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A 
 
 STUDY OF SIOIJAN CULTS 
 
 BY 
 
 lAMKS OWKX DOIiSKV 
 
 KXTKA, T VnOM THIO KLEVKNTH AXNrAi. I^-M-okt <,F TIIF 
 
 iifRKAi^ oi' irriiNoi.oov 
 
 \\'ASJ[IX(JT()X 
 
 «i<'VKl;.\.\lK\T Pi;r\TI.V(; OK KICK 
 1 .S!M 
 
52266 
 
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION— BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY. 
 
 A STUDY OF SIOTJAN CULTS. 
 
 BY / 
 
 JAMES OWEN DORSEY. 
 
 351 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Pagei 
 
 Chapter I. — Introduction -^"^l 
 
 Defiuitions of "Culfaud "SioTiau" 361 
 
 Siouau Family 361 
 
 Authorities 
 
 361 
 
 Alphabet 363 
 
 Abbreviatious 
 
 364 
 
 Chapter II.— Delinitious 36;> 
 
 Alleged belief iu a Great Si>irit 365 
 
 Phenomena divided into human and superhumau 365 
 
 Terms for "mysterious," "lightning," etc 366 
 
 Other Omaha and Ponka terms 367 
 
 Significance of personal names and kinship terms 368 
 
 Myth and legend distinguished from the superhuman 368 
 
 Chapter III.— Cults of the Omaha, Ponka, Kansa, and Osage 371 
 
 Beliefs and ])ractices not found 371 
 
 Omaha, Ponka, and Kansa belief in a wakauda 372 
 
 Seven great wakandas •' '- 
 
 . Invocation of warmth and streams 372 
 
 Prayer to wakanda 3(3 
 
 - 37^ 
 
 Accessories ot ])rayer - '^'_'' 
 
 Omaha and Kansa expressions about wakanda 374 
 
 Ponka belief about malevcdeut spirits 374 
 
 An old Omaha custom 3(-> 
 
 The sun a wakanda 3/6 
 
 Invocations f'J^ 
 
 The offering of tobacco 3h 
 
 The Ponka sun dance of 1873 378 
 
 The moon a wakanda 37 
 
 Berdaches ^^f 
 
 Stars as wakandas 379 
 
 The winds as wakandas 380 
 
 Invocation ^^^ 
 
 Kansa sacrifice to the winds 380 
 
 Osaue consecration of mystic fireplaces 380 
 
 The thunder-being a wakanda '^^^ 
 
 Omaha and Ponka invocation of the thunder-being 381 
 
 Thunder-being invoked by warriors 382 
 
 383 
 
 Ictasanda custom *^ _ 
 
 Ka nsa worsh ip of the thunder-being 38;) 
 
 Subterranean and subaquatic wakandas 3'^*' 
 
 Theinilii<;iriga '^'^** 
 
 11 ETH 23 
 
 JO^ 
 
354 CONTENTS. 
 
 Chapter III — Continued. Page. 
 
 Other Kansa wakandas 387 
 
 Omaha invocations of the trap, etc 387 
 
 Fasting ' 390 
 
 Mystic trees and plants 390 
 
 I^a'efie 392 
 
 Personal mystery decorations 394 
 
 Order of thunder shamans 395 
 
 Generic forms of decoration 397 
 
 Specific forms of decoration 398 
 
 Com and the buffalo 403 
 
 Other Omaha mystery decorations 403 
 
 Kansa mystery decorations 405 
 
 Omaha nikie decorations 407 
 
 Omaha nikie customs 410 
 
 Governmental instrumentalities 411 
 
 Omaha and Ponka taboos 411 
 
 Fetichism 412 
 
 Fetiches of the tribe and gens 413 
 
 Omaha tribal fetiches 413 
 
 Osage tribal fetiches 414 
 
 Kansa tribal fetiches 415 
 
 Personal fetiches 415 
 
 Sorcery 416 
 
 Jugglery 417 
 
 Omaha and Ponka belief as to a fixture life 419 
 
 Kansa beliefs respecting death and a future life 421 
 
 Chapter IV. — j^ci^vere and Winnebago cults 423 
 
 Authorities 423 
 
 Term ' ' Great Spirit " never heard among the Iowa 423 
 
 The sun a wakauta 423 
 
 The winds as wakantas 423 
 
 The thunder-being a wakanta 424 
 
 Subterranean powers . . . : 424 
 
 Subaquatic powers 424 
 
 Animals as wakantas 425 
 
 Apotheoses 425 
 
 Dwellings of gods 425 
 
 Worship 425 
 
 Taboos 426 
 
 Public or tribal fetiches 427 
 
 Symbolic earth formations of the Winnebago 427 
 
 Personal fetiches 428 
 
 Dancing societies 428 
 
 The Otter dancing society 429 
 
 The Red Medicine dancing society 429 
 
 The Green Corn dance 429 
 
 The Buffalo dancing society 429- 
 
 [ ciwcrc traditions 430 
 
 1 ielief in a future life 430 
 
 Chaiter V. — Dakota and Assiniboin cults 431 
 
 Alleged Dakota belief in a Great Spirit 431 
 
 Riggs on the Taku wakan 432 
 
 Meaning of wakan 433 
 
 Daimonism 433 
 
CONTENTS. 355 
 
 Chapter V— Coutinueil. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Animism ,00 
 
 Priucipal Dakota gods ^oa 
 
 Miss Fletcher ou Indian religion 43^^ 
 
 Prayer 435 
 
 *^«^"fic« 435 
 
 Use of paint in worship jog 
 
 The nnktehi, or subaquatic and subterranean powers 438 
 
 Character of the nnktehi 43g 
 
 Power of the nnktehi 439 
 
 Subordinates of the unktehi 439 
 
 The mystery dance 44Q 
 
 The miniwatu 44Q 
 
 The "Waki'iya", or thunder-beings 44I 
 
 The armor gods 443 
 
 The war prophet 444 
 
 The spirits of the mystery sacks 445 
 
 Takuskai}skaij, the Moving deity 445 
 
 Tunkan or Inyan, the Stone god or Lingam 447 
 
 Iijyaij sa 443 
 
 Mato tipi 44g 
 
 The sun and moon 449 
 
 Nature of concepts 449 
 
 Tlie sun dance 450 
 
 A Dakota's account of the sun dance 45O 
 
 Object of the sun dance 454 
 
 Rules observed by households 454 
 
 The " u-ma-ne " 45I 
 
 Rules observed by the devotee 452 
 
 Tribes invited to the sun dance 452 
 
 Discipline maintained 452 
 
 Camping circle formed 453 
 
 Men selected to seek the mystery tree 453 
 
 Tent of preparation 454 
 
 Expedition to the mystery tree 455 
 
 Felling the tree 456 
 
 Tree taken to camp 457 
 
 Raising the sun pole 457 
 
 Building of dancing lodge 45g 
 
 The Uucita 45g 
 
 Decoration of candidates or devotees 458 
 
 Offerings of candidates 459 
 
 Ceremonies at the dancing lodge 4(50 
 
 The dance 160 
 
 Candidates scarified 4(30 
 
 Pieces of flesh offered 462 
 
 Torture of owner of horse 462 
 
 End of the dance 462 
 
 Intrusive dances 463 
 
 Captain Bourke on the sun dance 464 
 
 Berdaches 467 
 
 Astronomical lore 467 
 
 Day and night 467 
 
 The dawn 468 
 
 Weather spirit 468 
 
35G CONTENTS. 
 
 Chapter Y — Coutinned. Pao-e. 
 
 Heyoka 468 
 
 The concepts of Heyoka 468 
 
 Heyoka feast 469 
 
 Story of a Heyoka man 469 
 
 Heyoka women 471 
 
 lya, the god of gluttony 471 
 
 Ikto, Iktomi, or lluktomi 471 
 
 CaqotidaT] and Holinogica 473 
 
 Anui;g-ite 473 
 
 Penates 475 
 
 Guardian spirits - 475 
 
 Beliefs about tlie l)uflalo 475 
 
 Prevalence of the beliefs 475 
 
 Origin of the buffalo 476 
 
 The Tataijgnaskiijyaij, or Mythic buffalo 477 
 
 The bear 477 
 
 The wolf 477 
 
 Horses '. 479 
 
 Spiders 479 
 
 Snake lore • 479 
 
 The double woman 480 
 
 Deer women 480 
 
 Dwarfs or elves 481 
 
 Bogs 481 
 
 Trees 482 
 
 Customs relating to childliood 482 
 
 Puberty 483 
 
 Ghost lore and the future life 484 
 
 Meaning of wanagi 484 
 
 Assiniboiu beliefs about the dead . 485 
 
 Ghosts not always visible 485 
 
 Death and burial lore 485 
 
 Why the Teton stopped burying in the ground 486 
 
 Iiiiliortance of tattooing 486 
 
 Ceremonies at the ghost lodge 487 
 
 Good and bad ghosts 489 
 
 Intercourse Avith ghosts 489 
 
 Ghost stories 489 
 
 The ghost husband 489 
 
 The solitary traveler 489 
 
 The ghost on the hill 489 
 
 The ludiaji who wrestled with a ghost 489 
 
 The man who shot a ghost 492 
 
 Assiniboiu beliefs about ghosts 492 
 
 Prayers to the dead, including ancestors 493 
 
 Metamorphoses and transmigration of souls 493 
 
 Exhoi'tations to absent warriors 493 
 
 Mysterious men and women 493 
 
 Gopher lore _ _ 496 
 
 Causes of boils and sores 496 
 
 Results of lying, stealing, etc 497 
 
 Secret societies 497 
 
 Fetichism 498 
 
 Public or tribal fetiches 498 
 
 Private or i)ersonal fetiches 498 
 
CONTENTS. 357 
 
 Chapter V — Continued. ■p.^„^ 
 
 Ordeals, or modes of swearing 499 
 
 Sorcery and jugglery 499 
 
 Omens 500 
 
 Bodily omens 5qq 
 
 Animal omens 500 
 
 Omens from dreams 5OO 
 
 Chapter VI. — Cults of the Mandan, Hidatsa, and Sapona 501 
 
 Authorities 501 
 
 Alleged belief in a Great Spirit 501 
 
 The great mystery a modern deity 501 
 
 Polytheism 502 
 
 Worship 502 
 
 Fasting 502 
 
 Sacrifice 502 
 
 The Okipa 502 
 
 The Dahpike 503 
 
 Cult of the Youi 505 
 
 Absaroka fear of a white buffalo cow 505 
 
 Mandan cults 506 
 
 Mandan divinities 506 
 
 Guardian spirits 507 
 
 Mandan belief about serpents and giants 507 
 
 Thunder lore of the Mandan 508 
 
 Astronomical lore 508 
 
 Mystery objects and places of the Mandan and Hidatsa 508 
 
 The mystery rock 508 
 
 Dreams 5IO 
 
 Oracles 510 
 
 Fetiches 5IO 
 
 Folkloie 511 
 
 Sorcery 5II 
 
 .Jugglery 512 
 
 Ghost lore 512 
 
 The future life 512 
 
 Four as a mystic number among the Mandan 513 
 
 Hidatsa cults 513 
 
 Hidatsa divinities 513 
 
 Animism 514 
 
 Worship of the elements, etc 514 
 
 Serpent worshij) 514 
 
 Fetiches 515 
 
 Tribal fetiches 515 
 
 Personal fetiches 515 
 
 Oracles 516 
 
 Dreams 516 
 
 Berdaches 516 
 
 Astronomical lore 517 
 
 Food lore 517 
 
 Four souls in each human being 517 
 
 Sorcery 517 
 
 Disposal of the dead 518 
 
 Hidatsa belief as to future existence 518 
 
 Sapona cults 518 
 
358 CONTENTS. 
 
 Page. 
 
 CiiAPTKR VII. — Concluding remarks 520 
 
 Peet ou Indian religious 520 
 
 The author's reply 521 
 
 Cults of the elenieuts 522 
 
 The fovir (juarters 524 
 
 Symbolic colors 527 
 
 Colors in personal names 533 
 
 The earth powers 534 
 
 Earth gentes 534 
 
 The lire powers 534 
 
 Fire gentes 536 
 
 The wiud-makei s 536 
 
 Wind gentes 537 
 
 Each quarter reckoned as three 537 
 
 Names referring to other worlds 537 
 
 The water powers 537 
 
 Water people 538 
 
 Cautions and queries 538 
 
 Composite names 539 
 
 Personal names from horned beings 541 
 
 Names derived from several homogeneous objects or beings 542 
 
 Return of the spirit to the eponym 542 
 
 Functions of gentes and subgeutes 542 
 
 The " Messiah craze " 544 
 
 Epilogue 544 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Paga 
 Plate XLIV. Siouan tents (A, tent of jejequta; B, tent of Mazi-jinga 
 
 (man in the sun) ; C, tent of Heqaga; D, tent of Kase-^-a"ba's 
 
 father; £", tent of Hiipeta, Sr., and Agaha-wacnce) 361 
 
 *^ XLV. Camping circle at the time of the sun dance 454 
 
 ' XLVI. The danciug lodge 458 
 
 XLVII. Scarification of candidates (1, Ok^ska nazin; 2, Ptepa 
 
 kin waci 460 
 
 ■ XLVIII. The sun dance 462 
 
 XLIX. A suspended devotee 464 
 
 L. The double woman 480 
 
 Fig. 156. George Miller's personal mystery decoration 394 
 
 157. A variant of I'ig. 156 394 
 
 158. Robe of Wanukige 395 
 
 159. Tent of Wanukige 396 
 
 160. Robe of 0aqube 396 
 
 161. Robeof ^ahe-i^ap'e 397 
 
 162. Generic decoration referring to night, etc 397 
 
 163. Tent of A''pa"-ska, Sr 398 
 
 164. Robe of A"pa"-8ka, Sr 399 
 
 165. Tent of Mazi-jiiiga (ghost vision) 399 
 
 166. A tent of Niku^ib^ia" 399 
 
 167. Another tent of Niku(iib(fa° 399 
 
 168. Blanket of Cuija ma^c^i" 400 
 
 169. Tent of x^sa" ; vision of a cedar 401 
 
 170. Tent of xesa" ; sun and rainbow vision 401 
 
 171. Cornstalk decoration of the tents of Fire Chief and Waqaga 402 
 
 172. Robe of Ni-(factage 403 
 
 173. Dulja-ma»f i'"s father's tent 403 
 
 174. Ma»tcu-na"ba's tent 403 
 
 175. Wacka'-lii's tent 404 
 
 176. Tent of an unknown Omaha 404 
 
 177. Tent of xebi'a 405 
 
 178. Tent of a Kausa who had an eagle vision 405 
 
 179. Kansa decorated tent 406 
 
 180. Kansa decorated tent 406 
 
 181. Ma"ze-guhe'8 robe 406 
 
 182. Ma"ze-guhe'8 tent 407 
 
 183. Duba-nia"^;i"'s father's blanket 407 
 
 184. lukesabc tent decoration 408 
 
 185. luke-sabe tent decoration 409 
 
 186. Waqaga's robe 409 
 
 187. Sacred tent in which the ]tole was ke])t 413 
 
 188. Bear Butte, South Dakota 449 
 
 359 
 
360 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Fig. 189. The "u-ma-nc" symbol 451 
 
 190. Eagle- wing flute 455 
 
 191. The tent of preparation and the dancing lodge 459 
 
 192. The ghost lodge 487 
 
 193. The (fatada gentile circle 523 
 
 191. The four elements, etc 523 
 
 195. Kiuisa order of invoking winds, etc 525 
 
 196. Tsiou (Osage) order of i)lacing the four sticks, etc 525 
 
 197. Pa"qka (Osage) order of placing the four sticks, etc 526 
 
 198. Ka"se (Osage) order of circnmambulation 526 
 
 199. Showing how the Osage prepared the scalp for the dance 526 
 
 200. Omaha lightnings and the four quarters 527 
 
Eleventh Annual Report_Plate_)^ 
 
 jureau of Ethnolo_gy. 
 
 ^ 
 
 V 
 
 jr\^ nn' 
 
 SIOUAN TENTS. 
 
A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 By James Owen Dob.se v. 
 
 ( !l A r IE ]i I, 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 DEFINITIONS OF 'MiULT" AND "SIOT AN.*' 
 
 § 1. Cult, as used in this article, meaus a system of religious belief 
 and worship, especially the rites and ceremonies emi)loyed in suchAvor- 
 ship. The pre.sent article treats of the cults of a few of the Siouau 
 tribes — that is, with two exceptions, of such tribes as have been visited 
 by the author, 
 
 "Siouan".is a term originated by the Bureau of Ethnology. It is 
 derived froin " Sioux," the popular name for those Indians who call 
 themselves "Dakota"' or "Lakota." the latter being the Teton appella- 
 tion. "Siouau" is used as an adjective, but, unlike its primitive.it 
 refers not only to the Dakota tribes, but alst> to the entire linguistii* 
 stock or fwuuly. 
 
 SIOUAN FAMILY. 
 
 The Siouau family inchides the J>akota, Assiniboin, Omaha, Ponka, 
 <'s;i<jre, Kansa, Ivwapa, luvv.i, Oto, Missouri, Winnebago, Mandan, 
 Iliriatsa, Crow, Tut*;lo, iJiloxj, Catawba, and other Indians. The 
 t5apoua, wlio are now extinct, probably belonged to this family. 
 
 The author was missionary to the Ponka Indians, in what is now 
 part of Nebraska, from 1871 to 1873. Since 1878 he has .acquired 
 native texts and other information from tbc Omaha, Ponka, Osage, 
 Kansa, Winnebago, Iowa, Oto, Missouri, and Dakota. 
 
 In seeking information respecting the ancient beliefs of the Indians 
 the author iias always found it expedient to question the Indian when 
 no int.er]jrt'ter was present. 
 
 AUTHOKITIKS. 
 
 § 2. This study is based for the most part ujjon statements made by 
 Indians, though several publications were consulted during the prepa 
 
 t ;c, >n ivf rlw. n:Vl: im) ,i^ll< (•Irn.i.r - 
 
362 A STUDY OF SIOUAX CULTS. 
 
 The following Indians had become Christians before the author met 
 them : Joseph La Fleche, Frank La Fleche, John Big Elk, and George 
 Miller, all Omaha. Joseph La Fleche, who died in 1888, was the leader 
 of the civilization party in the Omaha tribe after 1855. He was at one 
 time a head chief. He spoke several Indian languages, having spent 
 years among other tribes, including the Pawnee, when he was in the 
 service of the fur company. His son, Frank, has been in the Indian 
 Bureau at Washington since 1881. The author has obtained consider- 
 able linguistic material from the father and son. The father, with Two 
 Crows, aided the author in the summer of 1882 in revising his sociologic 
 notes, resulting in the preparation of "Omaha Sociology," which was 
 published in the third annual report of the director of the Bureau of 
 Ethnology. John Big Elk, a full Omaha, of the Elk geus, furnished 
 an article on "Sacred Traditions and Customs," and several historical 
 papers, published in " Contributions to Xorth American Ethnology, 
 Vol. VI." George Miller, of the Ictasanda or Thunder gens, is a full 
 Omaha, from whom was obtained nearly half of Chapter iii, including 
 most of the Omaha illustrations. 
 
 The following Indians were not Christians : Gahige, Two Crows, 
 ^|afi"-na"paji, and Samuel Fremont, all Omaha; Xuda"-ax-a, a Ponka; 
 and the Kansa, Osage, Missouri, Iowa, and Winnebago informants. 
 
 Two Crows has been connected in several ways with the ancient 
 organizations of his people. He has 1 een a head man, or nikagahi, 
 being thus an ex-ofiicio member of the class whicli exercised the civil 
 and religious functions of the state. He has been a policeman during 
 the buffalo hunt. He has acted as captain, or war chief, and he is the 
 leading doctor in the order of Buffalo shamans, being the keeper of the 
 "sweet medicine." 
 
 ^jafi"-na"paji, or He-who-fears-not-the-sight-of-a-Pawnee, is a member 
 of the Black Bear subgens, and he is also one of the servants of the 
 Elk gens, it being his duty to be present at the sacred tent of that 
 gens, and to assist in the ceremonies pertaining to the invocation of 
 the Thunder Beings. 
 
 Gahige was the chief of the Inke-sabe, a Buffalo gens, and at the 
 time of his death he was the keeper of the two sacred pipes. 
 
 Samuel Fremont is a member of the Eagle subgens. He came to 
 Washington in the autumn of 1888 and assisted the author till Feb- 
 ruary, 1889. 
 
 iSruda"-axa is a chief of a part of the Thunder-Being gens of the Pouka. 
 The author has known him since 1871. 
 
 The other Indian authorities need not be named, as they are in sub- 
 stantial agreement. 
 
 The following authorities were consulted in the preparation of the 
 Dakota and Assiniboin chapter: 
 
 BiuviEK (John), a Dakota, MS. Tetou texts. 1888. Translated by himself. Bu- 
 reau of Ethnology. 
 
AUTHORITIES ALPHABET. 
 
 3G3 
 
 BusHOTTER (George), a Dakota. MS. Teton texts. 1887-'S8. Translated l)y .1. 
 
 Owen Dorsey. Mureau of Etliuology. 
 Fletcheh (Miss Alice C), The Suu-dauce of tbeOgalalla Sioux. lu Proc. Am. 
 
 Assoc. Adv. Sci., Moutreal meeting, 1882, pp. 580-.584. 
 Fletcher (Miss Alice C), several articles in Rept. Peabodv Museimi, vol.S, 1884 
 
 pp. 260-333. 
 Hovey (Rev. H. C), "Eyay Sliah," in Am. Antiquarian, Jan., 1887, pp. 35, 36. 
 Long (Maj. S. H. ), Skiff Voyage to Falls of St. Anthony. In Minn. Histor. Soc. 
 
 Coll., vol. II, pt. 1, pp. 18, 19, 5,5. 
 Lynd (J. W.), Religion of the Dakotas. In Minn. Histor. Soc. Coll.. vol. ii. pt. 2, 
 
 pp. 57-84. 
 Pond (G. H.), Dakota Superstitions. In Minn. Histor. Soc. Coll., vol. ii pt 3 i)i> 
 
 32-62. 
 RiGGS (S. R.), Theogony of the Sioux. In Am. Antiquarian, vol. ii, No. 4 i)p, '-•65- 
 
 270. 
 
 . In Am. Antiq.. vol. V. 1883, p. 149. 
 
 . In Am. Philolog. Assoc. Proc, 3d An. Sess., 1872, pp. 5, 6. 
 
 . Tah-koo Wah-kon, or. The Gospel Among the Dakotas, 1869. 
 
 Say (Thos.), in James (E.), Account of Long's Esped. Rocky Mts., vol i, Phil,. 1823. 
 Shea (J. Gilmary), Am. Cath, Missions, N. Y. (after 1854). 
 Smet ( Rev. P. J. de). Western Missions .and Missionaries. X. Y. (n. d.). 
 WoODBURN (Dr. J. M., .Tr.), MS. Letter and Teton Vocabulary, 1890. Bureau of 
 
 Ethnology. 
 
 ALPHABET. 
 
 § 3, With the exception of seven letters taken from Eiggs's Dakota 
 Dictionary, and which are used only in the Dakota words, the characters 
 used in recording- the Indian words occurring in this paper belong to 
 the alphabet adopted by the Bureau of Ethnology. 
 
 a, as in father 
 
 *a, an initially exploded a. 
 
 S,, as in what, or as o in not. 
 
 'a, an initially exploded a. 
 
 ii, as in hat. 
 
 c, as sh in she. See s. 
 
 0, a medial sh, a sonant-surd. 
 
 c (Dakota letter), as ch in church. 
 5, as //(. in thin. 
 
 5, a medial 5, sonant-surd. 
 ^, as th in the. 
 
 e, as in theij. 
 
 'e, an initially exploded e. 
 
 6, as in (fct. 
 
 'e, an initially exploded c. 
 
 g, as in go. 
 
 g (in Dakota), tjh. See x. 
 
 q (in Osage), an h after a pTire or nasal- 
 ized vowel, expelled through the mouth 
 with the lips wide apart. 
 
 Ii (in Dakota), kh, etc. See q. 
 
 i, as in machine. 
 
 % an initially exploded i. 
 
 1, as in 2)in. 
 
 J, as 2 in mnre. or as / in the French 
 
 Jacques. 
 ■s[. a medial k. a sonant-surd. 
 k", an exploded k. See next letter, 
 k (in Dakota), an exploded k. 
 ij (in Dakota), after a vowel has the sound 
 
 of « in the French hon. See ". 
 m (in Kansa), a medial m, a sound l)ctwcfn 
 
 m and b. 
 ii, as «// in sing. 
 hn, its initial sound is expelled from the 
 
 nostrils and is scarcely heard, 
 o, as in no. 
 
 'o, an initially exploded o. 
 d, a medial b or ]>, a sonant-surd, 
 p', an exploded p. 
 q, as German ch in ach. See h. 
 s, a medial z or s, a sonant-snrd. 
 s (in Dakota), as sh in she. Sec c. 
 %. a medial d or t, a sonant-surd. 
 t', an exploded t. 
 n, as 00 in tool, 
 'xi, an initially exploded u. 
 G, as 00 in foot. 
 
364 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULT8. 
 
 11, a 80uud between o and n. ;o, a medial tc, a sonant-surd. 
 
 ii, as in German kiihl, siiss. ts', »n exploded ts. 
 
 X, gh, or nearly the Arabic ghahi. See g. ^^e, a medial ts, a sonant-surd. 
 
 z (in Dakota), as z in azure. See j. ai, as in aisle. 
 
 dj, asj in judge. an, as ow in how. 
 
 tc, as c/i- in church. See <■. yu, as « in i«He, or cic in/ew. 
 
 tc', an exploded tc. 
 
 Tne following- have the ordinary English sounds: b, d, h, k, 1, m, n, 
 p, r, s, t, w, y, and /,. A superior n (") after a vowel (compare the Da- 
 kota ij) has the sound of the French n in bon, vin, etc. A plas sign ( + ) 
 after any letter prolongs it. 
 
 The vowels 'a, 'e, 'i, 'o, 'u, and their modifications are styled initially 
 exploded vowels for want of a better appellation, there being in each 
 case an initial explosion. These vowels cannot be called "breaths," 
 as no aspiration is used with any of them; nor can they be spoken of 
 as "guttural breaths," as they are approximately or partially pectoral 
 sounds. They have been found by the author not only in the Siouan 
 languages, but also in some of the languages of western Oregon. In 
 1880 a brother of the late Gen. Armstrong, of Hampton, Va., who was 
 born on one of the Hawaiian islands, informed the author that this 
 class of vowel sounds occurred in the language of his native land. 
 
 ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 The abbreviations in the interlinear translations are as follows : 
 
 sub. — subject. Ig. —long, 
 
 ob. — object. cv. — curvilinear. 
 
 St. — sitting. ]d. — plural, 
 
 std. — standing. sing. — singtilar, 
 
 reel. — reclining. an. — animate, 
 
 mv. — moving. in. — inanimate, 
 col. — collective. 
 
CHAPTEE II. 
 
 DEFINITIONS. 
 
 ALLEGED BELIEF IN A GKEAT SPIRIT. 
 
 § 4. It has been asserted for several hundred years that the North 
 American Indian was a believer in one Great Spirit prior to the com- 
 ing of the Avhite race to this continent, and that, as he was a monothe- 
 ist, it was an easy matter to convert liim to Christianity. Indians have 
 been represented as speaking of "The Great Spirit," "Tbe Master of 
 Life," etc., as if the idea of tlie one and only God was familiar to our 
 aborigines during the pre-Columbian pcri(jd. 
 
 While the author is unwilling- to commit himself to a general denial 
 of this assertion, he has been forced to conclude that it needs consid- 
 erable moditication, at least so far as it refers to the tribes of the 
 Siouan stock. (See §§ 7,15,21-43, 72-79,92-99,311,312,322-320,341-316.) 
 
 On close investigation it will be found that in many cases Indians 
 have been quick to adopt the phrases of civilization in communicating 
 with white i)eople, but in speaking to one another they use their 
 own terms. The student of the uncivilized races must ever be on his 
 guard against leading questions and tlieir answers. The author has 
 learned by experience that it is safer to let the Indian tell his own 
 story in his own words than to endeavor to question him in such a 
 manner as to reveal what answers are desired or expected. 
 
 § 5. In 1883 the author published an article on "The Keligion of the 
 Omahas and Ponkas," in The American Antiquarian of Chicago. 
 Since then he has obtained additional data, furnishing him with many 
 undesigned coincidences, whicli lead him to a broader view of the sub- 
 ject. 
 
 PHENOMENA DIVIDED INTO HUMAN AND SUPERHUMAN. 
 
 §0. In considering the subject from an Indian's point of view, one 
 must avoid speaking of the supernatural as distinguished from the nat- 
 ural. It is safer to divide phenomena as they appear to the Indian 
 mind into the human and the superhuman, as many, if not most natural 
 phenomena are mysterious to the Indian. Nay, even man himself may 
 become mysterious by fasting, j)rayer, and vision. 
 
 One fruitful source of error has been a misunderstanding of Indian 
 terms and phrases. It is very important to attempt to settle the exact 
 meanings of certain native words and phrases ere we proceed further 
 with the consideration of the subject. 
 
 365 
 
366 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 TERMS FOR '' MYSTERIOUS.'' "LICtHTNING," ETC. 
 
 § 7. The attentiou of the author having been called to the article on 
 "Serpent Symbolism" of the Iroquoian languages, by Mr. Hewitt' of 
 the Bureau of Ethnology, a similar investigation of the Siouan terms 
 was made, the results of which are now presented. In connection with 
 the terms for " serpent," Mr. Hewitt showed how they are related in 
 the languages with which he was familiar with other terms, such as 
 "demon," "devil," "wizard," "witch," "subtile," "occult," "myste- 
 rious," and "supernatural." 
 
 In Dakota we find the following: Waka", mysterious, wonderful, in- 
 comprehensible, often rendered "holy" by the missionaries; waka"-hdi 
 (in Santee), waka'^-kdi (in Yankton), lightning, perhaps containing a 
 reference to a zigzag line or forked lightning; waka" etco", to jiractice 
 sleight of hand; and wa"niducka, serpent. Thereare many derivatives 
 of waka", among which are, Taku Waka°, literally " something mysteri- 
 ous," rendered "some one mysterious," or "holy being," and Waka"- 
 tai5ka, literally, " Great mysterious (one)," both of which terms are now 
 applied to God by the missionaries and their converts, though Waka"- 
 tauka is a name for the Thunder-being. 
 
 In Eiggs's alphabet (Contr. ]S[. A. Ethn., Vol. vii), these words are 
 thus written: Wakaij, wakaijhdi, wakaijkdi, wakaij ecoij, waijmduska, 
 Taku Wakaij, and Wakaijtaijka. One of the Dakota words for "aged" 
 is ka" (kaij in Eiggs's alphabet) ; but though this refers to persons we 
 can not tell whether it is related to waka" (or wakaij). 
 
 In the ^'egiha, the language spoken by the Ponka and Omaha, Wa- 
 kanda means " the mysterious " or " j>owerful one," and it is applied in 
 several senses. It is now used to denote the God of monotheism. 
 Some of the old people say that their ancestors always believed in a 
 supreme Wakauda or Mysterious Power. It sometimes refers to the 
 Thunder-being. On one occasion, a Ponka shaman, Cramped Hand, 
 said to the author: "I am a Wakanda." Wakandagi, as a noun, 
 means a subterranean or water monster, a large horned reptile men- 
 tioned in the myths, and still supposed to dwell beneath the blufis 
 along the Missouri Eiver. With this term compare the Dakota Uiikteqi 
 (Uijktelii, of Eiggs) and the Winnebago Waktceqi, the latter having 
 given a name to the Water Monster gens (Waktceqi ikikaratcada). 
 Wakandagi is sometimes used adverbially, as, si wakandagi, he is won- 
 derfully stingy ! le wakandagi, he (a small child) speaks surprisingly 
 well (for one so young) ! x^"fi" wakandagi, he runs very well (for one 
 so young) ! Ma"(|'i" wakandagi, he (a small child) walks very well! 
 Wakandife, to be in great haste, perhaps contains the idea of putting 
 forth a great effort in order to accomplish something speedily. Wes'a, 
 a serpent, is not related to the others just given. Nor can the word for 
 "wizard" or "conjurer" be found related to them. In Kansa, W^a- 
 
 Aiii. Aiitbropologiet, April. 1889, pp. 179,180. 
 
noRSEY.] OTHER OMAHA AND PONKA TERMS. 367 
 
 kaucla is used of superhuman beings or powers, as in Omalia and Ponka, 
 but the author never heard a shaman apply tlie term to himself. Wa- 
 kandagi has another meaning, mysterious, wonderful, incomprehensible, 
 as, nika wakandagi, mysterious man, shaman. Juggler, doctor; uaniiu"ba 
 Avakandagi, mysterious or sacred pii)e; wakandagi wagaxe, the sleight- 
 of-hand tricks of the mysterious men and women. Wakanda qudje, the 
 gray mysterious one, the elephant. Waka" does not mean serpent, 
 but pumpkin, answering to the Omaha and l*onka, m ata", and to the 
 Osage, wakqa" and wat<]a". jtyets'a (almost, Byets'a) is the Kausa 
 word for a serpent. 
 
 In Osage, Waka"^a answers to tlie Ivansa Wakanda, and Waqka"- 
 ^a-3[i is the same as the Kausa, Wakandagi. Wets'a is a serpent. In 
 Kwajia, Waka"!;a>[i seems to answer to the Kausa Wakandagi. 
 
 In j^Mwere (Iowa, Oto, Missouri), Waka^^a is the same as the Kansa 
 Wakanda. Waka" means a serpent. Waka" kijfraijoe, the Serpent 
 gens. Wa hu-pri", mysterious, as a person or animal; but wa-qo-nyi- 
 ta", mysterious, as an inanimate object. 
 
 In the Winnebago, three names for superhuman beings have been 
 found. One is Wa^pi"se or Wagu"ze, which can not be translated; an- 
 other is Ma"'u"-na, Earth-maker, the third being Qo-pi"-ne qe-te-ra, 
 Great Mysterious One. (^)opi"ne seems related to waqopini (with 
 which comi)are the x-^i^^^^i'e^ waliupri"), a term used to distinguish 
 people of other races from Indians, just as in Dakota wacitcu" (in 
 Eiggs's alphabet, wasicuij), nowused for " white man,'' '• black man," etc., 
 retains in the Teton dialect its ancient meaning of sui)erhuman being 
 or guardian spirit. Wakawa"x, in Winnebago, denotes a wit(;h or 
 wizard. Waka"-na is a serpent, and waka" ikikaratca-da, the Serpent 
 gens; Waka"tca, or Waka"tca-ra, thunder, the Thuuder- Being; Waka"- 
 tcaQka-raj a shaman or mysterious man. 
 
 OTHER OMAHA AND PONKA TERMS. 
 
 § 8. Other terms are given as being pertinent to the subject. They 
 occur in the language of the Omaha and Ponka. Qube, mysterious as a 
 l^erson or animal (all animals were persons in ancient times); but a 
 mysterious inanimate object is spoken of as being " waqube." Uqube 
 means the mysteriousness of a human being or animal. Uqube- 
 ac^a^ica", pertaining to such mysteriousuess. Wakandajafica", per- 
 taining or referring to Wakanda. Nikie is a term that refers to a 
 mythical ancestor, to some part of his body, to some of his acts, or to 
 some ancient rite ascribed to him. A "nikie name" is a personal 
 name of such a character. Ifa'e^'e, literally, ''to pity him on account 
 of it, granting him certain power." Its ijrimary reference is to the 
 mysterious aninuil, but it is transferred to the person having the 
 vision, hence, it means "■ to receive mysterious things from an ani- 
 mal, as in a vision after fasting; to see as in a vision, face to face (not 
 
368 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 in a dream); to see when awake, and in a mysterious manner having 
 a conversation with the animal about mysterious thiugs," 
 
 § 9. The names for grandfather, grandmother, and old man are 
 terms of veneration, superhuman beings having these names applied 
 to them in invocations. (See §§ 15, 99.) 
 
 SIGNIFICANCE OF PERSONAL NAMES AND KINSHIP TERMS. 
 
 In a note up n "The Religious Ceremony of the Four Winds or 
 Quarters, as Observed by the Santee Sioux," Miss Fletcher i remarks: 
 '' A name implies relationship, and consequently protection; favor and 
 intiuenee are claimed from the source of the name, whether this be 
 the gens or the vision. A name, therefore, shows the affiliation of the 
 individual; it grades him, so to speak, and he is apt to lean upon its 
 implied power. * * * The sacred import of a name in the mind of 
 the Indian is indicated in that part of the ceremony where the "Some- 
 thing that moves" seems to overshadow and inclose the child, and 
 addresses the wakan man as father. The wakan man replies, calling 
 the god, child, at the same time invoking the supernatural protection 
 and care for the boy, as he lays at the feet of the messenger of Un- 
 seen Power the offerings of gifts and the honor of the feast. The per- 
 sonal name^ among Indians, therefore, indicates the protecting pres- 
 ence of a deity, and must, therefore, partake of tlie ceremonial charac- 
 ter of the Indian's religion." 
 
 In this ceremony the sui)erhuman being is addressed by the term 
 m\i^]ymg juniority, and the human being, the wakan man, by that asso- 
 ciated with seniority, an apparent reversal of the usual custom ; but, 
 doubtless, there can be found some explanation for this seeming excep- 
 tion to the rule. 
 
 MYTH AND LEGEND DISTINGUISHED FROM THE SUPERHUMAN. 
 
 § 10, The Omaha, Ponka, and cognate tribes distinguish at the pres- 
 ent day between the myth (higa", higu) and the legend or story (iu^a, 
 etc.) on the one hand, and what on the other hand is called " Wakau- 
 da^afica"," "■ nqubea;af ica"," and " if a'efea^iaf ica"." Tlie former are told 
 only for amusement and are called, "iusicta" iu(fa," lying tales. They 
 are regarded a^ "iqawa(|;ea;afica"," pertaining to the ludicrous. With 
 tliis may be compared the statements of Lang :' 
 
 "Among the lowest and most backward, as among the most ad- 
 vanced races, there coexist the mythical and the religious elements in 
 belief. The rational factor (or what approves itself to us as the rational 
 factor) is visible in religion; the irrational is prominent in myth.'' 
 * * * "The rational and irrational aspects of mythology and religion 
 may be of coeval antiquity for all that is certainly known, or either of 
 
 ' Op. cit., p. 295. 
 
 2 And also tte kiuship terui in some cases. 
 
 sMyth. Kitual, and Religion, pp. 328,329. 
 
DORSEYl MYTH, ETC., DISTINGUISHED FROM THE SUPERHUMAN. 309 
 
 them, in the dark baekwanl of mortal experience, may liave preceded 
 the other." The autlior has Ibuud certain Indian myths which abound 
 in what to the civilized mind is the grossest obscenity, and that too 
 withont the slightest reference to the origin of any natural phenomena. 
 Myths of this class appear to have been told from a love of the obscene. 
 Xothing of a mysterious or religious character can be found in them. 
 Perhaps such myths are of modern origin; but this nuist remain an 
 enigma. 
 
 § 11, The Omaha and Ponka are in a transition state, hence many of 
 their old customs and beliefs are disappearing. Some have been lost 
 within the past fifty years, others within the last decade, according to 
 unim])eachable testimony. The Ponka are more conservative than the 
 Omaha, and the Kansa and Osage are more so than the Ponka, in the 
 estimation of the author. 
 
 § IL*. Though it has been said that the Indians feared to tell myths 
 except on winter nights (and some Indians have told this to the author), 
 the author has had no trouble in obtaining myths during the day at 
 various seasons of the year. 
 
 § 13. James Alexander, a full Winnebago of the Wolf gens and a non- 
 Christian, told the author that the myths of the Winnebago, called 
 wai-ka"-na by them, have undergone material change in the course of 
 transmission, and that it is very probable that many of them are en 
 tirely difterent from what they were several generations ago. Even in 
 the same tribe at the present day. the author has found no less than 
 three versions of the same myth, and there may be others. 
 
 The myth of the Big Turtle is a casein point.' The narrator acknowl- 
 edged that he had made some additions to it himself. 
 
 § 14. Xo fasting or ]>rayer is re(iuired])efore one can tell a myth. Far 
 ditterent is it with those things which are " Wakanda;afica"," or are 
 connected with visions or the secret societies. This agrees in the main 
 with what Mr, James Mooney. of the Bureau of Ethnology, has learned 
 from the Cherokee of North Carolina. Mr. Frank H. Cushing has 
 found that the Zufii Indians distinguish between their folk-lore and 
 their cult-lore, i. e„ between their legends and mythic tales on tlie one 
 hand, and their dramatized stories of creation and their religious ob- 
 servances on the other, a special name being given to each class of 
 knowledge. To them the mythic tales and folk-lore in general are but 
 the fringe of the garment, not the garment itself. When they enact 
 the creation storj^, etc, they believe that they are repeating the cir 
 cumstances represented, and that they are then surrounded l)y the 
 very beings referred to in the sacred stories. Similar beliefs were 
 found by Dr. Washingtcni Matthews, as shown in his article entitled 
 "The Prayer of a Xavajo Shaman," published in the American Anthro- 
 pologist of Washington, D. C, for Ainil, 1S88. 
 
 ■ See Contr. N. A. Ethn. Vol. vi, 271-277. 
 11 ETH 24 
 
370 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 § 15. At the same time there seems to be some couneetiou between 
 certain myths and the personal names called, '' nikie names." This will 
 be considered in detail in a future monograph on " Indian Personal 
 Names," now in course of preparation. One example must suffice for 
 the present. In the ;^ja"ze gens of the Omaha there is a nikie name, 
 ^l^asi duba, Four Peaks. The author did not understand its derivation 
 until he studied the myth of TTaxige and observed the prayers made in 
 gathering the stones for the sweat-bath. Each stone was invoked as a 
 venerable man (see § 9), the Four Peaks were mentioned several times, 
 and the two superior deities or chief mysterious ones (Wakanda :^anga 
 ag^au3ja"ha" hnankace) were invoked.^ 
 
 This last refers to the Wakanda residing above and the one in the 
 ground. It is therefore possible that in past ages the Siouan tribes did 
 not differentiate between the myth and what is " Wakanda:^a^ica"." But 
 we have no means of proving this. 
 
 § 16. Most of the Omaha governmental instrumentalities (" wewaspe") 
 were " Wakanda^a(|;ica''," but there were things that were " Wakanda- 
 :^af ica"," which were not " wewasi)e," such as the law of catamenial se- 
 clusion. 
 
 I Contr. N. A. Ethn., Vol. VI, pp. 234,242 
 
(MI A V T i: U 111. 
 
 CULTS OF THE OMAHA. PONKA. KANSA. AND OSAGE. 
 
 BELIEFS AND PKACTICES >-OT FtMND. 
 
 § 17. 'riu'i*' ;iro (.'eiTaiu beliefs and praerit-es whieli have nut been 
 tV)nn(l among the tour Tribes whose cults are treated ot' in this chapter. 
 Anoestor.s were not worshiped. They were addressed reverently when 
 alive, and when they dieil it was not contrary to custom to refer to 
 them by name, nor did their deatlis in\dh'e the change "t' name tV>r a 
 single object or phenonuniou. It was a very comnuui oi'currence for 
 the name of the deceased to be assumed by a surviving kinsman. 
 This is shown by genealogical tables of a few Siouan tribes, the ma- 
 terial for which was collected by the author, and which will form part 
 of his monograph on "Indian Personal Nanu^s. " now in course i>f 
 preparatiim fiu' publication by the Ihireau of Ethnoh)gy. 
 
 § IS. They never heanl of Satan or the devil until they learned of 
 him from the white people. Now ihe> have atlopted the terms, "Wa- 
 iii^xe piiijl," ••lng(i'a"xe piiijl," and •• Wakauda i>i;ijl." The tirst is used 
 by the Omaha and Ponka, the others were heard onl> among the Poid^a. 
 They have a certain saying, applicable tt> a young man who is a liar, 
 or who is bad in sonu> other way: "Wanaxe piiiji ega" aha"." i. e. 
 "He is like the bad spirit I" This beciuues, when addressed to tlu> bad 
 person, '-Wanaxe piii'ji e(|'ikiga"'-qti ja"'," i. e. "You act just like the 
 (or a) bad spirit." 
 
 § 19. Though it has been said that hero worship was unknown among 
 the Omaha and Ponka, it has been learned that Omaha mothers usi-d 
 to scare their uunUy children by telling them that Icibaj'i ^a hero of the 
 j^e-sinde gens) or his friend j/>xuja" (a hero of the \ja"/.e gens) would 
 catch them if they did iu>t behave. There was no wiu'shii) of demi- 
 gods, as demigods were unknown. Twi) Crows ami Joseph La Fleche 
 said that phallic wi»rship was unknow n. and they were surprised to 
 hear that it had been practiced by any tribe. (See § K>2, l(>4.) As 
 the Ponka obtaintnl the sun-dance from their Dakota neigld)ors, it is 
 probable that they practiced the phallic cult. 
 
 § 1*0. Totems and shamans were not worshi]>ed, though they are still 
 reverenced. Altars or altar-stt>nes were unknown. Incense was not 
 used, unless by this name we refer to the odor of tobacco snu)ke as it 
 ascended to the Thunder being, or to the use of cedar fronds in the 
 sweat lodge. There were no human sacriticissj and cannibalism was 
 not practiced. 
 
 371 
 
372 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS, 
 
 OMAHA, PONKA, AND KANSA BELIEF IN A WAKANDA. 
 
 § 21. According- to Two Crows and Joseph La Flecbe, the ancestors 
 of the Omaha and Ponka believed that there was a Supreme Being, 
 whom they called Wakanda. "Wakanda t'a"i te efega^i, they be- 
 lieved that Wakanda existed." They did not know where He was, 
 nor did they undertake to say how He existed. There was no public 
 gathering at which some of the people told otiiers that there was a 
 Wakanda, nor was there any general assembly for the purpose of oft'er- 
 ing Him worship and prayer. Each i^erson thought in his heart that 
 Wakanda existed. Some addressed the sun as Wakanda, though 
 many did not so regard him. Many addressed Wakanda, as it were, 
 blindly or at random. Some worshiped the Thunder-being under this 
 name. This was especially the case when men undertook to goon the 
 war path. 
 
 'Mr. Say recorded of the Kansa: '' They say that they have never 
 vseeu Wakanda, so they cannot pretend to personify Him: but they 
 have often heard Him speak in the thunder. They often wear a shell 
 which is in honor or in representation of Him, but they do not pretend 
 that it resembles Him, or has anything in common with his form, or- 
 ganization, or size." 
 
 SEVEN GREAT WAKANDAS. 
 
 § 22. ja<|;i°-na"-paji said that there were seven great Wakandas, as fol- 
 lows: " Ugahanadaze or Darkness, Maxe or the Upper World, X'^i!^^*" 
 or the Ground, Ingfa" or the Thunder-being, Mi" or the Sun, Nia"ba 
 or the Moon, and the Morning Star. The principal Wakanda is in the 
 upper world, above everything." (This was denied by Joseph La 
 Fleche and Two Crows; see § 93.) The author thought at first that 
 these were the powers worshiped by jaf i"-na''paji and the members of 
 his gens or subgens; but subsequent inquiries and statements oc- 
 curring in the course of texts furnish cumulative evidence favoring 
 the view that some or all these powers had many believers among the 
 Omaha and the cognate tribes. 
 
 INVOCATION OF WARMTH AND STREAMS. 
 
 § 23. jaf i"-na"paji said that Macte or Warmth was a good Wakanda. 
 Ni fi", the flowing Stream, according to him, was thus addressed by a 
 man who wished to ford it: "You are a person and a Wakanda. 1, 
 too, am a person. I desire to pass through you and reach the other 
 side." Two Crows denied this, saying that his peo])le never i^rayed 
 to a stream; but George Miller said that it was true, for his father, 
 Little Soldier, prayed to a stream when he was on the war ])ath, and 
 that such invocations were made only in time of war. 
 
 'See . Taunts, Acconnt Exped. to Kocky Mouutains, vol. I, p. 126. 
 
uoRSEY.i PRAYER. 373 
 
 PRAYER TO WAKANDA. 
 
 § 24. Prayer to Wakaiida, said La Fleohe and Two Crows, was not 
 made tor small matters, such as going- fishing, but only for great and 
 important undertakings, such as going to war or starting on ajourney. 
 When a man wished to travel he first Ment alone to a bkiff, where he 
 prayed to Wakanda to help him and his family by protecting them 
 during his absence and by granting him a successful Journey. At a 
 time when the Ponka were without food, Horse-with-yellow-hair, or 
 Cange-hi"-zi. prayed to Wakanda on the liill beyond the Stony Butte. 
 The latter is a prominent landmark in northern Nebraska (in what was 
 Todd county, Dakota, in 1871 -'73), about 7 miles from the T^Iissouri 
 Kiver and the Ponka Agency (of l87()-'77)'. Several Omaha said that 
 the places for prayer were rocks, high bluffs, and mountains. "All 
 Omaha went to such places to pray, but they did not pray to the visible 
 object, though they called it Grandfather.''— (Frank La Fleche.) They 
 smoked towards the invoked object and placed gifts of killickinnick, 
 etc., upon it. Compare with this the Dakota custom of invoking a 
 bowlder on the prairie, calbng it Trinka"cida" (Tuijkaijsidaij).or Grand- 
 father, synd)olizing the Earth-being.'^ Though it has been said that a 
 high bluff was merely a place for praying to \Vakanda, and that it was 
 not itself addressed as Wakanda, the author has learned from mem- 
 bers of the Omaha and Ponka tribes that when they went on the 
 warpath for the first time, their nanu'S were then changed and one ot 
 the old men was sent to the bluffs to tell the news to the various Wa- 
 kandas, including the bluffs, trees, birds, insects, reptiles, etc.^ 
 
 ACCESSORIES OK I'HAYEK. 
 
 Among the accessories of prayer were the following: {a) The action 
 called fistube by the Omaha and Ponka, ri^towe by the three ^oiwere 
 tribes, and yuwi"tapi (yuwiijtapi) by the Dakota, consisting of the ele- 
 vation of the suppliant's arms with the palms toward the object or the 
 face of the being invoked, followed by a passage of the hand down- 
 ward toward the ground, without touching the object or pi^-son (see 
 §§ 28, 35, 3G). (b) The presentation of the pipe with the mouthpiece 
 toward the power invoked (see §§ 20, 35, 40). (c) The use of smoke 
 from the pipe (See § § 27, 30), or of the odor of burning cedar needles, as 
 in the sweat lodge. {(I) The application of the kinship term, "grand- 
 father,'' or its alternative, " venerable man," to a male power, and 
 "grandmother" to a female power (see §§ 30, 31, 35, 39, 50, 00, etc.). 
 (e) Ceremonial wailing or crying (Xage, to wail or cry— Dakota ceya. 
 See § 100).^ (/) Sacrifice or offering of goods, auimals, pieces of the 
 
 ' See Jour. Amer. Folk-lore. vol. i, 'So. 1, j). 73. 
 
 'See ; 5 132-130, and Tuijkaij.Aila, iu Rigss'.s Dakota-English nictionary. Coiitr. X. A. Etlinolojry, 
 vol, VII. 
 
 3 See Contr. N. A. Etliii.. vol. vi, pp. 372. 373. :!7C. and Omaha Socioloffy, in 3d Auu. Kept. Bur. Ethnol- 
 ogy, pp. 324, 325. 
 
 *Coutr. N. A. Ethn.. Vol. vi. p. 394. lines 10-1!) ; p. ,39.">, lines 14-16. 
 
374 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 suppliant's flesh, etc. In modern times the Kansa have substituted 
 the lives of animals, as deer, grouse, etc., for those of human enemies 
 (see §§28, 33, etc.). 
 
 OMAHA AND KANSA EXPRESSIONS ABOUT WAKANDA. 
 
 § 25. Samuel Fremont said that before the advent of the white race 
 the Omaha had certain expressions which they used in speaking of 
 AVakanda. When an Indian met with unexpected g(^od fortune of any 
 sort the people used to say, "Wakanda has given him some assist- 
 ance.'" Or they might say, "Wakanda knows him."^ Sometimes 
 they said, " Wakanda has planned for his own (i. e., for his friend, re- 
 lation, or subject)."^ If a Kansa prospers, he says, "Wakan'da 
 aka a"ma"'yiixii'dje aka' eyaii," i. e., •' Wakanda has indeed been look- 
 ing at me !" And in speaking of the success of another, he saj'S, 
 "Wakan'da aka nika yiiike uyii'xiidje akti eyau," i. e.," Wakanda has 
 indeed been looking at the man." 
 
 Samuel Fremont said that when an animal detected the approach of 
 the hunter and consequently fled from him, the man j)rayed thus: 
 Hau', Wakan'da, wani'ta wi^ a°<fa'i ei"te ci i"(|;eg(|;ize ega°. Ci wi"' 
 
 Ho, Wakanda, quadruped one you gave per- again you take some- again one 
 
 to me haps yours what 
 
 hack 
 from me 
 
 wa^iouaa"fakife ka"bfega", 
 
 you cause to appear I hope 
 
 tome 
 
 i. e., " Ho, Wakanda, you may have given me an animal, but now it 
 seems that you have taken it from me. I hope that you will cause 
 another to appear to me." But if the hunter shot at an animal and 
 missed it, he said nothing. 
 
 PONKA BELIEF ABOUT MALEVOLENT SPIEITS. 
 
 § 26. About eighteen years ago, the author was told by the Ponka, 
 whose reservation Avas then in southern Dakota, that they believed 
 death to be caused by certain malevolent spirits, whom they feared. In 
 order to prevent future visits of such spirits, the survivors gave away 
 all their property, hoping that as they were in such a wretched plight the 
 S])irits would not think it worth while to make them more unhappy. 
 At the burial of Mazi-kide, an Omaha, the author observed that some 
 one approached the corpse and addressed it. In referring to this in 
 1888, Samuel Fremont said that the speaker said, "Wakanda has 
 caused your death." In telling this, Fremont used the singular, 
 "Wakanda aka." On repeating this to George Miller, the latter said 
 that it should have been "Wakanda ama," in the plural, " the Mysteri- 
 ous Powers," as the Omaha believed in more than one Wakanda before 
 they learned about the one God of monotheism. 
 
 'Wakanda aka uiJia^i ega°. 'Wakanda aka ibaha°i. *Wakanda aka igi(fig<(a°i. 
 
DORSEY] AN OLD OMAHA CUSTOM. 375 
 
 This agrees with what was learned about the Dakota by the late 
 missionaries, Messrs. S. E. Riggs and G. H. Pond, and by the late 
 James AV. Lyud, as stated in chapter v. 
 
 AN OLD OMAHA CUS'iOM. 
 
 § 27. "Abicude," said Samuel Fremont, " is a word which refers to an 
 old Omaha and Ponka custom, i. e., that of blowing the smoke downward 
 to the ground while praying. The Omaha and Ponka used to hold the 
 pipe in six directions while smoking : toward the four winds, the ground, 
 and the upper world. The exact order has been forgotten by Fremont, 
 but Lewis and Clarke have recorded the corresponding Shoshoni cus- 
 tom. Oapt. Lewis tells how the Shoshoni chief, after lighting his pipe 
 of transparent greenstone (instead of catlinite), made a speech, after 
 which he pointed the stem of the pipe toward the four points of the 
 heavens, beginning with the east and concluding Avith the north. After 
 extending the stem thrice toward Capt. Lewis, he pointed it first to- 
 ward the heavens and then toward the center of the little circle of 
 guests, probably toward the ground, symbolizing the subterranean 
 power. ' 
 
 In addressing the four winds, a peculiar expression is employed by 
 the Omaha: 
 
 j^ade diiba hi<|;a^e (-jif i"ce, i" win'5[a°i-ga. Thou who causest the four 
 
 Wind four youcause you (sing.) help ye me. 
 
 it to reach who move 
 
 tlifl-e 
 
 winds to reach a place, help ye me! Instead of the singular classifier, 
 ^afi"ce, the regular plural, nankace, ye who sit, stand, or move, might 
 have been expected. (See § ."JS.) 
 
 In smoking toward the ground and upper world, the suppliant had 
 to say, " I petition to you who are one of tlie two, j^ou who are reclin- 
 ing on ycmr back, and to you who are the other one, sitting directly 
 above us. Both of you help me!" "Here," said Fremont, "the 
 gTound itself was addressed as a person." Two Crows said that some 
 Omaha appealed to a subterranean Wakanda when their word was 
 doubted, saying, "Pc'i'ige hidea;a aka a°nii'a"i," "The venerable man 
 at the bottom hears me." The author is unable to say whether this 
 was X'^^*^^ 01' Wakandagi. (See § 37.) 
 
 The following was recorded of the Omaha, and refers to a custom 
 relating to the buffalo hunt.^ 
 
 Ou coming iu sight of tlie herd, the huuters talk kindly to their horses, apply- 
 ing to them the endearing names of father, brother, uncle, etc. They jietition 
 them not to feur the bisons, but to run well ami keep close to them, but at the same 
 time to avoid being gored. 
 
 The party ^^having approached as near to the herd as they suppose the animals 
 will jjermit without taking alarm, they halt to give the pipe bearer an opportunity 
 
 'Lewis and Clarke, Expedition, ed. Allen, Dublin, vol. I, 1817, pp. 457, 458; also M'Vickars 
 abridgment of the same, Harpers, K". Y., vol. I, 1842, p. 303. 
 2 James's Account of Long's Exped., Phila., vol, i, 1823, p. 208. 
 
eyau. 
 
 indeed. 
 
 Cun'ge wjibli" ali kii"'bla eyau. 
 
 Horse I bave I have I wisli indeed, 
 tliem come back 
 
 eyau. 
 
 indeed. 
 
 Haleje uraiblage. Haqi°' uuiiblage. 
 
 Calico (shirt) I tell you Eobe 1 tell you 
 about it. about it. 
 
 376 A STUDY OF SIOUAX CULTS. 
 
 to perform the ceremony of smoking, which is considered necessary to their success. 
 He lights his pipe, and remains a short time with his head inclined, and the stem 
 of the pipe extended toward the hei'd. He then smokes, and puffs the smoke toward 
 the bisons, and the earth, and tinally to the cardinal points successively. 
 
 THE SUN A WAKANDA. 
 
 §28, In the Osage traditions tbe "mysterious one of day" is invoked 
 as " grandfather." ^ 
 
 He replies that he is not the only Wakancja. That the Kansa wor- 
 shiped the sun as a Wakanda appears from the following: "On one 
 occasion, when the Kansa went against the Pawnees, the stick was set 
 up for the mystic attack or ' waqpele gaxe.' The war captain addressed 
 the rising sun thus : 
 
 "Payi" aqli ku°'bla 
 
 Pawnee I stun by I wish 
 hitting 
 
 Wayli'qpe cki ku"'bla 
 
 Pulling down too I wish 
 (a tbe) 
 
 Haskii cki Payi° aqli-da"' mik'ii t4 mifike, Wakanda-e, e gii'a°yakiye- 
 
 Klanket too Pawnee I stun when Igi\etowill I who O Wakanda! that you cause me to 
 
 by hitting you (sit) ' be returning 
 
 da". 
 
 when. 
 
 "I wish to kill a Pawnee! I desire to bring horses when I return. I 
 long to pull down an enemy! I promise you a calico shirt and a robe. 
 1 will give you a blanket also, O Wakanda, if you allow me to return in 
 safety after killing a Pawnee!" When warriors performed the "wa- 
 qpele gaxe" or the attack on the stick representing the foe, no member 
 of the Lu or Thunder gens could participate. On such an occasion the 
 warrior turned to the east and said: "A"ma"'pye kii°'bla au. Haska 
 
 To follow me ( ?) I wish . Blanket 
 
 or We follow it ( ?) 
 
 uraiblage au, Wakanda-e," i. e., I wish my party to pass along the 
 
 I tell you of it ■ () Wakanda 
 
 road to the foe ( !). I promise you a blanket, O Wakanda (if I succeed ?). " 
 On turning to the west he said: " U°'hii^ uraiblage an, Wakanda-e," 
 
 Boiling I tell you of it . O Wakanda 
 
 i. e., "I promise you a feast, O Wakanda (if 1 succeed'?)." 
 
 When it was decided to perform the " waqpele gaxe," the duda"haiiga 
 or war captain made one of the lieutenants carry the sacred bag, and 
 two of the kettle tenders took bundles of sticks, which they laid down 
 in the road. The four remaining kettle tenders remained at the camj)- 
 ing place. The next morning all the warriors but those of the Lu gens 
 went to the place where the sticks had been laid, drew a circle around 
 the bundles, set up one of the sticks, and attacked it, as if it were a 
 Pawnee. This ceremony often caused the death of real enemies. 
 
 Among the Osage and Kansa prayer was made toward the rising- 
 sun in the morning and towards the setting sun in the afternoon and 
 evening. 
 
 ' Ha. witsiJiae. Gth Ann. Eept. Bur. Ethn., p. 385. line .=^0; p. 389. line 50; p. 391. line 4. etc. 
 
DORSEY.] THE SUN A WAKANDA. 377 
 
 Among the Omalia and Kaiisa the head of a corpse is laid towards 
 the east. For this reason no Omaha will consent to recline with his 
 head towards that point. The Kausa lodges also are orientated, and 
 so were those of tlie Omaha (see §51)). The east appears to symbolize 
 life or the source thereof, but ' the west refers to death; so among the 
 Osage the course of a war i)arty was towardsthe mythic or symbolic 
 west, towards which point the entrances of the lodges were turned^ 
 (see §§ 83 and SSi). 
 
 Gahige, the late Omaha chief, said that when he was young all the 
 Omaha prayed to the sun, holding up their hands with the palms to 
 wards the sun and saying, '' Wakahda, (|*a'ea"'fa-ga," etc., i. e., '*0 
 Wakanda, pity me!" They abstained from eating, drinking, and (or- 
 dinary) smoking ti'oni sunrise to sunset ; but after sunset the restrictions 
 were removed.-^ 
 
 For four nights the men who thus prayed did not sleep at home. 
 At the end of that period the task was finished. "Iwacka" gaxai,'' 
 i. e., they made or gained superhuman power. They could thus pray at 
 any time from the appearance of grass in the spring until the ground 
 became frozen. 
 
 THE OFFERIN<; OF TOBACCO. 
 
 § 21. In 1889 G-eorge Miller gave an account of \rhat he called "Nini 
 bahai te,'* i. e. the offering or presentation of tobacco. Whether 
 this phrase was ever used except in a religious or superhuman connec- 
 tion is more than the author is able to say. Whenever the Indians 
 traveled they used all the words which follow as they extended the 
 pipe with the mouthpiece toward the sun : " Haii, niui gake' Wakan'da, 
 
 Ho tobacco that Wakauda 
 
 Ig. Ob. 
 
 Mi'" (fe niiike'ce! Ujan'ge fifi^a ke ega'^qti uaha te a. Ingaxa-ga! 
 
 Sun this you who sit Uoad your the .just so I follow will ! Make it for ine 
 
 Ig. ob. itscourse 
 
 Edada" ctecte uda"qti akipankifa'-ga ! Ed^da" juaji wi"' ededite ^V 
 
 What soever very good ^-cause iiiclonHctit What inferior oue it is there if 
 
 il)eta"aiiki(|;a-ga ! (|^i'-na" aniusta wafi'oua cfagfi"', ni-ufan'da (/'c^j-a" 
 
 cause me to pass Only thou directly in siglit you sit island this 
 
 around it above (us) idace 
 
 ('^fa^ska edega", ediida" wanita {^an'de ucka"'cka" (fa" bfngaqti nikaci"ga 
 
 this large but what quadruped ground uiv. on it here the all person 
 
 and there 
 
 (fa"' ctfwa"' wi'" a"'ba ata"' i(|'aoni'g(j'a" ^T, ega"-na". Ada" wi'ija-na"- 
 
 the soever one day how you decide for when always so. There- I ask a favor 
 
 long ' him fore of you 
 
 ma"' ha, Wakan'da" This may be rendered freely thus: "Ho, Mys- 
 
 alone Wakanda 
 
 terious Power, yon who are the Sun! Here is tobacco! I wish to 
 follow your course. Grant that it may be so ! Cause me to meet 
 whatever is good (i. e., for my advantage) and to give a wide berth ti> 
 
 'Am. Naturalist. Feb. 1884, p. 126; Ibid., July, 1885. p. 670. 
 ■■^Ibid., Feb. 1884, pp. 115, 116, 117, 120, 123, 125. 
 
 ^ A similar rule about fasting obtained among the Kausa when mourning for the dead. See Amer. 
 Naturalist, July. 1885. pp. 670, 672, 679. 
 
378 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 anythiDg* that may be to my injury or disadvantage. Throughout this 
 island (the world) you regulate everytbingthat moves, including human 
 beings, when you decide for one that his last day on earth has come, 
 it is so. It can not be delayed. Therefore, O Mysterious Power, I ask 
 a favor of you." 
 
 THE POXKA SIN DANCE OF 1873. 
 
 In the summer of 1873, when the author was missionary to the Ponka 
 in what was Todd County, Dakota, that tribe had a sun dance on 
 the prairie near the mission house. The scarifications and subsequent 
 tortures and dancing lasted but three hours instead of a longer period, 
 owing to the remonstrances of Bishop Hare, the agent, and the mis- 
 sionary. The head chief. White Eagle, was tied to his pony, after he 
 had been scarified and fastened to the sun pole. Some of his i^olice- 
 men, armed with whips, lashed the pony until it leaped aside, tearing 
 out the lariat that fiistened the chief to the sun pole, and terminating 
 his participation in the ceremony. (See PI. xlvi and § 187.) For obvi- 
 ous reasons the author did not view the sun dance, but he was told 
 about it by some of the spectators. As the chief, Standing Bufltalo, 
 hiid said to Bishop Hare in the council previous to the sun dance, '^ You 
 Avhite people pray to Wakanda in your way, and we Indians pray to 
 Wakanda in the sun dance. Should you chance to lose your way on the 
 prairie you would perish, but if we got lost we would pray to Wa- 
 kanda in the sun dance, and find our way again." 
 
 THE MOON A WAKANDA. 
 
 § 30. No examples of invocations of the moon have yet been found 
 among the Omaha and Ponka. But that the moon is "qube" appears 
 from the decorations of robes and tents. (See §§ 45-47.) 
 
 The moon is addressed as a "grandfather" and is described as the 
 '• Wakan;a of night" in "Osage Traditions," lines o5-59.i 
 
 HEKDACHES. 
 
 The Omaha believe that the unfortunate beings, called "Mi"-qu-ga," 
 are mysterious or sacred because they have been affected by the Moon 
 Being. When a young Omaha fasted for the first time on reaching 
 puberty, it was thought tluit the Moon Being appeared to him, holding 
 in one hand a bow and arrows and in the other a pack strap, such as 
 the Indian women use. When the youth tried to grasp the bow and 
 arrows the Moon Being crossed his hands very quickly, and if the 
 yourli was not very careful he seized the pack straj) instead of the 
 bow and arrows, thereby fixing his lot in after life. In such a case he 
 could not help acting the woman, speaking, dressing, and working just 
 as Indian women used to do. Louis Sanssouci said that the mi"-quga 
 took other men as their husbands. Frank La Fleche knew one such 
 
 ' See 6th Anu. Kept. Bur. Ethn., pp. 385, 389. 
 
DORSEv.] MOON AND STARS AS WAKANDAS. 379 
 
 man, wlio had had several meu as liis husbands. A Poiika chihl once 
 said to the author, '•Mi"Jinga-ma nujiriga ania ^i-gaxe-nandi, mi"quga, 
 ai," i. e., "If boys make a practice of phiying with the girls they be- 
 come (or are called) mi"(juga." This term may be rendered "hermaph- 
 rodite" when it refers to animals, as --^e DJi"(piga,'' a hermaphrodite 
 buffalo. It must have been of this class of persons, called "Mi"-qu- 
 ge" by the Kansa that Say wrote when he said: 
 
 Many of the subjects of it (i. e., sodomy amoug the Kausa) are publicly known, 
 and do not apjiear to be despised or to excite disgust. One was pointed out to us. 
 He had submitted himself to it in consequence of a vow he had made to his mystic 
 medicine, which obliged him to change his dress for that of a woman, to do their 
 Avork, and to ])ermit his hair to grow.' 
 
 After giving an account of the Mi"quga which agrees with what 
 has been written above, Miss Fletcher^ tells of "a man who had the 
 misfortune to be forced to this life and tried to resist. His father gave 
 him a bow and some arrows, but the penalty of his vision so wrought 
 upon his mind that, unable to endure the abnormal life, he committed 
 suicide.'' (See §§212, 353.) 
 
 STARS AS WAKANDAS. 
 
 §31. That the Omaha and Ponka regarded the stars as Wakandas 
 seems probable from the existence of nikie names and the perscmal 
 mystery decorations. (See §§ 45, 47, and 52.) There are star names in 
 the Night gens of the Kansa, and they point to the mythical origin ot 
 the gens. The Kansa made offerings to the morning star. Among the 
 Osage the traditions of the Tsiou Wacta^ie and Bald Eagle people men- 
 tion several Wakandas among the stars. These are as follows: Watse 
 cjuj^a, a "grandtather;" Watse mi"j[a, a "grandmother;" Mi"kak'e 
 pefii"da, the Seven Stars (Pleiades?), a "grandfather;" the constella- 
 tion Ta fadfi" or the Three Deer, a "grandfather;" the morning star, 
 Mi"kak'e taijj[a (literally, large star), a "grandfather;" the small star, 
 a "grandfather;" the bowl of the Dipper, called "Wadaha (/'ifikce; 
 the Funeral Bier," a "grandfather," and the Female Red Bird, a 
 "grandmother," the eponym of the Tsiou ^yacta^[e or "Bed Eagle" 
 gens. She, too, was probably a star.-' 
 
 §32 Ga" edada" fi"' ctewa" (|'aha"'-na"i ui'aci"'ga anuV, dahe' :^anga' fi", 
 
 And what tlie soever usually Indian the hill large the 
 
 col. prayed (to) jil. col. 
 
 ob. " sub. ob. 
 
 ctewa"'. " Wakan'da bf u'gaqti wi'i^ai a," e'-na"i. " Hau, xan'de ninke' 
 
 soever Wakaiida all I ask a ! they said Ho Ground you who 
 
 favor of usually 
 
 you (pi.) 
 
 ce, 5{a'ci jin'ga e'ga" a'wita" te' a," ai' ni'kaci"'ga ama'. xade' ui'fe 
 
 sit some little so I tread will I say Indians the Wheiieetlie wiiid 
 
 time on you pi. sub. is seuthither ( ?) 
 
 ' James' Account Long's Exped., Phil., vol. i, 1823, p. 129. 
 
 *Rei)t. Peabody Museum, Vol. in. p. 281, note. 
 
 ^See -Osage Traditions.' pp. 384-395, in 6th Ann. Kept. P.ur. Ethn. 
 
380 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 (lu'balui te' cti (/'aha'"-iia"i. "xade' ui'fe du'baha nauka'ce, 
 
 in tour the too they usually Whence the wind in four ye who are 
 
 l)lace8 ]jray (to)' is sent hither ( .') places 
 
 i"win'5[a"i-8a.-' Ga"' gage'gifa"'! ni'aci"'ga uke'fi" ama', Wakan'da 
 
 help ye me anil theyspeakinthat Indian ordinary the pi. "Wakanda 
 
 maimer to (one) sub. 
 
 wa'('aha"i te'di. '' The Indians used to invoke various objects, includ- 
 
 they pray to when 
 them 
 
 ing- the mountains, saying, 'O, all ye mysterious powers, I ask a favor 
 of you!' They prayed to the ground, saying, 'O, you who are the 
 ground! May I tread you a little while longer!' i. e., ' May my life on 
 earth be prolonged!' When one prayed to the four winds, he would 
 say, 'Ho, ye four winds, help me!' Thus did speak when they prayed 
 to the Wakaudas."— (George Miller.) 
 
 THE WINDS AS WAKANDAS. 
 
 § 33. The Omaka and Ponka invoked the winds, as has been stated in 
 part of the preceding section. See also the statement of Samuel Fre- 
 mont (§-7).' 
 
 In preparing for the pipe dance the tobacco pouch, two gourd rattles, 
 and the ear of corn have a figure drawn on each of them with green 
 paint; it is the cross, indicating the four quarters of the heavens or the 
 four winds.'^ 
 
 KAN.S.\ SACRIFICE TO THE WINDS. 
 
 " In former days the Kansa used to remove the hearts of slain foes 
 and put them in the fire as a sacrifice to the four winds. Even now 
 (1882) offerings are made to every Wakanda by the Kansa, to the power 
 or powers above, to those under the hills, to the winds, the thunder- 
 being, the morning star, etc. As Ali"kawahu and Palia"legaqli are 
 Yata men (i. e., members of gentes camping on the left side of the tribal 
 circle), they elevate their left hands and begin at the left with the 
 east wind, then they turn to the south wind, then to the west wind, 
 and finally to the north wind, saying to each, ' Ga-tce, Wakan'da, 
 mik'il' eyau',' i. e., ' O Wakanda, I really give that to you.' In former 
 days they used to pierce themselves with knives and splinters of wood, 
 and offer small pieces of their fiesh to the Wakaudas.'' ^ 
 
 OSAGE CONSECRATIOX OF MYSTIC FIREPLACES. 
 
 The author considers that the following statement of the Osage chief, 
 5[ahij|e-wa4ayihj|a (of the Ttii.ni Wacta^je gens), refers to the invoca- 
 tion of the four winds. It appears to have been associated with fire 
 or hearth worship. Whenever a permanent village of earth lodges was 
 
 'For an account of the offering of meat to the four winds, see Om. See, 3d Ann. Eept.. Bur. Ethn.. 
 p. 284. 
 
 ^See Miss A. C. Fletcher on the " Wawan or Pipe Dance of the Omahas," Eept. Peabody Museum. 
 Vol. Ill, p. 311, note 11, and the author's paper, Om. Soc, pp. 278, 279. 
 
 3Paha"le-gaqli and Waqube-k"i" gave this information in the winter of 1882-'83. Compare the self- 
 inflicted tortures of the Dakota and Ponka in the sun dance (§§ 29. 181-3, 185, 187). 
 
DORSEv.j WINDS AND THUNDER BEING AS WAKANDAS. 381 
 
 established among the Osaf^e auil Kausd, there was a eoihsecratioii of 
 a certain number of fireplaces before the ordinary tirejilac'es conkl be 
 made by the common people. The consecrated fireplaces were made in 
 two parallel rows, beginning- at the west and ending at the east. 
 Among the Kansa there were seven on one side and six on the other 
 but among the Osage there seem to have been seven on each side. 
 Amongthe Osage, the Tsiou Wacta^jeand Pa^qkagenteswerethe ' road 
 makers,' i. e., those who consecrated the two rows of fireplaces. Ajalii- 
 5te wajayinjia said, "When the old Tsiauman made his speech, he went 
 into details al)out every part of a lodge, the fireplace, building mate- 
 rials, implements, etc. Four sticks were placed in the fireplace, the first 
 one pointing to the west (see §§ 40, 84). When the first stick was laid 
 down, the Tsiou leader spoke about the west wind, and also about a 
 young buffalo ball (Tse^u-oih^pi), repeating the name, Wanie-ska (mean- 
 ing not gained). When the stick pointing to the north was laid down 
 he spoke of Tsehe-qu^se (gray buffalo horns), or a buttah)bull. When 
 the stick at the east was laid down, he si)oke of Tse-}ujia-tari^a(alarge 
 buffalo bull). On laying down the fourth stick, pointing to the south, 
 iie spoke of Tse mi"5ia (a buffalo cow). At the same time a similar 
 ceremony was performed by the aged Pa-'qka man for the geuteson the 
 right side of the tribal circle. In placing the stick to the east, he men- 
 tioned Ta:^se 3;aqpa tse (the east wind) and Tahe cade (dark horned 
 deer). In placing that to the north, Ta48e jasa" tse (the north wind, lit- 
 erally, ' the pine wind ') and Tahe qu:^se (the deei- with gray horns) 
 were m'fentioned. In placing that ])oin ting to the Avest, Ta;se Ma"ha 
 tse (the west wind) and an animal which makes a lodge and is with 
 the Tahe pasijie (probably a deer name) were mentioned. In placing 
 the stick pointing to the south, he spoke of Tajs-e Ak'a tse (the south 
 wind) and Ta wanka he ajjfa.)i skutan^ja (probable meaning, a large 
 white female deer without any horns). 
 
