sec J.. 3 :0P /, LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. ^'•'^P- Copyright No Slie]£..i^BiOaS _5l3 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2010 with funding from The Library of Congress http://www.archive.org/details/theorypracticeof08page Frontispiece. THEORY AND PRACTICE TEACHING THE MOTIVES AND METHODS OF GOOD SCHOOL KEEPING DAVID P. PAGE EDITED BY E. C. BRANSON GEORGIA STATE NORMAL SCHOOL 3>®^ outshines all other objects. II. TJie pursuit of a prize engenders a spirit of rivalry among the pnpils. Rivalry in pursuit of an object which only one can attain, and which all otJiers must lose, must end in exultation on the part of the winner, and disappointment and envy on the part of the losers. It may be said, this onght not to be so; but seldom can it be said that it is not so. Such is human nature, and such it ever will be. Unpleasant feelings — sometimes concealed, to be sure — but generally ex- pressed in unequivocal terms — grow out of the award of almost every school prize, and sometimes continue to exert their baleful influence through life. Now as long as human nature brings forth unlovely traits almost spontaneously, such direct efforts to cultivate them surely are not called for. It is the part of wisdom, then, to omit such culture and avoid such results, especially when safer means are so accessible. EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY 165 III. The hope of gaining the prize stimulates only the feiv, zvhile the nia^ty become indifferejit. This is ad- mitted to be true even by the advocates of the prize system. Let a prize be offered in any class as a reward for the best scholarship, and in a very few days it becomes perfectly obvious to all who the two or three are that will be likely to outstrip all the others. These two or three will be stimulated to exertion ; but the strife is left entirely to them. All others, despairing of success, resolve at once to "let their moderation be known to all men "; and since the prize has been made so prominent an object, they cannot be expected now to look at anything above and beyond it. Feeling that they are not likely to participate in the honors of the class, they have but little disposition to share in its toils. This to be sure is not always so. There are some who, ceasing to strive for the prize, toil for the more substantial blessing — a good education, — and in the end come out the best scholars. This is the way in- deed most of our strong men are made ; for it has long been remarked that the prize scholars in our schools, and even in our colleges, do not usually become the most distinguished men. On the other hand, many of them are never heard of after receiving their honors. But, though some of the slower scholars do thus hit upon the true path to eminence, it is not to be set to the credit of the system ; they rise in spite of the system rather than by virtue of it, while the ultimate failure of the prize scholars is usually directly attributable to the defect of the system ; for having been unduly stim- ulated to study solely with reference to recitation, and not with regard to future usefulness, their memories have been developed out of all proportion to the other 1 66 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING faculties of their minds; and, though they may have been very good reciters, they have no power to become independent thinkers. Under different training they might have become strong men. But to look no further than the school, the remark holds true in general, that prizes stiimdate the feiv, and the many become ijtdijferent not only to prizes, but to other and better motives. That system of incentives only can be approved which reaches and influences suc- cessfully all the mind subjected to its operation. Nor is this an unimportant consideration. It is not sufficient praise for a teacher that he has a feiv good scholars in his school. Almost any teacher can call out the talent of the active scholars and make them brilliant reciters. The highest merit, however, lies in reaching all the pupils, the dull as well as the active, and in mak- ing the most of them, or rather in leading them to make the most of themselves. It should be remembered of every child, that the present is his only opportunity of being a child, and of receiving the training appropriate to childhood ; and that teacher who rests satisfied with a system that does not reach the many, while he amuses himself and his visitors with the precocity of a few of his most active scholars, is recreant to his responsible trust. IV. There is much difficulty in awarding the prize so as to do strict justice to all. So many things are to be taken into the account in order to determine the excel- lence of a performance compared with others, that some particulars are very likely to be overlooked. Those who are called to judge of the results often disagree among themselves. The following anecdote will illustrate this. Three literary gentlemen were appointed to select the EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY 1 6/ best from several compositions presented by a class, who had written them in competition for a gold medal. Each of the gentlemen carefully read the whole number in private, and conscientiously selected the best accord- ing to his judgment. When they came together to com- pare results, it was found that each man had selected t/ie best, but that no two had selected the same ! They carefully read and compared the three, and still each insisted that his original choice was the best. After much debate and considerable delay, one of the parties being obliged to go to his business, relieved himself from a painful detention, and his friends from a perplexing doubt, by saying he believed the composition he had se- lected ivas the best, but, as he could not stop to claim its rights, he would yield them in favor of the second best in the hands of one of his associates. This ended the dispute, and the action in favor of the successful one was declared to be unanimous ! This only proves how difficult it is to decide ; and in the case just cited, it might well be asked, why should one of these competitors be held up to the multitude to be applauded and admired, and the others sent back to their classes covered with the shame of a failure .? What principle oi justice sanctioned this decision } Nor is this a solitary instance. It rarely happens that the case is perfectly clear. There is usually much per- plexity about it ; and hence one reason why the decision seldom satisfies the friends of the parties either in the school or at home. But other considerations besides the intrinsic merits of the performance are to be taken into account in awarding a prize ; as, I. A dijference in the external facilities which the com- petitors enjoy for getting the lessons. One pupil may be 1 68 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING the son of poverty, and be compelled to labor during all the hours out of school ; another may be in easy circum- stances, and have nothing to prevent giving undivided attention to study during the whole day. One may be the child of parents who have no power to render as- sistance by way of explaining a difficult point ; while the other may have all his doubts removed at once by parental aid. One may never even be encouraged by a kind word at home ; another is constantly urged to effort, and perhaps not allowed to be idle. One may have access to no books but his school manuals ; the other may have at his command a large library. This difference in circumstances should be taken into the ac- count ; but it never can be fully understood by those who are called to decide. 2. The impi'opermeans ivhicJi 7nay have been employed to secure the prize. Ambition when aroused is not al- ways scrupulous of its means. One competitor may be high-minded ; may enter the arena determined to suc- ceed by an honorable strife ; may resolve to succeed by his own exertions, or to fail rather than bring in any- thing which is not the fruit of his own study. Another, regardless of honor or principle, resolves only to succeed, whatever it may cost ; hesitates not to copy from others if possible, or to apply to a brother in college or some friend in the High School to furnish the difficult solu- tion, prepared to order. One young lady spends days and nights in arranging the glowing thoughts for her composition, determined if industry, study, good taste, and a careful application of the rules of rhetoric can effect anything, that her production shall be wortJiy of a prize. Another, in no way distinguished for scholar- ship, industry, or honor, writes a careless letter to a EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY 1 69 married sister in a distant city, invoking her aid. In due time the mail brings an elegant essay. It is copied with sufficient accuracy to be read, and at the examination takes the prize ! The fair ^^ autJioress " stands forth and is flattered before the multitude, — is perhaps made to believe that she is ivoTthy of praise ; she grasps the golden bauble, and, covered with the blushes of modesty, receives the congratulations and caresses of friends, and is afterwards reputed a good scholar. Her competitors meantime become convinced that effort cannot rival genius ; they are mortified to think they have presumed to enter the arena with native talent, and become dis- heartened as to any future attempt. Now where is the justice in all this proceeding } Yet this is not fiction ; it is Jdstory ! If such abuses — abuses that might well make an angel weep, revealing, as they do, that w^oman's heart can be thus sold to de- ception — are the accompaniments of a prize system, may we not well doubt the utility of that system } Yet who can know either the different facilities en- joyed by the competitors, or the want of principle in some of them .'' Who can enter the secret chambers of the mind or the heart, and estimate with any accuracy the just amount of merit in any action .'' This is God's prerogative, while " man looketh only on the outward appearance." My inference then is : A system can hardly be safe whieh is so uncertain. V. The prize rezvards success, not effort ; talent, not WORTH. Every one knows that in estimating the value and virtue of an action, the motive which prompted it, and the effort it necessarily cost, should be taken into the account. Every one knows, too, that success in study is by no means a criterion by which to judge of the I/O THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING merits of the scholar. Some learn their lessons with great facility and with but little effort ; others study long and patiently without any brilliant results. One competitor for a prize may bring results which have cost him midnight toil and the most unremitting per- severance ; another v/ith brighter parts, and with but little labor, is able to surpass him, and takes the medal. Now the former deserves in a far higher degree the encouragement of the reward ; yet it is given to him who has the talent but who lacks the industry. The rule of Scripture which announces that " to whom much is given, of him shall mitch be required,'' is violated, and he is rewarded for producing but little more than the one to whom little is given. It is often urged by those who advocate a system of prizes and rewards, that God rezvards ; and therefore it is at least justifiable that we should imitate his example. I admit that God, in his government, does reward ; but he rewards effort rather than success ; he " looketh upon the heart " as man cannot do, and rewards worth, not talent. We might, indeed, imitate his example, if we had less frailty, and were not so liable to be imposed upon by the outward appearance. God indeed rewards men ; but he estimates the secret intention, seeing the inward springs of thought before they find expression in words or actions. He regards the motive, and holds out for the encouragement of the humblest child of earth, who does the best he can, as rich a crown of glory, as he does for those whose outward circum- stances, in the eyes of mortals, are more auspicious. When man can as wisely and as righteously bestow his prizes and rewards, there will be far less objection to their use. EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY iyi VI. T/ie pupil zvJio studies for a prize as his chief 7notive, will seldom conti7iue to study zvhen the prize is zvithdrazun. This is so obvious as scarcely to need illustration. If it be necessary to add anything to the mere statement of the fact, an appeal to almost uni- versal experience would confirm it. A teacher who has depended upon prizes in a school, finds it very difficult to awaken an interest there when he withdraws the prize. Hence many have, on trying the experiment of abandoning the prize system, become discouraged, and have returned again to the use of prizes, believing them essential to their success. Thus the very argument which shows most clearly their pernicious tendency, is made a reasbn for continuing them. As before hinted, the prize scholars in our academies, and even our col- leges, are seldom distinguished men in after life, — a fact that speaks conclusively on this point. But it can scarcely be necessary to spend words to prove a truth ilmost self-evident. VII. By the prize system, the influence of the good ex- ample of some of the best pupils is lost iipon tJie school. All who have taught know how important this influence is to the success of the school. It tells with resistless power upon the other scholars, wherever it exists, unless some unworthy motive can be assigned for it. But under the prize system, let a teacher appeal to the example of his best scholars, and the reply is, " Oh, yes, he behaves well, or he studies diligently, but he is trying to get the prized With this understanding, his example becomes powerless, unless, indeed, there may be a disposition to be unlike him in everything. It is believed this is a consideration of considerable importance. 172 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING I have thus assigned, at some length, the reasons why I should discountenance, among the incentives of the school, the use of prizes. As to the use of Rezvards^ when they are made so numerous that every one who is really deserving may receive one, — and when the basis of their distribution is not talent, not success merely, but good intention and praiseworthy effort, — I have much less to say. As expressions of the teacher's interest in the children, and of his approval of their welldoing, they may serve a good end. Perhaps there is no very strong objec- tion to them in principle ; though if the teacher sub- jects himself to the necessary outlay in the purchase of them, it may easily become very burdensome to him. I may add, however, that / do not think rewards are necessary to the teacher s success. I should prefer to do without them. It is possible to produce such a feeling in the school- room that the approving conscience of the child and the commendatory smile of the teacher shall be the richest of all rewards. These come without money and with- out price, and may always be freely and safely bestowed, wherever there is a good intention exhibited by the child. That is the most healthy state of things where these are most prized. As children whose parents begin early to hire them to do their duty are seldom ready afterwards to render their cheerful service as an act of filial obligation, when- ever the pay is withheld, — so children at school, who have been accustomed to expect a reward, seldom pur- sue their studies as cheerfully when that expectation is cut off. EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY 1 73 SECTION III. PROPER INCENTIVES In what has already been said, it has been more than hinted that there are higher attributes than emulation, which the teacher should address, and which, if he is successful in calling them into exercise, will be quite sufficient to insure the proper application of his pupils to their studies. They have the merit, moreover, of being safe. They do not unduly stimulate the intel- lectual, at the expense of the moral faculties. Their very exercise constitutes a healthy growth of the moral nature. Some of these I may briefly allude to. I. A DESIRE TO GAIN THE APPROBATION OF THEIR PARENTS AND TEACHER. — The lovc of approbation is as universal in the human mind as emulation. Not one in a thousand can be found who does not possess it. Within proper limits, it is a desirable trait in human character. It is, to be sure, one of the selfish propen- sities ; but among them all, it is the most innocent. Carried to an extreme, it would lead its possessor to crave the good opinion of the bad as well as of the good, and to become an obsequious seeker after popu- larity. This, of course, is to be deprecated. But there can be no danger of this extreme, as long as the appro- bation of paj'ents and teachers is the object aimed at. It implies in the child a respect for the opinions, and a confidence in the justice of his parents and teachers; and hence it implies in him a generous desire to please, as a condition of being commended by them. In this sense, the love of approbation may be ap- pealed to by the teacher. He perhaps need not fre- quently use the language of praise. It will generally be sufficient, if the smile of approval beams forth in 174 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING his countenance. If he is judicious as well as just, this boon soon becomes a precious one to the child. It is a reward, moreover, which "is twice blest ; It blesseth him who gives and him who takes." II. A DESIRE OF ADVANCEMENT. — This is emulation in its good sense. It leads the child, as before re- marked, to compare his present standing and attain- ments with what they should be, and to desire to surpass himself. This is ever commendable. Man was made for progress ; and it is no unworthy aspira- tion, when this desire fires the youthful breast. The teacher, then, may appeal to this desire, may kindle it into a flame even, with safety, — because it is a flame that warms without consuming that on which it feeds. III. A DESIRE TO BE USEFUL. — The good tcachcr should never fail to impress upon the child that the object of his being placed on earth was that he might be of some use to the world by which he is surrounded. '' No man liveth to himself, and no man dieth to him- self." He can be thus useful by storing the mind with knowledge and the heart with right affections. He may be reminded of the connection between his pres- ent studies and the pursuits of life to which they may be applied. Some judicious hint at the future appli- cation of any branch is always a good preparation of the mind to pursue it. If there is a definite object in view, there will always be more alacrity in the labor of study ; and this may be made to influence the young pupil as well as the more advanced. It is no small thing for the child if he can be early made to feel that he is living to some purpose. IV. A DESIRE TO DO RIGHT. — This, in other words, EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY 1 75 is a" disposition to obey conscience by conforming to the will of God. This indeed is the highest and holiest of all the motives to human action. In its fullest sense it constitutes the fundamental principle of a religious character. The teacher should most assiduously cul- tivate in the child a regard for this principle. God has implanted the conscience in every child of earth, that it should early be made use of to regulate the conduct. That teacher is either grossly ignorant or madly perverse, who disregards the conscience, while he appeals alone to the selfishness of the young, and thus practically teaches that moral obligation is a nul- lity ; that the law of God — so beautifully expounded by the Savior — *' Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy mind," and ''Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself" — is of little consequence ; and that the injunction of the apostle — " Whether ye eat or drink, or whatsoever ye do, do all to the glory of God," is as good as obsolete. In early childhood the conscience is most active. It needs, to be sure, at that period to be enlightened ; but if the teachings of Revelation are made plain to the child, he seldom disregards them. The teacher has at this period very much to do, as I have before said in the chapter on Responsibility of Teachers ; and he can- not neglect his duty without the most aggravated cul- pability. The point I urge here, is, that he should use these motives as incentives to study. The child can be made to feel that he owes the most diligent efforts for improvement to his teacher, who daily labors for his improvement ; to his parents, who have kindly supplied, his wants, and have provided the means for his culti- vation ; to society, whose privileges he may enjoy, and 176 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING to which he is bound to make a return by becoming an intelligent and useful member of it; to himself, as a rational and immortal being, capable of unbounded en- joyment or untold misery, just in proportion as he pre- pares himself for either; and above all to his Creator, by whose bounty he lives, surrounded with friends and blessed with opportunities, which are denied to millions of his fellow-beings, — by whose gracious providence he has been endowed with faculties and capabilities making him but little lower than the angels, and which he is bound to cultivate for usefulness and for heaven, — by whose mercy he has been supplied, as millions have not, with the word of God, to guide his mind to things above, and with the influences of Christian so- ciety, to cheer him in his path to heaven ; — above all, I repeat, should the child be taught to feel that he owes to God his best efforts to make the most of all his powers for time and eternity. If this can be done (and I believe to a great extent it can be done), there will be no need of a resort to those questionable incen- tives found in exciting children to outstrip their fellows by prizes and rewards ; while in this very process the foundation of a good moral training will be laid, without which the perfect structure of a noble character can never be reared in later life. To the motives already alluded to, if it be necessary to add another, I would urge, V. The pleasure of acquisition. — This is often underrated by teachers. Our Creator has not more universally bestowed a natural appetite for the food which is necessary for the growth of the body, than he has a mental longing for the food of the mind ; and as he has superadded a sensation of pleasure to the neces- EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY 1 77 sary act of eating, so he has made it a law of the mind to experience its highest dehght while in the act of re- ceiving the mental aliment. Whoever has observed childhood with an attentive eye, must have been im- pressed with the wisdom of God in this arrangement. How 'much the child acquires within the first three years of its birth ! He learns a difficult language with more precision than a well-educated adult foreigner could learn it in the same time ; yet language is not his only or his chief study. During these same three years, he makes surprising advances in general knowledge. He seeks an intimate acquaintance with all the physical objects by which he is surrounded. The size, form, color, weight; temperature, and use of each are investi- gated by the test of his own senses, or ascertained by innumerable inquiries. His ideas of height and dis- tance, of light and heat, of motion and velocity, of cause and effect, are all well defined. He has made no mean attainments in morals. He comprehends the law of right and wrong so that his decisions may well put to the blush his superiors in age ; and unless grossly neglected, he has learned the duty of obedience to parents and reverence toward God. Now all this amazing progress has been made, because of the irre- pressible curiosity with which God has endowed him, and the unspeakable delight he experiences in acquiring the knowledge which gratifies it. All must have noticed the delight with which the child grasps a new idea ; but a few have been able so eloquently to describe it, as it is done by Mr. Mann. "Mark a child," says he, "when a clear, well-defined, vivid conception seizes it. The whole nervous tissue vibrates. Every muscle leaps. Every joint plays. B.-P. THE. & PR. TEACHING — 12 178 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING The face becomes auroral. The spirit flashes through the body Uke lightning through a cloud. '' Observe, too, the blind, the deaf, and the dumb. So strong is their inborn desire for knowledge, — such are the amazing attractive forces of their minds for it, that although the natural inlets, the eye and the ear, are closed, yet they will draw it inward, through the solid walls and encasements of the body. If the eye be cur- tained with darkness, it will enter through the ear. If the ear be closed in silence, it will ascend along the nerves of touch. Every new idea that enters into the presence of the sovereign mind, carries offerings of delight with it, to make its coming welcome. Indeed, our Maker created us in blank ignorance, for the very purpose of giving us the boundless, endless pleasure of learning new things." It is, of course, not to be expected that the same degree of pleasure will attend the learner in every acquisition as the novelty diminishes, and as he ad- vances in age. The bodily appetite is less keen in after life than in childhood, so that the adult may never real- ize again to the full extent the delicious flavors which regaled him in his earliest years. Still there will ever be a delight in acquisition ; and to carry our illustration a little further, — as the child is soonest cloyed whose stomach is surfeited with dainties, and stimulated with condiments, and pampered with sweetmeats, till his taste has lost its acumen, and digestion becomes a burden ; so the mental appetite is soonest destroyed, when, under the unskillful teacher, it is overloaded with what it can neither digest nor disgorge. The mind may be sur- feited ; and then no wonder if it loathes even the whole- some aliment. Artificial stimulants, in the shape of EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY 1 79 prizes, and honors, and flattery, and fear, and shame, may have impaired its functions, so that it ceases to act except under their excitement. But all must see that these are unnatural conditions, superinduced by erro- neous treatment. There is still a deligJit in acquisition, just as soon as the faculties are aroused to the effort; and the skillful teacher will strive to ivake iLp the mind to find this delight, — and if he understands his work, he will scarcely need a stronger incentive. If he under- stands the' secret of giving just so much instruction as to excite the learner's curiosity, and then to leave him to discover and acquire for himself, he will have no neces- sity to use any other means as stimulants to exertion. To this might be added that irrepressible curiosity, that all-pervading desire to knozv, which is found in the mind of every child. The mind, as if conscious of its high destiny, instinctively spreads its unfledged wings in pursuit of knowledge. This, wdth some children, is an all-sufficient stimulant to the most vigorous exertion. To this the teacher may safely appeal. Indeed, it is a convincing proof of the wisdom as well as the goodness of God, that this desire to knozv, as well as the delight of acquisition, are the most active at that early period of childhood, when a just appreciation of the utility of knowledge, and the higher motives already detailed, could scarcely find a lodgment in the tender mind. It seems to be, therefore, an indisputable dictate of our very nature, that both these principles should be early employed as incentives. If, then, the desire of the approval of parents and teachers, — tJie desire of advancement, — tJic desire to be nsefiil, — a7id the desire to do right, can be superadded to the natiwal love i7i the child for acquisition, and a l80 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING natural desire to knozv, there will, as I believe, be but little occasion to look further for incentives to exertion in the pupil ; and I may venture to add, as a scholmm to what has already been said, that the teacher who has not yet learned to call into exercise these higher motives, and to rely for success mainly upon them, and who dares not abandon the system of exciting stimulants for fear of a failure, Jias yet much to learn as a true edu- cator of tJie young. TOPICAL OUTLINE Preface. 1. A school interested in its duties is a school easily governed. 2. The interest awakened should serve for self-education throughout life. 3. Artificial interest in studies is a mistake. Read: Bain's Education as a Science, pp. 112, 113. White's School Management, pp. 130-148. Putnam's Manual of Pedagogics, pp. 215- 217. 4. Never appeal to a low motive if a higher one can be aroused. I. Emulation. 1. Difference of opinion due to definition. 2. Define emulation in its good sense. 3. Define emulation in its bad sense. 4. State the arguments for and against emulation in the latter sense. Read: Bain's Education as a Science, pp. 112, 113. Stewart's Philosophy of the Active and Moral Powers of Man (Walker), pp. 49- 56. Compayre's Lectures on Pedagogy, pp. 448- 453- II. Prizes. 1 . Page's conclusion. 2. His arguments. EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY l8l (i) The prize outshines worthier objects. (2) Engenders rivalry and ill will. (3) Stimulates a few onl}^ (4) There is danger of unjust awards. a. Dae to unequal facilities of contestants. b. Pupils are tempted to dishonorable practices. (5) The prize rewards success and talent ; not effort and worthiness. (6) Without prizes the pupil lacks motive for self- improvement. (7) Minimizes the example of some of the best students. 3. Rewards. Read: White's School Management, pp. 133-140. Putnam's Manual of Pedagogics, pp. 215-217. III. Proper Incentives. 1. The desire to gain the approbation of parents and teachers. The danger line.'* 2. A desire for advancement. 3. The pleasure of acquisition. 4. The desire to be useful. 5. A desire to do right. Read: White's School Management, pp. 130-190. SUBJECTS FOR DISCUSSION OR ESSAYS 1. Natural and Artificial Incentives. White's School Management, pp. 130-190. Spencer's Education, Chap. III. 2. How to awaken Interest and secure Attention. Putnam's Manual of Pedagogics, Chap. X. Baldwin's School Management, pp. 299-306. Hughes's Securing and Retaining Attention. CHAPTER X SCHOOL GOVERNMENT We have children to obey us in order that they may learn how to obey themselves. Obedience to others is the first lesson in self- obedience. He that has never learned how to obey others will never learn how to obey himself or God. No school government is possible without obedience to authority. It is not necessary that any space in this work should be occupied in speaking of the importance of order in our schools. Everybody who has written or spoken on this subject, has conceded the necessity of obedience on the part of the pupil. ''Order is heaven's first law ; " and it is scarcely more essential to the harmony of heaven, than it is to the happiness and success of the school. If such be the necessity of order in the school, then the ability to secure and maintain it is no mean part of the qualification of the good teacher. It is lamentable that so many fail in this particular; and yet this fre- quent failure can in most cases be traced to some defect in the constitutional temperament, or some deficiency in the mental or moral culture of the teacher himself. It shall be my first object, then, to point out some of the SECTION I. — requisites IN THE TEACHER FOR GOOD GOVERNMENT I. Self-government. — It has frequently been said that no man can govern others till he has learned to govern himself. I have no doubt of the truth of this. 182 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT 1 83 If an individual is not perfectly self-possessed, his decisions must fail to command respect. The self- government of the teacher should be complete, in the following particulars : 1. As to the passion of anger. The exhibition of anger always detracts from the weight of authority. A man under its influence is not capable of doing strict justice to his pupils. Before entering upon teaching, therefore, a man should somehow obtain the mastery over his temper, so that under any provocation he can control it. He should consider that in school his patience will often be severely tried. He should not expect, indeed, that the current of affairs in school will for a single day run perfectly smooth. He should, therefore, prepare for the worst, and firmly resolve that, whatever unpleasant thing shall occur, it shall not take him entirely by surprise. Such forethought will give him self-command. If, however, from his past experience, and from the nature of his tempera- ment, he is satisfied he cannot exercise this self-control, he may be assured he is the wrong man to engage in teaching. A man who has not acquired thorough ascendency over his own passions, is an unsafe man to be intrusted with the government of children. 2. As to levity and moroseness of manner. Either extreme is to be avoided. There are some teachers who exhibit such a frivolity in all their intercourse with their pupils, that they can never command them with authority, or gain their cordial respect. This is a grievous fault; and the teacher should at once find an antidote for it, by serious reflection upon the respon- sibility of his position. If this will not cure it, nothing else can. 1 84 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING There are others who are characterized by a perpet- ual peevishness, so that a pleasant word from them is in- deed a strange thing. They can never expect to gain the affections of their pupils ; and without securing the love of children, the government of them will never be of the right kind. This habit of snappishness should be broken up at once. There are some very young teachers, who sometimes assume one or the other of these peculiar modes of ad- dress, or perhaps both, to be used alternately, — fancy- ing that they will gain popularity by the one, or give themselves greater authority by the other. This is a very mistaken notion ; for children have more discern- ment than most men give them credit for, and they usually see directly through such a flimsy disguise, — and the teacher becomes ridiculous rather than great in their estimation, whenever he takes any such false posi- tion. Mr. Abbott, in his '' Teacher," states a fact which well illustrates this point. '' Many years ago," says he, *' when I was a child, the teacher of the school where my early studies were performed, closed his connection with the establishment, and, after a short vacation, an- other was expected. On the appointed day the boys began to collect, some from curiosity, at an early hour, and many speculations were started as to the character of the new instructor. We were standing near a table with our hats on, — and our position, and the exact ap- pearance of the group is indelibly fixed on my memory, — when a small and youthful-looking man entered the room and walked up toward us. Supposing him to be some stranger, or rather, not making any supposition at all, we stood looking at him as he approached, and were w SCHOOL GOVERNMENT 1 85 thunderstruck at hearing hmi accost us with a stern voice, and sterner brow : * Take off your hats ! Take off your hats, and go to your seats.' The conviction immediately rushed upon our minds that this must be the new teacher. The first emotion was that of surprise, and the second was that of the ludicrous ; though I be- lieve we contrived to smother the laugh until we got out into the open air." The true rule is to act the part which is agreeable to nature. The teacher having gained the self-command just insisted upon, and having in him the spirit of kind- ness and a desire to be useful, should assume nothing unnatural for effect. His manner should be truly dig- nified, but courteous. 