,S2 B7 ICopy 1 ?. .^2^*^ ^K^-^^P^ ■7' -7 ^^^mi 7 ^mna Commedia. 16. F. Pelrarca — Sonetti, Canzoni Trionfo delta Morte. 17. A. Poliziano — Poesie Liriche, Orfeo, Stanze. 18. L. Ariosto — Orlando Furioso. 19. F. Bemi— Orlando Innamorato. 20. F. Ta,sso—Gerusalemme ^iberata. 21. G 32 SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION IN SARDINIA. Chiabrera — Canzoni; A. Guidi — La Forttma. 22. G. Gozzi — Sermoni ; G. Parini — Liriche, Giomi. 23. V. Alfieri — Saul, Polinice, Oreste. 24. U. Foscolo — / Sepolcri. 25. V. Monti — ia bellezza dell' Universo. Liriche. III. SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION. Universities. — There are in the Kingdom four universities; in Turin, Genoa, Cagliari and Sassari, the two latter in the island of Sardinia. We shall speak only of the university of Turin, that being the most complete in its organization, the highest in scope of instruction, the most important institution of the country, and the model of all the others. Indeed the university of Turin may claim a prominent place among the institutions of Europe, and in Italy takes rank with those of Pavia, Padua, Pisa, and Bologna. The university of Turin was founded in 1405 by Louis of Savoy, Prince of Piedmont. In 1412 it obtained its rights and privileges from the Emperor Sigismond, and in 1424 Amedeus VIII. organized a Coun- cil of direction of the university, composed of the governor-general, and three other members, who were called Reformers, (Rifoivtiatari.) Some years after it was transferred to Chieri, on account of the wars of that time ; then again, from Chieri to Savigliano, and in 1436 restored to Tu- rin. Emmanuel Philibert in 1516 gave new life to the institution, reform- ed the council of direction, and established separate faculties. Still further improvements were made by Victor Amedeus II. to whom Pied- mont owes in no small degree its present welfare and strength. He built the magnificent palace of the university, called to it the illustrious profes- sors from other parts of Italy, from Prance and other countries, founded the college of the provinces for the support and education of poor and tal- ented pupils, and established the botanic garden. Charles Emmanuel III. was not less eager in promoting the prosperity of the institution, promul- gating a code of academic laws, which, for its time, was the most complete in Europe ; and which was modified and improved by Charles xVlbert, who created many chairs, built the magnificent new anatomic theater, enriched the botanic garden and museums, and founded a new era of national independence, ireedom, and of scientific glory in the annals of public instruction in Sardinia. His son, the present king Victor Emman- uel II. has shown himself a worthy successor of the founder of the free institutions of the country, by placing Sardinia at the head of the nation- al party of Italy, sustaining before European diplomacy the rights and the independence of the nation, emancipating the country from the relics of ancient despotism, and maintaining with religious affection the politi- cal constitution of the country, and improving in every way the ma- terial as well as the educational condition of the people ; and especially in increasing the splendor and raising the standing of the university of the capital of his kingdom. Many celebrated scholars have from the beginning given honor to its name, among whom we may mention Cara, who lived in the 15th cen- tury, a lawyer, as well as a Latin scholar of great celebrity, who attract- ed to his lectures distinguished audiences, not only from every part of SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION IN SARDINU. 3^ Italy, but even from France, Spain, and Germany. In the 16th century CuJACius, that miracle of legal erudition, left Toulouse, his native country, and repaired to this university. In the same century and in the same institution, Argentieri taught medical science, and Benedetti mathe- matical astronomy. Thesauro in the 17th century was celebrated among Latin scholars ; in the iSth, the university could boast of a Gerdil in moral philosophy, of Alcasio and Bono in jurisprudence, of Cigna in anatomy and physiology, of Bertrandi, Brugnone and Penchienati in Sur- gery, of DoNATi, the botanist, who by his extensive travels in Asia, en- riched the garden of the university with many precious treasures ; of Allioni, who proposed a new classification of the vegetable kingdom, of MicnELLOTTi, celebrated in hydraulics, and of Beccaria who divided with Franklin the laurels of the discoveries of electricity. In the present cen- tury, Bardi acquired an European fame for his high attainments in Hebrew literature and in sacred history ; Alardi, Gridis, and BESsoNEwere celebrated in jurisprudence ; Giulio discovered muscles in plants ; Ro- lando developed a new theory of the structure of the brain ; Balbi fol- lowed with devoted zeal the study of botany ; Vassalli Eandi showed himself a worthy pupil of Beccaria ; Bonelli and Borson enriched the zoologic and mineralogic museums ; Bonvicino and Giobert acquired great reputation in chemistry, and Bidone in mathematics ; finally the names of Lagrange, Alfieri, Berardi, Charles Botta, Gioberti, C^- sar Balbo, Sciolla, Tarditi, Boucheron, &c., who either received their scientific education at the university, or presided over some branches of its instruction, would be suflBcient to raise that institution to an equal standing with the most celebrated universities of Europe. We do not speak of the living professors, among whom are many names of great re- pute, in theology, jurisprudence, medical and surgical science, philosophy and letters, physics and mathematics. The palace of the university built in 1714, according to the design of RiccA, stands on the widest and most beautiful thoroughfare of the city, the great street of the Po, which is adorned on both sides with wide and lofty arcades, ending at each extremity with a wide square, looking on one side toward the old castle, which stands alone in the middle of its square, and on the other to the picturesque hills, which overlook the city. The palace has within a court surrounded by arcades, divided by columns which support above another gallery of the same style, as the ar- cades below. In the walls of these are many Roman inscriptions, statues, and bas-reliefs, discovered in Piedmont, and which have been describ- ed by Scipione Mafiei and other celebrated antiquaries. On the arcades above are a marble group representing fame chaining time, and four urns representing the seasons, which were presented to the university by Vic- tor Emmanuel I. The imposing staircase is adorned with marble vases, and ornamented with sculpturing. All the interior of the University is grand and magnificent, and admirably fitted for its objects. The University consists of five faculties, — Theology, Jurisprudence, Medicine and Surgery, Belles-lettres and Philosophy, Physical and 34 SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION IN SARDINIA. Mathematical Sciences. Each faculty is composed of the professors, and of the Collegiate Doctors, and it is represented by a Council which is formed of the president of the foculty, of three professors, and of two doctors, all of whom are elected by ballot, by the members of the faculty itself. The faculty of belles-lettres and philosophy is divided into two classes, one of belles-lettres and one of philosophy. The faculty of phy- sical and mathematical sciences is also divided into two classes, of phy- ical and mathematic science. The Councils of the faculties have the immediate direction of the instruction, which belongs to each of them : over these presided until lately a Council of the university, to which the general admin- istration and direction of the institution belonged. This council was composed of eight members ; the president was appointed by the government, of the other seven counselors, five were elected from five lists ; each of three professors, which were made by ballot by each faculty, and the two others were selected by the government, among the most distinguished men either in the scientific or lit- erary department. This council was entrusted with the execution of the scholastic laws and with the direction and advancement of the instruc- tion of the university. A new law relating to the administration of pub- lic instruction, which was a few months ago adopted by the Parliament, modified this organization, and we shall speak of it hereafter. There is also a rector of the university appointed from among the professors by the government, for a term of three years. The faculties have a determined number of collegiate doctorships, and when one of these is vacant, an examination is opened in order to fill it. Doctors who received the diploma of the faculty can alone present them- selves to this examination, but not before two years of doctorship. The examination consists of a written dissertation upon a subject drawn by lot, and of a public extemporary lecture ; the candidate who in the contest, receives the approbation of the faculty, before being declared a collegiate doctor, is obliged to sustain a satisfactory public discussion on some of his positions, which he is required to publish as an exposition of the particular science. The collegiate doctors are, in connection with the professors, the examiners of the candidates for the memberships of the colleges, as well as of the students who apply for the diploma of their faculty. They are also the members of the committees appointed for the examination of students applying for admission to the university. The professors are appointed by the government, after being proposed by the supreme council of instruction ; as a general rule they are chosen among the collegiate doctors, though in some exceptional cases men of high scientific reputation, who do not belong to the university, may receive the appointment. The colleges of the faculties at present contain as follows : 1st, College of theology, twenty-four doctors ; 2d, of jurisprudence, twenty-two ; 3d, of medicine and surgery, twenty-nine ; 4th, of belles-lettres and philoso- phy, a, class of belles-lettres, ten, 5, class of philosophy, seven ; 5th, SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION IN SARDINIA. 