 §34. In time of war, prayers were made about the fire (§287), when a 
 warrior painted his face red, using the "tire paint," a custom of the left 
 or Tsi.ou side of the tribe. Those on the right or Han :51a side used "the 
 young buffalo bull decoration," and probably offered prayer in connec- 
 tion therewith, in order to be filled with the spirit of their "little grand- 
 father" (the young buffalo bull), as they rushed on the enemy. This 
 will l)e seen from the words employed by the Avarrior: "My little grand- 
 father is alwaj's dangerous as he makes an attempt. Very close do I 
 stand, ready to go to the attack !"' 
 
 THE THUNDER-BEING A WAKANDA. 
 
 Omaha axd Poxka iN\'(t('ATio.\ of thk TurxDi-.K-iiiciNG. 
 
 §35. Anu)ug the Omaha and Ponka, when the first thunder was heard 
 in the spring of the year, the Black bear people went to the sacred 
 
 'Account of the war customs of the Osages: in Amor. Naturalist, Vol. xviii, No. 2, February, 1884,. 
 p. 133. 
 
382 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 tent of the Elk gens, and there they assisted tlie Elk people in the in- 
 vocation of the Thunder-being. At a similar gathering- of the Ponka, 
 the Ponka Black bear people said, ''Han,i"c'age, ^i^ucpa ^efn aii'ga- 
 ta'^ ganaxiwa^a^ai. Ma"cia(^a}ui ma"f in'ga," i. e., "Ho, venerable mar ! 
 by yonr striking (with your club) you are frightening us, your grand- 
 children, who are here. Depart on high."' 
 
 THUNDKR-BEING INVOKED HY WARRIORS. 
 
 The Thunder-being is invoked by all present during the feast pre- 
 paratory to starting on the warpath, when there is a small party of 
 warriors. Each one addresses the Thunder-being as " Nuda^haiiga," 
 leader in war, or war captain.^ 
 
 When a large war party is desired, the Thunder-being is invoked 
 (See history of Wabaskaha, in Contr. N. A. Ethn., Vol. vi, p. 394). 
 Wabaskaha himself prayed, sa-yiug, ''Oh, Wakanda, though foreigners 
 have injured me, I hope that you may help me." All who heard him 
 knew that he desired to lead a large war party. When the four cap- 
 tains were chosen, they had to cry incessantly at night as well as by 
 day, saying, "Oh, Wakanda! pity me! help me in that about which I 
 am in a bad humor." During the day they abstained from food and 
 drink; but they could satisfy their thirst and hunger when night 
 came. 
 
 At the feast preparatory to starting off as a large war party, the 
 keepers of the sacred bags sing thunder songs as well as other sacred 
 songs. One of the thunder songs used on such an occasion begins 
 thus : 
 
 " Wi-^i-ga" na"'-pe-wa-f e «?-ga°, 
 
 Wi-:^i-ga" na'^'-pe-wa-^-e e-ga°, 
 
 We-ti" ke gfi-ha°'-ha^ :b|], 
 
 Na"'-pe-wd-fe ." 
 
 " As my grandfather is dangerous, 
 
 As my grandfather is dangerous. 
 
 Dangerous when he brandishes his club, 
 
 Dangerous ." 
 
 When he had proceeded thus far, jafi"-na"paji stopped and refused 
 to tell the rest, as it was very " waqube." He said that the principal 
 captains of a large war party tied pieces of twisted grass around their 
 wrists and ankles, and wore similar pieces around their heads. But 
 Two Crows, who has been a captain, says that he never did this. (See^ 
 however, the Iowa custom in § 75.) 
 
 'See Omaha Sociology, §24, 3d. Ann. Kept. Bur. Ethn., p. 227. 
 2 Omaha Sociology, in 3d. Ann. Kept. Bur. Ethn., p. 316. 
 
DORSEY.J INVOCATION OF THUNDER BEINGS. 383 
 
 ICTASAXDA CUSTOM. 
 
 The following "nikie"' or ancient custom of the Ictasanda .uons was 
 related by George 31iller: 
 
 Xaji"' da"'ctea"' -^i, na^'pai i[i, ga"' Wakau'da-nia niiii' uji' wa'i'i 
 
 Kiiin perhaps it' they fear if so tlie Wakaudas (pi. ub.) (o- put in they 
 
 seen' <laii<:er liaeco gave to 
 
 them 
 
 te, Ga"' nini' uji' Ava'i'i te'di e'gifa'"i te: (/'efu waqpa'fi"- 
 
 the (past and tobacco put in thev gave wlien they said to the Kere very 
 
 act) to'th<-iii (one) (past act) 
 
 <iti a'f'i^he', a"wa"'wa;a'(j'ica" ete'ctewa" finde ti'gfe gdxai-ga, 
 
 poor I who move in what direction soever to become abandoned make ye 
 
 (suddenly) 
 
 !jiga"'lia. E'dedi' fa'<}-i"ce (e) Ja"nii'". ^'igfize-ma^'fi", e'dedi 
 
 O grandfather. Tou are mv. there I suspect. Walking Forked-lightning, you are 
 
 fa(|;i"ce {6) ja"mi"'. ^ia"'ba-ti'g<|'e, e'dedi fa'fi"ce (e) ja"mi"'. 
 
 mv. there I suspect. Slieet-lightning flashes you are mv. there I suspect. 
 
 suddenly 
 
 ^'ia'"ba-gi-ua", e'dedi' fa^'V'cv (e) ja"mi"". Gaagigfeda" 
 
 slieet-lightning is often you are mv. there I susj)cct (a name referring 
 
 returning hither, to passing tliunderj 
 
 e'dedi ((•<i(|'i°c6 (e) ja"nii"'. Ga"' gat^ga" gaxa-baji ^ii'cte niaci"'ga 
 
 you are mv. there I suspect. And in that manner he does not if man 
 
 ci"<|'iqade fega" uaji^'i, niaqpi' ke^atj-ica" xage naji"'i. Ga"' 
 
 (See Note.) thus stands. cloud toward the Ig <ib. crying stands. And 
 
 Wakaii'da aina wegidaha"'-bi, ai. ]Srikaci'"ga ta°'wa"gfa" 
 
 Wakauda the jd. sub. tliat they know about tliey say. Person gens 
 
 them, their own 
 
 wedaji ama afi"' ua"'pai, ij^je ge' ctewa". 
 
 elsewhere the j)l. sub. to have it they fear seen danger, name thepl. in. ob. even. 
 
 Agndi'cte nikaci'"ga am4 i^-a'e'fe ama Icta'sanda 
 
 In some places person tlie pi. sub. those who have visions, etc. Ictasanda 
 
 (not specified.) 
 
 ucka" e4ai' te e'ga" ga'xai. Waa'" e'qti ga'xai da"'cte 
 
 custom their the ob. so they do. song they themselves they make iicrhajis 
 
 gia"' uaji"'i. Ivini'ba ke uji' afi"'i e'ga" maqpi' 
 
 singing their own they stand. Pipe the Ig. ob. tilled they liave as cloud 
 
 ke:^a4'ica" ugaqfe baha' uaji"'i. ifi'kaci"'ga ama' a'Ji cti 
 
 towards the Ig. oh. facing holdingontto they stand. Person the i)l. sub. difl'ereut too 
 
 ga'xe-iia"'i. Ata"'cte nini'ba afi"'-bajT ga"' waa"' si'a"fe' da"'cte 
 
 they often do. Sometimes pipe they do not have so singing alone perhap^ 
 
 iiaji"'-na"i. Kl ni'kaci°'ga ama' f.e' i'(|;a'e'fe ama' ilcka" eda'da" 
 
 they stand often. And person the pi. sub. this those who have deed what 
 
 visions, etc. 
 
 uda" uha' 'i'(/'e tai' 5[i'cte i'baha"'i, ci licka" .inaji 
 
 good to follow the course promise will even they know, again deed unsuitable 
 
 a'kipa tai' :>[i'cte i'baha"'i. Ga" ni'kaci"'ga fi" a"wa"'wa:4a 
 
 they will meet even they know. And person the in what direction 
 
 mv. one 
 
 ga(if,a"' ma"(fd"' ctewa"' iiiiii' uji' 'i'i e'ga" wafi'gfariki(|'ai'. 
 
 large liunting walks tioever tobacco pvits in gives to as causes him to jjrophesy. 
 
 expedition him 
 
 E'a"' ujaii'ge uha' tai 5[i'cte i'baha" gi'ga"fai' e'ga" waan'kiifai'. 
 
 How road he will follow its even t-o know wishes for him as causes him to sing, 
 
 (ourse 
 
 Ki ata"'cte iii'kaci"'ga ama' e'ga"i, a'fade-na"'i, wani'ta da"'cte 
 
 And sometimes person the pi. sub. Just so, they often pronounce, (|uadruped perhaps 
 
 ube'sui" ^\, wani'ta d'u'ba a"'i'i ha, e' da"'ctea"'i. 
 
 they And if quadruped some they have he j>erhaps. 
 
 out given to me says 
 
384 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 Xotes. 
 
 383, 4, et passim. ^'a^i"ce eja"ini", coutracted in rapid prounnciation to, ^a(l;i"ceja"mi". 
 383,4-6. (/.'ig^*ize-ma"^i", Cia"ba-tig-^e, (j ia"ba-gina", and Gaagigf/ieda" are '-uikie 
 
 names" of the Ictasanda or Thunder gens of the Omaha. They may refer to 
 
 four Thunder heings, one at each point of the compass, or one dwelling in the 
 
 direction of each of the four winds. 
 383,8. Ci"^iqade, with the arms elevated and the hands stretched out, palms 
 
 down, towards the clouds. 
 383. !t-10. Nikaci"ga wedajT ama, etc. Other gentes of Omaha fear to mention 
 
 these Ictasanda names, or to bestow them on members of their gentes. 
 383,11. Agudictt . . i<^a'ece ama, etc. Refers to the lrig(|a" i^a'e^e ama, or 
 
 the Thunder shamans, of the other Omaha gentes. 
 
 Tra7islatio)i. 
 
 When the Ictasanda people become fearful during a shower, they 
 till a pipe with tobacco and offer it to the Thunder-beings. And when 
 they offer the tobacco, they speak thus: "O grandfather! I am very 
 poor here. In some direction or other cause a place to be abandoned 
 by those (who would injure me?). I think that you are there () 
 (pig(|-ize-iua"f i" ! I think that you are there. O ^'ia"ba-tigfe ! I think 
 that you are there. O (|'ia"ba-gi na"! 1 think that you are there. O 
 Gaagigfeda" ! I think that you are there." 
 
 And when they do not offer the tobacco, they stand with the arms 
 elevated and the hands stretched out, palms down, as they cry towards 
 the clouds. And they say that the Thunder-beings know about them, 
 their worshippers. 
 
 The Omaha of the other gentes fear to mention these Ictasanda 
 nikie names, or to bestow them on members of their gentes, as 
 well as to invoke the Thunder-being or beings, unless they belong to 
 the order of Thunder shamans. In that case, they can do as the Icta- 
 sanda i)eople do. They make songs about the Thunder beings, and 
 stand singing their own songs. They till the pipe with tobacco, and 
 stand, holding it with the mouth-piece toward the clouds, as they gaze 
 towards them. 
 
 These shamans often act otherwi.se. Sometimes they do not till the 
 pipe, and then they si\and singing the Thunder songs, without offering 
 anything to the Thunder-beings. 
 
 And these shamans know when anything promises to result in good 
 or evil to the jierson undertaking it. So when a person wishes to join 
 a large'hnntiug party, he fills a pipe with tobacco, and otiers it to a 
 shaman, thus causing him to i)rophesy. As he wishes him to know 
 the result of following a certain course, (i. e., of traveling in a certain 
 direction), he induces the shaman to sing (sacred songs). And some- 
 times the shaman predicts the very occurrence which comes to i)ass; 
 if, for instance, he foretells that the inquiring man will kill game, he 
 may say, ' The Thunder-beings ( ?) have given me some (]uadrupeds.' " 
 
DOESEYl KANSA WORSHIP OF THE THUNDEE-BEING. 385 
 
 KAXSA WORSHIP OF THE THrNTiER-BEIXr,. 
 
 § 36. The following was a custom of the Lu or Thuuder-being geus. 
 At the time of tlie first thunder-storm in the spring of the year, the 
 Lu people put a quantity of green cedar on a fire, making a great 
 smoke. The storm ceased after the members of the other gentes 
 offered prayers. The Buffalo or Tcedunga gens aided the Lu gens in 
 the worship of the Thunder being, by sending one of their men to 
 open the sacred bag of gray hawk skin and remove the mystery pipe. 
 These objects were kept by a Lu man. Kinuyinge. who was not 
 allowed to open the bag. 
 
 Paha'^le-gaqli, of the Large Hanga gens, and Ali°kawahu, of the 
 Small Haiiga, are the leaders in everything pertaining to war. Pa- 
 ha"le-gaqli furnished the author with a copy of his war chart, on 
 which are represented symbols of the mystery songs. In the middle 
 of the chart there should be a representation of fire, but Paha4e- 
 gaqli said that he was afraid to draw it there, unless he fasted and 
 took other necessary precautions. The songs used in connection with 
 the chart are very '* wakandagi,'' or mysterious. They are never 
 sung on common occasions, or in a profane manner, lest the offender 
 should be killed by the Thunder-being. One of the three songs about 
 the sacred pipe, sung when the wrappings are taken from the pipe 
 (See §85) by Ali°kawahu is as follows: 
 
 "Ha-ha! tCe-ga-nu ha-ha ! 
 Ha-ha I tce-ga-nu ha-ha ! 
 Ha-ha I tce-ga-nu ha-ha ! 
 Hii-hii' ! " 
 
 (Unintelligible to the author. Said when Ali°Vawahu presses 
 down on the covers or wrajipiugs of the pipe.) 
 
 '' Yu ! yu : yu ! Hii-hii' ! Hii-hii' ! " 
 
 (Chorus sung by all the Large and Small Hanga men.) 
 
 This last line is an invocation of the Thunder-being. The arms, 
 which are kept apart and i)arallel. are held up toward the sky, with 
 the palms of the hands out. Each arm is then rubbed from the wrist 
 to the shoulder by the other hand.' 
 
 After the singing of these three songs, Paha°le-gaqli carries the 
 sacred clam shell on his back. 
 
 The second figure on the chart is that of the venerable man or 
 Wakanda, who was the first singer of all the Haiiga songs. When Ali°- 
 kawahu and Paha°1e-ga(ili are singing them, they think that this 
 Wakanda walks behind them, holding ui) his hands toward the Thun- 
 der-being, to whom he prays for them. 
 
 •This song and the invocation of the Thunder-being are used by the Ponka as well as by the 
 Kaosa. According to Miss Fletcher, the " sign of giving thanks " among the Hunkpapa Dakota is 
 made by moving the hands in the opposite direction, i. e., " from the shoulder to the wrist." See 
 " The White Buffalo Festival of the Uacpapas," in Peabody Museum Kept., vol. in, p. 268. 
 11 ETH 1*5 
 
386 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 When the war pipe is .smoked by any Hauga man, he holds the pipe 
 in his right hand, and blows the smoke into the sacred clam shell, in his 
 left. The smoke ascends from the clam shell to the Tlumder-beiug-, to 
 whom it is pleasant. 
 
 The Kansa used to "cry to" the Thimder-being before going on the 
 warpath. When the captain (the head of the Large Hanga gens) 
 smoked his pipe, he used to say, Haii, Wakauda-e, Payi"-maha" mi"' 
 
 Ho? O Wakanda! Skidi one 
 
 ts'e kn°'bla cyan," i. e. "Ho, Wakanda! I really wish a Skidi" (or, 
 
 to die I wish indeed 
 
 Pawnee Loup) " to die!" 
 
 Themenoftlie two Haiiga gentes unite in singing songs to stop 
 rain, when fair weather is needed, and songs to cause rain when there 
 has been a drought. (See § 43.) 
 
 SUBTERRANEAN AND SUEAQUATIC WAKANDAS. 
 
 § 37. The Omaha and Ponka believe in the Wakandagi, monsters that 
 dwell beneath the bluffs and in the Missouri river. These monsters 
 have very long bodies, with horns on their heads. One myth relates 
 how an orphan killed a Wakandagi with seven heads.' 
 
 The Omaha have ;i tradition that a Wakandagi was seen in the lake 
 into which Blackbird creek empties, near the Omaha agency. It is 
 impossible to say whether the Wakandagi and the j^ande or Ground 
 were differentiated (See § 27). The Kansa Mi-a-lu-cka were somewhat 
 like the Wakandagi, though in one respect they resembled tlie myth- 
 ical ja-snu-ta of the Omaha, i. e., in having enormous heads. The 
 Kansa speak of the Mialucka as a race of dreadful beings with large 
 heads and long hair.^ They dwelt in remote places, to which they were 
 supposed to entice any unwary Indian who traveled alone. The victim 
 became crazy and subsequently lived as a mi"quga or catamite. Some 
 of the Mialucka dwelt underground or in the water, sitting close to 
 the bank of the stream. The ancient Mialucka was a benefactor to 
 the Indians, for he took some wet clay and made first a buffalo calf and 
 then three buffalo bulls, which he ordered the In<lians to shoot, after 
 teaching them how to make bows and arrows and to use them. 
 
 THE 1NDA(^INGA. 
 
 § 38. The Ponka, in 1871, told the author of a being whom they called 
 the Indaf'iiiga. This being was a superhuman character, who dwelt in 
 the forests. He hooted like an owl, and he was so powerful that he 
 could uproot a tree or overturn a lodge. The Ponka had a song about 
 hiu), and mothers used to scare their children by saying, "Behave, 
 else the Tndafifiga will catch you!" Joseph La Fleche had heard it 
 spoken t)f as a monster in human shape, covered with thick hair. As 
 
 ' Contr. N. A. Etlin., vol. vi, pp. 108-131. 
 
 ^Compare tlie hair of the Thunder-men, in Contr. N. A. Ethn., vol. vi, pp. 187, 188. 
 
PORSEY] OTHER KANSA WAKANDAS. 387 
 
 the Ponka for wearing a mask is "ludafinga gaxe," or "to act the 
 Iiidafinga," it may be that this character was an aboriginal bogy. 
 Com])are the Dakota Oaijotidaij, llohnogica, Uijgnagicala, etc. (§ 232.) 
 Omaha mothers nsed to scare their chihb-eu by telling them that if 
 they did not behave, Icibaji (a hero of the j^e-sinde gens) or j^exuja" 
 (a hero of the Aja"ze gens) wonld catch them.' Another fearful being 
 was Inde-na"bii, or Two Faces, the very sight of whom killed a woman 
 who was enceinte.^ This being resembled, in some respects, Ictinike, 
 the deceiver,^ though I(;tiuike was usually the counterpart of the Dakota 
 Ikto, Iktomi, or Uijktomi. (See §§ 228-231.) As a worker of evil 
 Ictinike may be compared with the Dakota Auuijg-ite or Two Faces 
 and the latter in turn resembled the Inda^iiiga of the Pouka. (See 
 §§ 233, 234.) 
 
 OTHER KANSA WAKANDAS. 
 
 § 39. The third figure on the Kansa war chart is^ thatof the Wakan- 
 da or aged man who gives success to the hunter. lie is thus addressed 
 by Ali"kawahu and Paha°le-gaqli: Ts'age-jiu'ga haii! Dable ma"'yi»- 
 
 Venerable mau Ho ! To hunt walk 
 large quad- 
 rupcils 
 
 an! Dada" wadjii'ta nikaci^ga ckeda° wayakipa bada" ts'eya-bana- 
 
 thou What quadruped person soever you meet theiu aud kill ye 
 
 (Id.) 
 
 hau ! i. e., "Venerable man, go hunting ! Kill whatever persons or quad- 
 
 ! 
 
 rupeds meet you!" They think that this being drives the game 
 towards the hunter. 
 
 In the war chart there are seven songs of the Wakauda who makes 
 night songs. Fig. 16 of that chart refers to a song of another Wa- 
 kanda who is not described. Fig. 18 refers to two shade songs. 
 Shade is made by a AVakauda. Fig. 19 is a dream song. There is a 
 Wakanda who makes people sleepy, an Indian Somnus. 
 
 § 40. OMAHA INVOCATIONS OF THE TRAP, ETC. 
 J^be da"'ct6 iiji ^ii, maka"^' igaxe ma"ii°'i j[i, e nini bahA 
 
 Beaver for in- he if, medicine making he walks if, that tobac- show 
 stance traps for that co ing 
 
 it purposti 
 
 e!j4 t6 e. (The invisible being who first made the medicine was 
 
 his the it. 
 
 thus addressed:) Nikaci"ga pahafi'ga maka"' icpaha" ninke'c6, 
 
 Person first medicine you knew you who 
 
 (.sit), 
 
 dejehide cka"ze niiik6'c6, nini gake/ ! ^ef u edMa" cka"ze ge 
 
 medicine you you who tobacco that Uere what you taught the 
 
 taught (sit), Ig. ob. pi. 
 
 in. oh. 
 
 ' Contr. N. A. Ethn, vol. vi, p. 390. See al.so ^ 19. nbid., p. 207. Ubid., pp. 40, KU, etc. 
 « Am. Naturalist, July, 1885, vol. 19, PI. XX, p. 676. 
 
388 
 
 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 I do not kno^- at all 
 
 iwamakiuKf't' te Ti. 
 
 I get it easily by will 1 
 means of 
 
 prays to the beaver: 
 
 vet 
 
 what 
 
 i^apalia"-inaji'-qti wi'" ai(l'aga(|-afi"lie fa^'Ja, ca"' edada" cteete 
 
 one I am carryinj: ou though, 
 
 my arm and in my 
 hand as I move 
 
 Nini gake', ai 
 
 Tobacco that, says 
 
 Ig. ob., 
 
 Hau, Jabe! Niui 
 
 Ho. Beaver! Tobacco 
 
 iiiaci"ga 
 
 aiua. 
 
 (He then 
 
 person 
 
 the niv 
 sub. 
 
 
 gake' ! 
 
 IJbahi 
 
 e'a"' ckaxai 
 
 that ! 
 
 Feeding 
 
 how yon made 
 
 Ig. ob. 
 
 place 
 
 them 
 
 r.-i I 
 
 ge bifiigaqti ugigfaca^'i-ga 
 
 the all travel ye in your 
 
 pi. own! 
 
 in ob. 
 
 Hau, jejehide, uiui gake'! 
 
 Ho, Medicine, tobacco that! 
 Ig. ob. 
 
 tate, efega" uajifi'-ga. 
 
 shall, thinking it stand thou. 
 
 e^ega° najin'-ga. 
 
 thinking it stand thou. 
 
 Xiui gake'! (Xext, to'the medidiie:) 
 
 Tobacco that! 
 Ig. ob. 
 
 'A"'qti cteete wauita wi" iihe ea'"(fe 
 
 Xo matter how it quadruped one pass me on the 
 
 is (or At any road (to the 
 
 rate) trap) 
 
 A'"qti cteete daq^uge a"'f a"ska tate, 
 
 At any rate nostrils large enough shall, 
 
 for me (i. e.. to 
 smell me.) 
 
 (Invocatiou of the trap:) 
 
 Ma"'ze 
 
 Iron 
 
 miuke, 
 
 I who, 
 
 We'i" 
 
 Pack- 
 strap 
 
 uahkace ! 
 
 ye who (sit) ! 
 
 Niiii gake' ! 
 
 Tobacco that ! 
 ig. ob. 
 
 niui gake' ! 
 
 tobacco that! 
 ig. ob. 
 
 (Invocation of the pack-strap:) 
 
 Haii, 
 
 Ho, 
 
 'A"'qti cteete wi"' wat'eafe t4 
 
 At auv rate one I kill it will 
 
 e<fega° gi^-i'^'i-ga 
 
 thinking it sit ye. 
 
 nifike'ce ! uiui gake' ! 
 
 you who (sit) ! tobacco 
 
 'A"'qti cteete wi wauita 
 
 At any rate I quadruped 
 
 Hau, 
 
 Ho. 
 
 ahigi 
 
 mauv 
 
 gake' ! 
 
 that! 
 U. ob. 
 
 that ! 
 ig. ob. 
 
 weat'e, e(fegaii-ga. Hau, x^*^'^® ionuga;a fata"ce! uini 
 
 I touch think thou. Ho. Entrance at the right you who tobacco 
 
 them, side stand ! 
 
 <A°'qti cteete wi wauita a"fa"'bakiu'de an;'iji" ta miuke, e(fegau-ga. 
 
 At any rate I iiuadruped brushing by me I stand will I who think thou. 
 
 (Sit). 
 
 Hail, x^-^i^'^*^ ugacke f ata°ce ! uini gake' ! 'A"'qti cteete wi 
 
 Ho, Buflalo-tail tied to it you who tobacco that! At any rate I 
 
 stand! Ig. ob. 
 
 wanita a";ap'e an4)i° ta miuke, e(fegaii-ga. Haii, Unefe niiike'ce! 
 
 quadruped near to me I stand will I who think thou. Ho, Fireplace you who 
 
 (siti, 
 
 'A^'qti cteete wi wanita 
 
 niui gake' ! 
 
 tobacco that ! 
 Iff. ob. 
 
 At anv rate 
 
 e(f^gan-ga. 
 
 think thou. 
 
 I quadruped 
 
 Notes. 
 
 a"'naai 
 
 drops over 
 
 on me (from 
 
 the kettle) 
 
 (sit) ! 
 
 agfi"' ta miuke, 
 
 I sit will I who 
 (sit). 
 
 Tokl by George Miller. In the last invocation, he began to dictate 
 thus: "Hau, Xawi"xe duba akipasau'de uaukace!" i.e., '-Ho, ye 
 
 Ho. Firebrand four meet at a com- ye who 
 
 mon jioint 
 
 four tirebrauds that meet at a common point (i. e., in the middle of the 
 
DORSEY.I OMAHA INVOCATIONS OF THE TRAP, ETC. 389 
 
 fireplace) I" He sub.sequeutly cliaiiged it to an iuvocationof tlie lire- 
 place itself. But it is very pr()l)able that there was an invocation of 
 the four firebrands, reseniblino- the ceremonies of the Kansa and 
 Osage (see § 33). G-eorge has given all that he remembers of the invo- 
 cations, but he does not recollect the exact order. 
 
 387,M. deje-hide, "lower part," or "roots of grass," an archaic name for ■•uiaka"", 
 medicin*'. Nini gakt- — the classiher kt^ shows that a loni!: oltject, the pipe, is 
 referred to, the tobacco being in the pipe when it is ottered to the powers. 
 
 388.1. ai^';agata,-i"he, contr. from iii^-agacjia ii(^i"he, used here in the sense of 
 *'ab(^i"," I have. 
 
 388,12. an^'a"bakmde. eq. to a»(;-a"bista ^ewa<fee, to send them (through) when they 
 are so close that they touch me. 
 
 Translation. 
 
 The invisible bein.u' who first made the beaver medicine and taught its 
 use to mankind, was thus addressed: ''Oh, Thou who didst teach how 
 to make the medicine, here is tobacco! Though I have your medicine, 
 the nature of which I do not understand at all, grant that I may easily 
 acquire something or other by means of it I Here is tobacco 1" 
 
 When he addressed the beavers, he said. Ho, ye Beavers I Here is 
 tobacco I Let all of you travel in your feeding places which you have 
 made. Here is tobacco !" To the beaver medicine itself, he said, '• Ho, 
 Medicine I Here is tobacco! Stand thinking thus, 'At any rate 
 an animal sliall surely pass me and be caught in the trap, and its nos- 
 trils shall be large enough to smell me.''" The trap itself was thus ad- 
 dressed: -'Ho, ye pieces of iron! Here is tobacco! Sit ye and think 
 thus: 'At any rate I will kill one !'" To the pack-strap was said. --Ho, 
 pack-strap! Here is tobacco! Think thou. 'At any rate I shall press 
 against many quadrupeds.'" The right side of the entrance to the tent 
 (?)was thus addressed: '• Ho, Thou who standest at the right side 
 of the entrance to the tent! (§ 2'32) Here is tobacco! Think thou. 'At 
 any rate I shall continue to have some one bring dead animals on his 
 back and send through me suddenly, rubbing again.st me as they iiass 
 through."" To the principal tent pole these words were said. "Ho, 
 Thou wlio standest with tlie buffalo tail tied to thee! Here is tobacco! 
 Think thou, 'At any rate, I shall have a quadruped to come near me.*"' 
 When the man invoked the fireplace, he said, "Ho, Fire[>lace! Here 
 is tobacco! Think tlnm. "At any rate I shall sit and have the water 
 fall on me in drops as it boils over from the kettle containing tlie quad- 
 ruped.'" 
 
 These invocations may be compared with what the ])roi)het Habakkuk 
 tells us about the Chaldeans, in the first chapter of his prophecy. In 
 his prayer to God, he says, "These, plunderers pull out all men with the 
 hook, draw them in with their casting net, and gather them with their 
 draw net, and rejoice and are glad in it. Therefore they make offer- 
 ings to their casting net, and burn incense to their draw net, for through 
 them their catch is rich and their food daintv." ' 
 
 • Geikie's paraphrase, in " Hours with the Bible," vol. V, p. 357. 
 
390 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 FASTING. 
 
 § -41. This topic naturally precedes that of visions or dreams about 
 mystery, animals, and objects. Two Crows and Joseph La Fleche heard 
 the following- spoken of as an ancient custom. It was told them in their 
 youth by some of the old men of that day, who had received it from 
 their elders as having been practiced by the tribe for unnumbered gen- 
 erations. When old men had sous, sisters' sons, or grandsons, who 
 api)roached manhood, they used to direct those youths to abstain from 
 food and drink, and to put clay on their faces, saying: "Qa°xa';a xage' 
 
 Far away crying 
 
 ma^ij-i^'i-gri. A"'ba (j-a'bfi" du'ba ja°' -^i, wafata-bajii-ga, ki ni 
 
 walk ye. Day three four sleep if. do not eat (pi. ). and water 
 
 ^ata"'-bajii-ga. ^'iqu'bajT cte'ctewa", ca°' Wakan'da aka ufi'jja" 
 
 do not drink (pi.) Yon are not even if, still Wakauda the sub. he will 
 "qnhe" 
 
 tA aka. Wa'if-awaqp^ui ma"oni°'i 5[i, waonaha^-de (faxaxage ^I, 
 
 aid you. You act as if poor you walk if. you pray when yon cry if 
 
 U(|-i'i[a'' ta' aka," i. e., "Walk ye in remote places, crying to Wakanda. 
 
 he will aid you. 
 
 Neither eat nor drink for three or four days. Even though you do not 
 ac(iuire personal myterious power, Wakanda will aid you. If you act 
 as poor men, and pray as you cry, he will lielp you."' 
 
 When their throats became dry, their voices gave out. When they 
 had completed their fasts, they went home, being exceedingly emacia- 
 ted. At that time they could not swallow solid food, so they were 
 obliged to subsist on mush mixed with much water, till by degrees they 
 became able to eat what they pleased. Many thought that this fasting 
 enabled them to have superhumau communications with W^akanda. 
 
 Fasting was practiced at other times, but always in order to obtain 
 sui^erhuman assistance or to acquire a transfer of superhuman power. 
 A Ponka war cax)tain exhorted each of his followers thus: "Ahau! 
 Wacka"' egan'-ga ! Qu'beki^a'-bi (|'i"he' !" i. e., "Oho! Do exert yourself ! 
 Be sure to make yourself the possessor of su})Brhuman power by the aid 
 of the animal that you have seen in your vision after fasting!" ^ Mem- 
 bers of a small war i>arty had to fast four days, counting from the time 
 that they started on the warpath. '^ Before the large war party was 
 formed to avenge the wrongs of Wabaskaha, the four prospective cap- 
 tains fasted.^ When the Kansa captain fasted, he could not visit his 
 family, but a small fasting lodge was erected for him at some distance 
 from his own house.'' 
 
 MYSTIC TREES AND PLANTS. 
 
 § 42. The Omaha have two sacred trees, the ash and the cedar. The 
 ash is connected with the beneficent natural jwwers. Part of the sacred 
 pole of the Omaha and Ponka is made of ash, the other i)art being of 
 Cottonwood. The stems of the niniba weawa", or "sacred pipes of 
 
 ' Contr. X. A. Ethn., vol. vi, pp. 370, 371. 
 
 2 Om. Sociology, in 3d. Ann. Rept. Bur. Ethn., p. 317. 
 
 3 Ibid. p. 319. 
 
 * ■• Kansas Mourning and War Customs, " in Am. Naturalist, July 1885, p. 672. 
 
MOUSEY] MYSTIC TREES AND PLANTS. 391 
 
 frieiidsliip," are inade of ash. But the cedar is linked with the destruc- 
 tive agencies, thunder, lightning, wars.' 
 
 When the seven old men took the pipes around the Omaha tribal circle, 
 the bad ]\ra"(|-ifika-gaxe people wore plumes in their hair and wrapped 
 branches of cedar around their heads, being awful to behold. So the 
 old man passed them by and gave the pipe to the other Ma"f iuka gaxe, 
 who were good. In the Osage traditions, cedar symbolizes the tree of 
 life. When a woman is initiated into the secret society of the Osage, 
 the oflBciating man of her gens gives her four sips of water, symbolizing, 
 so they say, the river flowing by the ti-ee of life, and then he rubs her 
 from head to foot with cedar needles three times in front, three times at 
 her back, and three times on each side, twelve times in all, pronouncing 
 a sacred name of Wakan;a as he makes each pass. Part of the Pa"iika 
 gens of the Osage tribe' are Ked ( Vdar people. The Panka gens of the 
 Kansa tribe is called " Qundjala"," i. e., ''wearers of cedar (branches) on 
 the head." Cedar is used by the Santee Dakota in their ceremony of 
 the four winds. (See § 128.) The Teton Dakota believe in the efficacy 
 of the smell of cedar wood or of the smoke from cedar in scaring away 
 ghosts. (See § 272.) In the Athapascan creation myth of Oregon, 
 obtained by the author in 1884, the smoke of cedar took the ])lace of food 
 for the two gods who nmde the world, and the red cedar is held sacred 
 as well as the ash, because these two trees were the tirst to be discov- 
 ered by the gods.^ 
 
 That the Ilidatsa have a similar notion about the red cedar is shown 
 by their name for it, "midalioita,"" mysterious or sacred tree. Compare 
 what Matthews tell abont the Ilidatsa reverence for the Cottonwood 
 with what is recoided above about the Omaha sacred pole.^ (§ 341.) 
 
 The Cottonwood tree also seems to have been regarded as a mystic 
 tree by the Omaha and Ponka, just as it is by the Hidatsa. The sacred 
 pole of the two tribivs was made from a tall cotton wood.^' When the 
 lower part of the sacred pole became worn away, about 8 feet remained, 
 and to this was fastened a i)iece of ash wood about 18 inches long. In 
 preparing for the dance called the Ilede watci, the Iilke-sabe people 
 sought a Cottonwood tiee, which they rushed on, felled, and bore to the 
 center of the tribal circle, where they planted it in the ''uje;!." Mys- 
 tic names taken from the cottonwood are found in the ^'ixida and Nika- 
 daona, the two war gentes of the Ponka tribe, and in the (/'atada and 
 ;\ja"ze gentes of the Omaha.'' 
 
 That there were other mystic trees and plants, appears from an ex- 
 amination of the personal names of the Omaha, Ponka, aiul cognate 
 tribes. For instance, j^ackahig();a", a nikie name of the j,ada, or Deer 
 
 Miss Fletcher, in Am. Assor. Adv. Sci., Proc, vol. xxxili, pt. 2, 1885, pp. 610, f.17. Francis La 
 Fl^che, ibid., p. 614. 
 
 -Osage Traditions, in 6tli Ann. Kept, of the Director Bur. Etlin.. 1888, ji. :)77. 
 
 •'Am. Anthroi)oli>j;ist, viil. II., Xo. 1, 1888, y. .59. (■•January, 1889.") 
 
 'U. S. Geol. and licoj,'r. Survi-y, Ha\ den : lliscel. Piilil.. ;No. 7, 1877; Matthews' Ethnoj;raphy and 
 Philology of the Hidat.sa, 1877, p. 48. 
 
 fOin. Soc, p. 234. ("ontr. X. A. Ethn., vol. vi, 4(18, line 3. 
 
 •Om. Soc, p. 297. Contr. K. A. Ethn., vol. vi, 471, lines 3-5. 
 
392 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 gens of the Omaha, conveys some reference to a white oak tree, ^ackahi; 
 and in the Xuqe, a Buffalo gens of the Ponka tribe, we find the name 
 j^abehi. from a plant, bush, or tree found in Xebraska, the leaves of 
 which, resembling those of red cherry trees, are used by the Omaha for 
 making a tea. Further study may show that the Winnebago, who have 
 the name Wazij^a, Pine Person, reverence a pine tree. (Query : May not 
 this name be Cedar Person, rather than Pine Person?) 
 
 Among the Iowa, Oto, and Missouri, we find several cedar, corn, and 
 pumpkin names. Several corn and pumpkin names occur in the name 
 list of the Kansa tribe. Corn, elm, and black hawthorn names are 
 found in the Osage name list, as well as cedar names; and their tradi- 
 tions tell of the cedar, red oak, and sycamore, as well as of the corn and 
 pumpkin. 1 (See § 49.) 
 
 I^A'E^E. 
 
 § 43. This term has been defined in Chapter ii (§ S). It is very probable 
 that fasting for several days tended to produce the condition of mind 
 and body requisite for the supposed superhuman communications. 
 According to ja^i"-na"paii and other Omaha, some persons thought 
 that they saw or heard ghosts or various animals. Sometimes men 
 were roused from sleep, imagining that they heard mysterious voices. 
 Tliey claimed to have interviews witli U-ga-ha-na-da-ze. or the Ancient 
 of Darkness; Ma-qpi, or the Ancient of Clouds; j^ande, or the Ground 
 Being; Ihg^a", or the Thunder-being; the Sun, the Moon, the Morning 
 Star, the Ancient of Eattlesnakes, the Ancient of Grizzly Bears, the 
 Ancient of Black Bears, the Ancient of Buffaloes, the Ancient of Big 
 Wolves, and the Ancient of Prairie Wolves. Each being or animal 
 thus seen in a dream or vision seems to have been regarded as the 
 special guardian spirit of the person claiming to have had interviews 
 with liini. The Vag(ta^ ifa'ef ^ ma, or Those who had interviews with the 
 Thunder-being, never danced at the meetings of their society. They 
 invited one another to feast, and they sang as they remained seated. 
 The songs referred to the Thunder-being. When they finished eating 
 and singing the ceremonies ended. This order of Thunder shamans 
 claimed the power to make rain (see § 36). 
 
 According to jaf i"-na"paji and Little Village Maker, these shamans 
 could also make circles of seven colors around the sun and moon, and 
 the two men just named said that they had seen this done. Joseph 
 La Fleche and Two Crows gave the following explanation: "When 
 there are clouds that obscure the moon, a circle is seen around the 
 moon, and it sometimes resembles a rainbow." Though Two Crows 
 belongs to the Buffalo society (j^e ifa'efe-ma, or Order of Buffalo 
 shamans — see § 89), he said that he had never had an interview with a 
 mysterious buffalo, but that his work in the order was confined to the 
 practice of surgery, he being the keeper of the "maka° ski^6," or sweet 
 
 'Osage Traditiona, in 6th Ann. Kept. Bur. Ethn.. pp. 377, 379, 390. 
 
poKSEY.j HfA*E(?fi. 393 
 
 medicine. Jfotwithstanding this, there are certain buffalo songs, the 
 property of the order, and \vhich they claim ta be powerful charms 
 capable of working cures, when used by tlie surgeons of their order. 
 Said Two Crows to the author, " If they had sent for the doctors ot our 
 order we could have cured President Gartleld." The author obtained 
 two of these Buffalo songs from an Omaha, but they are recorded only 
 in singing notation.* 
 
 Among the Omaha societies are the Gauge if a'ef e ma, the Horse 
 shamans,- the Ca":^anga ifa-efe-ma, the Big Wolf shamans,^ and the 
 Ma"tcu ifa'efe-ma, the Grizzly Bear shamans.^ 
 
 According to Francis La Fleche.^ 
 
 "There are three decrees of powers which come to men through visions: First, 
 when the vision takes the form of an animal which addresses the man, he wDl then 
 have acquired a jiower which will stead him in danger, and give him success in life. 
 Second, if the vision assumes the appearance of a cloud, or a human shape having 
 wings like an eagle^ and a voice addresses the man, he will have the additional 
 power of heing able to foretell events. Third, when the vision comes without any 
 semblance and only a voice is heard, the man is given not only the power to achieve 
 success and foretell events, but he can foresee the coming of death. Should a man 
 endowed with the third degree so elect, he can in due form join the Ghost Society; 
 or, if he prefers, he can practice his powers individually." 
 
 His father, the late Joseph La Fleche, told the author in 1882 that 
 the Ghost Dance formerly belonged to the Ponka tribe, from whom the 
 Omaha took it: though it has not been used by the Omaha since about 
 A. D. 1850.^ The only inference which tbe author can draw from this 
 statement of the father is that if the Omaha obtained the Ghost Dance 
 from the Ponka, the Ghost Society or order of Ghost shamans is not 
 an original Omaha society. That the two are closely connected is 
 proved by the names, Wanaxe if a'efe-ma, the (order of) Ghost shamans 
 (or, The Ghost Society), and Wanaxe if a'ef e watcigaxe. The dance of 
 those who have visions of ghosts, or, The Ghost Dance. 
 
 The Kansa have the Tee wactce, or Buffalo shaman, and an order of 
 such shamans. When a Kansa had a vision or dream (i-ya-k'e-ye) of 
 an animal, etc., he painted the mystery object on his shield. An old 
 woman used to ''iyak'eye'' of a Hying serpent, the j^yets'a taji licka. 
 The remains of such enormous serpents are found in the Black Hills, 
 "and if one finds such a reptile, he must die." For an account of the 
 Kansa "wakandagi" see § 60. 
 
 The Kwapa or Ukaqpa Indians speak a dialect more closely allied to 
 that of the Omaha and Ponka than to those of the Kansa and Osage. 
 With them, to have superhuman communications is called dfa-q'e-dfe; 
 shamans and doctors are nika qiiwe, mysterious men, and among their 
 
 'See Jour. Am. Folk-lort-. vol. l. No. 3, p. 209; and Oiu. Sociulojiy. in 3d Ann. Rept. Eur. Etho., pp. 
 347-8. 
 
 »Oni. Sociology, p. 348. 
 
 3Ibid, pp. 348, 349. 
 
 •Ibid, p. 349. 
 
 '"Death and Funeral Customs among the Omahas," in Jour. Amer. Folk-lore, vol. ii. No. 4, p. 3. 
 
 «Oin. See., p. 353. 
 
394 
 
 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 societies of such men are the following : Te dfaq'edfe, Those having 
 superhuman communications with the Buftalo; the Ma°tu difaq'edfe, 
 Those having interviews with the Grizzly Bear; the I"ta"'dfa° tan'^ia 
 d^-aq'edfe, Those having interviews with the Panther; and the J awe 
 dfaq'edfe, Those having interviews with the Beaver. There were 
 doubtless other orders, but they are unknown to the author's Kwapa 
 informant, Alphonsus Valliere, of the Wajin:5ia or Bird geusJ 
 
 PERSONAL MYSTERY DECORATIONS. 
 
 § 44. The Omaha and Ponka have certain personal mystery decora- 
 tions, some of which are worn on garments, and others appear on 
 
 - the tents of their owners. The 
 makers and wearers of such 
 decorations must be members 
 of one of the orders of shamans. 
 George Miller's father, Little 
 Soldier, used to wear a buftalo 
 robe decorated in the style 
 shown in Figs. 156 and 157. It 
 was his personal mystery deco- 
 ration, which no one else could 
 use. p]ven members of his gens 
 (the Ictasanda, a Thunder and 
 Reptile gens) feared to imitate 
 it. The father promised to paint 
 this decoration on four white 
 blankets for his son George, but he died before he could paint the 
 fourth one. 
 
 George recei\'ed the first one when 
 he was about seventeen years of age. 
 Before he married he had worn out 
 three. He still has the right to dec- 
 orate and wear the fourth blanket, 
 according to his father's intention. 
 He could decorate other white blan- 
 kets in this style, and wear them, if 
 he wished, but he could not transmit 
 to any one of his children (the grand- 
 children of Little Soldier) the right 
 to make and wear such a decoration, 
 unless George himself should here- 
 after see the objects in a dream or 
 vision. 
 
 mi • 1 i X IT- Fig. 157.— a variant of Fig. 156. 
 
 The right to use such designs on 
 a buffalo robe, blanket, tent, etc., must originate with one who has had 
 
 'This Kwapa information was obtained in January, 1891, some time after the preparation of the 
 greater part of this paper. In such a combination as d(f the <f is scarcely heard. 
 
 Fig. 156. — George Miller's personal mystery decoration. 
 
DORSEY.] ORDER OF THUNDER SHAMANS. 395 
 
 a vision or dream in wbieli the mystery objects are manifested. Those 
 who could use the chiss of designs represented in the accompanying 
 illustrations (Figs. 15G-161) were members of the order of Thunder 
 shamans (Ing(|;a" ifa'e^6-ma). 
 
 OKDER OF THUNDEIJ SHAMAN'S. 
 
 § 45. This order is composed of those who have had dreams or visions, 
 in which they have seen the ThuDder-being, the Sun, the Moon, or some 
 other superterrestrial objects or phenomena. 
 
 When a person saw the Thunder-being or some other mystery ob- 
 ject, he kept the matter a secret for some time. He took care to join 
 the first war party that went from his camp or village. When the 
 party reached the land of the enemy or got into some trouble the man 
 told of his dream or vision. Should the dreamer or seer kill or grasp 
 a foe while a member of the expedition he made a Thunder song. lie 
 who brought back one of the enemy's horses also had the right to 
 make a Thunder song. Some time having elapsed after the return of 
 the warriors, the seer painted the mystery objects on a robe or blanket, 
 and prepared a feast, to which he invited all the members of the order 
 
 Fiii. 158.— Kobe of Waniiki 
 
 of Thunder shamans. When the guests had assembh^l the robe was 
 hung up and shown to them. Then all who were present rejoiced. 
 From that time onward the host was a member of the order, and he 
 could wear the robe with safety. 
 
 He could give his son the right to wear such a robe, but unless that 
 son had a similar vision he crmld not transmit the right to one of the 
 next generation. Little Soldier painted a buft'alo robe with his per- 
 sonal mystery decoration, and gave it to Two Crows, whose father had 
 been one of the leaders of the order of Thunder shamans. So Two 
 Crows wore the robe, and he can make another like it; but he can not 
 transmit the right to his son, Ga'i"-baji. Two Crows would have been 
 afraid to wear the robe or to copy the decoration on it had he not been 
 a member of the order by direct inheritance from his father. A 
 father can clothe his son in such a robe when that sou is large enough 
 
396 
 
 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 Fia. 159.— Tent of Wauukige. 
 
 to go courting. The man can not give sncli a robe to his daughter, but 
 he can give one to his sou's son, or to his daughter's son, should that 
 grandson be a large youth, who has neared or reached the age of pu- 
 berty. 
 
 If a man who became eligible by his vis- 
 ion to membership in the order of Thunder 
 shamans ventured to weiir the decorated 
 robe without inviting the members of the 
 order to a feast, he incurred the anger of 
 the members and misfortune was sure to 
 follow. Should a man wear such a deco- 
 rated robe without having had a vision of 
 the mystery object, he was in danger (if 
 the object was connected with the Thun- 
 der-being, etc.) of being killed by lightning. 
 Every Omaha feared to decorate his robe, 
 tent, or blanket with an object seen by 
 another person in a dream or vision. For 
 instance, George Miller would not dare to 
 have bears' claws, horses' hoofs, etc., on 
 his robe, because neither he nor his father 
 ever saw a bear or horse mysteriously. There are penalties attached 
 to violations of the prohibitions of the other orders, but George Miller 
 did not know about them. 
 
 Besides the personal mystery decoration of the robe or blanket, is 
 that of the tent. PI. 
 XLiv, E is a sketch of a 
 tent, furnished to the 
 author by Dried Buffalo 
 Skull, an old man of the 
 ^atada gens of the Oma- 
 ha. The decoration of 
 this tent was the per- 
 sonal mystery or "qube" 
 of Hupef a, Sr., father of 
 Hupe^*a,Jr (now known 
 as j^enuga ;anga),of the 
 Wasabe-hit'aji or Black 
 Bear sub-gens of the(pa- 
 tada. After the death 
 of Hupefa, Sr.,the deco- 
 ration became the j^rop- 
 
 Fic. IGO.— Robe of (jia<iube. 
 
 erty of his kinsman, Agaha-wacuce, of the same sub-gens, and fsither of 
 ^jafi"na"i)aji. The circle at the top, representing a bear's cave, is some- 
 times painted blue, though Agaha-wacuce had it reddened. Below the 
 four zigzag lines (representing the lightnings of different colors) are the 
 
DORSET.] 
 
 GENERIC FORMS OF DECORATIOM". 
 
 397 
 
 prints of bears' paws. The lower part of the tent was I thickened with 
 ashes or cliarcoal. Among the four zigzag lines, red, according to Mr. 
 Francis La Fleche. symbolizes the east. 
 
 Fig. 161. — Robe of jahe-jap'e. 
 
 Wanukige, a chief of the Ictasanda gens, had a vision of the aurora 
 borealis, so he depicted this on his robes and tent, as shown in Figs. 1.58 
 and 159. On the tent were seven stripes, three on each side of the 
 entrance and one in the rear. Each robe that he wore had seven 
 stripes. 
 
 Fig. 1(J0 represents the personal mystery decoration of (^'aqube of the 
 Aja"ze gens. George Miller's father could 
 wear this decoration, but the right to it 
 couUl not be transmitted by him to any 
 one else, jahe-jap'o, of the ^^e-4" sub- 
 gens of the (|"atada gens, once had a vis- 
 ion of two stars and the new moon. Con- 
 sequently he decorated his butialo robe, 
 as shown in Fig. HJl, and joined the order 
 of Thunder shaman.s. He died when the 
 author was at the Omaha agent-y (between 
 1878 and 1880). 
 
 / \ 
 
 OEXEKIC FORMS OF HECOItATlOX. ' \ 
 
 § 46. There are examples of generic ^ 
 forms of decoration, as well as those of ^ 
 specitic forms. For instance, when a per- 
 son had a vision of the night, or of the 
 Thunder-being, or one of some other su 
 ]>erterrestrial object, he blackened the upper part of his tent and a 
 small portion on each side of the entrance, as shown in Fig. lOl*. 
 
 3 
 
 Fig. 162. — Generic decoration referring to 
 uijiht. etc. 
 
398 
 
 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 It was given thus by George Miller: 
 
 Niaci"ga amd jigudi cte ba"' da"'cte i^-a'e^e ama ^i ug(|',i"'i 
 
 People the where ever night for example they have the tent they 
 
 pi. 
 sub. 
 
 wi°d6ta" sabefai, ki ci 
 
 one-half the they blacken and again 
 length 
 
 dwell 
 
 visions pi. 
 
 of it. sub. in 
 
 agudi cte nikaci"ga ama ing^a"' iif'a'efe ama 
 
 where ever people the pi. thunder they have the pi. 
 
 sub. being visions sub. 
 of it. 
 
 CI ega" ug</'i"'-biama. 
 
 again so they dwell in, 
 they say. 
 
 SrECIFIC FORMS OF DECORATION. 
 
 A specitic form related to the generic one Just described is shown in 
 Fig. 163. The blackened part of the tent represents the night, and the 
 
 star denotes the morning star. There was 
 a star on the left hand at the back of the 
 tent, and another star on the right side. 
 Black and blue are occasionally inter- 
 changeable in Omaha symbolism; hence 
 we find that the night is represented by a 
 blue band on a coyote skin worn by the 
 elder A"pa°-ska, and subsequently by his 
 son and namesake, when the latter was a 
 small boy. The blue band was worn next 
 the shoulders of the owner (Fig. 164). 
 
 The decoration refers to his '' qube" 
 or " sacred vision." Little Cedar, of the 
 \ Ma"finka-gaxe (Omaha) gens, belonged, 
 we are told, to the Mi" i^-a'c^^e-ma, or order 
 of Sun and Moon shamans, probably iden- 
 tical with the order of Thunder shamans. Fig. 165 represents a vision 
 which Little Cedar once had, described thus by George Miller: 
 
 Fig. 163.— Tent of A''pa°-ska, Sr. 
 
 liu. 104.— Kobe of A"pa''-ska, Sr. 
 
 Ga"' niaci"ga ak4 ic^-a'efA-bi ega"' fetega" ^i uga te ug(|'i°'-biam^ 
 
 And man the having had a vis- like this tent painted the 
 
 having had 
 
 ion, they say 
 
 std. ob. 
 
 be dwelt in, 
 they say, 
 
 Ji*d 
 
DORSET. 1 
 
 SPECIFIC FORMS OF DECORATION. 
 
 399 
 
 Mazi-jin'ga ijaje afi"'-l)iainii. Siil»e te luV" ke e gaxai; nia"'ba fa" 
 
 Cedar Little his name luul, tli.y Bla.k tlir iiii;ht the that ma.lr moon the cv 
 
 efa^be te gaxai. Nia"'ba ufaiiMa faii'di in'kaci"ga uiifi"' gaxai, gau'^ii 
 
 euierying the nia.h. Moon in the in thr ihi.soii sittinj; made and 
 
 midst of [lart in 
 
 ifa'efai finke e te. Nia"'ba efa"be ati-namli iiacifi" Hga"-na"'i. 
 
 one seen in the ime that the Moon emerjjinj; eomesrcfi;Mhirl\% hhizes some- usu.lllv 
 
 a vision who wiun ' (sends up what 
 
 liilht) 
 
 The blaek band let'ers to the night ; the circh', to the moon; the eir- 
 eumscribed ligure is a gliost that lie saw in the moon; and the dots 
 above the moon refer to tiie " white wliieli stands aliove th<' rising sim 
 or moon." PI. xliv b shows another tent (U-coration of the same man. 
 The red circle represents the sun, in wliich stands a man hokling the 
 :^a-ca-ge, or deer rattles, made of the hard or eallous knobs found near 
 the hoofs of the deer. These knobs are split, hollowed out, and strung 
 on sticks. The tent being very large, the tigure of the man was al- 
 
 Fiii. 165. — Tent of Mazi-jiuga — ghost vision. 
 
 Fkj. 1G6._A tent of Kiku(fib(*a'' 
 
 most life size, and a real feather was tied to his bead. The blue band 
 at the bottom may represent night, but there is no certainty about it. 
 
 § 47. Fig. lOG is the decoration of one of the tents of Xi-ku-fi-bfa", 
 father of the present Wacka"-ma°(fi" (Hard Walker), an ex-chief of the 
 Omaha. Nikuf ibfa" was one of the two leaders of the order of Thunder 
 shamans, and was regarded as being very ''qabe" or mysterious. The 
 black baud at the bottom refers to the night, and above it are seen the 
 moon and a star. The old man named one (»f his grandchildren Ha° akipa 
 (Meets the Night), after the vision to which the tent decoration refers. 
 
 George Miller furnished the description of Nikuf ibf a"'s tent, obtained 
 from an old woman, who is his widow: 
 
 "Ga" wiqti ^a"'ba-mj'iji fa^'ja, ufai ega" ana"a"hri. Ga"' ingfa"' 
 
 And 
 
 I 
 
 myself 
 
 I did not 
 see him 
 
 though they have 
 told about 
 him 
 
 I have 
 heard it. 
 
 And Thunder 
 Being 
 
 kifC 
 
400 
 
 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 i^a'e^a-biama, ada" ^iDiiiri'ge gaxai te gate, j^iliujja" (•a°:;a bagfejal 
 
 he had a vision of therefore raiubow made it the that ob. Smoke-hole at the painted in 
 hira, they say (past part spots 
 
 act) 
 
 te, 6 ufai lia wa'iijinga igaqfa" aka. Ma'^'cia^a afi"' akii, a-biama. 
 
 the that toW it old woman his wife the sub. Oii hijth having had he said, 
 
 (past 
 
 act) 
 
 E-ja cti 
 
 There too 
 
 him reached they say. 
 there again 
 
 maja 
 
 land 
 
 4! ugk te 
 
 tent painted tht 
 
 fe ega", a-biama. 
 
 this liliu he said, they 
 say. 
 
 awatega" gaxe ga"'(f'ai 
 
 Qube'qti gaxai 
 
 Very myste- 
 rious 
 
 511, ga"' 
 
 They 
 made him 
 
 niaci°ga, 
 
 man 
 
 to make he wished when at any 
 
 it 
 
 rate 
 
 te masi e wakai 
 
 ada" 
 
 there- 
 fore 
 
 ega" gaxai. Bag^ejai 
 
 so he made it. Made spotted 
 by painting 
 
 te." 
 
 he hail 
 
 that it meant the (past 
 act). 
 
 That is, " I myself did iiot see him, but 
 I have heard what was tokl. They say 
 that he had a vision of the Thunder-be- 
 ing, so he made that rainbow which ap- 
 pears in the figure (Fig. 167). The okl 
 woman, his widow, has told that he 
 painted the top of the tent, near the 
 smoke-hole, in spots. Tbey say that he 
 said that the Thunder-being had carried 
 him up on high, and that the place there 
 resembled this world. The man was re- 
 garded as very mysterious; therefore he 
 decorated his tent according to the 
 pattern that he wished to make. The 
 j)ainted spots represent hail." Many years ago, Niku^ibifca" said that 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 Fi<;. ltJ7.— Ani)tlKT tent uf >.'ikiici 
 
 Fio. 168.— Blanket of Cuj|a-n)a''(fi". 
 
 he had been carried up into the world above this one, and that he found 
 
DOHSEY.] 
 
 OMAHA MYSTERY DECORATIONS. 
 
 401 
 
 it resembled the world in which \vc live. The rainbow and liad de- 
 picted on the tent formed part of the vision, but their exact sio-niti- 
 cance has not been explained. 
 
 Cn-^ia ma"-f i", an Omaha, had a, vision which gave him the right to 
 use the decoration given in Fig. 108. The meanings of the diHerent 
 marks have not been learned. Cu^ia ma"fi" bequeathed the blanket 
 to liis sou, ;5jaxe-gia' (Plyiug Crow), now known as Gilbert Morris. 
 
 §48. The old chief j^e-sa" (Ta sone of Maj. Long), Distant- white 
 Buffalo, father of the chiefs Standing Hawk and Fire Chief, had a vision 
 of a cedar tree, which he painted on each side of his tent, as seen in 
 Fig. 169. The next sketch (Fig. 170) shows the back part of another 
 tent of xe-sa". The blue band near the top is called " sabe" (black); 
 below this is the sun and a blue rainbow; near the bottom are two 
 horsetails. The only decorations on the front of the tent are two 
 horsetails, one on each side of the entrance. This tent was used by 
 
 Fk;. 1G9.— Teut uf j,c-sa° ; viaiuu of a codar. Fk;. 170.— Ttut of xe-sa"; sun and rainbow vision. 
 
 Standing Hawk after the death of his lather. This decoration may 
 have been made after a vision of horses, as Standing Hawk was a 
 member of the order of Horse Shamans (Cange i<|;a'efe-ma). George 
 Miller speaks thus about it : 
 
 atai ega°' i(^a'e^e da"'ctr'a"'i t(^, 
 
 Iio was as lie had a perhaps the (past 
 
 beyond vision act) 
 
 caii'ge siii'de ctT gaxai, hide 
 
 horse tail too he made bottom 
 
 Ga"' 
 
 And 
 
 niaci"ga aka nikagahi 
 
 man the sub. chief 
 
 mi"' fit" ugai. 
 
 i';i. 
 
 Ci 
 
 tlio ho painted he painted the Again 
 cv.ob. tent with it. 
 
 ke'di. 
 
 at the 
 
 That is, "'As the man was a 
 
 j^ihujja" dasi <fa" sabG^ai. 
 
 Smoke hole tip end the part he blackened 
 
 head chief, he may have had a vision, for he occupied a tent on which 
 he painted the sun, and he also decorated it with horse-tails at the lower 
 part. He painted the border of the smoke-hole a dark blue (^u sab6, 
 11 ETH 26 
 
402 
 
 A STUDY OF felOUAN CULTS. 
 
 which is some-tiuies called, sabe)." 
 
 g^xai 
 
 did 
 
 te'di, 
 
 when 
 
 ijiu'ge 
 
 hia son 
 
 ama 
 
 tho 1)1. 
 sub. 
 
 "I^adi ama da"'cte ega" 
 
 His fiillaer the pi. sub. perhaps so 
 
 i<J;a'c(|5a-baji ctewa'" ega" guxe- 
 
 thoy did not have even so they 
 visions of it 
 
 na°'-biamd., ada° ega" gaxai." That is, " When the fathers 
 
 usually did, they there- so he did 
 
 say fore 
 
 decorate their tents in consequence of their respective visions, their 
 sons (who succeed them) usually imitate them (or dwell in the decor- 
 ated tents), even when they tliemselves have not had visions of the ob- 
 ects. Therefore he (i. e., Standing Hawk) did so." 
 
 George Miller told the following about ^jede-gahi or Fire Chief, 
 another sod of j^e-sa" : 
 
 Oi 6ga° jede-gahi aka ugfi^'i w^a4a"'be. Wata"'zihi i;i wa:^a"'be 
 
 Again so Fire Chief the he sat in I saw Corn-stalk painted I saw 
 
 sub. it on the 
 
 tent 
 
 ^a°'ja, awatega" ifapaha"-mdji <|;a"'ja, nikagahi ega" ega"" ug(f'i"'i t?. 
 
 though of what sort I knew not though chief like so he sat in the 
 
 (past 
 act) 
 
 Wata"zi <|;i"' cti waqu'be gaxai. Ki ci' jede-gahi ak4 ta"'wa"g^a° 
 
 Corn the col. too mysterious he made and again Fire Chief the gous 
 
 ob. it sub. 
 
 e!ja ama Wajin'ga-(|;at^ji auui wahaba pahan'ga ju't'a" te'di (f-ata-bajT 
 
 his the pi. Bird eat not the pi. ear of corn lirst matures when they do not 
 
 sub. sub. eat 
 
 wah4ba <j'i"', iiikaci"ga ama na"'wape fate tai te', (paiai j[i, wahaba 
 
 ear of corn the col. 
 ob. 
 
 (|;i°', wajiu'ga 
 
 the col. bird 
 ob. 
 
 biama !;i ug;i. 
 
 peojjle 
 
 the pi. 
 
 sub. 
 
 fear them 
 
 they will 
 Vat 
 
 the 
 
 (act) 
 
 They 
 eat 
 
 if ear of corn 
 
 ((•asni 
 
 devour 
 
 they say tent paiutiivj; T' 
 / 
 
 Inke-sabe <4kadi cti ega" giixe na"- 
 
 Shouldcr black among too so make usu- 
 
 tlie ally 
 
 Hafi'ga likadi cti ega" gaxe-ua"'-biama .ji uga. 
 
 emost iimong too so make 
 
 wej^uhai. 
 
 they fear 
 them 
 
 imonji 
 the 
 
 usu- they say tent painting, 
 ally 
 
 This refers to Fig. 171, and may be thus 
 rendered : "And I have likewise seen the 
 tent of Fire Chief. It was decorated with 
 cornstalks, but I do not know the reason 
 for it. He dwelt in such a tent because 
 he was a chief. Corn was regarded as 
 "waqube,'' mysterious. In the sub-gens 
 of Fire Chief, the Wajinga-fataji, or, those 
 who eat no small birds, the people feared 
 / 1 to eat the first ears of corn that matured, 
 
 lest the small birds (particularly black- 
 birds) should come and devour the rest of 
 the crop. There was a similar tent decor- 
 ation in the IFike-sabe and Ilanga gentes." 
 Fig. i7i.-Cornstaik decoration of tho jn the former, it was used by Wacjaga (see 
 
 tents of Firo Chief and Waqaga. ^ ,-o\ mi j_ 11 t 
 
 § 53). Tlie cornstalks and ears were green, 
 the tips of the ears were black. There were two similar cornstalks ou 
 the back of the tent. 
 
 / 
 
CORN AND THE BUFFALO. 
 
 403 
 
 CORN AND THE BUFFALO. 
 
 § 49. Com is regarded as a '' mother" and the bufl'alo as a "grand- 
 father" among the Omaha and other tribes.^ In the Osage tradition, 
 
 **%ai>>^^ 
 
 P'lG. 172 — Kobo of Ni<factiigc. 
 
 corn was bestowed u^ton the i>e(>ple by four bulfalo Iddls or "grand- 
 fathers.'" ^ Dr. Washington Matthews tells <»f a. siniiljir Arikara belief 
 about an ear of eorn.^ (See § 42.) 
 
 Fiu. 173.— Dubama"(fi"'s liitbtr's tent. Fig. 174.— Ma"tcu-na°ba's tent. 
 
 OTHER OMAHA MYSTERY DECORATIONS. 
 
 § 50. Among the members of the order of Buffalo (j^e i<fa'e<fe-ma) was 
 Ni^actage, whose robe is shown in Fig. 172. The red band is at the top. 
 
 'See Om. Soc, in 3d Ann. Kept. Bur. Ethn. ^^123, 163, and several uij'ths in Contr. to N. A. Ethnol- 
 ogy, vol. VI. 
 
 'See Osage Traditions, in 6tb Ann. Kept. Bur. Ethn., p. 379. 
 
 'U. S. Geol. and Geogr. Surv., Haydeu, Miscell. Publ., No, 7, 1877; Ethnograpliy and Philology of 
 Hidatsa Indians, p. 12. 
 
404 A STUDY OF SIUUA^^ CULTS. 
 
 The black spots represent the places where the buffaloes play '-buffalo 
 wallows." Buffalo hoofs are in blue. 
 
 Duba-ma"fi"'s father had a visiou of horses, hence he wished to de- 
 pict horse-tails and tracks on his tent, as found in Fig. 173; but he died 
 before he tinished it. 
 
 The father of Ma°tcu na"ba had a vision of horses, and bequeathed 
 to his sou Ma"tcu-na°ba the right to decorate his tent in the style shown 
 in Fig-. 174. The yellow was connected with the vision. When the 
 owner dwelt in an earth-lodge, the horse-tail was tied to a long pole, 
 which was thrust through the opening at the top of the lodge. So when 
 he used his skin tent, the horse-tail hung from the top of a long pole 
 above the smoke-hole. 
 
 When the Omaha dwelt near the present town of Homer, Xebr.. and 
 Wacka"hi was a young child, he went out to play, and fell asleep. He 
 said that he was aroused by the sounds ma<le by many chickens crow- 
 
 \ ^ 
 
 Fig. 175. — Wacka°hi 3 tent. Fiu. 176.— Tent of nnknown Omaha. 
 
 ing and caclding. In those days {Jide George Miller) there were no 
 white people in that neighborhood ; but now in that very place where 
 Wacka^hi had the vision, there is a wealthy family living, and besides 
 large herds they have a great many chickens. In remembrance of that 
 occurrence, Wacka°hi painted his tent with his personal decoration as 
 given in Fig. 175. 
 
 An unknowTi Omaha had a vision of deer, so he decorated his tent 
 accordingly. (See Fig. 176.) George Miller could not furnish the man's 
 name. 
 
 § 51. Among the members of the order of Grizzly Bear shamans was 
 an Omaha named x^bi''^- (Frog). The top of his tent was paiuted yellow, 
 as shown in Fig. 177. There was no other decoration; but this yellow 
 evidently was connected with a grizzly bear \'ision, as it appears in the 
 decoration adopted by the father of Two Crows, who was not only one 
 
t»«ai-l OTHEB OMAHA MTSTERT DECORaTTOXS^ -i^.'lkD 
 
 of the two leaders of the order of Thuiiider - > Jtngtwi^ kt^^ec^ma 
 
 but also a member of the orders of Bunaio and irriizlT Bear .^aman^ 
 ijQe iea-ee^-ma aud Ma^Tcii iea*e<ic-ma . See PI. xui^r - 
 griizly bear is depicted as emerging iT»m his den. Tuc 
 sents the groimd. 
 
 This decoratJon of the tent of Two Crows" fiiher is thus deseribed 
 by George Miller: Ma-teu i*a-efai ega^ ii t^ ega* gaxaL Ma'teu 
 
 wad " '" ^- : " !e ke ma'^taia eea'^be ii w ■ - ' '. ga'^ ega* 
 
 g;\xai i\ t^. jsm'de k^ jiif^iia*'i, ji hebe k^ uf^na*!" That is. 
 
 ••^^1ieii ihfv have iiad visioas of grizzly bears, they dt 
 tents aeoordiuglv. AATien ihev see inizxiv bear>, rhev '. 
 
 jL 
 
 FK5. 177.— IVjii i\f i^bi-a. Fts. ITS,— IV«« <i^E j> Ka; *ji ^Iv >-*i Mt <oi^:V vfesMt- 
 
 eoniiug out of the grtniud, aud s<i they jviiui the tents* They always? 
 (or usually^ paiut the gixuuul blue, aud part of the teiil they paint in 
 a yellow baud." This shows the «.x>uveutioual ust» of wlors. See PI. 
 xi.i V, K. for the sketch of another tent ivpivseuiiug tho vision i^t a gri^^ly 
 iH'ar. 
 
 ^ r»i\ rhiw Ivausi^ dtHHM-ations follow. They are taken trxnn an 
 original sketch made by a Kansj^ man, known to ihe^hite x^tHH^^*^ !** 
 Stephen Siubbs. The lirst tent (Vig. ITv^Us that of a man who had 
 ta>itHl and held mysterious ivnununioation with an eagle whioh g^^ve 
 him sonu^ feathers. He had daiuHnl the pijv danet^ ontn* for snune one. 
 At the base of this tent aiv stvn two i^^atv pi^vs on each siiie of the 
 eutranre. .Vt the back atv a black lH\»r and a large tnvtle. The 
 stvond tent ^V^g. I7l>> is that of a man who had danee«l the pijH* daiuH> 
 thrtv times. r>utVaK> tails aiv fastemni to the tov»s of the triangular 
 
406 
 
 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 pieces forming the shelter of the smoke-hole, feathers hang from the 
 two shields, and the stars are above and on the base of the tent skins. 
 Feathers, shields, and stars are also on the back of this tent. 
 
 Fig. 180 is the tent of a man who has danced the pipe dance fonr 
 times. It is very probable, judging from the stars on the tents, that 
 
 Fig. 179.— Kansa decorated tent. 
 
 Fig. 180 Kauaa decorated tent. 
 
 the owners of the second and third Kansa tents had had visions. The 
 Kansa say that when a man has danced the ])ipe dance twice, his tent 
 can be decorated with two cornstalks at the front (one on each side of 
 the entrance), and two more at the back. The x)ipes used in the calu- 
 met or pipe dance are regarded as '"Wakanda^^a^ica"" by the Omaha 
 
 Fig, 181.— Maoze-guhe's robe. 
 
 and Ponka, and the inference is that the Kansa and Osage had a sim- 
 ilar belief about these pipes and the accompanying dance. Perhaps 
 there was a time when no man could undertake the pipe dance unless 
 he had a vision of some kind. 
 
DORSEY. ] 
 
 OMAHA NIKIE DECORATIONS. 
 
 407 
 
 OMAHA NIKIE DECORATIONS. 
 
 § 53. As the geiites of the Omaha and Pouka are regarded 
 "Wakaiida^afica'V the "nikie" and "nikie names" have a 
 significance. George Miller has furnished 
 the author with a few nikie decorations, 
 which are now given. 
 
 Ma"ze-guhe, an Omaha, belonged to the 
 Wait'igije sub-gens of the Inkesabe gens. 
 The decoration of his robe (Fig. LSI) marks 
 the nikie of the sub-gens, as it consisted of 
 spiral forms known as '' wafigije." That of 
 the tent (Fig. 182) refers to the nikie of the 
 entire gens. In the latter case, the buffalo 
 head was painted on the back of the tent. 
 
 Duba-ma"f i", who has a nikie name refer- 
 i-ing to the buftalo, belongs to the Wafigije 
 sub-gens. His father wore a black blanket 
 embroidered with beadwork in two rows of 
 spirals, between which was a star. All 
 these figures were made of white beads. 
 (See Fig. 183.) 
 
 In the Pipe sub-gens of the Ifike-sabc there were several t< 
 ations. Of the first, George Miller speaks thus: 
 
 as being 
 religi<ms 
 
 nt decor 
 
 ^J»«W»gfea»3»l»»i»««IB«Wl«t M« W« w ^ ^ 
 
 Fiu. 183.— Duba-ina"(fi°'8 father"^ lil;. 
 
 Nikaci"'ga-ma ta"'wa"g(f;a"'-ma niniba t'a"' amd Ifike-sabt^ akadi 
 
 The people those in tlie gontcs pipo liave tbo pi. lUack shoulder among 
 
 8iib. the 
 
408 
 
 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 Ivi wedaji-ma wodalia"-uiaji. aii'ka-b;iji 
 
 I do not know tlieni tliev are not so 
 
 painted the And those elsewhere 
 tent with 
 
 ^1 ugai, luiiiba m, 
 
 tent they pij 
 
 paint 
 
 eb^ega". luke-sabe akadi nikagiilii akd ^ga" gaxai ebt^-ega", a"'ctewa"' 
 
 I think. Black shoulder amonsr oliief the sub. so made I think of any pattern 
 
 the 
 
 g^xa-bilji ebfega". Niiiiba waqiibe gaxai ^fi. uiiiiba ja"' ko bcj-aska 
 
 he did not make I think. Pipe mysterious made when pipe 
 
 mysterious 
 thins 
 
 wood the tlat 
 Ig. Ob. 
 
 gaxai, 
 
 made 
 
 put porcupine 
 work around it 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 ufiskai, ■vrajiu'gada ajii te, ;alii" jide ika"ta"'i." 
 
 bird heads put many the "deerfur" red tied to it. 
 
 on it past act 
 
 That is, ''Those persons who belong to 
 the Inke-sabt' snb-gens known as Keepers 
 of the Pipes, paint their tent(s) with the 
 pipe decoration. I do not know of any 
 other persons, members of other gentes, 
 usiug this decoration: I think that no 
 others nse it. I think that the liikesabg 
 chief decorates his tent in this manner, 
 and that he did not decorate it in any way 
 lie i^leased. When the sacred pipes were 
 made (on the tent) the pipestem was made 
 flat, porcnpine work was put around it, 
 several heads of birds were fastened on it, 
 and tufts of reddened horses' hair were 
 tied to it at intervals." (See Fig. 184 and 
 PI. XLiv. c.) This Inke-sabe tent had only 
 
 two pipes on it — one on each side of the entrance. 
 The second Ihke-sabe tent decoration is thus described by tlie same 
 
 authority : 
 A°jiii'ga te'di ^i'-ugfi"' wa;a"'be y[\, ^ekega" ug^'i^'i. Xiniba niaca" 
 
 The small when tent dwelt in I saw them when like this they dwelt Pipe quill 
 
 Ig. ob. " in feather 
 
 ugf^ i;i wa;a"'be Xiniba t'a°' akadi, Waqdga ega" i^i wa{^a"'be. 
 
 attached painted I saw Pipe had amonjr Burrs 
 
 to at the tent 
 right with 
 angles 
 
 Niniba waqiibe ke ekiga"'qti fa"'ja, e maca'^ ngf^ gaxai, niniba 
 
 Pipe sacred thelsr. just like it thougli tliat quill attached to made pipe 
 
 Fi(i. 1S4.— lEke-sabe tent decoration. 
 
 amon^ 
 the 
 
 painted I saw them 
 the tent 
 with 
 
 ob. 
 
 w^awa" ak^6 ha. ^'^"'J^ niniba ke 
 
 calumet that is it 
 
 feather at right angles 
 
 e inikagahi ^ji^jaxai, niaci"'ga 
 
 Though 
 
 pipe thelg. that chief by they make 
 
 ob. aforesaid means of it themselves 
 
 people 
 
 amil ^taqti gilxai niniba waqtibe. Xiaci"'ga ama piaji'qti ctectewa"', 
 
 make it pipe sacred People the pi. very bad notwithstanding 
 
 the pi. exceed 
 sub. inglv 
 
 the pi. 
 sub. 
 
 akit'6 akikifdqti ma°fi"'i ctectewa"', kikideqti ma°fi"'i ctectt^wa"'. 
 
 foreign contending they walk notwithstanding shooting often they walk notwithstanding 
 nation fiercely together and fiercely 
 
 niniba ke efa"be a^V" ahii 5[i, u^uci k& 
 
 pipe thelg. coming thev take it when in the the 
 ob. fortir thither middle Ig. 
 
 liue 
 
 miikicta" tai'. Teqi gaxai. niaci"'ga amii. 
 
 they stop will Precious they peojde the pi. sub. 
 
 shooting at make it 
 
 one another 
 
 uhii afi"' a^ai' 5(1, 
 
 following they when 
 
 its course take it 
 
IJOHHKV.l 
 
 OMAHA NIKIE DECORATIONS. 
 