3. As to /lis treatment of those pupils that are marked by some peculiarity. There will usually be some pupils who are very backward, and perhaps very dull, — or who may have some physical defect, or some mental eccen- tricity. The teacher should be able to govern himself in all his remarks concerning such pupils. He should avoid allusion to such singularities before the school ; and it is the height of injustice — I was about to say, of malevolence — for him ever to use those low and degrading epithets so often found upon the teacher's tongue, — such as dunce, thickskull, and the like. Is it not misfortune enough for a child to be backward or dull, without having the pain and mortification increased by the cruelty of an unfeeling teacher } The teacher should take a special interest in such children ; he should endeavor to enter into the feelings of their par- ents, and to treat them in such a way as to encourage rather than crush them. 11. A CONFIDENCE IN HIS ABILITY TO GOVERN. We 1 86 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING can generally do what we firmly believe we can do. At any rate, a man is more likely to succeed in any enter- prise, when he has the feeling of self-reliance. The teacher, by reflection upon the importance of good gov- ernment to his success, and by a careful study of the means to be employed and the motives to be presented, should be able to bring himself to the determination to have good order in his school, and so fully to believe he can have it, that his pupils shall detect no misgivings in him on this point. Whenever they discover that he has doubts of his success in governing, they will be far more ready to put his skill to the test. It would be better that a young teacher should decline to take a difficult school, rather than enter it without the full belief of his ability to succeed. I would not wish to be understood by these remarks to be encouraging an unreasonable and blUid presumption. A confidence in one's ability should be founded upon a reasonable estimate of his powers, compared with the difficulties to be overcome. What I recommend is, that the teacher should carefully weigh the difficulties, and candidly judge of his own re- sources, and then undertake nothing which he thinks is beyond his ability. If, after this, he believes he can suc- ceed, other things being equal, success is almost certain. III. Just views of Government. — i. It is not tyranny, exercised to please the one who governs, or to promote his own convenience. The despot commands for the sake of being obeyed. But government in its proper sense is an arrangement for \\i^ general good, — for the benefit of the governed as well as of the ruler. That is not good government which seeks any other object. The teacher should so view the matter ; and in establishing any regulations in school, he should always inquire SCHOOL GOVERNMENT 1 8/ whether they are suggested by a selfish regard to his own ease, or whether they spring from a sincere and disinterested wish to promote the improvement of the school. 2. He should see the necessity of making the govern- ment tcnifonn ; that is, the same from day to day. If he punishes to-day what he tolerates to-morrow, he cannot expect the cordial respect of his pupils. Some teachers, not having learned the art of self-government, take counsel too much of their own feelijigs. To-day they are in good health and spirits, and their faces are clothed in sniisJiine ; they can smile at anything. To- morrow, suffering under bad digestion, or the want of exercise, or the want of sleep, the thunder-storm hovers about their brow, ready to burst upon the first offender. Woe to the luckless wight who does not seasonably dis- cover this change in the condition of the weather. A teacher cannot long respect himself who is thus capri- cious; he may be sure his school will not long respect him. 3. He should so view government as to make it eqtial ; that is, equal in its application to the whole school, — the large as well as small scholars, the males as well as females. This is often a great fault with teachers. They raise up a sort of aristocracy in their schools, a privileged class, a miniature nobility. They will insist that the little boys and girls shall abstain from cer- tain practices, — whispering, for instance, — and most promptly punish the offenders, while they tolerate the same thing among the larger pupils. This is cowardly in itself, and as impolitic as it is cowardly. The teacher makes a great mistake who begins his government with the sm^all children, in the hope of frightening the larger 1 88 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING ones into obedience. He should have the manliness and the justice to begin with the larger pupils ; the smaller ones never resist, when authority is established with those above them. Besides this, the very class who are thus indulged, are the very ones who soonest despise, and justly too, the authority of the teacher. He should make his government impartial in every respect. He should have no favorites — no preferences based upon the outward circumstances of the child, his family, or his personal attractions, and the like. The rich and the poor should be alike to the teacher. He should remember that each child has a soul; and it is with the soul, and not with the wealth of this world, that he has to do. He should remember that a gem, as bright as a sunbeam, is often concealed under a rough exterior. It should be his work, nay his delight — ^to bring out this gem from its hiding place, and apply to it the polish of a ''workman that needeth not to be ashamed." IV. Just views of the Governed. — Notwithstand- ing the imperfection of human nature, as developed in the young, they have some redeeming qualities. They are intelligent and reasonable beings. They have more or less love of approbation ; they have affection, and, above all, they have a moral sense. All these qualities are considerably developed before they enter the school. The teacher should remember this, and prepare himself to address, as far as may be, all these. Love of appro- bation, as we have before seen, is not an unworthy mo- tive to be addressed, and it is well known that many children are very easily controlled by it. It is not the highest motive, to be sure, nor is it the lowest. The affection for a teacher, which many children will exer- SCHOOL GOVERNMENT 189 cise, is one of the most powerful instrumentalities in governing them with ease. The conscience, early trained, is all-powerful. I allude to these principles of action once more, in order to say that the peculiar character of each should be well studied by the teacher. He should understand the human mind so well as to be able to find the avenues to these better parts of the child's nature, remembering that whenever several ways are presented of doing the same thing, it is always wise to choose the best. V. Decision and Firmness. — By decision, I mean a readiness to determine and to act in any event just as duty seems to dictate ; a willingness to take the re- sponsibility just as soon as the way is plain. By firm- ness, is meant that fixedness of purpose which resolutely carries out a righteous decision. Both of these qualities are essential to good government in the teacher. Much time is often lost by a teacher's vacillating when action is more important. Besides, if the pupils discover that the teacher hesitates, and dreads to take any responsi- bility, they very soon lose their respect for him. I would not urge that a teacher should act Iiastily. He never should decide till he is confident he decides right ; any delay is better than hasty error. But his delay, in all matters of government, should have reference to a true knowledge of his duty ; when that is clearly known, he should be decided. Many teachers suffer in their government for want of firmness. They act upon the principle of personal convenience, as did the unjust judge mentioned in the parable. " And he would not for a while ; but after- wards he said within himself. Though I fear not God nor regard man ; yet because this zvidow tronbleth me, I 1 90 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING will arise and avenge her, lest by her continual coming she weary me.'' How often we hear something like this in the schoolroom. "May I go and drink?" — says James, in a pecuHarly imploring tone. '' No," says the teacher, promptly, and evidently without any reflec- tion as to the decision he has made. James very com- posedly sits down, eying the countenance of the teacher expressively, as much as to say, ''I'll try you again soon." Before long he observes the teacher quite busy with a class, and he again pops the question : " May I go and drink .'* " Stung at the moment with impatience at the inter- ruption, the teacher answers instantly and emphatically, " No, no, James; sit down." James still watches his teacher's expression, and can- not discover there any signs of a mind seeking the path of duty, and he silently thinks to himself, " The third time never fails." So, after a minute or two, when the teacher is somewhat puzzled with a knotty question, and is on the point of nibbing a pen besides, — '' May I go and drink, sir f again rings upon the teacher's ear. *' Yes, yes, yes ! do go along ; / suppose you'll keep asking till y oil get it." Now James goes to drink, and then returns to philoso- phize upon this matter, perhaps as follows : " I don't believe he stopped to think whether I needed drink or not ; therefore hereafter I shall never believe he really means « science and to strengthen the will for righteom self-control. (2) The well-being of the pupils more important thai^ the pleasure or convenience of the teacher. (3) Considers only the best good of the children. (4) Must be uniform — free from caprice. (5) Must be equable and impartial. 4. Just views of the governed. (i) Children have a right to be treated humanely. (2) Children have a right to be treated reasonably. (3) Children have a right to be treated impartially. 5. Decision and firmness. (i) Define each. (2) Effects of indecision and vacillation. Illustrate. 6. Deep moral principle. (i) Effect on pupils. 11 . Means of securing Good Order. 1. Be careful about first impressions. (i) Naturalness. (2) Pretenses. (3) Discourtesy. 2. Avoid entertaining or exhibiting a suspicious spirit. (i) Trust pupils as long and far as possible. (2) Believing people to be what they are not helps to make them what they are not. [The lesson oi " Little Lord Fauntleroy."] (3) Franklin's rule. 3. Give regular and full employment as soon as possible. (i) Have a plan for the first day. (2) Classify, and work by schedule conscientiously. (3) The discipline of interested industry. 4. Make but few rules. White's School Management, pp. lOO-IOI. 244 THEORY AND PRACTICE OE TEACHING (i) Arguments against a long code of rules. (2) The law of conscience more important than the law of the teacher. (3) The futiUty of threats. 5. Wake up mind in the school and the district. (i) Vary the ordinary daily routine. How ? (2) Have vocal music. Why? 6. Visit the parents of your pupils. Why ? 7. Register credits ; omit demerits. (i) Page's estimate of marks and reports. 8. Avoid over-government. (i) Government is subordinate to instruction. (2) A well-taught school needs httle government. (3) The teacher who is constantly struggling to gov- ern his school has failed first of all in teach- ing it. (4) A disorderly teacher makes a disorderly school. (5) Over-stillness indicates the palsy of fear. HI. PuiiisJwieiits. 1. Definition. Punishment must be : (i) Authoritative and just. Source of the teacher's legal authority. Source of the teacher's moral authority. (2) Impersonal. Free from personal feelings. (3) Reformative or deterrent, or both. Read White's School Management, pp. 192-198. 2. The legal aspect of anger, revenge, and cruelty on part of the teacher in punishing. 3. An address to fear and shame sometimes necessary. When? 4. Kinds of punishment. (i) Mental. Instances. (2) Bodily. Instances. j^ 5. Improper punishments. % (i) Personal indignities. Instances. (2) Punishments indicating love of torture. Instances. : (3) Ridicule. 4; Effects on teacher and on pupil. U' SCHOOL GOVERNMENT 245 6. Proper punishments. (i) Kind reproof — usually in private. (2) Loss of privileges. Instances. (3) Restraint or confinement. For what class of offenses ? Caution against confinement in the dark. (4) Humiliation. Caution. (5) Imposition of tasks. Instances. Caution. (6) Corporal punishment. IV. Corpj}-al PiuiishiJicnt. Page's propositions : 1. Authority must be established before the objects of the school can be accomplished. 2. It is the teacher's duty to establish authority; peaceably if he may, forcibly if he must. 3. The necessity for flogging often arises in the home life of pupils. 4. Oftentimes it resides in the teacher. 5. The efficient teacher finds a decreasing need for appeal to the rod. 6. It is unwise to publish beforehand the teacher's views about corporal punishment. 7. Rely on moral means mainly ; use the rod if driven to it by force of circumstances. 8. Solitary confinement an inconvenient and, as a rule, an unwise substitute for the rod. 9. Expulsion is also a substitute of doubtful wisdom. (i) It abandons the idea of reformation where it is most needed. (2) It endangers the community without protecting the school. 10. Christian sentiment revolts at the abuse of the rod, not at its use. 1 1 . The use of the rod has been egregiously abused in many schools. V. Limitations and Suggestions. 1 . Appeal to the rod deliberately and conscientiously — as a last resort. 2. The rod should never be used in anger. 246 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 3. Corporal punishment should be inflicted publicly, as a rule. Are Page's reasons satisfactory? 4. Delay gives the teacher and the pupil time for reflection. 5. Corporal punishment should be so thorough — short of cruelty — as not to need repetition. 6. The punishment should be inflicted with a safe instru- ment in a proper manner. 7. The rod should not be used for trifling offenses. 8. It should be kept out of sight when not in use. VI. Conchision. 1. There is a more excellent way; not through fear and force, but by appeals to finer feelings and higher motives, to conscience and mutual affection. 2. The minimum of punishment is the maximum of excellence. SUBJECTS FOR DISCUSSION OR ESSAYS 1. Elements of Governing Power. Baldwin's Art of School Management, pp. 124-138. 2. The Purposes of School Government. Compayre's Lectures on Pedagogy, p. 475. White's School Management, pp. 105-113. Third Yearbook of the National Herbart Society. Article by Dr. W. T. Harris. 3. The Purposes and Principles of Punishment. Fitch's Lectures on Teaching, pp. iio-iii. White's School Management, pp. 190-206. Bain's Education as a Science, pp. 102-105. Baldwin's School Management, pp. 154-160. 4. The Use and Abuse of the Rod. Baldwin's School Management, pp. 174-182. Bain's Education as a Science, p. 116. Swett's Methods of Teaching, pp. 64-65. Fitch's Lectures on Teaching, p. 119. 5. The Discipline of Natural Consequences. Spencer's Education. Chap. III. (On Moral Education.) Bain's Education as a Science, p. 118. Fitch's Lectures on Teaching, p. 115. White's School Management, pp. 203-210. Compayre's Psychology as applied to Education, pp. 190-192. CHAPTER XI SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS Your school must be in a state of order or disorder — arrange- ment or derangement. Education is largely concerned with thinking and saying and doing things in an orderly way — with arrangement instead of derangement. Every teacher before opening a school should have some general plan in his mind, of what he intends to ac- complish. In every enterprise there is great advantage to be derived from forethought, — and perhaps nowhere is the advantage greater than in the business of teach- ing. The day of opening a school is an eventful day to the young teacher. A thousand things crowd upon him at the same time, and each demands a prompt and judi- cious action on his part. The children to the number of half a hundred all turn their inquiring eyes to him for occupation and direction. They have come full of interest in the prospects of the new school, ready to en- gage cheerfully in whatever plans the teacher may have to propose; and, I was about to say, just as ready to arrange and carry into effect their own plans of disorder and misrule, if they, unhappily for him and for them- selves, find he has no system to introduce. What a critical — what an eventful moment is this first day of the term to all concerned ! The teacher's success and usefulness, — nay, his reputation as an effi- cient instructor, — now "hang upon the decision of an 247 248 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING hour." An hour, too, may almost foretell whether the precious season of childhood and youth now before these immortals is to be a season of profit and healthful culture under a judicious hand, or a season of wasted — perhaps worse than wasted — existence, under the im- becility or misguidance of one who '' knows not what he does or what he deals with." If angels ever visit our earth and hover unseen around the gatherings of mortals to survey their actions and contemplate their destiny as affected by human instru- mentality, it seems to me there can be no spectacle so calculated to awaken their interest and enkindle their sympathy as when they see the young gathering to- gether from their scattered homes in some rural district, to receive an impress, for weal or woe, from the hand of him who has undertaken to guide them. And suppos- ing them to have the power to appreciate to the full extent the consequences of human agency, how must they be touched with emotions of joy and gratitude, or shudder with those of horror and dread, as they witness the alternations of wisdom and folly, seriousness and indifference, sincerity and duplicity, purity and defile- ment, exhibited by him who has assumed to be at once the director and exemplar in the formation of human character, at such an important period. How deplorable is the thought that all the fond hopes of the parents, all the worthy aspirings of the children, and all the thrilling interests of higher beings, are so often to be answered by qualifications so scanty, and by a spirit so indifferent in the teaching of the young. How sad the thought that up to this very moment so pregnant with conse- quences to all concerned, there has been too often so little of preparation for the responsibility. SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS 249 I fain would impress the young teacher with the im- portance of having a plan for even the first day of the school. It will raise him surprisingly in the estimation of the pupils and also of the parents if he can make an expeditious and efficient beginning of the school. While the dull teacher is slowly devising the plans he will by and by present for the employment and improvement of his school, the children, taking advantage of their own exemption from labor, very promptly introduce their own plans for amusing themselves or for annoying him ; — whereas if he could but have his own plans already made, and could promptly and efficiently carry them into execution, he would forestall their mischievous designs and make cooperators out of his opposers. In order to be sure of a successful commencement I would recommend that the teacher should go into the district a few days before the school is to begin. By careful inquiry of the trustees or the school committee he can ascertain what are the character of the district and wants of the school. This will afford him consider- able aid. But he should do more than this. He would do well to call on several of the families of the district whose children are to become members of his school. This he can do without any ceremony, simply saying to them that, as he has been appointed their teacher, he is desirous as far as he may to ascertain their wants, in order to be as prompt as possible in the organization of his school. He will of course see the children them- selves. From them he can learn what was the organi- zation of the school under his predecessor; how many studied geography, how many arithmetic, grammar, etc. ; and he can also learn whether the former organi- zation was satisfactory to the district or not. The 250 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING modes of government and the methods of interesting the pupils practiced by the former teacher would be likely to be detailed to him ; and from the manner of both parents and children he could judge whether similar methods would still be desirable in the district. By calling on several of the largest families in this way, he would learn beforehand very accurately the state of the school and the state of the district. I will take this occasion to insist that the teacher in these visits should heartily discourage any forwardness, so common among children, to disparage a former teacher. It should be his sole object to gain useful information. He should give no signs of pleasure in listening to any unfavorable statements as to his prede- cessor ; and I may add that during the progress of the school he should ever frown upon any attempt on the part of the pupils to make comparisons derogatory to a former teacher. This is a practice altogether too prevalent in our schools ; and I am sorry to say there are still too many teachers who are mean enough to countenance it. Such a course is unfair, because the absent party may be grossly misrepresented; it is dangerous, because it tends to cultivate a spirit of detraction in the young ; and it is mean, because the party is absent and has no opportunity of defending himself. Another important advantage of the visits proposed would be that he would make the acquaintance of many of the children beforehand; and very Hkely, too, if he should go in the right spirit and with agreeable man- ners he would make a favorable impression upon them, and thus he would have personal friends on his side to begin with. The parents, too, would see that he took SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS 2^1 an interest in his employment; that he had come among them in the spirit of his vocation — in the spirit of earnestness ; and they would immediately become interested in his success, — a point of no small impor- tance. I might here caution the teacher against a very com- mon error. He should not confine his visits to the more wealthy and influential families. The poor and the humble should receive his attentions as soon as the rich. From the latter class very likely a large portion of his school will come; and it is wrong in principle as well as policy to neglect those who have not been as successful as others in the one item of accumulating property. On the day of opening the school he should be early at the schoolhouse. Mr. Abbott, in his ''Teacher," has some valuable suggestions on this point. " It is desir- able," he says, "that the young teacher should meet his scholars at first in an tinofficial capacity. For this purpose he should repair to the schoolroom on the first day at an early hour, so as to see and become acquainted with the scholars as they come in one by one. He may take an interest with them in all the little arrangements connected with the opening of the school, — the build- ing of the fire, the paths through the snow, the arrange- ment of seats : calling upon them for information or aid, asking their names, and, in a word, entering fully and freely into conversation with them, just as a parent under similar circumstances would do with his children. All the children thus addressed will be pleased with the gentleness and affability of the teacher. Even a rough and ill-natured boy, who has perhaps come to the school with the express determination of attempting to make 252 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING mischief, will be completely disarmed by being asked pleasantly to help the teacher fix the fire, or alter the position of a desk. Thus by means of the half hour during which the scholars are coming together, the teacher will find when he calls upon the children to take their seats that he has made a large number of them his personal friends. Many of these will have communicated their first impressions to others, so that he will find himself possessed, at the outset, of that which is of vital consequence in opening any adminis- tration — a strong party in his favor." It will be well for the teacher for several days, both in the morning and afternoon, to be early at the school- room. He can thus continue his friendly intercourse with the pupils, and effectually prevent any concerted action among them at that hour to embarrass his gov- ernment. Many a school has been seriously injured, if not broken up, by the scholars' being allowed to assem- ble early at the school with nothing to occupy them and no one to restrain them. Having so convenient an opportunity for mischief, their youthful activity will be very likely to find egress in an evil direction. Many a tale of roguery could be told, founded upon the incidents of the schoolroom before school hours, if those who have good memories would but reveal their own experience ; — roguery that never would have occurred had the teacher adopted the course here suggested. SECTION I. PLAN OF THE DAy's WORK It may be remembered by many of the readers of this volume, that in former times numerous teachers SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS 253 were accustomed to work without a plan, attempting to do their work just as it happened to demand atten- tion, but never taking the precaution to have this de- mand under their own control. If one scholar or class was not ready to recite, another would be called ; and there being no particular time for the various exercises, the school would become a scene of mere listlessness ; and the teacher would hardly know how to find em- ployment for himself in the school. r shall make this point clearer by an example. Hav- ing occasion, in an official capacity, to visit a school which had been kept by a young teacher some two weeks, she very naturally asked — '* What shall I do first, this afternoon } " " Do precisely as you would if I had not come in," was the reply. She looked a little perplexed. At length she doubt- ingly asked the class, — " Is the geography lesson ready .-^ " "Yes, m'm " — " No, m'm " — *' Yes, m'm " — was the ambiguous reply from the class. There was so much of veto in the looks of the young geographers that it amounted to prohibition. *' Well, are the scholars in Colburn's arithmetic ready .? " This was said with more of hope ; but the same equivocal answer was vociferated from all parts of the room. The teacher, placing her finger upon her lip, looked around despairingly ; but, at last recollecting one more resort, she said, — " Is the grammar class ready .? " Again came the changes on " Yes, m'm " and '' No, m'm." 254 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING The teacher gave up, and asked what she should do. She was again told to go on as usual for that afternoon. It was a tedious afternoon to her, as it was to her visitor. She at length called one of the classes, unprepared as many of them said they were, and the exercise showed that none but those who said '' Yes, m'm " were mis- taken. The whole afternoon seemed to be one of pain and mortification to all concerned ; and I fancied I could almost read in the knitted brow of the teacher a decla- ration that that should be her last school. At the close of the afternoon a single hint was sug- gested to her, — viz., that she should make out a list of her scholars' duties, and the times when they would be expected to recite their several lessons. She was told that it would be well to explain this plan of her day's work to her school in the morning, and then never again ask zvJietJier a class ivas ready. The hint was taken ; and on subsequent visitations the several classes were ever ready to respond to the call of their instructor. Now this matter is no unimportant one to the teacher. Indeed I judge of a teacher's ability very much by the wisdom and tact with which he apportions his time for his own duties, and divides the time of his scholars between their studies and recitations. In order to aid the young teacher in forming a plan for himself, I subjoin a scheme of a days duties, adapted to a school of the simplest grade. Suppose a school to consist of thirty scholars, and that the teacher finds by inquiry and by examination that there may be four grand divisions ; the first, which he designates [A], may unite in pursuing Reading, Grammar, Mental Arith- metic, Written Arithmetic, and Writing. The second, [B], can pursue Reading, Spelling, Writing, Geography, SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS 255 Mental and Written Arithmetic. The third, [C], attend to Reading, Spelling, Mental Arithmetic, Writing, and Geography. The fourth, [D], consisting of the small pupils, attend to Reading, Spelling, Tables, and sundry slate exercises. Now it is very desirable that as much time should be devoted to recitation as can be afforded to each class. It may be seen at once that in certain studies, as ge- ography, mental arithmetic, and spelling — the teacher can as well attend to fifteen at once as to seven. In these studies, unless the disparity in age and attainment is very great, two divisions can very properly be united. All can be taught writing at once, thus receiving the teacher's undivided attention for the time. Besides, it is necessary to reserve some little time for change of exercises, and also for the interruptions which must necessarily occur. The recesses are to be provided for, and some time may be needed for investigation of violations of duty and for the punishment of offenders. All this variety of work will occur in every school, even the smallest. Now if the teacher does not arrange this in accord- ance with some plan, he will be very much perplexed, even in a small school ; and how much more in a large one ! He will do well very carefully to consider the relative importance of each exercise to be attended to, and then to write out his scheme somewhat after the following model. It must not be forgotten that stndyiiig is also to be provided for, and that it is just as important that the pupils should be regular in this as in recitation. Indeed, without such regularity, he cannot expect acceptable recitations. 256 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING PROGRAMME For the above supposed circumstances Tivie. M. Recitations, etc. Studies. 9 to 9. IS 15 Reading, Script,, & Prayer. 9.15 to 9.40 25 D. Reading, Spelling, or 1 Tables. \ A. Reading; B. Arith. ; C. Geography. 9.40 to 9.42 2 Rest, Change of Classes, etc. 9.42 to 10 18 A. Reading. ( B. Arith. ; C. Geog. ; ( D. Slates. 10 to 10.5 5 ( Rest, Singing, or An- \ \ swering Questions. S 10.5 to 10.25 20 B. Arithmetic. ( A. Gram. ; C. Geog. ; { D. Books or Cards. 10,25 to 10.28 3 Rest, etc. 10.28 to 10.48 20 B. & C. Geography. A. Gram. ; D. Recess. 10.48 to II 12 Recess. II to II. 15 II. 15 to 11.35 11.35 to 11.50 15 20 15 D. Reading, etc. A. Grammar. B. & C. Spelling. ( A. Gram.; B. M. Arith.; { C. Spelling. \ B. Spelling; C. Spelling; \ D. Slates. j A. M. Arith.; D. Books ( or Cards. 11.50 to 12 10 General Exercise. Intermission. 2 to 2.15 2.15 to 2.45 2.45 to 3.10 3.10 to 3.30 15 30 25 20 D. Reading, Spelling, Tables. A. B. & C. Writing. A. & B. Mental Arithmetic. C. Reading. \ A. Arith.; B. Reading; / C. Reading. D. Slates. C. M. Arith. ; D. Recess. ) A. Arith.; B. Arith.; ( D. Books, etc. 3.30 to 3.40 10 Recess. 3.40 to 4 20 B. Reading. \ A. Arith.; C. M. Arith.; 1 D. Drawing. 4 to 4.5 5 Rest or Singing. 4-5 to 4.25 4.25 to 4.55 20 30 C. Mental Arithmetic. A. Arithmetic. { A. Read. ; B. Arith. or 1 Draw.; D. Slates. ( B. Arith. or Draw. ; C. ( Draw.; D. Dismissed. 4-55 to 5 5 Gen. Exer. and Dismission. SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS 257 Remai'ks In the foregoing programme the first cokmin shows the division of tiiiie and the portion allowed to each exercise. I need not say the teacher should be strictly punctual. To this end a clock is a very desirable article in the school. Both teacher and pupils would be benefited by it. The second column shows the recitations, admitting perhaps some variety, especially in case of the younger children; while the third shows the occiLpatioii of those classes which are not engaged in recitation. It will be seen that the classes are study- ing those lessons which they are soon to recite; and, as in this case it is supposed that all the lessons will be learned in school, each one has been provided for. It would be well, however, in practice to require one of the studies to be learned out of school, in which case no time should be allowed to the stndy of that branch in the programme. It will be perceived that drawing is placed as the occupation of the younger classes near the close of the afternoon. This is based upon the supposition that the teacher during recess has placed an example on the blackboard to be copied by the children upon their slates. This is perhaps the most effectual way to teach drawing to children. Those more advanced, however, may use paper and pencil and draw from an engraved copy, or from a more finished specimen furnished from the teacher's portfolio. It is essential that the teacher should, if possible, give some specimens of his own in this branch. I have seldom known a teacher to excite an interest in drawing who relied altogether upon en- gravings as models for imitation. B.