35 of physical and mathematical sciences, a, class of physical sciences, ten, b, class of mathematical sciences, nine. Some of these doctors are appointed by the government, as extraordi- nary professors of the faculty, whose duty is to take place of the ordina- ry professors, when prevented from lecturing or examining. There are also attached to the university, private teachers who are called Ripetitori, from whom the students can receive private instruc- tion on the course. These teachers are licensed by the council of the university, after being proposed by the councils of the faculties ; the students, however, are not obliged to follow these courses, and should they choose to follow them, they are by no means exempted from the course of the university, which is the only one recognized as the necessary con- dition of admission to the examinations and to the doctorships. The private courses are paid by the students who wish to follow them, but the courses of the university, as well as of the colleges, are entirely free- The students, however, are obliged to pay to the public treasure a fee for their examination, which varies according to the different faculties. From tlie payment of these fees all pupils are exempted, who prove the inability of their parents to pay them. In order to be admitted to the course of a faculty, it is necessary for the students to present the certificate of having completed all the secondary courses, including that of philosophy ; auother, of having passed satis- factory all the examinations of magisterio. They then declare the fac- ulty, of which they intend to follow the courses ; after which they are obliged to attend the lectures prescribed for those courses, to obtain every quarter a certificate of their attendance from each professor, and to pass an annual examination upon the subjects of the programme. The following are the courses connected with each faculty ; to each course is appointed a professor. Faculty of Theology. 1st, Biblical theology ; 2d, Bible and the ele- ments of Hebrew ; 3d, Ecclesiastical History ; 4th, Dogmatic theology ; 5th, Speculative theology ; 6th, Sacraments ; 7th, Moral theology ; 8th, Art of preaching. The course continues through five years, and the sub- jects are arranged in the following order : 1st year, Biblical and Dogmati- cal theology ; Id and M years, Moral theology. Speculative theology, and Sacraments; Uh and 5th years, Moral theology. Speculative theology, Sa- craments, and Bible. The students, who propose to contend for the three prizes established by the government for the best written solution of the- ological questions, attend the lectures of an additional course, which is of two years, and embraces ecclesiastical history, the art of preaching, elements of Hebrew, and exegesis of the Bible. The bishops have the right to establish theological schools in their sem- inaries ; but the instruction received in those seminaries can not give to the students the privilege of presenting themselves to the examination for receiving the Doctorship of Divinity from the university, unless the pro- fessors of theology have been appointed by the government, and unless these professors follow the programmes and the general regulations of the 36 SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION IN SARDINIA. university. In this case the professors of the seminaries receive their salary from the government. The diploma of doctorship in divinity is a necessary condition for obtaining the incumbency of many ecclesiasti- cal benefices and employments, to which the government has the right of nomination, and as this diploma can be only granted by the universi- ty, it follows that a great part of the clergy are obliged to pass through this course in one of the universities of the state. During late years, however, the church having entered into an open opposition to the state, on account of some reforms introduced into the political institutions of the country, the bishops became reluctant to allow the students of divin- ity to follow the course of the university, so that from recent statistics this faculty appears almost deserted. The following is the catalogue of the professors of the theological fac- ulty of the university of Turin, with the subjects of their lectures for the scholastic year, 1856-7. (November — June.) Parato Felice, member of the Council of the University, in Moral Theology, will lecture on human actions, on moral law and on the laws of the Decalogue and of the Church, at 9 o'clock, every day. Serafino Angelo, in Speculative Theology, will lecture on God and his attributes, at 10 o'clock, every day. Ghiringhello Giuseppe, member of the Supreme Council of public instruction, in the Holy Bible, will lecture on Acts of the Apostles, the Epistles, and Revelations, at 3 o clock, until April ; then at half past three, every day. He will also teach Hebrew and Biblical Exegesis, every day at 4 o'clock, until April, then at half past four. Banaudi Casimiro, will teach Biblical Theology, at 10 o'clock, every day. Savio Carlo Luigi will teach Dogmatical Theology, at 11 o'clock, every day. Barone Francesco, in Ecclesiastical History, will lecture on the History of the Church from Constantine to Charlemagne, on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays, at 12 o'clock. N. N. will teach the Art of preaching, on Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays, at 12 o'clock. N. N. in Speculative Theology ; will lecture on Sacraments in general, and on Baptism and on Confirmation, at 11 o'clock, every day. Faculty of Jurisprudence. — The course of this faculty extends through five years, and consists of the following thirteen chairs. 1st, History of Jurisprudence ; 2d, Institutions of Roman Law ; 3d, Ecclesiastical Law ; 4:th, Roman Law; 5th, Civil Law; Gth, Penal Law; 7th, Political Econo- my ; 8th, Constitutional Law ; 9th, Commercial Law ; 10th, Judiciary Law and Theory of Evidences; 11th, Administrative Law ; 12th, Inter- national Law ; 13th, Philosophy of Jurisprudence. These subjects are divided through the course in this way : 1st year, History of Jurispru- dence, Institutions of Roman Law, Ecclesiastical Law. 2fZ yeai\ Ecclesi- astical Law, Roman Law, Civil Law, Penal Law, Political Economy. Zd year, Roman Law, Civil Law, Penal Law, Political Economy, and Constitutional Law. 4:tTi year^ Roman Law, Civil Law, Constitutional Law, Commercial Law, Judiciary Law. 5iA year, Commercial Law, Judi- ciary Law, Administrative Law, International Law, Philosophy of Juris- prudence. No one can obtain the title of lawyer, or practice the legal profession or plead any cause before any court of the country, or be appointed in any place of the judiciary department, without having received the diplo- ma of Doctorship in this faculty. This diploma opens also the most part of the official employments, both in the executive and in the administra ■ SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION IN SARDINIA. gl^ tive departments, and gives a better chance for election to the legislative body. In order to afford a better opportunity to the students of this faculty who reside in the most distant parts of the country, there is a school of jurisprudence in Chambery and in Nice for the students born in those provinces. The programme, however, of these schools does not exceed the subjects which are taught in the first year of the course, after which it is required of the students to continue their course at the university. Thus three professors deliver lectures in each of those schools, according to the programme of the university and under the direction of the faculty of Turin, and of the council of that university. In every city, besides, which is at the head of a provincial department, there is a school of Civil and of Judiciary Zaw, which prepares its students for the professions of public notaries and advocates. This course extends through two years ; in the first of which they are taught the elements of civil law, in the second the judiciary law, in causes both civil and mminal. The professor of the history of jurisprudence, after having given to his students the fundamental ideas which are necessary to understand this part of their course, commences with the origin