Ex. Q . whoever nptlla bun Quiconq . ' w Inch ever be bold enough. PEONOTJNS. 131 Whichever, etc., applied to things, are rendered in French by the demonstrative pronoun. Ex. Take whichever you want, prenez celui qui vous con vicndra. Rien, from the Latin accusative rem, means any thing, and becomes negative, with the meaning of nothing, only when ac- companied by ne. Ex. II Va fait sans rien dire, he did it without saying any thing. Rien de plus facheux est-il jamais arrive? Has anything more provoking ever happened ? Je rien suis rien el je ne veux rien savoir, I know nothing of it and wish to know nothing. Rien is one of the few words which, being the direct object of a verb, may be placed before the infinitive, and, for the pur- pose of great emphasis, even before the participle past. Ex. // ne vautrien, il ne sail rien f aire, he is good for nothing, he cannot do any thing. Je vous assure solennellement que je ne lui ai rien dit, I assure you solemnly, I have told him nothing at all. Exercise. Somebody told me that you left town and were living in the coun- try, but I hear so many stories now-a-days, that I have almost deter- mined not to believe anybody. Had you spoken to anybody of your plans, for they seem to be known by everybody ? I shall never be able to trust one who was willing to betray his country when it was in danger. Whoever expects a certain misfortune may already be con- sidered as unhappy. He offered this reward to any one who would discover the author of that atrocious murder, but nobody has yet announced Limself to claim the money. Has anyone ever seriously doubted the existence of God ? These flowers are very pretty, but some of them have thorns which hurt my hand. Several ladies had promised to come, but some sent an excuse and others stayed away without saying any thing. Try each one of your friends separately 140 OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. and you will see how very few really sincere ones there are. They brought their offerings to the temple, each one according to his means unl his piety. Caesar and Pompey had each their merit, hut they were different merits. Did you find any thing remarkable in the works of that author? He left us without saying any thing, and con- sequently nothing can be done to help him. 2. — Indefinite Pronouns, which are always joined to a Noun. Quelque, from the Latin qualisque, and its plural quelques, correspond to the English Some, in the sense of a small quan- tity, in the singular, and a small number, in the plural. !■!> elides ita final <' only before UTl and auiir, making ; i'.l'itr, , somebody else. JSiX, II doit avoir quelque passion secrete^ lie must have some i I passion. Q u \quet crimes toujours precedent lesgrandt criines,6ome crimes always precede great Crimea. Quelq well distinguished from the partitive article, which always expresses a part of a whole, whilst quelque means only one out of a number, or Some in contradistinction t<. None. Ex. V tans doutt quelque argent, yon will certainly have some money. // yaura - ru obligeante, there will perhaps be some raon. _. like quelqu* Un y always distinctly Some, in be used negatively, except in ns. Aueun is used for Some in negative sentences. brave homuu f Mi^lit there not Itli tli" noun chose, thin .line. . 1 have something to show yon. PRONOUNS. 141 Chrtque holds the same relation to chacun that quefque holds to qiulqiCun, only it has of course no plural, as it means Each or Every. Ex. Chaque passion parle un different langage, every passion speaks a different language. A chaque jour suffit sa peine, each day has its own troubles. Quelconque, from the Latin qualiscunque, corresponds to the English Whatever (it may be), and occurs only after a noun. Ex. II rHy a chose quelconque qui puisse Vy obliger, there is nothing whatever that could induce him. Un homme quelconque auruit mieux fait, any man what- soever would have done better. In English, Any is often substituted for Whatever, and must then be translated by the same word. Ex. Vous pouvez me donner un Here quelconque, you may give me any book. In mathematics, quelconque is used in the plural. Ex. Deux points quelconques etant donnes, any two points being given. Certain becomes a pronoun only in the sense of Some, and may in that case be preceded by the indefinite article. Ex. Cerlaines personnes nous en oni averti, some persons have warned us against it. Un certain homme est venu nous le dire, a certain (some) man came and told us so. Exercise. Some ancient authors have maintained that doctrine, but in our day it has long since been abandoned. Every age has its pleasure, every condition its charms ; good follows evil, and smiles follow tears. We went to see a certain person, who had assured us that he could euro 142 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. us of this disease, bat we found him to be an impostor. There is always some mystery about his movemeuts, and his enemies intimate that he prefers it, because it gives him apparently a little more im- portance. If we could find some house that would suit us in your neighborhood we would take it immediately, but so far we have not been able to find any. If I were you, I would take any house rather than to board with my wife and children; it is the saddest way of living I know, to have no home. He told me, with tears in his eyes, that after having paid all his creditors, there would not be left him any thing whatever, but somebody else assured me that he was not quite so destitute. 3. — Indefinite Pronouns used with or without a Noun. Autre, from the Latin alio; corresponds to the English Other, and pre ''ins it qualifies, bat follows other indefinite prono Ex. // uf croyaii pas qu'U y dit un autre monde, he did not believe there was another world. Ufaxidra lui donner quelqu 1 in*, you will have . e him some other medicine. u mil ait, Dothing else would suit me. It is, properly ppeaking, a genuine pronoun only when it is not accompanied by a noun, bnt acta as a substitute. Ex. Un autre ne vous parlerait pas tri franchement, anybody else would not speal • ly to you. Anoth : ly translated by another. Ex. Xoncaii give me aow another om - m' en donner tun fre. It hai n mentioned t lint the plan] form autre* is d added to the pronouns nous and vous, when a distinction . liahed by natfamalitj a :mie end a^ poor men, les riches out la in' 'mi fin urn lis pauvres. The same as, when it means Lik.', is translated by comme before nouns ; and The game, when it stands alone, l>y <• expressed by /v the adverb si before the adjective. Ex. She is siwh a beautiful w<>man ! C'tst line si bills fimwe ! lie has told as such consoling words] // wms a dU dot PRONOUNS. 147 Such, before adjectives and followed by As, and consequently expressing a comparison, is translated not by tel, but like other comparisons. Ex. If I were in such a good condition as he, si moi, fetais dans une si bonne position comme lui. Such, before nouns and followed by As, is translated by teh placed after the noun. Ex. Such animals as this are dangerous, les animaux tels que celui-ci sont dangereux. Such as, is occasionally used in English with the meaning of Those who, and must in that case be translated like the latter phrase. Ex. Avoid such as may tempt you, evitez ceux qui peuvent vous tenter. Tel is employed in proverbial expressions, without noun or article, to represent the English Many a one, in similar expres- sions. Ex. Tel seme qui ne recueille pas, many a one sows who does not reap. Tel rit qui pleurera, many a one laughs who is going to weep. Plusieurs, which has no singular and means Several or Many, can be used without a noun only as subject to a verb ; in all other relations it must be accompanied by a noun. Ex. Plusieurs se sont trompes en voulant tromper les auires, many have deceived themselves, when they wished to deceive others. On le dit ainsi dans plusieurs journaux, it is sai'I so in several papers. Tout, from the Latin totus, which makes its plural in tons, has a variety of special significations, of which the following are the most important : Tout, by itself, represents every thing or all things. US OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Ex. Tout tombe, tout peril autour de nous, all things foil and perish around us. Tout etait adore dans un Steele pa'icn, every thing was worshipped in a pagan age. In this signification it may, like rien, be placed before the infinitive and the participle past of the verb of which it is the direct object. Ex. Quand il Fa vu il lui a tout avoue, when he saw him lie confessed to him every thing. Muintenant, cependant, il ne veut pas tout dire, now, how- ever, he will not tell all (every thin-). It must not be forgotten that when tout is followed by the relative pronoun, the antecedent in the form of ce must bo supplied. Ex. All I kn.-w of it is this, tout ■-,- qm J saie eet ceci. lsthatailtli.it embarrasses you 1 Est-ee la tout ce qui represents everybody or all, and may be used instead of the personal pronouns as well as in addition to thrill. Ex. Tout e'en ollaient quand la cirimonie nit fair, they all went away when the c. ■ivin..n\ \\a- over. eni tout dtt tannes, annul /<■ bateau ft voile t thr\ all shed tears when tie' vessel tailed. 1 by the relative pronoun, requires the addition of an antecedent Ex. I bave — i .ill who were there when it happened, fai en I tela arriva. When the English All refers not indefinitely t>> all, but bo all of a home, a I of a society, etc., it is translated by ton Ex. 11 body at home? Comment H portt tout U moudt >t have known how t«> help my- and it li even likely thai I would have perished miserably. Ev< ry good citizen musl serve his country, the Boldiei with Ids blood, the priest with his seal All novelties in poinl of religion are dan- gerous, but they ought not to be condemned too hastily; onto trarv, we ougp.t to try them all. and perhaps something pxxl may bom the frraminatJim Any other pine- but a throne seems unworthy of her. Such is the loftiness of her mind and the majesty <>f her appearance That liberty has it-* limits, as well as every other liberty. The wholi was spent in singing and dancing, and they tell me they do this every evening far a week I PRONOUNS. 15 1 4. — Indefinite Pronouns followed by Que. A number of these indefinite pronouns are only used in con- nection with a verb with which they are united by means of the conjunction que. They express, with one exception, the English word Ever, and as this is naturally suggestive, not of positive facts, but of contingencies, they are followed by the subjunctive mood. The following are the most important of this class. Qui que ce soit, whoever, or anybody, any one. Ex. Faites entrer qui que ce soit qui me demande, admit any one who may ask for me. Qui que ce soit a qui Von donne, on s'en plaindra, to whomever it may be given, people will complain. Quoi que ce soit, whatever, or any thing. Quoi que ce soit qu'on dise de moi, taisez-vous, whatever they may say of me, keep silence. Quel que soit, with its feminine and plural forms, whoever or whatever. Ex. Quel que soit le resultat, nous y consentons, whatever the result may be, we agree to it. Je le dirai a ces dames quelles qu'elles soient, I will tell it these ladies, whoever they may be. Quelque — que, with its plural quelques — que, is used with a noun between the two parts, and then means Whatever. Ex. Quelques talents quHl ait, il «'a pas de genie, whatever talents he may have, he has no genius. Quelque — que, with an adjective between the two parts, has She meaning of However. Ex. Quelque grands que soient ces talents, il en abuse, how- ever great his talents may be, he makes a bad use of them. 152 OS THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Tout — qur, with an adjective betwen the two parts, means also However, but it is the only one of these indefinite pronouns which is followed by the verb in the indicative mood, as it always expresses a fact, and not a contingency. Ex. Tout eloquent quHl eat, il ne convainc pas, eloquent as he is, he does not convince. Je Pai vu tribucher, tout savant qu'il est, I have seen him stumble, however learned he is. It must be noted that qui que ce soil and similar terms may, of course, be followed by the past tense also. Ex. Qui que ce ful qui l< . il refasa toujours, who- migbt a>k for him, he always concealed himself. Quoiqw 'e franchement, whatever you may b it frankly. Whatever, al the end of a sentence, must In French have its proper verb supplied. Ex. I will grant yon any favor whatever, je D0ttf (iC'-oni mi The same expression In French answers forthe English Bams — >.r other. Ex. i ]; or other, do The - iswera Soar the English Ever so, followed by an adji Ex. I will accept . it ev< r ^> bumble, face suit. A wnmnn, what may bring to bar busban.i's house, *».ii ruin- it. if ahe Introduces there extravagance for which i w. v. r powerful they may l..-, I do not fear tli- ■in. for I have the right on my aide, an.]. In the end, that must always oonqtu r. Whatev< r ii may be they ask of yon, promise them lain, ut lb.- mill.- time, that you cunuu; .: VERES. 153 thing whatever without the consent of your father. Whoever he may be, he ought not to have acted thus ; for, no man can do wrong, who has a conscience, without repenting it. Frivolous as she is, I can hardly think she would have treated her lovtr so badly, for there is dishonesty in breaking her solemn word. Do not fear the empty power of men : however powerful they may be, they are what we are. Whatever mortals may be, we must live among them, and a fastidious man is unhappy through himself. This is a universal law, and applies to all men : I except from it nobody, whatever he be or can be. We ought never to speak evil of anybody whatever in his absence. Whatever merit we may ]jave, we cannot, unless we possess luck and protection at court, succeed in any thing whatsoever. We shall do our duty, whatever you may say to the contrary ; and if we receive no other reward, we shall be content with the consciousness of having done what we ought to have done. CHAPTER V. VERBS. The Verb has its name in French as in English from its im- portance in a sentence : it is verbum, the Word, by eminence. For nouns simply name a person or an object, but do not con- vey a thought ; it is only when we say something of this person or object, when we use a verb, that an idea is communicated from one person to another. A sentence, therefore, may consist of a noun and a verb only, and will already fulfil the purposes of language. The principal purpose of the verb is to affirm souething, and to qualify this affirmation by designating person, number, time and mood. These four qualities of the verb are the cause of its various forms, and constitute what is common'.y called their conjugation. There are three Persons in the verb : the first, or that of the speaker ; the second, or that of the person spoken to ; aud the 154 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. third, or that of the person spoken of. They are designated by different endings of the verb, and by the personal pronouns placed before it. There are two Numbers in the verb, as in the noun, the singular and the plural, designated also by different endings of the verb and by the personal pronouns. There are two classes of Tenses, to express time : viz., simpie tenses, which are made from the root of the verb, as it is found in the infinitive after cutting off the infinitive termination ; and compound tenses, which are Termed by the aid of one of the two auxiliary verbs, avoir or etre, with the participle past of the verb. There are four .Vn»v y/'-, in tin.- case, Is translated bj one's self, and the second pronoun by myself, thys< I Ex. // faut « ' -'';»«', we must conquer ourselves, if we esteem Reciprocal \> rbs, when the action of the verb reacts mutually upon subject and object > S V, in this case, is translated by Each other, and bo i- the second pronoun. Ex. lis allaient A /..///,•« et i . they went to light each other, and they killed each other. Pronominal r< rbs proper, when thej are pronominal only in a and not BO in I. . and the BOCOttd m i"' main untrenslate 1 ':•> English. 1a. SlU m repent . -he repents .-ill sho ha- done. II / fUghl to mistrust those people. It must ie. t in •• ■ He- pronoi minal, and take the a the infinitj od pro VERBS. 