 409 
 
 Tlint is, "When, in my cliildlKuxl, 1 saw tlie tents in which 
 the iHtoph', (lw(dt, th(;y were of tliis sort. (See Fiy-. 185.) I saw 
 tlie tent decora t«Ml witli the pipes havinj>- 
 feathers atta(;licd to each pipe at rij^lit 
 angles. I saw a tent of this sort when it 
 was occupied ])y Wacpiga of tlie Pipe sub- 
 gens. (See another tent decoration of this 
 man, § 4.S.) Though these pipes closely 
 resemble the peace pipes (niniba wac^ube), 
 they are made with the feathers attached 
 to the stems at right angles. These are 
 the pipes used in the jiipe dance. By 
 means of tln^ ])ii)<'s the iieojde made for 
 themselves that which was e([uivalcnt to 
 (or, lead to) tlie cjiicftainshi]). So they re- 
 garded the sacred pii»es as of the greatest / 
 importance. Even when the people were ^- 
 very bad, even when different tribes con- 
 tinued to struggle with one another; even 
 when they shot often at one another, when some i)ersons came forth 
 witli the peace i)ipes, and bore them to a place between the opi)osing 
 
 forces, carrying them all along the 
 
 •%\ 
 
 r 
 
 :^ 
 
 1 
 
 Fig. 185. — Iuke-Hab6 tent decoration. 
 
 lines, they stopped shooting at one 
 another. The Indians regarded 
 the pii)es as precious.'' 
 
 A j^ada nikie tent decoration is 
 shown in the tent of Heqaga. ( PI. 
 XLiv, c.) This tent had two pipes 
 Ij on each side of the tent, double the 
 number on the Inke-sabe tent(Fig. 
 1S4). 
 
 Fig. 186 is given as the nikie 
 decoration of a robe ])elonging to 
 Waqaga. The bird on the robe is 
 an eagle. Members of the Pipe sub-gens of the inke-salM" have eagle 
 birth names. And we know that Wacjaga belonged to that sub gens. 
 
 The author understood Joseph La Fleche and Two Crows to say, in 
 1882, that while nikie names possessed a sacredness, it was only the 
 sacredness of antiijuity, and that they were not " Wakandajafica"." 
 But the author now thinks that such a statement needs modifica- 
 tion; for, besides what appears at the beginning of this section, we 
 know that among the Osage and Kansa the nikie names are associ- 
 ated with the traditions preserved in the secret society of seven de- 
 grees, and that this applies not only to names of gentes and sub-gentes, 
 but also to personal nikie names. The author frightened an Osage in 
 January, 1883, by mentioning in publi<' some of this class of names. 
 
 Fio. 186.— Waiiaga's robe. 
 
410 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 OMAHA KIKIE CUSTOMS. 
 
 § 54. Among tlio iiikie of th»^ Omalia, tli(^ following may be men- 
 tioned: The Wajinga-fataji, or "Blackbird people," had a curious 
 custom during the harvest season. At that time the birds used to 
 devour the corn, so the men of this sub-gens undertook to iirevent 
 tliem, by chewing some grains of corn which they spit around over the 
 held.' During a fog, the ^je-'i" men would draw the figure of a turtle 
 on the ground, with its h(;ad to the south. On the head, tail, middle 
 of the l)ack, and each leg, were placed small pieces of a (red) breech- 
 cloth with some tobacco. They imagined that this would make the 
 fog disappear very soon.'^ The ^ja^ze gens, being Wind people, flap 
 their blankets to start a breeze when mosquitoes abound.^ The x^"d^ 
 gens have a form for the naming of a child on the fifth morning after 
 its birth, according to luion, one of the chiefs of that gens.* Tn the 
 feast on the hearts and tongues,'' the Hanga men who belong to the 
 sub-gens keeping the sacred pole, eat the buftalo tongues, though the 
 bulfalo is their "grandfather" and the eponym of their gens; but 
 they can not eat the " ^a " or ])uffalo sides. However, the other Hanga 
 men, who can not eat the tongues, are allowed to eat the consecrated 
 l)ufialo sides, after the ceremonies connected with the thanksgiving 
 and anointing of the sacred pole.^ No Omaha child had its hair cut 
 nntil it had been taken to an old man of the Ictasanda gens, to have 
 the tirst locks cut, the first moccasins put on the child's feet, and 
 prayca's to be said over it. Sometimes the old man said " j^ucpaha, 
 
 O ^aiidoliild, 
 
 Wakan'da fs,^6fif6-de ^i^ci ma"(|',ih'ka si d^agfe tate," i. e., "O 
 
 WakMnda pity you wliou a lontr time soil foot yon set it sliall, 
 
 M'ect on 
 
 grandchild, may Wakanda pity you, and may your feet rest a long 
 time on the ground ! " Another form was sometimes used — " Wakanda 
 fa'efife tate. Ma"^irika si nfagfe tate. Gudihega" ne tate," i. e., 
 "May Wakanda pity you! May your feet tread the ground! May 
 you go ahead (or, live hereafter) ! " " 
 
 §55. When there is a "blizzard," the other Kansa beg the members 
 of the Tcihaci" or Ka"ze gens to interpose, as they are Wind i)eople. 
 "j\[i'tcigu-e', ha'"ba ya'li ku"'bla eyau'. Ciii'gajin'ga yi'ta 
 
 O grandfather, ila.\ good I desire indeed. Child your 
 
 kik'u"'yakiye' tee au'^, a'be an'." i. e., "They say, 'O grandfather (said 
 
 you cause liim to will . they 
 
 be decorated (or .say 
 
 ])aiuted) 
 
 to one of the Ka"ze gens), I wish good weather. Please cause one of 
 your children to be decorated ! ' " Then the youngest son of one of the 
 
 'Om. Soc., in 3d Ann. Eept. Bur. Ethn., p. 238. ■> Ibid., pp. 245. 246. 
 
 ^Ibid., p. 240. « Ibid., pp. 290, 291. 
 
 sibid.. p. 241. <= Ibid., p. 295. 
 
 'For detailed aeconnt.s, see "GUmpses of Child-life among the Omaha Indians,'' by Miss A. C. 
 Fletcher, in Jour. Am. Folk-lore, vol. i, No. 2, pp. 115-118; and Omaha Sociology, in 3d Ann. Kept. 
 Bur. Ethn., pp. 249, 250. 
 
DOHSHT-1 OiLlEJ. ivr. pryxA rABOOS. 411 
 
 Ka^ze men. say one over 4 feet high, is ebosen. ibr the iwirtwse. aad 
 
 pamteii with, red paint I'. sama^jri - ■ ■ • - ..^ 
 
 rolls over and over in the -inovr a;. j 
 
 aroaiid him. This is ^Rtpposed to stop the storm. 
 
 GfO VES^HL^JH 1' AI. ESSTSniESTALITTES. 
 
 §56. Among the On. ' , ' , u 
 
 ''•W"akaQ«ia4.a»cioa^"' ar^ - . , 
 
 the keepers of the saered pipes, the gentes, sub-gentesy aod taboos^ 
 
 none of which can be regarded ; ' - ' ; , ' 
 
 pear to be fetiches: The Siicreil - _ , i 
 
 genSy the two peace pipes kept by the Inke-sabe gens, the mystenoas 
 objects kept bv the -keepers of the pipes" in tiie i^jr ' - ^ . )Li^- 
 finka-gaxe. j^e-sinde. jfl-d.a>, and Ictasanda gentes. > a' or 
 
 pipes nseil in the calmnet dance), the sacred p«>Ie, the sacred hide of a 
 white buffalo, the s;'- '•':^'' ' -. -<-^ r ^ivinatiou. and the sacred clam shell 
 of the Elk gens.' 
 
 $ 31- OmASA. AXI> POJRtA TAJBOOe. 
 
 Bnffalo skull not touched by — 
 
 1. jjd-dii it-aji siib-gens of (fata. la). 
 
 :?- Waf igije sub-gens of lilke-s; 
 
 3. j^e-^inde gens (Om.). 
 
 4. Part oi the Wacabe geujj ^ F^>iik;i . 
 
 5. Part of yecta gens P.). 
 Buffalo tongue not eaten by — 
 
 1. Watfrigije sub-g«: • > ' ' "" ■- ^ 
 
 2. Haiigaqti or W - , ^ ^jra i>m.). 
 
 3. Part of y ikadaona gens (P.). 
 
 4. Part of Wacabe gens ^P.)- 
 
 5. Part of yecta geus i P.^- 
 
 Buffalo (black) horns not touched by part of luke-sab^ geus (Om.). 
 Buffalo sides (when consecrated), uot eaten by j^a waqube ^taji sub- 
 gens of Uaiiga geus ^i->m.>. 
 Buffalo rib (lowest oue, lefij-ucag^^e). not eaten by j[e-siude gens «^ 
 Buffalo aud domestic calf uot eateu when the hair is red, but citu . c 
 
 eateu wheu the hair turus black, by j[e-sinde geus (i.>tn.). 
 Buffalo calf can uot be toucheil, wheu its hair is •"^i" ^yellow or red)^ by 
 
 a sub- geus of the ^ecta geus i^P.). 
 Buffalo calf ctiu uot be eateu at auj' time by — 
 1. liig^e-jide geus ^Om.^. 
 3. Pait of Wacabe geus ^P. . 
 3. Part of Necta geus (P.). 
 
 > Sim 9^ 33I--:i&l aadl Cika^ s.t af «.>iitaha SucK/lo^. bk 3a Juttt. S«^. Bur. Etlui. 
 
412 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 Buffalo tail cau not be touched by part of Nikadaoua geus (P.). 
 Deer not eaten by — 
 
 1. Part of Hisada geus (P.). 
 
 2. Part of Xikadaoua geus (P.). 
 
 Male deer not eaten by Elk geus (Om.) ; but Deer gens can eat veulson. 
 Skin of auy auimal of the deer family can not be touched by j^ada gens 
 
 (OmO. 
 Flesh of male elk not eaten by Elk gens (Om,). 
 Bladder and sinew of male elk not touched by Elk gens (Om.). 
 Elk not eaten by part of XikadaDua geus (P.). 
 Turtles not eaten by Turtle sub-gens (Om.). 
 Black bear skin not touched by — 
 
 1. Black bear sub-gens (Om.). 
 
 2. Black bear sub-gens (P.). 
 
 Wild-eat skin, not touched by pipe sub-gens of Deer geus (Om.). 
 
 Craues and swans not eaten by part of Haiiga gens (Om.). 
 
 Swans not touched (formerly?) by Mi"xasa° wefaji sub-gens of :Ma°- 
 
 ^iiika-gaxe gens (Om.). 
 Small birds not eaten by Wajinga-^ataji (Blackbird or Small bird) 
 
 sub-gens of the ^atada gens (Om.). They can eat wild turkeys, 
 
 ducks, geese, swans, cranes. When members of this sub-geus, 
 
 are sick they can eat grouse. 
 (Small liirds) blackbirds, {hlaclc ones), swallows, and grouse not eaten 
 
 by part of Hisada gens (P.). 
 Eeptiles neither touched nor eaten by — 
 
 1. Ictasanda gens (Om.). 
 
 2. Wajaje gens (P.). 
 
 Blood not touched by part of the (fixida gens (P.), hence their name, 
 
 Wami it'aji. 
 Bed corn not eaten by a sub-gens of tlie lukesabe gens (Om.). 
 Charcoal not touched by — 
 
 1. A sub-gens of the lukesabe gens (Om.). 
 
 2. The Pipe sub-gens of the Deer gens (Om.). 
 
 3. A sub-gens of the ^ixida gens (P.). 
 
 4. The Pipe sub-gens of the Wajaje gens (P.). 
 VerdigTis not touched by — 
 
 1. ^ja"ze geus (Om.). 
 
 2. Pipe sub-gens of Deer gens eOm.,. 
 
 3. Part of the (f ixida geus (P.). 
 
 4. Pipe sub-gens of the Wajaje gens (P.). 
 
 FETICHISM. 
 
 § 58. According to Dr. Tylor, "Fetichism is tne doctrine of spirits 
 embodied in, or attached to, or conveying induence through, certain 
 material objects.' 
 
 1 Prim. Culture, vol. il. p. 132. 
 
ooBszY] FETICHES OF THE THIBE AND GEN<. 413 
 
 F»-ti()it'> luiiy bt' re;iai«lt/d as of two kind.s — those pertainiug to the 
 tiibe<»i geus, and those beloDging to indi\-idual members of the social 
 organization. Some fetiches are amulets, others are charms. 
 
 FETICHES OF THE TKIBE AXI» GEXS. 
 
 § 59. (jiimha tribal fetich eif. — The sacred pole and white bnftalo hide, 
 in the keeping of the Haiiga gens until a itw years ago, but now in the 
 Peabod y Museum of Archa-ologj- and Ethnology at Cambridge. Mass., 
 were regarded by the Omaha as •• wakauda ega",^ i. e., -like Wakandas," 
 or '^partaking of the nature of deities.*' During the public thauks- 
 gi\-ing after the bnftalo hunt, jtrayer was made towards the sacred p<:»le.^ 
 
 The sacred tent in which the sacred i>ole of the two tribes was kept 
 was never painted. When thei)eople remained in their permanent vil- 
 lages of earth lodges, tlie entrance of the sacred tent faced the sun- 
 rise; but when the tribe migrated, the entrance of the tent faced the 
 direction in which they traveh-d. The i>ole was never exx)osed to dew, 
 rain, or snow, but was kept within the lodge, during any kind of bad 
 weather. It was never laid down, but was 
 tied to a tent pole. In good weather it was 
 exposed to ^-iew. Sometimes it was tied to — - 
 
 one of the tent poles near the entrance, as 
 .shown in Fig. IS 7. When not tied thus, it 
 rested on a forked post set in the ground, 
 either in the rear of the tent or in front of 
 it. The top of the pole, to which the scalp 
 was fastened, projected beyond the forked ^ ^^ 
 post. When this post was in the rear of the 
 tent, the top of the pole pointed towards 
 the tent: but when the post was set up in 
 front, the pole pointed in the direction to 
 be traveled. The place for the pole in good / 
 weather was determined by its keeper. - — 
 
 The people feared the pole, and they would ^^^- isr.— Sacred tent m which the 
 not dare to tread on the tent or its tent- ^ ^^ ^^^' 
 
 I)oles. Should a horse tread on a tent-pole of this tent, its legs were 
 sure to be broken subsequently. George Miller knew of two horses 
 that did this, and their legs were broken when the people were sur- 
 rounding a herd of buffalo, 
 
 Frank La Fleche has told the author about some sacred stone 
 arrows which were used for jmrposes of divination. Hence, the nikie 
 name. Ma" peji. Bad Arrow, i. e. Good Arrow, a i>ersonal name of 
 the Haiiga gens. Other objects, which may have been fetiches, have 
 been named in § 56. In addition to all which have been mentioned 
 must be named the wa^ixabe or mysterious bags. WhUe these are not 
 governmental instrumentalities, they are ''waqube'* mysterious things. 
 
 >S«6 Om. Soc., in 3d. An. Bept. Bar. Eths.. p. 2S5. 
 
414 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 aud on certain occasions they are addressed as "grandfiithers." There 
 used to be five of these bags among the Omaha, but only three are now 
 in existence. Those which could be carried in time of war were made 
 of the skins and feathers of the gfeda" or pigeon hawk, the i"be-jarika 
 or fork-tailed hawk, and the nickucku or swallow.^ 
 
 j^ade ufefe, according to Big Elk (but denied by Joseph La Fleche 
 and Two Crows) is the mystic rite performed by the principal captain 
 when near the camp of the enemy. It is thus described by Big Elk 
 (See § 02) : 
 
 "Four times ho untied the bag which he had made sacred. He caused the wind 
 to waft the odor of the medicine toward the k)dges. When the medicine arrived 
 there, it made the Pawnees forget their warlike temper; it made them forget their 
 weapons."* 
 
 That there was some foundation for this statement, compare what is 
 said in Omaha Sociology, p. 321 : 
 
 "When the principal captains wish to open their sacred bags, they assemble their 
 followers in a circle, making them sit down. Any of the followers or servants may 
 be ordered to make an "uje':^i" in the center of the circle by pulling up the grass, 
 then making a hole in the ground (the " U-ma-ne of Miss Fletcher ^). Then the sacred 
 bags are laid at the feet of the principal captains, each one of whom opens his own 
 bag (i. e. the one borrowed by him from its keeper)," holding the mouth of the bird 
 toward the foe, even when some of the warriors are going to steal horses." 
 
 During the ordeal of the "wastegistu," as the Omaha call it, the suc- 
 cessful warriors were called up, one by one, and as each man stood over 
 one of the sacred bags, he addressed the bag itself thus : 
 "Hau', i°c'a'ge-ha, eda'da" uwi'bcfsa ta miiike fa"'ja, ifausi'cta"-ma'ji 
 
 Ho ! old man ! what I will tell you though I tell a I not 
 
 lie 
 
 uwi'b(^a ta' minke," i. e., "Ho, venerable man! though I will tell you 
 
 I will tell you 
 
 something, I will not lie when I tell it to you." As he spoke he let a 
 small stick drop on the bag. It was supposed that if the stick rested 
 on the bag instead of rolling off, the man had told the truth (Om. Soc, 
 p. 328). 
 
 § 60. Osage tribal fetiches. — The corresponding Osage custom has been 
 described by the author : ^ The old men assembled at the war tent. 
 The sacred bags were brought into the tent to test the warriors, who 
 were watched very closely by the old men. All the old men who had 
 been distinguished in war were painted with the decorations of their 
 respective geiites. * * * Each warrior had four sticks about 6 
 inches long, and he was required to lay them in succession on the sa- 
 cred bag. The warriors were taken in the following order: First, the 
 captain, next the lieutenants, then the heralds, after whom came the 
 maii who had struck the first blow, then he who gave the second blow, 
 and so on. As each captain laid his first stick on the bag he said, 
 "Ho, O grandfather! I lay this down on you because I am the one 
 
 ' See Om. Soc, p. 320. ^ Rept. Peabody Museum, Vol. ni, p. 263, note 8. 
 
 'Contr. N. A. Ethn., Vol. vi, p. 404. * In the Am. Naturalist, Feb., 1884, pp. 128, 129. 
 
ooKSEY.] PERSONAL FETICHES. 415 
 
 who has killed a man." On laying down the second stick, he said, 
 "Ho, O grandtather! I wish to be fortunate in stealing horses! 1 wish 
 our children, too, to be as fortunate as we have been!" Wlieu he put 
 down the third, he said, " Ho, O grandfather ! I wish to raise a domestic 
 animal. I wish to succeed in bringing it to maturity." By this he 
 meant a son. The prayer made when the last stick was laid down was 
 as follows: "Ho, O grandfather! May we continue a people witliout 
 sustaining any injuries!" Similar petitions were made by the lieuten- 
 ants and heralds. He who gave the first blow said, as he laid down 
 the first stick, "Ho, O grandfather! I lay this down on you as one who 
 has caused another to stun a foe ! " The rest of his petitions were those 
 made by the captains. He who struck the second blow said as follows, 
 on laying down the first stick : " Ho, O grandfather ! I place this on you 
 because I was the next one to strike and stun a man ! " The other 
 l)etitions follow, as given above. The first petition of each of the re- 
 maining warriors is as follows: "Ho, () grandfather! I lay this on you 
 as a token that I have aided in overcoming the enemy." 
 
 §G1. Kama tribal J'etivhes. — Among the Kansa, the followhig fetiches 
 belong to the two Haiiga geutes: The war j)ipe and the war clam shell. 
 The war pipe was kept in 1882 by raha"le-wak'ii, the son of Ali"ka- 
 wahu, for the t^vo Hafiga gentes. This j^ipe has an eye on each side, so 
 that it may see the enemy! There is no i)ipestem, but there is one 
 hole to which the mouth is applied, and in the bowl is another h(jle in 
 which the tobacco is placed. The pipe, which is all in one piece, is of 
 catlinite, about as thick as two hands. It is never taken from the wrap, 
 pings, except when all the men of the two Hahga gentes assemble at 
 the lodge of the chief Ali"kawahu. The sacred clam shell was kept in 
 1882 by Paha"le-ga(|li, the chief of the other Ilanga gens. It is wrapped 
 in five coverings, similar to those around the war pijie. They are as 
 follows: (1.) The innermost covering, the bladder of a bufl'alo bull; 
 (2) next covering, made of the spotted fur of a fawn; (3) made of 
 braided rushes or "sa;" (4) a very broad piece of deerskin; (5) the out- 
 ermost covering, made of braided hair from the head of a buffalo bull. 
 
 PERSONAL FETICUES. 
 
 § 62. ja<|'i'^-na"paji said that there were some Omaha who considered 
 as "waqube" the skins of animals and the skins and feathers of birds 
 used in making their " wai^dxabe" or mystery bags. Among these birds 
 and animals he named the eagle, sparrow hawk, yellow-backed hawk, 
 green necked duck, great owl, swallow, otter, flying squirrel, mink, 
 mi^[a ska ("white raccoon" sic), and maza"he. The last is an animal 
 resembling an otter. It is covered with thick black and reddish-yellow 
 hair, and its tail is bushy. Samuel Fremont said (in 1889) that this 
 animal was not found in that part of Nebraska where the Omaha dwelt, 
 but that he had heard of its being found among the Dakota. Two 
 Crows and Joseph La Fleche never heard of the mijja ska and maza"he 
 
416 A HTUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 among their own people; but they said that when the Omaha traveled, 
 some used to take with tlieni their respective "maka"" or medicines, 
 evidently their personal fetiches, for they used to say, "Our medicines 
 are wise; they cau talk like men, and they tell us how many horses we 
 are to receive from the people to whom we are going." 
 
 When the Omaha went against the Pawnee during the boyhood of 
 the present Big Elk, one of the captains, named Gi*a"habi, had a war 
 club of the kind called " weaqfade." He made this club " waqube," in 
 order to use it mysteriously. When near the cami^ of the enemy he 
 brandished the club four times toward the Pawnees. This was fol- 
 lowed by the use of the sacred bag, as related in § 59. 
 
 It is probable that the medicines of the Watci Wafupi, Wase-jide 
 afi°-ma, and the ja(|;i°-wasabe watcigaxe ikageki^e, of the Omaha,' the 
 Ked Medicine of the Kansa, and the Red Medicine of the Osage 
 Maka" .>ii^se watsi" or Ked Medicine Dance, were used as fetiches, as 
 they conferred wonderful powers on those who used them. When the 
 author was at the Omaha Agency, in 1878, he obtained the following : 
 llocky Mountain beans, which are scarlet, and are called "Maka" jide" 
 or Red Medicine, confer good luck on their owners. If the beans like 
 their owners, they will never be lost; even if dropped accidentally, 
 they wdl return to the possession of their owners. Ni-k'u-mi, an aged 
 Oto woman, told one of her granddaughters (then Susette La Fleche, 
 known as Bright Eyes after 1879, and now the wife of T. H. Tibbies) 
 of her own experience with one of these beans. She had dropped it 
 in the grass, but she found it on retracing her steps. It is impossible 
 to say whether this scarlet bean was identical with the Red Medicine 
 of the Iowa (§ 87), Kansa, and Osage; but it certainly differed from 
 that of the Wase-jide afi" ma of the Omaha. 
 
 There are sacred or mystery rites practiced by the dancing societies, 
 including those to which the wazefe or doctors belong. Two Crows 
 said that he did not know those of his society, the j^e i^'-a'efe-ma. As 
 initiation into one of these societies is very exi)ensive, it is unreasona- 
 ble to suppose that Two Crows would communicate the secrets of his 
 order for a small sum, such as $1 a day. 
 
 SORCERY. 
 
 § 63. There have been sorcerers, i. e., such as prepared love potions for 
 those who bought them, and who were thought to cause the death of 
 those persons who had incurred their displeasure. The author has been 
 told that the sorcerers give a high price for a small quantity of the 
 catamenial discharge of a virgin. It is mixed with a love potion, and 
 when the compound is administered to a man he can not help courting 
 the woman, even when he knows that he does not love her. 
 
 ' See Om. Soc, pp. 349-351. 
 
DOKSEY JUGGLERY. 417 
 
 JUGGLERY. 
 
 § 64. Ickade or sleight of baud exists not only in the secret societies 
 but also along with the iiractice of medicine, government, and religion. 
 Some of the Omaha and Pouka doctors of the first class (the wazefe, 
 not the maka" af.i"-ma or root (h)ct()rs) pretend to draw sticks from the 
 bodies of tlieir patients, or worms from aching teeth, saying that those 
 things are the causes of the diseases. Every disease is a "nie"or 
 ''pain," and there must be a cause for that pain. 
 
 § 05. In 1872 Big Grizzly Bear, a subordinate Ponka chief, told the 
 following to the author: ''One day Whip, a head chief, said, 'I am 
 going to make the sun blue.' And he did so. Then he said, 'I am 
 going to pull out some of the hair of the man in the moon.' He held 
 up his hands to show that they had no hair in them. Then he began 
 to sing. Suddenly he had some bloody hair in each hand. Ga-:;i-de 
 ma"-</'i" and a great many others were witnesses. Once, when the Ponka 
 were destitute of food, Buffalo Bull, the father of Grizzly Bear's Ear, 
 said, 'I will use magic' His wife replied, 'Please do so.' So he made 
 a pile of earth about 2 feet high and shot four arrows into it. A large 
 deer was slain, furnisiiing them with plenty to eat." 
 
 In 1871 the author saw an exhibition of the skill of Cramped Hand 
 and Bent Horn, two Ponka shamans. One afternoon, near sunset, abont 
 two hundred persons, mostly Indians, stood in a large circle around a 
 tent in which sat the shamans and their assistants. Presently the 
 shamans and the aged chief, Antoine Primeau, came out of the tent 
 and stood within the circle. One of the shamans. Cramped Hand, 
 danced along the inner side of the circle, exhibiting a revolver (Allen's 
 patent), one chamber of which he seemed to load as the people looked 
 on. After he had put on the cap, he handed the wea]>on to the chief, 
 who fired at the shaman. Cramped Hand fell immediately, as if badly 
 wounded. Bent Horn rushed to his relief and began to manipulate 
 him. It was not long before Cramped Hand was able to crawl around 
 on his hands and knees, thcmgli the bullet had apparently hit him in 
 the mouth. He groaned and coughed incessantly, and after a tin basin 
 was put down before him he coughed up a bullet which fell in the ba- 
 sin, and was shown in triumph to the crowd. This is told merely to 
 show how the Indian juggler has adopted some of the tricks of his 
 white brother. In a few moments Bent Horn danced around, showing 
 to each of us an object which appeared to be a stone as large as a man's 
 fist, and too large to be forced into the mouth of the average man. 
 Cramped Hand stood about 10 or 15 feet away and threw this stone 
 toward Bent Horn, hitting the latter in the mouth and disappear! itg. 
 Bent Horn fell and appeared in great i^ain, groaning and foaming at 
 the mouth. When the basin was jjut down before him, there fell into 
 it, not one large stone, but at least four small ones. We were told that 
 the chief, Antoine, had to give a horse for the privilege of shooting at 
 the shaman. 
 
 11 ETII 27 
 
418 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 It is i»rob;ibl(' tliat some of the Omaha shamans performed simiLir 
 tricks, though the author has been unable to obtain any accounts of 
 them. 
 
 § 60. He Avas fortunate, however, in making the acquaintance of the 
 chief " wakaudagi," or shaman of the Kansa, when at Kaw Agency, 
 in the winter of 1881i. This man, Mxlidje-yifige, was very communi- 
 cative. He said that there used to be ten shamans in the tribe, and 
 all had round pebbles which they blew from their mouths against the 
 persons whom they '' j^ilvi^xe" or ''shot in a mysterious manner." 
 The arrow of the shamans was called " Mi-pa-ha," which is a name of 
 the Buffalo gens. This missile was made of j^art of the red-breasted 
 turtle. 
 
 A woman named Sa°-si-le had two "maka°" (medicines, fetiches'?) 
 which she used for "ickade" or "wakandagi wagaxe" (magic, sha- 
 manistic legerdemain). She could swallow a knife; and when she 
 swallowed a certain kind of grass she drew a green snake from her 
 mouth. John Kickapoo's father had a red medicine, w^hich was used 
 for women who desired to l)ecome enciente, for horses, and for causing 
 good dreams. Nixiidje-yinge's mother, who was a shaman, has a small 
 pebble and a clam shell, which she used in her mystery acts. 
 
 Pagani had a "sika-hyuka" or "needle" (so represented by Ni- 
 xiidje-yinge, but it may not have been a steel needle), which he swal- 
 lowed and voided through the urethra. Gahige-wadayinga used to 
 stab himself with a "mahi"sii" or arrow-point, about 6 inches long, 
 causing the blood to spurt from his left shoulder as he danced. The 
 other shamans used to spurt water on his back from their mouths, 
 while he held his arms horizontally from his body, Avith the forearms 
 pointing upward. When they finished no wound could be found. One 
 shaman had a fish called "hu blaska" or flat fish, to AA^hich he talked 
 He made a necklace of the skin, and he used it for " 5[ilu"xe." 
 
 Wakanda-zi had the skin of a small black bear as his sacred bag. 
 As he danced he held it by the tail and shook the skin. After shoot- 
 ing the round pebble from his mouth at a person he thrust the bear, 
 skin at the Avounded man, drawing it back very quickly. The round 
 pebble Avas draAvn into the mouth of the bear and dropped on the 
 ground Avhen the skin bag was held witli the tail up. 
 
 He who Avished to be shot at handed a gun to some one, who shot 
 him in the side, much blood escaping. He seemed to be dead; but the 
 shamans assembled and maniimlated him. One put the mouth of the 
 otter (of the otterskin sacred bag) to the mouth of the patient in order 
 to perform the act called "liipayi"" (to raise up or resuscitate his OAvn). 
 Then, "Zii'be aka eyaii tuhnail'ge aka," i. e., when the bag was drawn 
 aAViiy I'apidly, the otter made the sound " ziibe," as Avhen one draws 
 in the ])reath, and the bullet Avas in its mouth. On the patient's re- 
 covery he gave a horse to the man who shot at him. 
 
 Mange zi had a clam shell and a snake that he used in his sleight-of- 
 
noHSEY] OMAHA AND PONKA BELIEF AS TO A FUTURE LIFE. 410 
 
 luiud acts. He also swallowed ''malii°-tn," a kind of «>Teeji giass about a 
 foot long- aud as thick as a pencil. Before swallowiui;- tliis, he waiiued 
 it at a fire. He rubbed liimself on liis chest after swallowing it, saying, 
 " Let all look at me !" Then he called to him a man t( > act as his assistant. 
 He coughed and in the assistant's haiul there was a snake, which he 
 took around the circle of spectators, showing it to every one, tliough 
 no one handled it. On his returning the snake to Mange-zi, the latter 
 swallowed it and coughed up the long grass. 
 
 Mxildje-yinge said that there were eight objects used by tlie sha- 
 mans for " shooting," the needle; Hint ( !) arrow head; beaver teeth; tlie 
 half of a knife blade, i. e., that i)art next to the point; the lish-fan, 
 made of ''huqtci" or "real fish;" the red medicine; the hiyadadiixe or 
 medicine bag that was caused to liy; and the tuhnange, or otter skin 
 bag. (See §§ 20l>-21)5, 307.) 
 
 OMAHA AND PONKA BELIEF AS TO A FUTURE LIFE. 
 
 § (M. They have a very (aude belief. Each person is taught to have a 
 wanaxe or spirit, which does not perish at death. According to Joseph 
 La Fleche and Two Crows, the old men used to say to the people, 
 "(|'iuda" >{i, wanaxe uda°-ma;a ci tate. (|(lipiaji j[\, wanaxe ])iiiji-iiia:;a 
 ci tate, " i. e., '' If you are good, you will go to the good ghosts. If you 
 are bad, you will go to the bad ghosts. Nothing was ever said of go- 
 ing to dwell with Wakanda, or with demons.^ 
 
 Rev. William Hamilton found a belief that retribution is in this life, 
 and he says, "Their notions are exceedingly crude." 
 
 § 68. Frank La Fleche told the author before 1SS2 that he had heard 
 some old men relate a tradition that years ago a man came back to 
 life and told about the spirit land. He said that for four nights after 
 death the ghost had to travel a very dark road, but that after he 
 reached the Milky Way there was plenty of light. For this reason, 
 said he, the people ought to aid their deceased friends by lighting fires 
 at the graves, and by keeping them burning for four nights in each 
 case. After going along the Milky Way, the ghost came at last to a 
 place where the road fcu'ked; aud there sat an aged man, clothed in a 
 buffalo robe with the hair outside. (See § 359.J.) He said nothing, but 
 ])ointed to each inipiirer the road for which he asked. One road was 
 a very short one, and he who followed it soon came to the place where 
 the good ghosts dwelt. The other road was an endless one, ah)ng 
 which the ghosts went crying. The spirits of suicides could not travel 
 either road; but they hovered over their graves. But Joseph La 
 Fleche and Two Crows (in 1882) said thtit the road of the ghosts was 
 not the Milky Way, and they regarded the account of the endless road 
 as a modern addition, Avhich is very piobable. The latest statements 
 
 'Compare the Oregon .story: Xo liidiiiu.s jio iillcr ilcatli to (lie n])i)iT world lo dwell witli (,)awaiic(a. 
 Am. Antliropolofiist, Jan., 1889, p. 60. 
 
420 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 of Frank La Fleche arc given in the Jonr. Amer. Folk-Lore, vol. ii, 'No. 
 
 4,1)].. 10,11: 
 
 There are a variety of beliefs concerning the immediate action of the spirit upon 
 it.s withdrawal from the body. Some think that the soul at once starts upon its 
 journey to the spirit laud; others, th;it it hovers about the grave as if reluctant to 
 depart. Because of this latter belief, food and water are placed at the head of the 
 grave for several days after the burial. The spirit is supposed to partake of this 
 food. No Indian would touch any article of food thus exposed; if he did, the ghovst 
 would snatch away the food aud paralyze the mouth of the thief, and twist his face 
 out of shape for the rest of his life; or else he would be pursued by the ghost, and 
 food would lose its taste, and hunger ever after haunt the ofl'ender. There is a be- 
 lief in the tribe that before the s])irits linally depart from men who died of wounds 
 or their results, they float toward a cliff overhanging the Missouri, not far from the 
 present Sautee Agency, in Nebraska, and cut ui)OU the rocks a picture showing forth 
 their manner of death. A line in the picture indicates the spot w^here the disease 
 or wound was located which caused the death. After this record is complete, the 
 8i)irit flies off to the land of the hereafter. It is said that these pictures are easily 
 recognized by the relatives and friends of the deceased. This place is known as 
 lri-g(ta"'-xe 5[io^iI-xai eta",' or, Where the spirits make pictures of themselves. A 
 suicide ceases to exist; for him there is no hereafter. A man struck by lightning is 
 buried where he fell, and in the jiosition in which he died. His grave is tilled with 
 earth, and no mound is raised over one who is thus taken from life. 
 
 In 1873 .some of the Ponka said they had the folh)win<;- beliefs con- 
 cerning a murderer: (1) The ghosts surround him and keep up a con- 
 stant whistling; (2) he can never satisfy his hunger, though he eat 
 much food; (3) he must not be allowed to roam at large lest high 
 wiiuls arise. 
 
 It is important to compare this whole section with the Dakota beliefs 
 found in §§ 2(!0-278. 
 
 TIu' author was told by the Omaha that when a man was killed by 
 lightning, he ought to be buried face downwards, and the soles of his 
 feet had to be slit. When this was done, the spirit went at once to the 
 spirit land, without giving further trouble to the living. In one case 
 (that of a Weji"cte.man, Jadegi, according to George Miller and Frank 
 Le Fleclie)- this was not done, so it was said that the ghost tcall-ed, 
 and he did not rest in peace till another person (his brother) was slain 
 by lightning and laid beside him. 
 
 When Jose])h La Fleche and Two Crows heard what Frank had told 
 about the Milky Way, etc., they remarked, "We have never been to the 
 spirit land, so we can not tell what is done there. Xo one has ever 
 come back and told us." All that they had ever heard was the old 
 story about the forked road. 
 
 § 0J>. Gahige, the late chief of the Inke-sabe (a buttalo gens), told the 
 author about the address made to a member of his gens, when dying. 
 According to him, the person was addressed thus : "You are going to the 
 animals (the buflalos). You are going to your ancestors. Anita du- 
 baha line (which may be rendered, You are going to the four living ones, 
 
 ' This name is jjiven in tlio notation of the Bureau of Ethnology, not as published by Mr. LaFleche. 
 'See Jour. Am. Folklore, Vol. u. Xo. 6. p. 190. 
 
rx,K>,Ey ! KANSA BELIEFS kESPECTING DEATH, ETC. 421 
 
 if not, the four winrj^ . VVackafi'-gi (Be .strong)." Gahige was under- 
 stood to speak of four spirits or .sools to eaeh person, but Joseph La 
 Fl<iche and Two Crows said that the Omaha did not believe that a j>er- 
 son had more than one spirit. Two Crows gave the following as the ad- 
 dress to a d\iijg irieniber of his gens, the Hanga, another baffalo gens: 
 "Wani;a ttkpi" fati. Ga"^ eja f agte tate ha. Ga'^ dadufagaqeaji te 
 
 Quadraped frcdn you And thith- y<m go shall . Aiid tou do not £a<:*: ' wi.. 
 
 come 
 
 hii'. Hne t<^'ja ca-^'ca^' ma^in'-ga ha," i. e., " You came hither from the 
 
 you go to the alwa.j- wait thon : 
 
 animals. And you are going back thither. Do not face this way again. 
 When you go. cortinue walking." The last sentence is a petition to the 
 departing spirit not to return to this earth to worrj- or injure the surviv- 
 ors. That the dead are referred to as still existing, and as having some 
 knowledge of what is happening here, maybe seen from the address to 
 a Ponka chief at his installation: --(^'iadi gahi, fiji^'fe gahi, fi:^iga° 
 gahi, amustaqti dda-^'be ma'^fi" tai;" L e.. '-Your father was a chief, 
 your elder brother fi. e., his iKjtential elder brother. Ubiska. a former 
 head chief of the Ponkaj was a chietl and your grand&ther was a 
 chief: may they continue to look directly down on you I " ' 
 
 § 70. Those who boil sacred food, as for the warpath, pour some of 
 the soup outside the lodge, as an offering to the ghosts, f^ Omaha cus- 
 tom.) 
 
 There has been no belief in the resurrection of the Ixxly. but simply 
 one in the continued existence of the ghost or spirit. WhOe some of the 
 lowHs expressed to Mr. Hamilton a belief in the transmigration of spirits, 
 that doctrine has not been found among the Omaha and Ponka. nor 
 has the author heard of it among other Siouan tribes. 
 
 Xot all ghosts are visible to the living. They may be heard without 
 being seen. One Omaha woman, the mother of Two Crows, told how she 
 had been in a lodge with many persons, who were in\isible from the 
 knees upward.- 
 
 KANSA BELIEFS EESPECTDfG DEATH A>'D A FrTTTRE LIFE. 
 
 § 71. When the author was at Kaw Agency. Indian Territory, in the 
 winter of 1SS2-'S3. a man named Ho-sa-sa-ge died. After the represen- 
 tatives of all the gentes had assembled at the house, Wakauda ( named 
 after the Thimder-l>emg), the father-in-law of the deceased, removed the 
 lock of hail' called the "ghost," and tojk it to his own house, weeping as 
 he departed. 
 
 When Mr. Say was among the Kansa - he obtained the following in- 
 formation about their beliefs concerning death and the future life: 
 
 Wht-n a man is killed in battle the thunder is supposed to tak they do 
 
 >Om. Soc.. p. 360. 
 
 *See "Death and Ftllc:— _:: . _• ; :_; " .■-'-:« " by Francis L-i. 
 Vol. II. Xo. 4. pp. 4. 5. 
 'See James's Accoant £xped. to Bocky Mountains, Vol. i- p. 1^. 
 
422 A STUDY OF SIOUAX CULTS. 
 
 not know wbirlicr. lu going to battle each warrior traces an imaginary tigare of 
 the thunder on the soil; he who represents it incorrectly is killed by the thunder. 
 A person saw this thunder one day on the ground, with a beautiful moccasin on each 
 side of it. Having need of a pair, he took them and went his way ; but on his return 
 to the same spot the thunder took him otf. and he has not since been heard of. 
 
 They seem to have vague notions about the future state. They think that a brave 
 man or a good hunter will walk in a good path; but a bad man and a coward will 
 find a bad path. Thinking that the deceased has far to travel, they bury with his 
 body moccasins, some articles of food, etc., to support him on the journey. Many 
 per.sons, they believe, who have revived have been, during their apparent death, to 
 strange villages, where they were not treated well by the i>eople, so they returned 
 to life. 
 
 The author, when among the Kansa, in the vrinter of 1882-'83, learned 
 the following-, which differs from anything he has ever obtained else- 
 where: ''The Kansa believe that when there is a death the ghost re- 
 turns to the spirit village nearest the present habitat of the living. 
 That is to say. all Indians do not go to one spirit village or ' happy 
 hunting gTound,' but to different ones, as there is a series of spirit vil- 
 lages for the Kansa, beginning with tlie one at Council Grove, where 
 the tribe dwelt before tliey removed to their present reservation in In- 
 dian Territory, and extending along both sides of the Kansas Eiver to 
 its mouth, thence up the Missouri Eiver, as far as the tribe wandered 
 before meeting the Cheyennes (near the State line), tlience down the 
 river to the mouth of Osage River, and so on, down to the mouths of the 
 Missouri and Ohio rivers," etc. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 XDIWERE AND WINNEBAGO CULTS. 
 
 § 72. Tlie Rev. William Hamiltoa. who was a missionary to the lorv i 
 and Sac Indians of Nebraska, firom 1S37 to 1S53. is the authority tor m. -- 
 of the Iowa material in this chapter. About the year 1S4S, he pa:> 
 lished a series of letters about the Iowa Indians in a Presbyterian 
 weekly newspa^ier. and with his permission the present writer tran- 
 scribed these letters in 1S79. for his own future use. 
 
 Other intbrmation about the three X'ji^^f'? tribes t Iowa. iHo and Mis- 
 souri) was obtaineil by the author fix)m Ke-:^re.)e, an Oto: Ckajainye, 
 a ^lissouri: and the delegation of Iowa chiefs that visited Washinartou 
 in 18Si\ 
 
 The principal Winnebago authority was; James Alexander, a iidl- 
 blood and a member of the Wolf gens. 
 
 TEKM "-GKEAr SFIKIT~ >~EVEK HEAKP A3IONG THE lOWA. 
 
 Mr. Hamilton wrote thus in one of his letters: 
 
 It is ofteu said that th«^ Indians are nor idolaters, and that they Where ia oae 
 Supreme B^ing. whom they call the Great Spirit. I do not uo-w recollect that levrr 
 heard the lowas use the term Great Spirit since 1 have beeu aouou^ them. Tkev 
 speak of God ^^Wakanta). aud sometimeis of the Great God or Bad God. But of thr 
 true ch;vracter of God they are entirely iijcuonuit. M;iiiy of then. - " ■ • . 
 creator of all thing?>. and use a term that siguides "Creator o: 
 times they call him ••Grandfather" vhi^Truka . But the\ 
 
 sensed of like passions with themselve*. and plea.seil wit" - - 
 
 dances, thetts. and such like sin ♦ ' * They sor. - ~ - 
 
 gvHl. because it gives light and heat. The m«.H»n they - - ~ - _ 
 
 because it seems to be to the night what the sua is : i a,sked an Indian 
 
 the other day how ui.mv ijv'ds the Iowa* had. ai'd he - ctuied. •Seven." 
 
 IHK Sr>" A WAKAMA. 
 
 « 7:>. An Iowa told Mr. Hamilton that he had once killetl a bear, which 
 lie offeretl to the sun. allowing the animal to lie where he had killeil it, 
 
 VELY. WINDS AS WAKAMAS. 
 
 §74. An Iowa told Mr. Hamilton that Tatce, or Wind, was one of the 
 seven great gmls ot his tribe. Another told liim that he had made 
 otteriug-s to the Si>nth Wind, who was cmisidered a beneficent Wakauta. 
 But the Xorth-east Wind was a maleticent one. 
 
 .hidging ftom st>mo of the Winuebago jiersoual names, it is prvduible 
 that the winds were regarvletl '> ;Mu,r< by that ^n^vple. 
 
 123 
 
424 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 THE THUXDEE-BErNCi A WAKANTA. 
 
 § 75, Among the Iowa and Oto, the Tcexita is the eagle and thunder- 
 bird gens, and Mr. Hamilton was told by the Iowa that the Thunder-be- 
 ing was called, Tcexita, and Wakanta, the latter being its peculiar title. 
 '•They supposed the Thunder-being to be a large bird. When they hrst 
 hear the thunder in the spring of the year, they have a sacred feast in 
 honor of this god." 
 
 The Winnebago called the Thunder-being "Waka"t€a-ra," and one 
 division of the Bird gens is the Waka"tca ikikaratca-da, or Thunder- 
 being sub-gens. The Thunder-beings are the enemies of the Waktceqi 
 or Submarine Wakantas. One i)erson in the Thunder-being sub-gens 
 is named Five-horned Male, probably referring to a Thunder-being 
 with five horns! Other personal names are as follows: Green Thun- 
 der-being, Black Thunder-being. White Thunder-being, and Yellow 
 Thunder-being; but James Alexander, a full-blood Winnebago of the 
 Wolf gens, says that these colors have no connection with the four 
 winds or quarters of the earth (See § 381). 
 
 The Iowa told Mr. Hamilton of a Winnebago who saw a Thunder- 
 being fighting a subaquatic power. Sometimes the former bore the 
 latter up into the air, and at other times the subaquatic power took 
 his adversary beneath the water. The Winnebago watched them all 
 daj', and each Power asked his assistance in overcoming the other, 
 promising him a great reward. The man did not know which one to 
 help: but at last he shot an arrow at the subaquatic power, who was 
 carried up into the air by the Thunder-being, but the wounded one 
 said to the man, "You may become a great man yourself, but your 
 relations must die.'' And so they say it happened. He became very 
 great, l)ut his relatives died. 
 
 When the warriors returned home from an expedition against their 
 enemies, they plaited grass and tied the pieces around their arms, 
 necks, and ankles. Sometimes to each ankle there was a trailing 
 piece of plaited grass a yard long. This was probably associated, as 
 were all war customs, with the worship of the Thunder-being (See 
 Chap. Ill, § 35). 
 
 SUBTERRA^•EA^' POWERS. 
 
 § 76. An Indian became deranged from the useof whisky, and ran wild 
 for several days. The Iowa supposed that his madness was caused 
 by a subterranean power, whom he had seen, and whose picture he 
 had drawn on the ground, representing it with large horns. 
 
 SUBAQUATIC POWERS. 
 
 § 77. Some lowaclaim to have seen them. No Heart (Xatce-nihe) told 
 Mr. Hamilton that he had seen a "water god in the Missouri river, 
 when a man was drowned. When a person is drowned they some- 
 
DOR^Fv] ANIMALS AS WAKANTAS. 425 
 
 times say th.it the god who lives in the water has taken him for a serv- 
 ant. Not a year since, some Iowa went over the river for meat. A 
 young girl sat down in the canoe with her load on her l)ack. When 
 near the shore the canoe was upset accidentally, and the girl was 
 drowned. The men thought that they heard a god halloo in the water, 
 r,nd that he had taken her. One told me that the gods of the air (i. e. 
 the Thunder-beings) fought the gods of the water, and when the latter 
 came out of the water, the former stole upon them and killed them." 
 
 The subterranean and suba(iuatic powers are called ''waktceqi" by 
 the Winnebago, and this tribe has a gens called Waktceqi ikikara- 
 tcada. The Winnebago say that the waktceqi dwell under the ground 
 and the high bluffs, and in subterranean water, that they are caused 
 to uphold the earth, trees, rivers, etc., and that they are the enemies 
 of the Thunder-beings (§ 3SG). In the Winnebago Waktceqi gens are 
 the following personal names: Black Waktceqi, White Waktceqi, 
 Green Waktceqi, "Waktceqi that is sa"" (which may be gray or 
 bro^ii), Four Horned Male, Two Horned Male, and Lives in the Hill. 
 
 ANIMALS AS WAKANTA.S. 
 
 § 78, Mr. Hamilton wrote that the Iowa often spoke about the buffa- 
 loes, whom they regarded as gods, addressing them as "Grandfathers." 
 He also told of a doctor whom he met one day; the doctor seized a 
 joint-snake that was handed him by another doctor, calling it his "god," 
 spoke of it as being good medicine, and after putting its head into liis 
 mouth, he bit it twice. 
 
 APOTHEOSES. 
 
 § 79. "They also seem to think that human beings may become gods, 
 and in this resi^ect they are like the Mormons." 
 
 DWELLINGS OF GODS. 
 
 § 80. " High rocks are supposed by the Iowa to be the dwellings of 
 gods." "There is a Winnebago tradition that a woman carrying her 
 child was running from her enemies, so she Jumped down a steep place 
 and was turned into a rock. And now when they pass that place they 
 make offerings to her." 
 
 WORSHIP. 
 
 § 81, "One ot their most common acts of worship, and apparently one 
 of dail}' occurrence, is observed when a person is about to smoke liis 
 pipe. He looks to the sky and says, ' Wakanta, hei*e is tobacco!' (See 
 §§ 29, 40, 'Nini bahai t^.') Then he puffs a mouthfnl of smoke up 
 towards the sky, after which he smokes as he pleases." "They also 
 make offerings of tobacco by throwing a small quantity into the tire." 
 
42fi A STUDY OF SIOUAX (Tl/rS. 
 
 ''They frequently offer n small i)()rti()ii ol' food at tlieir feasts, before 
 tbey begin eating.'' 
 
 Mr. Hamilton saw dogs hung by tbeii' necks to trees or to sticks 
 l)lanted in the ground, and he was told that these dogs were offerings. 
 ''No Heart told ine that when the smallpox raged among them about 
 fifty years ago" (i.e. about 179S), "and swept off so many, that they 
 made a great many offerings." Said he, " AVe threw away a great many 
 garments, blankets, etc., and offered many dogs to God. My father 
 threw away a flag which the IJritish had given him. When we had 
 thrown away these things, the smallpox left us." These offerings to 
 God (literally, to Wakanta) were the means of checking it. " To throw 
 away," in Iowa, is the same as "to offer in sacrifice." 
 
 TAB008. 
 
 § 82. Mr. Hamilton was told by the Iowa that no member of any gens 
 could eat the ffesh of the eponymic animal. 
 
 The author gained the following taboos from a Missouri, Cka^oe-yifie 
 or Ckapinye, who visited the Omaha in 1879 : The members of the 
 Tuna^p'i", a Black Bear gens in the Oto and Nyut'atci (or Missouri) 
 tribes can not touch a clam shell. The Momi people, now a subgens of 
 the Missouri Bird gens, abstain from small birds which have been killed 
 by large birds, and they can not touch the feathers of such small birds. 
 
 PUBLIC OR TRIBAL FETIUHES.' 
 
 § 83. Among these are the sacred pipes, the sacred bags, or waru- 
 xawe, and the sacred stone or iron. The sacred pipes are used only 
 on solemn occasions, and they are kept enveloped in the skin wrap- 
 pers. The sacred bags, or waruxawe, are made from the skins of ani- 
 mals. They are esteemed as mysterious, and they are reverenced as 
 much as Wakanta. Among the Winnebago (and presumably among 
 the x^i'"'6i"e tribes) no woman is allowed to touch the waruxawe. 
 There used to be seven waruxawe among the Iowa, '< related to one 
 another as brothers and sisters," and used by war parties. On the re- 
 turn from wai- the seven bags were opened and used in the scalp dance. 
 They contained the skins of animals and birds with medicine in them, 
 also wild tobacco and other war medicine, also the war club. There 
 used to be seven war clubs, one for each waruxawe, but during the 
 last expedition of the Iowa, prior to the date of Mr. Hamilton's letters, 
 the war club and pipes or whistles were lost from the principal bag. 
 The next kind of sacred bags, the Waci waruxawe, numbered seven. 
 They were the bad-medicine bags, by means of which they professed to 
 deprive their enemies of power, when they had discouraged them by 
 blowing the whistles. Owing to this enchantment, they said, their 
 enemies could neither shoot nor run, and were soon killed. The next 
 
 ' See § 58. 
 
TtHOOt* rHTB vr FETH-HZ"* 
 
 in 'iv^ac bn^ 
 
 
 wouniiJe^L 
 
 -iKtett 'iTufer 
 
 facit Of i:;Ak£3L x»' ketsp t^v 
 
 •ine *• 
 
 .eitiffl: 
 
 «>c nuiitg- TdiHUL -fv^aar ~ > -rotiu-i 
 
 Ci 
 
 r ^ap i^Sere- "T»*r^ ^mr Ttt- 
 
 
 ^iiiui - 
 
 T!i. 
 
 ~3S wtxr* 
 ante 
 
 I'll. UUP' 
 
 taieifcr. '.'11 
 
 •i^^C Jixi:-- 
 
 .1 .l3b Jk£i!U> 
 
 
428 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 The women dauce with their eyes turned toward the ground and with their hands 
 hanging closely in front, palms next to the person. The track left by their feet is 
 very pretty, being like a close-leaved vine. It is astonishing to notice how each 
 woman can leap into her predecessor's track. Water is partaken of and the entire 
 dance is clearly indicative of the prayer for increase and plenty of buffalo. The 
 two mounds remind one of larger structures and suggest many speculations, partic- 
 ularly when taken in connection with the manner of their building. 
 
 In the great mystery lodge, whence so many of the sacred societies among other 
 tribes professedly take their rise and inspiration, the fire is at the east, and is made 
 by placing four sticks meeting in the center and the other ends pointing to the four 
 points of the compass.' Just at that part of the initiation of the candidate when 
 he is to fall dead to the old life, be covered as with a pall, and then be raised to the 
 new life, the remains of the four sticks are taken away and the ashes raised in a 
 sharp conical mound, again suggesting hints of a peculiar past. 
 
 Upon the bluffs of the Missouri, on a promontory * ' * is a little depression 
 cut in the ground, circular in form, with an elongated end at the east. The depression 
 is 1 foot in diameter and about 6 inches deep. Placing my compass in the center, 
 the long end or entrance was found to be exactly to the east. To the south of this 
 sacred spot, for it is cleared and cleaned * * * every year, stood a large cedar 
 tree, now partly blown down. This was the sacred tree on which miraculous imper- 
 sonation of visions lit; and here the spirits tarried as they passed from one resting 
 place to another going over the country. About every 50 miles there is one of these 
 strange, supernatural resting places. 
 
 PERSONAL FETICHES. 
 
 § 85. All mediciues were regarded as mysterious or sacred. The heart 
 of a slain enemy was sometimes dried and put in the medicine bag to 
 be pulverized and mixed with the other medicines. "One or two days 
 before a war jjarty started from the village of the Iowa, the man who 
 was to carry the sacred bag hid it while the others busied themselves 
 with preparing sacred articles" (probably their personal fetiches). 
 "The hunters often brought in deer, after eating which, the warriors - 
 painted themselves as they would do if they expected to see an enemy. 
 Next, one of their number measured a certain number of steps in front, 
 when each man took his place, and knelt down. As soon as the word 
 was given, each one pulled away the grass and sticks, moving backwards 
 till he came to the poles, when he arose. Then each placed his own 
 sacred objects (personal fetiches'?) before him, and began his own song. 
 While singing, they opened their sacred objects, asking for good luck. 
 They sang one song on opening them (as among the Kansa, see § 30), 
 and another while putting them back into their places, a song being 
 supposed necessary for every ceremony in which they engaged. In the 
 conversations which ensued, they were at liberty to jest, provided they 
 avoided common or vulgar terms." 
 
 DANCING SOCIETIES. 
 
 There is very probably some connection between these societies and 
 the cults of the tribes now under consideration. (See §§ 43, 62, 111, 113, 
 120, et passim.) 
 
 > See ii 33 and 40. 
 
DOHSEY.] DANCING SOCIETIES. 429 
 
 THE OTTER DAXCIXG SOCIETY. 
 
 §86. The members of this order shot at oue another with their otter- 
 skin bags, as has been the custom in the Wacicka dancing society of 
 the Omaha (Om. Soc, pp. 345, 34G). Some have said that they waved 
 their otter-skin bags around in order to infuse the spirit of the otter 
 into a bead in its moutli, and that it was by the spirit of the otter that 
 they knocked one another down. Each one who practiced this dance 
 professed to keep some small round object in his breast to cough it up 
 before or during the dance, and to use it for shooting one of his com- 
 panions in the neck. He who was thus shot did in turn cough uj) the 
 mysterious object, and at the end of the dance each member swallowed 
 his own shell or pebble. 
 
 THE RK1> MJ:1)ICINE DANCING SOCIETY. 
 
 § 87. The Indians used to obtain in the prairies, towards the Rocky 
 Mountains, an object about the size of a bean or small hazelnut and of 
 a red color, Mr. Hamilton was told that it grew on bushes, and that 
 it was considered to be alive, and they looked on it as a mysterious 
 animal. In the red medicine dance the person who makes the medi- 
 cine kills the animals by crushing the beans and boiling them in a large 
 kettle tilled with water. This drink is designed for or api)roi)riated by 
 a few members, and they drink the liquid when it is quite hot. The 
 more that they drink the more they desire, and they seem able to drink 
 almost any quantity. It produces a kind of intoxication, making tliem 
 full of life, as they say, and enabling them to dance a long time. (See 
 §62.) 
 
 GREEN CORN OANCE. 
 
 § 88. This dance did not originate with the Iowa. It is said that the 
 Sac tribe obtained it from the Shawnee. It is held after night. Men 
 and women dance together, and if any women or men wish to leave 
 their consorts they do it at this dance and mate anew, nothing being 
 urged against it. 
 
 BUFFALO DANCING (SOCIETY. 
 
 § 89. The Iowa have the buffalo dance, and by a comparison of Mr. 
 Hamilton's description of it, and his account of the buffalo doctors, and of 
 the medicine or mystery bag of buffiilo hide, with what has been learned 
 about the Omaha order of buffalo shamans (see § 43), it seems probable 
 that among the Iowa this dance was not participated in by any but those 
 who had had visions of the buffalo, and that there was also some con- 
 nection between all three — the dancing society, the buffalo doctors, and 
 the mysterious bag of buffalo hide. As among the Omaha, the buffalo 
 doctors of the Iowa are the only surgeons. 
 
430 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 XOIWERE TRADITIONS. 
 
 § 00. The j^oiwere tribes have traditions of their origin similar to 
 those found among- the Osage, Kansa, and Ponka, and these traditions 
 are considered as " waqonjdta"," or mysterious things, not to be spoken 
 of lightly or told on ordinary occasions. 
 
 As among the Osage and Kansa, the traditions tell of a period when 
 the ancestors of the present gentes dwelt, some in the upper world, 
 and others in the ground (or in the world beneath this one). 
 
 Mr. Hamilton's informant said, "These are sacred things, and I do 
 not like to speak about them, as it is not our custom to do so except 
 when we make a feast and collect the people and use the sacred pipe." 
 These traditions were preserved in the secret societies of the tribes. 
 They explain the origin of the gentes and subgentes, of lire, corn, the 
 pipes, bows and arrows, etc. 
 
 It is probable that similar secret societies exist among the Winne- 
 bago. James Alexander, a Winnebago of the W^olf gens, t(jld a part 
 of the secret tradition of his gens, in which appear some resemblances 
 to the j^oiwere traditions, such as the creation of four kinds of wolves, 
 and their dwelling underground, or in the world beneatli this one. 
 (See §§ 381, 383.) 
 
 15ELIEF IN FUTURE LIFE. 
 
 That the j^oiwere believed in the existence of the ghost or spirit 
 after death is evident from what Mr. Hamilton observed : 
 
 They often put provisions, a i)itclier of water, and some cooking utensils on the 
 grave for the use of the spirit for some time after buriaL *' * *' At the time of 
 burial, they often put new clothing and ornaments on the corpse, if they are able, 
 and place by its side such things as they think necessary. I once saw a little child 
 with some of its playthings Avhich its mother had placed 1)y it, in her ignorance, 
 thinking that they would be pleasing to it. - - * They are generally careful for 
 a year or so, to keep down all the weeds and grass about the grave, perhajis for 10 
 feet around. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 DAKOTA AND ASSINIBOIN CULTS. 
 ALLEGED DAKOTA BELIEF IN A GREAT SPIRIT. 
 
 § d'2. That the Dakota tribes, before the advent of the white race, 
 believed in one Great Spirit, has been asserted by several writers; but 
 it can not be proved. On the contrary, even those writers who are 
 quoted in this study as stating the Dakota belief in a Great vSpirit, 
 also tell us of beliefs in many spirits of evil. Among the earlier writ- 
 ers of this class is Say, who observes : 
 
 Their Wahconcla seems to be a protean god; he is sui)i)ose(l to appear to ditiereut 
 persons nnder different Corras. All who are favored with his presence become medi- 
 cine men and magicians in conseqnence of their havinj;- seen and c(mversed with 
 Wahc()nda,and of having received from him some particular medicine of wondrous 
 efficacy. 
 
 The same writer records that " Wahconda" appeared sometimes as 
 a grizzly bear, sometimes as a bison, at others as a beaver, or an owl, 
 or some other bird or animal.' It is plain that Say mistook the generic 
 term, " Wahcouda," for a specitic one. (See §§ 6, 21-24.) 
 
 Shea says : 
 
 Although polytheism did not exist, although they all recognized one Supreme 
 Being, the creator of all, * ^^ » they nowhere adored the God whom they knew. 
 * * * The demons with which they peopled nature, these alone, in their fear they 
 sought to appease. * * " Pure unmixed devil-worship prevailed throughout the 
 length and breadth of the laud.^ 
 
 § 93. Lynd made some very pertinent remarks: 
 
 A stranger coming among the Dakotas for the first time, and observing the endless 
 variety of objects upon which they bestow their devotion, and the manifold forme 
 which that worship assumes, at once pronounces them pantheists. A further ac- 
 quaintance with them convinces him that they are pantheists of no ordinary kind — 
 that their pantheism is negative as well as positive, and that the engraftments of 
 religion are even nu)re numerous than the true branches. Upon a superficial glance 
 he seesnanght but an inextricable maze of gods, demons, spirits, beliefs and counter- 
 beliefs, earnest devotion and reckless skepticism, prayers, sacrifices, and sneers, 
 winding and intermingling with one another, until a labyrinth of pantlieism and 
 skepticism results, and the Dakota, with all his infinity of deities api)ear8 a creature 
 of irreligion. One speaks of the nu?dicine dance with respect, while another smiles 
 at the name— one makes a religion of the raw fish feast, while another stands by and 
 laughs at his performance— and others, listening to the supposed revelations of the 
 
 'Say, in .Tami^ss .\ccouiit of Lony's Expoil. Kocky ^tts., \'<il. i, 26H. 
 ^Sliea, Aiuer. Catli.mis8iou8, i> 25. 
 
 131 
 
432 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 circle dance, with reverent attentiou, are sueered at bv a class who deny hi tofo the 
 ivalan nature of that ceremony.' 
 
 In common with all nations of the earth the Dakotas Ijelieve in a Wakautanka or 
 Great Spirit. But this Being is not alone in the universe. Numbers of minor deities 
 are scattered throughout space, some of whom are placed high in the scale of power. 
 Their ideas of the Great Spirit appear to he that He is the creator of the world and 
 has existed from all time; but after creating the world and all that is in it He sank 
 into silence and since then has failed to take any interest in the affairs of this 
 planet. They never pray to Him, for they deem Him too far away to hear them, or 
 as not being concerned in their affairs. No sacrifices are made to Him, nor dances 
 in His honor. Of all the spirits He is the Great Spirit; but His power is only latent 
 or negative. They swear by Him at all times, but more commonly by other diviui- 
 ties.'^ 
 
 Yet Lyud is not always consistent, for lie says on another page (71) 
 of the same work: " No one deity is held by them all as a superior object 
 of worship." 
 
 § 94. Pond writes : 
 
 Evidence is also Avanting to show that the Dakotas embraced in their religious 
 tenents the idea of one supreme existence, whose existence is expressed by the term 
 Great Spirit. If some clans afc the present time entertain thi.s idea it seems highly 
 probable that it has been imparted to them by individuals of European extraction. 
 No reference to such a being is found in their feasts, fasts, or sacrilices. Or if there 
 is such a reference at the present time it is clear that it is of recent origin and does 
 not belong to their system. It is indeed true that the Dakotas do sometimes appeal 
 to the Great Spirit when in council with white men, but it is because they them- 
 selves have embraced the Christian doctrines. Still, it is generally the interpreter 
 who makes the appeal to the Great Spirit, when the Indian speaker really appealed 
 to the Taku Wakan, and not to the "Wakantanka. It is true that * * * all the 
 Dakota gods * * * are mortal. They are not thought of as being eternal, except 
 it may be by succession.'^ 
 
 The author agrees with Pond in what he says about the average 
 Indian interpreter of early days, who seldom gave a correct rendering 
 of what was spoken in council. But at the present time great improve- 
 ment has doubtless been observed. 
 
 It should be remembered that Messrs. Riggs and Pond were mission- 
 aries to the Dakotas, while Messrs. Say, Shea, and Lynd must be 
 classed among the laity. Yet the missionaries, not the laymen, are the 
 ones who make the positive statements about the absence of a belief 
 in one Great Spirit. 
 
 RIGGS ON THE TAKT^ WAKAN. 
 
 § 95. Riggs remarks : 
 
 The religious faith of the Dakota is not in his gods as such. It is an intangible, 
 mysterious something of which they are only the embodiment, and that in such a 
 measure and degree as may accord with the individual fancy of the worshiper. 
 Each one will worship some of these divinities and neglect and despise others; but 
 the great object of all their worship, whatever its chosen medium, is the ta-koo 
 
 'Lynd, Minn. Hist. Soc. Coll., Vol. ii, pt. 2, p. 63. Conii)are these seeming contradictious with those 
 observed among the Omaha and Ponka, especially §§ 21-24. 
 •■'Ibid, pp. 64-fo. 
 3Minn. Hist. Soc. Coll., Vol. il, pt. 3, p. 34. 
 
D' KSEY.] MEANING OF '' WAKAN." 433 
 
 WAH-KON, which is the superuatural and mysterious. No one term can express the 
 full meaning of the Dakota's Wakau. It comprehends all mystery, secret power, 
 and divinity. * * * ^11 life is Wakan. So also is everything which exhibits 
 power, whether in action, as the winds and drifting clouds, or in passive endurance, 
 as the bowlder by the wayside.' 
 
 MEANING OF " WAKAN." 
 
 In the mind of a Dakota * * * this word Wah-kon (we write, wa-kan) covers 
 the whole field of their iear and worship. Many things also that are neither feared 
 nor worshiped, but are simply wonderful, come under this designation. It is related 
 of Hennepin that when he and his two companions were taken captive by a Sioux 
 war party, as they ascended the upper Mississippi one of the men took up his gun 
 and shot a deer on the bank. The Indians said, " Wah-kon chi ?" — Is not this mys- 
 terious? And from that day ^ * * the gun has been called Mah-za wah-kon, 
 mysterious iron. This is shortened into Mah-za-kon. The same thing we may 
 believe is true when, ])robably less than two centuries ago, they first saw a horee. 
 They said "8hoou-ka wah-kon," wonderful dog. And from that day the horse KaS 
 been called by the Sioux wonderful dog, except when it has been called big dog, 
 Shoon-ka tonka. These historical facts have satisfied us that the idea of the Great 
 Spirit ascribed to the Indians of North America does not Ixdong to the original 
 theogouy of the Sioux, but has come from without, like that (sic) of the horse and 
 gun, and probably dates back only to their first hearing of the white uum's God.^ 
 
 Taku Walan. — This is a general term, iucluding all that is wouder- 
 ful, iiicomj)relieusible, supernatural — what is wakan ; but es])ecially 
 covering the objects of their worshii>. Until used in reference to our 
 God, it is believed that the phrase was not api)lied to any individual 
 object of wor.ship, but was equivalent to " the gods."^ As tuwe, icho, 
 refers to per.sons, and taku, n-liat, to things, the correctness of Eiggs's 
 conclusion can hardly be questioned, ])rovided we add that the Dakota 
 term, Taku Wakan, could not have conveyed to the Dakota mind the 
 idea of a personal God, using the term person as it is commoidy em- 
 ployed by civilized peoples. 
 
 DAIMONISM. 
 
 § 96. Lynd says : 
 
 The divinities of evil among the Dakotas may be called legion. Their special 
 delight is to make man miserable or to destroy him. Demons wander through the 
 earth, causing sickness and death. Spirits of evil are ever ready to pounce upon 
 and destroy the unwary. Spirits of earth, air, fire, and water (see ^ 36) surround 
 him upon every side, and with but one great governing object in view — the misery 
 and destruction of the human race.* 
 
 ANIMISM. 
 
 § 97. Their religions system gives to everything a soul or spirit. 
 Even the commonest sticks and clays have a spiritual essence attached 
 
 • Riggs, Tah-koo Wali-koii, pp. 56, 57. 
 
 2 Riggs iu Am. Antiq., Vol. ll, Ko. 4, p. 265; ami in Am. Philolog. As.soc. Pioc. 1872, pp. 5, 6. 
 
 3 Riggs, in Am. Antiq., vol. n, Xo. 4. p. 200. Pond, Minn. Hist. Soc. Coll., vol. n, pt. 3. p. 33. Smet, 
 op. cit., 120, noti-. 
 
 ■•Minn. Hist. Soc. Coll., vol. ii, pt. 2. 
 11 ETH 28 
 
434 A STUDY OF ►SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 to til em which must needs be reverenced ; for these spirits, too, vent 
 their wrath npon mankind. Indeed, there is no object, however trivial, 
 but has its sjiirit.^ 
 
 In his article on the Mythology of the Dakotas,^ Eiggs says of the 
 Dakota : 
 
 They pray to the sun, earth, moon, lakes, rivers, trees, plants, snakes, and all kinds 
 of animals and vegetables — many of them say, to everything, for they pray to their 
 guns and arrows — to any object, artificial as well as natural, for they suppose that 
 every object, artificial as well as natural, has a spirit which may hurt or help, and 
 so is a proper object of worship. 
 
 Lynd says : 
 
 The essentially physical cast of the Indian mind (if I may be allowed the ex- 
 pression) requires some outward and tangible representation of things spiritual 
 before he can comprehend them. The god must be x>resent, by image or in person, 
 ere he can offer up his devotions. * * * Similar to this "belief in a spiritual 
 essence" is the general Dakota belief that each class of animals or objects of a like 
 kind possesses a peculiar guardian divinity, which is the mother archetype. * * * 
 Sexuality is a prominent feature in the religion of the Dakotas. Of every species 
 of divinity, with the exception of the Wakantauka, there is a plurality, part male 
 and part female. Even the spirits, which are supposed to dwell in the earth, twigs, 
 and other inanimate substances, are invested with distinctions of sex.^ 
 
 §98. Pond asserts that "evidence is wanting to show that these 
 people divide their Taku-wakau into classes of good and evil. They 
 are all simply wakan." * 
 
 PRINCIPAL DAKOTA GODS. 
 
 The gods of the Dakotas are of course innumerable; but of the 
 superior gods these are the chief: The Unktehi, or god of the water f 
 the Wakinyan, or thunder god; the Takuskanskan, or moving god; 
 the Tunkan, Inyan, or stone god; the Heyoka god; the Sun; the Moon; 
 the Armor god ; the Spirit of the Medicine Sack; and the Wakantauka, 
 who is probably an intrusive deity .^ 
 
 MISS FLETCHER ON INDIAN RELIGION. 
 
 § 99. The following remarks are those of a later writer. Miss Fletcher: 
 
 The Indian's religion is generally spoken of as a nature and animal worship. The 
 term seems too broadcast and indiscriminate. Careful inquiry and observation fail 
 to show that the Indian actually worships the objects which are set up or men- 
 tioned by him in his ceremonies. The earth, four winds, the sun, moon, and stars, 
 the stones, the water, the various animals, are all exponents of a mysterious life 
 and power encompassing the Indian and filling him with vague apprehension and 
 desire t«) propitiate and induce friendly relations. The latter is attempted not so 
 much through the ideas of sacrifice as through more or less ceremonial appeals. 
 More faith is put in ritual and a careful ol)servauce of forms than in any act of 
 self-denial in its moral sense, as we understand it. The claim of relationship is 
 used to strengthen the appeal, since the tie of kindred among the Indians is one 
 wh ich can not be ignored or disregarded, the terms grandfather and grandmother b eing 
 
 ' Lynd, Ibid., p. 67. 'Am. Antiq., vol. v, 149. 3 Minn. Hist. Soc. Coll., vol. I, pt. 2, pp. 67. 68. 
 ^Il)id., pt. 3, p. 33. ' Riggs, Tah-koo Wah-kon, p. 61, et passim. 
 
DORSEY.] PRAYER. 435 
 
 most general aud implying dependence, respect, and the recognition of authority. 
 (See v\vn9, 100.) 
 
 One of the simplest and most picturesque explanations of the use of the varied 
 forms of life in the Indian worship was given to uie by a thoughtful Indian chief. 
 He said: "Everything as it moves, now and then, here and there, makes stops. 
 The bird as it flies stops in one place to make its nest, and in another to rest in its 
 flight. A man when he goes forth stops when he wills. So the god has stopped. 
 The sun, which is so bright aud beautiful, is one jdace where he has stoi)ped. The 
 moon, the stars, the winds, he has been with. The trees, the animals, are all where 
 he has stopped, and the Indian thinks of these places aud sends his prayers there to 
 reach the place where the god has stopped and win help and a blessing."' 
 