of the Eoman law and follows it through its decline at the fall of the empire ; and treats of the different laws promulgated by the succeeding rulers, of the most useful principles of the feudal system, of the canonical law, of the contests be- tween the civil and ecclesiastical authority, and of the statutes of the ancient commons, and pursues the genesis and the changes of our legis- lation to the present time. In the course of his history the professor is required to point out the sources of law, and the causes of progress of justice, and of other phases of jurisprudence. The professors of the institutions of Roman law, and of Roman law it- self, expound compendiously the parts of that law, which do not enter into Sardinian legislation, and dwell upon the other parts, which are the foundation of the law of the country. In the first year of the course on ecclesiastical law, the lectures treat, 1st, of the church and its authority ; ■2d, of marriage. In the second year their subjects embrace the doctrine of ecclesiastical benefices. The study of penal code is divided into two parts, in the first of which the general theoiy is taught, in the second special applications to different offenses. In this last part the professor dwells especially upon offenses against public faith, and against the peace and property of families and individuals. The lectures on commercial law embrace all the parts of this law, and include the maritime law. The course of judiciary law is divided into two parts, accordingly as it refers to civil or criminal pro- ceedings, and includes in both parts the theory of evidences. We give here the catalogue of the professors of this faculty, and their programme for the present year : Vacchino Francesco, in Commercial Law, will lecture on it, on Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays, at 10 o'clock. 38 SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION IN SARDINIA. NuiTzGiovANNi NEPOMUCENO.memberof the Council of the University, and Rector of the University, in Roman Law, will lecture on Obligations, Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays, at 8 o'clock. Cesano Gaspare, extraordinary member of the Supreme Council of instruction, in Civil Law, will lecture on the Contract of Marriage, on subsequent rights in both parties, and on the contract of partnership, Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays, at 10 o'clock. Pateri Ilario Filiberto, in Ecclesiastical Law, will lecture on the Church, and onits authority, and onMarriage, Tuesdays, Wednesdays, and Saturdays, at 8 o'clock. Albini Pietro, in the Philosophy of .Jurisprudence ; after having given the theory of juridical law, will lecture on the theory of juridical rational law, and on rational princi- ples of family right, a7id of public right, Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays, at 10 o'clock. Genina Luigi, in Penal Law, after having given the general ideas of offense, of impu- tation, and of punishment, will lecture on offenses against public faith, and on offenses agaiiist the peace and the order of families and of individuals, Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays, at 9 o'clock. Pescatore Matted, in Judiciary Law, will expound the principal parts of criminal proceeding, and will give its theory of evidences, Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays, at 9 o'clock. Melegari Luigi Amedeo, in Constitutional Law, will give an historical introduction on representative institutions, after which he will lecture on the rights of citizens and on their guaratitees, Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays, at 11 o'clock. BuNiVA Giuseppe, in Civil Law, will lecture on Testamentary Successions, Mon- days, Wednesdays, and Fridays, at 9 o'clock. Ferrara Francesco, in PolitioalEconomy ; will deliver lectures on it, Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays, at 10 o'clock. LiONE Antonio, in Administrative Law, will lecture on it, Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays, at 9 o'clock. Mancini Pasquale Stanislao, in International Law ; will lecture 07i the Elements of international, public, national and positive law, Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays, at 11 o'clock. Anselmi Giorgio, will lecture on the Institutions of Roman law, every day, at 10 o'clock. Demargherita Alessandro, in the History of Jurisprudence; will lecture on it, every day, at 9 o'clock. Avondo Carlo and Gastaldetti Celestino, extraordinary professors, will take the place of the above professors, in case of their being prevented from lecturing. Faculty of Medicine and Surgery. — This faculty possesses nineteen chairs, and its course continues through six years. It is strictly prohib- ited by the law of the country to exercise the profession of medicine or surgery, without having obtained the diploma of doctorship from one of the universities of the state. This diploma is only bestowed upon the accomplishment of the full course of the faculty, and of passing the ex- aminations which are prescribed by law. The same provision is enforced in all the faculties of the university for the exercise of the professions relative to them. 1st chair, Chemistry ; 2d, theoretical and practical Pharmacy, and toxicologic Chemistry ; 3d, Mineralogy ; 4th, Botany ; 5th, Zoology ; 6th, Anatomy ; 7th, Physiology ; 8th, medical and sui-gical In- stitutions ; 9th, Materia medica ; 10th and 11th, theoretical and practical Medicine; 12th and 13th, theoretical and practical Surgery; 14th, theo- retical Obstetrics and obstetrical Clinic; 15th, surgical Operations and op- erative Clinic with anatomical and surgical exercitations at the hospital ; 16th, Hygiene and public health ; 17th, Legal medicine and Toxicology; 18th, Clinic of mental diseases ; 19th, pathological Anatomy. The order of the course is the following : 1st year, Chemistry, Mineralogy, Botany, Zoology, Anatomy. 2d year, Chemistry, Anatomy, Physiology, medical and surgical Institutions, theoretical and practical Pharmacy, and toxicolo- gic Chemistry. 3« the fundamental principle of Methodology, and on some of its applications to Human Education." The philosopher establishes here a principle, which he expresses in the following formula: "Those objects must be first presented to human mind, which belong to the first order of intellectual acts : then the objects of the second order, then those of the third, and so on successively, so that you shall never lead the child to an act of the second order, before he is master of those of the first, and so on in regard to the acts of the third, and other superior degrees." This principle is derived fi-om the doctrines of Rosmini on Ideology and Log- ic, and is founded on the very nature of the human mind, which devel- ops itself gradually, so that a law of gradation constitutes the principle of methodic and didactic art. This gradation depends on the gradation of mental acts and objects, viz.: of ideas, which are presented to the mind, and which are natui'ally classified according to a necessary and unfailing order. Then applying this principle to the education of children, Rosmini un- dertook to classify and to analyze their intellectual acts, showing the method of training them in each order of these acts, as well as of their faculties and objects. In this view he distinguished many ages of child- hood, of which he follows the gradual development and examines the PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN SARDINIA. Qfj diiferent laws, which ought to preside over their education. "We will not attempt any analysis of this work, which, though unfinished, will be a great addition to pedagogical science, whenever it shall be published. We may add, however, that Rosmini, though he could not perfect his greatest work on Pedagogy, yet he gave a decided impulse to educational researches by his psychologic and anthropologic discoveries, in which the human faculties were more sagaciously than ever before described in their nature and origin, their oflBces declared, their acts defined, their natural order pointed out, the laws of their development fixed, their stimuli clas- sified, and the conditions of their working established. Thus Rosmini revealed to educators the organization and the structure of the subject, the faculties of which they are called to develop in their natural order and harmony, and, by his ideologic theories, cast a new light on the nature of truth, beauty and virtue, which constitute the objects at which all education must aim. But Rosmini rendered great service to the cause of education, not only as the philosopher of pedagogy, but yet more as one of the most effectual educators of the country. With this object he founded and supported by his own means an institution of clergymen and laymen, {The Charity Association^ who are bound to devote themselves to all kinds of charita- ble works, and, above all, to the education of youth. Thus he was able to open many elementary schools, asylums, evening and Sunday schools, not only in Piedmont, but in Switzerland and in England, which were managed by teachers under his direction and control, — all of which he was able to see flourishing at the time of his death. To provide his schools with good teachers, he founded in his