157 noun in the whole conjugation, when the personal pronouns are substituted for possessive pronouns. They are then conj ugated with etre, like all pronominal verbs without exception. Ex. Elle est allee se laver les mains, she has gone to wash her hands. Je me suis casse lajamhe en sautant, I have broken my leg by jumping. Impersonal Verbs express an action, the subject of which is not a person, but a vague, indefinite agency. They are used only in the third person singular, and the pronoun il, which serves as subject, corresponds to the English It or There. Ex. II convient que vous suivies ses conseils, it is proper for you to follow his advice. II y a un charme inconcevable dans sa voix, there is an incomprehensible charm in her voice. Every thing that concerns the form of the verb has already been mentioned in the First Part of this Grammar. It is only on the use of the verb, in connection with other words, that additional rules will be given here. THE VERB AND ITS SUBJECT. The subject of the verb is either a noun or a pronoun, and is ascertained by asking Who ? with the aid of the verb. In the sentence, la philosophie triomphe de tous les maux, philosophy triumphs over all evils, the question, Who triumphs ? will give the answer — philosophy; and this noun is therefore the subject. The rule which directs the form of the verb in this relation is simply this : The verb agrees with its subject in number and person. Ex. La religion veille sur les crimes secrets, les lois veillent sur les crimes publics, religion guards against secret crimes, the laws against public crimes. When a verb has two or more subjects it is put in the 15S OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. plural, provided the subjects are not either synonymous or finally summed up in oue as the most important. Ex. Lui et elle viendront a la campagne avec nous, he and she will come with us to the country. But: Son courage, son intrepldite, etonnait tons, his courage, his intrepidity, amazed all. Une parole, un sourire, un seul regard suffit, a word, a smile, a single look is enough. When a verb has several subjects of different persons, the so-called rule of grammatical precedence applies, i. e., the first person prevails over the second, and the second over the third. Ex. Vous el i/">i nous sommes contents de noire sort, you and I are satisfied with our fate Vous >t lui vous saves la chose, you and he know the thing. When a verb has several Bubjects connected by tra, or, the verb will be in the singular, when the nouns exclude one another, and in the plural, when they are represented as acting both, though alternately. K\. I 'est ( , 'i a dit r must always be in the plural. K\. Cest lui >>ii moi qui devrons U /aire, it is be or I who will have to do it. I ■/ die, you or she are mis- taken. cue rule applies to several subjects connected by >"', • be verb will be in the singular if the two nouns exclude each other, and in the plural when they are juinl of the verb. VERBS. 159 Ex. Ni Vun ni V autre rCest mon pere, neither of the two is my father. Ni la douceur ni la force ne Vebranlerent, neither gentle- ness nor violence moved him. When the two subjects are different persons, the verb must here also be in the plural. Ex. Ni lui ni moi ne so?nmes coupables, neither he nor I are guilty. The verb etre placed between two nouns of different number, is always put in the plural, but if the first should be in the singular, it requires the addition of ce. Ex. Ses enfants sont la seule consolation qui lui reste, her children are the only comfort that remains to her. Son seul orgueil ce sont ces enfants, his only pride are his children. When the subject of a verb is un, one, followed by a genitive plural, the verb is singular, when it refers distinctly to un, and plural, when it refers in like manner to the plural. The mean- ing of the sentence alone determines, therefore, the form of the verb. Ex. Eat-ce un des soldats qui a fait cela ? Is it one of the soldiers who has done this ? Est-ce un des soldats qui se sont si bien battus ? Is this one of the soldiers who have fought so well ? Plus d\in, more than one, is always followed by the singular, in spite of its plural meaning, unless it should be repeated. Ex. Plus d'un ami m'en avait averti, more than one friend had warned me. Exercise. Your father and mother have promised to take tea with us to-nighc, will you and your sister do ns the favor to come with them ? Youth and inexperience expose us to many mistakes and consequently to 1G0 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. much suffering. The merchant, the workman, the priest, the soldier, are all alike members of the State. A single word, a sigh, a glance may betray you. When you speak of such a sacrifice, you must not forget that your interest, your honor, God, demands it of you, and you ought not to hesitate. Into whatever part of the known earth the tempest or the wrath of some hostile god may have thrown him, I shall know how to rescue him from it. It is thou or I who has done this — who shall decide between us? Either the kiug himself or his minister will be held responsible for this fearful outrage against law and justice ; but the process will be so tedious, that neither you nor I will probably see the end of it. When I left the prison, my clothes, my papers, every thing was returned to me, and I found that all was in perfect order. This is one of the tilings I valued least, and yet it is also one of the things that have most contributed to my happiness. When a collective noun is the subject of a verb, its agree- pende upon the precise nature of the collective, and the . g rul< a mosl 1"- \\ ben the collective noun consists of a single word, the verb with it in form, without regard to its meaning. Ex, /-- comiti ■ fina* truit, the finance commit- tee has been instructed. Le peuple Ca >i< idt /■■"■ acclamation, the people have decided it by acclamation. When the collective noun is followed by dt with another noun, the verb will agree "itli that pari of it to which it lias more sj i nee. Ex. /. ' ; iparl ■' . nondt m t'en toucit pa*, the majority of the world does not mind it. "//■■ \fanti t Is this woman really the mother of these children I . thai if tip tion is a pronoun, it must be i by a hyphen \<> the verb, and avoid the hiatus by the insertion of t, and the immediate succession of two mute e*a by Brat Ex, .1 • , ■ ■ lit >n une lelU cko ■ : Baa Bnch a thing ever he. 11 • r, even if I were t«> he «hi\ en away, 1 "ill speak. The manna* in which the French exp ress an emphatic r..u- ditiiin. like thai <>f the lasl example, by placing the pronouns after, the w , has been hilly explained uu'i - inns. verbs. 11;?, The subject is, however, occasionally p.iced after the verb for special purposes, of which the following are the principal instances : Incidental sentences, showing that the words of another are quoted, are formed by placing the subject after the verb. Ex. Tous les homines sont fous, a dit Boileau, all men are mad, Boileau has said. Eh bien, repeta-t-il, pourquoi ne venez-vous pas ? Well, he repeated, why don't you come ? After certain adverbs, taken in an idiomatic sense, like ad- verbs of place, of manner or conclusion, which, for that purpose, are placed at the head of the sentence, the subject is placed after the verb. Ex. lei repose la Sainte Cecile, here lies St. Cecilia. Ainsi se termina cette fdcheuse affaire, thus ended this dis agreeable business. En vain le lui a-t-on offer t deux/ois, in vain they have offered it to him twice. Sentences expressive of a strong wish employ for that pur- pose the subjunctive mood, followed by the subject. Ex. Puissent tons les peuples aimer la paix ! Oh that all nations would love peace ! In relative constructions, as has been stated under the head of relative pronouns, the subject follows the verb, because the verb is obliged to follow immediately the relative pronoun. Ex. Les conseils que nous donnent nos amis, the advice our friends give us. Je ferai ce que m'a dit votre frere, I shall do what your brother told me. It must be borne in mind here, that when the verb is mono- syllabic, or the construction is in any manner likely to become involved, as in negative questions, the simple interrogative form 164 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. is not used in French, but the question is asked by means of est-ce que ? Ex. Est-ce que je dors ou est-ce que je rem t Am I asleep or dreaming ? Estrce que V agent ne Vaurait pas fait ? Could not the agent have done it ? Exercise. Even if Caesar had not passed the Rubicon, he would probably have en led as he did, for his ambition would have led him to the same measures, although it might have been by a different way. Per- haps the doctor was not at home, when your Bervant was there, or perhaps he was fast asleep and did not hear the bell. In vain did we try to shake his resolution : lie was linn, and finally asked us not to to him any more about it : thus ended our interview. We hear which those give us who know how to flatter oar IS, but we shut our ears to thai which our true friends s .. to us. Does Buch mi answer offend you, or have you sufficient courage to hear the truth 1 Will business be better next winter? Perhaps it will i 1 have laid in a large stock of merchandise, and .■ to buy even more. If 1 can obtain more money. His last words wire: Ma;, in j i ur enterprise; yon \\ ; il always have my beat wish.- for youi i i u will do, he said, what your lather, whose memory yon cannol honor too much, has told you, and Mm will never beat fault. It Is said he discovered byanacd- .. hat the greatest pi •■ ith all their learning and their res arch, had not found out. Tin: ii.ack Off i J I k 01 The legittmal the object of the verbis after it, when in ..r i verb; ami immediately before it. when it is a pronoun. Thi on the place of personal pronouns, when they are . i i r •■« t or indirect objects of the verb, mnst here, be borne in mind. Ex. /.' old age, for yon also will he old. VERBS. 165 La religion seule peat /aire supporter de telles in/or tunes, religion alone can make us bear such misfortunes. Les yeux de Vamitie se trompent rarement, the eyes of friendship are rarely deceived. Active Verbs alone have a direct object, and only one ; if they have a second object, that can only be an indirect one. Hence, when an active verb has for its direct object a verb, the noun or pronoun, which is also connected with it, must neces- sarily be an indirect object. Ex. Je lui ai entendu chanter cela souvent, I have often heard him sing that. Chanter,here, is the direct object, consequently Him must be translated by lui. II a donne le meilleur avis a cet homme, he has given this man the best advice. Passive Verbs have an indirect object by means of the pre- positions de or par ; the former is used when the action of the verb is of a moral or mental nature, the latter, when it applies to physical agencies. Ex. Elle est aimee de tout le monde, she is beloved by every- body. H a ete vaincu par un nombre superieur, he has been beaten by superior numbers. Neuter Verbs have no object at all, when they express a mere state or condition, although they may be followed by a word which has the appearance of an object, whilst it is in reality but a repetition of their own meaning. Ex. Malgre les soins des medecins elle languit toujour s, in spite of the care of the physicians she is still lan- guishing. Dormir le sommeil des justes, to sleep the sleep of the just. 166 ON THE PAETS OF A SENTENCE. Otbe) neuter verbs have an indirect object, with which they are connected by different prepositions. Ex. Les exces de tous les genres nuisent a la sanlc, excess of every kind is injurious to health. II ne faut jamais medire de son voisin, we must never speak ill of our neighbor. Pronominal verbs have for their object the personal pronoun with which they are connected. This may be the direct or the indirect object, a difference which does not appear in the infin- itive, where all such verbs have se, but in the conjugation. Ex. JEst-ce quHl s'esi iearti Ju chemin droit P (aeons.) Ila.s be lost the right road? On i touvent trap turd, (dat.) We reproach our- selves often too late. ■ "mil verba bave only an indii t object. Ex. Ii is aider, it is proper fbt your brother to assist you. The only case in which the object is placed before its wrl> is in questions, when the object is connected with an interrogative pronoun or adverb of quantity. Ex. Qut ' I '■ voulez-vous gueje vou* d<>m,r f What l><;<>k ii want me to give you I | • ' ' How many of these children go to your bcI If, in any Other 19886, nnpha-is or any other motive should induce us to place the object before the verb, it must be repeated in it- proper place with the verb, as a personal pronoun. Ex. That I knew before yon told me of \t,cela,jt feasant* onntt i/ii' rous n ' TbeM pictures I know, those 1 have never seen before, U% connais, quant a ceux-ia, jc he let •int. 167 When two verbs have one and the same direct object, it is frequently — though not necessarily — placed after the first verb and repeated in the form of a pronoun with the second. Ex. Les voleurs pillerent et brulerent la maison, the robbers plundered and burnt the house. J'ai ecrit la lettre et je Vai envoy ee, I have written and sent the letter. Exercise. He has recommended this young man to study at some German university, because they teach students there to speak Latin. How much money did you give him 1 I gave your friend all I had about me, which was not much, but I promised him more, if he should want it. Those men I once saw on a steamboat in the United States, but I have never seen them again since. He struck and broke the pitcher, whilst he was so much excited that he did not know what he was doing. The first operation of the kind was made on Louis XIV. by a celebrated surgeon, whose fame has come down to our day. An ignorant and proud young man is despised by all who know him, and is rarely beloved even by his nearest friends. Gunpowder was invented iu Germany by a shoemaker, if we may believe the legend, and shells by a bishop of the same country. When I asked him if he was happy now, he replied very gruffly : That you know as well as I ; I shall give you no answer. THE TENSES AND MOODS OF THE VERB. I. THE INFINITIVE. The Infinitive, giving simply the meaning of the verb, is to all intents and purposes a noun, which names the verb. Its general nature is the same as in English, except that it is not accompanied in French by a particle, corresponding to the English To. The latter is required in English to mark words, which are otherwise perfectly like nouns, as verbs, — like The love and To love, The sleep and To sleep. In French, verbs 16S ON THE PAETS OF A SENTENCE. having a peculiar form need no such mark of distinction, and hence the English to is translated only when it has the sig- nification of In order to, or a similar one. Ex. He would like to please you in every thing, il voudrait vous plaire en tout. He did it to please yon, il Va fait pour vous plaire. The infinitive is so truly a noun, as the name of the verb, that it may be used with the definite and indefinite article. Ex. Ce ritst pas la vwrt que je crains, Jest It mourir, it is not death I fear, it is dying. La paix devieni necessairc, comme le manger et le boire, peace becomes necessary, like eating and drinking. There are, however, peculiar purposes for which the infinitive is used in French differently from the English usage, of which the following cases are the moat important, The infinitive, Bimply, IB OSed alter all verbs of motion, instead of the English conjunction And or the parti. 'le To. Ex 1 wenl to Bee him, but he uh-> cot at home, fallai U voir, . lui. Go and look for the doctor, wherever he may be, oWes c/nrr/ttr I' /in ill it ii. partout i-u il putt i tic. Tin' infinitive, simply, is also used for the second of two verbs following each other immediately in the same tense. El. 1 thought I law yOQ in that stole,/ croyau runs ran- dans c< magarin. They imagined they had lost every thing by his failure, \U .•>'< i dans 8a banque- The infinitive is used after all prepositions but one, instead of the participle presi nt in Englishi Ex. Without Baying a word he went away, mum dire mut ii *'(/! alia. VERBS. 