III?!;': !| '■!■.>';''■ P': liii Class _J:J 11 \ Book__.S^l Copyright N" COPVRIGHT DEPOSIT. "i^To^ BARNES'S SCHOOL HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES BEING A REVISION OF A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES BY JOEL DORMAN STEELE, Ph.D., F.G.S. AND ESTHER BAKER STEELE, Lit.D NEW YORK •:• CINCINNATI •:• CHICAGO AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY '/ Copyright, 1<.I()3, \i)V\ by American Book Company Entered at Stationers' Hall, Loudou B. Hist. U. S. w. p. 31 OCI.A347212 7u / PREFACE The wide and constant use which has been accorded to Barnes's Brief History of the United States, for more than thirty years and in all parts of the country, proves that it possesses in an eminent degree those qualities of style and arrangement which adapt a school text-book for practical class work and make it popular as a teaching tool. But since it was published the acts of a new generation have added momentous chapters to the story of our national life. Within this period the industrial and financial center of the world has crossed the Atlantic to our shores, and the United States has attained acknowledged preeminence among the world powers of the earth. Within this period, too, there has been a gradual but constant shifting of the point of view from which the history of a country is regarded, and of the methods employed m teaching it. Descriptions of battles and of the movements of armies have come to be considered of less importance, and the social con- dition and industries of the people of far greater importance, than they formerly were ; and even in the grammar school the pupil is expected to pursue a longer or shorter course of collateral reading in history outside of his text-book. In order that these modified views of history and the method of teaching it might be incorporated into the Barnes's History, the thorough revision resulting in the present volume was under- taken. In this revision a consistent effort has been made to retain those features of the older book which gave it its extraordinary popularity: its main division into epochs; its topical arrange- ment ; its interesting footnotes containing collateral facts, minor 5 6 PREFACE events, and brief biographies; and, most important of all, the fascinating literary style of Dr. Steele. Indeed, his language has been retained throughout the greater portion of the book, and in all cases where it conformed to the latest and best historical au- thorities, witli which the entire work has been rigorously com- pared. In the present volume, however, the treatment of battles has been somewhat curtailed and greater prominence has been given to the life of the people and to the wonderful development of our industries. Carefully selected references for a brief course of collateral reading have been inserted at frequent intervals throughout the book, and in the appendix is given a classified list of works from which further selections may be made as de- sired. New maps and pictures have been prepared and placed in close connection with the text which they illustrate. The words which Dr. Steele used in 1871, in giving to the public the original edition of his history, aj)ply with equal force to the present revision : '' This work is offered to American youth in the confident belief that as they study the wonderful history of their native land they will learn to prize their birthright more highly, and treasure it more carefully. Their pati'iotism must be kindled when they come to see how slowly, yet how gloriously, this tree of liberty has grown, what storms have wrenched its boughs, what sweat of toil and blood lias moistened its roots, what eager eyes have watched every out-springing bud, what brave hearts have defended it, loving it even unto death. A heritage thus sanctified by the heroism and devotion of the fathers can not but elicit the choicest care and tenderest love of the sons." Esther Baker Steele. Elmira, N. Y., February, 1903. CONTENTS PAGE Introduction The Indians 9 The Northmen 15 Epochsof American History ... 16 Epoch I. Early Discoveries and Ex- plorations Europe in the Fifteenth Century' . 19 Columbus 21 How America was Named .... 26 The Cahots . 27 Spanish Explorations 29 French Explorations Hi English Explorations 40 Dutch Explorations ...... 46 Conflicting Claims 46 Epoch II. Development of the Eng- lish Colonies Virginia 49 Massachusetts 57 Maine and New Hampshire ... 66 Connecticut 67 Rhode Island 70 New York 71 New Jersey 75 Pennsylvania and Delaware ... 76 Maryland 79 The Carolinas 80 Georgia 84 Intercolonial Wars 86 Colonial Society 102 Colonial Industries 114 Epoch III. The REvm.cTioNARr War Causes 119 Events of 1775 ........ 124 Events of 1776 130 Events of 1777 136 PAGE Events of 1778 143 Events of 1779 147 Events of 1780 150 Events of 1781 156 Results of the War 160 The Constitution 164 Epoch IV. Development of the States (to 1861) Washington's Administration . . . 169 Adams's Administration 175 Jefferson's Administration .... 176 Madison's Acffiiinisti'ation .... 183 War of 1812 185 Monroe's Administration .... 196 John Quincy Adams's Administra- tion 201 Jackson's Administration .... 203 Van Buren's Administration . . .208 Harrison and Tyler's Administra- tion 210 James K. Polk's Administratioc . 215 War with Mexico 215 Taylor and Fillmore's Administra- tion 223 Pierce's Administration 225 Buchanan's Administration . . . 230 Society before the Civil War . . .235 Industrial History 238 New States 244 Epoch V, The Civil War. Lincoln's Administration Events of 1861 249 Events of 1862 , . 260 Events of 186:! 279 Events of 1864 290 Events of 1865 304 New States 309 8 CONTENTS PAGE Epoch VI. Development of the Na- tion (since 1865) Johnson's Administration . . . .312 Grant's Administration 317 Hayes's Administration 324 (Jarficld and Arthur's Administra- tion 320 Clov(>land'H First Administration . 328 Harrison's Admiiiisti'atiou . . . .331 Clovchmd's Second .\dniiuistratiou 333 McKiuley's Administration . . .339 Tlie War with Spain 341 Industrial History 353 New States 359 PAGE Progress in Civilization 360 Ree<'nt Events $69 Appendix Chrooolof^ical Summary . . . i References for Readintr . . . ix Declaration of Indeiiciidence . xi Constitution of the United States xiv (Questions for Class Use . . . xxviii Historic il Recreations . . . . xli Table of States xlvi Table of Presidents xlviii Index xlix COLORED MAPS Eastern North America, 1754 ... 02 Ri-itish Territory, 1764 101 Northern Colonies during the Revo- lution i:!2 Southern Colonies duriug the Revo- lution 1.52 The United States, about 1790 . . 162 The United States, 1805 179 The United States, 1824 . . . 198, 199 The United States, 18,->0 . . . 226, 227 The United States, 1801 . . . 252, 253 The States of the Union . . . 334, 335 The United States and its Outlying Possessions 349 Territorial Development of the United States Z61 A SCHOOL HISTOEY OF THE UNITED STATES INTRODUCTION The Indians. — A few hundred years ago there were no white men in our country. Nearly all the land was with- out inhabitants, but scattered about here and there were villages or groups of rude dwellings occupied by Indians. In what is now the main part of the United States there were at that time fewer people than there are to-day in the single city of St. Louis. Indians had lived in America for no one knows how long — for many centuries at least. They were probably descended from the same people as the Chinese and other natives of eastern Asia; but where that people lived, and when, are alike unknown. It may be that America was first settled in that remote age when the Arctic regions were warmer than now, and when, as geology teaches, this continent was connected by land both with Asia and with Europe. At a later period, small parties may have crossed Bering Strait, or vessels may have been driven by winds and currents across the Pacific Ocean, their crews being thankful to escape a watery grave by settling a new country. American Antiquities. — The Indians of Mexico, Central America, and especially Peru, had advanced almost to a 9 10 INTRODUCTION state of civilization; and we find there the ruins of their ancient cities, stone temples, and paved roads. Within the limits of our own country the Indians were in a condition of savagery or barbarism. The most famous monuments of the prehistoric inhabitants of the country are mounds of earth found in vast numbers in the eastern half of the Mississippi vallej'. There are more than 10,000 of them in Ohio alone. They are of many shapes — circular, square, and irregular embankments, cones, pyramids, and figures of gigantic animals j* and are of all sizes up to several acres in area, or several hun- dred or thousand feet in length. On some of them were found growing forest trees of the largest size. The mounds were built by the Indians or their ancestors, for a variety of purposes : some were used for military defense, some served as burial mounds, some marked the sites of huts or villages, and some were designed for religious purposes. Buried in the mounds, often with the bodies of the dead, there have been found many articles used by the Indians, including shells, pottery, rude textiles, some implements of copper that was dug from old pits still to be seen in the Lake Superior I'egion, and, in the later mounds, beads which must have been received from the early visitors to America from Europe. In the southwest of our country there are ruins of cliff dwellings and pueblos (pweb'loz), and some pueblos that are still occupied. A pueblo was a vast apartment house, built of stone or of sun-dried clay, large enough for a whole vil- lage of perhaps several thousand people. The pueblos were several stories high, and their rooms were entered ' An embanlniicnt in Adams County, Ohio, roprcsontH very accurately a sorpent 1000 feet long. Its body winds with graceful curves, and in its widely extended jawe lies a figure which tbe animal seems about to swallow. THE INDIANS 11 through holes in the roof, which was reached by ladders. SiK'li buildings were designed for protection against sud- I i*.** m ■ ■ -ii^> ^ ■A^- A PUEBLO. den attacks by savage foes. The Pueblo Indians irrigated and tilled the soil, made good pottery, and wove cloth. Tribes. — The Indians of our country were divided into several hundred tribes, speaking different languages or dialects, and having different customs. In general, each tribe lived iu a village or group of villages by itself. Ac- cording to their languages, the different tribes have been arranged in about fifty distinct groups, each group includ- ing the tribes of a common origin. Five of the most important groups are the Iroquoi'an, Algon'quian, Musk- ho'gean, Siouan (soo'an), and Shosho'nean. Of the In- dians now living in the United States more than half belong to these five groups. 12 INTRODUCTION The Iroquoian tribes lived iu a large region surround- ing Lakes Erie and Ontario, and iu a smaller district in the southern Appalachian Mountains. Among the tribes of this group which we shall meet later in the history of our country are the five Iroquois tribes,' the Tuscaro'ras, and the Cherokees'. The Algonquian tribes were very numerous. Their ter- ritory surrounded the northern Iroquoian region, and ex- tended from the Atlantic Ocean to the Mississii)pi River in the region of the Ohio valley and the Great Lakes, The Muskhogean tribes lived in the South, east of the Mississippi Eivor and north of the Gulf of Mexico. They were sun worshipers, and were better skilled in agricul- ture than most other Indians. The Siouan tribes occupied the western side of the Mississippi basin. Some of them were among the most warlike of all Indians. The Shoshonean tribes occupied the greater part of the Rocky Mountain highland and the southern part of the Great Plains. Indian Characteristics Arts and Inventions. — The Indian built no cities, no ships, no churches, no school- houses. In general he constructed only temporary wig- wams of bark or skins, and canoes of birch bark. He made neither roads nor bridges, but followed footpaths through the forest, and swam the streams. His highest art was expended in a simple bow and arrow. Progress and Government. — He made no advancement, 1 The Flvo Nations of Iroquois (Sen'ecas, Cayu'gas, Ononda'gas, Oiici'das, and Mo'- Lawks) formed a confederacy styled the "Lonj: House," because these Indians dwelt in bark houses often 2r>0 feet in length and ao feet wide, each holdinf? twenty or thirty families. This leapue formed, in fact, a loosely organized reimhlic, with a con- gress of the chiefs or sachems of the ditt'erent tribes. Fierce, bloodthir.sty, and fond of conquest, the Iroquois might perhaps have subdued the continent if the white man had not come. Early travelers called them the Romaus of the New World. THE INDIANS 13 but each son emulated the prowess of his father in the hunt and the fight. The hunting ground and the battle- field embraced everything of real honor or value. So the son was educated to throw the tomahawk, shoot the arrow, and catch fish with the spear. He knew nothing of books, paper, writing, or history. The Indian respected the chiefs or wise men of his tribe, but they governed by influence rather than by authority. Ev^en when the tribal council decided to make war, every Indian was free to fight or not, as he chose. Domestic Life. — The Indian had neither cow nor beast of burden. He regarded all labor as degrading and fit. only for women. His squaw, therefore, built his wigwam, INDIAN LIFE. cut his wood, and carried his burdens when he journeyed. While he hunted or fished, she cleared the land for his corn by burning down the trees, scratched the ground 14 INTRODUCTION with a crooked stick or dug it with a clam shell, dressed skins for his clothing, and prepared his food. The leav- ings of her lord's feast sufficed for her, and the coldest place in the wigwam was hers. Disposition. — In war the Indian was brave and alert, but cruel and revengeful, prefei-ring treachery and cun- ning to open battle. At home he was lazj^, improvident, and an inveterate gaml)ler. He deliglited in finery and trinkets, and decked his unclean person with paint and feathers. His grave and haughty demeanor repelled the stranger ; but he was grateful for favors, and his wigwam always stood hospitably open to the poorest and meanest of his tribe. Endurance. — He could endure great fatigue, and in his expeditions often lay without shelter in the severest weather. It was his glory to bear the most horrible tor- tures without a sign of suffering. Religion. — If he had any ideas of a Supreme Being, they were vague and degraded. His dream of a heaven was of happy hunting grounds or of gay feasts. He wor- shiped no idols, but peo;.)led all nature with spirits, which dwelt not only in birds, beasts, and reptiles, but also in lakes, rivers, and w iterfalls. As he believed these had power to help or liarn men, he lived in constant fear of offending them. He apologized, therefore, to the ani- mals he killed, and made solemn promises to fishes that their bones should be respected. He placed great stress on dreams, and his camp swarmed with sorcerers and for- tune tellers. The Indian of the Prci^ent. — Sucli was the ludian three hundred years ago, aiid such is many an Indian to-day. He has opposed the encroachments of the settler, and the building of railroads. But he could not stop the tide of THE INDIANS 15 iininigration. Almost all the Indians in this country now have been gathered into tracts of land called reservations. mmm 5 f S 1^ ry '^P INDIAN HIEROGLYPHICS.' Many of them are supported in partial idleness by our government, in fulfillment of treaties; but some of the tribes have become civilized and are prosperous — they have good houses and schools, and live much like the white men. It is earnestly to be hoped that all the red men may yet be Christianized and taught the arts of in- dustry and peace. The Northmen (descendants of the early inhabitants of Norway and Sweden) were probably the first Europeans to set foot on the American continent. Iceland was settled by Northmen more than a thousand years ago; and there are Icelandic traditions which tell about a Norse colony founded in Greenland, and about some early voy- ages to the land south of it. They say that one Bjarni • This cut represents a species of picture -writing occasionally used by the Indians. Some Indian guides wished to inform their comrades that a company of fourteen whites and two Indians had spent the night at a certain place. Nos. 9, 10 indicate the white soldiers and their arms; No. 1 is the captain, with a sword; No. 2 the secre- tary, with the book; No. 3 the geologist, with a hammer; Nos. 4, 5, 6 are attend- ants ; Nos. 7, 8 are the guides, without hats ;j Nos. 11, 12 show what they ate in camp; Nos. 13, 14, 15 indicate how many fires thej^ made. 16 INTRODUCTION (be ar'ne) first saw the land to the south, while driven out of his course on his way to Greenland. A few years later, they say, about the year 1000, Leif Er'icsson explored the coast southward and discovered " Vinland" (perhaps New England), returning to Greenland with a load of timber. Afterwards other adventurers made successful voyages, established a temporary settlement, and bartered with the natives. Snor'ro, son of one of these settlers, is said to have been the first child born of European parents upon our shore.^ How much credit is to be given to these tra- ditions is uncertain, but the story is probably true in the main. There was certainly a Norse colony in Greenland not long after the time stated in the traditions ; and ruins of its stone buildings are still to be seen. But on this continent the Northmen left no evidence of their visits.^ Admitting, however, the claim made for the Northmen, the fact is barren of all results. No permanent settle- ments were made, the route hither was lost, and even the existence of the continent was forgotten. The true history of this country begins with the dis- covery of America by Columbus in 1492. It naturally divides itself into six great epochs. First Epoch. — Early Discoveries and Explorations. — This epoch extends from the discovery of America in 1492, to the settlement at Jamestown, Va., in 1607. During this period various European nations were exploring the southern and eastern parts of our country. ' Snorro was the founder of an illustrious family. One of his descendants is said to have been AlliertThor'waldson.tlic Rrcat Danisli sculptor of the nineteontti century. The beautiful photographs of Thorwaldsen's "Day," "Night," and "The 8«'aeons," which hang in so many American' homes, thuR acquire a new interest by being linked with the hoy born on New Ensland shores so many centuries ago. 2 The rock inscription at Digliton, Mass., was the work of Indians; the famous stone tower at Newport, R. I., was a windmill built by English settlers. Both, how- ever, were for a time supiKtsed by many to have been tlie work of Northmen. EPOCHS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 17 Second Epoch. — Development of the English Colonies. — The second epoch extends from the settlement at James- town, Va., in 1607, to the breaking out of the Revolu- tionary War in 1775. During this period the scattered settlements along the Atlantic coast grew into thirteen flourishing colonies, subject to Great Britain. Third Epoch. — The Revolutionary War. — This epoch ex- tends from the breaking out of the Revolutionary War in 1775, to the beginning of government under the Constitu- tion in 1789. During this period the colonies threw off the government of Great Britain and established their inde- pendence. Fourth Epoch. — Development of the States {to 1861). — This epoch extends from the inception of the Constitu- tion in 1789, to the breaking out of the Ci\al War in 1861. During this period great additions were made to our ter- ritory, the States increased in number from thirteen to thirty-four, and the country increased rapidly in popula- tion and wealth. Fifth Epoch.— The Civil War. — This epoch extends from (the breaking out of the Civil War in 1861, to the surrender of the Confederate armies in 1865. During this period a gigantic strife was carried on between the Northern and the Southern States, the former struggling for the perpetuation of the Union, and the latter for its division. Sixth Epoch. — Development of the Nation (since 1865). — The sixth epoch extends from the close of the Civil War in 1865, to the present time. During this period the different problems growing out of the Civil War have been solved, the number of States has been further in- creased, and in industry and wealth the country has be- come the greatest in the world. B. HIST. V. 8.-2 18 INTRODUCTION COLLATERAL READINGS The Indians.— Fiske's DUvovenj of Aincru-a, vol. i. pp. 1-21, 140-147 ; or Parkiiiau's CoHspinwi/ of I'onliar, chap. i. The Nortbiueii. — Fiske's Discovery of America, vol. i. pp. 162-178. TOPICAL ANALYSIS 1. The Indians. The Northmen. 1. Their Number. 2. Who were they ? Natural Divisions of United States History. 3. American Antiquities. . a. b. Mounds. Pueblos. 4. Tribes. a. h. Arts aiid Inven- tions. Progress and Gov 5. Inilian Characteristics. • r. eniinent. Domestic Life. (1. Disposition. e. Endurance. /• Religion. 6. The Indian of PreseTit. the 1. Who were they ? 2. Stories of Bjarni Leif Ericsson. and 3. Who was Snorro ? 4. The Northmen Grecnliind. in 5. Results. 1. First Epoch. 2. Second Epoch. 3. Third Epoch. 4. Fourth Epoch. 5. Fifth Epoch. 6. Sixth Epoch. EPOCH I- EARLY DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS Geographical Knowledge in the Fifteenth Century. — The people of Europe in the fifteenth century had never heard of America/ About that time a great desire for geo- graphical knowledge was awakened. The compass and the astrolabe — an instrument for ascertaining latitude — had given a new impulse to navigation. Voyagers were no longer compelled to creep along the shore, but began to strike out boldly into the open sea. ing had The art of print- just come into FIFTEENTH-CENTURY SHIP. use, and books of travel were eagerly read. Marco Polo and other adventurers returning from the East told wonderful tales of the wealth of Asiatic cities. Genoa and Venice, com- manding the commerce of the Mediterranean, had be- come enriched by trade with the East. The costly shawls, ' At the opening of modern history the known world comprised only Europe, southwestern Asia, and a strip of northern Africa Cape Nun was considered the limit of navigation on the African coast. The most absurd ideas prevailed in regard to the regions beyond. The water at the equator was thought to be boiling hot ; the tropic sun, it was said, would permanently blacken the skin of any white man who ventured farther south; and the unknown seas were supposed to be peopled by terrible sea monsters. 19 20 EARLY DISCUVEKIKS AND EXPLORATIONS [1453 spices, and silks of Persia and India were borne by cara- vans and ships to the Red Sea, thence on camels across TJIE KNOWN WORLD IN ll'JO. the desert to the Nile, and lastly by ship over the Medi- terranean to Europe; or they were carried by caravans to the Black Sea or to the Mediterranean, and thence by ship to western Europe. But when the Turks took Con- stantinople (1453) they put a sudden end to much of this commerce, and as they advanced on Egypt they threat- ened to end the Eastern trade entirely. The gi-eat problem of the age was how to reach the East Indies by sea, and thus give a new and cheaper route to their rich products.' 1 Tlio Poitiifruosc wcro at this time the raost enterprising navigatorH in Europe. Prince Uemy devoted himself to the study of .astronomy, founded an observatory 1474] CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS 21 The Discovery of America. — Columbus ^ conceived that he could reach the East Indies by sailing west. He be- lieved the earth to be round, while almost every one then thought it to be flat. He, however, thought it was smaller than it really is, and that Asia extended much farther round the world to the east than it does. Hence he argued that by going a few hundred leagues west he would reach the eastern coast of Asia." He was determined to try this new route, but was too poor to pay for the neces- sary ships and provisions. and a naval college, collected all existing information concerning the earth's sur- face, and prepared new and more accurate charts for navigators. His father, John I., and his grandnephew, John II., encouraged maritime explorations. Under such auspices the Portuguese sailors made voyage after voyage along the African coast. They discovered the A zores' and Cape Verde Islands, crossed the dreaded equator, and finally, under Diaz (dee'ahth), reached the southern extremity of Africa, and sailed several hundred miles eastward (1486). Ou liis return, Diaz told of the cape which he called Stormy Cape; but the king, believing the long-desired route to India was now found, rechristened it the Cape of Good Hope. 1 Christopher Columbus was born in Genoa, Italy, about 1435. He was trained for the sea from his childhood. As he was the eldest of four children, and his father a poor wool comber, much care devolved upou hiiu. It is said that at thirty his hair was white from trouble and anxiety. Columbus was determined, shrewd, and intensely religious. He believed himself to be divinely called to "carry the true faith iuto the uttermost parts of the earth." Inspired by this thought, no discouragement or contumely could drive him to despair. It was eighteen years from the conception of his plan to the time when he was en- abled to try his new route. During all this time his lite was a marvel of patience, and of brave devotion to his one purpose. His sorrows were many ; his triumph was brief. Evil men maligned him to Ferdinand and Isabella, t'je Spanish monarchs who supplied his ships. Disregarding their promise that he should be governor gen- eral over all the lands he might discover, the king and queen sent out another gov- ernor, and by his order Columbus was taken home in chains ! It is sad to know that although Ferdinand and Isabella endeavored to soothe his wounded spirit by many attentions, they never restored to him his lawful rights. From fluent promises they passed at last to total neglect, and Columbus died a grieved and disappointed old man. At his request, his chains were buried with him, a touching memorial of Spanish ingratitude. ■•^ Several facts served to strengthen the faith of Columbus in the correctness of his theory. The Azores and the Madeira, Canary, and Cape Verde islands, being the most westerly lands then known, were the outposts of geographical knowledge. There had been washed on their shores, by currents from the west, pieces of wood curiously carved, trees and seeds of unknown species, and especially the bodies of two men of strange color and visage. 22 EARLY DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS [1484 Columbus at the Court of Portufjal. — He accordingly laid his plan before Kiug John of Portugal, who referred it to his geographers. They pronounced it a visionary scheme. With a lurking feeling, however, that there might be truth in it, the king had the meanness to dis- patch a vessel secretly to test the matter. The pilot had the charts of Columbus, but lacked his courage. After sailing westward from Cape Verde Islands for a few days, and seeing nothing but a wide waste of wildly tossing waves, he returned, ridiculing the idea. Columbus at the Court of SiJciin. — Columbus, disheart- ened by this treachery, betook himself to Spain. During seven long years he importuned King Ferdinand and others for help in his plan. All this while he was re- garded as a visionary fellow, and when he passed along the streets, even the children touched their foreheads and smiled. The learned council at Salamanca promptly de- clared the plan too foolish for serious attention.^ Colum- bus gained a few influential friends, but King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella declined to aid him. Turning away sadly, Columbus determined to go to France. Columbus Successful. — His friends at the Spanish court, at this juncture, laid the matter before Queen Isabella, and she was finally won to his cause. The king remained indifferent and pleaded the want of funds. The queen in her earnestness exclaimed, "I pledge my jewels to raise the money." But her sacrifice was not required. The royal treasurer advanced most of the money, and the ' " It is absurd," said those wise mm. " Who is so foolish as to believe that there are people on the other side of the world, walkintr with their heels upward and their beads hanging down? And then, how can a ship get there 1 The torrid zone, through which they must pass, is a region of fire, where the very waves boil. And even If a ship nould perchance get around there safely, how could it ever get back I Can a ship sail uphill ? " All of which sounds very strange to us now, when every year hundreds of travelers make the entire circuit of the globe. 1492] CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS 23 friends of Columbus the remainder. Columbus had suc- ceeded at last, after eighteen years of waiting. Columbus's Equip- ment. — Though he was armed with the king's author- ity, Columbus ob- tained vessels and sailors with the greatest difficulty. The boldest sea- men shrank from such a desperate undertaking. At last three small ves- sels were manned: the Finta (peen'- tah), Santa Maria (sahn'tah mah- ree'ah), and JSina (neen'yah). They sailed from Palos (pah'los), Spain, August 3, 1492. Incidents of the Voyage. — They went first to the Cana- ries and then sailed westward on the untried sea. When the sailors saw the last trace of land fade from their sight, many, even of the bravest, burst into tears. As they pro- ceeded, their hearts were wrung by superstitious fears. To their dismay, the compass began to vary from its usual direction, and they believed that they were coming into a region where the very laws of nature were changed. They came into the track of the trade wind, which wafted them steadily westward. This, they were sure, was carrying them to destruction, for how could they ever return against it ? Signs of land, such as flocks of birds and fresh, green plants, were often seen, and the clouds near the horizon assToned the look of land ; but they disappeared, and only 24 EARLY DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS [1492 the broad ocean spread out before them as they advanced. The sailors, so often deceived, lost heart and insisted upon returning home. Columbus, with wonderful tact and patience, explained all these appearances. But the more he argued, the louder became their murmurs. At last they secretly determined to throw him overboard. Al- though he knew their feelings, he did not waver, but declared that he would proceed till the enterprise was accomplished. Soon, signs of land silenced their murmurs. A statf, artificially carved, and a branch of thorn with berries floated near. All was now eager expectation. In the evening Columbus beheld a light rising and falling in the distance, as of a torch borne by one walking. Later at night the joyful cry of " Land!" rang out from the Pinta. In the morning the shore of an island, green with tropical verdure, lay smiling before them. The Land'uig. — Columbus, dressed in a splendid military suit of scarlet embroidered with gold, and followed by a retinue of his officers and men bearing banners, landed upon this island Friday, October 12, 1492. He threw him- self upon his knees, kissed the earth, and with tears of joy gave thanks to God. He then formally planted the cross and took possession of the country in the name of Ferdinand and Isabella.' Further Discoveries. — Columbus named the island San Salvador. He supposed that he had reached one of the islands lying off the eastern coast of India (Asia), and he therefore called the dark-hued natives Indians. Careful inquiries were made concerning the rich products of the 1 This island was one of tbe Bahamas — probably Watling Island. The wondering natives who crowded the shore pazed on the spectacle with awe. Thej" supposed the ships to be huge white-winged birds, and the Spiiniards to have come from heaven. 1492] CHIUSTOPHER COLUMBUS 25 East, such as spices, precious stoues, and especially gold. But the simple people had only a few golden ornaments. These they readily bartered for small bells. Columbus then visited Cuba, which he thought was part of the Asian mainland ; and Hai'ti,^ which he took to be Cipan'go, or Japan, He even sent a deputation into Cuba, to a famous chief, suppos- ing him to be the great king of Tartary ! At last, urged by his crew, he gave up the search for Oriental treasure and sailed for home. His lieception, on his return, was flattering in the ex- treme. The whole nation took a holiday. His appear- ance was hailed with shouts and the ringing of bells. The king and queen were dazzled by their new and sudden • The Pinta haelieved that on the first voyage, under Pinzon (peen thou) and Solis in the service of Spain, he followed the coast from Yuca- tan northward around Florida; and that this was in uy7—l>eforc Columbus had dis- covered the mainland. 1501] HOW AMEEICA WAS NAMED 27 the coast of what is now Brazil (1501)/ This coast was so long and was so far southeast of the lands discovered by Columbus that it was supposed to be a hitherto unknown continent — a new world. A letter from Ves- pucius, describing his voyages, was published (1507) by a German au- thor, who suggested that the new part of the world should be called America after its discoverer. This, being the first printed description of the new world, was very popular, and the name was soon adopted by geographers. For a time it was applied only to part of South America ; for the lands found by Columbus and others far to the northwest - were supposed to be parts of Asia. When this mis- take was corrected, the name was naturally given to the whole of the New World. John Cab'ot, an Italian navigator living in Bristol, Eng- land, obtained authority from King Henry VII. to make > In 1497 an expedition under Viisco d;i Ga'ma sailed from Portugal, and following the track of Diaz around the Cape of Good Hope, crossed the Indian Ocean, reached India, and two years later returned to Portugal laden with rich cargoes from the Orient. The prohlem of the sea route was solved ! On Gama'e return, a fleet under 28 EARLY DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS [1497 a voyage of discovery to the east, west, or north. After a voyage to the west, he came in sight of a sterile region, probably Labrador (map, p. 45), and sailed along the coast for many leagues. This was in 1497, fourteen months before Columbus discovered the continent. Cabot supposed that he had reached the territory of the " Great Cham," king of Tartary. Nevertheless he landed, planted a banner, and took possession in the name of the king of England. On his return home he was received with much honor, was dressed in silk, arid styled the "Grand Admiral." The next year Cabot made a second voyage to the west. He probably discovered Newfoundland and coasted as far south as Cape Cod. It is believed that his son Sebastian accompanied him on his voyages. As the Cabots found no gold, precious stones, or spices, the second expedi- tion was considered a failure. Yet by their discoveries England claimed a title to a vast territory in the New World. We shall now follow the principal explorations made within the limits of the future United States by the Spanish, French, English, and Bntcli. The Spanish ex- plored mainly the southern portion of North America; the French, the northern ; and the English, the middle portion along the coast.^ Cabriir set out for India, but on its way it pailed ro far to the -west that Cabral sighted land (Brazil) in a rc^'ion whore no land was supposed to be. He therefore sent word of his discovery to the Portuguese king, and the voyage of Vespucius was the result. 1 In South America Spain explored and acquired all the land except Brazil, which fell to Portugal. Pope Alexander VI. in H93 apportioned the unknown regions of the earth to Spain and Portugal, giving to Spain all west and to Portugal all east of a lino running north and south 100 leagues west of the Azores and Cape Verde Islands. This "lino of demarcation" was soon changed, by trciity, to the meridian 370 leagues ■west of the Cape Verde Islands. By this change a large part of the then unheard-of New World was given to Portugal, and her claim was soon established by the discover- ies of Cabral and Vespucius. But the chief energies of Portugal we;e devoted to Africa and especially India ; for a time she monopolized the protltable Eastern trade which Venice and Genoa had lost. 1521] SPANISH EXPLOEATIONS 29 COLLATERAL READING Fiske's Discovery of America, vol. i. pp. 349-354, 395-446 (on Columbus) ; or vol. ii, pp. 1-18 (on the Cabots) ; or vol. 11. pp. 25-47 (on Vespucius). SPANISH EXPLORATIONS Feeling in Spain. — AiDerica, at this time, was to the Spaniard a land of vague but magnificent promise, where the simple natives wore the costliest gems unconscious of their value, and the sands of the rivers sparkled with gold. Every returning ship brought fresh news to quicken the pulse of Spanish enthusiasm. Now, Cor'tes had taken Mexico, and reveled in the wealth of the Montezu'mas; now, Pizar'ro had conquered Peru, and had captured the riches of the Incas; now, Magel'lan, sailing through the strait which bears his name, had crossed the Pacific, and one of his vessels, returning home by the Cape of Good Hope, had circumnavigated the globe.* Men of the highest rank and culture, warriors, adventurers, all flocked to the New World. Soon Cuba," Hispauiola (Haiti), Porto Rico, and Jamaica were settled, and ruled by Spanish governors. From her American colonies, Spain received many ship- loads of gold and silver, which helped to make her for a time the wealthiest and most powerful nation in Europe. Though the Spaniards enslaved the Indians, yet an ever- 1 Magellan was a Portuguese in the service of Spain. His voyage was made in spite of mutiny, famine, and other great difficulties. In the Pacific, which ho named, he discovered the Ladrones' and the Phil'ipplnes (1521). In the Philippines he joined a friendly chief in an attack on some natives who refused to accept Christianity, and he was killed while covering the retreat of his men after their defeat. The Spaniards took possession of the Philippines a few years later, and founded Manila in 1571 (map, I). 349). For about two hundred years all trade and communication between Spain and the Philippines were by way of Mexico or South America. Hence the con- nection of the Philippines with tlie New World began more than three centuries before this great Spanish colon3' was ceded to the United States. 2 The natives of Cuba were subdued by Velasquez (va lahs'keth) in 1512. As in the other islands of the West Indies, the Indians were reduced to slavery, and perished in great numbers. Havana, the greatest city of the West Indies, was founded in 1519. 30 EARLY DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS [1511 present motive in their exploration of the New World was the desire to convert the Indians to Christianity. Among the Spanish explorers of the sixteenth century we notice the following: Ponce de Leon was the first governor of Porto Rico. As such, he conquered the natives, and in 1511 founded San Juan (sahn hoo ahn'), the oldest city in United States ter- ritory. The next year, however, he was deprived of his government. Though an old man, he was still a gallant soldier, and he coveted the glory of further conquest to re- store his tarnished reputation. Besides, he had heard of a magic fountain, in a great island to the northwest, where one might bathe and be made young again. Accordingly, he equipped an expedition and sailed in search of this fabled treasure. On Easter Sunday {Pascua Florida in Spanish), 1513, he came in sight of land. In honor of the day he called it Florida. He sailed along the coast, and landed here and there, but returned home at last, an old man still, having found neither youth nor glory. Balbo'a crossed the Isthmus of Panama the same year, and from the summit of the mountains beheld a wide expanse of the Pacific Ocean, which he called the South Sea." Wading into its waters with his naked sword in one hand and a Spanish banner in the other, he solemnly de- clared that the ocean, and all the shores which it might touch, belonged to the crown of Spain forever. Narvaez (nar vah'eth) received a grant of Florida, and (1528) with 400 men attempted its conquest. Striking into the interior, they wandered about, lured on by the hope of finding gold. Wading through swamps, crossing deep rivers by swimming and by rafts, fighting the lurk- ing Indians who incessantly harassed their path, and > It was so called because at this point the ooeau is south of the land. 1528] SPANISH EXPLORATIONS 31 nearly perishiDg with hunger, they reached at last the Gulf of Mexico. Hastily constructing some crazy boats, they sailed westward. After several weeks of peril and suffering, they were shipwrecked, and Narvaez was lost. Eight years afterwards four persons — the only survivors of this ill-fated expedition — reached the Spanish settle- ments on the Pacific coast of Mexico. Ferdinand de Soto, undismayed by these failures, under- took anew the conquest of Florida. He set out with 600 men, amid the fluttering of banners, the flourish of trump- ets, and the gleaming of helmet and lance. For month after month this procession of cavaliers, priests, soldiers, and Indian captives marched through the wilderness, wher- DE SOTO FINDS THE MISSISSIPPI. ever they thought gold might be found. They traversed what is now Greorgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. In the third year of their wanderings (1541) they emerged upon the bank of the Mississippi River. After another year of 32 EARLY DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS [1542 fruitless explorations, De Soto died/ The other adven- turers were now anxious only to get home in safety. They constructed boats and descended the river, little over half of this gallant array finally reaching the settlements in Mexico. Menendez (ma nen'deth), wiser than his predecessors, on landing (1565), forthwith laid the foundations of a colony. In honor of the day, he named it St. Augustine. This is the oldest to^Yn on the njainland of the United States.- Explorations on the Pacific. — California^ in the sixteenth century, was a general name applied to all the region northwest of Mexico. It is said to have originated in an old Spanish romance very popular in the time of Cortes, in which appeared a queen whose magnificent country bore this name. The Mexican Indians told the Spaniards that most of their gold and precious stones came from a country far to the northwest. Cortes, therefore, turned his attention in that direction, and sent out several expe- ditions to explore the Californias; but all these adven- turers returned empty-handed.^ Corond'do made the first extensive exploration of the southwestern part of our country. Starting from the Pacific coast of Mexico, he marched to the northeast as far as the present States of Kansas and Nebraska. He found the curious houses of the Pueblo Indians in New 1 At tbo dead of night his followers sank his body in the river, and the sullen •waters buried his hopes and his ambition. " lie had crossed a large part of tlie conti- nent," says Bancroft, "and found nothing so remarkable as his biu-ial place." 2 Many Spanish remains still exist. Among these is Fort Marion, once San Marco, •which •was founded in 15G5 and finished in 1755. It is built of coqnina (kokeni) — a curious stono coini)osed of small shells. 3 Ships were also sent from Mexico across the Pacific, and one of these, driven out of its course, was wrecked on the Hawaiian Islands (1527). Later this group was discov- ered by a Spanish explorer (1555) and was marked on a few old Spanish charts ; but the Spaniards did not take possession of the islands. The natives, several hundred thousand in number, were left to themselves for more than two centuries, until the Islands were rediscovered by Captain Cook, the famous English navigator (1778). 1542] SPANISH EXPLORATIONS 33 Mexico, but of the gold that he sought he found none (1540-42). Cahrillo (kah breel'yo) made the first voyage along what is now the California coast (1542) ; he died in San Diego (sahn de a'go) harbor, but his pilot went many miles farther north. Espejo (es pa'ho) explored and named New Mexico (1582), and a few years later the Spaniards founded Santa Fe (sahn tah fa'), which is the oldest town in the western United States. Spanish Claims in North America in i6oo. — Spain, at the close of the sixteenth century, had conquered and held SPANISH EXPLORATIONS IN NORTH AMERICA TO 1600. possession of the West Indies, Central America, and Mexico. Besides this Spanish explorers had traversed the whole of the southern portion of the United States from the Atlantic to the Pacific. All this part of our B. HIST. U. 8.-3 34 EARLY DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS [1524 vast territory, and more, they claimed by the rights of discovery and exploration, though their only settlements in it were St. Augustine in Florida and Santa Fe in New Mexico. COLLATERAL READING Fiske's Discovery of America, vol. ii. pp. 500-611. FRENCH EXPLORATIONS The French were eager to share in the profits which Spain was acquiring in the New World. Within seven years after the discovery of the continent the waters of Newfoundland were frequented by their fishermen.^ For many years after Magellan's voyage, mariners of various nations tried to find a "northwest passage" to India through or around North America.^ Verrazano (-tsah'no), a native of Florence, Italy, was the first navigator sent by the French king to find the new way to the Indies. Sailing westward from Madeira (1524), he reached land near the present harbor of Wihningtou, N. C. He coasted along the shores of Carolina and New Jersey, entered the harbors of New York and Newport, and re- turned with a glowing description of the lands he had found. He named the country New France. Cartier (kar tya') ascended the River St. Lawrence^ (1535) to the Indian \illage of Hochelaga (ho she lah'gah), on the site of Montreal. The village was pleasantly sit- uated at the foot of a lofty hill, which Cartier climbed. • Cape Bret'on Island was named by the, flsbermen In remembranco of their home in Brittany, France. '■■' The routes by the Cape of Good Hope and by the Strait of Magellan were long and tedious. But it was at last found that the real northwest passage was still more dif- ficult. It was first traversed in 1850-54, from Bering Sea to Baffin Bay. It is of no value to commerce. 3 The name St, Lawrence was that of the day on which Cartier entered the gulf. 1562] FRENCH EXPLORATIONS 35 Stirred by the magnificent prospect, he named the place Mont Real, that is, Mount Royal. Ribaut (re bo') led out the first expedition (1562) under the auspices of Coligny (ko leen yee')/ The company landed at the site of Port Royal, S. C. So charmed were they that when volunteers were called for to hold the country for France, many eagerly came forward — more than could be allowed to stay. They erected a fort, which they named Carolina in honor of Charles IX.,- king of France. The fleet departed, leaving a little band of thirty alone on the continent. From the North Pole to Mexico, they were the only civilized men. Food became scarce. They tired of the eternal solitude of the wilder- ness, and finally built a rude ship and put to sea. Here a storm shattered their vessel. Famine overtook them, and, in their extremity, they killed and ate one of their num- ber. A vessel at last hove in sight, and took them on board, only to carry them captives to England.'^ Thus perished the colony, but the name still survives. Laudonniere (lo do ne ar'), two years after, built a fort, also called Carolina, on the St. Johns River in Florida. Soon the colonists were reduced to the verge of starva- tion.* They were on the point of leaving, when they were ' Coligny was an admiral of France, and a leader of the Hu'guenots, as the French Protestants were then called. He had conceived a plan for founding an empire in America. This would furnish an asylum for his Huguenot friends, and at the same time advance the glory of the French. Thus religion and patriotism combined to Induce him to send out colonists to the New World. 2 The Latin for Charles is Carolus; hence the name Carolina. 3 The most feeble were landed in France. It is said that Queen Elizabeth first thought of colonizing the New World from conversing with the Huguenots sent to England. * Their suflferings were horrible. Weak and emaciated, they fed themselves with roots, sorrel, pounded fish bones, and even roasted snakes. " Oftentimes," says Lau- donnifere, " our poor soldiers were constrained to give away the very shirts from their backs to get one fish. If at any time they showed unto the savages the excessive price which they took, these villains would answer them roughly : ' If thou make so great 36 EARLY DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS [1565 reeiiforced by Ribaut. The French now seemed fairly fixed on the coast of Florida. The Spaniards, however, claimed the country. Menendez, about this time, had made a settlement in St. Augustine. Leadiug an expedition northward through the wilderness, in the midst of a fear- ful tempest, he attacked Fort Carolina and massacred almost the entire population. Thus ended the attempt to establish a French colony in the Southeast. Champlain (sham plan'), at the beginning of the seven- teenth century, crossed the Atlantic in two pygmy Ijarks — one of twelve, the other of fifteen tons — and ascended the St. Lawrence on an exploring tour. At Hochelaga all was changed. The Indian town had vanished, and not a trace remained of the savage population which Cartier saw there seventy years before.^ Champlain was overpowered by the charms of the New World, and longed to plant a French empire and the Catholic faith amid its savage wilds. De Monts (moN) received from the French king a grant of all the territory between the fortieth and forty-sixth parallels of latitude. This tract was termed Aca'dia, a name afterwards confined to New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. In 1605, with Champlain, he founded Port Royal (Nova Scotia), the first agricultural colony in America. Port Royal was soon abandoned, but a few years later, under other owners, it became a permanent settlement. Champlain made a second voyage to America in 1608, and established a trading post at Quebec. This was the first permanent French settlement in Canada. The next sum- mer, in his eager desire to explore the country, he joined a war party of the Hurons against the Iroquois, or Five Na- account of thy merchandise, eat it, and we will eat our flsh ' ; then foil they out a laujrh- ing, and mocked us with open throat." 1 This fact illustrates the frequent and rapid changes which took place among the aboriginal tribes. 160d] f'RfiNCH EXPLOfiA'TlONg 57 tions. On the banks of the beautiful lake which now bears his name, Champlain met and put to flight a band of Iro- CHAMPLAIN FIGHTS THE IROQUOIS. quois. The Iroquois never forgot nor forgave this defeat, and their enmity kept the French out of the present State of New York. Amid discouragements which would have overwhelmed a less determined spirit, Champlain firmly- established the authority of France on the banks of the St. Lawrence. The '' Father of New France," as he has been termed, reposes in the soil he won to civilization. The Jesuit Missionaries. — The explorers of the Lake region and the Mississippi valley were mostly Jesuit^ priests. The French names which they gave still linger throughout that region. Their hope was to convert the Indians to the Christian faith. They pushed their way ' The Society of Jesus is one of the famous religious orders of the Roman Catholic Church. It was founded by St. Ignatius Loyo'la in 1540, and at one time numbered over 20,000. The Jesuits are noted for the zeal, learning, aud skill which they have displayed in missionary and other religious work in all parts of the world. 38 EARLY DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS [1668 through the forest with unflagging energy. They paddled up the Ottawa River and carried their canoes across to the waters of Lake Huron. They traversed the Upper Lakes. In 1668 they founded the mission of Sault (soo) Sainte Marie, or St. Mary, the oldest European settlement in Michi- gan. Many of them were murdered by the savages ; some were scalped ; some were'burned in resin fire ; some were scalded with boiling water. Yet as soon as one fell out of the ranks another sprang forward to fill the post. Father Marquette (mar kef) was one of these patient, in- defatigable pioneers of New France. Hearing from some MARgUKTTE'S VOVAUE. wandering Indians of a great river which they termed the " Father of Waters," he determined to visit it. In company with the explorer Joliet (zlio lya'), he crossed Lake Michi- gan and Green Bay in a canoe, ascended Fox River, and 1673] FRENCH EXPLORATIONS 39 floated down the Wisconsin to the Mississippi (1673), and thence to the mouth of the Arkansas (ar'kan saw)/ La Salle (lah sahl') was educated as a Jesuit, but had left that order and had established a trading post at the outlet of Lake Ontario.^ Inflamed with a desire to find the mouth of the Mississippi, he made his way down the river (1682) to the Gulf of Mexico. He named the country Louisiana, in honor of Louis XIV., king of France. Re- turning to France, he made ready to plant a colouy near the mouth of the Mississippi ; but when his ships arrived in the Gulf of Mexico they missed the mouth of the Mis- sissippi and landed the colonists on the shore of Texas. La Salle was murdered^ by some of his own men while on his way to the French settlements in the north. The Texas colony soon perished. French Claims on North America in 1700. — Before the close of the seventeenth century, the French had explored the St. Lawrence basin, including the Great Lakes and their tributary streams ; the Ohio and its chief branches ; and the Mississippi from the Falls of St. Anthony to the Gulf, while they claimed the whole basin of that river, ex- tending indefinitely westward. They had several settle- ments on the St. Lawrence, one at Biloxi on the Gulf, and 1 Boon after his return, tliough in very poor liealtli, lie made a journey to an Indian village on the Illinois, to convert the natives there. On his way home again, while on Lake Michigan, he felt the approach of death, and with his two companions went ashore not far from the Marquette River. Patient and uncomplaining to the last, ho died while at prayer. Years after, when the tempest raged and the Indian tossed on the angry waves, he would seek to still the storm by invoking the aid of the pious Marquette. 2 This important post, with the lauds adjacent, was granted him by the Freuch king in 1675. Before this time he had made an expedition into the country south of the Great Lakes, where he discovered the Ohio River and descended it as far as the site of Louisville. 3 The work begun by La Salle, however, was bravely carried on by other French- men. Iberville (e ber veel') founded Biloxi, near the mouth of the Mississippi (1699), and Ms brother Bienville (be as veel') founded New Orleans (1718). 40 EARLY DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS [1688 had planted here and there in the wilderness missions and rude forts or trading posts — the beginnings of civilization. In 1688 New France possessed a population of 11,000. ■%^ ^ 2«°'j?-- IKENCH EXPLOIiATIONS IN NUKTH AMKKltA TU 1700. COLLATERAL READING Fiske's Discovery of Amerka, vol. ii. pp. 511-522; or Paikinau's La Salle and the Discovery of the Great West, chap. xx. ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS We have seen how the Cabots, sailing under the English flag, discovered the American continent, exploring its coast from Labrador to Cape Cod. Though the English claimed the northern part of the continent i)y right of this discovery, yet for two generations they paid little attention to it. In Queen Elizabeth's time, however, maritime enterprise was awakened, and English sailors cruised on every sea.* 1 Pir John Hawkiiip onfjapcd In the slave trade, rarryinp: carpoos of neprofs from Africa to sell to the Hpauiards in the West Intlies. Soon, however, English sailors 1576] ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS 41 Like the other navigators of the day, they were eager to discover the northwest jmssage to India. Frob'isher made the first of these attempts to go north of America to Asia. Threading his perilous way among icebergs, he pushed into the Uttle bay just north of Hud- son Strait (1576), and on a later voyage entered Hudson Strait itself. Next, John Davis pushed farther northwest and entered Davis Strait (1585). Sir Francis Drake was a famous sailor. In one of his expeditions on the Isthmus of Panama, he climbed to the top of a lofty tree, whence ho saw the Pacific Ocean. Looking out on its broad expanse, he resolved to " sail an English ship on those seas." Returning to England, he equipped a small squadron. He sailed through the Strait of Magellan, and coasted along the Pacific shore to the southern part of Oregon. Having refitted his ship (1579), he sailed westward, and returned home by way of the Capo of Good Hojie. He was thus the first Englishman to explore the Pacific coast, and to circumnavigate the globe.^ Sir Humphrey Gilbert was not a sailor, but he had began to dispute with Spain the sovereignty of the sea, and English privateers — " sea dogs," as they were called — began to rob the Spanish treasure ships whenever they could. The greed of gold, the love of adventure, a chivalrous contempt of danger, and the bitter hatred then existing between Protestant England and Catholic Spain, com- bined to Inspire the sea dogs to the most daring deeds. 1 This voyage was in large part a plundering expedition. Along the coast of Chile and Peru, Drake robbed towns as well as ships, and he captured the great galleon that yearly sailed thence to Spain with precious stones, gold dust, and silver ingots. When he reached Plym'outh, England, after an absence of three years, his ship was laden with treasure to the amount of £800,000. The queen received a large share of the spoils, knighted the freebooter, wore his jewels in her crown, and ordered his ship, the Golden Hind, to be preserved in memory of her remarkable voyage. Open war hav- ing at last broken out between England and Spain, Drake, Cav'endish, and other free- booters went to the West Indies and the " Spanish Main," — the southern coast of the Caribbean Sea,— plundering and burning villages, and capturing Spanish treasure ships on their way home from the New World. The English privateers, however, could fight for their country as well as for private gain, and Drake, Hawldns, and Frobisher were iu the very front of the little fleet that destroyed the " Invincible Arma'da" (1588) and broke the Spanish power. 12 EARLY DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS [1583 studied the accouuts of American discoveries, and con- cluded that, instead of random expeditions after gold and spices, companies should be sent out to form permanent settlements. His attempts to colonize the New World, however, ended in his own death. As he- was sailing home (1583) in a bark of only ten tons* burden, in the midst of a fearful stoi*m the light of his little vessel suddenly disap- peared. Neither ship nor crew was ever seen again. KALKIGH ANt> THE yUEEN. Sir Walter Raleigh ' (raw'll), a half-brother of Gilbert, shared his views of American colonization. He easily I Raleigh was not only a man of dauntless courage, but he also added to a hand- some person much learning and many accomplishments. Meeting Queen Elizabeth one day -while she -was walking, he spread his mantle over a wet place iu her path. She was so pleased with his gallantry that she admitted him to court, and he contin- ued a favorite during her entire lifetime. After her death he was accused by Jamea I. of treason, was imprisoned for many years, and was finally executed. On the scaf- fold he asked for the ax, and, feeling the edge, ol)sorved with a smile, " This is a sharp medicine, but a sound cure for all diseases." Then composedly laying his head on the block, and moving his lips as in prayer, he gave the signal for the fatal blow. 1584] ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS 43 obtained from Queen Elizabeth a patent^ of any remote lands not inhabited by Christians, which he might dis- cover within six years. In 1584 he sent an expedition which explored the coast of what is now North Carolina. This whole region was named Virginia in honor of Eliza- beth, the Virgin Queen. Raleigli's First Attempt to Plant a Colony was on Eoanoke Island (map, p. 52). The settlers made no endeavor to cultivate the soil, but spent their time in hunting for gold and pearls. At last they were nearly starved, when Drake, happening to stop there on one of his voyages, took pity on them and carried them home. They had lived long enough in America to learn the use of tobacco from the Indians. This they Introduced into England. The custom of " drinking tobacco," as it was called, soon became the fashion.^ Raleigli's Second Attempt. — Raleigh, undiscouraged by this failure, still clung to his colonizing scheme. The next time, he sent out families instead of single men. A grand- daughter of John White, the governor of the colony, was born soon after they reached Eoanoke Island; she was the first English child born in America (1587). The gov- ernor, on returning to England to secure supplies, found the public attention absorbed by the threatened attack of the Spanish Armada. It was four years before he was able to come back. Meanwhile his family, and the colony he had left alone in the wilderness, had perished: how, we do not know. Ealeigh had now spent about $200,000, an immense sum 1 A patent was a formal grant of land, with the right to plant colonies on it. 2 An amusing story is told of Raleigh while he was learning to smoke. One morn- ing a servant, on entering the room with a cup of ale for his master, saw a cloud of smoke issuing from Raleigh's mouth. Frantically dashing the liquor iu his master's face, he rushed downstairs, imploring help lest Sir Walter should be burned to ashes 1 44 EARLY DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS [1602 for that day, on this American colony ; and, disheartened, he transferred his patent to other parties. Trading Voyages. — Fortunately for American interests, fishing and trading ventures were more profitable than colonizing ones. English vessels frequented the Banks of Newfoundland, and, probably, occasionally visited Vir- ginia. Bartholomew Gosnold,* a master of a small bark, discovered (1602) and named Cape Cod and Marthas Vine- yard. Loading his vessel with sassafras root, which was then highly esteemed as a medicine, he returned home to pul)lish most favorable reports of the region. Some Eng- lish merchants accordingly sent out the next year two vessels under Captain Pring. He discovered several har- bors in Maine, and brought back cargoes of fm-s and sassafras. As the result of these various explorations, many felt an earnest desire to colonize the New World. James I. ac- cordingly granted two companies permission to found colonies in the vast territory of Virginia, as it was called. The South Virginia Company, called the London Com- pany because its principal men resided at London, was to have a block of land 100 miles square sotnewhere on the coast between the thirty-fourth and forty-fii-st degrees of latitude. This company sent out a colony under Captain Newport. He made at Jamestown,^ in 1607, the 1 Tlie English sliips were aocustoiiKMl to stcor Boiitliw.ird .is far as the Canary Islands ; then they followed the track of Cohimlms to the West Indies, anil thencj past the coast of Florida northward to the point they wished to reach. Navigators knew this was a roundabout way, but they were afraid to try tlic northern route straight across the Atlantic. Gosnold made the voyage directly from England to Massaelni- setts, tlius shortening the route :tO()0 miles. This gave a great impulse to colonization, since it was, in effect, bringing America :iOO:) miles nearer England. ii Tlie river was called .Tames, and the town Jamestown, in honor of tlie king of England. The headlands at the mouth of the Chesapeake received tlie names of Cape Henry and Cai)e Cliarles from the king's sons, and the doep water for anciiorago, "which put the emigrants in good comfort," gave the name Point Cuuiiort. 1607] , ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS 45 first peraianent English settlement in the United States ^ (see map, p. 52). The North Virginia Company, called the Plymouth Company because its principal men resided at Plymouth, was to select a block 100 miles square on the coast between the thirty-eighth and forty- fifth degrees of latitude. The Charter ' granted by the king to these two companies was the first under which Eng- lish colonies were planted in the United States. It is therefore worthy of careful study. It ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS IN NORTH AMERICA TO 1607. contained no idea of self-government. The people were not to have the election of an officer. The king was to 1 About eighty years before- this the Spaniards had tried to establish a colony in the same locality as Jamestown, but had failed. The attempt was made under De Ayllon (da il yon'), who led thither GOO colonists, including some negro slaves who were to do the hard labor of the colony. But De Ayllon died of a fever, dissensions arose among his successors, mauy colonists perished on account of sickness, exposure, and Indian attacks, and soon the survivors abandoned the country. ■-' A charter was a document which conferred the title to certain land, and, not unlike a constitution, defined the form of government and secured to the people certain rights and privileges. 46 EARLY DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS [1609 appoint a council to live in each colony and have control of its local affairs, and also a council to reside in London and have general control of both colonies. The king issued a long list of instructions to these councils. He ordered that the Church of England should be maintained in the colony, and that all the proceeds of the colony's in- dustry and commerce should go into a common fund, no person being allowed the fruit of his individual labor. COLLATERAL READING Fiske's Old Virginia and her Neighbours, vol. i. pp. 19, 20, 26-35, 38-40. DUTCH EXPLORATIONS During all this tiihe the Dutch manifested no interest in the New World. In the beginning of the seventeenth century, however, Captain Henry Hudson, an English navigator in the Dutch service, entered Delaware Bay and the harbor of New York. Hoping to reach the Pacific Oceau, he ascended the noble river which bears his name (1609).^ On this discovery the Dutch based their claim to the region extending from the Delaware River to Cape Cod. They gave to it the name of New Netherland. CONFLICTING CLAIMS The Permanent Settlements. — At the close of the six- teenth century neither the English nor the French had 1 It is now believed that Verrazano (p. 34) was the true discoverer of this stream, over three quarters of a century before. Hudson later entered the English service, and Bailed into Hudson Strait and Hudson Bay during an attempt to find the northwest passage. His explorations hel)>ed to inalce good the English claim to all the laud drain- ing into these waters. His crow mutinied, set him and his son adrift in a rowboat, and left them to perish in the bay which bears his name. 1605] CONFLICTING CLAIMS 47 planted a single enduring colony in America, and the only permanent settlements north of the Gulf of Mexico were those of the Spaniards at St. Augustine and Santa Fe. In the beginning of the seventeenth century perma- nent settlements multiplied. Settlements were made by The Fkench at Port Eoyal (Nova Scotia), in 1605 ; The English at Jamestown, in 1607 ; The Feench at Quebec, in 1608 ; The Dutch at New Amsterdam (New York), in 1613 ; * The English at Plymouth, in 1620. The Conflicting Claims. — With the exception of the southeastern and southwestern parts of the United States, which were practically conceded to Spain, our whole country was claimed by each of the three nations, Spanish, French, and English;" and part of it also by the Dutch. All four nations succeeded in taking posses- sion of parts of the country, and therefore the bounda- ries of the different colonies were in dispute. While the first few settlements were separated by hundreds of miles of savage forests, this was of little account. But as the settlements increased, the confl letting claims became a source of constant strife and were decided finally by the sword. > " Here lay the shaggy continent from Florida to the Pole, outstretched in savage slumber along the sea. On the bank of the Jame.s River was a nest of woe-begoue Englishmen, a handful of fur traders at the mouth of the Hudson, and a few shivering Frenchmen among the snowdrifts of Acadia ; while, deep within the wild monotony of desolation, on the icy verge of the great northern river, Champlain upheld the ban- ner of France over the rock of Quebec. These were the advance guard of civilization, the messengers of promise to a desert continent. Yet, not content with inevitable woes, they were rent by petty jealousies and miserable quarrels, while each little fragment of rival nationalities, just able to keep up its own wretched existence on a few square miles, begrudged to all the rest the smallest share in a domain which all the nations of Europe could not have sutticed to fill."— Parkman. 2 It is noticeable that the English grants extended westward to the Pacific Ocean ; the French, southward from the St. Lawrence to the Gulf; and the Spanish, north- ward to the Arctic Ocean. None of the European nations knew how immense waa the territory it was granting. 48 EARLY DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS TOPICAL ANALYSIS 1. Geo{?raph ical Knowledge in the Fifteenth Century. 2. Columbus. 1. His Views. 2. At Cinirt of Purtiigal. 3. At Court (if Spain. 4. His Success. 6. His Equipment. C. His Voyajie. 7. His Discoveries. 8. HisRuccptini Home. 9. STil)Sii|Ufiit Voyages. 10. His Mistake. .3. How America was Named. 4. The Cabots. 5 1. John Cabot. I 2. Sebastian Cabot. Spanish Explorations. ■ 1. The FeelinK in Spain. 2. Ponce (ie Leon. 3. Balboa. 4. Narvaez. .'). Ferdinand de Soto. 0. Menendez. 7. Explorations on Paciflc. 8. Spanish Claims in 1600. California. Coroiiudo. Cnbrillo. KKpejo. 6. French Explorations. < English Explorations. • 8. Dutch Explorations. 1. Newfoundland Fisheries. 2. Verrazano. 3. Cartier. 4. Ribaut. 5. Landonnifere. C. Champlain. < 7. DeMonts and Port Royal. Visit to nochelaga. Vonnds (Quebec. Fights Iroquois. 8. Jesuit Missionaries. La Salle. French Claims in 1700. ^ rt. Tlirir seal. '( b. Marquette. 1. English Claim and Maritime Zeal. 2. Frobislier and Davis. 3. Francis Drake. 4. Hunij)hrey Gilbert. .'). Raleigh. 6. Trading Voyages. 7. Companies formed. 1. Henry Hudson. 2. Dutch Claim. Tries to plant Col- ony. Second attempt. S " C ft. London Co. ■] b. I'lymoHth Co. t c. T/leir Charter. 9. Conflicting Claims. Permnnent Settlements at the End of the Sixteenth Century and the Beginninj; of the Seventeenth Century. Claims of Nations. ( d. The Dutch. Result of these Conflicting Claims. a. The Spanish. The I'rctich. The Knqlish. the Four ) 6. The I'rench EPOCH II.- DEVELOPMENT OF THE ENGLISH COLONIES . This epoch traces the early history of the thirteen Eng- lish colonies — Virginia, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York, New Jersey, Penn- sylvania, Delaware, Maryland, North Carolina, South Caro- lina, £U}d Georgia. The Cavaliers land in Virginia and the Puritans in Massachusetts. Immigration increases, and the settlements multiply along the whole coast. The country is settled mainly by immigrants from Great Britain ; for most of the colonies are founded as English dependencies, and the others soon become so. The col- onies, however, have little history in common. Each by itself struggles with the wilderness, contends with the Indian, and develops the principles of liberty. I. VIRGINIA The Character of the first Jamestown colonists was poorly adapted to endure the hardships incident to life in a new country. The settlers — about 100 in number — were mostly men of gentle birth, unused to labor. They had no families, and came out in search of wealth and adven- ture, expecting, when rich, to return to England. The climate was unhealthful, and before the first autumn half of them had perished, including Gosnold, one of their leaders. B. HIST. C. 8.— 4 49 50 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES [1607 John Smith * saved the colony from ruin. First as a mem- ber of the council, and afterwards as president, he rendered invaluable service. He persuaded the settlers to build log huts for the winter. He made long voy- ages, carefully ex- ploring Chesapeake Bay, securing the friendship of the Indians, and bring- ing back boatloads ( )f supplies. He trained the tender gentlemen till they learned how to swing the ax in the forest. He declared that " he who would not work might not eat." He taught them that industry and self-reliance are the surest guarantees to fortune. SmWi's Adventures were of the most romantic character. 1 Captain John Smith was bom to advonturo. ^^^lile yet a boy ho loft liis liotne in Llncolnshiro, Englaud, to engage in Iloll.and wars. Later we hoar of him on his way to flght the Turks. In Franco he is robbed, and escapes death from want only by begging alms. At sea a fearful storm arises; ho. being a heretic, is doomed the cause, and is thrown overboard, but he swims to laud. In the East a famous Mus- sulman wishes to flght some Christian knight " to please the ladies"; Smith offers himself, and slays tliroo champions in succession! Taken prisoner in battle and sold as a slave, his head is shaved and his neck bound with an iron ring; ho Kills his master, arrays himself in the dead man's garment-*, mounts a horse, and spurs his way to a Russian camp. Having returned to England, he embarks for the New World, On the voyage ho excites the jealousy of his follows, and is landed in chains, but liis worth becomes so apparent tliat ho is finally made prosiflont of tlio colony. These and many other wonderful exploits ho tolls in a book published after his return to England. Many historians discredit them. Dowever, his services were of unques- tionable value to Virginia, and his disinterestedness appears from the, fact that he never received a foot of land lu the colony his wisdom had saved. SMITH SHOWS HIS COMPASS. 16071 VIRGINIA 61 In one of Ms expeditions up the Chickahom'iny ^ he was taken prisoner by the Indians. With singular coolness, he immediately tried to interest his captors by explaining the use of his pocket compass, and the motions of the moon and stars. At last they allowed him to write a letter to Jamestown. When they found that this informed his friends of his misfortune, they were filled with aston- ishment. They could not understand by what magical art he made a few marks on paper express his thoughts. They considered him a being of a superior order, and treated him with the utmost respect. He was carried to the great chief, the Powhatan', by whom he was condemned to die. His head was laid on a stone, and the huge war- club of the Indian executioner was raised to strike the fatal blow. Suddenly Pocahon'tas, the young daughter of the chief, who had already become attached to the pris- oner, threw herself upon his neck and pleaded for his pardon.^ The favorite of the tribe was given her desire. 1 This was undertaken by the express order of the com- pany to seek a passage to the PaciUc Ocean and thus to In- dia. Captain Newport, before his return to England, made a trip up the James River for the same purpose ; and Henry Hudson was searching for a passage to India when he ascended Delaware Bay and Hudson River. The igno- rance of that age regarding the shape and extent of North Americais shown by this map, the shaded parts of which represent a map made for Sir Philip Sidney in 1582. The map also illustrates why the existence of a short strait between tue Atlantic and Pacific in Virginia was thought possible. 2 This incident has been discredited by many historians because Smith did not mention it in his first account (1608) of his adventures, but describes it in the second one. published sixteen years later. But his first account is known to be incomplete, and this conduct of Pocahontas was entirely in accord with Indian usage. ^^^^,:l-c^--<^^:^^-" 52 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES [1609 Smith was sent home with promises of friendship. His little protector was often thereafter to be seen going to Jamestown with baskets of corn for the white men. A Second Charter (1609) was soon obtained by the Lon- don Company. This vested the local au- thority in a governor insteadof a local coun- cil. The colonists were not consulted with re- gard to the change, nor did the charter guar- antee to them any rights. The new char- ter greatly enlarged the boundaries of the colony, which was now to extend along the coast 200 miles each way from Point Com- fort, and thence across the continent " from sea to sea, west and northwest." ' The ''Starving Time." — Many more colonists had ar- rived from England, but now, unfortunately. Smith was disabled by a severe wound and compelled to return. His influence being removed, the settlers became a prey to disease and famine. Some were killed by the In- dians. Some, in their despair, seized a boat and became pirates. The winter of 1609-10 was long known as the " Starving Time." In six months the colonists were re- duced from 490 to 60. At last they determined to flee from the wretched place. " None dropped a tear, for none had > Probably from the Atlantic to the Sea of Verrazano -was meant (see note, p. 51). VIRGINIA BY THE CHARTEK OF 1609. 