-P. THE. &- PR. TEACHING — 1 7 258 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING It should be remarked further concerning such a pro- gramme, that in case of an assistant in the school two columns under the head of Recitations should be formed — one for the principal's classes and one for the assist- ant's. If there are a few talented scholars who are able to do more than their class, they can be allowed to join some of the classes out of their division, or they may be provided with an extra study, which will not need daily recitation. In case the school is much larger than the one sup- posed above, and the classes necessarily so numerous as to make the time allowed to each study very short, then the principle of alternation may be introduced ; that is, some studies may be recited Mondays, Wednes- days, and Fridays, — and some other studies, with other classes, take their places on the alternate days. It is decidedly better for the teacher to meet a class, in arithmetic for instance, especially of older pupils, but twice or three times a week, having time enough at each meeting to make thorough work, than to meet them daily, but for a time so short as to accomplish but little. The same remark may be applied to read- ing, and indeed almost any other branch. The idea is a mischievous one, that every class in reading, or in any other branch, must be called out four times a day, or even twice a day, — except in the case of very young children. It may be compared to nibbling at a cracker as many times in a day, without once taking a hearty meal, — a process which would emaciate any child in the course of three months. These scanty nibblings at the table of knowledge, so often and so tenaciously practiced, may perhaps account for the mental emacia- tion so often discoverable in many of our schools. SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS 259 The difficulty of classifying and arranging the exer- cises of a school becomes greater as the number of teachers to be employed increases ; and there is much greater inconvenience in allowing any pupils to study out of their own division when the number of teachers is more than one or two. Few are aware of the diffi- culty of arranging the exercises of a large school, but those who have experienced it. It can be done, how- ever ; and it should always be done as soon as possible after commencing the school. If at any time the arrangement when made is not found to be perfect, it is not wise to change it at once. Let it go on a few days, and watch its defects with great care ; and in the meantime study out of school to devise a better. When this has been accomplished and committed to paper, and perfectly comprehended by the teacher, it may be posted up in the schoolroom, and the day announced when it will go into operation. It will soon be understood by the pupils and the change can thus be made without the loss of time. Time for reviews of the various lessons could be found by setting aside the regular lessons for some par- ticular day, once a week, or once in two weeks ; and for composition, declamation, etc., a half day should be occasionally or periodically assigned. If I have devoted considerable space to this subject it is because I deem it of great importance to the teacher's success. With one other remark I dismiss it. This model is not given to be servilely copied. It is given to illustrate the great principle. The circumstances of schools will be found to vary so widely that no model, however perfect in itself, would 26o THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING answer for all. The teacher must exercise his own ingenuity and judgment to meet his own wants ; and in general it may be remarked that where a teacher has not the skill to adapt his own plans to his own circumstances, he can hardly be expected to succeed in carrying out the plans of another. SECTION II. INTERRUPTIONS . In every school consisting of pupils of different ages and circumstances, there will be more or less of inter- ruption to the general order and employment of the school. Some of the pupils have never been trained to system at home ; perhaps most of them may have been positively taught to disregard it at school. At any rate, "it must needs be," in this particular, "that offenses come." Nor should the teacher lose his pa- tience though he should be often disturbed by the thoughtlessness of his pupils. He should expect it as a matter of course and exercise his ingenuity as far as possible to prevent it. It may well be one of his sources of enjoyment to witness an improvement in the habits of his pupils in regard to system. These interruptions proceed from various causes, — such as soliciting leave to speak, or to go ouf ; asking for some assistance in learning lessons, or for leave to drink, or to stand by the fire ; requesting the teacher to mend pens, or to set copies ; disorderly conduct in pupils, making it necessary in his judgment to admin- ister reproof or punishment in the midst of other duties, — and sometimes the vociferous and impatient making of complaints by one scholar against another. How many times I have seen a teacher involved in indescribable perplexity while trying to perform thQ SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS 261 duty of instruction and to " get through " in time. While hearing a grammar lesson, a scholar brings up his atlas to have some place pointed out which he had upon one trial failed to find. The teacher turning to look for the place is addressed with " Please mend my pen," from another quarter. Having the knife in hand, as if such things were to be expected, the obliging teacher takes the pen, and holding it between his eyes and the atlas, endeavors to shape its nib and to discover the city at the same glance. . ''Jane keeps a pinching me," — vociferates a little girl who is seated behind the class. ''Jane, Jane," says the teacher, turning away from both the nib and the city, " Jane, come to me instantly." Jane, with the guilty fingers thrust far into her mouth, makes her way sidling toward the teacher. " May I go out ? " — says John, who is thinking only of his own conven- ience. "No, no" — answers the teacher, a little pet- tishly, as if conscious that in a crisis like this a request simply to breathe more freely is scarcely justifiable. ''Please, sir, let me and Charles go out and get a pail of water." This is said by a little shrewd-looking, round-faced, hght-haired boy who has learned how to select his time, and to place the emphasis upon the ''please, sir.'' The teacher by this time being consid- erably fretted by such an accumulation of business on his hands very naturally thinks of the refreshment con- tained in a pail of cool water, and very good-naturedly answers the little urchin in the affirmative, who most likely is by this time more than half way out of the door, so confident is he of success. Just at this junc- ture a considerate-looking miss in the class earnestly appeals to the teacher to know if the word next but three to the last was not a common noiui, thous^h called 262 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING a conjtmction ! This reminds the teacher that several words have been parsed without his notice, and he asks the class to ''stop there." Glancing at his watch he discovers that he has gone three minutes beyond the time for recess, and he relieves himself by saying, " Boys may go out." This grants a truce to all parties. The pen goes back unmended, the atlas with its sought city undiscovered; John ''goes out" now by common law, taking to himself the credit of this happy release, as he asked only to remind the master that it was time for recess ; Jane takes both thumb and finger from her precious little mouth, and smiling seats herself by the side of her late challenger, who is by this time more than half repentant of her own impatience ; the shrewd- looking urchin and his companion return with the re- freshing pail of water, — the boys and girls gather round to obtain the first draught, while the little chubby- faced lad comes forward clothed in smiles with a cup filled with the cooling liquid on purpose for the mas- ter ; the boon is accepted, the perplexed brow becomes placid, and all is sunshine again. — This is not a very extravagant picture of the interruptions in a district school. Those who have been brought up in such a school will recognize the fidelity of the likeness, as it has been drawn from nature. Now whoever has any knowledge of human nature and of school teaching will at once see that this is all wrong. It is a law of our being that we can do well but one thing at a time. He who attempts more must do what he attempts but very imperfectly. There was a great deal of wisdom embodied in that motto which used to be placed in the old Lancasterian schools : "A TIME FOR EVERYTHING. AND EVERYTHING IN ITS SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS 263 TIME." It should be one of the mottoes of every teacher. In the construction of the plan or programme for the day's duties, great care should be taken to pro- vide for all these little things. If whispering is to be allowed at all in school let it come into one of the inter- vals between recitations. If assistance in getting les- sons is to be asked and rendered, let it be done at a time assigned for the special purpose. As far as pos- sible, except in extreme cases, let the discipline be attended to at the time of general exercise, or some other period assigned to it, so that there shall not be a ludicrous mixture of punishments and instruction dur- ing the progress of a class exercise. It is pleasant to visit a school where everything is done and well done at its proper time. Teaching under such circumstances becomes a delightful employment. But where all is confusion and the teacher allows him- self by the accumulation of irregularities to be oppressed and perplexed, it is one of the most wearing and un- desirable vocations on earth. The teacher goes to his lodgings harassed with care, oppressed with a con- sciousness of the imperfection of his labors, and ex- hausted by the unnatural and unwarrantable tax imposed upon his mental faculties. He groans under the burden incident to his calling and longs to escape from it, never once dreaming, perhaps, that he has the power of relieving himself by the introduction of sys- tem, and thus changing his former babel into a scene of quietness and order. SECTION III. — RECESSES In speaking of the arrangements of a school, the sub- ject of recesses demands attention. It is the belief of 264 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING many enlightened instructors that the confinement in most of our schools is still too protracted, and that more time devoted to relaxation would be profitable both to the physical and the mental constitution of our youth. Some have urged a recess of a few minutes every hour in order to afford opportunity for a change of position and a change of air. This could better be done in schools composed only of one sex, or where the accommodation of separate yards and playgrounds per- mits both sexes to take a recess at the same time. Where these accommodations are wanting, and one sex must wait while the other is out, the time required for two recesses in half a day for the whole school could scarcely be afforded. I am of the opinion, as our schools are at present composed, that one recess in the half day for each sex is all that can be allowed. The question then is, how can that one recess be made most conducive for the purposes for which it is designed .^ I. As to its duration. Ten minutes is the least time that should be thought of, if the children are to be kept closely confined to study during the remainder of the three hours' session ; that is, ten minutes for each sex. It would be a very desirable thing if our schoolhouses could be so furnished with separate playgrounds and separate outdoor accommodations that both sexes could take recess at the same time. This would save much time to the district in the course of a term, and it would also give opportunity for thoroughly ventilating the room during recess, while it would afford the teacher opportunity to take the air, and overlook the sports of the children to some extent, — a matter of no small importance. Where these facilities are wanting, and the teacher SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS 26$ must remain within to preside over the one half of the school while the others are out, he may still give ten minutes at least to each sex, contriving to employ profitably the time within doors. He may reserve this time for settling such difficulties as may have risen in the school ; he may administer reproofs, inflict his pun- ishments if any are necessary, or he may spend the time in giving assistance to the pupils, or in drawing upon the blackboard for the advantage of the younger pupils as they come in. In a large school, where a longer re- cess is the more necessary on account of the bad air of the schoolroom, he will find the more duty to be done at this time ; so that in any event the time need not be lost, even \i fiftee^i minutes be allowed to each sex. 2. As to the pi'oper Jiour for recess. It was an old rule to have recess when ''school zvas half doiie^ Indeed, this expression was often used as synonymous with re- cess in many districts twenty-five years ago. It is now generally thought better to have the recess occur later, perhaps when the school session is two thirds past. It is found that children, accustomed to exercise all the morninsf, can better bear the confinement of the first two hours than they can that of the third, even though the recess immediately precedes the third. In a school the half-daily sessions of which are three hours, I should recommend that the recess be introduced so as to terminate at the close of the second hour. As far as possible it would be well to have all the pupils leave the room at the time recess is given them ; and as a general thing they should not ask leave to go out at any other time. A little system in this matter is as desirable as in any other, and it is quite as feasible. In a school composed partly of very young children 266 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING there is no difficulty in giving such children two recesses each half day. Nor is there any objection to such a course. It is more irksome to young children to bear confinement than to the adult ; especially as they cannot be expected to be constantly occupied. It will relieve the teacher very much to have the children go out of the room as soon as they become fatigued, and as it will pro- mote their own health and happiness, to go, it is very jus- tifiable to grant them the privilege. This may properly and easily be provided for upon the programme. SECTION IV. ASSIGNING LESSONS Many teachers fail in this department. Judging of the difficulty of the lesson by the ease with which they can acquire it, even in a text-book new to themselves, they not unfrequently assign more than can possibly be learned by the children. They forget that by long dis- cipline of mind, and by the aid of much previously acquired knowledge, the lesson becomes comparatively easy to them ; they forget, too, the toil a similar lesson cost them when they were children. Now the effect of poorly learning a lesson is most ruinous to the mind of a child. He, by the habit of missing, comes to think it a small thing to fail at recitation. He loses his self- respect. He loses all regard for his reputation as a scholar. It is truly deplorable to see a child fail in a lesson with indifference. Besides, the attempt to ac- quire an unreasonable lesson induces superficial habit of study, — a skimming over the surface of things. The child studies that he may live through the recita- tion ; not that he may learn and remember. He passes thus through a book and thinks himself wise while he is yet a fool, — a mistake that is no less common than fatal. SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS 26/ The motto of the wise teacher should be : '' Not HOW MUCH, BUT HOW WELL." He should always ask, is \t possible that the child can master this lesson, and probable that he zuillf It is better that a class should make but very slow progress for several weeks, if they but acquire the habit of careful study and a pride of good scholarship — a dread of failure, — than that they should ramble over a whole field, firing at random, miss- ing oftener than they hit the mark, and acquiring a stupid indifference to their reputation as marksmen, and a prodigal disregard to their waste cf ammunition, and their loss of the game. In assigning lessons the importance of good habits of study should be considered, and the lessons given ac- cordingly. At the commencement of a term the les- sons should always be short, till the ability of the pupils is well understood, and their habits as good students established. As the term progresses, they can be gradu- ally lengthened as the capacity of the class will warrant or their own desire will demand. It is frequently judicious to consult the class about the length of the lessons ; though to be sure their judgment cannot always be reHed on, for they are almost always ready to undertake more than they can well perform. Assigning, however, somewhat less than they propose, will take from them all excuse for failure. When the lesson is given, a failure should be looked upon as a culpable dereliction of duty, as incompatible with a good conscience as it is with good scholar- ship. This high ground cannot be taken, however, unless the teacher has been very judicious in the assign- ment of the lesson. 268 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING SECTION V. REVIEWS In the prosecution of study by any class of students frequent reviews are necessary. This is so, because the memory is very much aided by repetition and by asso- ciation. But further, the understanding is often very much improved by a review. Many of the sciences cannot be presented in independent- parts nor can all the terms employed be fully appreciated till these parts are again viewed as a whole. Many things which were but dimly seen the first time they were passed over, become perfectly clear to the mind when viewed after- ward in connection with what follows them. In conducting reviews regard must be had to the age and character of the pupils and to the branch pursued. In arithmetic, and indeed in mathematics generally, where so much depends upon every link in the great chain, very frequent reviews are necessary. Indeed, almost daily it is profitable to call up some principle before gone over. In several branches, where the parts have a less intimate connection, as in geography, natural philosophy, and some others, the reviews may be at greater intervals. It would be well, I think, in every common school, to have a review day once a week. This, besides the advantages already indicated, will lead the children to study for something beyond recitation. Nor is it enough, at the review, that the questions of the text-book be again proposed to the children. If this be all they will only exercise their memories. As far as possible the subject should be called up and application of principles to practical life should be dwelt upon. If this course is expected by the learners, they will tJiink during the week in order to SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS 269 anticipate the examination of the teacher ; and this think- ing is more profitable to them than the knowledge itself. It is always well, besides the periodical reviews, to have a general review at the close of any particular study. This enables the teacher to detect any false conceptions which the pupil has entertained during the first course. He can now present the subject as a whole, and view one part by the light of another. In natural philosophy, how much better the law of re- flected motion can be appreciated after the subject of optics has been studied, in which the doctrine of reflec- tion in general has been fully discussed and illustrated. In physiology, what light is thrown upon the process of growth in the system by the subsequent chapters on absorption and secretion ! How much clearer is the economy of respiration understood when viewed in con- nection with the circulation of the blood ! A general review then is an enlightening process, and it is always profitable with perhaps one exception. When it is instituted with reference to a public examination, it is very doubtful whether the evil is not greater than the good. It then degenerates into an effort to appear well at a particular time ; it is again studying in order to recite ; and I look upon it as no small evil, that the mind should have any object in view which comes in between it and the grand desire to know, — to master the subject for its own sake, and not simply for the purpose of being able to talk about it on one great occasion. SECTION VI. PUBLIC EXAMINATIONS, ETC. It is now the usage in all our schools to have public examinations, — generally at the close of a term, or a 270 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING portion of a term, — in order to test in some measure the industry and skill of the teacher and the proficiency of the pupils. I am hardly prepared to oppose this usage, because I am inclined to believe examinations are of some utility as a means of awakening an interest in the parents of the children ; perhaps they do some- thing to stimulate school officers, and also to excite to greater effort during the term both the teacher and the pupils. Still, public examinations as frequently con- ducted are not without serious objections. 1. They certainly cannot be looked upon as criterions of the faithfulness or success of teachers. A man with tact, and witJwut honesty, may make his school appear to far greater advantage than a better man can make a better school appear. This has often happened. It is not the most faithful and thorough teaching that makes the show and attracts the applause at a public exhibi- tion. It is the superficial, mechanical, memoriter exer- cise that is most imposing. Who has not seen a class that recited by note and in conce7't at a celebration win the largest approbation, when many of the individuals knew not the import of the words they uttered. Naines in geography have been thus " said or sung," when the things signified were to the children as really terrce in- cognitcB as the fairylands of Sinbad the Sailor. 2. Nor can such exhibitions be claimed justly to in- dicate the proficiency of the pupils. Every experienced teacher knows that the best scholars often fail at a public examination, and the most indolent and superfi- cial often distinguish themselves. The spectators not unfrequently in pointing out the talent of the school make the teacher smile at their blunders. 3. They present a strong temptation to dishonesty SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS 2/1 on the part of the teacher. Since so much stress is laid upon the examination, and particularly in some regions upon the Celebration, where several schools are brought together to make a show for a few hours, it must be rather an uncommon man who will have sufficient prin- ciple to exhibit his school as it is, and refuse to make those efforts so very common to have it appear zvhat it is not. The wish, expressed or implied, of the parents, and the ambition of the children all conspire to make the teacher yield to a usage so common. Consequently, several weeks will be spent to prepare the children to appear in public. During this time, they study not for improvement, not for future usefulness, but simply to make a shozv at the public celebration. An unworthy and unwarrantable motive actuates them during all this process ; and at last, unless strangely benighted, they are conscious of holding up a false- appearance to the world. Now, under such circumstances, whatever of good is effected by way of enkindling a zeal in the par- ents is dearly purchased. The sacrifice of principle in a teacher — much more in the children — is a large price to pay for the applause of a few visitors, or even for an increase of interest among them in the cause of popular education. Examinations, however, which are less showy and which are of such a character as thoroughly to sift the teachings that have been given, and to thwart any in- genious efforts specially to prepare for them — examina- tions that look back to the general teaching of the term, or the year, and test the accuracy and thoroughness of the instruction — are unquestionably very desirable and useful. To make them so in the highest sense, and to exempt them from an evil tendency upon the minds of 2/2 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING the young themselves, tJie teacher should be sUnctly hon- est. Not a lesson should be given with sole reference to the exhibition at the close; not an exercise should be omitted because the examination approaches. The good teacher should keep those great motives before the mind which look to future usefulness and to the discharge of duty. The child should be taught that he is accounta- ble for what he acquires, and what he may acquire, and not for what he may appear to have acquired ; and that this accountabihty is not confined to a single day, soon to pass and be forgotten ; but it runs through all time and all eternity. I know not but the expectation of an examination may stimulate some to greater exertion and make them better scholars. If this be so, it may be well enough ; and yet I should be slow to present such a motive to the mind of a child, because a special or secondary accountability always detracts from the general and chief. A strong reason, in addition to those already assigned, why special preparation should not be made for the ex- amination, is, that where such preparation is expected, the pupils become careless in their ordinary exercises. While, then, I think too much stress is at present placed upon showy exhibitions and celebrations, and that objections and dangers attend examinations, as fre- quently conducted, I would not recommend altogether their discontinuance. I would rather urge that the teacher, by his inflexible honesty, should make them fair representations of the actual condition of his school, without relying very much upon them as a means of stimulating the pupils to exertion ; that the pupils should be made to feel that the results of their exertion through SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS 2/3 the term, rather than a few special efforts near its close, would be brought into review ; that no hypocrisy or management should ever be tolerated in order to win the applause of the multitude ; that no particular les- sons should ever be assigned for the occasion ; that it should be remembered that the moral effect of an occa- sional failure at examination will be more salutary upon the school than unbroken success ; and that the chil- dren are irreparably injured when they are made in any way the wiUing instruments of false pretension. Under such circumstances examinations may be prof- itable to all concerned. If teacher and pupils have done well, they have the opportunity of showing it with- out violence to their own consciences. The employers, and patrons too, have some means of forming a correct estimate of the value of their school ; and all parties may be encouraged and stimulated. But above all things, LET THE TEACHER BE HONEST. TOPICAL OUTLINE I . The First Day of School. Read: Baldwin's Art of School Management, pp. 114- 117. DeGrafifs Schoolroom Guide, pp. 390-406. 1. Have a plan to start with. (i) The value of having one. (2) The results of not having one. 2. Suggestions. (i) Before the opening day : a. Visit the community. Form acquaintances pleasantly. b. Ascertain the situation thoroughly. c. Get hold of the former teacher's class records and daily programme. d. Learn his methods and plans. B.-P. THE. & PR. TEACHING — l8 2/4 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING e. Discourage disparagement of him. f. Visit the schoolhouse and set it to rights. (2) The opening day : a. Get to the schoolhouse early. b. Begin on time. c. Opening exercises. d. Only the briefest speech. Get to work. e. Adopt your predecessors classifications and programme and vary from these gradually and adroitly, as may be necessary later. f. Make class rolls quickly as classes are called, and assign lessons rapidly. g. Settle down to work regularly. h. Close with a pleasant, general exercise. 3. Working without a well-planned daily programme. (i) Illustration. (2) The effects of it. 4. A specimen programme. Read : Baldwin's Art of School Management, Part IV., Chap. V. White's School Management, pp. 86-94. (i) Follow your programme faithfully. Perfect it gradually. (2) Indicate a system of study periods as well as of recitation periods. (3) Assign reasonable home work. (4) Have drawing in your school. Read: Spencer's Education, pp. 127-134. (Mil- lar & Co.) (5) Provide for reviews, compositions, declamations, etc. 5. Things to be considered in constructing a programme. (i) An equable distribution of recitations. (2) Ample work periods between recitations. (3) Earlier in the day, heavier work and longer periods between recesses. (4) Relieving the strain of heavy work with lighter occupations. (5) As few classes as possible. SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS 2/5 II. Interniption. 1. Discourage and gradually abolish interruptions during recitations. 2. Provide stated intervals for them. III. Recesses. 1 . A short recess each half session, and a longer noon in- termission. 2. Time between the recesses gradually shortened as the day advances. 3. Separate playgrounds for the sexes. 4. An unobtrusive oversight of the playgrounds is necessary. 5. Use the recesses for the extra duties and demands of the day. 6. Leaving the room between recesses will need to be re- duced to a minimum. I V . Assigning Lessons . 1 . At the beginning of the recitation as a rule, with explicit directions. 2. Teacher must consider the average ability of the class. 3. Teacher must assign lessons reasonably and require them rigidly. (i) Effects of accepting poorly prepared work. (2) Effects of overtaxing classes. (3) The treatment of failures. 4. Good habits of study must be cultivated. (i) The importance, of learning how to learn. Read : Morgan's Studies in Pedagogy, Chap. IX. Baldwin's Art of School Management, pp. 287-299. V. Reviews. 1 . Frequent regular reviews. 2. Necessary both to memory and understanding. ' 3. They settle knowledge into habit. 4. Good reviews are orderly. They help the pupil to or- ganize his knowledge. 5. They are necessary to test the weak places in the teach- ing and the learning. 6. They look forward to benefits beyond the recitation. 2/6 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING VI. Public Examinatio7is. 1. Their value. 2. Objections to the usual school exhibition. (i) It does not exhibit the teacher or the teaching faithfully. (2) Does not justly exhibit the proficiency of the pupils. (3) Easily arouses unworthy motives in both teachers and pupils. (4) Tempts the teacher to dishonesty and breaks down the pupils' sense of honor. (5) Pupils become careless of ordinary and usual duties ; the school easily drops into disorder. 3. An honest exhibition. (i) What is necessary to make it so. SUBJECTS FOR DISCUSSION OR ESSAYS 1 . The Educational Values of Drawing. Spencer's Education, pp. 127-134. (Ed. of Millar & Co., N.Y.) Morgan's Educational Mosaics, p. 264. Swett's Methods of Teaching, p. 182. Compayre's Lectures on Pedagogy, pp. 417-427. 2. Good and Bad Habits of Study. Morgan's Studies in Pedagogy, Chap. IX. Baldwin's Art of School Management, pp. 287-299. Hoose's Province of Method in Teaching, pp. 163-176. Morgan's Educational Mosaics, p. 180. Todd's Student's Manual, Chap. III. ■X. Show and Sham in Education. CHAPTER XII THE TEACHER^S RELATION TO THE PARENTS OF HIS PUPILS He has a chance to teach his school well upon the inside, who knows how to influence the community well upon the outside. I. The teacher sJioiild carefully cultivate the social side of his ftature. In the choice of a clergyman, after estimating his moral and religious character and ascer- taining the order of his pulpit talents, a third question remains to be answered, viz. : What are his qualifica- tions as a pastor? How is he adapted to fulfill the various relations of private friend and counselor ; and in the family circle, in his intercourse with the aged and the young, how is he fitted to " Allure to brighter worlds and lead the way " ? In that sacred profession every one knows that nearly as much good is to be done by private intercourse as in the public ministration. Many a heart can be reached by a friendly and informal conversation, that would remain unmoved by the most powerful eloquence from the pulpit. Besides, many are prepared to be profited in the public exercises by that intercourse in private which has opened their hearts, removed prejudice, and engendered a feeling of friendly interest in the preacher. The admonitions of the gospel thus have the double 277 2/8 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING power of being truth, and truth uttered by the lips of a valued friend. It is to some extent thus with the school-teacher. He may be very learned and very apt to teach and yet fail of success in his district. Hence it is highly important that he should possess and carefully cultivate those social qualities which will greatly increase his usefulness. The teacher should consider it a part of his duty whenever he enters a district to excite a deeper interest there among the patrons of the school than they have ever before felt. He should not be satisfied till he has reached every mind connected with his charge in such a way that they will cheerfully cooper- ate with him and sustain his judicious efforts for good. Being imbued with a deep feeling of the importance of his work, he should let them see that he is alive to the interests of their children. To this end, — 2. He should seek frequent opportunities of social intei^- course with the parents. Though the advances toward this point, by the strict rules of etiquette, should be made by the parents themselves — (as by some it is actually and seasonably done) — yet, as a general thing, taking the world as we find it, the teacher must lead the way. He must often introduce himself uninvited to the people among whom he dwells, calling at their homes in the spirit of his vocation, and conversing with them freely about his duty to their children and to themselves. Every parent of course will feel bound to be courteous and civil in his own house ; and, by such an interview, perhaps a difference of opinion, a preju- dice, or a suspicion may be removed, and the founda- tion of a mutual good understanding be laid, which many little troubles can never shake. It may be very TEACHER'S RELATION TO THE PARENTS 279 useful to have an interview with such parents as have been disturbed by some administration of discipline upon members of their famiUes. Let me not be under- stood, however, to recommend that the teacher should ever go to the parent in a cringing, unmanly spirit. It would probably be far better that the parties should ever remain entire strangers, than that their meeting should necessarily be an occasion of humiliating retrac- tion on the part of the teacher. Neither should the parents ever be allowed to expect that the teacher always will as a matter of duty come to their confes- sional. But it is believed if there could be a meeting of the parties as men, as gentlemen, as Christians, as coadjutors for the child's welfare, it would always be attended with good results. 