 The vague feeling after unity is here discernible, but it is like the cry of a child 
 rather than the articulate speech of a man. To the Indian mind the life of the 
 universe has not been analyzed, classified, and a great synthesis formed of the parts- 
 To him the varied forms are equally important and noble. A devout old Indian 
 said: "The tree is like a human being, for it has life aud grows ; so we pray to it 
 and put our offerings on it that the god may help us." In the same spirit the apol- 
 ogy is offered over a slaughtered animal, for the life of the one is taken to supple- 
 ment the life of the other, "that it may cause us to live," one formula expresses it. 
 These manifestations of life, stopping places of the god, can not therefore be accu- 
 rately called objects of worship or symbols; they appear to be more like media of 
 commuuication with the permeating occult force which is vaguely and fearfully 
 apprehended. As a cousetiuence, the Indian stands abreast of nature. He does 
 not face it, aud hence can not master or coerce it, or view it scieiititically and ajiart 
 from his own mental aud emotional life. He appeals to it, but does not worship it.' 
 
 PRAYER. 
 
 § 100. Every power is prayed to by some of the Dakota and Assini- 
 boin. Amoug the accessories of prayer the Dakota reckons the fol- 
 lowing: (a) Ceremonial wailing or crying (ceya, to weep, wail; whence, 
 cekiya, to cry, to pray, aud wocekiye, prayer), sometimes accompanied 
 by articulate speech (§§ 177, 208) ; {b) the action called yuwi"tapi (yuwiij'- 
 tapi) described in § 24; {c) holding the pipe with the mouthpiece toward 
 the power invoked, as the Heyoka devotees sometimes do (§§ 22.>, 221) ; 
 (d) the use of smoke from the pipe or the odor of burning cedar needles 
 (§§159, IGS); (e) the application of the kinship terms, "grandfather" 
 (or its alternative, ''venerable man") to a male power, and " grand- 
 mother" to a female one (§§ 90, 107, 239); (/) sacrifice, or offering of 
 goods, animals, or pieces of one's own flesh, etc. (see § 185). 
 
 SACRIFICE. 
 
 § 101. The radical forms of worship among the Dakota, according to 
 Lynd, are few and simple. One of the most primitive is that of Wo- 
 cnapi ( Wosnapi) or Sacrifice. To every divinity that they worship they 
 make sacrifices. Even upon the most trivial occasions the gods are 
 either thanked or supplicated by sacrifice. The religious idea it carries 
 Avith it is at the fouiulatiou of the every-day life of the Dakota. The 
 wohduze or taboo has its origin there; the wiwaijyag wa<5ipi or sun- 
 
 1 Kept. Peabody Museum, vol. ni, p. 276, note. 
 
436 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 dance (§§ 141-211) carries with it the same idea; the wakai^ wohaijpi or 
 sacred feast (feast of the first-fruits) is a practical embodimeut of it; 
 and liaijnidepi or god-seekiug of the extreme western tribes is but a 
 form of self-sacrifice. No Dakota in his worship neglects this ceremony. 
 It enters into his religious thoughts at all times, even at the hour of 
 death. The sacrifices made upon recovery from sickness are never 
 comi)osed of anything very valuable, for the poverty of the Indian will 
 not perndt this. Usually a small strip of muslin, or a piece of red clotli, 
 a few skins of some animals, or other things of no great use or value are 
 employed. Sometimes a pan or kettle is laid up for a sacrifice. But 
 after a short time, the end for which the sacrifice was made is attained, 
 and it is removed. Those in need of such things as they see ofl'ered in 
 sacrifice may take them for their own use, being careful to substitute 
 some other articles. Perhaps the most common forms of sacrifice are 
 those which are made in the hunt. Particular portions of each animal 
 killed are held sacred to the god of the chase or some other deities. If 
 a deer is killed, the head, heart, or some other part of it is sacrified by 
 the person who has slain it. The part sacrificed differs with different 
 individuals. In ducks and fowls the most common sacrifice is of the 
 wing, though many sacrifice the heart, and a few the head. This cus- 
 tom is called wohduze, and is always constant with individuls, i. e., the 
 same part is always sacrificed. The other wohduze or taboo is con- 
 nected with the wotawe or armor,^ and will be described hereafter 
 (§125). 
 
 §102. Haymdepi or god-seeking. — Haijmdepi or god-seeking is a form 
 of religion among the Dakotas that points back to a remote antiquity. 
 The meaning of the word, in its common acceptation, appears to be 
 greath" misunderstood by some. Literally, it means only to dream, and 
 is but another form of haijma; but in its use it is applied almost wholly 
 to the custom of seeking for a dream or revelation, practiced by the 
 Sisitonwan, Ihanktonwanna, and TitouAvan (Sioux), and by the Crow, 
 Minnetaree, Assiniboin, and other western Dakota. In this resi)ect 
 it has no reference whatever to the common dreams of sleep, but means 
 simply the form of religion practiced. 
 
 If a Dakota wishes to be particularly successful in any (to him) im- 
 portant undertaking, he first purifies himself by the Inipi or steam 
 bath, and by fasting for a term of three days. During the whole of 
 this time he avoids women and society, is secluded in his habits, and 
 endeavors in every way to be pure enough to receive a revelation from 
 the deity whom he invokes. When the period of fasting is i)assed he 
 is ready for the sacrifice, which is made in various ways. Some, pass- 
 ing a knife through the breast and arms, attach thongs thereto, which 
 are fastened at the other end to the top of a tall pole raised for that i)ur- 
 pose; and thus they hang, susi)ended only by these thongs, for two, 
 three, or even four days, gazing upon vacancy, their minds being in- 
 
 ' Lj-nd, Minn. Hist. Soc. Coll.. Vol. ii, pt. 2. p. 72. 
 
uoBSEY] HA^jMDEPI. 437 
 
 tently fixed upon the objeet iu which they desire to be assisted by the 
 deity, and waiting- for a vi.sion from above. Once a day an assistant is 
 sent to look upon the person thas sacrificing himself. If the deities 
 have vouchsafed him a Aision or revelation, he signifies the same by 
 motions, and is released at once : if he be silent, his silence is under- 
 stood, and he is left alone to his reverie. 
 
 Others attach a buftalo hair rope to the head of a buftalo just as it is 
 severed from the animal, and to the other end affix a hook, which is 
 then passed through the large muscles in the small of the back, and 
 thus fastened they drag the head all over the camp, their minds mean- 
 while being fixed intently, as in the first instance, upon the object in 
 which they are beseeching the deity to assist them. 
 
 A third class pass knives through the tlesh in varimis parts of the 
 body, and wait iu silence, though with fixed mind, for a dream or reve- 
 lation. A few, either not blessed with the powers of endurance or else 
 lacking the coiu-age of the class first named, will plant a pole upon the 
 steep bank of a stream, and attaching ropes to the nuiscles of the arm 
 and breast, as in the first instance, will stand, but not hang, gazing 
 into space, without food or drink, for days. 
 
 Still another class practice the haijmdepi without such horrid self- 
 sacrifice. For weeks, nay. for mouths, they will fix their minds intently 
 upon any desired object, to the exclusion of all others, frequently cry- 
 ing about the camp, occasionally taking a little food, but fasting- for 
 the most part, and earnestly seeking a revelation fiom their god.' 
 
 §103. Similar testimony has been given respecting the Mandan. Hi- 
 datsa, and Ankara, though this last tribe belongs to the Caddoan 
 stock. Smet wrote thus about them: 
 
 They cut otf their tiagers ami make deep incisions iu the deshy parts of the body 
 before starting for war. in order to obtain the favors of their false gods. Ou my htst 
 visit to these Kicaries, Minataries, and Mandans I could not discern a single man at 
 all advanced in years whose body hail not been mutilated, or who possessed his full 
 number of ringers. - 
 
 In treating of the religious opinion of the Assiniboin. Smet says: 
 
 Some burn tobacco, and present to the Great Spirit the most exquisite pieces of 
 buffalo meat by casting them into the fire: while others make deep incisions in the 
 lieshy parts of their bodies, and even cut off the first joints of their fingers to offer 
 them in sacrifice. ' 
 
 Lynd says: 
 
 U04. Frequently the devout Dakota will make images of bark or stone, and. after 
 painting them in various ways and putting sacred down upon them, will fall down 
 in worship before them, praying that all danger may be averted from him and his. 
 It must not be understood, however, that the Dakota is an idolater. It is not the 
 image that he worships, * ' ^ but the spiritual essence which is represented by 
 that image, and which is supposed to be ever near it.* 
 
 ' Lynil, Minn. Hist. Soc. Coll.. Vol. u. pt. 2. pp. 72. 76. 77. 
 
 -Smet. Western ^lissions and Missionaries, ji. 92. 
 
 3 Ibid., p. 134. 
 
 ^Lvnd. Minn. Hist. Soc. Coll.. Vol. n. pt. 2. p. 67. 
 
438 A STUDY OF SIOUAX CULTS. 
 
 This plausible distinction has been made l)y persons of different 
 nations at various periods in the Avorld's history, but it seems to be of 
 doubtful value. 
 
 USE OF I'AIXT IX WOKSHII'. 
 
 § 105. In the worship of their deities paint forms an important feature. 
 Scarlet or red is the religious color for sacrifices, while blue is used by 
 the women in many of the ceremonies in which they participate (§§ 374, 
 375). This, however, is not a constant distinction of sex, for the women 
 frequently use red or scarlet. The use of paints the Dakotas aver was 
 taught them by the gods.^ 
 
 For accounts of the Sun-dance and a sacrifice to the Dawn, see §§ 141, 
 211, 215. 
 
 THE UNKTEHI, OR SUBAQUATIC AND SUBTERRANEAN POWERS. 
 
 § 106. The gods of this name, for there are many, are the most powerful 
 of all. In their external form they are said to resemble tlie ox, only 
 they are of immense proportions. They can extend their horns and 
 tails so as to reach the skies. These are the organs of their power. 
 According to one account the Unktelii inhabit all deep waters, and 
 especially all great waterfalls. Two hundred and eleven years ago, 
 when Hennepin and Du Luth saw the Falls of St. Anthony together, 
 there were some buffalo robes hanging there as sacrifices to the Unktehi 
 of the ])lace.^ 
 
 § 107. Another account written by the same author informs us that 
 the male Unktehi dwell in the water, and the spirits of the females 
 animate the earth. Hence, when the Dakota seems to l)e offering 
 sacrifices to the water or the earth, it is to this family of gods that the 
 worship is rendered. They address the males as "grandfathers," and 
 the females as "grandmothers." It is believed that one of these gods 
 dwells under the Falls of St. Anthony, in a den of great dimensions, 
 which is constructed of iron.^ 
 
 § 108. " The word Unktelii defies analysis, only the latter part giving 
 us the idea of difficult [sic], and so nothing can be gathered from the 
 name itself of the functions of these gods. But Indian legend generally 
 describes the genesis of the earth as from the water. Some animal, as 
 the beaver [compare the Iowa and Oto Beaver geutes, Paca and Paq^a. — 
 J. o. D.] living in the waters, brought up, from a great depth, mud to 
 build dry land.'' * According to the Dakota cosmogony, this was done 
 by the Unktehi, called in the Teton dialect Unktcexila or Uijkcegila. ' 
 (Compare the Winnebago, Waktceqi ikikaratcada or water-monster 
 gens, and the Wakandagi ©f the Omaha and Pouka, see §§7,77). 
 
 'Lj-nd, Minn. Hist, Soc. Coll., vol. ii. pt. 2, p. 80. 
 ^Eiggs, in Am. Antiq., vol. ll, p. 266. 
 
 •Eiggs, Tah-koo Wah-kon, p. 62. See Maza or Iron names of Indian.s iu the author's forthcouiiug 
 monograph on Indian Personal Xames. 
 ^Eiggs, iu Am. Antiq., vol. ii, p. 267. 
 
i>oH?EY.i POWER OF THE UNKTEUI. 439 
 
 § 100. The Iow;i and Oto tribes have aiuoug their uikie names. Xi 
 wa^cike, Water Person, andXiwa-'cikemi. Water Person Female. If 
 these do not refer to the beaver, they may have some connection with the 
 water monsters or deities. An Omaha tohl the author a Yankton legend 
 about these gods of the waters. The wife of the special Unktehi coveted 
 an Indian child and drew it beneath the surface of the river. The father 
 of the child had to ofter a white dog to the deity in order to recover his 
 son: but the latter died on emerging from the water, as he had eaten 
 some of the food of the Unktehi during his stay with the deity. After 
 awhile the parents lost a daughter in like nu\nner, but as she did not eat 
 any of the food of the Unktelii, she was recovered after an offering ot 
 
 four white dogs.' 
 
 Smet tells of offerings made by the Assiiiiboiii t.. -tlu' water and 
 "the laud." but it is probable that they were made to the rnktehi.-' 
 
 .; 110. The Dakota pray to lakes and rivers, according to Kiggs,^ but 
 he does not say whether the visible objects were worshiped or whether 
 the worship was intended for the Unktehi supposed to dwell m those 
 
 lakes and rivers. 
 
 I'OWER OF THE VXKTEHI. 
 
 vN 111 These gods have power to send from their bodies a wakan in- 
 fluence which is irresistible even by the superior gods. This influence is 
 termed "tonwan." This power is common to all the Taku Wakan. And 
 it i-ldaimed that this tonwan is infused into each mystery sack which 
 is used in the mvsterv dance. A little to the left of the road leading 
 from Fort Suelliug to Minnehaha, in sight of the fort, is a hill which is 
 used at present as a burial place. This hill is known to the Dakota as 
 "Taku Wakan tipi." the dwelling place of the gods. It isbeheved that 
 one of the Unktehi dwells there. 
 
 § 112 The Unktehi are thought to feed on the spirits ot human be- 
 ings and references to this occur in the mystic songs. The mystery least 
 and the mvsterv dance have been received from these gods. The sacri- 
 fices required by them are the soft down of the swan reddened with ver- 
 milion, deer skins, dog, mystery feast and mystery dances 
 
 In Aliss Fletcher s article on -The Shadow or Ghost Lodge: A cere- 
 mony of the Ogallala Sioux," we read that 2 yards of red cloth are 
 "carried out bevond the camp, t.. an elevation if possible, and buried 
 in a hole about 3 feet deep. This is an oftering to the ear h. and t lie 
 chanted praver asks that the life, or power in earth, will help the 
 father" of the dead child -in keeping successfully all the requirements 
 of the ghost lodge.' '^ (See § 116.) 
 
 SIBORDIXATES OF THK rXKTEUI. 
 
 . The subordinates of the Unktelii are serpents, lizards, frogs, ghosts 
 owls, and eagles. The Unktehi mad^he^earm ami men, aiuUavenie 
 
 » Missions and Missionaries, p. 136. Kej.!. it. u . 
 
440 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 Dakota the mystery sack, and also ijrescribed the manner in which some 
 of those pigments must be applied which are rubbed over the bodies of 
 their votaries in the mystery dance, and on the warrior as he goes into 
 action. 
 
 THE MYSTERY DANCE. 
 
 § 113. Immediately after tlie production of the earth and men, the 
 Unktehi gave the Indians the mystery sack and instituted the Wakan 
 wacipi or mystery dance. They ordained that the sack should consist 
 of the skin of the otter, raccoon, weasel, squirrel, loon, one variety of 
 fish, and of serpents. It was also ordained that the sack should contain 
 four species of medicines of wakan qualities, which should represent 
 fowls, medicinal herbs, medicinal trees, and quadrni)eds. The di)wn 
 of the female swan represents the first, and may be seen at the time of 
 the dance inserted in the nose of the sack. Grass roots represent the 
 second, bark from the roots of the trees the third, and hair from the 
 back or head of a bufialo the fourth. These are carefully preserved in 
 the sack. From this combination proceeds a wakan influence so pow- 
 erful that no human being, unassisted, can resist it. 
 
 Those who violated their obligations as members of the Mystery dance, 
 were sure of punishment. If they went into forests, the black owl was 
 there, as a servant of the Unktelii ; if they descended into the earth, 
 they encountered the serpent; if they ascended into the air, the eagle 
 would pursue and overtake them; and if they ventured into the water, 
 there were the Unktelii themselves.^ An account of the mystery or 
 medicine dance is given by Pond, op. cit., pp. 37-41. 
 
 "Those Dakotas," said Lynd, "who belong to the medicine dance es- 
 teem the Unktehi as the greatest divinity. Among the eastern Dakotas 
 the medicine dance appears to have taken the place of these more bar- 
 barous ceremonies (i. e., the self-tortures of the hanmdepi, piercing of 
 the flesh, etc.) — among the Winnebagoes entirely." 
 
 The Omaha do not have the sun dance, but the wacicka a<|;i", answer- 
 ing to the Dakota mystery dance, is said to be of ancient use among 
 them. 
 
 "Indeed, the medicine dance, though an intrusive religious form, may 
 be considered as an elevating and enlightening religion in comparison 
 with the hanmdepi.'" 
 
 THE MINIWATU. 
 
 § 114. Tlie Teton Dakota tell of the Miniwatu, Wamnitu,^ and Mini 
 wasicu, all of wliich are probably names for the same class of monsters, 
 the last meaning " Water God or Guardian Spirit." These powers are 
 said to be horned water monsters with four legs each. "They make 
 
 'Pond, Minn. Hist. Soc. Coll, vol. ii, pp. 35-38. 
 
 ^Lynd, Ibid., pt. 2, pp. 71-77. Riggs, in Amer. Philolog. Assoc. Proc, 1872., p. 6. 
 3 A picture of " Wah-Menitn, the .spirit or god in the water," is given on p. 161 of Lloyd's transla- 
 tion of Maximilian, London, 1843. 
 
DoRSEY.l THE MINIWATU. 441 
 
 waves by pushing- the water toward the k)wlaiids; therefore, the In- 
 dians prefer to encamp on or near the bluffs. They fear to swim the 
 Missouri River on account of the water monsters, who can draw people 
 into their mouths." Can these be the Uuktehi, whom the Teton call 
 Uijkce^nla ? 
 
 § 115. " Long ago," according to Bushotter, "the people saw a strange 
 thing in the Missouri Eiver. At night there was some red object, shin- 
 ing like tire, making the water roar as it passed upstream. Should any 
 one see the monster by daylight he became crazy soon after, writhing 
 as with pain, and dying. One man who said that he saw the monster 
 described it thus: ' It has red hair all over, and one eye. A horn is in 
 the middle of its forehead, and its body resembles that of a buffalo." 
 Its backbone is like a cross-cut saw, being Hat and notched like a 
 saw or cog wheel. When one sees it he gets bewildered, and his eyes 
 close at once. He is crazy for a day, and then he dies. The Teton 
 think that this matter is still in the river, and they call it the Miniwatu 
 or water monster. They think that it causes the ice on the river to 
 break up in the spring of the year."'^ 
 
 The Teton say that the bones of the Uijkcegila are now found in the 
 bluffs of Nebraska and Dakota. 
 
 THE WAKI^YA^ (WAKI?JYAI^), OR THUNDER-BEINGS. 
 
 § 116. The name signities the Hying ones, from kinyan, to fly. The 
 thunder is the sound of their voices. The lightning is the missile or 
 ton wan of the winged monsters, who live and fly through the heavens 
 shielded from mortal vision by thick cl<mds. By some of the wakan 
 men it is said that there are four varieties of the form of their external 
 manifestation. In essence, however they are but one. One of the 
 varieties is black, with a long beak, and has four joints in his wing. 
 Another is yellow, without any beak at all; with wings like the first, 
 excei)t that he has six quills in each wing. The third is scarlet, and 
 remarkable chiefly for having eight joints in each of its enormous pin- 
 ions. The fourth is blue and globular in form, and it is destitute of both 
 eyes and ears. Immediately over the places where the eyes should be 
 there is a semicircular line of lightning resembling an inverted half 
 moon from beneath which project downward two chains of lightning 
 diverging from each other in zigzag lines as they descend. Two plumes 
 like soft down, coming out near the roots of the descending chains of 
 lightning, serve for wings.-' 
 
 These thunderers, of course, are of terrific proportions. They (treated 
 the wild rice and a variety of prairie grass, the seed of which bears 
 some resemblance to that of the rice. At the western extremity of the 
 
 'According to Omaha traditiou, two buffalo gentes are of subaquatic origin. See Oiu. Soc, pp. 231- 
 2;i3. 
 
 'From an unpublished text of Bushotter. 
 
 "The Thunderers in the Omaha mytli luive hair of ditrerent cidoi-.s. One lias white hair, the second 
 has yellow, t!ie third, brijjhtred, and tlie fiiurtli. jiie -n Iiair. Si'e Coutr, X. A. Kth.. vol. vi. p. 137. 
 
442 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 earth, which is supposed to be a circular plaiu surrounded by water, is 
 a high mountain, on the summit of which is a beautiful mound. On this 
 mound is the dwelling of the Wakinyan gods. The dwelling opens 
 toward each of the four quarters of the earth, and at each doorway is 
 stationed a sentinel. A butterfly stands at the east entrance, a bear 
 at the west, a reindeer [sic, j^robably intended for a deer. — j. o. d.] at 
 the north, and a beaver at the south [the beaver seems out of place 
 here as a servant of the Wakinyan gods, for, judging from analogy, 
 he ought to be the servant of the Unktehi (see § 108) — j. o. D.]. 
 
 Except the head, each of these wakan sentinels is enveloped in scar- 
 let down of the most extraordinary beauty.' 
 
 § 117. The Teton texts of Bushotter state the belief that " some of 
 these ancient people still dwell in the clouds. They have large curved 
 beaks resembling bison humps, their voices are loud, they do not open 
 their eyes except when tht\y make lightning, hence the archaic Teton 
 name for the lightning, Wakinyan tunwanpi, " The thunder-beings 
 open their eyes." They are armed with arrows and " maza wakan " or 
 "mysterious irons" (not "guns"), the latter being of different kinds. 
 Kaijgitame, stones resembling coal, are found in the Bad Lands, and 
 they are said to be the missiles of the Thunderers. When these gods 
 so desire they kill various mysterious beings and objects, as well as 
 human beings that are mysterious. Their ancient foes were the giant 
 rattlesnakes and the prehistoric water monsters (Uijk<;egila: see §§ 108, 
 114, 115). 
 
 §118. Long ago the Teton encamped by a deep lake whose shore 
 was inclosed by very high cliils. They noticed that at night, even 
 when there was no breeze, the water in the middle of the lake was con- 
 stantly roaring. When one gazed in that direction, he saw a huge 
 eye as bright as the sun, which (;aused him to vomit something resem- 
 bling black earth moistened with water, and death soon followed. 
 That very night the Thunderers came, and the crashing sounds were 
 so terrible that many people fainted. The next morning the shore was 
 covered with the bodies of all kinds of fish, some of which were larger 
 than men, and there were also some huge serpents. The water mon- 
 ster Avhich the Thunderers had fought resembled a rattlesnake, but he 
 had short legs and rusty-yellow fur. 
 
 §119. The Thunderers are represented as cruel and destructive in 
 disposition. They are ever on the war path. A mortal hatred exists 
 between them and the family of the Unktehi. Neither has power to 
 resist the ton wan of the other if it strikes him. Their attacks are never 
 open, and neither is safe except he eludes the vigilance of the other. 
 The Wakinj^an, in turn, are often suri)rised and killed by the Unktehi. 
 Many stories are told of the combats of these gods. Mr. Pond once 
 listened to the relation, by an eyewitness (as he called himself), of a 
 story in substance as follows : A Wakinyan measuring 25 to 30 yards 
 
 ' Pond, Miiin. Hist. Soc. Coll., Vol. ii, pt. 2, 41-42. 
 
DORSEY.i THE WAKIT^YAIJ THE ARMOR GODS. 443 
 
 between the tips of bis wings was killed and fell on the bank of the 
 Blue Earth river (Minnesota). 
 
 From the Wakinyau the Dakota have received their war implements, 
 the spear and tomahawk, and many of the i)igments, whic^, if jjroperly 
 applied, will shield them from the weapons of their enemies.^ 
 
 §!-!(). When a person dreams of the Thunderers, it is a sign that 
 he and they must tight. The Wakiuyan are not the only gods of war; 
 there are also the Takucka"cka" (Takuskanskan) and the Armor gods. 
 (See §§ 122-3, 127-9.) 
 
 Of the circle dance, Riggs says (in Amer. Antiq., ii, 267) : "■ They cut 
 an image of the great bird from bark and suspend it at the top of the 
 central pole, which is shot to pieces at the close of the dance." (He 
 probably means that the image of the great bird, a Thunder bird, is 
 shot to pieces, not the pole.) Sacrifices are made to the Wakiuyan 
 and songs are sung both to the Wakinyau and the Unktehi. 
 
 § 121. There seems to be some connection between the Heyoka gods 
 and the Wakinyau; but it is not plain. The Heyoka god uses a snuill 
 Wakiuyan god as his drumstick. (See §218.) The Wakiuyan songs 
 are sung by members of the Heyoka dancing order. 
 
 Smet was told that the Dakota — 
 
 Pretend that the thnntler is au euormous bird, and that the muffled sound of the 
 distant thunder is caused by a countless number of young (thunder) birds. The 
 great bird, they say, gives the first sound, and the young ones repeat it; this is the 
 cause of tlie reverberations. The Sioux declai'e that the young thunderers do all the 
 mischief, like giddy youth who vrill not listen to good advice; but the old thun- 
 derer or big bird is wise and excellent ; he never kills or injures any one.- 
 
 Next to the Sun, according to Smet, Thunder is the great deity of the 
 Assiniboin. Every spring, at the first peal of thunder, they offer sac- 
 rifices to the Wakinyau.^ 
 
 The Assiniboin, according to Maximilian, ascribed the thunder to au 
 euormous bird.* 
 
 THE ARMOR GODS. 
 
 § 122. As each young man comes to maturity a tutelar divinity, some- 
 times called "Wasicuij" (see §236), is assigned to him. It is supposed 
 to reside in the consecrated armor then given to him, consisting of a 
 spear, an arrow, and a small bundle of paint. It is the spirit of some 
 bird or animal, as the wolf, beaver, loon, or eagle. He must not kill 
 this animal, but hold it ever sacred, or at least until he has jjroved his 
 manhood by killing au enemy. Frequently the young man forms an 
 image of this sacred animal and carries it about with him, regarding 
 it as having a direct infiuence upon his everyday life and ultimate 
 destiny. Parkman says (in his "Jesuits in North America," p. lxxi. 
 
 > Poud, Minn. Hist. Soc. Coll., vol. u, pt. 3, p. 43. Kii;g.s, Titli-koo Wab-kou, i>p. 62-64. 
 
 2 Missions and Missionaries, p. 143. 
 
 3 Smet. op. cit., p. 134. 
 
 ^Maximilian, Travels in Nortli America, p. 197. 
 
444 A bTUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 note) that the knowledge of this guardian spirit comes through dreams 
 at the initiatory fast. If this is ever true among the Dakota, it is not 
 tlie rule. This knowledge is communicated by the ''war prophet.?'^ 
 (See §§120, 127, 12U, 305, etc.) 
 
 Ashley tells ns that among the Sisseton and Wahpeton Dakota the 
 warrior, as such, was forbidden by custom of law to eat the tongue, 
 head, or heart of many beasts. There were other animals of which the 
 heads might be eaten, but not the tongues. A warrior about to go on 
 the war path could not have intercourse with women, but must go 
 through the purification of the inipi or sweat bath, which lasts four 
 days. A married warrior could not touch his own weapons until he 
 had thus jmritied himself.^ 
 
 § 123. Tlie Armor god and the Spirit of the mystery sack are some- 
 times spoken of as if they were individual and separate divinities; but 
 they seem rather to be the god-power which is put into the armor and 
 sack by consecration. They should be regarded as the indwelling of 
 the Unktelii or of the Takuskanskan. A young man's war weapons 
 are wakan and must not be touched. by a woman. A man prays to his 
 armor in the day of battle. In the consecration of these weapon^s of 
 Avar and the hunt a young man comes under certain taboo restrictions. 
 Certain parts of an animal are sacred and must not be eaten until he 
 has killed an enemy. ^ 
 
 THE WAR PROPHET. 
 
 § 124. The war prophet has been referred to. In this capacity the 
 wakan man is a necessity. Every male Dakota 16 years old and upward 
 is a soldier, and is formally and mysteriously enlisted into the service of 
 the war prophet. From him lie receives the implements of war, care- 
 fully constructed after models furnished from the armory of the gods, 
 painted after a divine prescription, and charged with a missive virtue — 
 the ton wan — of the divinities. From him he also receives those paints 
 which serve as an armature for the body. To obtain these necessary 
 articles the proud applicant is required for a time to abuse himself and 
 serve him, while he goes through a series of painful and exhausting 
 performances which are necessary on his part to enlist the favorable 
 notice ot the gods. These performances consist chiefly of vapor baths, 
 fastings, chants, prayers, and nightly vigils. The spear and the toma- 
 hawk being prepared and consecrated, the person who is to receive 
 them approaches the wakan man and presents a pipe to him. He asks 
 a favor, in substance as follows: "Pity thou me, poor and helpless, a 
 woman, and confer on me the ability to perform manly deeds." The 
 prophet gives him the weapons and tells hiin not to forget his vows to 
 the gods when he returns in triumph, a man. The weapons are care- 
 fully jireserved by the warrior. They are wrapped in cloth, together 
 
 • Kiggs, Tahkoo Wah-koii, pp, 69, 70. 
 
 2Kev. E. Asliley, MS. letter to Dorsey, March 21, 1884. 
 
 ^Riggs. in Am. Autiq., vol, ll, No. 4, p. 270. 
 
o^RSEY.l THE WAR PROPHET TAKUSKAIJSKA?^^ 445 
 
 with the sacred pigments. In tUir weather they are hiid outside of the 
 lodge every day. They must never be touched by an adult female. ' 
 
 § 125. Lyud's account is slightly difi'ereut, thoufjh in substantial accord 
 with the preceding- one: 
 
 Wlifii ;i yoiitli arrives at Hie age proper for goiug on the warpath he first purifies 
 hiiubelf liy lasting and the iiiij)! or steam baHi for three days, and then goe.s, with 
 tears in liia eyes, to some \v.ik;in man whose influenee is nndonbted, and prays that 
 he will present him with the wotawe or consecrated armor. This wakau man is 
 usually some old and experienced zuya wakan or sacred war leader. After a time 
 the armor is presented to the young man, Imt until it is so presented he must fast 
 and continue his purifications iueessautly. It is a singular fact tiiat nothing but 
 the spear of this armor is ever used in battle, though it is always carried when the 
 owner accompanies a war party. At the same time that the old man presents the 
 armor he tells the youth to what animal it is dedicated, and enjoins upon him to 
 h(dd that animal wakan. He must never harm or kill it, even though starvation 
 threaten him. At all times and under all circumstances the taboo or wohduze is 
 upon it, until by slaying numerous enemies it is gradually removed. By some the 
 animal is held sacred during life, the taboo being voluntarily retained.- (See v^^S 
 101, 127.) 
 
 THE SPIRITS OF THE MYSTERY SACKS. 
 
 § 12(5. These are similar to the armor gods, in that they are divinities 
 who act as guardian spirits. Each of these powers is a]>proi)riated 
 by a single individual, [)rotecting- and ai<ling' him, and receiving liis 
 worship. These spirits are conferred at the tiiiu' of initiation into 
 the order <»f the Mystery Dance, and of cour.se are confined to the mem- 
 bers of that Older. ' Each si)irit of the mystery sack is not a separate 
 god. but a wakan power derived from the TJuktelii, according to a later 
 statement of Riggs.^ 
 
 TAKUSKAIJSKAIJ, THE MOVING DEITY. 
 
 § 127. This is a form of the wakau which Jugglers, so-called mystery 
 men, and war proi)hets invoke. In their estimation he is the most 
 powerful of their gods; the one most to be feared and i)ropitiated, since, 
 more than all others, he intlueuces human Aveal and woe. lie is sui)posed 
 to live in the four winds, and the four black spirits of night do his bid- 
 ding. The consecrated spear and tonmhawk (see § 124) are its weapons. 
 The buzzard, raven, fox, wolf, and other aninuils are its lieutenants, to 
 produce disease and death.^ (Comi)are this with some of tlie picto- 
 graphs on the war chart of the Kansa tribe: Fig. 4, Wind songs; the 
 connection between the winds and war is shown in § 33, Fig. S, Deer 
 . songs. Fig. 9, an Elk song. Fig. 10, seven songs of the Wakanda who 
 makes night songs. Fig. 11, five songs of the Big Eock. This is a 
 rough red rock near To])eka, Kans. ''This rock has a hard body, like 
 that of a wakanda. I\Iav vou walk like it." Fig. 12, Wolf songs. The 
 
 > Pond, Minn. Hist. Soc. Coll., vol. ii, pt 3, p. 53. * Am. Antiq., Vol. ii, No. 4, p. 270. 
 
 ^ Ibid., pt. 2, p. 73. *Kiggs in Am. Antiq., Vol. n. p. 268 
 
 ^ Kiggs, Tali-koo Wah-kon, i)p. 70, 71. 
 
446 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 wolf bowls at night. Fig. 13, Moon song.s. Fig. 14, Crow songs. The 
 crow flies around a dead body which it wishes to devour. Fig. 18, Shade 
 songs. There is a Wakanda who makes shade. Fig. 20, song of the 
 Small Eock. Fig. 22, songs of the young Moon. Fig. 23, songs of the 
 Buffalo Bull. Fig. 27, Owl songs. The owl hoots at night.') 
 
 § 128. Miss Fletcher has given us a very interesting account of "The 
 Eeligious Ceremony of the Four Winds or Quarters, as obseri^ed by 
 the Santee Sioux." "Among the Santee (Sioux) Indians the Four 
 Winds are symbolized by the raven and a small black stone, less than 
 a hen's egg in size.*' "An intelligent Santee said to me: 'The worship 
 of the Four Winds is the most difficult to explain for it is the most 
 complicated.' The Four Winds are sent by the 'Something that 
 Moves.'"^ There is a "Something that Moves*' at each of the four di- 
 rections or quarters. The winds are, therefore, the messengers or ex- 
 ponents of the powers which remain at the four quarters. These four 
 quarters are spoken of as upholding the earth,^ and are connected 
 with thunder and lightning as well as the wind.^ # * * 
 
 "My informant went on to tell me that the spirits of the four winds 
 were not one, but twelve, and they are spoken of as twelve."^ (See 
 §42.) 
 
 § 129. In Tah-koo Wah-kon, pp. 64, Go, Riggs says: 
 
 This god is too subtle in essence to be perceived, by the senses, and is as subtle in 
 disposition. He is present everywhere. He exerts a coutrollinjr iufltieuce over 
 instinct, intellect, and })assiou. He can rob a man of the use of his rational faculties, 
 and insjnre a beast with intelligence, so that the hunter will wander idiot-like, while 
 the game on Avhich he hoped to feast his family at night escapes with perfect ease. 
 Or, if lie jtlease, the god can reverse his intluence. He is much gratified to see men 
 in trouble, and is particularly glad when they die in battle or otherwise. Passionate 
 and capricious in the highest degree, it is very difficult to retain his favor. His 
 sj'mboland supposed residence is the bowlder (see Big Eock and Small Kock, ^ 127), 
 as it is also of another god, the Tunkan. 
 
 Pond assigns to him the armor feast and inipi or vapor bath (called 
 steam or sweat bath). He says:*' 
 
 The armor feast is of ordinary occurrence when the provisions are of sufficient 
 abundance to supi)ort it, in which the warriors assemble and exhibit the sacred 
 implements of war, to which they burn incense around the smoking sacrifice. 
 
 § 130. In October, 1881, the late S. D. Hinman read a paper before the 
 Anthropological Society of Washington, entitled "The Stone God or 
 
 •MoiirniiiK andvWar Customs of the Kansas, in Am. Xaturali.st, July, 1885, pi). 67C, 677. 
 
 -That is, the Takuskaijskaii. 
 
 'Geikie. in his Hours -^vitli the Bible (Xew York : James Pott. 1881), Vol. I, p. 55. has the following 
 quotation from Das Bnch Henoch, edited hy Dilhuann, Kap. 17,18: "And I saw the cornerstone of 
 the earth and the four winds wliich bear up the earth, and the firmament of heaven." 
 
 'Xote that both tlie Takuskai]skai), the 'Something that Moves.'' and the Waldqyai) or the Thun- 
 der-beings, are associated with war. — J. o. d. 
 
 ■^Kept. Peabody Museum, Vol. in. p. 289. and note 1. Theuseof the number twelve in connection with 
 the ceremony of the Four Winds finds a counterpart in the Osajre Initiation of a female into the se- 
 cret society of the tribe: the Osage female is rubbed from head to foot, thrice in front, thrice on each 
 side, and thrice behind, with cedar needles. — J. O. D. 
 
 «iliuu. Hist. Soc. Coll., Vol. U. pt. 3, p. 44. 
 
DORSET.] TUNKAN OR INYAN. 447 
 
 Oracle of the Pute-temui band of Iluukpati Dakotas."' He said that 
 this oracle had been seen by him while on an expedition with some 
 Uakotas across the James Kiver valley in Dakota Territory. A Hun- 
 kpati man of the party gave the history of the stone and an account of 
 its miraculous movement from the Sacred Hill to the old dirt lodge vil- 
 lage. This oracle was called the Takuskaijskaij. 
 
 § 131. But the Takuskaijskaij assumed other shapes. Said Bushotter, 
 in one of his Teton texts : 
 
 The Lakotas regartl certain small stones or pebbles as mysterious, and it is said 
 that in former days a man had one as his helper or servant. There are two kinds of 
 these mysterious stones (i. e., pebbles, not rocks). One is white, resembling ice or 
 glass (i.e., is probably translucent ; compare the translucent pebbles of the I"-:>iug(|!i 
 order of the Omaha, see Om. Soc, p. 346) ; the other resembles ordinary stones. It is 
 said that one of them once entered a lodge; and struck a man, and people spoke of 
 the stones sending in rattles through the smoke hole of a lodge. When anything 
 was missed in the village the people appealed to the stones for aid, and the owner 
 of one of the stones boiled food for a mystery feast, to which the people came. Then 
 they told the stone of their loss and the stone helped them. It is said that the stones 
 brought back different messages. If anyone stole horses the stones always revealed 
 his name. Once the Oniahas came to steal horses, but the stones knew about them 
 and disappointed their secret plans; so that the Lakotas learned to prize the stones, 
 and they decorated them with paint, wrapped them up, and hung a bunch of medi- 
 cine with each .one. 
 
 It is very probable that the Assiniboin also worsliipped the Taku- 
 ^karjskaij; for they reverenced the four winds, as Smet tells us.^ 
 
 TUNKAN OR INYAN, THE STONE GOD OR LINGAM. 
 
 § 132. It has been said by Lynd- that the western tribes (probably 
 the Teton, Yanktouai, Yankton, etc.), neglect the Unktehi, and pay 
 their main devotion to Tunkan or Invan, answering to the Hindoo 
 Lingam. 
 
 Tunkan, the Dakotas say, is the god that dwells iu stones and rocks, and is the'' 
 oldest god. If asked why he is considered the oldest, they will tell you because he 
 is the hardest- an Indian's reason. The usual form of the stone employed in wor- 
 ship is round, and it is about the size of the human head. The devout Dakota paints 
 this Tunkan red, putting colored swan's down upon it, and then he falls down and 
 w^orships the god that is supposed to dwell iu it or hover near it. ' The Tunkan is 
 painted red (see § 136) as a sign of active worship.-* In cases of extremity I have 
 ever noticed that they appeal to their Tunkan or stone god, first and last, and they 
 do this even after the ceremonies of the medicine dance have been gone through 
 with. All Sioux agree in saying that the Tunkan is the main recipient of their 
 prayers; and among the Tetons, Mandans, Yanktons, and Western Dakotas they 
 pray to that and the spirit of the butfalo almost entirely.^ 
 
 §133. Riggs says:*' 
 
 "The Inyan or Toon-kan is the symbol of the greatest force or power in the dry 
 land. And these came to be the most common objects ol worship. Large bowldwrs 
 were selected and adorned with red and green (sic) paint, whither the devout 
 
 > Op. cit., p. 136. iR.id., p. 81. 
 
 sMmn. Hist. Soc. Coll., vol. u, pt. ;i, p. 71. nhU\., p. 84. 
 
 3 Ibid., p. 79. ° Am. Auti<i., vol. U, p. 268. 
 
448 A STUDY OF SIOUAX CULTS. 
 
 Dakota might go to pray and offer liis sacrifice. And smaller stones were often 
 found, set up on end and properly painted, around which lay eagles' feathers, 
 tobacco, and red cloth. Once I saw a small dog that had been recently sacrificed. 
 In all their incantations and dances, notably in the circle dance, the painted stone 
 is the god supplicated and worshipped with fear and trembling."' 
 
 § 134. Long tells of a gioautic stoue figure resembling a human being, 
 \yhicli he found on the bank of Kickapoo Creek. The Indians made 
 offerings to it of tobacco and other objects.^ 
 
 I^'YAN SA. 
 
 § 135. Eev. Horace C. Hovey says:-' 
 
 "It was the custom of the Dakotas to worship bowlders when in perplexity and 
 distress. Clearing a spot from grass and brush they would roll a bowlder on it, 
 streak it with paint, deck it with feathers and flowers, and then pray to it for needed 
 help or deliverance. Usually when such a stone had served its purpose its sacred- 
 ness was gone. But the peculiarity of the stone now described is that from gen- 
 eration to generation it was a shrine to Avhich pilgrimages and offerings were made. 
 Its Indian name, ' Eyah Shah,' simply means the ' Red Rock,' and is the same term 
 by which they designate catlinite, or the red pipe clay. The rock itself is not natu- 
 rally red, being merely a hard specimen of granite, symmetrical in shape, and about 
 5 feet long by 3 feet thick. The Indians also called it 'waukon' (mystery) and 
 speculated as to its origin. * " * The particular clan that claimed this rude altar 
 was kuo^vnas the Mendewakantous. Although being but 2 miles below the village 
 of the Kaposias. it was to some extent resorted to by them likewise. - The hunting 
 ground of the clan was up the St. Croix, and invariably before starting they would 
 lay an offering on Eyah Shah. Twice a year the clan would meet more formally, 
 when they would paint the stone with vermilion, or, as some say, with blood, then 
 trim it with flowere and feathers, and dance around it before sunrise with chants 
 and prayers. Their last visit was in 1862, prior to the massacre that occurred in 
 August of that year. Since that date, the stripes were renewed three years ago. 
 I counted the stripes and found them twelve in number, each about 2 inches wide, 
 with intervening spaces from 2 to 6 inches wide. By the compass, Eyah Shah lies 
 exactly north and south. .It is twelve paces from the main bank of the Mississippi, 
 at a pi)int 6 miles below St. Paul. The north end is adorned by a rude representa- 
 tion of the sun with fifteen rays.'" 
 
 § 136. Bushotter writes thus: 
 
 "Sometimes a stone, painted red all over, is laid within the lodge and hair is offered 
 to it. In cases of sickness they pray to the stone, offering to it tobacco or various 
 kinds of good things, and they think that the stone hears them when they sacrifice to 
 it. As the steam arose when they made a fire on a stone, the Dakotas concluded that 
 stones had life, the steam being their breath, and that it was impossible to kill them." 
 
 .MATO TIPI. 
 
 § 137. Eight miles from Fort Meade, S. Dakota, is Mato tipi. Grizzly 
 bear Lodge, known to the white people as Bear Butte. It can be seen 
 from a distance of a hundred miles. Of this landmark Bushotter 
 writes thus : 
 
 "The Teton used to camp at a flat-topped mountain, and pray to it. This moun- 
 
 'Minn. Hist. Soc. Coll., vol. ir, pt. 1. pp. 55. 
 
 = HoTey on 'Eyah Shah '' in Am. Assoc. Adv. ScL, Proc, vol. xxxiv, Bufifalo Meeting, 1886. Salem, 
 1887. p. 332. Also in Am. Autiq., Jan., 1887, pp. 35, 36. 
 
 ^Mr. Hovey appears ignorant of the fact that the Kapoza ('Kaposias ') are a division of the Mde- 
 wakanton-wan. The latter had si.'c other divisions or i;entes. 
 
w««i-] 3L\TO TIPl — : 44r> 
 
 tain hail inaoj large rocks oa it. an*! 
 praywl to the nx'ks as if to tt 
 one» betweeii the branchf-:? 
 
 tree. Some trees had as many as seven $tone:> apie«t^ . re»«ated the r«re- 
 
 monv of putting a stone up in the tre.e - - - - - e Butte he >jt 
 
 she wailed for the ilead. of whi'ui the ^: - 
 
 --)■ 
 
 THE SFX AXD >IOON. 
 
 § 138. The sua as well as the moou is called '• wi" by the I>afcota and 
 Assiuiboiu tribes. In order to distingmish between the two Knlies, the 
 former is called aijpetii wi^ day moiui. and the latte' " • -^ • ' • 
 haijyetn wi. night moou. The corresponding term i 
 which is applietl to l>oth snu and m«>m, tl _ 
 
 called nia^ba. •• The moon is woi-shipeil i . ..- .„ :,.-.. .:..., 
 
 of the snn, than separately. Thus, in the sun dance, which is held in 
 the full of the moou, the daucei-s at ui^ht fix their eyes on her.**^ 
 
 § 139. According to Smet- — 
 
 The sttu is worshijted by the srreater niiuil>er of the IiMiian trihes as th<* author ©f 
 light and heat. The As- ^ - ^ 
 
 the M;K-ter of Life. TL 
 
 Ktrely address it. On greuj ..KCiisiou^s. cu«-> Muet low 
 
 tone. Whenever they 11,:'.' t^^ i' n.^'r. t^-v .. - ■•:> 
 
 smoke. 
 
 This last must relet " w i u, c:«:.t; u<--<L:..t^ ,.u i>. i >•> lc 
 
 ''festival lasting several days," during which the "high \ ers 
 
 the calumet to "the i»i"eat Spirit, to the sun. to each of the tour i-ar 
 dinal iH)ints. to the water, and to the 1 -• V " "'' " "•'< tualogoustothe 
 Iwnetits which thcv obtain fii>nt each. 
 
 11 ETH -^J 
 
450 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. "" 
 
 § 140. Biisliotter, in his Teton text, says : 
 
 They prayed to the sun, aud they thought that with his yellow eye he saw all 
 thiugs, and that when he desired he went under the ground. 
 
 Eiggs states in Tali-koo Wah-kon (p. GO): 
 
 Although as a divinity, the sun is not represented as a malignant heing, yet the 
 worship given him is the most dreadful which the Dakotas offer. Aside from ihe 
 sun dance, there is another proof of the divine character ascrihed to the sun in the 
 oath taken by some of the Dakotas : "As the sun hears me, this is so." 
 
 THE SfN DANCE. 
 
 § 141. Pond' gave an account of the sun dance obtained from Kiggs, 
 in which occurs the following: "The ceremonies of the sun dance 
 commence in the evening. I have been under the impression that the 
 time of the full moon was selected, but I am now (1867) informed that 
 it is not essential." Neither Capt. Bonrke (§§ 197-210) nor Bushotter 
 speaks of the time of the full moon. In Miss Fletcher's account of the 
 Oglala sun dance of 1882,- she says: " The festival generally occurs in 
 the latter part of June or early in July and lasts about six days. The 
 time is fixed by the budding of the Artemisia ludovicianay (See §§ 138, 
 150.) 
 
 § 142. Lynd writes : ' 
 
 The wiwauyag wacipi, or w'orship of the sun as a divinity, is evidently one of the 
 most radical bases of Dakota religion. It has a su)>ordinate origin in the wihan- 
 mnapi, or dreaming, and is intimately connected with the hanmdejii, or vision hunt- 
 ing. This most ancient of all worships, though it is of very frequent occurrence 
 among the Dakotas, does not take place at stated intervals, as among the old nations 
 of the East, nor does the whole tribe participate in the ceremonies. It is performed 
 by one person alone, such of his relatives and friends assisting in the ceremonies as 
 may deem fit or as he may designate. Preparatory to this, as to all the other sacred 
 ceremonies of the Dakotas, are fasting and purification. The dance commences with 
 the rising of the sun and continues for three days, or until such time as the dream- 
 ing worshiper shall receive a vision from the spirit or divinity of the sun. He faces 
 the sun constantly, turning as it turns, and kee[»ing up a constant blowing with a 
 wooden whistle. A rude drum is beaten at intervals, to which he keeps time with 
 his feet, raising one after the other, and bending his body towards the sun. Short 
 intervals of rest are given during the dance. The mind of the W(<rshiper is fixed 
 intently ujion some great desire that he has, and is, as it were, isolated from the 
 body. In this state the dancer is said to receive revelations from the sun, and to 
 hold direct intercourse w^th that deity. If the worshiper of this luminary, how- 
 ever, should fail to receive the desired revelation before the close of the ceremonies, 
 then self-sacrifice is resorted to, and the ceremonies of the hanmdepi become a part 
 of the worship of the sun. 
 
 A Dakota's account of the sun dance. 
 
 § 143. Several accounts of the sun dance have been published within 
 the past twenty years, but they have, without exception, been written 
 by white ])ersons. The following differs in one respect from all which 
 have preceded it; it was written in the Teton dialect of the Dakota, by 
 
 > Minn. Hist. Soc. Coll., Vol. ii, pt. 3. 
 
 ^ Proc. Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Montreal meeting, Vol. xxxi, p. 580. 
 
 3 Minn. Hist. Soc. CoU., Vol. u, pt. 2. 
 
DORSEv.j " BUSHOTTER OX THE SUN DANCE. 451 
 
 Georjie IJushotter, a Teton. As be did uot furnish his description of 
 tlie dance in a single text, but in several, which were Avritten on dif- 
 ferent occasions, it devolved on the present writer to undertake an 
 arrangement of the material after translating it. The accompanying 
 illustrations were mad(^ by Mr. Bushotter. 
 
 § 144. Object of the sioi (Jance.— The Dakc^ta name for the sun dance 
 is ''Wi wa"-yang wa-tci-pi (Wi waijyaijg waci])i), literally, "Sun look- 
 ing-at they-dance.'' The foUowing are assigned as the reasons for cele- 
 brating this dance: During any winter when the people suffer from 
 famine or an epidemic, or when they wish to kill any enemy, or they 
 desire horses or an abundance of fruits and vegetables during the 
 coming summer, different Indians pray mentally to the sun, and each 
 one says, "Well, 1 will pray to Wakantanka early in the sunmier." 
 Throughout the winter all those men who have made such vows take 
 frequent baths in sweat lodges. Each of these devotees or candidates 
 invites persims to a feast, on which occasion he joins his guests in 
 drinking great quantities of various kinds of herb teas. Then the 
 host notifies the guests of liis vow, and from that time forward the 
 people treat him with great respect. 
 
 §145. Bides observed bij households. — The members of the households 
 of the devotees always abstain from loud talking and from bad acts of 
 various kinds. The following rules must be observed in the lodge of 
 each devotee : A ])iece of the soil is cut off between the back of the lodge 
 and the fireplace, and when virgin earth is reached vermilion is .scat- 
 tered over the exposed place. When the men smoke their pipes and 
 have burned out all of the tobacco in their pipe bowls, they must not 
 throw away the ashes as they would common refuse; they must be 
 careful to empty the ashes on the ex])osed earth at the back of the 
 lodge. iS^o one ventures to ste]) on that virgin earth, and not even a 
 hand is ever stretched toward it. Only the man who expects to par- 
 ticipate in the sun dance can empty the ashes there, and after so doing- 
 he returns each pipe to its owner. 
 
 § 14(j. Tlie " U-ma-ne." — "The mellowed earth spa('<',U-uia-ue 
 iu Dakota, and called by some peculiar names iu other tribes, 
 has never been absent from any religions exercise I have yet 
 seen or learned of from the Indians. It represents the unap- 
 propriated life or ])ower of the earth, hence man may obtain 
 it. The square or oblong, with the four lines standing out, is 
 invariably Interpreted to mean the earth or laud with the four 
 
 winds standing' toward it. The cross, whether diagonal or up- 
 
 . , , 1 IT ii ^ -1 J- i, 1! \ Fir;. 189. — The "L -ma-uu " 
 
 right, always symbolizes the lour winds or lour quarters.' ' 
 
 a ' ^ J i syiiiliol. 
 
 Miss Fletcher uses this term, "U-ma-ne,'' to de 
 note two things: the mellowed earth s[)ace (probably answering to the 
 u-je-;i of the Omaha and Ponka) and the symbol of the eaith and the 
 four winds made within that mellowed earth space. A sketch of the 
 latter symbol is shown in Fig. 189. (See §§ 112, 155, etc.; also Contr. 
 N. A. Ethn., Yol. Vi, — 471-475.) 
 
 ' Miss Fletcher, in Kept. Peabody Museum, vol. ni, p. 284, note. 
 
452 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 § 147. Bides observed by the devotee.— Bnriug the time of preparation 
 the devotee goes hunting, and if he kills a deer or buftalo he cuts up 
 the body in a -wakau" manner. lie skins it, but leaves the horns at- 
 tached to the skull. He reddens the skin all over, and in the rear of 
 the lodge, in the open air, he prepares a bed of wild sage {Artemisia), 
 on which he lays the skull. He erects a post, on which he hangs a 
 tobacco pouch and a robe that is to be offered as a sacrifice. When 
 the devotee takes a meal everything which he touches must be perfectly 
 clean. lie uses a new knife, which no one else dares to handle. What- 
 ever he cats nnist be prepared in the best possible manner by the other 
 members of tlie household. They make for him a new pipe ornamented 
 with porcupine work, a new tobacco pouch, and a stick for pushing the 
 tobacco down into the bowl, both ornamented in like manner, 
 
 § 148. The devotee must not go swimming, but he can enter the sweat- 
 lodge. There he rubs his body all over with wild sage; he cannot use 
 calico or cotton for that purpose. No unclean person of either sex 
 nnist go near him. The devotee is prohibited from fighting, even 
 should the camp be attacked. He must not act hastily, but at all times 
 must he proceed leisurely. He has his regular periods for crying and 
 l)raying.' 
 
 §149. All his female kindred make many pairs of moccasins and col- 
 lect money and an abundance of all kinds of goods, in order to give 
 presents to poor people at the time of the sun dance. Then they can 
 make gifts to whomsoever they please, and on that account they will 
 win the right to have a child's ears x^ierced. The goods or horses, 
 on account of which the child's ears are to be pierced, are reserved 
 for that occasion at some other place. The man whose office it will 
 be to pierce tlie children's ears has to be notified in advance that 
 his services will be required. (See § 205.) 
 
 TRIBES INVITED TO THE SUN-DANCE. 
 
 §150. When the devotees have i^erformed all the preliminary duties 
 required of them, messages are sent to all the neighboring tribes, 
 i. e., the Omaha, Pawnee Loup, Cheyenne, Eee, Hidatsa, Blackfeet, 
 Xez Perce, Winnebago, Yankton, and Santee. The latter part of 
 June is fixed upon as the time for the dance. (See §§ 138, 141.) The 
 visitors from the different nations begin to come together in the spring, 
 each visiting tribe forming its separate camp. Though some of the 
 visitors are hereditary enemies, it matters not during the sun-dance; 
 they visit one another; they shake hands and form alliances. In this 
 manner several Aveeks are spent very pleasantly. 
 
 DISCIPLINE MAINTAINED. 
 
 §151. Policemen arc appointed, and a crier proclaims to each lodge 
 tliat at a specified place there is a broad and pleasant prairie where 
 
 • Compare Miss Fletcher, iu Proc. Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1882, p. 581. 
 
DOKSET.] TiUSHOTTEK OX TTIE SUN DAXCE. 453 
 
 all are ex]>ected to pitch their tents. The overseers or masters of 
 ceremonies have guns, and their orders are obeyed; for if one diso- 
 beys his horses and dogs are killed by the p(dieemeii. This punish- 
 ment is called akicita wicaktei)i, or. in common parlance, "soldier- 
 killing.'* 
 
 All who join tlie camp nuist erect the upright (or conical) tents, 
 as no low rush or mat tents, such as are found among the Osage 
 and Winnebago, are allowed iu the camp circle. 
 
 C'AMI'IN'Ci CIltCI.K FoiniKH. 
 
 §152. At length orders are given for all the peojjle to pitch their 
 tents in the form of a tribal circle, with an opening to tlie north. ^ 
 (See n. XLV.) It takes several days to accomplish this, and then all 
 the men and youths are required to take spades and go carefully over 
 the whole area within the circle and hll up all the holes and uneven 
 places which might cause the horses to stumble and fall. 
 
 MKN SKLECTKI> TO SKFK THF >rYSTF.l;Y TltEK. 
 
 § 153. Though Bushotter has Mritteu that this work requires several 
 days, it is probable, judging froni what follows in his manuscript, 
 that only two days are required for such work. For he continues 
 thus : 
 
 On the third day some men are selected to go in search of the Can-'.vakan or 
 Mystery Tree, out of which they are to form the snn-pole. - These men must be se- 
 lected from those ^Yho are known to be brave, men acciuainted with the war path, 
 men who have overcome difficulties, men who have been wounded iu battle, men of 
 considerable experience. 
 
 § 154. The men selected to fell the mystery tree ride very swift horses, 
 and they decorate their horses and attire themselves just as if they 
 were going to battle. They put on their feather war bonnets. They 
 race their horses to a hill and then back again. In former days it 
 was customary on such occasions for any women who had lost children 
 during some previous attack on the camp, to wail often as they ran 
 towards the mounted men, and to sing at intervals as they went. But 
 that is not the custom at the present day. Three times do the mounted 
 men tell of their brave deeds in imitation of the warriors of the olden 
 times, and then they undertake to rei)resent their own deeds in panto- 
 mime. 
 
 § 155. On the fourth day, the selected men go to search for the mys- 
 tery tree. They return to camj) together, and if they have found a 
 suitable tree, they cut out pieces of the soil within the cami)ing circle, 
 going down to virgin earth. (See§14().) This exposed earth extends 
 over a considerable area. On it they ])lace a species of sweet-smelling 
 
 ' Miss Fletcher says, in Proc. Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1882, p. 580. "The people camp iu a circle, with 
 a large opening at the east. In 1882 over 9.000 Tndian.s were so caiiiijed, 11ii> fliiimeter of tlie circle be- 
 ing over tlu-ee-(|uarter.s of a mile wide." 
 
 'Miss Fletclier's aeeouiit (I'roc. .\iii. Asso.-. ,\(U . Sii., p. .'>SL'l iianies I he fonrlli (hiy a.s that on 
 which tliey souglit fur tlie sun pole. 
 
454 A STUDY OF PinilAN CT^LTS. 
 
 grass (i> trailino- variety) and wild sage, on which they lay the buflalo 
 skull. 
 
 TENT OI' PREPAHATIO.N. 
 
 § 150. After this there is set up within the camping circle a good 
 tent kuown as the tent of preparation.^ When the managers wish to set 
 up the tent of ]»reparation, they borrow tent skins here and there. 
 Tart of these tent skins they use for covering the smoke hole, and part 
 Mere used as curtains, for when they decorate the candidates they use 
 the curtains for shutting them in from the gaze of the people and 
 when they finish painting them they throAV down the curtains. 
 
 In the back part of this tent of preparation are placed the buffalo 
 skulls, one for each candidate. A new knife which has never been 
 used is exposed to smoke. A new ax, too, is reddened and smoked. 
 
 § 157. Wild sage {Artemisia) is used in A^arious ways prior to and 
 during the sun dance. Some of it they spread on the ground to serve 
 as couches, and with some they wipe the tears from their faces. They 
 fumigate with the plant known as ''caij silsilya," or else they use 
 "walipe wastema,'' sweet-smelling leaves. Day after day they fumi- 
 gate themselves with ''wacaijga," a sweet smelling grass. They hold 
 every object which they use over the smoke of one of these grasses. 
 They wear a kind of medicine on their necks, and that keeps them 
 from being hungry or thirsty, for occasionally they chew a small quan- 
 tity of it. Or if they tie some of this medicine to their feet they do 
 not get weary so soon.'^ 
 
 § 158. When the tent of preparation is erected, there are provided 
 for it new tent pins, new sticks for fastening the tent skins together 
 above the entrance, and new poles for pushing out the Haps beside 
 the smoke liole. These objects and all others, which had to be used, 
 are brought into the tent of preparation and fumigated over a tire 
 into which the medicine has been dropped. By this time another day 
 has been spent. Now all the candidates assemble in the tent of prep- 
 aration, each one wearing a buffalo robe with the hair outside. One 
 who acts as leader sits in the place of honor at the back part of the 
 tent, aud the others sit on either side of him around the fireplace. 
 They smoke their injtes. When night comes they select one of the 
 songs of the sun dance, in order to rehearse it. Certain men have been 
 chosen as singers of the dancing songs, and, when one set of them rest, 
 llien^ are others to take their i)laces. The drummers beat the drum 
 rapidly, but softly (as the Teton call it, kpaijki)aijyela, the act of 
 several drummers hitting in quick succession). 
 
 Three times do they beat the drums in that manner, and then they 
 beat it rapidly, as at the beginning of the sun dance. At this juncture, 
 
 'Miss Fletclier (Proc. Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1882, ]). 580) states that "the tent set apart for the con- 
 secrating ceremonies, which take place after sunset of the first day, was pitched within the line of tents, 
 on the site fomierly assigned to one of the sacred tents." 
 
 'The aiitlior heard about tliis medicine in 1873, fnnn a I'onka cliief, one of the leaders of a dancing 
 society. It is a bulbous root, wiiicli -irows near the place where the sun pole is ])lauted. 
 

 !^ 
 
 
 w^ 
 
 
 ;\7 
 
4JJ uy^-^ ^^ 
 
 THE SUN-DANCE 
 
DORSEY.] BUSHOTTER ON THE SUN DANCE. 455 
 
 as many as have Antes— made of the boues of eagles' wings, ornamented 
 with porcupine quills, and hung around their necks, with cords similarly 
 ornamented, with some eagle down at the tij) ends of the tlutes — blow 
 
 Fio. I'K).— E;iglt!wiiifi rtiite. (From origiiuil, loaned by C'ai>t. J. G. Boiirke, U. S. A.) 
 
 them often and forcibly as they dance. While the drum is beaten 
 three times in succession (kpaijkpaijyela, as has been described), all 
 the candidates cry aloud (ceya), but when it is beaten the fourth time, 
 they cry or wail no longer, but dance and ])low their tlutes or whistles. 
 
 § 159. When the candidates take their seats in the tent of prepara- 
 tion, they select a man to fill the pipe with tobacco. When they wish 
 to smoke, this man passes along the line of candidates. He holds the 
 pipe with the mouthpiece toward each man. who smokes without 
 grasping the pipe stem.' 
 
 When the candidates are allowed to eat, the attendant feeds them. 
 J^o one can be loquacious within the tent of preiiaration. If a dog or 
 person approaches the tent, the offender is chased away before he can 
 reach it. No spectators are allowed to enter the tent. And this regula- 
 tion is enforced by blows, whenever anyone attempts to violate it. 
 
 EXPEDITION TO THE .MYSTEKY THEE. 
 
 § 160. The next morning, which is that of the fifth day, they prepare 
 to go after the tree that is to serve as the sun pole.^ The married and 
 single men, the boys, and even the women, are all ordered to go horse- 
 back. Whoever is able to move rapidly accompanies the party. 
 When the chosen ])ersons go to fell the mystery tree they rush on it 
 as they would upon a real enemy, just as tradition relates that the 
 Omaha and Ponka rushed on their sacred tree. (See §12.)^ Then 
 they turn quickly and run from it until they arrive at the other side of 
 the hill (nearest to the mystery tree), after which they return to the 
 tree.* They tie leaves together very tightly, making a mark of the 
 bundle, assaulting it in turn as a foe. 
 
 § 161. The tree is reached by noon. The persons chosen to fell it 
 whisper to one another as they assemble around it. They approach 
 some one who has a child, and take hold of him. Then they bring 
 robes and other goods which they spread on the ground, and(m the pile 
 they seat the child, who is sometimes a small girl, or even a large one. 
 
 'With this compare the Omaha act, uicl'a", in the Ifike Hahr- (huico after the sham fight. Oiu. 
 Soc, in 3d. Ann. Bept. Bur. Ethn., p. 29&. 
 
 'See Miss Fletcher, Proc. Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1882, p, 582. 
 
 ^See ^ 28, the Kansa ceremony of tlu^ wain'eh- tjaxe, and Om. Soc. in :id An. Kept. I{>ir. Ethn., pp. 
 234, 297. 
 
 'Contr. N. A. Ethn., vol. VI, 47(», 12-15; and Om.Six'., p. 296. 
 
456 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 FKLLINC THK TREK. 
 
 ^< 1()2. Each of the chosen men takes liis tuni in striking the tree 
 Every one must first tell hisexph)its, then he brandishes the ax three 
 times without striking a blow, after which he strikes the tree once, 
 and only once, making a gash. He leaves the ax sticking in the tree, 
 whence it is removed by the next man. He who leaves the ax in the 
 tree is by this act considered to make a present of a horse to some one. 
 As soon as he gives the blow, his father (or some near kinsman) 
 approaches and hands him a stick, whereupon the young man returns 
 it, asking him to give it to such a one, calling him by name. For 
 instance, let us suppose that a young man, Mato cuwi maza, Grizzly 
 bear with an Iron Side, re(iuests that his stick be given to Psica 
 waijkantuya, or Leaping High. The old man who is employed as the 
 crier goes to the camp and sings thus: " Mato cuwi maza i-ya-ha-he+ ! 
 Mato cuwi maza i-ya-ha-he+ !" The last word is a sign of a brave deed 
 on the part of the donor, and it is so understood by every one. On 
 reaching the tent of the other man, the crier says, " Psica waijkantuya 
 suijkawakaij waij hiyo u ye+ ! Mato cuwi maza caij-wakaij kaksa ca 
 tasuijke waij hiyo u ye+ !" i. e., () Leaping High, a horse is brought to 
 you! A horse is brought to you because Mato cuwi inaza has given 
 a blow to the mystery tree !" On hearing this, I'siea waijkantuya says, 
 ''Ha-ye,"or "Thanks!" as he extends his hands with the palms towards 
 the crier ; and he brings them down toward the ground and takes the 
 stick representing the horse. Then the crier passes along around the 
 circle, singing the i^raises of the donor, and naming the man who has 
 received the present. 
 
 ?163. After all the chosen men have told of their deeds, and have 
 performed tlieir parts, the women select a man to speak of wiiat gen- 
 erous things they have done, and when he has spoken, the larger 
 women who are able to fell trees rise to their feet, and take their turns 
 in giving one blow apiece to the tree. By the time that all the women 
 have struck the tree it falls, and all |)resent shout and sing. Many 
 presents are made, and some of the people wail, making the entire 
 forest echo their voices. Then those men who are selected for that 
 purpose cut off all the limbs of the tree except the highest one, and 
 they do not disturb the tree top. Wherever a branch is cut off they 
 rub red paint on the wound. 
 
 ; l(i4. They make a- bundle of some wood in imitation of that for 
 which they have prayed, and hang it crosswise from the fork of tlie tree. 
 Above the bundle they suspend a scarlet blanket, a buffalo robe or a 
 Aveasel skin, and under the bundle they fasten two pieces of dried buf- 
 falo hide, one being cut in the shajte of a buffalo, and the other in that 
 of a man. 
 
 Though Bushotter did not state the circumstance, it is remarkable 
 that both the figures have the membram virile rigid. The author learned 
 about this from two trustworthy jtersons, who obtaiiu'd all the para- 
 
DonsEY] BUSHOTTER OX THE ST^N DANCE. 457 
 
 plieriialiii of the sun dauco, and one of them, Capt. J(*lin G. Boiirl<e. 
 TJ. S. Army, showed him the ti.yiires of the man and bntfahj used at the 
 sun dance at lied Ch»nd Agency, in 1S82. In the former figure, the 
 lingam is of abnormal size. The connection between the phallic cult 
 and the sun is obvious to the student. (See §^s 19,132,140,155,169,170, 
 170). 
 
 THE TREK TAKEN TO (AMI'. 
 
 § 105. Noonoofthe company dare to touch the sun pole as they take 
 it to the camp. Before wagons were available, they made a horse carry 
 most of the weight of the pole, part of it being on one side of him and 
 part on the other, while the wakaij men chosen for the purpose walked 
 on both sides of the horse in order to support the ends of tlie pole. (See 
 § 317.) At the present day, a wagon is used for transporting the sun 
 pole to the camp.' While they are on the way no person dares to go 
 in advance of the pole, for whoever violates the law is in danger of be- 
 ing thrown from his horse and having his neck broken. 
 
 The married men and youths carry leaf shields on their backs, and 
 some of the riders make their horses race as far as they are able. Any 
 member of the party can appropriate the small branches which have 
 been cut from the mystery tree. 
 
 When they reach the camp circle, all of the party who carry branches 
 and leaves drop them in the places where they intend erecting their 
 respective tents. 
 
 §106. Judging from Mr. Bushotter's first text, the tents are not 
 pitched when the people return with the sun pole. But as soon as they 
 lay the pole in the place where it is to be erected, the tents are pitched 
 again. Then all the objects that are to be attached to the sun pole are 
 tied to it, and some of the men take leather straps, such as the women 
 use when they carry wood and other burdens, and fasten them to the 
 sun pole in order to raise it into position. 
 
 I5AISIXG THE SUN TOLE. 
 
 § 107. This raising of the sun pole seems to be symbolic of tlie four 
 winds, the tatuye topa, or "the four quarters of the heavens,'' as Dr. 
 Eiggs translates the Dakota term. Those who assist in raising the 
 sun pole nuTst be men who have distinguished themselves. Tliey raise 
 the pole a short distance from the grouiul, and tlien thej^ shout, making 
 an indistinct sound; they rest awhile and pull it a little higher, shout- 
 ing again; resting a second time, they renew their eflbrts, pulling it 
 higher still. They shout tlie third time, rest again, and at tlu; fourth 
 l)ull the pole is ]>erpendicular. Then the men around the camping cir- 
 cle tire guns, making the horses flee. Those who raised tlie pole have 
 a new spade, and they use it one after another in throwing a sufficient 
 quantity of earth around the base of the pole, pressing the earth down 
 firmly in order to steady the pole. 
 
 'Miss Fletcher states that the sun pole is carried to the camp 07i a litter of stielcs, ami must ;iot be 
 hantlled or stepped over. Op. eit.. p. 582. 
 
458 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 BUILDING OF DANCING LODGE. 
 
 § 108. Next follows tlie building of the dancing lodge. (See PI. XLVI. 
 and § 31 7.) Forked posts are set in the ground in two concentric circles. 
 Those posts forming the circle nearer the sun pole are a few feet higher 
 than the posts in the outer circle, thus making a slant sufficient for a 
 roof. From the inner circle of posts to the sun pole there is no roof, as 
 the dancers who stand near the pole must see the sun and moon. From 
 each forked post to the next one in the same circle is laid a tent pole; 
 and on the two series of these horizontal tent-poles are placed the sap- 
 lings or poles forming the roof. In constructing the wall of the dancing 
 lodge they use the leaf shields, and probably some poles or branches 
 of trees, the shields and leaves stuck in the wall here and there, in 
 no regular order, leaving interstices through which the spectators can 
 peep at the dancers. A very Avide entrance is made, through which 
 can be taken a horse, as well as the numerous offerings brought to be 
 given away to the poor. Then they smoke the pipe, as in that manner 
 they think that they can induce their Great Mysterious One to smoke. 
 
 §169. All liaving been made ready, the aged men and the chief men 
 of the camp kick off their leggins and moccasins, and as many as have 
 pistols take them to the dancing lodge, around the interior of which 
 they perform a dance. As they pass around the sun pole, all shoot at 
 once at the objects suspended from the pole (§ K)!), knocking them aside 
 suddenly. Leaving the dancing lodge, they dance around the interior 
 of the camping circle till they reach their respective tents. 
 
 THE Urt'ITA. 
 
 § 170. This is followed by the " uucdta." Each man ties up the tail of 
 his horse and dresses himself in his best attire. When they are ready, 
 they proceed two abreast around the interior of the camping circle, 
 shooting into the ground as they pass along, and filling the entire 
 area with smoke. There are so many of them that they extend almost 
 around the entire circle. If any of the riders are thrown from their 
 horses as they dash along, the others jiay no attention to them, but step 
 over them, regarding nothing but the center of the camping circle. 
 (See PL XLv.) 
 
 5171. By this time it is nearly sunset. The young men and young 
 women mount horses and proceed in pairs, a young mau beside a young- 
 woman, singing as they pass slowly around the circle. The young men 
 sing first, and the young women respond, acting as a chorus. That 
 night the tent of preparation is again erected. The candidates dance 
 there. The peo])le gaze towards that tent, for it is rumored that the 
 candidates will march forth from it. 
 
 DECORATION OF CANDIDATES Oil DEVOTEES. 
 
 § 172. The candidates spend the night in decorating themselves. Each 
 one wears a fine scarlet blanket arranged as a skirt and with a good 
 
Bureau of EThnolqOy. 
 
 V 
 
 < 
 
 Hf^ 
 
 THE DAN 
 
Eleventh Annual Report. Plate XLVl 
 
 ~f-~t 
 
 N 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 u 
 
 n 
 
 ■< 
 
BUSHOTTER ON THE SUN DANCE. 
 
 459 
 
 belt fastened around liis ^^'aist, From the waist u}) lie is nude, and on 
 his chest he paints some design, Sometimes the design is a sunflower. 
 A man can paint the designs referring to tlie brave deccls of his father, 
 his mother's l)rother, or of some other kinsman, if lie liiinsolf has done 
 nothing worthy of commemoration. If a man has killtHl an animal, he 
 can paint the sign of tlio animal on his chest, and some hold between 
 their lips the tails of animals, signifying that they have scalped their 
 enemies. Others show by their designs that they have stolen horses 
 from enemies. 
 
 § 173, Each one allows his hair to hang loosely down his back. Some 
 wear head-dresses consisting of the skins of buffalo heads Avith the horns 
 attached. Others wear eagle war-bonnets. Each candidate wears a 
 buffalo robe with the thick hair outside. He fills his pipe, which is a new 
 one ornamented with porcupine work, and he holds it with the stem 
 l)<)inting in front of him. Tims do all the candidates appear as they 
 come out of the tent of preparation. As they march to the dancing lodge 
 the leader goes first, the others march abreast alter him. He who acts 
 as leader carries a bufialo sknll painted red. All cry as they march, 
 and on the way they are joined by a woman who takes the place of her 
 "hakata," or cousin; and sometimes they are Joined by a horse that is 
 highly prized by his owner. 
 
 OFKEUINCiS OF CANDIDATKS. 
 
 § 174. The first time that they emerge from the tent where they sleep 
 they march around it four times, and they make offerings of four blank- 
 ets, which they susi)end from as many posts set up in the form of a 
 square within which the tent is erected. When they proceed from the 
 tent of preparation to the dancing lodge, one of their servants sets up 
 
 j.'i;. liii. — The tent of in-eparatiou and the dancinji lodge. 
 
 sticks at intervals, forming a- straight line from the tent of preparation 
 to the dancing Lnlge, and on these sticks he places their offerings of 
 l)lankets and tobacco pouches. After the gifts are thus suspended, none 
 of the spectators can cross the line of sticks. 
 
 § 175. Oapt. J. O. Bonrke has a wand that was used by one of the 
 heralds, or criers, daring the sun dance. It was about 5 feet long, and 
 was decorated with beadwork and a tnft of horse hair at the superior 
 extremity. Whenever the crier raised this wand the people fell back, 
 leaving an open space of the i-equired area. 
 
4G0 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 CEREMOXIKS AT THE DANCING LODGE. 
 
 § 170. On reaeliin.ii- the dancing- lodge, the candidates pass slowly 
 around tl.e exterior, starting at the left side of the lodge and turning 
 towards the right. They do this four times and then enter the lodge. 
 They stretch their hands towards the four quarters of the heavens as 
 they walk around the interior of the lodge. They sit down at the back 
 part of the lodge, and then they sing. 
 
 Between them and the pole they cut out the soil in the shape of a 
 lialf moon, going down to virgin earth, and on this bare spot they place 
 all the buffalo skulls. After this they paint themselves anew with red 
 paint, on completing which they are lifted to their feet by their attend- 
 ants. Again they walk around the interior of the lodge, stretching out 
 their hands towards the four quarters of the heavens. 
 
