UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. i S%^' 1^ if'kM) J EULES AND CAUTIONS IN ENGLISH GKAMMAK FOVNBED ON THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. BY WILLIAM EUSHTON, M.A. PROFESSOR OF HISTORY AND ENGLISH LITERATim73, QUEEN'S COLLEGE, CORK. LONDON : LONG-MANS, GEEEN, AND CO. 1869. u T'^^^^^ ^<^ LONDON: PRINTED BY SPOlXitiWOODE AND CO., NEW-STUEET a^iUABl AND PA£L1AMENI SIHEEI CONTENTS. PAGE liTTRODUCTION , , . vii ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. OHiP. I. Simple Sentences, Indicative . . , , .1 11. Simple Sentences, other than Indicative ... 28 III. Compound Sentences . . , . . . .33 IV. Contracted and Elliptical Sentences .... 59 RULES AND CAUTIONS. V. Nouns . 63 VI. Adjectives 93 VII. Pronouns . .' 105 VIII. Words variously termed Adjective Pronouns, or Pronominal Adjectives 140 IX. Articles .... 149 X. Verbs 161 XI. GrENERAL EeMARKS ON PARTICLES 220 XII. Adverbs .221 XIII. Conjunctions 240 XIV. Words variously terihed Conjunctive Adverbs, Ad- verbial Conjunctions, etc. etc. .... 248 XV. Prepositions . , 260 Examples 280 Exercises for Analysis, . . , • . . 302 ▲ 2 WORKS USED* OR OCCASIONALLY CONSULTED f. * Adams, Dr. Ernest, * Elements of the English Language.' Bdl ^ Baldy, 1862. * Angus, Dr. Joseph, • Handbook of the English Tongue.' Eeh(p,ous Tract Society, 1862. t Arnold, Thomas Keeohever, M.A., ' An English G-rammar for Classical Schools.' Bivingtmis, 1 860. t Bain, Professor Alexander, • English G-rammar.' Longmans, 1863, t Becker, Dr. Karl Ferdinand, * Schulgrammatik der deutschen Sprache.' Frankfort, 1862. t * Grammar of the German Language, adapted to the use of English Students,' by Dr. J. W. Eeaeders- DORF. WUliams ^ Norgate, 1855. t Campbell, Dr. George, * Philosophy of Rhetoric' Wm. Tegg ^ Co., 1850. t Cobbett, William, * G-rammar of the English Language.' London 1833. t Dalgleish, William Scott, M.A., * Grammatical Analysis.' Sim^Jcin, Marshall ^ Co., 1866. t Fowler, William C, * The English Language.' Cassell, Fetter and Galpin, 1860. t G-arnett, Eev. Kichard, • Philological Essays.' Williams Sf Norgate, 1859. t Head, Sir Edmund W., Bart., ' Shall' and * Will.' Murray, 1858. t Key, Professor Thomas Hewitt, * Latin Grammar.' Bell ^ Baldy, 1858. t Latham, Dr. Egbert Gordon, * The English Language.' 1862. t — ' Elementary English Grammar.' 1860. t * Logic in its Application to Language.' Walton ^ Maherly, 1856. * Lowth, Dr. Egbert, * A Short Introduction to English Grammar.' London, 1784. * Mason, Charles Peter, BA., 'English Grammar, including the Principles of Grammatical Analysis.' Walton ^ Maherly, 1858. VI WORKS USED, OR OCCASIONALLY CONSULTED. ^ MoRELL, Dr. J. D., * Grammar of the English Language, together with an Exposition of the Analysis of Sentences/ Longmans ^ 1860. t MuREAY, LiNDLEY, 'English Grrammar/ York, 1824. t EowLAND, Eev. Thomas, * A Grrammar of the Welsh Language.' Hughes ^ Butler, 1857. t Stoddart, Sir John, ' Universal Grammar,' Encyclopaedia Metropo- litana. Griffin ^ Co., 1847. t TooKE, John Horne, * Diversions of Purley/ edited by Kichabd Taylor. Tcgg, 1829. t Wedgwood, Hensleigh, M.A., * Dictionary of English Etymology.* Trubner ^- Co., 1859. INTRODUCTION. "We will suppose that two persons are about to dispute, and that they lay down a certain book upon the table. One says, * The book is good ; ' the other says, ^ The book is not good ; ' and they proceed to argue the question. The book is the subject, that which is laid down for discus- sion ; and the term is derived from the Latin suhjectum, lite- rally meaning, * that which is laid down.' Concerning this subject, the quality of goodness is affirmed by one disputant, and denied by the other ; and this quality of goodness is said to be predicated^ that is * stated' (either affirmed or denied) of the subject. The word predicate is derived from the Latin prae-dicdre, * to show forth, proclaim, declare,' a word not to be con- founded by yoimg pupils with prae-dlcere, * to foretell, pro- phesy.' Hence the predicate means * that which is stated,' ' the thing or notion affirmed or denied.' Now the book and the quality of goodness are the things signified. One disputant says, that the book belongs to the class of things called good ; the other says, that the book does not so belong. But the word * book,' and the word ' good,' are signs or sounds, which, in our language, represent the thing or notion in question. The written word is a ' sign ; ' the spoken word is a ^ sound ; ' but both the sign and the sound are marks or tokens of the things signified. In Metaphysics, this distinction is most important. For our purpose, it will be sufficient merely to indicate the dis- tinction, and to observe that the terms subject and predicate Vlll INTRODUCTION, are, in Grammar, applied to the words themselves as they stand in a proposition. In this sentence, ' The book is good,' we have a ^ proposi- tion,' that is ^ an indicative or declaratory sentence ; ' and it is also called an * affirmative proposition,' because it affirms or ^ says yes.' But in the sentence, 'The book is not good,' we have a ' negative proposition ; ' that is, a declaratory sentence which denies, or * says no.' In both these sentences, Logicians call ' the book' the sul- ject of the proposition, and * good ' the predicate ; and they term * is ' the copula, that is the ' link ' or ' tie ' which joins the subject and the predicate together. In negative sentences, they attach the negation to the copula; thus, in the sentence * The book is not good,' they make is not the copula. ^-4^"^^ In such propositions as, ' The sim shines,' the Logicians say that both predicate and copula are contained in the word ^shines;' for /shines' is equivalent to * is shining;' and so they analyse Subject, Copula. PredicatCc The Sim is shining. Of those writers who have applied logical analysis to the grammar of a modem language, one of the most distinguished is Dr. Karl Ferdinand Becker, whose Grammar of the German Language enjoys a high reputation. In our own country. Dr. Latham has written on ' Logic in its application to Lan- guage ; ' but his treatise on that subject is not so extensively known as his works on the * English Language.' The principal followers of Becker, in England, are Dr. Morell and Mr. Mason ; to each of whom I have to acknow- ledge many obligations, though I am often at variance with both, in theory and in detail. Where I am obliged to differ from them, I have endeavoured to state my views with mode- ration and candour. More recently, Professor Bain, of Aberdeen, has published an English Grammar founded upon the Analysis of Sentences. This work I have consulted with advantage from time to time. INTRODUCTION. IX Now the application of Logic to Grammar is attended with considerable difficulty. If, indeed, the logical subject and predicate were always represented, each by a single word, the appKcation of logical terms to Grammar would be com- paratively easy. But in Logic, the subject and the predicate may each be represented by several words ; thus Subject. Copula. Predicate. The early sun is brightly shining. The royal army is utterly defeated. Those writers who apply Logic to Grammar have generally retained the terms subject and predicate, but with a distinction. Thus, in the sentences just given, * sun ' (the old-fashioned * nominative to the verb ') is called the grammatical subject ; the words ' the early ' are then an enlargement of the gramma- tical subject ; and so * the early sun ' is termed the enlarged subject. Hence it follows that ^ the early sun,' which is the logical subject, is the enlarged grammatical subject. In like manner, * army ' is the grammatical subject ; and ' the royal army' (the subject in Logic) is the enlarged subject in Grammar. First, they restrict the term, and then they enlarge it; with the additional disadvantage of employing the same term {subject), in one sense in Logic, and in