1610] VIRGINIA 53 enjoyed one day of happiness." The next morning, as they slowly moved down with the tide, to their great joy they met their new governor, Lord Delaware, with abundant supplies and a company of immigrants. All returned to the homes they had just deserted, and Jamestown colony was once more saved from ruin. The Third Charter. — Up to this time the colony had proved a failure and was publicly ridiculed in London. To quiet the outcry, the charter was changed (1612). The management of the colony had previously been in the hands of the council in London ; but now the stockholders were given power to meet frequently and regulate the affairs of the company themselves. The Marriage of Pocahontas (1614). — The little Indian girl had now grown to womanhood. John Rolfe, a young English planter, had won her love and wished to marry her. In the little church at Jamestown, rough almost as an Indian's wigwam, she received Christian baptism, and, in broken English, repeated the marriage vows according to the service of the Church of England.^ First Colonial Assembly. — Governor Yeardley believed that the colonists should have " a haude in the governing of themselves." In obedience to the company's instruc- tions, he called at Jamestown, July 30, 1619, the first legislative body that ever assembled in America. It consisted of the governor, the council, and two deputies, or " burgesses," as they were called, chosen from each of the eleven settlements, or " boroughs," into which Virginia was then divided. The privilege of self-government was 1 Two years after, she visited London with lier Imsbiind. The childlike simplicity and winning grace of Lady Rebecca, as she was called, attracted universal admiration. She was introduced at court and received every mark of attention. As slie was about to return to her native land with her husband and infant sou, she suddenly died. Her son became a man of distinction. Many of the leading families of Virginia have been proud to say that the blood of Pocahontas coursed through their veins. 54 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES [Ifi'il afterwards (1G21) embodied in a written constitution — the first of the kind in America — granted by the com- pany under the leadership of Sir Edwin Sandys. The laws passed by the colonial assembly had to be ratified by the company in London; but the orders from Lon- don were not binding unless ratified by the colonial as- sembly. A measure of freedom was thus granted the colony, and Jamestown became a nursery of liberty. Prosperity of the Colony. — The old famine troubles had now all passed. The attempt to work in common had been given up, and each man tilled his own land and THE LANDING OF THb. WOAIEN received the profits. Tobacco was the chief article of export; its sale made the colony prosperous. The colo- nists were so eager in its cultivation that at one time they planted it even in the streets of Jamestown. Gold 1621] VIRGINIA 55 hunting had ceased/ and many of the former servants of the company owned plantations. Settlements lined both banks of the James for 140 miles. Best of all, young women of good character were brought over by the com- pany and were sold as wives to the settlers. The price at first was fixed at the cost of the passage, — 120 pounds of tobacco, — but wives were in such demand that it soon went up to 150 pounds. Domestic ties were formed. The colonists, having homes, now became Virginians. All freemen had the right to vote, and Virginia became almost an independent republic. The population was about 4000 (1622). Slavery Introduced. — In 1G19 the captain of a Dutch trading vessel sold to the colonists twenty negroes.^ They were employed in cultivating tobacco. As their labor was found profitable, large numbers were afterwards imported. For a time, however, the negroes were less numerous than white servants, who were sold for a term of years, either as a punishment or (with the servant's consent) as a means of paying for the passage across the sea. Some- times children and even adults were kidnaped, shipped to America, and sold in this way. Indian Troubles. — After the death of the Powhatan, the firm friend of the English, the Indians secretly formed a plan for the extermination of the colony. At a precon- certed moment they attacked the colonists (March 22, 1622) on all their widely scattered plantations. About 350 men, women, and children fell in one day. Fortunately, ' In the early life of this colony, particles of mica glitterins in a brook were mis- taken for gold dust. Newport carried to England a shipload of the worthless stuff. Smith remonstrated in vain against this folly. 2 From this circumstance, small as it seemed at the time, the most momentous consequences ensued — consequences that, long after, rent the republic with strife and moistened its soil with blood. 56 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES [1622 a converted Indian had informed a friend whom he wished to save, and thus Jamestown and the settlements near by were prepared. A merciless war ensued, during which the Indians were so severely punished that they remained quiet for twenty years. Then came a massacre of 300 settlers (1644), followed by a short war which ended in the natives being expelled from the region. Virginia a Royal Province. — The majority of the stock- holders had gladly granted to the infant colony those rights for w^hich they themselves were struggling at home. King James, becoming jealous of the company because of its republican sentiments, took away the charter (1624) and made Virginia a royal province ; that is, the company was deprived of all control over the colony, which now passed under the immediate control of the king. Henceforth the king appointed the governor and council, though the col- ony still retained its assembly. During and after the struggle between Charles I. and the Puritans in England, many of the Royalists or Cav- aliers emigrated to Virginia. Yet the colony promptly surrendered to the officers sent over by the victorious Commonwealth, and during this period it enjoyed increased freedom of self-government. A Period of Oppression. — After the Restoration of Charles II. (1660) the English Parliament enforced the Navi- gation Act, which ordered that the commerce of the colony should be carried on only in English vessels, and that its tobacco should be shipped only to England. Besides this, the colonial assembly was composed mainly of Royalists, who levied exorbitant taxes, refused to go out of office when their term had expired, fixed their salary at a high figure, restricted the right of voting to " freehold- ers and housekeepers," and imposed on Quakers a monthly 1676] VIRGINIA, MASSACHUSETTS 57 fine of one hundred dollars for absence from worship in the English Church. Two parties gradually sprang up in the colony : one, the aristocratic party, was composed of the rich planters and the officeholders; the other com- prised the liberty-loving portion of the people, who felt themselves deprived of their rights. Bacon's Rebellion. — These difficulties came to a crisis in 1676 — a century before Independence Day — when Gov- ernor Berkeley failed to provide for the defense of the settlements against the Indians. At this juncture Na- thaniel Bacon, a patriotic young man, rallied a company, defeated the Indians, and then turned to meet the gov- ernor, who had denounced him as a traitor. During the contest which followed, Berkeley was driven out of James- town and the village itself was burned.' In the midst of this success Bacon died. No leader could be found worthy to take his place, and the people dispersed. Berkeley re- venged himself with terrible severity. On hearing of the facts, Charles II. impatiently declared: "He has taken more lives in that naked country than I did for the mur- der of my father ! " COLLATERAL READINGS Smith and Pocahontas.— Fiske's Old Virginia, vol. i. pp. 80-30, 109-111. Virginia in 1634.— Fiske's Old Virginia, vol. i. pp. 223-231, 243-250. II. MASSACHUSETTS The Plymouth Company (p. 45) failed in an attempt to establish a settlement in North Virginia (1607). A few years later Captain John Smith examined the coast from 1 Going up the James River, just before reaching City Point, one sees near the right- hand bank the site of the tirst English settlement in Virginia. Part of an old church tower, with a few weather-beaten tombstones near by, is all that remains of the ancient village of Jamestown. The church itself, however, was rebuilt in the year 1907. 5b THE THIRTEEN COLONIES [1620 the Penobscot to Cape Cod, drew a map of it, and called the country New England. The company, stirred to action by his glowing accounts, obtained a new patent (1620) under the name of the Council for New England. This authorized them to make settlements and carry on trade through a region reaching from 40° to 48° north lati- NEW KNGLANl) BV THE PATENT OF lO-iO. VICIXITY OF BOSTON. tude, and westward from sea to sea. As we shall see, however, New England was first settled without consent of king or council. I. PLYMOUTH COLONY Settlement. — Landing of the PiUjrims.^ — One stormy day in the autumn of 1620, the Mayflower, with a band of a hundred and two Pilgrims, men, women, and children, ' They were called Pilgrims because of their wanderings. About seventy years before this time the state religion of England had been changed from Catholic to Protestant ; but a large number of the clergy aud people were dissatisfied with what 1620] MASSACHUSETTS 69 came to anchor in Cape Cod harbor. The little company, gathering in the cabin, drew up a compact, in which they THE irATFLOWER COiMPACT. tliey thought to he a halfway change on the part of the new church, and called for a more complete purification from old observances and doctrines. For this they were called Puritans. They still believed in a state church, but wanted the government to make certain changes in it. The government not only refused, but punished the Puritan clergy for not using the prescribed form of worship. This led some of them to question the authority of the government in religious matters. They came to believe that any body of Christians might declare itself a church, choose its own officers, and he independent of all external authority. Those who formed such local churches separated themselves from the Church of England, and hence were called Separatists. One church of Separatists was at Scrooby, in the east of England. Not being allowed to worship in peace, they fled to Holland (1608). But they were uuwilUng to have their children grow up as Dutchmen, and longed for an English laud where they might worship God in their own way, America offered such a home. They came, resolved to brave every danger, trusting to God to shape their destinies. 60 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES [1620 agreed to enact just and equal laws, which all should obey. One of their exploring parties landed at Plymouth/ as it was called on Smith's chart, December 21.- Finding the location suitable for a settlement, tlie men all came ashore and, amid a storm of snow and sleet, began building rude log houses. The Pilgrims had intended to settle in what is now New Jersey, in the territory controlled by the London Company, from which they had procured a patent. Stormy weather prevented the M((iifloiccr from going there, and the Pilgi-ims settled at Plymouth without wait- ing for permission to do so. Later the Council for New England gave them several grants of land. The Character of the Pilgrims was well suited to the rugged, stormy land which they sought to subdue. They had come into the wilderness with their families in search of a home where they could educate their children and worship God as* they pleased. They were earnest, sober- minded men, actuated in all things by deep religious principle, and never disloyal to their convictions of duty. Their Sufferings during the winter were severe. At one time there were only seven well persons to take care of the sick. Half of the little band died. Yet when spring came, and the Mayflower set sail for England, not one of the Pilgrims thought of returning with her. 1 The littlo, shallop sent out to recounoiter before l.'iTidiii.ij lost, in a furious storm, its nuldir, mast, and sail. Lato at uight tlie party sought shelter under the lee of a small island. Everj' hour ■was precious, as the season was late and their com- panions in the Mayflower were waiting their return ; but " being y« last day of y» week, tliiy prepared there to kccpe yo Sabbath." No wonder that the influence of such a people has been felt throughout tlie country, and that " Forefathers' Rock," on which they first stepped, is yet held in grateful remembrance. -' This was December 11, Old Style. In 1752 eleven days were added to correct an increasing error in the calendar, so Forefathers' Day is observed on the 22d. But in 1620 the error in the calendar was only ten days instead of eleven, and the correct date is the 2l8t, New Style. (Steele's " Popular Astronomy," p. 285.) 1621] MASSACHUSETTS 61 The Indians, fortunately, did not disturb them. A pesti- lence had destroyed the tribe inhabiting the place where they landed. They were startled, however, one day in early spring, by a voice in their village crying in broken English, " Welcome ! " It was the salutation of Sam'oset, an Indian, whose chief, Mas'sasoit, soon after visited them. The treaty then made lasted for fifty years. Canon'icus, a Narragansett chief, once sent a bundle of arrows, wrapped in a rattlesnake skin, as a token of defiance. Governor Bradford returned the skui filled with powder and shot. This significant hint was effectual.^ The Progress of the Colony was at first slow. The set- tlers' harvests were insufficient to feed themselves and the newcomers. During the "famine of 1623" the best dish they could set before their friends was a bit of fish and a cup of water. After four years they numbered only 184. The plan of working in common having failed here as at Jamestown, land was assigned to each settler. Abundance ensued. The colony was never organized by royal charter, but the king left them in peace to elect their own gov- ernor and make their own laws. In 1692 Plymouth was united with Massachusetts Bay Colony, of which it there- after formed a part. 2. MASSACHUSETTS BAY COLONY Settlement. — John Endicott and five associates ob- tained (1628) from the Council for New England a grant of land between and including the mouths of the Merri- mac and Charles rivers, and thence west across the conti- nent from sea to sea. Having secured from King Charles I. 1 Another reason why Plymouth had no disastrous conflict with Indians was the ability and bravery of MUea Standish, who acted as military head of the little colony. He was one of the mainstays of the colony, though he was not of the same religious faith as the Pilgrims. 62 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES [1630 a charter giving authority to make laws and govern the territory, the company afterwards transferred all its rights to the colony. This was a popular measure, and many prominent Puritan families flocked to the land of liberty. Some, under the leadership of Endicott, settled at Salem and Charlestown ; some established colonies at Dorchester KCKMiK WILLIAMS FLEICS TO TIM-; KoUKST. and Watertown ; and some, under the new governor, AViii- throp, founded Boston (1030). Religious Disturbances. — The people of Massachusetts Bay, while in England, were Puritans, but not Separatists. Having come to America to estabhsh a Puritan church, they were unwilling to receive persons holding opinions differing from their own, lest their purpose should be 1636] MASSACHUSETTS 63 defeated. They accordingly sent back to England those who persisted in using the forms of the Established Church, and allowed only members of their own church to vote in civil affairs. Boger Williams^ an eloquent and pious young minister, taught that each person should think for himself in all religious matters, and be responsible to his own conscience alone. He declared that the magistrates had, therefore, no right to punish blasphemy, perjury, or Sabbath-break- ing. The clergy and magistrates were alarmed at what they considered a doctrine dangerous to the peace of the colony, and he was ordered (1636) to be sent to England. It was in the depth of winter, yet he fled to the forest, and found refuge among the Indians. Canonicus, the Narragansett sachem, gave him land to found a settle- ment, which he gratefully named Providence. Mrs. Anne Hutchinson, during the same year, aroused a violent and bitter controversy. She claimed to be favored with special revelations of God's will. These she ex- pounded to crowded congregations of women, greatly to the scandal of many Puritans. Finally she also was banished. The Quakers, about twenty years after these summary measures, created fresh trouble by their peculiar views. They were fined, whipped, imprisoned, and sent out of the colony; yet they as constantly returned, glorying in their sufferings. At last four were executed. The people beginning to sympathize with them as martyrs, the per- secution gradually relaxed. A Union of the Colonies of Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, New Haven, and Connecticut (see p. 69) was formed (1643) under the title of the United Colonies of New England. This famous league lasted more than forty years. The 64 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES [1675 object was protection against the Indians and against the encroachments of the Dutch and French settlers. King Philip's War. — During the life of Massasoit, Plym- outh enjoyed peace with the Indians, as did Jamestown dur- ing the life of the Powhatan. After Massasoit's death, his son Philip brooded with a jealous eye over the encroach- ments of the whites. With profound sagacity he planned a confederation of the Indian tribes against the intruders. The first blow fell on the people of Swansea, as they were quietly going home from church on Sunday, July 4, 1675. The settlers flew to arms, but Philip escaped, and soon excited the savages to fall upon the settlements in the Connecticut valley. The colonists fortified their houses with palisades, carried their arms with them into the fields when at work, and stacked them at the door when at church. The Narragansett Indians favored Philip, and seemed on the point of joining his alliance. They had gathered their winter's provisions, and fortified themselves in the midst of an almost inaccessible swamp. Fifteen hundred of the colonists accordingly attacked and de- stroyed this stronghold. In the spring the war broke out anew along a frontier of three hundred miles, and to within twenty miles of Boston. Nowhere fighting in the open field, but by ambuscade and skulking, the Indians kept the whole country in terror. Driven to desperation by their atrocities, the settlers hunted down the savages like wild beasts. Philip was chased from one hiding place to another. His family being captured at last, he fled, broken-hearted, to his old home on Mount Hope, Rhode Island, where he was shot by a faithless Indian. New England a Royal Province. — The Navigation Act (p. 56), which we have seen so unpopular in Virginia, was exceedingly oppressive in Massachusetts, which had a 1684] MASSACHUSETTS 65 thriving commerce. lu spite of the decree, the colony opened a trade with the West Indies. Tiie Royalists in England determined that this bold republican spirit should be quelled. The colony, stoutly insisting upon its rights under the charter, resisted the commissioners sent over to enforce the Navigation Act and the author- ity of the king; whereupon the charter was annulled and Massachusetts was made a royal province (1684). Charles II. died before his plan was completed, but his successor, James II., sent over Sir Edmund Andros as first royal governor of all New England (1686). Gov- ernor Andros carried things with a high hand. The New England colonies endured his oppression for three years, when, learning that his royal master was de- throned,^ the people rose against their petty tyrant and put him in jail. With true Puritan sobriety, they then quietly resumed their old forms of government. In Massachusetts, however, this lasted for only three years, when Sir William Phips came as royal governor over a province embracing Massachusetts, Plymouth, Maine, and Nova Scotia. From this time till the Revolution the enlarged colony of Massachusetts Bay was governed under a new charter ; but as its governor was appointed by the king, it was in some respects a royal province. There were many disputes between the governor and the colonial assembly, or "general court," as it was called, over the rights and powers claimed by each. Salem Witchcraft (1692). — A strange delusion known as the Salem witchcraft^ produced an intense excitement. 1 The " English Revolution of 1688" resulted in the deposition of James II., the Stuart Mug, and the enthronement of William and Mary. 2 A belief in witchcraft was at that time universal. Sir Matthew Hale, one of the most enlightened judges of England, repeatedly tried and condemned persons accused of witchcraft. Blackstone himself, at a later day, declared that to deny witchcraft B. HIST. u. s.— 5 66 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES [1692 The children of a minister near Salem performed pranks which could be explained only by supposing that they were under Satanic influence. Every effort was made to discover who had bewitched them. An Indian servant was flogged until she admitted herself to be guilty. Soon others were affected, and the terrible mania spread rapidly. Committees of examination were appointed and courts of trial were convened. The most improbable stories were credited. To express a doubt of witchcraft was to indicate one's own alliance with the evil spirit. Persons of the highest respectability — clergymen, magistrates, and even the governor's wife — were implicated. At last, after fifty- five persons had been tortured and twenty hanged, the people awoke to their folly, and the persecution ceased. III. MAINE AND NEW HAMPSHIRE Maine and New Hampshire were so intimately associated with Massachusetts that they have almost a common his- tory. Gorges (gor'jez) and Mason, about two years after the landing of the Pilgrims, obtained from the Council for New England the grant of a large tract of land which lay between the Merrimac and Kennebec rivers. They estab- lished some small fishing stations at Dover and near Portsmouth, at the mouth of the Piscat'aqua River. This patent being afterwards dissolved, Mason took the country lying west of the Piscataqua, and named it New Hamp- shire ; Grorges took that lying east, and called it the prov- wasto deny revelation. Cotton Mather, the most prominent minister of the colony, was active in the rooting ont of this supposed crime. He publislied a book full of the most ridiculous witch stories. One judge who engaged in this i)orsecution was after- wards so deeply penitent that he observed a day of fasting in each year, and on the day of general fast rose in his place in the Old South Church at Boston, and in the presence of the co!)gregation handed to the pulpit a written confession acknowledging his error and praying for forgiveness. 1677] NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 67 ince of Maine.' Massachusetts, however, claimed this ter- ritory, and, to secure it, paid about six thousand dollars to the heirs of Gorges. Maine was not separated from Massachusetts till 1820. The feeble settlements of New Hampshire also placed themselves under the protection of Massachusetts. " Three times, either by their own con- sent or by royal authority, they were joined in one colony, and as often separated," until 1741, when New Hampshii-e finally became a distinct royal province ; and it so remained until the Revolution. IV. CONNECTICUT Settlement. — About eleven years after the Pilgrims landed, Lord Say-and-Seal, Lord Brooke, and others, obtained from the Earl of Warwick a transfer of the grant of the Connecticut valle}', which he had secured from the Council for New England. The Dutch claimed the terri- tory, and, before the English could take possession, built a fort at Hartford, and commenced traffic with the Indians. Some traders from Plymouth sailing up the river were stopped by the Dutch, who threatened to fire upon them. But they kept on and established a post at Windsor. Many people from Boston, attracted by the rich meadow lands, settled near. In the autumn of 1635, John Steele, one of the proprietors of Cambridge, led a pioneer com- }>any "out west," as it was then called, and laid the foundations of Hartford. The next year the main band, with their pastor, — Thomas Hooker, an eloquent and estimable man, — came, driving their flocks before them 1 To distinguisli it from the islands along the coast, this country had been called the Mayne (main) land, which perhaps gave rise to its present name. New Hamj)- shire was so called from Hampshire in England, Mason's home. 68 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES [1635 through the wilderness. In the meantime, John Win- throp ' established a fort at the mouth of the river, and HOOKER'S BAND ON THE WAY TO CONNECTICUT. thus shut out the Dutch. The fort was named Saybrook, in honor of the proprietors. The Pequot War. — The colonists had no sooner become settled in their new home than the Pequot Indians en- deavored to persuade the Narragansetts to ^join them in a general attack upon the whites. Roger Williams, hearing of this and forgetting all the injuries he had received, on a stormy night sot out in his canoe for the Indian village. ' Jobn Winthrop iippears in history witliout blemish. Highly educated and accom- plished, he was no less uprifrht and generous. lu the bloom of life, he left his brilliant prospects in the Old World to follow the fortunes of the New. When his father had made himself poor in nurturing the Massachusetts colony, this noble son gave up voluntarily his own large inheritance to " further the good work." It was through his personal influence and popularity at court that the liberal charter was procured from Charles II. which guaranteed freedom to Comiecticut (p. 69), 1637] CONNECTICUT 69 Though the Pequot messengers were present, he prevailed upon the old Narragansett chief to remain at home. So the Pequots lost their ally and were forced to fight alone. They commenced by murdering thirty colonists. Captain Mason, therefore, resolved to attack their stronghold on the Mystic River. His party approached the fort at day- break (June 5, 1G37). Aroused by the barking of a dog, the sleepy sentinel shouted, " Owanux ! Owanux ! " (The Englishmen!), but it was too late. The troops were already within the palisades. The Indians, rallying, made a fierce resistance, when Captain Mason, seizing a fire- brand, hurled it among the wigwams. The flames quickly swept through the encampment. The English themselves barely escaped. The few Indians who fled to the swamps were hunted down. The tribe perished in a day. The Three Colonies. — 1. The New Haven Colony was founded (1638) by a number of wealthy London families. They took the Bible for law, and only church members could vote. 2. The Connecticut Colony proper, com- prising Hartford, Wethersfield, and Windsor, adopted a written constitution in which it was agreed to give to all freemen the right to vote. This was the first instance in history of a written constitution framed by the people for the people. 3. The Saybeook Colony was at first gov- erned by the proprietors, but was afterwards sold to the Connecticut Colony. This reduced the three colonies to two. A Royal Charter was obtained (1662) which added the New Haven Colony to Connecticut, granted in" addition a strip of land lying south of Massachusetts and extending west across the whole continent, and guaranteed to all settlers the rights upon which the Connecticut colonists had agreed. This was a precious document, since it gavo 70 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES [1687 them almost independence, and was the most favorable yet granted to any colony. Twenty-five years after, Gov- ernor Audros, marching from Boston over the route where the pious Hooker had led his little flock fifty years before, came " glittering with scarlet and lace " into the assembly at Hartford, and demanded the charter. A protracted debate ensued. Tradition loves to relate that, as the people crowded around to take a last look at this guaran- tee of their liberties, suddenly the lights were extin- guished; on their being relighted, the charter was gone; Captain Wadsworth had seized it, escaped through the crowd, and hidden it in the hollow of a tree, famous ever after as the Charter Oak.^ However, Andros pronounced the charter government at an end. " Finis " was written at the close of the minutes of the assembly's last meeting. When the governor was so summarily deposed in Bos- ton (p. 65), the people brought the charter from its hiding place, the assembly reconvened, and the " finis " disap- peared. In fact, Connecticut governed itself under this charter till long after the Revolution. V. RHODE ISLAND Settlement. — Roger Williams settled Providence Planta- tion in 1G36, the year in which Hooker came to Hartford. Other exiles from Massachusetts followed,^ among them the celebrated Mrs. Hutchinson. A party of these pur- chased the island of Aquiday (Rhode Island) and estab- lished the Rhode Island Plantation. Roger Williams • Tlio story of the Charter Oak is denied by some, who claim that contemporary history does not mention it, and that probably Andros seized the charter, while the colonists bud previously made a copy. 2 Persecuted refugees fnmi every quarter flocked to Providence; and WilHauis shared equally with all the lands he had obtained, reserviuf; to himself only two small fields which, on his first arrival, he had planted with his own hands. 1647] RHODE ISLAND, NEW YORK 71 stamped upon these colonies his favorite idea of religious toleration, i.e. that the civil power has no right to inter- fere with the religious opinions of men. Charters. — The colonists wished to join the New Eng- land Union, but were refused, ostensibly on the plea that they had no charter. Williams accordingly visited Eng- land and obtained a charter uniting the two plantations. On his retui-n, the people met, elected their oflQcers, and (1647) agreed on a set of laws guaranteeing freedom of faith and worship to all — " the first legal declaration of liberty of conscience ever adopted in Europe or America." This colony, however, was never admitted to the New England Union. The other colonies continued to look on it with disfavor, and Massachusetts and Connecticut each claimed the right to govern its territory. A new charter was secured for Rhode Island and Providence Plantations (1G63), under which the colony governed itself almost 180 years. COLLATERAL READINGS John Smith and the Pilgrims. — Fiske'a Beginnings of New England, pp. 78-87. King: Philip's AVar,— Fiske's Beginnings of New England, pp. 211-236. VI. NEW YORK Settlement. — Soon after the discovery of the Hudson, Dutch ships began to visit the river to traffic in furs with the Indians. Afterwards (1621), the West India Company obtained a grant of New Netherland, and under its patron- age permanent settlements were soon made at New Amster- dam^ and at Fort Orange (Albany). The company al- lowed persons who should plant a colony of fifty settlers to ' Some huts were built by Dutch traders on Manbattan Island, at the mouth of the Hudson, in 1613, and a trading post was established in 1615. In the latter year Fort Nassau was completed south of the present site of Albany. 72 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES [1626 select and buy land of the Indians, which it was agreed should descend to their heirs forever. These persons were called "patroons" (patrons) of the manor. The Four Dutch Governors (1626-64).^— The early his- tory of New York is marked by a bloody war with the Indians (1643-45) while Kieft was governor, and by diffi- culties with the Swedes on the Delaware and with the English on the Connecticut.^ These disturbances are monotonous enough in the recital, but doubtless thrilled the blood of the early Kniekerbock- . ers. Peter Stuy- vesant, who had lost a leg in the service of Holland, was the last and ablest of the four Dutch gov- ernors. Ho agreed with Connecticut upon the boundary line (1(350), and tak- ing an armed force, marched upon the Swedes, who at once submitted to him. But the old gov- ernor hated democratic institutions, and was teri-ibly vexed in this wise. There were some English in the colony, and 1 Peter Minuit, 1626-32; Wouter van Twiller, 1033-38; Sir William Kieft, 1038-47 ; Peter Stuy'TC&aiit, 1047-64. Peter Minnit, the first frovernor, bouplit IMaiihattan Island of the Indians for floods valued iit $24. After lii.s recall from New Netberland he ■went to Sweden, and led out the Swedish colony that settled on tlie Delaware (j). 76). - These disputes arose from the fact that the Dutch claimed the territory bordering and lying between the Delaware and the Connecticut, on which the Swedes and the English were settling. THE MIDDLE COLONIES. 16&4] NEW YORK 73 they longed for the rights of self-government which the Connecticut people enjoyed. They kept demanding these privileges and talking of them to their Dutch neighbors. In August, 1664, an English fleet came to anchor in the harbor and demanded the surrender of New Netherland in the name of the Duke of York, who had received a grant of this territory from his brother, King Charles II. Stout- STUTVESANT IN NEW AMSTERDAM (NEW YORlv). hearted old Peter pleaded with his council to fight. But in vain. They rather liked the idea of English rule. The surrender was signed, and at last the reluctant governor attached his name. When the English flag was raised over Manhattan Island, the colony and the town were named New York in honor of the proprietor. 74 THE THIETEEN COLONIES [1673 The English Governors discappointed the people by not granting them their coveted rights. A remonstrance against being taxed without representation was ])urned by the hangman. So that when, after nine years of English rule, a Dutch fleet appeared in the harbor, the people went back quietly nnder their old rulers. But the next year, peace being restored between England and Holland, New Amsterdam became New York again. Thus ended the Dutch rule in the colonies. Andros, who twelve years after played the tyrant in New England, was the n^xt goveiiior; but he ruled so arbitrarily that he was called home. Under his successor, Dongan, an assembly of the representatives of the people was called, by permission of the Duke of York (1683). This was but a transient gleam of civil freedom, for two years after, when the Duke of York became James II., king of Eng- land, he forgot all his promises, forbade legislative assem- blies, prohibited printing presses, and annexed the colony to New England. When, however, Andros was driven from Boston, Nicholson, his lieutenant and apt tool of tyranny in New York, was compelled to flee. Captain Leis- ler (lis'ler), supported by the democracy but bitterly op- posed by the anstocracy, thereupon administered affairs until the arrival of Governor Sloughter (slaw'tor). Hav- ing for(dbly resisted the governor's lieutenant, Leisler was arrested and tried for treason. Sloughter was unwilling to execute him, but Leisler's enemies made the governor drunk, obtained his signature to the death warrant, and be- fore he became sober enough to repent, Leisler was no more. From this time till the Revolution the struggles of the people with the royal governors for their rights devel- oped the spirit of liberty and paved the way for that eventful crisis. 1618] NEW YOEK, new JERSSY 75 VII. NEW JERSEY Settlement. — The present State of New Jersey was em- braced iu the territory of New Netherhind, and the Dutch seem to have had a trading post at Bergen as early as 1618. Soon after New Netherland passed into the hands of the Duke of York, he gave the land ^ between the Hud- son and the Delaware to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret. In 1664 a company from Long Island and New England settled at Elizabethtown, which they named after Carteret's wife. This was the first permanent Eng- lish settlement in the State. East and West Jersey. — In 1676 New Jersey was divided between the proprietors, by the line shown on the map, page 72. Lord Bei'keley had already sold his share to two English Quakers. This part was called West Jersey. A company of Quakers soon settled at Burlington. Others followed, and thus West Jersey became a Quaker colony. Sir George Carteret's portion was called East Jersey. After his death it was sold to William Penn and a num- ber of other Quakers, who were then in control of West Jersey.^ New Jersey United. — Constant disputes arose out of the land titles. The proprietors finally (1702) surrendered their rights of government to the English crown, and the whole of New Jersey was united with New York under one governor, but with a separate assembly. Thirty-six years after, at the earnest request of the people, New Jersey was set apart as a distinct royal province. • This tract was called New Jersey in honor of Carteret, who had been governor of the Island of Jersey iu the English Channel. 2 East Jersey was settled, however, largely by Puritans and Scotcli Presbyterians. The latter, having refused to accept the English form of religion, had been bitterly per- secuted. Fleeing their native country, they found an asylum in this favored land. 76 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES [1638 VIII., IX. PENNSYLVANIA AND DELAWARE Settlement. — The first permauent settlement in Dela- ware was made near Wilmington (1638), by the Swedes, on a tract which they called New Sweden. They also established the first settlement in Pennsylvania, a few miles below Philadelphia. These settlements were subse- quently conquered by the Dutch, but they continued to prosper long after Swedish and Dutch rule had ended. William Penn, the founder of Pennsylvania, was a cele- brated English Quaker.' He obtained from Charles II. a grant of land west of the Delaware (1681). This tract Peim named Sylvania, but the king insisted upon calling it Pennsylvania (Penn's Woods), in honor of William Penn's father. The Duke of York added to this grant the present State of Delaware, which for many years was called " the three lower counties on the Delaware." Penn wished to form a refuge for his Quaker brethren, who were bitterly persecuted in England. He at once sent over large num))ers, as many as two thousand in a single year. In 1682 ho came himself, and was received by the settlers with the greatest cordiality and respect. ' The Quakers, avoiding unraeaninp forms, aimed to lead purely spiritual lives. Their usual worship was conducted in soleiuu silence, each soul for itself. They took no oath, made no compliiiieiits, removed not the hat to king or ruler, and said " thee" and "thou" to both friend .and foe. Every day was to them a holy day, and the Sabbath was simply a day of rest. William Penn became a Quaker while in college at Oxford. Refusing to wear the customary student's gown, he with others violently assaulted some fellow-students and stripped them of their robes. For this he was expelled. Ilis father would not allow him to return home, but afterwards relented and sent him to Paris, Cork, and other cities, to soften his Quaker peculiarities. After several unhappy quarrels, his father proposed to overlook all else if he would only consent to doff his hat to the king, the Duke of York, and himself. Penn still refusing, he was again turned out of doors. Ho was several times imprisoned for his religious extremes. On the death of his fatlier, to whom he had once more been reconciled, he inherited a fortune. In 167C he became part owner of West Jersey. He took the territory which forms Penn- sylvania in payment of a debt of £16,000 due his fatlier from the crown. 1683] PENNSYLVANIA 77 Philadelphia Founded. — The year following (1683) Penn purchased land of the Swedes, and laid out a city which he named Philadelphia, a name signifying hrotlierly love. It was in the midst of the forest, yet within a year it con- tained 100 houses; in two years it numbered over 2000 inhabitants ; and in three years it gained more than New York had in half a century. The Great Law was a code agreed upon by the legisla- tive assembly which Penn called from among the settlers soon after his arrival. It made faith in Christ a necessary Painting by Benjamin West. PENN'S TREATY WITU THE INDIANS, qualification for voting and officeholding, but also pro- vided that no one believing in " Almighty God " should be molested in his religious views. The Quakers, having been persecuted themselves, did not celebrate their liberty by persecuting others. Penn himself surrendered the most of his power to the people. His highest ambition seemed to be to advance their interests. 78 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES [1683 Penn's Treaty with the Indians possesses a romantic interest. He met them under a large elm tree* near Philadelphia. The savages were touched by his gentle words and kindly bearing. "We will live in love with William Penn and his children," said they, "as long as the sun and moon shall shine."" Penn's Return. — Penn returned to England (1684), leav- ing the colony fairly established. His benevolent spirit shone forth in his parting words: "Dear friends, my love salutes you all." Delaware. — " The three lower counties on the Delaware," being greatly offended by the action of the council which Penn had left to govern in his absence, set up for them- selves. Penn " sorrowfully " consented to their action, appointed a deputy governor over them, and afterwards granted them a separate assembly. Pennsylvania and Delaware, however, remained under one governor until the Revolution. Penn's Heirs, after his death (1718), became proprietors of the flourishing colony he had established. It was ruled by deputies whom they appointed, and who had many quarrels with the legislative assemblies elected by the people. Finally, in 1779, the State of Pennsylvania bought out the claims of the Penn family by the payment of about half a million of dollars. Mason and Dixon's Line. — A difficulty having arisen with Maryland about boundaries, it was settled by a com- 1 It was blown down in isio. A monuinent now marks the spot. " Wo meet," said Penn, "on tbc broad pathway of good faitli and good will; no advantage shall be taken on either side, but all shall be opeuneas and love. The friendship between you and me I will not compare to a chain; for that the rains might rust or the falling tree might break. We are the same as if one man's body were to be divided into two parts ; wo are all one flesh and blood." 2 " It was the only treaty never sworn to, and the only one never broken." On every hand the Indians waged relentless war with the colonies, but they never shed a drop of Quaker blood. 1763] DELAWARE, MARYLAND 79 promise, and the line was run by two surveyors named Mason and Dixon (1763-67). This " Mason and Dixon's Line" afterwards became famous as the division between the slave and the free States. COLLATERAL READINGS New Netlierland. — Fiske's Dutch and Quaker Colonies, vol. i. pp. 96-129. Pennsylvania.— Fiske's Diilch and Quaker Colonies, vol. ii. pp. 147-167. X. MARYLAND Settlement. — Lord Baltimore (Cecil Calvert)/ a Catholic, was anxious to secure for the friends of his church a refuge from the persecutions which they were then suffering in England. He accordingly obtained from King Charles I. a grant of land lying north of the Potomac. The first settlement was made (1634) by his brother, at an Indian village which he called St. Marys, near the mouth of the Potomac. The Charter was very different from that granted to Vir- ginia, since it gave to all freemen a voice in making the laws. An assembly, called in accordance with this pro- vision, passed (1649) the celebrated Toleration Act, which confirmed to all Christians liberty to worship God accord- ing to the dictates of their own conscience. Maryland, like Ehode Island, was an asylum for the persecuted. Civil Wars.— 1. Clayhorne's Rehelllon (1635).— The Vir- ginia colony claimed that Lord Baltimore's grant covered 1 His father, George Calvert, the first Lord Baltimore, with this same design had attempted to plant a colony in Newfoundland. But having failed on account of the severity of the climate, he visited Virginia. WTien he found that the Catholics were there treated with great harshness, he returned to England, took out a grant of land, and bestowed tipon it, in honor of the queen, the name Mary's Land (Terra Marim). Before the patent had received the great seal of the king, Lord Baltimore died. Hia son, Inheriting the father's noble and benevolent views, secured the grant himself and carried out the philanthropic scheme. 80 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES [1635 territory belonging to Virginia. Clayborne, a member of the Jamestown council, was especially obstinate in the matter. He had established two trading posts in Maiyland, which he prepared to defend by force of ai'ms. A bloody skirmish ensued in which his party was beaten. Clayborne, however, fled to Virginia, and, going to England, appealed to King Charles I. for redress. But the final decision fully sustained the rights of Lord Baltimore under the charter. In 1G45, however, Clayborne came back to Maryland, raised a rebellion, and drove Governor Calvert, in his turn, out of the colony. The governor at last raised a strong force, and Clayborne fled. This ended the contest. 2. The Protestants and the Catholics. — The Protestants, having obtained a majority in the Maryland assembly, made a most ungrateful use of their power. They refused to acknowledge the hereditary rights of the proprietor, assailed his religion, excluded Catholics from the assembly, and even declared them outside the protection of the law. Civil war ensued. For years the victory alternated. At one time two governments, one Protestant, the other Cath- olic, were sustained. In 1691 Lord Baltimore was entirely deprived of his rights as proprietor, and Maryland became a royal province. The Church of England was established, and the Catholics were again disfranchised in the very province they had planted. In 1715 the fourth Lord Bal- timore recovered the government, and religious toleration was restored. Maryland remained under this administra- tion until the Revolution. , XL, XII. THE CAROLINAS Settlement Lord Clar'endon and other noblemen ob- tained (1G63 and 1665) from Charles IT. a grant of a vast 1663] NOETH CAROLINA, SOUTH CAROLINA 81 36%0- tract south of Virginia, and extending across the continent from sea to sea. It was called, in honor of the king, Caro- lina.' Two permanent settlements were soon made. 1. The Al'bemarle^ Colony was the name given to a plantation already settled by people who had pushed through the wilderness from Virginia. A governor from their own number was appointed over them. They were then left in quiet to enjoy their liber- ties and forget the world.^ 2. The Carteret Colony was estab- lished in 1670 by English immigrants. They began a settle- ment on the banks of the Ashley, but afterwards removed it to the "ancient groves covered with yellow jessamine " which marked the site of the present city of Charleston. The growth of this colony was rapid from the first. Thither came shiploads of Dutch from New York, dissat- isfied with the English rule and attracted by the genial climate. The Huguenots (French Protestants), hunted from their homes, here found a Southern welcome.^ 1 This name, it will be remembered, is the same that Eibaut (p. 35) gave his fort in honor of Charles IX. of France. 2 Both colonies were naiued after prominent proprietors of the grant. 3 Except when rent day came. Then they were called upon to pay to the EugUsh proprietors a halfpenny an acre. *In Charleston alone there were at one time as many as 16,000 Huguenots. They added whole streets to the city. Their severe morality, marked charity, elegant man- B. HIST. u. s.— 6 CAROLINA BY THE GRANT OF 16G5. 82 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES [1669 The Grand Model was a form of government for the colo- nies prepared by Lord Shaftesbury and the celebrated philosopher John Locke. It was a magnificent scheme. The wilderness was to be divided into vast estates, with which hereditary titles were to be gi-anted. But the model was aristocratic, while the people were democratic. It granted no rights of self-government, while the settlers came into the wilderness for the love of liberty. This was not the soil on which vain titles and empty pomp BLACKBEAKD could flourish. To make the Grand Model a success, it would have been necessary to transform the log cabin into a baronial castle, and the independent settlers into armed retainers. The attempt to introduce the scheme arousing violent opposition, it was at length abandoned. nere, and tbrifty habits made tbeni a most desirable acqulBltlon. Their descendants aro eminently honorable, and have borne a proud part in the establlehment of our republic. 1670] NORTH CAROLINA, SOUTH CAROLINA 83 Pirates. — The Carolina colonies were founded at a time when piracy in and near the West Indies was at its height. The freebooters or buccaneers, as they were called, in- cluded many hundreds of men, of all nationalities hostile to Spain ; and at first their attacks were made against Span- ish ships and towns only. They had strongholds and hid- ing places in Haiti and some other islands, and along the Carolina coasts. In the early days the Carolina colonists favored the pirates, as they were good customers for prod- uce of various kinds ; but before long the pirates began to capture ships trading with Charleston, and then the colonists helped make war on them.' By 1730 the pirates were extirpated. Indian Troubles. — War having broken out with the Tus- carora Indians (1711), the settlers of both the Carolina colonies united in expelling the tribe from the country.^ North and South Carolina Separated. — The two colonies,— the northern, or Albemarle, and the southern, or Car- teret, — being so remote from each other, had from the beginning separate governors, though they remained one province. There was constant friction between the set- tlers and the proprietors. The people were jealous. The proprietors were arbitrary, Eents, taxes, and disputed 'One of the most noted pirates was Robert Thatch, commonly called Blacbbeard. He once took and robbed some ships as they sailed out from Charleston, and compelled the governor to give him a full line of supplies as ransom for the captured passengers, on pain of their instant death. This was his last great exploit, however, for a little later in the same year (1718) he was billed in a flghtwith ships from Virginia. William Kidd, a New York shipmaster, was once sent out to cruise against sea robbers. He turned pirate himself and became the most noted of them all. Return- ing from his cruise, he was arrested in Boston. He was carried to England, tried, and hanged. Some goods and treasure which he had buried on Gardincrs Island (just east of Long Island) were recovered. He was believed to have buried more of his ill-gotten riches on the coast of Long Lslaud or the banks of the Hudson, and these localities have been oftentimes searched by credulous persons seeking for Kidd's treasure. 2 The Tuscaroras sought refuge in the country of the Five Nations, or Iroquois (p. 12), and a few years later were admitted into this Indian confederacy, which thus became the Si:s Nations. 84 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES [1729 rights were plentiful sources of irritation. Things kept on in this unsettled way until (1729) the discouraged pro- prietors ceded to the crown their right of government and seven eighths of the soil. The two colonies were separated, and they remained royal provinces until the Revolution. XIII. GEORGIA Georgia, the last colony of the famous thirteen, was planned in the same year that Washington was born, and after Virginia had been settled for 125 years. OGLETHORPE AND THE INDIAN CHIEF. James O'glethorpe, a warm-hearted English officer, having conceived the Idea of founding a refuge for debtors im- 1732] GEORGIA 85 prisoned under the severe laws of that time, naturally- turned to America, even then the home of the oppressed. He formed a company of twenty-one men, to whom King George II. granted, "in trust for the poor," a tract of land between the Savannah and Altamaha' rivers, and stretching westward across the continent. This colony was called Georgia, in honor of the king. Oglethorpe made a settlement at Savannah in 1733.^ A general interest was excited in England, and many charitable people gave liberally to promote the enterprise. More emigrants followed, including, as in the other col- onies, many who sought religious or civil liberty.^ The trustees limited the size of a man's farm, did not allow women to inherit land, and forbade tbe importation of rum^ or of slaves. These restrictions were irksome, and great discontent prevailed. At last the trustees, wearied by the frequent complaints of the colonists, surrendered their charter to the crown. Georgia remained a royal province until the Eevolution. COLLATERAL READING Pirates.— Fiske's Old Vlrffinia, vol. ii. pp. 361-369. 1 He made peace with the Indians, conciliating them by presents and by his kindly disposition. One of the chiefs gave him in return a buffalo's skin with the head and feathers of an eagle painted on the inside of it. " The eagle," said the chief, " signilles swiftness ; and the buffalo, strength. The English are swift as a bird to fly over the vast seas, and as strong as a beast before their enemies. The eagle's feathers are soft and signify love ; the buffalo's skin is warm and means protection ; therefore love and protect our families." 2 The gentle Moravians and sturdy Scotch Highlanders were among the number, and proved valuable acquisitions to the colony. The former had fled from Austria for conscience' sake. Lutherans from Salzburg, Austria, founded a colony in the pine forests and named it Ebenezer. When John Wesley, the founder of Methodism, came to America as a missionary with his brother Charles, he was greatly charmed with the fervent piety of this simple people. The celebrated George Whitefleld afterwards founded at Savannah an orphan asylum, which he supported by contributions from the immense audiences which his wonderful eluquence attracted to his open-air meetings. 3 Rum was obtained from the West Indies in exchange for lumber. Hence this law prevented that trade. 86 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES [1689 XIV. INTERCOLONIAL WARS I. KING WILLIAM'S WAR (1689-97) Cause. — War having broken out in Europe between Eng- land and France, their colonies in America were forced into the quarrel. The Indians of Canada and Maine aided the French, and the Iroquois helped the English (see p. 37). Attacks upon the Colonists. — In the depth of winter, war parties of the French and Indians, coining down on their snowshoes from Canada through the forest, fell upon several of the ex- posed settlements of New York and Now England and committed horrible barbarities. Schen- ectady (sken ec'ta- dy), unsuspecting and defenseless, was attacked at midnight. Men, women, and (chil- dren were dragged from their beds and tomahawked. The few who escaped, half naked, made their way through the snow of that fearful night to Albany.' I The histories of the time abound In thrilling stories of Indian adventure. One day in March, IG-JT, HaverbilKhiiver il), Mass., was attacked. Mr. Diistin was at work In the field. Hurrying to his house, he brought out his seven children, and bid- ding them "run ahead," slowly retreated, keeping the Indians back with Ins gun. He thus brought ofT his little flock in safety. His wife, who was unalde to escape with him, was dragged into captivity. The party that had captured Mrs. Dustin marched many days through the forest, and at length reached an island in the Merrimac. Here she resolved to escape. .\ white boy, who hail been taken prisoner before, found out from his Indian master, at Mrs. Dustin's request, where to strike a blow that would produce instant death, and how to take ofl" a scalp. Having learned these facts, in the NORTHERN COLONIES IN THE INTERCOLONIAL WAR.S. 1690] KING WILLIAM'S WAR, QUEEN ANNE'S WAR 87 Attacks by the Colonists. — Aroused by such scenes of savage ferocity, the colonists organized two expeditions: one under Phips (soon after governor of Massachusetts, p. 65) against Port Royal, Acadia ; and the other, a com- bined land and naval attack on Canada. The former was successful, and secured, it is said, plunder enough to pay the expenses of the expedition. The latter was a dis- astrous failure, owing to the superior ability of Count Fron'tenac, governor of Canada, who managed the war on the side of France. Peace. — The war lasted eight years. It was ended by the treaty of Ryswick (riz'wik), one clause of which provided that England and France should each hold the territory it had at the beginning of the struggle. 2. QUEEN ANNE'S WAR (1702-13) Cause. — England having declared war agamst France and Spain, hostilities again broke out between their col- onies. The Iroquois or Five Nations had made a treaty with the French, and so took no part in the contest. Their neutrality protected New York from invasion. Consequently, the brunt of the war fell on New England. Attacks upon the Colonists. — The New England fron- tier was again desolated.^ Remote settlements were aban- doned. The people betook themselves to palisaded houses, and worked their farms with their guns always at hand. uight she awoke the boy and her nurse, and arranged their parts. The task was soon done. Seizing each a tomahawk, they killed ten of the sleeping Indians ; only one escaped. She then scalped the dead bodies in order to prove her story when she should reach home, and hastened to the bank, where, taking one canoe and destroying the others, they descended the river and soon rejoined her family. I On the last night of Feliruary, 1704, a party of about 350 French and Indians reached a pine forest near Deerfleld, Mass. Toward morning, the stealthy invaders rushed upon the defenseless slumberers, who awoke from their dreams to death or captivity. Leaving the blazing village with forty-seven dead .bodies to be 88 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES [1702 Attacks by the Colonists.— 1. In the South. — South Caro- lina made a fruitless expedition against her old Spanish enemies at St. Augustine (1702).^ 2. In the North. — Port Ro^al, Nova Scotia, was again wrested from the French by a combined force of English and colonial troops. In honor of the queen, its name was changed to Annap'olis. Another expedition sailed against Quebec, but many of the ships were dashed upon the rocks in the St. Lawrence, and nearly 1000 men perished. Thus ended the second attempt to conquer Canada. Peace. — The war lasted eleven years. It was ended by the treaty of Utrecht (u'trekt), which, besides settling many European questions, provided that Acadia should belong to Great Britain. 3. KING GEORGE'S WAR 2 (1744-48) Capture of Louisburg. — War having broken out between Great Britain and France, the flame was soon kindled in the New World. The only event of importance was the consumed amid the wreck, they theu started back with their train of 112 captives through the snow. The horrors of tliat march can never be told. The groan of help- less exhaustion, or the wail of suffering childhood, was instantly stilled by the pitiless tomahawk. Mrs. Williams, the feeble wife of the minister, had remeuibered her Bible in the inidst of surprise, and comforted herselc' with its promises till, her strength failing, she commended her five captive chihlren to God, and bent to the savage blow of the war-ax. One of her daughters grew up in captivity, embraced the Catholic faith, and became the wife of a chief. Years after, she visited her friends in Deerfleld. The whole village joined in a fast for lier deliverance, but her heart loved best her children, and she went back to the tiros of her Indian wigwam. ' Four years after, the French and Spanish sent a fleet from Havana against Charles- ton. The people, however, valiantly defended themselves, and soon drove off their assailants. -' Tliis war was preceded by what is known as the "Spanish War," which grew out of difficulties then existing between England and Spain. In America, Governor Oglethorpe invested (1740) St. Augustine with a force of 2000 men, but the strength of the Spanish garrison, and the loss by sickness, caused the att^'inpt to be abandoned. The Spaniards, in their turn, sent (1742) an expedition against (Jeorgia. By means of a letter which Governor Oglethorpe caused to fall into the hands of the Spaniards, they were made to believe that he expected large reenforcements. Being 1745] KING GEORGE'S WAR 89 capture of Louisburg/ on the island of Cape Breton, by a combined force of British and colonial troops. The latter did most of the fighting, but the former took the glory and the booty. Peace being made in 1748 by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (aks lah shah pel'), England gave back Louisburg to the French. The boundaries between the French and the English colonies were left undecided, and so the germ of a new war remained. 4. FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR (1754-63) Cause. — The English occupied at this time a narrow strip along the coast, 1000 miles in length. It was like a string to the great bow of the French territory, which reached around from Quebec to New Orleans. Both nations, overlooking the real proprietors, the Indians, claimed the region west of the Appalachian Mountains, along the Ohio River. In 1749 Celoron (sa lo roN') was sent by the French to take formal possession of the Ohio valley; along the course of the Ohio he buried a number of lead plates on which the French claim was inscribed. The next year the British king granted to the Ohio Com- pany half a million acres in the valley, on condition of settling the territory. The three previous intercolonial wars had engendered bitter hatred, and occasions for quarrel were abundant. The French had over sixty mili- tary posts guarding the long line of their possessions. They seized the English surveyors along the Ohio. They frigbtened, they burned tbe fort tbey bad captured, and fled in baste. Tbe Englisb colonies also fumisbed about 4000 men for an expedition against tbe Spanish settle- ments in the West Indies ; but only a few hundred returned from this disastrous enterprise. 1 Louisburg was called tbe " Gibraltar of America." Its fortifications were exten- sive, and cost upward of $5,000,000. When the place was captured, the colonial troops tbeniselves were astonished at what they had done. The achievement called forth great rejoicing throughout the country, especially in New England, and had an influ- ence in the Revolutionary War thirty years after. 90 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES [1753 broke up a British post on the Miam'i. They built a fort on Lake Erie at Presque Isle (presk eel'), near the present city of Erie ; another, Fort le Boeuf (P buf), at the present town of Waterford ; and a thii'd, Fort Venan'go, about forty miles south, at the mouth of French Creek (p. 92). These encroachments awakened the liveliest solicitude on the part of the English colonists. Washington's Journey. — Dinwiddle, lioutenant govern- or of Virginia, accordingly sent a message by George IN Ai 1 (ii;i 1.1. Kii.ri , Washington, then a young man of tweiity-oue, to the French commander of these forts, asking their removal. Washington, after a perilous journey through the wilder- ness, found the French officer at Fort Venango loud and 1753] * FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 91 boastful. At Fort le Boenf, the commandant treated him with great respect, but, like a true soldier, refused to discuss claims, and declared himself under orders which he should obey. It was clear that France was determined to hold the territory claimed under the discoveries of the heroic La Salle and Marquette. Washington's return through the wilderness, a distance of 400 miles, was full of peril.^ At last he reached home unharmed and de- livered the French commandant's reply. War Opens. — Early the next spring (1754), the French, at the fork of the Monongahela and the Allegheny, drove off a party of English traders and erected a fort, which was called Duquesne (du kan'). Soon, among the black- ened stumps, corn and barley were growing on the present site of Pittsburg. In the meantime, part of Colonel Fry's regiment of Virginia troops, under Washington, had been sent to occupy this important point. Learning that the French had anticipated them, Washington hastened for- ward with a reconnoitering party. Jumonville (zhu moN- veel'), who was hiding among the trees and rocks with a detachment of French troops, waiting an opportunity to attack him, was himself surprised and slain.^ Washing- ton now retreated to the Great Meadows, where he re- 1 The streams were swollen. Sleet was falling, and freezing as it fell. The horses gave out, and ho was forced to proceed on foot. With only one companion, he quitted the usual path, and, with the compass as his guide, struck boldly out through the forest. An Indian lying in wait lired at him only a few paces off, but, missing, was captured. Attempting to cross the Allegheny on a rude raft, they were caughf between large masses of ice floating down the rapid current of the midcbannel. Washington thrust out his pole to check the speed, but was jerked into the foaming water. Swimming to an island, he barely saved his life. Fortimately, in the morning the river was frozen over, and he escaped on the ice. -Washington's word of command to fire upon that skulking foe (May 2S, 1754) was the opening of the campaign. Washington himself, it is said, fired the first shot of . that long and bloody war. The first three intercolonial wars had been merely incidental to wars in Europe. This French and Indian War, on the contrary, began in America. It soon spread to the Old World, where it involved most of the countries of Europe and was known there as the Seven Years* War. 1754] FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 93 ceived some reenforcements, and built a rude stockade, aptly named Fort Necessity. Here he was attacked by a large force of French and Indians, and, after a severe conflict, was compelled to capitulate. Franklin's Plan of Union. — At the beginning of this war the British colonies numbered many times more inhabit- ants than did Canada ; yet their military power was less. Canada was ruled by one governor, who exercised all the powers of government. But the different English colo- nies were distracted by jealousies, and in many cases the governor and the colonial assembly distrusted and ham- pered each other. These difficulties had appeared in the previous intercolonial wars, and were well known. To avoid them, and secure harmonious action of all the colo- nies, Franklin proposed a Plan of Union at a congress of delegates that met in Albany (1754) to treat with the Iroquois. This plan provided for a central government that could levy taxes and carry on war. Though approved by the congress, it was rejected by the colonies, as each was unwilling to surrender any of its powers. The Five Objective Points of the War. — 1. Fort Du- QUESNE was the key to the region west of the Appala- chians, and so long as the French held it, Virginia and Pennsylvania were exposed to Indian attacks. 2. The French possession of Louisburg and part of Acadia threat- ened New England, and gave control over the Newfound- land fisheries. Privateers harbored there, to prey on Eng- lish ships. 3. Crown Point and Ticondero'ga controlled the route to and from Canada by the way of Lakes George and Champlain. 4. Fort Niagara lay on the portage between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario, and thus protected the great fur trade of the Upper Lakes and the West. 5. Quebec, the strongest fortification in Canada, gave control 94 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES [1755 of the St. Lawrence, and largely decided the possession of that province. We thus see why these points were so persistently at- tacked by the British, and so obstinately defended by the French. We shall speak of them in order. - I. Fort Duquesne. — The First Expedition (1755) was commanded by Greneral Braddock. Washington, who acted as an aid-de-camp, warned him of the dangers of savage warfare, but his suggestions were received with t?^tempt. The column arrived within seven miles of the fort, marching along the Monongahela in regular array, drums beating and colors flying. Suddenly they came upon the Indians, who immediately concealed themselves in the thick underbrush on each side and at once opened fire. The terrible war whoop resounded on every hand. The British regulars huddled together, and, frightened, fired b}^ platoons, at random, into rocks and trees. The Virginia troops alone sprang into the forest and fought the savages in Indian style. Washington seemed every- where present. An Indian chief with his braves specially singled him out. Four balls passed through his clothes; two horses were shot under him, Braddock was mortally wounded and borne from the field. At last, when two thirds of the troops were killed or wounded, the regulars turned and fled. Washington covered their flight and saved the wreck of the army from pursuit. Second Expedition (1758). — General Forbes led the sec- ond expedition, Washington commanding the Virginia troops. The general lost so much time in building roads that in November he was fifty miles from the fort. A council of war decided to give up the attempt; but Washington, receiving news of the weakness of the French garrison, urged a forward movement. He him- 1758] FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 95 self led the advance guard, and by his vigilance dispelled all danger of Indian surprise. The French fired the fort and fled at his approach/ As the flag of Great Britain floated out over the ruined ramparts, this gateway of the West was named Pittsburg, in honor of William Pitt, prime minister of England, whose true friendship for the colonies was warmly appreciated in America. 2. Acadia and Louisburg. — 1. Acadia. — We have seen (p. 88) that Acadia was ceded to Great Britain after Queen Anne's War. But the British gained possession of only the peninsula now called Nova Scotia ; the part of Acadia now called New Brunswick was still held by the French, who thus attempted to cut down the extent of the new British province. Scarcely had the French and Indian War begun when an attack was made on the French part of Acadia. The forts at the head of the Bay of Fundy were quickly taken, and the entire region east of the Penobscot fell into the hands of the British.^ 2. Louisburg, — General Loudoun (low'don) collected an array at Halifax for an attack on Louisburg (1757). After spending all summer in drilling his troops, he gave up the attempt on learning that during his delay a powerful 1 Some of them went southward and helped to stir up the Cherokees to attack the Southern colonies. The Cherokee war lasted, with all the atrocities of Indian warfare, till a strong expedition had destroyed many of the Cherokee villages (1761). ^ This victory was followed by an act of heartless cruelty. The French Acadians of Nova Scotia were driven on board ships at the point of the bayonet, and were dis- tributed among the English colonies. Care was taken, however, not to break up families. The exiles suflTered many hardships, and often met insult and abuse. Long- fellow pathetically tells the story of the Acadians in his Evangeline. The Acadi- ans' houses and barns were burned, and after a time their fanns were given to British settlers invited there by the government. But though the British government was thus cruel, it acted only after great provocation. The Acadians were a simple-minded rural people, and if left to themselves might have become loyal British subjects after the treaty of Utrecht made their country a British possession. But French agents urged them to acts of hostility against their new rulers, and they stubbornly refused to take the oath of allegiance to their new king. The government felt that it was unsafe to risk any longer the danger of an Acadian rebellion. 96 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES [1758 French fleet had arrived for the defense of Louisburg. The next year Generals Amherst (am'erst) and Wolfe cap- tured the fortress after a severe bombardment (1758), and took possession of the entire island of Cape Breton.* 3. Crown Point and Ticonderoga. — 1. Battle of Lake George (1755). — About the time of Braddock's expedition, another was made against Crown Point. After many delays the French under Dieskau (des'kow) were met near the head of Lake George. General William Johnson was slightly wounded, and retired to his tent, whereupon General Lyman, with his provincial troops, regained the battle then nearly lost. This victory, following closely on the heels of Braddock's disaster, excited great joy. John- son was given a baronetcy and $25,000; Lyman, the real victor, received nothing. This battle ended the attempt to take Crown Point. Johnson built Fort William Henry near the battlefield, and when winter set in, dismissing the New England militia, went to his stone mansion on the Mohawk. Two years later, Montcalm', the new French general, sweeping down from Canada, captured^ and destroyed Fort William Henry, although General Webb was at Fort Edward, fourteen miles below, with 6000 men lying idle in camp. 2. Attack on Ticonderoga (1758). — On a calm Sunday morning, about four months before the fall of Fort Duquesne, a thousand boats full of British soldiers, with waving flags and strains of martial music, swept down Lake ' Abandon inio: and destroying Louislmi g, tlui English made Halifax, as it is to-day, their chief stronghold in that region. '-' This victory is noted for an illustrntion of savage treachery. The British garrison had been guaranteed a safe escort to Fort Kdward. But they had scarcely left the fort when the Indians fell upon them to iilunder and to slaughter. In vain did the French oflBccrs peril their lives to save their captives from the lawless tomahawk. " Kill me," cried Montcalm, in desperation, " but spare the English who are under my protec-- tion." The Indian fury, however, was implacable, and the march of the prisoners to Fort Edward became a flight for life. 1759] FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 97 George to attack Ticonderoga. General Ab'ercrombie, far away in the rear, ordered an assault before his artillery came up. A disastrous repulse was the result.' 3. Capture of hoth Forts (1759). — The next year, at the approach of General Amherst with a large army, the French evacuated both Ticonderoga and Crown Point. 4. Niagara. — 1. About the time of Braddock's expedition, General Shirley marched to capture Fort Niagara. But reaching Oswego and learning of Braddock's disastrous defeat, he was discouraged. He simply built a fort and came home. The next year that indefatigable French general, Montcalm, crossed the lake from Canada and captured this fort with its garrison and a large amount of public stores. 2. Nothing further was done toward the capture of Fort Niagara till the year 1759, when it was invested by an army under General Prideaux (prid'o), and was at last compelled to surrender. 5. Quebec (1759). — The same summer in which Forts Niagara, Crown Point, and Ticonderoga were occupied by the British, General Wolfe anchored with a largo fleet and 8000 soldiers in front of Quebec. Opposed to him was the vigilant French general, Montcalm, with a command equal to his own. The British cannon easily destroyed the lower city next the river, but the citadel, being on higher ground, was far out of their reach. The bank of the river, for miles a high craggy wall, bristled with cannon at every landing place. For months Wolfe lingered before the city, vainly seeking some feasible point of attack. Carefully 1 While the army was delaying after this failure, Colonel Bradstreet obtained per- mission to lead part of it against Fort Frontenac, on the present site of Kingston. Ascending the Mohawk and crossing Lake Ontario, he captured the fort and a large quantity of stores intended for Fort Duquesne. The loss disheartened the garrison of the latter place, frightened off their Indian allies, and did much to cause its evacuar tion on the approach of the English (pp. 94, 95). 98 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES [1759 reconnoitering the precipitous bluff above the city, his sharp eyes at length discovered a narrow path winding among the rocks to the top, and he determined to lead his army up this ascent. To distract the enemy's attention, he took his men several miles up the river. Thence drop- ping down silently^ by night with the ebb tide, they landed, clambered up the steep cliff, quickly dispersed the guard, and, at daybreak, stood arrayed in order of battle on the Plains of Abraham. Montcalm, aston- ished at the audac- ity of the attempt, could scarcely be- lieve it possible. When convinced of its truth, he at once made an impetuous attack. Wolfe's vet- erans held their fire until the French were close at hand, then poured upon them rapid, steady volleys. The enemy soon wavered. Gen- eral Wolfe, placing himself at the head. CLIMBING THE BLUFF ABOVE QUEBEC. I General Wolfe was a great admirer of the poet Gray. On the beautiful starllgUt evening of the attack, he remarked to those in the boat witli him, " I would rather bo the author of the Elegy in a Country Churchyard than to have the glory of beating the French to-morrow ! " and amid the rippling of the water and the dashing of the oars, he repeated : " The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power, And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave, Awaits alike the inevitable hour; The paths of glory lead but to the grave." 