169 He never returned after having said farewell, il ne revint jamais apres avoir dit adieu. The preposition en alone is used with the participle present in the sense of By or While. Ex. He has succeeded only by working day and night, il n'a reussi qu'en travaillant jour et nuit. She fell asleep while reading the new novel, elle s'endor- mit en lisant le nouveuu roman. The English preposition In is not translated by en, but by a with the infinitive. Ex. Je passe mon temps a lire et a ecrire, I spend my time in reading and writing. The infinitive with de is used for a verb which is the imme- diate object of another verb, instead of the English participle present. Ex. Have you done reading this paper ? Avez-vvus fini de lire ce journal? She will try pleasing you better next time, elle essayera de vous plaire mieu.c la prochaine fois The English a, sometimes placed before such participles, remains, of course, untranslated in French. Ex. He has gone a-shooting to-day, il est alle cliasser aujour- d'hui. When they saw him they burst out a-laughing, quand Us le virent Us eclaterent de rire. The infinitive, simply, is used for English participles that are used as nouns, unless a French noun should express the same idea. Ex. That is to say : seeing is believing, Jest comme qui dira.it : voir Jest croire. 1 am surprised to hear you do not like dancing, je suis surpris d'apprendre que vous n'aimez pas la danse. The infinitive, preceded by etre a, has the power of the passive verb in English. 170 ON THE FAKTS OF A SENTENCE. Ex. Cette maison est a loner de suite, this house is to be rented out at once. Ces pauvres orphelins sont beaueoup a plaindre, these poor orphans are much to be pitied. In placards and notices of every kind, the verb Hrt is often omitted. Hence a louer, or a vendre, means simply. For rent, or For sale, and d continue); at the end of a fragment of a story. To be continued. The infinitive is occasionally, by ellipsis, placed directly after adverbs interrogative. Ex. Comment f aire eela sans aide et sans argent? How can this be done without help and without money? The infinitive is used instead of the English participle present, which qualifies the direct object of a preceding verb. Ex. I have Been your l>n>ther painting, fax vu peindre votre I have also heard him Binging in a low voice, je few When the participle proBoul belongs t«> b verb expressing nn action, it i> preferable to translate it by the relative pronoun qui wiiii the proper : Ex. I have net her walking La the street,,/ ' ■',• qui Tli.v have detected him hiding the stolen money, Us Vont ■I BOii. The Bngtiah participle present, used as a noun, may be accompanied by a i- ire pronoun, as in the phrase, M\ g so. This is utterly out of the question, and expressions of this kind must be entirely changed, so as to I"- in conformity a itfa the rales above given, Ex. The reason of my saying bo was this, /■/ raison pourquoi je Cat dit /ill r,ri. refusing to work, thai docs not matter, quant 171 The English participle present, used as a noun, may also enter into the composition of compound nouns. This is im- possible in French, and the participle must be rendered by a noun or a verb in the infinitive. Ex. Where can I find the dancing-master ? Ou pourrais-je trouver le maitre de dame? I have mislaid my writing-paper, fai deplace mon papier a ecrire. It must not be forgotten that the participle present cannot, as in English, be used with the verb etre, but that, instead, the simple verb is employed. Ex. He was reading when I saw him, il limit quandje le vis. The table at which I was sitting was a round one, la table oibjefus assis, etait ronde. Exercise. I thought I knew every thing until I became his pupil, and then I found I had only commenced learning. He did it for the purpose oi pleasing me, but he did not succeed, for I had expected hearing him sing, and he would not do that. Eating, drinking and sleeping is all she has been doing this week, for she is too weak still for walking, or even for riding out. He has gone and paid all his debts with the money you gave him for having saved your plate during the fire. This little girl took great pains in knitting for her grandmother, but she did not understand sewing it up, and it all resulted in nothing. If you find any difficulty in doing this for me, you must not give your- self any unnecessary trouble. I can easily find somebody else, who would like undertaking it for me. We could see the soldiers marching up and down the square, but we were too far to hear the music. You are always taking pleasure in teasing her ; but she is very gentle, and yesterday, while going to church, she praised you for your good behavior. Tou write so badly, you ought to take a good writing- master and practise writing every day. 172 OX THE PAETS OF A SENTENCE. II. — THE PRESENT TENSE. The present is used as in English to denote an action which i- now '''■ VERBS. 173 I will tell him as soon as I see him,/*? le lui dirai aussi- tot que je le verrui. He always sleeps after he dines, il dort toujours apres avoir dine. Exercise. He loves peace, lie blames all extremes, and enjoys the happy changes which take place under his benevolent rale. My friends are all ready ; the boat is at the landing ; let us bid farewell, and we will start as soon as you have done weeping. I shall certainly punish him if he does it again, for it is a bad habit, which must be overcome at once or it becomes his master. Will you be very glad when she be comes your brother's wife ? I do not know yet, for I have never seen her ; but I will tell you frankly how I like her after I have made her acquaintance. Do not leave this place till he tells you to do so ; it is very important that somebody should be here to receive visitors in his absence. You can take a walk along the shore while I am re- maining by the boat to see that nobody steals the oars and our clothes. If you will allow me to go away for a few minutes, I shall be very much obliged to you. It is not, necessary for you to coma back till I am ready to accompany you. III. THE PAST TENSES. The French verb has three past tenses, which represent the meaning of the English two past tenses; hence, there arises some difficulty in knowing exactly which of the three to employ. Fortunately, the rules in French are very positive, and at the same time very clear, so that very little attention suffices to acquire the tact necessary for their use. Of these three tenses, two are simple — the imperfect and the preterit definite — and one is compound, the preterit indefinite. The Imperfect has its name from the fact that it refers to a past action, the time of which is purposely left undecided in itself, imperfect, but measured only by another action, begin- ning or ending at the same time. Ex. J pensais a vous quand vous etes entre, I was thinking of you when you came in. 174 ON THE PAETS OF A SENTEXCE. Elle dormait profondiment, quand je cessai de lire, she slept profoundly when I stopped reading. It is generally, though not necessarily, expressed in English by the verb To be, with the participle present. Its principal purposes are to express an action, which is continued for a long time, and this is generally expressed iu English by I was, with the participle present. Ex. I was living ten years in that house, je vivais dix ans dans cette maison. 1 loved her so much, when she was with us! Je 1'aimais taut quand elle 6ta.it urn- nous/ Or an action frequently repeated, and this is generally expressed by I u- Ex. Formerly I osed to read very little, autrefois je ne lisaia They used t<> come to see us every Sunday, Us venaient Dimanchta. The imperii B, thirdly, any past action, which is Bigoated definitely by any expression of time. Ex. fl teurs, we were victorious (so Gar). i, ir itait un des plus grandu hommes, Ceesar was one of the greatesl men. ■ ■ /./. 1 did net know thai i bofore). . as has already been Btated, the only tense which can I r '', if. tor anj English tense except the Ex. \\ be w< :■■ to come to-morrow, it would he too late, s*U • ' trop tard. I . I do it. if he should insist upon i (*, s'U itt bas it- name from the fact that it •ion, the time of which i^ well determined by . finition of time, and be ipsed. VERBS. 175 Ex. Nous y alldmes kier, we went there yesterday. Cest le mhne jour oil naquit Moliere, that is the same day on which Moliere was born. The principal purposes of this tense are to express actions which have ended completely, and hence it is the historical tense of the French. Ex. Cette balaillefut livree en 1812, this battle was fought in 1812. Cet infortune roi expia ses crimes sur V echafaud, that most unfortunate king expiated his crimes on the scaffold. It cannot, therefore, be used for actions accompanied by words, like This year, this week, etc., because these periods of time have not yet completely elapsed ; nor can it state what has been done to-day. The preterit definite is, secondly, used to express all past actions accompanied by a definition of time, as the date, etc. Ex. Je rCy arrival que le quinze Juin, I only arrived there the fifteenth of June. II me le dit unjour que nous fumes ensemble, he told me so one day when we were together. The Preterit Indefinite has its name from the fact that it refers to a past action, the time of which is not yet com- pletely elapsed, although the action itself has come to an end- Hence, this is the tense which expresses, all actions accom- panied by words like This year, this month, to-day, etc. Ex. L'avez-vous rencontree ce matin ? Did you meet her this morning ? tPai eu la fievre deux fois cette annee, I had the fever twice this year. It is used, secondly, to express past actions, the effects ol which have not yet entirely passed away, or are at least repre sented as still continuino-. 176 OX THE PAETS OF A SENTENCE. Ex. Auez-votts conclu voire marchi uvec cet komme? Did you close your bargain with this man ? Les Grecs nous ont donne les Beaux Arts, the Greeks Lave given us the Fine Arts. Hence, past tenses accompanied by adverbs, like Always, often, never, etc., will be expressed by the preterit indefinite, because these adverbs extend the action indefinitely. Ex. tPai toujour* craint qu'il n y en suit uiusi, I always feared it 11 light be SO. II riajam m voulu nous avouer son crime, he never would acknowledge his crime. Exercise. W'liilr-t we were at dinner, a band of musicians came into the room , they played for Beveral hoars, until tin- time for the evening concert, when they left the hotel Louis XL was a wise, bat a wicked king ; oodone; he suffered all his life from jealousy and (ear of being murdered. We used to sit on that 1m neb and look upon the lake every evening last Bummer; we always ■,'. :i u any other in this neighborhoodL Tin' eighteenth of June ; it lasted for ten hours ; the Gate • ■! the conflict changed, and finally our troops ; a brillianl victory. Did you see him this morning going to • imbler with its fresh and pure water tor his in to-day, I'Ut I saw him yesterday irejAslted the beautiful castle at Pau, they showed room, an«l the servant said, with an air of great solemnity; 1 1 . 1 1 ry IV was born I Wealways hoped he would come „„,l ; i him. but whilst "■• were ezpecting him to this country late lust r to the littk (arm of bis son In- s playii I called her husband : he thai time we have not played a- long as I • found thai : VERBS. 177 was no limit to his extravagance, he ceased supplying him with money. If I were in his place, I would not think of it any more ; the money is lost, and it is of no avail to regret such losses. If it should be found again, even that would not make much difference, for the money was not his. When we reached the gate of the city, which used to he open during the whole night, we found it shut, to our surprise ; and as the watchman was sleeping, we did not rouse him for half an hour, during which we stood in the rain, wet and shivering. COMPOUND PAST TENSES. The Pluperfect, formed of the imperfect of auxiliary verbs with the participle past, is used in precisely the same manner as the imperfect itself, only with regard to a past action, which precedes another past action. Ex. tPavais dejeune, quand vous vintes me demander, I had breakfasted when yon came for me. The action of breakfasting, here, is represented not only as past in itself, but as past previously to the other past action of your coming. This second action, however, need not be specially expressed ; it may be represented by a definition of time. Ex. II avail fini son ouvrage a minuit, he had finished his work at midnight. The pluperfect is employed, also, like the imperfect, for actions accompanied in English by t ^e words Used to. Ex. I used to read as soon as I had dined, je lisais aussitot que f avals dine. It is, likewise, employed after si, if, because that conjunction cannot be used with any other past tense but the imperfect, and the pluperfect contains the imperfect of the auxiliary verbs. Ex. S'il n J a.vait pas fait cela, il aurait ete perdu, if he had not done that he would have been lost. ITS OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Modern writers are disposed occasionally to substitute the subjunctive of the preterit anterior for the pluperfect, but it remains to be seen whether this elegant though bold form of ex- pression will be adopted by standard authors. Ex. S'il cut ete le chef, il y aura it peut-itre rt medie, if he had been the commander, he might have mended it. The Preterit Anterior, formed of the preterit definite of auxiliary verbs with the participle past, partakes again of the nature of the simple preterit and expresses a past action, which is immediate); followed by another past action, so that it is fully classed and marked as Bach by the second action, to which il is anterior. Ex. Quand feus reconnu mon erreur, fen fus honteux, when I had seen my trior. J was ashamed of it It will, likewise, be used whenever the time of the past , is determined \>\ a definition of time, or words like bim- '■i Ir billet de ma soeur, I bad Boon read mv i :>-. Veut renversi en hu instant, having once seised him. be bad overthrown him in an instant, . it imi-t t» i such conjunction! press immediate, definite action, as quand, when ; aussittt que, m the time that, etc ,i m'en allai, as soon as 1 bad finished it. I wenl away. . . - • :. BS 1 had aim. i Indefinite, mentioned by some . formed from the preterit indefinite <>f the auxin. ii the partici| such rare occurrence that it h:>-' not been specially mentioned. Foreigners do better to avoid ; or the Infinitive U able in all c VERBS. 179 Ex. Je Vai vu apres que j'ai eu deje&ne ce matin, I saw liim after I had breakfasted this morning. Or, Je Vai vu apres inon deje-dner ce matin. Exercise. As soon as I had heard of your misfortune, I took all the necessary measures to come to your aid ; and when I had told my wife of my intentions, I went to the depot and took the cars. He was not satis- fied with the picture, but, after he had changed the sketch several times, he gave it up in despair. We only stopped when we had walked half-way, because we saw that we would not have arrived there before sunset, even if we had started before noon. When he had taken a hearty meal, at dinner or at supper, he used to sleep ; and that habit injured his health so much, that he died before he had reached the age of sixty. It was a great disappointment to the crowd of curious people, who had gone to see the review : when they reached the place they found that they had come too late, and that the troops had all returned to the barracks. When I was the first time in Rome, nothing had made a greater impression upon me than the Pope and the ceremonies of the Roman Church : when I was there last year, the charm had lost its power, for I had become another man. As soon as the matter had been reported to the police, they had gone to work to find out the thieves ; and hence, while you had as yet heard nothing of the robbery, the criminals were already in prison. V. FUTURE AND CONDITIONAL. The Future simply expresses an action which is still to take place, as in English, and represents, therefore, the English expression : I am going to — occasionally. Ex. JVos corps resusciteront au jour dernier, our bodies will arise on the last day. II ne vous reconnaitra pas sous ce decfuisement, he will not recognize you in that disguise. It is employed alsr not, Vi nnir It shall !"• t tU a r. Shall it be done /"ire VEEBS. 