3. He should be willing to explain all his plans to the parents of his pupils. If they had implicit confidence in him, and would readily and fully give him every facility for carrying forward all his designs without explanation, then perhaps this direction might not be necessary. But as the world is he cannot expect spon- taneous confidence. They wish to know his designs, and it is best they should be informed of them by him- self. The best way for the teacher to interest them in the business of education will be freely to converse with them concerning the measures he intends to adopt. If his plans are judicious, he of course can show good reasons why they should be carried into effect; and parents are generally willing to listen to reason, espe- cially when it is directed to the benefit of their own chil- dren. Many a parent upon the first announcement of a measure in school, has stoutly opposed it, who upon a little explanatory conversation with the teacher, would 28o THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING entertain a very different opinion, and ever after would be most ready to countenance and support it. It seems to me a teacher may safely encourage inquiry into all his movements in school. There is an old say- ing — in my opinion a mischievous one, — which enjoins it as a duty upon all, to "tell no tales out of school." I see no objection to the largest liberty in this matter. Why may not everything be told, if told correctly .'' Parents frequently entertain a suspicious spirit as to the movements of the teacher. Would not very much of this be done away with if it was understood there was no mystery about the school } The teacher who would thus invite inquiry would be very careful never to do anything which he would not be willing to have related to the parents, or even to be witnessed by them. I would have no objection, if it were possible, that walls of our schoolrooms, as you look inward, should be transparent, so that any individual unperceived might view with his own eyes the movements within. The consciousness of such an oversight would work a healthy influence upon those who have too long delighted in mystery. 4. The teacher should encourage parents frequently to visit his school. There is almost everywhere too great backwardness on the part of parents to do this duty. The teacher should early invite them to come in. It is not enough that he do this in general terms. He may fix the time and arrange the party so that those who would assimilate should be brought together. It will frequently be wise to begin with the mothers, where visitation has been unusual. They will soon bring in the fathers. As often as they come they will be bene- fited. When such visits are made the teacher should not depart from his usual course of instruction on their TEACHER'S RELATION TO THE PARENTS 28 1 account. Let all the recitations and explanations be attended to, all praises and reproofs, all rewards and punishments, be as faithfully and punctually dispensed as if no person were present. In other words, let the teacher faithfully exhibit the school just as it is, its lights and its shadows, so that they may see all its work- ings and understand all its trials as well as its encour- agements. Such visitations under such circumstances it is be- lieved would ever be highly beneficial. The teacher's difficulties and cares would be better understood and his efforts to be useful appreciated. The hindrances thus seen to impede his progress would be promptly removed, and the teacher would receive more cordial sympathy and support. But if the teacher makes such visits the occasion for putting a false appearance upon the school ; if he takes to himself unusual airs, such as make him ridiculous in the eyes of his pupils, and even in his own estimation ; if he attempts to bring before the visitors his best classes, and to impress them with his own skill by showing off his best scholars, they will, sooner or later, discover his hypocrisy, and very likely despise him for an attempt to deceive them. 5. The teacJier sJioiild be frank in all his representa- tions to parents concerning their children. This is a point upon which many teachers most lamentably err. In this as in every other case, " honesty is the best policy." If an instructor informs a parent during the term that his son is making rapid progress, or as the phrase is — "doing very well," he excites in him high expectations ; and if at the end of the term it turns out otherwise, the parent with much justice may feel that 282 THEORY AND PRACTICE OE TEACHING he has been injured, and may be expected to load him with censure instead of praise. Let a particular an- swer, and a tme one, always be given to the inquiry — '' How does my child get along ? " The parent has a right to know, and the teacher has no right to conceal the truth. Sometimes teachers, fearing the loss of a pupil, have used some indefinite expression, which, how- ever, the doting parent is usually ready to interpret to his child's advantage. But sooner or later the truth will appear ; and when the teacher is once convicted of any misrepresentation in this particular, there is rarely any forgiveness for him. For this reason and for his own love of truth, for his own reputation and for the child's welfare, he should keep nothing back. He should tell the whole story plainly and frankly, — and the parent, if he is a gentleman, will thank him for his faithfulness to him ; and if he has any sense of justice he will be ready to cooperate with him for his child's improvement. At any rate such a course will insure the reward of a good conscience. 6. The teacher, as I have before urged, shonld have the habits and manners of a gentleman. He should strive also to acquire the ability to converse in an easy and agreeable way, so that his society shall never be irk- some. He in other words should be a man who does not require much entertaining. Modesty withal is a great virtue in the teacher ; especially in his intercourse with the people of his district. Teachers, from their almost constant intercourse with their pupils, are apt to think their own opinions infallible ; and they some- times commit the ridiculous error of treating others wiser than themselves as children in knowledge. This infirmity incident to the profession should be carefully TEACHER'S RELATION TO THE PARENTS 283 avoided ; and while the teacher should ever endeavor to make his conversation instructive, he should assume no airs of superior learning or infallible authority. He should remember the truth in human nature, that men are best pleased to learn without being reminded that they are learners.^ 7. He uiust sometimes stoop to conquer. I have known some teachers who have sneered at what they have termed the "outdoor work" here recommended. They have thrown themselves upon their dignity, and have declared that when they had done their duty within the schoolroom they had done all that could be ■expected, and that parents were bound to cooperate with them and sustain them. But after all we must take the world as we find it ; and since parents do not always feel interested as they should, I hold it to be a part of the teacher's duty to excite their interest and to win them to his aid by all the proper means in his power. In doing this he will in the most effectual way secure the progress of his school, and at the same time advance his own personal improvement. TOPICAL OUTLINE I. The teacher shoidd car ef idly cultivate the social side of his nature. I. Why? [Render full reasons.] II . He shoidd seelz freque7it opportunities of social intercourse with the parents. I. How? 2. Why? 3. The effects of cringing? III. He should be willing to explain all his plans to the parents of his pupils. 1. Forestall opposition. How? Why? 2. Encourage inquiry. Why? 1 " Men must be taught as though you taught them not, And things unknown proposed as things forgot." 284 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING IV. He should encourage parents frequently to visit his school. 1. How? Why? 2. Why exhibit the school faithfully? 3. Reasons why parents are commonly disinclined to visit the school. V. He should be frajik in all his representations to parents con- cerning their children. I. Why? How? VI . He should have all, the habits and manners of a gentle mail . I . Some valuable qualities ? VII. He must sometimes stoop to conquer. 1. Meaning of the expression ? Illustrate. 2. The motive justifying it? SUBJECTS FOR DISCUSSION OR ESSAYS 1. "Merely a Teacher." 2. How can parents be interested in the school? I CHAPTER XIII THE TEACHER'S CARE OF HIS HEALTH '' Get health ; for sickness is a cannibal which eats up all the youth and life it can lay hold of, and absorbs its own sons and daughters." — Emerson. No employment is more wearing to the constitution than the business of teaching. So many men falter in this employment from ill health, and so many are deterred from entering it, because they have witnessed the early decay and premature old age of those who have before pursued it ; so many are still engaged in it who almost literally " drag their slow length along," groaning under complicated forms of disease and loss of spirits, which they know not how to tolerate or cure, — that it has become a serious inquiry among the more intelligent of the profession, " Cannot something be known and practiced on this subject, which shall re- move the evils complained of ? " Is it absolutely neces- sary that teachers shall be dyspeptics and invalids ? Must devotion to a calling so useful, be attended with a penalty so dreadful ? A careful survey of the facts, by more than one phi- lanthropist, has led to the conclusion that the loss of health is not a necessary attendant upon the teacher of the young. It is believed, indeed, that the confinement from the air and sunlight and the engrossing nature of his pursuits have a strong tendency to bring on an irrita- 285 286 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING bility of the nervous system, a depression of spirits, and a prostration of the digestive functions ; but it is also believed that by following strictly and systematically the known laws of health, this tendency may be suc- cessfully resisted, and the teacher's life and usefulness very much prolonged. The importance of the subject and a desire to render this volume as useful as possible, have induced me to ask leave to transfer to its pages, with slight abbreviation, the very judicious and carefully written chapter on "Health — Exercise — Diet," con- tained in the " School and the Schoolmaster," from the gifted pen of George B. Emerson, Esq., of Bos- ton, — one of the most enlightened educators of the present age. HEALTH — EXERCISE — DIET " The teacher should have perfect health. It may seem almost superfluous to dwell here upon what is admitted to be so essential to all persons ; but it be- comes necessary from the fact that nearly all those who engage in teaching leave other and more active employ- ments to enter upon their new calling. By this change and by the substitution of a mere sedentary life within doors for a life of activity abroad, the whole habit of the body is changed, and the health will inevitably suffer unless precautions be taken which have never before been necessary. To all such persons — to all, especially, who are entering upon the work of teaching with a view of making it their occupation through life, a knowledge of the laws of health is of the utmost im- portance, and to such this chapter is addressed. I shall speak of these laws briefly under the heads of Exercise, Air, Sleep, Food, and Dress. TEACHER'S CARE OE HIS HEALTH 287 "Exercise. — So intimate is the connection between the various parts of our compound nature that the faculties of the mind cannot be naturally, fully, and effectually exercised, without the health of the body. And the first law of health is that which imposes the necessity of exercise. "The teacher cannot be well without exercise and usually a great deal of it. No other pursuit requires so much, — no other is so exhausting to the nerves ; and exercise, air, cheerfulness, and sunshine, are necessary to keep them in health. Most other pursuits give exercise of body, sunshine, and air, in the very per- formance of the duties that belong to them. This shuts us up from all. " One of the best as one of the most natural modes of exercise is zvalkiiig. To give all the good effects of which it is susceptible, a walk must be taken either in pleasant company, or if alone, with pleasant thoughts ; or still better, with some agreeable end in view, such as gathering plants or minerals, or observing other natural objects. Many a broken constitution has been built up, and many a valuable life saved and prolonged by such a love of some branch of natural history as has led to snatch every opportunity for a walk with the interest of a delightful study, " ' Where living things, and things inanimate Do speak, at Heaven's command, to eye and ear.' The distinguished geologist of Massachusetts, President Hitchcock, was once when teacher of a school reduced to so low a state by disease of the nerves, which took the ugly shape of dyspepsia, that he seemed to be hurry- ing rapidly toward the grave. Fortunately he became 288 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING interested in mineralogy, and this gave him a strong motive to spend all his leisure time in the open air and to take long circuits in every direction. He forgot that he was pursuing health, in the deeper interest of science ; and thus aided by some other changes in his habits, but not in his pursuits, he gradually recovered the perfect health which has enabled him to do so much for science and for the honor of his native state. '' Riding on horseback is one of the best modes of exercise possible for a sedentary person. It leads to an erect posture, throws open the chest, gives a fuller breathing, and exercises the muscles of the arms and upper part of the frame. * * * In weakness of the digestive organs its efficacy is remarkable. * * * '' A garden furnishes many excellent forms of exercise, and the numerous labors of a farm would give every variety if the teacher could be in a situation to avail himself of them. This is not often the case. When accessible, the rake, the pitchfork, moderately used, can- not be too highly recommended. A garden is within the reach of most teachers in the country. It has the advantage of supplying exercise suited to every degree of strength, and of being filled with objects gratifying to the eye and the taste. * * * The flower garden and shrubbery commend themselves to the female teacher. To derive every advantage from them she must be willing to follow the example often set by the ladies of England, and use the hoe, the rake, the prun- ing hook, and the grafting knife, with her own hands. ''Rowing, when practicable, is a most healthful exer- cise. It gives play to every muscle and bone in the frame. * * * When the river is frozen skating may take the place of rowing ; and it is an excellent sub- TEACHER'S CARE OF HIS HEALTH 289 stitute. * * * Driving a chaise or a sleigh is a healthful exercise, if sufficient precaution be used to guard against the current which is always felt as it is produced by the motion of the vehicle, even in still air. ** Saiviiig and splitting wood form a valuable exer- cise, particularly important for those who have left an active life for the occupation of teaching. " Exercise should be taken in the early part of the day. Warren Colburn, the author of the Arithmetic, whose sagacity in common things was as remarkable as his genius for numbers, used to say that half an hour's walk before breakfast did him as much good as an hour's after. Be an early riser. The air of morn- ing is more bracing and invigorating ; the sights and sounds and odors of morning are more refreshing. A life's experience in teaching declares the morning best. . * * * " Exercise must always be taken, if possible, in the open air. Air is as essential as exercise, and often, in warm weather particularly, more so. They belong to- gether. The blood flows not as it should, it fails to give fresh life to the brain, if we breathe not fresh air enough. The spirits cannot enjoy the serene cheerful- ness which the teacher needs if he breathe not fresh air enough. The brain cannot perform its functions; thought cannot be quick, vigorous, and healthy, with- out ample supplies of air. Much of the right moral tone of habitual kindliness and thankful reverence de- pends on the air of heaven. ''Exercise must be taken in the light; and if it may be, in the sunshine. Who has not felt the benignant influence of sunshine } The sun's light seems almost as essential to our well-being as his heat or the air we B.-r. THE. & PR. TEACHING — I9 290 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING breathe. It has a great effect on the nerves. A dis- tinguished physician of great experience, Dr. J. C. Warren of Boston, tells me that he almost uniformly finds diseases that affect the nerves exasperated by the darkness of night, and mitigated by the coming on of day. All plants growing in the air lose their strength and color when excluded from light. So in a great degree does man. They lose their fine and delicate qualities and the preciousness of their juices. Man loses the glow of his spirits and the warmth and natural play of his finer feelings. * * * " Next to air and light, water is the most abundant element in nature. It can hardly be requisite to enjoin upon the teacher the freest use of it. The most scru- pulous cleanliness is necessary, not only on his own account, but that he may be able always to insist upon it, with authority, in his pupils. The healthy state of the nerves and of the functions of digestion depends in so great a degree on the cleanliness of the skin that its importance can hardly be overstated. * * * " Sleep. — No more fatal mistake in regard to his constitution can be made by a young person given to study than that of supposing that Nature can be cheated of the sleep necessary to restore its exhausted or strengthen its weakened powers. From six to eight hours of sleep are indispensable ; and with young per- sons, oftener eight, or more than six. It is essential to the health of the body, and still more to that of the mind. It acts directly on the nervous system ; and irritability, or what is called iiervotcsness, is the conse- quence of its loss. This, bad in any person, is worse in the teacher than in any one else. It is an unfailing source of unhappiness to himself and to all his school. TEACHER'S CARE OF HIS HEALTH 29 1 He would be unwise to subject himself to the conse- quences of the loss of sleep ; he has no right to subject others. * * * " Diet. — To no person is an attention to diet more important than to the teacher. For his own guidance, and that he may be able to give proper instructions in regard to this subject to his pupils, the conclusions of experience, or what we may consider the laws of diet, should be familiar to him. Some of these are the fol- lowing : " I. Food should be simple ; not of too little nor too great variety. The structure of the teeth, resembling at once those of animals that naturally subsist on flesh, and of animals that take only vegetable food, and the character and length of the digestive organs, holding a medium between the average of these two classes, indi- cate that a variety of food, animal and vegetable, is natural to man, and in most cases probably necessary. The tendency in most parts of this country, from the great abundance of the necessaries of life, is to go to excess in the consumption of food, particularly of ani- mal food. The striking evils of this course have led many to the opposite extreme — to renounce meats en- tirely. Experience of the evils of this course also has in most places brought men back to the safe medium. No person needs to be more careful in regard to the quality and nature of his food than the teacher, as his exclusion from air for a great part of the day leaves him in an unfit condition to digest unwholesome food, while the constant use of his lungs renders his appetite unnaturally great or destroys it altogether. Animal food seems to be necessary, but not in great quantities ; not oftener, usually, than once a day. * * * In 292 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING winter the food should be nourishing, and may be more abundant ; in summer, less nutritious, less of animal origin, and in more moderate quantity. " 2. Food should be taken at sufficiently distant in- tervals. * * * The operation of digestion is not completed ordinarily in less than four hours. Food should not be taken at shorter intervals than this, and intervals of five or six hours are better, as they leave the stomach some time to rest. '' 3. It should' be taken in moderate quantity. In the activity of common life excess is less to be dreaded than with the sedentary habits and wearying pursuits of the teacher. * * * The exhaustion of teaching is that of the nervous power, and would seem to call for hours of quiet and freedom from care, with cheerful conversation and the refreshment of air and gentle exercise. Probably all the kinds of food in general use are wholesome when partaken of moderately. Those who, from choice or compulsion, pass from an active to a sedentary life, should at the same time re- strict themselves to one half their accustomed quantity of food. "4. As a general rule fat should be avoided. * * None but a person who uses a great deal of most active exercise, or is much exposed to cold, can long bear its use with impunity. If taken, fat in a solid form is less injurious than liquid fat. "5. Fruit may be eaten with the recollection of the proverb of fruit-producing countries : ' It is gold in the morning, silver at noon, and lead at night.' Ripe fruit in its season is wholesome, and preferable for a person of sedentary habits to more nourishing and exciting food. But it should be a substitute for other food, not TEACHER'S CARE OF HIS HEALTH 293 an addition. A bad practice, common in some places, of eating fruit, especially the indigestible dried fruits, raisins, and nuts, in the evening, should be avoided by the teacher. He must have quiet and uninterrupted sleep, and early hours, to be patient, gentle, and cheer- ful in school. " 6. The drink of a sedentary person should be chiefly water, and that in small quantities and only at meals. The intelligent Arab of the desert drinks not during the heat of the day. He sees that watering a plant in the sunshine makes it wither ; and he feels in himself an analogous effect from the use of water. There are few lessons in regard to diet so important to be incul- cated as this : ' Drink not between meals.' '* 7. The last rule to be observed is that no unneces- sary exertion of mind or body should be used immedi- ately after a meal. If a walk must be taken it should rather be a leisurely stroll than a hurried walk. ''Dress. — The teacher should be no sloven. He should dress well, not over nicely, not extravagantly ; neatly, for neatness he must teach by example as well as by precept; and warmly, for so many hours of the day shut in a warm room will make him unusually sen- sitive to cold. The golden rule of health should never be forgotten : ' Keep the head cool, the feet warm, and the body free.' The dress of the feet is particularly important. Coldness or dampness of the feet causes headache, weakness and inflammation of the eyes, coughs, consumption, and sometimes fever. A head- ache is often cured by sitting with the feet long near a fire. Keeping the feet warm and dry alleviates the common affections of the eyes, repels a coming fever, prevents or quiets coughs, and serves as one of the 294 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING surest safeguards against consumption. Many of our most sensible physicians trace the prevalence of con- sumption in northern states not to our climate but to the almost universal custom of wearing insufficient clothing, especially on the feet. "There is another subject intimately connected with health, which has been alluded to, but which ought, from its' importance, to receive more than a passing remark. It is cJieeifulness. This should be one of the ends and measures of health. It ought to be considered the natural condition of a healthy mind ; he who is not cheerful is not in health. If he has not some manifest moral cause of melancholy, there must be something wrong in the body or in the action of the powers of the mind. "A common cause of low spirits in a teacher is anxiety in regard to the welldoing of his pupils. This he must feel ; but he must endeavor, as far as possible, to banish it from his hours of relaxation. He must leave it behind him when he turns from the school- house door. To prevent its haunting him he must seek pleasant society. He must forget it among the endear- ments of home, the cheerful faces and kind voices of friends. This is the best of all resources, and happy is the man who has a pleasant home, in the bosom of which he may rest from labor and from care. If he be among strangers he must endeavor to find or make friends to supply the place of home. He must seek the company of the parents and friends of his pupils, not only that he may not be oppressed by the loneli- ness of his situation, but that he may better understand the character of his pupils and the influences to which they are subjected. The exercise of the social affec- TEACHER'S CARE OF HIS HEALTH 295 tions is essential to the healthy condition of a well- constituted mind. Often he will find good friends and pleasant companions among his pupils. Difference of years disappears before kindliness of feeling, and sym- pathy may exist between those most remote in age and pursuit and cultivation. " A delightful but somewhat dangerous recreation is offered by music ; delightful, as always soothing to the wearied mind ; but dangerous, because liable to take to itself too much time. It would be desirable if every instructor could himself sing or play. If he cannot, let him listen to songs or cheerful music from voice or instrument, or to the notes of birds. " '• I'm sick of noise and care, and now mine ear Longs for some air of peace.' " To the foregoing excellent remarks I could scarcely wish to add anything, save to call attention to that pernicious habit among both clergymen and teachers of dressing the neck too warmly whenever they go into the open air. There seems to have obtained an im- pression that those who have occasion to speak often should be particularly careful to guard their throats from the cold. Hence many are seen in a winter's day with a collar of fur, or a woolen ** comforter," or at least a silk handkerchief of extraordinary dimensions around their necks, and often extending above their mouths and nostrils. If they have occasion to step out but for a moment, they are still subject to the slavery of putting on this unnatural incumbrance. 296 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING Now I believe that this extra covering for the neck, instead of preventing disease of the throat and lungs, is one of the most fruitful sources of such disease. These parts being thus thickly covered during exercise become very warm, and an excessive local perspiration is excited ; and the dampness of the throat is much in- creased if the covering extends above the mouth and nose, thu-s precluding the escape of the exhalations from the lungs. When, therefore, this covering is removed, even within doors, a very rapid evaporation takes place, and a severe cold is the consequence. In this way a cold is renewed every day, and hoarseness of the throat and irritation of the lungs are the necessary result. Very soon the clergyman or teacher breaks down with the bronchitis, or the "lung complaint," and is obliged for a season at least to suspend his labors. This diffi- culty is very much enhanced if the ordinary neck dress is a stiff stock, which, standing off from the neck, allows the ingress of the cold air as soon as the outer covering is removed. Having suffered myself very severely from this cause, and having seen hundreds of cases in others, I was de- sirous to bear the testimony of my experience against the practice, — and to suggest to all who have occasion to speak long and often that the simplest covering for the neck is the best. A very light cravat is all that is necessary. If the ordinary cravat be too thick and too warm, as the large-sized white cravats so fashionable with the clergy usually are, during the exercise of speaking an unnatural flow of blood to the parts will be induced, which, after the exercise ceases, will be fol- lowed by debility and prostration. A cold is then very readily taken, and disease follows. I am confident from TEACHER'S CARE OF HIS HEALTH 29/ my own experience and immediate observation, that this unnatural szvaddling of the neck is one of the most fruitful causes of disease of the lungs and throat that can be mentioned. TOPICAL OUTLINE I. Teaching endangers the Health. 1. How? 2. The effects of ill health upon a teacher's usefulness? II. Exercise. I A condition of health for body and mind. 2. When and how? 3. Forms of exercise. a. Walking. Field Studies. b. Riding horseback. c. Gardening. d. Boating, skating, driving. e. Sawing, chopping, splitting wood. 4. Bathing. III. Sleep. IV. Diet. 1 . The importance. 2. Rules of diet. V. Dress. VI. Cheerfulness. 1. Its relation to health and usefulness. 2. How promoted. VII. Ahtsic. VIII. Dressing the Neck properly. SUBJECTS FOR DISCUSSION OR ESSAYS 1. Exercise, a Law of All Health. 2. Education at the Expense of Health. 3. Mental Effects of 111 Health. 4. Conditions of Health. 298 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING READINGS Spencer's Education, Chap. IV. Compayre's Lectures on Pedagogy, pp. 28-51. Morgan's Manual of Pedagogy, pp. 291-292. White's School Management, pp. 25, 26, 58-78, 83. Swett's Methods of Teaching, pp. 34-38. Todd's Student's Manual, Chap. VIII. Hamerton's Intellectual Life, Part X. Bacon's Essays. " Of Regimen of Health." Blaikie's How to get Strong. Morgan's Educational Mosaics, p. 165. CHAPTER XIV THE TEACHER'S RELATION TO HIS PROFESSION " Every man owes a debt to his profession." — Bacon. " There are heroes and martyrs, prophets and apostles of learn- ing, as there are of religion." — Gilman. SECTION I. STATE OF THE PROFESSION It has long been the opinion of the best minds in our country as well as in the most enlightened coun- tries of Europe that teaching should be a profession. It has been alleged, and with much justice, that this calling, which demands for its successful exercise the best of talents, the most persevering energy, and the largest share of self-denial, has never attained an ap- preciation in the public mind at all commensurate with its importance. It has by no means received the emol- ument, either of money or honor, which strict justice would award in any other department to the talents and exertions required for this. This having been so long the condition of things, much of the best talent has been attracted at once to the other professions; or if exercised awhile in this, the temptation of more lucrative reward, or of more speedy, if not more last- ing honor, has soon diverted it from teaching, where so little of either can be realized, to engage in some other department of higher promise. So true is this, that scarcely a man can be found, having attained to 299 300 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING any considerable eminence as a teacher, who has not been several times solicited — and perhaps strongly tempted — to engage in some more lucrative employ- ment ; and while there have always been some strong men who have preferred teaching to any other calling, — men who would do honor to any profession, and who, while exercising this, have found that highest of all rewards, the consciousness of being useful to others, — still it must be confessed that teachers have too often been of just that class which a knowledge of the cir- cumstances might lead us to predict would engage in teaching ; men of capacity too limited for the other pro- fessions, of a temperament too sluggish to engage in the labors of active employment, of manners too rude to be tolerated except in the society of children (!), and sometimes of a morality so pernicious as to make them the unfailing contaminators of the young whenever permitted — not to teach — but to "keep school." Thus two great evils have been mutually strength- ening each other. The indifference of the employers to the importance of good teachers, and their parsi- mony in meting out the rewards of teaching, have called into the field large numbers, in the strictest sense, unworthy of all reward; while this very un- v/orthiness of the teachers has been made the excuse for further indifference, and if possible for greater meanness on the part of employers. Such has been the state of the case for many years past, and such is to a great extent the fact at present. It has been the ardent wish of many philanthropists that this deplorable state of affairs should be exchanged for a better. Hence they have urged that teaching- should be constituted a profession ; that none should TEACHER'S RELATION TO HIS PROFESSION 30I enter this profession but those who are thoroughly qualified to discharge the high trust ; and, as a conse- quence, that the people should more liberally reward and honor those who are thus quaHfied and employed. This would indeed be a very desirable change ; it would be the educational millennium of the world. For such a period we all may well devoutly pray. But how shall this glorious age — not yet arrived — be ushered in } By whose agency, and by what happy instrumentality must its approach be hastened.