1759] FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 99 now ordered a bayonet charge. Already twice wounded, he still pushed forward. A third ball struck hiniw He was carried to the rear. " They run ! They run ! " exclaimed the officer on whom he leaned. " Who run ? " he faintly gasped. "The French," was the reply. "Now God be praised ; I die happy ! " murmured the expiring hero. Montcalm, too, was fatally wounded as he was vainly try- ing to rally the fugitives. On hearing that he could not live more than twelve hours, he said, " So much the better. ^ I shall not see the surrender of Quebec ! " Five days afterwards (September 18, 1759), the city and garrison capitulated. Close of the War in Canada. — The five places which were especially sought by the British were now all captured. Canada itself, worn out, impoverished, and almost in famine because of the long war, was ready for peace. Early in 1760, however, an attempt was made to recapture Quebec. But a powerful fleet arrived from England in time to raise the siege. A large army under General Amherst marched upon Montreal, and Canada soon submitted. The British flag now waved over the continent, from the Arctic Ocean to the Mississippi. Spain having joined France in the war against Great Britain, preparations were made to attack her important colonies. An army of British soldiers and American col- onists took Havana (1762), the capital of Cuba, after a terrible and costly siege of two months. Another British army captured Manila, the capital of the Philippines. Pe?ice was made at Paris in 1763. Spain ceded Florida to Great Britain in exchange for Havana, which, like Manila, was restored to the Spanish. France gave up to Great Britain all her territory east of the Mississippi, ex- cept New Orleans and two small islands south of New- B. HIST, U. S.— 7 100 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES [1764 fouudland; while to Spain she ceded New Orleans and all her territory west of the Mississippi. Great Britain's American territory was thus greatly in- creased. In the north she now marked out new boundaries for the province of Quebec. In the south she divided Florida into the two provinces of East and West Florida. Then, in order to confine the colonies along the seaboard strictly to the region east of the mountains, she proclaimed the vast interior of virgin forests and fertile prairie to be Indian country into which colonists might not intrude with settlements. Pontiac's War. — The French traders and missionaries had won the hearts of the Indians. When the more haughty British came to take possession of the western forts, great discontent was aroused. Pon'tiac, a chief of the Ottawas, formed a confederation of the tribes against the common foe. It was secretly agreed to fall upon all the British posts at once. Eight forts were thus surprised and captured.' Thousands of persons fled from their homes to avoid the scalping knife. At last, the Indians, disagreeing among themselves, deserted the alliance, and a treaty was signed. Pontiac, still revengeful, fled to the hunting grounds of the Illinois. He was killed (17G9), at Cahokia, by an Indian, for the bribe of a barrel of liquor. 1 Various stratagems were employed to accomplish their deniffiis. At Fort Miami, on the Maumee, a squaw lured forth the commander by imploring aid for au Indian woman dying outside the tort. Once without, he was at the merey of the ambushed savages. At Mackinaw, hundi-eds of Indians had gathered. Commencing a game at ball, one party drove tlu; other, as if by accident, toward the fort. The soldiers were attracted to watch the game. At length the ball was thrown over the pickets, and the Indians, jumping after it, began the terrible butchery. The commander. Major Henry, writing in his room, heard the war cry and the shrieks of the victims, and, rushing to his window, beheld the savage work of the tomahawk and the scalping knife. Amid untold perils, he him.self escaped. At Detroit, the plot was betrayed (by a squaw, according to some accoucts), and when the chiefs were admitted to their pro- posed council for " brightening the chain of friendshiit," they found themselves sur- rounded bj' an armed garrison. Pontiac and his warriors, however, were allowed to depart. Two days after, he began a siege which lasted several months. 102 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES Effects of the French and Indian War. — Duriug this war. the colonists spent $16,000,000, and Great Britain repaid only $5,000,000. The Americans lost 30,000 men, and suf- fered the untold horrors of Indian barbarity. The taxes sometimes equaled two thirds the income of the taxpayer, but were paid without resistance, because levied by the colonists themselves. Men of different colonies and diverse ideas fought shoulder to shoulder, and many sec- tional jealousies were allayed. They learned to think and act independently of the mother country, and thus came to know their strength. Democratic ideas had taken root. Legislative bodies had been called, troops raised, and sup- plies voted, not by Great Britain, but by themselves. They had become fond of liberty. They knew their rights and dared maintain them. When they voted money, they kept the purse in their own hands. The treatment of the British officers also helped to unite the colonists. They made sport of the awkward provin- cial soldiers. The best American officers were often thrust aside to make place for young British subalterns. But, in spite of sneers, Washington, Gates, Montgomery, Stark, Arnold, Morgan, Putnam, all received their training, and learTied how, when the time came, to fight even British regulars. COLLATERAL READINGS Opening of French and Indian War.— Parkman's Wolfe and Montcalm, vol. j pp. 128-136. 142-147, 151-161. Expulsion of Acadians.— Parkman'8 Wolfe and Montcalm, vol. i. pi). 266-284. Fall of Quebec.-l'arkEuaii's Wolfe and Montcalm, vol. ii. pp. 280-297. XV. COLONIAL SOCIETY Population. — There were now thirteen British colonies in North America, besides Quebec, Nova Scotia, and the COLONIAL SOCIETY 103 Floridas. They contained nearly 2,000,000 people. The largest city was Philadelphia, with about 25,000 inhab- itants. In every Xiolony most of the people were Protes- tants, but the intolerant religious spirit of early days had moderated. In all the colonies there were many white indented serv- ants — persons who were bound to service for some fixed period of time, during which they were little better than slaves. There were also negro slaves in every colony, those in the North being chiefly house servants. Government. — In each of the colonies the taxes were levied and the laws were made ' by a colonial assembly, members of which were elected by the people. The chief officer in each colony was the governor; and by the method in which the governor was chosen, the colonies may be divided into three classes: charter, royal, and proprietary. In Rhode Island and Connecticut the gov- ernors were elected by the people, as their charters pro- vided. New Hampshire, Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia were royal colonies, for their governors were appointed by the king. The heirs of Penn appointed the governor of Pennsyl- vania and Delaware, and the heir of Lord Baltimore appointed the governor of Maryland; these were pro- prietary colonies. Most of the offices were held by members of a few lead- ing families, and sometimes descended from father to son. The Southern colonies were divided into counties for local government. New England had instead the smaller 1 In accordance with the customs of the age, the laws were severe. There were twelve to seventeen oflfenses punishable by death. The affairs of private life were reg- ulated bylaw in a manner that would not now be endured. At Hartford, for example, the ringing of the watchman's bell in the morning was the signal for every one to rise; and in Massachusetts a scold was sometimes gagged and placed near her door, while for other minor offenses the offender was con fined in the stocks or the pillory. 104 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES division called the town, governed chiefly by the whole body of citizens assembled in " town meeting." ^ In the Middle colonies there were both counties and towns. These differences in the form of local government have persisted in large part to our own time. Travel. — The nsual mode of travel was on foot or horse- back, or by means of coasting sloops. The trip from New York to Philadelphia occupied throe days if the wind was fair. Un- til after the Revolu- tion, the mails were carried by post riders on horseback." Even a bridegroom, were he rich or poor, who sought a wife in a dis- tant inland town, rode there on horseback and brought his bride home on a pillion be- hind him. There were few wheeled vehicles until near the end of the colonial period, and even these few went out of use during the Revolution. The first stage began running between New York and Philadelphia in 1756, and required three days to make the • The town meeting was of inestimable value in cultivatiug democratie ideas. The young and old. rich and poor, here met on a perfect equality to decide local questions of govermnent. 2 A mail was started in 1672 between New York and Boston, by way of Hartford, the round trip being made monthly. In time a post-offlce system was effected by the coinbiniition of the colonies, but the only pcxt otHces were in a few of the largest cities. Benjamin Fi'anklin was one of the early postmasters general. Accompanied by his daughter Sally, he made a grand tour of tiic country in his chaise, perfecting and maturing the plan. It took five months to make the rounds which could now be made In as many days. i.N Hui;?ei;a(, K. COLONIAL HOCIETY 105 trip. WheD, ten years later, the time was reduced to two days, the conveyance, "a good wagon with seats on springs," was called a flying machine ! Manners and Customs. — The colonists had brought with them the ideas and tastes of the mother country, and these long survived in spite of the leveling tendencies and the free spirit of the New World. The catalogues of Harvard and Yale were long arranged according to the rank of the students' families. Distinctions of dress, to mark the higher and the lower ranks of society, as in Europe, were sedulously preserved throughout even demo- cratic New England. Calfskin shoes, up to the time of the Revolution, were the exclusive property of the gentry ; the servants wore coarse cowhide. Farmers, mechanics, laborers, and workingmen generally were clothed in red or green baize jackets, leather or striped ticking breeches, and a leather apron. The stiff, hard leather breeches were greased and blacked, and the heavy cowhide shoes, homemade, were set off by huge brass buckles. Hired women wore short gowns of green baize and petticoats of linsey-woolsey. The colonial gentleman, however, was gay in his morn- ing costume of silk or velvet dressing gown and cap, and his evening attire of blue, green, or purple flowered silk or handsomely embroidered velvet, enriched with gold or silver lace, buttons, and knee buckles. Wide lace ruffles fell over his hands ; his street cloak glittered with gold lace; and a gold-headed cane and a gold or silver snuff- box were indispensable signs of his social position. The Neiv England people were strict in morals. Gov- ernor Winthrop prohibited cards and gaming tables. A man was whipped for shooting fowl on Sunday. The names of drunkards were posted up in the alehouses, and lOG THE THIRTEEN COLONIES the keepers were forbidden to sell them liquor. Conduct was shaped by a literal interpretation of the Scriptures. The ministers had, at first, almost entire control. A church reproof was the heaviest punish- ment, and knotty- points in theology caused the bitterest discussions.' Only the gentil- ity, including min- isters and their wives, graduates of colleges, and those who held oflSce, had Mr. or Mrs. pre- fixed to their names. Others, above the rank of servant, were called Good- man or Goodwife. New England farm and village life presented a strange contrast to that with which we are familiar. The first house of the settler was built of logs, the chinks daubed with clay, and the roof thatched with long grass. In the later and better class I In the early Plymouth days, every house was opened on Sunday morning at the tap of the drum. The men and the women, the former armed to the teeth, assembled in front of the captain's house. Three abreast, they marched to the meetinghouse, where every man set down his musket within easy reach. The elders and deacons took their seats in front of the preacher's desk. The old men, the young men, the young women, and the older ones each had their separate place. The boys were kept in order bj' a constable. The services began with a long prayer, wliich was followed IN A NEW ENGLAND Mil. 1 I1N..H0L j&K. COLONIAL SOCIETY 107 of dwellings, the logs were hewn square so as to need no chinking ; or a frame was made of heavy oak timbers, well mortised and braced together, the sides were cov- ered with split oak clapboards, and the roof with split cedar shingles, fastened with large wrought-iron nails. The windows consisted of two small lead frames, set with a few tiny diamond-shaped panes of glass (or sometimes oiled paper),^ and hinged so as to open outward against the house. The doors were of oak plank, and were securely fastened at night by heavy wooden crossbars. In the center of the house, or externally in the poorer dwellings, rose a stone or brick chimDey, about twelve feet square at the base," affording a fireplace large enough for seats to be placed at the side, where the children could sit in the winter evening and look up at the stars. To " lay the fire " was no small matter : for the back, a huge " back log," perhaps four feet long, was rolled in ; then on the andirons was placed a " front log"; between these were piled enormous quantities of smaller wood.^ The kitchen and the " best room " were the chief apart- ments. In the kitchen the center of attraction was the by reading and expounding of the Scriptures, a psalm,— lined by one of the ruling elders,— and the sermon. Instrumental music was absolutely proscribed. The ser- mon was often three or four hours long, and at the end of each hour the sexton turned the hourglass which stood upon the desk. Woe to the yoimgster whose eyelids drooped in slumber! The constable, with his wand tipped on one extremity with the foot and on the other with the tail of a hare, brought the heavier end down on the nodding head. The careworn matron who was betrayed into a like offense was re- minded of her duty by a touch on the forehead with the softer end of the' wand. 1 As the building stood exactly facing the south, the sun "shone square in" at noon, and gave warning of the dinner hour. '•^ In the better houses a brick oven was built beside the chimney. This was heated by a fire of fine " kindlings," then swept clean, and the bread or beans set in to bake. The bricks retained the high temperature for a long time, and the famous " rye and Indian" bread was left in the oven all night. ' Frictitm matches had not been invented, and the fire was carefully kept over night in the ashes. If it unfortunately " went imt," it was relighted by sparks from the flint-and-steel, or by live coals brought from a neighbor's hearth. 108 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES great fireplace, with its swinging crane and pothooks to hold the iron pots for cooking.^ The room was rarely seven feet high, and from the bare joists overhead hung bunches of herbs, seed corn, and long strings of drying apples. The furniture was plain : a tall wooden clock ; a A COLONIAL KITCIiEN. high-backed wooden settle; a dresser set out with the cherished pewter dishes brought over from England; a spinning wheel ; and, perhaps, a loom for weaving. 1 Tho food was scrvfd Kcnerally ou wooden platters. It was plentiful and coarse. Fresh meat was rarely seen, except when yame was taken. The stajile diet con- sisted of salt pork or beef, salt flsh, vegetables, and " rye and Iudi::n" l)ri iid or " l)an- nocks" — tlat cakes of Indian meal or rye baked over the hot coals on the hearth. Tho fanner's breakfast often consisted mainly of "bean porridge" seasoned with savory lu-rbs. The minister, we are told, had white bread provided for him as a special favor. Ice in snrauier was unheard of, and tho careful housekeeper cooled her butter by hauglu;.' it in a pail down tho well. COLONIAL SOCIETY 109 The "best room" was used only on state occasions. Ordinarily it was carefully closed and locked to keep out the flies and preserve its sacred precincts from unlawful intruders/ The andirons were of brass that shone like gold. On the mantelshelf stood the high brass candle- sticks and the accompanying tray and snuffers. There were no rugs or carpets, but the floor was sanded and marked off by the housewife in many a quaint design. Against the walls hung the family paintings, fondly cherished as mementos not only of the departed, but also of the life beyond the seas. Here, too, was the library containing a few well read books — for books were scarce and costly, and reading was a serious matter, taken up for improvement and not for pastime." Among those few books were sure to be found the family Bible, Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, Young's Nig Jit Thoughts, Watts's Im- provement of the Mind, Fox's Book of Martyrs, Addison's Spectator, and Milton's Paradise Lost. The Middle Colonies. — The manners of the New York people were essentially Dutch. Many customs inaugurated during Dutch rule still remain in vogue. To the Dutch we owe our Christmas visit of Santa Claus, the custom of calling on New Year's Day, colored eggs at Easter, doughnuts, and crullers. 1 Not only the best room but also the front door and the front yard were considered too good for everyday use. The front yard was carefully fenced off from the portion of the premises to which ordinary people had access. The path through it to the front door was bordered by narrow beds of "posies," Including hoUyhocts, sunflowers, lilacs, piulis, sweet Williams, peonies, etc. ; but our great-grandmothers had no gera- niums or verbenas. -' As the tiny windows gave little light by day, so by night the homemade tallow can- dles, or the pine knot on the hearth, shed but a faiut or flickering illumination. In cold weather the fire was heaped high, —for wood was abundant, — but through numerous chinks and crevices the winter air poured in, so that, as an old writer reuiarks, " while one side of the inmate was toasting, the other was freezing." To make matters still worse, the smoke escaping into the room by no means favored study or any other em- ployment requiring the use of the eyes. 110 THE THIKTEi;.\ COLONIES The Dutch mansion was ])uilt usually of brick. Its gable end, receding in regular steps from the base of the roof to the summit, faced the street. The front door was decorated with a huge brass knocker, burnished daily. ■sr> IN Ni.w \Msi i.i;i)AM. While the Oonneciticut mistress si)un, wove, and stored her household linens in crowded chests, the Dutch matron scrubbed and scoured her floor and woodwork. The happy burghers breakfasted at dawn, dined at eleven, and retired at sunset. On dark evenings, as a guide for belated wan- derers, lightt'd candles were placed in the front windows. In Pennsylva7iia tliere were more Germans and Scotch- Irisli tliaii in any other colony, and also many people of several other nati<)nalities. But the English Quakers were the most influential in forming the character of the COLONIAL SOCIETY 111 colony. Philadelphia was famous for its flagged sidewalks, — then a rare luxury in any city, — for the regularity of its streets, and the elegance of its brick and stone residences. The trees bordering the carriageways and the gardens and orchards about the houses made it just such a "fair greene country town " as Peiin wished it to be. The Southern Colonists differed widely from the Northern in habits and style of living. In place of thickly settled towns and villages, they had large plantations, and each family was surrounded by a numerous household of serv- ants. The negro quarters formed a hamlet apart, with its gardens and poultry yards. An estate in those days was a little empire. The planter had among his slaves men of every trade. and they made upon the plantation most of the articles needed for common use. There were large sheds for curing tobacco, and mills for grinding corn and wheat. The tobacco was up and consigned directly to England. The heads of these great Southern families lived (^ NEGRO QUAETEKS. put like 112 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES lords, keeping their packs of choice hunting dogs and their stables of blooded horses. Their spacious mansions were sometimes built of im- ported brick. Within, the grand staircases, the mantels, and the wainscot reaching from floor to ceiling, were of solid mahogany, elaborately carved and paneled. The sideboards shone with gold and silver plate, and the tables were loaded with the luxuries of the Old World. All labor was done by slaves. Even the superintend- ence of the plantation and slaves was often committed to overseers, while the master dispensed a generous hospi- tality and occupied himself with social and political life. Education. — The Eastern Colonies. — Next to their re- ligion the Puritans prized education. When Boston was but six years old, money was appropriated to the seminary at Cambridge, which afterwards grew to be Harvard Col- lege (1636). For a time each family gave a peck of corn or a shilling in cash for its support. Common schools had already been provided, and soon (1647) every town was ordered to have a free school, and, if it contained over 100 families, a grammar school. In Connecticut, any town that did not keep a school for three months in the year was liable to a fine. In 1700 ten ministers brought together a number of books for the founding of Yale College. This was first established at Saybrook, but was soon removed to New Haven. The Middle Colonies had many schools scattered through the towns. In the English period some of the schools were kept by Dutch masters, who taught English as an accomplishment.' Delaware is said to have had the • As early as 1702 an act was passed for tbo " EiKourageiucnt of a Graratnar Free School in tbo City of New York." In 1795 George Clinton laid the. foundation of the comnion-school system of the State, and within three years nearly 60,000 children were receiving instruction. COLONIAL SOCIETY 113 OLD SWEDISH CHURCH, WILMINGTON, DEL. first girls' school in the colonies. The first school in Penn- sylvania was started the year Philadelphia was founded. The orrery in- vented by Dr. Eit- tenhonse (1768) is still preserved in the college at Princeton.^ No Eu- ropean institution had its equal. Churches were established by the various denomina- tions. The Swedes had a meetinghouse before the landing of Penn. Minis- ters' salaries were generally paid in produce — wheat, corn, beans, bacon, wood, etc. The Dutch domine of Albany on one occasion received 150 beaver skins. The Soutliern Colonies met with great difficulties in their efforts to establish schools. Virginia can boast of the second oldest college in the colonies, — William and Mary (1692), the only one aided by the English govern- ment, — yet her English governors bitterly opposed the progress of education. Governor Berkeley, of whose haughty spirit we have already heard, said, "I thank God there are no free schools nor printing presses here, and I hope we shall not have them these hundred years." '^ 1 Princeton College was the fourtli to be founded iu the colonies (1746) ; later came the University of Pennsylvania (1749), Columbia, originally King's College (1754), Brown University (1764), Dartmouth (1760), and Rutgers (1770). 2 The earliest newspaper in Virginia was published in 173G under government con- trol. The first printing press in the colonies was set up at Cambridge in 1639. Most of the books of that day were collections of sermons. The first permanent newspaper, the Boston Ncics Letter, was published in 1704. In 1750 there were only seven news- papers. The American Daily Advertiser, the first daily paper, was not issued till 1784. 114 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES Free schools were established in Maryland in 1696, and a free school in Charleston in 1712. Private schools were early established by the colonists in every neighborhood. A farm of 100 acres was set apart by law for each clergyman, and also a portion of the "best and first gathered corn " and tobacco. Fines were imposed for ab- sence from church. In Georgia, masters were compelled to send their slaves to church, under a penalty of a fine. XVI. COLONIAL INDUSTRIES In colonial times nearly all kinds of industry were car- ried on in ways very different from those of to-day. There was very little machinery in the country, and many tools that are now common were unknown ; therefore it took much more labor to produce a bushel of wheat, or a pair of shoes, or a pound of nails. The people also lacked very many things necessary to our comfort and conven- ience to-day, either because such articles had not yet been invented, or because they cost too much. As life was thus simplyi, there were fewer distinct occupations than now; instead of the thousands of different employ- ments now found in our country, there were then perhaps a hundred. In general, the Southern colonies were engaged in agri- culture, and the Northern colonies in agriculture and commerce. Much lumber was produced in several colonies, many ships were built, and many New Eng- landers were fishermen. Some manufacturing was carried on, mostly in the homes of the people, and with very sim- ple, handmade machineiy. A little iron was produced in nearly every colony, but only in Virginia and Maryland were the mines of much importance. COLONIAL INDUSTRIES 115 COLONIAL PLOW. Agriculture. — In farming, the chief occupation of the countiy, the colonists had the advantage of a fertile soil ; l)ut no pains wei-e then taken to preserve it by the use of fertilizers and by the rotation of crops. Land was plentiful and cheap, and when one field was worn out it was abandoned for a new one. The farming implements were few and clumsy com- pared with those used by farmers to-day. Grain, the crop of the Middle colonies, was sown by hand, reaped with sickles, and thrashed with flails or trodden out by horses and cattle. Grass was cut with scythes, and the hay was gathered up with hand rakes. The Southern colonies produced much tobacco (then the most valuable export of the country), rice, and indigo. Various crops were raised in all the colonies for the food of the people; but many common vegetables, such as potatoes, tomatoes, and asparagus, were not used by the first set- tlers.^ As at present, the supply of beef and pork was not only sufficient for home consumption, but also formed an important export. But both then and for many years thereafter meat was preserved by salting. Many sheep were raised for their wool, but, like the cattle, they were not generally of such good breeds as those common in our day. Besides wool, practically the only 1 Tlie potato was originally a native of tropical America; it was improved by culti- vation in Europe, and was brought over here in the eighteenth century by Scotch emi- grants who obtained it first from Ireland. Tomatoes, or, as they were called, "love apples," were thought to be poisonous, and were cultivated only in the flower garden for the beauty of the bright red fruit. Among other things not used in colonial times were rhubarb, sweet corn, cantaloupes, head lettuce, and all the newer and finer vaii- eties of pears, grapes, peaches, and the like. IIG THE THIRTEEN COLONIES fibers produced were flax, hemp, and silk. The cotton raised was quite insignificant in quantity. The produc- tion of raw silk in Georgia and the Carolinas was for many years encouraged by English laws, and l)ecaine of considerable importance. Afterwards, much silk was pro- duced in Connecticut and some other Northern colonies. Manufactures. — Great forests supplied plenty of fuel^ and enough lumber v/as sawed for the needs of the colonies, besides some for export. Much wood was burned merely for the ashes, from which were made potash and pearlash — exports of much value. Among the chief colonial manufactures were flour, leather and leather goods, hats, brick, and coarse cloths and clothing made mostly in the household.' The colonists had also made a beginning in the manu- facture of salt, paper, glass, and ironware ; but the main supply of these and a great many other manufactured articles came from abroad, chiefly from England. Commerce. — Colonial trade was largely in the hands of Englishmen; but in the North, and especially in New England, were many colonists who followed the sea for a livelihood. Dried and salted fish was the chief export of New England. This was carried by New Englanders, in their own ships, to the colonies farther south and to the West Indies, where perhaps molasses would be bough tt for the return voyage. A few New England cap- tains engaged in the slave trade; they carried rum to Africa, exchanged it for slaves, carried the slaves to the West Indies (or to the Southern colonies), sold them at a 1 In household manufacturing tho women played a very importaut part. Besides spinning and weaving the flax and wool, they dyed, knit, made .soap auen8. d. Franklin's I'lsn of Union. e. Five Objective Points. /. .Spain. II. Piaee. It. Pontiac's War. i. ElTccU. p^ EPOCH IIL-THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR Quarrels with the Mother Country. — For many years there had been a standing quarrel between the colonies and the British government concerning the Navigation Acts and other laws ^ restricting colonial trade and manu- facture. It was generally admitted that Parliament had power to make such laws, but they were considered op- pressive. As long as France, the bitter enemy of Great Britain, held the vast region north and west of the colo- nies, the British government did not think it wise to irri- tate the colonists too greatly. Therefore the Navigation Acts and other restrictive laws were not strictly enforced. The colonists became accustomed to evading them by trad- ing in foreign markets and by smuggling foreign goods into the colonies without paying the duty. Another standing quarrel was between the royal gov- ernors and the colonial assemblies. In theory, the Brit- ish sovereign was ruler of the colonies. The governors, as his agents, claimed supreme control in carrying out his orders. But the colonial assembly held the pursestrings and often refused to do the governor's bidding.^ 1 These acts and laws restricted colonial trade in certain commodities to British jaarkets and British or colonial ships, taxed the trade in other commodities, and either prohibited or greatly hampered manufacturing in the colonies. - The goveiDors were paid by grants made from time to time by the assemblies from taxes which the assemblies levied on the colonists. Thus, when the assembly was not pleased with the actions of the governor, it could grant him no money or but little Instead of this the governors often demanded a regular salary, but in vain. 119 120 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [1701 Causes of the Revolution. — The French and Indian War, by driving the French from Americ^a, rendered it less necessary for Great Britain to heed the wishes of the colo- nists. Accordingly, the British officers now began to en- force the odious Navigation Acts (1761).^ Moreover, the British Parliament, urged on by King George III., made a series of attempts to tax the colonists." The colonists re- sisted these attempts, at first by peaceable means and finally by force of arms, declaring that " taxation without representation is tyranny." The Stamp Act (1765) ordered that stamps should be put on all legal documents, newspapers, pamphlets, etc. The money paid for the stamps was a tax to support an arm}' for the defense of the colonies. But the colonists, who insisted that they could be rightfully taxed only by their own assemblies, were thoroughly aroused by this law.'' The houses of British officials were mobbed. Prominent Loyalists were hanged in effigy. Stamped paper was seized. The stamp agents were forced to resign. People 1 To enforce the Navigation Acts and put a stop to snjugfilinfr, tlio British officers were granted writs of ussistaiice, as they were caUed, or warrants autlioi iziug thoni to search for smuggled goods. Under tliis pretext, a petty customhouse official could enter any man's house or store at his pleasure. Thrived of their prope-ty and were obliged to flee from tlic country. - It also prepared addresses to the, king, to the poophi of (ireat Britain, and to the Canadians; and fixed tho date for the meeting of a second Congress the next year. :• Paul Revere caused two lights to be hung up in the steeple of Old North Church. They were seen in Charlestown; messengers set out, and he soon followed on his famous midnight ride. (Read Longfellow's poem.) 1775] LEXINGTON AND CONCORD 125 LEXINGTON, CONCORD, AND BUNKER HILL. British soldiers were called, reached Lexington, they found a company of minutemen gathering on the village green. The British commander shouted, " Disperse, you rebels ; lay down your arms ! " They hesitated. A skirmish ensued, which cost the lives of eight Americans — the first martyrs of the Revolution. The British sol- diers pushed on to Concord and de- stroyed the stores. But, alarmed by the gathering militia, they hastily retreated. It was none too soon. The whole region flew to arms. From behind trees, fences, buildings, and rocks, in front, flank, and rear, so galling a fire was poured that, but for reenforcements from Boston, none of the British would have reached the city all 76- As it was, they lost nearly 300 men. Effects. — The news that American blood had been shed flew like wildfire. Patriots came pouring in from all sides. Putnam,' without changing his working clothes, mounted his horse and rode all the way to Boston, over 100 miles. Soon, 20,000 men were building intrench- ments to shut up the British in the city. Provincial con- ' Israel Putnam, familiarly known as " Old Put," was born in Palcm, Mass., 1718. Many stories are told of his great courage and presence of mind. When a youth he once crawled into a cave to shoot a wolf which had long detied attack. At Fort Ed ward, when all others fled, he alone fought back the fire from a gunpowder magazine, protected by only a thin partition. In 1758 a party of Indians took him prisoner, bound him to a stake, and made ready to torture him with lire. The flames -were already scorching his limbs, and death seemed certain, when a French officer burst through the crowd and saved his life. 126 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [1775 gresses were formed in the various colonies. Committees of safety were appointed to call out the militia and pro- vide for any emergency. The power of the royal govern- ors was broken from Massachusetts to Georgia. Battle of Bunker Hill (June 17). — The patriot header, Gen- eral Ward, having learned that the British intended to for- tify Bunker Hill, sent Colonel Prescott to anticipate them. WATCHING THE BATTLE OF BUNKEK HILL. Prescott and his men, liowever, set to work on Breeds Hill instead. It was bright moonlight, and they were so near Boston that the sentinel's "All's well ! " was distinctly heard. At daylight, the British officers were startled to see the redoubt which had been constructed. Resolved to 1775] BUNKER HILL 127 drive the Americans from their position, General Howe crossed the river with 3000 men. The roofs of Boston were crowded with spectators, intently watching the troops as they slowly ascended the hill. When the red- coats were within ten rods, a blaze of light shot from the earthworks, and whole platoons of the British fell. The survivors, unable to endure the terrible slaughter, broke and fled. They were rallied under cover of the smoke of Charlestown, which Gage had set on fire. Again they were met by that deadly discharge, and again they fled. Been force ments being received, the third time they advanced. Only one volley smote them, and then the firing ceased. The American ammunition was exhausted. The British charged over the ramparts with fixed bayonets. The patriots gallantly resisted with clubbed muskets, but were soon driven from the field."^ The Effect of this first regular battle was that of a vic- tory for the Americans. Their untrained farmer soldiers, while ammunition lasted, had repulsed the British veter- ans. The determination to resist tyranny was intensified. Capture of Ticonderoga (May 10). — Ethan Allen" and 1 As General Warren was trying to rally the troops a British officer shot him. Warren had just received his appointment as major general, hut had crossed Charlestown Neck in the midst of flying balls, reached the redoubt, and offered him- self as a volunteer. Gage said that his fall was worth that of 500 ordinary rebels. 2 Ethan Allen was a native of Connecticut. Ho emigrated to Vermont, which waa then part of the colony of New York, though this claim was violently disputed by New Hampshire. The governor of New Hampshire issued so many grants of land there that the region became known as the Netv Hampshire Grants. New York tried to eject those who held land under these grants. Ethan Allen became conspicuous in the resistance that ensued. The " Green Mountain Boys " made him their colonel, and he kept a watchful eye on the oflQcers from New York who sought by form of law to dispossess the settlers of farms which had been bought and made valuable by their own labor. The Revolutionary War caused a lull in these hostilities, and the Green Mountain Boys turned their arms upon the common enemy. Allen subsequently aided Montgomery in his Canadian expedition (pp. 128, 129), but, in a foolhardy attempt upon Montreal, was taken prisoner and sent to England. After a long captivity he was released, and returned home. Generous and frank, a vigorous writer, loyal to his coun- try and his friends, he exerted a powerful influence on the early history of Vermont 128 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [1775 Benedict Arnold led a small company of volunteers to surprise the fortress of Ticonderoga. As Allen rushed in, a sentinel snap2)ed his gun at him and fled. Making his way to the commander's quarters, Allen, in a voice of thunder, ordered him to surrender. "By whose author- ity?" exclaimed the frightened officer. "In the name of the great Jehovah and the Continental Congress ! " shouted Allen. No resistance was attempted. Large stores of cannon and ammunition, then much needed by the troops at Boston, fell into the hands of the Americans, without the loss of a man. Crown Point soon after was as easily taken. (Map, p. 132.) The Second Continental Congress (May 10) met at Pliila- delphia in the midst of these stirring events. It voted to raise 20,000 men, and appointed General Washington commander in chief. A petition to King George III. was pi-ej^ared, which he refused to receive. He declared that the colonists were rebels, and to subdue them he hired troops from the Count of Hesse Cassel * and other petty German rulers. These acts destroyed all iiope of recon- ciliation. Condition of the Army. — When Washington arrived be- fore Boston, and took command under the famous Cam- bridge Elm (July 3), the army numbered but 14,000 men. Few of them were drilled; some were already weary of the hardships of war; all were badly clothed and poorly armed ; and there were less than nine rounds of ammuni- tion to each soldier. Washington made every exertion to relieve their wants, and meanwhile kept Gage penned up in Boston. Expedition against Canada. — Late in the summer Gen- eral Montgomery, leading an army by way of Lake 1 Hence these hired soldiers were called Hessians. 1775] EXPEDITION AGAINST CANADA 129 Champlain, captured St. Johns and Montreal, and then appeared before Quebec. Here he was joined by Colonel Arnold with a crowd of half -famished men, who had ascended the Kennebec and then struggled through the wilderness. Attack upon Quebec. — Their united force was less than 1000 effective men. Having besieged the city for three WASHINGTON TAKES COMMAND OF THE ARMY. Weeks, they decided to risk an assault. In the midst of a terrible snowstorm they led their forces in a gallant attack, but the attempt failed.^ The Americans blockaded 1 As Montgotnery's men rushed forward, a rude blockhouse appeared through the blinding snow. Charging upon it, Montgomery fell at the first fire, and his followers, disheartened, fled. Arnold, meanwhile, approached the opposite side of the city. While bravely fighting, he was severely wounded in the leg and borne to the rear. Morgan, his successor, pressed on the attack, but, unable either to retreat or to ad- vance against the tremendous odds, was forced to surrender. 130 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [1776 the city until spring, but at the approach of British reen- forcements they were glad to escape, leaving Canada in the hands of Grreat Britain. EVENTS OF 1776 Evacuation of Boston (March 17). — Washington, in order to compel the British to fight or run, sent a force to fortify Dorchester Heights by night. In the morning the British were once more astonished to see intrenchments which overlooked the city, and which were steadily made stronger. General Howe, who was then in command, remembering the lesson of Bunker Hill, set sail for Halifax with his armj", fleet, and many Loyalists. The next day Washing- ton entered Boston amid great rejoicing.' Attack on Fort Moultrie (June 28). — Early in the sum- mer a British fleet appeared off Charleston and opened fire on Fort Moultrie (moo'tri).- So fearful was the response from Moultrie's guns that the ships were disabled and forced to sail away. General Clinton, with some Bi-itish troops, tried to attack the fort in rear, but the fire of the American riflemen was too severe. This victory de- lighted the colonists, as it was their first encounter with the ships of the boasted " Mistress of the Seas." • ' For olcvon months the inhabitants had endunxl tho horrors of a aicpo and the insoh'nc'C of the enemy. Their houses had been pillaged, their shops rilled, and their churches profaned. Even the boys iu their sports had soriietiroes been wantonly annoyed by the British soldiers. A famous story is told of how the boys complained in vain to the British officers about their trampled snow hills and the spoiled ice of their skatinj^ pond, and at last took their story to General (Jage himself, who was so struck with their sturdy appeal that lie gave orders to stop the trouble. -Tlio fort of palmetto logs was so called, alter this action, in honor of Colonel Moultrie, its gallant defender. Early in the action the flagstafT was cut off by a ball. Sergeant .Jasper leaped over the breastwork, caught up the flair, tied it to a sponge- staff (an instrument for cleaning cannon), and hoisted it to its place. The next day Governor Rutledge offered him a lieutenant's commission. He refused it, saying, " I am not lit for the company of officers ; I am only a sergeaot." i776] DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 131 Declaration of Independence (July 4). — Ricliard Henry Lee. of Virginia, introduced in the Congress a resolution that " these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States." This was passed (July 2) after each of the colonies had declared in favor of the separation from Great Britain. The report of the com- INDEPENDENCE HALL, WHERE THE DECLARATION WAS ADOPTED. mittee^ appointed to draw up a Declaration of Independ- ence was adopted on July 4.^ The war up to this time 1 Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert R. Livingston composed this committee; but the Declaration was almost wholly from the pen of Jefferson. (Read the Declaration, in the appendix of this book.) - The building in which Congress met, and in which the Declaration was adopted, was the Pennsylvania Statehouse, now called Independence Hall. In its steeple was a bell on which, by a happy coincidence, was inscribed : "Proclaim liberty throughout all the land unto all the inhabitants thereof." This famous " Liberty Bell" played an important part in the celebration held after the first public reading of the Declaration (July 8). LoD|;i(U(l 132 1776] CAMPAIGN NEAR NEW YORK • 133 had been fought merely to secure a redress of grievances; l)ut from now on it was a war for the life of a new and in- dependent country/ Campaign near New York. — Greneral Howe, after evacu- ating Boston, went to Halifax, but soon set sail for New York. Thither also came Admiral Howe, his brother, with reenforcements from England, and Greneral Clinton from his defeat at Fort Moultrie. Washington, divining Howe's plans, now gathered his forces at New York to protect that city. His force was but one third as large as the British army. Battle of Long Island (August 27). — The British army landed on the southwest shore of Long Island. General Putnam held a fort at Brooklyn and defenses on a range of hills south of the city. The English attacked the de- fenses in front and rear, with superior numbers. About one fourth of the Americans engaged were lost.^ Had Howe attacked the fort at Brooklyn immediately, the Americans might have been destroyed. Fortunately, he delayed for the fleet to arrive. On the second night after the battle, in a dense fog, the Americans moved silently down to the shore and crossed the river to New York. In the morning, when the sun scattered the fog, Howe was chagrined to find that his prey had escaped. 1 The desire for independence, entertained at first by only a very few, spread steadily after the outbreak of hostilities. Many were persuaded by Thomas Paine's pamphlet Gomnion Sense, which appeared iu January, 1776, and of which more than 100,000 copies were printed. This set forth in a striking manner the reasons for regard- ing reconciliation as hopeless, and for declaring independence without delay. 2 Many of the captives were consigned to the prison ships kept near Brooklyn. Their hard lot made the fate of those who perished in battle to be envied. During the war, over 11,000 American prisoners died in these loathsome hulks. Their bodies were buried in the beach, whence, for years after, they were washed out from the sand by every tide. In 1808 the remains of these martyrs were interred near the navy yard, Brooklyn ; and in 1873 they were finally placed in a vault at Washington Park in the same city. 134 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [1776 Washington'' s Retreat. — The British, crossing to New York/ moved to attack Washington, who had taken post on Harlem Heights. Finding the American position too strong, Howe moved up the East River in order to gain the rear. Washington left a strong garrison in Fort Washington on the Hudson, and withdrew the rest of his army to White Plains. Here Howe came up and gained a small victory. Washington having retired farther north, Howe sent the Hessians to take Fort Washington, which they captured after a fierce resistance (November 16). Flight through New Jersey. — Washington had now re- tired into New Jersey in order to protect Philadelphia. Cornwallis, with 6000 men, hurried after him, and for three weeks pursued the flying Americans.^ At last, Washington reached the Delaware, secured all the boats, and crossed into Pennsylvania.^ Howe had to wait for the river to freeze over, meanwhile quartering his troops in the neighboring villages. Robert Morris.^ — The disastrous retreat into Pennsyl- vania was regarded by the British, and by many Ameri- cans, as the definite overthrow of the Revolution. Many ' Captain Nathan Hak? bad been sent by Washington as a spy into the British camps on Long Island, Ho passed the lines safely, but on his way back was recog- nized and arrested. Being taken to Howe's headquarters, he was tried and executed. No clergyman was allowed to visit liim ; oven a Bible was denied him ; and his fare- well letters to his mother and sist(>r were destroyed. Hia last words were, " I regret that I have but one lite to lose for my country ! " '^ Many of the patriots had no shoes, and left their bloodstained footprints on the frozen ground. Oftentimes the van of the pursuing army was in sight of the Ameri- can rearguard. 3 During this retreat Washington repeatedly sent orders to General Charles Lee, who was then at North Castle, to join him. Lee hesitated, and at last moved very slowly. One day, while quartered in a small tavern remote from his troops, he was taken prisoner by the English cavalry. His capture was considered a great disaster by many Americans, who thought he was the best officer in the army. * Robert Morris was a signer of the Declaration of Independence, though he had op- posed its adoption. He was one of the leading members of Congress, and worked hard as one of the committee of ways and means. In 1781 he became Snperinteudent of Finance. To supply the needs of hia country, he issued his personal notes to the amount 1776] ROBERT MORRIS 135 declared in favor of the enemy. Washington had appar- ently lost his campaign ; his hungry, naked, and unpaid army was slipping away; and the empty-handed government was in flight. Washington appealed to Robert Morris, of Phila- delphia, to save his army and save the cause; and Morris nobly saved them. He raised money on his own private credit to pay the soldiers, to clothe, equip, and supply them, and thus to keep them together. The Battle of Trenton.— Washington was thus en- abled to strike a daring blow. On Christmas night, in a storm of sleet, amid drifting ice that threatened every moment to crush the boats, he crossed the Delaware with 2400 picked men, fell upon the Hessians at Trenton, cap- tured 1000 prisoners, slew their leader,^ and safely escaped ROBERT MORKIS. of several million dollars, and paid them so promptly that they always stood at par; whereas the jrovernment notes depreciated to utter worthlessness. After Washington, we owe American independence perhaps most largely to the liuaucial skill and the sacri- fices of this remarkable man. Final victory would have been impossible without the funds which he supplied. The government, in its financial straits, was slow in repaying the money which he advanced. Like Washington, too, he had to bear the malicious attacks of personal enemies, to which his high public station exposed him. Some years after the war, his business affairs became involved through unfortunate invest- ments. He was reduced to poverty and was cast into a debtor's prison, where he languished four years. He died (1806) a few years after his release. 1 Colonel Rahl attended some Christmas festivities which were kept up all night long. A messenger came, at early dawn, with a note warning him of the approach of the American forces. But the colonel thrust it unopened into his pocket. Soon after daylight the roll of drums was heard, and the Americans were in pursuit of the surprised Hessians. B. HIST. u. s. — 9 136 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [1777 two killed back to camp, with the loss of only four men aud two frozen to death. Effects. — The fires of patriotism were kindled afresh by this brilliant feat. New recruits were received, and the troops, whose term of enlistment was expiring, were per- suaded to remain a few weeks more. Howe ordered Corn- wallis, who was just setting sail for England, to return and prepare for a winter's campaign. EVENTS OF 1777 Battle of Princeton (January 3). — Washington soon crossed the Delaware again, and took post at Trenton. Just before sunset Cornwallis came up. His first onset being repulsed, he de- cided to wait till morn- ing to " catch the fox." Washington's situation was now most critical. Before him was a pow- erful army; behind him a river full of floating ice. That night, leav- ing his camp fii'os burn- ing to deceive the enemy, he crept around the British, fell upon some troops near Princeton, routed them, took over 200 prisoners, and by rapid marches reached in safety the hilly region about Morristown. Cornwallis heard the firing and hurried to the rescue, but he was too late. The victory was won, and the victors were beyond pursuit. Nearly all of New Jersey was soon regained by the patriot forces. The victories of Trenton and Princeton WASUINIJTO.N'S IIEADQUAKTKKSS AT MOKUISTUWN. 1777] CAMPAIGN IN PENNSYLVANIA 137 woii for Washington universal praise, and he was declared to be the savior of his country. Campaign in Pennsylvania. — Howe, having spent the next summer at New York, where he was closely watched by Washington, finally took the field, and maneuvered to force the patriot army to a general fight. Finding the "American Fabius" too wary for him, he suddenly embarked the larger i^art of his force and set sail. Washington hurried south with his small army to protect Philadelphia. Battle of Brandy wine (September 11). — Howe's army hav- ing landed at the head of Chesapeake Bay, the Americans took position at Chads Ford, on the Brandywine. Here they were attacked in front, while Cornwallis stole around to the rear. Sullivan, Stirling, Lafayette,^ Wayne, and Count Pulaski in vain performed prodigies of valor. The patriots were defeated. After further maneuvering, Phil- adelphia was taken, and the British army went into quar- ters there and at Germantown. Battle of Germantown (October 4). — Washington would not let the enemies of his country rest in peace. Making a night march, at sunrise he fell upon their troops at Ger- mantown. At first the attack was successful, but a few British desperately defending a stone house caused delay. The cooperation of the different divisions was preveated 1 Marquis de Lafayette, at a banquet in honor of the brother of the British king in 1775, heard of the uprising in New England. He was won by the American arguments, and from that time joined his hopes and sympathies to the American cause. He was a nobleman of high rank, not yet twenty years of age; he had just married a woman whom he tenderly loved ; his prospects at home for honor and happiness were bright. Yet his zeal for America led him to sacrifice his ease and brilliant prospects at home. He purchased a vessel, fitted it out at his own expense, and, escaping the offlcers sent to detain him, crossed the ocean. Hastening to Philadelphia, he asked permission to servo as a volunteer without pay. A few days after, his acquaintance with Washington be- gan, and it soon ripened into a tender and intimate friendship. His valor won for him a commission as major general before he was twenty-one. 138 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [1777 by a dense fog, which also hid the confusion of the enemy, so that the Americans retreated when victory was near.' CHEW HOUSE — THK STONE HOUSE DEFENDED BY THE BRITISH AT GEHMANTOWN. Campaign in the North.— The main plan of the British government for this year was to conquer New York and cut off New England from the other colonies. An ex- pedition from Canada up Lake Champlaiii was to join hands at Albany with an expedition from New York up the Hudson, and with another smaller one from Lake Ontario by way of the Mohawk valley. BuTf/oijne^s Invasion. — In June Burgoyne' marched south from Canada with an army of British, Germans, and Indians. Forts Crown Point, Ticonderoga, and Edward, and the supplies at Whitehall, successively fell into his hands. General Schuyler's (skl'lerz) small force could I After these battles Howe tinned his attention to the torts on the Delaware, whieh prevented his briuging supplies up to Philadelphia. The gallant defenders were soon forced by a severe bombardment to evacuate the forts. Washington now retired to Val- ley Forge for winter quarters. 1777] CAMPAIGN IN THE NORTH 139 only obstruct his path through the wilderness by felling trees across the roads and breaking down bridges. The loss of so many strongholds caused general alarm. Lin- coln, with the Massachusetts troops, Arnold, noted for his headlong valor, and Morgan, with his famous riflemen, were sent to help check Burgoyne's advance, and militia- men were gathered from the neighboring States.' Burgoyne's Difficulties. — 1. Burgoyne was disappointed to hear no news of the expedition from New York. Howe knew about the plan, but the final order to him was mis- laid in England, so that he never received it. Instead of moving up the Hudson, Howe made his expedition against Philadelphia, and was greatly delayed by Washington. Some British troops left in New York at last started up the Hudson, but they were too late. 2. Colonel St. Leger, with the expedition that was to move down the Mohawk valley, got no farther than Fort Schuyler,"^ which he closely besieged. A small force of militia, under Herkimer, promptly advanced to its relief, but was ambuscaded by Tories and Indians at Oris'kany. There was fought one of the most desperate and mur- derous battles of the war (August 6).^ The Americans were victorious, but were too much crippled to pursue. Next, General Arnold was sent by General Schuyler to relieve the fort. Fearing that he could not reach it in time, he had recourse to stratagem. A half-witted Tory prisoner was promised his freedom if he would hurry on •The outrages of the Indians along Burgoyne's route — especially the killing and scalping of a heautiful young lady named Jane McCrea — led many to join the patriot army. Burgoyne tried to restrain the Indians, whereupon they deserted him and returned to their homes. 2 This fort was originally named Fort Stanwix ; it stood on the site of Rome, N. Y. 3 The same day, the garrison of Port Schuyler made a sortie and plundered St. Leger's camp. Keturning, the Americans hoisterl the captured British standards, and above them a crudely made American flag— the first flag with stars and stripes ever hoisted. This national emblem had been adopted by Congress only a few weeks before. 14U THE KEVOLUTIONARY WAR [177«r and tell St. Leger's troops that a large body of Americans was close at hand. The Tory, having cut holes in his clothes, ran breathless into the camp of the besiegers, showing the bullet-holes and describing his narrow escape from the enemy. When asked their number, he mysteri- ously j)ointed upward to the leaves on the trees. The Indians and British were so frightened that they fled ])recipitately, leaving their tents and artillery behind them ! H. Burgoyne sent a detachment under Colonel Baum to seize the supplies the Americans had collected at Ben- nington, Vt. There it was met by the militia under Gen- eral Stark.' His patriotism and bravery so inspired his raw troops that they defeated the Germau regulars and took over GOO prisoners (August 16). The Trco Battles ofSarator/a (September 19, October 7). — Disappointed in his expectation of supplies and reen- forcements from all these directions, Burgoyne moved southward and attacked the American army, now under General Gates," at Bemis Heights,"' near Sarato'ga. The strife did not cease until darkness closed over the battle- field. For two weeks afterwards both armies lay in cam}>, fortifying their positions, and each watching for an oppor- ' A famous anecdotG is told of General Stark at this battle — that ho oxclaimed, "There are the redcoats; we niuat beat them to-dajs or Molly Stark is a widow." Althouf^h his wife's uainc was Elizabeth, " Molly " may have been her nickname. -' Schuyler's retreat (p. 138) had caused such loss of conlldcneo in him that, by order of Congr<'8s, ho was superseded by Gates— just as ho was ready to reap the result of his well laid schemes. With noble-minded patriotism ho worked on as zealously as ever till Gates arrived, and then generously offered to assist him. •■' The American fortilieations at Bemis Heifrhts were thrown up under the direc- tion of Kosciusko (kos si us'ko). This general was a Polo of noble birth. While in Franco ho formed the acquaintance of Franklin, who recommended him to Washington. Ho camo to America and offered himself " to fight as a volunteer for American inde- pendence." Washington was greatly pleased with him, and made him his aid. He became a colonel in the engineer corps, and superintended the coij.stmction of the works at West Point. After the war, he returned home and led the Poles in their struggles for independence. 1777] CAMPAIGN IN THE NORTH 141 tunity to take the other at a disadvantage. Burgoyne's provisions were low, and in desperation he moved out to attack the Americans again. Arnold, who had been un- justly deprived of his command since the last battle, maddened by the sight of the conflict, rushed into the thickest of the. fight. Grates sent an officer to recall him, but he was already out of reach. He had no authority to fight, much less to direct ; but, dashing to the head of his old command, where he was received with cheers, he ordered a charge on the British line. Urging on the fight, leading every onset, delivering his orders in person where the bullets flew thickest, he forced the British' to their camp. Here the Hessians, dismayed by these terrific attacks, fired one volley and fled. Arnold, having forced an entrance, was wounded in the same leg as at Quebec (p. 129), and was borne from the field, but not until he had won a victory while Gates stayed idle in his tent. Effects of these Battles. — Burgoyne now fell back to Saratoga. Hemmed in on all sides, he saw no hope of escape. Provisions were nearly exhausted and water was scarce, as only the women dared go to the river for it. The American batteries commanded the British camp.- ' General Fraser was tho mind and soul of the British anny. General Morgan soon saw that this brave man alone stood between the Americans and victory. Calling some of his best men, ho said, "That gallant officer is General Fraser, I admire and honor him ; but he must die. Stand among those bushes and do your duty." In Ave minutes Fraser fell, mortally wounded. - While a council of war, held in Burgoyne's tent, was considering the question of surrender, an eighteen-pound cannon ball passed over the table around which the officers sat. Under such circumstances the decision was quickly made. Burgoyne was not the only British general who came to grief this year. General Prescott, the British commander in Rhode Island, had become very negligent in the fancied security aflfordcd by the British ships and the superior British force around him. Dexterously avoiding the enemy's vessels, Colonel Barton and about forty militia rowed ten miles in whaleboats, landed near Prescott's quarters, seized the as- tonished sentinel who guarded his door, and hurried off the half-dressed general. An exchange of prisoners being proposed, General Howe parted with Charles Lee ip. 134) in exchange for Prescott. 142 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [1777 After some negotiating, Burgoyne's entire army, nearly 6000 strong, laid down their arms. General Burgoyno surrendered his sword to General Gates, who promptly returned it. A shout of joy went up all over the land at the news of this victory. From the despair caused by the defeats of .,>;s^4ii-' BUKGOYNK'S SURRKNDER. . Brandywine and Germantown, the nation now rose to the highest pitch of confidence. In a few mouths Great Britain sent commissioners with liberal proposals, which, before the war began, would have been accepted; but that day was past.' ' Next, bribery was tried. Ainonj; tliose apiiroacbeil was General Tteed of Peiin- sylvauia. He was ottered 10,000 jriiiiicas and high honors if lie would exert his influ- ence to eff'ect a recoueiliation. " I am not worth purchasing," said the hont^st patriot, " but such as I am, the king of Great Britain is not rich enough to buy me." 1778] WINTER IN VALLEY FORGE 143 EVENTS OF 1778 Winter in Valley Forge (1777-78).— The winter passed by Washington's army in Valley Forge was the gloomiest period of the war. Besides borrowing what it could, the Congress had been obliged to issue much " Continental " paper money, and this was now so depreciated in value that an officer's pay would not keep him in clothes. Many, having spent their fortunes in the war, were com- pelled to resign in order to get a living. The men were encamped in cold, comfortless huts, with little food or clothing. Barefooted, they left on the frozen ground their tracks in blood. Few had blankets, and straw could not be obtained. Soldiers who were enfeebled by hunger and benumbed by cold slept on the bare earth. Sickness followed. With no change of clothing, no suitable food, and no medicines, death was the only relief. Amid this terrible suffering the fires of patriotism burned brightly. Washington felt that his cause was just, and inspired all around him with his sublime faith.^ The sol- diers were well drilled by Baron von Steuben, a veteran from the famous army of Frederick the Great of Prussia. The thorough discipline and European tactics which Steuben introduced among the ragged patriots made them thereafter more reliable and efficient in military operations. Aid from France. — In the spring came the good news 1 Besides all the perils of want and famine which he shared with his soldiers, Wash- ington was called upon to sutler from envy and calmnny. General Conway, a cunning, restless intriguer, formed a cabal of officers against Washington. Their plan was to wound his feelings so that he would resigu. In that event, Gates, whose reputation was very high, would succeed to the command. Pennsylvaiiia sent to Congress a remonstrance censuring Washington. The same was done by members from Massa- chusetts. Fortunately, the army and the best citizens knew the inspiration of the movement to be jealousy, and the attack recoiled on the heads of its instigators. 144 THK REVOLUTIONARY WAR [1778 that, through the efforts of Fraukliu,' France had acknowl- edged the independence of the United States, and that a fleet was on its way to help them in their struggle. In this action France was influenced by her old hatred of England, and by the great victory which the Americans had won over Burgoyne. Battle of Monmouth (June 28). — The British government, alarmed by the sending of the French fleet, ordered Clin- ton, the successor of General Howe, to evacuate Phila- delphia and concentrate his forces at New York. Wash- ington rapidly followed the British across New Jersey, and overtook them at Monmouth. General Lee,'^ who conducted the attack, ordered a retreat. The men, en- 1 Benlamin Franklin was bom in Boston, 1706; died in Pbila^lolphia, 1790. His fatlier was a soap and candle maker, with small means, and Benjamin, being the youngest boy among seventeen children, had little opportunity to gratify his desire for knowledge. By abstaining from meat he managed to buy a few books, which he diligently studied. At seventeen years of age he landed in Philadelphia with a silvei dollar and a shilling in copper. Ashe walked along the streets, eating the roll of bread whieli served for his breakfast, his future wife stood at her father's door and smiled at his awkward appearance. Utile dreaming of his brilliant future or of its interest to lier. He soon obtiiinod employment as a printer. After a time he established a newspaper, and in 1732 began t() publish Poor Richard's Almanac, which for twenty years was quit* as popular in Europe as in America. Its common-sense proverbs and useful hints are household words to this day. Retiring from V)usines8 with a line fortune, he devoted himself chiefly to science. Hisdi .coveries in electricity are world renowned. Frank- lin was an unflinching patriot and an able statesman. His Plan of Union (p. 93) antici- pated some of the features of our present government. While acting as agent for Pennsylvania in England (1757 and later) he defended the cause of liberty with groat zeal and aliility. Ho helped to draft the Declaration of Independence, and was one of its signers. Having been appointed ambassador to France, he first invested all his ready money, $15,000, in the Coutiner.tal loan — a practical proof of his patriotism, since its repayment was extremely ini] robable. His influence at the French court was unbounded. He was revered tor ).is wit, his genius, his dignity, and his charming con- versation. On his return he was elected president of Pennsylvania for three suc- cessive years. He gave the whole of his salary, $30,000, to benevolent objects. In Ms eighty-second year he was a member of the Constitutional Couvcntion. At his death 20,000 persons assembled to do honor to his memory. i* Charles Lee, for his conduct at Montuouthand for disrespectful letters to Washing- ton and to Congress, was suspended and later dismissed from the army. It is now believed that ho was a traitor to the patriot cause. During his captivity he had sup- plied Ilowe with a plan for the capture of Philadelphia — a fact not known for many years after this. His conduct at Monmouth was no doubt treasonable. 146 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [1778 tangled in a swamp, were becoming demoralized as they retired from the field, when Washington, riding up, bitterly rebuked Lee, rallied the men, and sent them back against the enemy. The fight lasted all that long, sultry day.' In the night Clinton stole away with his men to New York. Campaign in Rhode Island. — A combined attack on Newport was arranged to be made by the French fleet under D'Estaing (des taN') and the American army under General Sullivan. Soon after the French entered Narra- gansett Bay, the British fleet arrived off the harbor. D'Estaing went out to meet it. A storm came on, which so shattered both fleets that they were compelled to put back for repairs. The French then withdrew, and General Sullivan, being thus deserted, retreated just in time to escape Clinton, who came from New York with reenforce- ments. The Wyoming Massacre. — In July a band of Tories and Indians, under Butler, entered the beautiful Wyoming valley, on the Susquehanna.'- Most of the able-bodied men had gone to the war. The women and children fled to a fort for refuge. A handful of old men and boys sallied out to meet the invaders, but were quickly de- feated. All that night the Indians tortured their prison- 1 Durinfj; tlic day an urtillcryman named Hays was shot at his post. His wife, Mary, while brinf-'inj; water to lier husband troni a spring, saw biiu fall. Instantly droijping her pitcher, she hastened to the cannon, seized the rammer, and with i^reat skill aud courage performed her husband's duty. The soldiers gave her the nickname of Molly Pitcher. Congress voted her a sergeant's commission warrant with half-pay through life. 2The lands granted by the charters of Connecticut and Pennsylvania overlapped; hence for a long time the northern part of Pennsylvania was in disput^^ between these two colonies. The Wyoming valley was settled by Connecticut men, under the man- agement of a Connecticut company, only a few years before the outbreak of the- Revo- lution. The armed efforts of the Pennsylvania authorities to dispossess these settlers amounted almost to civil war, when the Revolution turned the attention of all in another direction. The dispute was finally settled by Congi-ess in favor of Pennsyl- vania. 1779] CAMPAIGN IN THE SOUTH 147 ers in every way that savage cruelty could devise. The next day the fort was surrendered on promise of safety, but Butler could not restrain his savage allies. By night the whole valley was ablaze with burning dwellings, while the people fled for their lives through the wilderness. COLLATERAL READING Effects of Saratoga. — Fiske's American Revolution, vol. ii. pp. 1-11. EVENTS OF 1779 Campaign in the South. — At the close of the autumn of 1778 the British transferred the war to Georgia, and the South became henceforth the principal seat of conflict. Savannah and Augusta were captured (p. 152), and soon the entire State was apparently conquered. The British governor being restored, Great Britain could once more boast of a royal province among the colonies. The British general, Prevost (preh vo'), next marched against Charles- ton and summoned the city to surrender ; but was driven off by Lincoln. French -American Attack on Savannah. — In September a French force under D'Estaing joined Lincoln in besieging Savannah. After a severe bombardment, an unsuccessful assault was made, in which many lives were lost. Count Pulaski^ was mortally wounded. The simple-hearted Sergeant Jasper died grasping the banner presented to his regiment at Fort Moultrie (p. 130). Campaign in the North. — Clinton at New York did little except to send out predatory parties. Norwalk, Fairfield, and New Haven, Conn., were either burned or plundered. 1 Count Pulaski was a Polish patriot who, having lost his father and brothers in the hopeless defense of his country, and being himself outlawed, came to flpht for the freedom of America. He commanded a famous independent corps called " Pulaski's Legion." He was buried in the Savannah River. 148 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [1779 Tryon, who commauded the Connecticut expedition/ boasted of his clemency in leaving a single house standing on the New England coast. The Capture of Stony Point (July 16), a British outpost on the Hudson, by General Wayne, was one of the most bril- liant exploits of the war. Stealing up in the darkness to the base of the hill on which the fort was situated, Wayne's men began tlie ascent, with unloaded muskets and fixed bayonets. They had nearly reached the sentinel before they were discovered. Fire was at once opened upon them. Wayne was wounded, but commanded his aids to carry him along with them at the head of the column. The rush of his men was irresistible. An instant more, and a deafening shout told that the fort was won. The British lost in killed, wounded, and prisoners several hundred men. General Sullivan''s Expedition. — The atrocities of the In- dians had kept the inhabitants of the upper Susquehanna and Mohawk valleys in continued terror. In the summer. General Sullivan led an expedition into the Iroquois coun- try. At Newtown, now Elmira, N. Y., he defeated the In- dians and their Tory allies in a fierce battle, and then marched to and fro through the beautiful region east of the Genesee, laying waste the Indians' cornfields, felling their orchards, and buining their houses. Clark^s Conquest of the West. — In 1 778 George Rogers Clark had succeeded, with only 200 men, in overawing the Indians and capturing the few British posts in a vast region in the wild west, north of the Ohio ; but the British I General Putnam was at Horse Neck, Connectiont, when Tryon was in the vicinity. Hastily fratlicring a few militia, he annoyed tlie British as lonR as po88il)le, anil then, compelled to flee liefore the enemy's overwlielminjL: force, his men hid themselves in the acyaeent swamp, while he, spurring his spirited horse over a precipice, descended a zigzag path where the British dragoons did not dare to follow. 1779] NAVAL EXPLOITS 149 CLARK'S CONQUEST OF THE NORTHWEST. recaptured Vincennes. In a vigorous campaign in 1779, Clark again took Vincennes, and established the author- ity of Virginia throughout this country as far west as the Mis- sissippi Eiver. Naval Exploits. — At the begin- ning of the war the colonists fit- ted out privateers to cruise along the New England coast; and Congress ordered the building of a few war ships. Swift sailing vessels, manned by bold seamen, soon infested every avenue of commerce. Within three years they captured hundreds of British ships. They even cruised around the British Isles, and, entering har- bors, seized and burned ships lying at English wharfs. Paul Jones is the most famous of these naval heroes. While cruising with a small squadron off the northeast coast of England, he met the Serapis and the Countess of Scarborough convoying a fleet of merchantmen. In the evening of September 23, 1779, he laid his own vessel, the Bonhomme Richard,^ alongside the Serajns, and a desperate struggle ensued. In the midst of the engage- ment he lashed the ships together.'- The crews then ' Jones had given this name (Goodman Ricliard) to hia ship in honor of Dr. Frank- lin, whose sayings as " Poor Ricliard " he warmly admired. - The ships had twice fallen foul of each other. The flr.st time, the Serapis hailed the Richard, asking if she had " struck her colors." " I have not yet begun to fight," was the reply of Jones. The Pallas, one of Jones's squadron, captured the Co^mtess of Scarborough, but his other ships gave no aid. 150 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [1780 fought hand to hand. The Richard was old and rotten. Water poured into the hold. Three times both vessels were on fire. About ten o'clock the Scnvpls surrendered. Jones transferred his crew from the fast-sinking vessel to the captured frigate, and sailed for Holland. t'Al'TURE OF TUE SERAPI6. EVENTS OF 1780 Campaign in the South. — Georgia having been subdued, the British under Clinton carried the war into South Carolina. Charleston was attacked by land and sea. General Lincoln, after enduring a siege of forty days and a terrible bombardment, was forced to surrender. Maraud- ing expeditions' soon overran the whole State. Clinton returned to New York, leaving Cornwallis in command. ' Ono of these, under the comtnaDd of the brutal Tarloton, at Waxhaw Creek (p. 152), engaged a body of Contineutal troops. The British jcave no quarter, and after the Americans surrendered, mercilessly maimed and butchered the larger portion of them. "Tarleton's quarter" became, henceforth, a proverb in the South. 