institution normal colleges, with the object of giving a thorough instruction in method to those, who intended to devote them- selves to elementary schools. The students of these colleges are divided into two classes, in one of which teachers of common schools are prepared, in the other professors of method are trained. The elementary schools, within a certain limit, depend on a central college, and their teachers are obliged to repair to it during their vacations, in order to confer with their companions on the management and improvements relating to their schools. To each normal college is annexed a boarding establishment for the pupils of the elementary school, in which the students of the college learn the practice of didactic art. He showed a similar interest in the education of girls, which he be- lieved of no less importance than that of boys. With the object of pro- moting it, he founded also an institution of young ladies, whom he called Sisters of Providence, whom he educated in the art of teaching and appointed to elementary schools for girls, and to the many infant asylums intrusted to his care in Piedmont, in Switzerland and England. No man indeed in Italy has done so much for the progress of education, as well as of philosophical sciences, as Rosmini. His doctrines may be dis- cussed and disputed, but his life commands the admiration of all, who feel an interest in the cause of human civilization. He felt that the hfe of gg PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN SARDINIA. thought, which was so active within him, was not a perfect Ufe ; thence he endeavored to unite in himself the highest contemplation to the most extensive action, and this he directed to the education of clergymen, whom he tried to bring to that spirituality of religion, which too often is lost in the formalities of their profession, and to the education of children, in whom he was able to read more simply and purely the history of human nature. To enable our readers to avail themselves of the philosophical researches of Rosmini, we add a catalogue of his principal works, which contain treasures of philosophical truth and analytical observations, and present one of the best expositions of the principles of pedagogic and didactic sciences. LIST OF THE WORKS OF ANTONIO ROSMINI. 1. Introduction to Philosophy, 1 vol. 2. A New Essay on the Origin of Ideas, 3 vols. 3. The Restoration of Philosophy in Italy, 1 vol. 4. Logic, 1 vol. 5. Theodicy, 1 vol. 6. Psychology, 2 vols. 7. Principles of Moral Science. A Comparative History of Moral Systems, 1 vol. 8. Anthropology in relation to Moral Science, 1 vol. 9. A Treatise on Moral Conscience, 1 vol. 10. Philosophy of Natural Right, 2 vols. 11. Philosophy of Politics, 1 vol. Containing, 1st. A work on the principal causes nf the preservation and ruin of Human Societies. 2d. A work on Society and its Objects. 12 Miscellanea, 6 vols. INEDITED WORKS. 1. Theosophy. Containing Ontology, Cosmology and Theology, 3 vols. 2. Pedagogy, 1 vol. 3. Methodology, 2 vols. 4. Philosophy of Literature, 1 vol. 5. Philosophy of Politics, 2 vols. 6. Supernatural Anthropology, 4 vols. 7. A Philosophical Commentary on the Gospel of St. John. public instruction in sardinia. 69 An Act organizing the Administration of Public Instruction and its Authorities, passed in February, 1857. Chapter I. — General Provisions. 1. Instruction is either public or private. The minister of public instruction directs the former, and promotes its progress ; while he watches over the latter in its rela- tions to morals, hygiene, political institutions, and public order. 2. Public instruction is divided into three branches ; elementary, secondary, and sujierior. 3. The existing laws, determining the characteristics of public and private schools, shall be still enforced. (1.) 4. The public institutions and schools of learning and education, (with the exception of military, as well as nautical institutions and schools, which depend on the minister of war,) and all the authorities, to whom is intrusted the direction and inspection of the same, according to the enactments of the present bill, shall depend on the ministry of public instruction. 5. In public schools intrusted to religious corporations, legally admitted into the state, the appointments of directors, professors, and teachers, either male or female, shall be made by the authorities of the state, on the nomination of the same corporations. But the candidates must prove themselves competent to occupy the places for which they will be proposed ; therefore they shall pass the examinations, and conform them- selves to the other rules and duties prescribed by the by-laws. 6. It shall belong exclusively to the authorities of public instruction to enforce the discipline of public schools, to collate the academic degrees, to install collegiate doctors of the faculties, and directors, professors and teachers in the schools, which depend upon the minister of public instruction. (2.) 7. The special acts relative to superior, secondary and elementary instruction, shall determine the public regulations for private schools, and the rules according to which the government shall supervise them. The same law shall contain provisions, accord- ing to which, provincial and municipal corporations shall have an effective share in the direction of their own schools and institutions. Meanwhile, citizens, who shall have fulfilled all conditions enacted by law, in order to be eligible to the ofHce of professors or teachers in the public institutions of secondary and elementary instruction, shall be allowed henceforth to open and conduct private institutions of the branch and degree for which they have obtained their certificate. 8. Till said special acts shall be enacted, all private schools and institutions of learning and education, either for boys or girls, directed either by laymen or clergy- men, shall conform themselves to existing laws. The minister of public instruction shall continue to supervise them by means of his officers ; and, should the directors of those institutions refuse to conform, or, in fact, should not conform themselves to said laws, the minister shall have the power of closing them by a special decree, after having obtained the consent of the Supreme Council, and heard the defendant director. In urgent cases, after having heard the Council, he shall have the power of suspending, by his own authority, the director from his ofRce, and also of closing the school or institution, till a definite provision shall be made as above. 9. The courses followed in seminaries, or in ecclesiastical or religious col- leges, of whatever denomination, not exclusively for ecclesiastical education, shall be considered invalid for admission to courses, examinations, and academic degrees of public schools, unless they conform themselves to the by-laws enacted for public schools. In every case, these establishments shall always be submitted to the super- vision of the government. (3.) 10. Religious instruction and education in public institutions and schools shall be founded on the Catholic religion. Special acts and by-laws shall determine the rules to be followed in the religious training of Catholic pupils. The religious training and instruction of dissenting pupils shall be left to their parents. (4.) Chapter II. — A. Authorities, which preside over Public Irvstriwtion. 11. Under the presidency of the minister, a Supreme Council of public instruction is instituted ; a legal counselor, a general inspector of secondary schools, a general in- spector of elementary and norma! schools, and two more inspectors of secondary schools, of whom one for scientific, the other for literary branches, are attached to the ministry. The minister shall provide the technical schools with a special inspection. In the principal provincial cities, there shall reside a provincial scholastic deputation, a royal scholastic superintendent, (Regio Provedilore agli sitcdi,) and a provincial in- spector of elementary schools. Every district of the province, {mandamento,) or several districts together, shall have a district superintendent, {Provediture mandamentale.) (5.) B. Supreme Council of Public Instruction. 12. The Supreme Council is composed of fifteen members, ten ordinary and five extra- ordinary. The former shall be appointed by the King, and two of these, at least, shall be elected from amon"- nersons not belonging to public instruction. The last shall also 70 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN SARDINIA. be appointed by the King, and selected from five lists of three candidates, which shall be presented by each of the five faculties of the university of Turin. The ordinary members only shall receive a salary. (6.) 13. A filth of I he members shall be renewed every year, so that two of the ordinaries and one of the extraordinaries shall leave annually. In the first four years after the first election, it shall be decided by lot which members shall vacate the office ; after- ward, the three members wlio liave been longest in the office shall annually leave their place. These may be appointed again. 14. The vice-president is annually elected by tlie King from among the members ; for the validity of decisions a quorum of eight members is required. 