\ 608 >py 1 OSSES TO WHEAT What to Look For and Where to Find It Being one of a series of articles in relation to crops, their common diseases, and insect pests to which they are subject Published by HAIL DEPARTMENT Western Adjustment & Inspection Go. CHICAGO LOSSES TO WHEAT LOSSES TO WHEAT AVhat to I^ook For and Where to Find It Beiii^' one of a series of articles in relation to crops, their common diseases, and insect pests to which they are subject PublislK-d by HAIL DEPARTMENT Western Adjustment & Inspection Co. CHICAGO w N^ Copyright, 1919. W. E. Mariner )CLA511872 StiombeiK. Allen & Co., Chicago. Printers WHEAT This indisiiensahle world-supporting cereal — its nature and spei-ial characteristics. "Now a wise man is one who understands himself well enoutih to make due allowance for unseen moods and varieties, never concluding that a thing is thus, or tims, because just now it bears that look." — Bushnell. INTRODUCTORY Wheat is oue of the oldest food-producing crops with which we are familiar. For hundreds of years its culture and production have heen known to and depended upon by mankind. The nourishing food derived from this cereal is prac- tically indispensable and has been the statf of life for generations. It tided the "cave-man" over when his trusty war club or his si)ecially selected "rock missiles" failed to bring down a su])ply of meat and today it is still the most essential article of diet on the world's menu. The origin of wheat is shrouded in the haze of antiquity, but most likely wheat is a development of certain wild grasses, the descendants of which are yet found in the old countries, for example, wild barley, wild emmer, and certain so-called wild wheats. The earliest written documents refer to wheat, and many biblical references allude to yields of wheat beyond that hoped for by the average grower of today. In the time of Abraham and Isaac we find it recorded that Isaac sowed; and reai:>ed an hundred fold, and, as it has been quite definitely established that the measure of grain sown then and that sown at the i)resent time are identical, Isaac har- vested the very satisfactory yield of 100 to 150 bushels per acre. The parable of the Sower refers to yields of thirty, sixty, and even an hundred fold, and Pliny and Varro refer to yields at Byzantium as one hundred and one hundred and fifty fold, or 150 to '200 bushels i)er acre. This almost in- credible yield, nevertheless, is verified by various other testimonies. It would therefore seem that even with our knowledge of seed selection and soil bacteria and fungi, of which the ancients knew little, we are yet behind them in soil selection, testing and treating, crop rotation, seed-bed preparation, drainage, and general soil improvement. . Possibly this is because the American farmer, having been compelled to put forth so much effort in a fight against harmful insects and parasitic fungi, has not found time for the careful study given these topics by the ancients. f/:'* ... . ,M. . ^^ M r. . — ^ --^^ ^ -t^ . " rr <-i— ^ _ ^ ^ Y, — — — X 7- 'Z; "' r^ ^ bL C — S^ c t-t-cl fa g 5. •-■^'- K o ^ ~ ~ •x £ -i t^ x-S'^ :, c-" « > Ticulture. It has ranked as a destructive species for more than a centnry and has been identified everywhere tliat wlieat is grown. Tlie adult is a small, two-winged, mosqnito-like fly. The DAMAdE BY THE HESSIAN FLY Straws in this condition do not require a hailstorm to break them down; a light wind is all that is necessary. females of the species deposit their eggs on the upper sur- faces of the wlieat blades early in autumn. In a few days the larva hatches and descends the leaf to the base of the sheath, where it attaches itself, head downward, to the stalk, and proceeds to absorb the life sap of the plants. As the plant grows the larva becomes imbedded in the stalk, where it remains stationary. When full-grown (which occurs in three or four weeks from the time of hatching) the larva is a soft, white, footless maggot. Its outer skin then becomes hard and brown, and se])arates from the rest of the body, although it still sur- rounds the latter, forming a sort of cocoon, oi", as it is more correctly called, i)ui)ariuni, within which the insect 12 WHEAT AND THE HESSIAN FLY Explanation of plate. 1. Healthy wheat plant. 2. Plant infested with larvae of Hessian fly. 3. Eggs of fly, greatly enlarged. 4. Eggs of fly on section of wheat blade. 5. Lar- vae of Hessian fly, enlarged. 6. Puparium or "flaxseed" of Hessian fly, enlarged. 7. Culm of straw removed to show "flaxseed"' at the joint, about natural size. 8. Female Hessian fly, enlarged. 9. Male Hessian fly, enlarged. 13 <'liaiii>es to a pniia. This is tlie flaxseed stage. 