another in Grammar. Similarly the grammatical predicate does not always coincide with the logical predicate ; for, in some instances, the logical predicate is, in a grammatical point of view, the ' extended predicate.' Dr. Morell says {Grammar, p. 66), *In gram- matical analysis, it is more convenient to regard the copula as belonging to the predicate ; so that, instead of having three essential elements to every sentence, as is the case in Logic, we shall have only two, namely (1) the Subject, which ex- presses the thing about which we are speaking ; and (2) the Predicate, which contains what we affirm of the subject.' According to this view, we have, in the examples given, ^ is shining,' and * is defeated,' for the grammatical predicates ; but we are farther informed that the adverbs ^ brightly ' and * utterly ' are extensions of the predicate ; whence ' is brightly shining ' and * is utterly defeated ' are extended predicates. A 3 X INTRODUCTION, Here, again, we observe a restriction followed by an ex- tension. But the difiicnlties presented by the Copula are not so easily surmounted. According to the more recent works on Logic, the copula is explained as merely indicating the agree- ment or disagreement of two terms. But in the system hitherto received. Logicians reduce every proposition to the form * A is B ' or ^ A is not B ; ' and accordingly the verb of the predicate (or the predicate-verb, as we shall term it) is resolved into is with a participle ; for example, ' The sun shines ' is resolved, * The sun is shining.' Further, as they maintain that an adjective or participle is not significant by itself, they tell us that some substantive must be supplied to complete the sense. Thus, * Thomas is wise ' is explained to be ' Thomas is a wise man.' So, ^ The sun is shining ' is ^ The sun is a shining body,' or * a shining substance.' Hence the sentence ^ John walks ' is resolved into * John is walking,' and this is explained ' John is a walking man.' They are not, however, all agreed as to the exact form of the copula. Some of them say, that any finite part of the verb he may be so used ; others restrict the copula to the present tense indicative of that verb. According to the view taken by the latter, this sentence, * The way of the wicked shall be darkness,' must be resolved, The way of the wicked is a way which shall be darkness, or is a way tending to darkness. (See Hiirs Aldrich, p. 18.) All this seems very artificial. But further, it gives rise to numerous ambiguities ; and we shall see that the word is^ in- nocent as it looks, is one of the most deceptive little words in the language. First of all, the word Z5, apart from its use as a copula, may be employed by itself as a predicate-verb, denoting ex- istence ; for €'xample, * God is,' that is, * God exists.' And so here : — INTRODUCTION- XI My thought, whose murder yet is but fantastical, Shakes so my single state of man, that function Is smothered in surmise ; and nothing is, But what is not, Macbeth^ i. 3. TVe find an emphatic use of is in a remarkable passage in the Winter's Tale, iv. 3, touching upon the relation of art to nature : — This is an art Which does mend nature, change it rather ; but The art itself is natui'e. Shakespeare oHen dwells upon the distinction between ' being ' and ^ seeming ; ' as in the dialogue between the Queen and Hamlet : — Queen. Good Hamlet, cast thy nighted colour off, And let thine eye look like a friend on Denmark. Do not, for ever, with thy vailed lids Seek for thy noble father in the dust : Thou know'st, 'tis common ; all that live mu^^t die, Passing through nature to eternity. Hamlet. Ay, madam, it is common. Queen. If it be, Wliy seems it so particular with thee ? Hamlet, Seems, madam I nay it is : I know not ' seems.' 'Tis not alone my inky cloak, good mother, Nor customary suits of solemn black, Nor windy suspiration of forced breath. No, nor the iruitfol river in the eye. Nor the dejected haviour of the visage, Togjether with all forms, modes, shows of grief, That can denote me truly ; these, indeed, seem, For they are actions that a man might play : But I have that within which passeth show ; These but the trappings, and the suits of woe. Hamlet, i. 2. Compare the assertion of lago : For, sir. It is as sure as you are Roderigo, Were I the Moor, I would not be lago : In following him, I follow but myself; XU INTRODUCTION, Heaven is my judge, not I for love and duty But seeming so, for my peculiar end : For when my outward action doth demonstrate The native act and figure of my heart In compliment extern, 'tis not long after But I will wear my heart upon my sleeve For daws to peck at : 1 am not what I am. Othello, i. 1. Now contrast the following passage : Sir Tohy, Jove bless thee, master Parson. Clown (personating Sir Topas the Curate). Bonos dies, Sir Toby : for, as the old hermit of Prague, that never saw pen and ink, very wittily said to a niece of King Gorboduc, ^ That that is is'; so, I being master Parson, am master Parson; for what is ' that ' but that, and * is ' but is ? This is the very point. No doubt, * whatever is, is,' in the sense that ' whatever exists, exists.' But let us consider the various significations which may be implied in the word is, used as a copula, in the simple sentence ^ A is B.' * A is B ' may mean, 1. A is co-extensive with B : Man is a rational animal. 2. A is of the same meaning with B : Fidelity is faithfulness. 3. A is in the condition im- plied by B : The sailor is saved. 4. A is included in the class of B : Man is an animal. 5. A is possessed of attri- butes common to the class of B : Man is an animal. 6. A is possessed of attri- butes implied in the term B : God is a Spirit. 7. A is the cause of B : Intemperance is the death of thousands. 8. A is like B : The hero is a lion in the fight. 9. A is analogous to B : Athens is the eye of Greece. INTRODUCTION. XUl In fact, it is difficult to fix a limit to the various meanings which may be assigned to the word is in the simple sentence ' A is B; In Mathematics we find nothing of this laxity in the state- ment of propositions. There everything is judged by measure, number, or proportion. Things are said to be equal, or not equal, to one another ; in exact ratio, or not in exact ratio : so that there is no room for any play of meaning. But in ordinary conversation, or argument, the latitude is so great, that it is no wonder if misunderstandings arise. The only wonder is, that disputants can ever come to issue at all. For example, we hear it said that * Knowledge is power.' But what does this mean ? It may signify that knowledge is identical mth power, or as good as power, or a kind of power, or a source of power, or the way to power, &c. &c. Practi- cally, it is generally imderstood to imply that knowledge gives or confers power ; so that a man who possesses knowledge has more power than another who does not possess such know- ledge. But the proposition says ' Knowledge is power ;' and this rhetorical phrase conveys to the mind an indefinite notion of grandeur. Again, Napoleon proclaims that * The empire is peace.' No one supposes this to mean ^ peace at any price,' or that France will not go to war under any circumstances. It may mean that Napoleon will not make war for the wanton love of it, or imless he is obliged. But while this proposition has no defi- nite meaning, it carries an imposing sound, and has actually produced the effect of tranquillising the apprehensions of neigh- bouring states. This, no doubt, was the object intended. Hence, when a man says that anything is anything, or that anything is something else, we cannot tell whether he is right or wrong until we know what he means by is. And we may well doubt whether this word is not one of the most unsuitable that could be chosen as the Copula or Tie to join other words together. Still more strange does it seem that every other verb must be resolved into a participle