181 Exercise. I beg you, do what you can to keep him from going away now, for, if he does so, he will surely lose the best opportunity he has ever had of distinguishing himself. Let those who choose believe the historians who give this account of the great Alexander ; they give us nothing but fictions. What will he do if he lose his place ? he has no fortune and he will have to work for his living. When the doctor Ipft us he said to the nurse, You will give her her medicine every two hours ; and you will watch her sleep carefully, so that she is not disturbed by any noise. If she sleeps through the night, she will escape the danger, and her life is saved. 1 had no money about me, and told him : I will pay your bill when you bring it to my house ; I shall be at home after I have dined at the Club, and I shall not leave the house again until to-morrow. He will have accomplished a great deed if he succeeds in this enterprise ; it will be recorded in history as one of the most daring things that have ever been undertaken by man. The Conditional expresses an action dependent on a con- dition. Ex. JVous se?ions bien contents si nous en avions autant, we would be well pleased if we had as much. This condition, however, is not always expressed by si, if, or at all, but may be understood. Ex. Dites-lui que je le vermis avec plaisir, mais que je suis malade, tell him 1 would see him with pleasure, but that I am sick. Je serais fache de le trouver malade, I should be sorry to find him sick. Pourriez-vous le croire coupable d'un tel forfait ? Could you think him guilty of such a crime ? The Conditional Anterior, formed of the conditional of the auxiliary verb and the participle past, expresses an action thus dependent, and preceding a condition. Ex. iTaurais fini si Von ne in!avait interrompu, I would have finished, if I had not been interrupted. 182 ON THE PAETS OF A SENTENCE. Que serait-il arrive s'il detail pas venu ? "What would have happened if he had not come ? Instead of this form of the past conditional, French authors frequently employ the subjunctive of the past, with the par- ticiple past, but the use of this form belongs more to elevated than to conversational style. Ex. &>l m'e&t era, il ■ me fentreprise, if he had believed me, he would have abandoned the enter- prise. The French conditional can never be used, as in English, after si, if, but in its place the imperfect must be employed. Ex If he Bhould say yes, I would be delighted, s'il tUtait que I would prefer thai you should read the letter yourself; it was addressed to you, nnd If 1 were to re:.d it. your IYi. ml might 1m' dis- i iid you do if he wi on alone In a dark room, after havin ry I would not be much . for I have ii l my paiv.n - I would have told you bo before, if you l; . : ;e, but you . that you would not have paid an] attention to my words, Ifl had then spoken to yon. Would him of such vices, who had the appearance moat vinoons and honorable man f [am sure thai [would never have ly had told me bo ; but now, naving seen it with : any longer. If 1 could r for a few minut* - I would b< for 1 have d ■• hear for two years, and i: won . iiry without Baying her. VI. TltK IMl'i RAT1VE ' The Tmper the meaning of the verb in the in. mm ; ling, entreating <>i permitting. VEEBS. 183 Ex. Allez de suite chercher le medecin, go immediately for the doctor. Veuillcz agreer mes kommages, accept my respects. Faites ce que vous voudrez, il importe peu, do what you like, it matters little. The French imperative expresses no pronoun as nominative, as is sometimes done in English. Ex. Let us be prudent and we shall escape, soy oris sages et nous en eckapperons. The first person singular is never used, because man does not command himself in an audible tone ; he wills, and without con- veying his will to himself, he acts. On the stage, however, and in poetry, where his thoughts are clad in words, the first person plural is used in monologues. Ex. Allans, vaincons nos passions ! Up, let me overcome my passions. The third person of the imperative is borrowed from the subjunctive of the present, and hence is always preceded by the conjunction que, as the first part of the sentence, je veux, and the like, is understood. Ex. Qu'il s'en aille de suite ou je le chasserai, let him go away instantly or I shall drive him off. QuHls ne le /assent plus s 7 il veulent que je leur pardonne, let them not do it again, if they wish to be forgiven. VII. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. The Subjunctive mood has its name from the fact that in form and in meaning it is always " subjoined," subordinate to another idea ; for it never expresses any thing, that is, any positive action, like the indicative, but something that maj be, a contingent action. Now, what is contingent, depends upon something else, and this is the principal part of the proposition, of which 184 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. the verb in the subjunctive forms the subordinate part. The two parts of the proposition must, like any two verbs, which express distinct ideas and yet are brought into connection with each other, be united by the conjunction que; and hence it comes that the subjunctive is never found in French unaccom- panied by a conjunction. It would, however, be a grave error to imagine that this conjunction governs the subjunctive : it is the meaning given to the verb alone, which determines whether it is to be used in the indicative or subjunctive mood, and the same conjunction may, therefore, be followed by either. Ex. Je doute > be used is determined by the 9 | ience of rena a, which has reference to the manner in which the tenses follow each other in the two parts of the proposition. The principal part will contain the indicative, which has five tenses; the subordinate part, the subjunctive, which has only two tenses, the present and the •y of precisely attributing the latter two b former five. The rule i- this: The present and future of tie in stive "i' the present; and the conditional of the indicative are the Bubjunctive of the | j , Yen have t>> il<> it. [1 i will have to do it. i You had to do it. l . ( I JToa have had to do it, .1.1 b*Tf tO dO It VEEBS. 185 The general principle which determines the use of the sub- junctive mood produces the following practical results : 1. Verbs expressive of a wish, from the gentlest desire to the positive command, and verbs expressive of fear or doubt, are followed by the subjunctive, because whatever is wished, ordered, feared or doubted is not represented as actually being the case, but only as a thing that may or may not be, according as the wish, fear or doubt is realized or not. Ex. Tu veux qu'en la faveur on croie V impossible, thou wilt have us believe the impossible for thy sake. J' at lends lous les moments qu'il vienne, I expect him to come any moment. II avait peur que je ne m'en ullasse de suite, he was afraid I would go away at once. Doutes-vous qu'il y ait un Dieu ? Do you doubt that there is a God ? E\*en some of these verbs, however, may be followed by the indicative, as e. g., the verbs, arreter, to enact, commander, to command, exiger, to require, etc., when they are used in laws of the country or orders of the Government, because then they admit of no contingency, but state what must positively be done. Ex. Arrete que la cour s'assemblera demain, it is enacted that the court will meet to-morrow. 2. Verbs expressive of what exists only in our mind, as pen- ser, to think, soutenir, to maintain, soupconner, to suspect, esperer, to hope, parier, to bet, s'imaginer, to imagine, and all with similar meaning, are followed by the subjunctive, because what we only think, imagine, suspect, etc., is likewise represented not as actual but only as possible. Ex. Pensez-vous qu'il soil deja sorti ? Do you think he has already gone ou' * L86 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Us s'ijnaginent que tons soient mediants comme eux, they fancy everybody is as wicked as they. Je ne crois pas qiCil Va.it dit, I do not think he said so. But, whenever these same verbs are employed to state our conviction or some positive fact, they must be followed by the indicative. Ex. Je pense que vous avez appris cela bien, I think you have (positively) learnt this well. Songez qu'on nut vous perdre et ne ntgligez ricn, think that they want to ruin you, anil neglect nothing. Je cmis qu'il y a an Dim qui i/i\i a evident he is do longer rich. // ' (ten happens that mistakun. ationa, an 1 are. in accordance VERBS. 187 •wilh these, followed either by the indicative or the subjunctive^ The principal verbs of this class are : Attentive que, to wait until, entendre, to require, pvetendve, to expect, supposer, to suppose, sembler, to seem (and not to be), attentive, to expect, entendre, to hear, understand, pretendre, to maintain, supposer, to admit, Remoter, to seem (and to be so), _ with the subjunctive. with the indicative. Ex. II senible que ce mat soit sans remede, it looks as if this dis- ease is incurable. It semble qu'elle a vraiment epouse cet homme, it seems sho has actually married that man. Attendez qu'il vienne et je vous presenterai, wait till he comes and I will introduce you. X 'attends qu'il est mort hier, I expect he did die yesterday. 4. Relative superlatives, which state the highest degree of a quality, not as it is absolutely, but relatively to what may be, words of the same meaning, as premie?; principal, unique, seul, etc., and indefinite pronouns followed by a relative pronoun, require the subjunctive after them, because of the vague and indefinite meaning which they necessarily give to that part of the proposition. Ex. Cest la plus belle femme que faie jamais vue, she is the finest woman I have ever seen. Le scul homme qui soit plus grand que sa reputation, the only man who is greater than his reputation. Je voudrais voiv quelqu'un qui put mieux faive, I should like to see any one who could do better. II y a peu de gens qui en sachent autant, there are few people who know as much. 1SS OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. But here, also, the meaning may be a positive one, and then the indicative is required. Ex. Peu de gens qui font essuye ont rcussi, few who have tried it have succeeded. J'ai vu quelqu'un qui le connait de vue, I have seen somebody who knows him by sight. 5. Verbs expressive of tear, from mere apprehension to trembling, etc., and of denial of any kind, are not only followed by the verb in the subjunctive mood, but the verb must also be preceded by the negative particle ne. Ex. Ell nil qu'elle m Petit vu Ater, Bhe denies having seen him yesterday. ./ era ru >'•■> tie soit venu trap tard, I fear they have come too late. i\~- ' •''.-■ *ut pas take care, are likewise followed by the Bubjunctivo wiili n<: rCailU trop ri:,, be will prevent their Pn m tombiezlhl Take care not to full there, G. There are, finally, certain conjunctions which are followed by tin- subjunctive, not from any power of their own t<> «>v< ru that mood, as it i- often erroneously expressed, hut from the that their m !<> apply only :<> contingent i . although, i ided that. u that, U main VERBS. 189 Ex. Avant que V empire eprouvat sa puissance, before the Empire felt his power. Pourvu qiCil ne le sache 2 )as t H nefera rien, provided that he does not know it, he will do nothing. A moins que vous ne preferiez rester id, unless you should prefer staying here. It will have been seen, from all the examples given, that the construction of the subjunctive in French differs essentially from that in English. In the former, the connection or the two parts of the proposition by que is the rule ; in the latter, the infinitive or the participle present can be substituted. Thus, for the phrase, Je rHaime pas qu'il vienne ici, the English may be : I do not like it that he comes here, or, I do not like him to come here, or, I do not like his coming here. The general rule on the subject is, that, with the limited ex- ceptions which will be mentioned hereafter, all such construc- tions must be rendered in French by means of que and the subjunctive. Ex. I was afraid of his betraying his secret, favais peur qu'il ne reoelat son secret. Would you wish him to be presented to you ? Voudriez- vous qiCon vous le presentdt ? But the infinitive may be used in French also — 1. When the subject of the two verbs in the two parts of the proposition is one and the same. Ex. II veut avoir raison contre tout le moiide, he wants to be right against everybody. II a consenti a abandonner le proces, he has consented to abandon the lawsuit. Verbs which take ne after them before the subjunctive, do not. add it before the infinitive. Ex. 11 craignait toujours de tomber, he was always afraid of faJline;. 190 0!N THE PAETS OF A SENTENCE. 2. Yerbs expressing command, consent, or obligation, in Personal verbs, and etre with an adjective, may, in simpl )hrases, be followed by the infinitive with de. Ex. Ltd permeltrez-vous d'y aller ? Will you permit him to go there ? On r a force de se taire, they have compelled him to keep quiet. II est doux de rentrer ckez sol, it is pleasant to return home. "When que with the subjunctive is followed by another que, as in comparisons* the last que must have de after it. Ex. Jltoudraii miew qu i dt rester aeee die, it would !»■ better for you to leave than to stay with her. 3. Bome of those conjunctions which were mentioned before a<= apt to be followed by the subjunctive, like avani que, a fin que, a moh - and loin que, may also be followed by the infinitive with de, and pour, for, and 8am, without, or by the infinitive without de, whenever the subject of the two parts of the proposition, which they connect, is the Ex. J< m tow '■ diraiava I '■ ptitter ces lieuz, I will tell you before leaving hi // ron me demande, if anybody comes and asks for me. There are, finally, a few cases in French, in which the general rule that the subjunctive always forms the secondary dependent part of a proposition, seems to be disregarded. With one ex- ception such constructions are elliptical, and therefore only in appearance different from the general form. They are the fol- lowing. 1. The imperative and emphatic wish is expressed by que with the subjunctive, the word of command or wish being omitted but understood. Ex. (Je veux) Que chacun veste a sa place ! Let everybody remain in his seat ! Que Dieu vous pardonne, la Justice ne le peut pas f may God pardon you, Justice cannot pardon you. 2. In a few proverbial or technical expressions, not only the >receding verb, but even que is by ellipsis omitted. Ex. Vive VEmpereur! Vive le. pvince imperial ! Long live the Emperor ! Long life to the Imperial Prince ! Fais ton devoir 7 arrive que voudra ! Do your duty, hap- pen what may ! The use of the subjunctive of certain verbs instead of the con- ditional construction with si, f, has already been explained. 192 OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 3. The only true exception to the general rule is the first person of the subjunctive present of the verb savoir, to know, which is used without being preceded by or dependent on a previous verb. Ex. Sera-t-il ici ? Pas que je cache. Will he be here? Not that I know. Je ne xoeke rien qui me ptatrait mieuz que cela, I know nothing that would please me better than that. Je >te sacks que cc general qui puisse la commander^ I know but. this one general who could command it. Exercise, Tin- soldiers cried out, with on,' voice : Permit us to die before your fighting for your glory and your name ! Do you really wish me to Bee and to avoid you hereafter? Wo had Intended to have a ii- pic-nic this afternoon, but tin' rain prevented our going to the ion -t, where it was tin- intention that all should collect 1 prefer that he Bhould be unhappy rather than tlial h<- should commit so a wrong He is astonished that people should have been able to Uve 'm such times, and to sufi r as much as these unfortunate beings have suffered during t!i» war. Do you think that in creating n repub- lic of bees, God would not Instruct k'm:;s to rule with gentleness and pubji i bb? Do you - - ons of you robbed you of your money, or did you not rather thin!. bborhood? He doubted that It but when we awo ht we heard I do not mean you to make any my account, or to send ami l w- i me It i* ■ it at nil than to do it by halves, Sir, audio ther be ^ ken when you imi ■ ; '~ r '" your friends in tin- | anller • havi VEEBS. 