'I'lic winter is usually ])assed in this condition, and in si)ring the flies emerge from the flaxseeds to lay eggs for another hrood. 14 The larvae of tlie yoiini>- l)rood attack the young' wlieat plants just above the roots, between the stalk and sheath ini^' base of the leaf. The spring generation, however, is formed a lit- tle higher up, and is n snail y fonnd near the lowest ])oint of the wheat, bnt may be variously located from below tlie ground line up to the third joint. The second generation comi)letes its transformations before harvest, and there is often, at least as far north as latitude 40°, a third brood, which develops during summer in volunteer wheat. The chief damage, however, is done by the fall and spring- broods. Chinch Bug There are two principal species of chinch bugs, one which breeds chiefly in wheat, and the other almost wholly in corn. Passing the winter usually in clumps of bunch grass and similar clump-forming grasses, the chinch bugs begin to ai)itear with the coming of warm weather, and continue to come out with uncertain rapidity, depending upon the weather, until all are in action. Cold days put a temporary halt to this migration, but it is resumed as soon as the temperature moderates. During the period of spring migra- tion the bugs may travel considerable distances — just how far there are no conclusive data to show. Observation indi- cates that they make their way to the nearest wheat or barley field and that they do not travel farther than is necessary to secure a sufticient supply of food. Here, thrusting their beaks into the tissues of tender plants, they break their long winter fast. About three weeks after the first spring migration is noticed the eggs begin to appear. They are deposited in cracks and crevices of the ground, mainly on or near the stems and roots of the x^l^^ts, but sometimes widely removed from all plants. They are also often thrust in directly between the leaf sheaths and stems of the plants. In fact, the location of the eggs appears to vary with any factor that affects the distribution of the bugs. Where tlie bugs find food plentiful and conditions to their liking, they congregate, and there the eggs are laid. The egg is a tiny, oval, reddish object about .03 inch long and one-fifth as wide. 15 y. X y< - 16 One end is blunt and bears four small, rounded lumps near the center. ^ The dingy or gTayish-blaek chinch bug is easily recoo- nized by the fact that the white ])arts of its wings are >sc) THE CHINCH BUG. 1, Larva; 2, ,3, 4, 5, and 6, various sizes, enlarged. A and B. Showing hues on stalks. arraii.ii'ed tliat wlien tlie wind's are folded it appears to be branded witli a white X-sliai)ed mark. With tlie ripening- of wheat, the ehincli ))ni>s, only a few of which have readied tbe adult stage, mnst seek food else- where or starve. If the grain tields are weedy and grassy, they ()l)tain food from the grasses, but when compelled by hunger to leave, they transfer their activities to the nearest corn, cane, or millet tield. The time of migration generally depends on the food snpi)ly, but begins when the wheat ripens or is cut. The bugs avoid traveling during the heat of the day, confining their movements to a few hours during the evening. Where spring and winter wheat are grown in the same region, these bugs will more often destroy the former, probably because spring-grown grain is exposed for a longer time to pest attack before it is harvested. The Small Stalk Borer This well-known caterpillar, often called the heart- worm because of the character of the injury it does, may be at once identified by the peculiar break in the striping of the body at the middle. The cateri)illar is about an inch long THE SMALL STALK BORER. when full grown. Its general color varies from i)uri)lish to whitish lu'own, according to age, and it is marked with five white strii)es, one running down the middle of the back and two (m each side. These side stripes are interruj)ted, being absent on the first segments of the abdomen, giving the h\rva the appearance of having been ])inched or injured tliere. The stripes nearly vanish as the larva matures. 