15. Whenever the minister or the Council shall order it, the counselor and the gen- eral inspectors shall jom its meetings, but shall have no power of voting ; the presi- dents of the faculties may also be called to the meetings, and they shall have the power of voting on questions relative to the courses and programmes of their own faculty. 16. Both the minister and the Council have power to call to the meetings whomever they may think convenient to hear in any particular discussion. These persons, however, shall have no power of voting. 17. The Council, on the request of the minister, shall compose and examine the bills, decrees and by-laws concerning instruction, and shall give its opinion on every other subject relative to teaching and scholastic administration. 18. It shall examine and propose to the minister for his approbation text-books, treatises, and programmes. 19. It shall examine the applications, and their merits for the vacant chairs of all the universities of the kingdom. 20. It shall give its opinion, a, on doubts as to the right interpretation and application of laws relative to public instruction; b, on contests between the different scholastic authorities ; c, on by-laws relative to examinations, the establishment of new colleges and boarding scholastic establishments, and on whatever relates to general scholas- tic administration, and to distribution of the subjects among the different chairs and branches of instruction. 21. It shall give its opinion on neglects and offenses, of which Directors and Pro- fessors of secondary and normal schools, after three years of their service, may be ac- cused, whenever such offenses may deserve a degradation or suspension for more than three months. The defendants have always right to be heard, either orally or in writing, as they may choose. (7.) 22. The Council has always power to propose to the minister those provisions which it may believe useful to the progress of instruction. 23. The Council shall judge those Professors of the universities, and Collegiate Doctors, who may be accused of neglect or offense, whenever this offense can be fol- lowed by degradation or suspension; the defendant shall always be heard, as above. A special act shall determine neglects and offenses, which shall be followed by those punishments, and also their effects. 24. In urgent cases, the minister shall have the power of suspending, by his own authority, Professors of the universities, till the definite judgment shall be given by the Council. 25. The Council shall judge, in causes of appeal, relative to expulsion or temporary exclusion from the courses, inflicted by subordinate authorities on students of the uni- versities, and of secondary and normal schools. 26. Every five years the Council shall present to the minister a general report on the condition of all branches of instruction, which shall be published, with the observa- tions and propositions of the Council. In view of this object, the annual reports of the Inspectors, of the authorities which preside over the universities, of the Provincial Deputations, of the Superintendents and Directors, shall be communicated to the Council. C. Counselor. 27. The Counselor receives his appointment from the King. 28. He shall give his legal advice on applications made by students for exceptional admission to courses and examinations, for exemptions from examinations, and from the payment of their fees, and generally on all questions about interpretation and appli- cation of laws and rules. 29. Whenever especially charged by the minister, he shall report to the Council the neglects and offenses, for which Professors of the universities, or Collegiate Doctors, may be suspended or degraded. He shall join the meetings of the Council, whenever defendants may plead before it. 30. He shall be heard by the Council in the causes brought before it by students con- demned to expulsion or temporary exclusion from schools. 31. He shall refer to the minister the offenses committed against the laws and disci- pline of the universities. D. General Inspectors. 32. The General Inspectors receive their appointment from the King. PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN SARDINIA. Yl 33. They shall watch over the proceedings of public instruction, eacli in connection with the branch intrusted to him, in the name and under the orders of the minister. They shall give to the Royal Superintendents such directions, as they may believe use- ful, according to law. 34. They shall propose to the minister the committees of examination, advancement and appointments of teachers, honors to be bestowed upon them, and punishments which they may deserve. 35. Whenever especially charged by the minister, they shall bring before the Council the accusations against directors and professors of secondary and normal schools, when they are of such a nature as to render defendants liable to degradation or suspension for more than two months. 3(5. Each of them, personally or by means of their subordinate inspectors, shall pro- vide for the department in charge of each of them, and to the inspection of all schools and institutions, either public or private. 37. The General Inspectors, availing themselves of the annual reports of their sub- ordinate officers shall annually report on the conditions of the branch of instruction placed under their care. They also shall collect materials for annual statistical tables of instruction, which shall be published within the first si.K months following the year to which they refer. E. Provincial Scholastic Deputations. 38. The Provincial Scholastic Deputation consists of the Royal Civil Superintend- ent of the Province, who presides over it; of the Royal Scholastic Superintendent, who is Vice-President; of three Deputies from the Council of the Provincial Civil Administration, elected by the Council itself, either from among its members or from persons of scientific and literary culture ; a Deputy from the Municijjal Council of the city ; the Provincial Inspector of Elementary Schools ; the Director of Secondary Instruction in the Provincial College ; the Professor of Religion ; and a Professor of the Normal School, (8,) or a teacher of Elementary Schools, who shall be annually ap- pointed by the minister. The members of the Deputation shall not receive any salary. 39. The Scholastic Deputation shall meet every month, on the day determined by its President or Vice-President ; and whenever these officers shall require. 40. It shall enforce the laws and rules relative to the secondary, elementary and normal schools of the Province. 41. It shall order extraordinary inspections on the institutions of the Province, for which it shall delegate one or more of its members, whenever occasion shall require. It shall decide on necessary provisions which are not beyond its power, and it shall refer to the minister, whenever questions arise beyond its jurisdiction. In urgent cases, it shall have the power of taking necessary measures, even of ordering the closing of institutions ; but it shall refer immediately to the minister. 42. It shall approve the appointments of elementary teachers made by Municipal Councils of the Province. It shall suggest to the same Councils increase of salaries, the opening of new schools, the purchase of apparatus, and whatever can improve the condition of schools and of their teachers. It shall also suggest to the Provincial Civil Superintendent the expenses which should be imposed upon the Municipal Corpora- tions, whenever it shall deem it necessary. 43. It shall decide disputes between municipal authorities and teachers, relative to the fulfillment of scholastic duties. 44. It shall decide on admission to the courses and examinations of secondary, ele- mentary and normal schools, should any doubt arise on the interpretation of by-laws. 45. Parties alluded to in the preceding two paragraphs shall always have an appeal to the minister. 46. The Deputation shall institute the necessary proceedings upon offenses of which elementary teachers may be accused ; and, after having heard the defendants, it shall refer to the minister, suggesting suitable action. 47. It shall decide on the application of teachers and professors for furlough ; it shall propose to the minister such advancements, pecuniary allowances, and honors which they may deserve. 48. It shall refer to the minister accusations against Provincial Inspectors, and pro- fessors of secondary and normal schools, whenever they may be liable to suspension or degradation. 49. It shall examine materials for statistics of private and public instruction in the Province, and shall annually send them, with its comments, to the minister. P. Royal Scholastic Superintendents of Provinces. 50. These are appointed by the King. 51. They shall have supervision of the official conduct of those who preside over the instruction or direction of scholastic establishments in their provinces. They shall execute the orders and decisions of the Provincial Deputation. They shall correspond 72 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN SARDINIA. directly with the minister, shall watch over all the public and private schools, enforce the laws and rules, and suggest, both to the Deputation and to the minister, the neces- sary provisions. 