coupled with this ambiguous word is. XIV INTRODUCTION. On tliese discrepancies in the Logical system, Mr. Mason i'emarks {Grammar^ § 347, note) : — *In Logic, the terms pre- dicate and copula involve a little difficulty. In the proposition " The earth is a globe," it would be said that the predicate {prcedicatum or thing asserted) is a globe ; that is, what we assert of the earth is, a globe. This mode of speaking requires a technical meaning to be put upon it, before it has any sense. More strictly in accordance with the meaning of the language, it should be said that what we assert, or the thing asserted about the earth, is its being a globe. Again, the so-called copula in Logic is really more than a copula or link by which two ideas are connected. If we have a finite form of the verb he (and without a finite form there can be no predication), we may ignore, but we cannot eliminate, either the root-meaning of the verb, or the idea of time. Is and are involve the notion of present time as essentially as was and were that of past time. This little difficulty however is quietly swallowed by the logicians, who tell us that the copula, as such, has no re- lation to time. The fact is, that technical logic ought to have some abstract sign for the copula, something like = in mathe- matics, and not the verb be at all. Now if we put together the two facts that there may be a perfect proposition without the verb be, and that when that verb is used there is no proposi- tion unless the verb be is in a finite form, the inference is plain that the real copula consists of those inflections by which a verb assumes a finite form.* Hence Mr. Mason considers that ' the grammatical copula in every sentence consists of the personal inflections of the verb ; that is, the inflections by which number and person are marked, and by which the verb is made 2i finite verb. In the sentence " Time flies," the subject is Time ; that which is pre- dicated or asserted of time i^ flying-, the personal termination of the Yevh flies unites this idea to the subject.' The same doctrine is laid down by Mill, Logic, I. iv. He says: — * A predicate and a subject are all that is necessarily required to make up a proposition ; but as we cannot conclude, from merely seeing two names put together, that they are a INTROBTJCTION. XV predicate and a subject, tliat is, that one of them is intended to be affirmed or denied of the other, it is necessary that there should be some mode or form of indicating that such is the intention ; some sign to distinguish a predication from any other sign of discoui-se. This is sometimes done by a slight alteration of one of the words, called an infiection ; as when we say " Fire burns," the change of the second word from hum to hums showing that we mean to affirm the predicate " burn " of the subject '' fire." ' But let us inquire whether any linh or tie is absolutely necessary to unite words in a sentence ; whether the mere juxtaposition is not enough ; and whether there may not be predication without a finite verb. In Latin we frequently find such forms as these : — Numen lumen ; Victrix fortunce virtus ; Salus populi lex suprema ; Vox populi vox Deij and many similar sentences. Grammarians assert that the copula is omitted here, and that estj ' is,' must be ^ understood,' as they phrase it. But that is the very point at issue. What they mean is that they think it ought to be there, and they tell us to supply it. We con- tend that it is not there ; and that, if the Latin does not want it, neither do we. Li Hebrew, the union of Subject and Predicate is most com- monly expressed by simply writing them together, without any copula ; as * Jehovah mighty,' for ' Jehovah is mighty ; ' so, * The gold of that land good' {Genesis ii. 12), for 'The gold of that land is good.' In Zechariah xiii. 9, our version reads : — ' I will say. It is my people ; and they shall say. The Lord is my God ; ' but the original has it, * I will say, My people he ; and he shall say, Jehovah my God.' Less frequently the copula is expressed by the verb hayah^ *be.' See Gesenius, Hehrew Grammar^ § 141. In Chinese there are no parts of speech in the sense recog- nised by us ; but difierence of meaning depends upon the order of words. Thus, ta fu means *a great man;' hut fu ta signifies * the man is great.' See Max Miiller, Science of Lan- guage^ Second Series, p. 85. XVI INTRODUCTION. There is room to doubt whether any copula, link, or tie is absolutely necessary in a sentence. We are accustomed to expect it in English and other languages ; and we are ready to infer that where it is not found, we must supply some con- necting link. Here we may perhaps do weU to revise our judgment. We should also beware of rashness in applying logical terms to Grammar. We have reason to fear that nothing but con- fusion must result from an attempt to strain the logical terms beyond the purposes for which they were originally designed. It is always more or less dangerous to transfer the nomencla- ture of one science to another ; and if we can do so at all, we should endeavour to alter the signification of the terms as little as possible. This, however, we may do : if we wish to adapt the logical method, or any part of it, to grammatical pur- poses, we may modify the terms to suit the requirements of Grammar. A valuable suggestion is offered by Professor Key in his Latin Grammar^ § 847. He says : — * Some grammarians are in the habit of treating those sentences which have the verb he as the forms to which all others are to be reduced. Hence they divide a sentence into three parts : — The Subject, that of which you speak ; The Predicate, that which you say of the subject ; and The Copula, or verb 5e, which unites the subject and predicate. * Thus, for instance, in the sentence or proposition " Man is an animal," man is the subject, animal the predicate, is the copula. * The subject according to this system is the nominative case. When, instead of the verb he, another verb is used, they resolve it into some part of the verb he and a participle. Thus, Cicero writes a letter, is resolved into Cicero is writing a letter ; where Cicero is the subject, writing a letter the pre- dicate, is the copula. ' The substantive, adjective, or participle that accompanies the verb he as a predicate, is in Latin made to agree in case INTRODUCTION. XVll with the subject nominative, and is called the nominative of the predicate.' So far we have two distinct terms : the suhject-nominative, corresponding to * the nominative ' of the old grammars ; and \he predicate-nominative^ of which the old grammars took no- special notice. Hence, in * The sun is shining/ sun is the * subject-nominative/ and shining is the * predicate-nomina- tive ; ' while in the sentence, * The early sun is brightly shin- ing,' sun is still the ' subject-nominative,' and shining is stiU the ' predicate-nominative ; ' while the words, * the early,' and 'brightly,' are qualifications of the subject-nominative and the predicative-nominative respectively. By this method, we have the great advantage of obtaining distinct terms for the grammatical subject, and for certain forms of the grammatical predicate. But the difficulty of the copula is untouched. In aU verbs, except the verb be^ the copula and predicate are blended together ; and the artifice of resolving a verb into some part of the verb he and a participle is open to many objections. Besides, as IVIr. Mason observes {English Grammar ^ Preface^ p. x.), * If in the sentence, " He is rich," rich is the predicate and is the copula, why, in the sentence, " He becomes rich," should we not call becomes the copula ? The notion of becoming has quite as good a right to be considered copulative as the notion of being.