'I'he head and top of the neck and the leathery anal shield a1 the oi)posite end of the body are light reddish yellow witli a black stripe on each side. 18 The presence of tlie stalk borer in a young stalk of grain is very clearly indicated by the wilting, breaking down, and death of the top and b}^ the presence of a round hole in the side of the stalk. It infests a great variety of plants. The damage it does is most noticeable in early spring in blue grass by roadsides or around the borders of a field, its presence being indicated by the whitening of single heads of the grass while all the rest of the plant is green. At this time it is of small size and finds sufficient food within the grass stem. The furrow which it makes within the stem runs upward from the entrance opening and of course varies in size with the growth of the larva. Sometimes in leaving a stalk, the larva makes a new hole above that by which it entered, and in this way may injure in succession several dififerent stalks and various kinds of plants. It is ])ractically indifferent as to the kind of jilants it feeds u])on, the only necessary condition being a relatively thick stem, soft enough to allow it to enter and feed freely within. In the small grains and larger grasses, like oats, barley, and rye, it makes its presence manifest by killing or even cutting off the stem within, thus causing the head and the whole ])lant above the injury to turn white and eventually to dry u]). The stalk borer is only one of several insects which produce this general effect, but the injur}^ it does may be at once distinguished by the round hole which it leaves in the stem of the infested plant. The stalk borer is found throughout the United States and Canada, east of the Rocky Mountains. The caterpillar when full grown i)upates, as a rule, within its last furrow, comm.only below the opening at which it entered, seemingly as a precaution against destruc- tion by the withering and breaking away of the upper i)art of the injured plant. The pupa is light mahogany brown and about three-fourths of an inch in length. From the pupa emerges the fawn-gray or mouse-colored moth. There is but one brood a year, and by the end of June the caterpillars are over half grown. They have then nearly all left the grasses in which they made their start and entered the thicker-stemmed plants. They live in this stage until late in July, when reproduction begins. 19 The Wheat-Bulb Worm or Wheat-Stem Maggot 'I'liis insect lias attracted attention only during eoni- |)arati\'ely recent years. Most wheat growers have never heard of it, and are therefore inclined to ])lace the l)lanie for its depredations on some other insect, or to assert tliat tlie damage sustained was caused by hail, The adult is a liandsome two-winged tly having two longitudinal yellowish stri})es along its back. The females dei)osit eggs in the fall on the young wheat ])lants. usually THE WHEAT BULB WORM CHEATLY ENLAKCIED one on a plant, and the eggs remain there through the winter, tlie young a})i)earing in si)ring. Tliey are then foot- less larvae, or worms which a fortnigiit later emerge as flies. After mating, the female flies of this second brood deposit eggs for larvae, wliich work into the straw just above the top joint, thus cutting off the sap sui)]>ly from tlie heads, causing white heads or baki heads. ^riiese heads often break over above the bull) exactly as if struck by a hailstone. If the insects have left the ])lant and the grower still ))elieves the damage is that caused by hail, the mass of finely chewed pulp left behind in the straw by the ])ests should be sufficiently convincing evidence to the contrary. 20 The work of these insects is somewliat different from that of the Hessian fly and the straw worm. In the ease of the Hessian fly, the maggot is nsually found between the third joint and the gronnd line, while the straw worm is WHEAT-BULB WORM Wheat straw showinfr the bulb worm. fonnd in the pithy tissues within the stem, and below the top joint. The wheat-stem maggot is always fonnd jnst above the head joint on or in the stem. The larvae ('om])lete their metamorphosis during July, when they are on the wing as flies. Early in July eggs are 21 de]>osile(l l)y lliis tliird l)r()o(l of flies on volunteer wlieat, and the transformation of tliese is coni})leted in time for the adults to lay their eggs in fall wheat. There are there- fore three broods each season. This insect l)reeds in oats and various grasses as well as in wheat. The Wheat-Straw Worm or Joint Worm There are two generations of this insect annually, both of which are destructive. To the observer the adults look like shining black ants, some with, others without, wings; their legs are banded with yellow and they have red eyes. They are about i of an inch long, most of them being females and wingless. These females of the first generation de])osit their eggs in young wheat i)lants when the stems of the plants extend but little above the surface of the ground. The egg is placed in or just below the wlieat head, and the larva, or worm, works within the stem, usually causing a slight enlargement. When the worm is fully grown it Vill be found in the crown of the plant, having eaten out and totally destroyed the embryonic head, its body occu]W- ing the cavity thus formed. The larva, or worm, is of a very light straw