52. At least once a year, they shall visit all the secondary schools of their province, ana shall provide, personally or by some members of the Deputation, that all other institutions be visited. 53. It shall be their duty to enforce on the Provincial Inspectors of elementary schools their obligations relative to their inspections, and shall give to them and to the local superintendents the necessary orders. 54. Tliey shall grant to public teachers, regularly appointed, their certificate of license. 55. They shall watch over the correct disposition of legacies bequeathed to scholastic institutions of the Province; and, in case of any transgression, they shall refer to the minister. Gr. Local Scliolastic Superiniendenfs. 56. These are appointed by the minister, on the nomination of the Royal Scholastic Superinlendent of the Province. They receive no salary. 57. Tliey shall watch over the exact enforcement of laws and rules in the schools of their district. They shall visit them at least once a year, and whenever it is ordered by the Royal Superintendent, to whom they shall report. They shall correspond with the Royal Superintendent of the Province, and execute all his orders and directions. They shall aid the Provincial Inspector in forming statistical tables of the schools and institutions of the district. H. Provincial Inspectors of Elementary Scliools. 58. In every Province there shall be an Inspector of Elementary Schools. He shall be appointed by the minister, who may appoint only one for two provinces, whenever it shall be required by their Provmcial Councils. 59. No one can be appointed Inspector, who has not taught at least five years. 60. Provincial Inspectors shall inspect all the public and private institutions of ele- mentary instruction. Their annual visitation shall last not less than seven months in the year. 61. They shall, besides, attend to all extraordinary inspections ordered either by the minister, by the Royal Superintendent, or by the Provincial Deputation. 62. They shall make an annual report of their inspections, which, through the Royal Superintendent, shall be presented to the Provincial Deputation for its observations, with which it shall be sent to the minister. They shall also present a report of all extraordinary inspections to the authority by whose order they were made. 63. They shall prepare every year tables on the conditions of all the elementary schools of the Province, whether for boys or girls, and of all the Infant Asylums, which shall be presented to the Provincial Deputation. 64. The Inspectors may be allowed to fill other offices relative to education. But every other employ or profession is stnctly forbidden to them. Chapter III. — Special Provisions. 65. The salaries of the ordinary members of the Supreme Council, of the Counselor, of the two General Inspectors, of the two Inspectors of Secondary Schools, and of the Royal Scholastic Superintendents, are paid by the State. The salaries are as following : Vice-President of tlie Supreme Council, 2500 francs. Ench of the ordinary members of the Council, 2000 " Coun.selor, .' 4000 " General Inspector of Secondary Schools, 4000 " General Inspector of Elementary a nd Teachers' Schools, 4000 " Each of the two Inspectors of Secondary Schools 2200 " Each of the Royal Scholastic Superintendents, 600 " Rector of the University of Turin, 4000 " Vice-Rector, •. 1000 " Rector of the University of Genoa, 3000 " Vice-Rector, fiOO " Ench of the Rectors of the two Universities of the Island of Sardinia,. .2000 " Each of the two Vice-Rectors, 300 " 66. The salary, including the travelling expenses, of the Provincial Inspector shall be paid by each Province. It shall be 2400 francs. Chapter IV. — Transitory Dispositions. By which it provides a temporary administration, till the new organization shall be installed; in which interval the greatest part of the old administration shall continue to preside over the public instruction of the country. public instruction in sardinia. ?3 Remarks on the Law op 1857. (1.) According to the existing laws of Sardinia, public schools are those, which are estabhshed or supported by the state, by the provinces, townships, rehgious institutions or associations, or by private legacies intrusted to public adminis- trators. Those, which are established or supported by private individuals, under a license granted by the Government, are called private schools. For the laws re- specting private schools, see ante Tpsiges 14 and 15. Though the Infant Asylums might be in some respects classified under the head of private schools, yet they are more properly considered as pubUc institutions, on account of the official intervention, both of the government and of the municipalities, in their manage- ment and control. These institutions are founded, generally speaking, by private subscriptions and controlled by a central board of eight or nine members, among whom we find always the mayor, the judge, and the pastor of the town or township. The immediate direction of the Asylums is however intrusted to a permanent committee of ladies, some of whom visit the school every day, aiding the teachers in their duties, directing the institution according to its object, and promoting, by an assiduous care, its general progress and welfare. Thus the Asylums have essentially a domestic character, founded on maternal feeling, which directs the movement of the central board. This maternal character at- tached to the Infant Asylums has proved the most effectual characteristic of the direction, to which these institutions are intrusted. (2.) This clause estabUshes the exclusive authority of the State in the direc- tion of public instruction, denying any right or authority of the church in the control or management of the scholastic institutions of the country. Before 1848, the church had the control of all the public instruction, and even the academic degrees were bestowed by its authority, the archbishops being always the chancellors of the universities of the State. Since that time, that authority has been entirely restoi'ed to the state, and confirmed by tins clause of the new bill. (3.) For the understanding of the provisions enacted in clauses 1, 8, and 9 of the chapter respecting private instruction, we submit an account of the question on "Freedom of Instruction," which was brought before the Parliament at the opening of the general discussion of this bill. Ameri- can readers, who live in a country where the widest and most unbound- ed freedom in opening all kind of schools is an undisputed right of the people, and where no governmental education is established by the State, may find it no easy matter to form an idea of the system enforced for centuries in a country, where the government is not only the teacher, but the only lawful teacher of the people. The laws enacted in Sardinia on tliis subject before the Constitution of 1848 were of the most stringent character, forbidding any indi- vidual, association or municipality to open a school of any kind whatever, except by special license from the government, which, if it granted such hcense, prescribed with it the rules on which private estabUshments should be directed, and managed, and reserved to itself an absolute right of inspecting and examin- ing hcensed institutions, and closing them at pleasure. It is evident that, in this condition, private education could not prosper, and the entire people was obhged to depend on the State for its educational and scientific training. The constitution granted by Charles Albert, while it insured to the country free institutions, freedom of the press and of association, did not recall formally the previous legislation relating to this subject ; on the contrary, the former 6 '74 PUB!,ir INSTUtUn'ION IN SARDINIA. provisions were confirmed by a law of 1848, enacted soon after the granting of the constitution. But the question soon arose, whether this state of things was in accordance with free government ; whether citizens had not acquired from the very nature of tlie constitution itself full power of establishing schools as they might desire, and parents an absolute right of educating their children as they might choose, independently of any interference of the government, without losing the privileges or rather the rights attached to official instruction. There was no question, whether a free instruction, supported on their own responsibility by individuals or associations, should take the place of the existuig system, neither of abolishing anj^ of the official schools, or preventing the government from es- tablishing new ones, under their own direction and control. It was only the question of planting side by side the two systems, so as to recognize the right of every citizen to teach, independently of the government, and to erect schools and educational establishments on their own responsibility; to extend the privi- leges bestowed on the students of the official establishments to the pupils of private schools. Thus presented, the question had in itself its solution. Free instruction, as well as a free press and free association, is a logical consequence of a free government, and indeed the principle itself was not met by any oppo- sition