^ This is the most knotty point of the whole question ; and various solutions have been proposed. Dr. Morell, as we have seen, thinks it more convenient to regard the copula as belon- ing to the predicate. Mr, Kerchever Arnold proposes to make different kinds of copulas; for example, he calls * become,* seem,' &c. strengthened copulas, Mr. Mason says, ' the difli- culty is removed, and the anomaly obviated, when we regard neither. 5e nor become as a copula, but treat them as verbs of incomplete predication,^ The truth is, that the Logical and the Grammatical systems have been drawn up at various times, and with different views ; BO that when we bring them together we find a discrepancy. The Logical arrangement is threefold : XVlll INTKODIJCTION. Subject. Copula, Predicate. Man is • mortal. The Grammatical arrangement is twofold : Nominative. Verb. Time fiies. . In Grammar, we must take the grammatical arrangement ag the basis, but with a modification of the terms : we call the nominative of the subject the subject-nominative, and the verb of the predicate the predicate-verb. We discard the copula, and make no distinction whatever between the verb be, and any other intransitive verb. We analyse these sentences in the following manner, taking the second as the model : — I. Time Subject-nominative flies. Predicate-verb. IL Man Subject-nominative is Predicate-verb mortal. Predicate-nominative. By the term Predicate-verb we understand the ^ verb of the predicate,' or ' the verb in the predicate.' According to this method we are able to point out the chief word in the logical subject, namely the subject-nominative ; and the chief word or words in the logical predicate, whether it be a predicate-verb, or a predicate-nominative accompanying a predicate-verb. It follows that we make no distinction between such sen- tences as these : — 1. Thomas is wise. 2. Thomas seems wise. Su bject-nominative Predicate-verb Predicate-nominative. Subject-nominative Predicate-verb Predicate-nominative. We I. analyse : Thomas is >yise. II. Thomas seems wise. INTRODUCTION. XIX It may be objected, that after all this circumlocution, we have come back very nearly to the old-fashioned doctrine of * the nominative and the verb.' So we have ; but with this difference, that we have explained what is meant by ''the nominative,' and * the verb.' Under the old system, it is common to say that a verb must agree with its nominative case ; whereas, more strictly, the verb agrees with a * substantive in the nominative case ; ' and further, the nominative is often used as synonymous with the subject of the sentence. But although, no doubt, there is inaccuracy under the old system, there may be some danger of confusion under the new systems which are propounded. If, on the one hand, the term ' nominative ' is loosely employed to denote the ' subject,' it is no less true, on the other hand, that many pupils of the new school bandy about the terms * subject ' and ' predicate ' with- out any definite notion of the meaning implied in those terms. Sometimes, in examination, when a boy has written down * enlargement of the subject,' or * extension of the predicate,' he fancies that he has said a good thing, no matter whether the phrase be appropriate or not. We must try to avoid error on both sides. Where the old school talked of ^ the nomina- tive,' we speak of the ' 5w5;'6ci-nominative ; ' and where the new school employs an ambiguous term ' subject,' we use the more precise * subject-womma^^ve.' ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. Chapter I. SIMPLE SENTENCES, INDICATI\rE. 1. A Sentence is a collection of words expressing a com- plete thought : as ' The bird sings ; ' ^ Summer is charming.' A collection of words, not expressing a complete thought, is sometimes termed a Phrase : as ' The poems of Homer ; ' * Quietly waiting ; ' ' Now and then/ Sentences have been divided into Simple and Compound. Simple sentences, again, have been subdivided into Indicative, Interrogative, Imperative, and Optative. We shall, in the first instance, confine our attention to Simple Indicative (i.e. declaratory) Sentences, which may be either Affirmative or Negative : as, Mirth is good (affirmative). Folly is not good .... (negative). SIMPLE INDICATIVE SENTENCES. 2. A Simple Sentence contains one subject-nominative, and one predicate -verb : as ^ Time flies.' Or it may contain one subject-nominative, one predicate-verb, and one predicate- nominative : as ' Mirth is good.' We shall, first of all, consider the subject-nominative and the predicate-nominative, and then proceed to the use of verbs. A remark, however, is necessary in reference to terms which will repeatedly occur, namely, qualification and substantive. By a qualification we understand any word or phrase which explains, modifies, or limits any other word or phrase. Thus, as an adjective qualifies a noun, so an adverb qualifies a verb. A substantive is a word which, by itself and single-handed, B ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. can form either a subject or a predicate.* The term com- prehends nouns, certain of the pronouns, and the infinitive mood of a verb used substantively.! In employing the word 7ionn we shall always understand a noun- substantive. THE SUBJECT-NOMINATIVE. 3. The subject-nominative answers to the question ivho ? or what ? and must be a substantive, as, 1. A noun ...... Alfred is king. 2. A pronoun ^e speaks well. 3. An adjective used substantively ; more commonly in the plural, but sometimes in the singular ; as, ' The wicked flee when no man pursueth ; but the righteous is as bold as a lion.' Ohs. — The adjective used substantively is most commonly found in connection with the definite article. I do not hold, however, that the adjective and the article are together equal to a substantive ; but that the adjective being used substantively is capable of receiving the article. 4. The infinitive mood of a verb, used substantively : as. To err is himian. Seeing is believing. Obs. — The infinitive in -ing is termed by some grammarians' the gerwnd. The form in -ing will demand special consideration. See §§ 31-35. With impersonal verbs, as they are termed, the subject is indefinite, and the pronoun it takes the place of a subject- nominative : as ^ It rains,' ^ It freezes.' There is another use of the pronoun it^ which must be carefully observed. In English we often place the subject last, and the predicate first. In such cases we may use the pronoun it as the representative or forerunner of the subject, to show that the subject is coming. Thus, instead of saying ' To ride is pleasant,' we may say ^ It is pleasant to ride; ' but in both instances to ride is the logical subject, and pleasant is the predicate. See Whately, Logic ^ II. 1, 3. The adverb there is used in a manner somewhat similar : as, ' There came a philosopher from India.' * Latham, Logic in its Application to Language, p. 254. t Mason, English Grammar ^ §352 and § 131. SUBJECT-NOMINATIYE. o QUALIFICATIONS OF THE SUBJECT-NOMINATIVE. ' 4. The subject-nominative may be qualified by an attri- hute^ that is, by an adjective, or by any word or phrase having the force of an adjective : as, 1. By an adjective : A merry heart goes all the day. 2. By a demonstrative pronoun : These things are true. 3. By the definite article : The die is cast. Ohs, — Some grammarians consider the article so closely con- nected with the noun as to form one notion. But, strictly speaking, the definite article is a qualification ; indeed, in G-reek and German, as well as in English, the definite article is a modified form of the demon- strative pronoun. 4. By a noun standing in apposition with the subject- nominative : as, Cicero, the orator^ made a speech ; where the additional words, ^ the orator,' inform us that it was Marcus Cicero, and not brother Quintus, or any other Cicero. 