color, almost white, with brown jaws. In May, June, or July (de])ending on location) the larvae ^€M II *"**'^^^'''v ^>-\ \5^^^W'-^^^— *- LARVA OF WHEAT-STRAW WORM, OREATLEY EXLARC;ED becoiiic I'lill gi-()\vii and ])ass at once through a short ])npal stage. The i)ui)ae are at first the same coh)r as the hii'vae, latei' changing to a jet l)lack. ill a few days the fully developed insect gnaws a cir- cular hole through the stems and makes its way out, and tliis second adult deposits its eggs, usually in the second 22 joint below the liead. The larvae from these eggs are the ones found in the plant and can be located in the straw always below the upper joint, generally above or below the second joint. Both the work of the spring brood in fall wheat and that of the summer brood in spring and winter wheats are Pi ^^ I I 'W"^i\\'M\ WHEAT STRAWS INJURED BY STRAW WORM so carried on that the planter does not know of his loss un- less it amounts to a very large percentage of the cro]), and then he may attribute it to some other cause. The wheat-straw worm is capable of doing great injury to wheat crops in the West and Northwest. Its work is of such a nature that it passes unobserved unless an attack of unusual severity causes the farmer to scrutinize his tields 23 more closely than usual. Generally tlie injury is not noticed until about harvest time, when the stalks often begin to break over and many white heads ai)])ear in the field. This condition very closely resembles that of Hessian fly loss and is often confused therewith. The wheat-straw worm is closely related to the wheat joint worm, and as their appearance, history, and life cycle and depredations are so nearly identical, they are usually considered as synonymous. The Wheat Midge This insect is often confused with the Hessian fly, to which it is closely related, but its operations are confined entirely to the wheat heads. The adult is a yellow or orange-colored fly and lays its eggs in the wheat heads almost as soon as their protect- ing sheath unfolds. These eggs quickly hatch into footless maggots, which destroy the kernels as they are filling Becoming full grown within three weeks, they leave the wheat heads, entering the ground, where they pupate. Late- ripening wheats are most susceptible to injury from this source. The wheat midge also breeds in barley, oats, and rye, but there is but one brood a year. The Army Worm and Wheat-Head Army Worm The army worm is hatched from eggs laid by a hand- some brown moth which is about 1^ inches across the out- stretched wings, and, when full grown, is a smooth, greenish or brownish striped cater])illar, something over an inch long. In this form it feeds on small grains and even grasses. Ordinarily the army worms are unnoticed, as they re- main concealed about the base of grain, where they feed undisturbed. They have many enemies with which to con- tend; otherwise they would, doubtless, be more destructive 1lian at i>resent. They are the prey of birds and parasites and are frecpiently the victims of a bacterial disease which sometimes ahuost swee])s them out of existence. In a sea- son, however, when their natural enemies do not seriously attack them, they appear in countless armies, and the 24 THE ARMY WORM, WITH PUPAE, MOTH, AND EGG 25 destruction l)e,<>ins, all grains and grasses in their path being wholly devoured by them. The name is derived from the caterpillars' habit of tra\'eling in countless numbers, like an army on the march. 'I'hey seldom go around an object, but crawl straight over, climbing houses, farm implements, standing automobiles, or any other obstruction. They were very numerous in western Kansas and Nebraska in 1918. The wheat-head army worm is of the same general a]^pearance as the well-known army worm, but the injury /Ipni /^ay. (June. Julj. AujjUSt. September. October. 10 3.0 3 Mo 10 xo Z tk , ic to 3 10 iO 3 lb 10 3 10 10 3 ° w zo 3 Puf>a %5 , Pup ■a, LIFE CYCLE OF WHEAT-HEAD ARMY WORM caused is different. The larvae gnaw into the heads of wheat, rye, and other small grains, timothy, and even some of the wild grasses, and are frequently found working in the head or resting on the stem just below it. They begin to feed at the bottom of the head and work ujoward, some- timey eating only one side, or even less than that, some- times taking all but the stenu Badly injured tields a|)])ear dry and brown, and the denuded wheat heads are conspicu- ous, even at some little distance. Flea Beetles or the several siiecies of Ihe beetle family, but one has been found that seriously injures small grain. This is 26 known as the flea beetle. It is about one-tenth of an mch long', oval, and plain brown. It feeds principally on grass and grain, but has done