-^ Here, as in all great enterprises, there is some difference of opinion. Some have urged that the establishment of normal schools and other seminaries for the better education of teachers, and the institution of a more vigilant system of supervision, by which our schools should be effectually guarded against the intrusion of the ignorant and inefificient teacher, are all that is necessary to bring in this brighter day. Others have zealously urged that such preparation and such super- vision are entirely superfluous and premature in the present state of the public mind. TJiey say that the public must first become more liberal in its appropria- tions for schools ; it must at once double the amount it has been accustomed to pay to teachers, and thus secure without further trouble the best talent to this vocation. To this the former class reply that the pub- lic has seldom been known to raise its price so long as its wants could be supplied at the present rates. They say that the last century has afforded ample opportunity for the exhibition of this voluntary gener- osity of the public, and yet we still wait to see this anomaly in human prudence, of offering in advance to pay double the price for the same thing ; for until 302 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING better teachers are raised up, it must be an advance upon the present stock. So there is a division among them, ** for some cry one thing and some another." Now I believe in this case, as in most others, the truth lies between the extremes. As the evil complained of is a mutual one, as has already been shown, — that is, an illiberal public has tolerated incompetent teachers, and the incompetence of teachers has enhanced in turn the parsimony of the public, — so the remedy must be a mutual one ; the public must be enlightened and teachers must be improved ; the pay of teachers must be raised, but there must be also something to warrant the higher rate. Nor is it easy to determine which shall begin first. We can hardly expect the people to pay more till they find an article worth more ; nor, on the other hand, can we expect the teachers to incur any considerable outlay to improve themselves until better encouragement shall be held out to them by their em- ployers. The two must generally proceed together. Just as in the descending scale there was a mutual downward tendency, so here, better service will demand better pay, and in turn the liberality of employers will stimulate the employed to still higher attainments in knowledge and greater exertions in their labors. In this condition of things the question recurs, What is the duty of teachers in relation to their calling } I answer, they are bound to do what they can to elevate it. Lord Bacon said, " Every man owes a debt to his profession." Teachers being supposed to be more in- telligent than the mass of the community may justly take the lead in the work of progress. They should as a matter of dtcty take hold of this work, — a work of sacrifice and self-denial as it will be at least for some I TEACHER'S RELATION TO II IS PROFESSION 303 time, — and heartily do what they can to magnify their office and make it honorable. In the meantime they may do what they can to arouse the people to a sense of their duty. The more enlightened are to some ex- tent with them already. The press, the pulpit, the legis- lative assemblies, all proclaim that something must be done. All admit the faithful teacher has not been duly rewarded, and sovie are found who are willing to do something for the improvement both of the mind and condition of the teacher. This is encouraging ; and while we rejoice at the few gleams of light that betoken our dawning, let us inquire for a little space how we can hasten the ''coming in of the perfect day." SECTION II. SELF-CULTURE The teacher should labor diligently to improve himself. This is a duty incumbent on all persons, but particu- larly upon the teacher. The very nature of his em- ployment demands that his mind should be frequently replenished from the storehouses of knowledge. To interest children in their studies, how necessary is it that the teacher's mind should be thoroughly furnished with the richest thoughts of the wise ; to inspire them with a desire to learn, how important that he should be a living example of the advantage and enjoyment which learning alone can bestow ; to strew the path of knowl- edge with flowers, and thus make it the path of pleas- antness, how desirable that he should abound with the aptest illustrations drawn from all that is wonderful and curious in nature and art ; to awaken the young mind to a consciousness of its capacities, its wants, its respour sibilities, how thoroughly should he know all the work- ings of the human soul, — how wisely and carefully 304 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING should he touch the springs of action, — how judi- ciously should he call to his aid the conscience and the religious feelings ! Besides, let it be remembered that in this as in other things the teacher's example is of great importance. The young will be very likely to judge of the impor- tance of their own improvement by the estimate the teacher practically places upon his ; nor can he with any good grace press his pupils to exertion while they see that he makes none whatever himself. There is great danger in the midst of the confine- ment and fatigue of the schoolroom, and the pressure of anxiety and care out of school, that the teacher will yield to the temptations of his position and fall into habits of indolence as to his own improvement. Com- pelled, as he often is, to labor at great disadvantage, by reason of a small and poorly furnished schoolroom ; confined through the day from the sunshine and the fresh breeze ; subjected to a constant pressure of duty amid untold trials of his patience, arising from the law that impels children to be active as well as inconsider- ate ; required to concentrate his powers upon the double duty of governing and teaching at the same instant, and all through the session, — it is not strange when the hour of release comes that he should seek rest or recrea- tion at the nearest point, even to the neglect of his own mental or moral culture. I am of the opinion that this accounts for the fact that so many persons enter the work of instruction, and continue in it for a longer or shorter period without making the slightest progress either in the art of teaching or in their own intellectual growth. Their first school indeed is often their best. This tendency or temptation incident to the calling it TEACHER'S RELATION TO HIS PROFESSION 305 is the teacher's duty constantly and manfully to resist. He can do it. I. He has the time to do it. He is usually required to spend but six hours in the day in the schoolroom. Suppose he add two hours more for the purpose of looking over his lessons and devising plans for improv- ing his school, — he will still have sixteen hours for sleep, exercise, recreation, and improvement. Eight hours are sufficient for sleep, especially for a sedentary man (some say less), and four will provide for meals, exercise, and recreation. Foitr still remain for improve- viciit. Any teacher who is systematic and economical in the use of his time can reserve for the purpose of his own improvement four hours in every tiventyfour, and this without the slightest detriment to his school duties or to his health. To be sure, he must lead a regular life. He must have a plan and systematically follow it. He must be pnnctnal at his school, at his meals, at his exercise or recreation, at his hour of retiring and rising, and at his studies. Nor should he ordinarily devote more time than I have mentioned directly to his school. He should labor with his whole soul while he does work, and he will the more heartily do this if he has had time to think of something else during the season of respite from labor. It is a great mistake that teachers make when they think they shall be more successful by devoting all their thoughts to their schools. Very soon the school comes to occupy their sleeping as well as waking hours, and troublesome dreams disturb the repose of night. Siich men must soon IV ear out. But according to the laws of our nature, by a change B.-P. THE. & PR. TEACHING — 20 306 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING of occupation, the jaded faculties find rest. By taking up some new subject of inquiry the intellect is relieved from the sense of fatigue which before oppressed it, the thoughts play freely again, the animation returns, the eye kindles, and tJie mind expands. 2. SiLch labo7' Jinds immediate reward. The con- sciousn^ss of grozvth is no small thing toward encour- aging the teacher. He feels that he is no longer violating his nature by allowing himself to stagnate. Then he will find every day that he can apply the newly acquired truth to the illustration of some princi- ple he is attempting to teach. He has encouraging and immediate proof that he is a better teacher, and that he has made himself so by timely exertion. He is thus again stimulated to rise above those temptations before described, — this immediate availability of his acquire- ments being vouchsafed to the teacher, as it is not to most men, in order to prompt him to stem the current which resists his progress. And now, if I have shown that a teacher is bound to improve himself, both from a regard to his own well- being, and the influence of his example upon others, — and if I have also shown that he can improve himself, I may be indulged in making a few suggestions as to the manner of his doing it. I. He should have a course of professio7ial reading. It will do much for his improvement to read the works of those who have written on the subject of education and the art of teaching. If possible he should collect and possess a small educational library. It will be of great service to him to be able to read more than once such suggestions as are abundantly contained in the ''Teacher's Manual," by Palmer; the "School and TEACHER'S RELATION TO HIS PROFESSION 307 Schoolmaster," by Potter and Emerson; the "Teacher," by Abbott; the "Teacher Taught," by Davis; "Lec- tures on School Keeping," by Hall; "The Common School Journal," "Secretary's Reports," and "Lec- tures," by Horace Mann; the "Connecticut Common School Journal," and " Journal of the Rhode Island Institute," by H. Barnard ; the " District School Jour- nal," of New York, by Francis Dwight and others ; the " Lectures of the American Institute of Instruction ; " the "Schoolmaster's Friend," by T. Dwight; the "Dis- trict School," by J. Orville Taylor; the "Teacher's Advocate," by Cooper ; the writings, if they can be ob- tained, of Wyse, of Cousin, of Lalor, of Lord Brougham on Education, together with such other works as are known to contain sound and practical views. It is not to be expected that every teacher will possess all these, or that he will read them all in a single term. But it is well to hold converse with other minds, and to have it in our power to review their best thoughts when- ever our own need refreshing. I have given a some- what extended list of books because the inquiry is now so often made by teachers as to what they shall read. 2. By pursuing systematically a course of general study. Many teachers who have a desire to improve themselves still fritter away their time upon little miscellaneous matters, without making real progress. It is well in this to have a plan. Let some one study, — it may be geology, or astronomy, or chemistry, or botany, or the pure mathematics, — let some one study receive con- stant attention till no mean attainments have been made in it. By taking one thing at a time and dihgently pur- suing it, at the end of a term the teacher feels that he has something to show for his labor, — and he is by the 308 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING advance already made prepared to take the next and more difficult step. In a course of years, while a neigh- bor who began teaching at the same time has been stag- nating or even retrograding for the want of a plan and a purpose, a diligent man, by system and perseverance, may make himself at least equal to many who have enjoyed better advantages in early life, and at the same time have the superadded enjoyment of feeling that he has been his own teacher. 3. Keep a journal or cofnmonplace book. The habit of composing daily is very valuable to the teacher. In this book he may record whatever plans he has devised, with their results in practice. He may enter remarkable cases of discipline, — in short, anything which in the course of his practice he finds inter- esting. Those valuable suggestions which he receives from others, or hints that he may derive from books, may be epitomized here, and thus be treasured up for future reference. Sometimes one's best thoughts fade from his own mind and he has no power to recall them. Such a book would preserve them, and would moreover show the character of one's thoughts at any particular period, and \\vq progress of thought, from one period to another, better than any other means.^ To these means of self-culture I would add the prac- tice of carefully reading and writing on chosen subjects more fully described in the chapter on Habits of the Teacher. By all these means and such others as may come within his reach, if a teacher succeeds in his attempts at progress, he does untcJi for his profession. The very 1 For further remarks on the commonplace book, see Chap. VII. p. 143, note. TEACHER'S RELATION TO HIS PROFESSION 309 fact that he has given practical demonstration that a man may teach and still improve; that the temptations of his profession may be resisted and overcome ; that the life of the pedagogue which has required him to keep the company of small minds and to be occupied with minute objects, has never prevented his holding communion with the greatest men our earth has known, nor circumscribed in the least the sphere of his grasp- ing research, — I say the very fact that he has thus shown what a man may do under such circumstances, may do much to encourage others to hke effort. But there are other and direct duties which he owes to his profession, which I proceed to consider under the head of SECTION III. — MUTUAL AID Every teacher should be willing to impart as well as to receive good. No one, whatever may be his per- sonal exertions, can monopolize all the wisdom of the world. The French have a proverb that '' Everybody is wiser than anybody." Acting on this principle the teacher should be willing to bring his attainments into the common stock, and to diffuse around him as far as he is able the light he possesses. I have no language with which to express my abhorrence of that selfish- ness which prompts a man, after attaining to some eminence as a teacher by the free use of all the means within his reach, self-complacently to stand aloof from his fellow-teachers, as if he would say : " Brethren, help yourselves — I have no need of you, and you have no claim upon me. I have toiled hard for my emi- nence, and the secret is with me. I will enjoy it alone. When you have toiled as long, you may be as wise. 310 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHINC Brethren, help yourselves." Such a spirit would per- haps be tolerated by the world in an avaricious man who had labored to treasure up the shining dust of earth. But no man may innocently monopolize knowledge. The light of the sun is shed in golden refulgence upon every man, and no one if he would may separate a portion for his own exclusive use by closing his shut- ters about him, — for that moment his light becomes darkness. It is thus with the light of knowledge. Like the air we breathe, or like the rain from heaven, it should be free to all. The man who would lock up the treasures of learning from the gaze of the whole world, whether in the tomes of some dusty library, as of old it was done, or in the recesses of his narrower soul, is unworthy of the name of man ; he certainly has not the spirit of the teacher. An exclusive spirit may be borne where meaner things, as houses, and lands, and gold, are at stake : but in education and religion — light and love, — where giving doth not impoverish nor withholding make rich, there is not even the shadow of an excuse for it. The man who is exclusive in these things, would be so, I fear, in heaven. How can teachers encottrage each other? I. By mutual visitation. Very much may be done by social intercourse. Two teachers can scarcely converse together an hour without benefiting each other. The advantages of intercourse with friends, as delineated by Dr. Young, may not be denied to teachers : " Hast thou no friend to set thy mmd abroach.? Good sense will stagnate. Thoughts shut up want air, And spoil like bales unopened to the sun. Had thought been all, sweet speech had been denied. TEACHER'S RELATION TO HIS PROEESSION 311 Thought, too, delivered, is the more possessed ; Teaching, we learn ; and giving, we retain The births of intellect, when dumb, forgot. Speech ventilates our intellectual fire ; Speech burnishes our mental magazine, Brightens for ornament, and whets for use." But not only should teachers visit one another, — it is profitable also for them to visit each other's schools. I have never spent an hour in the school of another with- out gaining some instruction. Sometimes a new way of illustrating a difficult point, sometimes an exhibition of tact in managing a difficult case in discipline, some- times an improved method of keeping up the interest in a class, would suggest the means of making- my own labors the more successful. And even should one's neighbor be a bad teacher, one may sometimes learn as much from witnessing glaring defects as great excel- lencies. Some of the most profitable lessons I have ever received have been drawn from the deficiencies of a fellow-teacher.. We seldom " see ourselves as others see us " ; and we are often insensible of our own faults till we have seen them strikingly exhibited by another ; and then by a comparison we correct our own. Besides, by a visitation of a friend's school we may not only receive good, but we may impart it. If there is mutual confidence, a few words may aid him to cor- rect his faults, if he has any, — faults which but for such suggestion might grow into confirmed habits to his permanent injury. So important is this mutual visitation among teachers as a means of improvement, that I doubt not employers would find it for their interest to encourage it by allow- 312 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING ing the teachers to set apart an occasional half day for this purpose. It would, moreover, be very useful for the teachers of a town to hold stated meetings as often as once a month for the purpose of mutual improvement. It would cultivate a fellow-feeling among them, and it would afford them an opportunity to exchange thoughts on most " of the difficulties which they meet in their schools, and the best methods of surmounting them. At these meetings a mutual exchange of books on the subject of teaching would extend the facilities of each for improving his own mind and his methods of instruc- tion and government. 2. By the use of the pe7i. Every teacher should be a ready writer. Nearly every teacher could gain access to the columns of some paper, through which he could impart the results of his experience or of his reflection. Such a course would benefit him specially, and at the same time it would awaken other minds to thought and action. In this way the attention, not only of teachers but of parents, would be called to the great work of education. One mind in this way might move a thou- sand. If a teacher does not feel qualified to instinct, let him inqidre, and thus call out the wisdom of others. This could be done in nearly every village. The press is almost always ready to promote the cause of educa- tion. By the use of it teachers may profitably discuss all the great questions pertaining to their duty, and at the same time enlighten the community in which they live. This is an instrumentality as yet too little em- ployed. 3. By Teachers' Associations or Institutes. These are peculiarly adapted to the diffusion of the best plans of TEACHER'S RELATION TO HIS PROFESSION 313 instruction. Rightly conducted they can never fail of being useful. Every man who lectures or teaches is profited by the preparation. If he is a man of wisdom and experience, he will benefit his hearers. If other- wise, the discussion which should ever follow a lecture will expose its fallacies. It has often happened in such associations, that an honest and experienced man has in a half hour given to the younger portion of the members lessons of wisdom which it would take them years to learn by their own observation. Errors in principle and practice have been exposed into which many a young teacher was unconsciously falling, and hints have been given to the quicker minds by which their own modes of teaching and governing have been speedily improved. As far as possible such meetings should be made strictly practical. Older teachers, who usually have the most to do with the management of them, should bear in mind that they are mainly designed to diffuse practical ideas of teaching, particularly among the younger members. Too often these meetings are made the arena of debate upon questions of very little prac- tical importance to the teacher. I have seen a body of men spend an entire session of a half day in discussing a series of overwrought resolutions upon some topic scarcely at all connected with any duty of the teacher, frequently leaving the main question to wrangle about some point of order, or of ''parliamentary usage"; and after the resolutions were passed or rejected, as the case might be — (and it was of very little consequence whether *' carried " or " lost "), — the ladies and younger teachers who had borne no part in the talk, would find it difficult to tell " wherefore they had come together." 314 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING Nothing had been said or done by which they could be aided in their schools. Lectitrers, too, have frequently mistaken their aim. Ambitious to shine out as liter- ary men, they have given orations instead of practical lessons. In these meetings, it seems to me nothing ostentatious, nothing far-fetched is what we need; but rather the modes and experience of practical men. We need to come down to the schoolroom, to the everyday business of the teacher, and thus prepare him to do his work more successfully on his return to his duties. Another and no inconsiderable advantage of such associations is that the teacher gains encouragement and strength by being thus brought in contact with others engaged in the same pursuit. Toiling on alone, in his isolated district, surrounded by obstacles and dis- couragements, weighed down by care and finding none to sympathize with him, he is almost ready to faint in his course and perhaps to abandon his calling. At this crisis he reads the notice for the teachers' meeting and he resolves to go up once more to the gathering of his friends. From the various parts of the county, from the populous and crowded city, and from the by- ways of the country towns, a goodly number collect together and greet each other. Smile answers to smile, the blood courses more freely through the veins, the spirits, long depressed perhaps, partake of the general glow, and each feels that Jie is not toiling alone. He feels that a noble brotherhood of kindred spirits are laboring in the same field, under trials and discourage- ments similar to those which have oppressed him. He derives new strength from the sympathy of friends. A pi'ofessional feeling is engendered which will ac- company him to his schoolroom ; and when he goes TEACHER'S RELATION TO HIS PROFESSION 315 home it is with renewed vigor and fresh aspirings to be a better man and a better teacher. He labors with more confidence in himself ; and, enlightened by what he has seen and heard, he is far more successful than before. His pupils, too, respond to the new hfe they see enkindHng in him, and go to their work more cheer- fully. One difficulty after another vanishes, and he begins to think teaching, after all, is not the worst em- ployment in the world, but that it has some flowers as well as thorns ; and he concludes to remain in the pro- fession. This has been the history of at least one man. Long may many others have occasion to exercise grati- tude like his for the enjoyment of similar privileges.^ I ought not to leave this subject without a word or two of caution : I. Be Jionest. In all your intercourse with your fellow-teachers, be careful to use the words of *' truth and soberness." In stating your experience never allow your fancy to embellish your facts. Of this there is great danger. The young are sometimes tempted to tell a good story ; but a deviation from the truth — always perilous and always wrong — may be peculiarly disas- ^The Essex County Teachers' Association, in Massachusetts, was first organized in 1829, and for seventeen years its meetings, of two days each, have been held semiannually, and usually very fully attended. This association has wrought an untold amount of usefulness by its improvement and encouragement of the teachers of that county, — and at this time it continues to diffuse its wonted blessings. A more intelligent and devoted body of teachers cannot be found in the United States than those who now compose that association. Long may it continue to irradiate its glorious light ; and long may its devoted members enjoy the well-merited confi- dence of the community in which they labor. 3l6 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING trous here. Experience overstated may egregiously mislead the unwary inquirer after truth. Never over- color the picture ; it is better to err on the other side. So, likewise, in exhibiting your school to fellow- teachers, be strictly Jionest. They come to learn from your everyday practice, and not from a counterfeit ; and whenever you dress your school in a showy garb to win the applause of a fellow-teacher you do him a great injustice. You may not please your friend so much by your ordinary mode as by something assumed for the occasion ; but you may profit him far more ; and in the end you lose nothing by pursuing the line of duty. I well remember that a somewhat distinguished teacher once visited my own school, who on going away expressed himself somewhat disappointed because he did not see anything " extraordinary,'' as he said, in my mode of procedure. The truth was, nothing extraor- di7tary was attempted. He saw what I wished to show him, an ordinary day's work ; for I had before that time imbibed the opinion that a man's reputation will be more firmly established by sustaining every day a fair mediocrity, than it ever can be by an attempt to outdo himself on a few special occasions. As the value of biographical writing is often very much diminished because the writer has endeavored to paint his character too perfect to be hninan, — so these visitations will lose their utility, whenever, by substituting hollow preten- sion for sober reality, the teacher endeavors to exhibit such a school as he does not daily keep. 2. Avoid servile imitation of aiiy model. It is often remarked that every man's plan is the best for him ; and that many besides David can never fight in Saul's TEACHER'S RELATION TO HIS PROFESSION 317 armor. This is generally true. All experience then should be considered in connection with the circum- stances under which it was tried, never forgetting the character and genius of the person who relates it. What might succeed in his hand may fail in yours ; particu- larly as you will lack the interest of an original inventor. The true secret lies in listening to the views of all, and then in making a judicious combination to meet your own character and your own circumstances. It is often better to adjust and adapt the plan of another, than to adopt it. Servile imitation precludes thought in the teacher and reduces him to a mere machine. The most suc- cessful teachers I have ever known were those who would listen attentively to the plans and experience of others, and then strike out a course for themselves, attempting that, and that only, which they were confi- dent they could successfully execute. 3. Avoid undue self-suffLciency. Men usually cease to learn when they tJiink they are wise enough. The teacher is in danger of falling into this error. Moving for the most part among children, where his decisions are seldom questioned, he is very apt to attach undue importance to his own opinions. Such a man meets his fellows with much self-complacency, and is but poorly prepared to be profited by the views of others. But the teacher should never cease to be teachable. There are very few men too old or too wise to learn something; and they are the wisest, if not the oldest, who are willing to welcome a real improvement, even though it should come from comparative ''babes and sucklings," out of whose mouths God has sometimes per- fected praise. 3l8 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING TOPICAL QUIZ I. State of the Profession. 1. Account for the fact that the teaching profession is held in such slight esteem by the general public. 2. Account for the fact that so little of the best talent remains in the profession of teaching. 3. Account for the existence of so many incompetent and unworthy teachers. 4. How can the indifference and parsimony of the public be remedied? 5. State the ways in which the teacher can magnify his office in public esteem. II. Self -culture. 6. Why should the teacher labor diligently to improve himself? 7. What obstacles to self-culture confront the teacher? The usual result ? 8. What are the opportunities for self-culture? 9. What are the rewards of self-culture ? 10. In what ways can a teacher improve himself? 11. What are the special values of professional reading? 12. Suggest a systematic plan for general study. 13. What are the uses of a commonplace book? 14. What improvement lies in reading and writing upon chosen subjects? III. Mutual Aid. 15. State the obligations and uses of mutual aid. 16. State ways in which teachers can encourage one another. 17. State the values of school visitations. 18. How can the teacher use his pen to advantage in the home paper? 19. State the uses of Associations and Institutes. 20. What faults are to be avoided in such bodies ? 21. State and justify the cautions urged by Page regarding professional intercourse. READINGS (Books for Inspiration and Self-culture) Todd's Student's Manual. Blackie's Self-culture. \ TEACHER'S RELATION TO HIS PROFESSION 319 Smiles's Self-help. P^othergiirs The Will Power. Lubbock's Pleasures of Life. Baldwin's The Book Lover. Hamerton's Intellectual Life. Brown's What is Worth While. Farrar's Life of Christ. Stalker's Life of St. PauL De Guimps's Life of Pestalozzi. Hinsdale's Life of Horace Mann. (Pedagogical Books worth accumulating gradually and mastering completely) Arnold's Waymarks for Teachers. Svvett's Methods of Teaching. Roark's Psychology in Education. Fitch's Lectures on Teaching. Halleck's Psychology and Psychic Culture. Davis's Elements of Psychology. Morgan's Studies in Pedagogy. Compayre's Lectures on Teaching. Baldwin's Art of School Management. White's School Management. Compayre's History of Pedagogy. Painter's History of Education. Quick's Educational Reformers. Plato's Republic. Quintilian's Institutes. Putnam's Manual of Pedagogics. Spencer's Education. Bain's Education as a Science. Rosenkranz's Philosophy of Education. Payne's Contributions to the Science of Education. Rousseau's Emile. Bowen's Froebel. Herford's Student's Froebel. FroebeFs Education of Man. De Garmo's Herbart and the Herbartians. CHAPTER XV MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS " Power ceases in the instant of repose ; it resides in the moment of transition from a past to a new state, in the shooting of the gulf, in the darting of an aim." — Emerson. On looking over the notes which I have at various times made of my own experience and observation, dur- ing twenty years of practical teaching, I find there are several thoughts which may be of some service to the young teacher, and which have not been introduced under any of the general topics of this volume. I have therefore thought best to introduce a special chapter, with the above title, where I might lawfully bring to- gether, without much regard to method, such varied hints as may convey to some reader a useful lesson. Some of these hints will refer to faults which should be carefully avoided, while others will point out some duties to be peiformed. SECTION I. THINGS TO BE AVOIDED I. Guard against prejudice on entering a school. It is not always safe to rely upon first impressions as to character. At the opening of a school, perhaps fifty individuals for the first time are brought before the teacher. Some of them are from humble life, and per- haps bear upon them the marks of parental neglect. Their persons and their clothing may present nothing 320 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS 32 1 to attract and gratify the eye of a stranger. Little ac- customed to society they exhibit an awkward bashful- ness, or an impertinent forwardness in their manner. Contrasted with these, others appear who have been the children of indulgence, and who have seen much more of the world. A more expensive garb attracts the eye ; a more easy and familiar address, conforming to the artificial modes of society, is very likely to win the heart. The teacher is very prone to find his feelings committed in favor of the latter class and against the former. But this is all wrong. A judgment thus hastily formed is extremely hazardous, — as a few days' acquaintance will usually show. The child of blunt or shy demeanor often has the truest heart, — a heart whose sentiments go out by the shortest course, — a heart that has never learned the artificial forms of the world, be- cause it has never felt the need of them. And how unjust to the child is a prejudice founded on the circum- stance of dress ! Must the inability or neglect of his parents be doubly visited on him } Is it not enough that he daily feels the inward mortification of a contrast with his more favored schoolfellows } Must he be painfully reminded of it by discovering that his teacher repels him on that account, and bestows his kindliest smiles upon those that are " the brightest and best clad " } And yet such unjust prejudice is common ; wrong and unfeeling as it is, it is too common. A fine dress, and a clean face, and a graceful manner, I know are attractive ; but the teacher has to do with the mind and the heart; — and he should never be deterred by anything exterior from making a diligent and patient search for good qualities which have their home behind the surface, — ■ and he should ever possess a smile as B.-P. THE. e>t PR. TEACHING — 21 322 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING cordial and a tone as parental for the neglected child of poverty and ignorance, as for the more favored son of wealth and ease. 2. Do not allow your pupils to dwect their own studies. Whatever their age may be, they are seldom capable of doing this. It is the aim of the young to get over a long course of study. They are usually pleased to belong to higher classes before they have mastered the branches taught in the lower. If children are suffered to direct their own studies, they usually make themselves very poor scholars. This is the bane of many of our select schools and academies, where the teacher yields this right in order to secure pupils and a salary. But no one, not even the parent, is as com- petent as the teacher ought to be to direct in this mat- ter. He has the best opportunity daily to fathom the pupil's attainments and to understand his deficiencies. He may claim the right to direct. In case the pupil withstands his decision, the teacher should appeal to the parent, and endeavor there to sustain his point, a thing generally within his power if indeed he is right. If the parent, too, is obstinate, and firmly insists upon the wrong course, the teacher may perhaps submit, though he cannot submit without the consciousness that his province has been invaded. It is too frequently the case that the teacher at the first yields all this ground voluntarily, by asking the children what they wish to study. When he has once made them a party in this question he need not wonder if they claim to be heard. This he should not do. He should first be sure that he is qualified to direct aright, and then, as a matter of course, proceed to do it, just as the physician would prescribe for the physical malady MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS 323 of such a child. The latter is not more the rightful duty of the physician, than the former is of the school- teacher. Neither has the power to enforce his pre- scription against the parents' consent, — but that con- sent may be taken for granted by both till informed that it is withheld. I may here remark that in all my intercourse with the young, whether in the common or the higher school, I have found no greater evil than that of proceeding to the more difficult branches before the elementary studies have been mastered. It is no uncommon thing to find those who have " attended " to the higher mathematics — algebra, geometry, and the like — whose reading and writing are wretched in the extreme, and whose spelling is absolutely intolerable! They have been pursuing quadratics, but are unable to explain why they *' carry one for every ten"; they have wandered among the stars in search of other worlds, by the science of astronomy, without knowing the most simple points in the geog- raphy of our own ; they have studied logarithms and infinite series, but cannot be safely trusted to add a col- umn of figures, or to compute the simple interest upon a common note ! In short, they have studied every- thing, except what is most useful to be known in prac- tical life, and have really learned — nothing ! Now if this evil — grievous and extensive as it is at present — is destined ever to be abated, it is to be ac- complished by the instrumentality of the teacher, acting, in his appropriate sphere, in the capacity of a director as to the course of study for the young. He must not be a man who can merely teacJi, but one who under- stands the high import of a true education, and knows how to prescribe the order of its progress ; one, in 324 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING short, who will never attempt to erect a showy super- structure upon an insufficient foundation. 