 § 177. A s<mg of the sun dance is started by one of the candidates, 
 and the others join him, one after another, until all are singing. Mean- 
 while the men who have been selected for the purpose redden their en- 
 tire hands, and it devolves on them to dance without touching any- 
 thing, such as the withes connected with the sun pole or the buffalo 
 skulls; all that they are required to do is to extend their hands towards 
 the sun, with the i^alms turned from them. 
 
 At this time all the candidates are raised again to their feet, and 
 brought to the back part of the lodge, where they are placed in a row. 
 They soon begin to cry, and they are joined by the woman who has 
 taken the place of her elder brother. 
 
 § 178. It is customary, when a man is too poor to take part himself 
 in the sun dance, for a female relation to take his place, if such a 
 woman pities him. She suffers as the male candidates do, except in 
 one resi)ect — her flesh is not scaritied. This woman wears a buckskin 
 skirt, and she lets her hair fall loosely down her back. She carries the 
 pipe of her brother or kinsman in whose place she is dancing. 
 
 § 171). As the drums beat, the candidates dance and blow their 
 flutes. The woman stands, dancing slowly, with her head bent down- 
 ward, but with shoulders erect, and she is shaking her head and body 
 by bending her knees often without raising her feet from the ground. 
 She abstains from food ami drink, just as her brother or kinsman would 
 have done had he particii)ated in the dance. In fact, all the candi- 
 dates have to fast from the time that the sun pole is cut, and from that 
 time they cr^' and dance at intervals. 
 
 § 180. If the owner of a horse decides that his steed must take part 
 in t he dance, he ties the horse to one of the thongs fastened to the sun- 
 pole, and stands near the animal. Whenever he wishes he approaches 
 tlic horse, takes him by the lower jaw as he stands and cries, and then 
 he, too, joins in the dance. This horse is decorated in the finest man- 
 ner; he is painted red, his tail is rolled up into a bundle and tied to- 
 gether, and he wears featliers in the tail and forelock. 
 
 § 181. (\(ti(li(l<(tc.s scarified. When the time comes for scarifving the 
 
Bureau of tthn^ 
 
 Eleventh Annual Report. Plate XLVi 
 
 
 \ OTEV 
 
 ,ZIN 
 
°*'"^^^] BUSHOTTER ON THE SUN DANCE. 461 
 
 candidates,' if one wishes to dance in the manner abont to be described 
 be is made to stand between four posts arranged in the form of a 
 square, and his flesli on his back being scarified in two phices, thongs 
 are run through them and fastened to them and to the posts behind 
 him. His chest is also scaritted in two places, thongs are inserted and 
 tied, and then fastened to the two posts in front of him (sec LM. xlvii, 1, 
 Okaska nazin, or "He stands fastened to" or " within"), liushotter 
 says nothing about the skewers used in torturing the dancers; but 
 Capt. Bourke obtained three ornamental ones which liad been run 
 through the wounds of some of the devotees, in order to be stained with 
 blood and kept thereafter as souvenirs of the bravery of the dancers. 
 Besides these were the regular skewers which Avere thrust horizontally 
 through the flesh; and to the eiids of these skewers were fastened the 
 thongs that were secured by the opposite ends to the sun pole. The 
 last dance allowed by the Government was in 1883, and it would be 
 difficult now to lind any of these skewers. (See § 1^04.) 
 
 Another man has his back scaritied and a thong inserted, from which 
 a buffalo skull is suspended, as shown in PI. xlvti, L*, Pte-pa kin waci, or 
 ^'He dances carrying a buffalo skull on his back." He dances thus, 
 thinking that the weight of the skull will soon cause the thong to break 
 through the flesh. The blood runs in stripes down his back. 
 
 § 182. Another man decides to be fastened to the sun pole. For the 
 use of such dancers there are eight leather thongs hanging down from 
 the pole, being fastened to the pole at a point about midway from the 
 top. For each man tied to the pole it is the rule to take two of the 
 thongs and run them through his flesh after the holes are made with 
 the knife (see PI. xlviii). After the thongs are fastened to him, the 
 dancer is required to look upward. When the candidate is a short man, 
 his back is scarified and his attendants push him up high enough from 
 the ground for the thongs to be inserted and tied. In this case the 
 weight of the man stretches the skin where the thongs are tied, and 
 for a long time he remains there without falling (see PI. xlix). 
 
 § 183. A very long time ago it happened that the friends ol' such a 
 short man pitied him, so they gave a horse to another man, whom thev 
 directed to release their friend by pulling at the thongs until they 
 broke out. So the other man approached the dancer, telling of his own 
 deeds. He grasped the short man around tlie body, threw himself vio- 
 lently to the ground, breaking off" the thong, which flew upward, and 
 bringing the short man to the ground. Then the kindred of the short 
 man brought presents of calico or moccasins and another horse, with 
 other property, and they made the old women of the camp scramble 
 for the possession of the gifts. The horse was given away by the act 
 called "Kahol yeyapi,"or "They threw it off' suddenly." The father 
 of the dancer stood at the entrance of his tent, holding a stick m his 
 hand. He threw the stick into the air, and the bystan(Jers struggled for 
 
 'See Miss Fletcher's account, Proc. Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1882, p. 584. 
 
462 A STL^DY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 its possession. Whoever grasped the stick, and succeeded in holding 
 it, won the horse. If a forked stick is thrown up and caught it entitles 
 the holder to a mare and her colt. 
 
 § 184. When a young man has his flesh pierced for him, if he is 
 beloved by his female relations, they furnish him with many objects dec- 
 orated with porcupine quills, and these objects are suspended from the 
 pierced places of his flesh, tliis being considered as a mark of respect 
 shown by the women to their kinsman. Very often the women by such 
 acts deprive themselves of all their property. 
 
 §185. Pieces of flesh offered. — When the candidates have their flesh 
 pierced for the insertion of the thongs, a number of men who do not 
 intend to dance approach the sun pole and take seats near it. With a 
 new knife small pieces of flesh are cut out in a row from the shoulders 
 of each of these men, who hold up the pieces of their own flesh, show- 
 ing them to the pole. They also cover the base of the pole with earth. 
 If some of the women desire to offer pieces of their flesh, they come and 
 do so. 
 
 § 186. Very soon after this the people who are outside of the dancing 
 lodge sing a song in praise of the devotees of all kinds, and the old 
 women are walking about with their clothing and hair in disorder, the 
 garments flapping up and down as they dance. The attendants hold 
 the pipes for the candidates to smoke, and they decorate them anew. 
 After they decorate them, the dancing is resumed. By this time it is 
 past noon, so the girls and boys whose ears are to be pierced are col- 
 lected in one place, and presents are given to all the poor people.^ 
 After the children's ears have been pierced, the attendants make the 
 candidates rise again and continue the dance. 
 
 § 187. Torture of oivner of horse. — The man whose horse has taken 
 part in the dance is tied to the tail of his horse, and his chest is pierced 
 in two places and fastened by thongs to the suu pole. Some of the 
 attendants whip the horse several times, making him dart away from the 
 pole, thereby releasing the man, as the thongs are broken by the sud- 
 den strain (see §29). 
 
 § 188. The devotees dance through the night, and when it is nearly 
 midnight they rest. Beginning at the left side of the dancing lodge, 
 every devotee stops and cries at each post until he makes the circuit 
 of the lodge. By this time it is midnight, so the attendants make them 
 face about and stand looking towards the east, just as in the afternoon 
 they had made them face the west. 
 
 END OF THE DANCE. 
 
 § 189. At sunrise they stop dancing and they leave the dancing 
 lodge. As they come forth, they pass out by the right side, aud march 
 four times around the exterior of the lodge. After which they proceed 
 
 ' Miss Fletcher, op. cit., p. 583. 
 
DORPEY.i BUSHOTTER ON THE SUN DANCE. 463 
 
 directly to the lodge of prepsiration, around which they march four 
 times i)rior to entering it. 
 
 § 100. When the devotees emerge from the dancing lodge, one of 
 their attendants places more gifts on the line of sticks between the two 
 lodges, and after tlie procession has moved on there is considerable 
 disputing among the small boys of the camp for the ])oscssion of the 
 gifts. 
 
 § 191. After leaving the lodgt; of preparation, the exhausted devotees 
 are taken back to their own tents, where each one is given four sips 
 of water and a small piece of food, and by the time that he gets accus- 
 tomed to food after his long fast, he eats what he i)leases, enters the 
 sweat lodge, rubs himself with the wild sage, and thenceforward he is 
 regarded as liaving peribrmed his vow. 
 
 § 192. The spectators scramble for the possession of the blankets and 
 long i)leces of calico left as sacrifices at the dancing lodge, and some of 
 them climb to the top of tlie sun i)ole and remove the objects fastened 
 there. The sun pole is allowed to remain in its place. The author saw 
 a sun pole at Ponka Agency, then in Dakota, in 1871. It had been there 
 for some time, and it remained till it was blown down by a high wind. 
 
 At the conclusion of the dance the camp breaks uj) and the visitors 
 return to their respective homes. 
 
 § 193 All who participate in the dance nuist act according to rule for if 
 one slights part of the rites they think that he is in great danger. 
 The men selected as overseers or managers are the i)ersons who act as 
 the attendants of the candidates. 
 
 The candidates think that all tlieir devotions are i)leasing to the sun. 
 As they dance, they pray mentally, " Please pity me ! Bring to pass all 
 the things which I desire ! " 
 
 INTKIISIVE DANCES. 
 
 § 194. During the sun dance, other dances — intrusive dances, as Lynd 
 terms them — are going on in the camp. Among these are the follow- 
 ing: The Mandan dance, performed by the Oaijte tiijza okolakiciye, or 
 the Society of the Stout-hearted Ones ; the Wakaij wacipi or mystery 
 dance, the Pezi mignaka wacipi or the dance of those wearing grass in 
 their belts, the ghost dance, the buffalo dance, and the Omaha kiyotag 
 a-i, popularly called the grass dance. 
 
 § 195. When a man Joins the Mandan dance as a leader, he wears a 
 feather headdress of owl feathers, a scarf, called '' Waijzi-icaske," is 
 worn around his neck and hangs down his back, and he carries a 
 pipe, a bow, and arrows. In the Pezi mignaka, wacipi, both young 
 men and young women take part. All these dances are held out- 
 side the lodge of the sun dance, within Avhich lodge only the one 
 dance can be performed. The grass dance is named after the Omaha 
 tribe. As many men as are able to participate in that dance march 
 abreast until they reach the camp of some gens, where they sit 
 
4G4 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 down facing tlie people whom tliey visit, lieuce the name, meaning, 
 " the Omalui reach there and sit down." Then the visitors slug while 
 a noise is made by hitting the gronnd with sticks, etc. The singers 
 and dancers sit looking at the tents of the gens that they have visited, 
 and remain so until property and food are brought out and given to 
 them. Then they arise and probably dance. They think that if they 
 ask Wakantanka for anything after the conchision of the sun dance 
 they will receive it. So they call on him in dilferent songs, thus: "O 
 Wakantanka, please pity mel Let me have many horses!" Or, "O 
 Wakantanka, please pity me! Let there be plenty of fruits and vegeta- 
 bles !" Or, " O Wakantanka, please pity me ! Let me live a long time ! " 
 
 § 196. During the sun dance they sing about some old woman, calling 
 her by name. They can sing about any old woman on such an occasion. 
 
 One of these songs has been given by Mr. Bushotter, but the writer 
 must content himself in giving the words without the music. 
 " Wiuuij'hca kuij tokiya la huijwo'! He'-ye-ye+ ! 
 Yatila kuij' suij'ka wikinicape. He-ye-ye+ ! 
 E'-yaya-ha' ya'-ha ya'-ha yo'-Uo he'-ye-ye+ ! 
 E'-ya ya-ha' ya'-ha ya'-ha yo'-ho he'-ye-ya !" 
 
 That is: '' Old woman, you who have been mentioned, whither are 
 yon going? When they scrambled for the stick representing a horse, 
 of course you were on hand ! How brave you are ! " 
 
 They sing this in a high key, and when they cease suddenly, they 
 call out, " Ho'wo ! Ho'wo! E'-ya-ha-he+ ! E'-ya-ha-he-f ! " '^ Comeon! 
 Come on! Hoiv brave you are! How brave you «»•<?.'" When they have 
 said this repeatedly an old woman enters the circle, making them 
 laugh by her singing and dancing. 
 
 Thus ends the Bushotter account of the sun dance, which was read 
 at a meeting of the Anthropological Society of Washington, May 6, 1890. 
 
 CAPT. BOrKKE ON THE !?rN-I)AXCE. 
 
 §197. After the reading of the paper, Capt. John G. Bourke, U. S. 
 Army, remarked that he had seen the sun dance of the Dakota several 
 times, and once had enjoyed excellent oiJi^ortunities of taking notes of 
 all that occurred under the superintendence of Eed Cloud and other 
 medicine men of ])rominence. Capt. Bourke kindly furnished the author 
 with the following abstract of his remarks on this subject: 
 
 In June, 1881, at the Ked Cloud Agency, Dakota, there were some twenty-eight 
 who w(;nt through the ordeal, one of the number being Pretty Enemy, a jouug 
 woman Avho had escaped with her husband from the band of Sitting Bull in British 
 North America, and who was going through the dance as a sign of grateful acknowl- 
 edgment to the spirits. 
 
 The description of the dance given in the account of Bushotter tallies closely with 
 that which took place at the Ked Cloud ceremony, with a few very immaterial ex- 
 ceptions due no doubt to local causes. 
 
 vS 198. At Red Cloud, for example, there was not a separate buttalo head for each 
 Indian ; there were not more than two, and with them, being placed erect and lean- 
 ing against a frame-work made for the purpose, several elaborately decorated pipes, 
 
Q) 
 
 
D'^R^EY] BOURKE ON THE SUN DANCE. 465 
 
 beautiful in all that porcupim> ([uills, l>eatls, and horsehair could supply. Buffaloes 
 had atthat time disappeared from the face of the country within reach of that agency, 
 and there was also an increasing difficulty in the matter of procuring the pipestone 
 from the old quarries over on the Missouri River [sic].' 
 
 § 199. First, in regard to securing the sacred tree, after the same had been desig- 
 nated by the advance party sent out to look for it. The medicine men proclaimed 
 to the young warriors that all they Avere now to do was just the same as if they were 
 going out to war. When the signal was given, the whfde party dashed off at full 
 speed on their ponies, and as soon as we arrived at the tree, there was no small 
 amount of singing, as well as of presents given to the poor. 
 
 Next, a band of young men stepped to the front, and each in succession told the 
 story of his prowess, each reference to the hilling or wounding of an enemy, or to 
 striking coiq), l)eing corroborated by thumping on the skin which served the medicine 
 men as a drum. 
 
 ^ 200. The first young man approached the sacred tree, swung his l)rand-new ax, 
 and cut one gash on the east side; the second followed precisely the same program 
 on the south side ; the third, on the west side, and the fourth, on the north side, 
 each cutting one gash and uo more. 
 
 § 201. They were succeeded by a young maiden, against whose personal character, 
 it was asserted, not a breath of insinuation could be brought, and she was decked in 
 all the finery of a long robe of white antelope skin almost completely covered with 
 elks' teeth, as well as with beads. She seized the ax, and, with a few well-directed 
 blows, brought the tree to the ground. 
 
 vN 202. In carrying the tree to the camp it was placed upon skids, no one being 
 allowed to place a hand upoa the tree itself. Upon reaching the summit of the knoll 
 nearest the camp the tree was left in charge of its immediate attendants while the 
 rest of the assemblage charged at full speed upon the camp itself. 
 
 ^^ 203. ^Yhen the tree had been erected in place, it Avas noticed that each of those 
 who were to endure the torture had been proAaded with au esquire, Avhile there Avas 
 also a force of men, armed with guns to jireserve order, criers to make i>roclama- 
 tions, and heralds and Avater-carriers armed with long staves tipped with bead- work 
 and horse-hair. These water-carriers did not carry water for the men attached to 
 the tree, they were not allowed to drink, but if. they happened to faint away the 
 medicine men Avould take a mouthful of water a])iece and 8))ray it upon the body 
 of the patient, producing coldness by the CA-aporation of the Avater. 
 
 ^> 204. All the Indians cm that occasion Avere attached to the tree itself by long 
 ropes of hair or by thongs, fastened to skewers run horizontally under the desh. (See 
 SS 181.) 
 
 ^ 205. The young Avoman, I'retty Enemy, was not tied up to the tree, but she danced 
 with the others, and had her arms scarified from the shoulders to tlie elbows. All 
 this scarification Avas done by a medicine man, who also slit the ear of the babies 
 l>oru since the last sun dance. 
 
 §206. The young meu Avere scarified in the following manner: Their attendants, 
 whom I haA'e called esquires, seized and laid them on a bed of some sagebrush at the 
 foot of the sacred tree. A short address Avas made l>y one of the medicine men ; then 
 another, taking up as much of the skin of the breast under the nipple of each dancer 
 as could be held between his thumb and forefinger, cut»a slit the length of the 
 thumb, and inserted a skewer tf> which a roi)e was tastened, the other end of the 
 rope being tied to the tree. 
 
 § 207. The young meu placed eagle pipes, as they were called, in their moutlis. 
 These pipes were flutes Avhich were made each from one of the bones in an eaglet's 
 wing. They had to be sounded all tlie time the young man was dancing. This d.iuc- 
 ing was done in the manner of a buck jump, the body and legs being stiff and all 
 
 ' Till' fanions pipestone quarry was near the Big Sious river in Miiine.sota. 
 11 ETH 30 
 
466 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 movement being upon the tips of the toes. The dancers kept looking at the sun, 
 and either dropi)ed the hands to the sides in the military position of " attention," 
 with the palms to the front, or else held them upward and outward at an angle of 
 45 degrees, with the fingers spread apart, and inclined towards the sun. 
 
 vS 208. When laid on the couch of sagebrush before spoken of, each young man 
 covered his face with his hands and wailed. I was careful to examine each one, 
 and saw that this wailing was a strictly ceremonial aftair unaccompanied by tears, 
 
 ^^209. Before ap])roaching the tree the victims were naked, with the exception of 
 blue cloth petticoats and buffalo robes worn with the fur outside, giving them the 
 appearance of monks of the olden time. The buffalo robes were, of course, thrown 
 off' when the young meu were laid on the sagebrush prejiaratory to the scarifica- 
 tion. One young man was unable to tear himself loose, and he remained tied up to 
 the tree for an hour and seven minutes by my watch. He fainted four times. The 
 medicine man put into his mouth some of the small red, bitter, salty seeds of the 
 Didamara, while the women threw costly robes, blankets, articles of beadwork and 
 quillwork, and others of the skin of the elk and antelope upon the rope attaching 
 him to the tree, in the hope of breaking him loose. The articles thus attached to the 
 rope were taken away by the poor for whom they were given. There was any 
 amount of this giving of presents at all stages of the dance, but especially at this 
 time, and the criers were calling without ceasing, " So and so has done well. He is 
 not afraid to look the poor women and children in the face ! C'ome up some more of 
 you people ! Do not be ashamed to give ! Let all the people see how generous you 
 are!" or words to that effect. (I had to rely upon my interpreter, who was reputed 
 to be the best and most trustworthy at the agency). 
 
 SS210. One of the prime movers in the organization of this particular dance, Kocky 
 Bear, at the last moment, for some particular reason, decided not to go through the 
 terrible ordeal. He explaiued his reasons to the tribe, and was excused. He gave 
 presents with a lavish hand, and it was understood that on some subsequent occasion 
 he would finish the dance. There was no sign of dissatisfaction with his course, and 
 everyone seemed to be on the best of terms with him. All through the ceremony 
 there was much singing by the women and drumming by the medicine men, and a 
 feast of stewed dog, which tastes very much like young mutton, was served with 
 boiled wild turnips. 
 
 § 211, By a comparison of the accounts of Miss Fletcher, Capt. 
 Bouike, and Bushotter it will be noticed that while there are several 
 points of disagreement which, as Capt. Bourke remarks, are "due no 
 doubt to local causes, " the accounts are in substantial agreement. Miss 
 Fletcher says that the opening of the camp circle was toward the east; 
 but Bushotter gives it as toward the jjortli. She states that the tent 
 of preparation was erected on the first day after sunset; but Bushotter 
 says it was set uj) on the fourth day. She represents the selection 
 of the men who go to seek the tree, the departure to fetch the tree, 
 the felling of the tree, the bringing it and setting it up within the 
 camp circle as all taking place on the fourth day. Bushotter states 
 that the men were selected on the third day ; they went to seek the tree 
 on the fourth day; they went to fell the tree on the fifth day, and on the 
 same day they brought it to the camp and set it in place. Capt. Bourke 
 saw four meu and one girl em}»loyed in felling the tree. Miss Fletcher 
 mentions that five men and three girls did this in 1882; but Bushotter 
 recorded that several men and women took part in this performance. 
 The ears of the children were pieced on the fourth day after the raising 
 
°°^'^''^ ASTRONOMICAL LORE. 4C7 
 
 Of the sun pole, aeeordino- to Miss Fletcher; but Bushotter says that 
 this did not occur till after the devotees had been scarified and fast- 
 ened to the pole and posts, on the sixth day. Bushotter agrees with 
 Miss Fletcher in saying that on tlie sixth day the eartli was '^ mellowed " 
 the devotees scarified, and they danced with the thongs fastened to 
 • the pole, etc., and attached to tlie skewers running under their flesh. 
 
 BEKDACHES. 
 
 § 212. These unfortunate beings, who have been referred to as mi»quga 
 and mi"qnge in Chapter in (§ 30), are called wiijkta by the Santee and 
 Yankton Dakota, and wiijkte by the Teton. They dress as women and 
 act in all respects as women do, though they are really men. The 
 terms for sodomy, wiijktai)i and wiijktepi, are significant, and go to 
 prove that the berdaches should not be called hermaphrodites. It is 
 probable that the Dakota regard the moon as influencing these people 
 (See §353.) ^ 
 
 ASTRONOMICAL LORE. 
 
 § 213. Ho-ke-wii)-la is a man who stands in the moon with out- 
 stretched arms. His name is said to mean Turtle Man. When the 
 Teton see a short man with a large body and legs they generally call 
 him " Ho-ke-la, " after the man in the moon. 
 
 The Teton do not like to gaze at the moon, because at some past 
 time a woman, who was carrying a child on her back, gazed a long 
 time at the moon, till she became very weak and fell senseless. 
 
 ^o Teton dare look at the stars and count even ^' one'' mentally. For 
 one is sure to die if he begin to count the stars and desist before finish- 
 ing. They are also afraid to point at a rainbow with the index finger, 
 though they can point at it with the lips or elbow. Should one forget, 
 and point with the index finger, ttie bystanders laugh at him, saying, 
 " By and by, O friend, when your finger becomes large and round, let 
 us have it for a ball bat." 
 
 DAY AND NIGHT. 
 
 § 214. One of Bushotter's Teton texts reads thus: 
 
 Indians are often singing "The day and night are mysterious" or "wakai]." 
 They do so for the following reasons : While the day lasts a man is able to do many 
 wonderful things at different times, and he kills so many animals, including men, 
 and sometimes he receives presents, and besides he is able to see all things. But he 
 does not fully understand what the day is. nor does he know what makes the light. 
 Though the man can do various things during the day, he docs not know who makes 
 or causes the light. Therefore he believes that it was not made by hand, i. e., that no 
 human being makes the day give liglit. Therefore the Indians say that the day is 
 " wakar)." They do not know^ who causes all these things, yet they know that there 
 is some one thing having power, and that this thing does it. In their opinion, that 
 is the sun. So they pray to the sun; and they respect both the day and the sun, 
 making them "wakai)." On that account they usually sing some songs about them. 
 Then they say that the night is "wakaij." When it is night, there are ghosts and 
 many fearful objects, so they regard the night as " wakaij," and pray to it. 
 
468 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CUTS. 
 
 THE DAWN. 
 
 § 215. When Bu.sliotter's younger brother was sick on one occasion 
 he was made to pray to Anpao, The Dawn. The tent skins were thrown 
 back I'rnni tlio entrance and the sick boy was held up with the palms 
 of his hands extended towards the light, while he repeated this prayer: 
 "Wakaij'taijka, uij'simala ye! Ti^haij wauij' kte," i. e., "O Great Mys- 
 terious One, please pity me! Let me live a long time!" Then the 
 l»atient was laid back on his couch. While the sick boy prayed a 
 blanket was held up, and the next morning it was hung from the top 
 of the tent. When the invalid recovered the blanket and a tobacco 
 pouch were taken to a hill and left there as sacritices. The boy got 
 well, and the people believed that some mysterious power had cured 
 
 him. 
 
 WEATHER SPIRIT. 
 
 § 210. The Teton say that a giant, called Waziya, knows when there 
 is to be a change of weather. When he travels his footprints are 
 large enough for several Indians to stand while they are abreast; and 
 his strides are far apart, for at one step he can go over a hill. When 
 it is cold the people say, " Waziya has returned." They used to pray 
 to him, ))ut when they found tliat he did not heed them they desisted. 
 When warm weather is to follow Waziya wraps himself in a thick 
 robe, and when it is to be cold he goes nude. The members of the 
 Ileyoka or Anti-natural Society love the acts of Waziya; so they 
 imitate him in always saying or doing the opposite of what might be 
 expected under the circumstances. Riggs says,' " Waziya, the god of 
 the north, and Itokaga, the god of the south, are ever in conflict and 
 each in turn is victorious." 
 
 HEYOKA. 
 
 § 217. Waziya and Heyoka are not fully differentiated. Heyoka, 
 according to Kiggs,^ is "the autinatural god." He is said to exist in 
 four varieties, all of whi(;h have the forms of small men, but all their 
 desires and experiences are contrary to nature. In the winter they 
 stand on the open prairie Avithout clothing ; in the summer they sit on 
 knolls wrapped in buffalo robes, and yet they are freezing. Each of 
 them has in his hands and on his shoulders a bow and arrows, rattles, 
 and a drum. All these are surcharged with lightning, and his drum- 
 stick is a little Wakiuyan. The high mounds of the prairies are the 
 y)laces of his abode. He presides over the land of dreams, and that is 
 why dreams are so fantastic. 
 
 § 218. In speaking of the Heyoka gods. Pond says:^ 
 
 Like the Wakiuyan, there are four varieties of tbeni, all of which assume in sub- 
 stance the human form, but it would bo unnecessarily tedious to note the differences 
 
 ' Conoeniing Dakota Beliofa, in Proc. Amer. Philol. Assoc, 3d An. Sessiou, 1872, p. 5 
 
 •'Tlicofjoiiy of the Sioux, ]). 269. 
 
 ^Miiin. nist. Soc. Coll., vol. u, pt. 2, p. 44. 
 
DOR5EY.1 THPJ HEYOKA G(1DS. 469 
 
 of form. <'S]>ecially as the dirt'erenccs arc uuimpoitant. They are said to be armed 
 with the bow and arnnvs, and Avith deer-hoof rattles, whieh things are charged Avith 
 electricity. One of the varieties carries a drum, -which is also charged with the same 
 fluid. For a drumstick he holds a small Wakinyan god by the tail, striking on the 
 drum with the beak of the god. This would seem to us to be an unfortunate posi- 
 tion for a god, but it must be remembered that it is " wakan," and the more absurd 
 a thing is, the more "wakan." 
 
 ^3 219. One of these gods in some respects answers to tlie wliirlwind zephyr of 
 Greek mythology. It is the gentle whirlwind which is sometimes visible in the del- 
 icate waving of the tall grass of the prairie.' 
 
 By virtue of their medicine and tonwan powers the I feyoka render aid to such 
 men as revere them, in the chase, or by intlicting and healing diseases, especially 
 those resulting from the gratification of their libidinous passions. 
 
 IIKVOKA FKASr. 
 
 § 220. Lyiul gives an aoeouiit of the Heyoka feast. He says: ^ 
 They assemble in a lodge, wearing tall, conical hats, being nearly naked, and painted 
 in a strange style. Upon the fire is placed a huge kettle full of meat, and they re- 
 main seated around the fire smoking until the water in the kettle begins to boil, 
 which is the signal for the dance to begin. They dance and sing around it excitedly, 
 plunging their hands into the boiling water, and seizing large pieces of hot meat, 
 which they devour at once. The scalding water is thrown over their backs and legs, 
 at which they never wince, complaining that it is cold. Their skin is first deadened, 
 as I am creditably informed, by rubbing with a certain grass ; and they do not in real- 
 ity experience any uneasiness from the boiling water — a fact which gives their per- 
 formances great mystery in the eyes of the uninitiated. 
 
 § 221. Dr. Briutou lias coiifoiuided the Heyoka m ith the Wakiiiyau. 
 The two are distinct classes of powers, thougii there is some connection 
 between them, as may be inferred from tlie following stories in the Bnsh- 
 otter collection. 
 
 § 222. No Indian belonging- to the Heyoka Society ever tells of his 
 own personal mystery. Such tilings are '• wakaij," and not even one 
 man can be induced to sing the Heyoka songs upon an ordinary occa- 
 sion; because if they sing one of those scmgs except at the proper time 
 they say that the Thunder-beings would kill the entire households of 
 the offenders. Therefore they object to singing the Heyoka songs and 
 they do not like to speak about them. 
 
 .STOKY OK A IIKYOKA MAX. 
 
 §223. It is said that the people of the olden times knew when they 
 were about to die, and they used to dream about their deaths and how 
 they would be when the time drew near. One of those men said, 
 " When the first thunder is heard next spring. I and my hoi-se shall die." 
 
 For that reason his kindred were weeping from time to time, this man 
 who had dreamed of his death decorated the legs of his horse by moist- 
 ening light gray clay and drawing zigzag lines down the legs. In like 
 manner he deeorated the neck and back of the horse, and hemadesim- 
 
 • Compare the !Ma"na"lii"(l je sub-gens of the E.-insa tribe, and part of the wind gens, as the jja'ze 
 gens of the f)maha, Kausa and Osage may be associated with tlio Takuskai)!ikai) of the Dakota. 
 *Minn. Hist. Soc. Coll., vol. ll, pt. 2, pp. 70, 71. 
 
470 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 ilar lines on his own arnis. Then he woukl walk about the prairie near 
 the camp, singinji- and holding a pipe with the stem pointing toward 
 the sky. 
 
 When the leaves opened out in the following spring, the first thun- 
 dercloud was seen. Then the man said, '^ Ho, this is the day on which 
 I am to die! " So he tied u]) his horse's tail in a rounded form, put a 
 piece of scarlet blanket around the animaFs neck, and spread a fine 
 blanket over his back, as a saddlecloth, with the ends trailing along the 
 ground. He painted himself and his horse just as he had been doing 
 formerly, and, taking the pii)e, he walked round and round at some dis- 
 tance from the eami», pointing the pipestem towards the clouds as he 
 sang the Heyoka songs. The following is given as a song of the human 
 Heyoka man, but it is said to have been sung originally by the mys- 
 terious and superhuman Heyoka in the thundercloud: 
 
 Ko-la, o-ya-te kin, ko la, wan-ni-yayg u-pe e-yehe-f! 
 Ko-la, o-ya-te, kiu, ko-la, wau-ni-yayg u-pe e-ye lie-|- ! 
 Ko-la, lo-wai] hi-bu we ! 
 Ko-la, ce-ya hi-bu we ! 
 O-ya-te way-ma-ya-ka-pi ye. 
 He-lie-be ! 
 Ta-minj-ka sui kuij e-ye-ye he+ ! 
 
 In this song, "oyate" means the Thunder-beings; "kola," the He- 
 yoka men here on earth, whom the Thunder-beings threatened to kill; 
 " oyate waijmayakapi," ordinary Indians who are not wakan ; "He-he-he ! 
 tamuijka sni kuij," i. e., "Alas! I hate to leave them (living Indians)," 
 means that the singer expects to be killed by the Thunder-beings. 
 
 The whole song may be rendered freely thus : 
 
 My friends, the people are coming to see you ! 
 My frieiuls, the people are coming to see you! 
 My friends, he sings as he comes hither I 
 # My friends, he cries as he comes hither! 
 You people on earth behold me while you may ! 
 Alas ! alas ! alas I 
 I hate to leave my own people ! 
 
 On the day referred to the Heyoka man had not been absent very 
 long from the camp when a high wind arose, and the rain was so plenti- 
 ful that a person could not see very far. Then the Thunder -beings 
 looked (i. e., there was lightning) and they roared; but still the man 
 and his horse continued walking about over there in sight of the camp. 
 By and by there was a very sudden sound as if the trees had been 
 struck, and all the people were much frightened, and they thought 
 that the Thunder-beings had killed them. Some of the women and 
 children fainted from fear, and the men sat holding them up. Some 
 of the people thought that they saw many stars, and there seemed to 
 be the sound, "Tui}+ I" in the ears of each person. 
 
 VVlien the storm liad lasted a long time, the Thunder-beings were 
 departing slowly, amid considerable loud roaring. When it was all over 
 the people ventured forth from their lodges. Behold, the man and his 
 
DOKSEY.i lYA AND IKTO. 471 
 
 horse bad been killed by the Tbiiuder-beings, so his relations were cry- 
 ing- ere they reached the scene of the disaster. 
 
 The horse had been burnt in the very places where the man had deco- 
 rated him, and his sinews had been shriveled by the heat, so he lay 
 with each limb stretched out stiff. The man, too, had been burnt in 
 the very idaces where he had painted himself. The grass all around 
 appeared as if the Thunder-beings had dragged each body along, for it 
 was pushed partly down on all sides. So the people reached there and 
 beheld the bodies. 
 
 As the men in former days used to know events beforehand, as has 
 just been told, it has long been the rule for no one to reveal his per- 
 sonal mystery, which he regards as ^'wakan." 
 
 IIEYOKA WOMEN. 
 
 § 224. Bushotter gave the following account of a female Heyoka who 
 was killed by lightning: 
 
 A certain -woman whom I saw after she bad l>een killed by ligbtniuy belonged to 
 the Heyoka Society. When she walked, she carried a pipe with the nionthi)iece 
 pointing upward, as she thought that the Thunder-beings would put the mouth- 
 piece into their mouths, though the act would immediately cause her death. 
 
 $ 225. "Women used to dream about the Thunder-beings, just as the men did, and 
 in those dreams the Heyoka man or woman made promises to the Thunder-beings. 
 If the dreamers kept their promises, it was thought that the Thunder-beings helped 
 them to obtain whatever things they desired; but if they broke their promises, they 
 were sure to be killed by the Thunder-l»eings during some storm. For this reason 
 the Heyoka members worshiped the Thunder-beings, whom they honored, speaking 
 of them as wakan.'' 
 
 § 226. Some of the women sing, and some do not ; bnt all let their hair 
 hang loosely down their backs, and their dresses consist of a kind of 
 cloth or a robe sewed down the middle of the back. Sometimes the cloth 
 is all blue, at other times half is red and half is blue. Some times 
 there is beadwork on the dress. Even the Heyoka women wear the 
 long red cloth trailing on the ground before and behind them, in imita- 
 tion of the young dandies of the tribe. 
 
 lYA, THE GOD OF GLUTTONY. 
 
 § 227. Lynd speaks of the '' vindictive lya " as driving the hunters 
 " back from the hunt to the desolation of their lodges.^ And Eiggs has 
 written -^ 
 
 A people who feast themselves so abundantly as the Dakotas do, when food is plenty, 
 would necessarily imagine a god of gluttony. He is represented as extremely ugly, 
 and is called E-ya. He has the power to twist and distort the human face, and the 
 women still their crying children by telling them that \\w E-ya will catch them. 
 
 IKTO, IKTOMI, OR UNKTOMI. 
 
 § 228. Ikto or Iktomi (in the Teton dialect) or Unktomi (in the San- 
 
 'Miiiu. Hist. Soc. Coll., vol. il, pt. 2, p. 67. ^xbeogony of the Sioux, p. 270. 
 
472 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTfe. 
 
 tee) are the names now given to the spider by the Dakota; but the 
 names once belonged to a mythical character, who resembles in many 
 respects the Ictinike of the Omaha and Ponka, and the Ictcihke of the 
 Iowa, Oto, and Missouri tribes. ^'Ikto," say the Teton, " was the tirst 
 being who attained maturity in this world. He is more cunning- than 
 human beings. He it was who named all jjeople and animals, and he 
 was the first to use human speech. Some call him the Waunca or 
 Mocker, a name now applied to the monkey.^ If we see auy peculiar 
 animals at any place, we knew that Iktomi made them so. All the 
 animals are his kindred, and they are obliged to act just as he com- 
 manded them at the beginning." 
 
 § 229. Ill enumerating the powers that delight in working ill to the 
 Indians, Lynd mentions Unktomi thus: 
 
 "The ubiquitous Unktomi tortures tlie Indians in their hunger by bringing herds 
 of buffaloes near the camp, which they no sooner start to pursue than he drives away 
 by means of a black wolf and a white crow."^ 
 
 § 230. Though Ikto was very cunning, he was sometimes deceived 
 by other beings. One day he caught the rabbit, and the latter was 
 about to fare hard, Avhen a thought occurred to him. He persuaded his 
 captor to release him on condition that he taught Ikto one of his magic 
 arts. Said the rabbit, "Elder brother, if you wish snoAv to fall at any 
 time, take some hair such as this (pulling out some rabbit fur) and 
 blow it in all directions, and there will be a blizzard." The rabbit then 
 made a deep snow in this manner, though the leaves were still green. 
 This surprised Ikto, who thought that he had learned a wonderful 
 ac^complishment. But the foolish fellow did not know that rahhit fur 
 was necessary, and when he tried to make snow by blowing his own 
 hair, he was disappointed. 
 
 § 231. On another occasion, Ikto reached a stream which he could 
 not ford. So he stood on the bank and sang thus : 
 
 i 
 
 i^ ' J-^ii ' i^ ^ ' ii^'i j ^ 
 
 To -kin ko-wa-ka-tan uia-ka-ni, e-chiu'chin na-wa-zhin! 
 I stand, thinking often, Oh that I might reach the other side ! 
 
 Presently a long object passed, swimming against the curreirt. When 
 it reached him it said, " I will take you across, but you must not lift 
 your licad above the water. Should you notice even a small cloud warn 
 me at once, as I must go under the water." Ikto was then told to give 
 the warning thus: "Younger brother, your grandfather is coming." 
 Before the other bank was reached Ikto gave the warning, and so sud- 
 den was tlie commotion that Ikto became unconscious. On recovering, 
 he found that the thunder was roaring, and the water was dashing 
 high, but the monster had disappeared. 
 
 'With this compare the belief of some African tribes that the monkey has the gift of speech, but 
 fears to use it lest he should be made a slave. 
 ''Minn. Hi.st. Soc. Coll., vol. u, pt. 2, p. 66. 
 
^"«^"'] CAJ^OTIDAN AND HOHNOGICA. 473 
 
 It is shown in the sectiou on Spider lore (§ 249) how the name Iktonii 
 has been transferred from the mytliical character to the insect, who, 
 in turn, is invoked as '' grand fatlier." 
 
 CA]NfOTIDAIj AND HOHNOGICA. 
 
 §232. Tliese powers have been scarcely differentiated; and some 
 writers speak of them as identical. They seem to have been of the 
 nature of bogies or boggarts. Says Lynd :' 
 
 Caijotidaij draws the hnngry liunters to the depths of the wood by imitating the 
 voices of animals, or by the nefarious " Cico.' cico!" (i. c, I invite you to a feast ! I 
 invite you to a feast!) when he scares them out of their senses by showing himself to 
 them. 
 
 On the same page he distinguishes between the Oaijotidaij and the 
 Ohnogi(''a thus : 
 
 "The stray lodge becomes the delight of the wild Ohnogica," implying that such 
 lodges were haunted l.)y this spirit for the purpose of frightening any unwary trav- 
 eler who ventured there without a companion. 
 
 In Tah-koo Wah-kon (p. 75, note), Kiggs speaks of the "Chan-o-te- 
 dan or Hoh iio-ge-cha. The former is a fabulous creature, dwelling 
 usually in the woods as the name indicates. The latter name would 
 seem to give it a place by the door of the tent." With this we may 
 compare the Omaha invocation, " O thou who standest at the right side 
 of the entrance ! Here is tobacco !" (§ 40). The name also reminds us 
 of "The Dweller upon the Threshold" in Bulwer's "Zanoni." 
 
 Eiggs, in his "Theogony of the Sioux," p. 270, writes thus of the 
 "Chan-o-te-ua": 
 
 This means, Dweller in the woods. Sometimes he is called Oh-no-ge-cha, which 
 would seem to assign him to a place in the tent. Whether these are one and the 
 same^ or two, is a question in dispute. But they are harmless household gods. The 
 Chan-o-te-ua is represented as a little child, only it has a tail. Many Indian men 
 affirm that they have seen it, not only in night dreams, but in day visions. 
 
 The name Holinogica or Olinogica is called by the Teton, Uijgnagi- 
 cala, which is the name of the screech-owl. As the Ponka Inda(|*inga 
 dwells in the forest, and is said to resemble an owl, he nuist be iden- 
 tical with the Dakota Oaijotidaij or Uijgnagicala. (See §38.) 
 
 ANUNG-ITE. 
 
 § 233. Wonderful stories of beings with two faces are found among 
 the Dakota as well as among the Omaha. Lynd'' states the belief of 
 the Dakota (/. e., those speaking the Santee dialect) that "women with 
 child are but torturing sports for the vengeful Anog-ite." 
 
 In the Omaha legend of Two Faces and the Twins' the pregnant 
 mother of the Twins died as soon as she had gazed at Two Faces. In 
 the Teton legend of He-who-Has-a-Sword and Ha-ke-la, the latter is 
 said to have met a giant, Anuijg-ite, or Two Faces, who pretended to 
 be an Indian Avoman nursing an infant. The infant had been stolen 
 
 'Miun. Hist. Soc. Coll.. vol. ll. pt. 2, p. CO. 
 
 2 Una., p. 66. 
 
 3Cont. N. A. Ktiiiiol. . vol. vi. v\<. •-•I17--J19. 
 
474 A STUDY OF SIOUAK CULTS. 
 
 from its parents by the Auuijg-ite, wlio drew a rose brush across its 
 face to make it cry. As soon as this was doue the Two Faces said, in 
 a woman's voice, -A-wo! A-woI A-wo!" that being the expression used 
 by Teton women when they wish to soothe crying infants. 
 
 § 234. Tlie Indians used to hear an Anuijg-ite or Two Faces pass 
 along kicking the ground. When he kicked the ground with one foot 
 bells used to ring and an owl hooted, and when he kicked with the other 
 it seemed as if a buffalo bull was there, snorting as he does when about 
 to charge. At the next step a chickadee was heard, and when he moved 
 the other foot he made all kinds of animals cry out. The Indians had 
 heard this Anuijg-ite and were afraid of him. Now and then when a 
 man who thought himself strong was alone when he met the Auuijg-ite 
 the latter surprised him by catching him and throwing him into one of 
 his ears. These ears were so large that each could hold three men. No 
 person knew where the Anuijg-ite made his abode, and no one cared to 
 follow him; no one dared to go out of doors at night. Now, there was 
 an old man and his wife who had a lodge to themselves, and their only 
 child was a willful boy. One night he was particularly ill-behaved, and 
 when his mother told him to do something he disobeyed her. So she 
 said : " I will put you out of the lodge and the Anuijg-ite will toss you 
 into his ear." She did not believe this, and merely said it to frighten 
 her son into obedience. Finding him heedless, she seized his arm and, 
 though he began to cry, pushed him out of the lodge and fastened the 
 entrance securely. The poor boy ran crying around the lodge, but soon 
 there was silence. The mother in turn began to cry, and went to seek 
 him, but she did not find him (mtside the lodge. The next morning she 
 and her husband, weeping, went to seek him among the people in 
 the neighboring camp, asking every one about him, but no one had seen 
 hhn. So they returned to their lodge, and they wept many days for 
 their son. One night the mother was weeping. Suddenly she heard 
 some one say, '' Hi"" ! hi" ! You said to me : Ghost, take that one. Hi" ! 
 hi"!" This was said often, and she noticed a rattling of small bells as 
 the being walked along. Just then she said: "Husband, I think now 
 that a ghost has taken my son." The husband said: "Yes; you gave 
 the boy to the ghost, and, of course, the ghost took him. Why should 
 you complain? It serves you right." Then the mother cried aloud, so 
 that her voice might have been heard at a distance. Then said she: 
 "Husband, to-morrow night- 1 will lie hid by the wood-pile, and if the 
 ghost comes I will have a knife in my hand, and after I catch it by the 
 leg I will call to you. Be ready to come at once. Yon must aid me, 
 and I will recover my son, because I know that he threw him into his 
 ear." So the next night she lay in wait for the monster. By and by 
 vsomething was coming, crying out "Hi"!'" and making all kinds of birds 
 and animals cry out as it walked. She saw a very large being come 
 and stand by the lodge. He was very tall, his head being above the 
 smoke-hole, down which he peeped into the h)dge. Suddenly the mother 
 
DORSEY] ANUI^G-ITE — GUARDIAN SPIRITS. 475 
 
 called to her husband, aud .seized one leg of tlie nionSter with both 
 hands. Then she and her husband gashed the legs in many places, 
 aud, after tyiug a thong to one leg, they pulled down the monster and 
 bound him securely. They guarded him till it Avas day. Tlien they 
 beheld a hideous monster covered with thick hair, except on his faces. 
 They split his ears with a knife, and within one they found their long- 
 lost son, who was very lean and unable to speak. He had a thick coat 
 of long hair on him from his legs up to his head, but his head and face 
 were smooth. And he would have become an Anuijg-ite had he not 
 been rescued. He did not survive very long. After the parents had 
 taken their son from the ear of the monster they ])ut many sticks of 
 wood on a fire, and on tins they laid the monster. He soon was in 
 flames, and they stood looking on. Many things were sent flying out 
 of the fire in all directions, just like sparks. These were porcui^ine 
 quills, bags, all kinds of feathers, arrows, i>ipes, birds, axes, war-clul)s, 
 flints, stones for sharpening knives, stone balls resembling billiard balls, 
 necklaces of tuM shells, flints for striking tinder, flint hide-scrapers, 
 whips, tobacco-pouches, all kinds of beads, etc. ^ 
 
 PENATES. 
 
 § 235. It has been supposed that the Dakotas had no penates or 
 household gods ; but according to Riggs,^ " such have come into tlie i)os- 
 session of the missionaries. One of these images is that of a little 
 man. and is inclosed in a cylindrical wooden case, and enveloped in 
 sacred swan's down." 
 
 GUARDIAN SPIRITS. 
 
 § 230. Each Teton may have his special guardian spirit. If such 
 spirits are remembered they confer great power on their favorites. 
 The latter may be surrounded by foes and yet escape, either by receiv- 
 ing great strength, enabling them to scatter their enemies, or by being 
 made invisible, disappearing like a ghost or the wind. Sometimes it 
 is said that one is rescued by being turned into a small bird that flies 
 off in safety. (See §§ 122, 325.) This refers to those who "ihaijbla" 
 (have intercourse with spirits) or who have guardian spirits (tawasi- 
 cuijpi) as servants. Bushotter's stepfather has a guardian spirit who 
 enabled him to tell about lost animals, etc., and bad deeds, even when 
 the latter were committed in secret. So Bushotter and the other chil- 
 dren of the household were afraid to do wrong after they had been 
 detected several times by the aid of the guardian spirit. 
 
 BELIEFS ABOUT THE BUFFALO. 
 
 § 237. In several of the Siouan tribes the buffalo is considered a 
 
 •Translated from the original MS. in the Bushotter collection. Tuki is tlie Teton name for a uni- 
 valve shellfish said to come from the Great Lakes. 
 »Tah.koo Wah-kon, p. 71. 
 
476 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 '^o-randfather." He figures in the traditions of the OsageJ Gentes 
 and sub gentes are named after liim. His image plays an important 
 part in the sun dance (§ 164). 
 
 § 238. Miss Fletcher^ mentions a prayer used during the White Buf- 
 falo Festival of the Huukpapa Dakota, m which are remembered the 
 "powers of the earth, wind, sun, water, and the buffalo." And in her 
 article on "The Shadow or Ghost Lodge; a Ceremony of the Ogallala 
 Sioux," she states that 2 yards of red cloth are (were) "lifted and 
 offered to the buffalo, with a prayer that good may (might) be granted 
 to the father" (i. e., of the dead child) "during the period of the lodge- 
 keei)ing." ^ 
 
 §239. In her article on the "Elk Mystery of the Ogallala Sioux"* 
 is given an important note : 
 
 AmoDg the Santees iu past times, a man ■svho should dream of buffalo must 
 auuouncc it iu the following manuer: He takes the head of a hutfalo he has killed, 
 carefully removes the skin, preserving it as nearly whole as possible, and throws 
 away the skull and tlie tlesh. He then restores the skin to its natural shajie and lets it 
 cure. When this has taken place, a few feet square of earth is set apart at the back of 
 the lodge, the sods cut off, and the exposed earth made fine. This is the " U-ma-ne." 
 Upon this earth a new blanket, formerly a robe, is spread. The blanket or robe must 
 not belong to a woman. The buffalo head is placed in the center of the blanket, and 
 one side of the head (is) painted blue, and the other (side) red. Upon the blue side, 
 tufts of white swan's down are tied to the hair of the head. Sometimes small eagle 
 feathers are substituted, and, very rarely, large feathers. Upon the red side, tufts 
 of down-colored red are similarly tied. These decorations look like " a woman's 
 sunbonnet," as they cover the head and fall to the shoulders. The pipe is only filled 
 and presented to the head. The feast kettle is hung over the fire. When all is in 
 readiness, the man who prepared the head thus addresses it : " Grandfather ! Vener- 
 able man ! Your children have made this feast for you. May the food thus taken 
 cause them to live, and bring them good fortune." An Indian of remarkable intel- 
 ligence, whose father before him had been a priest of the higher class, explained 
 that in some religious festivals the buffalo and the earth were spoken of as one, and 
 (were) so regarded. "Therefore if any one should revile or ridicule the buffalo, 
 ever so softly, the earth would hear and tell the buffalo, and he would kill the man." 
 
 Bushotter furnished two articles on the buffalo, translations of which 
 are appended. 
 
 ORIGIN OF THE BUFFALO. 
 
 ^240. The buft'alo originated under the earth. It is said that in the olden times, aman 
 who was journeying came to a hill where there were uianj^ holes in the ground. He 
 explored them, and when he had gone within one of them, he found plenty of buttalo 
 chips, and buffalo tracks were on all sides ; and here and there he found buffalo hair 
 which had come out wheu the animals rubbed against the walls. These animals were 
 the real buffalo, who dwelt underground, and some of them came up to tliis earth 
 and increased here to many herds. These buffalo had many earth lodges, and there 
 
 ' Osage Traditions, in 6th An. Kept. Bur. Ethn., pp. 379, 380. Am. Naturalist, February, 1884, pp. 113, 
 114, 133. Ibid, July, 1885, p. 671, Om. Soc, in 3(1 An. Kept. Bur. Ethn., pp. 228, 233, 244, 247. 
 
 'Kept. Peabody Museum, vol. Ill, p. 264. Note how in the sun dance the sun, the four winds, and 
 tlie Imfl'alo are referred to (^^ 147, 164, 167, 173, and 181, and PI. XLvni), and ceremonies are performed con- 
 nected with the earth, such as mellowing the earth (^§ 146, 155, and 176) and the " Uu<5ita," in which 
 tliej' shoot into the ground (§ 170). 
 
 :'Op. cit., p. 297. 
 
 'Op. cit., p. 282. note. 
 
DOESEY.i THE BUFFALO THE BEAR THE WOLF. 477 
 
 they raised their cUildreu. They did many strange thiugs. Therefore when a man 
 can hardly be wounded by a foe, the people believe that the former has seen the 
 biiftalo in dreams or visions, and on that account has received mysterious help from 
 those animals. All .such men who dream of the buffalo, act like them and dance the 
 buffalo (bull) dance. And the man who acts the buffalo is said to have a real buffalo 
 iuside him, and a chrysalis lies within the tlat part of the body near the shoulder- 
 blade ; on account of which the man is hard to kill ; no matter how often they wound 
 him, he does not die. As the ])coplc know that the buffalo live lu earth lodges, they 
 never dance the buffalo dance in vain. 
 
 THE TAT.\>;(iNA.SKIffVA>^' (iH MYTHIC BUFFALO. 
 
 vS 21J^. It is said that a mythic buffalo once attacked a i)arty of Indians, killing one 
 of them. The others fled and climbed a tree, at which the buffalo rushed many 
 times, knocking off' piece after x>iece of the tree with his horns till very little of it 
 was left. Then one of the Indians lighted some tinder and threw it far off into the 
 tall grass, scorching the buffalo's eyes, and seriously injuring his horns, causing the 
 hard part of the latter to slip off", so that the animal could no longer gore any one. 
 But as he was still dangerous, one of the men determined to fight him at the risk of 
 his own life, and so he slipped down from the tree, armed with a bow and some 
 arrows. He finally gave the buffalo a mortal wound. Then all the men came down 
 the tree and cut up the buffalo after flaying him. They were about to carry off the 
 body of their dead comrade in a robe, when they were obliged to climb a tree again 
 because another mythic buffalo had appeared. He did not attack them, but went 
 four times around the body of the slain man. Then he sto])ped and said, "Arise to 
 your feet." All at once, the dead man came to life. The buffalo addressed him, 
 saying, '' Hereafter you shall be mysterious, and the sun, moon, four winds, day and 
 night shall be your servants." It was so. He could assume the shape of a tine 
 plume, which was blown often against a tree, to which it stuck, as it waved repeat- 
 edly. 
 
 THE BEAK. 
 
 §242. The Assiniboin address prayers to the bear.' They offer it sacrifices of to- 
 bacco, belts, and other esteemed objects. They celebrate feasts in its honor, to obtain 
 its favors and to live without accidents. The bear's head is often preserved in 
 the camp during several days, mounted in some suitable position and adorned with 
 scraps of scarlet cloth, and trimmed with a variety of necklace collars, and colored 
 feathers. Then they offer it the calumet, and ask it that they may be able to kill 
 all the bears they meet, without accident to themselves, in order to anoint them- 
 selves with his fine grease and make a banquet of his tender flesh. 
 
 THE WOLF. 
 
 §243. Smet says, "Tlie wolf is more or less honored among the 
 Iudiaus"(/. e. the Assiniboin) "Most of the womenrefuse to dress its 
 skin for any purpose. The only reason that I could discover for this 
 freak is, that the wolves sometimes go mad, bite those they meet and 
 give them the hydrophobia. It is doubtless to escape this terrible dis- 
 ease and to avoid the destruction of their game, tliat tlie Indians make 
 it" (the wolf) "presents, and ofter it supplications. In other cases, he- 
 is little feared." The "little medicine wolf" is in great veneration 
 among the Assiniboin. As soon as an Indian hearshisbarks, he counts 
 the number; he remarks whether his voice is feeble or strong, and from 
 
 'Smet, Western Missions anil Mission.iries, p. 139. 
 
478 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 what point of the compass it proceeds. All these things are regarded 
 as good or bad omeus. If the uudertakings of the Indians result, as 
 they occasionally do, in success, after hearing the barking of the little 
 wolf, this animal is honored by a grand feast after the return of the 
 party.' 
 
 §244. That some of the Dakota reverenced the wolf is evident from 
 the fact that there is a society, called the Wolf Society, but known 
 among the white people as the Dog Society. That society has many 
 beautiful songs, according to Bushotter, and its membership is confined 
 to young men. All the wolf stories belong to this society. Three of 
 these stories follow this section. 
 
 §245. The man who met the ghost woman after fleeing from the two 
 ghost men'' encountered a wolf, who pitied him and sliowed him the way 
 to a camp, where he was received and adopted into the tribe. This man 
 always remembered the Avolf as a kind animal, and when he killed any 
 game, he threw a portion outside of the camp, asan offering to the wolf 
 
 § 24G. There was once a handsome young Teton, whose wife's father 
 disliked him and plotted against him. He dug a pit within his lodge, 
 covering it with skins. Then he invited his son-in-law to a feast. The 
 son-in-law met a wolf, whom he saluted, asking him the way to the vil- 
 lage. The young man was persuaded to recline on the skins, which gave 
 way, precipitating him into the pit. The father-in-law and his two single 
 danghters covered the skins with earth, and removed their tent else- 
 where on the morrow, when all the people started on a journey. After 
 some days, the wolf who had met the man went to the deserted camp- 
 ing place in search of food. On reaching the place where the accident 
 ( ?) had happened, he heard a human cry. So he dug away the earth, 
 removed the skins, and fonnd the man, whom he recognized. The Avolf 
 pitied him, and said, '' As you did not kill me when we met, you shall 
 now be saved." So he howled, and very soon many wolves appeared. 
 They found a lariat, which they lowered into the pit, and by grasping 
 the other end with their teeth, they pulled the man up. He was very 
 grateful, promising never to harm a wolf. Just then a weeping woman 
 ajipeared, gazing in surprise at the man, as he was very thin, looking 
 like a ghost. She was his wife, and her heart was soon made glad when 
 he told her of his rescue. 
 
 §247. Once upon time a man found a wolf den, into which he dug to 
 get the cubs. The mother came, barking, and she finally said to him, 
 '• Pity my children;" but he paid no attention to her. So she ran for 
 her husband, who soon appeared. Still the man persevered. Then the 
 wolf sang a beautiful song, " O man, pity my children, and I will in- 
 struct you in one of my arts." He en<led with a howl, causing a fog. 
 When the wolf howled again the fog disappeared. Then the man 
 thought, " These animals have mysterious gifts," and he tore up his red 
 
 ' Smet, Western Missions and MissioDaiies, \>. 140. 
 'See Ghost Lore, ^280. 
 
"OJ^sEY] HORSES SPIDERS SNAKE LORE. 479 
 
 blanket into small pieces, which he put as necklaces on the cubs, whom 
 he painted with Indian red, restoring tliem to their place in the den. 
 Then the grateful father exclaimed, '' When you go to war hereafter, I 
 will accompany you, and bring to pass whatever you wish. " So they 
 parted as friends. In the course of time the man went on the war path 
 As he came in sight of a village of the enemy, a large Avolf met him, 
 saying, '' By and by I will sing and you shall steal their horses when 
 they least suspect danger." So they stoi)ped on a hill close to the vil- 
 lage, and the wolf sang. After this he liowk'd, making a high wind 
 arise. The horses Hed to the forest, many stopping on the hillside. 
 When the wolf had howled again, the wind died away, and a mist arose j 
 so the man took as many horses as he pleased. 
 
 HORSES. 
 
 § 248. These are well named '' Cfinka waka" (.^uijka wakaij)" for they 
 are indeed wakaij. Consequently the Dakota have the Cung olowa" 
 (Suijgolowaij) or Horse Songs, and they pray to the horses (cewicaki- 
 yapi). If any one paints a horse in a wakaij manner, when he has no 
 right to do so, he is sure to pay thei)eualty: he will encounter mis- 
 fortune of some sort, or he will fall ill, or he will be slain by a foe, or he 
 will have his neck broken by being thrown from a horse. 
 
 SPIDERS. 
 
 § 249. The Teton pray to gray spiders, and to those with yellow legs. 
 When a person goes on a journey and a spider passes, one does not 
 kill it in silence. For should one let it escape, or kill it without prayer, 
 bad consequences must ensue. In the latter case, another spider 
 would avenge the death of his relation. To avoid any such misfor- 
 tune, when the spider is encountered, the person must say to it, 
 "Iktomi Tuijkaijsila, Wa^^iijyaij niktepe lo," i.e., " O Grandfather Spider, 
 the Thunder-beings kill you!" The spider is crushed at once, and his 
 spirit believes what has been told him. His spirit probably tells this to 
 the other spiders, but they can not harm the Thunder-beings. If one 
 thus addresses a spider as he kills it, he will never be bitten by other 
 spiders. 
 
 § 231. One of the Dakota myths tells how Unktomi killed himself, 
 causing his limbs to shrivel up till they assumed the appearance of 
 spiders' limbs. 
 
 SNAKE LORE. 
 
 § 250. Some Dakota will not kill snakes by hitting them. He who 
 violates the law in this respect will dream horrible dreams about 
 various kinds of snakes; and occasionally it happens that such a man 
 has a horse bitten by a snake. The SiijteUla taijka, or the Ancient of 
 Eattlesnakes, was one of the enemies of the Thunder-beings. 
 
 "There are some things about which it is most unluckv to dream. 
 
480 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 Snakes are said to be terrible; they seek to enter a man's ears, nose, 
 or mouth" (i.e., in tlie dream); "and should one succeed, it is a sure 
 sign of death. 'No good comes from snakes."" 
 
 THE DOUBLE WOMAN. 
 
 § 251. In the oldeu times there was what they called " Wiijyaij nuij- 
 pa])i-ka,''or the The Double Woman, consisting of two very tall females 
 who were ])robably connected by a membrane. They wore horned head- 
 dresses decorated with feathers, and bunches of feathers hung from the 
 right shoulder of one and from the left shoulder of the other. Instead 
 of heel tags, each female had a turtle trailing from the heel or quarter 
 of one moccasin, an<l a feather from that of the other. In the sketch 
 as given by Bushotter there is a pale blue stripe around the bottom of 
 each skirt, and half of each trailing feather is of that color. Each body, 
 above the top of tlie blanket, is painted with blue dots on a yellow 
 ground. There is a blue stripe across the right shoulder of the woman 
 on the right, and one across the left shoulder of the other woman, each 
 stripe curving downward towards the opposite side. '(See PI. L.) 
 
 They dwelt in a lodge on a very high black cliff. They were always 
 laughing immoderately, as if they were strangers to sorrow. On pleas- 
 ant evenings they stood on a hill, where they amused themselves by 
 swinging. Should any Indian see them, when he reached home lie 
 vomited something resembling black earth, and died suddenly. These 
 women were skillful dancers, and they used to reflect rays of light by 
 means of their mirror, just as the young Indian men do in sporr. They 
 jumped many times and sang this song: 
 
 f 
 
 »J ^ 1 J'J'J'j J'J J ii 
 
 Ce-piiij-si kii- wa'- ni- to' Tii'-wa le'-c'i .si' - ua mi' - co-ze'. 
 
 "Cousin, please come over here ! Some one waves a robe over inthis 
 direction at me. Ha! ha! ha!" Then they walked about. Xo one 
 knew from what quarter the Double Woman was coming, and how the 
 two lived was a mystery. There are many tall women found now among 
 different Indian tribes who imitate the behavior of the Double Woman. 
 
 John IJruyier and other Teton at Hampton, Ya., regard this story 
 of the Double Woman as manufactured by Bushotter. But this char- 
 acter figures in two Santee myths in Rev. S. K. Riggs's collection, about 
 to be ])ublished by the Bureau of Ethnology.^ (See § 394.) 
 
 DEEE WOMEN. 
 
 § 2r)2. Deer women of the Teton resemble the Wolf women of the 
 Pawnee. Both tempt unwary youths whom they encounter away from 
 
 ' Misa Fletcher, Elk Mystery of the Ogalalbi Sioux, in Kept. Peahody Museum, vol. in, p. 281, note. 
 'Contr. to X. A. Ethn., vol. ix, Dakota Oamniar, Texts, and Ethnography. Washington: Gov- 
 ernment Printing Office. 1893. pp. 131, 141, 144, 148. 
 
/ 
 
 — 1 
 
K^RSF.Y.] DWARFS OR ELVES HOGS. 481 
 
 tlio cam]) ill solitary i)lacc'is. Should a youth yield to the woman's 
 solicitations the result will be a sad one. As soon as he leaves her she 
 will resume her natural shape. The youth will appear as if drunk or 
 insane, and he will reach home with difticulty. His health will become 
 impaired, and he will soon die. So now the hunters avoid any female 
 that they see on the way. They hate the Deer wonu^n. The Deer 
 women never speak, but in all other respects they resemble Indian 
 women. 
 
 DWARFS OR ELVES. 
 
 § 253. Dwarfs or elves are probably referred to in the following. 
 
 This [(. e. tho object sought by Lewis aud (Jhirke'fs party] was a large mound in 
 the midst of the plain, about N. 20^^ W. from the month of Whitestone River, from 
 which it is 9 mile.s distant. The base of the mound is a regular parallelogram, the 
 longest side being about 800 yards, tlie slun'ter (JO or 70; from the longest side it 
 rises with a steep ascent from the north ;ind south to the iieight of (55 or 70 feet, 
 leaA'ing on the top a level plain of V2 feet in breadth and i)0 in length. The north 
 and soutli extremities are connected by two oval l)orders, wiiich serve as new bases, 
 and divid(> the wh(de side into three steej) but regular gradations from the plain. 
 The only thing characteristic in this hill is its extreme symmetry, and this, together 
 with its l)eing wholly detached from the other hills, which are at the distance 
 of 8 or 9 miles, would induce a l)elief that it was artificial ; but as the earth and 
 loose pebbles which compose it are arranged exactly like the steep grounds on tho 
 N)order8 of tlie creek, we concluded from this similarity of texture tliat it might be 
 natural. But the Indians have made it a great article of their superstiticm; it is 
 called the Mountain of the Little People, or Little Spirits, and they believe that it 
 is the abode of little devils in the human form, of about 18 inclies high, and with 
 remarkably large heads; they are armed with sharp arrows, with which they are 
 very skillful, and are always on the watch to kill those wiio should have tlie hardi- 
 hood to approach their residence. The tradition is that many have sujffered from 
 these little evil spirits, and. among others, three Maha Indians fell a sacrifice to them 
 a few years since. This has inspired all the neighboring nations, Sioux, Mahas, and 
 Ottoes, with such terror that no consideration could temptthem to visit the hill.' 
 
 ^ BOGS. 
 
 § 254. Bogs are very mysterious. There are various strange objects 
 covered with thick hair which remain at the bottom of a bog. These 
 objects have no <^yes, but they are able to devour anything, and from 
 their bodies water is ever flowing. When one of these beings wishes, 
 he abandons his abode and reclines under ground at another place; 
 then there is no water issuing from the place where he used to lie, but 
 a spring gushes forth from the new resting place. The water of this 
 spring is warm in winter, but as cold as ice in summer, and before one 
 dares to drink of it he prays to the water, as he does not wish to bring 
 illness on himself by his irreverence. In the olden days one of these 
 strange beings was pulled up out of a bog and carried to the camp, 
 where a special tent was erected for him. But water flowed all around 
 him, which drowned almost all of the people. Then the survivors 
 
 ' Lewis and Clarke, Expedition, cd. Allen, Dublin. 1817, vol. i, pi). 65,66. 
 11 ETII 31 
 
482 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 ofleied him food, wliicli be held as he sat motionless, gaziii?: at them. 
 The food disappeared before the spectators were aware of it, though 
 they did not see the being eat it. 
 
 TREES. 
 
 § 255. The Dakota prayed to trees, because it was reported that 
 in former days a tree had sung at intervals. A man claimed to have 
 witnessed this, and from that time they have been regarded as mys- 
 terious. 
 
 CUSTOMS RELATING TO CHILDHOOD. 
 
 § 256. The Teton sing on account of the unborn child, and set up a 
 pole inside the lodge, at the part opposite the entrance, fastening 
 eagles' down to the top of the pole, just as they do when a boy has 
 advanced toward manhood. 
 
 § 257. Soon after birth they paint the face of the infant, whether it 
 be a boy or a girl, Avith vermilion, in the "Huijka " style.* Should they 
 neglect to do this, it is said that the infant would become blear-eyed or 
 it would suffer from some kind of sickness. 
 
 § 258. When the navel string is cut, a small bag is made of deer- 
 skin, cut in the shape of a small tortoise, known as patkasala. In this 
 bag is placed a piece of the navel string and sweet- smelling leaves, 
 with which the bag is tilled. The infant has to carry this bag on its 
 back. Part of the navel string is buried, and when the child is large 
 enough to get into mischief they say, " He is hunting for his navel 
 string.'' 
 
 § 259. Prior to the naming of the infant is the ceremony of the trans- 
 fer of character. Should the infant be a boy, a brave and good-tem- 
 pered man, chosen beforehand, takes the infant in his arms and breathes 
 into his mouth, thereby communicating his own disposition to the 
 infant, who will grow up to be a brave and good-natured man. It is 
 thought that such an infant will not cry as much as infants that have 
 not been thus favored. Should the infant be a girl, it is put into the 
 arms of a good woman, who breathes into its mouth. 
 
 § 2«)0. Twins are a mystery to the Teton, who believe that they are 
 of superhuman origin, and must come from Twin-land. As they are 
 not human beings, they must be treated very politely and tenderly, lest 
 they should become offended and die in order to return to Twin-land. 
 
 In his MS. Teton vocabulary, sent to the Bureau of Ethnology in 
 July, 1890, Dr. J. M. Woodburn, jr., recently physician at Kosebud 
 Agency, S. Dak., makes the following statement which seems worthy 
 of notice: ''Twins are lucky as regards themselves only; the mother 
 is looked upon as unfortunate. The twins may die, but they are sure 
 to be born again into separate families. No ordinary human being can 
 recognize them as twins after the new births: but twins themselves 
 
 'See'- Calumet Dauce," iu Om. Sociology, 3d Am. Kept. Bur. Ethu., p. 280. 
 
"OKSEV] PUBERTY. 483 
 
 are able each to recognize the other as his I'ellow-twiu in a previous 
 state of existence. Medicine men often claim that their supernatural 
 powers are due to a previous existence as twins." (rfee §§ 2G7, 287.) 
 
 § 261. When a child is able to walk, they say that " He kicks out the 
 teeth of his elder brother" (or '^ sister, " as the case may be). The teeth 
 of the elder child which have been shed, probably the first set, are 
 buried under the entrance to the lodge so that other teeth may come in 
 their place. Whoever steps over the spot where the teeth have been 
 buried will soon have other teeth in his mouth. 
 
 PUBERTY. 
 
 §262. Among the Oglala Dakota, according to Miss Fletcher,' the 
 rites incident to the puberty of girls take place on the fourth day 
 of the sun dance festival. In a note on page 260 of the Peabody 
 Museum lleport, vol. iii, the same authority says: 
 
 Through the kindness of Eev. A. L. Riggs I learn that among the l)an(ls of East- 
 ern Sioux living near Fort Sully, Dak., a feast, called the reappearance of the White 
 Buftalo Skin, is held for the consecration of a girl on her arriving at puberty. The 
 feast is sacred and costly, and not everyone can afford it. Those who have once 
 made the feast Tiecome the privileged guests at every such feast, occupy the feast 
 tent, and are served first. A prominent feature in the feast is the feeding of these 
 privileged persons, and the girl in whose honor the feast is given, with choke cher- 
 ries, as the choicest rarity to be had in the winter. The feast can be held at any 
 time. Bull berries, or, as the Dakotas call them, " rabbits' noses, "' may be substi- 
 tuted, or finely pounded meat mixed with fat, in case no berries are to be had. In 
 the ceremony, a few of the cherries are taken in a spoon and held over the sacred 
 smoke, then fed to the girl. The spoon is filled anew, incensed aseachi)ersonis fed. 
 As each one is given the cherries, he is addressed thus: '• Wi-ca-sa-ya-ta-pi wo-yu- 
 te de ya-tiij kte, i. e., "You will eat this chief's food. " The eaters are not chiefs; 
 they only partake of chiefs' food. 
 
 §263, Initiation to manhood took place in one of two ways: (1) By 
 the wohduze ceremony, or, (2) by the bear dance, as witnessed by Long. 
 
 The former has been referred to in §§122-125 of this article; the lat- 
 ter has been described by Long'^ as 
 
 a ceremony which they are in the habit of performing when any young man wishes 
 to bring himself into particlar notice, and it is considered a kind of initiation into 
 the state of manhood. There is a kind of flag made of fawn skin dressed with the 
 hair on, suspended upon a pole. Upon the flesh side of it are drawn certain figures 
 indicative of the dream which it is necessary the young man should have dreamed 
 before he can be considered a proper candidate for this kind of initiation. With 
 this flag a pipe is suspended by way of sacrifice. Two arrows are stuck up at the 
 foot of the pole, and fragments of painted feathers, etc., are strewed upon the ground 
 near it. These pertain to the religious rites attending the ceremony, bewailing and 
 self-mortification. The young man who has had the dream acts the bear in this 
 dance, and is hunted by the other young men ; but the same man can not act the bear 
 more than once in consequence of his dreams. 
 
 § 264. Miss Fletcher says :^ 
 
 ' Proc. Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Montreal meeting, 1882, p. 583. 
 
 ^-SklflF Voy. to Falls of St. Anthony, in Minn. Hist. Coll., u, pt. 1, pp. 1H-I9. 
 
 ^Rept. Peabody Museum, vol. ni, pj). 277. 278. 
 
484 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 Tlic maturity of the sexes is a period of serious aud religious experiences which 
 are preparatory by their character for the entrance of the youth or maiden into the 
 religious and secular responsibilities of life, both individual and tribal. Among 
 the tribes which hold especial public ceremonies announcing the maturity of a girl, 
 these rights are held not far from the actual time of puberty, aud indicate the close 
 of childhood and entrance of the person into the social status of womanhood. The 
 public festival has, however, been preceded by private religious rites. With young 
 men the religious training precedes and follows puberty, and the entrance is pub- 
 licly announced by the youth joining m the dangers and duties of tribal life. Ac- 
 cording to the old customs, a young man did not take a wife until he had jiroved his 
 ])rowess, and thus became enrolled among the manly element, or brakes, as they are 
 sometimes spoken of. The initial fasts of warriors have been mistaken sometimes 
 for ceremonials of puberty. 
 
 GHOST LORE AND THE FUTURE LIFE. 
 
 MEANING OF WANAGI. 
 
 § 265. The word " wa-ua-gi" means more than " apparition." The 
 living man is supposed to have one, two, or more " wanagi," one of 
 wliich after death remains at the grave and another goes to the phice 
 of the departed. The writer has been tokl that for many years no 
 Yankton Dakota would consent to have his picture taken lest one of 
 his '* wanagi" should remain in the picture, instead of going after death 
 to the spirit land. The Teton Dakota apply the name of ''ghost" or 
 ''shadow" to the. lock of hair cut from the forehead of the deceased 
 and kept for some time by the parents; and till that lock is buried the 
 deceased is supposed to retain his usual place in the household circle. 
 
 § 206. Lyud' says that to the human body the Dakota give four 
 spirits : 
 
 The lirst is supposed to be a spirit of the body^ which dies with the body. The 
 second is a spirit which always remains with or near the body. Another is the soul 
 which accounts for the deeds of the Ijody, and is supposed by some to go to the south, 
 by others to the west, after the death of the l)ody. The fourth always lingers with 
 the small bundle of the hair of the deceased, kept by the relatives until they have a 
 chance to throw it into the enemy's country, when it becomes a roving spirit, bring- 
 ing death and disease to the enemy in whose country it remains. From this belief 
 arose the practice of wearing four scalp feathers for each enemy slain in battle, one 
 for each spirit. 
 
 § 2G7. "Some Sioux claim a fifth scalp feather, averring that there is 
 a fifth spirit, which enters the body of some animal or child after death. 
 As far as I am aware, this belief is not general, though they differ in 
 their accounts of the spirits of man, even in number. 
 
 Some of these metempsychosists go so far as to aver that they have 
 distinct recollections of a former state of existence and of the passage 
 into this. The belief, as before stated, does not appear to be general." 
 (See §§ 260, 287.) 
 
 § 268. With regard to the place of abode of the four spirits of each 
 man— though they believe that the true soul which goes south or west 
 
 'Minn. Hist. Soc. Coll., vol. u, pt. 2, pp. 68, 80. 
 
noRSEY.] DEATH AND BURIA.L LORE. 485 
 
 is immortal — they have no idea, nor do they appear to have auy partic- 
 ular care as to what may become of them after death. It may be 
 remarlced, that the happy hunting- grounds, supposed to belong to 
 every Indian's future, are no ])art of the Dakota creed — though indi- 
 vidual Dakota may have learned something like it from the white men 
 among them. 
 
 ASSINNIBOIN BELIEFS ABOt'T THE DEAD. 
 