103 required a large sum of money. It looks as if he had foreseen all the difficulties, for he had made his will and desired it to he deposited in hank. He was the most learned man Russia had ever produced, and he received all the honors which were due only to the man who then shed such lustre upon a half barbarous nation. There are few people who know how to enjoy themselves in a simple, unpretending way ; most of the amusements which we enjoy, cost more than they are worth. Let all the men step on one side and all the women remain on the other side ; then let them advance, one by one, and receive their wages. This was done, so that there might be no confusion, for the crowd was very large, and it was feared some tumult might arise amid so great an assemblage; but all went off better than had been expected. He denies ever having taken opium for such purposes, but he admits having been forced to eat large quantities, when he was sick and in the hands of a poor physician. I am not afraid that he will escape from jail, for he is far too anxious that he should be tried and his innocence be established. This prevented our going abroad for this year, but we hope, if no misfortune overtakes us, that another year will see us all assembled at the paternal hearth of our native land. Take care not to forget the letters which must be written before the mail leaves : if I were you, I would not wait until there is but half an hour's time before its close. I hope we shall be safe before the tempest breaks out, for the boat is fast, and the little port, for which we are all bound, only a few miles distant. I will give him the money he wants, provided he will promise me to repay it before he goes away. Be it that there really was not enough or that they had not the good-will to be liberal, they gave us very little. Were you not afraid of her succumbing to the violence of the attack, especially as there was no doctor to whom you could apply at once for assistance ? I must confess, I was afraid she might die at any moment, but I also knew that her life was in God's hands, and thus my mind was less disturbed. Would he wish me to come instantly ? asked the man ; and when he understood that he was wanted on the spot, he did not even say good-bye to his family, but went with the messenger, that he might see and relieve the sufferer. When the kinr 1 do not know anybody who is more obstinate than he. When they asked him if anybody had been at the house, he answered in a very rude manner, Nobody, that I know of, and went away. VIII. THE PARTICIPLE PKK.SENT. The Participle Present presents some difficulties on account of its double nature. B8 a part oi' the verb from which it derives its form, its meaning and its regimen, and as an adjective, the functions of which it performs by expressing a quality. To do this, the participle present, which invariably en. Is in ant, as- sumes a feminine form in mate e and a plural form in ». Tin- general rule on the use of this participle is this: The participle present u declined, when it serves as an ad- jective, bo a> t" agree in gender and number with the noun it qualifies: it is Kit unchanged when it serves as a verb. In order t>> know when it is an adjective and when a verb, it need only he inquired if ii express a quality, and then it is the former ; or if it express an action and have an object, and then it is a verb. Ex.J'aiVM D mvt > used in the following ways : 1. The participle past may occnr without an auxiliary verb ih an adjective to qualify a noun, and then it has to agree with .:. 1 number. Ex. Qut ■''■ /■< ' . '■ ■■'• ■•'■ truiti ' ! How many walls razed! How many towns taken by storm! Jc , ID them all di ad or wounded. It may, also, occur without an am w adverb, in Which Bate it remains, of COUne, unchanged and precedes the noun. Kx. r »v joint un billet (Telle, you will find osed a note from her. Y i n /■!■ mi- the apples you have promised •. which thus precedes the participle past, ma\ I A noun, accompanied by an interrogative adverb, VEKBS. 199 Ex. Combien de livres lui avez-vous donnes 2 How many books have you given him ? Quelle dame a-t-il saluee en passant ? Which lady did he speak to in passing ? A relative pronoun, relating to its antecedent. Ex. Les livres que vous m'avez vendus sont venus, the books you sold me have come. Void Vetoffe que fai achetee pour vous, this is the material I have bought for you. A personal pronoun, preceding the auxiliary verb. Ex. Ou sont ces dames et qui les a accompagnees ? Where are those ladies, and who accompanied them ? J'ai vu cette tragedie et je Vai admiree, I have seen that tragedy and I have admired it. Vous avez Men fait, Messieurs, et on vous a hues, you have done well, Gentlemen, and you have been praised. The participle past of etre remains always unchanged. Ex. Les liommes qui ont ete id, n'y sont plus, the men who were here, are no longer here. Exekcise. The United States are the greatest republic in the world, and Kussia is the largest empire. He cherishes ill-founded prejudices, and hence his life is a continuous series of disappointments and of- fended feelings. Considering his youth and his inexperience, he has overcome the difficulties of this unexpected adventure with great tact. I send you these lines to inform you of her arrival, and enclosed you will find the money required to come here. The best speeches have ever been those which the heart has dictated. My friends were very happy to hear the news which the messenger brought ; they had believed their brother dead, and now they heard that the wounds which he had received were not fatal. How many young men have lost the best years of their life, because they had no friends who could have given them good advice ! We have seen you often, when you did not think that we were near ; and we have heard you, when you 200 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. imagined you were quite alone. These young ladies ventured too far, and they have been severely punished for their temerity, for the men in the house which they had passed rushed out and ran after them, until their friends, who had seen them at a distance, came to their rescue. It was said of this remarkable man, that he had created the language, which he alone had spoken. She has saved herself from this danger, but she has injured herself in the estimation of many people. The participle past, with a direct object before it, is some- times followed by an infinitive, and then the question may arise, whether the object is that of ihe first verb or of the infinitive? In this case the nature of the first verb must, be ascertained: if it is an active verb, the object will be. its own, and then the participle past will, ac< lie, agree with it in number and gender; if it is a neuter verb, then the direct object must g to the following infinitive, and therefore the participle past will remain unchanged. Ex. La danu gut fat entendut chanter, the lady I have heard I ■ r, these are the ks which you seemed to wish for. It may. however, happen that both verbs, that in the parti- I ast and the fo lowing infinitive, are active verbs, In that irefullv inquire to which of the two the direct object properlj belongs, and accordingly modify or not modify the participle past, \.\. i . the lady 1 have heard ; ( I heard the lady nngi /. ' entendu chanter, the melodies I heard J 1 heard BUI ./' A • em come. . may be used in two ways, simply determined by the agreement or uon agreement of the participle p • VERBS. 2i'» 1 Ex. Je les ai vu peindre, I have seen them paint (being painted). Je les ai vus peindre, I have seen them paint (painting). On les a laisses piller, they have let them rob. On les a laisse piller, they have let them be robbed. The verb f aire is the only one which forms an apparent excep- tion to this rule, as it never varies ; but this arises not from any anomaly, but from the fact that it is considered as part of the fol- lowing infinitive, with which it forms but one word. Ex. On les a tousfait venir ici, they have made them all come here. Les tables que j'avais fait f aire dans cette title, the tables I had ordered in that city. A participle past which has two or more direct objects pre- ceding it, will agree with both, in the plural, if its meaning applies clearly to both, or it will remain unchanged if it refers but to one. Ex. Cest votre interet plutot que votre ambition qu'il a consulte, it is your interest rather than your ambition which he has consulted. Cetait sa femme et sa sceur qu'il a acccmpagnees, it was his wife and his sister whom he accompanied. The same distinction must be made, whenever the direct- object preceding a participle past is an adverb or other expres- sion of quantity followed by de with a plural noun. Ex. Que de maux ce pauvre homme a soufferts! How many ills this poor man has endured ! Ce fat le plus grand nombre des revoltes qu'on a fusile, it was the greater number of the rebels they have shot. The conj unction que is not unfrequently used instead of a rela- tive pronoun preceded by a preposition : in such cases it is not a genuine direct object, however much it may have the appearance, and hence the participle past will remain xinchanged. Ex. Les jours qu'il a vecu, the days (during) which he has lived. 202 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Exercise. These books, which I have often seen you read -with such interest, are the same which I heard read aloud last winter in my brothers family. I saw her paint that portrait myself, and now she denies that it is her work. These melodies were those which the Swiss soldiers had heard sung in their mountains : they made them so homesick, that an order was given prohibiting their being played by the band. What civil war has this great man kindled, and when ■was it terminated by hh death? That is a part of ancient history which I have not read for a long time, and I have forgotten the events which you have mentioned. We travelled very far that day, but towards noon the horses refused to work well, and I did not know to what cause I could ascribe this until I found out that the driver had not ht them eat enough in the morning. The services which he had rendered the minis-, r vrere so great, that the latter did not know how to reward them : thus the pK,r man has received neither money ih>T Office, How many duties have you neglected, and how many times have I told you bo, bul you would never listen to the warnings which you have received from so many friends I ENGLISH Atxii.i uuks OF Moon in FRKKGH. Then a Ki gKafa verba which are frequently called auxiliaries <>\ m 1. because, unlike the two auxiliary verbs. To have and To he, they do not help to form tenses, bul to express moods in which the action of the verb may be Such ate the rerba, I may, I will, I shall, I must, 1 !,;, metimea rendered in French by a . and at other times they ate translated literally, as baa •v been explained i-' tl ase of tin- imperative mood, which med, in French, from the veil, directly, while in English I To ht. We propose to state here the .', rules which dct< i mine the i. rerbs. The v«i 1. /■■ '/i.e. av an independent verb, corresponds to the English verb, »nly to physical ability, VERBS. 203 while savoir has to be employed whenever moral or mental ability is to be expressed. Ex. Lltomnie le plus fort ne pent lever cefardeau, the strongest man cannot take up this load. Vhomme le plus savant ne sail dechiffrer ces signes, the most learned man cannot decipher these signs. Pouvez-vous marcher ? Can you (are you strong enough to) walk. JSavez-vous danser ? Can you (do you know how to) dance ? As an auxiliary verb, pouvoir corresponds to the English verbs I can and I may, and their past tenses, could and might. Ex. Je veux et jc peux /aire tout autant, I will and I can do quite as much. Puis-je aller le voir demain soir ? May I go and see him to-morrow night? When used negatively, pouvoir means only I can ; if it is to mean I may, the negation must be added to the following infinitive. Ex. Je ne peux pas marcher si vite, I cannot walk so fast. J e peux ne pas le/aire, sije le prefer e, I may not do it, if I prefer. I could, is in English used for two purposes : it is either the past tense of I can, and then must be translated by the corres- ponding tense of pouvoir ; or it is the conditional, and then it will be translated by the French conditional. Ex. I could do it formerly, but I am too weak no\v,je pouvais le/aire autrefois, maisje suis trop faible maintenant. I never could tell him the whole truth, je n^ai jamais pu lui dire toute la verite. I could do it if I chose, je pourrais le /aire si je le pre- ferais. I might, is never a past tense in English, but only used as the 20 i ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. conditional form, and hence it is always translated by tlie conditional of pouvoir. Ex. I might go to-morrow if you were ready, je pourraia 2>artir demain, si cons etiez pret. I can liave been, is translated simply by the preterit indefinite of pouvoir; and I could, and I might have been, by the conditional of the past Ex. How can you have been so careless! Comment arez-vous pu itre si nigligent ! I could have been hero before you, if I had made haste, faurais pu 6tn ici avant vous, sij( m'itais dtperke". They might have been kinder t<> us, ils auraientpu itre j, Ins affable* enven nous. French authors Bay indifferently j< peuxatjepuis, but iu Inter rogative sentences pui*j< alone is oaed I'.x. P i m ///•< t May I n«>t read (be excused from readii Tin y may say what tiny choose, I cannot believe it, for they hnvo told me an ontrnth once, and after thai l can give them credil no 1< «iiir'r. M:i\ vre put "ii oox shawls and hats, and take a walk in the garden 1 \<>n can >l" it. If yon M'>i think it is too damp, and that you mJghl take ■ <'.iM by exposing yourself. May yen know one day what tender love she bore yon ; th<- knowledge <>t' it will be a great consolation to yon, If ever trouble should come to sadden you l could have embraced him, bo great was my joy when I saw him again. Can you t«-!l me wh<> tin- twelve Cesears were l used to be able to recite them all, hut it i> bo long since I have read tlnir history that I cannot now promise yon to tell them in order. I believe be could have done that and more also, it' the time had been given t<> him ; but it may be asked, If anybody cottd have succeeded in bo little time They could easily tell yon all about this man, and his interets, if they wen* to <1" m> : but they are very <1 screel persons, an I they may think that they have do right t.> betray hi> secrete. 205 Vouloir. The verb vouloir, as an independent verb, corresponds to the English verb To be willing. Ex. Elle ri'a pas voulu meme m'ecouter, she was not even willing to listen to rue. In its imperative form, second person plural, it has the mean- ing of the English word Please, or similar expressions. Ex. Veuillez me passer le sel, please pass the salt. Veuillez Men me dire oil demeure le cure, be so kind as to tell me where the priest lives. It has occasionally the same meaning when used interroga- tively and accompanied by bien. Ex. Voulez-vous bien lui preter vos secours? Please lend him your assistance. It must not be forgotten that vouloir is, as has already been stated, an active verb in French, and consequently does not require the additional verb To have, as in English, where it is intransitive. Ex. Will you have some coffee or some tea ? Voulez-vous du cafe ou da the ? As an auxiliary verb, the English I will is used to form the future ; hence attention must be had to distinguish between I will, as an independent verb expressing volition or readiness, and I will, as an auxiliary verb forming the future. Ex. He will meddle with things which do not concern him, il veut se meler a des choses qui ne le reyardent pas. He will give you all you ask of him, il vous dormers, tout ce que vous lui demanderez. The past tense, I would, is used in the same manner both as the past of I will, and as the conditional mood, and must be translated accordingly. Ex. I would come and see you, but I could not, je voulais aller vous voir, mais je ne le pouvais pas. 2 I S OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. I would go and see you, if I could, firais vous voir, si je lepouvais. She never would speak to rue about her lovers, elle w'a jamais voulu me purler de ses amunts, I wish, is frequently substituted for I would, in English, and is in such cases translated by the past conditional of vouloir. Ex. I wish he had never come to this place, faurais voulu qu'il ne Jut jamais venu en ces lieux. I will have and I would have, followed by personal pronouns in English, are translated by vouloir simply. Ex. 1 will have yon know. Sir, that I am master here, jeveux tjur 9ou$ sachiee, Monsieur, que >/">i je suit mattrt ici. 1 would not have you do that for all the world, je ne vous fissiet cela pour tout an mvndt, Vouloir, in the conditional mood and after si, if, has often the meaning of the English \erl> Like. Ex. Jne'.' w. will wait for you until one o'clock, and if yon do not eonie then, we will ade that you would rather not have oar company. They would d i it with pleasure, I am sure of It, If you were t<> tell them was lor u .sier a jiui. Shall I tell you what I think of it ? Dois-je vous dire ce que fen pense? What shall I do, if that should happen \ Que dois-je faire st cela arrivait ' The past tenses of the verb devoir have a double meaning. They represent either simply the verb, I was to, etc., or they express the conviction that the action of the verb following baa really taken place. Ex EUa del i'i U Ini dire, nuiis tlli /'(/ oublit, site was to tell him bo, bat Bhe has forgotten it. Elk ■ a demi endormi quand je U lui die, she mast have been half asleep, when 1 told her so, D I-,... ■ ;.