3. Do not attempt to teach too many things. There is a tendency at present to introduce too many things into all our schools. Nothing is more common than to hear our public lecturers declare, as they become a little enthusiastic in any given department, that *' this branch should at once be made a study in our common schools." This is heard of almost the whole round of the natural sciences. But it seems to me to be dictated by overwrought enthusiasm. Every tJiing cannot be well tanght in onr schools ; nor should too much be attempted. It is the province of our schools — particularly our com- mon schools — to afford tJiorougJi instrnction iji a few things, and to awaken a desire for more extended attain- ment. The instruction given should, as far as possible, be complete in itself, — while it should afford the means of making further advancement ; but that instruction which, being merely superficial, neither itself informs the mind nor imparts the desire and the means of future self-improvement, is worse than useless, it is positively injurious. A few branches thoroughly possessed are worth more than a thousand merely glanced at, — and the idea of changing our common schools to universities, where our children, before they pass from the years of their babyhood, are to grasp the whole range of the sciences, is one of the most preposterous that has grown up even in this age of follies. The teacher then should not undertake too much ; he should be sure that he can accomplish what he undertakes. The mark he makes upon the yonng should be no imcertain sign. 4. Never attend to extraneous business in school hours. This is a common fault. Many teachers neglect their MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS 325 duties in school to write letters or transact such other business as should be done at home. This is always wrong. There is no time for it in any school ; for a diligent teacher can always find full employment even with a small number. Besides, he has engaged to devote himself to the school ; and any departure from this is a violation of his contract. The children will so view it and thus lose much of their respect for the teacher. Moreover, if they see him neglect his business for some other, they will be very likely to neglect theirs, and thus disorder will be introduced. I hold that the teacher is bound to devote eveiy moment of school hours to active labor for the school. 5. Avoid making excuses to visitors for the defects of your school. Franklin, I think, said that '' a man who is good for making excuses is good for nothing else." I have often thought of this as I have visited the schools of persons given to this faihng. It is sometimes quite amusing to hear such a teacher keep up a sort of 7nin- ning apology for the various pupils. A class is called to read. The teacher remarks, " This class has but just commenced reading in this book." Stephen fin- ishes the first paragraph, and the teacher adds : " Stephen has not attended school very regularly lately." William reads the second. ''This boy," says the teacher, '' was very backward when I came here, — he has but just joined this class." Charles executes the third. "That boy has an impediment in his speech." Reuben follows. " It is almost impossible to make a good reader of Reuben ; he never seems to pay the least attention. I have bestowed unwearied pains upon him." Mary takes her turn. " This girl has lost her book, and her father refuses to buy her another." Mary here 326 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING blushes to the eyes, — for though she could bear his reproof, she still has some sense of family pride ; she bursts into tears, while Martha reads the next para- graph. ''I have tried all along," says the teacher, "to make this girl raise her voice, but still she will almost stifle her words." Martha looks dejected, and the next in order makes an attempt. Now the teacher in all this has no malicious design to wound the feelings of every child in the class, — and yet he as effectually accomplishes that result as if he had premeditated it. Every scholar is interested to read as well as possible in the presence of strangers ; every one makes the effort to do so; yet every one is practically pronounced to have failed. The visitors pity the poor pupils for the pain they are made thus needlessly to suffer, and they pity also tJie zveakiiess of the poor teacher, whose love of approbation has so blinded his own perception that he is regardless of the feelings of others, and thinks of nothing but his own. This overanxiety for the good opinion of others shows itself in a still less amiable light, when the teacher frequently makes unfavorable allusions to his predecessor. "When / came here,'' says the teacher significantly, "I found them all poor readers." Or, if a little disorder occurs in school he takes care to add : " I found the school in perfect confusion," — or, " The former teacher, as near as I can learn, used to allow the children to talk and play as much as they pleased." Now, whatever view we take of such a course, it is im- possible to pronounce it anything better than despicable meanness. For if the charge is true, it is by no means magnanimous to publish the faults of another ; and if it is untrue in whole or in part, as most likely it is. MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS 327 none but a contemptible person would magnify an- other's failings to mitigate his own. There is still another way in which this love of per- sonal applause exhibits itself. I have seen teachers call upon their brightest scholars to recite, and then ask them to tell their age, in order to remind the visitor that they were very young to do so well ; and then in- sinuate that their older pupils could of course do much better. All these arts, however, recoil upon the teacher who uses them. A visitor of any discernment sees through them at once, and immediately suspects the teacher of conscious incompetency or willful deception. The pupils lose their respect for a man whom they all perceive to be acting a dishonorable part. I repeat, then, Never attempt to cover the defects of your schools by making ridiculous excuses. 6. Never compare one child with another. It is a poor way of stimulating a dull pupil to compare him with a better scholar. It is the direct way to engender hatred in the mind of the one, and the most consum- mate self-complacency in the other. Not one child in a thousand can be publicly held up to the school as a pattern of excellence without becoming excessively vain ; at the same time all the other scholars will be more or less excited to envy. Such a course is always unsafe ; almost always injurious. 7. Avoid wounding the sensibilities of a dull child. There will always be those in every school who are slow to comprehend. After their classmates have grasped an idea during the teacher's explanation, they still have a vacant stare, the unintelligent expression. This may be so after a second or third explanation. The teacher 328 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING is now strongly tempted to indulge in expressions of impatience, if not of opprobrium. This temptation he should resist. Such children are to be pitied for their dullness, but never to be censured for it. It is an un- feeling thing to sting the soul that is already benighted. He should cheer and encourage such a slow mind to greater effort, by the sunshine of kind looks, and the warm breath of sympathy, rather than freeze up the feeble current of vivacity which yet remains there by a forbidding frown or a blast of reproach. A dull child is almost always affectionate ; and it is through the medium of kindness and patience that such a one is most effec- tually stimulated. 8. Never lose your patience zvhen parents unreason- ably interfere with your plans. It must be expected that some of the parents will wish to dictate to the teacher what course he shall pursue, at least in relation to their own children. This will sometimes bring them to the schoolroom, perhaps in a tone of complaint, to set the teacher right. Whenever a parent thus steps be- yond the bounds of propriety, the teacher should never lose his self-possession. He should always speak the language of courtesy, in frankness, but in firmness. He should reason with the parent, and if possible convince him, — but he should never insult or abuse him. It may be well to propose to see him at his owm house in order to talk over the matter more at his leisure. I recollect once a parent sent a hasty refusal to purchase a neces- sary book for his son, — a refusal clothed in no very respectful language. I gave the lad a courteous note directed to his father, in which I intimated my desire to have an interview with him at his house at such time as he might appoint. In half an hour the boy came MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS 329 bounding back with the desired book, informing me that his father said, " He guessed he might as well get the book and done with it." My intercourse with that parent was ever afterward of the most pleasant kind. A supercilious parent can never gain an advantage over a teacher, unless he can first provoke him to impatience or anger. As long as the teacher is perfectly self- possessed he is impregnable. 9. Never make the study of the Bible a pimishment. I have known a teacher to assign sundry passages of the Bible, condemnatory of a particular sin, to be committed to memory as a punishment. I have also known the idle scholar to be detained after school to study pas- sages of Scripture, because he- had failed to learn his other lessons in due time. I believe this to be bad policy, as well as doubtful religion. The lessons that a child thus learns are always connected in his mind with unpleasant associations. His heart is not made better by truths thus learned. The Bible indeed should be studied by the young, but they should be attracted to it by the spirit of love, rather than driven to it by the spirit of vindictiveness. They who suppose that chil- dren can be made to love the Bible by being thus driven to the study of it, have sadly mistaken the human heart. 10. Ride no ^'hobbies'' in teaching. Almost every man, in whatever vocation, has some hobby, some ^^ one idea,'' which he pushes forward on all occasions, no matter what may be the consequences. It is not strange that it is often thus with the teacher. If the teacher has any independence of mind, any originality, he will at some period in his life naturally incline to try some experiments in teaching. Partly on account of the novelty of the plan, and partly on account of the 330 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING teacher's interest in the success of his own measure, he finds it works well in the class where it was first tried ; and he rejoices that he has made a discovery. Teach- ing now possesses a new interest for him, and he very likely becomes enthusiastic. He applies his new measure to other classes, and loudly recommends it to other teachers. For a time it succeeds and it becomes his hobby. Whenever a stranger visits his school he shows off his new measure. Whenever he attends a teachers' meeting he describes it, and perhaps presents a class of his pupils to verify its excellency. He abandons his old and long-tried plans, and persists in the new one. By and by the novelty has worn away and his pupils be- come dull under its operation, and reason suggests that a return to the former methods would be advisable. Still, because it is Jiis invention, he persists. Others try the experiment. Some succeed ; some fail. Some of them by a public speech commit themselves to it, and then persist in it to preserve their consistency. In this way a great many objectionable modes of teaching have gained currency and still hold their sway in many of our schools. Among these I might mention concert recitation, and oral instruction when made a substitute for study. Of the origin and tendency of the former I have spoken more at length in the chapter on " Conducting Recita- tions." Of the latter a word or two may be said in this place. It was found years ago, in the earlier attempts to teach the blind, that they made very rapid strides in acquiring knowledge through the sole medium of oral instruction. As might have been foreseen, they became intensely interested in hearing about things which had MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS 331 surrounded them all their days, but which they had never seen. Shut in as they were from the privilege of sight, there was nothing to distract their attention from whatever was communicated to them through the sense of hearing ; and as they had been blind from their birth, this discipline of attention, had been going on from in- fancy. Under these circumstances, their progress in knowledge by mere oral teaching was astonishing. This was all well. But soon, some one conceived the idea of substituting oral instruction for study among seeing children. Immediately there was an oral mania. In- fant schools grew up in every village, — infant school manuals were prepared, filled with scientific baby talky for the use of the worthy dames who were to drive the hobby, and the nineteenth century bade fair to do more toward lighting up the fires of science than all time before had accomplished ! It was truly wonderful for a time to listen to the learned volubility of these same infant schools. The wonders of astronomy, chemistry, botany, and zoology, with the terms of Cuvier's classi- fication, and a thousand other things, were all detailed with astonishing familiarity by pupils under five years of age ! Some eminent teachers sagely took the hint, and adopted the oral system with their older classes. The sciences were taught by lectures. The pupils of this happy day had nothing to do but to sit and receive. To be sure sometimes they would become inattentive, and it would be discovered by their teachers that they did not retain qinte all that was told to them. This, however, was no fault of the system, it was urged ; the system was well enough, but unfortunately the pupils had eyes, and their attention was frequently diverted by the unlucky use of these worthless organs. A royal 332 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING road, sure enough, was found to the temple of science, too long beyond mortal reach by reason of the rugged footpath over which the student was compelled to climb. Happy, glorious day ! No more must toil and thought be the price of success ! No more must the midnight oil be consumed, and the brain be puzzled, in search of the wisdom of ages ! No more must the eyes be pained — (they are hereafter to be considered incumbrances) — in searching the classic page ; the ear is to be the easy inlet to the soul ! Such was the hobby of 1829 to 1831 in our own coun- try. During sixteen years past, those babes of the in- fant schools have grown into " young men and maidens," in no way distinguished, after all, unless they have since achieved distinction by actual study. The pupils of those higher schools have obtained whatever they now value in their education mainly by the use of tJieij' eyes, notwithstanding at one time their worthy guides would have almost deemed it a blessing to have had their eyes put out. It has been found that God was indeed wise in the bestowment of sight, — and some at least have acknowledged that a method that is well suited to the instruction of those who are blind, because it is the only possible one for them, may not be the best for those who can see. At the present time the sentiment begins to prevail that oral instruction can never supply the place of study ; that the lecturing or ''pouring-in process" cannot long secure the attention ; that the mind by merely receiving, gains no vigor of its own ; and that scholars must be made, if made at all, mainly by their own exertions in the use of books. It would be easy to mention other examples of hobbies MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS 333 which have been ridden by teachers very much to the injury of their schools. Those already given may, how- ever, suffice for the purpose of illustration. Let it be remembered, then, that no one method of instruction comprises all the excellencies and avoids all the defects of good teaching ; and that he is the wisest teacher who introduces a judicious variety into his modes of instruction, profiting by the suggestions of others, but relying mainly upon his own careful observation, eschewing all "patent methods," and never losing his COMMON SENSE. Under the head of Jwbbies, I may add one other re- mark. Many teachers have some favorite branch of study, in which, because they excel, they take special delight. One man is a good mathematician, another an expert accountant, a third a skillful grammarian. Now the danger is that the favorite branch of study may become the Jiobby, — and that the other branches will be neglected. This is indeed not unfrequently the case. Again, some teachers are more interested in the higher brancJies generally, because they were the last pursued in their college course, or for some other reason. They therefore neglect the lower studies to the great detriment of the youth under their charge. Against all such partial views the teacher should take great pains to guard himself. He may fall uncon- sciously and almost imperceptibly into some of these errors. Let me add the caution, then, — Never alloiv your partiality for one study, or a class of studies, to divert your attention from all those other branches which are necessary to cojtstiticte a good education. 334 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING SECTION II. THINGS TO BE PERFORMED I. Convince you?' scholars by your conduct that y oil are their friend. It is all-important that you should gain complete ascendency over the minds of your pupils. In no way is this point so successfully gained as by leading them to feel that you are their true friend. When they feel this, all their sentiments of generosity, gratitude, and love, conspire to lead them to render cheerful obedience to your wishes. Government then becomes easy ; instruction is no longer irksome ; and you can most cordially respond to the poet, in that beautiful sentiment too seldom fully realized : " Delightful task ! to rear the tender thought, And teach the young idea how to shoot, To pour the fresh instruction o'er the mind, To breathe the enlivening spirit, and to fix The generous purpose in the glowing breast." But effectually to convince them that you are thus their friend, is not the work of a moment. Words alone can never do it. You may make professions of interest in them, but it is all to no purpose. Your actions, your looks, your whole spirit must show it. In order thus to exhibit it, you must feel a deep, an all-pervading interest in the welfare of every child. You must love your profession, and you must love — sincerely love — those whom you are called to teach. If you do not love the work of teaching, and cannot bring yourself to love the children of your charge, you may not expect success. It was long ago declared that " Love only is the loan for love," — and this is specially true with the love of children. Their souls spontaneously go out after those who love MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS 335 them. Strive, then, to gain this point with them, not by empty pretensions, always quickly read and as quickly despised by the young ; but by that full, frank, cordial expression of kindness in your manner toward them, which, being based upon deep principle in yourself, is sure at once to win their affection and their ready compliance with all your reasonable requi- sitions. II. Take special care that the schoolhouse and its ap- pendages are kept in good order. This is a part of every teacher's duty. He should have an eye that is con- stantly on the alert to perceive the smallest beginnings of injury to any part of the premises. It is often pain- ful to see a new schoolhouse that has with much care and expense been put in perfect order, very soon cut and otherwise disfigured by the pupils, — the glass broken, the ceiling soiled, the desks and floors stained with ink, and everything bearing the marks of youthful destructiveness. The teacher should be held account- able for such results, for he can by proper vigilance prevent them. Some of his first lessons to his pupils should be upon the subject of practical neatness in regard to everything that pertains to the school. They should be impressed with the belief that he holds neatness as a cardinal virtue. Daily should he watch to discover the first violation of propriety upon the premises. This first violation should be promptly met. There is great wis- dom in the adage which enjoins us to " resist the beginnings y So, too, he should exercise an oversight of the books belonging to the pupils. Many books are speedily de- stroyed by children for the want of a little care of the 336 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING teacher, — probably more than are worn out by use. He should also occasionally inspect the desks with a view to promote a commendable neatness there. The teacher has an undoubted right to inspect any part of the premises, — but by a little adroitness he can inter- est the children in a reform of this kind, and then they wilt deshe that he should witness their carefulness. I rhay add further, that the children should not only be taught to respect the schoolhouse and its append- ages, but they should be taught to regard the sacred- ness of all property either public or private. The neighboring garden or orchard should be held to be inviolable. The teacher may not have the authority to compel compliance with his direction or advice be- yond school hours, but he should endeavor to exercise a moral influence in the school which will be more powerful even than compulsion. So in regard to pub- lic buildings, such as churches and courthouses ; and all public grounds, as parks, commons, and cemeteries, — the teacher should inculcate not only the duty to abstain from injuring them, but a commendable desire to see them improved and beautified. In America, it is remarked by foreigners, there is a strange tendency to destructiveness. In our public buildings, the walls are usually disfigured by names and drawings, and even our cemeteries do not escape the violence of the knives of visitors, the trees being cut and marked with names, and the flowers plucked off and carried away. It is to be hoped that our teachers will so exercise a reform- ing influence, that the next generation shall exercise a higher principle as well as a better taste in all these matters, which, small as they are, make up no mean part of the manners and morals of a people. MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS 337 III. When scholars do wrong, it is sometimes best to zvithJioId immediate reproof, but to describe a similar case iji general instrnction. This is one of the most effectual modes of curing the evil in the wrongdoer himself. It, moreover, gives the teacher a valuable text for a lesson on morals before the whole school. Care should generally be taken not to lead the school to suspect the individual in your mind, while at the same time the parable should so fit the case as to preclude the necessity of saying to the offender, as Nathan did to David : *' Thou art the man." A case will illustrate this. I recollect once to have found, among a large number of compositions presented by a class, one that I knew to have been copied. No notice was taken of it at the time ; but some days after- ward a case was described to the class, resembling the one that had actually occurred. After exciting consid- erable interest in the case, they were told that such a thing had happened among their own number; that I did not choose to expose the individual ; but if any of them thought it would be honorable for them to confess such an offense to me in case they had committed it, they might seek a private opportunity to do so. In less than twenty-four hours no less than four made such a confession, detailing freely the extent and the circum- stances of their offending. In this way four were re- formed, where by direct reproof only one could have been reached. It was a frank, not a forced confession ; and I was thus easily made to know the extent of this sin in the school. By this simple expedient, I have reason to believe, plagiarism was effectually eradicated for that term at least, in the whole class, and that too without the loss of any pupil's good will. B.-P. THE. & PR. TEACHING — 22 338 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING It is generally wiser to endeavor to reach the evil in its whole extent, than to expend one's strength upon a single instance of wrongdoing. The conscience of the whole school may sometimes be profitably aroused, while the particular individual is quite as effectively corrected as he would be by a direct reproof. IV. Be accurate. This is necessary in order to secure the respect of your pupils. What the teacher professes to know he should be sure of. Approximations to the truth are not enough to satisfy the young mind. When- ever a teacher makes a blunder by stating what is not true in regard to any fact or principle in science, any event in history, or any item of statistics, he lowers himself very much in the estimation of all those who are capable of detecting his error. If he does not knoiv he may frankly say so and incur no just censure, pro- vided the point be one about which he has not had the opportunity to gain the requisite information. But when he attempts to speak with the authority of a teacher, he "should know that whereof he affirms." "The character of the teacher," says Professor Olmsted, "is sullied by frequent mistakes, like that of a book- keeper or banker. It is surprising to see how soon even the youngest learner will lose his confidence and respect for his teacher, when he has detected in him occasional mistakes. At every such discovery he rises in his own estimation, and the teacher proportionally sinks. The very character of the pupil is injured by such an inci- dent. He rapidly loses the docility and modesty so essential to the scholar, and becomes upHfted with pride and self-importance." The superciliousness thus induced becomes a sore vexation to the teacher. He finds that his pupils are watching for his halting, — and MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS 339 he frequently fails, from this very circumstance, to do as well as he might. I know of no more pitiable con- dition on earth than that of a teacher who is attempt- ing- to teach what he does not fully understand, while he is conscious that his pupils doubt his ability, from a frequent detection of his mistakes. V. Cultivate a pleasant countenaiice. Frowns and scowls always sit with ill grace upon the teacher's brow. I know that the trials and perplexities incident to his daily life are eminently fitted "to chafe his mood" and to provoke his impatience. I know, too, that protracted confinement from the pure air and the bright sunlight will almost necessarily render the nervous system mor- bidly sensitive, and the temper of course extremely irritable. The outward exponent of all this is a de- jected and perhaps an angry countenance. The eye- brows are drawn up so that the forehead is deeply and prematurely furrowed, while the angles of the mouth are suffered to drop downward as if in token of utter despair. By and by the roguishness of some unlucky urchin disturbs the current of his thoughts, — and suddenly the brow is firmly knitted with transverse channels, the nostrils are distended, the jaws are firmly closed, the lips are compressed, the cheeks are flushed, and the eyes almost emit sparks from the pent-up fire within him. For the next half hour he frowns on all about him. The children at first are awed by such a threatening aspect, — but soon they become accustomed to it, and the terrible very naturally gives place to the ridiculous. No man has a moral right to render those uncomfort- able who surround him, by habitually covering his face with the looks of discontent and moroseness. It is 340 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING peculiarly zvrong for the teacher to do it. It is for him to present an example of self-government under all cir- cumstances so that he can consistently enforce the duty of self-control upon the young. It is for him to show himself a man of principle, of benevolence, of cheerful devotion to his duty, however full of trials that duty may be ; and in no way can he do this more effectually than by an amiable and engaging countenance. A peevish, frowning teacher is very likely to produce petulance and sullenness in his pupils ; while a cordial smile, like the genial beam of the spring-day sun, not only sheds a welcome light on all around, but imparts a blessed heat which penetrates the frigidity of the heart, dissipates the cheerless mists that hover there, and warms the generous affections into life and beauty. We are so constituted that the inward and the out- ward sympathize with each other. Solomon says, '' A merry heart maketh a cheerful countenance," — and I may venture to add, and with almost as much truth, a cJieerfid countenance maketh a merry heart. An honest attempt to bless others with the sight of a countenance that is expressive of content and patience is an act so praiseworthy in itself that it will never go unrewarded. The gratifying response w^hich such a countenance is sure to call forth from others, brings with it a rich revenue of inward enjoyment. He, therefore, who habitually bears about with him a sad or an angry countenance, while he constantly impairs the happiness of others, lacks at the same time an important instru- mentality for securing his own. But the question will arise, — can a man gain such ascendency over himself as to control the expression of his countenance } I answer, without hesitation, Yes. MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS 34 1 "Whatever ought to be done, can be done." It. is not perfectly easy to do it, especially for the teacher. Still, self-control — full, complete self-control — is his appro- priate duty as well as privilege. He must, as Carlyle quaintly enjoins, '' learn to devour the chagrins of his lot." He must calculate beforehand that every day will bring its cares and its trials ; but he should daily resolve that they shall never take him by surprise, nor betray him into sudden impatience. Each morning as he walks to the scene of his labors, he should fortify himself against sudden anger or habitual moroseness in this wise : " No doubt this day some untoward occur- rence will transpire, calculated to try my patience and to provoke me to* fretful words and angry looks. All my past experience leads me to expect this. But this day I will try to resist the temptation to this weakness. I will try to be self-possessed. If any child is vicious, or fretful, or dull, or even impudent, I will endeavor to show that I can command myself. If I feel some angry passion enkindling within me, I will stop and think, and I will endeavor to smile before I speak. If I can to-day gain the victory over impatience, and can main- tain an even and cheerful temper, and express it con- stantly in my countenance, it will be easier to do it to-morrow. At all events P II try'' Taking hold thus in earnest, any man may soon be his own master. He can gain the victory. If he can do it, he ought to do it. Hence I urge it as a duty. Nor is it merely a duty. It is a high privilege. A complete victory for a single day will bring its own reward. A man who feels that he has risen above his temptation can return to his rest with a light and happy heart. Sleep to him will be sweet, and he will arise on 342 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING the morrow with renewed strength for the fresh con- flict, — and in the moral as well as in the literal warfare, every contest which ends in victory gives additional strength to the victor, while it weakens and disheartens his enemy. VI . Study to acqidre the art of aptly ilhistratmg a difficiUt subject. Some teachers content themselves with answering in the precise language of the book whenever a question for information is propounded. This, however, is by no means sufficient, even when the language of the book is strictly accurate ; much less when the language is so vague as to convey no definite idea to the mind either of the learner or the teacher. On the other hand, a man who is apt to teach will de- vise some ingenious method of enlightening the mind of his pupil, so that he shall lay hold of the idea as with a manly grasp, and make it his own forever. This point will, perhaps, be best illustrated by an example. A young man was employed to take charge of a school for a few days during a temporary illness of the regular instructor. He was a good scholar, as the world would say, and was really desirous to answer the expectation of his employers. After the regular teacher had so far recovered his health as to be able to leave his room, he walked one pleasant day to the school to see what success attended the labors of the new incum- bent. A class was reciting in natural philosophy. The subject under consideration was — the obstacles which impede the notion of machinery. The attraction of gravity, as one of these, v/as pretty easily disposed of ; for the class had before been instructed on that point. Friction came next, tlere, too, the pupils, having had some practical experience of their own, in dragging MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS 343 their sleds, in skating, or perhaps in turning a grind- stone, found no great difficulty. The book spoke a language sufficiently clear to be understood. Next came the "resistance of the various media," to use the language of the text-book. '' Yes," said the teacher, as one of the pupils gravely quoted this language, ** that has no inconsiderable effect." '* The ' resistance of the various media ' } " — repeated one of the boys inquiringly, " I do not know as I un- derstand what media means." " A medium is that in which a body moves," was the ready reply which the teacher read from the book. Pupil. — A niediiLDi ? Teacher. — • Yes ; we say medium when we mean but one, and media when we mean more than one. Pupil. — When we mean but one t Teacher. — Yes; medium is singular — media is plural. After this discussion, which began in philosophy but ended in grammar, the teacher was about to proceed with the next question of the book. But the scholar was not yet satisfied, and he ventured to press his inquiries a little further. Pupil. — Is this room a medium } Teacher. — This room } Pupil. — Yes, sir; you said that a medium was "that in which anybody moves," and we all move in this room. Teacher. — Yes, but medium does not mean a room ; it is the substance in which a body moves. Here the lad looked perplexed and unsatisfied. He had no clear idea of the meaning of this new term. The teacher looked at his watch and then glanced at the remaining pages of the lesson and seemed impa- 344 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING tient to proceed, — so the pupil forbore to inquire further. The regular teacher, who had listened to the discus- sion with no ordinary interest, both because he admired the inquisitiveness of the boy, and because he was curi- ous to discover how far the new incumbent possessed the power of illustration, here interposed. *' John," — taking his watch in his hand, — "would this watch continue to go if I should drop it into a pail of water } " '* I should think it would not long," said John, after a little reflection. "Why not.