in Sardinia. Yet particular conditions of the country suggested a prudent course in this matter, and did not allow an immediate acknowledgment of so uni- versal and absolute a right of teaching. It is known, that Sardinia, until 1848, was under the sway of an absolute monarchical government, controlled and directed by the Catholic clergy, wliich was its main supporter and adviser. Education especially, though supported by the state, was entirely managed by the Catholic party, wliich availed themselves of all means in their hands in order to strengthen their own position, and extend their dominion over the whole of public and private life. But, as soon as a new era of freedom appeared in Sar- dinia, it was natural that its government should cut short the former encroach- ments of the clergy, abolish their privileges and usurpations, and free itself forever from their influence. Hence the opposition of the ecclesiastical body to the poUtical institutions of the state ; hence the danger of allowing this party to open schools, and to constitute themselves the teachers of the country. In America, where no state religion is to be found, where no religious denomination can exert any great influence on political subjects, where freedom has no ene- mies, where absolute separation of church and state is a fundamental principle of the constitution of the states, no danger can arise from this boundless freedom of teaching. It is not so with the old countries, and it is not so with Sardinia. There, the Catholic church is the church of the state ; there, the clergy is a powerful association, not counterbalanced by any other, with branches scattered all over the country, with representatives in every township and village, all acting in one spirit, directed by one mind, and exerting a strong influence on the great mass of people. The church, moreover, possesses large means of action,- ■ about fifteen mOlions of francs a year, — of which a great part could be used in supporting schools all over the country, in accordance with its objects. Now, whether it is a necessary consequence of the rehgious principles of that sect, or a mistake of its clergy, we wiU not decide, but it is a fact that the clergy in Sardinia have ever shown a deep and open hatred of civil reforms and of all aspirations of nationality, to the cause of which so many noble hearts in the country are devoted. Add to this, that the clergy openly acknowledge their PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN SARDINIA. 75 unfailing duty to abide by the Pope, an open enemy liimself of free institutions in Italy, and a friend of the oppressors of his nation. The danger is evident, that the State would encounter, should it recognize in this party an unmodifled right of teaching, and of opening educational establishments ; the exercise of this right would not fail to act powerfully against the free institutions, and the dearest aspirations of the country. This, we believe, is the only danger which would arise from a system of boundless freedom of instruction, and the strongest reason for delaying a reform, which otherwise all parties would unite to enact. The Parliament, in closing the general discussion of the bill, passed a resolu- tion, by which the Minister, in presenting to the House bills organizing the three branches of education, will be obliged to endorse in some way the princi- ple of freedom. We believe, however, that should this principle be enforced in future provisions, it wOl be surrounded with so many restrictions as to destroy it in its substance. The fact is, that while the government does not enact the principle of an absolute separation of the state from the church, while it does not carry it through all its legislation and administration, no freedom of instruc- tion is possible, for the only reason that it will be monopolized by the clergy. But, let the government disclaim any connection Avith the cliurch, let it con- sider this as a private association subject to the laws of the state, let it open tlie gates of the kingdom to all religious denominations, and put these on an equality with the Catholic clergy, let it discontinue all acts which should include an acknowledgment of any civU power in the church, let it render stronger, more extensive and more liberal the official system, then, and not till then, " free instruction " will mean a practicable and useful reform. Before that time, we firmly believe, that any provision on this subject will either be so restricted as not to deserve the name of reform, or so wide as to be monopolized by a party, which openly professes to depend on a foreign sovereign, which claims for itself the exclusive possession of truth, so as to deny to any other denomina- tions the right of teaching and public worship, which considers the State as a subject of the Church, and without any power of reforming those parts of legis- lation, which the Church defines to be beyond the power of the State itself. Ardently devoted to freedom, we wish to our beloved country an entire system of civil reforms, which, if united, will be of mutual aid and support ; but separated, will be of short duration, and of little advantage, if not of danger, to the country. "We wish an entire freedom of the church, as well as of other religious and civil associations; we wish the great bodies, together with their doctrines, whicli may enter into the educational contest, placed on an equal footing, and, above all, we wish to establish the absolute supremacy of the civil power over all the associations existing in the state ; and when these rights shall have been conquered, when the State shall have acquired such an independence as to not be prevented from carrying its reforms by the opposition of a foreign party, cheerfully we will join those of our friends, who are engaged in promoting in Sardinia freedom of instruction, and tender to them, if not the feeble support of our words, at least the best wishes of our heart. (4.) Religious instruction is the necessary complement of a thorough system of education. As to this necessity no doubt has been manifested by any party of the Parliament, in aU the discussion to which this clause has given occasion. The liberal party, however, opposed strongly this provision, not because they denied in any way the necessity of such an instruction, but because they con- sidered it to be contrary both to the rights and duties of the state. Can a state, Y6 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN SARDINIA. like Sardinia, which acknowledges the catliohc rehgion as its own, preside over the rehgious training of its people ? Does not the catholic church claun for her- self) as a fundamental tenet of her doctrine, the desire and exclusive right of teaching religion ? Moreover, can a state, like Sardinia, in which all citizens, of whatever denomination, enjoy equal rights, provide a portion of its population with a free religious instruction, leaving the other portion without any, or to provide it from its own resources? The fundamental principle of political economy which prevails in the United States, and which has proved so benefi- cial to this country, the absolute separation of the state from the church, alone affords a satisfactory solution of this problem. There is no country, in which religious instruction is more extensive and more efficient, than in the United States, though such instruction is not given in the schools supported by the community at large. The absolute freedom of conscience and teaching, which tins country enjoys, has proved not only a source of social progress and of pub- lic welfare, but also the only true means of assuring to the people a sound and efficient religious training. The institution of Sunday Schools, supported so lib- erally both by the different protestant denominations and the cathohcs, has far more promoted the religious education of this country, than it could be by any interference of the state. Indeed, after the trial given to this system in this country, the freedom of worship and proselytism secured to all denominations, should meet the favor not only of those in Sardinia who contend for the triumph of human rights, but also of all, who feel an interest in the cause of religion. Let the diSerent forms of religious feeling have their full development in the oountry, let all sects meet together in a noble rivalry for the propagation of their doctrines ; religious instruction will thus flow from its natural source, and soon produce that public sentiment, which is so admirable in the United States. By the sanction of this system only will the state be able to free itself from the embarrassments and difficulties, to which it is too often exposed by its unnatural union with the ecclesiastical body. Sardinia will also thus take the lead of moral and civil reform in Italy, on wiiich, we sincerely believe, the great cause of Italian nationality depends. (5.) For the understanding of this organization of the scholastic authorities of Sardinia, we submit a few remarks on the political administration of the oountry. The kingdom of Sardinia, which extends over more than seventy-five thousand square kilometres, embraces under its civil and political government, that group of different provinces and territories, which