5. A substantive in the possessive case has the force of an adjective : thus the royal army means the ^ King's army,' or the ^ Queen's army.' Hence a noun or pronoun in the possessive case may be used to qualify the subject-nominative : as, Biidcingham's end was unfortunate. His work was done. 6. The English possessive may be otherwise expressed by means of the preposi ion of\ ' the King''s^aTmy ' is ^ the army of the King ; ' and both forms are equi- valent to a genitive case in Latin. Hence the pre- positional phrase of the King may be employed to qualiiy a subject-nominative : as. The army of the King was defeated. A man of virtue is respected. The point of honour is debated. Other prepositions are used in the same way : as, The desire for fame is natural. b2 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCE^; Passive participles are equivalent to adjectives, and may qualify a subject-nominative: as, Born to command, lie ruled with firmness. Adorned with amiable qualities, she was an agreeable woman. But the case of active participles is not so clear. In the sentence ^ William, having conquered Harold^ ascended the throne,' Dr. Morell considers the phrase * having conquered Harold ' as an ' enlarge- ment of the subject,' or, as we term it, a ' qualifica- tion of the subject-nominative.' It would seem, however, that the phrase in question qualifies the predicate rather than the subject : for the meaning is that * William ascended the throne when he had conquered Harold,' or, * after having conquered Harold.' In fact, we might turn the participle into a verb, coupled with the conjunction and^ thus throwing the phrase into the predicate : ' William conquered Harold, and ascended the throne.' On the other hand, if we expressed the sentence thus, * William, the conqueror of Harold, ascended the throne,' the phrase * the conqueror of Harold ' would be a manifest qualification of the subject-nominative. THE PKEDICATE-NOMINATIVE. 5. The predicate-nominative answers the question, Of what Jcind ? Of what nature ? or, Of what class ? It may be : 1. An adjective : . . . . Heaven is high, 2. A noun : Arthur is Tcing, 3. A pro7ioun : I am he. 4. The infinitive mood of a verb used substantively: To hear is to oley. Seeing is believing, Obs. — This form in -in^ is called by some grammarians the gernind. An apparent difficulty occurs where an adverb, or a pre- positional phrase, occupies the place of the predicate : as, Thomas is here. He is of sound mind. Three explanations of this construction might be offered : PREDICATE-NOMINATIVE. 5 1. Tliat these sentences are elliptical ; in other words, that the predicate-nominative is omitted. For, it is argued, we might supply its place in the following way : Thomas is (present) here. He is (a man) of sound mind. In some instances we are obliged to supply a word. For ex- ample, we cannot say * He is of great ability,' but ^ He is a mmi of great ability.' So also, ^ It is a matter of difficulty : ' ' That was an affair of honour ; ' w^here the words man^ matter^ and affair are the predicate-nominatives of the sentences ; while the prepositional phrases, ' of great ability,' ^ of difficulty,' * of honour,' are used to qualify the predicate-nominatives. We learn what sort of a man he is, what kind of an affair it was, and so forth. According to this view, in the sentence * Thomas is here,' the predicate-nominative is understood, and the adverb here qualifies the predicate -nominative understood. But this artifice of ' imderstanding ' and ^ supplying ' is always open to suspicion. , 2. That the verb Z5, here employed to assert ' existence ' or ' presence,' stands as a predicate- verb ; and that the adverb here^ or the adverbial phrase of sound mind, is a qualification of the predicate-verb ^ is.' 3. That the adverb or adverbial phrase is used as a predi- cate-nominative, or in the place of a predicate-nominative. Professor Key is guarded in deaKng with this construction. He says {Latin Grammar^ § 876, 1), ' although a noun substan- tive or adjective with es — he, usually constitutes the predicate, the place may he supplied by a descriptive word or phrase of a different form : as (a) a genitive or ablative of quality ; (&) dative of the light in which a thing is regarded ; (c) a prepo- sitional phrase ; or (d) an adverb.' And again, § 1401 : * Adverbs are used in some phrases with the verb es — he, when an adjective or participle might have been expected.^ 6. The truth is, that in practical composition, the distinc- tion between the parts of speech is not so absolute as etymo- logy would lead us to suppose. The function, or power in a sentence, seems to determine the character of the word ; and on this principle, perhaps, we may venture to call the adverb a predicate. If so, of course we may extend the same principle to the adverbial phrase. In Fraedersdorf s translation of Becker {German Grammar, 6 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. § 195), we read : * The predicate is expressed, in German as in English, by a. A verb. h. An adjective (not inflected). c. A substantive in the nominative case. d. A substantive in the genitive case. e. A substantive with a preposition. /. An adverb.' Here Becker says distinctly that the predicate may be ex- pressed by an adverb. QUALIFICATIONS OP THE PEEDICATE-NOMINATIVE. 7. Of course, these qualifications will depend upon the na- ture of the predicate-nominative itself. Hence, I. An adjective used as a predicate-nominative may be qualified, 1. By an adverb : as, Heaven is very high. Charles is exceedingly foolish. 2. By an adverbial phrase : as, Harry is praiseworthy in some respects, II. A noun used as a predicate-nominative may be qualified, 1. By an adjective : as, Arthur is a good king : and this, in turn, may be further qualified by an adverb, as, Arthur is a very good king. 2. By a noun or pronoun in the possessive case : as, Bolingbroke was the poefs friend. That was his fault. 8. By a prepositional phrase : as, Buckingham was the servant of the king. He is a man of ability. 4. By a noun used in apposition : as, The greatest Eoman orator was Cicero, the consul. In this sentence, analysed grammatically, the subject-nomi- native is ' orator ; ' the adjectives * greatest * and * Eoman ' are PREDICATE-YERB. 7 qualifications of the subject-nominative ; the predicate-nomi- native is * Cicero ; ' and the consul (used in apposition with ' Cicero,' and therefore in the nominative case) is a qualifica- tion of the predicate-nominative. in. An infinitive mood in -ing^ otherwise termed the gerund, used substantively as a predicate-nomina- tive, may be qualified by an adjective : as, That was good hearing : And this may be further qualified by an adverb, That was very good hearing. THE PKEDICATE-YERB. 8. The older grammarians divided verbs into active, passive, and neuter ; but this arrangement sometimes led to perplexity. It was easy to understand that ' to kill ' was an active verb, and that * to sleep ' was neuter. But the verb ^ to run,' which implies lively action, in the sense of bodily motion, was termed a neuter verb, because the action does not pass over to any other person or thing, but remains with the agent. To meet this objection, later grammarians proposed a new classification. They termed Transitives (from the Latin trans- irej * to go over') all those verbs in which the action could be supposed to ^ pass over' to any object; while those to which such a supposition could not apply were called Intransitives. In this view, to kill was considered Active and Transitive ; whereas to imn was Active but Intransitive. But we should bev^are of confounding the meaning of the verb as a word, with its grammatical power in a sentence. We should keep to one principle ; and if any verbs possess a certain grammatical power in a sentence, while others do not, this alone seems to be a fair basis of classification. Now some verbs can govern an objective case, while others cannot ; practically the former correspond to Transitives, and the latter to Intransitives ; nor is there any necessity to alter these terms ; but we must modify their signification, and we