^" said his teacher, as he opened his watch. " Because the water would get round the wheels and stop it, I should think," said John. " How would it be if I should drop it into a quart of molasses 1 " The boys laughed. " Or into a barrel of tar } " The boys still smiled. " Suppose I should force it, while open, into a quan- tity of lard." Here the boys laughed heartily, while John said, "The watch would not go in any of these articles." ^^ Articles f said his teacher, "why not say media ?'' John's eye glistened as he caught the idea. " O, I understand it now." His teacher then said that many machines worked in air, — then the air was the medium. A fish swims in water, — water is his medium. A fish could hardly swim in molasses or tar. " Now," inquired he, " why not.?" MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS 345 " Because of the resistance of the medium," said John, with a look of satisfaction. " Now, why will the watch go in air and not in water? " '' Because the water is more dense," said John promptly. *' Then upon what does the resistance of a medium depend t " Here the new teacher interposed and said that was the next question in the book, and he was just going to ask it himself. The regular teacher put his watch into his pocket and became a spectator again, and the les- son proceeded with unwonted vivacity. The difference between these two teachers mainly consisted in the fact that one had the ingenuity to devise an expedient to meet a difficulty whenever occasion required, — the other had not. Now in order to teach well a man should diligently seek for expedients. He should endeavor to foresee the very points where the learner will stumble, and pro- vide himself with the means of rendering timely aid. If an object cannot be described in words, let it be com- pared with what it resembles, or with what it contrasts. If it be an object of sense, and words and comparisons fail to describe it, — in the absence of apparatus to represent it, let the teacher spring to the blackboard and execute a hasty drawing of it. In this way the construction or the working of a machine, the form of a bone or the action of a joint, the shape of a town or the plan of a building, — in short, almost every subject that involves the relations of form, size, proportion, quantity, or number, will admit of visible illustration. He is the successful teacher who is able at the mo- 346 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING ment to seize upon the best expedient, and render it subservient to his purpose. VI I. Taking advantage of tmiLSital occiLvrences to make a moi'al or religions impression. In a former chapter I have urged it as a part of the teacher's work to cul- tivate and strengthen both the moral sentiments and the religious feelings of the members of his school. This' is not most effectually done by a formal mode of speaking to them on these subjects. If a particular hour is set apart for formal lectures on their duty to their fellow-men and their obligations to God, they are very apt to fortify their sensibilities against the most faithful appeals, and thus render them powerless. The wise teacher will watch for the fit opportunity, and, just at the moment when the heart is prepared by some suitable occurrence, — when by some exhibition of the Creator's power it is awed into reverence or softened into submission ; or by some display of his goodness it is warmed into gratitude or animated with delight, — - with a few words, seasonably and ''fitly spoken," he fixes the impression forever. Speaking at the right time, every ear listens, and every heart feels. Perhaps many of my readers can revert to some season in their childhood, endeared to them by a precious recollection of golden words thus opportunely uttered, — words fraught with truth which in after life has had an un- speakable influence in the formation of their character. One or two examples connected with my own experi- ence may be presented more fully to illustrate my mean- ing ; while at the same time they may afford, it is hoped, some valuable hints for the encouragement and guidance of such young teachers as desire in this way to make themselves the instruments of lasting benefit to the young. MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS 347 Example I. — I can never forget — nor would I if I could — a lesson impressed upon my own youthful mind, conveying the truth that we are constantly dependent upon our Heavenly Father for protection. In a plain country schoolhouse some twenty-five children, includ- ing myself, were assembled with our teacher on the afternoon of a summer's day. We had been as happy and as thoughtless as the sportive lambs that cropped the clover of the neighboring hillside. Engrossed with study or play, — for at this distance of time it is im- possible to tell which, — we had not noticed the low rumbling of the distant thunder till a sudden flash of lightning arrested our attention. Immediately the sun was veiled by the cloud, and a corresponding gloom settled upon every face within. The elder girls with the characteristic thoughtfulness of woman hastily in- quired whether they should not make the attempt to lead their younger brothers and sisters to the paternal roof before the bursting of the storm. For a moment our little community was thrown into utter confusion. The teacher stepped hastily to the door to survey more perfectly the aspect of the western heavens. Immedi- ately returning, he signified to the children that there would not be time for them to reach their homes before the tempest would be upon them. Oppressed with dread, — for it is no uncommon thing for children in the country to be terrified by lightning, — some of the youngest of us clung to our older brothers or sisters, while others, being the sole representatives of their family in the school, for the first time felt their utter loneliness in the midst of strangers, and gave utter- ance to their feelings in audible sighs or unequivocal sobs. 348 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING The teacher, meanwhile, with an exemplary calmness and self-possession, closed the windows and the doors and then seated himself quite near the younger pupils, to await the result. The thick darkness gathered about us as if to make the glare of the lightning by contrast more startling to our vision ; while the loud thunder almost instantly followed, as it were the voice of God. The wind howled through the branches of a venerable tree near by, bending its sturdy trunk and threatening to break asunder the cords which bound it to its mother earth. An angry gust assailed the humble building where we were sheltered ; it roared down the capacious chimney, violently closed a shutter that lacked a fasten- ing, breaking the glass by its concussion, and almost forced in the frail window sashes on the westerly side of the room. Quicker and more wild the lightnings glared — flash after flash — as if the heavens were on fire ; louder and nearer the thunder broke above our heads, while the inmates of the room, save the teacher, were pale with terror. At this moment there was a sudden cessation of the war of elements, — a hush — almost a prophetic pause! It was that brief interval which precedes the falling torrent. A dread stillness reigned within the room. Every heart beat hurriedly, and every countenance told the consternation that was reigning within. It was an awful moment ! With a calm voice, breathing a subdued and confiding spirit, the teacher improved this opportunity to impress upon our young minds a great truth. '* Fear not, children," said he, "it is your Heavenly Father that sends the storm as well as the sunshine and the gentle breeze. You have been just as much in his power all MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS 349 day as you are at this moment. He has been as near you, supporting you, supplying you with breath, with life, all through the pleasant morning ; but then you did not see him. He is just as able to protect you now, for ' Not a sparrow falls to the ground without his notice,' — and he ruleth the storm and 'rideth upon the wings of the wind.' We should ever feel willing to trust him ; for he is ever able to grant us deliverance from all our dangers. God is here now to protect us." Just as he had finished these words the rain began to fall. First the drops were few and scattered ; but soon the windows of heaven were opened and the thirsty ground was abundantly satisfied. The sound of the thunder became fainter and fainter as the cloud passed away ; the sun burst out again in renewed splendor ; the full drops glittered in his beams upon the grass; the birds began their songs ; the rainbow spanned the eastern hills ; and our hearts, taught by the timely in- struction of a good man, began to expand with eager gratitude for our preservation by the hand of our Heavenly Father. The remainder of the afternoon passed happily away, and when our books were laid aside and we were ready to burst out of the room to enjoy the refreshing air and participate in the general joy, the teacher, taking the Bible from the desk, asked us to remain quiet a mo- ment while he would read a few words that he hoped we should never forget. The passage was the following, from the 65th Psalm : " By terrible things in righteousness wilt thou answer us, O God of our salvation ; who art the confidence of all the ends of the earth, and of them that are afar off upon the sea. Which by his strength 350 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING setteth fast the mountains ; being girded with power : which stilleth the noise of the seas, the noise of their waves, and the tumult of the people. They also that dwell in the uttermost parts are afraid at thy tokens : thou makest the outgoings of the morning and evening to rejoice. Thou visitest the earth and waterest it: thou greatly enrichest it with the river of God, which is full of water : thou preparest them corn, .when thou hast so provided for it. Thou waterest the ridges thereof abundantly : thou settlest the furrows thereof: thou makest it soft with showers : thou blessest the springing thereof. Thou crownest the year with thy goodness; and thy paths drop fatness. They drop upon the pastures of the wilderness: and the little hills rejoice on every side. The pastures aie clothed with flocks ; the valleys also are covered over with corn ; they shout for joy, they also sing." After closing the book the teacher said : " Go out now, children, and witness how perfectly these words have been fulfilled toward us this afternoon, — and from this day's mercies, learn hereafter to trust God as confidently in the storm, when he displays his power by his outward 'tokens,' as when he kindly smiles upon you in the beams of the glorious sun, or gently breathes upon you in the morning breeze." We went forth bounding in gladness and gratitude and saw the ''outgoings of the evening to rejoice," — "the pastures clothed with flocks," — "the valleys cov- ered over with corn," — "the little hills rejoicing on every side ; " — we heard also the general shout for joy, — and we felt as we never before had felt, a deep, thorough, abiding conviction of the truth that God is our father and our friend ; the God of our salvation. I know not how soon these impressions faded from the minds of the other children, — but for myself I can MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS 35 1 say, that from that time to the present, whenever I have been exposed to apparent danger from the impending tempest, the warring elements, or the ravages of disease, the teachings of that hour have always revived in my mind to soothe my troubled spirit and to reassure my faith and confidence in the presence of an all-sufficient and merciful Preserver. A thousand times have I devoutly blessed the memory of that faithful teacher, for having so early and so happily turned my thoughts upward to Him in whom '' we live, and move, and have our being," .^ Example II. — It was in the afternoon of a gloomy day in the latter part of November, when the pupils, consisting of some fifty boys belonging to a school in a pleasant seaport town in New England, were told by their teacher a few minutes before the usual hour that they might lay aside their studies and prepare for dis- mission. During the early part of the day there had been one of those violent southeast rain storms so com- mon upon the seacoast at that season of the year. It is well know^i to the observing mariner that a storm from the southeast never continues beyond twelve or fifteen hours ; and when the violence of the storm abates it is a common remark of the sailor that *' The northwester is not long in debt to the southeaster." Previous to this change of wind, however, there is what is expressively termed the ''lull of the storm,'' — a period when the rain ceases to fall, the wind dies away to a perfect calm, the barometer is suddenly depressed, the clouds hover almost upon the face of the earth, shutting out the light of the sun, and causing a cheer- less damp to settle upon everything terrestrial, and a dreary gloom to enshroud the mind itself. When the 352 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING wind changes, these clouds are not gradually dissolved and broken up, so that the eye can catch transient glimpses of the blue sky beyond, as after a snowstorm in winter ; but the dark drapery is suddenly lifted up as if by an unseen hand, and the western sky, from the horizon upward, is left more bright and more charming than ever to refresh the eye and reanimate the soul. It was such a day as before remarked when the pupils of this school — partly because of the darkness in the schoolroom, and partly because of their protracted confinement within a close apartment during a gloomy afternoon — were a little earlier than usual about to be dismissed. The pupils all seemed to welcome the happy release that awaited them, — and in their eager- ness to escape from confinement they very naturally neglected to observe their accustomed regard for quiet and order in laying aside their books. It was, however, a fixed habit with .the teacher never to give the signal for leaving the room till all the pupils had taken the proper attitude for passing out with regularity, and then had composed themselves to perfect silence. On this occasion perhaps two minutes passed away while the boys were gradually, almost impatiently, bringing them- selves to a compliance with this rule of the teacher. During this interval of waiting, the cloud, unper- ceived by the teacher, had been slowly raised up from the western horizon, just in time to allow the setting sun to bestow a farewell glance upon the sorrowing world at his leave-taking. Through the Venetian blinds that guarded the windows toward the west, the celestial light gleamed athwart the apartment, and painted the opposite wall in front of the pupils with streaks of burnished gold ! In an instant every coun- MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS 353 tenance was changed. A smile now joyously played where before sadness and discontent had held their moody reign. The teacher was reminded by all these circumstances of the beautiful language of the prophet, which promised the gift of "the gannerit of pj^aise for the spirit of Jieavinessy What could be more appro- priate on this occasion than a song oi praise? With- out speaking a single word, the teacher commenced one of the little songs already familiar to the whole school : " Lo the heavens are breaking Pure and bright above ; Life and light awaking, Murmur — God is love. God is love. " Round yon pine-clad mountain, Flows a golden flood ; Hear the sparkling fountain, Whisper — God is good. God is good. " Wake, my heart, and springing Spread thy wings above, — Soaring still and singing, God is ever good. God is good." Instantly every voice that had ever sung now uttered heartfelt praise. The attendant circumstances, taken at the happy moment, furnished such an impressive commentary upon the import of the words that they were felt, as they never before had been felt, to be the words of precious truth. Every heart throbbed in unison with the sentiment. At the close of the song there was profound silence in the room. After a moment's pause, during which the truth that God is B.-P. THE. & PR. TEACHING — 23 354 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING good seemed to pervade each mind and hold it in silent reverence, — the signal for departure was given. One after another the boys passed from their seats with a light and careful step, as if noise and haste would be a desecration both of the time and place, — and when they reached the open air, refreshing and exhilarating as it was, there was no boisterous shout, no rude mirth; each took his homeward course, apparently with a new and lively conviction that God is good. It has always been a source of pleasure to that teacher to recall from the " buried past " the associations con- nected with that delightful hour and that charming song ; and it has been among the most gratifying inci- dents of his experience as a teacher to hear more than one of those pupils in later life recur to the memory of that day, and acknowledge with thankfulness the lasting impressions which then and there were made upon their minds. It would be easy to furnish examples to almost any extent of the manner in which this principle has been or may be carried out in practice. The degradation of an intoxicated person who may pass the school, — the pitiable condition of the man who may wander through the streets bereft of his reason, — any instance of sudden death in the neighborhood, particularly of a young per- son, — the passing of a funeral procession, — in short, any occurrence that arrests the attention of the young and enlists their feeling, may be seized upon as the means of making upon their minds an impression for good. The facts developed in many of their lessons, too, afford opportunities for incidental moral instruc- MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS 355 tion. The adaptation of means to ends, — the evidence of design and intelHgence displayed in the works of creation, — the existence of constant and uniform laws as developed in the sciences, all furnish the means of leading the young mind to God. That teacher will enjoy the richest satisfaction in the evening of life, who, in looking back upon his past experience, shall be conscious that he has improved every opportunity which God has given him to turn the youthful affections away from the things of earth to seek a worthier object in things above. TOPICAL OUTLINE I . Things to be Avoided. 1. Prejudice against ill-dad or unprepossessing pupils. 2. Allowing pupils to direct their own studies. a. The common evil of classing pupils too high. How caused and how remedied? 3. Attempting to teach too many things. a. The danger of overcrowding our school courses. b. The special province of common schools. c. The evils of superficial instruction. 4. Attending to extraneous business during school hours. 5. Making excuses to visitors. a. Franklin's maxim. b. Defects of character in the teacher indicated by excuses. c. Illustrate the evil, and its effects upon pupils. 6. Comparing one child with another. a. Effects upon dull pupils ? Upon bright pupils ? 7. Wounding the sensibilities of a dull child. a. The one means of quickening the mind of a dull pupil ? 8. Losing patience with unreasonable parents. a. The values of patience and self-control. 9. Making a punishment of Bible study. a. The effects of it? 356 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 10. Riding hobbies. a. Illustrate. b. A safe rule regarding hobbies. c. The faults and the uses of concert recitations. d. The uses and the limitations of oral instruction. Read: Morgan's Educational Mosaics, p. 'j^i- Compayre's Psychology applied to Edu- cation, pp. 117, 122, 124. II. Tilings to be Performed. 1. Convincing scholars of a genuine friendship for them. a. How? b' The effects upon pupils of a genuine concern about them. 2. Keeping the schoolhouse and its appendages in good order. a. The lesson to be learned and its value. 3. Administering reproof indirectly, sometimes. a. Case in illustration. b Effects of the plan. 4. Accuracy of scholarship. a. Effect upon pupils of inaccuracies detected in the teacher. b. Effects upon the teacher. 5. Wearing a pleasant countenance. a. Effects of scowling. b. Effects of enforced cheerfulness. c. The duty of self-control. d. Its values. How accomplished? 6. The art of illustrating aptly and readily. a. Recite the capital illustration given. b. A common fault in teachers. c. Reasons for teaching illustratively. d. Opportunities for illustration. 7. Taking advantage of unusual occurrences to teach moral and religious lessons. a. Recall the examples given and the use made of the opportunities. b. Common occasions for such lessons. C' The futility of ordinary moral lectures. Read : Morgan's Educational Mosaics, p. 54. MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS 357 WRITTEN EXERCISES D07lHs. 1. Don't lose patience with a dull child. 2. Don't fail to keep the child's fingers busy. 3. Don't expect your pupils to study more than you do. 4. Don't stop till you have found the good thing in the bad child. 5. Don't forget that the teacher's moral authority is dependent upon the respect and love of the children. [Extend this list.] Suggestions. 1. Commend more and you may need to command less. 2. Throw yourself on the side of your critic. 3. Go to your classes with prearranged lesson plans. 4. Your pupils will not learn to express themselves until you learn how to suppress yourself. 5. Be interested in the whole life of the community in which you teach. [Extend this list.] CHAPTER XVI THE REWARDS OF THE TEACHER " Far above the conqueror of kingdoms, the destroyer of hosts by the sword and the bayonet, is he whose tearless victories redden no river and whiten no plain, but who leads the understanding a willing captive, and builds his empire, not of the wrenched and bleeding fragments of subjugated nations, but on the realms of intellect which he has discovered, and planted, and jDeopled with beneficent activity and enduring joy ! " — Horace Greeley. I. They do not lie in money getting. It is proverbial that the pecnniary compensation of the teacher is, in most places, far below the proper standard. It is very much to be regretted that an employment so important in all its bearings should be so poorly rewarded. In New England there are many young women who, hav- ing spent some time in teaching, have left that occupa- tion to go into the large manufacturing establishments as laborers, simply because they could receive a higher compensation. I have known several instances in which young ladies in humble circumstances have left teaching to become domestics, thus performing the most ordinary manual labor because they could receive better pay ; that is, the farmers and mechanics of the district could afford to pay more liberally for washing and iron- ing, for making butter and cheese, for sweeping floors and cleaning paint, than they could for educating the immortal minds of their children ! 358 REWARDS OF THE TEACHER 359 Nor is this confined to the female sex. Young mechanics and farmers, as well as those employed in manufacturing, frequently receive higher wages than the common-school teacher in the same district. Many a young man who has only genius enough to drive the pegs of a shoe in a regular row, and skill enough to black the surface of the article when it is completed, having spent but a few weeks in learning his trade, receives more money for his work than he who, after having spent months, or even years, in gaining the requisite qualifications, labors to polish that nobler material, the human soul. The injustice of this becomes more apparent when we bear in mind that public opinion demands, and justly too, that the teacher should be not only gentle- manly in his manners, but better clad than the mere laborer, — thus throwing upon him a greater burden AvithoLit affording him the means of sustaining it. The female teacher of a district school, in order to be re- spectable, must be much more expensively dressed than the domestic in the family where she boards; and is thus compelled to consume most of her receipts upon her wardrobe, — while the domestic is able to place surplus money at interest in the Savings Bank. This injustice has so often been laid before the people, and yet has been so long continued, that many have given up in despair, and abandoned an employment that has yielded so little, choosing rather to engage in that lower service which is so much better paid. This sufficiently explains why so many unqualified teachers have been found in our common schools. Men of talents and ability being tempted to other employ- ments have left the field unoccupied ; and those men 360 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING who have failed to gain a comfortable living by their hands have been allowed to try the experiment of supporting life by their wits, — that is, by becoming teachers ! Such has been the case for a long time past ; and, though in many quarters the people are beginning to open their eyes to their true interest, and are gradually and commendably coming up to their duty, yet for some time to come the pecuniary compensation will not con- stitute the chief reward of the teacher. If he will go cheerfully to his work, and find his dail)^ enjoyment in his daily toil, he must have a higher object, some more elevating, inspiring motive, than mere money getting. The chief encouragements of the faithful teacher lie in another direction. It is the objects of the following paragraphs to point out some of these encouragements ; for, having in the preceding pages required very much at his hands, I feel that it is but just that he should be invited to look at the brighter side of the picture, so that when he is ready to sink under the responsibilities of his position, or to yield to the obstacles that oppose his progress, he may have something to animate his soul and to nerve him anew for the noble conflict. II. The teacher's employmejit affords the means of in- tellectual growth. If a man teaches as he should teach, he must of necessity improve himself. Teaching, un- derstandingly pursued, gives accuracy. I know it is possible for a man to be a mere schoolmaster — a peda- gogue, without any self-improvement. But I am speak- ing of the faithful, devoted teacher, — the man who studies, reflects, invents. Such a man learns more than his pupils. Every time he takes a class through any REWARDS OF THE TEACHER 36 1 branch of study, he does it more skillfully., more thor- oughly than before. He brings some fresh illustration of it, presents some new view of it, and hence takes a lively interest in it himself, and awakens a new zeal among his pupils. Measuring himself by his new suc- cess, he feels a consciousness of growth, of progress. This consciousness is a precious reward. III. The teacher's employmeiit affords the means of moral groivth. Brought constantly in contact with those who need a careful guidance, he feels impelled to earnest effort in order to obtain the mastery over him- self as the best means of gaining complete influence over others. Studying the weak points in their char- acter, he is constantly reminded of those in his own ; and self-knowledge is the first step toward self-improve- ment. Beginning in the feebleness of inexperience, he bolsters up his authority at first by a frequent resort to force; but as he goes on he finds himself gradually gaining such ascendency over the vicious as to control them quite as effectually by milder means. At first, easily excited to anger or impatience, he frequently in- dulged in severe language when it was unnecessary, — but by careful discipline he has learned to '' set a watch before his mouth and to keep the door of his lips." Encouraged by one victory over himself he is prepared for another. Having learned by self-discipline to con- trol his outward acts, he next attempts the mastery of his thoughts. He soon finds that his moral power over others is very much increased. Somehow — though perhaps he cannot yet tell the reason why — he finds he can secure obedience with half the effort formerly re- quired, — he gains the love of his pupils more readily, -^ and with the exception now and then of an extreme 362 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING case, he finds that he excites a deeper interest than ever before in the whole round of duty among the scholars. Why is this ? he asks, — and the consciousness of in- creased moral poiver rising up within him is a source of the highest satisfaction. Pecuniary emolument sinks into nothing considered as a reward when compared with a conscious victory over himself. IV.- A conscious7iess of improvement 171 the art of teach- ing is another rezvard. Such improvement will follow as a matter of course from his self-improvement in the particulars just named. As his own mind expands he feels a new impulse to exert himself to interest others in the subjects he teaches. He soon comes to look upon the work of instruction, not as a mere mechanical busi- ness to be done in a formal way, but as a noble art based upon certain great principles that are capable of being understood and applied. He employs all his ingenuity to discover the natural order of presenting truth to the mind, — to ascertain the precise degree of aid the learner needs, and the point where the teacher should stop. He studies carefully the proper motives to be presented as incentives to exertion. Interested in his labor as a great work, looking upon his influence as telling upon all future time, he devotes himself daily with new zeal, and is rewarded with the conscionsness of nezv success. V. The teacher is pei''mitted also to ivitness the constant growth of mind among his pnpils. I say constant, be- cause the teacher is not obliged to labor without seeing immediate results. The minister of religion may some- times sow the seed of the good word, while the fruit does not appear for a long season. Sometimes a spirit- ual apathy prevails, so that the most faithful warnings REWARDS OF THE TEACHER 363 and the most earnest appeals seem to fall powerless upon the conscience ; and he is led almost to despair of ever being able to break the deathlike slumber. It is not thus with the teacher. His labor tells immediately upon the young mind. Even while he is yet speaking he is gratified with observing the soul's expansion as it grasps and assimilates some new idea which he pre- sents. From day to day, as he meets his classes, he sees how they go on from strength to strength, — at first, indeed, with the halting, tottering step of the feeble babe, but soon with the firm and confident tread of the vigorous youth. A teacher who is for several years employed in his vocation is often astonished at the rapidity with which the young, who come to him as mere children, grow into men and women, and take their places on the stage of life as prominent actors. Some of them distinguish themselves in the arts ; some become noted for their attainments in science ; some receive the honors of office and become leaders in civil affairs ; some gain eminence as professional men ; and very likely a large portion of them are engaged in the various depart- ments of honorable industry. Wherever they are, and whatever they are, they are now exerting a powerful influence in the community. They have grown up under his eye, and have been essentially shaped by his plastic hand. He looks upon them almost with the interest and pride of a father. He counts them as his jewels ; and when he hears of their success, their usefulness, and their honors, his heart leaps within him, as he thinks, ''TJiey were 7iiy pupils'' Even though he may have wasted the strength of his best days in the service, wJiat a reward is tJiis for the teacJier! 