some serious injury to corn and has also damaged sugar-beets. Wheat and oats are its princi- ])al foods. The species is generally distributed over the United States east of the Rocky Mountains, and is also reported from Montana, Utah, and California. The beetles do not eat holes in the leaves of the grain; they simply gnaw out the tissues from beneath, leaving the veins and upper sur- THE FLEA BEETLE. ((ireaily enlarged ) Sometimes called the corn flea beetle. The injury it does in the Middle West is confined largely to the small grains, although it often bears the name of "corn flea beetle." face untouched. The greatest damage they do is the severe injury to barley, the leaves of which they eat out in narrow channels. The larva breeds ui)on the roots of the plant. The worst injuries are done on low lands and near the win- ter shelters of the beetles. The beetles winter over and are abundant in May, when they pair. They generally lay their eggs by the first of July, but a new brood comes out in the latter part of the month, becoming abundant in August and continuing until the close of the season. The injury done to 27 small liTain is ]»rhi('i|)ally in early summer, sliortly after tlie beetles eome out of their winter (]uarters. The Grain Aphis or Louse There are two kinds of lioe which occasionally canse considerable loss to grain, but their attacks have fortu- nately been infrequent. The names most commonly applied are "wheat louse," given to a brownish a]:>his, and "green bug," name being derived from the color. The Wheat Louse This is a small brownish insect, with or without wings, wliich, when ])resent, can be found in countless numl)ers on THE WHEAT LOUSE ((ireatlj enlaitred) These are either brown or green wheat, oats, and other plants. It is a sucking insect, having a ])ointed beak which is inserted into the ])lant, and it lives u])on the sa]) of the stalk, leaves, or embryonic head. As the gi-ain rij)ens, the h)use deserts it for greener, more succukMit vegetation. It l)rings foi'th living young and is most prolitic. It is estimated that one h)use may become the i)rogenitor of millions between si)i'ing and autunm. Were it not for the count h\ss natui-al enemies that devour them, they would constitute a most a harming menace. No other means of in-e- veuting them from o\-ei-ruuuing the fields every year has been discovered. 28 The Green Bug In some localities wheat has frequently been damaged to such an extent as to make growing it unprofitable. When wheat is green and beginning to cover the ground, the infestation by green bugs generally l)e('omes conspicuous in "spots," i. e., small areas from '2 or o feet to 50 or 100 feet in diameter where the plants will begin to turn yellow. Death of the plants generally begins at the center of these circles and extends outward. Sometimes tlie "spots" become confluent, and meet each other. Such conditions as the coming together of these spots indicate tliat the i)lanted cro]) will not be successful, and some other planting sliould be substituted. After the seed bed is pre- ])ared, any other crop except barley, rye, or oats may be safe. The green bugs in an infested field are most numerous around the border of the "spots." They leave tlie dying l)lants and move out to the edge of the green wheat. One week is the average time required for the green l)ug to become full grown. iVt this age it begins to bring- forth its young alive. The average tenure of life, in sum- mer, is thirty-six days. Some Ways of Identifying the Green Bug Examine wheat for small green lice. If they are found congregated in large numbers, ten to fifteen on a single leaf of wheat, it is almost safe to conclude tluit the de])re- dator is the green bug. Look for the winged forms of the lice. Four wings will be ])resent, and when not in action will have the ujjper edges together, while the lower edges will be each side of the body in the shape of an ordinary gable roof. Remove and examine one of the front wings closely, ()bser^'e a large vein extending from the base of the wing to near the tip end. From tliis vein four narrow veins arise. One of them is definitely Y-shai)ed in the green bug. The two branches of the 's. A, B, C, and D are the rust bearing clusters. A'alley, or in h)W lands sucli as the gently rolling sections of North Dakota. Rust eats into the joints of the wheat, occasionally caus- ing entire fields to break over at the joints. This situa- tion is sometimes attributed to hail damage, but as hail never eats out the joint nor breaks a stalk at its normally 44 strongest point, that theory of the mismformed should be easily refuted. As the heads of rnsted wheat at first s'lanee sometimes EFFECTS OF RUST ON WHEAT. No grain whatever