-. may, in the third person singular, be pre- ceded by ili«- demonstrative prononn ce. Bx. <: ,: jt aooireu < u kier r her VEEBS. 20S carelessness. They must be men of note, for everybody salutes them and the greatest honors are shown them wherever they appear. I ought to know them, for I am sure I have seen their faces, but I can- not recollect who they may be. Even if they were to be our masters, we could never be made to love them, although we might learn to obey them. These books must have suffered very much on their voyage across the ocean, for they are all more or less mouldy, and some are entirely spoiled ; they ought to have been cleaned and dried as soon as the vessel came into port. Shall I tell him to bring you the wine, or will you tell him yourself? Laisser. The verb laisser answers the purpose of translating the Eng- lish verb To let, when it has the meaning of, To give permission, to allow. Ex. Will you let us go out this evening ? Nous luisserez- vous surtir ce soir ?■ Let me out, or I shall be stifled in this room, laissez-moi sortir, ou f etouffe dans cette salle. But it must be remembered that the English verb To let, is made use of, also, to form the imperative mood. In that case it is not translated at all into French, the imperative itself answering the purpose there. Ex. Let us go at once, or we shall be too late, allons de suite, ou nous serous en retard. Let him do it if he chooses ; I do not care, qu'il le fasse s'il le veut ; moi, je ne nCen soucie pas. Let them go (wish), qu'il s'en aillent ; let them go (leave), laissez-les partir. Laisser, being an active verb in French, does not require the addition of the auxiliary verb To have, which is necessary in English, where To let is intransitive. Ex. I will let you have what you want for the same price, je vous laisserai ce qu'il vowsfaut, pour le meme prix. Laisser is not the proper verb to translate To let, when it is 210 OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. followed by a double object, a verb and a pronoun. In such cases it is better to change the construction. Ex. I cannot let him ill-treat you so, je ne peux lui permettre de vons maltraitcr ainsi. Do not let him read so much at night, ne lui permettez jmzs de lire tant le soir. Exercise. Let me tell you what I have seen first, and then you can tell me your adventures, if you have anything: to tell. Let us go now, before the moon is too low; the night is culm and cool, and a walk around the Ink.- will be delightful Le1 hex go out, if she cannot stay in any longer; I do not like to force her todo what is so unpleasant to her, luit she ought to let me tell her, thai her conduct is not that of a nioe girl, and thai I am much distressed on that account. Leave me, and do not BBJ any thing more about this Bad affair; it has given me pain enough, and has not lei me deep for several nights, Let him come out, if he dares, and say all; I can only gain by the truth being made known. Friends, 1st us honor his memory, and let us never forget what we owe to his honest and Btrennoos efforts t<> advance the good cause and to overcome all the difficulties which were in our way. Failoir. The verb failoir \ French, .-ill the English words whi.h convey the idea of absolute necessity, physical force, and unavoidable obligation, as tar as these expressfona are not translated by devoir, in thia signification it has a double con- struction: it may either be followed by que with the subjunc- tive mood — Ex n faui que row Kites plus haut, you must read louder, 11 fallait "U ought to have come this mornii Jlf.nnlm , this cave is always cold, even in summer. If the place where heat or cold are felt is mentioned, the noun is preceded by the preposition a. Ex. J^ai froid aux pieds et je ne puis pas les rechaujfer, my feet are cold, and I cannot get them warm again. When the English adjective is qualified by the adverb Very, its place is supplied in French by bien or by grand. Ex. II avait bien faim quand il arriva ici, he was very hungry when he reached here. Elle avait grand" 1 peur que je ne Voubliasse, she was very much afraid I would forget her. 214 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Avoir is also used with nouns to express Age and Measure, where in English the verb To be, with an adjective, is employed. Ex. Quoad est-ce qu'elle aura dix ans ? "When will she be ten years old ? Cet humme a au mains six pieds de hauteur, that man is at least six feet high. Avoir mal, followed by the preposition a before its noun, expresses all the English words for Pain, ache, sore, etc. Ex. iPai eti mal a la tele depuis le matin, my head has ached since this morning. Je ne peux pas marcher, fai mal au pied, I cannot walk, my foot is sore. mal n't CO UT has the peculiar signification of being sick at the stomach. To Buffer pain in the heart is avoir des douleurt an •■ Kn.li-h c om p ou nd nouns, containing the word ache, are in French made wit a the same word mal, followed by t he preposition de. ■ it autei fort que jamais, my toothache is ■a bad as ever. When this Qualified by an adjective, it requires the Indi finite article before it. atrocs, this wine has given ne- 1 ache. .1 'air has tii,- various meanings of— To look, when it is followed by no adjective or adverb, and To look like, or. Look ed bj the preposition de. In tbo first case, tlio sains mescaline, when it refers to moral qualities, but agrees with the person it refers to, when it expresses physi- cal qua Ex. ' . this man looks benign, u a Pair petite quand ell . this woman looks small when she is seated. I palais, this house looks rati VEEBS. 215 Le temps a Fair de vouloir s' 'eclair cir, the weather looks as if it would clear up. Avoir without any object but parts of dress, means To have on. Ex. Est, ce qu 'elle avait sa robe neuve quand vous la vites? Did she have her new dress on when you saw her ? Avoir, followed by parts of the body which are qualified by an adjective, requires the definite article before them instead of the possessive pronoun, which is used in English. Ex. Elle a tovjours les mains froides, her hands are always cold. Jl se trouva qu'il n'eut que les doigts brules, it turned out that only his fingers were burnt. When the adjective, bj special rule, precedes the noun, the indefinite article is" used in French as in English. Ex. Elle avait unefort petite main et de belles dents, she had a very small hand and fine teeth. Avoir beau, followed by an infinitive, expresses the English phrase, To do a thing in vain. It can, however, never be used negatiyely. Ex. II eut beau me prier, je n'ai pas cede, he tried in vain to beg, I did not yield. Vous avez beau crier, il tHy a personne qui vous entende, you cry in vain, there is nobody here who can hear you. Avoir, preceded by the pronoun y, is used for a great variety of expressions, which are translated in the most varied way in English. The most ordinary use made of il y a, etc., is to translate the English There is and There are, as has already been explained. II y a is sometimes, though rarely, followed by a noun with- out an article, with which it forms a compound verb. Ex. II y eut apparence comme s'il a.llait neiger, it looked as if it were going to snow. Est-ce qu'il rCy a p>as moyen de le sauver ? Is there no way of saving him ? 216 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. The two principal purposes, however, for which il y a, etc., arc used is to express Time and Distance. When applied to expressions of time, il y a answers for all the various English phrases used for the purpose ; as, It is, since, ago, etc. Ex. It is now five years that I have not seen him, il y a maiutenant cinq ans que je ne Paipai cu. I heard this news two days ago, fai appris atte nouvdle il y a deux jours. That must have happened six weeks since, cela doit etre arrive il y a six seinaines. The proper tense to be used alter il y a depends entirely upon the general rules which determine the choice between It will lie the present, when the action still continues; the imperfect, when the action is represented as going on, con- tinuing at the past time; the preterit definite, when it took place but once ; and the preterit indefinite, when the action :. I to the present time. J... ' ; tien y n-t-il gut trez ieit How long have _\..u been living here I J I y a deux air* .vc Hive, it is two yeai 1 was j our pnpil. // u'ij a gut tit moit que /arrival ici, it is only six months sine.- 1 came here. // y a an an que fai quitti ma ]*iliir, it is a year since I left my country, // y . -lore the following verb, r the W t i. -n of that verb has ceased to take place, alter habitual occurrence. ru Vat c«, it will be I -:ih him. latcd otherwise than by the cod VEEBS. 21.7 Ex. 11 y aura liuit jours que vous n'avez ete id, it will be a week since you were here. When applied to the measurement of distances, il y a is fol- lowed simply by the measure itself. Ex. II y a cent lieues d'ici a la capitqle, it is a hundred miles from here to the capital. Combien y a-t-il da village d Veglise ? How far is it from the village to the church ? Exercise. It was, I believe, two years ago when I first had the pleasure of meeting with you at the Springs. How old are you now ? I am only sixteen, but I look older than I am, because I have been very sick several weeks ago, and I have not quite recovered my strength. How long is it since you spoke for the first time in public ? It must have been thirty years ago, for it was then I commenced my public career, and I remember well, I was very much afraid I would not succeed. It is the lot of the poor to be always hungry and thirsty ; but they have no cause to be ashamed of it, if their poverty is not the effect of their vices. I had a new coat on, and therefore I did not wish to ex- pose myself to the rain, and I told you before we started that it looked as if it were going to rain. He was only four feet high, when he was twelve years old, but he has grown very rapidly since he was placed under your care six years ago. There is no reason why he should always be right and you always wrong, but there are many people in the world who imagine that they cannot be wrong. She has a high forehead and a prominent nose, but her eyes are not handsome, and her mouth is too large. Can you tell me, my friend, how far it is from here to the next inn ? I can tell you the exact distance ; it v six miles and a half. Etre. The verb Ure also, like avoir, is used with a large number of nouns in such intimate connection as to form with them com- pound verbs, which express but one idea. 218 ON" THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Ex. Je suis en peine de votes voir souffrir, I am distressed to see you suffer. Est-ce que vous serez a meme de /aire ccla tout seul? Will you be able to do that quite alone \ Elle etait debout quand je lui parlai, she was standing when I spoke to her. Y itre has the idiomatic meaning of being there, in a figura- tive Sense — viz., to understand a matter of which we speak; though y etre may also literally mean to be there — viz., at home. Ex. MaintenaiU que vous parlez net, fy suis, now that you speak clearly, 1 understand it. Madamt votn inert y est ell* .' N n, Monsieur, elle a'y est pas, is your mother at hum she is not. En it re means to be of the company, to be one of a set; and in a narrative, to have left off. Ex. NoUS allonS ii la We are going to hunt, will you go with ue .' ' Uores "nt In a, tine reliure, mats its tCen tont j> have retained again. Ex. lb' lias gone to chnrch and will not !"• bark till dinner, i (A retour que pour Is VEKBS. 2 1 9 He has gone to church and returned an hour ago, il a ete a Veglise et il est ventre il y a une heure. The English auxiliary verbs To have and To be, as well as the so-called auxiliaries of mood, I will, I can, I may, etc., all of which are active verbs in French and there require the addition of a direct object, are very frequently used alone, to express assent, dissent, surprise or mere emphasis, in order to keep up the conversation. Thus in English it is said : You are a little afraid, are you not ? Give me that book, will you ? These expressions are inadmissible in French, and some other means must be sought for to produce the same effect. The following are the most frequently employed : When the auxiliaries are used merely to express assent or dissent, the adverbs oui and non, certainement or point du tout supply their place. Ex. Are you the man I sent for? I am. Est-ce que vous etes Vhomme que fai envoy e chercher ? Oui, Monsieur Will you do it ? No, I will not, voulez-vous le /aire ? Non, Monsieur. When the auxiliaries are used interrogatively, merely to repeat the question, as it were, n! est-ce pas ? is used in French. Ex. Vous etes le maitre d'hotel, n'est-ce pas? You are the head steward, are you not ? lis sont tous partis ce matin, n'est-ce pas? They all left this morning, did they not ? When the auxiliaries are thus used after another verb to ascertain the action of other persons, the simple personal pro- noun, wiih et before it, is used in French. Ex. Nous avons dine, et vous? We have dined, have you ? Elle a promis de venir, et lui ? She has promised to come, will he? When the auxiliary verb To do is employed in repetition of other verbs, the latter must in French be repeated themselves. 220 OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Ex. I see it pretty clearly, do you ? Afoi, je le vois assez cbiirement, le voyez-vous ? I believe it, do not you ? Moi je le crois, ne le croyez-vous pas ? Does she go to church now ? I believe she does, est-ce quelle va a Veglise maintenant ? Je crois qu'elle y va. When the auxiliary verb To be is used ellipticallv, without the adverb which ought to be used with it, the latter must be supplied in French. Ex. Is your sister here? Yes she is, est-ce que voire socur est ieif Oai, (lie est ici. Have you been there recently ? No, I have not, est-ce que vous y \st /nit in'il U l/r sa chute, he has hurt bis chest bv his tall. VERBS. 221 Prenez-donc garde, vous me faites mal au bras, but take care, you hurt my arm. Est-ce qiCon ne va pas luifaire grace? Is he not to be pardoned ? Je vous ferai voir ce que peutfaire un honnete homme, 1 will show you what an honest man can do. Faire may also be followed by another verb in the infinitive and form with it a compound verb; in which case it is likewise generally represented by a simple verb in English. Such are, for instance, made). Faire faire, To order (to " sortir, " turn out. " venir, " send for. " payer, " charge. " entrer, " admit. " bouillir, " boil. " frire, « fry. " perir, " kill. Ex. Oil avez-vous fait faire cette belle robe? Where did you have that beautiful dress made ? II aurait fallu faire venir le medecin a Vinstant merne, the doctor ought to have been sent for at once. Aussitot que le courrier arrive, faites entrer, as soon as the courier comes, send him in. JVe faire que — literally, to do nothing but — serves in French to translate the English adverb Only, when it qualifies a verb. Ex. Je rHai fait que Ventrevoir dans la rue, I only caught a glimpse of her in the street. II ne fit qu'y toucher et Vobus eclata, he only touched it and the shell exploded. Faire, placed before an infinitive, which does not serve to form a compound verb gives to the second verb a passive sio-nification. 