 § 269. The Assinniboin " believe that the dead migrate toward the 
 south,' where the climate is mild, the game abundant, and the rivers well 
 stocked with fish. Their hell is the reverse of this picture; its unfor- 
 tunate inmates dwell in perpetual snow and ice and in the complete 
 deprivation of all things. There are, however, many among them who 
 think that death is the cessation of life and action and that there is 
 naught beyond it.^ 
 
 " The Assinniboine believe that their dead go to a country in the 
 south, where the good and brave find women and buffaloes, while the 
 wicked or cowardly are confined on an island, where they are destitute 
 of all the pleasures of life. The corpses of brave men are not deposited 
 in trees, but on the ground, as they will help themselves, and they are 
 covered with wood and stones to protect them from the wolves."^ 
 
 GHOSTS NOT ALWAYS VISIBLE. 
 
 § 270. The ghosts of the departed are not always visible to the living. 
 Sometimes they are heard but not seen, though in the lodge with a 
 mortal. Occasionally they become materialized, taking living hus- 
 bands or wives, eating, drinking, and smoking, just as ii' they were 
 ordinary human beings. 
 
 DEATH AXD BURIAL LORE. 
 
 § 271. As ghosts visit the sick at night it is customary to drive them 
 away by making a smoke from cedar wood, or else cedar is hiid outside 
 the lodge. Sometimes a piece of cedar is fastened up at the smoke- 
 hole. (See § 42.) One Teton story shows how a female ghost dishked 
 a bad odor and fled from it. When they hear a ghost whistling, some 
 one leaves the lodge and fires a gun. Before death the lodge is sur- 
 rounded by ghosts of deceased kindred that are visible to the dying 
 person. 
 
 All the dead man's possessions are buried with him; his body is 
 dressed in good clothing. The favorite horse is decorated and saddled, 
 and to this day various articles belonging to the deceased are fastened 
 to him. The horse is shot and part of his tail is cut oft' and laid near 
 the head of the burial scaffold, as it is thought that in such a case the 
 
 'A similar belief lias been held by the Athapascans now on the Siletz reservation, Oregon. This 
 has been published by the autlior in The American Anthropologist for January, 1889, p. 00. 
 "Siuet, Western Missions and Missionaries, p. 142. 
 ^Maximilian. Travels in North America, p. 197. 
 
4S6 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 ghost can ride the ghost of tlie horse and use all the articles carried by 
 that animal. 
 
 § 272. Why the Teton stopped burying in the gro2(n(l—Long ago the 
 people buried some men on a hill and then removed camp to another 
 place. Many winters afterwards a man visited this burial place, but all 
 traces of the graves had disai)peared. So many men came and dug 
 lar doAvii into the hill. By aad by one said, " A road lies here." So 
 they dug in that direction and made a tire underground. And there 
 they found a tunnel large enough for men to walk in by stooping, with 
 many similar intersecting ones. They followed the main one and final- 
 ly came to a place whither a strange animal, the Wahaijksica, had 
 dragged the corpses. For this reason the Lakota became unwilling to 
 lay their dead in the ground, so they began to bury on scaffolds which 
 could not be reached by beasts of prey. At the i)resent day the Teton 
 gives three reasons for not burying in the ground : (I) Animals or per- 
 sons might walk over the graves ; (2) the dead might lie in mud and 
 water after rain or snow; (3) wolves might dig up the bodies and 
 devour them. 
 
 § 273. Importance of tdttooing. — In order that the ghost may travel 
 the ghost road in safety it is necessary for each Lakota during his life 
 to be tattooed either in the middle of the forehead or on the wrists. In 
 that event his spirit will go directly to the " Many Lodges." The other 
 spirit road is said to be short, and the foolish one who travels it never 
 reaches the "Many Lodges." An old wonmn sits in the road and 
 she examines each ghost that passes. If she can not find the tattoo 
 marks on the forehead, wrists, or chin, the unhappy ghost is pushed 
 from a cloud or cliff and falls to this world. Such is the lot of the 
 ghosts that wander o'er the earth. They can never travel the spirit 
 road again; so they go about whistling, with no fixed abode. 
 
 § 274. If a (luiet and well-behaved person dies his ghost is apt to be 
 restless and cause trouble, but the ghost of a bad person who dies a 
 natural death is never feared. The ghost of a murdered person is 
 always dangerous. 
 
 § 275. If a ghost calls to a loved one and the latter answers, he or she 
 is sure to die soon after. If some one is heard weeping outside of a 
 lodge, it is a sign that a person dwelling in that lodge is doomed to 
 die. If a sister dies, she has a strong desire to return and carry ott' 
 a beloved brother. So in the event of a death in the family a gun is 
 fired or medicine is thrown on a fire to raise a smoke. If one who is 
 alone encounters a ghost, the latter will be apt to pull his mouth and 
 eyes until they are crooked. This danger is, encountered only by one 
 Avho has dreamed of a ghost. He who has been harmed by a ghost 
 always faints, and it is long before he revives. Mothers scare bad 
 children by saying, "Well, wait a bit and I will tell a ghost to come 
 and carry you ott'." Some one who has dreamed of ghosts will draw 
 one on a skin, etc., to frighten the children. Such a person is said to 
 
DORSKYl CEREMONIES AT THE GHOST LODGE. 487 
 
 draw bis own gliost just as he will appear iu future. No one else dares 
 to draw a ghost. (See § 299.) 
 
 CEREMONIES AT THE (iHOST LoPdE.' « 
 
 § 27G. When a sou dies the parents with a knife cut off some hair 
 from the top of the head, just above the forehead, phi('iu<»- the hair in a 
 deerskin cover. Then they set up three poles, fastened together at the 
 top and forming a sort of tripod. A cord hung over the top of these 
 holds up the white deerskin pack containing the hair of the deceased. 
 This hair is called the ghost or shade (or wa-ua-gi) of the dead person. 
 The deerskin pack hangs horizontally from the poles and the skin is 
 worked with porcupine quills in many lines, and here and there are 
 various kinds of red and blue circular tigures sewed on it. AU the sod 
 had been cut away from the ground beneath the pack, and on this bare 
 or virgin earth they put a bowl and a drinking vessel, each ornamented 
 with porcupine work. Three times a day 
 do they remember the ghost, for whom they 
 put the choicest food in the bowl and water 
 in the drinking vessel. Every article is 
 handled carefully, being exposed to the 
 smoke of sweet- smelling herbs. The pack ' 
 
 said to contain the ghost is put in the ghost 
 lodge with the knife which he used during / 
 
 life. / 
 
 The Indians always have observed the 
 custom of smoking pipes and eating while / 
 sitting in the ghost lodge. At the back of / 
 the lodge they prepare a seat and in the / ^^ \ 
 
 middle they set u]) two poles similar to / j/jm \ 
 
 those erected outside the entrance to the C____^J^^ _. 
 tents. Before they eat in the lodge, they ^, ,,^.^ ,^^ , . , , 
 
 •' fr -^ iiG. 192.— The ghost lodge. 
 
 sacrifice part of the food. Whenever they 
 
 move the camp or single tent from one place to another all these sacred 
 objects are packed and carried on a horse kept for this s]iecial puri)ose. 
 This horse is called " Wanagi tasuijkewakaij,'' i. e., ^'The ghost's horse." 
 This horse has his tail and mane cut off short; the hair on the body is 
 shaved very close; his body is rubbed all over with yelhnv chiy. Some 
 one then rubs paint on the fingers, touching the rump gently several 
 times, as well as the forehead and around the neck and breast. A 
 feather is tied to the end of the tail. On his back they place a saddle- 
 cloth and a saddle, each ornamented with porcupine (piills. The horse 
 must mourn— i. e., keep Ids hair short— as long as the ghost remains un- 
 buried: but as soon as the hair is removed from the pack and buried the 
 horse's hair is allowed to grow long again. As soon as the people stop 
 
 JRead in this connection the article by Miss Fletcher ou "The Sliadow: or. Gho.st Lodge: a Cere- 
 inonv of the Ogallala Sious." Rept. of I'eabodv Mn.seiini, vol. ir, pp. 29(i. :t()7. 
 
488 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 to encamp the ghost lodge is set up before any of the others. The articles 
 which are kept there remain for a specified time, perhaps for several 
 years, during which period certain ceremonies are performed. At the 
 end of the allotted time comes the ghost feast, the Waecuijpi or Waki- 
 cagapi, when the ghost pack is opened and the ghost taken out and 
 buried. Then all the people assemble, setting up their tents near the 
 ghost lodge. The kindred of the deceased weep and bring food to the 
 place. All this food has been boiled. They set up in the ground some 
 forked sticks, such as are used for digging wild turnips, and straight 
 poles are laid along the forked sticks. On the poles are hung mocca- 
 sins, and in the space between the forked sticks are piled blankets, 
 buffalo robes, calico, untanned skin bags, tanned bags, porcupine (piills, 
 wild turnips, and fruits.' These are distributed by women, and the peo- 
 ple spend the time pleasantly. They also give presents to the young 
 women. If the deceased was a male and a member of an order of 
 young men, all who belong to it are invited to a feast (there was a simi- 
 lar custom among the Ponka, in 1872), where they sing songs. When 
 they stop singing they sit with bodies erect, but with bent head and 
 stooping shoulders. Then the parents of the dead youth enter the 
 lodge, weeping as they pass around the circle, and each one places 
 both hands on the head of each guest, because the son, who regarded 
 the men as his friends, is no longer present. If the deceased is a 
 female, only the women assemble, except some men who lead the sing- 
 ing. If horses take part in the ceremonies, their manes and tails 
 are shaved short, and they, too, receive gifts. Here and there one of 
 the kindred of the deceased gives away all his property, and then the 
 bag is opened and the hair or ghost is taken out and buried. From this 
 time the parting with his parents is absolute. They think that, until 
 the hair is buried, the deceased is really present with the household, 
 and that when this burial takes place he dies a second time. After 
 this burial the kindred put on their usual clothing, and while they weep 
 for the dead at intervals they are at liberty to anoint and decorate them- 
 selves according to fancy. 
 
 Another account of Bushotter states that when they prepare for the 
 ghost feast they redden the sack containing the hair and hang the war 
 bonnet of feathers on the three poles at right angles with the ghost sack. 
 They wish to remember his deeds in war, so they also stick one end of 
 his war spear in the ground, with its top leaning against the toi)S of the 
 three poles. His shield is suspended from one of the poles. Tlie three 
 pipes on the shield in a colored sketch prepared by Bushotter denote that 
 on so many ex])editi()ns the deceased warrior carried a war pipe. The 
 red stripes declare how many of the enemy were wounded by him, and 
 the human heads show the number of foes that he killed. The half-moon 
 means that he shouted at his foes on a certain night. Once he threw 
 
 ' These tilings are probably given by the kindred of the deceased, but Bushotter has not so informed 
 
noRSEY.] GOOD AND BAD GHOSTS. 489 
 
 aside Lis arms and engaged in a band-to-hand struggle with a foe; this 
 is shown by the Imman hand. The horse-traeks indicate that he ran off 
 with so many horses. If his iiame was lilack Hawk, for instance, a 
 bhick hawk was painted in tlie middle of his shield. 
 
 All these things are arranged before they open the bag containing 
 the liair. Then they enter the lodge, and there they open all the things 
 that they have brought. The kindred of the deceased are the only ones 
 to enter the lodge, and when they see the hair taken from the sack they 
 scream suddenly for a minute or two. It is at this time that they dis- 
 tribute the gifts. Food has been boiled in many kettles, and is now 
 divided among the jieople not the kindred of the deceased, who are scat- 
 tered around the ghost lodge, and some food is usually given to the 
 young men of the order to which the deceased belonged. 
 
 A woman who attends to collecting the food, calico, bags, clothing, 
 etc., turns to the four posts of thescattbld in succession, and utters one 
 of the following sayings or prayers at each post: "If the ghosts eat 
 this, may I live long!" or "May the ghosts eat this, and I obtain many 
 horses !" or "If my nephew {or niece) eats this, may some one give me 
 many presents ! " This woman is careful to put the best part of the 
 food on the bowl or dish under the scaffold near the head of the corpse.' 
 Should any one eat before the food has been put aside for the ghost, all 
 the ghosts become angry with him, and they are sure to punish him; 
 they will make him drop his food Just before it reaches his mouth, or 
 they will spill the water when he tries to drink, and sometimes they 
 cause a man to gash himself with a knife. 
 
 GOOD AND 15A1) GHOSTS. 
 
 § 277. Some ghosts are beneficent, but most of them are maleficent. 
 They know all things, even the thoughts of living people. They are 
 glad when the wind blows. Bushotter's younger brother was crazy at 
 one time, and a doctor or pezuta wic'-asa said that the sickness had been 
 caused by a ghost. 
 
 INTERCOURSE WITH GHOSTS. 
 
 $ 278. Lynd says : The belief in the powers of some Dakotas to call up and con- 
 verse with the spirits of the dead is strong in some, thongli not ^reneral. They fre- 
 quently make feasts to those spirits and elicit information from them of distant 
 friends and relatives. Assembling at night in a lodge, they smoke, put out the fire, 
 and then, drawing their blankets over their heads, remain singing in unison in a 
 low key until the s])irit gives th«'m a jdcture. This they pretend the spirit does; 
 and many a hair-erecting tale is told of the spirit's power to reveal, and the after 
 confirmation.- 
 
 GHOST STORIES. 
 
 A few ghost stories of the Teton collection will now be given. 
 
 'In ouo of his papers Bualiotter saya that it is tho mother of the deceased pprson who deposits the 
 food under the scaffold and utters tlie prayers. John Bruyier, a half-blood Teton from Cheyenne 
 River A^eney, South Dakota, never heard the petition about tho horses, for if parents obtained horses 
 after the death of their son, they gave them away. 
 
 ■^Miuu. Hist. Soc. Coll., vol. n, pt. 2, p. (iO. 
 
4,90 A STTDY - A^ CULtS. 
 
 5 37^. 7 '. — ^A y«. - - - beJx>re marry- 
 
 " ; loTed. ^_. --- - -^ deiirh. so she 
 
 :ii«re with, a dull knifie. and gasiiedh-er Miiibs, just 
 aisiisjir - ' ^rarned and took her for 
 
 his wile. _._.:- :_- : - - : - ' ^ night the ghost's -wife 
 
 pitched her tent at some distance Jroca. the others, and wfc^a the people 
 : - -•'.'' V- - s«3nie distance 
 
 1 _ - - \-_- zijin what todo; 
 
 and he brtm^ht game to her regnlarlT, whieh the wife gaye to tlie people 
 
 ~ ' ' "rr see nor hear 
 
 - - li -^«iys sent word 
 
 u? the tribe when there was to I3e a high wind or heavy rain. He eonld 
 
 :- ---_-- /-: -■'-; — -•; - -': " ' ^'iie Hecd ROt speifc 3 woid to hinL, 
 
 _. . - _ _ he 5»3on obtained it for her. 
 
 3i».». Ike soiizmry vrareier. — Lm€e a solitary traveler was overtaken 
 v_ - _-.._.. -;-----.__ T^^._,_.. - -.^j. aKHrest. So he remained there for 
 
 _^ _ i, light in tLe woods, and when he 
 
 rHUririied tht sp«,»c. ctenoid- Liie^^:^ was a sweat lodge, in which were two 
 
 pers«:tni3 lal kri ng. One said. ■- Friend, some one has come and stands 
 
 wiihoiir. Let ns invite l^trn to share our food. " The listener fled snd- 
 
 . - - :^him- Though he looked 
 
 .. __.:_._._ . ' -7 :_-ji: so he ran with all his 
 
 misht towards a hfn, and es^jaoed from them. As he was ascending a 
 
 ^ .He 
 
 ■ T ; - :_ r . : - - - - -^ - "-: ----- sooner 
 
 had he thought aboiot: the woman than she appeared by his ^de, sayiag, 
 
 - " " - - " - - - - ■ ^ •-,--■_"- " - - -,-. ^ 
 
 :- - - - - - - :a% 
 
 else yoa will never see me again. ^ So they weat (m ^lentiy tiB day- 
 break. ^ - ----- - - - _ - -• • : ' ,tbe seen. 
 
 thoiogh > - . . :., the m^n 
 
 thought. ~ Wnat ii she shociid cho-ke me ? ~ Immediately the woman 
 disappear- ' ' - -'■-- — '- ^ ^ '245). 
 
 a 281, . — - 'i%y. when, the people were hunting 
 
 " a hilL He wore a winter robe, 
 
 _-_-.- .:,- -iescendrog the hiTI the people 
 
 -^ermtinne^i to advance. The yooiig men rushed 
 
 'ro-ws. They could not see his face. 
 
 -- , - - - - : : ; - .-- .irrow passed by him (m one side or 
 
 the other. So they finally lied, as he was a gh««t. 
 
 - - ■" — - _• man went 
 
 - . .......... -._„:ts, encoan- 
 
 tertng many difiexilties, -^ not deter him firo«EL hi* imdertaking- 
 
 '' ' - . ■ -I 
 
 onehailoo. bebfjiit, it wa^ an owL By and by he drew near SiUfjthet 
 
^ r-; -i . V 
 
 KrtS^Rs 
 
492 A STUDY OF ftlOUAN CULTS. 
 
 hands, which pained the man, but this mattered not. He tried to push 
 ofl' the ghost, whose legs were very powerful. When the ghost was 
 brought near the fiie, he became weak, but when he managed to pull the 
 man towards the darkness, hebecame very strong. As the flregot low 
 the strength of the ghost increased. Just as the man began to grow 
 weary the day broke. Then the struggle was renewed. As they drew 
 near the fire the man made a desperate effort, and with his foot he 
 pushed a firebrand suddenly into the fire. As the fire blazed again, 
 the ghost fell just as if he was coming to pieces. So the man won, and 
 the ghost's prophecy was fulfilled; he subsequently killed a foe, and 
 stole some horses. For that reason people have believed whatever the 
 ghosts have said. 
 
 § 283. The man irho shot a gliost. — In the olden time a man was travel- 
 ing alone, and in a forest he killed several rabbits. After sunset he was 
 in the midst of the forest, so he made a fire, as he had to spend the 
 night there. He thought thiTS: '^ Should I encounter any danger by 
 and by, I have this gun, and I am a man who ought not to regard any- 
 thing." He cooked a rabbit and satisfied his hunger. Just then he 
 heard many voices, and they were talking about their own affairs, but 
 the man could see nobody. So he thought, ''It seems that now at 
 length I have encountered ghosts." Then he went and lay under a 
 fallen tree, which was at a great distance from the fire. He loaded his 
 gun with powder only, as he knew by this time that they were really 
 ghosts. They came round about him and whistled, "Hyu, hyn, hyu!" 
 He has gone yonder," said one of the ghosts. They came and stood 
 around the man, just as people do when they hunt rabbits. The man 
 lay flat beneath the fallen tree, and one ghost came and climbed on the 
 trunk of that tree. Suddenly the ghost gave the cry uttered on hitting 
 an enemy, "A'^-he!" and he kicked the man on the back. But before 
 the ghost could get away, the man shot at him and wounded him in 
 the legs; so the ghost gave the male cry of pain, " Au ! an ! au !" And 
 finally he went oft' crying as females do, " Yuij ! yuij ! yuij !" And the 
 other ghosts said to him; " Where did he shootf And the wounded 
 one said : "He shot me thr<mgh the head and I have come apart," Then 
 the other ghosts were wailing on the hillside. The man decided to go 
 to the place where they were wailing. So, as the day had come, he 
 went thither, and fimnd some graves, one of which a wolf had dug into 
 so that the bones were visible, and there was a wound in the skull. 
 
 ASSINNIBOIN 15KLIEFS ABOUT GHOSTS. 
 
 § 284. Smet says : ' 
 
 The belief in ghosts is very profouud, and common to all these tribes. Indians 
 liave often told me that they have met, seen, and conversed with them, and that they 
 may be heard almost every night in the places where the dead are interred. They 
 say that they speak in a kind of whistling tone. Sometimes they contract the face 
 fof a human being whom they meet] like that of a person in an epileptic fit.' 
 
 ' AVestern Missions aud Missionaries, p. 140. 
 
DORSEv.l PRAYEKy TO THE DEAD. 493 
 
 The As.sinniboiiies iievi-r pi'ouoinu-e tlie UiiiiH^ of 'I'chatkii [i. e., (''atka, or, Left Haud, 
 a former chief] but with respect. 'I'iiey believe that his shade ■>uards tiie sacred tree ; 
 that lie has ])ower to procure theui abundauce of buffalo aud other animals, or to drive 
 the aTiimals from the country. Hence, wiienever they i)ass they offer sacrifices ; they 
 present the calumet to the tutelary spirits and manes of Tchatka. He is, according 
 to their calendar, the Waii-kou-taugka par excellence, the greatest niau or genius 
 that ever visited their nation.' 
 
 PKAYEKS TO TIIK DEAD, INCHIDINCi ANCESTORS. 
 
 § 285. Riggs sayvsHluit the Dakota i)ray to the spirits of tlicir de- 
 ceased relatives. [See §§ 67-71.] Aud in his aecouut of the Assiuui- 
 boiii, Smet says: 
 
 The Assinuiboines esteem greatly a religious custom of assembling once or twice a 
 year around the graves of their immediate relatives. These graves are on scaffolds 
 about 7 or 8 feet above the surface of the ground. The Indians call their dead by 
 name and offer to them meats carefully dressed, which they place beside them. The 
 ceremony of burying the dead is terminated with tears, wailings, bowlings, and mace- 
 rations of all present. They tear the hair, gash the legs, aud at last they light the 
 calumet, for that is the Alpha and Omega of every rite. They offer it to the shades 
 of the departed and entreat them not to injure the living. During their ceremonicms 
 repasts, in their excursions, aud even at a great distance from their graves, they send 
 to the dead puffs of tobacco smoke and burn little pieces of meat as a sacrifice to 
 their memory. 
 
 $286. Before consulting the tutelary spirits [see ^S 34] or addressing the dead, they 
 begin by kindling the sacred tire. This fire must be struck from a flint, or it must 
 reach them mysteriously l)y lightning, or in some other way. To light the sacred 
 fire with a common tire Avould be considered among them as a grave aud daugerous 
 transgression.^ 
 
 METAMORPHOSES AND THE TRANSMIGRATION OF SOULS. 
 
 ^ 287. They believe in transformations, such as are described in Ovid, and they 
 think that many of the stars are men and women translated to the heavens. They 
 believe in the transmigration of souls. Some of the medicine men profess to tell of 
 what occurred to them in bodies previously inhabited for at least six generations 
 back. [See ^^ 260, 267.] 
 
 EXHORTATIONS TO ABSENT WARRIORS. 
 
 § 288, Among the Teton it has been customary for those remaining 
 at home to make songs about theabsent warriors, callingthem by name, 
 as if they could hear the speakers. This Dakota custom agrees with 
 what has been recorded of the Omaha/ 
 
 Bushotter has told of another Teton custom. The kiudred of a slain 
 warrior make songs in his honor, and sing them as they mourn for his 
 death. 
 
 MYSTERIOIS MEN AND WOMEN. 
 
 § 289. Lynd says : 
 
 Certain men profess to liave an unusual amount of the wakau or divine principle in 
 them. By it they assume the w orking of miracles, laying on of hands, curing of the 
 
 ' Western Missions and Missionaries, p. 204. ' Western Missions and Missionaries, p. 243. 
 'Am. Antiq.. vol. v, 1883, p. 149. * Om. Sociology, Third Ann. Kept. Bur. Etb., p. 325. 
 
494 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 sick, aud many Avonderful operations. Home of these persons pretend to a recollection 
 of former states of existence, even naming the particular body in which they formerly 
 lived. Others assert their power over nature, and their faculty of seeing into futurity, 
 and of conversing with the deities. A third class will talk of the particular animals 
 whose bodies they intend to enter when loosed from their present existence [v>v3 260, 
 267, 287]. In endeavoring to sustain these pretensions they occasionally go through 
 performances which are likely to deceive the ignorant throng.' 
 Pond wrote thus of tlie Dakota wakaij men :^ 
 
 They do not spring into existence under ordinary operations of natural laws, but, 
 according to their faith, these men and women (for females, too, are wakan) first 
 arouse to conscious existence in the form of winged seeds, such as the thistle, and are 
 wafted by the * * * influence of the four winds till they are conducted to the 
 abode of some Taku Wakan, by whom they are received into intimate communion. 
 They remain there till they become acquainted with the character and abilities of 
 the class of gods whose guests they happen to be, aud until they have iiubibed their 
 spirits, and are acquainted with all the chants, feasts, dances, and rites which the gods 
 deem necessary to impose on men. Thus do some of them pass through a series of 
 inspirations with different classes of divinities, till they are fully wakauized and 
 prepared for human incarnation. They are invested with the invisible wakan powers 
 of the gods, their knowledge and cunning, andtheiromnipresent influenceover mind, 
 instinct, and passions. They are taught to inflict diseases and heal them, discover 
 concealed causes, manufacture implements of war, and impart to them the ton-wan 
 power of the gods; and also the art of nuiking such an application of paints that they 
 will protect from the powers of the enemies. This i)roces8 of inspiration is called 
 "dreaming of the gods." Thus prepared and retaining his primitive form, the demi- 
 god rides forth on the wings of the wind over * * * the earth, till he has carefully 
 observed the characters and usages of the different tribes of men ; then, selecting his 
 location, he enters one about to become a mother, and, in due time, makes his ap- 
 pearance among men. * * * When one of these wakan men dies he returns to 
 the abode of his god, from whom he receives a new inspiration, after which he passes 
 through another incarnation as before, and serves another generation. In this man- 
 ner they pass through four incarnations, * * * aud then return to their original 
 nothingness. 
 
 § 290. There are different persons who regard themselves as wakaij, 
 says Bnshotter. Among these are those who practice medicine, those 
 wlio act as Heyoka, those who boil for the grizzly bear feasts, those 
 who take part in the mystery dance, those who foretell the future, those 
 who detect wrong-doers and tind what has been lost or stolen, and those 
 who do various things in a cunning manner. It happens thus to them : 
 A man hears a human voice during the day and he does what the voice 
 directs to be done, or on a certain night a tree converses with him, and 
 the two talk about their own affairs, and what the tree tells him to do, 
 that he does, so he says, or, it orders him to keep some law or custom 
 as long as he lives. Among these superstitious notions are the follow- 
 ing : Some men direct the pipe to be handed around the lodge from the 
 left side to the right, and others vice versa. Some men dare not gash a 
 firebrand with a knife; and should a visitor do so heedlessly, they say 
 that he " cuts his finger. " Others will not kill a swallow, lest thunder 
 and hail ensue. Some do not allow a knife to be passed above a kettle. 
 
 'Minn. Hist. Soc. Coll., vol. n, pt. 2, p. 70. 
 
 2 Pond, in Schoolcraft, Ind. Tribes, vol. VI, pp. 652. 1857. 
 
DOKSEY.I MYSTERIOUS MEN AND WOMEN. 495 
 
 § 21)1. The wakau meu claim that they are iuvuluerablc. To prove 
 this they assemble at stated intervals, having iiainted themselves in 
 various styles. Each one has a flute susi)ended over the chest by a 
 necklace. They wear long breechcloths, and march in single file. Two 
 meu armed with bows and arrows rush suddenly towards the waken men 
 and shoot at them; but instead of wounding them they merely bend 
 the arrows ! Sometimes the men fire guns at them, Imt the bullets fall 
 to the ground, and when they are examined they are flattened ! No 
 visible mark of a wound can be found on the bodies of these wakan 
 men, though \\'hen they were hit by the bullet or arrow bl;)od pours 
 from their mouths. After they wash off the paint from their bodies 
 their flesh becomes tender and is vulnerable. This is the excuse urged 
 when an ordinary [)erson succeeds in wounding a wakan man. It is 
 supposed that the wakan men rub themselves with some kind of medi- 
 cine known only to themselves, making them invulnerable, and that 
 perhaps the bullets or arrows are rubbed with the medicine prior to the 
 shooting. It is also supposed that the playing of the flute aids in 
 rendering them invulnerable. (See § 30(), etc.) 
 
 § 292. Bushotter names two kinds of Dakota doctors — the Mato 
 wapiya, or Grizzly Bear doctor, who is very wakan, and the Pezuta 
 wapiya, or Pezuta wicasa, the doctor who prescribes roots. The person 
 who practices medicine claims to have had interviews with the spirits, 
 but he never reveals what the spirits have told him, though he says that 
 immediately after the revelation made him by the spirit he begins to 
 act according to its directions. And in some cases of sickness this 
 doctor takes the flesh of the patient into his mouth and makes a suck- 
 ing sound while inhaling, and from the patient's side he pretends to 
 remove something. When he has made the sucking sound after taking 
 the flesh into his mouth, or when he has taken blood or something else 
 from the side of the patient, he spits it from his mouth. Then he sees 
 the patient's mother, whom he tells what is the cause of the disease, 
 and whether the patient will recover or die. Such doctors pretend to 
 have within themselves one of the following : A small red hawk, a com- 
 mon woodpecker, a real buftalo, a rattlesnake, or a grizzly bear. And 
 when one of these doctors kicks on the ground there is heard some- 
 thing within him, singing in a beautiful voice; and so the i)eople be- 
 lieve what the doctors say about diseases. 
 
 § 21);3. When the doctor has sucked the patient's flesh a long time 
 without removing anything, he asks a favor of the mysterions being 
 dwelling within himself, and then that being cries out often, and the 
 doctor succeeds in his efforts. It is by the aid of these mysterious 
 beings that the doctors are enabled to practice medicine. In the olden 
 time one of the doctors was very mysterious. Once, when he was 
 practicing, a bowl of water was set down before him. He vomited into 
 the bowl and a water-snake appeared in it. But when the do(!tor opened 
 his mouth again the snake glided gently into it and disappeared down 
 
49 G A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 his throat. Such exliibitioiis by the doctors have been observed by the 
 Indians, who are constrained to believe what the doctors claim for tliem- 
 selves. And because tliey believe that the doctors are very mysteri- 
 ous, the latter are able to gather together many possessions as pay for 
 their services. Therefore the men and women doctors try to excel one 
 another in their skill, as it pays them so well. 
 
 § 294. A "pezuta wicasa" told Bushotter to say to his step-father 
 that his son, Bushotter's younger brother, had been made crazy by a 
 ghost. The doctor came and fumigated the patient, and after he felt a 
 little better he sucked at the boy's chest and drew out some blood. 
 He resumed the operation, and then declared that there was in the 
 boy's side a iiat object resembling a serpent, the removal of which 
 would insure the boy's recovery. The doctor was promised a horse if 
 he would attend the patient nntil he cured him. Acting by his direc- 
 tions, Bushotter's elder brother caught a large catfish, of the species 
 called "howasapa," and handed it to his step-father, who offered a 
 prayer and marked the fish with a knife on the top of the head. After 
 this the fish was cooked, and the sick boy ate it and recovered liis 
 health. It was after this that the same boy was cured by invoking the 
 Dawn and offering sacrifice, as related in § 215. 
 
 GOPHER LORE. 
 
 § 295. Scrofulous sores on the neck under the jaw are said to be 
 caused by gophers. These animals can shoot at persons in a nuigical 
 way with the tip of a species of grass, wounding them very mysteriously, 
 the injured person being unconscious of the harm done till some time 
 has elapsed. The place swells, splits open, and becomes very bad, 
 affecting even the face of the sufferer. Few doctors can cure it. He 
 who can relieve the patient pretends to extract pieces of grass from 
 the neck, and then the person begins to recover. The people are so 
 afraid of gophers that they go around the camp with their hands over 
 their jaws. ISTo one dares to go near a gopher hill except he or she be a 
 mysterious person. Such a one can go near it and even touch it with 
 impunity, as he has different remedies at his command. 
 
 CAUSES OF BOILS AND SORES. 
 
 § 296. Whoever gets into the habit of eating the large intestine of 
 cattle, known as the tasiyaka, is sure to " be hit by a siyaka," i. e., he 
 will have a boil.^ Siyaka is the name of the grebe or dabchick, but 
 what connection there is between the bird and the boil has not been 
 learned. The boil will be on some covered part of the body, not on the 
 hands or face. The Teton fear to go outside of their lodges at night 
 lest the cause of boils be blown to them. If a man eats the liver of a 
 female dog, or if a woman eats that of a male dog, the face of the 
 offender will break out in sores. 
 
 ' See Coutr. to N. A. Ethn. vol. ix, pp. 146, 149. 
 
HORSEY] SECRET SOCIETIES. 497 
 
 RESULTS OF LYING, STEALING, ETC. 
 
 § 297. Warts betray a bad person, one given to stealing. If the skin 
 of the hard^ pahite peels off, it is said that the person is untruthful. 
 When the Teton doubt a man's word, they ask him to open his mouth 
 and let them see his hard palate. He who makes a practice of eating 
 the calves of the legs of any species of animal will have a cramp in 
 the muscles of his own legs. When one wishes to extract the marrow 
 from a bone, lie takes care not to split the bone in two, lest his own 
 legs should be in frequent pain, or he should become lame. 
 
 SECRET SOCIETIES. 
 
 § 298. The Dakota use "ihaijbla" or ''ihaijmda" as the Omaha and 
 Ponka do " i(|;a'e(e," todescribethe mysterious communications received 
 from the animals and spirits (§§ 8, 43-52). 
 
 Among the Siouan family of Indians there are societies, religious in character, 
 which aredistinguishedby thenaiue of some animal. Each society has a ritual com- 
 posed of chants and songs to be sung during different parts of the ceremonies, having 
 words describing in simple and direct terms the act which accompanies the music. 
 These musical rituals, it is often claimed, have been received in a mysterious or su- 
 pernatural manner, and are therefore regarded as possessing a religious power '* * " 
 Some societies admit women to membership, through their own visions, or occasion- 
 ally by those of their husbands', but more generally by means of the visions of male 
 relatives. * * * Membership in these societies is not contiued to any particular 
 gens, or gi-ouping of geutes, but <lepends upon supernatural indications over which 
 the individual has no control. The animal which appears to a man in a vision during 
 his religious fasting determines to which society he must belong.' 
 
 § 299. Those having visions or revelations from ghosts are called 
 Wanagi ihaijblapi kiij. It is such persons who can draw pictures of 
 ghosts with impunity. It is also said that the only persons who have 
 their faces drawn awry by the ghosts are the members of this order. 
 (See § 275.) 
 
 § 300. Bushotter's step-father belongs to the Tataijg ihaijblapi kiij, 
 or the Society of those who have Eevelations from the Buffalo, answer- 
 ing to the Omaha j^e ifa'efe-ma (§§ 43, 50). In one of his visions he saw 
 a buffalo with cocklebur down in his hair, so the man subsequently 
 put such down in his own hair in imitation of the buffalo. One night 
 he saw (probably in a vision) a bison going toward the south with a 
 hoop on his head. So the man painted a small hoop red all over and 
 wore it on his head, giving his nephew the name (Jaijgleska waijyaijg 
 mani. He Walks In-sight-of a Hooj). 
 
 § 301. Some Dakota belong to the Heciijskayapi ihaijblapi kiij, or the 
 Society of those who have Eevelations from Ooa-ts. Goats are very 
 mysterious, as they walk on cliffs and other high places; and those who 
 dream of goats or have revelations from them imitate their actions. 
 Such men can find their way up and down cliffs, the rocks get soft un- 
 
 ■Miss Fletcher: Elk Mystery oftlio Ogallala Sioiix; in Ann. Kept. IViibody Miiaeiun, 18S4. pp. 276. 
 277. 
 
 11 ETH 32 
 
498 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 der their feet, eiiabling- tbem to maintain a foothold, but they close up 
 behind them, leaving no trail. Members of the Wakaij wacipi, or the 
 Order of tlie Mystery Dance, commonly called the medicine dance, are 
 also reckoned among the mysterious or " wakai) " people (see §113). 
 One of Bushotter's texts relates to this order. Another of his articles 
 tells of the Miwatani okolaki6iye kiij or The Mandan Society, which 
 used to be called Oai)te tiijza okolakiciye, or Society of the Stout 
 Hearted Ones. It is now known as Kai)gi yuha, Keeps the Eaven. 
 For a notice of this order, see §§ 194, 195. 
 
 § 302. The report of thePeabody Museum of American Archaeology 
 and Ethnology for 1884 contains an article on the Elk Mystery or Fes- 
 tival of the Oglala, a division of the Teton Dakota (pp. 27G-288). 
 Those who have visions of the elk are the Hehaka ihaijblapi kiij. 
 Bushotter has recorded articles on different societies as follows • Big 
 Belly Society, Ihoka and Tokala (animal) Societies, Dog Society, Katela 
 or Taniga icu Society, Grizzly Bear Dance, and Xight Dance ; but we 
 have no means of learning whether any or all of them are composed of 
 persons who had visions of animals. 
 
 FETICHISM. 
 
 PUBLIC OR TRIBAL FETICHES. 
 
 § 303. Among these may be included the Bear Butte, referred to in 
 §137: and any white buffalo hide, such as has been described in "The 
 White Buffalo Festival of the Uncpapas."^ 
 
 Smet gives a description of a gathering of all the Assiuiboin, and a 
 religious festival lasting several days : 
 
 Oiferiugs are placed on perches that are fastened to the tops of posts supporting 
 certain bnffalo skin lodges. A tall pole is erected in the middle of the circle (it ig 
 between 30 and 40 feet high), and to it they fasten the medicine bags, containing the 
 idols, their arrows, quivers, trophies won from their enemies, especially scalps. 
 Men, women, and children join in raising and planting the pole, amid the acclama- 
 tions of the tribe. ^ 
 
 PRIVATE OR PERSONAL FETICHES. 
 
 § 304. Smet also tells us that "A Sioux chief has his war wakaij, the 
 colored picture of the Eussian general, Diebitsch." ^ In speaking of 
 the Assinniboin, the same author states: 
 
 Each savage who considers himself a chief or warrior possesses what he calls his 
 wah-kon, in which he ai)pears to place all his confidence. This consists of a stuffed 
 bird, a weasel's skin, or some little bone or the tooth of an animal; sometimes it is a 
 little stone or a fantastical figure, represented by little beads or by a coarsely jiainted 
 picture. Tliese charms or talismans accompany them on all their expeditions for war 
 or hunting — they never lay them aside. In every difficulty or peril they invoke the 
 protection and assistance of their wah-kon, as though these idols could really preserve 
 
 ' Miss Fletcher in Kept. Peabody Museum. Vol. IT. pp. 260-275. 
 2 Western Missions and Missionaries, p. 136. 
 ^Ibid.. p. 46. 
 
^°^'^^' SORCERY AND JUGGLERY. 499 
 
 them from all misfortunes. If any accident befalls an i<lol or charm, if it is broken 
 or lost It .s enough to arrest the most intrepid chief or warrior in his expedition, and 
 make him abandon the moat importaT.t enterprise in ^yhich he may be engaged.' 
 
 We may also reckon amoug the personal fetiches the wolidure''of each 
 wamor (see the Armor ^ocl, § § 122-5), and perhaps the use of the 
 imtipi or SAveat lodge, and the wild sage or Artemisia, by each of which 
 personal purification is supposed to be effected. 
 
 ORDEALS OR MODES OF SWEARING. 
 
 § 305. While there are no oaths or curses as we have them, the Teton 
 can invoke higher powers. Thus one may say: "The Thunderers hear 
 uie" (Wajiiij'yaij namahuijwe 16, The Flying one really hears me!), and 
 if he IS lying the Thunderers or one of their number will be sure to kill 
 him. Sometimes the man will put a knife in his mouth, and then if he 
 lies he will be stuck by a knife thereafter, and death must follow. Or 
 he will say, "The horse heard me'' (^uij'kawakaij' namaliuij we 16)' 
 knowing that the penalty for falsehood will be certain death from a horse 
 that will throw him and break his neck. When one says, "The Earth 
 hears me" (Maka kiij le namaliuij we 16), and he lies, he is sure to die 
 miserably in a short time, and his tamily will also be afflicted. 
 
 Smet says:'^ 
 
 The objectsby which an Assinniboiue swears are his gun, the skin of a rattlesnake, 
 a bear's claw, and the wah-kou that the Indian interrogates. These various articles 
 are placed before him, and he says, "In case my declaration prove false, may my gun 
 fire and kill me, may the serpent bite me, may the bears tear and devour my flesh, 
 and may my wah-kon overwhelm me with misery. " In extraordinary and very im- 
 portant affairs, which demand formal promises, they call upon the Thunder to wit- 
 ness their resolution of accomplishing the articles proposed and accepted. 
 
 SORCERY AND JUGGLERY. 
 
 § 306. As among the Omaha and other Siouan tribes, so among- the 
 Dakota do we find traces of the practice of sorcery, and there is a special 
 word in the Dakota dictionary: "limuijga, to cause sickness or death, 
 as the Dakotas pretend to be able to do, in a supernatural way— to be- 
 witch—kill by enchantment." The syllable " Hmuij" seems to convey 
 the idea of humming, buzzing-, or muttering. 
 
 Jugglery or sleight-of hand performances are resorted to by the mys- 
 terious men and women. (See §§ 64-60, 291-4.) Some of these practition- 
 ers claim to possess the art of making love-charms, sucli potions being 
 sold to women who desire to attract particular men of their acquaint- 
 ance. When a woman obtains such a medicine, she uses it in one of 
 two ways. Sometimes she touches the man on his blanket with the 
 medicine, at others she persuades the man to give her a piece of chew- 
 ing gum, which she touches with the medicine. Then she seizes him, 
 and he can not escape from her, even should he wish to leave her. So 
 he is obliged to marry her. 
 
 'Western Missinns and Missionaries, p. 141. ^ Ibid., p. 143. 
 
500 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 OMENS. 
 
 HoniLY OMENS. 
 
 § 307. Kiugiiig iu one ear siguifies oue of two things. Some one will 
 come without his family, and he must be entertained, or you will hear 
 news. The direction whence the person or news will come is shown by 
 the ear that is affected. 
 
 If the eye twitches involuntarily some one will weep. If any other 
 part of the body twitches involuntarily some one will hit the person 
 there or he will be stabbed or shot there. If the palm of the hand 
 twitches often he will soon strike some one, or else he will become angry. 
 When a woman has a son sick somewhere, or if he has been killed on 
 the way home, her breasts are often very painful. 
 
 If one sneezes once his special friend or fellow, his son or his wife 
 has named him; so the sneezer calls out, <'My sou." If he sneezes 
 twjce he exclaims, " My son and his mother!" 
 
 ANIMAL OMENS. 
 
 § 308. When whip-poor wills sing together at night, saying, "Hohiij, 
 hohii)," one says in reply, "IS^o." Should the birds stop at once it is a 
 sign that the answering person must die soon. But if the birds con- 
 tinue singing the man will live a long time.^ 
 
 The uijgnagicala (gray screech owl) fortells cold weather. When the 
 night is to be very cold this owl cries out, so the Teton say, just as if a 
 person's teeth chattered. When its cry is heard, all the people wrap 
 themselves in their thickest robes and put plenty of wood on the fires. 
 
 The Ski-bi-bi-la is a small gray bird, with a black head, and spotted 
 here and there on the breast. It dwells in the forest, and is said to 
 answer the person who calls to it. When this bird says, " Gli huij wo," 
 i. e., " Has it returned!" the people rejoice, knowing that the spring is 
 near. When a boy hears this bird ask the question, he runs to his 
 mother and learns from her that he must reply, "No; it has not yet 
 returned." The reason for giving this reply has not been obtained. 
 
 When the people first hear the cry of the night hawk iu the spring, 
 they begin to talk of going to hunt the buffalo, because when the night 
 hawks return the buffalo have become fat again, and the birds bring 
 the news, for they never cry in vain. 
 
 OMENS FKOM DREAMS. 
 
 ^ 309. There are some animals which are esteemed as briugiug better fortuuea than 
 others. Hawks are hicky. Bears are not so good, as the bear is slow and clumsy, 
 and apt to be wounded ; and although savage when cornered, is not as likely as some 
 animals to escape harm. Among some tribes in this family of Indians to dream ol 
 the moon is regarded as a grave calamity.- See ^ 30. 
 
 •This is also an Omalia belief. 
 
 • Miss Fletcher. 'Elk Mystery of the Ogalalla Sioux," in Kept. Peabody Museum, Vol. Ill, p. 2S1 
 note. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 . CULTS OF THE MANDAN, HIDATSA, AND SAPONA. 
 AUTHORITIES. 
 
 § 310. This chapter contains no original material, but is a compilation 
 made from the following works for the convenience of the reader: 
 
 Byrcl (^Ym.), History of the Uivicliug line (1729), vol. i. Repriut : Kichmond, 
 Va.J 1866. 
 
 U. S. Geol. aud Geogr. Surv., Miscell. Publ., No. 7, 1877: Ethuog. and riiilol. of 
 Hidatsa Indians. By Washington Matthews. 
 
 James's Account of Long's Exped., to Rocky Mountains, Phil., 1823, vol. i. 
 
 Lewis and Clarke's Exped., ed. Allen, Dublin, 1817, vol. i. 
 
 The George Catlin Indian Gallery * * * Thomas Donaldson : Smithson. Rept., 
 1885, pt. 2, appendix. 
 
 Travels in " * * North America, by Maximilian, Prince of Wied. Trans, by 
 H. Evans Lloyd, London, 1843. 
 
 ALLEGED BELIEF IN A GREAT SPIRIT. 
 
 § 311. As among the Dakota, so among the Mandan and Hidatsa, we 
 find that some of the earlier writers assert that the religion of the 
 Indians under consideration " consists in the belief in one Great 
 Spirit.''' 
 
 But such as.sertions are closely followed by admissions which explain 
 the mistake of the writer: "Great Spirit" is synonymous with "Great 
 Medicine," a name applied to everything which they do not compre- 
 hend. Among the Mandan, "each individual selects for himself the 
 •particular object of his devotion, which is termed his medicine, and is 
 either some visible being, or more commonly some animal." 
 
 THE GREAT MYSTERY A MODERN DEITY. 
 
 Matthews states of the Hidatsa: 
 
 Many claim that the Great Spirit, or, more properly, the Great Mystery, is a deity 
 of the modern Indian only. I have certainly heard some old and very conservative 
 Minnetarees speak of Mahopa as if they meant thereby an influence or power above 
 all other things, but not attaching to it any ideas of ])ersonality. It would now be 
 perhaps impossible to make a just analysis of their original conceptions in this 
 matter.^ 
 
 ' Lewis and Clarke's Exped., cd., Alleu, vol. I, p. 174. 
 
 2U. S. Geol. and Geogr. Surv.. Uaydeu. Miscell. Publ., No. 7, 1877: Ethnog. and I'hilol. of Hidatsa 
 Indians, p. 48. 
 
 501 
 
502 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS 
 
 POLYTHEISM. 
 
 Instead of believing in one Great Spirit, the Mandan and Hidatsa 
 "believe in a multitude of different beings in the heavenly bodies ; 
 offer sacrifices to them; invoke their assistance on every occasion; 
 howl, lament, fast, inflict on themselves acts of penance to propitiate 
 these spirits; and, above all, lay very great stress upon dreams.^ 
 
 § 312. The most sacred objects in the eyes of the Crow or Absaroka, 
 a nation closely related to the Hidatsa, are "the sun, the moon, and 
 tobacco, that is, the leaves of the genuine tobacco {Mcotiana); and all 
 their children wear a small portion of this herb, well wrapped up, round 
 their neck, by way of an amulet. ^ 
 
 WORSHIP. 
 
 § 313. Pull information respecting worship Las not been obtained; 
 but we know that among its accessories are the following : prayer, fast- 
 ing, and sacrifice. The different writers tell us of petitions offered to 
 the gods for help, 
 
 FASTING. 
 
 § 314. When a young Mandan wishes to establish his reputation as 
 a brave man, he fasts for four or seven days, as long as he is able, goes 
 to the bluffs, cries to the Omahank-Xumakshi, calls incessantly on the 
 higher powers for aid, and goes home at night to sleep and dream. 
 They fast before taking part in the Okipa, before organizing a war 
 party, etc.^ 
 
 SACRIFICE. 
 
 § 315. Said a Mandan to Lewis and Clarke, " I was lately owner of 
 seventeen horses, but I have offered them all up to my medicine, and 
 am now ])oor." He had taken all his horses to the plain, where he 
 turned them loose, committing them to the care of his "medicine," thus 
 abandoning them forever.* 
 
 "Around the burial scaffolds of the Mandan s were several high 
 poles, with skins and other things hanging on them, as offerings to the 
 lord of life, Omahank-Numakshi, or to the first man, Kumank-Ma- 
 chana."'* 
 
 § 310. The Olipa. — That form of self-sacrifice called Okipa by the 
 Mandan has been described in detail by Catlin and Maximilian. It 
 differs in some respects from the sun dance of the Dakota and Ponka, 
 as well as from the Dahpike or Nahpike of the Hidatsa.** 
 
 ' Maximilian, Travels * * * in North America, p. 359. 
 •-Ibid, p. 176. 
 
 3Ibid, pp. 369, 374, 386, 388, 400. 
 *Ibi(l, p. 174. 
 nhu\. p. 173. 
 
 ^Ibid, pp. 373,377. 0-kee-pa: A Religious Ceremony * * * by George Catlin, Phil., 1867, 25 
 pp. Smithson. Kept., 1885, pt. 2, pp. 353-368. 
 
^^^-^-^■l THE DAHPIKE. . 503 
 
 § 317. The DaHpik-e.—Accovding to Matthews, the most importaut 
 ceremony of the Ilidatsa is that of— 
 
 The Dalipike or Nalipike, whiili formerly took place regularly once a year, but is 
 now celebrated every second or third year only. On the day when it is determined 
 to begin this ceremony, some of the men, dressed and mounted as for a war-party, 
 proceed to the woods. Here they select a tall, forked Cottonwood, which they fell, 
 trim, and bark ; to this they tie lariats, and, by the aid of horses, drag it to the 
 village. In the procession, the man who has most distinguished himself in battle, 
 mounted on the horse on whose back he has done his bravest deeds, takes the lead; 
 others follow in the order of tlie military distinction; as tliey drag the log along, 
 they fire guns at it, strike it with sticks, and shout and sing songs of victory. The 
 log, they say, is syml)olical of a concpiered enemy, whose body they are bringing 
 into the camp in triumph. [See ^Svn 28, 42, 160.J When the log is set up, they again 
 go to the woods to procure a quantity of willows. A temporary lodge of green wil- 
 lows is then built around the log, as the medicine lodge, wherein the ceremony is 
 performed [see §168.] The participants fast four days with food in sight, and, on 
 the fourth day, submit to tortures which vary according to the whim of the sufi'erer 
 or the advice of the shamans. Some have long strips of skin separated from differ- 
 ent parts of their bodies, but not completely detached. Others have large pieces ot 
 the integument entirely removed, leaving the muscles exposed. Others have incis- 
 ions made in their flesh, in which raw-hide strings are inserted; they then attach 
 buffalo-skulls to the strings and run round with these until the strings becomes dis- 
 engaged by tearing their way out of the flesh. Other have skewers inserted in their 
 breasts, which skewers are secured by raw-hide cords to the central pole, as in the 
 Dakota sun dance; the sufferer then throws liimself back until he is released by the 
 skewers teariug out of the flesh. Many other ingenious tortures are devised.' 
 
 § 318. lu the narrative of Long's expedition to the Rocky Mountains, 
 we find an account of the latter part of this ceremony, prepared, as 
 Matthews thinks, from the statements of Mr. Dougherty or Mr. Lisa, as 
 the expedition did not go near the Minnetarec country. All the tor- 
 ments there described, and more, are inflicted to this day. That 
 account is as follows :^ 
 
 Annually in the month of July the Minnetarees celebrate their great medicine 
 dance. « * * Qu this occasion a considerable quantity of food is prepared. 
 * * * The devotees then dance and sing to their music at intervals for three or 
 four days together in fall view of the victuals without attem])ting to taste 
 them. But they do not, even at this time, forego their accustomed hospitality. And 
 if a stranger enters, he is invited to eat, though no one partakes with him. On the 
 third or fourth day, the severer * ' * tortures commence. * * * An indi- 
 vidual presents himself before one of the * * ^ m^gij crying and lamenting, 
 and requests him to cut a fillet of skin fntm his arm, which he extends for that pur- 
 pose. The operator thrusts a sharp iustniment through tlie skin near the wrists, 
 then introduces the knife and cuts out a piece of the rec^uired length, sometimes ex- 
 tending the cut entirely to the shoulder. Another will recjuest bands of skin to bo cut 
 from his arm. A third will have his breast flayed so as to represent a full-moon or 
 crescent. A fourth submits to the removal of concentric arcs of skin from his breast. 
 A fifth prays the operator to remove small pieces of skin from various indicated 
 parts of his body. * * * An individual requests the operator to pierce a hole 
 through the skin on each of his shoulders, and after passing a long cord through each 
 hole, he repairs to a burial ground at some distance from the vill.ago, aud selects one 
 
 I r. S. Geol. ami (Jeogr. Surv., Havdcn, ^liscell. Publ., No. 7, 1877: EtliDos. aud Pliilol. oi' Uidatsu 
 Indians, pp. 4.5, 46. 
 
 * James's account of Long's Expedition to llocky Monutaius, vol. i, pp. 276-278. 
 
504 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 of the bison skulls collected there. To the chosen skull he affixes the ends of his 
 cords, and drags it to the lodge, around which he must go with his burden before 
 he can be released from it. No one is permitted to assist him, neither dare he to put 
 his Iiauds to the cords to alleviate his sufferings. If it should so happen that the 
 liorus of the skull get hooked under a root or other obstacle, he must extricate it in 
 the best manner he can by pulling different ways, biit he must not touch the cords 
 or the skull with his hands, or in any respect attempt to relieve the strain upon his 
 wound until his complete task is jter formed. 
 
 Some of the penitents liave arrows thrust through various nniscular parts of their 
 bodies, as through the skin and sui>erlieial muscles of the arms, leg, breast, and 
 back. 
 
 A devotee caused two arrows to be passed through the muscles of his breast, one 
 on each side near the mammae. To these arrows cords were attached, the opposite 
 ends of which were affixed to the upper part of a jiost which had been planted in 
 the earth for the purpose. He then threw himself backward into an oblique 
 position, his back within about 2 feet of the ground, so as to depend with the greater 
 part of his weight by the cords. In this situation of agony he chanted and kept 
 time to the music of the gong (sic), until he fainted from long abstinence and sutfer- 
 ing. The bystanders then cried out, " Courage! courage!" After a short interval 
 of insensibility, he revived and proceeded with his self-tortures as before, until 
 nature being completely exhausted he again relapsed into insensibility, upon which 
 he was loosed from the cords and carried oft" amidst the acclamations of the whole 
 assembly. 
 
 Another Minnetaree in compliance with a vow he had made, caused a hole to be 
 perforated through the muscles of each shoulder. Through these holes cords were 
 passed, the opposite ends of which were attached as a bridle to a horse which had 
 been i)enned up three or four days without food or water. In this manner he led 
 the horse to the margin of the river. The horse, of course, endeavored to drink, but 
 it was the province of the Indian to prevent him, and that only by straining at the 
 cords with the muscles of the shoulder, without resorting to the assistance of his 
 hands. And, notwiftistanding all the exertions of the horse to drink, his master 
 succeeded in preventing him, and returned with him to his lodge, having accom- 
 plished his painful task. 
 
 § 319. In describing the Ilidatsa, Prince Maximilian says:^ 
 
 They likewise celebrate the Okippe (which they call Akupehri), but with several 
 deviations. Thus, instead of a so-called ark, a kind of high pole with a fork on it, 
 is planted in the center of the open circle. When the partisans (i. e. war captains) 
 intend to go on some enterprise in May or June, the preparations are combined with 
 the Okippe (i. e., Okipa) of several young men, who wish to obtainthe rank of brave. 
 A large medicine lodge is erected open above, with a division in the middle, in which 
 the candidates take their places. Two pits are usually dug in the middle for the 
 partisans, who lie in them four days and four nights, with only a piece of leather 
 around the waist. The first partisan usually chooses the second, who undergoes the 
 ceremony with him. There are always young people enough to submit their bodies 
 to torture, in order to display their courage. They fast four days and nights, which 
 leaves tbcm faint. Many of them begin the tortures on the third day; butthe fourth 
 day is that properly set apart for them. To the forked pole of the medicine lodge is 
 fastened a longpiece of buft'alo hide, with the head hanging down, and to this astrap 
 is fastened. An old man is then chosen, who is to see to the torturing of the candi- 
 dates, which is executed precisely in the same manner as among the Mandaus. The 
 suflferers often faint. They are then taken by the hands, lifted up, and encouraged, 
 and they begin afresh. When they have dragged about the buft'alo skull long enough, 
 * * * a large circle is formed, as among the Mandans, in which they are made to 
 run round till they drop down exhausted, when they are taken to the medicine lodge. 
 
 'Travels * * ■ in Xortli Ameriia. p]). 4no, 4(il. 
 
DOR^EY] CULT OF THE YONI, 505 
 
 The medicine mau receives from oue of the spectators the knife with which the ope- 
 ration is to be performed. The partisan is bound to build the medicine lodge. 
 
 During the ceremony the spectators eat and smoke: the candidates take nothin"- 
 and, like the partisans, are covered all over with white clay. The latter, when they 
 dance during the ceremony, remain near their pits, and then move on the same spot, 
 holding in their hands their medicines, a buffalo tail, a feather, or the like. None 
 but the candidates dance, and the only music is striking a dried buffalo hide with 
 Avillow rods. There have been instances of fathers subjecting their children, only 6 
 or 7 years of age, to these tortures. We ourselves saw one suspended by the nuisdea 
 of the back, after having been compelled to fast four days. No application whatever 
 is subsequently made for the cure of the wounds, which leave large swollen weals, 
 and are much more conspicuous among the Hidatsa than among the ilandan. Most 
 of the Hidatsa have three or four of these weals in parallel semicircular lines almost 
 an inch thick, which cover the entire breast. There aresimilar transverse and long- 
 itudinal lines on the arms. 
 
 EefeiTing to Maximilian's description just given, Matthews observes : 
 
 At this time, the Hidatsa call the Mandan ceremony akupi (of which word proba- 
 bly akupehi is an old form) ; but they apply no such term to their own festival. Max- 
 imilian did not spend a summer among those Indians, and, therefore, knew of both 
 ceremonies only from description.' If the Minnetaree festival to which he referred 
 was, as is most likely, the Nalipike, he is, to some extent, in error. The rites re- 
 semble one another only in their appalling fasts and tortures. In allegory, they seem 
 to be radically different. 
 
 CULT OF THE YONI. 
 
 § 320. An account of the great buffalo medicine feast of the Hidatsa 
 Constituted by the women'') has been recorded by Maxiinilian. Prayers 
 are made for success in hunting and in battle. When the feast had 
 continued two hours, the women began to act the part, which bore a 
 slight resemblance to what Herodotus tells of the women in the temple 
 of Mylitta.^ 
 
 When the dance of the half shorn head was sold by its Mandan pos- 
 sessors, they received in part payment the temporary use of the wives 
 of the purchasers, each woman having the right to choose her consort.^ 
 
 Lewis and Clarke have given accounts of two of the Mandan dances, 
 the buffalo dance and the medicine dance, at the conclusion of which 
 were rites that astonished the travelers, but chey were told that in the 
 medicine dance only virgins or young unmarried females took part.^ 
 
 AUS.vnOKA FEAR OF A WUITE BUFFALO (;OW. 
 
 § 321. The Absaroka or Crow I^ation have a superstitious fear of a 
 white buffalo cow. When a Crow meets one, he addresses the sun in 
 the following words : "I will give her (i. e., the cow) to you." He then 
 endeavors to kill the animal, but leaves it untouched, and then says to 
 the sun, "Take her, she is yours.'' They never use the skin of such a 
 cow, as the Mandan do.^ 
 
 1 Yet Maximilian saj's, " We ourselves saw one suspended, etc. "' 
 ^Travel-s " " ■ in North America, iij). 419-422. 
 'Ibid, PP.420-42S. 
 "Ibid, vol. I, PI). 180.190. 
 « Ibid. p. 175. 
 
506 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 MANDAN CULTS. 
 
 MAXDAX DIVINITIES. 
 
 § 322, According to one of Maxirailiau's informants, the Mandan be- 
 lieve in several superior beings. (1) The first is Ohmaliauk-Xumakslii, 
 the Lord of Life. He is tlie most powerful. He created the earth, man, 
 and every existing- object. They believe that he has a tail, and appears 
 sometimes in the form of an aged man and, at others, in that of a young 
 man. (2) iSTumank-Machana, the First Man, holds the second rank; he 
 was created by the Lord of Life, but is likewise of a divine nature. He 
 resembles Nan abush or Manabozho of the O.jibwa and cognate tribes. 
 (3) Ohmahank-Chika, the Lord of Evil, is a malignant spirit, who has 
 much influence over men; but he is not as powerful as Ohmahank-Nu- 
 niakshi and Xumauk-Machana. (4) Rohanka-Tauihanka, who dwells in 
 the planet Venus, protects mankind on earth. The name of the fifth 
 power has not been gained, but he is ever moving, walking over the 
 earth in human form. They call him, "The Lying Prairie Wolf." (6) 
 Ochkih-Hadda' is a spirit that it is difficult to class. They believe that 
 one who dreams of him is sure to die very soon thereafter. This spirit 
 is said to have come once into their villages and taught them many 
 things, but since then he has not appeared. They fear him, offer him 
 sacrifice, and in their villages they have a hideous image representing 
 him. 
 
 § 323. The sun is thought to be the residence of the Lord of Life. In 
 the moon dwells, as they say, the Old Woman who Xever Dies. They 
 do not know much about her, but they sacrifice to her as well as to the 
 other spirits. She has sis children, three sons and three daughters, 
 who inhabit certain stars. The eldest son is the Day, the second is the 
 Sun, the third is the Night. The eldest daughter is the star that rises 
 in the east, the Morning Star, called, " The Woman Who Wears a 
 Plume. " The second daughter, called " The Striped Gourd,'' is a star 
 which revolves the polar star. The third daughter is the Evening Star, 
 which is near the setting sun.'- 
 
 § 324. The Old Woman who Never Dies. — The cult of this spirit is 
 observed in what Say calls "the corn dance of the Manitaries." Maxi- 
 milian declares that Say is quite correct in his account of it, and that 
 the Mandan practice it as well as the Hidatsa. 
 
 It is the consecration of the grain to he sown, and is called the corn dance feast 
 of the woman. The Old Woman who Never Dies sends, in the spring, the water- 
 fowl, swans, geese, and ducks, as symhols of the kinds of grain cultivated t>y the 
 Indians. The wild goose signifies corn ; the geese, the gourd, and the duck, beans. 
 It is the old woman who causes these plants to grow, and, therefore, she sends these 
 birds as her representatives. It is seldom that eleven wild geese are found together 
 in the spring; but, if it happens, this is a sign that the crop of corn will be remarka- 
 ably tine. The Indians keep a large quantity of dried meat in readiness for the 
 time in the spring when the birds arrive, that they may immediately celebrate the 
 
 'O-kee-hee-dee of Catlin. "Maximilian, Travels * * * in North America, pp. 339, 360. 
 
DURSEY.] GUARDIAN SPIRITS. 507 
 
 com feast of the women. They Lang the meat before the village on long scaftolds 
 made of poles, three or four rows, one above another, and this, with other articles of 
 value, is considered as an ottering to the Old Woman who Never Dies. The elderly 
 women of the village, as representatives of that old woman, as.semble aboutthe scaf- 
 folds on a certain day, each carrying a stick, to one end of which an ear of corn is 
 fastened. Sitting in a circle, they plant their sticks in the ground before them, and 
 then dance around the scaifolds. Some old men beat the drum and shake the gourd 
 rattles. The corn is not wetted or sprinkled, as many believe, but on the contrary, 
 it is supposed that such a practice would be injurious. While the old women are 
 performing their part, the younger ones come and put some dry pulverized meat 
 into their months, for which each young woman receives in return a grain of the con- 
 secrated corn, which she eats. Three or four grains of the consecrated corn are put 
 into their dish, and arc afterwards carefully mixed with the seed coru, in order to 
 make it yield an abundant crop. The dried meat on the scaffolds is the perquisite 
 of the aged females, as the representatives of the Old Woman who Never Dies. But 
 members of the Dog Society have the privilege of taking some of this meat from the 
 scaffolds without opposition from auyl)ody. 
 
 A similar corn feast is held in the autumn, but at that season it is held for the pur- 
 pose of attracting the herds of buffaloes and of obtaining a large supply of meat. 
 Each woman then carries an entire cornstalk with the ears attached, pulling up the 
 stalk by the roots. They designate the corn as well as the birds by the name of the 
 Old Woman Who Never Dies, and call on them saying, "Mother, pity us; donotseud 
 the severe cold too soon, lest we do not gain enough meat. Prevent the game from 
 departing, so that we may have something for the winter!" 
 
 lu autumn, when the birds migrate to the south, or, as the Indians say, return to 
 the Old Woman, they believe that they take with them the dried meat hung on the 
 scaffolds, and they imagine that the Old Woman partakes of it. 
 
 The Old Woman who Never Dies has very large patches of corn, kept for her by 
 the great stag and the white-tailed stag. She has, too, many blackbirds which help to 
 guard her property. When she intends to feed these kee]»ers, she sunmionsthem, and 
 they fall on the corn, which they devour with greediness. As these corn patches are 
 large, the Old Woman requires many laborers, hence she has the mice, moles, and 
 stao-s to perform such work for her. Tin; birds which tly from the seashore in the 
 spring represent the Old Woman, who then travels to the north to visit the Old Man 
 who Never Dies, who always resides there. She generally returns to the south in 
 three or four days. In former times the Old Woman's hut was near the Little 
 Missouri River, where the Indians often visited her. One day twelve Hidatsa went 
 to her, and she set before them a kettle of corn, which was so small that it did not 
 appear sufficient to satisfy the hunger of one of the party. But she told them to eat, 
 and, as soon as the kettle was emptied it was filled again, and all the men had 
 enough.' 
 
 GUARDIAN SPIRITS. 
 
 § 325. The Maiidau undertake nothing without first invoking their 
 guardian spirits, which appear to them in dreams (see § 236). When 
 a man wishes to choose his guardian spirit, he fasts for three or four 
 days, and sometimes longer, retires to a solitary place, does penance, 
 and sometimes sacrifices joints of his fingers. He howls and cries to 
 tl'.e Lord of Life, or to the First Man, beseeching him to point out the 
 guardian spirit. He continues in this excited condition until he 
 dreams, and the first animal or other object which appears in the dream 
 is the guardian spirit. Each man has such a spirit. There is on the 
 
 'Maximilian, Travels * * * in North America, pp. 378-380. 
 
508 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 prairie a large hill, where they remain luotionless many days, lameuTiiiu 
 and tasting. Xot far ti"oui tliis hill is a cave, into which they creep at 
 night. The choice and adoration of gnardian spirits is said to have 
 been taught the people many years ago by the Ochkih Hadda, It was 
 he who taught them the art of tattooing, and who instituted medicine 
 feasts.' 
 
 MAXDAX BEUEF ABOUT SERPENTS AXD GI.O.'TS. 
 
 § 320. The Mandan believe that there is a huge serpent which inhab- 
 its a lake three or four days* journey from their village, and to which 
 they make offerings. The tradition relates how two Maudan youths 
 encountered a giant, who carried them to a village of giants. The 
 latter part, which tells how one of the youths was changed into a huge 
 serpent after killing and eating a serpent, resembles a Winnebago tra- 
 dition .' 
 
 THrXPEK LORE OF THE MAXDAX. 
 
 § 327. The Maudan believe that thunder is produced by the wings of 
 a gigantic bird. When the bird tlies softly, as is usually the case, he 
 is not heard; but when he llaps his wings violently, he occasions a roar- 
 ing noise. This bird is said to have two toes ou each foot, one behind 
 and one before. It dwells on the mountains, and builds nests there as 
 large as one of the forts. It preys upon deer and other large animals, 
 the horns of which are heaped up around the nest. The glance of its 
 eyes produces hghtning. It breaks through the clouds and makes way 
 for the rain. The isolated and peculiarly loud claps of thunder are pro- 
 duced by a large tortoise which dwells in the clouds. 
 
 ASTROXOMICAL LORE. 
 
 § 328. The stars are deceased men. When a child is born a star de- 
 scends and appears on earth in human form; after death it reascends 
 and appears again as a star in the heavens. 
 
 The rainbow is a spirit which accompanies the sun. Many athrm that 
 the northern lights are occasioned by a large assembly of medicine men 
 and distinguished warriors of several northern nations, who boil their 
 prisoners and slain enemies in huge cauldrons.^ 
 
 MYSTERY OB.JECTS .OCD PLACES OF THE MAXDAX AXD HIDATSA. 
 
 § 329. The mystery rock of the Maudan and Hidatsa is thus described 
 by Lewis and Clarke: ^ 
 
 This medicine stoue is the great oracle of the Mandans. and -whatever it aimonuces 
 is believed with implicit coutideuce. Every spring and. on some occasions during 
 the summer, a deputation visits the sacred spot, where there is a thick, porous stoue 
 20 feet in circumference, with a smooth surface. Having reached the place, the cer- 
 emony of smoking to it is performed by the deputies, who alternately take a whiff 
 
 'Maximilian, Travels * * * in JJorth America, p. 369. 
 
 2n>i(l.. pp. 380.381. 
 
 ninA.. p. 361. 
 
 ^Lewis ami Clarke. Esped.. ed. .Allen. Vol. i. p. 205. 
 
MA.VDA5 
 
 fECTS, ETC. 
 
 5<>9 
 
 ▼ith him. 
 
 . , rj^ fJf^TT 
 
 ♦"M his arr 
 
 ,; - r .^. ..r; V 4i*h«s a po-*- 
 
 ■i«a to a specified diatan^re. 
 
 tb*tnj»*;ly*5s. ao4 tb«n pr^- '-" ' ' - . - - , . . - - ■ 
 
 'yrib'ui^ vfftA for th* 
 fcTnba.*».y 'I/^» not «lft«p. j-. 
 whit*; m;*rkA or* r,hft ^Vrnft, -f^ 
 
 The .taroe ?»t/iTie, a* wfftnaiytii by tne liHlat.'ia. is ihiw tktmmh^ by 
 Jarnes:' 
 
 *it, . 
 
 Vil.:, 
 
 tarftfc« r»?wrt. 
 
 pr«v:T»ti», t»y : , 
 
 Am individnal who intfriirtA t.o p*- 
 
 • " * an/i al.v> itroVulfA s -■ 
 an/1 r*?pairs t** th* rock a/;<y. 
 deposite the pTfes^mta thftTft. 
 face clfcan. and retires wirh .. 
 prinr-ipal part of r. 
 sincc*;s« in war a 
 scaljrt from ^ 
 tnrr;* t/^, th- 
 
 wh. 
 
 hf- can . 
 
 »npp</vrd to relate to bii fiir 
 thfc^m off » • * njion th 
 retnrnii home to read from ' 
 tjear be representfrfl with it- ur !■ 
 party or the vi«itation of some *- 
 the Tjear V»e toward the vilT . 
 They say that an Indian f.. 
 
 * " • chart the r^ij: 
 They were all mneh » 
 frjur months afterward tur; 
 trading house was erected t.. 
 
 3Iatthew.s refers thiLS to this "oracle"' of the Hidatsa and Mandan:^ 
 
 The famooa holy stone or medicine r • • • 
 
 wa^? some two or three daya' jonmey I. .ow seldom 
 
 refer to it. and I do not think they ever visit it. 
 
 5 330, According to Maximilian : * 
 
 The Man'lans have many other m*'d!''iT»*- e«ta>>Ii.«hment* in the Ticiaity of tb^ir 
 villages, all of which art- >t jvower*. * ' ' Of * 
 
 near Mitntahankos, one coi. n 'hf- formof aaqnarf^-rr;. 
 
 foremf^fst have a heap of ear* i thrown /.em. and : 
 
 .sknlls laid in a line iMrtweer. -nty-aix L .s are pla. 
 
 from one of the rear y»ole» to the r»ther, and on some of these sktilLs are painter! - 
 
 r» I "rtripea. Behind the whole two knives are stuck into the grounrL and a \ 
 
 of twigs is fastene<l at the top of the poles with a kind of eotnb. or rake, painted re<i . 
 The Indians repair to such places when they desire to make offerings or petition* : 
 
 -, or to that of 
 
 h he bronght ... _ ..... ., ..,, , 
 
 people the destiny of himself or them. 
 
 ' 'o ward the village, the approach of ^ 
 
 hended. If, on the contrary, the ■ 
 
 j.^ J at good is anti^^ripated, and they r-^ 
 
 r:\ from the ro^rk exhibited * * * 
 
 If a 
 
 - French 
 
 . a£tti a iiviCi-^'ur. 
 
 ' -Jajnes* Acconnr of Lons'a Expwl. to Eoeky Moontains, VoL L p. 2T3. 
 
 »r. S. Gefil. ana f^oj^r. Sarv.. Ha^iten. MbccH. Pnh.. Xo. 7. MSTt . Ethnog. ^ri PUOoL of Hidatta 
 
 Indian.-*, pp. 30. 51. 
 -Travel-* * ' in Sarth Ameriea, pp. 3«1, 382. 
 
510 A STUDT OF aorAN CTXTS. 
 
 liieT ir-w-L "cs-mmi- - ancl nuLke loud eBTreaiies, ofcen far many dars Togexhex, to the 
 rnrtf niCTiV-"V mrtnlrti'hi ■ Anotiifir -•med-icrDe esEaWi^.lrmgDT ~ ec>n«i?T*d of a couple of 
 i-EiDini isTiTes. -reiy thnnslh- made of skins, axed on j.oles. and representiag. as was 
 TicQd -no Va-rrmi-HiCTi- tSmt SHE and moon- I'tit in Ms opinion, probaMy the O ma ha nt - 
 5aniiakfihi and the Old "Waman that X e"resr Kes. 
 
 t oSL If a Mandan possesses a - medicine pipe " - 1 e,. Trliat the Omaha 
 and P<mfca eaU a niniba Trea-wa^ he sometimes decides to adopt a 
 ~ medicine son. " The yormg man whom he Is to eltoose appears to him 
 ID a - T it is - - - - that he shonld be of a good fain fir, or 
 
 have ; - r i some r i 
 
 V 332. I^reaans adfard idie mortiT** for many of their acHons, eren for the penaiices 
 TTiiieli they impose on themselTes. They think that all -w-Mth appears in their 
 creams m^nsi Iwr tiroe. Before they became acqua±Dbfed -w-ith firearms, a Mandan 
 dreamed «f a -weacpan Trith vMtfa they eonld "HTl ihsr enemies at a great distainee, 
 aajd Boon aifeesr i4m; TrMtt luen Isronght them xhe fiist gxcn. In lite m.aniier they 
 dreaaned ef liarses "before they olrtained any. In many cases the guardian spirit is 
 TeTeaied uo the fasting y cmth in a dreaan. If the Lord of life makes him dream of a 
 jnece of dhesrry "wood or of an g^rrrmal^ it is a good omen. The young naen ■wio follo-w 
 such a dreaanex to the bactle iaTe greart: confidejice in Ms guardian spirit or " medi- 
 
 t .533- Hie Mandan and Hidatsa consider the large gray owl a mys- 
 tery bii-d, irrth whom they pretend to csoiiTerine and to understand its 
 atti-tades and Tcaoe. Sneh owls are often kept alive in lodges, being 
 rt^arded as mothmjer-L They have a similar ojjiiLion of eagles.^ 
 
 § 334. The sMn of a white huMak) eow is an eminent fetich in the 
 
 e-' * - of the Mandan and Hidatsa. The hide must be that of a 
 y , jyA oreil' years old. and ?>e taken off comjjlete. and tanned, 
 witii homs, nosie, hoofs, and taJL It is worn on rare occasions. 
 