in these heads. appear to be at least i)artly tilled, that condition may be very misleading as respects a real loss caused by hail. Red or orange rust is more frequently encountered than is black rust, and is ordinarily much less destructive. It is ])lainly visible on the plant, as its reddish color easily identi- fies it. On walking through a slightly infected field, it will be found that one's clothing is noticeably colored with this rust. Smuts of Wheat There are two common smuts of wheat. The loose smut is sometimes called ''blackheads," and the covered smut is called "bunt" or "stinking smut." Stinking Smut Stinking smut forms a hard smut-mass — the snnit-l^all — where each kernel ought to be. These smut-balls remain inside the sheath, in the same position that the kernels would occupy if the head were healthy. The chaff on smutted heads is usually lighter in color and spreads far- ther apart than in healthy heads. The smut has a distinct odor, like that of decaying fish. The smut-mass, then, is hard and must be broken up l)efore the spores can be very widely scattered. This break- ing is done in the handling of the grain in the field, or at 45 threshing time. The spores aclliere to the outside of the kernels and remain there all winter. When the grain ger- minates in the spring, the si)ores also germinate, the smut STINKING SMUT Healthy head, and diseased head with smut balls removed. entering the stem-tip after it comes out of the kernel. It lives in and grows with the developing berry until shortly before harvest time, when it produces smut-balls where the kernels should be. Loose Smut Of the two wheat stuuts, the loose smut usually a])pears earlier in the season. It turns the entire wheat head, in- eluding Ihe chaff, into a ])Owdery mass, which is soon blown away by the wind, k'aviiig only the bare stalk with a little clinging smut -dust. This takes ])lace at tlie time the grain is in tlower. The 46 smut dust lodges in the sheath and sends out a germ-thread which enters into the young wheat kernel and remains there without changing the appearance of the wheat. The next spring, when the grain germinates, the smut- LOOSE SMUT Heads have turned to a fine powdery mass of smut and blown away. threads in the kernel begin to grow also, invading the stem- tip even before it pushes out of the kernel, growing along inside this stem-growing point, and, at heading-out-time; again changing the head into a mass of smut-powder. 47 PART THREE -CONTRIBUTING CAUSES Knowledge of the elementary ])rin('ii)les of scieiiliHc farming is essential to the snceessfnl conduct of any busi- ness which deals with farming or husbandry. Grasshopper, Jack Rabbit and Gopher Loss There are three quite common causes for hail-loss claims in some sections each season, namely — grasshoppers, jack rabbits, and gophers, or ground squirrels. WHEAT DAMACiE 1. Grasshopper dainafre. 2. (iophor or ground squirrel damage. rabl)it damage to wheat. Jack Each of these pests eats ilie heads of the grain from the stalks. Since an ordinai-y hailstorm will only l)reak it and leave the head hanging, the grower can be shown the fallacy of his hail-loss argument. The grassh()i)])er severs the head, lea\ing a finely serrated edge. The goi)her. or ground 48 49 squirrel, elects to cliew up one side for a half an inch to an inch, sliverini>' the stalk before he finally nips it through. The jack rabbit with his shart) front teeth makes a clean diagonal cut usually above the head joint. To overcome the argument that such condition does not constitute a hail loss and to show anyone how hard grain can be hit without severing the head from the stalk, it is only necessary to throw a good-sized stone down a grain row. This usually topples over several heads, but leaves them hanging to the stalk and the s|)urious contention on that i)oint is prom|)tly cut short. Kinked Heads In certain species of wheat the beards of the heading- grain are often held temporarily by the slowly unfolding foot, which causes the heads to come out sideways, as shown in the accompanying illustration. This disorder is often at- tributed to hail damage, the farmer asserting that the hail has hit the boot and tightened up the sheath so that it does not open properly. This assertion is incorrect, as can be demonstrated ; for in a few days these heads straighten up and fill as completely as others in the field that did not come out in such manner. 