222 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Ex. II a fait copier ce beau tableau, lie has had this beautiful picture copied. On /era blanckir les murailles et peindre les boiseries, they will have the walls whitewashed and the wood-work painted. Suire, followed by an adjective, expresses an effort to repre- sent the quality conveyed by the latter. Ex. Faites-donc Pavare, on n'y croit pas, don't pretend to bo miserly, we don't believe it. II fail It savant, mais il est at ne peut }>lt ignorant Faire, used impersonally, is the universal verb for all expres- sions referring to the Btate of the weather and its effects. Ex. .1 midi il jit chami, maintenani il fait frotd t at noon it - warm, now it is cold. I . .-urlir, il fait Imp crotti, you will not be able t<> go out, it is too muddy. 11 f.i, i beau temps, Hair • I tee, it is fine weather, dear and Do you pretend n> be attended or are you really sot [should be sorry u> have hurt your feelings when 1 was only jesting. Fon will order a round table to be made, around which twelve pi nans <"iu be I : you will have it polished and sent home before l return. It (his morning, bul it has been cold sad windy since, ak the roads must be dry now. He courted several ladies time, and the eonsequenoe wss that be did not win the irered 1 » i — faithl. they would n<»t pardon him any mm-.-; they i'<-lt t leeply bow mnch i wronged them. It i- the custom In Prance, when nn Impor tnily, to inform all the friends of it by not by an Bdvertisement in the newspapers. Send for tin- a i him what yon want will b is ua VERBS. 223 honest man, he will not charge you more than a fair price. I Lave only met him, I cannot say, therefore, that I am acquainted with him, out I should like very much to be presented to him. The cook asked me if she should boil or fry the meat for dinner, and I could not tell her what she ought to do. Aller and Venir. The French use the two verbs aller, to go, and venir, to come, to express an immediate future and an immediate past, the former corresponding in a general way to the English phrase, I am going to; the latter to the English phrase, I had just. Thus, the future itself becomes limited to any indefinite, future time ; whilst the use of aller implies that the future action is to take place immediately. In like manner, the past tense represents the past but vaguely, but the use of venir implies that it has elapsed but this very moment. Ex. Je vais lui ecrire un petit mot tout a, Vheure, I shall write him a few words instantly. II nous a dit quHl va sortir, he has told us that he is going out. Nous venons de rentrer et nous y serons de suite, we have but just come in, and we shall be there directly. lis venaient de s'endormir quand on les appela, they had just fallen asleep, when they were called. Aller is also used in French to express the English To be, in reference to health or to business. Hence the familiar phrases : Comment ca va-t-il? Merci, ca va bien. How are you? Thank you, I am pretty well. Et comment vont les affaires? Comme ci, comme ga. And how is business ? So, so. II va mieu.r. ce matin depuis quCon la saigne, he is better this morning since he has been bled. 224 on the parts of a p^tence. Aller, when used in connection with parts of dress, means To become. Ex. Trouvez-vous que cette robe me va bien ? Do you think this dress is becoming to me ? Exercise. We had just dined when the ladies arrived, and fortunately there was enough left to provide for them : but we sent at once for the cook, and told him he must fry some chicken and boil some potatoes, because all the ladies liked that dish. When will you let me see that note? 1 will show it to you this instant, if you will promise me, solemnly, never to tell anybody that yon have read it. Are you going to write to your sister to-day, or must I do it for you'.' 1 shall do it directly, in order not to give you BO much trouble, for you have already been very kind in rendering me many services, and you have bat jasl now placed me under new obligations by lending me so large a Bum ot money. Does her new bat become her as well aa the one 1 liked so much, when 1 saw hex for the first time? 1 cannol tell, for 1 think that no hat Ifl rally becoming to her ; she is by far handsomest when she' has nothing on her head. What dress had she on when yon sat* her first ! I do nol remember that, hut it must bare been a very simple one, (brake had been very sick, and she was not w, l| th.n. Hon Is yiir patto a1 this morning? 1 am sorry to say lie l. I hope very certainly that he >\ih escape with hi.- lite. (MI A PTER V I ADVERBS Adverbs, which originally bad their names from the bet that they principally served to qualify verba, as adjectives qualify nouns, may - qualify adjectives or another adverb as well Thej express a manner or a circumstance, and vary, therefore, in kind as mnoh as the latter vary. ADVERBS. 225 Ex. Ce roi etalt vraiment digne d'etre assis sur un tronc, this king was truly worthy of being seated on a throne. II etait continuellement occupe des soins du gouvemement, he was unceasingly engaged in the cares of govern- ment. Son nom vivra etemellement, his name will live forever. This power to qualify various words is, however, not the same with all adverbs. Thus, tris, si, aussi, and tout can modify only adjectives, participles and adverbs, and not verbs, while du moins, au moins, au plus, and davantage modify only verbs, and tout a fait only participles. Ex. Je Vai connu plus longtemps que vous, I have known him longer than you. II n'auruit pu desirer davantage, he could not have wished for more. Est-ce que vraiment il est tout a fait gate? Is it really altogether spoiled ? Adverbs have generally a meaning complete in themselves ; ptill, there are a few which, to complete their signification, require the addition of a regimen preceded by a preposition. Ex. II salt toujours parler convenablement au sujet, he knows always how to speak appropriately. Ilfaut aimer Dieu preferablement a tout, we ought to love God before all things. II ne peut pas vivre confvrmement a son etat, he cannot live in accordance with his rank. Adverbs of quantity, being considered like nouns, require the preposition de ; except lien, which is followed by the partitive article. Ex. Elle avuit infiniment d' 'esprit, she was extremely witty. Est-ce qu'il y aura bien du monde a cettefete? Will there be a great many people at that party ? Adverbs ending in ment — the rules on their formation have 226 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. been given in the First Part of this Grammar — have this pe- culiarity : that they always express the mood or manner, and consequently may form comparatives and superlatives, precisely as the adjectives from which they are derived. Ex. 7/ a parle plus vivement que jamais auparavant, he spoke in a more lively manner than ever before. La robe fat fade le plus Uigamment du monde, the dress was made in the most elegant manner. Bien, well, ma/, badly, and pen, little, are the only adverbs which form the comparative degrees anomalously, making mieux, better, and le mieux, best. w o rse, and le p it, worst moins y less, and U rnouu, least Ex. JSlU est le m'u us miee quand tilt tat le moins parte, she i> best dressed when she is least adorned j n m> plait le mieux m tux, e'eet lew modeetie, what I like best in them is their modesty. T6t makes a double comparative, plus tdt for sooner, and plutdi for lather. ].... I : ii vttiir plu , yOO ought to have come sooner than the other.-. its pluttl 7 ner met plana, I would rather die than give 1 1 j » my | T't alone, i> hardly ever used now, though t't <>n t.ini answers. for tli MMC "r luter. ipletive, t" j and emphasis to the verb, as in the oso made ofveuillea Lim, as sined. Ex. T< nt I' VOulexpoa, I see (indeed) that yon do not wish it. ADVERBS. 257 PLACE OF ADVERBS. The adverb is placed immediately after the verb it qualifies, if the latter is used in a simple tense ; but, in compound tenses, it may be placed between the auxiliary and the participle past. Ex. II dit franchement tout ce qu'il pense, he tells all he thinks openly. Savez-vous sHl a parfaitement reussi ? Do you know if he has succeeded entirely ? Eie/r, yesterday, may be placed before the verb or after it, but can never stand between the auxiliary and the participle. Ex. Hier nous y alldmes — or, Nous y alldmes 7iier, we went there yesterday. Compound adverbs, however, consisting of adverbs with a regimen or nouns preceded by prepositions, cannot be placed before the auxiliary and participle. Ex. Celui quijuge a la hate juge au kasard, those who judge rashly judge at haphazard. The adverbs bien, mal, mieux, pis, and a few others of like character, are always placed between the auxiliary and the participle, and may also stand before as well as after the infinitive which they qualify. Ex. Vous avez mal fait en le lui disant, you have done wrong by telling him. Partoutfai ete mieux repu que je n 1 avals espere, every- where I have been better received than I expected. Le plus grand bonheur est de bien /aire son devoir, the greatest happiness is to do one's duty well. Adverbs generally are not repeated before every word they quality, with the exception of si, aussl, plus and autant, which require to be thus repeated. Ex. II a ete si bon, si sage, qu'il n'a pas son pareil, he was so wise and good, that the like of him did not exist. 228 OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Lane est aussi humble, aussi patient, que le cheval est fie r et impetueur, the ass is as humble and patient as the horse is proud and impetuous. A few adverbs can, in negative constructions, be placed before pas or point and done, therefore, must be so placed. Ex. Vous ne ni'avez done pas obeU Then you have not obeyed me \ Si, aussi, tant and autant. Si and aussi mean both so or as, and tant and autant mean both so or as much and as many ; but the forma aussi and autant can only be used in comparisons, while n and tant serve mainly in exclamations and negative sentences. Ex. Get ptainrs s , tranquilles, these pleas- ures are as pure as they are quiet. J\ir, connected by the preposition de, after it, when it corresponds to the English By far. Ex. I lueoup plus savant que lui — or, Voue Utt 1. 1, \ I like him very well, je Palme b Stti Jl k • expresses the English l';ir !r..m it. Pi . v,, U tliink von have paid me : Ear from it. 1 . - . : far Erom :. ,|.|._\. Its comparative plus is used, like moin* and n titiuii to express b comparison, corresponding t<> the Engli-h ADVERBS. '20 J The more — the more, etc. ; in which case it must be followed by the verb directly, and not, as in English, by the adjective. Ex. Plus on en voit plus on Vadmire, the more one sees of it the more one admires it. Plus il grandit plus il devient laid, the more he grows the uglier he becomes. INTERROGATIVE ADVERBS. The English adverb How is translated into French by a great variety of forms, according to the meaning it may happen to have or the words with which it is connected. How, inquiring the manner, etc., is translated by comment. Ex. Comment vous Hes-vous parte depuis? How have you been since? Voulez-vous savoir comment on doit fairc? Do you wish to know how to do it ? Comme, on the contrary, does not refer to the manner so much, but simply serves to connect two verbs. Ex. Voyez comme il travaille / See how (much) he works! How, in exclamations, is translated by que, which, followed by de, means also How much ! and How many ! Ex. Que cette parole me doit &tre douce! How sweet that word ought to be to me ! Quelle est jolie en depit de son age ! How pretty she is> in spite of her age ! Que de batailles gagnees et que de villes prises! How many battles won, and how many cities taken ! It will be seen, from these examples, that in French the interrogative adverb comment or que cannot, as in English, be followed immediately by an adjective or adverb, but requires that the verb should come immediately after it. 232 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Ex. I cannot tell yon bow old she is, je ne saurais i\us dire quel est son Age. How few men are really happy ! Quil y a peu dliommes qui sont vraimcnt heureux! How so ? is translated by comment crtctf Quand, which can be used relatively as a conjunction, as well as interrogatively as an adverb, means not only When? but, with the conditional, also Even it'; in which case it is often accompanied by vieme. Ex. Qnuitd piendree-vous me voir a la campagne t When will you come and see me in the country ? Quand vous me ha'iriez, je in me plaindrais pas, even if yon should hate me, I would not complain. Je le/erai quand mime U m>- couterait l why I esteemed bin ao much; and I may add that I like him alao much, although I hara asen him but little. She la »ery fur from she intenda going to i eat deal of money, and she fhlnki there before he dies. When was. lit, in which yonr jrounger brother feD 1 \\ ADVERBS. 233 elder brother who died there ; and I do not see why you ask me such a question at all. How long will be your stay in this city, or have you not yet decided how many days you will spend here 1 How full of wisdom these verses are ! They surprise me every time I read them ; and even if they were not the work of so famous an author, they would not fail to be admired wherever they are read. Why did you not tell her so ? She would have understood it perfectly, and you would not feel the remorse that now troubles your conscience. The more I see of them the less I like them : they are not like those people who gain your esteem the better you learn to know them. NEGATIVE ADVERBS. The simple negation in French is non, which corresponds to the English No, and can never be used with a verb. It may, however, be placed before settlement, only, when followed by que, and it may follow certain verbs, like oui, when connected with them by que. Ex. Non, Madame, je rHy consentirai jamais, no, Madam, I will never consent to it. Elle est non seulement vieille, mais laide, she is not only old, but ugly. E«t-ce que vraiment il a dit que non ? Did he really say no ? All other negative adverbs require the addition of ne in its proper place before the verb, because they are all taken from Latin nouns, which in themselves have no negative signification. Thus, pas comes from the Latin passus, and point from punclum ; rien from rem, and jamais from jam mar/is. It has already been mentioned that the particle ne is re- quired whether the negative adverb precede or follow the verb. Ex Jamais la fortune n'afait autant pour un homme, never has fortune done as much for a man. Rien ne me plairait mieux que de vous y voir, nothing would please me better than to see you there. 234 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Aucune de ces dames ne vous a reconnn, not one of these ladies has recognized you. Pas and point both represent the English Not, but the latter is the stronger, approaching the meaning of the English Not at all, or when there is a distinction made between the quantity and the whole material, in which case point applies to the former and pan to the latter. Ex. Vous vous irompez, il n\t point reussi, you are mistaken, he has not at all succeeded. Je ne prendrai point de the\jc n\n prends pas, I will take no tea, I do not drink tea. Pai may be used without ne for the English Not, before adjectives or adverbs; and point is used without ne, but fol- lowed by id emphasis on the ion. r, he will never in his life d . ,':i it. ADVERBS. 