propose a defi- nition which refers exclusively to the power of verbs in a sentence. Transitives : — Those verbs which can govern an objective case ; as, love^ hhte^ Icill^ flatter^ &c. Intransitives : — Those verbs which can not govern an ob- jective case ; as, i^n^ walk^ sit, sleep, &c. 8 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. The term ' neuter/ as applied to verbs, should be altogether discarded ; and the terms ^ active ' and ^ passive ' should be strictly confined to the forms, or, as they are commonly called, the voices. Hence we would not speak of 'active verbs' or 'passive verbs,' but we say that Transitives are used in two voices, the Active and the Passive ; whereas Intransitives are used in one form alone, which (in point of forin) corresponds with the Active voice of verbs Transitive, 9- As a general rule, though one liable to many exceptions, Intransitives are capable of furnishing a complete sense (or of making a complete predication) ; while Transitives almost always require some word or words to complete the pre- dicate. For example, in these sentences. He sleeps^ She sits, They rim, the verbs are Intransitive, and the meaning in each sen- tence is complete. But when we say John beats, the question naturally arises ' Whom does he beat ? ' and if we answer ^ John heats Thomas,^ the inquiry is satisfied. It is not that ' John heats ' tells us less than ' John sleeps ; ' but it raises a new question, and imtil this is answered there is a sense of incom- pleteness. There are, indeed, exceptions both ways. Some Intransi- tives, as become, seem, and many others, are not by themselves capable of forming a complete predication ; and on the other hand, a Transitive verb is sometimes used absolutely, as the phrase is : for example, William conquers, that is, William is victorious ; but in such sentences the meaning is, ' William con- quers all his enemies,' or ' every obstacle,' or words to the same effect. INTEANSITIVES. 30- As a general rule Intransitive verbs are capable of giviDg a complete sense, or, in other words, of making a com- plete predication : as He comes. She goes, Time flies. Here the subject-nominative and the predicate-verb are quite suffi- cient to constitute a perfect sentence ; and we analyse, subject-nominative predicate-verb Time flies. It will be remembered that by the term predicate-verb we mean the leading verb of the predicate. The Intransitive (used as a predicate-verb) may be qualified in various ways INTRANSITITES. 9 by adverbs and adverbial phrases ; as, ^ Time flies swifili/,' ' Time flies with great rapidity^ ' but it will be better to post- pone these considerations until we come to discuss, generally, the qualifications of predicate-verbs. But some intransitives do not form a complete predication. To say ' Thomas becomes,' or ^ Harry seems,' would have no meaning ; but ' Thomas becomes rich,^ ' Harry seems wise,' are intelligible sentences. Here the adjectives rich and wise complete the predication : they tell us what it is that Thomas and Harry ^ become ' and ' seem,' and they agree in case with the subject-nominatives. They are, in fact, predicate-nominatives. As for example : * Thomas becomes rich.' Thomas Suhject-nominative, becomes Predicate-verh, rich Predicate-nominative, 11. As before remarked, we treat all parts of the verb he as parts of an ordinary Intransitive verb ; and therefore we analyse ^ Harry was first,' * Edward will he successful,' thus : Harry Suhject-nominative, was Predicate-verh, first Predicate-nominative, Edward Suhject-nominative, will be Predicate-verh, successful Predicate-nominative. The use of the predicate-nominative accompanying a pre- dicate-verb is not confined to verbs of incomplete predication. We may say ' The grass grows,' and this gives a complete sense ; but we may also say * Thomas grows tall,' where we have, Thomas Suhject-nominative, grows Predicate-verh, tall Predicate-nominative, But very great care is necessary to determine this use of the adjective, from the fact that many of our old Saxon adjec- tives appear to be used adverbially. For example, in these sentences, The rose smells sweet, The wine tastes sour, the adjectives * sweet ' and ' sour ' are not predicate-nomina- tives, or nominatives at all, but what are called, in Latin grammar neuter accusatives. See § 23. e3 10 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. TEANSITIVES. 12. The Predicate-verb Transitive does not, as a general rule, furnisli a complete meaning, inasmuch as it raises a new question, demanding an answer ; and the word or words "vvhich, after a Transitive verb, help to complete the predicate, are usually termed the object. But as we distinguished between the logical ' subject ' and the grammatical * subject-nominative,' so we must make a difference between the object and the objective, by which we mean ' a substantive in the objective case.' For example, in the sentence * Thomas reads books,' the -word books completing the predicate is the ^ object ' of the verb reads, and is also the ' objective' governed by the verb. - But when we say * Thomas reads many good books,' the object is the phrase ' many good books ; ' but the objective is 'books;' while 'many' and 'good' are qualifications of the objective, Ohs. — The term * objective' is equivalent to 'object-accusa- tive,' ' object-dative/ or ' object-genitive.' We shall hereafter distinguish between the ' object-accusative ' and the ' subject-accusative,' commonly called the * ac- cusative before the infinitive.' 13. Whenever we have occasion to discriminate between the objective immediately dependent upon a Transitive verb, and other objectives in a sentence, we shall call the former the Primary Objective. The Primary Objective, We have said that the objective must be a substantive : and it may be, 1. A noun : Scipio loved honour, 2. A pronoun: The people saw him, 3. An adjective used substantively : The Lord loveth the righteous, Ohs, — As far as the mere form is concerned, * the righteous' may be either singular or plural. 4. A verb in the infinitive mood, used substantively : He desires to study. He practises writing. Qualifications of the Objective, 14. These are very much the same as the qualifications of Uie subject-nominative. We may have, TRANSITIVES. 11 1. An adjective: as, The baker makes good bread. 2. A demonstrative pronoun : We know these things. 3. The definite article : Wellington pursued the enemy. 4. A noun in apposition with the objective : They applauded Cicero the consid. 5. A noun or pronoun in the possessive case ; Falkland beheld the hinges army. Cromwell knew his weakness. 6. A prepositional phrase \ ^■ Cromwell defeated the army of the king. The Complement- Objective. 15. It is clear that there is a difference between the sen- tences * They applauded Cicero the consul ' and ^ They made Cicero consul : ' for in the first instance, the term ^ consul ' is merely added by way of explanation, to qualify the objective * Cicero; ' but in the latter case it is essential to the meaning ; it tells us what they made him. Here, as the objective stands in close connection with the predicate-verb and helps to complete the predication, we shall term it the complement- ohjective. We analyse the sentence thus : They Subject-nominative. made Predicate- verb. Cicero Objective {primary). consul . . . . . . Complement-objective, This ^complement-objective' is sometimes termed the ^facti- tive accusative,' from the Latin verb facere, ' to make,' which is taken as a type of the whole class of verbs admitting this construction. But we must guard against supposing that the construction is in any way peculiar to verbs of ^ making ; ' on the contrary, a general principle is involved. The complement- objective may be, 1. A noun : as The citizens made Whittington mayor, 2. An adjective : as Alfred made his people happy. 