1780] CAMPAIGN IN THE SOUTH 151 Battle of Camden (August 16). — General Gates, " the con- queror of Burgoyne," taking command of new troops in the South, marched to meet Cornwallis near Camden. Singularly, both generals had appointed the same time to make a night attack; so the advance guards of the two armies unexpectedly met in the woods. After some sharp skirmishing they waited for day. At dawn Cornwallis ordered a charge. The American militia, demoralized by the fighting in the night, fled at the first fire ; but De Kalb, with the Continental regulars, stood firm. At last he fell, pierced with eleven wounds. His brave comrades for a time fought desperately over his body, but were over- whelmed by numbers. The army was so scattered that it could not be collected. A few of the officers met Gates eighty miles in the rear with no soldiers. Partisan Corps. — The Carolinas contained many Tories, who helped to restore British rule. Many joined the British army; others organized companies that robbed and murdered their Whig neighbors. On the other hand, there were patriot bands which made their headquarters in swamps, and sallied out as occasion offered. These partisan corps kept the country in continual terror. Marion,^ Sumter,'-^ Pickens, and Henry Lee were noted patriot leaders. Their bauds were strong enough to cut off British detachments, and even to capture small garri- ' A British officer, sent to negotiate couceming an excbange of prisoners, dined with Marion. The dinner consisted of roasted potatoes, served on pieces of bark. Surprised at this meager diet, he made some inquiries. He foiuwi that this was the patriots' customary fare ; that the patriot geiierul received no pay; and that this "Bayard of the South," as Marion was called, had then neither blanket nor hat. This devotion to liberty so affected the officer that he resigned his commission. - At Hanging Kock (August 6) Sumter gained a victory over a strong body of British and Tories. He began the action with only two rounds of ammunition, but soon sup- plied himself from the fleeing Tories. Frequently, in these contests, a portion of the bands would go into a battle without guns, arming themselves with the muskets of their comrades as they fell. THE SOITHERN COLOMES DURING THE REVOLUTION 6CALE OF MtLES Greenwich 76 [1780 CAMPAIGN IN THE SOUTH 153 sons. The cruel treatment which the Whigs received from the British drove many to this partisan warfare. The issue of the contest in the South was mainly decided by these bold citizen soldiers. Kings Mountain (October 7). — At Kings Mountain, on the border of North and South Carolina, a large body of in- BATTLE OF KINGS MOUNTAIN. ^^"^ dependent riflemen, mainly from the frontier settlements on the u^Dper Tennessee River, attacked ¥" Ferguson, who had been sent out to rally the Tories of the neighborhood. Ferguson and about one third of his men were killed or severely wounded, and the remainder were taken prisoners. Continental Paper Money had now been issued by Con- gress to the amount of $200,000,000. At this time it was of so little value that $40 in bills was worth only $1 in specie. A pair of boots cost $600 in Continental cur- B. HIST. U. S. — 10 154 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [1780 rency. A soldier's pay for a month would hardly buy one meal for his family. To make the matter worse, the Brit- ish flooded the country with counterfeits which could not be told from the genuine. Many persons refused to take Continental money. The difficulty of procuring supplies and the sufferings of the soldiers may readily be imagined.^ The Pennsylvania regiments in camp at Morristowu, claiming that their time had expired, demanded their dis- charge. At last, 1300 strong, they set out (January 1 , 1781) for Philadelphia, to secure redress at the point of the bay- onet; but they halted at Princeton, and a committee of the Congress succeeded in satisfying and disbanding them. Arnold's Treason. — The British did* little in the North, and the condition of Washington's army prevented his making any movement. Meanwhile, the cause of liberty suffered a terrible blow from one who had been its gallant defender. General Arnold, whose bravery at Quebec and Saratoga had awakened universal admiration, was sta- tioned at Philadelphia while his wound was healing. He there married a Tory lady, and lived in great extrava- gance. In the exercise of his command, he made some enemies among the Whigs. Charges being preferred against him, he was convicted and sentenced to be rep- rimanded by the commander in chief. Washington per- formed the duty very gently; but Ai-nold resolved to gratify both his revenge and his love of money by betray- ing his country. Accordingly, he secured from Washing- ton the command of West Point, at that time the most important post in America. He then proposed to Clinton to surrender it to the British. The offer was accepted, and Major Andre (an'dra) was appointed to confer with 1 In this crisis Robert Morris sent 3,000,000 rations. Soldiers' relief associations, organized bj' tbe women of Pbiladelphia, made and sent clothing to the patriot army. 1780] ARNOLD'S TREASON 155 him. Andre ascended the Hudson on the British ship Vulture, and went ashore by night to meet the traitor (September 21). Morning dawned before they had com- pleted their plans. Meantime, the Vulture was fired on, and dropped down the river. Andre, now left within the American lines, started for New York by land. He had reached Tarrytown in safety, when, at a sudden turn in the TRIAL OF ANDRE. road, his horse's reins were seized, and three men ' sprang before him. They searched him, and, finding suspicious papers, carried him to the nearest American post. Arnold 1 The names of these men were Paulding, Van Wart, and Williams. Andi'6 offered them his horse, watch, purse, and any sum they might name, if they would release him. The patriots declared that they would not let him go for ten thousand guineas- Congress voted to each of them a silver medal and a pension for life. 156 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [1781 was notified in time to make his escape ; ' but West Point was saved to the Americans. Andre was tried and hanged as a spy. The British made every effort to save him, and his fate awakened universal sympathy. EVENTS OF 1 781 Campaign in the South. — General Greene, who was ap- pointed to succeed General Gates, found the American army in the South to consist of only 2000 half-clothed, half-starved men. A part of his force, under Morgan, was attacked (January 17) at Cowpens" by Tarleton. In the midst of the fight the Americans fell back to a better position. The Biitish mistook this for a retreat, and were rushing on in confusion, when the Americans faced about, poured in a deadly fire at close quarters, captured half Tarleton's force, and drove the rest in utter rout. Tarle- ton fled to Cornwallis, who set out in hot haste, eager to punish the victors and recapture the prisoners. Morgan started for Virginia, and crossed the Catawba just before Cornwallis appeared in sight. Night came on, and with il rain, which raised the river so high as to keep the impa- tient Cornwallis waiting three days. Greeners Retreat. — General Greene now joined Morgan, ' He received, as tlio reward of liis treachery, £6315, a colonelcy In the British army, and the contempt of everybody. He was thoroughly despised by the British officers, and often Insulted. A member of Parliament, about to address the House of Commons, happening, as he rose, to see Arnold in the gallery, said, pointing to the traitor, " Mr. Speaker, 1 will not speak while that man is in the house." When Talleyrand was about to come to America, he sought letters of introduction from Arnold, but received the reply, " I was born in America ; I lived there to the prime of my life ; but alas I I can call no man in America my friend." -' Colonel William A. Washington, in a personal combat in this battle, wounded Tarleton. Months afterward, the British officer, while conversing with Mrs. .Iodps. a witty American lady, sueeringly said, "That Colonel Washington is very Illiterate; I am told that he can not write his name." "Ah, Colonel," replied she, "you bear evidence that he can make his mark." 1781] CAMPAIGN IN THE SOUTH 157 and conducted the retreat. At the Yadkin, just as the Americans had reached the other side, it began to rain. When CornwaUis came up, the river was so swollen that he could not cross. However, he marched up the stream, effected a passage, and was soon in full pursuit again. Now came a race, on parallel roads, thirty miles a day, for the fords of the Dan. Greene I'eached them first, and Cornwallis gave up the chase.' Campaign Closed. — Having rested his men, Glreene again took the field, and at Gtuilford Court House (March 15) he hazarded a battle. His forces were skillfully drawn up in three lines, which the British charged in succession. The Americans at last retired, but the British had bought their victory so dearly that Cornwallis also retreated. Greene again pursuing, Cornwallis shut himself up in Wilmington. Thereupon, Greene turned into South Caro- lina, and, with the aid of Marion, Sumter, Lee, and Pickens, nearly delivered this State and Georgia from British rule.^ In the battle of Eutaw Speings (September 8) the British were so crippled that they retired toward Charles- ton. Cornwallis, declining to follow Greene into South Carolina, had already gone north into Virginia, and though a fierce partisan warfare still distracted the coun- try, this engagement closed the long contest in the South. 1 During this retreat, General Greene, after a hard day's ride in the rain, alighted at the door of Mrs. Elizabeth Steele, in Salisbury, N. C, announcing himself as " fatigued, hungry, cold, and penniless." Quickly providing the honored guest with a warm .supper before a cheerful fire, this patriotic woman brought forth two .small bags of specie, her earnings for years. "Take these," she said ; " you will want them, and I can do without them," "Never," says his biographer, "did relief come at a more needy moment; the hero resumed his dangerous journey that night with a lightened heart." 2 Congress voted the highest honors to General Greene, who, by his prudence, wisdom, and valor, had, with such insignificant forces and miserable equipments, achieved so much for the cause of liberty. He never gained a decided victory, yet his defeats had all the efl'ect of successes, and his very retreats strengthened the confidence of his men and weakened that of the enemy. 158 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [1781 Campaign in Virginia. — The traitor Arnold, now zealous in the British cause, led an expedition into Virginia. He conducted the war with great brutality, burning private as well as public property. Lafayette was sent to check him, but with his small force could accomplish little. Cornwallis, arriving from the south, now took Arnold's place, and continued this marauding tour. Clinton, how- ever, fearing Washington, who seemed to threaten New York, directed Cornwallis to keep near the seacoast so as to be ready to help him. Accordingly, Cornwallis, after having destroyed ten million dollars' worth of property, fortified himself at Yorktown. Siege of Yorktown. — It was arranged to attack Corn- wallis at this place ' by the combined American and French forces. Washington, by a feint on New York, kept Clinton in the dark regarding his plans until he was far on his way south with his swift-marching army.- Late in September the joint forces, 1G,000 strong,'^ took up their position before Yorktown. Batteries were opened ^ upon the city, and the British vessels in the harbor were fired by red-hot shot. Two redoubts were carried, one by the Americans, the other by the French. ' In finally dotcrniininK npon tliia Yorktown campaign, WasliiniErton \vas Inflnenced by Robert Morris, who ohstiuately refused to advance a dollar for any otbcr enterprise, and who issued $l,40(),(ioo of his notes to secure the capture of Cornwallis. 2 Clinton sent Arnold on a pillaging tour into Connecticut in order to force Wash- Inirton to return. He, however, was not to be diverted from his great enterprise, and left New England to take care of herself. New London was pillaged and burned, Arnold watching the fire from a church steeple. At Fort Griswold the commander and half the garrison were butchered. •' There were present about 5500 Continentals, 7000 French, and, in addition, about 3500 Virginia militia under Governor Nelson. A French fleet prevented Cornwallis from esccaping by sea. The most hearty good will prevailed among the besiegers. The patriots slept in the open air, that their allies might use their tents. * Governor Nelson commanded the battery that fired first upon the British. Com- wallis occupied the govemor'a fine stone mansion. The patriot pointed one of his heaviest guns toward his house, and ordered the gunner to tire upon it with vigor. The British could not make even the home of the noble Nelson a shield against him. 1781] SURRENDEE OF CORNWALLIS 159 Comwallis could see no hope of escape, and capitulated (October 19).i The Effect. — Both parties felt that this surrender virtu- ally ended the war. Joy pervaded every patriot heart.^ " PAST TWO O'CLOCK, AND CORNWALLIS IS TAKEN, 1 The scene of the siirreuder was imposing. The army was drawn up in two lines, extending over a uille— the Americans on one side with General Washington at the head, and the French on the other with Count Rochambeau (ro shoN bo'). The captive army, about 7000 men, marched slowly out between them. A prodigious crowd, anxious to see Coruwallis, had assembled; but the haughty general feigned illness, and sent his sword by a subordinate. Washington directed the sword to be delivered to General Lincoln, who, eighteen months before, had surrendered at Charleston. - The news reached Philadelphia at the dead of night. The people were awakened by the watchman's cry, " Past two o'clock, and Comwallis is taken." Lights flashed 160 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [1781 All the hardships of the past wei-e forgotten iii the thought that America was free. All hope of subduing America was now abandoned by the people of England, and they loudly demanded the removal of the ministers who still counseled war. The House of Commons voted that whoever advised the king to continue hostilities should be considered a public enemy. RESULTS OF THE WAR Difficulties of the Country and Army. — The situation of the United States at this time was perilous. Commerce had been destroyed by the war. The currency was worth- less paper money. War had been the main business of the country for years, and all trade, manufactures, and agriculture had been neglected. Villages had been burned, ships destroyed, and crops laid waste. The British held Charleston and Savannah about a year. New York about two years, and forts in the Northwest several years, after the surrender at Yorktown. Ceorge III. was obstinate, and war might be resumed. Yet the Amej-ican army was in almost open rebellion. The soldiers, afraid they should be disbanded and sent home without pay, petitioned Con- gress, but received no satisfaction. The treasury was empty. At this crisis, certain persons asked Washington to become king. The noble patriot spurned the proposal indignantly. A paper having been circulated advising violent measures, Washington addressed the officers, and besought them not to mar their fair record of patriotic service by any rash proceedings. His influence prevailed, tlironph the houses, and soon the streets vcerc tliioiifred witli crowds oofrer to learn tlie filad news. Some were speechless with dclifrht. Many wep<, ;md the old (h)or- keeper of Coufrrcss died <>f joy. Cou^ress met at ini early hour, and that afternoou marched in solcum procession to church to return thauk.s to Almighty God. 1783] PEACE 161 both with the army and with Congress, and the difficulty was amicably settled/ Peace. — A treaty was signed at Paris (September 3, 1783) acknowledging the independence of the United States. Soon afterwards the army was disbanded. Wash- ington bade his officers an affecting farewell, and retired to Mount Vernon, followed by the thanksgiving of a grate- ful people. The United States at first extended west only to the Mississippi, and south only to Florida. Spain, being allied with France, had been engaged in the war, and as a result regained Florida, which she had lost to the British twenty years before (p. 99). Hence our country was bounded west and south by Spanish territory, and north, as now, by British. The Western Lands. — One result of the Revolution was to throw open for settlement the lands west of the Appa- lachian Mountains. The restriction of the British gov- ernment in favor of the Indians (p. 100) being removed, settlers poured into what are now Kentucky and Tennes- see, and a little later iuto the lands northwest of the Ohio River. The lands between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River were claimed, under "sea to sea" charters, by the six States of Massachusetts, Con- necticut, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. New York also claimed a large area, under treaties with the Indians, and Virginia had strengthened her claim by actual conquest (p. 149). Certain regions were claimed by two or three different States. But the States which had no Western claims urged that this 1 The country was again indebted for the settlement of this difflculty to Kobert Morris, Superintendent of Finance, who secured money to pay the army by the issue of bis own personal notes. l62 1787] WEAKNESS OF THE GOVERNMENT 163 land had been wrested from Great Britain through the joint efforts of all; and finally, to prevent further dis- pute, the seven land-claiming States at different times ceded their claims, or most of them, to Congress/ For the government of the Territory Northwest of the Ohio River,^ Congress passed the famous Ordinance of 1787. Besides providing for the territorial offices, etc., this ordinance forbade slavery in the Territory, and said that the land should in time be divided into three or five States. Weakness of the Federal Government. — During the war, the thirteen States had agreed upon the Articles of Con- federation, but this plan of government conferred little power on Congress. It could recommend, but not en- force; it could only advise action, leaving the States to do practically as they pleased. There were no United States courts, and no President. Bitter jealousy existed among the several States, both with regard to one another and with regard to a general government. The popular desire was to let each State remain independent, and have no strong national authority. But as each State made its own laws about commerce, and even levied duties on goods brought from other States, the trade of the country was greatly crippled. A heavy debt had been incurred J New York was the first to present her western territory to the general government \1781). Virginia followed her example in 1784, donating the great Nortliwest Territory — a princely domain, which, if retained, would have made her the richest of the States ; Bhe reserved only 3,709,848 acres in Ohio, which she subsequently sold in small tracts to settlers. Massachusetts relinquished her claim iu 178.5, retaining a proprietary right over large tracts in New York. Connecticut in 1783 did similarly, and from the sale of her lanrls in Ohio (the " Western Reserve ") laid the foundation of her school fund. North Carolina (1789), South Carolina (1787), and Georgia (1802) gave up their claims to territory from which have been carved the State of Tennessee and the northern part of Mississippi and Alabama. ■i This territory embraced the present States of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconein, and part of Minnesota. 164 CONSTITUTION ADOPTED [1787 by the war. Congress had no monej', and could not levy- taxes. It asked the States to pay, but they were too jeal- ous of Congress to heed its requests. "We are," said Washington, " one nation to-day, and thirteen to-morrow." In Massachusetts large bodies of men assembled, refusing to pay their taxes and threatening to overturn the govern- ment. This insurrection, known as Shays's Rebellion, from the name of its leader, was put down by State militia under General Lincoln (1787). Constitution Adopted. — In these circumstances many of the best men of the land felt the need of a stronger na- tional government, A convention was called in Philadel- phia to revise the Articles of Confederation. Washington was chosen its president. After much deliberation,^ an entirely new Constitution was adopted by the convention (September 17, 1787), to go into effect Avhen it should be ratified by nine States." Within a year it was ratified by ' Many of tbe i)rovi8lon8 of tlio Constitution were the result of compromises. For instance, the delegates ft-om large i^tates iiisistetl tlmtflio number of representatives sent by each State to Congress should depend ou population, while the delegates from small States said that the nnujber should bo the same for all the States. This question was settled l)y a coniproniisc providing tliat the States shauld have equal representa- tion in the Senate, but representation according to population in the House of Repre- sentatives. By another coujproiiiise it was provided that in determining the popula- tion live slaves should count the same as three I'reo persons. Some of the Southern States wislied to import more slaves, for use on their plantations and also to increase their representation in Congress; and by another compromise it was iirovided that the slave trade should not be forbidden by Congress before the year 1808. 'i The new Constitution met with the most violent opposition. Tlio people were o l-l w Causes of American Kevolutiou the 1. Enforcement of Navigation Acts. 2. Ta.xation without Repre- < - fX'^^uA Acu. sentation. ( c. Mutiny Act. 3. Boston Massacre. 4. Boston Tea Party. 5. Climax reached. 3. First Ooatiaeiital Coagress (1774). 4. Events of 177.5. (1st Year of War.) .5. Events of 1776. (2d Year of War.) 6. Events of ITTT. (3d Year of War.) 7. Events of 177«. (4th Year of War.) 8. Events of 1770. (5th Y'ear of AVar.) 9. Events of 1780. (6th Year of War.) 10. Events of 1781. (7th Year of War.) > a. Description. I b. — ■ Efiict*. 11. 1. Battle of Lexington. 2. Battle of Bunker Hill. 3. Capture of Tiuonderoga. 4. Second Continental Congress. 5. Condition of Wasliinftton's Army. 6. Expedition against Canada. 1. Evacuation of Boston. 2. Attack on Fort Moultrie. 3. Declaration of Independence. ^ a. Battlf of Lniig Island. 4. Campaign near N. Y. 5. Robert Morris. 6. Battle of Trenton. 1. Battle of Princeton. 2. Campaign in Ponn. 3. Campaign in the North. b. Tlic E»CHp<'. c. \\air« lietrcnt. d. Fliglit tliriiugli NtH Jersey, a. Description. 6. Ettects. a. Battle of Brandywine. 6 Battle of Germantown. a. I'lan. h. BurRoyne's Invasion. c. Burgoyne's Difficulties. d. Battles of Saratoga. \ «; %';;^,>^"''- 1. Winter in Valley Forge. 2. Aid from France. 3. Battle of Monmouth. 4. Campaign in Rhode Island. 5. Wyoming Massacre. 1. Campaign in the South. < b. 2. Campaign in the J^^orth. 3. Naval Exploits. British Conquest of Georgia. British Attack on Charleston. l^eiich-Ain. Attack on Savonnnh. n. In Connecticut h. Capture of Stony Point. c. Sullivan's K.xpcdition. d. Clark's Conquest ol the West. a. Privateers. b. Paul Jones. a. Capture of Charleston. 6. Battle of Caniden. c. Partisan Warlare — Marion, Sumter, Pickens. Lee. etc. d. Kings Mountain. Results of the War. 1. Campaign in the South. 2. Continental Paper Money. 3. Arnold's Treason. 1. Campaign in the South. < C a. Ravages l>; 2. Campaign in Virginia. < b. siege of Yi 1. Difficulties of the Country and Army. 2. Peace (1783). 3. The Western Lands. 4. Weakness of the Federal Government. a. The Convention. I 6. Keileralists and Anti-FederallstB. 6. Constitution Adopted. J r. Ratification. *■ ' -■ First Presidential Electton. • Pl^ of Government. a. Battle of Cowpcns. b. Greene's Retreat. c. Campaign Closed. Ravages by Arnold and Comwallis. " Yorktown. EPOCH IV.-DEVELOPMENT OF THE STATES (TO 1861) WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION (1789-1797)1 Washington's Inauguration (April 30, 1789). — In the choice of the first President of the United States, all hearts turned instinctively to Washington. With deep regret he left his quiet home at Mount Vernon for the tumults of political life. His journey to New York was a continual ovation. Crowds of gayly dressed people bearing baskets and garlands of flowers, and hailing his appearance with • George Washington was bom February 22, 1732 ; died December 14, 1799. He was left fatlierless at eleven years of age, and his education was directed by his mother, a woman of strong character, who tindly, but fli-mly, exacted implicit obedience. Of her Washington learned his fiist lessons in self-command. Although he was bashful and hesitating In his speech, his language was clear and manly. Having compiled a code of morals and good manners for his own use, he rigidly observed all its quaint and formal rules. Before his thirteenth year he had copictl forms for all kinds of legal and mercantile papers. His manuscript schoolbooks. which still exist, are models of neatiiess and accuracy. His favorite amusements were of a military character; he made soldiers of his playmates, and officered all the mock parades. He was of gentle blood and high social rank. He inherited some wealth, and acquired more through marriage and fortunate investments. On his Potomac farms he had hundreds of slaves, and at his Mount Vernon home he was like the prince of a wide domain, free from dependence or restraint. He was fond of equipage and the appurtenances of high life, and although he always rode on horseback, his family had a " chariot and four," with "black postilions in scarlet and white livery." This generous style of living, added perhaps to his native reserve, exposed him to the charge of aristocratic feeling. AVhile at home he spent much of his. time in riding and hunting. He rose early, ate his breakfast of corn cake, hor.ey, and tea, and then rode about his estates; his evenings he passed with his family around the blazing hearth, retiring between nine and ten. He loved to linger at the table, cracking nuts and relating his adven- tures. In personal appearance, Washington was over six feet in height, robust, grace- ful, and perfectly erect. His manner was formal and dignified. He was more solid than brilliant, and had more judgment than genius. He had great dread of public life, 169 170 WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION [1789 shouts of joy, met him at every village. On the balcony of old Federal Hall, New York city, he took the oath to support the Constitution of the United States. WASHINGTON'S ENTRY INTO NEW YuUK. Difficulties beset the new government on every hand. The treasury was empty, and the United States had no credit. The Indians were hostile. Pirates from the Bar- bary States attacked our ships, and American citizens were and. cared little for books. A consistent Christian, ho was a vestryman and regular attendant of the Episcopal Church. A Ann advocate of free institutions, he still believed in a strong government and strictly enforced laws. As President ho care- fully weighed his decisions; but, his policy once settled, he pursued it with stendiuess and dignity, however great the opposition. As an oflicer ho was brave, enterprising, and cautious. His campaigns were rarely startling, but always judicious. He was capable of great endurance. Calm in defeat, sober in victory, commanding at all times, and irresistible when aroused, he exercised equal authority over himself and his army. His last illness was brief, and his closing hours were marked by his usual calmness iind dignity. Europe and America vied in tril)utes to his memory. Said Lord Brougham, " Until time shall bo no more, a test of the progress which our race has made in "wisdom and virtue will bo derived from the veneration paid to the immortal name of Washington." Washington left no children. It has been beautifully said, " Providence left him childless that his country might call him Father." i789] DOMESTIC AFFAIES 171 languishing in the dungeons of Algiers. Spain refused us the navigation of the Mississippi. Great Britain had not yet condescended to send a minister to our government, and had made no treaty of commerce with us. We shall see how wisely Washington and his cabinet' met these difficulties. Domestic Affairs. — Finances. — By the advice of Alexan- der Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury, Congress agreed to assume the debts contracted by the States during the Revolution, and to pay the national debt in full, excepting the Continental money. To provide funds, taxes were levied on imported goods and the distillation of spirits. A mint and a national bank were established at Phila- delphia. By these measures the credit of the United States was put upon a firm basis.^ The National Capital was at first New York. But at the second session of Congress the seat of government was transferred to Philadelphia. There it was to remain for ten years, and then (1800) be removed to the District of Columbia, a tract of land ten miles square ceded for this purpose by Maryland and Virginia.'' Here a city was laid out in the midst of a wilderness, containing only here and 1 Three executive departments were now established — the Department of Foreign Affairs (now the Department of State), the Department of the Treasury, and the De- partment of War. The heads of these departments (Thomas Jefferson, Alexander Hamilton, and General Henry Knox) were called Secretaries, and, with the Attorney- General (Edmund Randolph), formed the President's cabinet. 2 The credit of these plans belongs to Hamilton. Daniel Webster said of him, " He smote the rock of the national resources, and alnmdant streams of revenue burst forth. He touched the dead corpse of public credit, and it sprang upon its feet." 3 The site for the new capital was not far from the geographical center of the inhabited part of the country. Its location, however, was the result of a political "deal " or bargain. At first only a minority in Congress favored a site so far south, and at the same time Congress seemed likely to vote against the assumption of the State debts. To secure a majority for assumption and for the southern location of the capital, the friends of each measure combined in voting for both. The District of Co- 'lumbia now contains but 70 square miles. The 30 square miles lying south of the Poto- mac were receded to Virginia in 1846. B. HIST. U. 8.— 11 172 WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION [1793 there a small cottage. The " Father of his Country " laid the corner stone of the Capitol (1793), Whitneifs Cotton Gin (1792). — The cotton gin, a machine for rapidly separating cotton from the seed, was invented by Eli Whitney, of Massachusetts.^ This greatly reduced the cost of producing cotton, for it had formerly taken a day's work to clean a pound of the fiber. The cotton gin was destined to have a profound influence on our history. Whisky Rebellion {VJ^Vj. — Great opposition was made to the taxes levied by Congress. In western Pennsylvania the settlers agreed that they would pay no tax on whisky. The rioters were so numerous that 15,000 of the militia were ordered out to subdue them. Finding the govern- ment in earnest, the malcontents laid down their arms. Indian Wars. — The Indians of the Northwest attacked the growing settlements in the Ohio valley. Two armies sent against the Indians were defeated. At last General Wayne — " Mad An- thony " — was put in command. Lit- tle Turtle, the In- dian chief, now ad- vised peace, declar- ing that the Ameri- cans had "a leader who never slept." But his counsel was rejected, and a des- perate battle was fought on the Mau- mee (August 20, INDIAN WAB8 IN THE NOBTHWE8T TEREITORT. 1 Whitney was at this time staying near Savannah, in Georgia, at the home of the ■ ■widow of General Greene, the famous Revolutionary commander. 1794] FOEEIGN AFFAIRS 173 1794). Wayne routed the Indians, chased them a great distance, laid waste their towns for fifty miles, and com- pelled them to make a treaty^ giving up about 25,000 square miles of land north of the Ohio. New States. — Three new States were added to the orig- inal thirteen during this administration — ^Vermont, Ken- tucky, and Tennessee (p. 244). Foreign Affairs. — Great Britain. — Complaints were made in England that debts could not be collected in America as guaranteed by the treaty of 1783. On the other hand, the Americans complained that the British armies had carried off their negroes, that posts were still held on the frontier, and that our seamen were impressed into the British navy. Fi- nally, Chief Justice Jay was sent as en- voy extraordinary to Great Britain. He negotiated a new treaty (1794), which was ratified by the Senate after a violent opposition.^ Spain and Algiers. — The next year (1795), a treaty was made with Spain, securing to the United States the free navigation of the Mississippi, and fixing the boundary of Florida, which had previously 1 He told them, it is said, that if they ever violated this agreement he would rise from his grave to fight them. He was long remembered by the Western Indians. 2 This treaty enforced the payment of tbe English debts, but did not in turn forbid the impressment of American seamen. Its advocates were threatened with violence by angry mobs. Hamilton was stoned at a public meeting; insults were offered to the British minister; and Jay was burned in cflSgy, 174 WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION [1795 been in dispute. About the same time, a treaty was concluded with Algiers, by which our captives were ran- somed and the Mediterranean commerce was opened to American vessels. France. — The Americans warmly sympathized with France, and when war broke out between that country and Great Britain, Washington had great difficulty in preserving neutrality. He saw that the true American policy was to keep free from European alliances. Genet (zh' na'), the French minister, relying on the popular feel- ing, went so far as to fit out, in the ports of the United States, privateers to prey on British commerce. He also tried to arouse the people against the government. At length, at Washington's request. Genet was recalled. But, as we shall see, the difficulty did not end. Political Parties. — During the discussion of these vari- ous questions, two parties had arisen. Jefferson and Madison became leaders of the Democratic-Republican party, — generally called the Republican party, — which opposed the United States Bank, the British treaty, and the assumption of the State debts. Hamilton and Adams were leaders of the Federal party, which supported the administration. The two parties differed radically in their interpretation of the Constitution. The Republicans were " strict constructionists " ; that is, they denied to the United States governijient any power not clearly and ex- pressly granted by the Constitution. For instance, they said the government had no right to establish a bank, because the Constitution nowhere says anything about this matter. The Federalists, on the other hand, were "liberal constructionists"; that is, they interpreted the Constitution liberally, claiming that certain general clauses in the Constitution warranted the exercise of a vast num- 1796] t>OLITICAL PARTIES 175 ber of powers not definitely specified/ In 1793 Washing- ton and Adams had been reelected ; but Washington now declined to serve a third term, and issued his famous Farewell Address. So close was the contest between the rival parties that Adams, the Federal candidate, was elected President by a majority of only three electoral votes over Jefferson, the Republican nominee, who became Vice President.^ ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION (1797-1801)3 Domestic Affairs. — Allen and Sedition Laws. — Owing to the violent denunciations of the government by the friends and emissaries of France, the Alien and Sedition 1 The Federalists thought the general government should he made strong. The Re- publicans, fearing lest the republic should become a monarchy, and the President a king, opposed this idea and advocated State rights. In the election of 1796 the Re- publicans were accused of being friends of France, and the Federalists of being attached to Great Britain and its institutions. This Republican party was the fore- runner of the present Democratic party, and must not be confounded with the pres- ent Republican party. 2 Jefferson was elected Vice President because the Federal electors, who were in a majority, did not all write the same name in the second place on their ballots. There was no such thing as a party national convention for many years after this. In the election of 179G, however, it was generally understood who wei-e the presidential candidates ; but for the second place on the ticket each party scattered votes among severcal different men. 3 John Adams was born 173.5 ; died 182C. He was a member of the First and the Second Continental Cougi'css, and nominated Washington as commander in chief. Jefferson wrote the Declaration of Independence, but Adan^s secured its adoption in a three-days debate. He was a tireless worker, and had the reputation of having the clearest head and firmest heart of any man in Congress. As "President, he lost the reputation he had gained as Congressman. His enemies accused him of being a bad judge of men, of clinging to old unpopiilar notions, and of having little control over his temper. They also ridiculed his egotism, which they declared to be inordinate. He lived, however, to see the prejudice against his administration give place to a juster estimate of his great worth and exalted integrity. Adams and Jefferson were firm friends during the Revolution, but political strife alienated them. On their return to private life they became reconciled. They died on the same day— the fiftieth nimiversary of American independence. Tims, by the passing away of these two remarkable men, was made memorable the tth of July, 1826. 170 ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION [1798 Laws were passed. Under them, the President could expel from the country any foreigner whom he deemed injurious to the United States; and any one libeling Con- gress, the President, or the government, could be fined or imprisoned. The Sedition Law was a most unpopular measure, and its enforcement excited the bitterest feeling. Both it and the Alien Law were soon repealed. Foreign Affairs. — France. — French affairs early assumed a serious aspect. Our flag was insulted, our vessels were captured, and our envoys were refused audience by the French Directory unless a bribe should be paid.^ The news of this insult aroused the nation, and the friends of France were silenced. Orders were issued to raise an army, of which Washington was appointed commander in chief.^ Hostilities had commenced on the sea, when Napoleon became the First Consul of France, and the war was happily arrested. Political Parties. — An intense party feeling prevailed during the entire administration. The unpopularity of the Alien and Sedition Laws reduced the vote for Adams and Pinckney, the Federal candidates. The Republican candidates, Jefferson and Burr, received the majority of votes; but, as each had the same number, the election went to the House of Representatives, which chose Jeffer- son for President, thus leaving Burr to be Vice President. JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION (iSoi-iSoq)^ Purchase of Louisiana (1803). — The most important event of Jefferson's administration was the purchase of Louisiana ' Charles C. Pinckney, our minister to France, is reported to have replied to this insulting demand, " Millions for defense, but not one cent tor tribute." 2 It was at this time that the song Hail Columbia ■was ■written. 3 Thomas Jeflferson was born 1743; died 1826. '"Of all the public men who have fljjured in the United States," says Parton, "he was incomparably the best scholar Q ■ 4 s. 1 n '111 'ill ■^^^^K ^ fl 3 1 1 s 1 ^^^^■■iL 1 m^ 3^H ■ i 'il 11 ^^^^^^H^^^ iBmBm Bt^il* QUnu BI^^U Bl '"w 111 IL iiimiiiu|i,i l/lil n K. H II 1 ^^^^^^^^^^^^H .' V y 1 [ 9 1 178 JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION [1803 from Napoleon/ By treaty with France, over one million square miles of land and the full possession of the Missis- sippi were obtained for $15,000,000. Domestic Affairs. — The Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804- 180G). — On Jefferson's suggestion, Congress provided for an expedition to explore the country west of the Missis- sippi, about which very little was then known. Under the command of Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, officers in the army, this exploring party followed the Missouri River to its source, descended tbo Columbia to the Pacific Ocean, and returned l)y the same route. They were the first white men to cross this j^art of the continent, and their adventures were full of interest. and tbo most Viiriously accomplished man." Ho waH a liolil horseman, a skillful hunter, nn elcjiaut penman, a fl:io violinist, a brilliant talker, a Riiperior classical scholar, and was profleiciit in fhc modern language.;. On nccount of his talents he was styled " the Sago of Monticcllo." That immortal document, tbo Declaration of Inde- pendence, -was, -with the exception of a few Avords, entirely his work. He was an ardent supporter of the doctrine of State rights, and led the opposition to the Feder- alists. After bo became President, howcA-cr, be found the dilTiculty of aduiiuistering the government upon that theory. "Tbo executive authority had to be stretched until it cracked, to cover tbo purchase of Louisiana"; and bo became convinced on other occasions that the federal government, to use his own expression, nuist "show its teeth." Like Washington, ho was of aristocratic birt'.i, but bis principles were intensely democratic. lie hated ceremonies and titles ; even " Mr." was distasteful to him. These traits were tbo more remarkable in one of his superior birth and educa- tion, and peculiarly endeared him to tbo common people. lu bis administration there ■wore i.o more brilliaut levees or courtly ceremonies, as in tbo days of Washington and Adams. Instead of delivering an address to Congress in person, as his predecessors did, be establisbod tbo custom of sending a written message, fie always dressed in plain clothes. The unostentatious example thus set by tbo nation's President was wise in its eflfects. Soon the public debt was diminished, the treasury was replenished, and the army and navy were reduced. A man of such marked characternecossarily made bitter enemies, but Jeflferson commanded the respect of his opponents, while the admiration of his friends was unbounded. Tbo last seventeen years of his life were passed at Monticello, near his birthplaee. Uo died poor in money, but rich In honor. ' This vast territory had been ceded to France by Spain in ISOO. When news of the ces- sion reached New Orleans, tbo oflicer in charge stopped tlie free navigation of the Missis- sippi by Americans. Tlic citizens west of the Appalachians denuinded the forcible e<^izure of New Orleans, but .TefTerson instead sent to France an otter to buy the city and a small a This was the ill-starred frigate which struck her flag to the Leopard (p. 182). 1813] SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN 191 and boarded the vessel. A scene of carnage ensued. Law- rence, mortally wounded, was carried below. As he left the deck he exclaimed, " Don't give up the ship ! " But the feeble crew were soon overpowered and the colors hauled down. War with the Creeks. — Tecumseh had been (1811) among the Alabama Indians, and had aroused them to take up arms against the Americans, They accordingly formed a league (1813), and fell upon Fort Mimms, mas- sacring the garrison and the defenseless women and children. Volunteers flocked in from all sides to avenge this horrid deed. Under General Jackson,^ they drove the Indians from one place to another, until the latter took ref- uge on the HoESESHOE Bend, where they fortified themselves for the last battle (March 27, 1814). The soldiers, with fixed bayonets, scaled their breastwork. The Creeks fought with the energy of despair, but 600 of their number were killed, and those who escaped were glad to make peace on any terms. Ravages on the Atlantic Coast. — In the spring the Brit- ish began devastating the Southern coast.- Admiral Cock- burn (ko'burn), especially, disgraced the British navy by Pensacola ^^^ i:;A^ n y scale of miles G IJ^L 'S 5 S) ii5o i3o ?oo CREEK WAR. 1 An eveut occurred on Jackson's march which illustrates his iron will. For a long time his soldiers suflferccl extremely from famine, and at last they mutinied. General Jackson rode before the ranks. His left arm, shattered by a ball, was disabled, but in his right he held a musket. Sternly ordering the men back to their places, ho declared he would shoot the first who advanced. No one stirred, and soon all returned to their duty. 2 New England was spared because of a belief that the Northern States were un- friendly to the war, and would yet return to a political union with Great Britain. 192 MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION [1813 conduct worse than that of Cornwallis in the Revolution. Along the Vii'ginia and Carolina coast he burned bridges, farmhouses, and villages ; robbed the inhabitants of their crops, stock, and slaves ; plundered churches of their com- munion services ; and murdered the sick in their beds. 1814 Battle of Lundys Lane. — An American army, under Geiiei'al Brown, crossed the Niagara River once more, and for the last time invaded Canada. Fort Erie having been taken, General Winfield Scott, leading the advance, de- feated the British at Chip'pewa (July 5). A second en- gagement, one of the bloodiest battles of the war, was fought at Lundys Lane (July 25), within sound of Niagara Falls. The struggle lasted long after dark. The Ameri- cans, though gi'eatly outnumbered, won the victory,^ but soon after retreated. Battle of Lake Champlain (September 11). — All but 3000 of the troops at Plattsburg had gone to reonforcc General Brown. Learning this fact, Prevost (preh vo'), the commander of the British army in Canada, took 12,000 veteran soldiers who had served under Wellington, and marched against that place. As he advanced to the attack, tbe British fleet on Lake Champlain assailed the American squadron under Commodore Macdonough (-don'o).^ The attacking squadron was neai-ly annihilated. The little army in Plattsburg, by its vigorous defense, 1 A battery, located on a hei,t;ht, was tho key to the Biitisli position. Calling Colo- nel Miller to bis side, just after nifilitfall, (icneral Brown asked him if he could take it. " I'll try, sir," was the fearless reply. Heading his regiment, he steadily niiirchcd up the height and secured tho coveted position. Three times tlie British rallied for its re- capture, but as many times were hurled back. At midnight they retired from the Held. 2 One of his vessels he had built in twenty days, from trees growing on the bank of the lake. 1814] SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN 193 prevented Prevost from crossing the Sar'anac River. When he found that his ships were lost, he fled precipi- tately, leaving- his sick and wounded and large quantities of military stores. Ravages on the Atlantic Coast. — The British blockade extended this year to the North. Commerce was so com- pletely destroyed that the lamps in the lighthouses were extinguished as being of use only to the British. Several towns in Maine were captured. Stonington, Conn., was bombarded. Cockburn continued his depredations along the Chesapeake. General Ross marched to Washington (August 24) and burned the Capitol, the Congressional library, and other public buildings and records, with pri- vate dwellings and storehouses. He then sailed around by sea to attack Baltimore. The army, having disem- barked below the city (September 12), moved against it by land, while the fleet bombarded Fort McHenry from the river. The troops, however, met with a determined resistance; and, as the fleet had made no impression on the fort,' soon retired to their ships. Great excitement was produced by these events. Every seaport was fortified ; the militia were organized, and citi- zens of all ranks labored with their own hands to throw up defenses. Bitter reproaches were cast upon the ad- ministration because of its mode of conducting the war. Delegates from New England States met at Hartford (December 15) in a convention which demanded that the defense of each State should be intrusted to the State government, asked for various amendments to the national Constitution, and hinted at a possible dissolution of the Union. The meeting was branded with odium by friends 1 During tlie boruliardnient of Fort McHenry, Francis 8. Key, an American de- tained on board a Britisb vessel, wrote the song The Star-Spangled Banner. 194 MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION [1814 of the administration, and "a Hartford Convention Fed- eralist" was long a term of reproach. Peace, as afterwards appeared, was made even before the Hartford convention adjourned. The treaty was signed at the city of Ghent, in Europe, December 24. Before the news of it reached this country, however, a terrible and, as it proved, unnecessary battle had been fought in the South. Battle of New Orleans (January 8, 1815). — A powerful fleet and a force of 12,000 men, under General Pakenham, undertook the capture of New Orleans. General Jackson, anticipating this attempt, had thrown up intrenchments* several miles below the city. The British advanced steadily, in solid columns, heedless of the artillery fire which swept their ranks, until they came within range of the Kentucky and Tennessee riflemen, when they wavered. Their officers rallied them again and again. General Pakenham fell. Neither discipline nor bravery could prevail. General Lambert, who succeeded to the com- mand, drew off his men in the night, hopelessly defeated, after a loss of over 2000 ; while the American loss was but eight killed and thirteen wounded. Results of the War. — The treaty said nothing about impressment; but Great Britain impressed no more Americans. The national debt was $127,000,000, but within twenty years it was paid from the ordinary rev- enue. The United States had secured the respect of ' Jackson at first mado his intrenchmonts, in part, of cotton bales, but a red-hot cannon ball liavlnj; fired the cotton and scattered the burning fra{;;nients among the barrels of gunpowder, it was found necessary to remove tho cotton entirely. The only defense of the Americans during the battle was a bank of earth live feet high, and a ditch in front. The British were tried and disciplined troops, while very few of tho Americans had over seen fighting. Besides, the Brifisli were nearly double their number. But our men were accustomed to the use of the rifle, and were the best marksmen in the world. 1816] POLITICAL PARTIES 195 European nations/ since our navy had dared to meet, and often successfully, the greatest maritime power in the world. The impossibility of any foreign ruler gaining a permanent foothold on our territory was shown. The fruitless invasion of Canada by the militia, compared with the brave defense of their own territory by the same men, proved that our strength lay in defensive warfare. Extensive manufactories had been established to supply the place of the British goods cut off by the blockade. This branch of industry continued to thrive after peace, though for a time depressed by the quantity of British goods thrown on the market. The immediate evils of the war were apparent: trade ruined, commerce gone, no specie to be seen,^ and a general depression. Yet the wonderful resources of the country were shown by the rapidity with which it entered upon a new career of prosperity. New States. — The war also had another effect: during the hard times which followed it, many people left their old homes and moved to the West. The population of Ohio and Louisiana (p. 244) was nearly doubled. During six years (1816-21), a new State was added to the Union each year, beginning with Indiana (p. 245). Political Parties. — When Madison's term of ofi&ce ex- pired, the Federal party had been broken up by its opposition to the war. James Monroe, the presidential 1 The Alfferinee had taken advantage of the war witli Great Britain to renew their depredations on American commerce. Decatur (1815) was sent with a squadron to Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli. He obtained the liberation of the American prisoners, and full indemnity for alllosses, with pledges for the future. The United States was the first nation effectiially to resist the demands of the Barbary pirates lor tribute. 2 Instead of gold and silver money there were in circulation many bankuotes. The national bank chartered by Congress (p. 171) had ceased to exist in I8li,and the banks at this time were all State banks; that is, each was chartered by some State. But people often refused to accept the notes issued by banks in distant States ; for if a ?)auk should fail its notes would be worthless. To provide banknotes that would cir- culate everywhere freely. Congress now chartered, for twenty years, a second national bank at Philadelphia, with power to establish branches at other places. 196 MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION [1817 candidate of the Republican party, was elected by a large majority. Four years later he was reelected, almost unanimously. MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION (1817^1825)1 Monroe's administration is known as " the era of good feeling," After the ravages of war the attention of all was turned to the development of the internal resources of the country and to the building up of its industries. Domestic Affairs. — JS'ew States admitted — Mississippi, Illinois, Alabama, Maine, and Missouri (p. 245).^ The Missouri Compromise. — AVhen the admission of Missouri as a State was proposed, a violent discussion arose as to whether slavery should be allowed there.^ At 1 James Monroe was horn 1758 ; died 1831. As a soldier under General Washington, he distinguished himself in the battles of Brandywine, Genuantown, and Monmouth. Afterwards, he studied law, and entered politieal life. Having been sent by Washing- ton as minister to France, he showed such marked sympathy with that country as to displease the President and his cabinet, who were just concluding a treaty with Great Britain, and wished to preserve a strictly neutral policy ; lie was therefore recalled. Under Jefferson, who was his warm friend, he was again sent to France (1803), when he secured the purchase of Louisiana. lie is said always to have taken particular pride in this transaction. Soon aft<'r his inauguration as Pi-esidcnt, he visited all the military posts in the North and Fast, with a view^to a thorough acquaintance with the capabilities of the country in the event of future hostilities. Monroe was a man more prudent than brilliant, who acted with a single eye to the welfare of his countrj-. Jefferson said of him : " If hia soul were turned inside out, not a sjiot would be found on it." Like that loved friend, he died " pooi\ in money, but rich in honor" ; and like Mm also, he passed away on the anniversary of our country's independence. 2 The flag originally adopted by the Continental Congress had thirteen stare and thirteen stripes. After the admission of Vermont nnd Kentucky the number both of stars and of stripes was changed to fifteen. No further cliangc was n'lade for many years, and in the War of 1812 our armies fought under tlie flag of fifteen stare and fifteen stripes, though the number of States was then eighteen. In 1818, however, after the admission of several more new States, the number of stripes was i-estored to thir- teen, and since then the mimbcr of stars has been the same as the number of States. :' The question of slavery was already one of vast importance. At first slaves wer<^ owned In the Northern as well as the Southern States. But in the Nortl slave labor was unprofitable, and it had gradually died out; while in the South it was successful, and hence had steadily increased, ^\^lituey■s cotton gin had given a great impulse to cotton raising. Sugar and tobacco, as well as cotton, were cultivated by slaye labor. 1820] DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 197 this time the Union consisted of twenty-two States, of which half — those north of the Ohio River and Mason and Dixon's Line — were free, and the other half were slave- holding. For many years such a balance in number of States, and hence in the United States Senate, was care- fully maintained. Missouri was at last admitted (1821) as a slave State, under the Compromise of 1820,^ providing that slavery should be forever prohibited in all the rest of the Louisiana purchase north of the parallel 36° 30', the southern boundary of Missouri. At about the same time Maine was admitted as a free State. LAFAYETTE VISITS THE UNITED STATES. Lafayette's Visit to this country (1824-25) as " the na- tion's guest" was a joyous event. He traveled through I This Missouri Compiomlee was ably supported (but not proposed) by Henry Clay. 200 MONEOE'S ADMINISTRATION [1824 each of the twenty-four States, and was everywhere wel- comed with delight. His visit to the tomb of Washington was full of affectionate remembrance. He was carried home in a national vessel, the Branchjtvine, named in honor of the battle in which Lafayette first drew his sword in behalf of the colonies. Foreign Affairs. — Great Britain. — When Louisiana was purchased by us it had no definite boundary on the north. Now, by treaty with Great Britain (1818), the parallel of 49° north latitude was agre(?d upon as the boundary, as far as the Rocky Mountains (pp. 179, 198). Beyond those mountains, all lands claimed by either country were to be open temporarily to citizens of both nations. Florida. — By a treaty (1819) Spain ceded Florida to the United States, and the United States agreed to pay $5,000,000 worth of claims held by Americans against Spain. The same treaty also fixed our southwestern boundary as shown in the map on pages 198, 199. Thus Texas, which was in dispute, was given to Spain. Monroe Doctrine. — In a message to Congress, President Monroe advocated a principle since famous as the Monroe Doctrine.^ He declared that any attempt by a European nation to gam dominion in America would be considered by the United States as an unfriendly act. Political Parties. — Practically all the people now be- longed to the great Democratic-Republican party, which had twice so triumphantly elected Monroe. In the ab- 1 At this time the Soutli American colonies of Spain had jupt succeeded in establish- ing their independence, as the United States had before made itself independent of Great Britain. Their existence as nations had been roognized by tlio United States, but not by the governments of Europe. Spain asked several other countries in Europe to aid her in reconquering her lost colonies, and they seemed likely to do bo. But Great Britain was opposed to such action; she proposed that the United States join her in warning the European countries to let South America ah)ne. President Monroe preferred, however, to make hie protest separately and in general terms. 1824] POLITICAL PARTIES 201 sence of any party national convention, however, there were on election day (1824) four different candidates for President.^ No one obtaining a majority of the electoral votes,^ the election went to the House of Representatives, where John Quincy Adams, son of John Adams, was chosen. COLLATERAL READINGS Missouri Compromise. — Scliouler's History of the United States, vol. iii. pp. 155-167 (Northern view); Stephens's War Between the States, vol. ii. pp. 135-164 (Southern view). Monroe Doctrine.— Schouler's History of the United States, vol. iii. pp. 278, 281-293. liafayette's Visit.— Schouler, vol. iii. pp. 316-324. JOHN QUINCY ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION (1825-1829)3 Domestic Affairs. — This was a period of great national prosperity. The debt was diminishing at the rate of over $6,000,000 a year. A protective tariff, known as the "American System," was greatly increased (1828). It ' Beginning with this division of the party among ditTerent leaders, the people soon came to ho grouped under two different party names. The National Republicans — later known as Whigs — acknowledged the leadership of J. Q. Adams and Henry Clay; with them were joined many who had formerly heen Federalists. The main body of Republicans — henceforth known as Democrats — were led by Andi-ew Jackson, WiUiam H. Crawford, and John C. Calhoun (kal boon). The Whigs favored a 2^>'otectivc tariff, for the purpose of encouraging home manufactures, and a general system of intei'nal improvements by the federal government, such as improving the navigation of rivers, the building of canals and roads, and the dredging of harbors. Most of the Democrats, as strict constructionists, opposed these measures. For a time after 1835 the Democrats were also called " Locofocos," because, at a meeting in Tammany Hall, Now York (October 29), the lights, having been put out, were relighted with locofoco matches, which several persons, expecting such an event, had carried in their pockets. Matches had been invented only a short time before; hence their use in this case attracted much attention. 2 Jackson received 99, Adams 84, Crawford 41, and Clay 37. 3 John Quincy Adams was born iu Massachusetts, 1767 ; died 1848. He was a man of learning, blameless reputation, and unquestioned patriotism, yet as President he was hardly more successful than his father. This was doubtless owing greatly to the fierce opposition which assailed him from the friends of disappointed candidates, who at once combined to weaken his measures and prevent his reelection. Their candidate was Andrew Jackson, a man whose dashing boldness, energy, and decision attracted the common people and hid the more quiet virtues of Adams. To add to Ms perplexities, a majority of the House and nearly one half of the Senate favored 202 JOHN QUINCY ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION [1825 TUK ERIE CANAL. was popular in the East, but distasteful to the South.' During this term the Erie Canal was opened (1825), and the first railroad in the United States was completed (1826). The Erie Canal was built by the State of New York, under the leadership of Gov- ernor De Witt Clinton. It greatly- lessened the cost of transporting goods to and from the West, and helped to make New York city the largest and most prosperous seaport on the Atlantic coast. The buildingof canalsand railroads marks a great change in our industrial history. At this time, and for many years thereafter, tlio usual moans of travel on land was by stagecoach, and freight was carried mostly by water. The cost of carrying freight long distances on land, over ordinary roads, was often more than the freight was worth. the .Taokfion party, the Vice President, John C. Calhoun, bein^ most aetive In the op- position. To stem such a tide was a hopeless effort. Two years after the expiration of his term as President, Adams was returned to Congress, where he remained until his death, over sixteen years afterwards. Ten years of i)ul)lie service were tluis ren- dered after ho had passed his "threescore years and ten," and so great was his ability in debate at this cxtrenjo ape, that he was called "the old man eloquent." Lik(! his fathei, he was a wonderful worker, and his mind was a storehouse of facts. Ho lived economically, .and left a large estate. Ho was the congressional advocate of anti- slavery principles, and a bitter ojjponcnt of secret societies. His fame increased with Ids iige, and he died a trusted and revered champion of popular rights. He was seized with apoplexy while occupying his eeat in Congreee, after which he lingered two days in partial unconsciousness. 1 The Poutliern States, devoted to agricultural pursuits, desired to have foreign goods brought to them as cheaply as possible ; while the Eastern Btates, engaged in manufactures, wished to have foreign eomiictitiou shut oflf by heavy duties. 1828] DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 203 Canals and railroads, as they steadily increased, not only made farming profitable in vast areas remote from navi- gable waters, but also gave a great impetus to manufac- tures for the growing home markets. Political Parties. — Adams was a candidate for reelection, but Andrew Jackson — the hero of New Orleans, and STAGECOACH. the Democratic nominee — was chosen. The principle' of a protective tariff was thus rejected by the people. JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION (1829-1837)1 President Jackson began his administration with an inflexible honesty that delighted all, and with a sturdiness of purpose that amazed both friends and foes. In the 1 Andrew Jackson was born 17G7 ; died 1845. He was of Scotch-Irish descent. His father died before Andrew was born, leaving his mother very poor. As a boy Andrew was brave and impetuous, passionately fond of athletic sports, but not at all devoted to books. His life was crowded with excitement and adventure. At thirtceu, being captured by the British, he was ordered to clean the commander's boots. Showing the true American spirit in his refusal, he was sent to prison with a wound on head and arm. Here he contracted the smallpox, which kept him ill several months. His 204 1832] DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 206 government offices he surrounded himself at once with his political friends, thus establishing the principle of " rotation in office." ^ Domestic Affairs. — Nullification (1832). — South Caro- lina passed a Nullification ordinance declaring the tariff law "null and void," and that the State would secede from the Union if force should be employed to collect any revenue at Charleston. President Jackson acted with his accustomed promptness. He issued a proclamation announcing his determi- nation to execute the laws, and ordered troops, under General Scott, to proceed to Charleston.^ john c. calhodn. mother effected his exchange, but soon afterwards she died of ship fever while caring for the imprisoned Americans at Charleston. Left destitute, young Jackson tried various employments, but tinally settled down to the law, removed to Tennessee, and in 1796 was elected to Congress. His imperious temper and inflexible will supplied hiui with frequent quarrels. He first distinguished himself as a military officer in the war against the Creek Indians. His dashing successes in the War of 1812 completed his reputation and ultimately won him the presidency. His nomination was at first received in many States with ridicule, as, whatever might be his military prowess, neither his temi)er nor his ability recommended him as a statesman. His reelection, however, proved his popular success as President. His chief intellectual gifts were energy and intuitive judgment. He was thoroughly honest, intensely warm-hearted, and had an instinctive horror of debt. His moral courage was as great as his physical, and his patriotism was undoubted. He died at the " Hermitage," his home near Nash- ville, Tennessee. ' "During the first year of his administration there were nearly seven hundred removals from office, not including subordinate clerks. During the forty years pre- ceding there had been but seventy-four." 2 John C. Calhoun and Robert Y. Hayne were the prominent advocates of the doctrine of " State rights," declaring that a State could set aside an act of Congress 206 JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION [1833 In the meantime Henry Clay's celebrated Compromise Bill was adopted by the Senate. This measure, offering a gradual reduction of the tariff, was accepted by both sides, and quiet was restored.' Bank of the United States. — During his first term Jack- son vetoed a bill renewing the charter of the United States Bank. After his reelection"" by an overwhelming ma- joi-ity, considering his policy sustained by the people, he ordered (1833) the public money to be removed from its vaults. Jackson's measure excited violent clamor, but he was sustained by the Democratic majority in the House of Representatives. The money was gradually withdrawn from the United States Bank to pay the expenses of the government, and no new deposits were made there. Speculation. — When the public money, which was with- held from the Bank of the United States, was deposited in the local State banks, it became easy to borrow money, which it docmcd unronstitiitional. During this Rtrujrplc oocnrrcd the memorable (lebato in tlie Senate lictween Webster and Hayne, in which Webster, ojjiiosinff soces- Kion, pronounced tliose words familiar to every 8chool))oy, " Liberty and Union, now and forever, one and inseparable." Calhoun's public life extended over forty years. Ho was one of the most celebrated statesuHjn of his time. As a speaker he was noted for forcible loKic, clear demonstration, and earnest manner. IIo rejected ornament, and rarely used illustration. Webster, his political antagonist, said of him : " lie had the indisputable basis of all high character— unspotted integrity and honor unim- peached. Nothing groveling, low, or meanly selfish came near his head or his heart." ' Alexander II. 8tci)hens says : "To do this, Clay hiul to break from his old political friends, while ho was offering up the darling system of his heart on the altar of his country. No (mo can deny that ho was a p.itriot, every inch of him. When ho was Importuned not to take the course ho did, and assured that it would lessen his chances for the presidency, ho nobly replied, 'I would rather be right than be President' — a sentiment worthy to be the motto of every yonng patriot in our land." 'i The election of 1832 is notable as being the first in which candidates for Presi- dent and Vice President were nominated by national conventions of the respective parties. Before this time nominations had l)een nuide sometimes by State legislatures, sometimes by a "congressional caucus"— composed of the crmgressmen belonging to the party. The first nation.al convention was held by the Antimasonic party, which cut a prominent figure in New York and the ntiighboriug States for several years. It opposed the election of any freemason to public office, claiming that masons considered duty to the order superior to duty to their country. 1833] DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 207 for the banks now issued vast amounts of their own bank- notes. Speculation extended to every branch of trade, but especially to Western lands. New cities were laid out in the wilderness. Fabulous prices were charged for building lots which existed only on paper. Scarcely a man could be found who had not his pet project for realizing a fortune. The bitter fruits of these hothouse schemes were gathered in Van Buren's time. Indian Troubles. — Owing to the pressure of white set- tlers in the middle West, one Indian tribe after another had been persuaded or compelled to sell its lauds and move west of the Mississippi. This policy of dealing with all the Indians east of the river was advised by Pres- ident Monroe, and was followed hj Adams and Jackson. Most of them were removed peaceably, or with only threats of war ; but in two cases the removal caused bloodshed. (1) The Black Hawk War broke out in the region near the. Mississippi, in northern Illinois and what is now Wis- consin (1832). The Sacs and Foxes had some time before sold their lands to the United States, but when the settlers came to take possession, the Indians refused to leave. After some skirmishes they were driven off, and their leader, the famous Black Hawk, was captured. (2) The Florida War (1835) with the Sem'inoles grew out of an attempt to remove them to their new homes west of the Mississippi, in accordance with a treaty.' After several battles the Indians retreated to the Everglades of southern ' Osceo'la, the rbief of the Seminoles, was so defiant that General Thompson, the government agent, put hira in irons. Dissemljling liis wratli, Osceola consented to the treaty. But no sooner was he released than, burning with indignation, he plotted a general massaci-c of the whites. General Thompson was shot aTid scali)ed while Bitting at dinner, under the very guns of Fort King. The same day Major Dade, with over 100 men, was waylaid near the Wii'hoo Swamp. All but four were killed, and these subsequently died of their wounds. Osce(da, in October, 1837, visited the camp of General Jessup under a flag of truce. He was there seized >nd sent to Fort Moultrie, where he died the following year. 208 VAN BUREN'S ADMINISTRATION [1837 Florida, where they hoped to find a safe retreat in the tangled swamps. They were, however, pursued into their hiding places by Colonel Taylor, and beaten in a hard- fought battle (Okeeho'bee, December 25, 1837), but were not fully subdued until 1842. New States. — Two States were admitted in this admin- istration — Arkansas and Michigan (pp. 245, 246). Foreign Affairs. — France. — The French govei-nment had promised to j)ay $5,000,000 for damages to our commerce during Napoleon's wars. This agreement not being kept, Jackson urged Congress to make reprisals on French ships. The mediation of G-reat Britain secured the pay- ment of the debt by France and thus averted the threat- ened war. Political Parties. — The Democratic candidate, Martin Van Bu'ren, was chosen President.^ The people thus supported the policy of Jackson — no United States Bank and no protective taritf. General Harrison was the Whig candidate. VAN BUREN'S ADMINISTRATION (1837-1841)2 Domestic Affairs. — Crisis o/1837. — The financial storm which had been gathering through the preceding ad- ' No candidate for Vice President received a majority of the electoral votes, so the election went to the Senate. Colonel R. M. .Johnson was chosen. '^ Martin Van Buren was born 1782; died 18G2 He early took an interest in politics, and in I8I8 started a new organization of the Democratic party of New York, his nati%'e State, which had the power for over twenty years. In 1831 ho was appointed minister to Great Britain, whither he went in September; bnt when the nomination came before the Senate in Decemlier, it was rejected, on the gronnd that he had sided with Great Britain against the United States on certain matters, and had carried party contests and their results into foreign negotiations. His party regarded this as extreme political persecution, and the next year electtnl him to the vice-presidency. He thus became the head of the Seiiate wliieh a few months before had condemned him, and where he now performed his duties with "dignity, courtesy, and impartiality." As President, Van Buren was the subject of much partisan censure. The country 1837] DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 209 ministration now burst with terrible fury. The banks contracted their circulation and called in their loans.^ Business men could not pay their debts. Failures were everyday occurrences, and the losses in New York city alone, during March and April, exceeded $100,000,000. Property of all kinds declined in value. Eight of the States failed, wholly or in part, to meet their financial obligations. Even the United States government could not pay its debts when due. Consternation seized upon all classes. Confidence was destroyed and trade stood still. The Sdhtreasmy Bill. — Van Buren's favorite plan was to keep the public money in the United States treasury at Washington, and in subtreasuries at a few other cities. The Subtreasury Bill, however, was enacted only at the close of his term. It was repealed during Tyler's admin- istration, but reenacted under Polk, and is the system in force at the joresent time. Foreign Affairs. — The Canadian ^^ Patriot TF«r" (1837- 1838). — A Canadian rebellion against Q-reat Britain, at this time, stirred the sympathies of the American people. Meetings were held, volunteers offered, and arms con- tributed. The President issued a proclamation refusing was passing through a peculiar crisis, and his was a difficult position to fill with satis- faction to all. That he pleased his own party is proved from the fact of his renomi- nation in 18-tO against Harrison. In 1848 he became the presidential candidate of the Free-soil party, a new party advocating antislavery principles. After this ho retired to his estate in Kinderhoolc, N. Y., where he died. 1 The direct causes of this were as follows: (1) Jackson issued the "specie circu- lar" near the close of his last term, directing tliat payments for public lands should be made In specie (gold and silver). The specie was soon gathered into the United States treasury. (2) Congress ordered that the surplus public money, amounting to about $28,000,000, should be withdrawn from the local banks and distributed among the States. The banks conld not meet the demand. (3) During the season of hi^h prices and speculation, when fortunes were easily made, there had been heavy Impor- tations of European goods, which had to be paid for in gold and silver. Thus the country was drained of its specie. (4) A terrible fire in the city of New York on the night of December 16, 1835, burned 600 valaable stores and property to the amount of 120,000,000. B. HIST. U. S. — 13 210 HARRISON AND TYLER'S ADMINISTRATION [1841 the protection of the United States government to any who should aid the Canadians, and sent General Scott to the frontier to preserve the peace/ Political Parties. — The financial difficulties caused a change in political feeling and for a time weakened the confidence of the people in the wisdom of the Democratic policy. Van Buren was nominated by the Democrats for a second term ; but General Harrison, the hero of Tippe- canoe, the Whig nominee, was chosen President by an immense majority. COLLATERAL READING The Crisis of 1837. — Sclioulor's Bistoi-y of the United States, vol. iv. pp. 267-2C4, 276-281. HARRISON AND TYLER'S ADMINISTRATION (1841-1845)2 General Harrison had scarcely entered upon the duties of his office, and selected his cabinet, when he died. John ' A body of Anicricaiis, having taken possession of Navy Island, in Niagara River, had hired a steamer called the Caroline to convey provisions and war materials for an expedition to Canada. On the night of December '2:1, 1837, a party of British troopu attempted to seize this v(>,ssel. A desperate light ensued; but the ship wa.s at laat; set on Are and left to drift over Niagara Falls. This event caused great excitenient all the time. 2 William Henry Harrison wa.s born 1773; died 1841. He distinguished liiniseh' during the War of 1812, esjiecially in the battle of the Thames. His military reputa- tion made him available as a presidential candidate. His eliaract<'r was unimpeach- able, and the chief slur cast upon him by his opponents was that he had lived in a " log cabin," with nothing to drink but "hard cider." His friends turned this to good account. The campaign was noted for immense mass meetings, long processions,, Bong-singiug, and great entliusiasm. "Hard cider" became a party watchword, and the " log cabin " a regular feature in the popular parades. Harrison was elected l)y a large miijority, .and great hopes were entertained of his administration. Though ad- vanced in years, he gave promise of (endurance. But "ho was beset by office-seekers; he was anxious to gi-atify the numerous friends and supporters who flocked about him ; ho gave himself incessantly to i)ublic busiiK^as ; and at the close of the month he ■was on a sick bed." The illness soon proved to be fatal. John Tyler was born 1790; died 18fi2. He was in early life a great admirer of Henry Clay, and is said to have wept with sorrow when the Whigs in convention r^ected his favorite candidate for the presidency and selected Uarrison. He was 1841] DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 211 Tyler, tlie Vice President, in accordance with the Consti- tution of the United States, became President. This was the first case of the kind in our history. Tyler was elected as a Whig, but did not carry out the favorite measures of his party. Domestic Affairs. — United States Bank. — Under the lead of Clay, the Whig majority in Congress passed a charter for a " Bank of the United States." This Tyler vetoed. A second bill, for a similar purpose, met the same fate. These successive vetoes caused great anger and excitement among the Whigs. Borfs Behellion, a local disturbance in Rhode Island, grew out of efforts to secure a more liberal constitution in that State. The charter granted by Charles II. was still in force. It limited the right of suffrage to those holding a certain amount of property, and fixed very unequaUy the number of deputies in the Assembly from the different towns. ^ In 1841 a new State constitution was adopted, the vote being taken in mass conventions, and not by the legal voters according to the charter. Under this consti- tution T. W. Dorr was elected governor. The old gov- ernment still went on, treating his election as illegal. He attempted to seize the State arsenal, but, finding it held by the militia, gave up the attempt. Dorr was afterwards arrested, convicted of treason, and sentenced to imprison- ment for life, but was finally pardoned. Meanwhile, a nominated Vice President by a unanimous vote, and was a favorite with his party. In the popular refrain "Tippecanoe and Tyler too " the people sang praises to him as heartily as to Hari-isou himself. Tyler's administration was fuU of quarrel. Clay was determined to reduce the President to the ranks ; Tyler answered with vetoes. The Whigs denounced him as a renegade, to which he replied, with truth, that he had never indorsed their measures, either before or during the presidential canvass. In 1861 he became the presiding ofHcer of the peace convention in Washington. All efforts at reconciliation proving futile, he renounced his allegiance to the United States, and followed the Confederate fortunes. He died in Bichmond, where he was in attendance as a member of the Confederate Congress. 