235 Elle n'a cessS de me tourmenter, she has plagued me in- cessantly. Je ne saurais vous dire combien je vous plains, I cannot tell you how much I pity you. They are, finally, omitted after qui in exclamations. Ex. Qui ne serait touche par un tel spectacle ! Who would not be moved by such a sight ! Point, with the infinitive, may be placed before or after it. Ex. Pour ne point souffrir — or, Pour ne souffrir point, in order not to suffer at all. Que, with the negative ne, has the meaning of the English Only, when it qualifies a verb, and que must precede the word to be limited. Ex. Vous n'avez qu'a dire et vous Vaurez, you have only to say so, and you shall have it. Je ne veux sortir que pour une demi-heure, I only want to go out for half an hour. II n , ai?ne que moi, he loves me only. When Only expresses a sufficiency, it is rendered by seulement. Ex. Sifetais seulement major, je serais content, if I were only a major, I would be content. Guere, with the negative ne, represents the English Scarcely or Hardly, in connection with a verb. Ex. Je ne Vaurais guere reconnu, sHl ne rrfavait parle, I would have scarcely recognized him, if he had not spoken to me. II rfy a guere d'autres gens dans ce pays, there are hardly any other people in this country. The numerous cases in which ne alone is used, without giving a negative meaning to the verb, have already been men- tioned in connection with the different classes of words which require it, as comparatives, verbs of doubt and fear, etc. 236 OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Plus, with the negative ne, has the meaning of No more and Xo longer, when the latter does not literally mean Not a longer time, in which case it would have to be translated plus longtemps. Ex. Dites-moi adieu, vous ne me reverrez plus, tell me good bye, you will never see me again. Je ne peux plus, mes forces sonl epuisees, I can do it no longer, my strength is exhausted. Vous tCauriez j»t$ i/u marcher j'lus longtemps you ought not to have walked any longer. Not airain, can never be represented in French by pas encore, as foreigners are apt to do ; the simple plus expressing the words Pat i won means Not yet Ex. Jt in- 1'iii pat tneon t reparaUra plus, I have not Been it, and it will nut appeal again. Ei<<- - an adverb of quantity, and means Some mora. Ex. Vow / en peculiarity i the fact that it serves, h connection with a camber of nouns, to form adverbial expres- sions, signifying a manner of doing or being. K\. ./. i iju'illi toil in bonne *"/h is perfectly at home. They are not at home at this hour, the s rvam Bays, but they will return a few minutes before dinner. Had she gone Into the house when you saw her this morning, or was she BtUl walking In the garden, and gathering flowers for a bonquel e born either rmanyor In Holland, bn1 theyspenl nearly their whole life in the I In rain did he try to gain his ear; he would not listen to him t'"r a mora at, and after a little while h<> went back, and locked himself In his study- '' yen i inn the basket, put some of them upon it, and - wDl and room / nost invariably used with another preposi- boa after it. which, wjlfa a We may say, In will pin - hell. PREPOSITIONS. 243 L'eau lui monta jusque par dessus la tete, the watei rose as high as above her head. J'aime ses talents, ses vertus et jusqu'a ses defauts, I love his talents, his virtues and even his faults. Poets take the liberty of adding an s to jusque whenever it suits their metre to make two syllables of the word. Ex. Vous la louez, Madame, jusques au del, you praise her, Martam, to the skies. It has already been stated that jusque, used as a conjunction before verbs, requires the additional ce que. Ex. Attendee jusqu'a ce que faurai fini ma lettre, wait until I have finished my letter. Sans, without, has two peculiarities — it is used without an article, unless there is special emphasis on the article, and it may be followed either by ni or by et, in spite of its negative signification ; but with et, it must be repeated before each noun Ex. Sans crainte ni pudeur, sans force ni vertu, without fear or shame, without power or virtue. Elle y est allee sans pere et sans mari, she went there without father and husband. Sans la crainte de Voffenser, je Vaurais fait, without the fear of offending him, I would have done it. When followed by a verb, sans requires an additional que, unless it be .in the infinitive, which being a noun requires no conjunction. Ex. Sans que la France meritdt de reproches, without France's deserving any reproach. Jl boit du vin sans y mettre de Veau, he drinks wine without putting any water into it. Avec, also, omits the article, but only Avhen it stands before nouns expressive of moral qualities, with which it forms an adverb. Ex. B ne poitrra s'en tirer avec honneur, he will not be able to * get out of it honorably. 244: ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. On petit (outfaire aiec de Vargent, one can do every thing with money. Par, also, can be used -without an article iu adverbial expres- sions, and when it is followed by a noun taken in a partitive sense. • Ex. On fait plus pur la douceur que par la force, one can do more by gentleness than by violence. ll voulut mi /< prendre par force, he wanted to take it forcibly from me. Ctx pauvrea gens rnouraient ur are the three principal prepositions in use with the infinitive of verba, and present some difficulty in their use, as they do not always correspond to like expressions in English. It lias already been explained, that the English word to is by no mean.- always a preposition, but roost frequently nothing more than a nine sign of the verbal character of the verb-word, when it remains, of course, untranslated. Never- theless, it baa also the meanings of In order to, For the purpose of, ••!'•.. and in BUCh cases it baa to be translated by the proper preposition in French, /',.„,• repi the sense of In order to, and is also need after all expressions, noun-, adjectives or adverbs, which convey the idea of sufficiency. Ex. Silt >■ pour vou8 /aire pktitir, she has done , pleasure. tela snjnit pour U payer/ Is thai enough to pay him .' II Hi asm Bitty rfait celt* bivue t be is simple enough to have made that blonder. .1 expresses always more or less distinctly the end or purpose, an 1 frequently, as ha- been stated elsewhere, gives a passive signification to Be verb it pn ■ i; v /■/ • bon a manger ou a quoi tert-ilt Is this ..i « bal i- it good for \ PREPOSITIONS. 245 C'est une chose qui est beaucoup a craindre, that is a thing much to be feared. It is also used after words with a superlative meaning. Ex. Je crois que fetais le premier a vous le dire, I believe T was the first to tell you. De is used in all other cases not thus provided for, except after verbs which are used without any preposition, like verbs of motion, etc. Ex. Elle est impatiente de revoir set patrie, she is impatient to see her country again. II est notre devoir de venir a son secours, it is our duty to come to his aid. When an infinitive is tbe object of another verb, de is placed before it as direct object, and a, when it is the indirect object. Ex. H ne ml a pas etc permis de la revoir, I have not been per- mitted to see her again. Je Vai invite a venir nous voir, I have invited him to come and see us. As a matter of reference, lists of those verbs are given here, which require either no prp.nosition at all before an infinitive or such as differ from those used in Eno-lish. VERBS USED WITHOUT PREPOSITION. Affirmer to affirm daigner to deign aimer mieux to prefer declarer to declare alter to go deposer to bear witi apercevoir to perceive desirer to wish assurer to assure devoir to owe avouer to confess ecouter to listen to compter to intend entendre to hear confesser to confess envover to send considerer to behold ipier to spy courir to run esperer to hope eroire to believe faire to make 246 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. falloir ftimagin&i luisser mener nier vbsercer oser emir paraUre penser [>r'tt ndre 8'ilJJU ';,' /• de met de to be necessary to imagine to allow, to suffer to lead to deny t<> observe to dare to hear to appear to imagine to be al>le to pretend to prefer t<> pro! to pub! to remember rapport* r reconnoitre regarder retourner re emir $>nh< liter aoutenir temoigner se trotie.r toloir tnit nx m n ir roir vouiotr" to report to acknowledge to look at to return to ccme back to know to seem to feel to wish to maintain to testify to bappen to be to be I) tier to come to see to be willing •wnu it BBQjOIBfl de BSFOKB .VN INFINITIVE. to accuse of ft to grieve at de to leave off grieved at t dSeetpfn r th- ru warn ^ to take into one's d.'t ■urn, r dt i bead '•' im t de ■ nir de to blame ■ ■ f.-r to char real t.i 000 ■ ■ "un- to cball to m.i'v off sc f : r de M TH08H l.isil : to praifi to grieve tor to slander to hum rust to gi ■ to pride in to profit by i to bi / at to thank for cant < to remember to In r at to blnsfa at upon d to be offended ut t informer dc to inquire af rveai toenjo; r ir de PREPC ►SITIONS. 249 se saucier tie to care for rto call, to give tlie souffrir de to suffer by traiter de } title of se souvenir de to remember user de to use subsister de to live upon Aboutir d to end in pourvoir d to provide for compatir d to sympathize with preluder d to prelude contrevenir d to infringe prendre garde d to take care of convenir d to suit proceder d to set about deplaire d to displease remedier a to remedy deroger d to derogate from resister d to resist desobeir d to disobey ressembler d to look like ecliapper d to escape from songer d to think of excetter d to excel in subvenir d to relieve manquer d to fail in succeder d to succeed nuire d to prejudice suffire d to be sufficient for obeir d to obey survivre d to survive obi'ur d to obviate tenir d not to give up pardonner a to pardon tirer d to shoot, to fire at parvenir a to attain iravaiUer d to work about penser d to think of viser d to aim at plaire d to please The following verbs may be used with or without the pre- position a before nouns and pronouns. applaudir to applaud persuader to persuade insulter to insult satisfaire to satisfy A few others are used with de or with h, according to the meaning which is given to them. Exercise. We would have prevented them from doing that, but we came too late, and when we tried to persuade them to desist, they replied, that it was no longer in their power to undo their work. Why do you not teach your children to speak French ? it is useful to know at least one other language besides our own, and it helps much in learning to 250 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. understand the latter. She has been trying to imitate the voice of that celebrate! singer, ever since she heard her sing in London ; but in vain, for her voice is not strong enough to do what the other did without making an effort. Would it not l>e better for you and your children to lay up some money, so that, when you begin to grow old, you may feel secure against want"? I would advise you earnestly to follow his counsel, and to do what you want to do at once, fur delay is seldom useful in bringing better knowledge. His wife was a charming woman ; she was beloved and esteemed by all who knew her, whilst he was detested, and finally killed, by one whom he had instilled grievously, in a dueL You say yon are in want of money enough to go on with your enterprise : i will think of it whilst going to town, and when I return 1 will let you know what I have determined to do fin v. i. If yon can do without your new dresses, it would be better far yoo I want all the money you bave to pay the doctor's bill, and to provide for the winter. Sin- has survived all In r relations and even her grandchildren: i; entirely alone, bat she bears it very v/efl, and does not complain of her lot. If it suit* _vi»u. 1 wish yon would come aud dine with us to-morrow; we have VOU will enjoy, I am sure, and you will thank ns for bavins Invited yon to met I CHAPTEB VIII. IONS. Coninnctioi r name from the fact that they serve to join • t i,,. v ,l,, ;• til OQghtS, nor the thoughts thei important on that a. count. Their principal purp* manner in ■ other, and thai, in je, to build up tli. ,; from i,s different Conjunctions, according to thi ir form, are stinpfe. when they : tea no other poi CONJUNCTIONS. 251 et, ou, ni, mais, si, car, etc. Some of these arc 11 ore precisely used in French than in English. Thus in English for serves aa a preposition as well as a conjunction, while in French each has a separate form.' Ex. He has done it for your satisfaction and mine, U Vafait pour votre satisfaction et la mienne. He has done it, for you wished it, il Pa fait car vous le desiriez. The English then sometimes refers to time, meaning at that time, and sometimes to a conclusion, meaning therefore ; the French has again one form for the adverb and another for the conjunction. Ex. It was then that he lost his right arm, c'etait alors qu'il perdit le bras droit. It was then your sister whom you took for me ? Cetait done votre sceur que vous prites pour moi ? Compound conjunctions consist of several words taken from other parts of speech, and have only this in common — that, with very few exceptions, like par consequent, etc., they are invariably connected with que. Such are puisque, parceque, a moins que, pourvu que, etc. Conjunctions, according to their signification, differ as much as the manner of thinking may differ in the human mind, limited only by the permanent and fixed laws of Logic. It will be borne in mind, here, that in French a conjunction — at least que — is absolutely necessary, whenever two verbs are placed in connection with each other. This is not the case in English, where the two verbs, and consequently two distinct ideas, may be simply placed side by side, without a conjunction, and it is left to the mind to supply the nature of the connec- tion. Ex. I know you tell me the truth and nothing more,^ sais que vous me dites la verite et rien de plus. 252 UN THE PABTS OF A SENTENCE. He said he would come to take leave, il dit qvfil vien- drait prendre conn*.. When she heard he had gone she burst into tears, quand elle apprlt qu'ilfut parti tile cclata en larmes. It has also been stated that certain conjunctions require the jo. lowing verb to be in the subjunctive mood, from the peculiar meaning which attaches to them. Ex. -1 mains que rous ne soyez bicn riche, unless you should be extremely rich. J' ii consent pourvu quil le/asse lui-mime, I agree to it provided he does it himself. The conjunctions < /, ok, ni and ntrit, arc frequently repeated before two parts of i which are represented as united i other. Ex. Ei U /•-'/•' ei h :" ' pentit t both rather and son have been i Soil be it from contempt or from i ored bim. ( Mli.r COnjunctiOl a i, bol only in the form of ',■'■• which thos i an ei. Ex, /. /""/', when I saw ' croyaieptu, as he maintained it and 1 did not believe it. SU - tn d e j e ute e'est que cela t What is that ? Que is used for the relative after definitions of time. Ex. Le jour qu'il naquit, sa mire mourul, on the you. Wait until he comes. uadfl instead of puisque. J '- x - '■ point t What i* the matter with you that you do t ■< >t ea1 .' . in exclamations, i> need as a substitute for the veil, itr,\ I by 'i'ii. W li:it a splendid ity that lady i- ! What a fool that man is! •. ami MM que. in phrases like the fallen . this will not end utiles In- C< | u lui il m soil venu, she will be gono before he has i o 11 "' ■ ■ !■■ cannot go out with- out catching INTERJECTIONS. 255 CHAPTER IX. INTERJECTIONS. Interjections have their name from the fact that they arc thrown in, as it were, between other words for the purpose of giving expression, not to our thoughts, like other words, but to our feelings. They are naturally mere particles of words or appeals to higher beings, — indeclinable because they have no relation whatever to other words, and most liable, of all parts of speech, to be mutilated and corrupted by the effect of strong- feelings, under which alone they are used. Grief is expressed by ah ! aie ! ouf I ahif kef helasf Ex. Ah! que cela me fait mail Oh, how that hurts! Ouf,je n\j puis plus ! J'etouffe! Oh! I cannot stand it any longer. I am stifled ! Helas ! II est mart, et nous sommes orphelins ! Alas ! he is dead, and we are orphans. Joy is expressed by ah ! bon ! Ex. Ah ! que je suis heureux de vous revoir ! Ah! how happy I am to see you again ! Fear is expressed by all ! hi ! Ex. Hi ! Qu'ai-je fait ? Je Vai casse ! Alas ! what have I done ! I have broken it ! Disgust is expressed hjfi!fi done ! Ex. Fi done ! Vous ne devriez pas faire cela ! Fie ! You ought not to do that. Encouragement is expressed by ho ! pet ca ! allons ! Ex. Ho! AVattaque! Vous allez vaincre ! Up! Attack them ! You will be victorious ! 256 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Warning is expressed by kola/ keinf oh! Ex. Hola ! Prenez garde! Vous allez tomber ! Lookout! Take care ! You will fall ! Silencing is expressed by chut! st ! Ex. Chut! Ne parlez pas si haut ! Hush! Don't speak so loud! Among the compound interjections are those appeals to God, etc., which have been mentioned, like Grand Dieu ! Dieu de dieu! Sainte Vierge! and those words which, in certain combinations, are used as interjections, as ton', beau/ gently — alkmsferme .' be linn — doucement, not so fast, etc. r :l k B .> i> iPJel?