12 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. Analysing these sentences, we have 1. The . . . Article^ qualifying the subject- nominative. citizens , . Subject-nominative, made . , Predicate-verb, Whittington Objective (primary). mayor . . Complement-objective, 2. Alfred . , Subject-nominative, made , . Predicate-verb, his . . . PronouUj in the possessive case, qualifying the primary objective, people . . Objective (primary). happy . . Complement-objective, And observe, that when these verbs are employed in the passive voice, just as the primary objective is turned into the subject-nominative, so the complement-objective is turned into a * complement-nominative : ' thus, '• Whittington was made mayor by the citizens ; ' and the analysis will be Whittington Subject-nominative, was . . . Predicate-verb. made . . . Predicate-nominative, mayor . . Complement-nominative. by the citizens Adverbial (or prepositional) phrase, quali' fying the predicate-nominative, 16. As we have said, this construction is by no means con- fined to verbs of ' making.' It is found : 1. With verbs of ^choosing, electing, appointing,' as, The Romans elected Cicero consul. The people chose Arteveldt burgomaster, 2. With verbs of ^ calling ' and ^ naming : ' as, They called him John. The English named Edward Longshanhs. Some difficulty arises with ^ to think, deem, consider, regard, &c.,' in such sentences as : They think him happy. He deemed \h.em. foolish. They considered him a philosopher. It might be argued : if, in these sentences, They make him happy, They call him happy. OBJECTIVES. 13 * happy' is a complement- objective, the same explanation must surely apply to the sentence : They tliinh him happy. But in ^ make him ' and ^ call him/ him is the immediate ob- ject of the verbs. They do ' 'make him ' and ' call him ; ' but they do not ^ think him.' In ' make . . . happy ' and ' call . . . happy,' the adjective is so bound up with the verb, that the idea might be expressed in each case by a single word, * beatify ' and * felicitate.' On the other hand, when we say ^ They think him happy/ we mean They think that he is happy, or, They think him (to be) happy. If this view be correct, the construction must be explained upon another principle, which we shall discuss when we con- sider the doctrine of the ' subject-accusative.' In support of this view we may remark the tendency to insert after these verbs a conjunction or some other p<\rticle before the second objective : as, They regarded him as a philosopher. They took him /or a judge. The Secondary Objective. 17. Quite apart from the Complement-objective, many Tran- sitive verbs can govern two cases. In Latin, where there is great variety of inflection, these are readily distinguished : thus, some verbs are said to govern two accusatives ; others an accusative and a dative ; . others an accusative and a genitive. Grammarians have classified these instances under the head- ings of the ^ direct ' and ' indirect ' object ; or, as others prefer to say, the ^immediate ' and the ^ remote^' object. But as we wish to keep the terms object and objective quite distinct, we employ the terms Primary and Secondary Objective. Let us take the sentence, ' Socrates taught the Athenians philosophy.' In Latin this would be Socrates Athenienses philosophiam docuit ; where the Latin grammarians say thpit philosophiam is the ^immediate' object, and Athenienses the ^remote' object. On the same principle, in 'Socrates taught the Athenians philosophy,' we might call philosophy the primary objective, and the Athenians the secondary ob- jective. But we ought to observe that much depends upon the way 14 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. in which we look at a sentence of this kind. It may be said, with truth, that what Socrates taught was * philosophy,' and that the persons affected by his teaching were the ^ Athenians ; ' in fact, that Socrates taught philosophy to the Athenians; and that therefore ' philosophy ' is the primary objective. But it is equally true that Socrates taught (i. e,, instructed) the Athenians in philosophy : and according to this view, the Athenians t^Q the place of the primary objective. The former aspect of the case appears to have generally oc- curred to the writers upon Greek and Latin grammar ; and we shall adhere to it ; but where two interpretations are pos- sible, neither should be passed over in total silence. 18. After verbs of * giving, granting,' &c., the secondary objective is generally preceded by the preposition tOj corre- sponding to a substantive in the dative case in Latin : as, Augustus gave power to Tiberius. William granted land to Fitzroy, The pronouns me, thee^ him, her, them, represent datives in Anglo-Saxon; accordingly they are used as secondary objec- tives without the preposition to : The master gave me a book. The citizens granted him a triumph. The prince gave her a crown. It is evident that the terms * primary ' and * secondary ' have nothjng to do with the position of the objective in a sentence. Nor can any general rule be laid down to determine the appli- cation of the terms. It frequently happens that the primary objective is used in speaking of things, and the secondary ob- jective in speaking of persons ; but not always, as may be seen from the next example. 19. After verbs of * accusing, charging,' &c., the secondary objective, denoting the ground of accusation (and correspond- ing to a substantive in the genitive case in Latin), is preceded by the preposition of or with : as, Bradshaw accused Cromw el\of ambition. Cromwell charged the members with sedition. Here the primary objective refers to persons ; and yet by a turn of the sentence we may say, QUALIFICATIONS OF THE PREDICATE-YERB. 15 Bradshaw charged ambition upon Cromwell. Cromwell charged sedition upon the members. The infinitive mood of a verb used substantively is often employed as a primary or secondary objective : thus, The general forced him to serve. I counsel you to wait. And which objective shall be here considered primary or se- condary will depend upon the way of looking at the sentence : whether, for example, we understand ' The general forced him to service^ or, ' The general forced service upon him.'' 20. When any Transitive verb (which in the active voice governs two objectives) is employed in the passive voice, one of the objectives is turned into the subject-nominative, and the other remains attached to the verb : thus, Mr. Thomson taught Henry arithmetic may be expressed Henry was taught arithmetic by Mr. Thomson, or, Arithmetic was taught to Henry by Mr. Thomson. Where, in construction with the active voice, the secondary objective is preceded by the preposition to^ there is a little awkwardness in converting that objective into a subject-nomi- native : thus, in place of the active construction. The Coimcil awarded a prize to Hobinson, it is, no doubt, grammatically correct to say, in the passive, Rohinson was awarded a prize by the Council ; where ^Eobinson' is made the subject-nominative, and 'prize' is the primary objective remaining attached to the verb, in the passive voice ; but it is more usual to say A prize was awarded -^o Rohinson by the Council. QUALIFICATIONS OF THE PEEDICATE-VERB. 21. The general term adverb is employed to denote a word which qualifies a verb ; and appears to signify, literally, ^ that which is at or bye the verb,' or, * that which is attached to the verb.' This term is confined, strictly speaking, to a single word ; when two or more words, taken together, are used adverbially. 