212 HARRISON AND TYLER'S ADMINISTRATION [1843 liberal constitution, which had been legally adopted, went into operation (1843). New York Anti-Bent Difficulties (1844). — The tenants on some of the old " patroon estates " in New York refused to pay the rent. It was very light,' but was considered illegal. The anti-renters, as they were called, assumed the disguise of Indians, tarred and feathered those teiKints who i->aid their rents, and even killed officers who servi^d warrants upon them. The disturbances were suppressed only by a military force (1846). TJie Mar/netlc Telefjraph was invented by Samuel F. B. Morse. The first line was built between Baltimore and Washington (1844), with $30,000 appropriated by Con- gress. On its completion, the first official message sent was, "What hath God wrought!" The introduction of the telegraph was the great- est event of this adminis- tration. The Mormons. — A religious sect called Mormons had settled at Nauvoo', 111. (1840). Here they built a city of several thousand inhabitants, and laid the foundation of a costly temple. Having incurred the enmity of the people about them, their leader, Joseph Smith, was killed by a mob (1844).- The next year the State government re- 1 The rent consisted of only "a few bushels of wheat, three or four fat fowls, and a day's work with horses and wagon, per year." -' Joseph .sinitli, while living at Palmyra, N. Y., claimed to have had a revelation by which he was directed to a spot where ho found buried a series of golden plates MORSE AND HIS TELEGRAPH. 1846] FOREIGN AFFAIRS 213 pealed the charter of the city, which was then partly abandoned. Finally, the city was bombarded for three days, when the remaining inhabitants also agreed to leave. The Mormons went to Iowa (1846), and then to Utah. New State admitted — Flori- da (p. 246). Foreign Affairs. — TJie North- east Boimdary^ between Maine and New Brnnswick, had never been settled. The people of that region at one time threat- ened to take up arms to sup- port their I'espective claims, and there was great peril of a war with Great Britain. At last the difficulty was adjusted V)y what is known as the Ash'- burton treaty (1842), which was negotiated between the United States and Great Britain, Dan- iel Webster and Lord Ash bur- ton acting as commissioners. the north east BotiNDAKY. covered "With mecriptions, ■whicli he translated by means of two transparent stones found with them. The result was the Book of Mormon, said to be the history of a race favored by God which occupied this continent at a remote period of antiquity. The Mormons accept the Holy Bible as received by all Christian people, but believe the Book of Mormon to be an additional revelation, and also that their chief or prophet receives direct inspiration from (Jod. Smith gained only a few converts at first. In 1831 they removed to Ohio, and a few years later to western Missouri. Here they in- creased rapidly ill numbers and wealth, but they were soon driven out of the Btate, and went to Illinois. From about 1850, or earliei", until 1890 they practiced plural marriage, or polygamy, claiming that the Scriptures justify it. After the death of Smith and their expulsion from Kauvoo, a company under the leadership of Brigham Young crossed the Eocky Mountains, and settled near Great Salt Lake, in Utah. They •were followed by others of their sect, and, after great sufferings, succeeded in estab- lishing a prosperous colony. They founded Salt Lake City, where tliey erected a large temple for worsliip. Their prophet Brigham Young, who died August 19, 1877, is remembered by his followers with the greatest reverence. 214 HARRISON AND TYLER'S ADMINISTRATION L1S44 Armexatlon of Texas. — The Texans, under General Sam Houston (hu'ston), having won then- independence from Mexico (p. 246), applied (1844) for admission to the Union. Their petition was at first rejected by Congress,* but, being indorsed by the people in the fall elec- tions, was granted the day before the close of Tyler's administration. Political Parties. — The question of the an- nexation of Texas went before the people for their decision. The Whigs, who opposed its admission, nominated Henry Clay - for Presi- dent. The Democrats, who favored its admis- sion, named James K. Polk, who, after a close "^^^^^^ contest, was elected. • There were two reasons wliy this tncasuro was warmly discusRod. (1) Mexico claimed Texas, although that country had maintained its indcpcndent'C fornijie years, and had been recognized by several European nations, as well as by tlie United States. Besides, Texas ('laimed to the Rio Grande (le'o gi-iin'dfi), while Mexico insisted upon the Nueces (nwii sCs) River as the lionndary line between Texas and Mexico. The section of country betwc-en these rivers was therefore disputed territory, and th<5 anuexatiou of Texas would bring on a war with Mexico. (2) The Texans held slaves. Cousequeutly, while the South urged the admission of Texas, the North as strongly opposed it. '•* Henry Clay was a man whom the nation loved but signally failed to honor. Yet his fame and reputation renjain far above any distinction which mere office can give, and unite with them an aflFectiou which stands the test of time. Respected by his opponents, he was almost idolized by his friends. In this he somewhat resembled Jefferson, but, unlike him, he had not in his early years the advantages of a liberal education. His father, a Baptist minister of very limited means, died when Henry was Ave years old, and at fifteen he was left to support himself. Meantime, he had received what little tuition he had, in a log-cabin schoolhouse, from very indifferent teauhers. With u rare tact for making friends, ready talent waiting to be instructed. SCALE OF MTLE8 155 200 36o S3o 1846] WAR WITH MEXICO 215 JAMES K. POLK'S ADMINISTRATION (1845-1849)1 WAR WITH MEXICO (i 846-1 847) Taylor's Army. — Campaign on the Bio Grande. — General Zachary Taylor, having been ordered with his troops into the disputed territory, met and defeated (May 8, 1846) a Mexican army at Palo Alto (pah'lo ahl'to). The next day he met the same army at Resaca de la Palma (ra- sah'kah da lah pahl'mah), and drove it across the Rio and a strong determination seeking opportunities, he soon began to show the dawn- lugs of the power wliich afterwards distinguished him. He said : " I owe my success in life to a single fact, namely, tbat at an early age I commenced, and continued for some years, the practice of daily reading and spcatiug the contents of some histori- cal or scientiflchook. These offhand ef- forts were sometimes made in a corn- field; at others, in the forest; and not nnfrequently in some distant bam, with the horse and ox for my only au- ditors. It is to this that I am indebted for the impulses that have shaped and molded my entire destiny." Rising rapidly by the force of his genius, lie soon made himself felt in his State and in the nation. He was peculiarly winning in his manners. An eminent and stern political antagonist once re- fused an introduction to him expressly on the ground of a determination not to be magnetized by personal contact, as he " had known other good haters" of Clay to be. United with this suavity was a wonderful will and an inflexible honor. His political adversary but per- sonal admirer, John C. Breckinridge, in an oration pronounced at his death, uttered these words: "If I were to write his epitaph, I would inscribe as the highest eulogy on the stone which shall mark his resting place : ' Here lies a man who was in the public service for fifty years, and never attempted to deceive his countrymen.' " 1 James K. Polk was born 1795 ; died 1849. He was a conspicuous opposer of the administration of John Qulncy Adams, and a warm supporter of Jackson. In 1839, having served fourteen years in Congress, he declined a reelection, and was chosen governor of Tennessee. His presidential nomination, in connection with that of HENRY CLAT. 216 POLK'S ADMINISTRATION [1846 Grande in utter rout. When news of these encounters reached Washington, Congress declared war. Capture oj Monterey (September 24). — General Taylor, with about GOOO men, advanced w^ow Monterey (mon- ta ra). This city SCALE or was strongly forti- fied, and its streets were barricaded and defended by a garrison of 10,000 men. To avoid the deadly fire from the windows, roofs, and barricades, the as- saulting troops en- tered the build- ings and dug their way through the stone walls from house to house, or passed from roof to roof. They came at last within one square of the Grand Plaza, when the city was surrendered. The garrison was allowed to march out with the honors of war. Battle o/Buena Vista (February 23, 1847). — Santa Anna, the Mexican general, learning that the flower of Taylor's command had been withdrawn to aid General Scott (p. 218), George M. Dallas of Peunsylvauiii as Vico President, had the ofTott of uniting the Democratic party, wliich had been disturbed by dissensions between the friends and opponents of Martin Van IJnrou. The Mexican war, which was strongly opposed in many States, the enactment of a tariflf based on a revenue principle instead of a pro- tective one, and the agitation caused by the Wilmot Proviso (p. 221), conspired to affect his popularity before the end of liis term. lie had liowever, previously jdedged himself not to be a candidate for reelection. lie died about three uiontlis after his retiromeut from office. GENERAL TAYLOR'S CAMl'AIGN. 1847] WAK WITH MEXICO 217 determined to crush the remainder. The little American army took i)ost near Buena Vista (bwa'nah vees'tah), on a mountain pass and a plateau with hills on one side and ravines on the other/ Here it was attacked by Santa Anna with 20,000 of the best troops of Mexico. The battle lasted from early morning till dark. Again and again the Mexicans seemed on the point of overwhelming the Americans by force of numbers; but Taylor skillfully sent reenforcements where they were needed. The American artillery wrought such havoc in the crowded masses of the enemy that they finally broke and fled in disorder. General Taylor's work was now done. His army was intended only to hold the country already gained, while General Scott penetrated to the capital from Vera Cruz (va'rah kroos). Kearny's Army. — General Stephen W. Kearny (kar'ny) was directed to take the Mexican provinces of New Mex- ico and California. Starting from Fort Leavenworth (June, 1846), after a journey of 1000 miles he reached Santa Fe (map, p. 218). Unfurling there the United States flag, he continued his march toward California.^ On his way, however, he learned from Kit Carson, the noted ' Several anecdotes are told of General Taylor in connection wfth this battle. The day before the principal attack, the Mexicans fired heavily on our line. A Mexican officer, couiini? with a message from Santa Anna, found Taylor sitting on his white horse, with one leg over the pommel of his saddle. The officer asked him what he was waiting for. He answered: "For Santa Anna to suri-ender." After the officer's return a battery opened on Taylor's position, but he remained coolly surveying the enemy with his spyglass. Some one suggesting that " Whitey" was too conspicuous a horse for the battle, he replied that the " old fellow had missed the fun at Monterey, and he should have his share this time." '■^ Colonel Doniphan, with 1000 men, the main body of General Kearny's command, marched over 1000 miles through a hostile country, from Santa F^ to Saltillo, having on the way fought two battles and conquered the province and city of Chihuahua (che waw'waw). At the end of their term of service h^ led his men back to New Orleans and discharged them. They had been enlisted, marched 5000 miles, and dis- banded, all in a year. 218 POLK'S ADMINISTRATION [1846 hunter, that he was late. The winter before, Captain John C. Fremont, with a company of sixty men, had been engaged in surveying a new route to Oregon. Hearing that the Mexican commandant intended to expel the American settlers, he went to their rescue, although he was not aware that war had broken out between the United GENEKAL KEAKNY'S CAMPAICJN. States and Mexico. With greatly inferior numbers he was victor over the Mexicans in every conflict. By the 'help of Commodores Sloat and Stockton, and also of Gen- eral Kearny, who came in time to aid in the last battle, the entire country was conquered. Scott's Army. — Capture of Vera Cruz (March 29, 1847).— General Winfield Scott landed an army 12,000 strong without opposition, and forthwith drew his siege lines among the shifting sand hills and chaparral thickets 184?] WAR WITH MEXICO 219 about Vera Cruz. After a fierce bombardment of four days the city was surrendered. March to Mexico. — In about a week, the army took up its march for the capital. At the mountain pass of Cer'ro Gor'do the enemy was strongly fortified. Our men cut a road around the base of the mountain through the forest, and dragged cannon up a precipice to the rear of the position by ropes. Thence a plunging fire was opened simultaneously with an assault in front, and the Mexicans fled in haste (April 18). The city of Puebla (pweb'lah), next to Mexico in im- portance, surrendered without resistance. Here Scott waited nearly three months for reenforcements. GENERAL SCOTT'S CAMPAIGN. Battles before Mexico. — With 11,000 men the march was resumed (August 7), and in three days the army reached the crest of the mountains overlooking the magnificent valley of Mexico. In the valley was the city, surrounded by fertile plains and snow-capped mountains. But the way thither was guarded by 30,000 men and strong fortifi- cations. Turning to the south to avoid the strongest points, by a route considered impassable, the army came before the intrenched camp of Contrekas (kon tra'ras), within fourteen miles of Mexico (August 19). The next day this camp was taken, the height of Churubusco (choo- 220 POLK'S ADMINISTRATION [1847 CASTLE OF CHAPULTEl'IiC. The attack was irresistible. roo boo'sko) was stormed, numerous batteries were cap- tured, and the defenses laid bare to the causeways leading to the very gates of the city. An armistice and fruitless negotiations for peace delayed the advance until General Scott found that the Mexicans were only im- proving the time in strengthening their works. Once more (Sep- tember 8) our army moved to the assault. The formidable outworks were taken one by one. At last the castle of Chapultepec (chah pool ta pek'), on a high rock commanding the city, was stormed. The next day (Sep- tember 14) the army entered the city, and the Stars and Stripes waved in triumph over the Mexican palace. Peace.— The fall of the capital virtu- ally closed the war. By the treaty of February 2, 1848, the United States gained the vast territory reaching south to the Gila (he'lah) and west to the Pacific, and paid Mexico $15,000,000. SOLE OF MILEB THE MEXICAN CESSION OK 1848. 1846] DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 221 Northwest Boundary. — The northeast boundary dis- pute (p. 213) had scarcely been settled, when the Oregon question, involving the northwest boundary, came into great prominence. This great territory was held under joint occupation with the British ; but when our people began to settle it rapidly, the United States was inclined to claim the whole of it up to 54° 40'. The French claim to the Oregon country had been included in the Louisiana purchase, and the Spanish claim was ended by the treaty of 1819. The dispute with Great Britain was settled by a compromise fixing the boundary line at 49° (1846). See maps on pages 198 and 226. Domestic Affairs. — The Wilmot Proviso. — The new terri- tory won from Mexico became at once a bone of conten- tion. David Wilmot had offered in Congress (August, 1846) an amendment to an appropriation bill, forbidding slavery in any of the territory that might be acquired. This measure, though lost, excited violent debate, and be- came the great feature of the fall election. Discovery of Gold in California. — A workman in digging a millrace on an eastern branch of the Sacramento River (January, 1848) discovered shining particles of gold. A further search proved that the soil for miles around con- tained the precious metal. The news flew in every direc- tion. Emigration began from all parts of America, and even from Europe and Asia. In eighteen months 100,000 persons went from the United States to this El Dora'do, where a fortune was to be picked up in a few days. Some went by sea, but others made their way across the prairies and mountains, amid privations that strewed the route with skeletons. A city of shanties sprang up at the entrance to San Francisco Bay. Ships in this harbor were deserted by their crews, who ran to the mines, sometimes, it is said, 222 POLK'S ADMINISTRATION [1848 headed by their officers. Soon streets were laid out, houses erected, and from this Babel grew up, as if by magic, a beautiful city. For a time lawlessness reigned supreme ; but, driven by tlio necessity of ovent;^, the more res^pectable - - ^ MIGRATING TO CALIFORNIA. citizens took the law into their own hands, organized "vig- ilance committees," and administered a rude but promjijt justice which presently restored order. New States. — The admission of Texas, Iowa, and Wis- consin (p. 246) made the total number of States thirty, of which half wore free and half slave. Political Parties. — Three parties now sought the suf- frages of the people. The Whigs nominated General Tay- lor for President; the Democrats, Lewis Cass; and the Free-soilers, who were opposed to the extension of slavery, Martin Van Buren. The personal popularity of General Taylor, on account of his many sterling qualities and his brilliant victories in the Mexican war, made him the favorite candidate, and he was elected. 1850] DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 223 TAYLOR AND FILLMORE'S ADMINISTRATION (1849-1853)1 General Taylor, like General Harrison, died soon after his elevation to the presidency. Millard Fillmore, Vice President, succeeded him. Domestic Affairs.— Slavery questions were the great po- litical topic of this administration. When California applied for admission to the Union as a free State, all these sub- jects were brought to a focus. A hot debate ensued, and for a while it seemed as if the Union would be rent asun- der. At this terrible crisis, Henry Clay, the " Great Pacificator," came forward, and, with his wonderful elo- quence, urged the necessity of mutual compromise and for- bearance. Daniel Webster ^ warmly seconded this effort at conciliation. iZachary Taylor was born in Virginia in 1784. Soon after hia birtli liis parents removed to Kentucky. His means of education were extremely scanty, and until he was twenty-four years of age lie worked on his father's plantation. Madison, who was a relative and at that time Secretary of State, then secured for him an appoint- ment in the army as lieutenant. From this he rose by regular and rapid degrees to a major-generalship. Palo Alto, Kesaca de la Palma, Monterey, and Buena Vista won him great applause. He was the hero of a successful war, and the soldiers admiringly called him "Old Rough and Eeady." Many Whig leaders violently opposed his nomi- nation. Daniel Webster called him " an ignorant frontier colonel." The fact that he was a slaveholder was warmly urged against him. He Imew nothing of civil affairs, and had taken so little interest in politics that he had not voted in forty years. His nomination caused a secession from the Whigs, which, combined with a similar Demo- cratic secession, resulted in the formation of the Free-soil party. As President, he maintained his popularity, and was one of the most esteemed who have tilled that ofiflce. He died July 9, 1850, at the presidential mansion, after an illness of five days. Millard Fillmore was born in Cayuga County, N. Y., 1800; died at Buffalo, 1874. He learned the fuller's trade, taught school, practiced law, served as assemblyman for three terms and as congressman for four terms, ran unsuccessfully for governor, and was comptroller of the State of New York when he was nominated for the vice-presi- deucy. By his integrity, industry, and practical ability he won a place among the first statesmen of his day. His approval of the Fugitive Slave Law, however, cost him much of his popularity in the North. 2 When Daniel Webster, the great American statesman and jurist, was fourteen years old, he first enjoyed the privilege of a few months' schooling at an academy. The man whose eloquence was afterwards to stir the nation was then so shy that he could not muster courage to speak before the school. In other respects, however, he 224 TAYLOR AND FILLMORE'S ADMINISTRATION [1850 The Compromise of 1850. — The Omnibus Bill, Clay's measure, proposed (1) that California should come in as a free State (p. 246) ; (2) that the Territories of Utali and New Mexico should l)e formed without any provision concern- ing slaver 5^; (o) that Texas should be paid $10,000,000 to give up its claim on ter- ritory north and west of its present bounf;iatt' odnca- tion, he, ontcrert the profession of law. By rapid strides he placed himself at the head ot American orators. It was a disappointment to Wehster's friends, as it was, perhaps, to himself, that he was never placed in the i)rcHidential chair. But, like Clay, althongh he mifrht have honored that position, he needed it not to enhance his renown. His death, in 1H52, called out more orations and sermons than had any other except that of Wasliington. DANIl.l, ^\^:l!STF.K 1852] POLITICAL PARTIES 225 both declared that they stood by the provisions of the Compromise of 1850. The Free-soil party was outspoken against it. Franklin Pierce, the presidential nominee of the Democratic party, was elected by a large majority over General Scott, the Whig candidate. COLLATERAL READINGS Oregon. — Schouler's History of the United States, vol. iv. pp. 504-514. California.— ScboiUer, vol. v. pp. 129-142. Compromise of 1850.— Schouler, vol. v. pp. 143-148, 1G2-1V3, 178-189, 196-201 (North- ern vie v/) ; Stephens's War between the Slates, vol. ii. pp. 199-221, 231-233 (Southern view). PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION (1853-1857)1 Domestic Affairs. — Kansas-Nebraska Bill. — The Com- promise of 1850 produced only a lull in the slavery ex- citement. It burst out anew when Stephen A. Douglas brought into Congress his famous bill organizing the Ter- ritories of Kansas and Nebraska, and advocating the doc- trine of " squatter sovereignty," i.e. the right of the inhabitants of each Territory to decide for themselves whether or not slavery should be allowed there.^ This 1 Frantlin Pierce was born 1804 ; died 1869. He had barely attained the requisite legal age when he was elected to the Senate. He there found such men as Clay, Web- ster, Calhoun, Seward, Benton, and Silas Wright. Nathaniel Hawthorne says in hia biography of Mr. Pierce : "With his usual tact and exquisite sense of propriety, he saw that it was not the time for him to step forward prominently on this highest thea- ter in the land. He beheld these great combatants doing battle before the eyes of the nation and engrossing its whole regards. There was hardly an avenue to reputation save what was occuined b;- one or another of those gigantic figures." During Mr. Tyler's administration he resigned. WTien the Mexican war broke out he enlisted as a volunteer, but soou rose to the rank of brigadier general. He distiiiguisbcd himself under General Scott, against whom be afterwards successfully ran for the presidency, and upon whom, during his administration, he conferred the title of lieutenant general. Pierce opposed autislavery measures in every shape, but at the opening of the Civil War he espoused the cause of the Union. 2 The pul)lic lands have often threatened the peace of the nation. (1) The question of their ownership was one of the greatest obstacles to the union of the States after the Revolution ; but the threatened trouble was averted by the generosity of the land- holding States (p. 163). The public lands south of the Ohio Kiver were ceded on con- zn 228 PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION [1854 bill, being a repudiation of the Missouri Compromise, ex' cited intense feeling.' It, however, became a law (1854). ''^Border WarfareJ^ — The struggle was now taken from Congress to Kansas. A bitter contest arose between the proslavery and the antislavery men — the former anxious to secure the State for slavery, the latter for freedom. Each party sent armed emigrants to the Territory, and civil war ensued. Bands of armed men crossed over from Missouri, took possession of the polls, and controlled the elections. Houses were attacked and pillaged, and men were murdered in cold blood. For several years Kansas was the scene of lawless violence. Foreign Affairs . — Mexico. — Owing to a disagreement of the men appointed to locate the bounds of the Mexican cession, a dispute arose between the United States and Mexico. General Gadsden negotiated a settlement whereby Mexico was paid $10,000,000, and the United States secured (1853) the region known as the Gads- den purchase, which was added to New Mexico Territory. dition tliat they nhonld be slave soil. North of the Oliio ron>rros8 made the soil free (p. 1G3). (2) After OonKrcss acquired public lauda.wost of tlie Mississippi by the Loui- siana purchase, a perplexing question was, Shall they be free or slave soil 1 Upon it, for years, hinged largely the politics of the country. Tlie admission of Missouri, Texas, California, and Kansas was each the signal for the reojx'uing of this vexed question. Though the public lands have been t'.ie cause of intestine strife, they have been a source of great national wealth. Their sale lias brouglit large sums into the treasury. They have been given to settlers as a stinnilus to immigration. Tlu^y have been granted to endow colleires and schools, to build railroads, to reward the soldiers and support their widows and orphans. ' The bitter discussion on thon^pcal of the Missouri Coini>romise, .and the contest In Kansas, last(>d for years. Benator Sumner, of Massachusetts, during a speech that occupied two days (May 10, '20, is.v.), having made some severe reflei^tions ui)on Senator Butler, of South Carolina, was assaulted l>y Preston S. Brooks, a lu'phew of Butler and a South Carolina representative. Mr. Brooks, having resigned his seat, was imme- diately returned. It was over three years before Mr. Sumner recovered his health. O SCAtE OF MILES MEXICAN CESSION OF ia53. 1854] FOEEIGN AFFAIRS 229 Japan. — Commodore Perry's expedition to Japan (1854) excited great attention. He negotiated a treaty which gave to the merchants of the United States two ports of entry in that exclusive country. This was the first step PERRY'S VISIT TO JAPAN. made by Japan toward the acquirement of modern methods of commerce and modern civilization, in which she is now so far advanced. Political Parties. — The Compromise of 1820 having been repealed, the slavery question became the turning point of the election. New party lines were drawn to meet this issue.^ The Whig party ceased to exist. The new Repub- lican party, absorbing all who opposed the extension of slavery, nominated John C. Fremont, who received the • A tliird party, called the Know-notlilng or American party, was organized to resist the influence of foreigners. It carried tlie vote of only one State, Maryland. Its motto was " America for Americans." The party aroused bitter feelings, but had only a transient existence. B. HIST. U. 8.— 14 230 BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION [1857 vote of eleven States. The Democratic party, retaining its organization, nominated James Buchanan, who was elected President. BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION (1857-1861)1 Domestic Affairs. — Bred Scott' Decision. — The Supreme Court of the United States (1857), through Chief Justice Taney, declared that slave-owners might take their slaves into any State in the Union without forfeiting their rights of property. In the North, this was considered as remov- ing the last barrier to the extension of slavery, and as changing it from a local to a national institution ; in the South, it was regarded only as a right guaranteed them by the Constitution, whereby they should be protected in the possession of their property in every State. The Fugitive Slave Law had intensified the already heated controversy, and the subject of slavery now dis- ) James Buchanan was born 1791; died 18G8. The first "bachelor President" was sixty-six years old when called to the executive chair. He had just returned to liis native country after an absence of some years as minister to England. Before that, he had been well known in public life, having been representative, senator, and Secretary of State. As senator in Jackson's time he heartily supported his adminis- tration. With Van Buren ho wannly advocated the plaa of an independent treasury (p. 209), against the opposition of Clay, Webster, and others. Under Tyler, he was urgently in favor of the annexation of Texas, thus again coming into conflit^twith Clay and Webster. IIo cordially agreed with them, however, in the Compromise of 1850(p. 224), and urged the people to adopt it. Much was hoped from his election, a.s he avowed that the object of his administration was to destroy any sectional party and to restore fraternal feeling between the different States. But popular passion and sectional jealousy were too strong to j'ii^ld to pleasant persuasion. When Mr. Bu- chanan's administration closed, the horrors of civil war were close at hand. He retired to his estate in Pennsylvania, where he died. 'i Scott and liis wife were slaves belonging to a surgeon in the United States army. They were taken into and resided in Illinois and Minnesota, in territory from w hich, by the Ordinance of 1787, slavery was forever excluded. Afterwards they were car- ried Into Missouri, where they and their children were held as slaves. Tliey claimed freedom on the ground that, by the act of their master, they had been carried into free t<'riitory. Tlie decision of the court against their claims created an Intense ex- dtement throughout the country. 1859] DOMESTIC AFFAIRS . 231 placed all others. The provision which commanded every good citizen to aid in the arrest of fugitives was espe- cially obnoxious to the North. Disturbances arose when- ever attempts were made to restore runaway slaves to their masters. Several of the Northern States passed "Personal Liberty" bills, securing to fugitive slaves, when arrested, the right of trial by jury. The Southerners claimed that these laws practically nullified the Fugitive Slave Law passed by Congress. Hundreds of slaves were assisted to escape to the far North or to Canada by men who hated the institution of slavery.^ Regular routes were established for escaping slaves, and the whole sys- tem was called the " Underground Railroad." John Brown, a man who had brooded over the exciting scenes through which he had passed in Kansas until he thought himself called upon to take the law into his own hands, seized upon the United States arsenal at Harpers Ferry (1859), and proclaimed freedom to the slaves in the vicinity. His feeble band was soon overpowered by United States troops, and Brown himself was found guilty of treason, of inciting slaves to rebel, and of murder, and was hanged. Though it was soon known that in his wild design he had asked counsel of no one, yet at the time the Southern feeling was aroused to frenzy, his act being looked upon as significant of the sentiments of the North. Sympathy for the man was mistaken for sympathy in his cause. New States. — The admission of Minnesota, Oregon, and Kansas, all as free States, ended the policy of keeping the free and slave States equal in number (p. 247). ' The feeling against slavery was greatly increased by Mrs. Stowe's novel called Jlncle Tom's Oabin, whioli gives a vivid picture of tlio possible evils of slavery. The book had an enormous sal^ at the time, and is still read in many countries besides our own. The South, however, considered the novel to be misleading and incendiary. 232 BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION [1860 Political Parties. — The election again turned on the question of slavery. The Democratic party now divided, and made two conflicting nominations for President: Stephen A. Douglas, who favored squatter sovereignty (p. 225), and John C. Breckinridge, who claimed that slavery could be carried into any Territory. The Repub- lican party nominated Abraham Lincoln, who held that while slavery must be protected where it was, it ought not to be carried into the Territories.^ Lincoln was elected. The South Secedes. — Throughout the fall campaign the Southern leaders had threatened to secede if Mr. Lincoln was elected. They now declared it was time to leave a government which had fallen into the hands of their avowed enemies. Since the days of Calhoun they had been firm believers in the doctrine of State rights, which taught that a State could leave the Union whenever it pleased. In December (1860) South Carolina seceded, and, soon after, Mississippi, Florida^ Alabama, Greoi-gia, Louisi- ana, and Texas passed ordinances of secession. In February (1861) delegates from these States met at Montgomery, Ala., and formed a government called the "Confederate States of America." Jefferson Davis,- of • The Union party put up John Bell, of Tennessee. Its motto was, "The Union' tbe Constitution, and tlic enforcement of tlie laws." 2 Jefferson Davis was born 1808 ; died 1889. He was a United Stiites senator from Mississippi when that State seceded, and had Umg l)eeu prominent in national affairs. A graduate of the AVest Point Military Academy, ho served as an army olTicer in the Black Hawk War and elsewhere against the Indians. Ho resigned in 1835, and settled near Vicksburg, Miss., as a cotton planter. His ability as a public speaker won him a seat in Congress (184.5), which ho left to becoTiie colon(4 of the First Mississippi Volunteers in the war with Mexico. His regiment formed part of the army under General Taylor (Davis's father-in-law), and did some hard lighting at Monterey and Buena Vista, where Davis was severely wounded. Ho entered the United States Senate in 1847, was the unsuccessful candidate for governor of Mississijjpi in IS.'jl, and in 1853-57 was Secretary of War. In tlie Senate he was a zealous and able advocate of State rights, but up to tlie time of Lincoln's election he labored to preserve the Union, He is the author of Tfie Rise and Fall of the Confederate Oovemment <1881), in wbivh he maintains the Justice of tbe Boutbero cause. r~^iZ^..^^^-^-^i-<^-t^^^ 233 234 BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION [1860 Mississippi, was chosen President, and Alexander H. Stephens, of Georgia, Vice President. United States forts, arsenals, customhouses, and ships were seized by the States in which they were situated. Buchanan did nothing to j^revent the catastrophe. General Scott was iufii'm. The regular army was small and widely scat- tered. The navy had been sent to distant ports. The Cabinet sympathized largely with the secessionists. Nu- merous unsuccessful efforts were made to effect a com- promise. It was the general expectation that there would be no war, and the cry "No coercion" was gen- eral.' Yet affairs steadily drifted on toward war.^ Fort Sumter. — All eyes were now turned on Fort Sum- ter. Here Major Anderson kept the United States flag ' Even the New York Tribune declared: "Wlienever any considerable section of our Union shall deliberately resolve to go out, we shall resist all coercive measures to keep them iu." - Southern secession was not a sudden movement. The sectional difference between the North and tlie South had its source in the difference of climate, which frreatly modified the cliaracter and liabits of the people ; also, wliile the agi-ieultural pursuits and staple i)r()ducts of the South made slave labor pr<)fltal)le, the mechanical pursuits and the more varied products of the North made it unprofitable. These autagonisins, settled first by the Missouri Compromise of 1820, reopened by the tariff of 1828, bursting forth in tiie nullification of 1832, pacified by Clay's compromise tariff, in- creased through the annexation of Texas and the consequent war with Mexico, iiTi- tatedby th(! Wilmot Proviso, lulled for a time by the Compromise of 1850, awakened by the "squatter sovereignty" policy of r)on;rlas, roused to fury by the a^citation in Kansas, spread broadcast by the Bred Scott decision, the attempt(Hl execution of the Fugitive Slave Law, and the John Brown raid, had now reached a point where war was the only remedy. The election of Lincoln was the pivot on which the result turned. The cause ran back through thirty years of controversy to the difference in climate, in occupation, ane Soto,— its first settlement at St. Augustine, its history under the Spaniards, and the Seminole War are described in earlier pages (tf this book. After the purchase from Spain, the Territory of Florida was organized March 30, 1822. Texas, the twenty-eighth State, was admitted to the Union December 29, 1845. It was explored by La Salle (p. 39). The Spaniards afterwards explored and partly settled the couutrj', establishing missions at various points. These did not prosper, however, and the region was populated mainlj' by roving bands of Indians. Civil war had im- poverished the few settlers who were unable to flee from the country, and Galveston was nearly deserted, when, in 1820, Moses Austin, a native of Connecticut, obtained from the Spanish authorities in Mexico a grant of land. Emigration from the United States was encouraged, and in 1830 there were 20,000 Americans in Texas. The jealousy of Mexico being excited, acts of oppression followed, and in 1835 the Texaus were driven to begin a war for independence. In 1836 the Mexican President, Santa Anna, attacked the Alii'mo with 4000 men. The fort was garrisoned by only 172 men, and every one of that gallant few died at his post except seven. Mho were killed while asking for quarter. Here David Crockett, the famous hunter, who had volunteered to tight with the Texans for their liberty, fell, i>ierced with wounds, but surrounded by the corpses of those whom he had cut down before he was overpowered. In the battle of Siin Jacinto (map, p. 214), Santa Anna, with 1500 men, was defeated by 800 under General Sam Houston. Santa Anna was soon capturtul, and agreed to tenns of peace. The next year (1837) Texas sought admission into the Union. In 1844 the question was revived. The close of Tylei-'s administration was marked by the signing of a resolution of Congress for its admission. This measure was ratified by Texas the same year. In 1850 the State gave ui) its claim to lands northwest of its present limits, including half of New Mexico and small parts of Oklahoma, Kansas, and Colorado (p. 224). Iowa, the twenty-ninth State, was adnntted to the Union December 28, 1846. Julien Du buque', a Canadian Frenchman, obtained, in 1788, a largo tract of land, including the present site of Dubuque. He there built a fort and traded with the Indians till 1810. The first permanent settlement was made at Burlington, in 1833, by emigrants from Illinois. Tlie same year Dubuque was founded. This region of the Louisiana purchase was successively a part of Missouri, Michigan, and AVisconsin Territories, but was organized separately in 1838. It then included the parts of Minnesota and the Dakotas between the Mississippi and Missouri rivers; but when admitted as a State it was reduced to its present limits. Wisconsin, the thirtieth State, was admitted to the Union May 29, 1848. It was ex- plored l)y French missionaries and traders as early as 1639. Green Bay was founded in 1745. This region was part of the Northwest Territory. It was comprised in the Terri- tory of Illinois, then of Michigan, and in 1836 became a separate Territory. California, the thirty-first State, was admitted to the I'nion September 9, 18.50 (p. 224). Sir Francis Drake, in 1579, sailed along its coast, naming it New Albion (p. 41). In 1769 the Spaniards established the mission of San Diego (de ago), and in 1776 one at 1858] NEW STATES > 247 San Francisco. In 1803 they had eighteen missions with over 15,000 converts, and the government of the country was in the hands of Franciscan monks. The Mexican revolution, in 1822, overthrew the Spanish power in California, and, soon after, the Franciscans were stripped of their wealth and influence. In 1831 the white population did not exceed 5000. From 1843 to 1816 many emigrants from the United States settled in California. By the treaty at the close of the Mexican war, the United States ac- quired Upper California and New Mexico, embracing what are now known as California, Nevada, Utah, and parts of Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Wyoming. The town of San Francisco was known as Yerba Buena (good Jierb) until 1847, when it was given its present name. About that time it had a population of 459, and its chief business was a small trade in exporting hides. The discovery of gold in California gave the city its first great importance. Within eighteen months following December, 1849, the city lost by fire $16,000,000 worth of property, though its population did not exceed 30,000. Such, however, was the enterprise of its citizens that these tremendous losses scarcely interrupted its 'growth or prosperity. Minnesota, the thirty-second State, was admitted to the Union May 11, 1858. In 1680 a French priest named Hennepin penetrated this region. Other travelers fol- lowed, but only within the nineteenth century was the whole country thoroughly explored. Fort Snellingwas established in 1819. The first building in St. Paul was erected about 1838. The Territory of Minnesota was organized in 1849, with the Mis- souri and White Earth rivers for its western boundary, thus embracing nearly twice the area of the present State. At that time its population was less than 5000, consisting chiefiy of whites and half-breeds settled about the various missions and trading posts. In 1851 the Sioux ceded a large tract of land to the United States. After this the popu- lation increased so rapidly that in six years Minnesota applied for admission into the Union. Oregon, the thirty-third State, was admitted to the Union February 14, 1859. In 1792 Captain Gray, of Boston, entered the river to which he gave the name of his ship — Columbia. On his return he made such a flattering report that there was a general desire to know more of the country. After the Lewis and Clark expedition (p. 178) an ex- tensive fur trade soon began. Fort Astoria was built in 1811 by the American Fur Com- pany, of which John Jacob Astor was a prominent member. Hunters and trappers in the employ of American and British companies roamed over the whole region. Fort Vancouver was occupied by the Hudson Bay Company, a British organization, till 1860. After 1836, and especially after 1842, American emigration set overland to this region. The danger of war, which had seriously threatened its dawning prosperity, was averted when the northwest boundary was settled by the treaty of 1846. In 1848 Oregon was organized as a Territory, and included all the land west of the Rocky Mountains between the parallels of 42° and 49° north latitude. In 1850 Congress granted three hundred and twenty acres to every man, and the same to his wife, on condition of residence on the land for four years. Eight thousand claims were made for farms. In 1853 the northern part of Oregon was cut off and constituted Washington Territory ; and in 1859 the present eastern limit of Oregon was established. Kansas, the thirty-fourth State, was admitted to the Union January 29, 1861. Nearly all of this region was part of the Louisiana purchase. After the States of Louisiana, Ai'kansas, Missouri, and Iowa, and Minnesota Territory had been carved from that purchase, there was left a vast unoccupied tract west of the Missouri River, which was organized by the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854. The territorial government of Kansas was proslavery (p. 228), but when the people came to vote on the adoption of a State constitution, the majority were show.i to be antislavery. 248 TOPICAL ANALYSIS 1. Washinfiton's Admin- istration. (I7s'j-y<.) 2. John Adams's Admin- istration. (1707-1801.) 3, Jefferson's Administra- tion. (1801-09.) 4. Madison's Administra- tion. (180'J-17.) 5. Monroe's Administra- tion. (1817- :id.) (>. John Quincy Adams's Adm i n isi ration. (1825-20.) 7. Jackson's Administra- tion. (1820-37.) 8. Van Buren's Adminis- tration. (1837-11.) 9. Harrison and Tyler's Admi nistration. (1841-45.) 10. Polk's Administra- tion. (1845-49.) 11. Taylor and Fillmore's Administration. (1849-53.) 12. Pierce's Administra- tion. (1853-57.) 13. Buchan.-xn's Adminis- tration. (1857-01.) 14. Society before the Civil 15. Industrial History. 16. New States. (1789-1861.) 1. In-iHgruration. 2. Difficulties of the New Government Kiiiaiic 3. Domestic Affairs. h. Nutioiiul Cupital. c. Ciittoii (iin. rf. Wliisky K( iicllion. e. Indiun Wars. 4. Foreign Affairs. \t Great Bntain. Spain and Algiers. France. 5. Political Parties. 1. Domestic Affairs. 2. Foreign Affairs. 3. Political Parties. 1. Purchase of Louisiana. I.cwifl and Clark Expedition. Twelfth Amendment. Aaron Bcirr. . d. Fulton H Steandxiat. Alien and SSeditioii Laws. France. Domestic Affairs. Foreign Affairs. Political Parties. Domestic Affairs. Foreigti Affairs — War with Great Britain. 3. Political Parties. 1. Domestic Affairs. 2. Foreign Affairs. 3. Political Parties. 1. Domestic Affairs. 2. Political Parties. 1. Domestic Affairs. 2. Foreign Affairs. 3. Political Parties. 1. Domestic Affairs. 2. Foreiirn Affairs. 3. Political I'arties. 1. Harrison's Deatlu 2. Domestic Affairs. 3. Foreign Affairs. i. Political Parties. 1. Foreign Aff.iirs. 2. Domestic Affairs. 3. Political Parties. 1. Taylor's Death. 2. Domestic Affaii5. 3. Foreign Affairs. 4. Political Parties. 1. Domestic Affairs. B'oreign .Affairs. Politiral Parties. a. Wi:r with Tripoli. 6. Great Britain and France. Battle of Tippecanoe. a. CaiiKes. h. War on Land, 1812. 1813, 1S14. c. War on .Sea. 1812, I8ia rf. Pence. e. Battli' cif New Orleans. /. Reeulta of the War. 5 4;J»^ *ra^.»gr-'rT>«' CONFEDKKATK CAPITOI. AT KlCUMoM). Revolutionary glory and of national unity, was unfurled throughout the North. The military enthusiasm in the South was equally ardent. Virginia, Arkansas, North Carolina, and Tennessee, which had before hesitated, joined tho Confederacy. Virginia troops seized the United States arsenal at Harpers Ferry and the navy yard near Norfolk. Troops from the ex- treme South were rapidly pushed into Virginia, and threatened Washington. The Sixth Massachusetts Regi- ment, hurrying to the defense of the national capital, was attacked in the streets of Baltimore, and several men THE WAR IN THE EAST 255 1861] were killed. This was the first bloodshed in the Civil War, and it occurred on April 19, the anniversary of Lexington and Concord. In May, Eichmond, Va., was made the Con- federate capital. THE WAR IN THE EAST Arlington Heights and Alexandria, opposite Washington, were seized (May 24) by the national troops. This pro- tected the capital from immediate danger of attack. Fort Monroe, a formidable fortification near the entrance to Chesapeake Bay, was now garrisoned by a heavy force under Greneral B. F. Butler.^ In an expedition made soon WAK IN THE EAST, 1861. after against Big Bethel, the troops fired into each other by mistake, and when they came to attack the Confederate defenses they were repulsed with loss. Western Virginia adhered to the Union, and was ulti- mately formed into a separate State. The Confederates, • At Hampton, whicli Lad been occuiiied by the Confederates, soTiie negroes -were captured who had been employed in building fortifications. Butler declared them " contraband of war," and this gave rise to the popular use of the term "contraband" to mean negro slaves who were set free by Federal soldiera. 256 THE CIVIL WAR [1861 however, occupied it in force. The Federals, under Gen- eral George B. McClellan, defeated them in several battles, wresting most of the region from their control. Shortly afterwards a Confederate force was scut into the Kanawha (ka naw'wa) valley ; but part of it was defeated by General Eosecrans at Caenifex Ferry, and the Confederates were soon forced to withdraw. Almost the only Union victories of this year were achieved in this part of Virginia. Battle of Bull Run (July 21).— The Northern people, seeing many regiments gathered at Washington, were impatient for an advance. The cry " On to Richmond ! " became too strong to be resisted. General Irvin McDowell, with the Army of the Potomac, moved to attack the main body of the Confederates, which was strongly posted, under Beauregard, at Bull Run. After a sharp conflict, the Confederate left was driven from its position. It was rallied, however, on the brigades of General T. J. Jackson * and others, on a plateau in the rear. While the Federal troops were struggling to drive them from this new posi- tion, at the crisis of the battle, several brigades, under Kirby Smith," Early, and others, coming upfi'om the west, successively struck the Union flank and finally drove it in confusion. The reti-eat became a panic-stricken rout, many of the fngitives never stopj)ing till they were safe at Alexandria and Arlington. ' General Boo, as he rallied his men, sliontod: "There's .Tackson standing like a stone wall!" "From that time," says Draper, " the name lie had reeeived in a bap- tism of fire (lisi)laeed that ho had received in a baptism of water, and he was known as ' Stonewall Jackson.' " - Jackson's and Smith's lirifjades formed part of General Joseph E. Johnston's command, which came from Winchester. General Patterson, with 11,(»00 men, had been left to watch Johnston and prevent his joiiiin^c I!eaiire.irarefore the hatth', while more, of his men .arrived Just at tlie. cM-isis of the struRgle. The nnndjcr of Union men who were actually cnj.'at:cd at Bull Run was about 18,000; the number of Confederates engaged, somewhat greater. 1861] BULL RUN 257 The Effect of this defeat was momentous. At first the Northern people were chagrined and disheartened. Then came a renewed determination. They saw the true char- acter of the war, and no longer dreamed that the South could be easily overawed. They were to fight a brave people — Amei'icans, who were to be conquered only by a desperate struggle. Congress voted to enlist 500,000 men. SOLDIEKS' MOMMKNT, BATTLEFIELD OF BULL I'.UN. General McClellan, hero of the brilliant campaign in western Virginia, was appointed to the command of the Army of the Potomac, and soon after, upon General Scott's retirement, became general in chief of all the Federal armies. Balls Bluff (October 21).— About 2000 Federals, who had crossed the Potomac at Balls Bluff on a reconnoiter- ing expedition, were attacked by the Confederates and forced down the bluff to the river. Only about half their number succeeded in reaching the other bank.^ • Colonel Baker, United States senator from Oregon, was among the killed. 258 THE CIVIL WAR [1861 THE WAR IN THE WEST Missouri was largely Union, and did not secede; yet Governor Jackson of this State tried to carry it into the Confederacy, or at least to preserve an armed neutralitj^ Captain Lyon foiled this attempt. He saved the United States arsenal at St. Louis, and easily defeated the gov- ernor's troops. A few weeks later, however, Lyon, now General, found tbat he must either fight the superior forces of Generals McCulloch and Price, or else abandon the southern part of the State. At the head of about 6000, he attacked more than twice that number at Wilsons Creek (August 10). He fell, gallantly leading a charge, and his men were defeated. Soon aft- er, Lexington ' was forced to surrender, WAK IN THE WKST, 18C1. after a brave de- fense. But before long the Confederates were crowded south to Arkansas. Kentucky, like Missouri, did not secede, and tried to remain neutral. Soon both Confederate and Union troops were encam{)ed on her soil, and the State was ravaged by liostil*^ armies." 1 Tliu CoiifeiUM'uU'H, in their liiiiil assault, fought bfliiiul a iiiovnblo breastwork coiuposed ot heiiip bales, which they rolh-d toward thi', fort as they atlvaiiced. '■i In all the border Htates atTairs wen^ in a most lamentable condition. The people were divided in opinion, and some enlisted in each army. As the tide of war surged to 20 40 60 80 100 1861] THE WAR ON THE SEA AND ON THE COAST 259 THE WAR ON THE SEA AND ON THE COAST Early in the war Davis issued a proclamation offering to commission privateers.' In reply, Lincoln declared a blockade of the Southern ports. At that time there were but few efficient vessels on the Northern coast, and the entire Federal navy comprised only forty-two ships; but at the close of the year the navy numbered two hvmdred and sixty-four. Two joint naval and military expeditions were made during the year. The first captured the forts at Hatteras Inlet, N. C. The second took the forts at Poet Royal Entrance, S. C. Port Royal became a great depot for the Union fleet (map, p. 253). The Trent Affair, — Great Britain and France had ac- knowledged the Confederate States as belligerents, thus placing them on the same footing with the United States in respect to military operations. Having, therefore, great hopes of foreign aid, the Southern j^eople appointed Messrs. Mason and Slidell' commissioners to those coun- tries. Escaping through the blockading squadron, they took passage at Havana on the British steamer Trent. Captain Wilkes, of the United States steamer San Jacinto, intercepted the Trent, took off the Confederate envoys, and brought them back to the United States. This pro- duced intense excitement in England. Lincoln, however, promptly disavowed the act and returned the prisoners. and fro, armed bands swept through the country, plundering and murdering those who favored the opposite party. 1 The Savannah was the first privateer which got to sea, but she was captured after having taken only one prize. The Petrel, another privateer, bore down upon the United States frigate St. Lawrctiee, which the captain mistook for a merchant ship; his vessel was simk by a single broadside of his formidable antagonist. The Beaure- gard also was captured, and the operations of other privateers were stopped ])y the blockade within a year. Thereafter Northern commerce was attacked by cruisers (p. 300). 260 THE CIVIL WAR [1861 General Review of the First Year of the War. — The Confederates had seized most of the forts and arsenals in the South, including Fort Sumter and the large arsenals at Hari)ers Ferry and near Norfolk. They had been suc- cessful in the two great battles of the yt'ar — Bull Run and Wilsons Creek ; also in several minor engagements. The Federals had saved Fort Pickens^ and Fort Monroe, and captured the forts at Hatteras Inlet and Port Royal. They had also gained several minor vietoi-ies. They had saved Missouri, Maryland, and western Virginia to the Union. Principally, however, they had thrown the whole South into a state of siege — the armies on the north and the west by land, and the navy on the east by sea, maintaining a vigilant blockade. COLLATERAL READING Bull Bun. — Schouler'B History of the United States, vol. vi. pp. 76-81. 1862 The Situation. — The Federal armies now numbered 500,000 ; the Confederate, about 350,000. The Northern campaign of 186:2 had three main objects: (1) the opening of the Mississippi; (2) the blockade of the Southern ports, and (3) the capture of Richmond. THE WAR IN THE WEST West of the Appalachian Mountains the Confederates held a line of defense with strongly fortified posts at Columbus, Fort Henry, Fort Don'elson, Bowling Green, Mill Springs, and Cumberland Gap. The Federal army acted on the offensive, ' This fort waR situated near Pensacola. Lieutenant Blcnimer, si^eing tliat an attack was aV»out to ho. made ui)on liiiu, transferred liis ineu tntm Kort McRae, an untoiialile position, to Fort Pickens, an almost iiupref^ahle fortitlcation, which he held untij reeuforceuients arrived. 1862] THE WAE IN THE WEST 261 Capture of Forts Henry and Donelson. — Early in Feb- ruary, General Grant with an army and Flag Officer Foote with his ganboats advanced upon Fort Henry.' A bombardment (February 6) from the gunboats reduced the place in about an hour. The land troops were to cut off the retreat ; but as they did not arrive in time, the garri- lIlCllUldtl\ O H I Qi WAK IN TUB WEST, 1862. son escaped to Fort Donelson. The fleet now went back to the Ohio, and ascended the Cumberland, while Grant crossed to cooperate in an attack on Fort Donelson. The fight lasted three days.^ The fleet was repulsed by the 1 Though Grant's movement was the first great blow at the Confederate line, there had been an earlier one of considerable importance. In January, General Thomas had advanced against Mill Springs, and, on the 19th, defeated the Confederate force near that place, with the loss of General Zollicoftor, a favorite Southern leader. 2 For four nights of inclement winter weather, amid snow and sleet, with no tents, shelter, or lire, and many with no blankets, the hardy Western troops under Grant main- tained their position. The wounded suffered intensely, and numbers of them froze to death as they lay on the icy ground. 262 THE CIVIL WAK [1862 fire from the fort; but Grant, having been reenforced till he had nearly 30,000 men, outfought the Confederates. As he was about to make the final assault, the fort was sur- rendered * (February 16), with about 15,000 men.- Effect of these Victories. — Bowling Green and Columbus, the latter deemed almost impregnable, were now evacu- ated by the Confederates, while General BucU at once occupied Nashville with a Union army. The Confederates fell back to Corinth and Island No. 10,' and were reen- forced. A large Union army ascended the Tennessee to Pittsburg Landing. Grant was placed in command, and General Buell was ordered to join him. Battle of Shiloh (April 6, 7). — Generals Albert Sidney Johnston andBeam-egardled the Confederates from Corinth in an attempt to rout Grant's army before the arrival of Buell. On Sunday morning at daylight, moving out of the woods in line of battle, they suddenly fell on the Union camps, which had not been intrenched. The Federals slowly yielded, but for twelve hours obstinately disputed every inch of the way. At last, pushed to the very brink of the river, Grant massed his artillery, and gathered about it the fragments of regiments for a final stand. The Confederates, to meet them, had to cross a deep ravine, where, struggling through the mud and water, they melted away under the fire of cannon and musketry ' When General Buckner, comniander of the fort, wrote to General (irant offering capitulation, Grant replied : " No term«exp. 266, 267). '^ General Halleclt having been called to Washin-jton as general in chief of the armies of the United States, General Grant was appointed to the command of this anny. 3 Smith moved from Knoxville througti the Cumberland Gap, routed a Union force under General Manson at Richmond, Ky., inflicting a heavy loss, and tlien moved north as far as Cynthiaua. There he threatened to attack both Cincinnati and Louisville. 1862] THE WAR IN THE WEST 265 In the darkness, however, Bragg left the field, and, joined by Smith, soon retreated safely by way of Cumberland Gap, with wagon trains many miles long. Battles of luka and Corinth. — Every one of Grant's vet- erans who could possibly be spared had been sent north to help Buell. The Confederates Price and Van Dorn, taking advantage of the opportunity, were maneuvering to get possession of Corinth. Grant boldly sent Rosecrans to capture Price at luka, but after a severe conflict (Sep- tember 19) the latter escaped. Thereupon, the two Con- federate generals joined their forces and attacked Rose- crans in his intrenchments at Corinth (October 4). The Confederates exhibited brilliant courage, but were defeated with heavy loss and pursued forty miles. Battle of Murfreesboro (December 31, January 2). — Shortly after the battles of Corinth and Perry ville, Rose- crans superseded Buell, and concentrated his new forces at Nashville. Thence he marched to attack Bragg, who had established his army at Murfreesboro. Both generals formed the same plan^ for the approaching contest. As the Union left was crossing Stone River to attack the Con- federate right, the strong Confederate left fell heavily on the weak Union right, crushing it back on the Union center. Here Thomas held firm, and Rosecrans was enabled to establish a new line, at right angles with the old. Upon this new front the Confederates charged four times, but were driven back. The Union left, meanwhile, was recalled, and Rosecrans remained on the defensive. Two days after, Bragg attacked the Union left, but was repulsed, and soon retreated to Tullahoma. This was 1 The plan was to mass the strength on the left, and with that to fall upon and crush the enemy's right. The advantage lay with the army which stru( k first. Bragg secured tlie initiative, and Rosecrans's only course was to give up aU thought of an attack and endeavor to save Ms right from a rout. B. HIST. U. 8. — 16 266 THE CIVIL WAR [1862 one of the bloodiest contests of the war, the loss being about one fourth of the number engaged. Its effect was to reduce Bragg's force from an offensive to a defensive attitude. First Vicksburg Expedition. — While Rosecrans was moving against Bragg, an expedition against Vicksburg had been planned by Grant. But, by a brilliant cavalry dash, Van Dorn destroyed Grant's depot of supplies at Holly Spkings, and thus spoiled the plan. Meanwhile, Sherman, under Grant's orders, descended the Mississippi to cooperate in the expedition. He made an attack at Chickasaw Bluff, north of Vicksburg; but after suffering a bloody repulse, and learning of Grant's misfortune, he fell back. This campaign was closed by the capture of Arkansas Post (January 11, 1863) by a combined army and naval force. THE war on the SEA AND ON THE COAST Capture of New Orleans (April 25). — The effort to open the Mississippi was not confined to the North. Early in the spring Flag Officer Farragut, with a fleet of over forty vessels, carrying a laud force under General Butler, at- tempted the capture of New Orleans. The mortar boats, dressed out with leafy branches to render them indistin- guishable from the green woods, were anchored along the bank of the river below the city, and threw thirteen-inch shells into Forts Jackson and St. Philip for six days and nights. Farragut then boldly resolved to carry the fleet past these defenses of New Orleans. At about three o'clock in the morning (April 24) the gunboats* advanced, and poured grape and canister into the forts at short • Tbe vessels were made partly ironcl.ad by looping cliain cables in two layers over tbeir sides, and their engines were protected by bags of sand, coal, etc. 1862] THE WAR ON THE SEA AND ON THE COAST 267 range, receiving in return heavy volleys from the forts and batteries on shore. After running a fearful gantlet of shot, shell, and the flames of fire-rafts, they next began a desperate struggle with the Confederate fleet of fifteen vessels, all of which were de- stroyed or captured. The Union fleet then steamed up to New Orleans,^ which lay helpless der the Union guns The forts, being now threatened in the rear by the army, soon surrendered, and New Orleans was occupied by Greneral Butler. Flag Of- ficer Farragut afterwards ascend- ed the river, and, running past the batteries at Vicksburg, joined the Union fleet above. The Atlantic Coast. — Burnside's expedition against Roanoke Island was an important step toward the enforce- ment of the blockade. The Confederate forts were- cap- 1 steamers, sailing ships, vast quantities of cotton, etc., were now burned to pre- vent their falling into Federal hands. Pollard says : "No sooner had the Federal fleet turned the point and come within sight of the city, than the worlr of destruction com- menced. Vast columns of smoke darkened the face of heaven aud obscured the noon- day sun; for five miles along the levee fierce flames darted through the lurid atmos- phere. Great ships and steamers wrapped in fire floated down the river, threatening the Federal vessels with destruction. Fifteen thousand bales of cottoa, worth one million and a half of dollars, were consumed. About a dozen large river eteamboats. 268 THE CIVIL WAR [1862 tured and the ships destroyed.' Then Newbern, EUza- beth City, aud Fort Macon, at the entrance to Beaufort (bo'furt) harbor, were taken. Thus most of the North Carolina coast, with its intricate network of water com- munication, fell into Union hands. Port Eoyal, after its capture (1861), became the base of operations against Florida and Georgia, resulting in the capture of several coast towns. Fort Pulaski, also, was reduced after a severe bombardment, and thus the port of Savannah was closed. At the end of the year every city of the Atlantic sea- coast, except Savannah, Charleston, and Wilmington, was held by the Federal armies. The Merrimac and the Monitor. — Early in the afternoon of March 8 the long-dreaded ironclad Merrimac " steamed from Norfolk into Hampton Eoads. Steering directly for the Federal sloop of war Ciiiuherland, whose terrific broadsides glanced harmlessly "like so many peas" from the Merrlmac's iron roof, she struck the Cumberland squarely with her iron beak, making a large hole in the ship's side, and thus sinking her." Thus warned, the cap- tain of the frigate Congress ran his vessel ashore; but the Merrimac fired sheUs into the frigate till the helpless twelve or fifteen sliipa, a RT'^nt floating battery, several luiflnislied {runl)oat8, the iiu- meuHC ram Mimslnsipjn, aud the docks on the otlier side of tlie river were all embraced in tlie fiery Kaerifice." > Roanoke Iwland, the Rcene of Raleigli's colonization sclieme (p. 4:!), was the key to the rear defenses of Norfolk. "It unlocked two Bounds, eiBht rivers, four canals, and two railroads." It afforded a convenient station for ships, and exposed a large country to attack. i! When tlio United States navy yard near Norfolk, Va., was given up (p. 254), the steam frigate Merrimac, the finest in the service, was scuttled. The Confed- erateJi afterwards raised tliis vessel, razeed the deck, added an iron prow and a sloping iron-plated roof, and rechristened tbe vessel the Virffinia. The ship was commanded by Commodore Franklin Buchanan, a superior naval ofticer. 3 As the Cumberland sank, the crew continiu-fl to work their gUTis until tlie vessel plunged beneath the sea. Her flag was never struck, but floated above the water from the masthead after she had gone down. 1862] THE MERRIMAO AND THE MONITOR 269 crew were forced to surrender. At sunset the Merrimac returned to Norfolk, awaiting, the next day, au easy vic- tory over ^the rest of the Union fleet. That night the Monitor'^ arrived in Hampton Roads and prepared to meet her giant adversary. Early in the morning the Merrimac moved toward a Union steam frigate. Sud- denly the little Monitor darted out and hurled at the mon- ster two 166-pound balls. Startled by the appearance MEKIilMAC AND MONITOR. of this unexpected antagonist, the Merrimac poured in a broadside such as had destroyed the Congress, but the balls rattled harmlessly off the Monitofs turret and deck. Thus began the battle of the iron ships — the first of the kind in the world. Close against each other, 1 This "Yankee cheese-1)ox," as it ■was nicknamed at the time, was the invention of Captain Ericsson. It was a hull, with the deck a few inches ahove the water, and in the center a strong round tower made to revolve slowly by steam power, thus turning in any direction the two large guns it contained. The upper part of the hull, which was exposed to the enemy's tire, projected several feet beyond the lower part, and was made of thick white oak, covered with iron plating five inches thick on the sides and one inch on deck. 270 TfiE CIVIL WAR [18C2 iron rasping on iron, they exchanged their heaviest shots. Five times the Merrimac tried to run down the Monitor, but her huge beak only grated over the iron deck, while the Monitor glided out unharmed. Despairing of doing injury to her doughty antagonist, the Merrimac now steamed back to Norfolk.' The Effect of this contest can hardly be overestimated. Had the Merrimac triumphed, aided by other iron vessels then being prepared by the Confederacy, she might have destroyed the rest of the Union fleet in Hampton Roads, prevented the Peninsular campaign (see below), swept through the shipping at New York, sailed along the coast and broken up the blockade, opened the way for foreign supplies, made an egress for cotton, and perhaps secured the recognition of the Confederacy by European nations. On this battle hinged the fate of the war. THE WAR IN THE EAST The Peninsular Campaign. — Richmond was the objec- tive point in the East. After long delays, it was decided to make the advance by way of the peninsula between the York and James rivers ; and the Army of the Potomac, under McClellan, was carried in transports down the Chesa- peake from Washington.- Landing at Fort Monroe about 90,000 strong (April 4 and later), they slowly marched toward Yorktown. • As the Merrimac drew oflf, she hurled a last shot, which, striking the Monitor's pilots house, broke a bar of iron nine by twelve inches, seriously injuring the eyes of the gal- lant commander, Lieutenant Wordeu, who was at that moment looking out through a narrow slit and directing the movements of his ship. 2 Previous to this (March 10) McClellan made an advance toward Manassas, where the Confederates had remained intrentthed since McDoweil's defeat. The fortifica- tions, -which were evacuated on his approach, were found to be quite insigniticant, and to be mounted partly with " Quaker guns," I.e. logs shaped and painted to imitate aotillery. 1862] THE PENINSULAR CAMPAIGN 271 'HviliuifiKtoni;: Yorktown and Williamshurg. — At Yorktown General Ma- gruder maintained so bold a front along a line thirteen miles in length that McClellan was brought to a stop. Heavy guns were ordered from Washington, and a siege was begun. The garrison, having delayed McClellan a month, withdrew just as he was ready to open fire.^ When the Confederate movement was discovered, a vigorous pursuit was com- menced. At Wil- liamsburg a long fight took place with the Confed- erate rear guard, placed there by General Joseph E. Johnston to gain time for the bag- gage train (May 5). The town was evacuated at night, and Mc- Clellan gradually moved to within seven miles of Richmond. Biclimond Threatened. — There was a great panic in Rich- mond, and the Confederate Congress hastily adjourned, in expectation of an immediate attack. But a Confederate force at Hanover Court House now threatened McClel- ?'Baitiui()W.i?<-.V''' ■■''■'■('/, ^,''e;j.}j Ft. Monroe I'lJthJ.. NoiTolk WAK IN THE EAST, 1862. • On the evacuation of Yorktown,— the Confederate forces being concentrated foi the defense of Richmond, — Norfolk was abandoned, the navy yard burned, and the Merrimac, the pride of the South, blown up. United States troops from Fort Monroe took possession of the city, and gunboats sailed up the James River almost to Rich- mond. At Fort Darling a plunging fire from the bluff forbade further advance. 272 THE CIVIL WAR [1862 lau's rear, and also liis communications witli General McDowell, who, with 30,000 men, was at Fredericksburg, preparing; to join him. McClellan sent part of his army, under General Fitz John Porter, to capture Hanover Court House. By the time this was done, however, he learned that McDowell's army had been ordered away on other duty. This change in the Union plan was caused by Jackson^s Shenaiido'ah Campaign. — General Stonewall Jackson had been ordered to move down the Shenandoah valley and threaten Washington. The Union troops under General Banks fell back before his advance, and by tremendous exertion succeeded in escaping across the Potomac. Great was the c.onsternation in "Washington. The President took military possession of the railroads. The governors of the Northern States were called upon to send troops for the defense of the capital. Fremont at Franklin, Banks at Williamsport, and McDowell at Fred- ericksburg were ordered to capture Jackson. It was high time for this dashing leader to be alarmed. He rapidly retreated, destroying bridges as he passed. Fremont brought him to bay at Cross Keys (June 8), but was hurled off. Shields struck at him at Port Republic^ the next day, but was driven back five miles, and Jackson then quietly left the Shenandoah valley. With 15,000 men, Jackson had absorbed the attention of three major gen- erals and 60,000 men, prevented McDowell's junction with McClellan, alarmed Washington, and saved Richmond. Battle of Fair Oaks (May 31, June 1). — Meanwhile 1 When a small Federal force captured the bridge over the Shenandoah at Port Republic (June 8), Jacksou and liis staff wore cut oft" from his army. It is said that "he rode toward the bridge, and, rising in his stirrups, calle), and defeated him after a bloody battle, but, unable to maintain his position, fell back on Lee's advanciuf^ army. Pope, seeing th(; fearful odds against which he was to contend, took post behind the Uai)pahau'noek. -' During the pursuit by Lee's forces an engagement took place at Ciiantii-'ly (Sep- tember 1). It cost the Union army two able otTicers, Generals Stevens and Kearny. The latter especially was devotedly loved by his soldiei-s. On the battlefleld, bran- dishing his .sword in his only hand and taking the reins in his teeth, he had often led them in the ir.ost desperate and irresistible cliarges. 3 This was September 0, the very day that Bragg entered Kentucky on his greatraid. 1862] INVASION OP MARYLAND 277 secure volunteers there. McClellan, who had resumed command of all the troops near Washington, set out in pursuit. On the way he found a copy of Lee's order of march, and learned from this that Lee had divided his forces, sending part of them to take Harpers Ferry.' Overtaking the Confederate rear at South Mountain and forcing the passes, the Union army poured into the valley beyond. Battle of Antietam (September 17). — Lee fell back west of Antietam (an te'tam) Creek, and sent off couriers to hasten the return of his troops at Harpers Ferry. Fortu- nately for him, McClellan delayed his attack a day, and in the meantime Jackson arrived. The Union army was over 80,000 strong, and the Confederate but half that number. The Union right, under Hooker, advanced im- petuously, but was repulsed. The struggle was long and obstinate. The Union left, under Burnside, advanced too late to relieve the pressure on the right. Night ended this bloody fight. The morning found neither commander ready to assail his opponent. That night Lee retired un- molested across the Potomac. Six weeks after, the Union army also crossed into Virginia. The Effect of this indecisive battle was that of a Union victory. The North was saved from invasion, and Wash- ington from any danger of attack. Lincoln now issued a proclamation to the effect that on the following January 1 he would declare freedom to the slaves in all States and parts of States then in arms against the Union.