50 KINKED HEAD. 51 "Shatter Loss" Beardless ,i>raiii shatters niiieli more easily than bearded wheat. Wind or rain will often cause a consider- able "shatter loss," and many s])nrious hail claims are re- ])orted from this cause. A small hail damage to the stalk MACARONI WHEAT HEADS MARCUS WHEAT HEADS Bearded grain is less subject to shatter loss than are the unprotected beardless heads. and a heavy shattering of the grain from the head cannot consistently be charged to loss by liail. Marcus wheat is most subject to shatter, while macaroni is least atfected. Wherever ])ossible a compromise of loss suffered by the two grains will give a very good estimate as to the actual loss caused by hail. 52 Seed Selection and Seed-Bed Preparation "Nature gave the principle of ,<>eriiiination to seed, the rest of agriculture was left for man to discover." The chief reasons for low production of wheat are : 1. The nse of poor seed. 2. The failure to prepare the soil properly. 3. The fiingns-laden, wheat-sick, or imi)overislied con- dition of the soil, dne to continued wheat planting-. 4. Imi)roper application of fertilizers. Too often the planter sows home-grown seed, without properly screening it, on poorly prepared ground of the average fertility of his acreage ; or perhaps he may make a careful selection of seed, removing the foul weed seeds, and then fail to disinfect it properly, further infesting his land with the various fungi that cause wheat-sickness. In wheat-sick areas or where the seed is badly smut- infected, thorough disinfection and careful grading of seed are absolutely necessary. Even though seed is carefully selected, properly screened, and disinfected, there may still be failure due to one of two causes : Either the seed is drilled into a fungus- infested soil, there to become the food for various bacteria instead of food for man as intended ; or, if the land is free from infection, the planter may have failed to prepare his seed bed properly. The result of an improperly prepared seed bed was most forcefully illustrated in Custer County, Nebraska, in June, 1918. In a certain township visited by a light hail- storm some twenty-odd farmers reported damage to their winter wheat. As the adjacent losses did not exceed 10 per cent, it occasioned some surprise to find upon inspection of one of the fields that the wheat there w^as damaged at least 35 per cent. Its condition was plainly noticeable, even from a distance, the plants having the same general appearance as though they had suffered from a severe hailstorm. A closer inspection, however, told a different story. This farmer had carefully cleaned his seed, for which he had originally paid a fancy price and which doubtless was worth the price paid. So far he had proceeded carefully, but he had plowed the field to a depth of eight inches, and 53 A BASIS ON WHICH CLAIMS ARE FREQUENTLY MADE Wheat on poorlj^ pr(>j)ared soil does not "stool" properly. This grain just beginning to head is so thin and weak that it does not even shade the ground. The stalks are too weak to hold up the heads and fall over as the grain ripens. 54 bad neglected to work the soil into a firm seed bed, the resnlt of which neglect cost a third of the prospective crop yield. The soil was altogether too loose, allowing the mois- ture to escape. In fields adjoining, the wheat had prac- tically recovered following the hailstorm, but his steadily failed. The adjustment was concluded on a basis of 7 per cent damage by hail. A carelessly i)repared seed bed will not hold moisture, and, even under normal conditions, will not retain a suffi- cient quantity properly to mature a crop. If the unusual drain caused by hailed grain — which needs more than the ordinary amount of moisture to aid it in recuperating — is added, the deficiencies become immediately apparent. A proper seed bed is one which is firmly compacted, as water and air must penetrate slowly to nourish the root system properly. To make a uniform growth, the seed must be drilled in at an even depth. Unless the field has been carefully and solidly worked down, all clods broken up and air pockets and loose ashy areas eliminated, the com])ress drills now in use will inevitably force in some of the seeds much deeper than they should be for proper germination. A loose, rough surface is an indication of air pockets below. A seed bed so prepared cannot properly germinate all seed, develop a sturdy root system, stool its plants, or sufficiently nourish them at any stage of their growth. The careful selection and proper treatment of seed wheat have an important bearing on final results, for each particular variety of wheat has its own susceptibility to dis- ease and its own peculiar period of ripening, each of which features may have a very definite and peculiar influence on the crop in a particular neighborhood. If farmers hope to escape the destructive influence of wheat diseases, it is necessary for most of them in a given neighborhood to agree to grow a single variety in order to get uniformity