 When the owner wishes to sacrifice sneh a skin to the Omahank- 
 y-n rnakshi oito the ^Siimank-Maichana- he rolls it up. after adding some 
 aitemi-da or an ear of com, and tlien the skin j-emains suspended on a 
 jx/le until it decays.* 
 
 Besides tLe white buffalo skins hung on tall ixjles as sacrifices, there 
 weje other- strange objects hung on taU jxjles near the villages of the 
 Mandan and Hidiitsa. These figures were comjxjsed of skin, grass, 
 and twijrs- which memed iAj represent the sun, moon, and i>eihaps the 
 O -j-aksLi and the Xumank-Machana. The Indians resoited 
 
 t. - -, - .:. tLey wished to j^etition for anything, and sometimes 
 howled ff/r- days and we>eks tog^hei.^ 
 
 For- a r^fiaieaiee to trees and stones, see § 348. 
 
 JTiavel*) ' ' ' Jju > w-a Ajnerica. J). ir70. *Ibid. jrji. 382. 886. « aid, pp. 383,403. 
 
 «XlatL, pp. 371. 372. '•Ibid., p. 372. 
 
M^ HJT. H*#»«iigy : 
 
 r- 
 
 > 
 iv 
 
 « J^Jlk ^V« >*'i«^* -^ ^ >a ^Ms * 
 
512 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 they make a figure of wood or clay, substituting for the heart an awl, 
 a needle, or a porcupine <piill, and bury the image at the foot of one of 
 their "medicine poles."' 
 
 .lUGiJLKUY. 
 
 § 337. The " medicine of one man consists in making a snow ball, 
 which he rolls a long time between his hands, so that at length it 
 becomes hard and is changed into a white stone, which, when struck, 
 emits a fire. Many persons, even whites, pretended they had seen 
 this, and they can not be convinced to the contrary. The same man 
 pretends that, during a dance, he plucked white feathers from a certain 
 small bird, w^hich he rolled between his hands, and formed of them in 
 a short time a similar white stone. * * * a great many Mandan 
 and Hidatsa believe that they have wild animals in their bodies; one, 
 for instance, athrmed that he had a buffalo calf, the kicking of which 
 he often felt; others said that they had tortoises, frogs, lizards, birds, 
 etc. * * * Among the Hidatsa were seen medicine dances of the 
 women, where one claimed to have an ear of corn in her body, which 
 she ejected from her mouth during the dance, and then ate, after it had 
 been mixed with Artemisia. * * * Another female dancer caused 
 blood to gush from her mouth at will."'^ 
 
 GHOST LORE. 
 
 § 338. The Mandan believe that each person has several spirits dwell- 
 ing within him; one of which is black, another brown, and a third light- 
 colored, the last alone returning to the Lord of Life. They think that 
 after death they go to the south, to several villages which are visited 
 by the gods ; that their existence there is dependent on their course of 
 life while in this world; that the brave and kind-hearted carry on the 
 same occupation, eat similar food, have wives, and enjoy the ideasures 
 of war and the chase. Some of the Mandan are said not to believe all 
 these parti(;ulars, but to suppose that after death their spirits will dwell 
 in the sun or in certain stars. 
 
 THK I'UTURE LIFE. 
 
 § 339. The Mandan belief in a future state is connected with the tra- 
 dition of their origin : The whole nation resided in one large village under 
 ground, near a subterraneous lake. Some of the people climbed up to 
 this earth by means of a grape-vine, which broke when a corpulent 
 woman essayed to climb it. Therefore the rest of the people remained 
 in the subterranean village. When the Mandan die they expect to re- 
 turn to the original seats of their forefathers, the good reaching the 
 ancient village by means of the lake, which the burden of the sins of 
 the wicked will not enable them to cross. ^ The concluding clause of the 
 
 Maximilian, Travels ■ " ' in North America, p. 382. ' Ibid, pp. 382, 383, 423, 424. 
 
 * Lewis and Clarke, Expedition, ed. Allen, Vol. 1, p. 175. 
 
i^OKSEY] HIDATSA DIVINITIES. 513 
 
 last sentence can hardly be of Indian origin; it is very probably due to 
 white influence. 
 
 FOUU AS A MYSTIC NUMBER AMONG THE MANDAN. 
 
 § 340. According to Catlin:' 
 
 Tbe Okipa iuvariably lasts four days; lour men arc selected by the first man to 
 cleanse out and prepare tbe mystic lodge for tbe occasiofi; one of tbesemeu is called 
 from the north part of the village, another from the east, a third from the south, and 
 the fourth from the west (see §373). The four sacks of water, in the forms of large 
 tortoises, resting on the floor of the lodge, seem to typify the four cardinal points. 
 The four buffalo skulls and as many human skulls on the floor of the lodge, the four 
 couples of dancers in the buffalo dance and the four intervening dancers in the same 
 dance, deserve our study. The buffalo dance in front of the mystic lodge, repeated 
 on the four days, is danced four times on the first day, eight times on the second, 
 twelve times on the third, and sixteen times on the fourth. There are four sacrificea 
 of black and blue cloths erected over the entrance of the mystic lodge. The visits 
 of the Evil Spirit were paid to four of the buffalo in the buffalo dance. In every 
 instance the young man who submitted to torture in the Okipa had four splints or 
 skewers run through the flesh on his leg, four throiigh his arms, and four through 
 his body. 
 
 HIDATSA CULTS. 
 
 HIDATSA DIVINITIES. 
 
 § 341. The Hidatsa believe in the Man who Never Dies, or Lord of 
 Life, Ehsicka-Wahaddish,- literally, the tirst man, who dwells in the 
 Kocky Mountains. He made all things. Another being whom they 
 venerate is called the Grandmother. She roams over the earth. She 
 had some share in creation, though an inferior one, for she created the 
 toad and the sand-rat. She gave the Hidatsa two kettles, wliich they 
 still preserve as a sacred treasure and employ as charms or fetiches on 
 certain occasions. She directed the ancestors of the present Indians to 
 preserve the kettles and to remember the great waters, whence came 
 all the animals dancing. The red-shouldered oriole {Psaracolim phoe- 
 nicens) came at that time out of the water, as well as the other birds 
 which still sing along the banks of rivers. The Hidatsa, therefore, look 
 on all these birds as "■ medicine" for their corn patches, and attend to 
 their songs. When these birds sing the Hidatsa, remembering the 
 direction of the Grandmother, fill the two kettles with water, dance and 
 bathe, in order to commemorate the great flood. When their fields are 
 threatened with a great drought they celebrate a "medicine" feast with 
 the two kettles, as they beg for rain. The shamans are still ]>aid, on 
 such occasions, to sing for four days together in the huts, while the 
 kettles remain full of w^ater. 
 
 § 342. The sun, or as they term it, "the sun of the day," is a great 
 power. They do not know what it really is, but when they are about 
 to undertake some enterprise they sacrifice to it and also to the moon, 
 
 ' Catlin, in Sniitlisoiiian Kept., 1885, pt. 2, p. 372. 
 
 'So called by ^laxiiualiaii, .samo as the Itaika-inaliiilis of Matthews. 
 
 11 ETH .'>3 
 
514 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 which they call " the sun of the night. " The morning star, Venus, they 
 regard as the child of the moon, and they account it as a great power. 
 They affirm that it was originally a Hidatsa, being the grandson of the 
 Old Woman who Never Dies.' 
 
 § 343. Matthews 2 found that the object of the greatest reverence 
 among tLe Hidatsa was, perhaps, the Itsika-mahidis, the First Made, 
 or First in Existence. They assert that he made all things, the stars, 
 sun, the earth, the first representatives of each species of animals and 
 plants, but that no one made him. He also, they say, instructed the 
 forefathers of the tribes in all the ceremonies and mysteries now known 
 to them. They sometimes designate him as Itaka-te-tas, or Old Man 
 Immortal. 
 
 § 344. If we use tlie term worship iu its most extended sense it may be said that 
 * * * (the Hidatsa) worship everything iu nature. Not man alone, but the sun, 
 the moon, the stars, all the lower animals, all trees and plants, rivers and lakes, many 
 bowlders and other separated rocks, even some hills and buttes which stand alone — 
 in short, everything not made by human hands, which has an independent being, or 
 can be individualized, possesses a spirit, or, more properly, a shade. 
 
 To these shades some respect or consideration is due, but not equally to all. For 
 instance, the shade of the Cottonwood, the greatest tree of the Upper Missouri Val- 
 ley, is supposed to possess an intelligence which may, if jiroperly approached, assist 
 them in certain undertakings; but the shades of shrubs and grasses are of little im- 
 portance. When the ^lissouri, in its spring-time freshets, cuts down its bank and 
 sweeps some tall tree into its current, it is said that the spirit of the tree cries while 
 the roots yet cling to the land and until the tree falls into the Avater. Formerly it 
 was considered wrong to cut down one of these great trees, and, when large logs were 
 needed, only such as were found fallen were used ; and to-day some of the more 
 credulous old men declare that many of the misfortunes of the people are the result 
 of their modern disregard for the rights of the living cottonwood. The sun is held 
 iu great veneration, and many valuable sacrifices are made to it.^ 
 
 AVORSIIIP OF THE ELEMENTS, ETC. 
 
 § 345. This is in substantial accord with what Maximilian was told, 
 as will be seen from the following : 
 
 In the sweat bath the shaman, after cutting off a joint of the de- 
 votee's fingers, takes a willow twig, goes to the dishes containing food, 
 dips the twig in each and throws a part of the contents in the direction 
 of the four winds, as offerings to the Lord of Life, the fire, and the 
 divers superhuman powers.* 
 
 SERPENT WORSHIP. 
 
 § 346. The Hidatsa make occasional ofl^erings to the great serpent 
 that dwells in the Missouri River by placing poles in the river and 
 
 ' Maximilian, Travels * * * in North America, j). 338. 
 
 '^V. S. Geol. and Geogr. Surv., Hayilen, Miscell. Publ., No. 7, 1877: Ethuog. and Philol. of Hidatsa 
 Indians, p. 47. 
 3Ibid.,pp.48, 49. 
 * Maximilian, Travels * * * in Nortb America, p. 402. 
 
DORSEY] DAIMONISM — FETICHES. 515 
 
 attaching to them sundry robes or colored blankets. The tradition of 
 this great serpent resembles the Mandan tradition, but with some dif- 
 ferences.' 
 
 § 347. Bamonism.— The Hidatsa believe neither a hell nor in a devil, 
 but believe that there are one or more evil genii, in female shape, who 
 inhabit this earth, and may harm the Indian in this life, but possess no 
 power beyond the grave. Such a power or powers they call ]\rahopa- 
 miis. The Mahopa-miis dwells in the woods and delights in doing 
 evil. She is supposed to strangle such children as, through i)arental 
 ignorance or carelessness, are smothered in bed.^ 
 
 FETICHES. 
 
 § 348. Among the fetiches of the Hidatsa are the skins of every kind 
 of fox and wolf, especially the latter; and, therefore, when they go to 
 war, they always wear the stripe off the back of a wolf skin, with the 
 tail hanging down the shoulders. They make a slit in the skin through 
 which the warrior puts his head, so that the skin of the wolf's head 
 hangs down upon his breast. 
 
 Tribal fetiches. — Buffalo heads also are fetiches. In one of their vil- 
 lages they preserved the neck bones of the buffalo, as do the Crow or 
 Absaroka, and this is done with a view to prevent the buffalo herds 
 from removing to too great a distance from them. At times they per- 
 form the following ceremony with these bones : They take a potsherd 
 with live coals, throw sweet-smelling grass upon it, and fumigate the 
 bones with the smoke. 
 
 There are certain trees and stones which are fetiches, as among the 
 Mandan. At such places they offer red cloth, red paint, and other arti- 
 cles to the superhuman powers.^ (See § 334.) 
 
 In the iiriucipal Hidatsa village, when Maximilian visited it, was a 
 long pole set up, on which was a ligure of a woman, doubtless repre- 
 senting the Grandmother, who first gave them kettles. A bundle of 
 brushwood was hung on the pole, to which were attached the leathern 
 dress and leggins of a woman. The head of the figure was made of 
 Artemisia, and on it was a cap of feathers.* 
 
 § 349. Personal fetiches. — Matthews uses the term amulet instead of 
 personal fetich, in speaking of the Hidatsa: 
 
 Every man iu this tribe, as iu all ueighboring tribes, has his personal medicine, 
 which is usually some animal. Un all war parties, and often on hunts and other ex- 
 cursions, he carries the head, claws, stuU'ed skin, or other representative of liis med- 
 icine with him, and seems to regard it in much the same light that Europeans in 
 former days regarded — and in some cases still regard — protective charms. To insure 
 the fleetness of some promising young colt, they tie to the colt's neck a suuill piece of 
 
 'Maximilian, Travels « * * in North America, i). 402. 
 
 •■'U. S. Geol. and Geogr. Surv.. Hayden, Misccll. Publ. No. 7, 1877: Ethnol. and Philol. of Ilidat.sa 
 Indiana, pp. 49, 184. 
 ■'^^axiIlliIian. Travels ' * * in North America, pp. 399-400. 
 * Ibid, p. 390. 
 
516 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 deer or antelope horn. The rodent teeth of the heaver are regarded as potent charms, 
 and are -worn hy little girls on their necks to make them industrious.' 
 
 The ••Medicine Eoek'* of the Mandau and Hidatsa has been described 
 in § 329. 
 
 § 350. Oracles. — Matthews speaks of another oracle, to which the Hi- 
 datsa now often refer, the Makadistati, or house of infants, a cavern 
 near Knife Eiver, which they supposed extended far into the earth, but 
 whose entrance was only a span wide. It was resorted to by the child- 
 less husband or the barren wife. There are those among them who im- 
 agine that in some way or other their children come from the Makadis- 
 tati; and marks of coutu.sion on an infant, arising from tight swaddling 
 or other causes, are gravely attributed to kicks received from his former 
 comrades when he was ejected from his subterranean home.^ 
 
 § 351. James says : 
 
 At the distance of the journey of one day anda half from Knife Creek ^ ^ - j^j.^ 
 two conical hills, separated by about the distance of a mile. One of these hills was 
 supposed to impart a prolific virtue to such squaws as resorted to it for the j)urpose 
 of lamenting their barrenness. A person one day walking near the other hill, fancied 
 he observed on the top of it two very small children. Thinking that they had strayed 
 from the village, he ran towards them to induce them to return home, but they im- 
 mediately fled from him. * * * and in a short time they eluded his sight. Re- 
 turning to the village, the relation of his story excited much interest, and an Indian 
 set out the next day, mounted on a fleet horse, to take the little strangers. On the 
 approach of this person to the hill he also saw the cliildren, who ran away as before, 
 and though he tried to overtake them by lashing the horse to his utmost swiftness, 
 the children left him far behind. These children are no longer to be seen, and the 
 hill once of such singular eflicacy in rendering the human species prolific has lost this 
 remarkable property.^, 
 
 Matthews* says that this account seems to refer to the Makadistati, 
 but, if such is the case, he believes that the account is incorrect in some 
 respects. 
 
 § 352. The Hidatsa have much faith in dreams, but usually regard as 
 oracular only those which come after prayer, sacrifice, and fasting.^ 
 
 BERDACilES. 
 
 § 353. The French Canadians call those men berdaches who dress in 
 women's clothing and perform the duties usually allotted to women in 
 an Indian camp. By most whites these berdaches are incorrectly sup 
 posed to be hermaphrodites. They are caUed miati by the Hidatsa, 
 from mia, a woman, and the ending, ti, to feel an involuntary inclina- 
 
 1 Maximilian, Travels" * * * in Xorth America, p. 50. 
 ^Ibid. p. 51. 
 
 ^James's Account of Lome's Esped. to Rocky Mountains, vol. i, pp. 274. 27.">. 
 
 ^r.S. Geol. ami Geosr. Surv.. Uayden, Miscell. Publ.. No. 7, 1877: Ethuoi: and Philol. of Hidatsa 
 Indiiin.s, p. 51. 
 5 Ibid, p. 5U. 
 
^^'^-^^■'i ASTROXOMICAL AND FOOD LOhE. 51 
 
 01 i 
 
 tion, j. e., to be impelled af,'aiij.st bis will to act the woman. See the 
 Omaha mi"quga. the KaLsa mi'-ousre. and the Dakota wiijkta aud 
 wiijkte (§§ 30, 212.) 
 
 ASTROXOMICAL LORE. 
 
 § 354. Ursa major is said to be &a ermine, the several stars of that 
 constellation indicating, in their opinion, the bnrrow. the head, the 
 feet, and the tail of that animal. They call th^ milkv wav the --ashy 
 way.*' 
 
 They think that thunder is caused by the flapping ..i tue wmgs of 
 the large bird, which causes rain, and that the lightning is the glance 
 of his eye when he seeks prey. 
 
 They call the rainbow, '- the cap of the water,"' or - the cap of the 
 rain." Once, say they, an Indian caught in the autumn a red bird 
 that had mocked him, releasing it after binding its feet together with a 
 fish line. The bird saw a hare and i>ounced upon it, but the hare crept 
 into the skull of a buffalo lying on the prairie, and as the line hanging 
 from the bird's claws formed a semicircle, they imagine that the rain- 
 bow is still caused by that occurrence.' 
 
 FOOI> LOKE. 
 
 § 355. They have queer notions respecting the effects of different 
 articles of diet: thus: an expectant mother believes that if she eats a 
 part of a mole or shrew, her child will have small eyes; that if she 
 eats a piece of porcupine, her child will be inclined to sleep too much 
 when it grows up : that if she partakes of the flesh of the turtle, her 
 offspring will be slow or lazy, etc. : but they do not suppose that such 
 articles of food affect the immediate consumer. 
 
 FOUR SOULS IN EACH HUMAN BEING. 
 
 § 35G. " It is believed by some of the Hidatsa that every human being 
 has four souls in one. They account for the phenomena of gradual 
 death where the extremities are apparently dead while consciousness 
 remains, by sujiposing the four souls to depart, one after another, at 
 different times. AYhen dissolution is complete, they say that all the 
 souls are gone, and have joined together again outside of the body. I 
 have heard a Minnetaree quietly discussing this doctrine with an Assin- 
 neboine. who beUeved in only one soul to each body."^ 
 
 .-ORCERY. 
 
 § 357. ''They have faith in witchcraft, and think that a sorcerer may 
 injure a person, no matter how far distant, by acts upon an efligy or 
 upon a lock of the victim's hair." ^ 
 
 'Maximilian. Travels ' ' ' in Xorth America, p. 399. 
 
 T. S. Geol. and Geogr. Surv.. Hayden, Miscell. Publ., Xo. 7. 1877: EUinog. and Philol of Hidataa 
 Indians, p. 50. 
 »Ibid. p. 50. 
 
518 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD. 
 
 § 358. The Hidatsa always lay their dead upon scaffolds. As the 
 Lord of Life is displeased when they quarrel and kill one another, those 
 who do so are buried in the earth, that tbey may be no longer seen. In 
 this case a buflalo head is laid on the grave, that the herds of buffjilo 
 may not keep away, for, if they were to smell the wicked, they might 
 remoA'e and never return. The good are laid upon scaffolds, that they 
 may be seen by the Lord of Life.^ 
 
 The Crows have no fear of death, but they have a horror of being 
 buried in the ground.- 
 
 HIDATSA BELIEF AS TO FUTUKE EXISTENCE. 
 
 § 359. They think that after death they will be restored to the man 
 sions of their ancestors under ground, from which they are intercepted 
 by a large and rapid watercourse. Over this river, which may be com- 
 pared to the Styx of the ancients, they are obliged to pass on a very 
 narrow footway. Those Indians who have been useful to the nation, 
 such as brave warriors or good hunters, pass over with ease and arrive 
 safely at A-pah-he, or ancient village. But the worthless Indians slip 
 off' from the bridge or footway into the stream which * * * hurries 
 them into oblivion.^ 
 
 Their faith concerning a future hfe is this : When a Hidatsa dies his shade lingers 
 four nights around the camp or village in which he died, and then goes to the lodge 
 of his departed kindred in the Village of the Dead. When he has arrived there, he 
 is rewarded for his valor, self-denial, and ambition on earth by receiving the same 
 regard in the one place as in the other; for there, as here, the brave man is honored 
 and the coward despised. Some say that the ghosts of those who commit suicide 
 occupy a separate part of the village, but that their condition differs in no wise from 
 that of the others. In the next world, human shades hunt and live on the shades of 
 the buffalo and other animals that have here died. There too there are four seasons, 
 but they come in an inverse order to the terrestrial seasons. During the four nights 
 that the ghost is supposed to linger near his former dwelling, those who disliked or 
 feared the deceased, and do not wish a visit from the shade, scorch with red coals a 
 pair of moccasins, which they leave at the door of the lodge. The smell of the burn- 
 ing leather, they claim, keeps the ghost out ; but the true friends of the dead man 
 take no such precautions. * * * They believe in the existence and advisability 
 of human and other ghosts, yet they seem to have no terror of graveyards and but 
 little of mortuary remains. You may frighten children after nightfall by shouting 
 uohidahi (ghost), but will not scare the aged.-* 
 
 SAPONA CULTS. 
 
 § 359J. The following account of the religion of the Sapona, a tribe 
 related to the Tutelo, was given in^l729 by Col. William Byrd, of West- 
 over, Va.^ While much of it appears to be the white man's amj)lifica- 
 
 'Maximilian, Travels * * * in North America, pp. 404, 405. 
 '■^Ibid. p. 176. 
 
 ^Lewis aud Clarke's Exped., edited by Allen, vol. I, p. 280. 
 
 <U. S. Geol. and Geogr. Surv., Hayden, Miscall. Publ., No. 7, 1877: Ethnog. and Philol. of Hidat.sa 
 Indians, p. 49. 
 6 Byrd, history of the dividing line (1729), vol. I, 106-108. Keprint: 18G6. 
 
DORSEY] SAPONA CULTS. 519 
 
 tiou of the ludiau's narrative, it is plain that the account contains 
 a lew aboriginal beliefs. For this reason, and because it is the only 
 known account of tiie Sapona religion, it is now given in full: 
 
 "In the eveuing we examined our friend Bearskin concerning the religion of his 
 country, and he explained it to us, without any of that reserve to which his nation 
 is suhject. He told us he believed there was one supreme God, who had several 
 subaltern deities under him. And that this Master-God made the world a long time 
 ago. That He told the sun. the moon and stars their business in the beginning, 
 •which they, with good looking after, have faithfully performed ever since. That the 
 same Power that made all things at tirst has taken care to keep them in the same 
 method and motion ever since. He believed God had form'd many worlds before He 
 form'd this, but that those worlds either grew old or ruinous, or were destroy'd for 
 the dishonesty of the inhal)itants. That God is very just and very good— ever well 
 pleas'd with those men Avho possess those God-like qualities. That He takes good 
 people under His safe protection, makes them very rich, iills their bellies plentifully, 
 preserves them from sickness and from being surpriz'd or overcome by their enemies. 
 But all such as tell lies and cheat * * * He never fails to punish with sickness, 
 poverty and hunger, and after all that, suffers them to be knockt on the head and 
 scalpt by those that light against them. He believed that after death both good and 
 bad people are conducted by a strong guard into a great road, in which departed 
 souls travel together for some time till, at a certain distance this road forks into 
 two paths', the one extremely levil, the other stony and mountainous. Here the 
 good are parted from the bad by a flash of lightning, the first being hurry'd away 
 to the right, the other to the left. The right hartd road leads to a charming warm 
 country, where the spring is everlasting, and every month is May; and as the year 
 is always in its youth, so are the people, and particularly the women are bright as 
 the stars, and never scold. That in this happy climate there are deer, turkeys, elk, 
 and buffaloes innumerable, perpetually fat and gentle, while the trees are loaded 
 with delicious fruit quite throughout the four seasons. That the soil brings forth 
 corn spontaneously, without the curse of labour, and so very wholesome, that none 
 who have the happiness to eat of it are ever sick, grow old or dy. Near the entrance 
 into this blessed land sits a venerable old man on a mat richly woven, who examins 
 strictly all that are brought before him, and if they have behav'd Avell, the guards 
 are order'd to open the crystal gate and let them enter the land of delights. The 
 left hand path is very rugged and uneven, leading to a dark and barren country, 
 where it is always winter. The ground is the Avhole year round cover'd with snow, 
 and nothing is seen upon the trees but icicles. All the people are hungry, yet have 
 not a morsel to eat except a bitter kind of potato, that gives them the dry-gripes, 
 and fills their whole body with loathsome ulcers, that stink and are insupportably 
 painful. Here all the Avomen are old and ugly, having claws like a panther, with 
 which they fly upon the men that slight their passion. For it seems tliese haggard 
 old furies are intolerably fond, and expect a vast amount of cherishing. They talk 
 much, and exceedingly shrill, giving exquisitepain to the drum of the ear, which in 
 that place of torment is so tender, that every sharp note wounds it to the quick. At 
 the end of this path sits a dreadful old Avoman on a monstrous toadstool, whose head 
 is cover'd with rattlesnakes instead of tresses, Avith glaring Avhite eyes, that strike a 
 terror unspeakable into all that behold her. This hag pronounces sentence of woe 
 upon all the miserable Avretches that hold up their hands at her tribunal. After this 
 they are deliver'd ovev to huge turkey-buzzards like harpys, that fly away Avith them 
 to the place above mentioned. Here, after they have been tormented a certain num- 
 ber of years, according to their several degrees of guilt, they are again driven back 
 into this world, to try if they Avill mend their manners, and merit a i)lace next time 
 in the regions of bliss. " 
 
 ' See the Omaha belief, in J 68. 
 
CHAPTER YII. 
 
 CONCLUDING REMARKS. 
 PEET ON INDIAN RELIGIONS. 
 
 § 360. lu the Journal of the Victoria Institute of Great Britain for 
 1888/ is an article containing the following- statements, which were not 
 seen by the writer until lie had completed the preceding chapters of this 
 pajoer. 
 
 Referring to Mr. Eells, the Nez Perce missionary, and to Mr. Wil- 
 liams, who lias been laboring among the Chiiipewas, ]Mr. Peet observes:^ 
 
 There are four or five poiats on ■which botli missionaries seem to be agreed *^ *f * 
 These four doctrines — the existence of God, immortality of the soul, the sinfulness of 
 man, and the necessity of sacrifice — seem to have been held in various modified forms 
 by all the tribes in North America. 
 
 On the next page^ he gives a classification of native religions, by 
 which lie means those of America. He says that these religions may 
 be (li%ided by geographical districts into several classes: 
 
 (1) Shamanism, by which he seems to mean the worship) of the wakan 
 men and women. '' Among the Eskimos, Aleuts, aud other hyperborean 
 nations, who subsist chiefly by fishing." (2) Animism, by which he 
 jnobably means the worship of "souls'' or "shades,"' including ghosts, 
 as every object, whether animate or inanimate, is thought to have a 
 " shade." This belief, he says, is found in its highest stage among tribes 
 that formerly dwelt in British Xortli America, between Hudsons Bay 
 and the Great Lakes. These tribes subsist by hunting. (3) Animal 
 worship, practiced by a class partly hunters, partly farmers, dwelling, 
 say, between 35° and 48° N. lat. (4) Sun Avorship, the cult of the 
 tribes south of 35° ^. lat., and extending to the Gulf of Mexico. 
 (5) Elemental worship, which he defines as "the worship of rain, light- 
 ning, the god of war and death," found in Mexico and New Mexico. 
 (G) Anthropomorphism, a religion which gave human attributes to 
 the divinities, but assigned to them supernatural i)owers. This pre- 
 vailed in Central America. 
 
 iRev. S. D. Peet, on the tradition of aborigines of Xorth America, in Jour. Vict. Inst., Vol. XXI, pp. 
 229-247. 
 2 1 bid., p.2:j2. 
 'ibiil., p.233. 
 520 
 
DORSET.] THE author's KEPLY. 521 
 
 THE AITTIIOE's REPLY. 
 
 § 361. But what do we tiud preval(Mit aiuoiii? the tribes under coii.sid- 
 eratiou in this paper ? 
 
 I. Idea of God. — The Siouan tribes cousidered in this paper were not 
 monotheists (§§ 20, W, 95, 311). The statement recorded in § 21 about 
 a crude belief in a Supreme Being, which the Omaha called Wakanda, 
 was accepted by the autlior as thebeliefof his informants; but we must 
 remember that the Omaha tribe has been in a transition state for many 
 years, certainly since 1855, and possibly since the days of Maj. Long's 
 visits to them. (2) That these Indians believed in a Great Spirit who 
 was supreme over all other superhuman x)owers needs more evidence. 
 The only assertion of such a belief which the author has gained was ob- 
 tained from an Omaha (see § 22), but this assertion was denied by two 
 other members of that tribe. (3) In those cases alleged as proving a 
 belief in one Great Spirit, a closer study of the language employed 
 reveals the fact that a generic term has been used instead of a specific 
 one, and, in almost every instance, the writer who tells of one Great 
 Spirit supplements his account by relating what he has learned about 
 beliefs in many gods or spirits. (4) These tribes had cults of many 
 j)Owers; everything animate and inanimate was regarded as having a 
 " shade." 
 
 II. Belief in immortality.— The author finds no traees of a behef inthe 
 immortality of human beings. Even the gods of the Dakota were 
 regarded as being mortal, for they could be killed by one another (§ 9-4). 
 They were male and female ; they married and died, and were succeeded 
 by their children. But if for" immortality" we substitute " continuous 
 existence as shades or ghosts" there will be no difficulty in showing that 
 the Siouau tribes referred to held such abelief respecting mankind, and 
 that they very probably entertained it in a crude form prioi- to the 
 advent of the white race to this continent (§§ 07-71, 91, 338). 
 
 III. Idea of sin.— The scriptural idea of sin seems to be wanting 
 among these tribes. There have been recorded by the author and others 
 many acts which were deemed violations of religious law, but few of 
 them can be compared with what the Bible declares to be sins. It was 
 dangerous to make a false report to the keeper of the sacred tent of war 
 or to the directors of the buffalo hunt, in the estimation of the Omaha, 
 for the offender was sure to be struck by lightning or bitten by a snake 
 or killed by a foe or thrown by a horse or have some other disaster 
 befall him.^ It was dangerous to break the taboo of any gens or subgens, 
 or to violate any other ancient custom.^ (See §§ 45, 08, 222, and 286 of 
 this i^aper.) 
 
 IV. Idea of sacrifice. — The idea of sacrifice as atoning for sin has 
 not yet been found by the author among these Siouan tribes. In no 
 
 •Om. Soc, 3d Ann. Kept. Bur. Ethnol., >^ 130, 137. 
 "Ibid., §^ 19, 21, 31, 97, etc. 
 
522 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 instance of sacrifice recorded in this paper has the author detected any 
 notion of expiation for sin against a just and lioly Being. But sacrifice, 
 whether in the form of fasting, self-torture, or the offering of property', 
 was made in order to win the fiivor of a god, to obtain a temi^oral 
 advantage (§§ 2S, 29, 101, 111, etc.), or to avert the anger of demons, as 
 when the peojile were suifering from famine or an epidemic (§ 141). 
 
 Y. ShamanisiH. — While there have been shamans and various orders 
 of shamans among these tribes, no trace of a worship of shamans as 
 gods has yet been found. Ou one occasion the author met a Ponka 
 shaman, Cramped Hand, who exclaimed, '' I am a wakanda. " But no 
 other Ponka ever said that he or she worshiped Cramped Hand as a 
 wakanda. 
 
 VI. The other beliefs named by Br. Peet have been found, in some 
 tribes, side bj^ side. Animism, or a form of animism, was held by those 
 who worshiped the sun, animals, etc. "Everything had a soul" (§§97, 
 130,1.37,205-288,311, etc.). Certain animals were ; worshiped (§§ 21, 
 43, 78, 92, 320, etc.). The sun was invoked, not only in the sun dance 
 (§§ 139-212), but on other occasions (§§ 28, 43, 73, 312, 323). Stars, too, 
 were regarded as gods (§§ 3L, 43). Elemental worship had a wider sig- 
 nificance among these tribes than Dr. Peet assigns it (§§ 27, 33-33, 43, 44, 
 74-77, 303, etc.). And there are traces of anthropomori^hism, for some 
 of the gods are in human form (§§ 217, 235); others are supposed to 
 inhale the odor of tobacco smoke, which is jdeasant to them; they eat, 
 breathe, use weapons against one another as well as against human 
 beings, and on one occasion an Indian was called on to aid one or the 
 other of two contending gods; they hear, think, marry, die, and are 
 succeeded by their children (§§ 25, 29, 35, 30, 72, 75, 94, 109, 112, 117, 
 119, 130, 217, 322,etc.).i 
 
 § 302. The cults affected the social organization of the tribes that had 
 gentes bearing mystic names (see §§ 57 and 82 of this paper, and Om. 
 Soc, in 3d An. Eept. Bur. Eth., Chap, iii, and pp. 350, 359-301); orders 
 of shamans and other secret societies were intimately associated with 
 them (§§ 43-45, 80, 87, and 89; and Om. Soc, pp. 342-355); personal 
 names still refer to them (§§ 31, 47, 53, 59, 74, 75, and 77; and Om. Soc, 
 pp. 228, 232, 230, 238-244, 240-218, 250, and 251); and almost every act 
 of the daily life of the people was influenced by them (§§ 23, 24, 27, 28-30, 
 32,-3.3-30, 39-41, 54, 101, etc.; and Om. Soc, Chap, vi, and pp. 207, 274, 
 280, 287, 289-291, 293-299, 310, 319-325, 327, 328, 357, 308-370). 
 
 CULTS OF THE ELEMENTS. 
 
 § 303. Prior to writing this paper, the author had observed what Dr. 
 Foster stated in his Indian Eecord and Historical Data respecting the 
 division of the Winnebago tribe into four groups, named after the 
 earth, air, fire, and water, respectively, i. e., Foster claimed that the 
 Winnebago had people named after land animals, others after birds and 
 
 iSee Am. Xatuialist, July. 1885, pp. 673, 674, Figs. :i and 4. 
 
DORSET.! 
 
 CULTS OF THE ELEMENTS. 
 
 523 
 
 \NAR 
 
 the winds, others after the thiiiider-beiuiis, and (Others after the 
 "Waktceqi or water monsters.' (See § 06.) 
 
 During the year 1890 the author obtained from the three principal 
 Ponka chiefs the classification of their 
 gentes by phratries, and the character 
 of the mystic songs peculiar to each 
 phratry. 
 
 On comparing this information witli 
 that which has been related about the 
 Dakota gods, there seemed to be good 
 reasons for inferring that not only the 
 Dakota tribes, but also the Omaha, 
 Ponka, Winne-bago, and others of the 
 same stock, divided their gods into fou 
 classes, those of the earth, wind-mak- 
 
 SrS, fire, and water. i"i«- 193.— TUo Catada goutile clrole. 
 
 § 364. Among the Omaha, Iowa, and cognate tribes, we find that wlien 
 a gens assembled as a whole, for council purposes, they sat around the 
 fire in the order shown in the accompanying diagram, Fig. 193: 
 
 Legend.— 1, Black Bear subgens; 2, Small Bird subgens; 3. Eagle siibtrens; 4, 
 Turtle subgens; 5. fireplace; 6. eutrance. 
 
 Places in the_ circle were assigned according to kinship; thus, the 
 
 Black Bear and Small Bird i)eople are 
 spoken of as "sitting on the same side 
 of the fireplace,'' as they are full kin, 
 while they are only partially related to 
 those who sit on the other side (Xos. 3 
 and 1). That the fireplace was sacred, 
 there being traces of a hearth cult, has 
 been shown in §§ 33 and 40. Further- 
 more, the (/'atada circle is remarkable 
 not only for its arrangement according 
 to kinship, but for its symbolic char- 
 acter; because the Black Bear people 
 are associated with the ground or earth, 
 as is shown by their personal names; 
 the Small Bird people are Thunder-beings or Fire people; the Eagle 
 subgens consist of "Wind-maker" people; and the Turtle subgens is 
 composed of Water people. 
 
 § 365. This suggests another diagram. Fig. 194, in which the author 
 has put the names of four classes of Dakota gods, with what he sus- 
 pects to be their appropriate colors, R standing for red, B for black, Y 
 for yellow, and Bl for blue. 
 
 'The reader in cautioned against siipposiTig tliat "air" as used in this section is employed lu the 
 scientitic sense, because the Indians were ignorant of the nature of the atmosphere. Tliey distin- 
 guish between the '• Somethiiig-thatmoves" (which we term the '-Wind-maker," "Wind-makers" 
 in the plurab and the winds, and they also had distinct names for the clouds and '' uiii)er world." 
 They also bad special names for the Four Quarter.s (Dakota, tatuye topa ; (pegiha, tade iiiifd dubaha). 
 
 PEACE 
 
 Fig. 194.— The four elements, etc. 
 
524 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 Earth people serve or assist Fire people (§ 35 aud perhaps § 36). Do 
 Water people ever serve Wind-maker people (see address to a stream 
 iu time of war, § 23) ? The Fire powers are hostile to the powers of the 
 Warter (§§ 75, 77, 117-110); we have yet t'> learn whether, in any gens, 
 a subg'ens named after the Thnnder-being sits on the same side of the 
 gentile fireplace with a snbgens named after a power of the W^ater. Is 
 there a warfare going on between the x>owers of the Earth and the 
 W^ind-makers? The Fire powers and Wind-makers are concerned in 
 all kinds of sufl'ering, including war, disease, and death (§§ 117, 119, 
 127, 129), and there is no hostility existing between them.^ 
 
 The Ka"se gens of the Osage has several names. Wind people. South- 
 wind people. Those who light the pipes (in council), aud Fire x^eople. 
 
 The powers of the Earth and Water are interested in the preservation 
 of life, and so we may consider them the patrons of peace. "Peace," 
 iu Omaha, Ponka, and j^oiwere, means "The land is good," and "to 
 make peace" is expressed by " to make the land good." The words for 
 "water "and "life" are identical in some of the Siouan languages, and 
 thej' differ but slightly in others. 
 
 It is interesting to note what has been said by Mr. Francis La 
 Flesche^ about water: "Water seems to hold an important place in 
 the practice of this medicine society, even when roots are used for the 
 healing of wounds. The songs say : ' Water was sent into the wound, 
 ' Water will be sent into his wound,' etc." The mystic songs of the 
 doctors of the order of buffalo shamans tell of the pool of water in a 
 buffalo wallow where the wounded one shall be treated. 
 
 But we must note some apparent inconsistencies. While the UnkteHi 
 created the earth and the human race (§ 112), they are believed to feed 
 on human spirits or ghosts; though ghosts are reckoned among the serv- 
 ants of the Unktehi ! And while the powers of the Fire and Water are 
 enemies, one is surprised to observe that in the war gens of the Omaha 
 as well as in the two war gentes of the Kansa, there is the sacred clam 
 shell as well as the war pipe ! (See § 36 aud Om, Soc, p. 226.) 
 
 THE FOUR QUARTERS. 
 
 § 366. According to the tradition of the liike-sabe, an Omaha buffalo 
 people, the ancestral buffaloes found the East and South winds bad 
 ones 5 but the North and West winds were good. From this the author 
 infers that the Omaha associated the East with the Fire powers or the 
 sun, the South^ with the Air powers, the North with the Earth powers, 
 and the West with the Water powers. 
 
 On the other hand, an Iowa man told Mr. Hamilton that the South 
 
 •See § 33 where tliere is an account of the invocation of the winds at the consecration of the fire- 
 places. 
 
 2 The Omaha Buffalo Medicine Men, in Jour. Amer. Folk lore, No. x, p. 219, and note. 
 
 ^It is interesting to observe in this connection that the Director of the Bureau of Ethnology, in an 
 address entitled " Outlines of the philosophy of the North American Indians." New York, 1877, 
 (p. 10), spoke of " the god of the south, whose breath i.s the winds." 
 
DORSET.] 
 
 THE FOUR QUARTERS. 
 
 525 
 
 Wind was a bsneficeut cue, while the Northeast wind was maleficent 
 (§ i-i). This variation may have been caused by a difference in the hab- 
 itats of the tribes referred to. 
 
 § 3G7 Among the Kansa, Paha-'le-gaqli and AH^kawahu, when they 
 mvoked the four winds, began at the left (as they were Yata i,eo,>Ie) 
 with the East wind (Baza"ta, Toward the Pines), next they turned to 
 the South wind (Ak'a, whenceoneof the names of the Ka"ze gens), then 
 to the West wind (Ak'a jinga or Ak'uye), and lastly to the North wind 
 (Hnita, Toward the Coldj.' (See Fig. 195.) 
 
 It should be noted that those Kansa war captains, Pahaqe-gaqli and 
 Aii"kawahu, belong to gentes on the left side of the tribal circle They 
 were focing the South before they began the invocations to the various 
 powers including the four winds. See § 200 for the order (E S 
 \^ , N) observed in felling the tree to be used as a sun pole. The s'ame 
 
 w 
 
 s 
 
 Fig. 195.— Kansa order of invoking the 
 winds, etc. 
 
 4 
 
 S 
 
 Fig. 196.— Tsiju (Osage) order of placing the 
 four sticks, etc. 
 
 order was observed by the Dakota "priest" in the ceremonies pertain- 
 ing to the White Buffalo festival of the Hunkpapa, as related by Miss 
 Fletcher: in placing cherries on the plate, in pouring water on the piles 
 of cherries, in placing tufts of swan's down on the plate^, in rotatino- 
 the plate, in circling the heap of black earth', and in giving the four 
 pinches of consecrated meat to the four sons of the owner of the white 
 buffalo hide.* 
 
 § 368. The Tciou old man of the Osage tribe consecrated each mystic 
 hearth by placing four sticks in the form of a cross, beginning at the 
 west, as shown in Fig. 19G, then laying the sticks at the north, east, and 
 south, as he named the four mystic buffaloes (§ 33). This Tsiou man 
 belonged to the peace side of his tribe, and he began with the quarters 
 referring to the peace elements. But the Pa"qka old man of the same 
 tribe, when he consecrated the mystic fireplaces for his half-tribe, began 
 on the right, with the stick at the east, as shown in Fig. 197. He 
 belonged to the war side of the tribe, though his gens was a peace- 
 makiua' sreus ! 
 
 'Am. Naturalist, July, 1885, p. 676. 
 
 'Au. Kept. Peabody Museum, vol. iii, p. 267. 
 
 3Il)id. ]). 268. 
 
 ^Iliid. ]>]>. 272, 273. 
 
526 
 
 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 § 309. The Ma'^yinka and Upa" geutes of the Kansa tribe couse- 
 crated the mystic flrephices for their people; but we have not obtained 
 the particulars of the Kansa ceremony, which probably resembled that 
 in Avhich the Tsiou and Pa"qka old men took part. 
 
 According to Two Crows and the late Joseph La Fleche, there were 
 four sacred stones in the custody of the Ma"(|'irdva-gaxe or Earth-lodge- 
 makers' gens of the Omaha: red, black, yellow, and blne.^ 
 
 § 370. Whenever the Osage warriors came in sight of their village on 
 returning from an expedition against the enemy, they were met outside 
 the village by the principal man of the Ka"se (the Wind or South 
 wind gens.) This Ka"se man walked around the warriors, performing 
 a ceremony as he started from the north, repeating it at each quarter^ 
 and ending with the east, as shown in Fig. 198. 
 
 N 
 
 w- 
 
 Fiii 
 
 l'.)7. — Pa°qka (Osage) order of placing the 
 four sticks, etc. 
 
 Fig. 198. — Ka"se (Osaire) order of circuraam- 
 biilatiou. 
 
 § 371. Assuming that we have a correct grouping of the four ele- 
 ments in Fig. 194, it appears that Paha"le-gaqli and Ali"kawahu began 
 with the quarters associated with war; that the Tsiou old man began 
 with those referring to peace, and the ra"fika old man with those per- 
 taining to war, and the principal man of the Ka"se gens with those on 
 the peace side. 
 
 § 372. In cutting off the un- 
 der skin from a scalp, the Os- 
 age war captain — 
 
 stood facing the East * ^ ^ 
 
 E Holding- the scalp in one hand, with 
 
 the other he placed the knife-blade 
 
 across it, with the point toward the 
 
 South (see Fig. 109). Thenhe turned 
 
 the Ivuife with the point toward the 
 
 East. Next, with the bhide resting 
 
 on the scalp, the point to the South, 
 Fir,. 199.— ShowinR bow tho Osage prepared tbe ;>c;>!p for , i ^-i i ■<• i i i i 
 
 the dance. he moved the knite backward and 
 
 forward four times, cutting deeper into the .scalp on each occasion. Then he made four 
 
 similar cuts, but with the point to the East. After this, the Hat part of the blade 
 
 'Om. Soc, 3d An. Rept. Bur. Ethu.. p. 242. 
 
DORSEY.l SYMBOLIC COLORS. 527 
 
 beiii;;,' on the scalp, its edge was put against one of the four corners made by the 
 previous incisions (1, 2, 3, and i), beginning with No. 1. He cut under each corner 
 four times, singing a sacred song each time that he changed the position of the knife. 
 * ' * The scalp was stretched and fastened to a bow, which was bent and formed 
 into a hoop. This hoop was tied to a pole, which was carried by the iirinci[)al kettle- 
 bearer.' 
 
 Observe that in this ceremouy the tSoiith and P^ast Mere the mystic 
 quarters, answering to tlie "bad winds" of the Inke-sabe tradition. 
 
 When the Dakota '-priest," referred to in § 307, wished to rotate the 
 plate containing- the cherries and down, he grasped tlie plate with his 
 right hand (note tliat the riglit side of the Osage circle was the war 
 side) between the east and south piles of cherries and his left hand 
 (compare with custom of Tsiou gens of Osage, § 3C8) held the plate 
 between the west and north i)i]es.- 
 
 In the Hede-watci, the (Jmaha women and girls danced from the east 
 to the south, and thence to the west and north, while the men and boys 
 proceeded in a difierent order, beginning at the west, and dancing 
 toward the north, and thence toward the east and south.^ 
 
 SYMBOLIC COLORS. 
 
 § 373. On the tent of Hupe^a (PI. xliv, e), a black bear man, were 
 represented four kinds of lightning — blue, red, black, and yellow. This 
 ^^■■UE was a mystery decoration (§ 4.j), and 
 
 if the colors were associated with the 
 four (juarters, the powers were proba- 
 bly invoked in the order shown in Fig. 
 200. (See ^ 340, 300.) 
 
 RED 
 
 § 374. Blue is assumed to be the 
 earth symbol for two reasons: (1) In 
 the decorations of those who have had 
 visions of bears, there is a broad blue 
 band, representing the earth, out of 
 ^•^^ which the bear is sometimes depicted 
 
 Fig. 200 — Oniali.i li"liliiiiii;s ami the lour . . ,o\ i .i" j-i , ^i 
 
 ciuiriters. as issuing; (2) and, furthermore, the 
 
 Indians seldom distinguish between blue and green, hence, blue may 
 symbolize grass and other vegetation, springing from the earth. In 
 apparent contradiction of this use of blue, we are told by Lynd that 
 "the Tunkan is painted red as a .sign of active worship" (see § 132), 
 and by Riggs (§ 133) that large bowlders were adorned with red and 
 green paint, though the use of the two colors may have depended on a 
 composite cult. In this connection attenticm is called to the battle 
 standards represented on the tent of ^jejequta, an Omaha. These 
 painted standards had red and blue stripes, denoting the stripes of 
 
 N 
 W 
 
 1 
 
 E 
 
 4. 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 S 
 
 3 
 
 
 'Osage AVar Customs, in Aui. Xaturaliat, Feb., 1884, pp. 131, 132. 
 
 'The west and north are supposed to be tlie jieace quarters, and the east and smUh the \var(]uarters. 
 See Fijr. 194 and § 378. 
 30tn. Soc, p. 299. 
 
528 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 ludian cloth, sometimes used instead of feathers on the real standards. 
 The latter were carried by the leaders of war parties, and each stand- 
 ard could be used on four such expeditious. When the warriors aii- 
 j)roached the hostile camp, the keeper of the standard removed the 
 scarf of blue aud red cloth from the shaft and wore it around his neck 
 as he went to steal horses (see PI. xliv, a, the name Bowlder Thunder- 
 being- in § 390, also § 388). 
 
 § 375. Red is known to be the Omaha color for the east. Amongthe 
 Dakota the spear and tomahawk, the weapons of war, were said to 
 have been given by the Wakinyan, the Thunder-being' or Fire power; 
 hence they are painted red (§ 105). 
 
 The late Dr. S. R. Rigg's informs us that — 
 
 In the tiyotipi were placed the Inindles of the black and red sticks of the soldiers.' 
 Toward the rear of the tent, but near enough to the fire for convenient use, is a 
 large pipe placed by the symbols of power. These are two bundles of shaved sticks 
 about 6 inches long. The sticks in one bundle are painted black and in the other red. 
 The black bundle represents the real men of the camp — those who have made their 
 mark on the warpath. The red bundle represents the boys and such men as wear no 
 eagle feathers. - 
 
 They shave out small round sticks all of the same length, and paint them red, and 
 they are given out to the men. These are to constitute the tiyotipi. * * * Of 
 all the round shaved sticks, some of which were painted black and some painted 
 red, four were especially marked. They are the four chiefs of the tiyotipi that were 
 made. 3 
 
 § 376. Black is assumed to be the symbolic color for the Takuskan- 
 skan, the Wind-makers, whose servants are the four winds and the four 
 black spirits of night. Black as a war color is put on the face^ of the 
 warrior. The Santee Dakota consider the raven (a black bird) aud a 
 small black stone, less than a hen's egg in size, symbols of the four 
 winds or quarters. Among the Teton Dakota,' the Takuskanskan 
 symbols, are small pebbles of two kinds, one white, and, according- to the 
 description, translucent; the other "resembles ordinary pebbles," prob- 
 ably in being- opaque. 
 
 § 377. Yellow is assumed to be the color symbolizing water, the west, 
 and the setting sun. The Dakota, Omaha, Ponka, and j^oiwere tribes 
 have been familiar for years with the color of the water in the Missouri 
 river. In a Yankton Dakota legend^ recorded by the author it is said 
 that when two mystery men prepared themselves to visit a spirit of the 
 water in order to recover an Indian boy, one of the men painted his 
 entire body black, and the other painted himself yellow (this seems to 
 refer to the south and west, the windmakers and the spirits of the 
 waters). 
 
 In certain Omaha tent decoraticms we find that the tent of a Turtle 
 man (Fig. IGl) has a yellow ground. A similar yellow ground on the 
 
 ' Contr. to N. A. Ethnol., vol. ix, Dakota Grammar, Texts, and Ethnography, p. 193. 
 
 2Ibid.,p. 197. 
 
 3 From Renville's account of the tiyotipi, in ibid., pp. 200, 202. 
 
 «Om. Soc, p. 317. Osage War Customs, pp. 118, 119, 124, 131. 
 
 = Contr. y. A. Ethnol., vol. vi. The Cegiha Language, p. 375. 
 
DORSEY.] 
 
 SYMBOLIC COLORS. 
 
 529 
 
 tent of Ma"tcu-na"ba of the Ilauoa gens (Fig. 174) may be connected 
 with the tradition that the llanga geus came originally from beneath the 
 water. Too much stress, however, must not be placed upon the colors 
 of such mystery decorations, as they may be found hereafter to have 
 had another origin. It is conceivable, although we have no means of 
 proving it, that he who had a vision, depicted on his robe and tent not 
 only the colors pertaining to the objects seen in the vision, but also the 
 color pecnliar to the eponymic ancestor or power that was the " nikie" 
 (§ 53). As some men were members of more than one order of 
 shamans, their tent and robe decorations may refer to the one order 
 rather than to the other, and sometimes there may be a reference to 
 both orders. The yellow on the top of the tent of Frog, an Ictasanda 
 man, was said to refer to a grizzly bear vision {Jide George Miller, an 
 Omaha — see Fig. 177.) But when we compare it with PI. xliv, d, show- 
 ing the tent of a Hahga man, who was a Buffalo shaman as well as 
 a Grizzly Bear shaman, we find that the top of the latter tent has a 
 yellow band (apparently pointing to the Hafiga tradition of an aquatic 
 origin), as well as a blue band at the bottom (referring to the grizzly 
 bear vision). 
 
 § 378. From what has been said respecting the figures 194-199, we 
 are led to make the following provisional coordinations : 
 
 Dakota soil. 
 
 Element . 
 
 Qnarter. 
 
 Co 
 
 or. 
 
 Tunkan 
 
 Wakiuyan 
 
 Takuiikanskau - 
 Unktelii 
 
 Earth 
 
 File 
 
 North 
 
 Blue 1 
 
 j;,.(l 1 
 
 East 
 
 South 
 
 Wiudinakers. .. 
 Water 
 
 IJhick 1 
 
 West 
 
 Tellow 
 
 
 
 
 Note. — The uaines of the Dakota gods are giveu because we have more inlorma- 
 tioD about them, aud the exact Omaha equivalent for Takuskanskan has uot beeu 
 obtained. 
 
 § 379. Miss Fletcher gave, in 1884, a list of symbolic colors, which 
 differs somewhat from that which the author has suggested in the pre- 
 ceding section. She said : 
 
 White, Line, red, and yellow possess different meaning, yet are not very clearly 
 determined by all tribes. ' Among the Dakotas the following interpretation i)revails : 
 White is seldom used artificially; when it occurs in nature, as the white buffalo, 
 deer, rabbit, etc., and on the plumage of birds, it indicates consecration. The sacred 
 feathers and down are always white,- the former being taken from the under jiart of 
 the eagle's wing and are soft and downy. This meaning of white holds good with 
 the Omalias, Poncas, etc., and seems to have a wide a])plication among the Indians. 
 Blue represents the winds, the west, the moon, the water, the thunder, and some- 
 times the lightning. * * * Red indicates the sun, the stone, the forms of animal 
 and vegetable life, the procreati ve force. Yellow represents sunlight as distinguished 
 from the fructifying power of the sun.' 
 
 ' The author accepts thia without he.sitation. 
 
 2 Yet the.so feathers and down are often colored: see JJ 112. 116, i:i2. 2:i9, 242, and 263. 
 3An. Keiit. Peahody Museum, Vol. Ul, p. 285, note 10. Written in 1882. 
 11 ETH 34 
 
530 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 The author has never observed this use of white as a symbolic color. 
 lu speaking of albino animals, we infer that to the Siouan mind they 
 are consecrated because they are rare. In fact, Miss Fletcher says: 
 
 The white buffalo is rare and. generally remains near the center of the herd, which 
 makes it difficult of approach. It is therefore considered as thex;hief or sacred one 
 of the herd; and it is consequently greatly prized by the Indians.' 
 
 While the author is convinced of the great value of Miss Fletcher's 
 investigations, he inquires concerning the veracity of her interpreters. 
 He would like to see more detailed evidence before he accepts as the 
 Dakota classification one which puts in the same category not only the 
 winds and thunder, but also the water, the west, and the moon. He 
 also asks why should the moon be separated from the sun (see § 138), 
 and why should the w^est be the only quarter symbolized by a color ! 
 Besides, the Dakota shamans say that the Thunder-beings are of four 
 colors, black, yellow, scarlet, and blue (see § IIG). 
 
 In response to the wish of the author. Miss Fletcher has kindly fur- 
 nished him with the following letter of explanation, received after the 
 rest of the paper had been written : 
 
 Consecration as applied to the color white in the article you have quoted needs a 
 few words of explanation. 
 
 The almost universal appropriation of white animals to religious ceremonies is 
 unquestionable; whether this selection rests wholly upon the rarity of this color is a 
 little doubtful. The unusual is generally wakan; this feeling, however, is not con- 
 fined to a color, and although the white buffalo and the white deer are not often met 
 with, other white animals, as the rabbit, are not uncommon, nor are white feathers. 
 It is true these white feathers are often colored for ceremonial uses, but the added 
 colors have their particular meanings, and these do not seem to override the j)rimal 
 signification that the feathers selected to bear these symbolic colors are white. The 
 natural suggestion that a white ground would best serve to set off the added lines 
 may have been in the distant past the simple reason why white feathers were chosen ; 
 and this choice adhered to for generations would at last become clothed with a mys- 
 terious significance. If this were ever true, this reason for choosing white feathers 
 is not recognized to-day. I have beeu frequently told, the feathers must be Avhite. 
 
 While I should now hesitate to say that white symbolizes consecration, still, after 
 continued study, Ifindthe idea clingingabout the color, which, as I said then, is sel- 
 dom artificially used. 
 
 Various symbolic colors are not infrequently placed upon one object, so that tne 
 combining of symbols,^ or even their occasional exchange, docs not seem discordant 
 to the Indian mind; fhis fact among others renders it difficult to draw a hard and 
 fast line about any OTie color or symbol. 
 
 Further research has shown me that green and blue and black are related and that 
 to a degree green and blue are interchangeable. Blue is regarded as a darkened 
 green; that is, green removed from the light, not deepened in hue. Blue, therefore, 
 stands intermediate between green which has the light on it, and blue shaded into 
 black, which has no light on it. In some ceremonies green typifies the earth; in 
 others blue is the symbol. The sky is sometimes representedby green, and again blue 
 is used, while blue darkened to black stands for the destructive elements of the air. 
 
 'An. Kept. Pcabody Museiun, Vol. in, p. 260. 
 
 'Ah it was customary for geutes of the same phratry to exchange personal names, a (Kansa) l)eer 
 name, for inst.-ince, being given to a (Kansa) Bufialo man, and vice verm, tlie author thinks that an 
 exchange of s\-mbolic colors might be expected. Compare what Matthews tells about the exchange 
 of white aiul black among the Navajo, in § 380. 
 
'^OKSEY] SYMBOLIC COLORS. 531 
 
 I have found a subtle connection between the elenientH of earth and air that 
 answers somewhat to the blendinfj of the symbolic colors just spoken of. This con- 
 nection is revealed in the reciprocal or complementary functions of gentes belonging 
 to these two great divisions represented in the tribal structure, as well as in the 
 reactionary character of the elements themselves as jiortrayed in the myths and typi- 
 fied in some ceremonies. For instance, the eagle mythically belongs to the air, and 
 is allied to the destructive powers of the element and to wars upon the earth, yet the 
 Eagle gens, although connected with the air division of the gentes, is in some tribes 
 a peace gens. An enemy escaping to the tent of an Eagle man is safe and can not be 
 molested. In symbols eagle feathers are not only the pride and emblem of the war- 
 rior but they are essential in certain ceremonies of amity and pea(!e-making. 
 
 A study of the position of gentes belonging to the divisions of earth and air, their 
 tribal and ceremonial duties, together with their mythological significance, shows 
 lines connecting the gentes of the earth witli the gentes of the air wliich are vertical, 
 so to speak, and might be represented as running north and south on tlie tribal circle, 
 and indicating mediating offices as between contending or opposite forces. 
 
 It would occupy too much space to fully set forth my reasons for thinking blue- 
 black to be the symbol of the thunder ratlier than red and yellow. Although thunder 
 is allied to the four quarters, to the four elemental divisions and partakes of their 
 symbolism, still a study of thunder myths, thunder-names, and the tribal offices of 
 thunder gentes seems to me, at my present understanding of them, to indicate the 
 blue-black as the persistent symbol. 
 
 I would not at this date make any un«iualified statement giving green, blue, or black 
 as the symbol of the west, the water, or the moon ; and although in some instances these 
 colors occur in connection with these objects of reverence, I am now inclined to class 
 these as incidental rather than as representative of the color symbols. 
 
 f)ne word regarding red and yellow. Red not only represents the sun and the pro- 
 creative forces (yet black is sometimes used in the latter), but the color carries with 
 it the idea of hope, the continuation of life. The dawn of the day, the east, is almost 
 without exceiition in these tribes denoted by red. This red line, forceful, aggressive, 
 yet life giving and hope-inspiring, starts from a war division of the tribal circle and 
 fades into yellow as it piusses into an opposite peace division in the west. Red and 
 yellow bear to each other a relation somewhat resembling that of blue and black, 
 only reversed; the red loses its intensity in yellow, the aggressive force symbolized 
 in the red is not expressed in the yellow. If the Indian's world were arched witli liis 
 symbolic colors, we should see a brilliant band of red start from the east and fade to 
 yellow in the west; while the green-blue line from the north would deepen to the 
 black of the south. In the first the intense color would rush from war into the mild 
 light of peace ; the second bright hue would spring from peace to be lost in the dark- 
 ness of war. Thus the two hold the tribe within the opi)osing yet complementary 
 forces which constitute tlie mystery of the relation between life and death. 
 
 I will not go further into this interesting subject nor revert to the revolution of 
 these symbolic colors as throwing light on tribal migrations and history. 
 
 Thanking you for this opportunity to modify some of my statements written nine 
 
 years ago, 
 
 I remain, cordially yours, 
 
 Alice C. Fletchkk. 
 Pkabody MuSEfM, 
 
 Cambridge, Mass., Janiiarif 3, 1891. 
 
 Ill the Word Carrier of November, 1890, published by A. L. Riggs, 
 at Santee Agency, Nebr., is uii article on page 30, from Mary C. Collins, 
 who is evidently one of the mission workers. She says: ''I went into 
 the sacred tent and talked with Sitting Bull. lie sat * * * oppo- 
 site the tent door. Hands and wrists were painted yellow and greeny 
 
532 
 
 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 face painted red, green, and white." (Did the four colors refer to the 
 elements?) "As I started toward him he said, 'Winona,' approach me 
 on the left side and shake my left hand with your left hand.'" (Does 
 the gens of Sitting Bull camp on the left side of the tribal circle, 
 occasioning the use of the left in all ceremonies, as among the Tsiou 
 gentes of the Osage? Or is the left the war side among the people of 
 Sitting Bull, as among the Kansa? See §§ 33 and 368.) 
 
 § 380. The following are the symbolic colors of the North Carolina 
 Cherokee, the Ojibwa, the Navajo, the Apache, the Zuiii, and the 
 Aztec : 
 
 Quarter, 
 etc. 
 
 Cherokee. 
 (a) 
 
 Ojibwa. 
 
 Navajo. 
 
 Apache. 
 
 Zuiii. 
 
 Aztec. 
 
 (6) 
 
 (c) 
 
 (d) 
 
 ie) 
 
 (f) 
 
 (9) 
 
 (h) 
 
 (») 
 
 East 
 
 Ked, 1.... 
 
 White. 
 
 Red.-.. 
 
 White, 1 . . 
 
 Yellow 
 
 Black . . . 
 
 YeUow. 
 
 White, 4. 
 
 Yellow. 
 
 South 
 
 White, 4. 
 
 Green . 
 
 Green . . 
 
 Blue, 2 
 
 Red . . . 
 
 White . . 
 
 Green or 
 Blue.. 
 
 Ked, 3 . . . 
 
 White. 
 
 West 
 
 Black, 3.. 
 
 Ked . . . 
 
 White . 
 
 Yellow, 3 . 
 
 Blue. . . 
 
 Yellow.. 
 
 Black . . 
 
 Blue, 2 . . 
 
 Blue. 
 
 North 
 
 Blue, 2 . . . 
 
 Black . 
 
 Black.. 
 
 Black, 4... 
 
 White. 
 
 Blue .... 
 
 White . 
 
 Yellow,! 
 
 Red. 
 
 Upper world 
 
 
 
 
 Blue 
 
 
 
 
 All col- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 or.s, 5. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 White and 
 black in 
 
 
 
 
 Black, 6. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 spots. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sanligtit 
 
 
 
 
 Ked 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 a Mooney, in Jour. Am. Folklore, Vol. in, No. 8, Jan. -Mar., 1890, pp. 49, 50. 
 
 6 Hotfman, in Am. Anthropologist, July, 1889, pp. 217,218; from Sicosige, a second-degree Mide 
 of White Earth, Minn. 
 
 e Hoffman, iu ibid., p. 218; from Ojibwa, a fourth-degree Mide, from another locality. 
 
 d Matthews, in 5th An. Kept. Bur. Eth., p. 449. 
 
 e Mallery, from Thos. V. Ream's catalogue of relics of the ancient buildings of the southwest 
 table-lauds— quoted in Trans. Anthrop. Soc. of Washington, Vol. ill, 141, 1885. 
 
 / Gatschet, on Chiricahua Apache sun circle, in Trans. Anthrop. Soc. of Washington, Vol. Ill, 
 147, 1885. 
 
 (J Capt. J. G. Bourke, in a letter to the author, Dec. 4, 1890. In Nov., 1885, he obtained from a 
 San Carlos (Pinal) Apache green as the color for the north. 
 
 h Mrs. M. C. Stevenson, iu 5th An. Rept. Bur. Eth., p. 548. According to Dr. J. Walter Fewkes the 
 Hopi or Moki have a similar order of colors, the west having green (or blue). 
 
 i Kingsborough, Anticiuities of Mexico, Vol. vil ( fide Capt. J. G. Bourke). 
 
 According to Gatschet the Chiricalma Apache call the sun, when 
 in the east, " the black sun," and a tornado or gust of wind also is called 
 "black." (See §378.) 
 
 Matthews says that in rare cases white is assigned to the north and 
 black to the east, and that black represents the male and blue the 
 female among the Navajo. (See § 105 of this paper.) 
 
 § 381. The author calls special attention to the colors of the four 
 sacred stones of the Omaha Wolf gens, red, black, yellow, and blue 
 i. e., E., S,, W., N. ; see § 309), and to those on the tent of an Omaha 
 Black Bear man (see § 373, and PL. xliv, e, where the colors are given 
 in the order N., E., S., W.). He has uot'yet gained the colors for the 
 upper and lower worlds, though the Omaha offer the pipe to the " vener- 
 
 ' Winona, name of the first child if a daughter, not "first daughter." 
 
DOKSEv.i COLORS IN PERSONAL NAMES. 533 
 
 able man sittings above" and to tlie " venerable man below lying ou his 
 back/' (§127.) 
 
 In the tradition of the Tsiou wacta5[e gens of the Osage there is an 
 account of the finding of four kinds of rocks, black, blue or green, red, 
 and white. And from the left hind legs of fonr buH'alo bulls there 
 droi)[)ed to the ground four ears of corn and four i)unipkins.' The corn 
 and piinipkiu from the first buffalo were red, those from the second were 
 spotted, those fron-i the third were cade, i. e., dark or distant-black, and 
 those from the fourth were white. 
 
 Green, black, white, and gray are the traditional colors of the ances- 
 tral wolves, according to the Wolf people of the Winnebago, though for 
 "green" we may substitute '"blue," as the corresponding name for the 
 first son in that gens is Blue Sky. Among the personal names in the 
 Thunder-being subgens of the Winnebago are the tour color names, 
 Green Thunder-being, Black Thunder-being, White Thunder-being, and 
 Yellow Thunder-being (instead of Gray). James Alexander, a member 
 of the Wolf gens, said that these four Thunder-being names did not 
 refer to the four quarters. This seems probable, unless white be the 
 Winnebago color for the east and gray or yeUow that for the west. 
 
 lu November, 1893, more than two years after the ])rcceding sentence 
 was written, a Winnebago told the author that among his people white 
 was associated with the north, red with the west, and green with the 
 south. Of these he was certain. He thought that blue was the color 
 for the east, but he was not positive about it. 
 
 COLORS IN PERSONAL NAMES. 
 
 § 382. The following shows the color combinations in a list of forty- 
 six objects taken from the census schedules of the Dakota, Hidatsa, 
 and Mandan tribes (LT. S. Census of 1880), the lists of Dakota names 
 given in the Fourth Annual Keport of the Bureau of Ethnology, pp. 
 175, 177-180, and the list of Winnebago names collected by the author. 
 Blue or green (chiefly blue), 2G; red, 2.j; black, 31; yellow, 30; scarlet, 
 38; white, 37; gray, 18; saij or distant- white (whitish), 4; rusty-yellow 
 or brown (gi), IS; spotted, 17; and striped, 8. Objects combined with 
 two colors, 7; with three colors, 7; with four coh)rs, 4; with five colors, 
 5; with six colors, 5; with seven colors, G; with eight colors, 6; with 
 nine colors, 5 ; with ten colors, 1 ; with all eleven colors, none. It should, 
 however, be remembered that the lists consulted did not contain all the 
 personal names of the Siouan tribes which have been mentioned, and 
 that it is probable there would be found more color combinations if all 
 the census schedules were accessible. We can not say whether each of 
 the colors (including spotted and striped) has a mystic significance in 
 the Siouan mind. Perhaps further study may show that red (sa) and 
 scarlet (duta, luta) have the same symbolic meaning, and rusty-yellow 
 (gi) may be an equivalent of yellow (zi). 
 
 ' Osage Traditions, in 6th Au. Kept. Bur. Ethii.. p. :!"». 
 
534 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 THE EARTH POWERS, 
 
 § 383. The Tunkaii or bowlder, the Dakota name for the Earth pow- 
 ers, is also called the Liiigam by Kiggs (§ 132), as if coiiuected with a 
 plialliccult (§§ 164, etc.). The Earth powers (Tunkan) and the Wind- 
 makers (Takiiskanskau) are said by the Dakota to have a common 
 symbol ; l)nt is not the symbol of the Takuskanskan a pebble (§ 376) ? In 
 the Kaiisa war chart (see §127) does the large (red) rock refer to the 
 Earth powers? And does the small rock refer to the Wind-makers? The 
 Earth powers and the Wind-makers seem to be associated in some de- 
 gree: (a) In the use of the rock symbol (if the Takuskanskan symbol 
 be a true rock), and {h) in the use, among the Omaha, of eagle birth- 
 names in the social divisions called " Keepers of the pipes." This lat- 
 ter rests upon the assumption that the lake-sabe is a bufl'alo gens 
 which should be regarded as having some connection with the Earth 
 cult. When the Omaha chiefs assembled in council the two sacred 
 l)ipes were filled by the Ictasanda keeper (a member of a Fire and 
 Water gens) ; but they were carried around the council lodge by the 
 luke-sabe and j^e-da-it'aji keepers. The Inke-sab6 keeper started 
 around the lodge with one of the pipes; when he had gone halfway 
 (i, e., as far as the entrance) the j^e-da-it'aji keeper stiu-ted from the 
 back of the lodge with the other pipe, taking care to keep behind the 
 Ifike-sabe keeper just half the circumference of the circle.^ The x^ da- 
 it'aji man belonged to the Eagle or Wind-makers subgens and the 
 Inke-sabe man to one that we term provisionally an Earth gens. (See 
 Fig. 11>1.) The Inke-sabe, it is true, have a tradition that they came 
 originally from the water; but the buffalo is specially associated with 
 the earth. Among the Dakota the buffalo and the earth are regarded 
 as one. (§ 239.) 
 
 KARTH GENTE8. 
 
 The Earth gentes, as far as we can judge, are as follows: luke-sabe 
 and Hariga(?), two Buffalo gentes, and the Wasabe-hit'aji, a Black 
 bear subgens, among the Omaha; the Wacabe and Maka" (Buffalo 
 gentes,) among the Pouka; the Ma"yihka (Earth) and Wasabe (Black 
 bear), of the Kansa; the Earth and Black bear of the Osage; Black 
 bear, and perhaps Wolf, among the Iowa and Oto; Black bear, of the 
 Missouri; and Black bear and Wolf of the Winnebago. The Black 
 bear i)e()])le of the Winnebago were the only men of that tribe who 
 enforced discipline in time of war and acted as policemen when there 
 was peace. The tradition of the Winnebago Wolf gens names four 
 brothers that were (;reated. The first was green fsic] and was named 
 ]51u(' Sky (referring to day). The second was black, and his name re- 
 ferred to night. The third was white and the fourth was gray. The 
 green, black, and white wolves have remained in their subterranean 
 
 ' Om. Soc, in 3d An. Kept. Bur. Ethn., pp. 223, 224. 
 
°0KSEY.] THE FIRE P0V7ERS. 535 
 
 abodes. Thej' are never seen by maukind. The gray wolf was the 
 ancestor of all the wolves which are seen above ground. (See § 90.) 
 These four colors are evidently symbolic; but the author has not yet 
 learned whether they have any reference to the four quarters. (See 
 
 §75.) 
 
 THE FIRE POWERS. 
 
 § 384. Among these were the Thunder-beings and the Sur.. The 
 former were usully considered maleficent powers, as distinguished from 
 the Sun, the beneficent Fire power; but occasionally the Thunder- 
 beings were addressed as " grandfathers," who could be induced to 
 gratify the wishes of the suppliants by granting them success in war 
 (§§ 35, 36). It was probably with reference to the Sun that the East 
 was considered the source of light and life, the West being associated 
 with the taking of life in the chase or on the war path (see § 28). Red 
 among the Omaha is the color symbol of the East, but red is also 
 symbolic of war. The "fire paint" among the Tsiou geutes of the 
 Osage tribe is red. It is applied when the fire prayers are said. Ked 
 is a war color among the Dakota, Omaha, Kansa, and Osage. The 
 Tsiou crier received in his left hand a knife with the handle painted red. 
 The Haiiiia crier received in his right hand a hatchet with the handle 
 reddened. On the death of a comrade the surviving Osage removed the 
 bark from a post oak, say, about 5 feet from the grouml, painted the 
 blazed tree red, broke four arrows and left them and some paint by the 
 tree.' Whenever the author saw Paha°le-gaqli, one of the war chiefs 
 of the Kansa, he noticed that the man's face was painted red all over. 
 In the middle of the war chart of Paha°le-gaqli was a fire symbol; but 
 the chief feared to represent it in the copy which he made for the 
 author. It probably consisted of the four firebrands placed at right 
 angles and meeting at a common center. The Omaha must have had 
 such a symbol at one time (see § 33). The Osage had it, according to 
 their tradition (see §§ 40, 305). The successful warriors among the 
 Omaha could redden their weapons when they joined in the dance.^ 
 
 The Dakota give the following as the sentinels for the Wakinyan : 
 The deer at the north, the butterfly at the east, the beaver at the south, 
 and the bear at the west (§ 116). If these were arranged to conform 
 to the order of Fig. 194 the bear would be at the north, the beaver at 
 the west, the deer at the east, and the butterfly at the south. But there 
 may be a special order of grouping the servants of each class of pow- 
 ers differing from the order of the four powers themselves. The 
 Dakota wakan men say that the Wakinyan are of four colors, black, 
 yellow, scarlet, and blue (§ 116). The Thunder men of the Omaha 
 legend had hair of diflerent colors, the first having white hair, the sec- 
 ond red, the third yellow, and the fourth -green hair. -' 
 
 "Osage war customs, iu Am. Xaturalist, Feb., 1884, pp. 118. 126, 132, 
 20m. Soo., in 3(1 An. Kept. Bur. Etlin., pi(:>329, 330. 
 3 Contr. X. A. Etlm., Vol. vi. p. 187. 
 
536 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 FIRK GENTES. 
 
 The following appear to be the Fire geutes: Tli under-being people of 
 the Omaha tribe, Elk gens. Small-bird subgens. Deer, and Ictasauda 
 (Keptile and Thunder-being) gentes; the Hisada and Black bear geutes 
 of the Ponka; the Lu or Gray hawk people (also called Thunder-being 
 l)eople) of the Kansa tribe, with whom are associated the Deer and 
 Butlalo geutes m the singing of the Thunder songs (§ 36); the ;5jfu'^' 
 or Thunder-beiug gens, on the Tsiou, Buftalo, or Peace side of the 
 Osage tribe (!!), perhaps the Tcexi:|a, a bird gens of the Iowa tribe; 
 part of the Tcexi:>a gens of the Oto and Missouri tribes; and the 
 Waka"tcara or Thunder-being subgens of the Winnebago. 
 
 Four Thunder-beings were invoked by the Ictasauda gens (§ 35) : 
 ^'ig<|'ize-ma"(|'i", ^ia°ba-tigf^e, <pia"ba-gi-na°, and Gaagig^eda''. Was each 
 of these supposed to dwell at one of the four quarters'? 
 