^ 1 These troops, 25,000 strong, were under Jackson. That redoubtable leader quickly carried the heights which overlook Harpers Ferry, forced Colonel Miles, with 11,000 men, to surrender, and then hastened back to take part in the approaching contest on the Antietam. - Lincoln prepared the original draft in the July preceding, when the Union forces were in the midst of reverses. Carpenter repeats President Lincoln's words thus : " I put the draft of the proclamation aside, waiting for a victory. Well, the next news we 278 THE CIVIL WAR [1862 Battle of Fredericksburg. — General dissatisfaction being expressed at the slowness with which McClellan pursued the retreating army, Greneral Burnside was appointed his successor. Crossing the Rappahannock on pontoon bridges at Fredericksburg, he stormed the works in the rear of the town (December 13). The Confederates, in- trenched behind a long stone wall ' and on heights crowned with artillery, easily repulsed the repeated assaults of the Union troops. Night mercifully put an end to the fruit- less sacrifice. The Federal army drew back into the city, and two nights after passed quietly across the bridges to their old camping ground. General Review of the Second Year of the War. — The Confederates had gained the victories of Jackson in the Shenandoah valley; of Lee in the Peninsular campaign and against Pope; Bragg's great raid in Kentucky; and the battles of Fredericksburg and Chickasaw Blutf. The Federals had taken Forts Henry, Donelson, Pulaski, Macon, Jackson, St. Philip, and Island No. 10 ; had opened had waa of Pope's disaster at Bull Run. Things looked darker than ever. Finally came the week of the battle of Antictam. I determined to wait no longer. The news came, I think, on Wednesday, that the advantage was on our side. I was then staying at the Soldiers' Home. Here I tinished writing the second di-aft of the proclamation ; came up on Saturday ; called the Cabinet together to hear it; and it was published the following Monday. I made a solemn vow before God, thai if General Lee tvas driven back from Man/laud I would crown the result by the declaration of freedom to the slaves." ' Sheltered behind this stone wall at the base of Marycs Heights, the Confederates poured a withering lire on their assailants. Six brigades of Federals, Hancock's and French's divisions, made the assault with heroic valor, winning much glory even in defeat. Under Hancock, the brigades of Zook, Meagher, and Caldwell achieved equal distinction with cruel losses. Of the charge of Meagher's Irish brigade, the London Times correspondent, an eyewitness, wrote : " Never at Fontenoy, at Albuera, or at Waterloo was more uudoubt<'.d courage displayed by the sons of Erin than during those six frantic dashes which they directed against the almost impregnable position of their foe. That any mortal men could have carried the position, defended as it was. It seems idle to believe. But the bodies which lie in dense masses within forty yards of the muzzles of Colonel Walton's guns are the best evidence what manner of men they were who pressed on to death with the dauntlessness of a race which has gained glory on a thousand battledelds, and never more richly deserved it than at the foot of Maryes HeightB, December 13, 1862." 1862] THE SIOUX WAR 279 the Mississippi to Vicksburg; occupied New Orleans, Roanoke Island, Newbern, Yorktown, Norfolk, and Mem- phis ; gained the battles of Pea Ridge, Williamsburg, Fair Oaks, South Mountain, Antietam, Perry ville, luka, Corinth, and Murfreesboro; and checked the career of the Merrimac. The marked successes were mainly in the West and along the coast ; while in Virginia, as yet, defeats had followed victories so soon as to hide their memory. The Sioux War. — In the midst of this civil strife the Sioux (soo) Indians became dissatisfied with the Indian traders, and over the nonpayment of money due them. Bands of warriors under Little Crow and other chiefs perpetrated horrible massacres in Minnesota, Iowa, and Dakota. Over 700 whites were slain and many thousands driven from their homes. Colonel Sibley routed the sav- ages and took 500 prisoners. Thirty-nine were hanged on one scaffold at Mankato, Minn. COLLATERAL READING The Peninsular Campaign. — Scliouler's History of the United States, vol. vi. pp. 188-214. 1863 The Situation. — The plan of the war in 1863 was the same as in the preceding year, but included also the occu- pation of Tennessee. The Federal army was about 700,000 strong ; the Confederate not more than half that number. The Emancipation Proclamation was issued at the open- ing of the year. THE WAR IN THE WEST The Second Expedition against Vicksburg. — Grant con- tinued his great task of opening the Mississippi. After several weeks of fruitless effort against Vicksburg upon 280 THE CIVIL WAR [1863 the north, he marched down the west side of the river, while the gunboats, running the batteries,' passed below the city and ferried the army across. Hastening forward, he defeated part of General Pemberton's army at Port Gibson (May 1). Learning that General Joseph E. Johnston was coming to Pemberton's assistance, he I'apidly pushed between them, and defeated John- ston at Jackson (May 14). Then, turning to the west, he drove Pemberton from his position at Champion Hills (May 1(5) and at Big Black River (May 17), and in twenty days after cross- ing the Mississippi shut up Pemberton's army within the works at Vicksburg. Two desperate assaults upon these having failed, the Union troops threw up in- trenchments and began a siege.'^ The garrison, worn out by forty-seven days of toil in the trenches, surrendered on the 4th of July. The Effect. — This campaign cost the Confederates the 1 The runiiinf; of tho batteries with transporta was considered so hazardous that the officers would not order their crews to take tlie risk, but caUed lor volunteers. So many privates offered tliat they were compelhid to draw lots. The gantlet of batteries ex- tended fourteen niih^s. The first gunboat crept silently down in the sliadow of the trees which lined the bank. The Confederates at Vicksburg, discovering the move- ment, kindled bonfires, which lighted up the whole scene and made the other vessels a fair target for their gunners. * Mines and countermines were now dug. Not one of the garrison couid 8how his head at)Ove the works without l)eing i>icked olT by the watchful riflemen A hat held above a porthole in two minutes was pierced with fifteen balls. Shel.s reached all parts of the city, and the inhabitants burrowed in caves to escape the iron stonu. U lU CO 30 40 WAK IS THE WEST, 1863. 18G3] THE WAR IN THE WEST 281 cities of Vicksburg and Jackson, 37,000 prisoners, 10,000 killed and wounded, and immense stores. Four days after the fall of Vicksburg, Port Hudson, which had been besieged by General Banks for many weeks, surrendered. The Mississippi was now open to the Gulf, and the Confederacy was cut in twain/ One great object of the North was accomplished. THE WAR IN TENNESSEE AND GEORGIA Rosecrans, after the battle of Murfreesboro, made no forward movement until June." With 60,000 men he then marched against Bragg, and in two I'rilliant campaigns maneuvered him out of Tul- lahoma and (Sept. 8) out of Chattanooga. Rosecrans pushed on after Bragg, who was in full retreat. Bragg, however, having received powerful reenf orcein ents, turned upon his pursuers so suddenly that they nar- rowly escaped being cut up in detail while scattered over a distance of forty miles r I E H M L S S E E 1 6 i) 10 VICINITY OF CHATTANOOGA. The Union forces rapidly concentrated, and the two armies met on the Chickamauga 'Thereafter the operations west of the river wore of minor importance. In Au- gust, Quantrell, a noted guerrilla, entered Lawrence, Kan., with 300 men, plundered the bank, burned houses, murdered 140 persons, and escaped before a sutficient force could be gathered to oppose him. This created greater excitement than many liattles. 2 One objection which Rosecrans opposed to a forward movement was hia inferiority in cavalry. This was removed in Julj-, when General John H. Morgan, with about 2500 Confederate cavalry, crossed the Ohio River into Indiana, swept around Cincinnati, and struck the river agam opposite West Virginia. During his entire raid he Tvaa harassed by militia. He was now overtaken bj' his pursuers, while gunboats in the river prevented his crossing. Nearly the entire force was captured. Morgan B. HIST. u. 8.— 17 282 THE CIVIL WAR [1803 Battle of Chickamauga (September 19, 20).— The first day's fight was inconclusive. About noon of the second day, through a mistaken order, a gap was left in the Federal line, already weakened from the movement of troops to help the left wing, then hard pressed. Longstreet, who was moving forward to attack the Federal right with eight brigade^, swept through the gap and drove most of the Federal right and center from the field. The rushing crowd of fugitives bore Rosecrans himself away. In this crisis of the battle all depended on the left, under Thomas. If that yielded, the army would be utterly routed. All through the long afternoon the entire Confederate army surged against it. But Thomas held fast.^ At night he deliberately withdrew to Rossville, and the next night to Chattanooga. The Union army, liowever, defeated in the field, was now shut up in its intrenchments. Bragg held the hills near the city, and cut off its principal communi- cations. The garrison was threatened with starvation. Battle of Ckattanooga (November 24, 25). — Grant, hav- ing been appointed to command the Mississippi Division, hurried to Chattanooga.^ Affairs soon wore a different look. Hooker, who had come with two corps from the Army of the Potomac,^ helped to reestablish communications. Sherman's army, on its way from Vicksburg, hastened by forced marches the last 200 miles of its journey. Thomas made a dash and seized Orchard Knob (November 23). escaped, but was finally taken and confined in the penitentiary at Columbus. Foiu^ months afterward he broke jail and reached the Southern lines in safety. 1 Thouias was thenceforth styled the " Rock of Chickamauga." He was in com- mand of men as brave as himself. 2 Rosecrans was now relieved, and Thomas put in his place. Grant, afraid that Thomas might surrender before he could arrive, telegraphed him to hold fast. The characteristic reply was: "We will hold the town till we starve." 3 Over 20,000 strong, they were carried by rail from the Rapldan in Virginia to Stevenson in Alabama, 1102 miles, in seven days. The Confederates did not know of the movement until several days after it had commenced. 1863] BATTLE OF CHATTANOOGA 283 The following day Hooker, advancing from the west, easily fought his way around the north end of Lookout Mountain,^ whereupon the Confederates abandoned their impregnable position on the summit.^ The next day Hooker advanced on the south of Missionary Ridge. Sherman had been heavily pounding away on the north- ern flank. Grant, from his position on Orchard Knob, FIGHTING FOR THIC CUKST OF Mli^SIONAKY RIDGE. thinking that the Confederate line in front was being weakened to repel these attacks on the flanks, felt that the critical moment had come, and launched Thomas's 1 Through the inist that enveloped the mountain, the watchers below caught only glimpses of this far-famed "battle above the clouds." 2 November 24, the Confederate left rested ou Lookout Mountain, there 2400 feet high; the right, along Missionary Ridge — so called because, many years ago. Chris- tian missionaries had Indian schools upon it ; and the center, in the valley be- tween. November 25, their army simply occupied Missionary Ridge in front of Grant at Orchard Knob. 284 THE CIVIL WAU [1863 troops on its center, the orders being to take the rifle pits at the foot of Missionary Ridge. These were carried, but were found to be untenable on account of the batteries on the crest, so the men swept on up the ascent without waiting for further orders. Up they went, over rocks and chasms, all lines broken, the flags far ahead, each surrounded by a group of the bravest. Heedless of the tempest hurled upon them, they surmounted the crest, captured the guns, and turned them on the retreating foe. That night the Union camp fires, glistening along the heights abont Chattanooga, proclaimed the success of this the most brilliant of Grant's achievements and the most picturesque of the battles of the war. The secure possession of Chattanooga by the Union forces gave control of East Tennessee ^ and opened the way to the heart of the Confederacy. THE WAR IN THE EAST Battle of Chancellorsville (May 2, 3). — Burnside, after the defeat at Fredericksburg, was succeeded by General Hookei-, early in the year 1863. A temporary reduction of Lee's force, leaving Lee only 60,000 to oppose to the Potomac Army of over 100,000, offered a favorable oppor- tunity for an attack. Accordingly, while Sedgwick was left to attack Fredericksburg, the main body of Hooker's army crossed the Rappahannock some miles above, and 1 Burnside, ex-comniiiiKlor of the Army of tho Potoinac, liud born noiit into KastTcn- nossoc, when; lie <'aptiireilKNO.\viLLi; (8cptt'iiil)er2). While Uragg was besiefriiijr Chat- tanooga, the Confederate President, Davis, visited him, and, tliinlving ChattanooKa was Htire to be ; aptiircd, sent Lnnfj^strect witli liis corps to inov<^ ajrainst Uurnside. Lomk- street slnit up Burnsido's force in tho works at Knox villc, and made a despenif e assault (November 20), wliich was as heroically repulsed. Meanwhili^ Grant, immediately after his splendid triumph at Chattanooga, ordered Shernian's troops over terrible roads too miles to Buniside's relief. On their approach, Longstreet withdrew (Docem- ber 4) and retreated toward Virginia. 1863] THE WAR IN THE EAST 285 took position in the Wilderness, near Chancellors ville. Lee, relying on the dense woods to conceal his movements, risked the perilous plan of dividing his army in the presence of a superior enemy. While he remained in front, Jackson, by a detour of fifteen miles, got to the rear with 20,000 men, and, suddenly bursting out of the dense woods, routed the Union right. That night Hooker took a new position ; but, by constant at- tacks through the next day, Lee gradually forced the Union line from the field of battle. Meanwhile Sedgwick had crossed the Rap- pahannock, taken Fred- eiMcksburg, and made war in the east, ises. a diversion in Lee's rear. But after severe fighting he was compelled to recross the river. Hooker also decided to recross, and did so unmolested. The Army of the Potomac was soon back on its old camping ground opposite Fred- ericksburg.' Lee's Second Invasion of the North. — Lee, encouraged by his success, now determined to carry the war into Maryland and Pennsylvania. With the finest army the South had ever sent forth, the flower of her troops, 1 In this battle the South was called to mourn the death of stonewall Jackson, whose magic name was worth to its cause more than an army. In the evening after his successful onslaught upon the flank of the Union line, while riding back to camp from a reconnoissance at the front, he was tired upon and mortally wounded by his own men, who mistook his escort for Federal cavalry. '2Hb THE CIVIL WAR [ISeS carefully equipped and confident of success,* he rapidly moved into the Shenandoah valley, crossed the Potomac, and advanced into Pennsylvania. The Union army fol- lowed a little farther east. Battle of Gettysburg (July 1-:]).— First ])ai/.— The Confederate advance unexpectedly met the Union cavalry near Gettysburg." Reenforcements came up on both sides; but the Federal troops were finally forced back, and, becoming entangled in the streets of the village, lost many prisonerr,. All that night the troops kept arriving and taking their j^ositions by moonlight, to be ready for the contest which they saw was now close at hand.'' Second Day. — In the afternoon Longstreet led the first grand charge against the Union left, in order to secure I The Union disasters whlcli had happened since tlie beginning of the jear encouraged Southern hope that Leo might even dictate tenns of peace in Philadelpliia or New York. Galveston, Tex., -which had been seized by the Federals, had been retaken by General Magruder, whereby not only valuable stores had been acquired, but a seaport had been opened and the Union cause in Texas depressed. The naval attack ou Charles- ton had proved a failure (p. 288). An attempt to captiu-e Fort McAllister, near Savannah, had met with nosuccess. Rosecranshad made no progress agaiust Bragg. Banks had not then taken Port Hudson. Vicksburg still kept Grant at bay. The Army of Jhe Potomac had been checked at Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville, and at one time 200 soldiers a day were deserting its ranks. The term of service of over forty regi- ments had expired, and the strength of the army was now ouly 80,000. The cost of the war was enormous, and a strong peace party had arisen in the North. The draft was very unpopular. Indeed, just after Lee's invasion a riot broke out in New York to resist the draft. Houses were burned, negroes were pursued in the streets, and, when captured, were beaten and oven hanged; for three days the city was a scene of out- rage and violence. '■i "Neither general had planned to have tiio fight at this place; Lee had intended not to fight at all, except a defensive battle, and Meade proposed to make the contest at Pipe Creek, about fifteen miles southeast from Gettysburg. The movement of cavalry whicai brought on this great battle was only a screen to conceal the Union army marching toward Meade's desired battlefield." — Drapeh. 3 The Union line was upon a fishhook-shaped ridge about six miles long, with CiUps Hill at the barb, Cemetery Ridge along the side, and Little Round Top and Round Top, two eminences, at the eye. The Confederate line was on Seminary Ridge, at a distance of about a mile and a half. The Union troops lay behind rock ledges and stone walls, while the Confederates were largely hidden in the woods. In the valley between were fields of grain and pastureis where cattle were feeding, all unconscious of the gathering storm. 1863] BATTLE OF GETTYSBURG 287 Little Eound Top. Greneral Sickles, by mistake, had here taken a position in front of Meade's intended line of battle. The Confederates, far outflanking, swung around him; but, as they reached the top of the hill, they met a brigade which Warren had sent just in time to defeat this attempt. Sickles was, however, driven back to Cemetery Ridge, where he stood firm. Ewell, in an attack on the Federal right, succeeded in getting a position on Gulps Hill.^ CONFEDERATE CHARGE, THIRD DAY AT GETTYSBCRG. Third Bay. — At 1 p.m. Lee suddenly opened on Ceme- tery Ridge with one hundred and fifty guns. For two hours the air was alive with shells." Then the cannonade lulled, and out of the woods swept the Confederate battle line, over a mile long, and preceded by a cloud of skir- • Lee, encouraged by these successes, resolved to continue tbe figbt. The Confed- erate victorios, however, were only apparent. Sickles had been forced into a better position than at first, and tbe one which Meade had intended lie should occupy ; while Ewell was driven out of the Union works early the next morning. - It is customary in battle to demoralize the enemy, before a grand infantry charge by concentrating upon the desired point a tremendous artillery lire. 288 THE CIVIL WAR [186^ misliers. A thrill of admiration ran along the Union ranks as, silently and with disciplined steadiness, that magnificent line of over 12,000 men moved up the slope of Cemetery Ridge. A hundred guns tore great gaps in their front. Infantry volleys smote their ranks. The line was broken, yet they pushed forward. They planted their battle flags on the breastworks. They bayoneted the cannoneers at their guns. But no human endurance could stand the converging fire of the Federals. Whole companies rushed as prisoners into the Union lines, while the rest sullenly withdrew.^ On the night of July 4, Lee retreated. The Federal loss in the three days' fight was 23,000 ; the Confederate loss, over 20,000. Meade slowly followed Lee, who recrossed the Potomac and took position back of the Eapidan. The Effect — This battle put an end to Lee's efforts to invade the North. It was the turning point of the war. From that time the Confederacy waned. Lee's veterans who went down in the awful charges of Gettysburg could never be replaced. THE WAR ON THE SEA AND ON THE COAST Attack on Fort Sumter (Apnl 7). — Such was the con- fidencii felt in the ability of the ironclads to resist cannon balls that Admiral Dupont attacked Fort Sumter, at the entrance to Charleston Harbor, with eight monitors. After bombarding it an hour, the fleet withdrew, badly damaged by the fire from the Coiifederate ])atteries."' General Gill- ' At the very irKHiK'iit. when tlio last. cliar^'O was lifiiii? rc|iiilnc(I, I'cniln'itoii w;is negotiating for tlic surrender ol' Vickslmrg to (Jrant. -The Keokuk sank the next day, and four other vessels were seriously injured. The officers declared that the strokes of the shots against the iron sides of their ships were as rapid as the tieks of a watcU. 1863] THE WAR ON THE SEA AND ON THE COAST 289 more, landing on Morris Island, by regular siege ap- proaches and a terrible bombardment forced the evacua- tion of FoT-t Wagner^ and reduced Fort Sumter to a shapeless mass of rubbish. Two nights later a party of sailors from the Union fleet essayed to capture it, but its garrison, upstarting from the ruins, drove them back with heavy loss. General Review of the Third Year of the War.— The Confederates had gained the great battles of Chickamauga and Chan- cellorsville, and successfully resisted every attack on Charleston. The Federals had gained the important battles before Vicksburg, and those at Chattanooga and Grettysburg. They had captured the garrisons of Vicksburg and Port Hudson. The Mississippi was patrolled by Federal gun- boats, and the Confederate army was cut off from its Western supplies. Arkansas, east Tennessee, and large portions of Louisiana, Mississippi, and Texas had been won for the Union. VICINITY OF CHARLESTON HARBOR. COLLATERAL READINGS Vicksburg:.— Schouler's Hisfori/ of the United Stat s, vol. vi. pp. 375-398. The Soldier oftTie Civil AVar.— SclloiUer, vol. vi. pp. 290-31fi. 1 Two uusuccessfnl assaults were luade on this fort. In one, the first colored re;;!- mont organized in the fi-ec States took a promineiit part, flgbtinj? with imdinchiiig •^■■■1- 'lantry. No measure of the war was more bitterly opposed than the project of arniiiiL;- the negroes. It was denounced in the North, and the Confederate Congress passed a law which threatened with death any white officer captured while in command of negro troops, leaving the men to be dealt with according to the laws of the State 290 THE CIVIL WAR [1864 1864 The Situation. — In March General Grant was made lieutenant general in command of all the forces of the United States/ Hereto- fore the different armies had acted under generals independent of each other. They were now to move in concert under one gen- eral, and thus prevent the Confederate forces from aiding each other. The strength of the South lay- in the armies of Lee in Vir- ginia and Joseph E. John- ston ^ in Georgia. Grant was to attack Lee, Sher- in which they ■were taken. Yet so will- ing were the negroes to enlist, and so faithful did they prove themselves in eersicc, that in December, 1863, over 50,000 had been enrolled, and before the close of the war that number was quadrupled. 1 Before Grant took command, a joint naval and land expedition, under the com- mand of General Banks, was sent up the Red Biver in the hope of destroying the Con- federate authority in that region and iu Texas. At Sahine Crossroads, La. (April 8, 18G4), the Confederate forces under General Dick Taylor attacked the advance while the line of march was greatly extended, and a miniature Bull Run retreat ensued. The Union troops, however, rallied at Pleasant Hii.l, and the next day, reenforcemcnts coming up from the rear, they were able to repulse the Confederates. The army there- upon returned to New Orleans, and Banks was relieved of the command. lie had lost 5000 men, 18 guns, and largo supplies. Besides this, the men employed in the expedi- tion were much needed for other work. Part of them had been drawn from northern Mississippi and west Tennessee, leaving these regions exposed to Confederate attack. Forrest captured a number of Union troojjs iu Tennessee, and advanced into Kentucky. Later he fell upon Four Pillow (April 12), which refused to surrender. As his men ruslied into the fort, they raised tlu; cry "No quarter!" "The Confederate ottlcers," says Pollard, "lost control of their men, who were maddened by the sight of negro droops opposing them," and an indiscriminate slaughter followed. 2 Johnston's army consisted chiefly of the men formerly under Bragg, who was superseded soon after the battlp of Chattanooga. Johnston was one of the ablest of JOSLIll EGGLESTON JOUNSTON. 18G4] THE WAR IN TENNESSEE AND GEORGIA 291 man^ was to attack Johnston, and both were to keep steadily at work. Each began bis advance early in May. THE WAR IN TENNESSEE AND GEORGIA Advance upon Atlanta. — Sherman, with 100,000 men, moved upon Johnston, who, with nearly 50,000, was stationed at Dalton, Ga. The Confederato commander, foreseeing this advance, had selected a series of almost impregnable positions, one behind another, all the way to Atlanta. For 100 miles there was continued ma- neuvering and skirmishing among mountains and woods. Sherman would drive Johnston into a stronghold, and then with consummate skill outflank him, when Johnston with equal skill would retreat to a new post and make ready to meet his oppo- nent again." At Resaca, the Confederate generals, as had been shown in the battles of Bull Hun and Fair Oaks. He was born iu Virginia, 1807; died 18il. After graduating from the West Point Military Acadenij% he served iu Indian wars and the war with Mexico, and rose to the rank of tiiiartcrmaster general of the United States army. He was wounded in battle ten times. 1 William Tccumseh Sherman was born in Ohio, 1820; died 1891. He was a West Point graduate, but before the outbreak of the war he had retired to civil life. He was commissioned colonel in May, 18G1, and commanded a brigade at Bull I\un. He v.as then transferred to the West, and fought many battles under Grant. As a general he was conspicuous for good judgment, dash, and energy. 2 When either party stopped for a day or two, it fortitied its front with an abattis of felled trees and a ditch with a head-log placed on the embankment. The head-log rested on small cross-sticks, thus leaving a space of four or live inches between the log and the earth, through which the guns could be pointed. \MLL1AAI TlXliMSEH SHEK.MAN. 292 THE CIVIL WAR [1864 Dallas, and Lost and Kenesaw Mountains, bloody battles were fought. Finally Johnston retired to the inrrench- mcnts of Atlanta (Jnly ]0). Capture of Atlanta. — Davis, dissatisfied with IhisFaiuan policy, now put Hood in coniinand. He attacked the Union army three times with tremendous energy, but was repulsed with great slaughter. Thereupon Sherman, repeating his favorite flank movement, filled his wagons with fif- ^■'^ V)v teen days' rations, dex- " '^ whole army on terously shifted his ole army on Hood's line of supplies south of At- lanta, and compelled the evacuation of the city.^ The Effect. — This campaigi during four months of fig] and marching day and night, its ten pitched battles and scores of lesser engagements, cost the Union army 30,000 men, and the Confederate 35,000. The loss of Atlanta was a se- vere blow to the South.'- Hood's Invasion of Tennessee. — Hood, with his army, 1 During this cainpaijfii Sbenuau's supplies were brought up by a single liuc of rail- road I'roin Nashville, a distauco of 300 luUes, aud exposed throughout to the attacks of the eueuiy. Yet so earefullj' -was it garrisoned, and so rapidly were bridges built and breaks repaired, that the damages wero often nieuded before the news of tlie accident reached camp. Sherman said that the whistle of tli(? locomotive was frequently heard on the camp ground before the echoes of the skirmish tire had died away. - Georgia was the workshop, storehouse, granary, and arsenal of tlie Confederacy. In Atlanta and the neighboring towns were manufactoiies, foundries, and mills, where clothing, wagons, harnesses, powder, balls, and cannon were furnished ti) all its armies. The Southern supply of these eciuipments was henceforth greatly reduced. 1864] THE WAR IN TENNESSEE AND GEORGIA 293 doubled around to the railroad in Sherman's rear in north- ern Georgia, and the cavalry under Forrest raided Sher- man's communications near Chattanooga and Nashville. Sherman first drove Hood away from the railroad, and sent Thomas, with an inferior force, to defend Tennessee. Then, leaving Hood behind hi in, Sherman returned to Atlanta and prepared his army for its celebrated " March to the Sea." Battle of Nashville (December 15, 16). — Hood crossed the Tennessee, and General Thomas retired within the fortifications at Nashville. For two weeks little was done.^ When Thomas was fully ready, he suddenly sallied out against Hood, and in a terrible two days' battle drove the Confederate forces out of their intrenchments into head- long flight. The Union cavalry thundered upon their heels with remorseless energy. The infantry followed close behind. The bulk of Hood's army, except the rear guard, which fought bravely to the last, was I'educed to a rabble of demoralized fugitives. The Effect. — For the first time in the war, an army was destroyed. The object which Sherman hoped to attain when he moved on Atlanta was accomplished by Thomas, 300 miles away. Sherman could now go where he pleased with little danger of meeting a powerful foe. The war in the West, so far as any great movements were concerned, was finished. Sherman's March to the Sea. — Breaking loose from his communications with Nashville, and burning the city of Atlanta, Sherman started (November 16) with 60,000 men for the Atlantic coast. The army moved in four • C.reat disappointment was felt in the North over the retreat to Nashville, and stili more at Thomas's delay in that city. Grant ordered him to move, and had actu- ally started to take chai-ge of his troops in person, when he learned of the splendid victory his slow but sure general had achieved. 294 THE CIVIL WAR [1864 columns, with a cloud of cavalry under Kilpatrick in front. The Georgia Central and Augusta railroads were destroyed, and the troops foraged on the country as they passed. In five weeks they marched 300 miles, reached the sea, stormed Fort McAllister, and occupied Savannah.' The Effect of this march can hardly be overestimated. A fertile region 60 miles wide and 300 long was desolated ; SHEKMAN'S MAUCH. 300 miles of railroad were destroyed; the eastern portion of the already sundered Confederacy was cut in twain; immense supplies of provisions were captured, and the hardships of war were brought home to many who had hitherto been exempt from its actual contact. THE WAR IN VIRGINIA Battle of the Wilderness (May 5, 6). — The Army of the Potomac crossed tlie Rapidan (May 4), and plunged into "• Sherman sent the news of its capture, with 25,000 bales of cot^^on and 150 cannon, to President Lincoln, as a Christmas present to the nation. 1864] THE WAR IN VIRGINIA 295 .-•-'Ai^n. In -^ ^Couit II l,lottes\ ille <:^^' V ^ ^ the Wilderness, not far from Chancellorsville/ While the columns were toiling along the narrow roads, they sud- denly found and attacked the Con- federate army. The dense forest forbade all strat- egy. In those gloomy shades, dense with smoke, this strangest of battles, which no eye could follow, marked only by the shouts and volleys, now ad- vancing, now re- ceding, as either side lost and fro. The third day, both armies remained in their intrenchments. Neither side had conquered. It was generally supposed that the Federals would recross the Rapidau. Grant, how- ever, quietly gathered up the army and pushed it by the Confederate right flank toward Spottsylvania Court House. Battle of Spottsylvania (May 8-12). — Lee detected the movement, and hurried troops to hold the road, barring Grant's progress. Five days of continuous maneuvering - 1 Meade remained at the head of this Army of the Potomac, but over him was Grant, who was generally with it also, and directed all important movements. ' During this time the sharpshooters on both sides, hidden in the trees, were busy picking off officers. On the 9th, General Sedgwick, while superintending the placing of a battery in the front, was struck by a bullet and lulled. gained or , surged to WAR IN VIRGINIA, 1864. 296 THE CIVIL WAR (ISO} and fighting^ having given no advantage, Grant decided to try the favorite movement of the ycai-, and turn Lee's right flank again.'- Battle of Cold Harbor (June o). — Lee, however, moved on inner and shorter hues, and after some maneuvering sUpped into the intrenchments of Cold Harbor. At day- break tlie Union troops made an assault, only to l)e beaten back with terrible slaughter. Lee's army, sheltered be- hind its works, suffered little.^ Attack on Petersburg. — Grant now rapidly pushed his army over the James, below Richmond, and fell upon Petersburg; but here again Lee was ahead, and the works could not be forced. Grant, therefore, threw up intrench- ments and sat down in front of the Confederate lines. The campaign now resolved itself into a siege of Rich- mond, with Petersburg as its advanced post. The Effect. — The campaign had cost the Union 54,000 ' On the iiiornins of the 12th, Hancock's corps, hidden by a dense fog, charRod upon the Conl'i derate line, broke the abattis, surrounded a division, and took nearly 4(MiO prisoners, including two generals. So complete was the surprise that tlie ollicers were captured at breakfast. Lee, however, rallied, and tlie fighting was so fierce to regain this lost position that a " tree eighteen Inches in diameter was cut in two I)y the bullets which struck it. Ten thousand men fell on each side." - It was during this fearful battle that Grant sent his famous dispatcli : " I ijurpose to light it out on this line, if it takes all suuinicr." :• Grant had arrangcid for three cooperative movements to divide the strength of the Confederate army: (1) General Sigel. with 7000 men, was to advance up the Shenandoah valley; but ho was routed at Kkw Maukkt (May 1."/). General Hunter, wlio super- seded him, defeated the Confederates at Piicd.mont (Juno v>), but pushing on to Lynch- burg with about 20,000 men, he found it too strong, and prudently retii'cd into West Virginia. (2) On the night that the Army of the I'otomae crossed th(^ Kapidan, General Butler, with 30,000 men, ascended the James Kiver to operate against IMchmond. But after some lighting he was forced back to the peninsula of Bernuida Hundred, where- upon Beauregard threw intrenchments across the narrow strip connecting it with the mainland. As (irant tersely said, the Union force was then shut off from any further advance "as comphtely . . . as if it had been in a bottle strongly corked." (3) General Sheridan, while the army was at Spottsylvauia, passed in the rear of the Con- federate position, destroyed miles of railroad, recaptured 400 prisoners, and defeated a cavalry force with the loss of its leader, General J. E. B. Stuart, the best cavalry olllcer in the South. 1864] SIEGE OF RICHMOND 297 men/ and the Confederacy also many thousand. The weakened capabilities of the South were now fairly pitted against the almost exhaustless resources of the North. Grant's plan was to keep constantly hammering Lee's army, knowing that it was the chief hope of the Confed- eracy. The Siege of Richmond continued until the spring cam- paign of 1865. It was marked by two important events : 1. Mine Explosmi (July 30). — From a hidden ravine in front of Petersburg, a mine had been dug underneath a THE rETERSBURG CRATER. strong Confederate fort. Just at dawn the powder blast was fired. Several cannon, the garrison of 300 men, and huge masses of earth were thrown high in air. The Federal guns opened fire at once along the entire line. 1 The above statement of the enormous Federal losses of tliis campaign is based upon the official records of tlie killed, wounded, and missing. There are no complete records of the Confederate loss; certain Southern wiiters put it as low as 19,000, but Other writers give between 25,000 and 50,000. B.HIST. V. S." 18 298 THE CIVIL WAR [1864 An assaulting column rushed forward, but stopped in the crater produced by the explosion. The Confederates poured shot and shell from every side upon the struggling mass of men huddled within the demolished fort. The Federals lost about 4000 men in this ill-starred affair. 2. Attack upon the Weldon Railroad (August 18). — By threatening Richmond upon the north, Grant induced Lee to move troops to that city from Petersburg. The oppor- tunity was at once seized, and the railroad leading to Weldon, N. C, was captured. Lee, aware of the great im- portance of this means of communication with the South, for several days made desperate but vain attempts for its recovery. Early's Raid. — Hunter's retreat (p. 296) having laid open the Shenandoah valley, Lee -took advantage of it to threaten Washington, hoping thus to draw off Grant from the siege of Richmond. General Early, with 20,000 men, accordingly hurried along this oft-traveled route. Defeat- ing General Wallace at Monoc'acy River, he appeared before Fort Stevens, one of the defenses of Washington (July 11). Had he rushed by forced marches, he might have captured the city ; but he stopped a day. Federal reeiif orcements having now arrived, he retreated, and, laden with booty, recrossed the Potomac.^ Sheridan's Campaign. — Sheridan was now put in com- mand of all the troops in this region. He defeated Early at Winchester and Fishers Hill, and in a week destroyed half his army, and sent the rest " whirling up the valley." " Early was quickly reenforced, and, returning during Sheri- 1 Later, he sent a party of cavalry into Pennsylvania. They entered Chambers- burg, and, on failing to obtain a ransom of $500,000, set flre to the village, and escaped safely back into the Shenandoah valley. 2 In order to prevent any further raids upon Washington from this direction, Sheridan devastated the valley so thoroughly that it was said : " If a crow wants to fly down the Bhenaudoah, he must carry his provisions with him." 1864] THE WAR IN VIRGINIA 299 dan's absence, surprised his army at Cedar Creek (Octo- ber 19), and drove it in confusion. Sheridan arrived at this critical moment,^ reformed his ranks, ordered an ad- vance, and, attacking the Confederates, now busy plunder- ing the captured camp, routed them with great slaughter. The Effect. — This campaign of only a month was one of the most brilliant of the war. Sheridan lost 17,000 men, but he virtually destroyed Early's army, and there was no further attempt to threaten Washington. THE WAR ON THE SEA AND ON THE COAST The Blockade was now so effectual that the prices of all imported goods in the Confederate States were fabulous.^ On account of the enormous profits of a successful voyage, foreign merchants were constantly seeking to run the gantlet. Their swift steamers, long, narrow, low, of a mud color, and making no smoke, occasionally escaped the vigilance of the Federal squadron. During the war, it is 1 Early's attack was mado under cover of a dense fog and the darkness of the early morning. General Wright, the Union commander, though wounded, remained on the field, and managed to get his troops into a new position about seven miles in the rear. Sheridan heard the cannonading while riding from Winchester, nearly twenty miles from Cedar Creek. Knowing the importance of his presence, ho, put spurs to his coal- black steed, and never drew rein for almost twelve miles, when, his horse covered with foam, he dashed to the new front. As he passed the fugitives along the road, he shouted : "Turn, boys, turn ! We're going back." Under the magnetism of his presence, the men followed him back to the flglit and victory. 2 Flour brought, in Confederate currency, $40 a barrel ; calico, $30 a yard ; coffee, $50 a pound. Dried sage, raspberry, and other leaves were substituted for the costly tea. Woolen clothing was scarce, and the army depended largely on captures of the ample Federal stores. Pins were so scarce that they were eagerly picked up in the streets. Paper was so expensive that matches could no longer be put in boxes. Sugar, butter, and white bread became luxuries even for the wealthy. Salt, being a necessity, was economir>ed to the last degree, old pork and flsh barrels being soaked and the water evaporated so that not a grain of salt might be wasted. Women wore garments that were made of cloth carded, spun, woven, and dyed by their own hands. Large thorns were fitted with wax heads and made to servo as hairpins. Shoes were man- ufactured with wooden soles, to which the uppers were attached by means of small tacks. 300 THE CIVIL WAR [1864 said, over fifteen hundred blockade runners were taken or destroyed. Confederate Cruisers had now practically driven the American commerce from the ocean. They were not privateers, like those named on page 259, for they were commissioned as regular war ships of the Confederate government. They sailed to and fro upon the track of American ships, recklessly plundering and burning, or else bonding them for heavy sums. The Alabama was the most noted of these steamers. Against the urgent remonstrances of the United States minister at the British court, she was allowed to sail from England, where she was built, although her mission was well known. An English captain took her to the Azores, where English vessels brought her arms, ammunition, and the Confederate Captain Semmes with additional men.' Putting out to sea, he read his commission and announced his purpose. After capturing over sixty ves- sels, he sailed to Cherbourg, France, Wliile there he sent a challenge to Captain Winslow of the Federal ship of war Kear'sarge. This was accepted, and a battle took place off the harbor (June, 1864). The two ships moved round in a circular track, pouring broadsides into each 1 Of the other important Confederate cruisers, three (tlio Shenandoah, Florida, ami Georgia) were Kritisli tmilt, and were equipiicd in much the same way as the Alabama, while two (the Siiinlcr and Tanahassc4:) came from Confederate ports. Reveral other warships were l)uilt or equipped for the Confederates in British and French ports, but were not allowed to sail. THE ALABAMA. 1864] THE WAR ON THE SEA AND ON THE COAST 301 other. After the seventh rotation, the Confederate vessel surrendered and soon after sank.^ The Expedition against Mobile Bay (August 5) was under the command of Admiral Farragut. That he might oversee the battle more distinctly, he took a position in the rigging of his flagship, the Hartford. The vessels, lashed together in pairs for mutual assistance, in an hour fought their way past the Confederate forts and engaged FARRAGUT IN MOBILE BAY. the ironclad fleet beyond. After a desperate resistance, the great iron ram Tennessee was taken, and the other vessels were captured or put to flight. The forts were soon after reduced, and the harbor was thenceforth closed to blockade runners.^ 1 Captain Winslow rescued a part of the sinkiDg crew, and others were picked up, at his request, by the Deerhound, an English yacht ; but this vessel steamed off to the British coast with those she had saved, among whom was Captain Semmes. 2 The city of Mobile was not captured until the next year (April, 1865). On April 12 the Union troops, under General Cauby, entered the city, ignorant that Lee had sur- rendered three days before and that the Confederacy was dead. 302 THE CIVIL WAR [18G4 The Expedition against Fort Fisher, which defended the harbor of Wilmington, N. C, was made by a large fleet under Commodore Porter, together with a detach- ment of the army. The first attempt on the fort having failed, the army was placed under the command of Gen- eral Terry. Protected by a terrible fire from the fleet, a column of sailors and one of soldiers worked their way, by a series of trenches, within two hundred yards of the fort. At the word, the sailors leaped forward on one side and the soldiers on another. The sailors were repulsed, but the soldiers burst into the fort. The hand-to-hand fight within lasted for hours. Late at night, the garrison, hemmed in on all sides, surrendered (January 15, 1865). One knows not which to admire the more, the gallantry of the attack or the heroism of the defense. With the cap- ture of Fort Fisher, the last Confederate port was closed. The Sanitary Commission and the Christian Commission were splendid examples of organized mercy furnished by the people of the North. They devised and pro- vided every possible comfort for the sick and wounded, besides distributing religious reading to every soldier in the field- Ambulances, stretchers, hot coffee, postage stamps, paper and envelopes, prayer meetings, medicines, Christian burial — every want of body or soul was pro- vided for. Homes for men on sick leave, and for those not yet under or just out of the care of the government, or who had been left by their regiments ; feeding sta- tions for the tired and hungry, and even homes for the wives, mothers, and children of soldiers who had come to visit their sick or wounded, were established. On every flag-of-truce boat were placed clothing, medicines, and cordials for the prisoners who had been exchanged. With boundless mercy, they cared for all while living, and gave 1864] POLITICAL. AFFAIRS 303 Christian burial and marked graves to the dead. Over $17,000,000 in money and supplies was expended by these two commissions. Political Affairs. — In the North there was much dis- satisfaction with the conduct of the war. The debt had become about $2,000,000,000. In July, 1864, paper money reached its greatest depreciation, and it required two dollars and ninety cents in greenbacks to buy one dollar in gold. This was the time of Grrant's repulse from Cold Harbor and of Early's raid. Yet, in the midst of these discouragements, Abraham Lincoln was renominated by the Republican party. George B. McClellan was the Democratic candidate; he stood firmly for the prosecution of the war and the maintenance of the Union, but was not in full sympathy with the policy of the administration. He carried only three States. Lincoln had a popular ma- jority of over 400,000. General Review of the Fourth Year of the War. — The Confederates had gained the battles of Sabine Crossroads, Bermuda Hundred, Spottsylvania, New Market, Cold Har- bor, and Monocacy River ; they had defeated the expedi- tions into Florida ^ and the Red River country, and yet held Grant at bay before Richmond and Petersburg. They had, however, lost ground on every side, and every one of the Southern States had encountered the attack of Union forces. The Federals had gained the battles of Resaca, Dallas, Kenesaw, Atlanta, Winchester, Fishers Hill, Cedar Creek, Nashville, and many others. They had captured Fort McAllister and the forts in Mobile harbor, and had taken Atlanta and Savannah. Sherman had swept across 1 This expedition was fitted out by General Gillmore to recover Florida, After some success, his troops, under General Seymour, advanced to Olustee, where (Feb- ruary 20) they met a disastrous defeat and were forced to relinquish much they had gained. The men were afterwards taken to Virginia to engage in more important work. 304 THP: civil war [1865 Georgia ; Sheridan had devastated the Shenandoah valley, driving its defenders before him; Thomas had annihilated Hood's army ; Grant held Lee firmly grasped at Eichmond; and the navj^ swept the entire coast. COLLATERAL READING Sherman's Alarcli to the Sea. — Schouler'a History of the United Slates, vol. vi. pp. 546-665. 1865 The Situation. — The plan of the campaign was very sim- ple. The end of the war was clearly at hand. Sherman was to move north from Savannah and then join Grant in the final attack upon Lee. Sheridan, with 10,000 troopers, swept across from the Shenandoah, cut the rail- roads north of the James, and took his place in the Union lines before Petersburg. Large bodies of Federal cavalry, under Wilson and Stoneman, were operating in Alabama and western Virginia and North Carolina. Sherman's March through the Carolinas. — After a month's rest in Savannah, Sherman's troops were put in motion northward early in February. There was no waiting for roads to dry or for bridges to be built, but the troops swept on like a tornado. Rivers were waded, and one battle was fought on ground that was covered with water. The army, about 60,000 strong, moved in four colunms, with a front of more than fifty miles. Cavalry and fora- gers swarmed on the flanks. Before them was terror ; be- hind them were ashes. Columbia was captured (February 17). That night nearly the entire city was burned to the ground. Charles- ton, threatened in the rear, was evacuated the next day. Then there were fierce battles at Averysboko and Benton- viLLE, where the Confederates were commanded by 1865] THE WAR IN THE EAST 305 Johnston.* Sherman next pressed forward to Groldsboro, in order to join Schofield, who had made his way thither from Newbern, and Terry, who had come up from Wilmington. Soon the three armies united, and 100,000 men upheld the flag of the Union along the banks of theNeuse.^ Sherman then went to City Point, to arrang with Grant the plan of the final struscfflo Siege of Richmond. — Lee's position was fast be- coming desperate. His only hope lay in getting out of Richmond and join- ing Johnston. Their united armies might prolong the struggle. Grant was determined to prevent this and com- pel Lee to surrender,^ as he had forced Pemberton to do. 1 This Confederate army, about 20,000 strong, was made up of the remnant of Hood's army, troops that had Oecn defending Savannah and other towns, and State militia. 2Thedistauco traversed by the army in go tag from Savannah to Goldsboro was about 425 miles. The country was generally wild and swampy. To make the mud roads passable, each column " corduroyed " with rails and logs over 100 miles, besides biulding bridges across the many streams and rivers. Yet, in fifty days after breaking camp upon the Savannah, the troops bivouacked upon the Neuse. 3 Lee decided to attack Grant's line in order to hide his plan of retreat, and espe- cially in the hope that Grant would send troops from the left to succor the threatened 306 THE CIVIL WAR [1865 Battle of Five Forks (April 1). — The final movement began Wednesday morning, March 29. Sheiidau, with his cavalry — 9000 sabers — and heavy columns of infantry, pushed out from Grant's left wing to get around in Lee's rear. At Five Forks the Confederate force was over- whelmed, all their artillery captured, and more than 5000 men taken prisoners. Lee's position was now untenable. His right was turned and his rear threatened. Capture of Petersburg and Richmond (April 2, 3). — The next morning, at four o'clock, the Union army advanced in an overwhelming assault along tlio whole front. By noon the Confederate line of intrenchments, before which the Army of the Potomac had lain so long, was broken, and thousands of prisoners were captured. That night Petersburg and Richmond were evacuated. The next morning the Union troops took possession of the Con- federate capital, the coveted goal of the Army of the Potomac for four long bloody years. Lee's Surrender. — Meanwhile Lee, having only the wreck of that proud array with which he had dealt the Union army so many crushing blows, hurried west, seek- ing some avenue of escape. Grant urged the pursuit with untiring energy. Food now failed the Confederates, and many could get only the young shoots of trees to eat. If they sought a moment's repose, they were awakened by the clatter of pursuing cavalry. Lee, like a hunted fox, turned hither and thither ; but at last Sheridan in strong force planted himself squarely across the front. Lee made point. In that case he would slip out, with the maiu body of his army, by tno nearest road southward, which ran close by the Uiiiou left Foht Stkdman was assaulted and captured, but was at once retaken by the Federals (March 25). Of the attacking force about 3000 were lost. To make matters worse, a Union assault followed directly after- wards, and a portion of the Confederate outer defenses was captured. Thus Grant's grip was only tightened. lie bad made no cliange in the position of his troops, and this sortie neither hastened nor delayed the final attack. 18653 LEE'S SURRENDER 307 ready for battle, and the Civil War seemed about to end in one of its bloodiest tragedies, when the Confederate advance was stopped. C-eneral Grant had already sent in a note demanding the surrender of the army. Lee ac- cepted the terms ; ' and in the afternoon of April 9 the remains of the Army of Virginia laid down their arms ARRANGING LEE'S SURRENDER. near Appomattox Court House, and then turned home- ward, no longer Confederate soldiers, but American citizens. • The officers and men were allowed to go home on their paroles not to take up arms against the United States until exchanged, and the former were to retain their private baggage and horses. After the surrender had been concluded, General Lee said that he had forgotten to mention that many of his soldiers rode their own horses. Grant at once replied that such should keep their horses to aid them in their future work at home. The two armies so fiercely opposed for four years parted with words of sympathy and respect — an assured presage of a day when all the wounds of the cruel war should be fully healed. The Federal authorities state that 28,356 oflBcers and men were paroled at Appomattox Court House and 22.633 small arms were given up. The Confederate accounts, however, place the men and arms surrendered at a much less number. The total number paroled from all the Confederate armies was 174,223. ddd TflE ciirtL.WAR pges The Effect.— This closed the war. The other Confed- erate armies promptly surrendered, that under Johnston on April 26, near Raleigh, N. C* Jefferson Davis fled south- ward, hoping to escape, but was overtaken in Georgia (May 10), and sent a prisoner to Fort Monroe. Results of the War. — Besides dooming slavery, this war settled forever the question of " State rights." The doc- trines of nullification and secession were dead. The arbit- rament of the sword had decided that no State, having once joined the Union, can ever secede. The rights of the States as deflued in the United States Constitution remained as sacred as ever ; but it was settled for all time that the United States is one nation, rather than a league of sovereign states. Cost of the War.— In the Union armies, over 300,000 men were killed in battle or died of wounds or disease, and 200,000 more were crippled for life. If the Confed- erate armies suffered as heavily, the country thus lost 1,000,000 able-bodied men. The Union debt, when largest (August 31, 18G5), was in round numbers $2,845,000,000:"^ but this was far from representing the entire expense of the war.^ The Confederate war debts were never paid, as that government was overthrown. Assassination of Lincoln.— In the midst of the uni- versal rejoicings over the advent of peace, on the evening 1 The last flplit of tho war happmeil iiear Brazos Santiago, Tex., May 13. A small expedition sent out to surprise a Coufcdcrate eaiiip was overtaken, on its return, by a larger force, and defeated with a loss of 80 men. ^The interest-bearing debt (bonds and notes) was $2,3H2,000,000 ; beginning with 18f.6, this was reduced j'ear by year until in 1S93 it was only $.585,000,000. In looo it was 11,023,000,000. The non-interest-bcaring debt in isG') consisted chiefly of greenbacks (United States notes), which had ))een made, legal tender and thus forced into circula- tion as paper money, to the extent of $449,000,000. Some of these notes •wliieh were paid into the United States treasury were canceled and destroyed, but this cancella- tion was stopped in 1878, and ever since the amount of these notes has been $.346,081,016. 3 States and cities gave millions toward the expense of the war, and the national government raised large sums by many kinds of taxation. 1865] NEW STATES 309 of April 14 the intelligence was flashed over the country that -Lincoln had been assassinated/ While seated with his wife and friends in his box at Ford's Theater, he was shot by John Wilkes Booth," who insanely imagined he was ridding his country of a tyrant. The stricken Presi- dent was carried to a private house near by, where, around his unconscious body, gathered the most prominent men of the nation, who mourned and watched, waiting in vain for some sign of recognition, until the next morning, when he died.^ NEW STATES (1861-1865) West Virginia, tlie thirty-fifth State, was admittbd to the Union June 19, 1863. This western part of the old State of Virginia was strongly opposed to the ordinance of secession adopted by tlie convention of that State. The people there who were in favor of the Union set up a government which was recognized by the Federal autlior- Ities as the government of Virginia, although it controlled only the smaller part of the State. It was the legislature of this "Restored Government of Virginia" which gave consent to the formation of the new State of West Virginia, as required by the United States Constitution in the case of any new State formed by the division of an old one. Nevada, the thirty-sixth State, was admitted to the Union October 31, 1864. It is part of the territory ceded by Mexico. Its first settlement was at Carson City. Nevada Territory was formed, in 1861, from part of the original Territory of Utah. Two years after its admission as a State, its area was increased by additions on the east and south. • A nearly fatal attempt was also made at the same time upon William H. Seward, Secretary of State, who was lying sick in his bed at home. 2 Booth stealthily entered the box, fastened the door, that he might not be followed, shot the President, then, waving his pistol, shouted, " Sic semper tyrannis " (80 be it always to tyrants), and leaped to the stage in front. As he jumped, the American flag draped before the box— mute avenger of the nation's chief — caught his spur, and, throwing him heavily, broke his leg. In the confu.sioa, however, the assassin escaped, mounted a horse waiting for him, and fled. He was at length overtaken in a barn in Virginia, and was shot while resisting arrest. His accomplices were arrested, tried, and convicted. Four were hanged ; three were condemned to imprisonment for life ; and one was sentenced for six years. 3 The funeral was held on the 19th. It was a day of mourning throughout the land. In most of the cities and towns funeral orations were pronounced. The body was borne to Springfield over the same route along which Lincoln had come as President- elect to Washington. The procession may be said to have extended the entire dis- tance. The churches, principal buildings, and even the engines and cars were draped in black. Almost every citizen wore the badge of mourning. 310 TOPICAL ANALYSIS 1. Inauguration of Lincoln. 2. Condition of tlie Country. 3. Capture of Fort Sumter. 4. War in the East. War in tlic West. War on the Sea and on the Cojist. ■ a. Cspturc of Arlington Heights and Alexandria. b. Battle of Big Itctlicl. c Campaign in wrstorn Virginia. d. BattliofBullUuii. e. Balls Bluff. C a. rri> i c. Tre Privatci^rs. iival KxjX'ditions. nt Aflair. General Review of tlie First Year of the War. The Situation. 2. War in the West. War on the Sea and on tliu Coast. 4. War in the East. ' a. The Situation. 6. Capture of Forts Flenry and Donclson c. Battle of Shiloh. d. Capture of Island No. 10. c. BriiKK'a Kiiiturky Kxpoditio /. Battles of lukii and Corinth, ff. Battle of Murl'reesboro. ft. First Vicksburg K.xpedition. a. Capture of New Orleans. b. Burnside's Expedition. c. Florida and Georgia Expeditions. d. Mcrriuiac and Alunitur. J! a. Smith*9 Invasion. Brnrfg'g Invasi'm. Bathe 0/ rerryvilU. a. The Peninsular Campaign. 6. Campaign against Pope. c. Invasion of AInrylnnd. d. Battle of Fredoricksbi rg- a. Hifqr nf Torktown. b. Battle of Williamsburg. c. Richmond Threatened, d. Shenandoah Campaign, e. Battle o/ Jttir Oaks. f. Vnimi Army Checked. g. Seven Days' Battle: The Situation. Lee's Plan. Second Battle of Bull Run. Battle of South Mountain. Capture of Harpers Ftrry. Battle of Antietam. 4. 5. 6. 2. General Review of the Second Year of the War. The Situation. Movement against Pemberton. Defeat of JolinBton. Siege of Vieksburg. C a. The Situation. < h. Battle of ChickaiiiRuga. ( c. Battle of Chattanooga. 5 a. Battle of Clianccllorflville / b. Lee's Second Invasion of the North. Second Expedition against Vicksburg. War in Tennessee and Georgia. War in the East. ( a. V, \ b. I) ( c. Si War on the Sea and on the Coast. General Review of the Third Year of the War. The Situation. War in Tennessee and Georgia. 3. War in Virginia. ' a. Advance upon Atlanta. h. Capture of Atlanta. c. Hood's Invasion of Tennessee. d. Sherman's March to the Sea. a. Bntlle of 111.- Wilderness. b. Battle of Spottsylvaiiia. c. Battle of Colli lliirtior. k on I'ete War on the Sea and on the Coast. a. Lee's Plan. b. Battle of Gettysburg. Hood's Plan. Battle of Kashville. . Attack ersburg. n. The Situation. 1). Grant's Plan. a- Mine Exjitosion. b Attack upon the Weldon Railroad. W' 1. e. Siege of Richmond. /. Early's Raid. . g. Sheridan's Campaign in the Shenandoah Valley. ■ a. The Blockade b. Confedernte C^miBers. c. E.\peilltion against Mobile Bay. d. Expedition against Fort Fisher. The Sanitary and Christian Commissions. Political Affairs in the North. General Review of the Fourth Year of the War. The Situation. Sherman's March through the Carolinas. \i 3. Siege of Richmond. 4. Lee's Surrender. 5. Results of the War. 6. Cost of the War. 7. Assassination of Lincoln. 8. New States. Lee'fl Hope and Grant's Plan. Battle of Five Forks. Capture of Petersburg and liicbmond. EPOCH YI.— DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION (since 1865) This epoch begins with the nation exhausted by civil war, but freed at last from the nightmare of disunion. The awakened power of the North quickly turns to an industrial expansion surpassing the wildest dreams. The South, crushed by defeat and devastation, has first to restore her ruins and accustom herself to the new system of free labor and f reedmen's rights. Yet within a genera- tion the reunited sections are advancing with even pace. The farther West now quickly grows to maturity. Indian reservations are reduced to smaller compass. Before the end of the century, however, nearly all the tillable public land is occupied; the nation looks abroad for an outlet to its surplus energy, and takes its place among the world powers in the larger politics of the globe. The Civil War left many questions to be settled in this epoch. What was the political status of the late seceded States, and how should they resume their places in the Union? What rights should be given to the emancipated negro 1 What was to be done with the greenbacks, which for a long time formed the chief money ^ in circulation? 1 Besides these Unitecl States notes, tliere were also in circulation— as there are still— many national banknotes; that is, notes issued by bauks established under laws passed by Congress in 18C1 and later. In 1865 Congress put an end to State bank- notes by levying a tax of ten per cent on their circulation. The national banks deposit United States bonds in the national treasury to secure the payment of the bank- notes, and their payment is guaranteed by the national government. 311 312 JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION [18C5 The great iDdustrial expansion also created many prob- lems, or gave new life to old ones. During the war the tariff duties on imports had been largely extended and increased in the effort to raise all possible revenue. Now, with the growth of our manufactures and trade, vast interests were affected by the tariff question : should the duties be kej^t high to increase the profits of the producer, or should they be lowered so as to lessen the cost of goods to the consumer? Vast interests also were involved in the money question : should the dollar of commerce mean, ultimately, a certain amount of gold, or the debtor's choice between that amount of gold and a certain amount of silver, or merely a paper greenback? Vast interests also were involved in the relations between labor and capital. As the short railroads of earlier days were, under the lash of competition, joined into trunk systems, and as similar unions of companies and corporations took place in va- rious branches of manufacture, so, step by step, the trades unions of laborers were combined in a more thorough organization. Conflicts between organized labor and or- ganized capital became wides^Dread and disastrous : how should such injury be avoided ? We shall find in this epoch that some of the problems have been solved, l)ut that others remain to tax the wisdom of the statesman and prove the patriotism of the citizen. JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION (1865-1869)1 The death of Lincoln produced no disorder, and within three hours tliereafter the Vice President, Andrew John- son, quietly assumed the duties of the presidency. J Andrew Johnson was boni in Raleifili, N. C, 1808; died 1875. Wlicn ten years old he was apintnticfd to a tailor. Never h.iving been ;it school, he yet detcirmined to secure an education. From a fellow-worliraau ho learned the alphabet, and from a 1865] DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 813 Disbanding of the Army. — At the close of the war the Union army numbered 1,000,000 soldiers. Within six months they had nearly all returned home. Thus the mightiest host ever called to the field by a republic went back without disturbance to the tranquil pursuits of civil life. Other nations prophesied that such a vast army could not be disbanded peaceably. The republic, by this final triumph of law and order, proved itself the most stable government in the world.^ Domestic Affairs. — Reconstruction Policy of the Presi- dent. — Johnson recognized the State governments that, during the war, had been formed in Virginia, Tennessee, Arkansas, and Louisiana, under the protection of the Union army. In the other States he appointed provisional governors, and authorized the calling of conventions to form loyal governments. These conventions accordingly met, repealed the ordinances of secession, repudiated the Confederate war debt, and ratified a thirteenth amend- ment to the Constitution (abolishing slavery), which Con- gress had offered early in 1865. This done, Johnson claimed that the States, having never been legally out of the Union, should be restored to their rights in the Union. He also issued a proclamation of pardon to those who had friend something of spelling. Tlienceforth, after working from ten to twelve hours a day at his trade, lie spent two or three hours every night in study. In 1826 he went west to seek his fortune, with true filial afi'ection carrying with him his mother, who was dependent on his labor for support. After his marriage at Greeneville, Teun., he con- tinued his studies under the instruction of his wife, pursuing his trade as before by day. His political life began with his election as alderman. He was successively chosen mayor, member of legislature State senator, congressman, governor, United States senator, and Vice President. • A grand review of the armies of Grant and Sherman, 200,000 strong, took place in the presence of the President and his cabinet. For twelve hours this triumphal pro- cession, thirty miles long, massed in solid column twentj- men deep, mnrched through the broad avenues of the capital. Many of the Federal soldiers and sailors soon afterwards formed the society called the Grand Army of the Republic, which exerte(? a great influence in fostering the spirit of patriotism. fk HIST. U. 8.— 19 314 JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION [1865 engaged in secession, except certain classes,' on the condi- tion of taking the oath of allegiance to the United States. The Thirteenth Amendment, abolishing slavery, having thus been ratified by the requisite number of States, was declared (December 18, 1865) duly adopted as a part of the Constitution of the United States. Beconstructiou Policy of Congress. — When Congress met (December, 1865), it took decided gi'ound against the policy of the President. It refused to admit the senators and representatives from the eleven seceded States, and prescribed new conditions for the readmission of these States, among them the ratification of a fourteenth amend- ment to the Constitution (guaranteeing equal civil rights to all). The Civil Rights, Freedmen's Bureau, and Tenure of Office bills " were all jjassed over the President's veto. Seceded States Admitted. — Tennessee promptly ratified the Fourteenth Amendment, as Congress required, and was restored to her former position in the Union (1866). The other ten provisional governments having refused to do so, a bill was passed placing those States under mili- tary rule. The generals in command caused a registry of voters to be made and elections to be held for conventions to remodel the State constitutions. After a bitter and protracted struggle, new governments were estal)lished in Arkansas, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, and North and South Carolina,^ and their representatives were ad- ' Many of tho i)er8ou8 thus excluded ol)tainc The electoral vote was: for Cleveland, 277 ; Harriisou, 145; Weaver, 22. This was the first time since the Civil War that electoral votes went to any party other than the Republican and Democratic. 336 CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION [1893 the discovery of America, haviDg been dedicated in Octo- ber, 1892, was opened to the public in May, 1893. This great industrial exhibition was created by act of Congress, and was held in Chicago. All nations participated. The cost of the exposition was in excess of $)J0,000,0()0, and world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. during the six months of its continuance the turnstiles recorded over 20,000,000 paid admissions. Extra Session of Congress (189'}). — Various causes having brought on a monetary crisis, President Cleveland called a special session of Congress. The relative values of gold and silver had so changed by this time that the metal in a silver dollar was worth only about half as much as a gold dollar. Many people believed that there were too many silver dollars in circulation, too many for the gov^- ernment to keep at their face value. Finally Congress repealed the law of 1890 requiring the government to buy 4,500,000 ounces of silver each month. 1894] DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 337 Reduction of the Tariff (1894:). — At the next regular ses- sion of Congress the average tariff was slightly reduced by the Gorman- Wilson Act. Repeal of the Force Bill. — For many years presidential and congressional elections in the Southern States had been placed, in certain conditions, under the supervision of men appointed by federal authority, the aim being to protect the negro vote. The law providing for this supervision was now repealed (1894), leaving the elections in each State to be controlled by State authority, as they were before the Civil War. A Great Railroad Strike (1894) was occasioned by trouble between the Pullman Car Company and its em- ployees. The American Railroad Union having taken up the quarrel (June 26), more railway employees quit work than in any other strike in history, and for some weeks little business was done on the Western railroads. The focus of the strike was Chicago, the greatest railroad center in the world. Some property having been de- stroyed, and the postal service interfered with, President Cleveland sent troops there to restore order, against the protest of the governor of Illinois, who denied the right of the federal government to interfere except on request of the State. Then, the leaders of the strike having been arrested for disobeying injunctions of the federal courts, the strike collapsed. New State admitted — Utah (p. 360). Foreign Affairs Hawaii (hah wf ee). — In January, 1893, the queen of the Hawaiian Islands' had been 1 When discovered, tbe Hawaiian Islands were governed by a number of independ- ent chiefs. But about the beginning of the nineteenth century Kamehameha (kah- jmahah'ma hah) succeeded in extending his rule over the whole group, and founded a kingdom which lasted nearly a hundred years. At liis death the ancient worship of idols and many cruel heathenish practices were overthrown. In 1820 the first mission- 338 CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION [1894 deposed ; the Hawaiian revolutionists applied for annex- ation to onr country. President Cleveland believed that the revolution- SCALE0FUILE8 :!u i(i eu HAWAIIAN ISLANDS. ists had been im- properly aided by the American min- ister, and he tried to have the queen re- stored; but the Hawaiians in power made the islands a republic (July 4, 1894). Tlie Venezuelan Boundary. — In 1895 a boundary dispute between Venezuela and British Guiana seemed likely to lead to war. Cleveland, following the Monroe Doctrine (p. 200), protested to Great Bi-itain against any seizure of Venezuelan territory. He ap- pointed a commission to ascertain the true boundary; but before it could i-eport, Great Britain and Venezuela signed a treaty of arbitration (February 2, 1897), and the dispute was amicably adjusted. Political Parties. — The leading candidates for Presi- dent and Vice President in 1896 were: Republican, in favor of the existing gold monetary standard, William McKinley of Ohio, and Garret A. Hobart of New Jersey ; Democratic, in favor of free coinage of silver, William J. Bryan of Nebraska, and Arthur Sewall of Maine ; Peo- ple's party, William J. Bryan, and Thomas E. Watson of Georgia; National Democratic (gold standard), John M. Palmer of Illinois, and Simon B. Buckner of Kentucky. The Republican nominees were elected. aries arrived from tlic United States, and thereafter the people made rapid progress in education and the arts of civilization. A eonsiderable number of foroif^ners, of various nationalities, also came to the islands to live; and in 1840 the kJJig promul. gated a coustitutiou. 1897] DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 339 McKINLEY'S ADMINISTRATION (1897-1901)1 Domestic Affairs. — The Tariff. — An extra session of Congress was called to meet on March 15, 1897, for the purpose of Increasing the revenue. A tariff bill for reve- nue and protection, similar in many respects to the McKinley Bill of 1890, was introduced by the Republi- cans, and was made a law July 24, 1897. During the war with Spain Congress passed an act still further increasing the revenue (p. 346). Gold Standard Act. — In March, 1900, an act was passed expressly adopting the gold standard of money, and mak- ing it the duty of the treasury to maintain all our money on a parity with gold. Ever since 1879 (p. 325) this parity had been maintained, but it was partly through the exer- cise of discretion by the Secretary of the Treasury, who might, within the letter of the law, have paid United States notes and bonds in silver coin instead of in gold. The act of 1900, however, left the secretary no discretion in regard to United States notes ; at the same time it pro- vided for refunding most of the bonded debt by the issue of thirty-year bonds payable in gold and bearing two per cent interest. It also allowed national banks to issue banknotes up to the face value of United States bonds deposited by them in the treasury. Previously the banks had been allowed to issue banknotes up to only ninety per cent of the value of the bonds deposited. 1 William McKinley was born at Niles, Trumbull County, Ohio, in 1843 ; died 1901. After a course of study in the village academy at Poland, Ohio, he entered the junior class of Allegheny College in 18fiO; but on the outbreak of the Civil War he enlisted as a pri- vate in the Union army. Through bravery and meritorious service !;e rose to the rank of captain and brevet major. WTien peace was restored he studied law, and in 1867 began practice in Canton, Ohio, which was thereafter his home. His eloquence and ability in debate soon secured him political prominence, and for seven consecutive ^a^^/2- 1898] THE WAR WITH SPAIN 341 The Galveston Disaster. — Galveston, the chief seaport of Texas, lies on a low island between the Gulf of Mexico and Galveston Bay. Driven by hurricane winds, the waters rose until the entire city was flooded, while great waves swept over the island, demolishing many houses and stores and drowning thousands of people (September 8 and 9, 1900). Relief for the survivors poured in from all quarters, and the undaunted citizens made haste to restore their city. THE WAR WITH SPAIN (1898) Causes. — Cuba, the "Pearl of the Antilles," though abounding in natural resources, was not prosperous under the rule of Spain, and from time to time the Cuban people, both black and white, rebelled against the government imposed on them. The last of these rebellions' began in February, 1895, and though Spain sent in all 200,000 sol- diers to Cuba, she failed in over three years to restore order. The rebels were greatly aided by men, rifles, can- non, ammunition, and other supplies carried to them by ships from our country ; but our government stopped such expeditions whenever it could. The insurgents soon formed the Republic of Cuba, but terms (1877-91) he was sent as a Republican representative to Congress, though once unseated by his political opponents. He was especially noted as an advocate of a protective tariflf, and as he was chairman of the Committee of Ways and Means, his name was given to the tariff act of 1890 (p. 331). In the full of 1890 ho was defeated for Congress on account of changes in the make-up of his district ; but the next year he was chosen governor of Ohio, and in 1893 was reelected bj' an increased majority. At the hour of his funeral, throughout the country all trafhc was stopped for a few min- utes; even steamers and railroad trains came to a standstill wherever they happened to be. No such tribute had ever before been paid to any one's memory. 