were either confirmed or assigned to it by the treaty of Vienna in 1815. The kingdom is divided into fourteen departments, {Divisioni,) each of which is subdivided into different provinces, which again are divided into many districts, which are called manda- menti, each of these containing a determined number of townships, (comuni.) The provinces are fifty in number, eleven of which belong to the Island of Sar- dinia. A royal civil superintendent, [Intendente,) presides over the administra- tion of each province, as the representative of the central government, while the interests of its population are represented by a provincial council elected by the people at large. The affairs of the cities and townships are administered by a municipal council elected by the people, and presided over by a syndic. Since 1848 the form of government is of a constitutional monarchy, in many respects similar to the government of England. The legislative power is exerted by a Senate and a House of Deputies, the former consisting of members elected for fife by the King, and chosen from determined classes of high PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN SARDINIA. IjlJ functionaries in tlie church, in the army, in the scientific establishments, m diplo- macy, in the judiciary, or in the civil administration. The House of Deputies is composed of two hundred and four members, elected by the people, divided into as many electoral districts. But to enjoy the right of electing the members of the House, it is necessary to have reached the age of twenty-five years, to know how to read and write, and to be a tax-payer in a sum varying in difl'er- ent provinces from twenty to forty francs. Professions, however, which suppose some degree of intellectual culture, are exempted from this last condition, they being admitted to the right of suff'rage without the necessity of paying any tax whatever. Every citizen, of the age of thirty years, can be elected member of the House, with the exception of a few classes of functionaries. Bills approved by both the Houses require the sanction of the King, which can be granted or refused. The executive power is intrusted to seven ministers appointed by the King in the different departments of the administration. Bquahty of rights before the law in all citizens, personal freedom, freedom of the press and of as- sociation, inviolability of the residence and of property, independence of the judici- ary power from the executive, are among the important benefits secured to the people by the constitution. Whoever has followed the course of European events for the last nine years, can judge if the new pohtical organization of Sardinia has proved a successful trial of free institutions. Among difficulties and dangers of every kind, between the menaces of its real enemies and the more dangerous influence of its pre- tended friends, under the sway of an honest King, the only King in Italy who knew how to keep his word to his people, and with a population of a sound and practical sense, that Httle country, firom a comparatively insignificant condi- tion, rose in a short time to a state of no small political importance, and of a great moral power among the other parts of the Peninsula. Sardinia, avoiding both anarchy and despotism, has showed to the despotic governments of Europe, that pohtical freedom of a country is yet the best condition of its social order and of its general welfare. Setting a noble example of a free and strong gov- ernment, it became the moral centre of all the states of Italy, which, in their general wreck, regard that portion of the country as the beacon of their safety. Freeing itself firom the influence of Austria^ at the head of the national party, and struggling for the national independence of aU Italy, Sardinia is recognized by the great bulk of the Italian people as the true representative and the faith- ful exponent of that noble cause. The new and elevated position which that country has acquired among the nations of Europe, the important reforms which found their way in Sardinia through the new constitution, fi-ee trade and its extraordinary results, the wonderful development of its financial and com- mercial resources, the extension of its railways and telegraphs, and, above aU, the progressive increase of its popular education, are among the benefits which Sardinia has derived from its fi^ee institutions. We refer to the following statis- tics, which speak conclusively in favor of the new pohtical organization of Sardinia, considered in connection with public education, showing its progress through the last four years, compared with the year 1850 : 1850. 185.3. 1854. 1855. 1856. Schools for boys, 4,3.36 5,138 5,197 5,426 5.872 Schools for girls, 1,276 2.20S 2.4.59 2.674 2.837 Average of boys attending school, 137.399 174.823 176,714 180.145 187,130 Average of girls, etc., 40,278 84,388 91,651 100,564 109.356 Townships without any schools for boys, 433 397 216 207 145 " " " '• '■ girls, 2,372 1,591 1,415 1,282 1,154 Amount in francs expended for the ? elementary instruction, \ 1,662.694 2,836,717 3,&12,145 3,339,573 3,557,212 78 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN SARDINIA. (6.) The Supreme Council is so organized by this act as to consist both of members appointed by the government, and of others elected by the faculties of the University of Turin. It must be considered that such a council from its very nature could not properly be the result of the popular vote, which would place it under the influence and movements of political parties. Neither educa- tion nor science can be properly directed by a Board, which floats on the uncer- tain and stormy waves of politics. The results in some of the United States amply confirm the necessity of applying to some other source than popular election for the constitution of Boards of Education. This necessity appears more evident, ifj to this Board, not only popular education but the direction of all the branches of scientific teaching should be intrusted. We believe, how- ever, that the system adopted by the Sardinian Parliament could be improved by extending the privilege of election granted to the faculties of Turin to all the teachers of the State. No better source could be assigned to the Supreme Council, than to place its constitution in the hands of the teachers at large, so as to divide them into three difierent electoral colleges, according to the three dif- ferent departments of instruction. Should " free teacliing " become a right of the country, the teachers belonging to this class of instruction should also have right to elect their own representatives in the Supreme Council. In this system the action of the Government should confine itself to choose the members of the Board from the lists so proposed by the electors. It would seem that this .system better than any other else would secure to the Council the elements of stability and progress, together with the ability and the independence of the members fi'om the executive and pohtical influence, without which an efficient direction of public education can not be conceived. (7.) By this clause the legislation of 1848 is changed, according to which Directors and Professors of secondary and normal schools, after three years of public service could not be removed from their chairs, without a previous formal judgment of the Supreme Council. It appears that henceforth these functiona- ries wUl be at the mercy of the executive, the minister not being bound to follow the opinion of the Council in respect to their offenses and neglects. It is just, however, to add that the dangers which could result from this arbitrary power granted to the minister of public instruction would be checked by the weight of public opinion, which in fact has the supreme sway in a free country. Yet, we confess that the pi-esent provision will not prove the most apt to bestow dig- nity, or improve, in any way, the condition either of these teachers or of the secondary and normal schools. (8.) The normal schools are also called Teachers' Schools, (Scuole Magistrali,) and they correspond, in some respects, to the Teachers' Institutes of America. They were established with the special object of improving the teachers of ele- mentary schools, who had previously obtained the certificate of qualification. Afterward, it was ordered that no candidate should receive this certificate, who had not frequented the normal schools, and passed a successful examination on the matters of their course. For the organization of these schools see ante page 13. Though the Teachers' Schools of Sardinia have not as yet reached that degree of perfection which might be desired, yet, even in their imperfect state, they must be considered of great value for the progress of the popular education of the country. Public opinion is greatly in favor of promoting the extension of these schools, and of rendering them more and more efiBcient by raising them to the highest possible standard. ■3 li^f^f'ARY OF CONGRESS ^ < I \\f ri mil :illi mil lim lllll lim nm m I in \ 1 ( i 4 i 1 ^ r J", ^ 5? ■ .>. \5:^c r E c c x: 0_022^109 658 Zil -^ c c._ 1 i.«-<5af;*' ^^^ ;^:'.^^'^?^'^^ ■^^^ i*^ ^^,- '^■C.'^O Co';' A^ ■ ^ <- <-■ ■^ C d «: r^ « . ^.^^^^''r.i^ ■.c< c«