 Among the Osage and Kansa tribes there is a geus known as the 
 Mi" k'i" (from mi", the sun, and k'i", to carry a load on the back), ren- 
 dered "Sun Carriers." Some of the Osage insisted that this name re- 
 ferred to the buffalo instead of the suu, as that animal carries a robe 
 or plenty of hair on his back; and they maintained that the Mi" k'i" 
 was a buftalo gens. That there is some connection in the Indian mind 
 between the sun and the buffalo is shown in the sun dance, in which 
 the figure of a buffalo bull (§ 164) and buffalo skulls (§§ 147, 173, 176, 
 177, 181, and 108, and PI. XLViii) play important parts. 
 
 THE WIND-MAKER.S. 
 
 § 385. The Takuskanskan of the Dakotas has been described in a 
 previous chapter (§§ 127-131). The Omaha tribe has the order of the 
 I"-kug^i or the translucent stone, in which order the Wind-makers 
 were probably invoked. The Tsiou old man addressed the four winds 
 and as many mystic buffaloes when he laid down the four firebrands. 
 And at a similar ceremony the old man of the Pa"qka gens addressed 
 the four winds and as many mystic deer (§ 33). The Omaha evidently 
 had a prayer, "Ho, ye four firebrands that meet at a common point!" 
 (§ 40.) With this there may have been addresses to the winds. Four 
 firebrands were used in a Winnebago ceremony (§84). 
 
 The Inke-sabe (Omaha) belief as to the four winds has been related 
 in § 366,- The winds and the sun were associated in the ceremony of 
 raising the suu pole, judging from what Bushotter has written (§ 167). 
 There was also some connection in the Dakota mind between the winds 
 and the buffalo. Compare the figure of the winds on a buffalo skull 
 as^ described by Miss Fletcher^ in her account of the sun dance. 
 
 'A Kansa saying: Lij, Tceduuga, Taqtci abacki wauaxe kinuklye, abe au, They saij that the Thun- 
 der-being, Buffalo, and Deer gentes muse a ghost to "kinu," referring to some effect on a gliost which 
 can not bo explained. 
 
 "Om. Soc, in ;i(l An. Kept. Bur. Ktliii., ]i. 229. 
 
 3An). A.ssoc. Adv. Sci. Proc, Vol. :!I. p. 58:i. See, too. An. Kei>l. I'eabody Mu.seiiiu, Vol. in, p. 262, lines 
 
DORSEY] WIND AND WATER POWERS. 537 
 
 WIND GKNTES. 
 
 The following- social divisions are assigned to this category: The 
 Aia"ze, or Wind people, and the xe-da-it'aji, Tonch-not-a-bairalo-skull, 
 or Eagle people, of the Omaha tribe; the (pixida and Kikadaona gentes 
 of the Ponka; the Ka"ze (Wind or South Wind people), Qiiya (White 
 eagle). Ghost, and perhaps the Large Ilanga (Black eagle), among tlie 
 Kansa; the Ka"se (also called the Wind and South Wind people), and 
 perhaps the Han^ia ntafan^se (Black eagle) gens of the Osage; the 
 Pigeon and Buffalo gentes of the Iowa and Oto tribes; the Hawk and 
 Momi (Small bird) subgenter, of the Missouri tribe; the Ea^le and 
 Pigeon, and perhaps the Hawk subgens of tlie Winnebago Bird gens. 
 
 EACH (ilAUTEK REtKOXEI) AS THREE. 
 
 Each wind or quarter is reckoned as three by the Dakota ' and pre- 
 sumably by the Osage (see § 42), making- the four quarters equal to 
 twelve. Can there be any reference here to a belief in three worlds, 
 the one in which we live, an upper world, and a world beneath this one? 
 Or were the winds divided into three classes, those close to the ground, 
 those in mid air, and those very high in the air? The Kansa seem to 
 make some such distinction, Judging from the names of the divisions of 
 the Ka°ze or Wind gens of that tribe. 
 
 XAMES KEFERRIXG TO OTHER WORLDS. 
 
 References to a world supposetl to be above that one in which we 
 dwell occur in some of the personal names of the Dakota, in the U. S. 
 Census list of 1880. There we tind such names as, Wolf Up-above, 
 Hawk Up-above, Grizzly-bear Up-above, and Buffalo-bull Up-above. 
 Grizzly-bear Up above should be taken in connection with the tradition 
 of the Black-bear people of the Osage tribe. These people tell how 
 their ancestors descended from the upper world, bringing fire.^ The 
 tradition of the Wolf people of the Winnebago tribe tells of the creation 
 of their ancestors as wolves in a subterranean world, and of a belief 
 that many wolves remain there still. The Winnebago have, too, the 
 name. Second Earth Person, referring to a waktceqi or watermonster, 
 as the waktceqi are supposed to dwell in the world beneath this one. 
 They call this world The First World, and the .subterranean one The 
 Second W^orld. 
 
 THE WATER POWERS. 
 
 § 386. The Unktelii of the Dakota answers to the Wakandagi of the 
 Omaha and Ponka, and the Waktceqi of the Winnebago. One of the 
 Omaha myths relates to a AVakandagi with seven heads. The Waktceqi 
 have the Loon as a servant, and in this respect they resemble the tyrant 
 
 'Compare An. Kept. Peabody Mnseuin, Vol.3, p. 289, note 1. 
 'Osage War CuHtonis. in Anier. Naturalist, Feli. 1884, p. 133. 
 
538 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 U-twa'-5|e of the j[,oiwere myth. The name utwa5[e is now given to the 
 iiuiskrat. The male Water powers inhabit streams, and the females 
 dwell under the ground, presumably in subterranean streams. Accord- 
 ing to Winnebago belief, they support the weight of the hills. Some of 
 the Omaha thought that these powers dwelt under the hills {§§ 77, 107), 
 The monsters supposed to inhabit bogs were probably a species of 
 water spirits (§ 254). Streams were invoked as " Wakanda " by the 
 Omaha (§ 23). Though the natural habitat of the buttalo is the surface 
 of the earth, and the Dakota believe the animal to be of subterranean 
 origin, he is of subaquatic origin according to the traditions of the 
 Inke-sabe and Hafiga gentes of the Omaha.^ But no traces of such a 
 belief have been found among the buffalo gentes of cognate tribes. 
 " One day, when the principal man of the people not known as the Wa- 
 (figije subgens of the Inke-sabe, was fastiug and praying to the sun- 
 god,'-' he saw the ghost of a buffalo, visible from the tiauk up, arising 
 from a spring."^ 
 
 WATER PEOPLE. 
 
 The Water people among the Omaha are the Turtle subgens, parts 
 (if not all) of the Inke-sabe and Hafiga (Buffalo) gentes, and perhaps a 
 part of the Ictasanda gens. Those among the Ponka have not yet been 
 ascertained ; but they may be the Wajaje and part of the Hisada. 
 Among the Kansa they are the Turtle people. In the Osage tribe are 
 the Turtle Carriers, Ke 5[atsli (said to be a turtle, but probably a Water- 
 monster), Fish, Beaver, and, perhaps, theTsewafe or Pond Lil}^ people. 
 Among the Iowa and Oto are the Beaver gentes. And the Winnebago 
 have the Water-monster gens. 
 
 CAUTIONS AND QUERIES. 
 
 § 387. There are many gentes and subgentes which can not be assigned 
 to any of the four categories of elemental powers for want of evidence. 
 It is unsafe to argue that, because two buffalo gentes of the Omaha 
 cUiim a subaquatic origin, all buffalo gentes should be regarded as 
 Water people. Certain cautions should be kept in mind. 
 
 § 388. The power of each of the four classes of elemental gods extends 
 beyond its special element. For instance, the Unktehi, who rules in 
 the water, has for his servants or allies, the black owl in the forest 
 (Query: Has this any connection with the fire or thunder!), eagles in 
 the air, and serpents in the earth. And the Thunder-beings have as 
 their servants, the bear, whose abode is in the ground, the beaver, who 
 is associated with the water, the butterfly, who lives in the air; and 
 the deer. 
 
 § 389. The servants of a class of elemental gods do not necessarily 
 belong- to that element which those gods regulate. Thus, the Black 
 
 'Oin. Soc, iu 3d. An. Kept. Bur. Etbn., pp. 229, 233. 
 
 ■■* Syniboliziuij the fire. 
 
 'This seems to point to :i .subaquatic origin. See Om. Soc, p. 231. 
 
^oRi^EY.] COMPOSITE NAMES. 539 
 
 bear people of the Omalui, an earth people, assist the Elk people in the 
 worship of the Thunder; and among the Kansa. the Ikitialo people per- 
 form a similar service for the Lu or Thunder-being people (§§ 35, 36). 
 
 Those who belong to the same phratry, belong to the same social 
 division; but while they "sing the mystery songs together," they need 
 not be assigned to the same elemental category. 
 
 § 390. As the order of Thunder shamans is composed of those who 
 have had dreams or visions of the sun, moon, stars, Tluinder-beings, or 
 some other superterrestial objects or phenomena, may not all super- 
 terrestial beings, including those of the "upper world," be regarded as 
 Thunder-beings by the Indians? (See § 45 and the Thunder-being 
 names in § 393.) 
 
 That is to say, may not the eagles, and other birds of the "upper 
 world" be Eagle Thunder-beings, Crow Thunder-beings, etc., though 
 their special element is not the fire but the "wind-makers," and the 
 grizzly bears who reside under ground in that upper world, have given 
 rise to the personal name, Grizzly-bear Thunder- being? If this be cor- 
 rect, then Bowlder Thunder-being may refer to a bowlder in the upper 
 world, unless the supposition respecting composite names (in § 392) be 
 true. 
 
 § 391. The following appears at first sight to be the proper classifica- 
 tion of the subgentes of a Bird gens in a few of the Siouan tribes: 
 Thunder-bird, Eagle, Hawk, and Pigeon. But a study of personal 
 names has led to a modification of this grouping: for we find such 
 names as Eagle Thunder-being, Hawk Thunder-being, and Pigeon 
 Thunder-being, as distinguished from ordinary eagles, hawks, and 
 pigeons. Hence, we may find on further study that in some tribes there 
 are eagle, hawk, and pigeon names for gentes and subgentes whose 
 patron gods are Thunder-beings. For instance, the Lij gens of the 
 Kansa tribe has two names for itself, Leda" nikaci"ga. Gray hawk 
 People, and Lu nikaci'^ga, Thunder-being People. 
 
 COMPOSITE NAMES. 
 
 § 392. There are other composite names, most of which are found in 
 the census lists of the Dakota tribes, whose gentes are said to have no 
 animal names, and a few have been obtained from the personal name 
 lists of the Omaha, Ponka, and Kansa, and the census lists of the 
 Mandau, and Hidatsa, that give animal names to some or all of their 
 gentes. In the Winnebago name list no such personal names have 
 been found, though that people has animal names for its gentes. 
 
 Each of these composite names may refer to a vision of a composite 
 being, who was subsequently regarded as the guardian spirit of the 
 person who had the dream or vision. Or the bearer of such a name 
 may have had a dream or vision of two distinct powers. In the picto- 
 graph of such a name, the powers (or symbols of the two i)owers) rep- 
 resented in the name are joined (see § 374). 
 
540 
 
 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 § 393. The following is a list of composite names which may be found 
 to symbolize the four elements. The elements are designated by their 
 respective abbreviations: E for earth, F for fire; A for air, and W for 
 water. The interrogation mark after any name denotes a provisional 
 or conjectural assignment. 
 
 Turtle Grizzly-bear (W+E). 
 Grizzly-hear Small-bird (E+A). 
 Cloud Grizzly-bear (Ff |-E). 
 Grizzly-bear Buffalo-bull (E+ ?). 
 Fire Grizzly-bear (F-f E). 
 Sun Grizzly-bear (F+E). 
 Ghost Grizzly-bear (f-fE). 
 Grizzly-bear Weasel, given as "Weasel 
 
 Bear"in4tli An. Kept. Bur. Etb.,Pl. 
 
 LXix, No. 174. 
 Iron Grizzly-bear ("Iron" is generally 
 
 denoted by blue in the Dakota picto- 
 
 graphs. See ^ 107. ) 
 Bald-eagle Grizzly-bear (A?+E). 
 Shield Grizzly-bear. (The shield is on the 
 
 bear's side, 4th Eth., PI. LXiii, No. 62.) 
 Crow Grizzly-bear. 
 Whirlwind Grizzly-bear. (The whirlwind 
 
 precedes in the pictograph, 4th Eth., 
 
 PI. LViii, No. 77.) 
 Hawk Thunder-being. 
 Pigeon Thunder-being. (A jLoiwere name 
 
 — not yet found in Dakota.) 
 Buffalo-bull Thunder-being. 
 Grizzly-bear Thunder-being (E+F). 
 Fire Thunder-being (F+F). 
 Elk Thunder-being. 
 Pipe Thunder-being. (4th Eth., PI. LXXi, 
 
 No. 179, a winged pipe.) 
 Cloud Thunder-being. 
 Horse Thunder-being. 
 Iron Thunder-being. (See ^S 107.) 
 Earth Thunder-being (E+F.) 
 Black-Bird Eagle. 
 
 Eagle Hawk. (4th Eth., PI. lvi. No. 53.) 
 Eagle Small-bird. (4th Eth., PI. Lxvi, No. 
 
 116.) 
 Grizzly-bear Eagle. (4th Eth., PI. lxix, 
 
 No. 170; a bear with an eagle's tail.) 
 Horse Eagle. (4th Eth., PI. LXViii, No. 
 
 153: horse body and eagle's tail.) 
 Dog Eagle. (4th Eth. , PI. lii. No. 9 : dog 
 
 with eagle's tail.) 
 Eagle Swallow. (4th Eth., PI. lxxix, No. 
 
 282 ; eagle with forked tail of a swal- 
 low). 
 Cloud Eagle. 
 Iron Deer. 
 Cloud Dog. 
 
 Buffalo-bull Small-bird. 
 
 Mountain Buffalo-bull. 
 
 Crow Buffalo-bull. 
 
 Buffalo-bull Dog. 
 
 Cloud Buffalo-bull. 
 
 Buffalo-bull Man (i. e., Indian). 
 
 Buffalo-bull Ghost. 
 
 Stone Buffalo-bull. 
 
 Buffalo-bull Buffalo-cow (the only nnme 
 
 in which both sexes are given). 
 Iron Bnffalo-bull. (See v) 107.) 
 Buffalo-bull Wiud. 
 Buffalo-cow Eagle. 
 Iron Buffalo. (N. B. — It is uncertain 
 
 to which element the buffalo should be 
 
 assigned. He seems to be associated 
 
 with all of them.) 
 Sun-dog (F?+E?). 
 Eagle Thunder-Being (A? + F). 
 Elk Eagle. (4th Eth., PI. Lxx, No. 178; 
 
 an elk's horns and eagle's tail. ) 
 Sun Eagle (F+A). 
 Star Eagle (Ff-fA). 
 Stone Eagle (E?+ A). 
 Iron Eagle. 
 Crow Eagle. 
 Owl Eagle. 
 Weasel Eagle. 
 Grizzly-bear Hawk. 
 Fire Hawk. 
 
 Sciirlet Hawk Whirlwind. 
 Hawk Ghost. 
 Iron Hawk. (4th Eth., PI. LVI, No. 47 : the 
 
 hawk is blue.) 
 Iron Wolf. 
 Wolf Ghost. 
 Fire Wind (F+A). 
 Fire Lightning. 
 Iron Lightning. 
 Iron Star. 
 Iron Boy. (4th Eth., PI. Lvm, No. 81; a 
 
 boy painted blue.) 
 Iron Crow. (4th Eth., PI. lvi, No. 47; 
 
 a crow painted blue.) 
 Crow Ghost. 
 Iron Elk. 
 Female-elk Boy, (4th Eth., PI. lvii, No. 
 
 66; the head and shoulders of a boy 
 
 joined to a female elk.) 
 
DORSEY] PERSONAL NAMES FROM HORNED BEINGS. 541 
 
 Iron Uog. Heriuaphrodite Ghost ( ! ) 
 
 Dog Ghost. Iron Kiugfisher. 
 
 Bowlder Thuuder-Beiug (E-f-F). Cloud Horse. 
 
 Iron Whirlwind. Irou Horse. 
 
 Iron Beaver. Lightning Horse. 
 
 Small-bird Beaver. Earth (or Ground) Horse. 
 
 Iron Owl. Wind Horse. 
 
 Cloud Hail. Fire Horse. 
 
 Iron Cloud. Black-bird Horse. 
 
 Fire Cloud. Small-bird Man (or, Indian; 4th Etla.. 
 
 Iron Wind. PI. Liv, No. 28; bird's head and wings 
 
 Stone Ghost. on a man's body). 
 
 Cloud Black-bear. Dog Rattlesnake. 
 
 There are several '^Wasicun" names: Cloud Wasic'im, Fire Wasi- 
 cim. Night Wasicim, and Iron Wasit'un. The last one has for its picto- 
 graph a man with a hat, i. e., a white man, and can hardly have any 
 mystic significance. The name, Wasicun, originally meant '' guardian 
 spirit," but it is now applied to white people (§ 122). In the absence of 
 the pictographs, we can not tell whether Cloud Wasicun, Fire Wasi- 
 cun, and Night Wasicun refer to guardian spirits (in which case they 
 are mystic names connected with cults) or to white men. 
 
 Most of the above names are taken from the Dakota census lists. 
 The j^oiwere lists furnish only two composite names of this character: 
 Iron Hawk Female, and Pigeon Thunder-being. The Kansa list has 
 Moon Hawk and Moon Hawk Female, the latter name, which is found 
 in the Omaha and Ponka list, suggesting the Egyptian figure of a 
 woman's body with a hawk's head, surmounted by a crescent moon. 
 Horse Eagle appears to be a sort of Pegasus. Buflalo-bull Eagle may 
 refer to the myth of the Orphan and the Buftalo- woman, in which we 
 learn that the Buffalo people ascended through the air to the upper 
 world.' 
 
 PEESONAL NAMES FROM HORNED BEINGS. 
 
 § 394. The Dakota lists have several names of horned beings, as fol- 
 lows : Horned Grizzly-bear, Horned Horse (4th Eth., PI. liv, No. 29, and 
 PI. Lxxi, No. 193), Horned Dog, Horned Eagle, Gray Horned Thunder 
 Being, Horned Deer, Black Horned Boy, and Snake Horn. No attempt 
 to explain these names has been made. Among the Winnebago, the 
 following names refer to water monsters, and belong to the Waktceqi 
 or Water-monster gens: Horn on one side (equivalent to the Dakota, 
 He-sar)ni6a), Horns on both sides. Two Horns, Four Horns, iind Five 
 Horns. 
 
 The Winnebago list has the name Four Women (in one), with which 
 compare what has been said about the Double- Woman (§ 251). 
 
 I Contr. X. A. Etlm., Vol. vi. pp. 142, 146. 
 
542 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 ::^i3rEs deeiyed feo>i seyeeal HOMOGE^'Eors objects ok beings. 
 
 All esaminatioQ of the persoual name lists reveals such names as 
 First or Que Grizzly-bear, Two Grizzly-bears, Three Grizzly-bears, 
 Four Grizzly-bears, Many Grizzly-bears ; One Path, Two Paths, Four 
 Paths Female, Many Paths: One Cloud, Two Clouds, Three Clouds, 
 Many Clouds: One Crow, Two Crows, Three Crows, Four Crows, Many 
 Crows, The author suspects that these names and many others of a 
 similar character are symbolic of the four quarters and of the upper 
 and lower worlds, and that the Indian who was named after the larger 
 number of mystic objects enjoyed the protection of more spirits than 
 tlid he whose name referred to the smaller number. This accords with 
 the Cherokee notion described by Mr. Mooney in his article on the 
 Cherokee theory and practice of medicine: ' The shaman is represented 
 as calling tirst on the Eed Hawk from the east, then on the Blue Hawk 
 in the north, the two hawks accomplishing more by working together. 
 Still more is eftected when the Black Hawk from the west joins them, 
 and a complete victory is won when the White Hawk from the south 
 joins the others. 
 
 Compare with this the Osage opinion that the man who could show 
 seven sticks (representing seven brave or generous deeds) was of more 
 mportance than he who could show only six sticks. 
 
 RETUEN OF THE SPIRIT TO THE EPONYZVI. 
 
 § 395. In two of the buftalo gentes of the Omaha (the luke-sabeaud 
 Hauga) there is a belief that the spirits of deceased members of those 
 gentes return to the buffaloes. Does the abode of the disembodied 
 spirit differ in the gentes according to the natuie of the eponymic 
 ancestor ? For instance, is there a belief among the Elk people that 
 their spirits at death return to the ancestral Elk ? 
 
 FUNCTIONS OF CfENTES AND SUBGENTES. 
 
 § 396. In several tribes there seems to have been a division of labor 
 among the gentes and subgentes, that is, each social division of the 
 tribe had its special rehgious duties. 
 
 In the Omaha tribe we find the following: the Elk gens regulated 
 war: it kept the war tent, war pipes, and the bag containing poisons: 
 it invoked the Thunder-being, who was supposed to be the god of war, 
 and it sent out the scouts. The Inke-sabe and Hanga gentes were the 
 leading peace gentes: they regulated the buffalo hunt and the cultiva- 
 tion of the soil. The Hauga gens had the control of the peace pipes, 
 and a memberof that gens lighted the pipes on all ceremonial occasions 
 except at the time of the anointing of the sacred pole.- The Inke-sabe 
 gens kept the peace pipes, and a member of that gens acted as crier on 
 
 'Jour. Am. Folk-lore. Vol. m. Xo. viii, pp. 49. 50. 
 *Oin. Soc, in 3d An. Rept. Bur. Ethn.. pp. 222.223. 
 
r^.ftso Fcxcncwrs of GzyjL- j^^^u cLc.^t..>it..-. 543 
 
 many rx;ca«ions. the other cr ' . ' * • — 
 
 gens. An Ictasanda man i. 
 
 Hafiga man filled them when the sacreri poie was anointed. The x^da- 
 
 it'ajl keeper of a •♦acred pipe really kept instead th ' ' 
 
 I^ouch and briffalo aknlL The Inke sab? and j^f-.-da-it-.: 
 
 the two pifiesaronndthe oirele of chiefs. The Black bear people aided 
 
 the Elk pe*^>ple in tli- -.-^T,:. ,.f r ,^ Thunder-being - - spring of 
 
 the year. 
 
 § 397, The following d;-.\.^ion .>i Iafx>r existed in the i^oii^a tribe: The 
 Waaabe-hit-aji and Hi.sada gentes led in the worship of the Thunder- 
 being. The ^ixida and yikada.>na gentes led in war. The Wacabe, 
 Maka". and >'uqe. all buffalo gentes, regulated the buffalo hunt. The 
 Wajaje (Reptile people) with whom used to be the ^'ecta or Owl people, 
 api>ear to have been servants of the subaquatic powers. 
 
 § 398. In the Kansa tribe we find that the Earth Lodge and Elk 
 gentes consecrated the mystic fireplaces whenever a new village was 
 established: that the Earth Lodge people consecrated the com, and 
 regulated the buffalo hunt as well as farming; that the Elk people 
 directed the attack on the buffalo herd ; that the Ghost people announce*! 
 all deaths: that the two Hanga gentes led in war and in mourning for 
 the dead: that the Tciju wactage was a peace-making gens ; that a mem- 
 ber of the Deer gens was the crier for the tribe; that the member of the 
 Ln or Thunder-being gens could not take part in the waqpele gaxe 
 (?28j and must remain in the rear of the other warriors on such an 
 occasion ; and that the Wind people, who had to pitch their tents in 
 the rear of the other gentes had a ceremony which they performed 
 whenever there was a blizzard (§ 55). 
 
 § 399. In the author s account of Osage war customs he relates the 
 following incidents : On the first day of preparation for the warpath 
 the Black bear people bring willows and kindle a fire outside the war 
 tent. On the same day some other Han5[a people deposit branches of 
 dried willow in some place out of sight of the war tent, and the C^aqe 
 men (part of the Buffalo-bull gens) bring in those branches. On the 
 next day men of the Xight gens (a sort of Black bear people) set the wil- 
 low branches on fire, and they and the Elder Osage people say prayers. 
 After this ttiere is a struggle to secure pieces of the charcoal. An Elk 
 man and a Ka"se man act as criers. On the third day an Osage man 
 brings in the sacred bag for the HaQ^a or Waoaoe mourner (the gens 
 of each man is not specified, but both men belong to the right or war 
 side of the tribe i. and a Sinjsait^e man brings in a like bag for the 
 moiuuer belonging to the Tsiou or peace side of the tribe. On the 
 fourth day a woman of a Buffalo gens on the right or Hau^a side of the 
 tribe lays down two strips of buff'alo hide so that the warriors may take 
 the first step on the warpath. After the warriors start, a <^u«[e man 
 is taken ahead of them in order to perform some ceremony which has 
 not been recorded. 
 
544 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 
 
 On tlie return of tlie war party the warriors are met outside of the 
 village by an old man of the Ka"se or Wind gens. He performs certain 
 ceremonies as he walks around the party (beginning at the north and 
 ending at the east), and then he tells them whether they can enter the 
 village. Tiie clothnigof the retirrning warriors becomes the property 
 of tlie old Ka"se man and his attendant. 
 
 The Ka^se gens of the Osage tribe is called the Idats'e, because it 
 devolves on a member of that gens to fill the peace pipes. The 
 corresponding gens of the Ka"ze tribe is called Ibatc'e or Haiiga-jinga. 
 
 THE "MESSIAH CRAZE." 
 
 § 400. Since the present article was begun there has arisen the 
 so-called "Messiah craze" among the Dakota and other tribes of 
 Indians. The author does not feel competent to describe this new form 
 of Indian religion, but he suspects that some features of it are either 
 willful or accidental perversions of the teachings of the missionaries. 
 
 § 401. In presenting this study of Siouan cults to the scientific world 
 the author has a painful sense of its incompleteness, but he hopes that 
 the facts here fragmentarily collated may prove helpful to future 
 investigators. The inferences, provisional assumptions, and suggestive 
 queries in this chapter are not published as final results. Even should 
 any of them prove to be erroneous the author's labor will not be in 
 vain, for through the correction of his mistakes additional information 
 will be collected, tending to the attainment of the truth, which should 
 be the aim of all mankind. 
 
INIJEX. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Absaroka, Reference to bclicl's of 505 
 
 Air, Beliefs respecting 522 
 
 Alabama, Exiilorations ill xxix 
 
 Alexander, James, Acknowledgiuent.sto 363,423 
 
 — cited on .syniliolic colors 533 
 
 Algoni^UIAN languages, Bililiography of. xxxiv 
 
 Alphabet, .Siouan 363 
 
 Altar used among the Sia 104 
 
 Amulets, E.skimo 201 
 
 — of northern Indians 275 
 
 — , Use of 515 
 
 Amusements, Eskimo 254 
 
 — of northern Indians 320 
 
 Ancestor worslii)). Absence of 371 
 
 , Terras indicative of 368 
 
 Animal life of the Uiigava district 174 
 
 — myths 31,146.425 
 
 — societies, Organization of 69 
 
 Animals taboo among Iowa Indians 426 
 
 the Omaha 412 
 
 Animism among northern Indians 273 
 
 Siouau peojiles 431, 514 
 
 — , Discussion of " xlv, 520 
 
 A"PA"SKA, Mystery decoration of 398 
 
 Antelope, Myths concerning 52, 64 
 
 Anthropomorphism, Primitive .520 
 
 Ant, Myths concerning 104 
 
 — societies, Organization of 69 
 
 Anungite, Description of 473 
 
 Apache, Symbolic colors of ,532 
 
 Apotheosis, Belief in 425 
 
 A PPARITIONS, 497 
 
 Archery. Indian 313 
 
 Arickaka belief Reference to 403 
 
 — ceremonial 437 
 
 Arizona, Explorations in xx vii 
 
 Aemstro.vg, W. H., cited on Hawaiian 
 
 phonetics 364 
 
 Arrow games among tlie Sia 60 
 
 — , Eskimo 246 
 
 — , Nenenot 312 
 
 — , Use of, in ceremonial 122 
 
 Arts, Ceramic, among the Sia 11 
 
 — , Eskimo 259 
 
 — , Nenenot 297 
 
 — , Structural, among the Sia 23 
 
 Ashes, Use of, in ceremonial 134 
 
 Ashley, E., cited on Indian beliefs 444 
 
 ASSINIBOIN, Beliefs among 431, 436,485,492 
 
 — , Fetichism, — 498 
 
 AtHAPASC.\n inylhs, Tieference to .391, 484 
 
 Athletics, Indian 321 
 
 Page. 
 
 Atonement. Absence of belief in 521 
 
 Auroras, Eskimo myths concerning 266 
 
 — of the Ungava district 173 
 
 AUTiioiUTlEs (m Siouan cults 361 
 
 Awls, Ncntuiot 318 
 
 Ax. Cercinoni.il 454 
 
 Aztec. Symbolic colors among 532 
 
 Badokr. Myths concerning 37.152 
 
 Ball used in primitive football 257 
 
 Banuelier. a. F., quoted on Sia history 11 
 
 Barter by the Sia 12 
 
 Baskets, Birch bark among the Xenenot - 301 
 
 Baths, Use of 300 
 
 Bear, Myths concerning 39, 47. 477 
 
 — of the Ungava district 174 
 
 Bear butte, Myths concerning 449 
 
 Beaver, Chase of the 316 
 
 — , Myths concerning 339, 439 
 
 Bee, 54 
 
 Beliefs, Character of primitive xliv, 67 
 
 — ciuiceriiing the butfalo 475 
 
 — , Eskimo 196 
 
 — , Mortuary 143, 192 
 
 — not found among Siouan peoples 371 
 
 — of 365, 431 
 
 Bent Horn, Exhibition of shamanism by. 417 
 
 Beruaches 467. 516 
 
 — , Beliefs concerning 378 
 
 Big Elk,.Iohn, acknowledgement to 362 
 
 — (| noted on fetiches 414 
 
 Bio Grizzlev Beak cited (ui Jugglery . . . 417 
 
 Bio Turtle, Myth of 369 
 
 Birch-bark canoes, Nenenot 304 
 
 — , Use of for baskets 301 
 
 Bird societies. Organization of 70 
 
 Birds carved in ivory by the Eskimo 260 
 
 — , Myths concerning 153 
 
 — of the Ungava district 175 
 
 Blackbird, Customs concerning 410 
 
 Boas, Franz, Work by, on the Eskimo.. xxiv 
 
 Boats, Eskimo 235 
 
 BO(;lES, Indian 473 
 
 Bo(i8, Myths concerning 481 
 
 Boils, 496 
 
 Boots, Eskimo 179. 205, 217 
 
 BOURKE, John G.. Acknowledgement to. 455 
 
 — cited on phallic worship 457 
 
 sun dance 450, 4.59 
 
 — symbolic colors 532 
 
 — (juoted on sun dance 464 
 
 545 
 
 11 KTU 
 
 -35 
 
546 
 
 INDKX. 
 
 Page. 
 
 J{<iw rases, Eskimo 247 
 
 — , Eskimo 246 
 
 -, NciKmot 312 
 
 B(»WLlNfi among tlio Eskimo 257 
 
 BuAXr, Mytlis concerninj; 327 
 
 15HI.NTON Daniel G., cited on Hey oka 
 
 gods 4t)0 
 
 Bruyiek, John, cited on ghost belief 489 
 
 Sioiian mytlis 480 
 
 — , Kef ereiice to work of 362 
 
 r.t'FK.vi.o, Beliefs concerning 37, 303, 403, 
 
 47r),,'-,0r., 510, 518 
 
 — dance. Description of 513 
 
 — skull, I'se of, in ceremonial 545 
 
 — taboo among tlie Omaha 411 
 
 Buii.ni.NO among tlio Sia 23 
 
 BuKiAL among northern Indians 271 
 
 the Sia 144 
 
 — , Customs connected with 486 
 
 BlSHOTlEK, tiEOHGE, cited on ghost 
 
 lodge 487 
 
 — Indian beliefs 496 
 
 — - customs 493 
 
 — quoted on buffalo myths 476 
 
 lleyoka women 471 
 
 Indian beliefs 441,447,467 
 
 Mandan song 464 
 
 — sun dance 453 
 
 — worship 450 
 
 — worship of Inyan 448 
 
 — , licfereuce to work of 363 
 
 Bykd, William, Acknowledgement to .. 501 
 
 — quoted on Indian beliefs 519 
 
 Calendar, Eskimo 202 
 
 California, Explorations in xxix 
 
 Canada, xli 
 
 — , Kosoarchos in xxx 
 
 Cannibalism among the Eskimo 187 
 
 Canoes, Kenenot 304 
 
 Canotidan, Description of 473 
 
 Card games among the Eskimo 255 
 
 Cardinal points, Association of, with 
 
 colors 397 
 
 , Beliefs concerning 377, 524 
 
 , Societies of the 70 
 
 , Supplication to 124 
 
 Carvino, Eskimo 260 
 
 Casa (iRANDE, lluin of xxvii 
 
 Catlin, George, cited on Indian beliefs. 506 
 
 — quoted on Indian customs 513 
 
 — , Reference to work of 501 , 502 
 
 CEREMf)NIAL connected with infancy 482 
 
 — puberty 208 
 
 — in the scalp dance 526 
 
 — of cult societies 75 
 
 Dahpike 503 
 
 ghost lodge 487 
 
 — , Sionan 373, 436, 440 
 
 Ceremony connected with relation of 
 
 myths 369 
 
 Chase, Methods of the 277,316 
 
 — , Usages connected with the 274 
 
 Checkers among northern Indians 323 
 
 Page. 
 
 Cherokees, Reference io customs of 369 
 
 — , Study of works of xxvi 
 
 — , Symbolic colors of 532 
 
 Childbirth among northern Indians 271 
 
 — , Beliefs concerning 511, 516 
 
 — , Ceremonials connected with 132 
 
 Childhood, Customs relating to 190, 482 
 
 Children, CoJidition of, among northern 
 
 Indians 269 
 
 — , Eskimo myths concerning 265 
 
 — , Naming of 190 
 
 Clans, Sia 19 
 
 Clark, May S., Acknowledgment to . . . 78 
 
 Clarke, F.W., Analysis of pigment by 142 
 
 Climate of the Ungava district 172 
 
 Clothing of northern Indians 208, 281 
 
 Cloud myths 37 
 
 Coins, Use of, among the Eskimo 212 
 
 Collins, Mary C, quoted on symbolism. 531 
 
 Colors, Association of, with cardinal 
 
 points 397 
 
 — in personal names 533 
 
 Siouan symbolism 523, 527 
 
 — , Significance of, in games 60 
 
 Combs, Nenenot 319 
 
 Conception, Beliefs concerning immacu- 
 late 59 
 
 Conjuring among northern Indians 193, 274 
 
 Constellations, Beliefs concerning 517 
 
 Cooking among northern Indians 233, 280 
 
 ■Corn, Customs concerning 410 
 
 — , Myths — 40,76,403 
 
 Cosmogony, Dakota 438 
 
 — , Sia 26, 143 
 
 Costume, Eskimo 208 
 
 — in ceremonial 106, 122, 133 
 
 — , Nenenot 289 
 
 — , Sia 22 
 
 Cougar, Myths concerning :t9, 154 
 
 — , Society of the 
 
 Courtship among the Eskimo . . . 
 
 Coy'OTE, Myths concerning 
 
 Cramped Hand cited on beliefs . 
 — , Exhibition of shamanism by. 
 
 118 
 188 
 147 
 366 
 417 
 
 Creation myths 32, 338, 438, 506. 51 3, 519 
 
 Cree Indians, Northern relatives of 267 
 
 Crow Indians, Beliefs of 436, 505, 518 
 
 Cult, Definition of 361 
 
 — societies among the Sia 69 
 
 Cults, A studj^ of Siouan 361 
 
 — , Discussion xliii 
 
 Cup-AND-BALL among Northern Indians . 255, 323 
 
 Curling among the Eskimo 257 
 
 Curtin, Jeremiah, Work of xxix, xxxiii 
 
 CusHLNG, Frank Hamilton, cited on Zuni 
 
 customs 369 
 
 — , Reference to work of xxvii 
 
 Customs, Indian domestic 119, 178, 183, 185, 
 
 205, 275. 299 
 
 — , Mortuary 143, 191 
 
 Cegiha Indians, Researches concerning . xxsii 
 
 Dabchick, Myths concerning . 
 Dahpike, Description of the . . 
 
 496 
 503 
 
INDEX. 
 
 547 
 
 Page. 
 
 Daimonism, Sionan 433, 515 
 
 Dakota, Belief's <it t hi' 432 
 
 — cults, Description of 431 
 
 Dakota, Explorations in xliii 
 
 Dakotan languages. Work on xxxi 
 
 Dance, Ceremonial x x viii, 378, 393 
 
 440, 450, 463, 503, 513, 520 
 Dancing lodge, Sionan 458 
 
 — societies, — 428 
 
 Davis, "W. W. H., quoted on liistoiy of the 
 
 Sia 10 
 
 Dawn, Beliefs concerning 468 
 
 Day, 467 
 
 Dead, Disposal of the 518 
 
 Death, Beliefs conc(>rning 374, 421, 512. 518 
 
 — , Customs relating to 485 
 
 Decoration among Sionan peoi)le8 397 
 
 Deer hunting, Kskimo 249 
 
 — , Myths concerning 37, 64, 153, 201, 328 
 
 — tahno 412 
 
 — women, Mythic 480 
 
 Deerskin, Useof 284.299 
 
 Definitions of terms 36 , 365 
 
 Deities, Siouan 372,445, 506,521 
 
 Deluge, Myth concerning the 57 
 
 Demi-gods, Absence of belief in 371 
 
 Dice, Primitive game of 61, 178 
 
 Differentiation of labor among Indians 271. 542 
 
 Diseases of the Eskimo 187 
 
 District of Columbia, Field work in xxvi 
 
 Divinities, Siouan 50(i, 513 
 
 Divorce, Flskimo 189 
 
 Doctress, Sia 133 
 
 Dog whip, Eskimo 244 
 
 — , Habits of the— 225, 245 
 
 -, Use of 241,309 
 
 Dolls, Eskimo 197. 258 
 
 Dominoes, Primitive game of 257 
 
 Donaldson, Thomas, lleference to work 
 
 of 501 
 
 DoRSEY, J. Owen, A study of Sioiuiu cults. 361 
 
 — , Review of report by xliii 
 
 — , Work of xxiv, xxxi 
 
 Double woman. Mythic 480 
 
 Dreams, Beliefs concerning. . 200, 395, 500, 510. 510 
 — . lurtuence of, among northern Indians. 272 
 Dried Buffalo Skull, My.stery decora- 
 tion of :«>6 
 
 Drum, Neuenot 322, 324 
 
 Dueling amimg northern Indians 271 
 
 DuLHUT, Daniel Grey.selon, cited on 
 
 Indian beliefs 438 
 
 Dwarfs, Siouan mythic 481 
 
 Dwellings, Indian 223, 298 
 
 Eagle, Myths concerning 47, 104, 510 
 
 Earth, Beliefs — 386, 424, 438, 522 
 
 — formations. Symbolic 427 
 
 — powers. Description of 534 
 
 Eells, Mykon, Ueferenco to work of 520 
 
 Effigies, Us(^ of, among the Eskimo 260 
 
 Elements, Cult s of the 522 
 
 Elk taboo among the Omaha 412 
 
 Elves, Siouau 481 
 
 Page. 
 Emetics taken before ceremonials, Pur- 
 pose of g7 
 
 Eponym, Beliefs respecting the 542 
 
 Errors, Couunon.concerning the Eskimo. xlii 
 
 Eskimo, Customs of 1G8 
 
 — Iiiytbs 193,195 
 
 175 
 xli 
 174 
 1C7 
 xxxvii 
 xxxvii 
 
 — of the Ungava district 
 
 — , Report on 
 
 — , Whale fishing by 
 
 Ethnology of t\w. Ungava district 
 
 ExposrnoN, New Orleans, Exhibition at 
 — , Paris, — — . . 
 
 Faith cure. Primitive 
 
 Fastin(; among Siouan tribes 390,436, 
 
 FEA.ST of the Heyoka 
 
 Fe.sti VALS, Ncneiiot 
 
 Fetiches, Use of, in ceremonials .. 40,95,120, 
 
 Feticliism ainong northern Indians 201, 
 
 — , Siouan 412,426,443,498,510, 
 
 Fewki;s, J. ^\■AI.TER, cited on symbolic 
 
 colors 
 
 Fire, Ceremonial connected with 
 
 — chief. Decoration of 
 
 —, Myths concerning 50.72, 
 
 — powers in Siouan concepts 
 
 — , Worshi]) of 
 
 Fire society. Organization of 
 
 Fireplace, ( ,'onsecration of 
 
 Fish, Use of, for food 
 
 Fish-hooks, Nenenot 
 
 Fishing among the Eskimo 
 
 Fletcher, Alice C, cited on beliefs. 414, 500. 
 
 ceremonials 385, 
 
 glu)st lodge 
 
 sun dance 457, 462, 
 
 tlie Umane 
 
 — quoted on berdacbes 
 
 ceremon ials 
 
 — Indian beliefs 434, 476, 
 
 kinship terms 
 
 rites of puberty 
 
 sun dance 450, 
 
 symbolism 427, 
 
 Unktebi 
 
 — , Reference to work of 
 
 Floats, Fishing, Eskimo 
 
 Flute, Siouan 
 
 Folklore, Indian 260, 327. 
 
 Food, — 140, 232, 
 
 — , Lore concerning 
 
 — used in ceremonial 
 
 Football among the Eskimo 
 
 Fort ( "iiimo, Ethiudogy of 
 
 Fort George, High tides at 
 
 Foster, Tho.mas, cited on Indian beliefs. 
 
 Fox, Eskimo myths concerning 
 
 Fremont, Samuel, Acknowledgement to 
 
 — cited on fetiches 
 
 Indian beliefs 374. 375. 
 
 Frog, Myths cont^rning 
 
 Furniture, Eskimo 
 
 Furs, Eskimo classification of 
 
 — takiui b\ northern Indians I 
 
 68 
 502 
 469 
 322 
 135 
 
 532 
 381 
 402 
 522 
 535 
 514 
 70 
 380 
 280 
 320 
 204 
 .530 
 391 
 487 
 460 
 451 
 379 
 446 
 497 
 368 
 483 
 453 
 529 
 439 
 363 
 248 
 455 
 511 
 279 
 517 
 104 
 255 
 167 
 170 
 
 264 
 362 
 415 
 380 
 334 
 228 
 218 
 181 
 
548 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Gadfly infesting the reindeer 295 
 
 G AHIGE, Acknowleilgement to 362 
 
 — cited 01) primitive beliefs 377, 420, 446 
 
 Gambling among tlie Eskimo 178 
 
 Games, Primitive 60, 178, 255, 323 
 
 Gatschet, Albert S., cited on symbolic 
 
 colors 532 
 
 — , Researches by xxxii 
 
 GEORGE RIVER, Description of 169 
 
 Georgia, Explorations in xx v 
 
 Genesis among northern Indians 261, 336 
 
 Gentes, Description of - 534, 536, 542 
 
 Gesture, U.se of, among northern In- 
 dians 183 
 
 Ghost belief, Siouan 421. 474. 484, 490, ,^)12, 518 
 
 — dance among the Omaha 393, 544 
 
 — lodge, Description of 4S7 
 
 — stories, Teton 489 
 
 Giant society, Ceremonial of 91 
 
 — , Songs of 126 
 
 Giants, Beliefs concerning 508 
 
 Gill, De Lancey W., Work of xxxviii 
 
 Gh'ttony, (lod of 471 
 
 Goats, Myths concerning 497 
 
 (50D. Siouan idea of xl v, 521 
 
 Goggles, Eskimo 222 
 
 Gopher, Myths concerning 496 
 
 Grave, Eskimo 1 92 
 
 Great Spirit. Absence of belief in. xlvi 365,423. 
 
 431,501. .-,21 
 
 — among the Eskimo 194 
 
 Grebe, Myths concerning lOii 
 
 Green corn dance, Siouan 429 
 
 Grubs in reindeer skins 29.' 
 
 GuiLhEMOTS, Mytliic origin of 26'J 
 
 Gulls, 2n:! 
 
 Hamilton, "William, cited on Indian Ix-- 
 
 liefs 419. 423. 524 
 
 Hanmdepi, Practice of 437 
 
 Hard Walker, Mystery decoration of. . . 399 
 
 Hare, Myths concerning the 147. 26:'.. 340 
 
 Harness, Dog 243 
 
 Harpoon used among northern Indians. 183.240 
 
 Hawks, Mythic origin of 26:i 
 
 Headdress, Xenenot : 2S6 
 
 He.matite, Use of. among northern In- 
 dians 298 
 
 Henmepin, Louis, cited on Indian beliefs 438 
 
 Henshaw, H. W., Researches by xxxi 
 
 Herding among the Sia 25 
 
 Hermaphroditism, Beliefs concerning.. . 379 
 
 Hero worship, Traces of 371 
 
 Hewitt, J. N. B., cited on Iroijuoiam be- 
 liefs 366 
 
 — , Work of XXX, XXXV 
 
 Heyoka, Beliefs concerning 443, 468 
 
 ■" man. Story of the 469 
 
 Hidatsa, Ceremonial among 437 
 
 — , CMilts of the 501 
 
 — myths, Reference to 391. ."ill 
 
 HiLLERS, J. K., Pbotographn; work by., xxxviii 
 
 UlNMAN. S D.. cited on stone gods 446 
 
 History of the Sia 10 
 
 Hoffman, W.J. , cited on symbolic colors 532 
 
 — , Work of XX vi. xxxiii 
 
 Hohnogk'a, Description .if 473 
 
 Holmes, W. H., Researches by. xxiv, xxvi, x.'cxiv 
 Ho-NA'-Ai-TE ceremonial over hunters . . . 120 
 
 Horse, Beliefs concerning 479, 510 
 
 — , Use of, by the Sia 25 
 
 — in ceremonial 462. 487. 504 
 
 Hospitality of the Sia 12. 1 13 
 
 Household articles. Northern 228, 300 
 
 Houses, Myths concerning 58 
 
 — of the Ungava district 167 
 
 Hovey, H. C, quoted on worship of In 
 
 yan 448 
 
 — , Reference to work of 363 
 
 Hudson Bay Company, Work of, in the 
 
 Ungava district 167 
 
 Hudson Bay Territory, Indians of xli, 167,267 
 
 Human phenomena. Definition of 365 
 
 Hunting among northern Indians 203, 240. 
 
 249, 276. 279, 316 
 —, Ceremonial connected witli 120 
 
 — implements 238, 246 
 
 HlTE(?A. Mystery decoration of 396 
 
 I^a'e^'E, Description of 392 
 
 Ice pick. Primitive 319 
 
 — scoop, — 318 
 
 Ictasanda custom. Description of 383 
 
 iH.iNKTONWANNA. Beliefs among 436 
 
 Ikto, Description of 471 
 
 iMMORT-iVLlTY, Primitive belief in 419, 430. 
 
 484. 512. 518. 521 
 
 Implements of northern Indians 252,317 
 
 Inda(JTNGA, Descri])tion of 386 
 
 Indiana. Explorations in xxv 
 
 Industries of Sia 22 
 
 Inf.^ncy, Ceremonials connected with ... 140,482 
 Inkesabe decoration. Description of ... . 408 
 
 INNUIT, Legendary origin of 261 
 
 — of the Ungava district 175 
 
 Institutions, Siouan 411 
 
 Intestines, Use of, fir clothing 220 
 
 Intoxicants, Absence of, among the Xe- 
 nenot 804 
 
 Invocation of the trap 387 
 
 Invulnerability, Indian belief in 495 
 
 Inyan, Belief in tlie 447 
 
 Iowa, Beliefs among 439 
 
 — , Explorations in xxv 
 
 Iroquois, Beliefs of the xxx, 366 
 
 Irrigation by the Sia 11 
 
 Islands, Mythic origin of 264 
 
 Ivory car\-ing among the Eskimo 260 
 
 Iya, Description of 471 
 
 James, Edwin, Acknowledgment to 501 
 
 — cited on Indian lieliefs 372 
 
 — quoted on Indian beliefs 509, 516 
 
 Jay, Beliefs concerning the 273 
 
 Jemez Indians, Researches concern in i; .. xxx 
 Jugglery among Siouan tribes 416. 499, 512 
 
INDEX. 
 
 649 
 
 I'ag.-. 
 
 Kansa lieliefs in future life 421 
 
 — cults, l)escripti(>ii of :?71,4ir) 
 
 — , llescarclies couceruing xxxii 
 
 KiNosBOHouoH, Lord, cited on svinliolif 
 
 colors 532 
 
 Kinship terms, Signilicaiice of . . 368 
 
 Klamath Indians, Publications con<'ern- 
 
 ing xxxii 
 
 Knife ceremonial 545 
 
 Knife society. Ceremonial of 101 
 
 -, Organization of 69 
 
 — , Songs of 128 
 
 Knives of northern Indians 208, 252, 317 
 
 KoKsoAfiM vi-T, Description of 184 
 
 KoKSoAK river, Description of 170 
 
 — , Ethnology of Ifi7 
 
 KWAPA bi'liefs, Hefircnce to 393 
 
 — , Researches concerning xxxii 
 
 Labor, Division of 271, 542 
 
 Labrador, Ethnology of 167 
 
 — , Myths from 264 
 
 Ladles, Neneuot 302 
 
 La FlI:che, Francis, Acknowledgment 
 
 to 362 
 
 — cited on beliefs 373 
 
 berdaches 378 
 
 fetichisni 413 
 
 — (jiioted on Indian beliefs 420, 524 
 
 shamanism 393 
 
 La FLfecHE, Joseph, Acknowledgment 
 
 to 362 
 
 — cited on Indian beliefs 371 , 386, 526 
 
 shamanism 392 
 
 Siouau customs 390 
 
 LaFleche, Suesette, cited on fetiches. 416 
 
 Lamps, Eskimo 229 
 
 Lang, Andrew, quoted on primitive be- 
 liefs 368 
 
 LAN<irAr:E, Modification of the Eskimo. . 176 
 
 Larch river, Description of 171 
 
 Law, Common, among the Eskimo 186 
 
 Leaf river. Description of 171 
 
 Legends of northern Indians 260. 327 
 
 — , Siouan 430 
 
 Leggings, Nenenot 283, 291 
 
 Lewis, Merriwether, cited on Indian 
 
 customs 505 
 
 _ -_ Shoahoni ceremonials 375 
 
 — quoted on Indian beliefs 481, 508 
 
 mythic dwarfs 481 
 
 — , Reference to work of 502 
 
 Lhct, Daniel Grey.~elon, Sieur dc, cit- 
 ed on Indian beliefs 438 
 
 Lice. Eskimo myths concerning 263 
 
 License, Poetic, among the Sia 123 
 
 Life, Primitive belief in future 419, 430, 
 
 484.512,518,521 
 
 Light, Mythic origin of 29 
 
 Lightning myths 37, 52, 123, 127, 366, 420, 517 
 
 — , Symbolism connected with 527 
 
 Lingam, Belief in the t47 
 
 Little Soldier, Mvsterv decoration of. 395 
 
 Page. 
 Little Whale river Indians, Descrip- 
 tion of 182 
 
 Lloyd, H. Evans, Reference to work of. . 501 
 Lodge, Ceremonies aiul beliefs respect- 
 ing 274,458,487 
 
 Longevity among northern Indians 190, 270 
 
 Long, Stephen IL, citeil on beliefs 448 
 
 — quoted on Omaha customs 375 
 
 rites of jiubertj' 483 
 
 — , Reference to work of 363, 5C3 
 
 Loon, Eskimo myths concerning 262 
 
 LvND, J. "\V., cited on Indian beliefs..375, 436, 527 
 
 — quoted on ghost belief 484, 489 
 
 Hey(diagod8 469 
 
 Ikto 472 
 
 Indian beliefs 431, 445, 473. 493 
 
 ceremonials 437 
 
 sun dance 450 
 
 — , Reference to work of 363 
 
 Lynx, Myths concerning 148 
 
 — , Use of for food 279 
 
 Magic, Primitive 197,509 
 
 Mallery, Garrick. cited on primitive 
 
 beliefs xlvi 
 
 symbolic colors 532 
 
 — , Researches by xxxi 
 
 M am.mals of the Fngava district 174 
 
 Mandan, Ceremonial among 437 
 
 -,('ultsof the 501 
 
 — dance, Description of 463 
 
 Manitoba, Explorations in xxv 
 
 Marriage among northern Indians. . 188, 199, 270 
 
 the Sia 19 
 
 Marrow, Extraction of 278 
 
 ]\[arten. Myths concerning 338 
 
 Masks, Sia 117 
 
 Mato TlPl, Beliefs concerning 448 
 
 Matthews, Washington, Acknowledg- 
 ment to 501 
 
 — cited on Indian beliefs 391, 403 
 
 ceremonials 505 
 
 Navajo beliefs 369 
 
 symbolic colors 532 
 
 — quoted on Indian beliefs 501, 509, 514, 518 
 
 , Siouan fetiches 515 
 
 Maximilian( Alexander PniLipp), Prince 
 
 zuWlED, cited on Indian beliefs.. 440,443,515 
 
 — quoted on 506, 509 
 
 ceremonials 504 
 
 — , Reference to work of 501 
 
 McLean, John, cited on Ilud.sou Bayter- 
 
 ritor J' 168 
 
 Medicine lodge of northern Indians 274 
 
 — . Primitive . . xxviii. 269, 274. 325, 417, 427, 4.54. 495 
 
 — rock of the Mandan 508 
 
 -, Thaumaturgic 75, 97, 104, 125, 134, 194 
 
 Mementoes among northern Indians 274 
 
 Messiah craze, Reference to the 544 
 
 Metamorphoses, Indian bcli(ff in 493 
 
 Metempsychosis, ■— 484 
 
 Michigan, Explorations in xxvi 
 
 Middleton, J. D., Explorations by xxvi 
 
 — , Resignation of xxvi 
 
550 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Page. 
 Migration, Eskimo 203 
 
 — myths of the Sia 41 
 
 Miller, George, Acknowledgment to... 362 
 
 — cited on beliefs 372, 377 
 
 fetichism 413 
 
 — .Information derived from xxxii 
 
 — , Mysterj' decoration used by 394 
 
 — quoted on Ictasanda custom 383 
 
 Omaha invocations 387 
 
 Sionan decorations 398, 401 
 
 star beliefs 379 
 
 MiNDELEFF, COSMOS, Work by xxxvi 
 
 MiNDELEFF, VICTOR, xxvii, XXX vi 
 
 MiNiWATU, Beliefs concerning 440 
 
 Minnesota, Field work in... xxvi 
 
 MiNNETAEEE, Beliefs among 436 
 
 Mittens of northern Indians 219, 284, 285 
 
 Moccasins, Nenenot 284 
 
 Modeling, Report on xxxvi 
 
 Mole, Myths concerning 52 
 
 Monster myths 42 
 
 MoNTAGNAis of the Ungava district 181 
 
 Moon, Beliefs concerning. 35, 265, 378, 449, 467, 513 
 Mooney, James, cited on Indian customs. 369, .542 
 
 — - — symbolic colors .532 
 
 —, Researches by xxvi, xxvii, sxxiii 
 
 Mortuary customs and beliefs. . 143, 178, 191, 271 
 
 Mosquitoes, Mythic origin of 264 
 
 Mound explorations xxv 
 
 Mouse, Beliefs concerning 273 
 
 Murdoch, John, editor of paper on Eth- 
 nology of the Ungava district 167 
 
 — , Reference to work of 238 
 
 Music among northern Indians 322 
 
 Muskhooean languages. Bibliography of. xxxiv 
 
 Muskrat, Myths concerning 338 
 
 Mystery dance, Description of 440 
 
 — decoration. Use of 394 
 
 — , Definition of 365 
 
 — , Indian belief in 445, 493, 508 
 
 — tree. Description of the 453 
 
 Myth, Special definition of 368 
 
 Mythology, Primitive xlv, 26, 
 
 116,261,327,365,431 
 
 Myths concerning the buffalo 476 
 
 — , Creation 430, 513, 519 
 
 — of the Eskimo 195 
 
 Maudans 506 
 
 Sia 9,146 
 
 Names, Children's, among the Sia 
 
 — , Colors in personal 
 
 — , Composite 
 
 — , Eskimo 
 
 — , Mystical 439, 522, 
 
 — , Significance of personal 
 
 — , Topographic, among the Eskimo 
 
 >; ASKOPIE Indians, Description of 
 
 Navajo beliefs. Reference to 
 
 — , S;yTiibolic colors of 
 
 Navigation, E.skimo 
 
 Nebraska, Explorations in 
 
 Needle, Nenenot 
 
 Nenknot Indians, Description of 
 
 141 
 533 
 539 
 200 
 
 537, 541 
 368 
 202 
 
 183, 267 
 369 
 532 
 236 
 xliii 
 310 
 
 183, 267 
 
 Page. 
 
 New Mexico, Explorations in xxxix 
 
 — , Sia Indians of 9 
 
 New York, Field work in xxx 
 
 Night, Beliefs concerning 467 
 
 NiKiE decorations, Description of 407 
 
 — names among the Iowa and Otoe 439 
 
 Nomenclature, Peculiarities of Indian . . xxix 
 North Carollna, Explorations in . . xxvi, xxvii 
 
 North Dakota. — — xxv 
 
 NuDA°AXA, Acknowledgment to 362 
 
 Numbers, Mystic 513 
 
 Numerals, Use of, among the Eskimo. .. 256 
 
 Ohio, Explorations in xxvi 
 
 Oil, Consumption of, among the Eskimo. 233 
 
 Ojibwa, Ceremonials of xxvii 
 
 — , Symbolic colors of 532 
 
 Okipa, Description of the 502 
 
 Omaha beliefs as to future life 419 
 
 — cults. Description of 371 
 
 — customs, , 374 
 
 — . Researches concerning xxxi 
 
 — terms. Definition of 367 
 
 — tribal fetiches 414 
 
 Omens, Indian belief in 500 
 
 Onondaga Indians, Researches concern- 
 ing xxx 
 
 Oeacles, Belief in 510, 516 
 
 Ordeals, Customs connected with 414,499 
 
 Oregon, Explorations in xxxii 
 
 Obnamentation of clothing, Nenenot 283 
 
 Osage cults. Description of 371, 376 
 
 — tribal fetiches 414 
 
 Otoe, Beliefs among 439 
 
 Otter, Myths concerning 330 
 
 Owls, Beliefs concerning 273. 500, 510 
 
 Paci°-na° paji, Acknowledgment to 362 
 
 Paddles, Nenenot 306 
 
 Paint sticks, — 297 
 
 —used among northern Indians 296 
 
 — , Use of, in worship 438 
 
 Painting, Post mortem 144 
 
 — . Sand, among the Sia 77, 102 
 
 Palaihnihan language, Work on xxix 
 
 Parkman, Francis, cited on Indian beliefs 443 
 
 Paternity, Indefinite, among Indians . . . 271 
 
 Peace, Sjmbolism connected with 523 
 
 Peck, E.J. , Influence of, on Indians 182 
 
 Peet, Stephen D., quoted on Indian be- 
 liefs 520 
 
 Penates, Siouan 475 
 
 Pestles used among northern Indians . . 280. 302 
 
 Phallic worship, Siouan 456 
 
 Phonetics, - 363 
 
 Photographs of Indians, Record of xxxviii 
 
 Pictography, Work on xxxi 
 
 Pigment, Indian, Analysis of 142 
 
 Pilling, James C, Bibliogi-aphic work 
 
 by xxiv, xxxiv 
 
 Pipe, Beliefs concerning 511 
 
 — , Ceremonial relating to. 373,377, 425, 435, 458, 487 
 
 — dance. Reference to 4O6 
 
INDEX. 55]^ 
 
 Pipe, Nenenot 
 
 Planets, Myths ((inceniing 
 
 I'lants, 
 
 Polygamy ainong nortliern Indians 
 
 Polytheism among Siouan tribes 
 
 Pond, G. H., cited on beliefs 
 
 — quoted 
 
 Heyoka gods 
 
 Indian Ixlicfs 
 
 mvstury dance 
 
 '— sun dance 
 
 — , Reference to work of 
 
 PONKA belief as to future life 
 
 — cults, Description of _. 
 
 — , Kesearches concerning 
 
 — terms 
 
 Population, Eskimo 
 
 Portage, Mtthi.d of making, among 
 
 northern Indians 
 
 Pottery, Sia 
 
 Poverty, — 
 
 Powell, J. 'W., cited on Indian beliefs. . . 
 
 — linguistic classification 
 
 — Tusayan secret ceremonials 
 
 — , Classification of languages by 
 
 Powers recognized in Siouan concepts. . . 
 
 Prayer among the Indians i:i(), 
 
 Priesthood, Sia 
 
 Prophecy, Aboriginal 404, 
 
 PsYfHOTHEiSM, Absence of. . xlv, 365, 431, 
 
 Ptarmiga.x, Hunting of 
 
 Puberty', Ceremonial connected with 208, 
 Publications 
 
 Page. 
 
 302 
 514 
 390 
 
 188, 270 
 502 
 375 
 446 
 468 
 
 432, 494 
 440 
 450 
 363 
 419 
 371 
 xxxl 
 367 
 176 
 
 306 
 
 12 
 
 112 
 
 .^^24 
 
 10 
 
 13 
 
 XXX 
 
 534 
 
 373,435 
 
 16 
 
 424,444 
 
 501,521 I 
 
 204 
 
 443. 483 
 
 xxiv 
 
 quoted on Indian 
 
 Qu.VRTEES, The four 524, 537 
 
 Queries concerning Indian beliefs 538 
 
 Quer'-e.Xn-na society, Organization and 
 
 ceremonial of 112,113 130 
 
 Quivers, Eskimo 247 
 
 QuoRATEAN language, Work on xxix 
 
 Kabbit, Myths concerning 65, 334, 472 
 
 Eain ceremonial among the Sia 76,91, 101,113 
 
 — songs 123,126,128 
 
 Painbow, Beliefs concerning . . 37, 56, 401, 508, 517 
 
 EATTLEfiNAKE, Myths— 44, 156, 479 
 
 Raven, Mythic origin of 262 
 
 Reindeer hunting 276, 313 
 
 — , Myths conceraing , 200 
 
 — , Uses of 276 
 
 Religion, Primitive xlv, 9, 193, 520 
 
 , Persistence of 13, 179 
 
 , Special definition of 368 
 
 RE.SURRECTION, Abscnco of belief in 421 
 
 Reverence for ancestors 371 
 
 Reynolds, H. L., Researches by xxv, xxxv 
 
 RiGGS, A. L., cited on rites of puberty ... 483 
 
 symbolism 5;!1 
 
 RiGGS, Stephen R., cited on Dakota terms 366 
 
 Indian beliefs 375, 439, 444, 468, 480, 493 
 
 stone gods 447 
 
 — , Publication of dictionary by xxxi 
 
 — quoted on Indian beliefs 432, 446, 528 
 
 
 -lya 
 
 
 
 
 - moon Worship 
 
 - Siouan dance. 
 penates 
 
 
 
 
 
 -Re 
 
 erence to work 
 Mortuary 
 
 of 
 
 RiTK.S, 
 
 
 -, Pu 
 
 )erty 
 
 
 -, Sia 
 
 theurgistic 
 
 
 Ruins 
 
 Sia 
 
 
 'ago. 
 
 473 
 471 
 449 
 443 
 475 
 363 
 485 
 483 
 73 
 10 
 
 S.\CRED tent of 1 lie Omaha 413 
 
 I Sacrifice, Primitive iqq 373 
 
 380, 426, 435, 459, 502, 521 
 
 Sand painting among the Sia 77 
 
 San.ssouci, Louis, cited on beliefs 378 
 
 Sapona, Beliefs of tlie 501 , 518 
 
 Satan, Absence of belief (■(meerning 371 
 
 Say, Thomas, quoted on benlaches 379 
 
 Indian Deliefs 370, 421 431 
 
 — , Reference to work of yg;; 
 
 Scaffold burial among northernlndians . 272 
 
 Scalp dance. Ceremonial connected with . .520 
 
 ScAH ABEUS, Myths concerning 3- 
 
 Scarification in ceremonial 437,460,405 
 
 Scrapers, Nenenot 292 
 
 j SEALSKiN,ITseof, among northernlndians. 221, 
 I . 232, 292 
 
 Sea PIGEONS, Mythic origin of 202 
 
 Seasons, Recognition of, by Indians 203 
 
 Sense development among tlie Eskimo . . 2()2 
 
 Serpent, Beliefs concerning 157, sug 
 
 — , Worship of Qn 
 
 Sewing, Primitive 207, 282 
 
 Sh.\dows, Myths concerning 514 
 
 Shamanism, Siouan 392, 496, 513, 522 
 
 — among northern Indians 194, 273 
 
 — , Discussion of 417 520 
 
 — , Persistence of 
 
 Shamans, Position of 
 
 tribes 
 
 Shea, J. Gilmary, quoted on Indian be 
 liefs 
 
 — , Reference to work of 
 
 Shells, Marine, used in Pueblo country. 
 
 Shoes, Eskimo 
 
 Shoshoni ceremonial. Reference to 
 
 Shrew, Myths concerning 
 
 Sia Indians, Researches concerning xxx, xxxix, 3 
 
 Sign language, Work on 
 
 .Sin. Indian concei)t3 concerning 
 
 Sinew, Extraction of 
 
 — , Use of, for sewing 
 
 Siouan alphabet 
 
 — cults. Study of , 
 
 — , Definition of 
 
 SissiTONWAN, Beliefs among 436 
 
 Sitting Bull, Symbolic colors used by . . .531 
 
 SkAtona, Mythic 8er])ont 157 
 
 Skin clothing. Use of 209 
 
 among Siouan 
 
 179 
 
 371 
 
 431 
 36,-! 
 114 
 217 
 375 
 39 
 
 XXXI 
 
 521 
 
 251 
 
 221 
 
 363 
 
 . xxxii, xliii,351 
 361 
 
 ■ dressing among northern Indians 
 
 . . 205,275, 
 278, 292 
 
552 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Skin tents, Eskimo 
 
 !5Kl.NNiX(i, reculiar method of. 
 
 Skunk, Myth comeming 
 
 Sky, — 
 
 226 
 
 207 
 
 150 
 
 2(i6 
 
 Sleds amoug northern ludians 240, 306 
 
 Smet, P.J. DE, cited on Indian beliefs. 4;!9, 447, 477 
 ordeals 499 
 
 — quoted on fetichism 498 
 
 Indian beliefs 443, 492 
 
 ceremonials 437 
 
 — . sun worship 449 
 
 — , Reference to work of 363 
 
 Smoking among northern Indians . . 234, 291, 302 
 — , Beliefs concerning 51 1 
 
 — in ceremonials 83, 93, 105, 373, 435, 458, 487 
 
 Smoking deerskins 296 
 
 Snakes, Myths concerning 479 
 
 — , Use of, in ceremonials 87 
 
 jugglery 419 
 
 Snake society, Organization and cere- 
 monial of 69, 78 
 
 — , Songs of 123 
 
 Snaring among northern Indians 279, 315 
 
 Sneezing, Beliefs concerning 500 
 
 Snow goggles, Eskimo 222 
 
 — houses. Description of 223 
 
 — shoe, Neuenot 308 
 
 , Use of, among northern Indians . . . 311 
 
 — shovel, Primitive 318 
 
 SNUFF,Useof,aniongnorthern Indians. 234, 291, 302 
 
 SoAPSTONE, Use of, for utensils 228 
 
 Societies, Secret, among the Dakota 497 
 
 Sod houses, Eskimo 228 
 
 Songs, Sia 123, 125, 127 
 
 — , Siouan 445, 480 
 
 Sorcery, among Siouan tribes 416, 499, 511, 517 
 
 Soul, Beliefs concerning the 517 
 
 South Carolina, Explorations in xxv 
 
 South Dakota, , xxv 
 
 Spears, Primitive 238, 314 
 
 Spider deity of the Sia 26 
 
 — , Myths concerning 40, 68, 472, 479 
 
 Spider society. Organization of 69 
 
 Spirit, Absence of concept of .. . 365,371,423,431, 
 
 501,521 
 
 — , Reliefs in 194, 272,3.33, 342, 374, 475, 507, 542 
 
 Spiritualism, Primitive 497 
 
 Spoons, Nenonot 302, 306 
 
 Spruce reeu, RfiFect of, on the Neuenot. . 304 
 
 Squirrel, Myths concerning 48, 328 
 
 Stars, Beliefs— 30,37,266,379,467,508,517 
 
 Statement, Financial xlvii 
 
 Stature of the Eskimo 177, 184 
 
 Stevenson, James, Reference to work of 9,14,89 
 Stevenson, Matilda Coxe, cited on sym- 
 bolic colors 532 
 
 — , Explorations by xxx 
 
 — , Memoir by, on the Sia 3 
 
 — , Review of reportby xxxix 
 
 Stone god, P.olief in the 447 
 
 — houses, Eskimo 228 
 
 Stories of northern Indians 260,327 
 
 Streams, Deification of 372 
 
 Strength, Physical, of the Eskimo 268 
 
 Stubbs, Stephen, Mystery decoration of. 405 
 
 Page 
 Subaquatic monsters. Belief in 386 
 
 — powers. Worship of 424, 438 
 
 Subterranean monsters. Belief in 386 
 
 — powers. Worship of 424, 438 
 
 Suicide among the Eskimo 186 
 
 SUN,Beliefs concerning 29, 35,43, 71, 266,423,449, 513 
 
 — dance, Siouan 378, 450 
 
 — pole. Description of the 453, 457 
 
 — symbol among the Sia 36 
 
 — worship 376, 520 
 
 SUPERHUM.\N phenomena, Definition of . . 365 
 
 Superstition among northern Indians . . 179, 272 
 
 Swallow, Myths concerning 58, 263 
 
 Sweat houses, Nenenot 300 
 
 Swimming board, Nenenot 320 
 
 Symbolism, Siouan 427, 523 
 
 Synony'MY. Work on xsxi 
 
 Taboo among Iowa Indians 426 
 
 the Omaha 411 
 
 Sia 19 
 
 Takuskanskan, Belief in 445 
 
 Talisman, P^skimo 197 
 
 Tanning, Primitive 294 
 
 Targets, Nenenot 326 
 
 Tattooing, Eskimo 207 
 
 — , Siouan 486 
 
 Teams, Dog 241 
 
 Tennessee, Explorations in xxix 
 
 Tents of northern Indians 226, 273, 298 
 
 Teton, Customs of 493 
 
 — , Researches concerning xxxi 
 
 Tetonwan, Beliefs among 436 
 
 Thaumaturg Y, Siouan 417 
 
 Theism, — 502 
 
 Theurgists, Sia 16, 7^ 
 
 Thomas, Cyrus, Publications by xxxv 
 
 — , Work by xxiv 
 
 Thunder beings, Mythic 441 
 
 — , Beliefs concerning 37, 381 , 385, 
 
 424,441,508,517,523 
 
 — shamans, Order of 395 
 
 Throwingsticks, Eskimo 239 
 
 Tides in the Ungava district 170 
 
 Tobacco, Ceremonial relating to 425 
 
 — , Myths — — 62 
 
 — , Use of, among northern Indians. . .234, 291, 302 
 
 . iu ceremonials 377 
 
 Toboggans, Nenenot 307 
 
 TopoGR.iPHT of the Ungava district 168 
 
 Torture ceremonial 503, 505 
 
 — in the sun dance 462, 465 
 
 Totems, Usage connected with' 371 
 
 Toys, Nenenot 326 
 
 Trading among northern Indians 275 
 
 Traditions, xoi were 430 
 
 Trance among Indian devotees 392 
 
 Transmigration, Indian belief in 421,493 
 
 Transportation among northern Indians 304 
 
 Trap, Invocation of the 387 
 
 Trapping among northern Indians 204, 280 
 
 Trees, Beliefs concerning 390, 482 
 
 — , Ceremonials relating to 456 
 
 Trophies among northern Indians 274 
 
INDEX. 
 
 553 
 
 Trophies, Use of. in ccrcnimiial 121 
 
 TuNKAX, Belief in the 447 
 
 Turkey, Mytlis concerning 36 
 
 TrRXER, LucienM., Memoir Ijy, on etli- 
 
 nology of the TTngava district IfiT 
 
 — , Review of re[)ort by xli 
 
 Twins, Myths concerning 182 
 
 Two Crows, Aclinowledgnient to 3fi2 
 
 — cited on Indian beliefs 371, liV.'), 382, 520 
 
 shamanisni 392 
 
 Sioiian ciistonis 390 
 
 Tylor, K. ]?., cited on feticliism 412 
 
 XolWERE cults, Description of 42! 
 
 — traditions 43(i 
 
 Umaxe, Significance of symbol 451 
 
 Ungava bay, Description of 171 
 
 --, Ethnology of 107 
 
 Ungava district, 267 
 
 Unktehi, Worship of the 43S 
 
 Utensils, Cooking, among norlliern In 
 
 dians 228. 300 
 
 UuciTA, f Ceremonial of 4'<ii 
 
 Valliere, Alphonsus, cited on Indian 
 
 beliefs 394 
 
 Vargas, Etsebio, quoted on the Sia 9 
 
 — , IJeference to writings of xl 
 
 Vegetation of the Ungava district 109, 173 
 
 Venison, Preservation of 277 
 
 VlAniLiTY among northern Indians 269 
 
 Violin, Eskimo 259 
 
 Visions, Beliefs concerning 395, 407 
 
 Wakan, Description of concept of 494 
 
 Wakanda, Definition of 300, 431 
 
 — "Worship of 372 
 
 Wakanta, The sun a 423 
 
 Waki"ya", Siouan belief in 441 
 
 Waxaoi, Description of 484 
 
 Waxikige, Mystery decoration of 395 
 
 War, Ceremonial connected with 390. 444, 493 
 
 — , Symbolism 523 
 
 WARiMTll, Deification of 372 
 
 Warriors, Societv of the 72,121 
 
 Page. 
 
 Warts, Mytlis ((.ncerning 497 
 
 Water, r.elicts coMc.'rning 380, 424 438, 522 
 
 — peojjle. Mythic 538 
 
 — powers, in Siouan concepts 537 
 
 Weapons of northern Indians 24C, 312 
 
 Weather, Helical's concerning 468 
 
 Wei rspKKAN language, Work on xxix 
 
 West Virginia, Field work in xxxiv 
 
 Whale fishing, Inilian 174,203,247,314 
 
 Whip. Eakimodog 244 
 
 WiiiPi'ooRWiLL, Mytlis concerning 50(1 
 
 White people, Legends — 201 
 
 Wind, Beliefs — 207, 380, 410, 423, 440. 514, .523 
 
 — makers of Siouan mythology 530 
 
 Winnebago, Beliefs of the 360 
 
 — cults, Description of 423 
 
 — , Researches concerning xxxi 
 
 — , Symbolic earth formations of 427 
 
 WiNO.NA, Signilicanci^ of namo 532 
 
 Witchcraft, Primitive 19, 08, 517 
 
 \VoLF, Myths eoMcerning 39.203,330,477 
 
 Wolverine .327, 333. 345 
 
 —, Trapping of 281 
 
 Woman (Doi'BLEi, Mythic 480 
 
 Women, Condition of Indian 269,320 
 
 — , Heyoka ; 4/1 
 
 — , Myths concerning 204, 480 
 
 AVOODBURN, J. M., quoted on Indian l>c 
 
 liefs 482 
 
 — . Reference to work of 363 
 
 Wood rats, ^My ths concerning 34 
 
 — , Con.sumption of 25 
 
 \VoRSHlP, Primitive forms of 425, 436, 502. 514 
 
 Wrestling, Indian 321 
 
 Wyandot language. Work on xxx 
 
 VONI, Cult of the 505 
 
 Yi'ccA, Use of, in ceremonial 103,119,122 
 
 VtiKIAN language. Work on xxix 
 
 ZooTHEiSM .among Indians 67, 393 
 
 ZuNi. Cult .soci<-ties of. . . 73 
 
 — customs, R«'ference to 300 
 
 — , Researches concerning xxx 
 
 — , Symbolic cnlors of 532 
 
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