1 The most serious of the earlier rebellions began in 1868 and lasted ten years, dur- ing which time Spain sent 80,000 soldiers to Cuba. The last of the rebels laid down their arms after receiving promises of reform in the Cuban government which were not kept. 342 MCKINLEY'S ADMINISTRATION [1898 sought in vain to secure recognition from the United States. Our government, however, warned Spain that the struggle could not go on indefinitely without inter- vention on our part. Our citizens had millions of dollars invested in Cuban property, and an important commerce which was being rapidly ruined through the devastation of the island. Moreover, our people were shocked at the suffering of the reconcentrados — Cubans who had been compelled by the Spanish general, Weyler, under pain of death, to leave their country homes and concentrate at the large towns, where they wore hemmed in by the gar- risons and left to starve. Tens of thousands of them thus THE ■^yilECK OF Till-- .MAlSi,. miserably perished, though some supplies were sent to them from the United States. On the night of February 15, 1898, our battleship Maine was blown up in the harbor of Havana, with the loss of 260 of her crew. From that moment the hope of a peaceable settlement of the Cu])an i)rol)lem rapidly wjined, and both nations prepared for war. Congress passed a resolution demanding the withdrawal of Spain from Cuba, and authorizing the use of our army and navy 1898] THE WAR WITH SPAIN 343 to compel her, if necessary (April 19). The President, hav- ing signed this, sent a copy of it as an ultimatum to Spain (April 21), and war Ijegan on the same day. Fighting in the Philippines. — Although the avowed object of the struggle was merely to compel Spain to abandon Cuba, the first blow, and also the last, were struck" BATTLE OF MANILA BAT. at her on the opposite side of the globe, in her colony of the Philippine Islands (map, p. 351). There, in Manila Bay, Commodore George Dewey's squadron completely destroyed a Spanish fleet, killing and wounding over 600 men, while not a ship on our side was lost, and only 7 men were wounded (May 1).^ And there the city of Manila was captured through the joint operations of Dewey's ships and of a United States army that had been transported 1 Fqi- this brilliant victory Dewey received the thanks of Consress, and was pro- moted rear admiral and afterwards admiral. 344 McKlNLEY'S ADMINISTRATION [1898 ^o^^to '^i.o*' ^^^>- across the Pacific, commanded by General Wesley Merritt (August 13). This battle was fought, as we shall see, one day after the cessation of hostilities had been ordered, but before news of it had arrived at the PhiHppines. Fighting in the West Indies. — The other battles of this war were fought in the West Indies. Throughout the struggle our navy maintained a blockade of Havana and the western end of Cuba, and this led to the capture of a considerable number of Spanish vessels. But the decisive conflicts occurred near the well forti- fied harbor of San- tiago (sahn te ah'- go), in the eastern end of the island. Here, in the latter part of May, a Spanish squadron commanded by Admiral Cervera (ther va'rah) took refuge, and was blockaded by our ships under Commodore Win- field S. Schley (sll), and later also by those under Rear Admiral William T. Sampson, who had the command of the entire fleet. In an attempt to make the blockade complete, the collier Merrimac was sunk in the narrow channel lead- ing to the harbor. This feat was peiformed, amid a storm of shot and shell from the forts, V)y Lieutenant Kichmond P. Hobson and a crew of seven, who were taken prisoners and afterwards exchanged. Battles near Sant'tago. — An army of about 18,000 men, under General William R. Shafter, was now landed on the coast, not far from Santiago. After severe fighting, it took and held the outer defenses of the city, including the earthworks of El Caney (cah na') and San Juan (sahn CUBA AND PORTO RICO. 189S] THE WAR WITH SPAIN 345 hoo ahn') Hill (July 1, 2).^ Our total loss in this campaign was about 250 killed and 1400 wounded and missing ; the Spanish loss was believed to be greater. Battle of July 3. — As the city seemed sure to fall, Cervera's six ships sailed out of the harbor past the Merrlinac enn] THE OREGON AT SANTIAGO. tried to escape ; but they were at once attacked by the blockading fleet, and were soon sunk or stranded, shattered wrecks, on the shore of Cuba.^ Besides the many killed, about 1800 Spanish sailors were taken prisoners ; of our men only one was killed and a few wounded. 1 In this action tlie " Rough Riders " played an important part. They wcro a regi- ment of volunteer cavalry recruited largely from Western cowboys and Eastern ath- letes. They were led up San Juan HiU by Colonel Theodore Roosevelt. 2 When the Spanish fleet appeared, it happened that Admiral Sampson, with hii flagship the Netv York, was several miles to the east, on his way to a conference with General Shaffer. Schley's flagship, the BrooMyn, was at the west end of the blockad- ing fleet, and as the Spaniards tried to escape by sailing west, the Brooldyn was in the thickest of the tight. Another ship that distinguished herself was the Oregon. Though she was a heavy battleship, and had recently made the long trip from San Francisco around South America, she steamed as swiftly as a cruiser, and helped to capture the last and swiftest of the Spanish ships. 346 MCKINLEY'S ADMINISTRATION [1898 Surrender of Sant'uKjo (July 17). — Rather thau iucur au assault on Santiago, the Spanish surrendered the city, to- gether with the eastern end of Cuba and an army of about 22,000 men, whi(;h we had 16 transport to Spain. A few days later General Nelson A. Miles set off with an army of about 20,000 to seize Porto Rico. He had occu- pied a large part of the island without much opposition, when hostilities came to an end. Peace. — On August 12, 1898, a protocol was signed at Washington, providing for the cessation of hostilities and a meeting, at Paris, of commissioners to negotiate a for- mal treaty of peace. The protocol also provided for the abandonment of Cuba by Spain, and the cession of Porto Rico and one of the Ladrones to the United States. The disposition of the Philippines was left to be decided in the final treaty of peace ; Manila in the meanwhile was to be occupied by the United States. The treaty was completed and signed at Paris, Decem- ber 10, 1898, and within a few months was ratified by both governments (by the United States Februaiy 6, 1899). The most important additions to the terms con- tained in the protocol were the cession of the Philippines by Spain, the payment of $20,000,000 to Spain, and the naming of Guam as the member of the Ladrone group referred to in the protocol. The Cost of the War was mot chiefly by the sale of bonds to the extent of $200,000,000. J^esides this increase in the public debt. Congress imposed a number of ad- ditional taxes, including many stamp taxes, an inheritance tax, and a duty on tea. Two hundred thousand volunteers were enlisted at the beginning of the war, and many of them saw service be- side the regulars in Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippines. 1898] INSULAR AFFAIRS 347 Insular Affairs. — The Annexation of the Hawaiian Is- lands was unexpectedly hastened during the progress of the war with Spain. Even before the protocol was signed, the war operations in Asiatic waters, and the possibility NATIVE HOUSE, HAWAII. that the Philippines might fall into the possession of the United States, made clear the importance of the Hawaiian Islands as a naval and military station. The joint resolu- tion of annexation was passed by Congress July 6, 1898, and its terms were promptly ratified by the Hawaiian government. Two years later Congress made the islands a Territory, and extended the Constitution and laws of the United States over them, so that they form part of our country (April 27, 1900). Tutiiila (too too ee'lah) and some small neighboring islands were made the property of the United States by treaty with Germany and Great Britain (1900). Tutuila 348 MCKINLEY'S ADMINISTRATION [1899 has the best harbor in the Samoan islands, and is an im- portant naval and coaling station/ Wake is a small, rocky island in the direct route from Hawaii to Hongkong. The United States took possession of it (February, 1899), in anticipation of its value as a station for any cable line that might be laid to connect with the Philippines. Porto li'ico belonged to the United States a year and a half before Congress provided a civil government for it.'^ A new question had come in with the new island posses- sions : Were they parts of the United States, and as such under the Constitution I or were they merely colonial possessions and outside the force of the Constitution? After a long and vigorous contest, Congress passed an act (April 11, 1900) providing for a government to be exer- cised by a governor and an executive council appointed by the President; a house of delegates elected by the people of the island; and a supreme court appointed by the President. It also levied a temporary tariff on im- ports from Porto Rico into the United States, and on imports from the United States into Porto Rico ; and this In 1889 the fourteen islands constituting the Samoan group -were hy agreement taken under the joint protection of Great Britain, Germany, and the United States. Inuring the 1«n jeais following, troubles growing out of the rivalry of chiefs for the kingship of the islands led to vexatious difTerenccs hetween Great IJritaiu and the United States on one side, and Germany on the other. In April, 1899, the three powers appointed a commission to settle the difflculties. The result was a treaty by wliich Great Britain gave up lier interest, and the islands -were divided between Germany and t'.ie United States. '■i The oceuiTenco of a destructive hurricane (August, 1899) compelled many of the people to depend on the bounty of the United States, which in a few months dis- tributed to them over 30,000,000 pounds of food. The destruction of tlieir crops only increased the impatience with which the Porto Ricans waited for Congress to settle their new relations and restore their industrit>s. Their separation from Spain had cut off a free market for their main products, which now entered our country under tariff rules. As a measure of temporary relief, a bill was passed (March, 19(K)) appropriating the duties collected hitherto on Porto Rican imports, amounting to upward of 12,000,000, for the benefit of the island. 349 350 McKINLEyS ADMINISTRATION [190J provision, implying that Porto Rico is not part of the United States, was declared constitutional by the Supreme Court.' This tariff, however, came to an end in July. COFI-EK IM.ANTATION, I'OItTO UlCO. 1901, when the local taxation of Porto Rico was found to be sufficient for its expenses. The PJiilippines. — Unlike Porto Rico and Guam, which welcomed American authority, some of the Philippines objected to any sovereignty foreign to themselves. Many of the Filipinos had fought bravely against the tyranny of Spain, and now, under the lead of Aguinaldo (ag e- ' It ■was decided that the general laws of the United States, and some i>f the pro- visions of the Constitution, do not apply to new territory until Coufrress extends them over it. Porto Rico, the Philipi)ines, Guam, and Twtuila are not i)art8 of the United BtJitea, and tlieir citizens are not citizens oi the United States. But they are possessions of our country, under the control of Consi-ess, and hence rre not foreign. They arc practically colonies. 1899] INSULAR AFFAIRS 351 nahl'do), they looked for absolute independence for them- selves and their neighbors. The war in the Philippines arose when there was no active sovereignty over the islands, during the long in- terval between the signing and the confirmation of the Paris treaty. General Merritt was suc- ceeded by General Elwell S. Otis, who occupied Manila, while the insurgent Filipinos controlled most of the remainder of Luzon. On February 4, 1899, the Fili- pinos began the war by attack- ing the defenses of Manila ; they were repulsed, with a loss of 2000 men, and General Otis then directed an aggressive cam- paign. Malo'los, the Filipino capital, was captured (March 31) ; the army of the Filipinos was broken up ; and within two years most of the insur- gents surrendered. In 1899 a commission appointed by the President visited the Philippines and reported upon their condition. Early in 1900 the President appointed a new commission of five members to control and take charge of all matters connected with the construction of a government, and to appoint all necessary civil officers. This commission, of which Judge William H. Taft of Cincinnati was made president, entered upon its duties in the Philippines in June. Schools were encouraged, local governments were established, and the Filipinos were given a large share of self-government. B.HI8T. U. 8.— 21 THE PHILIPPINES. 352 MCKINLEY'S ADMINISTRATION [1900 The Philippine Commission, enlarged by the addition of three Filipino commissioners, continued for several years to exercise supreme authority in the islands. Its work was ratified by act of Congress (July 1, 1902), which also contained guarantees of liberty to the Filipinos and provided for a census of the islands and for a new plan of government to be put into effect by the Commission. The new plan includes a legislature of two houses: one con- sisting of the Philippine Commission, and the other of a Phihppine Assembly elected by the Filipinos. The gov- ernor, heads of the Philij)pine executive departments, other members of the Commission, and judges of the Philippine supreme court are appointed by the President with the consent of the Senate. Cuba. — On the evacuation of Cuba by Spain, the United States assumed control temporarily. Such thor- ough sanitary reforms were brought about that the island was almost entirely freed from yellow fever. The city governments were soon turned over to the Cubans ; and delegates were elected to a convention which adopted a constitution for the government of Cuba as an independ- ent nation under the protection of the United States. When elections had been held under this constitution, the United States troops were withdrawn and the control of the island was turned over to its own government, May 20, 1902. Foreign Affairs. — Chinese Disorders. — In the summer of 1900 there was in China a native uprising against for- eigners. The Chinese government secretly encouraged the movement. Finally the European powers, Japan, and the United States, all sent troops to Peking to rescue the ambassadors and other foreigners there and to restore order. 1900] POLITICAL PARTIES 353 Political Parties. — The leading candidates for President and Vice President in 1900 were: Republican, William McKinley (renominated), and Theodore Eoosevelt of New York; Democratic and People's party, William Jennings Bryan of Nebraska, and Adlai E. Stevenson of Illinois. Nominations were also made by the Prohibition party, the independent (anti-fusion) branch of the People's party, and other parties. The Republican candidates were elected. Assassination of McKinley. — At the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo, President McKinley held a public reception, and shook hands with the people as they passed him in line. An anarchist, cunningly hiding a revolver in what seemed to be a bandaged hand, advanced in his turn, and at the President's greeting shot him twice (September 6, 1901). McKinley died of his wounds (Sep- tember 14), and on that day Vice-President Roosevelt took the oath of office as President (p. 369). INDUSTRIAL HISTORY During the Civil War, as we have seen, a vast amount of property was destroyed, — millions and millions of dol- lars' worth, — and the supreme energies of the nation were for four years directed in military channels. Hence there was a great disturbance, a great check in many kinds of industry. But within a short time after the war the country regained its former prosperity, and it then con- tinued to progress so rapidly that by the end of the century it stood first among the countries of the earth in wealth and in the amount and value of its industrial products. Between 1860 and 1900 the population of the country 354 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION more than doubled. The number of immigrants who came each year varied from less than 100,000 to nearly 800,000. Cities grew in population much more rapidly than country districts; in 1900 a third of all the people lived in cities or large towns. Also, the productive ca- pacity of nearly every workiugman was increased by many inventions of labor-saving machines and new, eco- nomical methods of work. The patents issued by the United States between 1860 and 1900 numbered over 600,000. They include improve- ments on almost every implement of peace or war, from the cannon to the telescope.^ Among the notable Ameri- can inventions made or perfected since 1860 are vestibule and sleeping cars, automatic car couplers, the typewriter, typesetting machines, the telephone, and electi-ic lights.^ Near the end of the century, machines were introduced even for recording votes in elections — a method that is quicker and more accurate than voting by ballot. > The printing press of a century ago -would, at a great expense of labor, print, on one side, abont 250 slieets an hour. A new steam " perfecting press " will in the same time turn out 96,000 four-page news- papers folded, pasted, and printed on both sides of each page. 2Just as the steam engine brought about the most not- able changes in industrial methods before the Civil War, so new uses of electricity are the most striking features of mechanical development in the later period. Besides the telephone and electricj lights there were now introduced tlie dynamo and the electric motor — a means by which water power or steam power is transformed into electricity and then, after being carried to a distance by wire or stored up in storage batteries, is changed back into motive power witli very little loss. In this way, for instance, port of the vast power of Niagara Falls is used in Buflfalo and other cities. Not only are trolley cars, automobiles, etc., driven by electric power, hut also ma<:hlnea used in hundreds of kinds of work, from running elevators to dressing meat. - '-\ HODGRN PRINTING PRESS. INDUSTRIAL HISTORY 355 This period of our industrial history is characterized by the multiplication and growth of large corporations. In many cases the property or the stock of competing cor- porations has been bought by a single corporation, which thus seeks to gain a monopoly of the business, and is commonly called a " trust." Many kinds of manufacture have come under the control of trusts, each with a capital stock of millions of dollars. On the other hand, trades unions have grown and developed until they include a controlling proportion of the skilled workingmen of the country. Disagreements between employers and trades unions have led to many thousands of strikes, fewer" suc- cessful than unsuccessful; but on the whole wages have gradually become higher and hours of labor fewer. Agriculture. — Since 1860 many new agricultural imple- ments and machines have been invented ; the rotation of crops and the use of fertilizers have been reduced to an exact science; and the cultivated area has been more than doubled. The cotton crop has increased to move than 10,000,000 bales a year, and the corn, wheat, tobacco, and other crops are far larger than before. This period is also marked by the great development of truck farming (the raising of fruits and vegetables for the supply of city markets) ; by the production of great quantities of vege- tables and fruits preserved in canning factories (an indus- try introduced during this period) ; and by the beginnings of beet cultivation on a large scale for the supply of sugar factories (since about 1890). The new Northwest has become important in agriculture, and in many of the Western States vast areas formerly arid have been made highly productive by irrigation. Herding.— The drier parts of the country near the Rocky Mountains have become a great pasture for millions of 356 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION cattle and sheep. The cattle, sheep, swine, and other domestic animals kept in all parts of the country are greater in value than those of any other nation. During this period the making of cheese, and later of butter, which was for a long time solely a household manufacture, has in large part become the work of facto- ries; the "condensing" of milk has l)ecome an important industry ; and there has been developed an elaborate sys- tem for carrying fresh milk into large cities every day by railroads — in some cases over a hundred miles. The work of slaughtering animals and preserving and distributing meats has been gathered largely into the hands of a few great corporations. Such improvements have been made in this industry — especially in the man- ner of keeping meat fresh by refrigeration — that we export vast quantities of fresh meats as well as of live cattle. Lumbering. — To supply the greatly increased needs of our rapidly growing manufactures, lumbering has been carried on so extensively as to threaten the destruction of our remaining forests. Among the new demands made upon them, is that for vast quantities of wood pulp from which the cheaper grades of paper are now made. On the other hand, wood now supplies a much smaller share of the fuel burned in onr country than in former periods. Mining. — In this period the main regions of iron mining came to be the southern and western shores of Lake Superior (about 1880) and the southern Appalachian Mountains. Rich copper mines were opened in Montana and Arizona, coal mines in many States, new gold mines in Colorado, Alaska, and elsewhere, and rich silver mines in the Rocky Mountain region. The sinking of wells for petroleum, begun just before the Civil War, grew rapidly to a vast industry in western INDUSTRIAL HISTORY 357 Pennsylvania and the neighboring States, and about the end of the century in California and Texas also. The refining of petroleum (producing gasoline, kerosene, vase- line, and many other things) took rank among our most important manufactures, meeting the home demand and furnishing large quantities for export. Natural gas, obtained, like petroleum, from wells drilled deep into the earth, supplied light and fuel for many towns and cities. Manufactures. — Our manufactures steadily increased, so that in 1900 they amounted to $13,000,000,000, about seven times the output of 1860. Not only did they meet a larger and larger share of the^ increasing home demand, but the amount of manufactures exported grew year by year until it formed nearly a third of the total exports. About a generation after the Civil War, many cotton mills, tobacco factories, and other manufactories were established in the South, which had theretofore been almost wholly an agricultural section. Many new articles were manufactured, and great im- provements in methods and processes were made in every branch of manufacture — improvements which in many cases lowered the price to the consumer besides increasing the manufacturer's profits and the laborers' wages. These are typical of many : From cotton seed, long considered almost worthless, was made an oil someijiing like lin- seed oil and olive oil. Soon after the invention of bicy- cles more of them were manufactured in this country than in any other, as is the case also with many other machines. Ten thousand inventions were patented in the details of making boots and shoes, and so many diffcu'- cnt machines are actually used that a single pair of shoes may be the work of twenty men, each doing a small part. In flour mills, rollers took the place of the older mill- 358 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION stones. Steel was made largely from pig iron and be- came cheaper than the wrought iron from which it was formerly made ; and it came to be used as the chief ma- terial of thousands of things, from nails and tin cans to ships and the framework of thirty-story buildings. The production of cotton and woolen goods grew steadily in importance. The manufacture of silk grew to such pro- portions as to supply most of the home demand, though the United States consumes more silk goods than any other country. Transportation. — By the year 1900 the number of miles of railroad in the United States was increased to more than 190,000 — more than in all other countries com- bined. Transportation by canal became of comparatively little im- portance, but that by large ships on the oceans and the Great Lakes increased vastly in amount. So much iron ore and grain were shipped down the Great Lakes from points on Lake Superior that more freight passed through the Soo Canal (on St. Marys River) than through the Suez Canal. The telegi'aph wires in the country increased to more than a million miles, and the telephone wires to a much greater length. Commerce. — What has just been said of transportation is enough to indicate the vast amount of our domestic commerce — which is far greater than our foreign com- merce. Yet the foreign trade of the United States MODERN LOCOMOTIVE. 1867] NEW STATES 359 ^^■^^^^B^'~"'''''"'"'miiyiiiiii iiinMiiTmi. H^i^-fr-.^. has grown to be over $2,000,000,000 a year. The chief exports are cotton, iron and steel, pork and beef, wheat and flour, corn, petro- leum products, copper manufactures, lumber and articles of wood ; our chief imports, sugar, hides, chemi- cals, coffee, raw silk and silk goods, cotton goods, aud rubber. Nearly all the Amer- ican shipping engaged the new york, a modern steamship. in the foreign trade at the time of the Civil War was either destroyed by Con- federate cruisers or sold to foreigners to avoid destruc- tion. Since then it has been only in part replaced by modern ships, though their number is increasing; and most of our imports and exports are carried in foreign vessels. NEW STATES (1865-1896) Nebraska, the thirty-seventh State, -was admitted to the Union March 1, 1867. The Territory of Nebraska was organized in 1854 (p. 225). At first it included all of the Louisiana purchase north of Kansas and west of the Missouri aud White Earth rivers ; the present north limit was fixed in 1861 and the west limit in 1863. Colorado was admitted as a State August 1, 1876. Congi-ess decided to admit it March 3, 1875, and its constitution was ratified hy its people July 1, 1876. Its territory came partly from the Louisiana purchase and partly from Mexico. It was organized as a Territory in 1861, with its present boundaries. The first settlement was Denver. North Dakota and South Dakota were admitted November 2, 1889. They had pre- viously formed the Territory of Dakota, which was organized in 1861. Montana entered the Union November 8, 1889, and "Washington November 11 of the same year. In 1890 Idaho (July 3) and Wyoming (July 10) M'ere admitted. This group of six States was traversed by the Lewis and Clark expedition in 1804-06 (p. 178), but their rapid settle- ment did not take place till after the Civil War. Since the building of the great trans- continental railroads their growth has been remarkable. The Dakotas and most of Montana and Wyoming are from the Louisiana purchase ; Washington, Idaho, and 360 PROGRESS IN CIVILIZATION parte of Montana and Wyoming are froin the Oregon country, and part of Wyoming is from Mexico. Washington Territory, organized in 1853, had the limits shown on page 252 from 1859 till the formation of Idaho Territory in 18C3. The Territory of Idaho at first included also Montana and nearly all of Wyoming; but in 1864 Montana woa made a separate Territory and most of Wyoming was added temporarily to DaJkota. The Territory of Wyoming was organize. Chinese Exclusion. International Copyright. o. World's Columbian Exposition. 5. Repeal of Silver Purchase Law. c The Tiiritr. d. Kepial of the Force Bill. e. Great Itailruad Strike. a. Hawaii. 6. The Venezuelan Boundary. {.' The Tariff. Gold Standard Act. Galveston Disaster. a. Causes. b. Fighting in Philippines. c. Fighting in West Indies. d. Peace. e. Cost of the War. a. nawaii. b. Tutuila. c. Wake. d. Porto Kico. «. Philippines. / Cuba. a. Chinese Disorders. b. Alaska Boundary. 4. Foreitrn Affairs. 5. Political Parties. 6. Assassination of McKinley. 10. Roosevelt's Administration, etc. (to be added by the pupil). 11. Industrial History. 12. New States. 13. Progress in Civilization. RECENT EVENTS ROOSEVELT'S ADMINISTRATION (1901-1909)1 Isthmian Canal — The project of constructing a ship canal across the Isthmus of Panama, or near it, occupied public attention for many years. A French company spent millions in an at- tempt to build a canal across the isthmus, but failed through poor man- agement before the work was half done. Our gov- ernment had a thorough survey made of this route, and also of the Nicaragua route across the southern part of Central America. The owners of the French canal having offered to sell their rights and property for $40,000,000, Congress passed a law (1902) authorizing the President to purchase and complete it, or to build the 1 Theodore Roosevelt was bom in New York, 1858. In liis boyhood he was weak in body but strong in spirit, and in time lie overcame his infirmities and became robust. He took great interest in athletics. He graduated at Harvard iu 1880, and two years later became a member of the New York legislature, where he secured the passage of a civil service reform law. In 1889-95 he was a member of the national Civil Service Commission (p. 327). He resigned this position to become a police commissioner in New York city, where he was noted for his strict enforcement of the laws. Appointed Assistant Secretary of the Navy (1897), he had much to do in making our naval forces ready for the war with Spain ; and as lieutenant colonel and afterwards colonel of the " Rough Riders " he played a conspicuous part iu the Santiago campaign. In the fall of 1898 he waa elected governor of New York, and in 1900 Vice President. 369 Copi,rujht, 1898, by Rmlcwnod, N. t. THEODORE ROOSEVELT. 370 ROOSEVELT'S ADMINISTRATION Nicaragua canal in case satisfactory title and control of the Panama route could not be obtained. The next year, accordingly, a treaty was negotiated with Colombia, by the terms of which the United States was to have control of a strip of land across the Isthmus of Panama on the payment of $10,000,000 and an annual rental of $250,000. But the Colombian Congress rejected this treaty, whereupon the Colombian province of Panama seceded (November 3, 1903), and was promptly recognized as an independent republic l)y the United States and other countries. A new treat v was then negotiated with Panama, similar to the rejected Colombian treaty. Chinese Exclusion (1902). — The exclusion of Chinese laborers (pp. 327, 333) was continued. The law was also applied to the islands belonging to the United States. Chinese laborers are not allowed to enter any of our in- sular possessions, and those already living there — many thousand in number — can not move from one island group to another or to the mainland part of our country Anthracite Coal Strike (1902). — Through the organiza- tion of labor and of capital in our country, it had come about that the wages of workers in most of the bitumi- nous coal mines were fixed each year by agreement between representatives of the miners and of the mine owners. The miners' union proposed a similar arrangement for the anthracite mines, but the mine owners declined. In May, 1902, the anthracite miners struck for higher pay and shorter hours. They were aided by contributions from the bituminous workers and others. The strike lasted so long that the resulting shortage of coal became a serious menace to the public health in some cities and to the many industries dependent on hard coal for fuel. President Roosevelt finally proposed that the questions ALASKA BOUNDAEY 371 at issue be submitted to the arbitration of a commission selected by him. Both sides having approved of the com- missioners appointed, work was resumed late in October. Alaska Boundary — After the discovery of rich gold deposits in the Klondike region in northwestern Canada (1896), many miners crossed the southern part of Alaska on their way thither, and many supplies were sent by the same route. This gave importance to a dispute over the Alaska boundary, and by a treaty with Great Britain in 1903 the question was left to the de- cision of an arbitra- tion tribunal of six members, three being appointed by each country. Our claim placed the boundary thirty-five miles from the coast of the mainland; the Canadian claim placed it so as to give several seaports to Canada. The matter depended on the interpretation of an old treaty between Russia and Great Britain. The decision of the majority of the tri- bunal sustained the chief contention of the United States, namely, that Alaska should include a continuous strip of the mainland coast. Department of Commerce and Labor (1903). — A ninth member was added to the President's Cabinet^ in the 1 The eighth member is the Secretary of Agriculture, added in 1889. See also p. 329. ALASKA BOUNDARY. 372 ROOSEVELT'S ADMINISTRATION person, of the Secretary of Commerce and Labor. The work of the new executive department is to promote the interests of commerce, manufactures, fisheries, and labor, largely by collecting and publishing information on these subjects. One bureau in the department has power to in- vestigate the organization and working of any trust or corporation (except railroads) engaged in interstate or foreig;n commerce. Pacific Cable. — Work on the first submarine cable (p. 316) across the Pacific Ocean was completed July 4, 1903. This extends from San Francisco to the Hawaiian Islands, Guam, and the Philippines. Political Parties. — The candidates of the two great par- ties for President and Vice President in 1904 were : Re- publican, Theodore Roosevelt, of New York, and Charles W. Fairbanks, of Indiana ; Democratic, Judge Alton B. Parker, of New York, and Henry G. Davis, of West Vir- ginia. The Socialist, Prohibition, and People's parties also made nominations. The RejDublican candidates were elected by a very large majority. Earthquake and Fire at San Francisco. — Just before sun- rise on April 18, 1906, part of California was shaken by an earthquake. Many buildings in many places were dam- aged and some were wrecked, causing the death of many hundreds of people. In San Francisco fire broke out in the ruins and raged for several days, until nearly all the business part of the city and over half the residences were in ashes. A vast multitude of people, driven from their homes, sought shelter in tents. Martial law was declared, thieves were shot without ceremony, passers-by were compelled at pistol's point to help clear streets and bury the dead. Famine threatened the stricken city but was averted by the prompt aid afforded by Federal and INTERSTATE COMMERCE 373 State governments and by hundreds of individuals all over the country. The people of San Francisco, undaunted by their double disaster, began at once to rebuild the city. Interstate Commerce — In spite of the act of 1887 (p. 330) and some later laws, favored shippers were still given various unfair advantages in the service and charges of railroads. In 1906 Congress greatly enlarged the power of the Interstate Commerce Commission to supervise rail- roads, express companies, and other common carriers' operating in more than one state, and even authorized it to fix new freight and passenger rates in place of any it deemed to be unjust or unreasonable. Besides this law to regulate interstate transportation. Congress passed several acts to regulate the quality of goods entering into interstate commerce. Efficient in- spection of meat packing establishments was provided, at a cost of $3,000,000 a year. Adulteration or misbranding of any foods, drugs, medicines, or liquors manufactured anywhere for sale in another state, was forbidden under heavy penalties. New State. — An act was passed (1906) providing for the admission of Oklahoma (p. 332), including the Indian Ter- ritory, as one State.^ Under this act the new State was admitted November 16, 1907. 1 Pipe lines for transporting petroleum were included in the provisions of this act. Another law affecting the petroleum industry was an act removing the internal revenue tax from alcohol to be used in the arts, or for fuel, light, or power. The tax on alcohol had previously been so high as to prevent its extensive use in competition with kerosene, gasoline, or other petroleum products. Following the example of some other countries, the United States now removed the tax, on condition that the alcohol be mixed with certain other substances that spoil it for use in any medicine or drink. ■^ The same act provided also for the admission of a new State of Arizona, to con- sist of the two Territories of Arizona and New Mexico, on condition that each Terri- tory, voting separately, should favor uniting. But in the election Arizona voted against the union, so both Territories remained Territories. 374 ROOSEVELT'S ADMIN ISTRATION Insular Affairs. — The insurrection in the Philippines having been entirely suppressed, the first Philippine Assem- bly was elected (p. 352) and began its sessions in October, 1907. After the second presidential election in Cuba, the defeated party began a revolt, which gained such headway that the United States government was asked to intervene and restore order. For two years, therefore, the island was again under the con- trol of a governor appointed by our President, and backed by United States troops. But in January, 1 909, our forces were again withdrawn, and for the second time Cuba was turned over to a govern- ment of its own choosing. Political Parties. — In 1908 both of the great parties declared in favor of many reforms. Their candidates for President and Vice President were: Republican, William H. Taft,' of Ohio, and James S. Sherman, of New York; Democratic, William J. Bryan, of Nebraska, and John W. Kern, of In- diana. Nominations were made also by the Socialist, Copyright, I'.KW, l,y I'a'h Br WILLIAM 11. TAFT. ' William Howard Taft was born in Cincinnati in 1857. He was graduated at Yale in 1878 and at the Cincinnati College Law Scliool in 1880. After several years' experience as assistant prosecuting attorney and lawyer he was chosen judge of the superior court of Cincinnati. In 1890 he became solicitor-general of the United States; in 1892 United States circuit judge ; in 1900 president of the Philippine Commission; and in 1901 governor of the Philippines. I'rom 1904 to 1908 he was Secretary of War, and one of the most trusted advisors of President Roosevelt. ■ TAFT'S ADMINISTRATION 375 Prohibition, and other parties. The Republican candidates were elected. President Taft was inaugurated March 4, 1909. TAFT'S ADMINISTRATION (1909-1913) Tariff of 1909. — President Taft promptly called a special session of Congress, which after much deliberation passed a new tariff law. By this act some duties were lowered, and some were increased. A tax of one per cent was also laid on the net earnings of corporations in excess of $5000 a year. By joint resolution, there was proposed an amend- ment to the Constitution giving Congress full power to levy a tax on incomes.^ This amendment was declared adopted in 1913. New States. — In 1910 Congress provided for the later admission of New Mexico and Arizona as States. They were accordingly admitted early in 1912. Census. — The census of 1910 showed a population of nearly 92,000,000 in the main body of the United States. New York City then had over 4,750,000 inhabitants, or more than there were in the whole United States when Washington was President. Government Reforms. — During Taft's administration, and for some years before it, the people gave much thought to new plans of government, both in the nation ' The year 1909 is also noted for a sledge trip to the north pole by Robert E. Peary, of Maine, who had gained much skill in Arctic exploration during several previous expeditions in Greenland and the polar ocean. Thus it was an American who first reached the pole, succeeding where scores of earlier explorers had failed. In 1909, also, the United States War Department bought its first aeroplane, or fly- ing machine, from the Wright brothers, of Dayton, Ohio. These men, Orville and Wilbur Wright, had perfected their machine not long before, after many years of study and experiment. Other men had laid the foundations of the science and art of flying in heavier-than-air machines, but the Wright brothers were the first who made actual sustained flights. 876 TAFT'S ADMINISTRATION and in the states. For example, it was often proposed that United States senators should be elected by vote of the people instead of by the state legislatures. Finally in 1912 Congress submitted to the states a proposed amend- ment to the Constitution, providing for this change. Be- tween 1900 and 1912 many states altered their constitutions so as to provide for the initiative and referendum, giving the people power to propose laws and to adopt or to reject them. Some states adopted the recall, a plan by which a local or state officer can, by vote of the people, be deprived of office before his term expires. A new plan of city gov- ernment, called the commission plan, was adopted for more than 200 cities during the first twelve years of the century. This plan gives great power and responsil)ility to a few men elected by the voters of the whole city. Many states adopted direct primaries, b}' which the can- didates of political parties are selected by popular vote instead of by conventions. Before 1900 only four states liad permitted women to \ ote on the same terms as men. In 1910-1912 five more states granted equal suffrage to women, making nine in all. Political Parties. — In 1912, primary elections were held in a number of states for the selection of delegates to the national convention of each party, and for the ex- Woodrow Wilson. TAFT'S ADMINISTRATION 377 pression of the voters' preference for presidential can- didates. In those states, a majority of the Repiibhcan votes were cast for Theodore Roosevelt. A majority of the delegates from other states, however, opposed him, and the Republican national convention renominated President Taft. Thereupon a new Progressive party was organized, and Roosevelt was named as its candidate. The Demo- cratic nominee for President was Woodrow Wilson ^ of New Jersey ; and for Vice President, Thomas R. Marshall of Indiana. The Democratic candidates were elected by a very large majority of the electoral vote.^ 1 Woodrow Wilson was born in Virginia, 1856 ; he was educated at Princeton and at the University of Virginia. He practiced law for two years in the South and then became a college professor. In 1902 he was made president of Princeton University, and in 1910 he was elected governor of New Jersey. He is the author of several widely read books on history and government. 2 The popular vote was about 6,300,000 Democratic, 4,100,000 Progressive, 3,500,000 Republican, 900,000 Socialist, and 200,000 Prohibition. APPENDIX CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY 1493. 1497. 1497-98. 1498. 1501. 1511. 1519-21. 1520-22. 1524, 1532-36. 1535. 1539-42. 1540-42. 1502-64. 1565. 1571. 1578-80. 1582. 1584-87. 1605. PAGE Columbus discovered the New World, October 12 24 Firnt voyage of Vespuciiis (under Pinzon and Solis), to Gulf of Mexico . 26 The C'al)ots explored tbe eastern coast of North America .... 28 South America was discovered by Columbus, August 10 . . . . 26 Vasco da Gama sailed round the Cape of Good Hope to India ... 27 Vespuciiis explored the eastern coast of South America .... 27 San Juan, in Porto Eico, founded by Ponce de Leon ; oldest city in United States tei-ritory 30 Ponce de Leon reached Florida, March 27 30 Bal))oa saw the Pacific Ocean, September 25 30 Cortes conquered 'Mexico 29 Magellan sailed through the Strait of MageHan and the Pacific Ocean, and discovered the Pliilippines. One of his vessels, returning home by the Cape of Good Hope, made tlie first circumnavigation of the globe. 29 Verrazano explored the coast of North America 34 Pizarro conquered Peru 29 Cartier explored the St. Lawrence River 34 De Soto in the South (found the Mississippi Eiver, 1541) .... 31 Coronado explored the Southwest 32 Huguenots tried to plant a colony in the Southeast . . . . . 35 St. Augustine founded; oldest town in main part o? United States . 32 Manila founded in the Philippines 29 Brake sailed to the Pacific coast, and circumnavigated the globe . . 41 Espejo explored and named New Mexico 33 Raleigh twice attempted to plant a colony in Virginia .... 43 De Monts established a colony at Port Royal, Nova Scotia ... 36 1G07. 1608. 1609. 1613. 1614. 1619. 1620. 1622. Jainestown founded by the "London Company; first permanent Eng- lish settlement in America, May 13 44, 49 Champlain planted, at Quebec, first permanent French colony . . 36 Virginia enlarged by its second charter 52 Champlain discovered Lake Champlain, and fought the Iroquois . . 37 Hudson explored the Hudson River 46 Settlement of New Netherland (New York) by the Dutch .... 71 Smith explored the New England coast 57 First Colonial Assembly, in Virginia, July 30 53 Negro slavery introduced in Virginia 55 Pilgrims founded Plymouth ; first permanent English settlement in New England (first landing there occurred December 21) ... 60 Indian massacre in Virginia, March 22 55 i 11 1623. 1624. 1629. 1630. 1632. 1633-36. 1634. 1635. 1636. 1637. 1638. 1641. 1644. 1663. 1665. 1660. 1662. 1664. 1670. 1673. 1676-7 1676. 1677. 1679. 1682. 1683. 1684. 1686. 1689. 1689-97. 1690. 1692. 1702-13. 1710. 1729, 1732. 1733. 1738. 1744-48. 1745. 1749. 1750. 1754. CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY New Hampshire settled at Dover and Portsmouth .... PAQtt C6 Virginia became a royal province 66 Charter granted to Masaachusctts Bay colony, March 4 .... 62 First house built in Boston, under Goveruor Winthrop, July ... 62 Maryland granted to Lord Baltimore, June 20 79 Connecticut settled at Windsor, Ilartford, and Wethersfleld . . 67, 69 Maryland settled at St. Marys, March 27 79 Claybome's rebellion in Virginia and Maryland 79 Rhode Island settled at Providence, June 63, 70 Pequot War 68 New Haven colony founded 69 Delaware settled near Wilmington by the Swedes, April .... 76 New HampaMre united to Massachusetts 67 Charter granted to Rhode Island ; Providence and Rhode Island Plan- tations united, March 14 71 Second Indian massacre in Virginia, April 18 66 North Carolina settled, on Albemarle Sound 81 Civil war in Maryland 80 New Sweden conquered by the Dutch, October 72 Navigation Act, passed in 1651. now enforced t6 Charter granted to Connecticut, April 20 69 New Netherland conquered by the English and called New York . . 73 New Jersey settled at Elizal)ethtown 75 South Carolina settled, on the Ashley River 81 Marquette and Joliet explored the Mississippi 38 King Philip's War 64 Bacon's rebellion in Virginia 57 Maiue bought by Massachusetts Bay colony 67 Now Hampshire made a royal province 67 La Sallo explored the Mississippi 39 Pennsylvania settled 76 Delaware granted to William Penn by the Duke of York, August 31 . 76 Philadelphia founded by William Penn 77 Massachusetts Bay colony a royal province 65 Andros arrived in Boston as governor of New England, December 20 . 65 Androa deposed, April 18 65 King William's War 86 Schenectady burned by the Indians and the Freuch, February 9 . . 86 Salem witchcraft 65 Queen Anne's War .... 87 Port Royal, N. R., captured by the British and named Annapolis . . 88 North and South Carolina distinct royal provinces 84 Washington born, February 22 84 Georgia settled by Oglethorpe at Savannah, February 12 .... 85 New Jersey a distinct royal province 76 King George's War 88 Louisburg captured by the British, June 17 89 PYance took formal possession of the Ohio valley 89 Great Britain granted lands in the Ohio valley to the Ohio Company . 89 Battle at Great Meadows; Fort Necessity captured by the Freuch, July 4 93 CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY 1755. 1756. 1757. 1758. 1760. 1762. 1763. The French driven from Acadia, June to December Braddock defeated in the battle of Monongahela, July 9 The British defeated Dieskau at Lake George, September 8 French under Montcalm captured Fort Oswego, August 14 . Fort William Henry surrendered to Montcalm, August 9 Abercrombie repulsed at Fort Ticonderoga, July 8 . Louisburg taken by Amherst and Wolfe, July 27 . . . Fort Frontenac captured by the colonists, August 27 Fort Duquesne taken by the British, November 25 . Ticonderoga and Crown Point abandoned by the French Niagara surrendered to the British, July 25 .... Battle of Plains of Abraham, September 13; Quebec surrendered Montreal surrendered to the British, September 8 . Havana and Manila captured by the British .... Peace of Paris, February 10 Pontiac's War PAGK 95 97 96 96 97 95 97 97 98,99 99 99 99 100 1765. 1766. 1767. 1770. 1773. 1774. 1775. 1776. 1777. 1778. 1779. The Stamp Act passed, Marcli 8 120 The Stamp Act repealed by Parliament, March 18 122 A tax imposed on tea, glass, paper (Townshend Act), June 29 . . . 122 Boston Massacre, March 5 123 The tea thrown overboard in Boston harbor, December 16 ... . 123 "Boston Port Bill" passed, March 31 123 First Continental Congress met at Philadelphia, September 5 . . .124 Battles of Lexington and Concord, April 19 124 Allen and Arnold took Ticonderoga, May 10, and Crown Point, May 12 127, 128 Washington elected commander in cliief, June 15 128 Battle of Bunker Hill, June 17 127 Battle of Quebec ; Montgomery killed, December 31 129 Boston evacuated by the British troops, March 17 130 Attack on Fort Moultrie, June 28 130 Declaration of Independence, July 4 131 Battle of Long Island, August 27 133 Fort Washington taken, November 16 134 Battleof Trenton, December 26 135 Battle of Princeton, January 3 136 Battle of Oriskany, August 6 139 Battle of Bennington, August 16 140 Battle of Brandywine, September 11 137 First battle of Saratoga, September 19 140 Philadelphia captured by the British, September 26 137 Battle of Germantown, October 4 137 Second battle of Saratoga, October 7 141 Surrender of Burgoyne, October 17 142 American independence acknowledged by France, February 6 . . . 144 Battle of Monmouth, June 28 144 Massacre of Wyoming, July 3 146 British captured Savannah, Ga., December 29 147 Vincennes captured by George Rogers Clark, February 24 . . . .149 Stony Point captured by General Wayne, July 16 148 iv CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY 1779. Sullivan (Icfoatcil tlie Iu(li:ius at Nowtown, August 29 . . . PAGE 143 I'aul Jqnes took tlie .svvv/yx'.s, Heiitcihb('r23 149 D'EstaiiiiL? aud Liiifolu n pulsed at Savaimali, October 9 147 1780. Clmrlestou suireud»red to the Britisli, May 12 150 Battle of Camdeu, August 10 151 Arnold's trea.son discovered; lie lied, Sciiteuil)er 25 155 Battle of Kiugs Mountain, October 7 153 1781. Battle of Cowpens, January 17 156 Greene's celebrated retn at, January and February 156 Arti(!le^ of Confederation in force, March 1 1C3 Battle of (iuilford Court House, March 15 157 Battle of Eutaw Springs, September 8 137 Surrender of Cornwallis, October 19 159 1782. Savannah evacuated by the British, July 11 160 Charleston, S. C, evacuated by the British, December 14 160 1783. Treaty of peace signed at Paris, Septemlxr 3 161 New York evacuated by the British, Novendier 25 ..... ico 1787. Shays's rebellion in Massachusetts 104 Ordinance of 1787, for the government of the Northwest Territory, July 13 . 163 Constitution of the United States adopted by the convention, September 17 164 1787-88. Constitution adopted by eleven States 164 1789. Washington inaugurated, April ."JO 169 1?'.)1. Vermont admitted to the I'nion, March 4 244 1792. Discovery of Columbia Kiver l!y Captain (iray. May 11 247 Kentuckj admitted to the Union, June 1 244 Whitney invented the cotton gin 172 1794. The Indians defeated by Wayne, August 20 172 Whisky insurrection 172 1795. Jay's treaty ratified by the Senate, June; by the President, August . . 173 1796. Tennessee admitted to the Union, June 1 . .244 1797. John Adams inaugurated, March 4 175 1798. Alien and Sedition Uaws enacted 175 1800. Capital removed to Washington 171 1801. Thomas Jefferson inaugurated, March 4 17(; 1801-05. War with Tripoli 181 1803. Ohio admitted to the Union, February 19 244 Louisiana purchased from France, April 30 176 1807. The r/(t'.w|jertAe tired into l)y the /,f(VJf/;(, June 1 ... 190 CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY v 1813. Massacre of Fort Mimms, August 30 page 191 Perry's victory on Lake Erie, September 10 189 Battle of the Thames, October 5 , . , 190 1814. Battleof Horseshoe Bend (Tohopeka), March 27 191 Battle of Luudys Lane, July 25 192 Washington capturert by the British, August 24 193 Battle of Plattsburg and Lake Chaniplain, September 11 . . . .192 Bombardment of- Fort McHeury, September 13 193 Hartford Convention, December 15 193 Treaty of peace, December 24 194 1815. Battle of New Orleans, January 8 194 War with Algiers 195 1816. Indiana admitted to the Union, December 11 . . . . . . .245 1817. James Monroe inaugurated, March 4 196 Mississippi admitted to the Union, December 10 245 1818. Illinois admitted to the Union, December 3 245 1819. Florida purchased of Spain, February 22 200 Alabama admitted to the Union, December 14 245 1820. Missouri Compromise passed, March 3 197 Maine admitted to the Union, March 15 245 1821. Missouri admitted to the Union, August 10 245 1823. Monroe Doctrine enunciated, December 2 200 1825. John Quincy Adams inaugurated, March 4 201 Erie Canal opened, October 26 202 1829. Jackson inaugurated, March 4 203 1831. First party national convention (the Antimasons') held, September . . 206 1832. Black Hawk War 207 Nullification in South Carolina 205 1833. Public deposits withdrawn from Bank of the United States .... 206 1835-42. Seminole War 207 1836. Arkansas admitted to the Union, June 15 245 1837. Michigan admitted to the Union, .Tanuary 26 . 246 Martin Van Buren inaugurated, March 4 208 Business panic 208 1841. William H. Harrison inaiigurated, March 4 210 President Harrison died, April 4 210 John Tyler inaugurated, April 6 211 1842. Northeast boundary settled by treaty, August 9 ...... 213 1844. First magnetic telegraph line completed 212 1845. Florida admitted to the Union, March 3 246 James K. Polk inaugurated, March 4 215 Texas admitted to the Union, December 29 246 1846. Battle of Palo Alto, May 8 ' . ' . . . .215 Congress declared war against Mexico, May 13 216 Northwest boundary settled by treaty, June 15 ...... 221 Monterey captured, September 24 216 Iowa admitted to the Union, December 28 ..<,.... 246 1847. Battle of Buena Vista, February 23 216 Vera Cruz captured, March 29 218 Mexico surrendered, September 14 220 vi CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY 1848. Gold discovered in California, January 18 PAGE 221 Treaty of peace with Mexico, February 2 220 Wiscousiu admitted to the Union, May 29 246 1849. General Taylor inaugurated, March 5 223 1850. General Taylor died, July 9 223 Millard Fillmore inaugurated, July 10 223 Califoi-nia admitted to the Union, September 9 246 1863. Franklin Pierce inaugurated, March 4 225 Gadsden purchase, by treaty with Mexico, December 30 ... , 228 1854 Commodore Perry's treaty with Japan, March 31 229 Kansas-Nebraska Bill enacted, M.ay 30 225 1857. James Buchanan inaugurated, March 4 230 Dred Scott decision, March 6 230 1858. Minnesota admitted to the Union, May U 247 1859. Oregon admitted to the Union, February 14 247 1860. South Carolina seceded from the Union, December 20 232 1861. Steamer ,9erson charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, shall, on demand of the executive authority of the State from which ho fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of tho crime. Clause 3. No person held to service or labor in one State, under the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such servico or labor, but shall be delivered up on claim of the piarty to whom such service or labor may be due. SECTION m.— Clause 1. New States may bo admitted by the Congress into this Union ; but no new State shall be formed or erected within tho jurisdiction of any other State ; nor any State be formed by the junction of two or more States, or parts of States, without the consent of tho Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress. Clause 2. The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other proi)erty belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United States, or of any particular State. SECTION IV.— The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a republican form of government, and shall protect each of them against inva- Sectton 3. Tn what does treason consist? What, proof Is required T Who fixes the punishment 7 What limit Is assigned T Abticli IV.— Section 1. What is the law with regard to state records, Jadlcial proceedings, etc.? Section 2. Wliat privileges has the citizen of one state In all the others? Can a criminal or an apprentice escape by fleeing into another state? (JVofe.— Clanse 3 originally Included fugitive slaves, but that application wad aanulled by the Xllltb Amendment.) Section 3. Stat* the law with regard to the (brmatlon and admission of new slates. What power has CoDgreF over the territory and property of the Dnlted States? CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xxiii sion, and on application of the Legislature, or of the executive (when the Legis- lature can not be convened) against domestic violence. ARTICLE V. — Power of Amendment. The Congress, whenever two thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the application of the Legislatures of two thirds of the several States, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this Con- stitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three fourths of the several States, or by conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed bv the Congress ; provided that no amendment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article ; and that no State, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. ARTICLE VI. — Miscellaneous Provisions. Clause 1. All debts contracted, and engagements entered into, before the adop- tion of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution, as under the confederation. Clause 2. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof ; and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land ; and the judges in every State shall bo bound thereby, any thing in the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding. Clause 3. The senators and representatives before mentioned, and the members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this Constitution ; but no religious test shall ever be reqmred as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States. ARTICLE VII.— Ratification of the Constitution. The ratification of the conventions of nine States shall be sufficient foi the establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the same. Done in convention, by the unanimous consent of the States present, the seventeenth day of September, in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the independence of the United States of America the twelfth. In witness whereof, we have hereunto subscribed our names. GEORGE WASHINGTON, President, and Deputy from Virginia. Section 4. What mu^t Congress guarantee to every state? When must Congress protect the states? Article V. — State the two ways in which amendments to the Constitution may be proposed. The two ways in which they may be ratified. What restriction in this article has now lost all force? What provision for the benefit of the smaller states is attached to this article ? Article VI. —What debts did the United States assume when the Constitution was adopted 1 Wliat is th* supreme law of the land ? Who are required to tate an oatb or affirmation to support the Coustitutior. of the United States? Can a reilgigas teat be exacted? CONSTITTTTTON OF THE UNITED STATES NE"W" HAMPSBXBE. John Lanodon, Nicholas Qumah. MASSACHUSETTS. Nathaniel GtoKUAii, KcFus Kino. CONNECTICUT. "WiLLiAH Samuel Johnson, BoQER Sherman. NEW YORK. Ai£XANDER Hamilton. NEW JERSEY. WiLUAM Livingston, David Brearley, William Paterson, Jonathan Dayton. PENNSYLVANIA. Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Mifflin- Robert Morris, George Clymer, Thomas Fitzsimons, Jared Ingersol'^ James Wilson, qodterneub morris. Attest: delaware. George Reed, Gunning Bedford, Jb., John Dickinson, Richard Bassett, Jacob Broom. MARYLAND. James MoHenry, Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer, Daniel Carroll. VIRGINIA. John Blair, James Madison, Jr. NORTH CAROLINA. William Blount, Richard Dobbs Spaight, Hugh Williamson. SOUTH CAROLINA. John Rutledoe, Charles C Pinckney, Charles Pinckney, Pierce Butler. GEOlvcHA- Vvilliam Few, Abraham Baldwin. WILLIAM JACKSON, Secretary. AMENDMENTS To the Constitution of the United States. Ratified according to the Provisions of the Fifth Article of the Foregoing Constitution. ARTICLE I.— Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof ; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press ; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to I)etition the government for redress of grievances. ARTICLE n.— A well-regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. Asncu VII. What was necessary for the adoption of this Constltation 7 (Note, p. 101.) In what year was It adopted? AMXNSiiBim. (M)(M. — The first ten amendments were proposed in 1789 at the first session of the First Con- gress, and In 1791 were declared adopted. They are of the nature of a Bill of RiRhts, and were passed In order to •atlsfy those who complained that the CoiiHtitatiou did not sufficiently (fuard the rights of the people.) ABTicLi I. What Kuarantees are provided concerning religious freedom 7 Freedom of speech and the pressT Peaceable assembly and petition 7 Aanou II. What guarantee U given with regard to the right of hewing anniT CONSTITUTION OP THE UNITED STATES xxv ARTICtiE m.— No soldiers shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house, without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be pre- Bcribed by law. AETICLiE rv.— The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and eflfects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be vio- lated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by oath or afiirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. ARTICLE v.— No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service in time of war and public danger ; nor shall any person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb ; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor to be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shaU private property be taken for public use, without just compensation. ARTICLE VI.— In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusa- tion ; to be confronted with the witnesses against him ; to have compulsory pro- cess for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense. ARTICLE VU.— In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States than according to the rules of common law. ARTICLE V JJJL.— Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines im- posed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. ARTICLE IX. — The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. ARTICLE X.— The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitu- tion, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. Abticlb III. Wbat is provided with regard to quartering soldiers upon citizens ? Abticle IV. What is provided with regard to unreasonable searches and warrants? Article V. What provisions are made with regard to a trial for capital offenses? Can a person be tried twice for the same crime? Can a criminal be forced to witness against himself? When can private property be taken for the public use ? Abticle VI. What important rights are secured to the accused in case of a criminal prosecution 7 Abticle VII. When is the right of jury trial guaranteed? How must a fact tried by a jury be re-examined? Abticle VIII. What guarantee is given with regard to excessive bail or fine and unusual punishment? Abticlb IX. Does the enumeration of certain rights in the Constitution have any effect upon those not enu- merated 7 ABTicut X. Wkat declaration is made ooQoeruiDg the powers neither delegated to Congresa nor forbidden tbe itates? xx^i CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES ARTICLE XI.— The judicial power of the United States shall not he construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens of another State, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign state. ABTICLE Xn.— The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for President and Vice President, one of whom, at least, shall not bo an inhabitant of the same State with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice President ; and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as Presi- dent, and of all persons voted for as Vice President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the president of the Senate ; — the president of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and IIouso of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted ;— the pei-son having the greatest number of votes for President, shall bo the Presi- dent, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person have such majority, then from the i)ersons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing tho President, the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from each State having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two thirds of tho States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. And if tho House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever tho right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then tho Vice President shall act as President, as in the case of tho death or other constitutional disability of the President. The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice President, shall be tho Vice President, if such number be a majority of tho whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person have a majority, then from tho two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose tho Vice President ; a quorum for tho purpose shall consist of two thirds of tho whole number of senators, and a majority of tho whole num- ber shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to tho ofllce of President shall bo eUgiblo to that of Vice President of tho United States. ARTICIiE Xm.— Section 1. Neither slavery nor i nvoluntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime, whereof the person shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within tho United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce tliis article by appropriate legislation. Abticle XI. (Kotc — Tbta amendment was proposed at tho Brst Rcssion of tho Third CongrcfiR, 1794, and declared adopted in 1798.) What restriction is placed on the judicial power of the United States t Can the citizens of one state bring a suit against another state? Akticlb XII. (A'ole. — This amendment was proposed at tho first session of the Eighth Congress. 1803. and declared adopted in 1804. It grew up out of tho contest in the House of RepresenUtivcs at tho time of Jefferson's election ; he was not chosen until the 36th ballot.) Describe in full the mode of choosing the President by tho electors. The Vice President. State the essential qualiOcatlnns of the Vice President. (See Art. 11., Sec. 1, Clause 4.) In case there is no choice by the electors, how is the President elected ? Describe the mode of election in the Bouse. If a President should not be chosen by March 4, who would act as President? Akticlh XIII. (.Voec— This amendment was proposed at the second session of the Thlrty^elghth Congress, 1865, and declared adopted in 1865. It grew out of the Civil War. Sec p. 3U,) Repeat the ameadmeot aboUahing •Isvvry aud lavolunlary servitude la tbo Uoited Statut. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xxvii ARTICLE XTV.— Section 1. All persons bom or natiiralized. in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States ; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law, nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. Section 2. Representatives shall be appointed among the several States accord- ing to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice President of the United States, representatives in Congress, the executive or judicial officers of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one yeara of age and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged except for participation in rebellion or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shaU bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one yeai-s of age in such State. Section 3. No person shall bo a senator or representative in Congress, or elector of President and Vice President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State Legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to sup- port the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may, by a vote of two thirds of each house, remove such disability. Section 4. The validity of the public debt of tho United States, aiithorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pension and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred ia aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations, and claims shall be held illegal and void. Section 5. Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article. ARTICLE XA''.— Section 1. Tho rights of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States, or b/ any State, on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. ARTICLE XVI.— The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration. Article XIV. {Sole. — This amendment was adopted in 1868. See p. 315.) Wlio are citizens of tlie United States? Wiiat restrictions are laid ui>on tile states ? How are representatives apportioned among tlie states ? . How does this amend Art. 1., Sec. 2, Clause 3 ? What provisions are maile about offices ? About public debts 1* ARTICLE XV. (A^ofe.— This amendment was adopted in 1870. See p. 319.) Repeat the amendment. Article XVI, (Note. — This ameudineut was adopted iu 1913.) What is the effect ot this amendment? QUESTIONS FOR CLASS USE These questions are placed at the close of the work rather than at the foot^of each page, in order to encourage a more independent uee of the book. As far as possible, topical recitations should be encouraged. When the subject is named, the pupil should be expected to tell all he knows about it. A little patience and practice iu this method will achieve wonderful results. The following pages often present topical questions in the hope of gradually leading the pupil to this system of study. The figures refer to the pages of the book. INTRODUCTION 9. WTio were the Inhabitants of America a few hundred years ago ? How numerous were they in our country? How long had they lived here? What people are of the same descent as the Indians 7 How may people have traveled from one continent to the other ? Which Indians were most nearly civilized t 10. What remains of them are found? What Indian remains are found in our country 1 Where do they occur? What were they designed for? What proof of their antiquity ? Describe the mound in Adams County, Ohio. What articles were buried in the mounds? Describe the pueblos. Where do they occur ? 11, 12. What is meant by a tribe of Indians ? How are the tribes arranged in groups? Name five important groups. \Miere did the Indians of each group live? Give an account of the Iroquois confederacy. Were there any blacksmiths, carpenters, etc., among the Indians ? 13-15. Were the Indians progressive ? In what were they skilled ? How were they governed? How did they regard labor? Describe the life of the women. The In- dian's disposition. His power of endurance. His religion. Did he have any idea of God? What is the condition of the Indians to-day ? 16-17. Who were the Korthmen ? What traditions about their having discovered and settled America? Are these stories credible? Are there any remains of this people now existing? Were their discoveries of any value? At what date does the history of this country begin 1 Name the subjects and limits of the six epochs into which this history Is divided. FIRST EPOCH 19. What was the state of geographical knowledge in Europe In the fifteenth cen- tury? W^hy could not sailors have crossed the ocean before as well as then? WTiy were books of travel more abundant then ? WTiy were they so eagerly read ? 20. By what routes were goods from the East then obtained ? How were these affected by the Turkish conquests? What was the commercial problem of thatdayl What did the Portuguese do toward solving it? 21. What was Columbus's idea? What facts strengthened his view? Why did he leek assistance ? Tell something of bis life. xxviii QUESTIONS FOR CLASS USE 22. Before whom did he lay his plan 1 How was it received 1 Did the king treat him fairly 1 To whom did Columbus apply next 1 Hov was he regarded ? What reply was made him? What did his triends do for himi What oflfer did Queen Isabella make 1 Were her jewels sold ? 23. What new trouble assailed Columbusi What vessels composed his fleet? Give some of the incidents of the voyage. 24. Did Columbus waver ? Describe the discovery of land. The landing. When and where was this? What region did Columbus think he had reached? What was one result of this ? For what did he search? 25. 26. What other lands did Columbus discover? What of the first settlement of Spaniards ? Describe the reception of Columbus on his return. What was his great mistake ? How many subsequent voyages did he make ? When did he first reach the mainland ? Who had probably reached the mainland before this ? 27, 28. What did Vasco da Gama do ? Cabral ? Vespucius ? How was America named ? Why was it not named for Columbus ? Who was John Cabot ? What dis- coveries did he make? Did his discoveries antedate those of Columbus? Who was Sebastian Cabot? How were the discoveries of the Cabots regarded? Of what value were they? What four nations explored the territory of the future United States? What portion of the continent did each explore ? What other nation gained part of America ? What part ? How ? 29. What was the feeling in Spain? What effect was produced ? What did Cortes accomplish ? Pizarro ? Magellan ? Who took possession of the Philippines ? 30-32. Who was Ponce de Leon ? What city did he found ? Why did he make an expedition? What land did he find? WTiy did he so name it? What success did he meet ? What discovery did Balboa make ? Describe the expedition of Narvaez ; its fate. What became of the survivors? Describe the expedition of De Soto. What region did he traverse ? What river was his burial place ? When ? What became of his companions 1 When, where, and by whom was the first town on the mainland of the United States founded? Origin of the name California? What islands in the northern Pacific did Spanish ships reach ? Result ? What did Coronado accomplish ? 33. What did Cabrillo do ? What is the oldest town in the western United States i When and by whom was it founded ? What was the extent of Spanish possessions in North America in 1600 ? 34. What was the attitude of the French toward the New World ? For what did many mariners search, after Magellan's voyage ? Why ? When was the northwest passage really found ? Of what value is it? What did Verrazano do ? When and by whom was the St. Lawrence River explored? 35. Why was Montreal so named ? Who were the Huguenots ? What was Coligny's plan ? Give an account of the first expedition. Of the fate of the colony. Who led t'ae second expedition ? Where was the colony established? 36. What was its fate ? Why did the Spaniards attack it ? Did France make further attempts to found colonies in the Southeast ? What French navigator was the next to ascend the St. Lawrence ? How did he find things at Hochelaga ? When, where, and by whom was the first agricultural colony established in America ? What was Acadia ? When, where, and by whom was the first permanent French settlement made in Canada ? What Indians did Champlaln aid ? 37,38. What lake did Champlain discover? What battle did he fight? Result? Who were the Jesuits? What did they do in America? What was their purpose? What evidences of them remain ? Tell something of their heroism. Who was Father Marquette? Joliet? Whatdid they do? XXX QUESTIONS FOR CLASS USE 39. Who was La Salle? What did he do ? Was there any permanent result of his work ? What were the French claims on North America in 1700 } Compare with those of Spain. 40, 41. When did England begin to play an Important part in maritime enterprise 1 How was this shown! What did Frobishcr attempt to del V.'ith what success! What did Davis do t I/escribe the career of Sir Francis Drake. What was the " Span- ish main " ? Who ha it to receive? What was a charter? Give some provisions of the charter granted to the London and Plymouth companies. 46. When did the Dutch begin to take an interest in the New World? Who was Henry Hudson an I what did he do? What claim did tlie Dutch found on his explora- tions ? What na:iic did they give to this region ? Can you teU why ? (The country of the Dutch is called the Netherlands.) What became of Hudson ? 