364 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING VI. The teacher is engaged in a tisefnl and honorable calling. What though he may not become rich in this world's goods ? Who would not prefer above houses and lands, — infinitely above all the wealth of earth, the consciousness of being engaged in a work of usefulness ? Man was made for usefulness, — and who would not desire to answer the design of his creation ? My pen is too feeble to attempt to portray the usefulness of the faithful teacher. He educates the immortal mind^ — wakes it to thought, — trains it to discipline — self-discipline, — moves it to truth and vir- tue, — fills it with longings for a more perfect state, and sends it forth to exert its power for good through all coming time ! " To this end," in the glowing lan- guage of Professor Agnew, '' he communicates a knowl- edge of letters, opens out gradually before the child the book of nature and the literature of the world ; he dis- ciplines his mind and teaches him how to gather knowl- edge from every source ; he endeavors to impart quick- ness and retentiveness of memory, "to cultivate a refined and well-regulated imagination, to task and thus to give vigor to his reasoning powers. He points out the ap- propriate objects of the several affections, and the proper exercise of the passions ; he gives lessons to conscience derived from the pure fountain of God's own revelation, and teaches him to subject his own will to the Highest Will. He instructs him in the various sciences and thus displays before him worlds of wondrous interest, and invests him with the sources and means of pure enjoyment. He trains him for the sweet sympathies of social life ; and unfolds before him the high behests of duty — duty to himself, his fellow-creatures, his family, his God. REWARDS OF THE TEACHER 365 " Under such a tuition behold the helpless infant grown to manhood's prime, — a body well developed, strong, and active ; a mind symmetrically unfolded, and powers of intellection closely allied to those of the spirits in celestial spheres. He becomes a hus- band and a father ; in these and in all the relations of life he performs well his part. Above all, he is a Christian, with well-trained affections and a tender conscience, supremely loving God, maintaining a con- stant warfare with the world, the flesh, and the devil, — growing up into the stature of a perfect man in Christ, and anticipating the fullness of joy and pleas- ure for evermore which are at God's right hand. The time of his departure at length arrives ; he has fought the good fight, he has finished his course, and he goes to obtain his crown and to attune his harp, and forever to dwell on the hills of light and love, where angels gather immortality. Oh, what a transit ; from the de- pendent helplessness of infancy to the glory of a seraph ; from mind scarcely manifested, to mind ranging over the immensity of Jehovah's empire, and rising in the loftiest exercises of reason and affection ! A7id Jioiv DiiicJi has the faithful teacJier had to do in fitting Jiim for the blissful mansions of the skies ! " If such be the teacher's work, where is the limit to his usefulness } Yet he may do this not for one merely, but for scores, or even hundreds. Eternity alone can display the immeasurable, inconceivable usefulness of one devoted teacher. And is not the teacher's calling honorable? It is, — for its usefulness makes it honorable. To scatter the light of truth is always honorable. So some of the greatest and best men the world ever saw have be- 366 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING lieved, and have illustrated their faith by their prac- tice. Confucius, Socrates, Seneca, Aristotle, and Plato were specimens of the teachers of ancient date. Roger Ascham, John Milton, Francke, Pestalozzi, Arnold, and a host of others, have adorned the profession in later times. Yet these are men who have taught the world to think. Their works live after them, — and will con- tinue to live, when the proud fame of the mighty war- riors who have marked their course in blood shall have perished from the earth. If it were necessary and not invidious, how many distinguished men in our own country could be men- tioned who have been teachers of the young, or who are still engaged as such. Besides those who have made teaching the business of their lives, how many have been temporarily employed in this calling. Some of our presidents, many of our governors, most of our jurists and divines, — indeed, some of every profession, ^^ and of the chief zvonien not a few'' — have first dis- tinguished themselves as school-teachers. Well may teachers, then, regard their profession as a.n honorable one ; always remembering, however, that " It is not the position which makes the man honorable, but the man the position." VII. The teacher enjoys the grateful rernefi'tb^'ance of his pupils and of their friends. When a distinguished writer said, "God be thanked for the gift of mothers and schoolmasters," he expressed but the common sen- timent of the human heart. The name of parent justly enkindles the warmest emotions in the heart of him who has gone out from his native home to engage in the busy scenes of the workday world ; and when sometimes he retires from the companionship of new- REWARDS OF THE TEACHER 367 made friends to recall the picture of the past and the loved of other days, — to think " Of childish joys, when bounding boyhood knew No grief, but chased the gorgeous butterfly And gamboFd with the breeze, that tossed about His silken curls — " how sweetly do the gentle influences of home and child- hood, with all their tender and hallowed associations, come stealing over the soul ! The world is forgotten ; care may not intrude upon this sacred hour; objects of sense are unheeded ; the call to pleasure is disregarded ; — while the rapt soul, introverted — transported — dwells with unspeakable delight upon its consecrated recollec- tion of all that is venerable, all that is sacred in the name of parent. At this favored hour, how the heart swells at the thought of a mother's love ! The smiles, the kind words, the sympathy, the counsels, the prayers, the tears, — how fondly the memory treasures them all up, and claims them for its own ! And though Death may have long since intruded, and consigned that gentle form to the cold earth, rudely sundering the cherished bonds of affection, and leaving the hearthstone desolate, — though change may have brought strangers to fell the favorite tree, to remove the ancient landmarks, to lay waste the pleasant places, and even to tread thought- lessly by the humble mound that marks the revered spot where "departed worth is laid," — though Time, " with his effacing fingers," may have been busy in ob- literating the impressions of childhood from the mind, or in burying them deeply beneath the rubbish of per- plexing cares, — still the true heart never tires with the thought of a fond parent, nor ever ceases to "thank 368 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING God upon every remembrance." of a pious , devoted mother ! Thus it should ever be. Nothing on earth should be allowed to claim the gratitude which is justly due to judicious parents. But the faithful, devoted teacher, the former of youthful character and the guide of youthful study, will 'be sure to have the next place in the grateful heart. Whether the young man treads the deck of the noble ship in his lonely watch as she proudly walks the waters by night, — or journeys among strangers in foreign lands ; — wherever he goes, or how- ever employed, — as often as his thoughts revisit the scenes of his childhood, and dwell with interest upon the events that marked his youthful progress, he will recur to the old familiar schoolhouse, call up its well- remembered incidents — its joys and its sorrows — its trials and its triumphs — its all-pervading and ever-abid- ing influences, and devoutly thank God for the gift of a faithful, self-denying, patient teacher. But the teacher is rewarded also by the gratitude of parents and friends. Some of the sweetest moments a teacher ever experiences are those when a parent takes him by the hand, and with cordial sincerity and deep emotion thanks him for what he has done for his child. It may have been a wayward, thoughtless, perhaps a vicious boy, whom kind words and a warm heart on the part of the teacher have won back to the path of recti- tude and virtue. I have seen an old lady — and I shall never forget the sight — bending under the infirmities of age, — blind, and yet dependent mainly upon her labor for support, invoking the richest of heaven's blessings upon the head of a teacher who, by kindness and perseverance, had REWARDS OF THE TEACHER 369 won back her wayward grandson to obedience and duty. How her full soul labored as she described the change that had taken place! Her emotion — too deep for utterance in words — found expression only in tears that streamed from her sightless eyes ! She felt that her boy was again a child of hope and promise, and that he might yet be a virtuous and a useful man. The world may raise its empty acclamation to honor the man of power and of fame, — it may applaud the states- man and weave the chaplet for the conqueror's brow ; — but the teacher, humble and obscure though he may be, who is the object of the widow's gratitude for being the orphan's friend, with the consciousness of deserving it, is a happier, I had almost said a greater man. Surely Jie receives a greater rezvard. Vni. TJie faithful teacher enjoys the approval of Heaven. He is employed, if he has a right spirit, in a heavenly mission. He is doing his Heavenly Father's business. That man should be made wiser and happier, is the will of Heaven. To this end, the Son of God — The Great Teacher — came to bless our race. So far as the schoolmaster has the spirit of Jesus, he is engaged in the same great work. Heaven regards with com- placency the humble efforts of the faithful teacher to raise his fellow-beings from the darkness of ignorance and the slavery of superstition ; and if a more glorious crown is held in reserve for one rather than another, it is for him who, uncheered by worldly applause, and without the prospect of adequate reward from his fellow- men, cheerfully practices the self-denial of his master, spending his strength, and doing with diligence and patience "whatsoever his hand findeth to do," toward raising his fellow-beings to happiness and heaven. B.-P. THE. & PR. TEACHING — 24 370 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING It is such a teacher that the eloquent and gifted Lord Brougham describes in the following beautiful language : " He meditates and prepares, in secret, the plans which are to bless mankind ; he slowly gathers around him those who are to further their execution, — he quietly, though firmly, advances in his humble path, laboring steadily, but calmly, till he has opened to the light all the recesses of ignorance, and torn up by the roots the weeds of vice. His progress is not to be compared with anything like the march of the con- queror, — but it leads to a far more brilliant triumph, and to laurels more imperishable than the destroyer of his species, the scourge of the world, ever won. Each one of these great teachers of the world, possessing his soul in peace, performs his appointed course, awaits in patience the fulfillment of the promises, and, resting from his labors, bequeaths his memory to the genera- tion whom his works have blessed, and sleeps under the humble, but not inglorious epitaph, commemorating * one in whom mankind lost a friend, and no man got rid of an enemy' " In view of what has been said, let the teacher cease to repine at his hard lot. Let him cast an occasional glance at the bright prospect before him. He deserves, to be sure, a higher pecuniary reward than he receives ; and he should never cease to press this truth upon the community, till talent in teaching is as well compen- sated as talent in any other calling. But whether he gains this or not, let him dwell upon the privileges and rewards to be found in the calling itself, and take fresh encouragement. REWARDS OF THE TEACHER 371 The apostle Paul exhibited great wisdom when he said, '*/ magnify mine office.'' If the foregoing views respecting the importance of the teacher's calling are correct, he may safely follow the apostle's example. This is not, however, to be done merely by boastful words. No man can elevate himself, or magnify his office in pubHc estimation by indulging in empty decla- mation, or by passing inflated resolutions. He must feel the dignity of his profession, and show that he feels it by unremitted exertions to attain to the highest excellence of which he is capable, — animated, in the midst of his toil, chiefly by the great moral recompense which every faithful teacher may hope to receive. Let every teacher, then, study to improve himself intellectually and morally; let him strive to advance in the art of teaching; let him watch the growth of mind under his culture and take the encouragement which that affords ; let him consider the usefulness he may effect and the circumstances which make his calling honorable ; let him prize the gratitude of his pupils and of their parents and friends ; and above all, let him value the approval of Heaven, .and set a proper estimate upon the rewards which another world will unfold to him, — and thus be encouraged to toil on in faithfulness and in hope, — till, having finished his course, and being gathered to the home of the righteous, he shall meet multitudes, instructed by his wise precept, and profited by his pure example, who "shall rise up and call him blessed." 3/2 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING TOPICAL OUTLINE I . They do not lie in Money Getting. 1 . The teacher's salary is relatively low. a. Comparisons in illustration. Proceedings National Educational Association for 1885, pp. 138-150. 2. The effects of poor salaries upon the profession. II. Rewards. 1. Consciousness of intellectual growth. a. Conditions of intellectual growth? 2. Consciousness of moral growth. a. Indications of moral growth? 3. Consciousness of increasing efficiency. a. Conditions of increasing skill? 4. Consciousness of having a useful and honorable calling. a. Ways in which it is useful and honorable? 5. The gratitude of pupils and their friends. a. The faithful teacher's place in the pupil's memory? b. The gratitude of parents. 6. The approval of Heaven. a. The teacher's work. Lord Brougham. b. How the teacher can magnify his office. Read: Morgan's Educational Mosaics: The Teacher's Monument, p. 94. A Lofty Aim, p. 126. A Work for Eternity, p. 186. A Bit of Advice, p. 242. The Teacher's Responsibility, p. 242. Morgan's Studies in Pedagogy : The Teacher's Calling, p. 313. The Teacher's Growth, p. 334. A Professional Spirit, p. 341. 343- INDEX Abbott, quoted, 184. Abbott's "Teacher," 306. Accuracy, a requisite in teachers, 338. in recitations, 149. Acquisition, pleasure of, 176. Adaptation, 241, 317, 355. Addison, quoted, 96. Advancement, desire for, 174. Agnew, Professor, quoted, 364. Agriculture, chemistry improves, 86. Aid, mutual, 309-317. Air, 2S6, 287, 290. Algebra, teacher's mastery of, 85. Alphabet, 80. Alternation of studies, 258. Ambition, evils of, 159. Anderson, M. B., quoted, 107. Anger, to be avoided, 27, 183, 235. Animation, need of, 145. Approbation, love of, 173, 188. Aptitude, need of, 30, 32. Aptness to teach, no, 138. Aristocracy, 188, 251, 321, 322. Aristotle, a teachei", 366. Arithmetic, mental, 46. review's in, 268. teacher's mastery of, 83, 84. written, 48. Arnold, Matthew, a teacher, 366. Arrangements of schools, 247-276. Artificial excitement, 155. Artificial stimulants, 178. Ascham, Roger, a teacher, 366. Assistance to child, right amount, III, 118. Astronomy, value to teacher, 91. Attainments, 22, 78, 79, 91, 303. Attention, 122, 128, 131, 138, 139, 143, 145. 331- Attitude of teacher, 145. Auburn State Prison, 58-62. Authority, 183, 184, 214, 229, 230. B Babel, in classes, 263. Baby talk, scientific, 331. Bacon, Lord, quoted, 40, 299. Barnard, H., " Connecticut Common School Journal,' 307. " Journal of R, I. Institute," 307. Bible, improper use of, 213, 329. study of, 55, 56. Bigotry, to be avoided, 85. Biographical sketch, of Page, 1 1-20. Blackguardism, evil of, 212. Black marks, 201. Bond, G. C, quoted, 77. Bookkeeping, need of, 88. Books, as instruments of study, 49. care of, 335. Bronchitis, one cause of, 296. Brougham, Lord, quoted, 370. teachings of, 99. works on education, 307. Caprice, to be avoided, 28. Carlyle, quoted, 78, 106, 341. Carrying, in subtraction, 147. "Celebrations," 271. 373 374 INDEX Character, 67, 74, 98, 103, 172, 174, 320, 321, 335. Cheerfulness, 294, 295, 339, 340. Chemistry, teacher's mastery of, 86. Child, capacity of, 28, 100, 175, 176. choice of studies, 322-324. conscience in, 175. danger of misguidance, 23, 98, III, 248, 328. deformity of, 185. emulation in, 159. health of, 46, 10 1. home of, 225. imitation of, 145. intellectual development of, 46, loi, 363. moral training of, 51, 100, 176, 226, 364. neglect of, 43. obedience of, 177, 338. qualities in, 188, 327. Christian spirit, to be inculcated, 55, Chronology, table of, 20. Civil government, need of, 89. Classirication, 254, 256, 259. " Colburn's Intellectual Arith.," 47. Page's experience with, ^1, Cold feet, danger of, 293. Collateral study, 50, 91, 307. Comenius, familiarity with, 34. quoted, 106, 107. Commonplace book, 143, 308. Common sense, need of, 333. Comparison of pupils unwise, 327. Composition, study of, 48. Composure, need of, 28. Concert recitation, 330. Conducting recitations, 138-154. Confinement, as a punishment, 221. solitary, 231. Confucius, a teacher, 366. Conscience, 52, 100, 172, 189, 218, 241. activity in childhood, 175. law of, 196. Conscience, reward of, 172. should be sensitive, 29. Constraint, evil of, 206. Cooper's " Teacher's Advocate," 307. Corn, an object lesson, 122-126. Corporal punishment, 223-235. Horace Mann on necessity of, 225-228. its abolition an ideal, 229. limitations, 235-238. Countenance, pleasing, 339. Courage, need of, 29. Course of study, 307. Courtesy, value of, 70. Cousin, teachings of, 99. works on education, 307. Cramming, evils of, 50. Credits, registers of, 201. Crime, cause of, 60. Cruelty in punishments, 213, 214. Culture, need of, 26. Curiosity, a good stimulant to acqui- sition, 179. D Davis's " Teacher Taught," 307. Decision in teacher, 189. Defining, a primary study, 46. Delay of reproof, 337. De Sacy's " General Grammar ' recommended, 84. Description, practice in, 481. Desks, neatness of, 336. Development, 99, 365. Diet of teacher, 286-297. Direction of pupils' study, 322, 323. Disciplinary punishment, 238. Discontent, a wrong, 339. Don'ts, 357. Drawing, 90, 257. Drawing-out process, 114-118. Dress, 69, 286, 293, 320, 321. Drink, water, 293. Driving, a good exercise, 289. INDEX 375 Dullness, 327. Duties, of a day, 254. Dwight, F., " District School Jour- nal," 307. teachings of, 99. Dwight, T,," Schoolmaster's Friend," Education, conception of, 95, 103. defined, 99. history of, 26. importance of, 106. liberal, 103. means of, 105. nature of, 103. necessity for, 44. not merely knowledge, 100. phases of, 2>2)i loi. professional, 30, 91, 96, 97, 301, 306. quotations on, 103-108. right \aews of, 95-110. warning, 107. works on, 306. Emerson, G. B., teachings of, 99. Emerson, R. W., quoted, 67, 97, 105, 285, 320. Emolument, teacher's, 299-303, 358. Employment, value of, 194. Emulation, 156-162, 174. Equality, in government, 187. Essays, subjects for, 25, 109, 137, 181, 246, 276, 284, 297. Essex County Teachers' Association (Mass.), 315. Evasions to be avoided, 143. Examinations, public, 269-273. Example of teacher, 52, 53, 304. Exciting interest in study, 155-181. Exclusiveness in knowledge, 310. Excuses for defects in school, 325. Exercise, best conditions of, 289. of teacher, 286-297. time for, 287. I Exhibitions, 271. I Expedients, 345. Experience, need of, 36. Explanations, to be intelligible, 147. ' Expulsion, as a punishment, 233. Extraneous business, in school hours, : 324- Extraordinary proceedings, 316. Eyes, use of, 332. Farming, a good exercise, 288. Fat, injurious as food, 292. Fear, appeal to, 206, 208. Fitness, to teach, 26-39. Food, proper, 2S6. Force, appeal to, 206. Fox, quoted, loi. Francke, a teacher, 366. Frankness, of teachers to parents, 281. Froebel, familiarity with, 34. Gardening, a good exercise, 288. Gascoigne, quoted, 107. General exercises, 121. General knowledge, needed, 91. Gentlemanly manners, 282. Geography, as a primary study, 47. teacher's mastery of, 82. Geolog}', value to teacher, 91. Geometry, teacher's master}' of, 85. Gilman, quoted, 299. Gospel, admonitions of, 277. Government, school, 182-246. a means, not end, 202. equality in, 187. just views of, 186. requisites for, 1 82-191. uniformity in, 187. Grammar, an advanced study, 48. teacher's mastery of, 84. 3/6 INDEX Gratitude of parents and friends, 368. Great Teacher, The, 369. Greek, value of study, 82. Greeley, Horace, quoted, 358. H Habits, of fortitude, 75. of order, 76. of pr-udence, 75. of study, 74, 267. of teacher, 67-77. significant thoughts about, 76. Hall, G. S., quoted, 76. Hall, Robert, quoted, 76. Hall, S. R., quoted, 147. Hall's " Lectures on School Keep- ing," 307. Hamilton, Wm., quoted, 106, no. Harris, Dr. W. T., familiarity with, 34- quoted, 104. Health, bodily, 45. teacher's care of, 285-298. Heaven's approval of teacher, 368. Helps, quoted, 105. Higher branches, 333. Hill, Thos., quoted, 104. Hissing, 217. History, study of, 47. teacher's mastery of, 82. Hitchcock, anecdote about, 287. Hobbies, to be avoided, 134, 329, 330. " Holding a nail," 215. Honesty, 57, 271, 281, 315, 338. Honor of teacher's calling, 365. Horseback riding good exercise, 288. Humiliation, caution regarding, 221. Huntingdon, F. D., quoted, 104. Huxley, T. H., quoted, 103. Hypocrisy, 221, 227, 270, 271, 272, 281, 315, 316, 335. Ideal school, 242. Illustration, art of, 342. Imitation in children, 145. not to be servile, 316. Impartiality in government, 188. Impression, first, 192. Inattention, habit of, 145. Incentives to study, 156-180. Indefinite expressions, 282. Inductions, 239. Injustice, 188, 320, 359. Inquiry, about schools, 280. Insight, need of, 27. Institutes, Teachers', 312. Intellectual growth of pupils, 46, 362. of teacher, 360. Intellectual philosophy, teacher's need of, 88. Interest in study, 1 5 5-1 81. Interruptions, 260-263. Irritability, from, lack of sleep, 290. Johnson, Dr., quoted, 76. Journals, school, their value, 35. to be kept by teacher, 308. K Kant, quoted, 107. Kindness to pupils, 335. Knowledge, 100, 178, 303, 304, 365- certain, 338. desire for, 176, 17S, 180. important step to, 57. not an end, 100. not education, 100. self, 361. unsafe, 98. INDEX 377 Lalor, works on education, 307. Lancasterian schools, 150. Language, accuracy necessary in teachers, 144. philosophy of, 84. purity of, 71. Latin, value of study, 82. "Leading" questions, 114. Lectures, faults of, 314. " Lectures of American Institute of Instruction," 307. Leibniz, quoted, 107. Lessons, assignment of, 266-269. short at first, 267. Levity, to be avoided, 183. Liberal education, 103. Library, teachers', 306. Light, value of, 289, 290. Literary qualifications of the teacher, 78-94. Locke, John, quoted, 67, 107. Logic, need of, 88. Luther, Martin, quoted, 90. M Mann, Horace, familiarity with, 34. quoted, 81, 87, 106, 107, 145, 177. teachings of, 99. " Common School Journal," 307. " Lectures," 307. " Secretary's Reports," 307. Maps, value of, 47. Marion, quoted, 108. Mechanical habits of study, 49, 50. Memoriter exercises, 270. Mental Arithmetic, a primarv study. 46. teacher's mastery of, %■},. Methodology, defined, 34. of use to the teacher, 34. Methods, 34, 1 10-135, Ho, 31 1. 312 patent, 333. Milton, John, as a teacher, 99, 366. quoted, 105. Mind, crime of misleading, 24, 53, 98, 102, 114, 178, 248. development of, 140, 177. dignity of, 23, 98, 176, 177, 364. not a passive recipient, 113. reached through body, 209. Miscellaneous suggestions, 320-357. Models, servile imitation of, 316. use of, 259. Modesty, in pupils, 282. Montaigne, quoted, 105, 107. Morality, 43, 51, 98, loi, 173, 177, 191. how developed, 52, 100, 337, 346- 354, 361. Moral philosophy, need of, 88. Moral principle, in teachers, 191. Moroseness to be avoided, 183, 339. Motives, 155, 173-180, 188. higher, 241. in punishment, 207, 217. of teaching, 21-24. proper, 362. Music, as recreation, 295. value of, 199. Mutual aid, 309-317. Mutual visitation of teachers, 310, N Natural history, value to teacher, 91. Natural order, 140. Natural philosophy, teacher's mas- tery of, 85. Neatness, lessons in, 335. need of, 68. Neck, overprotection of, 295. Neglect, of education, 43. Nervousness, from lack of sleep, 290. "Nibblings" at knowledge, 258. Normal schools, limitations of, 36. value of, 301. 3/8 INDEX O Obedience, pupil's, 182. Object lesson, on corn and seeds, 121-131. Observation, 50, 127, 1 31-133. Olmsted, Professor, quoted, -^-^Z. Oral instruction, 310. Oral mania, 7,-^. Order, 70, 182, 192, 203, 205, 352. of nature, 140. of study, 46, 64. Organization, 249, Orthography, teacher's knowledge of, 79. Overgovernment, 202. Page, D. P., biographical sketch of, 11-19. boyhood, ii. call to Albany, 13. characterization of, 16. country school-teacher, 12. crisis in life, 1 1 . death of, 16. friendship for Horace Mann, 14. growing school-teacher, 13. lesson of his life, 17. private school-teacher, 12. reasons for success, 1 7. resources of, 15. schoolboy, 12. solves a difficult problem, 14. success of, 16. table of chronology, 20. teacher student, 12. topical outline, 19. Pain, bodily, 237. Palmer's "Teacher's Manual," 306. Parents, 208, 368. acquaintance with, 249, 278. benefited, 132. explanations to, 279. Parents, folly of, 232, 328. gratitude of, 364. m.oral influence of, 56, 228. mutual duties with, 200, 328. responsibility of, 44, 208, 225. teacher's relation to, 277-283. Parker, quoted, 105. Partiality for studies, ^iZl)- " Patent methods," 333. Patience with parents, 328. Patrick, quoted, 138. Paul, St., quoted, 371. Pay of teachers, 299, 358. how to increase, 302, 303. Payne, Dr., familiarity with, 34. Payne, Joseph, quoted, 106, no. Pear tree, neglected, 41-43. Pedagogical books, recommended, 319- Pedagogy, a necessary study, 33. Peevishness, evil of habit, 184. Periodical reviews, 268, 269. Personal habits of the teacher, 67-77. Pestalozzi, a teacher, 366. quoted, 21. Physiology, reviews in, 269. teacher's mastery of, 86. Plagiarism, 337. Plan, need of, 247, 249. of day's work, 252, 254, 256. Plane trigonometry, teacher's mas- tery of, 85. Plato, a teacher, 366. his ideal of the cultured man, 37. quoted, 104, 107. Pleasantness of countenance, 339. Plutarch, quoted, 106. Politeness, need of, 70, 71. Potter, Bishop, quoted, 199. teachings of, 99. Potter and Emerson's " School and Schoolmaster," 306. Pouring-in process, 11 2-1 14. Precept of the teacher, 51. Prejudice, caution against, 320. ■ INDEX 379 Press as promoter of education, 312. Principle, necessary in a teacher, 53. Privileges, loss of, 219. Prizes, 162-172. bad influence of, 171. difficulties of award, 166. improper motives for, 164. injustice in avi'ards, 167, 168. objections to, 163, 164, 165. reward success, not effort, 169, Profession of teaching, state of, 299. teacher's relation to, 299-319. Professional feeling, 314. Professional readings, 306. Programme, of a day's work, 256. Progress, slow, 267. Promptitude in recitations, 149. Proper incentives to study, 173-180. Proportion, distinguished from ratio, 144. Page's difficulty with, 148. Psychology, an aid to the teacher, 32. Public examinations, 269-273. Punctuality, need of, 72. of teacher, 305. Punishment, 207-223. corporal, 223-235. defined, 207. disciplinary, 238. improper, 210. instruments of, 237. proper, 219. two classes of, 209. Pupils, examinations, 269. punishment of, 20S. self-respect of, 267. success of, 363. talented, 258. treatment of, 188. vicious, 226, 233. Qualifications of teacher, 78-94. Question, misuse of term, 144. Quintilian, quoted, 26. Quiz, 62, 75, 151, 153, 318. • Quotations, 21, 24, 26, 40, 51, 54, 66, 67. 76, 77» 78» 94, 95, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, no, 138, 155, 182, 194, 213, 247, 277, 285, 295, 299, 310, 320, 334, 349, 353, 358, 367. R Rashness, defined, 29. Ratio and proportion, 144. Reading, a first study, 46. defects in, 80, 81. teacher's mastery of, 80. Reading circles, 92. Readings, 39, 77, 298, 306, 307, 318, 319- Recesses, 263-266. duration of, 264. hour for, 265. Recitations, concert, 330. conducting of, 138-154. forms of, 152. in classes, 258. promptitude and accuracy in, 149. simultaneous, 150. Recreation, 305. Registers of credits, 201. Religious iinpression, 346. Religious training, 54, 55. Remembrance of pupils, 366. Reproof, delay of, 337. distinguished from reproach, 219. Resolutions, futility of, 240, Respect for property, 336. precedes attachment, 192. Responsibihty of the teacher, 40-66. Restraint, as a punishment, 220. Revenge, 207. Reviews, benefits of, 268. general, 269. in geography, 268. in natural philosophy, 268. periodical, 268, 269. 330 INDEX Rewards, distinguished from prizes, 163. not necessary, 172. of God, 170, 371. of teacher, 300, 358-372. value of, 172. Rhetoric, need of, %?,. Richter, quoted, 105, Ridicule, to be avoided, 216. Right modes of teaching, 1 10-137. Right viev^s of education, 95-109. Rod, 223. a last resort, 231, 234, 239. substitutes for, 231-234. Rosenkranz, quoted, 105, Routine, to be avoided, 146. Rowing, good exercise, 288. Rule of right, supreme, 198. Rule of Three, Page's experience with, 148. Rules should be few, 195-198. Ruskin, John, quoted, 95, 105, 108. Sarcasm, to be avoided, 27. Sawing, a good exercise, 289. Scholars, classification of, 254. good and poor, loi, 102. morals of, 52. politeness of, 71. recitations of, 267, the best, 165. Scholarship, need of, 30, loi, 139, 267. School arrangements, 247-276. School government, 182-246. School, ideal, 242. Schoolhouse, orderly, 335. Scolding, evils of, 211. Sectarianism, to be avoided, 55. Seeds, lesson on, 1 27-131. Self-confidence, value of, 186. Self-control, a duty, 341. need of, 28. Self-culture, 303-309. Self-government, 182. Self-sufhciency, 317. Seneca, a teacher, 366. Sense, need of, 27. Sensibility, wounding of, 327. Servile imitation, 316. Shakespeare, quoted, 51. Shame, appeal to, 208. Simultaneous recitation, 150. Singing, 199, 200, 353. Sitting on nothing, 215. Sketch of Page's life, n-20. Skimming, 266. Sleep, need of, 286, 290. Snappishness, habit of, 184. Social duties of teacher, 277, 294. Socrates, a teacher, 366. Solitary confinement, disadvantages of, 231. Solomon, quoted, 340. Spalding, quoted, 76. Spelling, a first study, 46. Spencer, quoted, 105, 106. Spirit of the teacher, 21-25. Splitting wood, 289. Stagnation of teachers, 306. Steele, J. Dorman, 242. Stern, quoted, 103. Stimulants to study, 178, 179. Studies, collateral, 50, 91, 307. direction of, 322. habits of, 74. interest in, 155-180. names of, 49. order of, 46, 64, 254-256. professional, 304, 319. sequence of, 322. Subjects for discussion or essays, 25, 109, 137, 154, 181, 246, 276, 284, 297. Suggestions, miscellaneous, 320-357. Sums, misuse of term, 144. Sunshine, 287. Suspicious spirit, to be avoided, 193. INDEX 381 Swaddling of neck, 297. Swctt, quoted, 106. Sympathy, need of, 28. Systematic study, 307. Tact, defined, 28. Tasks, as punishments, 221. Taylor, J. O., " District School," 307. Teacher, accomplished, 139. attainments of, 79-90, 97, 139, 299, 312,371- benefited, 132. care of health, 285-298. diet of, 286-297. duty to community, 67, 96, 200, 302, 312. duty to pupils, 166, 185, 248, 325. example of, 304. exercise of, 2S6-297. fitness to teach, 26-39. frankness of, 281. friend of pupil, 334. government of, 182, 227. honesty of, 271, 273. improvement of, 371. literary qualifications of, 78-94. motives of, 22, 54, 98, 334, 360. pay of, 299-303, 358, 359. personal habits of, 67-77.' punctuality of, 305. purity of, 51. relation to profession, 299-319, 334, 371- relation to parents, 277-284. responsibility of, 24, 40-66, 166, 174, 248, 360. rewards of, 358-372. self-denial of, 302. social duties of, 277, 294. spirit of, 21-25, 145, 250, 309, 334- temptations of, 133, 304, 306, 309, 317, 324, 325, 327, 328, 340. Teachers' Associations, 312. Teachers' Institutes, 312. Teaching, art of, 362. emoluiTieiit for, 299-303. fitness for, 26-36, 139. improvement in, 362. mechanical, 142. modes of, 1 10-137. practical, 313, 320. profession of, 299-317. science of, 140. secondary object, 23, 98, 140. works on, 306. Temple, Dr., quoted, no. Tetlow, John, quoted, 94. Text -book, independence of, in class, 141. Thoroughness, 324, 361. Threatening, 198, 211, 231. Thunderstorm, its lesson, 347-349. "Time for everything," 262. Tobacco, evils of habit, 69. Topical Outlines, 19, 25, 37, 92, 108, 135, 180, 242, 273, 283, 297, 355, 372- Topical Quiz, 62, 151, 318. Torture, to be avoided, 213. Training, mental, 46. moral, 51, 176. physical, 45. religious, 54. Trigonometry, teacher's mastery of, 85. Tyranny, evils of, 186. U Uniformity, value of, in government, 187. Usefulness of teacher, 364. Vandalism, 335, 336. Views of education, 95-109. 382 INDEX Views of government, 186-189. Visits, of parents, 280. of teacher, 200, 201, 250, 251. Vocal music, 199. Vocation, of teacher, 360-371. W Waking up mind, 120-131, 198, 199. Walking, a good exercise, 287. Water," free use of, 290. Wayland, teachings of, 99. Wellington, Duke, quoted, 76. Whipping, 231, 235. Whispering, between recitations, 26:!. White, E. E., quoted, 76. Woodward, Dr., quoted, 87. Word analysis, 82. Worship in prison, 60, 61. Writing, a primary study, 48. legibility of, 82. Written Arithmetic, study of, teacher's mastery of, 83. Written exercises, 64, 357. Wyse, teachings of, 99. writings on education, 307. Young, Colonel, quoted, < Young, Dr., quoted, 310. TYPOGRAPHY BY J. S. GUSHING &l CO., NORWOOD, MASS. Books for Teachers FOR THE STUDY OF PEDAGO GY Calkins's Manual of Object Teaching- Hailmann's History of Pedagogy Hewett's Pedagogy for Young Teachers How to Teach (Kiddle, Harrison, and Calkins) King's School Interests and Duties KrLisi's Life and Work of Pestalozzi Mann's School Recreations and Amusements Page's Theory and Practice of Teaching Palmer's Science of Education Payne's School Supervision Payne's Contributions to the Science of Education Sheldon's Lessons on Objects Shoup's History and Science of Education . Swett's Methods of Teaching White's Elements of Pedagogy . White's School Management FOR THE STUDY OF PSYCHOLOGY Halleck's Psychology and Psychic Culture . Hewett's Psychology for Young Teachers . Putnann's Elementary Psychology Roark's Psychology in Education , FOR THE TEACHER'S DESK Schaeffer's Bible Readings for Schools Eclectic Manual of Methods .... Swett's Questions for ^Vritten Examination Appletons' Plow to Teach Writing Morris's Physical Education .... Smart's Manual of School Gymnastics White's Oral Lessons in Number Dubbs's Arithmetical Problems. Teachers' Edition Doerner's Treasury of General Knowledge. Part I. The Same. Part H. ..... Webster's Academic Dictionary. New Edition. $1.25 .60 .85 LOO LOO L20 LOO LOO LOO LOO 1.25 1.20 LOO LOO LOO LOO 1.25 .85 .90 LOO .35 .60 .72 .50 LOO .30 .60 LOO .50 .65 L50 A?2y of the above books sent, prepaid^ on i-eceipt of the p7'ice by the Publishers : American Book Company NEW YORK ♦ CINCINNATI ♦ CHICAGO (i6) Halleck's Psychology and Psychic Culture By REUBEN POST HALLECK, M.A. (Yale) Cloth, 12mo, 368 pages. Illustrated .... Price, $1.25 This new text-book in Psychology and Psychic Culture is suitable for use in High School, Academy and College classes, being simple and elementary enough for beginners and at the same time complete and comprehensive enough for advanced classes in the study. It is also well suited for private students and general readers, the subjects being treated in such an attractive manner and relieved by so many apt illustrations and examples as to fix the attention and deeply impress the mind. The work includes a full statement and clear exposition of the coordinate branches of the study — physiological and introspective psychology. The physical basis of Psychol- ogy is fully recognized. Special attention is given to the cultivation of the mental faculties, making the work practically useful for self-improvement. The treatment throughout is singularly clear and plain and in harmony with its aims and purpose. " Halleck's Psychology pleases me very much. It is short, clear, interesting, and full of common sense and originality of illustration, I can sincerely recommend it." WILLIAM JAMES, Professor of Psychology, Harvard University. 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