of growth with reference to maturity. When several varieties are grown in the same community, some are sure to be destruc- 65 lively attackcHl by disease, and from siicli attacks ^reat injiii'ies eome to siirroiiiiding- fields, whieli ordinarily would not be so atfected. For example, a variety which rnsts badly and matures early is likely to be most destructive to surrounding- wheat which matures later, even though the later \-ariety may be of a type much more resistant to rust. Winter-wheat growing is antagonistic to spring- wheat pro- duction in the same region. Wheat does not "run out," as is often asserted. It is generally the farmer who runs out by failure to clean and disinfect his wheat properly, to keep up the fertility and purity of his soil, and to prepare the seed bed properly. 56 The careless farmer sows his wheat fields with a mixture of this sort. But the careful farmer removes Tlic chaff. ^%* )^^m\ ^^mj mH^^'*'^ /^m*w ^SK/^^-^ mR|^('^ Si^i^g^^_ 1^^ ^^^ ^V^^A ^[S^£^i>N '^!^^9 jv^SJI^^ w^ *l^#'' The extraneous grains. The Dirt. And the small grains of wheat. Sowing only the large uniform berries. This is Seed Selection. 57 ' ° S tc O C ft-u 2^ ^ :3 o h J3 O ^ -a T3 01 3 W o c 3 c3 2 ■72-^ cS o 01 Si to c O 3 C c3 1^ ^ "S 03 01 a 01 &" o T3 o a 03 X M >i a 2S c a _>;i 3 . ;g s 03 JZ "d a . 03 a O "S c: ^ M 03 i: ■a Is ;4 a'S o £: tS — XI < a a 03 5 1 0) "o 0) 1 > T. ;-( •/I £ O 3 so 03 o "o? TJSC 03 03 5 3 OJ ? o a T3 03 O J3 O « c3 O O a h o s s c fe W 5 S ^ 03 "S 3^ a ~ o c3X -tj -^ ■1 O O m ■ M-i^ O M > f-» »3 03 '^ (D ai 03 o H to CO 2 O C ™ 03 -^ tH to to '^j 03 ^ 3 Sf J^ " ; 3 3 03 O' M 3 ^^ a '5 -73 3 M MS ^ X 75' aj c 03 l_~ :c 03 fa X :sffi -n X!ti P 3; c 02 1-1 5 ■^3 ^■S ii C c3 c3 -i S JiW rt-2 c'o ;5 W savaH anx ojl ssoi ;2 c s -a ""' T3 >> -^ bf o CO o bl 03 >= ^ O O C' ^ -n o c3 01 a ^ o 0) ."2 IS (1; J3 42 56 to C S 2 C OJ W bC ■73 03 2 bC 0) '7 o -s.s fa m n 03 bC -1 -o O o 73 -C .n 03 O 3 y^o T3 OJ 7; o bti c3 O o X "3 c 3 o ;h -a o 3 a 03 S T3 a; & O 1 o £ 3 o Cj 03 Oj ^>' 03 CO t. 0; c' o rn ^ (H « X C . >•. OJ O 7.0 r/7 C/J 03 03 r^ ^^ C C c a ,^ O o O <; H^ l-H h^ 03 Oi o M X ^ o -o "H 2 o 3 o i- bjO 2 O crt crt O 0- Oi k^ k: fe .5.^ o "c o a ? ^ .^ ~ 03 03 03 C —^ O n, £ o a ii -^ o o E C ■^ ti o _o a .£ c fO "o 73 CO -C _i^ ^Tl 03 rn c a C^l 1—1 T3 -! 01 C O 03 0) 01 Q 1^ '^ -< O S^ 6 03^ o £ ?^ 1-1 >^ (O o o3 tj CO = o bCi-) oq 03 c ii « OJ o Pi o ^ Q -n T3 bC 03 OJ > r W X ^ 0) C K-l^ S5nvj.s ox sso'i SXNIOf ox SSOT saAvaT ox SSOl INDEX A Basis on Which Claims Are Frequently Made (Illustration) 54 Army Worm and Wheat-Head Army Worm, The 24 Army Worm with Pupae, Moth and Eggs, The 25 Careless Farming — Practices That Increase Wheat Sickness 40 Chinch Bug 15 Chinch Bug, The, (Illustration) 17 Contrasts (Illustration) 33 Contributing Causes 48 Crinkle Joint or Break-Over Disease (Illustration) 36 Crinkle Joint (Illustration) 36, 37, 38 Cut Worms 30 Damage by the Hessian Fly (Illustration) 12 Disease Enemies 31 Diseases 31 Effect of Black Eust on Wheat 41 Effects of Eust on Wheat (Illustration)... 45 Enemy Insects l-- Flea Beetle, The, (Illustration)..... 27 Flea Beetles 26 Former Breeding Places of Insects (Illustration) If Frontispiece 2 Grain Apis or Louse, The 28 Granulated Cutworm 30 Grasshopper, Jack Eabbit and Gopher Loss 48 Green Bug, The 29 Hessian Fly, The 13 Illustration's Showing Methods of Cleaning Wheat for Seed Selection.... 57 Infected Wheat Stalk (Illustration) 34 Introductory ' Kinked Heads (Illustrated ) 50-51 Larva of Wheat-Straw Worm (Illustration) 22 Life of the Hessian Fly, The, (Illustration) 14 Loose Smut i : 46 47 Macaroni Wheat Heads, Marcus Wheat Heads (Illustration) 52 Eust Breeds on the Barberry Bush (Illustration) 44 Eust Euined Grain (Illustration) 43 Eusts 41 Seed Selection and Seed-Bed Preparation..... S'S "Shatter Loss" 52 Small Stalk Borer, The 18 Smuts of Wheat... 45 Some Ways of Identifying the Green Bug 29 Stem Eust (Illustration) 42 Stinking Smut 45-46 Summary of Losses to Wheat 58-59 West of Todav, The. (Illustration) ^ West of Yesterday, The, (Illustration) f Wheat and the Hessian Fly (Illustration) 13 Wheat-Bulb Worms or Wheat Stem Maggot 20 Wheat-Bulb Worm (Illustration) 21 Wheat Damage (Illustration) - 48 Wheat Field Destroyed bv Grasshoppers (Illustration) 49 Wheat Louse, The ' .. ' 28 Wheat Midge, The 24 Wheat Sickness ^^ AVheat Sick Soil (Illustration) ^ -^2 Wheat-Straw Worm or Joint Worm - "^ Wheat Straws Injured by Straw Worm (Illustration) 23 Winter Quarters of the Chinch Bug (Illustration) 16 61 Education is that training which fits for the duties of Hfe. LIBRfiRY OF CONGRESS ~~ iilliiii II I mil iiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiii 002 816 074 4