47. Wliat European settlements were there in 1600 in what is now the United States ? Name the settlements that were made soon after. What centuries were characterized by explorations? Which (me by settlements? State the claims of the Spanish, French, English, and Dutch. Did they know the real extent of their claims? Why did the claims conflict ? Eow were they settled ? SECOND EPOCH 49. Name the thirteen English colonies. Were they united during this epoch i When and where was the first permanent settlement made in Virginia! What was the character of these colonists ? 50, 51. Who saved the colony from ruin ? Mention the services of John Smith. Some incidents of his life. Tell the story of his capture by Intlians, and his escape. Why did he ujaku some of his expeditions at this time? 52. What change in the government of the colony was made by the second charter? Was it based on tlie principle of self-government? What change was made in the extent of the colony 1 AMiat was the " Starving Time " 1 Why did this happen? 63. How was Jamestown saved a second time from ruin? What change was made by the third charter? Tell what you can of Pocahontas. WTjere and when did the first legislative body in America meet ? Of what did it consist ? 54. When and by whom was the first written constitution granted In America? How much self government was allowed by it? State some particulars of the pro&- peritj' of tli(! colony. What was the chief product? 55. How far did the Virginia settlements now extend? How were domestic ties formed? When and how was negro slavery introduced? What white servants were there? What Indian troubles occurred at this time (1622) ? 66. How did the Indian troubles end ! What change was next made in the govern- QUESTIONS FOR CLASS USE xxxi ment of the colony J Why ? What was the Navigation Act 1 Why was it oppressive 1 Whiit was the conduct of the majority of the assembly i 57. What two parties gradually grew up? Tell the story of Bacon's rebellion. Was Bacon a rebel or a patriot 1 What was the conduct of Berkeley i 57-59. Describe John Smith's explorations in the North. What was the Plymouth Company? What new patent did it receive in 1620, and what new name did it take? VvTio were the Pilgrims? Who were the Puritans ? What was the difference between the Separatists and the other Puritans ? Why did the Pilgrims come to this coimtry ? 60. Where did the Pilgrims land? When? Where had they intended to land? Did they have a right to settle where they did? What was their character? Tell of their piety. Of their sufferings. 61. Why did not the Indians disturb them ? What Indians visited them ? How did Governor Bradford reply to the thi-eat of Canouicus ? Who was Miles Standish ? Tell about the scarcity of food. Did the plan of working in common succeed? How did the colony progress ? Describe its government. What finally became of Plymouth colony ? 62. Who settled about Massachusetts Bay ? Why did this colony grow so rapidly 1 What settlements were iucliuled iu the Massachusetts Bay colony? Did the Puritans tolerate other forms of religion ? Why ? 63. Give an account of the difficulty with Koger Williams. What settlement did he fouud? What was the difficulty with Anne Hutchinson? How were the Quakers treated? What union of colonies was formed in 1C43 ? How long did it last? 64. What was the object of this union ? What Indian chiefs befriended Massachu- setts and Virginia in their early history? Who was King Philip? Cause of King Philip's war? How did the colonists protect themselves ? Result of the war? How did the Navigation Act affect Massachusetts? 65. G6. Did the colonists obey it? What change was made in the government of Massachusetts? Give some account of the rule of Andros. What form of government was liually given to Massachusetts ? Give an account of the Salem witchcraft. What do you know as to the general belief in witchcraft ? What is a " witch " 1 TeU what you can of the settlement of New Hampshire ; of Maine. 67, 68. With what colony were these two closely associated ? Why were they so named? What two nations claimed the Connecticut valley? Give an account of the settlements at Windsor, Hartford, and Saybrook. Tell something of the Winthrops, father and son (pp. 62, 68). How were the Narragansett Indians kept from joining the Pequots against the whites ? 69. Tell about the Pequot war. What three distinct colonies were formed in Con- necticut? What peculiarities in the government of each? How were they combined into one ? 70. Why was the charter of 1662 so highly prized ? Tell about Andres's visit. Who founded Providence ? When ? ^^^lat people settled on the island called Rhode Island ? 71. What was the " religious toleration " idea which Williams stamped upon his colony? How were the two plantations united? For what laws was this colony famous ? When, where, and by whom was New York first settled ? 72. 73. WTio were the patroons ? What was the character of the history of New York under its four Dutch governors ? WTio was the ablest of them ? How did he settle disputes with neighboring colonies? When did the colony surrender to the English? WTiy ? What change was made in its name ? Why ? 74. Did the English rule satisfy the colonists? Was the English occupation perma- nent? For what is Dongan's governorship noted? What was the character of the xxxii QUESTIONS FOR CLASS USE English rule during the next few years, under King James II ? Who was Andros 1 Who was Captain I^isler ? Why was ho executed ? 75. In what colony was New Jersey formerly embraced? Who first settled it? How did the English obtain possession of iti To whom was it granted ? Where and oy whom was the first English settlement made? How was New Jersey divided? WTio settled the two parts? How did New Jersey come to be joined with Now York? To be made a separate province ? 76. Where and by whom was the first permanent settlement made in Delaware? In Pennsylvania? ^Tio was the founder of Pennsylvania? Tell what you can of William Penn. Who were the Quakers? Tell some of their peculiarities. How did Penn obtain a grant of this territory ? Why was it so named ? What plan had Penn in mind ? 77. What city did he found ? When? Meaning of its name ? How do you accoimt for its rapid growth ? What was the Great Law ? 78. Give an account of Penu's treaty with the Indians. What was meant by " the three lower counties on the Delaware " ? What was the connection between this re- gion and Pennsylvania ? When and how did Penn's heirs give over their title to Penn- sylvania? WTiat was the Mason and Dixon Line? 79. With what intent did Lord Baltimore secure a grant of land in America? When was the first settlement made ? Why was Maryland so named ? What advan- tage did the Maryland charter confer? What was the Toleration Act? How did religious toleration vary in the colonies ? 80. 81. Give an account of Clayborne's rebellion. Of the diflSculties between the Catholics' and the Protestants. What territory was granted to Lord Clarendon and others ? By whom was the Albemarle colony settled ? The Carteret colony { Where was it located ? What do you say of the rapidity of its growth ? What beneficial influ- ence did the Huguenots have on the colony ? 82. What was the Grand Model ? How was it unfitted for a new country ? 83. Give an account of the buccaneers ; of Blackboard ; of Kidd. What of the Tuscarora Indians? \Miatwere the relations between the Carolina proprietors and the settlers ? 84,85. How were the difficulties ended { How came Carolina to be divided ? By what coincidence is Georgia linked with Washington { With what intention was this colony planned ? Character of the settlers? Restrictions of the trustees? Result? 86. How many intercolonial wars were there? If you include the Spanish war? (See p. 88, note.) Duration of King William's war? Cause? Describe the Indian attacks upon tho colonists. Tell the story of Mrs. Dustin. 87, 88. WTiat attacks were made by the colonists in return ? Were they successful ? What was the result of the war? Give a complete account of Queen Anne's war. Tell the story of Mrs. Williams. Length of King George's war? Cause? Give an account of the Spanish war. 89-91. Give an account of tho capture of Louisburg. Result of King George'swar. Length of the French and Indian war. Cause. Give an account of Washington's journey to the French forts. His return. What did the French do in the spring of 1754 ? Tell the story of Washington's first liattle. 9.3. Give an account of the capture of Fort Necessity. Tell about Franklin's Plan of Union. Name the five objective points of this war. 94, 95. Why were they so obstinately attacked and defended ? Describe the defeat of General Braddock. Conduct of Washinirton. Give an account of the second expe- dition against Fort Duquesne. AMio finally captured the fort? What city now occu- QUESTIONS FOR CLASS USE xxxiii pies Its site? What was the principal cause of the easy capture of the fort? (See p. 97, note.) Give an account of the Cherokee war. What success did the English meet in Acadia? What cruel act disgraced their victory? What attempt was made on Louisburg? 96. Who finally captured Louisburg? Describe the battle of Lake George. The fate of Fort William Henry. 97. Describe the attack on Fort Ticonderoga by Abercrombie. When were Tlcon- deroga and Crown Point captured ? Describe the two attempts to capture Niagara. Who forced it to surrender ? When ? Describe the difficulties which General Wolfe met in his attack on Quebec. 98. 99. How did he overcome them ? Describe the battle on the Plains of Abraham. Result? What cities were taken from Spain? Why? What were the conditions of peace ? 100, 102. What did Great Britain do with her new territory? Describe Pontiac's war. What stratagems did the Indians use ? Eflfects of the French and Indian war ? How did the British officers treat the colonial officers ? 103. Describe the people of the colonies at the close of the French and Indian war. How many kinds of government 1 Name and define each. Mention some laws. 104-108. What kinds of local government? How did the people travel? Tell some- thing about the first public conveyance. Name some peculiar customs. Condition of morals in New England. Laws in regard to drinking. Describe the Sunday services in a Plymouth meetinghouse. Who were entitled to the prefix Mr. 1 What were com- mon people called? Tell about New England farm and village life. The houses. The kitchen. The food. 109-111. Describe the " best room." What customs familiar to us are of Dutch origin? Tell something about life in New York. In Pennsylvania. How did the style of living in the South difi"er from that in the North ? Describe a Southern plantation. 112, 113. What is said of the luxurious living in the South ? State of educatijn in New England? Tell something of the support given to schools. Of the founding of Yale College. Of the state of education in the Middle colonies. How many colonial colleges were there? What was the state of education iu the Southern colonies i Tell something about the early newspapers. 114-117. What provisions for public worship? What diflerences between colonial and modern industry ? What were the chief occupations of each section ? What was the state of agriculture? Manufactures? Commerce? Describe the trade of some New Englanders. Was money scarce? Why? How was freight carried? THIRD EPOCH 119, 120. Describe two standing quarrels between the colonies and the British offi- cers. Two direct causes of the Revolution. What were Writs of Assistance? The Stamp Act? Tell the story of James Otis. Of Patrick Henry. 121-123. What efforts were made to resist the law ? What effect did they have ? What taxes were next laid ? What was the Mutiny Act ? Why was it passed ? What resistance to the new taxes was made by the colonists ? Tell about the Boston Massacre. The Boston Tea Party. Why was the tea thrown overboard 1 What did the British now do? 124, 125. What parties were formed? What action did the colonists take? When and where was the First Continent.al Congress held? What action did it take? When and where did the flLrst lighting occur ? Describe the battles and their effects. Tell something of " Old Put.' ' xxxiv QUESTIONS FOR CLASS USE 126, 127. Tell how the battle of Bunker Hill occurred. Describe it. Effect. De- scribe the death of General Warren. Give some account of Etliau Allen. Why were the New Hampshire Grants so called 1 128, )29. Describe the capture of Tlconderoga. Action of Second Continental Con- gress. What were the Hessians 1 What was the condition of the army I What expe- dition was undertaken against Canada f Describe the attaal battles of 1779-1781 in order. 160-163. Was all peril to our liberties now over 1 What was the condition of the country ? What base offer was made to Washington ? When was the treaty of peace signed? What were the results 1 Which States claimed lands west of the Appalachi- ans? Why? Whatwasflnallydone with the land north of the Ohio River? Tell some- thing of the weakness of the government. 164. Describe Shays' s rebellion. AVTiat need was felt? How was it met? When was the Constitution framed ? TeU some of the compromises in its formation. What parties arose? How was the Constitution ratified? How many States were neces- sary ? Describe the first presidential election. 165-167. When did the new government go into operation ? Into what three branches is it divided? Of what does each consist? Tell about the State constitu- tions. Local government. FOURTH EPOCH 169-174. Who was the first President of the United States ? When and where was he inaugurated ? Give some account of his life and character. What difficulties beset the government? Of whom did the first cabinet consist? What financial measures were adopted? By whose advice? Name the changes in the national capital. A great invention made at this time. Give an account of the whisky rebellion. Of the Indian war in the Northwest. How many States in the Union at the end of Washing- ton's administration ? What difficulty arose with Great Britain ? How was it settled t How was the treaty received in tliis country? What treaty was made with Spain? Algiers 1 What was the popular feeling toward Franco ? Why was Genet recalled ? What parties now arose ? Who were the leaders of each ? What were their views ? 175, 176. Who was elected second President ? Vice President 1 Why ? Tell some- thing of Adams's life. ^Tiat were the Alien and Sedition Laws? Why were they passed ? How were they received ? Describe the French difficulty during this admin- istration. How was it terminated ? AVhat reply did Pinckney make to the base offer of the French Directory? What was the state of party feeling? Who was elected President in 1800? How? What was the important event of Jefferson's administrar tion? Tell something of Jefferson's life and character. 178-183. How was the Louisiana purchase made ? Describe the Lewis and Clark expedition. The Twelfth Amendment. Tell how Hamilton was killed. What became of Burr ? Tell something of Fulton's invention. Of the war with Tripoli. Of Lieu- tenant Decatur's exploit. Of tbo difficulty with Great Britain and France. AVhat was the Embargo Act ? (The enemies of this law, spelling the name backward, termed it the O grab me Act.) What was the issue of the next political campaign ? Who was elected President in 1808 ? Give an account of Madison's life and character. 184. Give an account of the battle of Tippecanoe. Effect of this Indian war. State how the breach with Great Britain widened. Tell about the President and Little Belt. When was war declared 1 185-187. How long did the war last? What was the opening event of the war of 1812? Describe the surrender of Detroit. The battle of Qucenstown Heights. The victory of the Constitution, Of the Wasih How many prizes were captured by priva- teers? What are privateers? Effect of these victories? Plan of the campaign of the year 1813? xxxvl QUESTIONS FOR CLASS USE 188-191. What did tho, armios of tho CVnIer and North do in 1R13 1 Describe the three attacks made by Proctor. Perry's victory on Lake Erie. What issues depended on this light ? Describe the battle of tho Thames. What celebrated Indian was killed 1 WTiat was tho effect of these victories? Describe tho capture of the CItcsapeake. What were Lawrence's dying words? Who used them in battle? What Indian diffi- culties occurred I Who (uided them ? How ? What story is told of Jackson ? What ravages were committed by Admiral Cockburn ? Why was New England spared ? 192, 193. Ciive an account of the campaign of 181-1 near Niagara Kiver. Who were the American leaders? What story is told of Colonel Miller? What important battle took place in New York Htate ? Describe it. Describe the ravages on the Atlantic coast. Attack on Washington. On Baltimore. Ileeult of these events. What was the Hartford Convention ? 194, 195. Why was tho battle of New Orleans unnecessary? Describe this battle. How did it happen that raw militia defeated British veterans { What were the results of this war? Effect upon new States? Effect upon the Federal party? Who was elected President in 1816? What small war was fought in 1815? What can you say of the national bank (Bank of the United Stat(>s) ? 196-200. Give some account of Monroci's life and character. What was the charac- teristic of his admiuistriition? Give the history of the United .States flag. What was the Missouri Compromise? Cause of it ? How many slavt^ Htates and how many free States were there in 1822? Give an account of Lafayette's visit. IIow were our boundaries changed by treaties? What famous doctrine was advanced by Monroe? Why? 201. Describe the election of 1824. Restdt? What political changes now took place? Principles of each party? Champions of each party ? Which party absorbed most of the old Federalists? (Jive some account of the life and character of John Quincy Adams. Of his administration. 202,203. How was the protective tariff received? What new means of travel and transportation were now introduced? Significance? Who was elected President in 1828 ? Describe the life and character of Jackson. 205-208. What principle did Jackson introduce? What was the nullification ordi- nance? How did Jackson act? How did Clay pacify ? What celebrated debate took place? What is said of Calhoun? Of Clay's patriotism? ^Miat action did Jackson take concerning the United States bank J Its effect? How did speculation become rife ? What can you say of the Antimasonic party ? What policy was adopted toward the Indians of the middle West? Give an account of the Black Hawk Avar. The Seminole war. Osceola. How many now States were admitted I What difficulty occurred with France? How was it settled? Who was elected President in 1836? Give an account of his life. 209, 210. Describe the crisis of 1837. What was its effect on trade ? What was Van Buren's Subtreasury Bill? Tell the story of the steamer Caroline. TVlio was elected President iu 1840 ? Who was his opponent ? Give an account of the life and character of Harrison. What was the cause of his sudden death ? 211-214. Who was the next President? What trouble with his party? What of the United States bank? Give an account of Dorr's rebellion. Of the anti-rent difficulties. Of the inventi(m of tho magnetic telegraph. Of the Mormcms. Of tho origin and eariy history of this sect. How many States in the Union at the close of this term { Give an account of the northeast boundary question. Of the annexation of Texas. Why was this meastire warmly opposed ? Who wore the presidential candidates in 1844 ? Give an account of Clay. Who was elected I QUESTIONS FOR CLASS USE xxxvii 215-222. Give an account of the life of Polk. What war now broke out 1 How long did it last ? Give an account of Taylor's campaign on the Rio Grande. The capture of Monterey. The battle of Buena Vista. What stories are told of Taylor^ Give an account of Kearny's expedition. Of Doniphan's. Describe the conquest of California. The capture of Vera Cruz. The battle of Cerro Gordo. What city now surrendered { Describe the battles before Mexico. The result. The terms of peace. How was the northwest boundary settled 'i What waa the Wilmot proviso ? Give an account of the discovery of gold in California. Result. How many States at the end of this term 1 Name the slave States. The free«8tates. Tell about the parties and candidates in the election of 1848. Who was elected President 1 223-225. Give an account of Taylor's life and character. How long was he Presi- dent ? Who succeeded him 1 What questions agitated the people? Why were these now awakened? What was the effect ? What course did Clay take ? Webster? Give some account of Webster. What was the Compromise of 1850 ? Describe each meas- ure included in it. Give an account of the filibusters of 1851. Of the political parties in 1852. Who was elected President ? Give an account of the life of Pierce. Of the Kansas-Nebraska biU. 'SVTiat is squatter sovereignty ? Tell how the public lands have threatened the peace of the country. 228, 229. Describe the contest in Kansas. Brooks's assault on Sumner. The Gads- den purchase. The treaty with Japan. What political parties now arose? Why ? 230-235. Who was elected President in 1856 ? Give some account of Buchanan's life. Of the Dred Scott decision. How was this regarded in the North and in the South ? Why was the Fugitive Slave Law obnoxious? What were Personal Liberty bills? The Underground Railroad ? Uncle Tom's Cabin ? Give an account of the John Brown aflFair. How many slave States and how many free States at the end of this term ? What was the question of the elections in 1860 ? Who were nominated for the presi- dency? Who was elected? Give an account of the secession of the South. When and where was the Confederate government formed ? Who were elected President and Vice President of it ? Give some account of Davis's life. What action was taken by the Soutli ? What was the condition of the country ? Give an account of the grad- ual growth of the secession movement. Was war necessary ? What was the condition of affairs at Fort Sumter? For what did the nation wait? 236-243. Tell about the obliteration of rank in this epoch. The improvement in the condition of laborers. Of debtors. Of schools. How did the Revolution affect our industries ? The war of 1812 ? Mention some inventions of this time. Why did immi- grants come here ? What changes took place in agriculture ? Mining ? Manufactur- ing? Transportation? Commerce? No questions are given upon the new States admitted to the Union during this epoch, as each class will naturally study chiefly that which concerns its own State, and will wish to add to the facts given here those obtained from other sources. FIFTH EPOCH 249-267. Give an account of Lincoln's life and character. Of the condition of the country. When was the first gun of the Civil War fired ? Give an account of the cap- ture of Fort Sumter. Effects ? What action did the North take ? The South ? When and where was the first blood shed? How .did the war in Virginia open? How was Fort Monroe protected from capture ? Give an account of the Big Bethel affair. Of the war in western Virginia. How and when did the battle of Bull Run take place? Describe it. How did Jackson receive the name of " Stonewall " ? What decided the xxxviii QUESTIONS FOR CLASS USE lasue of the battle ? Effect ? Who now took command of the Union troops t Describe the battle at Balls Bluff. 258-200. Give an account of the war in Missouri. What was the condition of affairs in the border States i What step did Davis take f Linc. What else was accomplishiul on the coast? Describe the battle between the Monitor and the Merrimac. ^\'hat was the result { What was the objective point in the East! ^V^lat campaign was undertaken? AATio was the commanding general ? 271-275. Describe the siege of Yorktown. The battle of Williamsburg. What became of the Merrimac 1 How did the Confederates thwart General McClellan's plan? Give an account of Jackson in the Shenandoah valley. What was the effect of this movement? What story is told of Jackson? Describe the battle of Fair Oaks. Who now took direct command of the Confederate army ? Give some account of I>ee. How was tlio Union advance on Richmond checked ? What plan did McClellan form f Describe the Seven Dayts' battles and the retreat. What was the effect of this cam- paign { 276-279. ^yhy «.id Leo now march north ? Who had command of the Union army before Washington ? Describe Leo's campaign against Pope. Effect? Wliat plan did Lee now adopt? Describe McClellan's movements in pursuit. On what expedition was Jackson sent ? Describe the battle of Antietam. Its effect. The liattle of Fred- ericksburg. Give a review of the second year of the war. Wliat Indian conllict occurred in tho West? ^\"hat was the situation at the beginning of the year 1803? What was tho Emancipation Proclamation? 280-284. What nioveiiiout did Grant make against Vicksburg? Describe this cam- paign. What other stronglioM on the river was captured? Effect? Describe tho movements of Rosecrans in Tennessee and Georgia. General Morgan's raid. The battle of Chickamauga. By what event can you recollect it? Describe the situatiou at Chattanooga. The battle of lyookcmt Mountain. Of Missionary Ridge. Its effect The siege of Knoxvillo. 285-289. Describe the battle of Chancellorsvillo. Lee's second invasion of the North. The battle of Gettysburg. Its effect. The attack on Fort Sumter. What can you say concerning the negro troops? Give a general review of the third year of tho war. 290-294. State tho situation at the beginning of the year 1864. Tell about the Re. Wliat laws were i)assed the next year >. Describe three other important events of Cleveland's second administration. What can you tell of the Hawaiian Islands ; Describe the election of 18%. What was the iosue } Who was elected President f 339-346. Tell sometliing of his life. What was done by the extra session of Congress in 1897 ? What was th(! effect of the Gohl (Standard Act of 1900 I What was th(,' Galves- ton disaster; What were the causes of the war with Spain; When did it begin { What were the chief naval battles, and the result of each ; The chief operations on land >. What were the results of the war >. 347-353. What islands and island groups were acguired by the United States in 1898, 1899. and 1900 ; Give a brief history of each. What was done with Cviba » What was done in Cliiua in 1900 ; Describe the election of 19(Mt. The death of McKiidey. 3.53-367. Mention some of the reasons for the great industrial development of the United States. What is a trust ; A trade union ; Mention some details of the devel- opment of agriculture. Herding. Lnnil)ering. Mining. Manufactures. WHiat great change took place in the South ; Mention some details in the development of trans- portation. Commerce. Menti. 42. What father and son were Presidents >. What grandfather and grandson 1 43. Who fired the first gun in the French and Indian War? 44. How nianj' rebellions have occurred in our liistory ? 45. Who was called the " Great Pacificator " >. Why ? •16. What was nulliflcation? 47. How juany of our Presidents have been military men ? 48. Why did not Wel)ster and Clay become Presidents? 49. Who was " Old Kougli and Ready " ? The " Sage of Monticello " ? 50. WTiat noted events occurred on April 19? 51. In which administration was the largest number of States admitted? 52. In wliich administrations was none admitted? 53. By whom and under what circumstances was the expression used, "Give me liberty or give me death " ? 54. Give some familiar names that have been applied to American statesmen, 55. Name our six great wars. How long did each last? 56. State the cause of each of these wars. The results of each. 57. Name the prominent commanders who acquired celebrity in each. 58. What fort was caiTied by a midnight assault? 59. What general escaped Ijy riding down a steep precipice? 60. Who drafted the Declaration of Independence? 01. Name the Presidents in chronological order. 62. Who were the "bachelor Presidents" i 63. State to what party each President belonged. 64. How many of our Presidents were poor boys? 65. What party adopted the views of the t)ld Federalists on the United States Bank? 6C. How many Presidents have served two terms? 07. What battles were fought after peace had been declared ? 68. Contrast John Quincy Adams and Andrew Jackson. 69. What is tlie object of a strilce ? Of a lockout ? Describe several noted strikes. 70. Wliat arc tlie injuries that may be caused by strikes? The possible beueflts? 71. On what mountains have battles been fought I 72. \\Tio used tlie expression, " We have met tlie enemy, and they are ours" ? 73. Who.sc dying words were, " Don't give up the ship" ? 74. When was a general blown ui>by a magazine, at the moment of victory? 75. What Indian chiefs formed leagues against the whites { 70. What celebrated statesman was killed in a duel ! 77. What States were named from mountain ranges ? From rivers? 78. Was Washington ever wounded in battle ? 79. Wlien wer(! postage stamps invented ? 80. In wliat battle did Washington show the most brilliant generalship? 81. What ofTicer lost his life because he neglected to open a note? 82. What army retreated at the moment of victory because the fog was so dense that it did not see how successful it was? HISTORICAL RECREATIONS xUii 83. Name some celebrated foreigners who have fought for us. 84. What rendered Valley Forge memorable { 85. How did William Henry Harrison gain his popularity i Zachary Taylor ? 86. Give some account of the United States Bank. 87. In what war was Lincoln a captain and Davis a lieutenant ? 88. What colonel, when asked if he could take a battery, replied, "I'll try, sir"? 89. What town and army were surrendered without firing a shot ? 90. For how many years was the Revolutionary War carried on mainly in the North? In the South ? 91. Who was Poor Richard ? 92. Who were the Green Mountain Boys? 93. WTiat colony was founded as a home for the poor ? 94. What persecuted people settled the different colonies? 95. What colonies are named after a king or a queen ? 96. What religious toleration was granted in the different colonies? 97. Which colonies early enjoyed the greatest liberty? 98. What colony took the Bible as its guide ? 99. In what Ijattle was the left wing, when separated from the main body by a river, attacked by an overwhelming force of the enemy ? 100. In what battle did both generals mass their strength on the left wing, expecting to crush the enemy's right ? 101. How many invasions of the North did Lee make ? 102. What victories induced him to attempt each of these invasions ? 103. By what battle was each invasion checked ? 104. For how many years has the United States been involved in war ? 105. What object did Penn, Lord Baltimore, and Oglethorpe each have in founding a colony in the New World ? 106. What President was impeached ? 107. What ex- Vice President was tried for treason ? 108. What President vetoed the measures of the party that elected him ? 109. Of what statesman was it said that " he was in the public service fifty years, anc never attempted to deceive his countrymen " ? 110. From what States have Presidents been elected ? 111. Give the number and names from each State. 112. What battle did General Gates win ? What battle did he lose? 113. What battles did Washington win ? What battles did he lose ? 114. What President-elect came to Washington secretly? 115. Give a brief history of the slavery question. 116. Wben were negro slaves introduced into this country ? 117. Name the generals who commanded the Army of the Potomac. 118. Name the principal battles fought by McClellan, Rosecrans, Bragg, Lee, Hooker, Sheridan, Grant, Sherman, Beauregard, Meade, Pope, Taj^lor, Scott, Thomas. 119. Describe the " March to the Sea." 120. What two battles were fought in the " Wilderness " ? 121. What was the Missouri Compromise ? The Compromise of 1850 ? 122. What is " squatter sovereignty" ? Who was its author ! 123. Of whom was it said that " he touched the dead corpse of public credit, and it sprang upon its feet " ? 124. What were the Alien and Sedition Laws ? 125. Wlio was the Old Man Eloquent ? xHv HISTORICAL RECREATIONS 126. When was the flret railroad constructed ? The first successful steamboat >. The first magnetic telegraph i The first sewing machine I ' 127. When was the Erie Canal opened'? The first Pacific Railroad f 128. What President introduced " rotation in oflBce " ? 129. Why, in the Missouri Compromise, was 36^ ao* taken as the boundary between slave and free territory 1 130. What is the Monroe Doctrine ? 131. Who was the inventor of the cotton gin ? 132. AVhat is a protective tariff? 133. ^\^lat is free coinage 1 134. To what party did Henry Clay belong ? J. Q. Adams 1 Thomas JeflFerson ? John C. Calhoun ? Andrew Jackson I Daniel Webster f btephcn A. Douglas I Alexander Hamilton i George Washington ? 135. Wliat President had not voted for forty years I 136. What two distinguished generals of the same name served in the Confederate Army ? Name the battles fought by each. 137. What was the Dred Scott decision ? 138. What was the Kansas-Nebraska Bill '. 139. Give an account of the principal iiarties which have arisen since the Constitu- tional Convention of 1787. 140. Who were the Silver Grays? The Hunkers? The Barn-burners! The Woolly- heads? The Locofocos? The Free-soilers ? The Know-nothings? The Anti- renters? The Unionists ? The Stalwarts . The Mugwumps ? 141. Give an account of the difVerent attempts to lay the first Atlantic cable. 142. Give a history of the ditticulty b(>tween President Johnson and Congress. 143. WTiat nations settled the difl"eieut States? 144. How many amendments have been made to the Constitution 1 145. What was the Hartford Convention ? 146. What is meant by " State rights " ? 147. What was the Secretary of State formerly called? 148. Tell some stories illustrating the patriotism of the women of the Revolution. 149. Give an account of the public lands. 150. What State was admitted to the Union first aiter the original thirteen ? 151. Who are the Mormons ? 152. For what is Ethan Allen noted '. 163. What battles have been fought in Virf^inia ; South Carolina '. Louisiiinii ? New York? Massachusetts? New Jersey? Maryland? Pennsylvania J Georgia? Michigan ? Tennessee ? 154. What was the Fugitive Slave Law? 155. For what is John Brown noted ? 156. Give an account of Farragut's most celebrated exploit. 157. Why was "Stonewall " .fackson so called >. 158. What was the chief (!vent of Jeffi-rson's administration? Jackson's? Monroe's? 159. What treaties are c(^lebrated in our history >. 160. What President was t)nce a tailor's ai)pr('ntice ? 161. What was the olvjocf of the " American iiarty " ? 162. Wliat was the Gadsden luuchase? 163. Name the various didiculties Avhicli liave arisen with (ireat Britain. 164. What was the Wilmot Proviso? 166. Who was President in 1812, 1832, 1846, 1850, I860, 1879, 1898? HISTORICAL RECREATIONS xlv 166. Describe the operations of the Confederate cruisers during the CivU War. Of the blockade runners, 167. What distinguished generals have been unsuccessful candidates for the Presi- dency 1 Successful candidates 1 168. AVhy did the French in Canada extend tbeir explorations westward to the Missis- sippi rather than southward into New York ? 169. What was the Trent affair ? 170. Name and describe some important naval engagements. 171. In what battle did the defeated general leave his wooden leg? 172. ^Yha,t was the " O grab me Act " 1 173. Who first used the expression, " To the victors belong the spoils" 1 .''i. What is " Civil Service Reform " 1 i7o, What right did the Euglish and Spanish have to occupy this continent? 176. Why is this country English rather than French i 177. What are " patroon estates " 1 178. What vvas the difference between the Pilgrims and the other Puritans 1 179. Has a State any right to coin money i 180. Ought Andre to have been executed 1 181. What President in bis inaugural called attention to the fact that he was the first President born after the Revolution '! 182. Wbo is the author of the Thirhj Years' View I 183. What portion of the United States favored the annexation of Texas? 184. Who first used the expression, "A government of the people, by the people, and for the people " 1 185. What was the town meeting of the early New England times ? 186. ^V^lich Presidents were chosen by the House of Representatives ? 187. Which Presidents were college graduates 1 188. How many States voted for Washington the first time as President? 189. What cfi"ect did the invention of the cotton gin ba\'e on slavery i 190. What four Italians were prominent in American discoveries I 191. Wbat was the Society of the Cincinnati? 192. What was the State of Franklin ? 193. What war was waging in Europe during our King William's War? Dirring the French and Indian War? 194. Why did the Iroquois generally favor the English rather than the French? 195. How did the English treatment of the Indians compare with the French? 196. For how many years was New York the capital of the United States ? 197. What was the object of the Electoral College ? 198. How were the early Presidents nominated for office ? 199. What constitutes citizenship in the United States ? 200. Why was not Washington inaugurated until April 30? 201. What is the longest period during which any one party has remained in power in the United States ? 202. AVhat was the meaning of the campaign cry " Fifty-four forty, or fight " ? 203. What was the " Western Reserve " ? 204. Which State has supplied the greatest number of Vice Presidents? 'i05. Have the President and the Vice President always lielouged (o the same party ? 206. How could one elector have made Burr President instead of Jeflferson '. 207. In what other case could one man have changed the result of a presidential election 1 xlvi TABLE OF STATES ax J? 55 a — •c-o n a a n WW .c a ! 12: ^; c2 <* o a '5 '^^ e 2 ii a ^ ^ O "o'C 2 o ,2 H t d '^ Tj ^ c5 o-jj.2 : •r c3._ S-- a._rg o , t'T a.^ t-;r o.^ 2-- ►SH J^^Z 5H| '5-- tii S-- fe — ' ^ z J 2: ► o — -^ o CI -r o o — -^ O— 'CO O t-ic -1" <0 >0 O! -HOO'-D -1< -H CC -< — - NXI~ —I O O) t^ o_ o> r^ '~'^.'^. '^ >o o" f" r-'oo" •O 00 « O 'O o ce 00 ^ >^c-S *i;a, " Z- MCOCO ■* "3 t^ OOMIN 0> (N « e»? lO CO 00;O OOCO-N CO h-IN O —'OCO (N !>• 'O OO — O O 00 O W "O CD coco t^coco CO COCO CO CO CO CO b* t^ r>» r^t^r^ co co t^ co t^ •NOINa MUX O.LV;l NOIBSIWaV .'10 mva 1^1^ 0000 50 00 0000 0000» 00 0000 00 000005 0000 00 OOCJO — (N CO COC^CO 00 en o —I (>.t>. t>.l>.h. b- t^t^l^ CT> O! c—i— — r-l — M t^ t^ 00X00 X X X X X * » # * » .2 ' o ^^ H oS 0) S- o > M 5: n ►J -"_ go wi: o a lis o o " o c°E§3 a -a -^-^ 4;j3:g « 5 ^.2'^IS ^ w S. >-- ^: o -i M.2 .2 01-3 M^ O J. 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J3 .>^ -J3 a g d.S a'd 0373 o 03 a d r^ a -Tl o3 I-H.72 I-H M W "S-Sdgd ^ d d M d d" .2 s a 2 C r fl 1 n 0- c c 0> c "^ .3 '3 '3) >i3 f ■3 o! 03 01 o Q Q d , i bi ° -H M d . ^ a s ow^^ ^o g ^ 3 |3 in CO t^ooffl N (N (NININ co^;coco COM xlviii TABLE OF THE PRESIDENTS " .9.S , "S . "-5 ■" o "z '— '^ •— ^ '.- ^^ ^"^ L.< « rJ ^i>< t= 4, es - ■2 J S 00 2 =i r-i 2f 00 2? r* '-I CO C* ,ii 00 05 f 2-2«72g (77 tn .- tn a aa a o o » CD «D T-tOO L-^ Cli-l'MC>O-i«C;00 LO in 1!^ 05»HtOflp^lp^ :c» N » «.* -X -.£>-ii-o..ji-r7i-s^ ^ '- 00 c-.gOop99SO • 00 00 00 0000 00 ao»c»ooocot»oo co oo oo ooooooo»*ao t- t.-t- I- t^t^h^.t't-ocoot- 00 00 00 crQoooc(5oc:o 00 -fj r (Tl C-J ^ O t* M I " " (M M ^: 03 ?: c — QO ,53 .3 rt S5o;.-h^!?;;z;oh k h s oo!2;^,£v. c s^o/-. c o o m 3 S ; ® 5 p = b a s fe a =. = i; 0>? H »^ ;? 1-5 >-s N *5 -^ i-s *'! ■% ^ P5-^ — c »- I. e t-. a> fls cj 9%2. 5*5 « — '' S = 2 H^^ ^ CI CO -* in «o t- :— OOOO^^WCO-^iO ^ t- CO 2 CO CiO^'>JC0'»it lO ' (N C^ Cl ti-renters. 212. 120, Appomattox Court House, 307. Aquiday, island of, 70. Arizona, 356, 375. Arkansas, 245, 254, 313, 314. Arkansas Post, taken, 266. Arlington Heights, seized, 255. Army of the Potomac, 256, 257, 270-278, 280- 286, 306. Arnold, Benedict, Fort Schuyler saved byj 139. Quebec attacked by, 129. Saratoga victory, 141. Ticonderoga captured by, 128. treason of, 154-156. Virginia expedition, 158. Arthur, Chester A., President, ,S26. Vice President, 325. Articles of Confederation, 163. AshlHirtdii treaty, 213. Astor, John Jacob, 247. Astoria, Fort, 247. Astrolabe, 19. Atlanta, captured, 292, 293. Atlantic cable, laid, 316. Augusta, captured, 147. Austin, Moses, 246. Australian ballot system, 332. Averysboro, battle of, 304. Bacon, Nathaniel, 57. Baker, Col. E. D., 257. Balboa, Vasc(j Nunez de, 30. Ballot reform, 332. Balls Bluff, battle of, 257. Baltimore, attacked, 193. insurgents in, 254, 255. Baltimore, Lord, 79, 80. Bancroft, George, 367. Bank, national, or Bank of United States, 171 174, 195, 206. Banks, national, 311, 339. Banks, .State, 195. 206, 207, 311. Banks, Gen. Nathaniel P., 272, 276, 281, 290. Rarbary pirates, 170, 181, 195. B.arton, Col. William, 141. " Battle above the clouds," 283. Baum, Colonel, 140. Beaureijard, 259. zlix 1 INDEX Beauregard, Gen. P. 0. T., at Bull Eun, 256. at Fort Sumter, 25L at Shiloh, 202, 263. opposes Butler, 296. Bee, Gen. Barnard E., 256. Beet sugar factories, 355. Bell, John, 232. Beniis Heights, battle of, 140. Bennington, battle of, 140. Benton, Thomas H., 225. Bentonville, battle of, 304. Berkeley, Lord, 75. Berkeley, Sir William, 57, 113. Bermuda Hundred, 296. Bidwell, John, 333. Bienville, Wloron de, 89. Bienville, Jean Baptiste Leuioine de, 39. Big Bethel, expedition against, 255. Big Black River, battle of, 280. Bill, how it becomes a law, 165, xvL Biloxi, founded, 39. Black Hawk War, 207, 245. Blaine, James G., 328. Bland Bill, 325. Blockade, of 1814, 193. of Havana, 344. Southern, 259, 260, 299. Blockade runners, 299-301. Bonhomme Richard, 149, 150. Boone, Daniel, 244. Boonesboro, 244. Booth, John Wilkes, 309. Border warfare in Kansas, 228. Boston, Are in, 320. founded, 62. in Revolutionary period, 122-124, 130. Boston Tea Party, 123. Boundary, Alaska, 352. Northeast, 213. Northwest, 221, 247, 322. of United States in 1783, 161, 360. Venezuelan, 338. Bowling Green, 260, 262. Braddock, Gen. Edward, 94. Bradford, William, 61. Bradstreet, Col. John, 97. Bragg, Gen. Braxton, at Chattanooga, 284,290. at Chickamauga, 281, 282. at Murfreesboro, 265, 266. Kentucky invaded by, 264. Brandywine, battle of, 137. Brazil, discovered, 27. Brazos Santiago, battle of, 308. Breckinridge, John C, 215, 232. Breeds Hill, liattle of, 126. British, are England. Brock, Gen. Isaac, 185. Brooklyn, 345. Brooks, Preston S., 228. Brown, Gen. Jacob, 192. Brown, John, 231. Brown University, fonnded, 113. Bryan, William J., 338, 353. Bryant, \Mlliam CuUen, 366. Buccaneers, 83. Buchanan, Commodore Franklin, 268. Buclianan, James, President, 230-235. Buckner, Gen. Simon B., 262, 338. Buell, Gen. Don Carlos, 262-264. Buena Vista, battle of, 216, 217. Bull Run, battles of, 250, 276. Bunker Hill, battle of, 126, 127. Burgoyne, Gen. John, 138-142. Burlingame, Anson, 310, 327. Burnside, Gen. Ambrose E., 267, 277, 278, 28J. Burr, Aaron, 176, 180, 181. Butler, Gen. Benjamin F., 255, 266, 267, 206. Butler, John, 146, 147. Cabinet, President's, 171, 328. Cable, Atlantic, 316. Cabot, John, 27, 28. Cabot, Sebastian, 28. Cabral, Pedro Alvarez, 28. Cabrillo, Juan Rodriguez, 33. Cadillac, Antoine de la Mothc, 246. Caldwell, Gen. John C, 278. Calhoun, John C, 201, 202, 205, 206. California, admitted, 223, 224, 246, 247. explored, 32, 33. gold in, 221, 222, 241, 247. petroleum wells in, 357. Calvert, Cecil, 79. Calvert, George, 79. Camden, battle of, 151. Canada, British possession of, 99. colonists attack, 87, 88. fisheries, 322. in Revolutionary War, 128, 129. in War of 1812, 185, 186, 195. rebellion in, 209. Canals, built, 202, 243. Cane sugar produced, 241. Canning factories, 355. Canonicus, 61, 63. Cape Breton Island, 34, 96. Cape Cod, 44. Cape of Good Hope,"21. Capital, Confederate, 255. national, 171. Capitol, the, 172. Car couplers, automatic, 354. Carnifex Ferry, battle of, 256. Carolina, Fort, 35, 36. Carolinas, 80-84, 103. gee North and South Carolina. Caroline, 210. Carpet-I>aggers, 315. Carson, Kit, 218. Carteret, Sir George, 75. Carteret colony, 81, 83. Cartier, Jacques, 34, 35. Cass, Lewis, 222. Cavaliers, 56. INDEX li Cayuga Indians, 12. Cedar Creek, battle of, 299. Cedar Mountain, battle of, 276. C61oron de Bienville, 89. Cemetery Ridge, 286-288. Census, 362. Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia, 321, 322. Cerro Gordo, battle of, 219. Cervera, Admiral, 344, 345. Chads Ford, battle of, 137. Chambersburg, burned, 298. Champion Hills, battle of, 280. Champlain, Samuel de, 36, 37. Chancellorsville, battle of, 2S4, 285. Chantilly, battle of, 276. Chapultepec, battle of, 220. Charles!., 56. Charles II., 56, 65, 73. Charleston, earthquake in, 329. founded, 81. free school in, 114. French and Spanish fleet attacks, 88. in Civil War, 235, 288, 304. in Revolutionary period, 123, 150, 160. Charlestown, settled, 62. burned, 127. Charter, 45. Charter Oak, 70. Chattanooga, battle of, 282-284. Cherokee War, 95. Chesapeake, 182, 190. Chicago, anarchists in, 329. fire in, 319, 320. railroad strike in, 337. World's Columbian Exposition in, 333, 336. Chickamauga, battle of, 281, 282. Chickasaw Bluff, battle of, 266. Chickasaw Indians, 245. Chihuahua, conquered, 217. China, treaty with, 316, 317, 327. uprising against foreigners, 352. Chinese exclusion, 327, 333, 370. Chippewa, battle of, 192. Choctaw Indians, 245. Christian Commission, 302, 303. Churubusco, battle of, 219. Cities, growth of, 242, 354, 362. Citizens, American, 182, 315, 316. rights and duties of, 167. Civil Rights Bill, 314. Civil service reform, 323. Civil War, 249-308. Clarendon, Lord, 80. Clark, George Rogers, 148, 149. Clark, William, 178. Clay, Henry, career of, 214, 215. Compromise Bill, 206. Compromise of 1850, 223, 224. leader National Republicans, 201. Missouri Compromise supported by, 197. {Jlayborne's Rebellion, 79, 80. Clermont, 181. Cleveland, Grover, President, 328-330, 333- 338. Clinton, De Witt, 202. Clinton, George, 112, 180, 364. Clinton, Sir Henry, 130, 133, 144, 146, 147, 150, 158. Cockburn, Admiral George, 191-193. Coinage, free, 325. gold and silver, 325. Cold Harbor, battle of, 296. Coligny, Count, 35. Colleges, 113, 364, 365. Colonial Assembly, 53, 54, 103, 119 Colonies, English, 46, 49-117. government of, 103, 104. industries in, 114-117. society in, 102-114. wars, intercolonial, 86-102. Colorado, 359, 322, 356. Columbia, S. C, captured, 304. Columbia College, 113, 364. Columbia River, explored, 247., Columbian Exposition, 333, 336. Columbus, Christopher, 21-26. Columbus, Ky., 260, 262. Commerce, before Civil War, 239, 243. during War of 1812, 193, 195. Eastern, 19, 20. Embargo Act, 183. in colonial times, 114, 116, 117. in 1900, 358, 359. Committees of safety, 126. Commonwealth, 56. Compass, mariner's, 19. Compiomise, Missouri, 196, 197, 228, 234. of 1850, 224, 225, 234. Compromise taiiff, 206. Concord, battle of, 124, 125. Condensing of milk, 356. Confederate cruisers, 300. Confederate privateers, 259. Confederate States, 232, 249, 2S4, 255. Congress, 268. Congress, First Continental, 124. Second Continental, 128. Congress, Pan-American, 331. Congress, Stamp Act, 121. Congress, United States, 164-167. Connecticut, cedes land to Congress, 161, 163. in colonial times, 63, 103, 110. settled, 67-70. Constantinople, captured, 20. Constitution, 186, 187. Constitution of United States, 164-167, 366, xiv-xxvii. amended, 180, 313-315, 319. interpretation of, 174. Constitutions, State, 166. Continental Congress, 124, 128. Continental currency, 153, 154. " Contraband," 255. Ui INDEX Contreras, battle of, 219. Convention, Jlrst party national, 20C. CJonway, Gen. Thomas, H3. Cool\, Capt. James, 32. Cooper, James Feiiiniore, 3C6. Cooper, Peter, 243. Copper mines, 241, S.IO. Copyrij;Iit, 333, "xviiL Corinth, liattle of, 205. Confederates in, 262, 2C3. Cornwallis, Lord, 134, 130, i:0, 151, 150-159. Coronado, Francisco Vasipiez de, 32, 33. Corporations, growth of, 312, 355. Cortes, Hernando, 29, 32. Cotton, production of, 116, 240, 241, 358. Cotton factories, 242. Cotton gin, 172, 196. Council for New England, 58, 60, 61., Courts, 106, 107. Cowpens, battle of, 156. Crawford, William H., 201. Creek Indi.ins, 191, 245. Crockett, David, 240. Croghan, Maj. Giorge, 188. Cross Keys, battle of, 272. Crown Point, 93, 90, 97, 128, 138. Cuba, attempt to annex, 224. republic of, 341, 340, 352. Spanish settle in, 29. Currency, 153, 154, 171, 195, 206, 207, 311, 325, 336, 338, 339. Curtis, Gen. Samuel R., 262. Custer, Gen. George A., 320, 321. Customs and manners in colonial times, 105- 112. Dade, Maj. Francis L., 207. Dakota, 279, 359. Dallas, battle of, 292. Dallas, George M., 216. Dartmouth College, founded, 113. Davis, Jefferson, at Chattanooga, 284. captured, 308. elected President of the Confederate States, 232,, 234. privateers conimissioned by, 259. restored to liberty, 323. Davis, John, 41. Dearborn, Fort, 275. Dearborn, Gen. Henry, 187, 188. De Ayllon, T.ucas Vastpiez, 45. De Kalb, John, Baron, 151. De Leon, Ponce, 30. De Monts, 36. De Soto, Ferdinand, 31, 244-246. Debt, imprisonment for, 234. Debt, national, after Civil War, 308. after Rovolntionary War, 163, 164, 171. after Spanish War, 346, 339, 308. after War of 1812, 194. in 1804, 303. Debts, State, 174, 315. Decatur, Stephen, 181, 195. Dcclaratii.n ..f Independence, 131, 366, xi-xiii Declaration of Rights, 121. Delaware, 70, 78, 103, 112. Delaware, Lord, 53, Democrats, 901, 2.'<0, 328. Denver, settled, 3.W. D'Estaing, Count, 146, 147. Detroit, founded, 240. surrendered to British, 185. Dewey, George, 34.^. Diaz, Bartolcmeu, Portuguese explorer, 21. Dicliinson, John, 365. Dieskau, Baron, 96. Dinwiduie, Gen. Robert, 90. District of Columbia, 171, 224. Donelson, Fort, 260, 201. Dongan, Thomas, 74. Doniphan, Col. Alexander W., 217. Dorchester Ueii;hts, fortified, 130. Dorr's Rebellion, 211. Douglas, Stephen A., 225, 232, 251. ' Draft, unpopularity of, 286. Drake, Sir Francis, 41, 43, 246. Dred Si'ott decision, 230, 234. Diess, 10:>, 235-237. Dubuque, founded, 2J6. Dupont, Admiral, 288. Duquesne, Fort, 91, 93, 94. Dustin, Hannah, 86. Dutch, claims in Jsdrth America, 46, 47, 67. settlements, 71-74. Early, Gen. Jubal A., 256, 298, 299. Education, 112-114, 238, 363-367. Edward, Fort, 96, 138. Edwards, Jonathan, 365. El Caney, captured, 344. Electoral Commission, Joint, 324. Electoral Count Act, 320. Electors, presidential, 164, 165, 180, xx. Electricity, new uses of, 354. Elizabeth, Queen, 43. Elizabeth City, captured, 268. Elmira, battle at, 148. Emancipation Proclamation, 277, 279. Embargo Act, 1S3. Emerson, Raljih Waldo, 366. Emigration to America, 240, 854. Western, 239. Endicott, Jutes with, see Boundary. colonies of, 49-117. explorations in America, 27, 28, 40^0. Samoan Islands relinquished by, 348. Soutliern Confederacy acknowledged by,259. Venezuelan boundary settled, 338. wars with, 119-164, 184-195. wars with France, 86-102, 174, 181-183. INDEX liii Epochs of American history, 16, 17. Ericsson, Capt. John, 269. Ericsson, Leif, 16. Erie, Foit, 192. Erie Canal, opened, 202. Kspejo, Antonio de, 33. Eutaw Springs, battle of, 167. Evans, Oliver, 181. Ewell, Gen. R. S., 287. Express business, 243. Factories, 357. Kail- Oaks, battle of, 272, 273. Fairfield, plundered, 147. Farragut, David Glaseoe, 266, 267, 301. Federalist, 366. Federalists, 164, 174, 175, 195. Ferdinand, King, 21, 22. Ferguson, Gen. Patrick, 153. Fertilizers, use of, 355. Field, Cyrus W., 316. Filibusters, 224. Filipinos, 350, 351, 352. Fillmore, Millard, President, 223-225. Finances, after Revolutionary War, 171. crisis of 1837, 208, 209. crisis of 1873, 320. crisis of 1893, 336. see Money. Fire engine, steam, 240. Fires, great, 319, 320. Fisher, Fort, 302. Fishers Hill, battle of, 298. Fishery awai'd, 322. Fiske, John, 367. Fitch, John, 181. Five Forks, battle of, 306. Five Nations, see Iroquois. Flag, national, 139, 196. Florida, region claimed by Spain, 30, 32. boundary fixed, 173. British possession, 99, 100, 161. ceded to United States, 200. Florida, State, 246, 232, 314. Indian war in, 207. Foote, Andrew H., 264. Forbes, Gen. John, 94. Force Bill, 337. Forrest, Gen. N. B., 290, 293. Fort Astoria, Crown Point, etc., see Astoria, Crown Point, etc. France, American possessions, 39, 40, 47, 99, 100, 178. explorations in America, 34-40. independence of United States acknowl- edged by, 144. Louisiana purchased from, 178, 244. Mexico trouble, 315, 316. Southern Confederacy acknowledged by, 259. Statue of Liberty presented by, 330. troubles with United States, 176, 208, 316. wars with England, 86-102, 174, 181-183. Franklin, Benjamin, author, 365. career of, 144. Declaration of Independe:ice, 131. Plan of Union, 93. postmaster general, 104. Franklin, State of, 244. Eraser, Gen. Simon, 141. Fraysers Farm, battle of, 275. Fredericksburg, battles of, 278, 284, 285. Free-soilers, 222, 223. Freedmen's Bureau, 314. FriSmont, John C, 218, 229, 272. French, Gen. William H., 278. French and Indian War, 89-102. Frenchtown, battle of, 188. Freneau, Philip, 365. Frobisher, Sir Martin, 41. Frolic, 187. Frontenac, Count, 87. Frontenac, Fort, 97. Fugitive Slave Law, 223, 224, 230, 231, 234. Fulton, Robert, 181. Gadsden purchase, 228. Gage, Gen. Thomas, 122-124, 127, 128, 130. Gaines Mill, battle of, 275. Galveston, captured, 286. flooded, 341. Gama, Vasco da, 27. Gardiners Island, 83. Garfield, James A., President, 325, 326. Gates, Gen. Horatio, 140-142, 151. Genet, Edmond C, 174. George IIL, 120, 128. Georgia, cedes land to Congress, ICl, 163. in colonial times, 103. readmitted, 314, 315. secedes, 232. settled, 84, 85. .Sherman's march through, 291-294. Germantown, battle of, 137, 138. Gettysburg, battle of, 286-288. Ghent, treaty of, 194. Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 41, 42. Gillraore, Gen. Q. A., 288, 289, 303. Gold, coinage of, 325. in California, 221, 222, 241, 247. in Colorado and Alaska, 356. sole standard, 325, 339. value, relative to silver, 336. ■ Golden Tlind, 41. Goldsboro, 305. Gorges, Sir Ferdinando, 66. Gortnan-Wilson Act, 337. Gosnold, Bartholomew, 44, 49. Government, colonial, 103, 104. of United States, 164-167. under Articles of Confederation, 163, 164. Governor, of colonies, 103, 119. of States, 166. Grand Army of the Republic, 318. Grand Model, the, 82. liv INDEX Grant, Ulysses S., at Chattanooga, 282-284. at Forts Henry and Douelson, 201, 262. atSliiloh,2G2. career of, 317, 319. in battle of Wilderness, 295. Lee's surrender to, 305-307. lieutenant general, 290, 295. President, 317-324. Kichniond canipaiv'ns, 295-297, 305, 306. Vicksburg campaigns, 2C6, 279, 280. Gray, Capt. Robert, 247. Great Britain, see England. Oreat Eastern, 316. Great Law, the, 77. Great Meadows, 91. Greeley, Horace, 323. Green Mountain Boys, 127. Greenback-Labor party, 326. Greenbacks, 30«, 311. Greene, Gen. Nathanael, 15G, 157. Greenland, 15, 16. Griswold, Fort, 158. Guam, 346, 350. OuerrUre, 186, 187. Guilford Court House, battle of, 157. Hail Columbia, written, 176. Haiti, 25, 29, 83. Hale, Capt. Nathan, 134. Halifax, N. S., 96. Halleck, Gen. H. W., 263, 264. Hamilton, Alexander, 171, 174, 180, 366. Hampton, Gen. Wade (the elder), 1S7, 188. Hampton Roads, 268-270. Hancock, VVinfleld S., 278, 296, 325, 326. Hanging Rock, battle of, 151. Hanover Court House, 271, 272. Harlem Heights, battle of, 134. Harpers Ferry, 231, 254. Harrison, Benjamin, President, 330-333. Harrison, William Henry, 184, 187, 188, 190, 208. President, 210. Hartford, 301. Hartford, convention at, 193, 194. founded, 67. Harvard College, 112. Hatteras Inlet, 259. Havana, 29, 99, 344. Hawaiian Islands, 32, 337, 338, 347. Hawkins, Sir John, 40. Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 366. Hayes, Rutherford B., Pi esideiit, 324-326. Eayne, Robert Y.,205, 206. Hennepin, Father, 247. Henry, Fort, 260, 261. Henry, Patrick, 120, 122, 124, 365. Herkimer, Gen. Nicholas, 139. Heesians, 128, 134, 135. Hispaniola, 29. Hobart, Garret A., 338. Hobson, Richmond P., 344. Hochelaga, 34, 36. Holly Springs, captured, 266. Holmes, Dr. Oliver Wendell, 367. Homestead, Pa., riot at, 333. Homestead Act, 319. Hood, Gen. John B., 292, 2.)3. Hooker, Gen. Joseph, 273, 277, 282-286. Hoi>ker, Thoma.'*, 67. Hopkiiison, Francis, 365. Horse rake, invented, 240. Horseshoe Bend, battle of, 191. House of Representatives, 164, 1C5. Houston, Gen. Sam, 214, 246. Howe, Gen. William, 127, 130, 133, 134, 137 139. Hudson, Capt. Henry, 46, 51. Huguenots, 35, 81. Hull, ('apt. Isaac, 187. Hull, Gen. William, 18.5. Hunter, Gen. David, 296, 298. Huron Indians, 36. Hutchinson, Mrs. Anne, 63, 70t Iberville, 39. Iceland, 15. Idaho, 359, 360, 333. Illinois, 245. Immigration, 240, 354. Impeachment of Johnson, 315. Impressment of sailors, 173, 182, 184. Imprisonment for debt, 237. Inca.s, 29. Indented servants, 103. Independence Hall, 131. Indiana, 245. Indians, 9-15. Black Hawk War, 207, 245. Cherokee War, 95. confederacy of Northwestern tribes, 184. driven from Carolina. 83. Florida War, 207, 208. in Civil War, 262. in French and Indian War, 94-96, 100. in King William's War, 86. in Mississipi)!, 245. in Northwest Territory, 172, 173. in Revolutionary War, 138, 139, 146-148. in Virginia, 55, 56. in War of 1812, 188, 190, 191. King Philip's War, 64. Modoc War, 320. Peqnot War, (58, 69, Pontiac's War, 100. Sioux wars. 279, 320, 321, 332. Industrial exhibitions. 321, 322, 333, 336. 353. Industries 114-117, 238-243,311, 312, 353-359. Internal improvements, 201. Interstate Commerce Act, 330, 373. Inventions, 239, 240, 354, 357. Iowa, 246, 279. Iron mines, 241, 356. Ironclad oath, 315. I'NDEX Iv Iroquois Indians, 12, 36, 37, 83, 86, 87, 148. Irrigation, in Western States, 355. Irving, Washington, 366. Isabella, Queen, 21, 22. Island No. 10, 262, 264. Isthmian canal, 369. luka, battle of, 265. Jackson, battle of, 280. Jackson, Fort, 266. Jackson, Gen. Andrew, at New Orleans, 194. Democratic leader, 201. in Creek War, 191. President, 203-208. Jackson (Stonewall), Gen. T. J., at Antie- tani, 277. at Bull Run, 256. at Chancellorsville, 285. at Hanover Court House, 273. at Harpers Ferry, 277. campaign against Pope, 276. death of, 285. Shenandoah campaign, 272. James I., 42, 44, 56. James II., 65, 74. Jamestown, 44, 45, 49, 50, 57. Japan, treaty with, 229. Jasper, Sergeant William, 130, 147. Jay, Chief-justice John, 173, 366. Jefferson, Thomas, Declaration of Independ- ence written by, 131. President, 176-183. Republican leader, 174. Secretary Department of Foreign Affairs, 171. Vice President, 175. Jerseys, 75. Jesuits, the, 37. Johnson, Andrew, President, 312-317. Johnson, Col. R. M., 190, 208. Johnson, Gen. William, 96. Johnston, Gen. Albert Sidney, 262, 263. Johnston, Gen. Joseph E., at Averysboro and Bentonville, 304, 305. at Bull Run, 256. at Jackson, 280. before Atlanta, 290-292. career of, 290, 291. defends Richmond, 271, 273. surrender of, 308. Johnstown Flood, 331. Joint Electoral Commission, 324. Joliet, Louis, 38. Jones, Paul, 149. Judges, 166, 167. Jumonville, Coulon de, 91. Kameharaeha, 337. Kansas, 247, 225-228, 231, Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 225, 228, 247. Kearny, Gen. Philip, 276. Kearny, Gen. Stephen W., 217, 218. Eearsarge, 300. Kenesaw Mountain, battle of, 292. Kentucky, 244, 258, 264. Kentucky Resolutions, 183. Key, Francis S., 193. Kidd, William, 83. Kieft, Sir William, 72. Kilpatrick, Gen. Judson, 294. King George's War, 88, 89, King Philip's War, 64. King William's War, 86, 87. Kings Mountain, battle of, 153. Know-nothing party, 229. Knox, Gen. Henry, 171. Knoxville, 244, 284. Kosciusko, Gen. Thaddeus, 140. La Salle, Robert Cavelier de, 39, 91. Labor troubles, 237, 312, 325, 329, 332, 337, 355, 370. Ladrones, 29, 346. Lafayette, Marquis de, 137, 158, 197, 236. Lake Champlaiu, battle of, 192. Lake Erie, battle of, 189. Lake George, battle of, 96. Laudonniere, Ren6 de, 35. Law, John, 244. Lawrence, burned, 281. Lawrence, Capt. James, 190, 191 Laws, how made, 165, 166, .wi. in colonial times, 103. Le Boeuf , Fort, 90. Lee, Gen. Charles, 134, 144, 146. Lee, Henry, " Light-horse Harry," 151, 157. Lee, Richard Henry, 131. Lee, Gen. Robfert Edward, at Chancellors- ville, 284, 285. career of, 273. defends Richmond, 275, 295-297, 305, 306. Gettysburg campaign, 285-288. Maryland campaign, 276, 277. surrender of, 306, 307. Legislature, State, 166. Leisler, Capt. Jacob, 74. Letter postage, 327. Lewis, Meriwether, 178. Lewis and Clark expedition, 178, 247, 359. Lexington, Mass., battle of, 124, 125. Lexington, Mo., captured, 258. Liberal constructionists, 174. Liberal Republicans, 323. Liberty Bell, 131. Lincoln, Abraham, assassinated, 309. career of, 249, 251. Emancipation Proclamation, 277, 279. President, 232, 249-309. Lincoln, Gen. Benjamin, 139, 147, 150, 159, 164. Line of demarcation, 28. Literature, 365-368. Livingston, Robert R., 131 Local government, 167. Locke, John, 82. IVl INDEX Lockout, 333. Locofocos, 201. Loconiutives, steam, 243, 368. London Company, 44, 52. " Long House," the, 12. Long Island, Viattle of, 133. Longfellow, Henry W., MiC. Longstreet, Gen. James, 282, 284, 286, 287. Longstreet, William, 181. Lookout Mountain, ba'ttle of, 283. Lojiez, Narciso, executed, 224. Lost Mountain, battle of, 292. Ix)iKlon, Fort, 244. Loiidonn, Earl of, general, 95. Louishurg, 89, 93, 95, 96. Louisiana, region claimed l)y Prance, 39. ceded to Spain, 10(), 178. ceded to United States, 17C, 178, 190,244,300. north boundary determined, 200. slavery in, 228, 19('>, 107. Louisiana, State, admitted, 244. cane sugar produced in, 241. readmitted, 313, 314, 324, 325. secedes, 232. territory added to, SCO. Lowell, Francis C, 242. Lowell, James Russell, 367. Loyalists, 124. Loyola, St. Ignatius, 37. Lnnilicring, 117, 241, 35G. Ltindys Lane, battle of, 192. Lyman, Gen. Phineas, 96. Lyon, Gen. Nathaniel, 258. McAllister, Fort, 286, 294. McClellan, Gen. George B., in Civil War, 256, 257. 270-278. presidential nominee, 303. McCrea, Jane, 139. McCulloch, Gen. Ben, 258. Maedonough, Com. Thomas, 192. McDowell, Gen. Irvin, 256, 272. Mackinaw, 100. McKinley Act, 331. McKinley, William, President, 338-3.53. Macon, Fort, 268. Madison, James, 174, 183-196, 366. I'resident, 183-196. Magellan, Fernando, 29. Magruder, Gen. John B., 271, 286. Maine, 342. Maine, 65-67, 197, 213. 245. Malolos, captured, 351. Malvern Hill, battle of, 275. Miinliattan Island, 71-73. Manila, 29, 99, 343, 351. Manila Bay, Dewey's victory in, 343. Manners and customs in colonial times, 105- 112. Manson, Gen. Mahlon D., 264. Manufactures, 114, 116, 195, 242, 357, 358. Marcy, William L., 323. Marietta, founded, 244. Mariner's compass, 19. Marion, Gen. Francis, ir)l, 157. Marquette, Father Jacques, 38, 91. Marthas Vineyard, 44. Maryes Ileiglits, 273. Maryland, 78-80, 103, lit. Mason, James M., Confederate commissioner, 259. Mason, Capt. John, 69. Mason, John, 60. Mason and Di.\on's Line, 78, 79. Massachusetts, cedes land to Congress, 161, 163. in colonial times, 103. in Revolutionary period, 121-124. religious i)ersecution in, 62, 03. setth^d, .'■.7-67. Shays's Rebellion in, 104. Massiichusetts Bay Colony, 01-63, 65. Massasoit, 61, 64. " Master," use of title, 2;i0. Mather, Cotton, 66, 305. Maumee, battle of the, 172, 17.'?. Maximilian, archdulce of Austria, 316. Mayflower, 58-60. Meade, Gen. George G., 286-28S, 295. Meagher, Gen. Tliomas F., 278. Mechanicsville, battle of, 275. Meigs, Fort, 188. Memphis, captured, 204. Menendcz, 32, 36. Merrimac, ii-onclad, 268-271. Merrimac, collier, 344, 345. Merritt, Gen. Wesley, 344. Mexico, French in, 315, 316. Spanish conquer, 29, 33. Texas revolts from, 246. treaties with, 220, 228. war with, 214-220. Miami, Fort, 100. Micliigan, 246, 18."., 188, 241, 320. Miles, CoL Dixcn .S., 277. Miles, Gen. Nelson A., 346. Mill springs, battle of, 200, 261. Minims, Fort, 191. Mining, 114, 241, 3.-)i;. Minnesota, 247, 279, 320. Mint, estal)lishcd, 171. Miiniit, Peter, 72. Minutemcn, 124. Missionary Kidge, battle of, 283, 284. Mississippi, 245, 232, 315. Mississippi Company, 244. Mississippi River, cxjilored, 31, 39. in Civil War, 200-267, 279, 281. navigation of, 171. 173, 178. Missouri, 245, 196, 197, 241, 258. Missouri Compromise, 196, 197, 228. Mot)ile, 245, 301. Modoc Indians, 320. Mohawk Indians, 12. INDEX Ivii Money, after Civil War, 311, 312. after Revolutionary War, 164, 171. changes in currency, 325, crisis- of 1837, 208, 209. crisis of 1S73, 320. crisis of 1893, 336. Gold Standard Act, 339. greenbacks, 308, 311, 325. in colonial times, 117. paper, 153, 154, 195, 303, 308, 311, 325. Monitor, 268-270. Monmouth, battle of, 144, 146. Monocacy River, battle of, 298. Monroe, Fort, 255, 260. Monroe, James, Pi-esident, 196-200. Monroe Doctrine, 200. Montana, 359, 360, 356. Montcalm, Marquis de, 96-99. Monterey, captured, 216. Montezumas, 29. Montgomery, Confederate capital, 232. Montgomery, Gen. Richard, 128, 129. Monticello, 178. Montreal, 35, 99, 129. Morals in colonial times, 105, 106. Moravians, 85. Morgan, Gen. Daniel, 129, 139, 141, 156. Morgan, Gen. John H., 281, 282. Mormons, 212, 213, 360. Morris, Robert, 134, 135, 154, 158, 161. Morristown, 154. Morse, Samuel F. B., 212. Morse, Sidney Edwards, 238. Motley, JohnL., 367. Moultrie, Fort, 130. Moultrie, Col. William, 130. Mounds, 10. Mount Vernon, 161. 169. Mower, invented, 240. "Mr.," use of title, 106, 236. Murfreesboro, battle of, 265, 266. Muskhogean Indians, 12. Mutiny Act, 122. Napoleon I., 176, 178. Napoleon III., 315. Narragansett Indians, 64, 68, 69. Narvaez, P^nfilo de, 30, 31. Nashville, battle o', •.:y3. Nassau, Fort, 71. National banknotes, 311. National banks, 171, 174, 195, 311, 341. National convention (party), first, 206. National debt, see Debt, national. National Republicans, 201. National Road, 243. Naturalization, process of, xviii. Nauvoo, 212. Naval warfare, in Civil War, 259, 264, 266- 270, 288-302. in Revolutionary War, 149, 150. in War of 1812, 186-191. Navigation Act, 56, 64, 119, 120. Navy, new, 327, 328. Nebraska, 359, 225. Necessity, Fort, 93. Negroes, enfranchisement of, 315, 319, 337. intimidation of, 323. soldiers in Civil War, 289, 290. see Slavery. Nelson, Governor Thomas, 158. Nevada, 309, 241. New Albion, 246. New Amsterdam, 71, 74. New Bruns\if]ck, 95, 213. New England, colonies settled, 49-85. in colonial times, 105-117. intercolonial wars, 86-102. United Colonies of, 63. New France, 34, 40. New Hampshire, 66, 103. Vernjont claimed by, 244, New Hampshire Grants, 127, 244. New Haven, 69, 63, 147. New Jersey, 75, 103. Washington's flight through, 134. New London, burned, 158. New Market, battle of, 296. New Mexico, conquered, 218. explored, 33. State, 375. Territory, 224, 228. New Netherland, 46, 71 ; see New York. New Orleans, battle of, 194. capture of, in Civil War, 260, 267. ceded to Spain, 100. founded, 39, 244. New Sweden, 76. Neiv York, 345. New York (city), British in, 160, draft riot in, 286. fire in, 209. growth of, 363. national capital, 171. New Amsterdam becomes, 74. New York (State), anti-rent difficulties, 212. cedes land to Congress, 161, 163. in colonial times, 103, 109, 110. New Netherland becomes, 73. relinquishes claim on Vermont, 244. settled, 47, 71-74. Newbern, captured, 268. Newfoundland, discovered, 28. fisheries, 93, 322. Newport, attack on, 146. Newport, Capt. Christopher, 44, 51, Newspapers, 113, 367. Newtown, battle of, 148. Niagara, Fort, 93, 97. Niagara Falls, power from, 354. Norfolk, in Civil War, 208, 271. North Carolina, 81-84, 254, 314. cedes land to Congress, 161, 163, 244. North Dakota, 359, 360. Iviii INDEX Northeast bonndary, 218. Northmen, 15, 16. Northwest boundary, 221, 247. Northwest passage to India, 84, 41, 46. Northwest Territory, 161, 163. Indian wars in, 172, 173. schools in, 364. slavery prohibited iu, 163, 280. Norwalk, 147. Nova Scotia, 95. Nueces River, 214. Nullification, 206, 308. Oglethorpe, James, 84, 86, 88, 80. Ohio, 244. Ohio Company, 89. Oliio River, discovered, 39. Okechobee, battle of, 208. Oklahoma, 332, 878. Old Ironsides, 186, 187. Olustec-, battle of, 803. Omnibus Bill, 224. Oneida Indians, 12. Ononda^'a Indians, 12. Orchard Knob, 282, 283. Ordinance of 1787, 163, 230, 364. Oregon, 345. Oregon, 247, 197, 221. boundary of, 221, 247, 322. Oriskany, battle of, 133. Orleans, Territory of, 244. Osceola, 207. Otis, Gen. Elwell S., 851. Otis, James, 122, 365. Ottawa Indians, 100. Pacific coast, explored, 41. Pacific Ocsan, discovered, 29, 30. Pacific railroads, 317. Paine, Thomas, 133. Pakenham, Gen. Edward II., 194. Palmer, John M., 338. Palo Alto, battle of, 215. Panama Canal, 369. Pan-American Congress, 331. Paris, treaties of, 99, 161, 346. Farkiiian, Francis, 367. Patent, 43. Patents, 854, xviii. Patroon estates, 72, 212. Patterson, Gen. Robert, 256. Pea Ridge, battle of, 262. Pemberton, Gen. John C, 280, 288. Peninsular campaign, 270-272. Peun, William. 75-78. Pennsylvania, 76-78, 103, 110, 113. mines in, 241. petroleum wells in, 357. Pennsylvania, University of, 118. Pensacola, 260. Pensions, 331, 332. People's party, 333 888. Peqnot War, 68. Perry, Matthew C, 229. Perry, Oliver H., 186, 189. Perryville, battle of, 2(i4, 265. Personal Liberty bills, 231 Peru, 29. Petersburg, attacked. 296, 297. captured, 306. Petroleum, 356, 357. Philadelphia, 181. Philadelpliia, British in, 137, 144. Centennial Exhibition at, 321, .S22. Constitution.'il Convention at, 104. Continental Congress at, 124, 128. founded, 77. in colonial times, 103, 111. national capital, 171. Philanthropi<; institutions, 367. Philip, Indian chief, C4. Philippine Islands, American victory in, 343 ceded to United States, 346. discovered, 29. government of, 351, 352. war in, 3.50, 351. Phips, Sir William, 87. Pickens, Gen. Andrew, 151. Pickens, Fort, 260. Piedmont, battle of, 296. Pierce, Franklin, President, 225-230. Pike, Gen. Z. Jl., 188. Pilgrims, 58-61. Pillow, Fort, 264, 290. Pinckney, Cliarles C, 176. Pinzon, Vicente Yanez, 26. Pirates, in Carol inas, 83. of Tripoli, 181, 195. Pitt, William, 95. Pittsliurg, labor troubles in, 32.5, 333. named, 95. Pittsburg Landing, or Shiloh, battle of, 262. Pizarro, Francisco, 29. Plains of Abiaham, 98. Plattsburg, battle of, 192. Pleasant Hill, battle of, 290. Plymoutli Colony, 60, 61, 63, 65. Plymouth Company, 44. Plymouth Roik, 60. Pocahontas, 51-53. Poe, Edgar Allan, EOG. Political parties, 200, 201. Polk, James K., President, 214-222. Polygamy, 213, 360. Ponce de Leon, 30. Ponliac's War, 100. Poor Richard's Almanac (Franklin's), 144. Pope, Gen. John, 264, 276. Population of United States, 240, 353, 364, 362, 363. Port Gibson, 280. Port Hudson, 281. Port Republic, 272. Port Royal, N. S., 86, 87, 88. INDEX lix Port Royal, S. C, 259, 268. Porter, Commodore D. D., 302. Porter, Gen. Fitz John, 272. Porto Rico, 29, 346, 348, 350. Portuguese explorations, 20, 21, 26-28. Post office, 104, 363. Postage, 327. Potato, cultivation of, 115. Powhatan, 51, 55. Prescott, Gen. Richard, 141. Prescott, Col. William, 126. Prescott, William H., 367. Prfsidfiit and Little Belt, 184. President of United States, 165, 166, xx. Presidential electors, 1(,4, 1G5, xx. Presidential succession, ii28, 329. President's message, 178. Presque Isle, 90. Prevost, Gen. Augustine, 147. Prevost, Gen. George, 192, 193. Piice, Gen. Sterling, 258, 262, 265. Prideaux, Gen. John, 97. Princeton, battle of, 136. Princeton College, 113. Pring, Capt. Martin, 44. Printing press, first in colonies, 113. improvements in, 354. Proctor, Gen. Henry A., 188, I'JO. Prohibition party, 333. Protective tarifl^ 201, 203. Providence, founded, 63, 70. Public land, Congi-ess acquires, 161, 163, 225, 226, 228. granted to Pacific railroads, 317. Homestead Act, 319. sections apportioned for schools, 364. Puebla, captured, 219. Pueblos, 10, 11. Pulaski, Count, 137, 147. Pulaski, Fort, 268. Puritans, 59, 62, 63. Putnam, Gen. Israel, 125, 133, 148. "Quaker guns," 270. Quakers, in Pennsylvania, 76, 77. persecuted, 56, (i3. Quantrell, 281. Quartering Act (Mutiny Act), 122. Quel)ec, Americans attack, 129, 130. British attack, 88, 93, 94, 97-99. British province, 100. settled, 36. Queen Anne's War, 87, 88. Queenstown Heights, battle of, 186. Quincy, Josiah, Jr., 123. Rahl, Colonel, 135. Railioads, built, 202, 243, 358. Interstate Commerce Act, 330. Pacific, 317. panic, 320. strikes, 325, 337. Raisin River, 188. Raleigh, Sir Walter, 42, 43. Randolph, Edmund, 171. Reaper, invented, 240. Reciprocity, 331. Reconcentrados, 342. Reconstruction, 313, 314, 324, 325. Red River expedition, 290. Redcoats, 124. Reed, Joseph, 142. Refrigeration of meat, 356. Religious toleration, 63, 71, 77, 79.. Reno, Col. Marcus A., 321. Representation, in Congress, 1G4, xv. Republicans (Democratic), 174, 175, 201. Republicans, new party, 229. Resaca, battle of, 291. Resaca de la Palma, battle of, 215. Reservations, Indian, 15, 311. Restoration, the, 56. Revere, Paul, 124. Revolutionary War, 119-164. Rhode Island, 70, 71, 103. Dorr's Rebellion in, 211. Ribaut, Jean, 35, 36, 81. Richmond, Ky., bnttle of, 264. Richmond, Va., Confederate capital, 255. siege of, 296-298, 305, 306. Rittenhimse, Dr. David, 113. Roanoke Island, 43, 267, 268. Robertson, James, 244. Rochambeau. Count, 159. Rolfe, John, 53. Roosevelt, Theodore, 345, 353, 369, 370, 377. Rosecrans, Gen. W. S., 256. :'65, 266, 281, 282 Ross, Gen. Robert, 193. Rotation in office, 205, 323. Royal colonies, 103. Rubber, vulcanizing of, 240. Russia, Alaska purchased from, 316. Rutgers College, founded, 113. Ryswick, treaty of, 87. Sabine Crossroads, battle of, 290. Sacs, 207. St. Augustine, .32, 36, 88. St. .John, J. P., 328. St. Lawrence River, explored, 34, 36, 39. St. Leger, Col. Barry, 139, 140. St. Louis, settled. 245. St. Paul, settled, 247. St. Philip, Fort, 266. Salem, seltli d. 62. witchcraft, 65, 66. Salt Lake City, 213. Samoan Islands, 348. Samoset, 61. Sampson, William T., 344, 34.5. San Francisco, 221, 222, 246, 247, 379. San Jacinto, battle of, 246. San Juan, founded, 30. San Juan Hill, battle of, 345. INDEX San Salvador, 24. Sandys, Sir Edwin, 54. Sanitary Commission, 302, 303. Santa Anna, Geu. Antonio Lopez de, 216. 217, 246. Santa ¥6, 33, 217. Santiago, battle of, 344, 34C. Saratoga, battles of, 140, 141. Savages Station, battle of, 275. Savanna?!, 181. Savannah, 85, 147, 100, 204. Saybrook, 68, 69. Schenectady massacre, 80. Schley, Com. Winfleld S., 344, 345. Schofleld, Gen. John -M., 305. Schools, 112-114, 238, 364. Schnyler, Fort, 139. Schuyler, Geu. Philip, 138-140. Scotl^ Geu. Winfleld, at Chippewa, lt2, in Mexican war, 217-220. presidential nominee, 225. retires, 257. Secession, of Southern States, 232-234, 254, 308. ordinanci'S of, repealed, 313. Sedgwick, Gen. John, 284, 285, 2U5. Sedition Law, 175, 17(i. Seminole Indians, 207, 208. Semmes, Capt. R., 300, 301. Senate, 164, 165. Seneca Indians, 12. Separatists, 69. Serapis, 149, 150. Seven Days' Battles, 275. Seven Pines, or Fair Oaks, battle of, 272, 273. Seven Years' War, 91. Sewall, Arthur, 338. Seward, William H., 225, 309, 316. Sewing maehine, invented, 240. Seymour, Governor Horatio, 317. Seymour, Gen. Truman, 303. Shafter, Gen. William K., 344. Shays's Kcbellion, 1G4. Slienandoah valley, w.ar in, 272, 298, 299. Sheridan, Gen. Philip, at Five Forks, 306. at Petersl)urg, 304. defeats Stuart, 296. Shenandoah eanipaigii, 298, 299. Sherman, Rofier, 131. Sherman, Gen. W. T., at Chattanooga, 282, 283. at Chickasaw 151 uff, 2CC. Atlanta captured by, 291, 292. career of, 291. Knoxville relieved by, 284. march through the Carolinas, 304, 305. march to the sea, 293, 294. Shields, Gen. James, 272. Shiloh, battle of, 262, 263. Shipbuilding, 117, 243, 359. Shirley, Gen. William. 97. Shoshoneau Indians, 12. Sickles, Gen. Daniel E., 287. Sigel, Geu. Franz, 296. Silk, manufacture of, 358. production of, 116. Silver mines, 241, 356. Silver money, 325, 336, 338. Sioux Indians, 12, 279, 320, 321, 332. Slater, Samuel, 242. Slave trade, 40, 164, 224, xix. Slavery, abolished, 313, 314. Compromise of 1850, 224, 225. Constitution .iflected by, 164. cotton industi-y affects, 190. Dred Scott decision, 230. Emancipation I'roclaniation, 277, 279. Fugitive Slave Law, 224,230, 231, 234. in colonial times, 103, 111, 112, 116. introduction of, 65. Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 225, 226. Missouri Compromise, 196, 197. proliibited in Northwest Territory, 163 Wilmot Pr(jviso, 221. Sleeping cars, 3.54. Slemmer, Lieut. A. J., 260. Slidell, John, 259. Sloat, Com. John D., 218. Smith, Gen. E. Kirliy, 256, 264, 265. Smith, ('apt. John, 50-52, 57, 58. Smith, Joseph, 212. Snelling, Fort, 247. Social conditions, before Civil War, 235-238 in colonial days, 102-114. Solis, Juan Diaz de, 26. " Sous of Liberty," 121. Soo Canal, 358. South American republics, 200. South Carolina, 81-84. cedes land to Congress, 161, 163. Nullifloatiou Ordinance passed, 205. readmitted, 314, 324, 325. secedes, 232. South Dak(Jta, 359, 360. South Mountain, battle of, 277. Spain, claims in North America, 33, 34, 47. explorations, 24-26, 28 34. Florida boundary fixed, 173. Florida purchaseellion, 172. White Plains, battle of, 134. Whitefleld, George, 85. Whitney, Eli, 172. Whittier, John G.. 367. WildeiiH'Ss, 285. battle of the, 294, 205. Wilkinscm, Gen. James, 188. William and Mary Colltge, 113. William Henry, Foit, 06. Williams, Roger, settles Providence, 63, 68, 7C. Wjlliamsliurg, battle of. 271. Wilmington, Del., settled, 76. Wilniot Proviso, 210, 221, 2.S4. Wilson, Gen. James II., .304. Wilson, Woodrow. 37T. Wilson (or (iorinan-Wilson) Act, 'HI. Wilson's Creek, battle of, 258. Winchester, battle of, 298. Winchester, Gen. James, 188. Windsor, settled, 07. Winslow, Capt. J. A., 300, 801. Winthrop, John, 02 ; the younger, 68. Wisconsin, 240, 320. Wolfe, Gen. James, 96-99. Woman sutrrage, 370. Wordeii, Lieut. John L., 270. World's Columbian Expositiop, 333, 336 Wounded Knee, battle of, 332. Wright, Gen. Horatio G., 299. Wright, Silas, 225. Writs of .Assistance, 120. Wyoming, 359, 360. Wyoming massacre, 146, 147. Yale College, founded, 112. Yeardley, Governor George, 53. York, burned, 188. York, Duke of, 73-75. Yorktown, sieges of, 158, 159, 271. Young, Biigham, 213. Zollicoffer, Oen. Felix K., 261. Zook, Col. Samuel K., 278. PUPILS' OUTLINE STUDIES IN UNITED STATES HISTORY $0.30 By FRANCIS H.WHITE, A.M., Professor of History and Political Science, Kansas State Agricultural College A BLANK book, which is intended for the pupil's use in connection with any good history of the United States. 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AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY (57^ MAY 9 1913 w liijiii H :i' i;.'H.'-.''-'i'i':t'I;! LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 00105464101 ^ i^ii: '•■'!' ■!*•!!,'!<• '!i''ri>!!i!)!|il*) ■i' I V'- WM ■lllli^I'Mlfll'h!! ^fli!l!l'lj|!;:l!^llllili.'lillll .il.lll 1 lllpl' ],■■: ),M i((Illi'!'l;!|' i !'tiiiH'!"i!i!''4'Jlti 1 ii! ; Hi i;i -Wmfi 'Hi-nii'iii'. .'■;■. :i I'll •U,i.' ill M'.'ii: ■';;!1 ;.h^