16 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. we call the whole an ^ adverbial phrase.' It sometimes hap- pens that a preposition and the noun it governs are thus used ; and though such a combination is often termed a * preposi- tional phrase/ inasmuch as it involves a preposition, yet it may, when qualifying a verb, be called an * adverbial phrase,' because it has the force of an ^ adverb.' As a general rule, then, the predicate-verb may be qualified by an adverb : thus, Socrates spoke wisely, Cicero wrote well. On this subject, however, many cautions are necessary. If we wish to ^ qualify ' a verb, we employ an adverb ; but if we want to * complete the predicate,' we use an adjective as a predicate-nominative : thus, Henry grows tall. They appear wise. Hence ^ He stood firm,' and ' He stood firmly,' are both cor- rect, but with different significations : the first means * He stood, and he was firm as he stood ; ' the second asserts that * He stood in a firm manner : ' that * his standing was firm.' 22. But this is not all. Some adjectives appear to be used as adverbs, in such sentences as ^ He hits hard^ ' The horse runs/as^;' where the words ^hard' and ^fast' evidently qualify the verbs, or tell the character of the ' hitting ' and the ' running.' For an explanation of this we must refer to the older forms of the language. In Anglo-Saxon e is the usual termination by which adverbs are formed from adjectives : as Adjective. Adverb. I'iht ' right ' rihte ' right,' ' rightly.' (Lat. recte,) wid ^ wide ' wide ' widely.' lang * long ' lange * long.' Rask, Anglo-Saxon Grammar^ § 335. Dr. Adams thinks that this e is the suffix (or case-ending) of the dative case, used to express manner : and this termi- nation, he says, is retained in Old English, as, softe^ hrighte^ swifte^ * softly, brightly, swiftly;' but when, in process of time, the e was lost, these adverbs assumed the appearance of adjectives. — Adams, Elements^ § 396. Some persons are offended at the apparent irregularity of the phrase 'He hits hard^ and prefer to say '- He hits hardly^ ^THE ROSE SMELLS SWEET.' 17 which would imply, if it means anything, that * he scarcely hits at all.' The termination -ly is derived from the Anglo-Saxon "lice^ which is formed by adding the termination e to adjectives ending in -Vic (-like). In later English the case-ending -e was lost, so that the adverb and the adjective assume the same form. Thus, for example, early may be either an adjective or an adverb. So, too, in the phrase ' a godly man,' godly is an adjective ; but in the phrase ' to live soberly, righteously, and godly j'' it is an adverb meaning ' in a godly manner.' In course of time the termination -ly came to be regarded as the mark of an adverb ; but where the adj ective has already the termination -Zy, the same should not be added to form an adverb. We cannot say godlily or manlily^ though we might say liolily^ because the I of ^ hol-y ' belongs to the root of the word, and does not form part of an adjective termination. 23- Now let us take these examples : The rose smells sweet. The wine tastes sour* Some critics condemn these sentences altogether ; they say that the use of the adjective is incorrect ; and they would alter thus : The rose smells sweetly. The wine tastes sourly, Oth^ grammarians defend the sentence * The rose smells sweet J on the ground that sweet forms part of the predicate, and agrees with the subject, meaning that * the rose is sweet of smell,' or * with respect to smell.' In English, adjectives do not vary their terminations to mark the changes of gender, number, and case; hence we might argue for ever upon the word * sweet ' without being able to arrive at a definite conclusion. But in Latin the adjectives do vary; and if we turned this sentence into Latin prose, it would be * Eosa suave olet,' where suave is a neuter accusative attached to the verb olet,* Hence, arguing from the analogy of the Latin language, we say that in the ' Eose smells sweet,' sweet is a neuter accusative, used as equivalent to an adverb. Accordingly, the use of an * Compare ' anser plebeiuin sapit.' — Petronius (poet.), § 93. ' Groose tastes vulgar,' i,e. ' has a vulgar taste.' And so ' Ditlce ridentem Lalagen amabo, jyulce loquentem,.'— Horace, Odes^ I. xsii. 23, 18 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. actual adverb in * The rose smells sweetly ' is strictly correct ; and ^ The rose smells sweet ' may also be defended on the ground we have taken. 24. A similar distinction must be observed in the use of participles. Let us consider this sentence . The messenger came running. Here, if running be taken adverbially, the meaning is, that * the messenger came at a running pace,'' But if it be taken as a participle, it means ^ the messenger came, and he ran as he came.' Take these lines : I / The church of the village \}_ , Stood gleaming white in the morning sheen. The words lijledming white express the notion of the Latin candidus ; * they do not tell us the manner in which the church stood, but the colour and appearance of the church itself. We may consider that gleaming qualifies the adjective white ^ and that the term gleaming white is a predicate-nomi- native. It is difficult to decide whether the perfect participle active should* be taken adverbially as qualifying the predicate- verb, or be regarded as completing or filling up the predicate. No doubt, in the sentence * William, having conquered Harold, ascended the throne,' the participle explains at what time, and after what action, William ascended the throne. But, as be- fore remarked, we might turn the sentence thus : ^ William conquered Harold, and ascended the throne.' On the whole, I am inclined to consider * having conquered ' as a kind of predicate-nominative. See § 4. 25. We have next to discuss adverhial phrases^ as qualify- ing predicate- verbs. 1. A preposition, with the substantive which it governs, may be used adverbially : as, ■ {M^ V-( • The enemy advanced with boldness, ^ Here the phrase * with boldness ' is equivalent to the adverb \> boldly.' <^ This will furnish us with a rule for the use of that unfortu- nate adverb otherwise^ which is very unfairly treated by care- less writers. The word means ' in another manner,' and ought never to be employed except as an adverb, and in phrases * Compare candidus^ 'brilliant white,' with albus^ *dead white;* and niger, * jet black,' with ater^ ' dull black.' I ^ / CASE ABSOLUTE. 19 where * in another manner/ ^ in another way/ or words to that effect, might stand in its room. * Whoever is found in this domain, breaking fences, stealing nuts, or otherwise j will be prosecuted with the utmost rigour of the law/ Here * otherwise ' is used as the equivalent of a participle ; and it is evident that * stealing nuts or in another manner ' makes absolute nonsense. K the caution had been worded ' stealing nuts or otherwise trespassing,' it would have signified ^ stealing nuts, or trespassing in any other way,' which is intelligible enough ; for there may be many other acts of trespass beside breaking fences and stealing nuts. 26. — 2. Substantives are often used adverbially to denote the time when, the manner how, or the attendant circum- stances. Since we have lost the dative (or ablative) cases of our noun-substantives, there is no form left to distinguish con- structions of this kind ; so that a knowledge of syntax is our only guide. The letters came ever2/ day. The vessels sailed every weelc. They fought hand to hand. But the construction is explained by observing that, in similar instances, prepositions are employed : They travel by day. We fly by night. In ordinary English, yesterday, last night, &c., are used ad- verbially ; but in Cork we constantly hear on yesterday, on last night, and even on to-morrow, where there is a needless accumulation of prepositions. In the phrases ' once a week,' ^ sixpence a pound,' it is a doubtful point whether the word a is the indefinite article, or a remnant of the Anglo-Saxon preposition an, which signifies *in,'*on.' See § 304. 27. — 3. Under the head of adverbial phrases, we may men- tion the construction whereby a substantive (noun or pronoun) and a participle are used absolutely, to mark the time, the circumstances, &c. : as, This said, they both betook them several ways. Milton, Paradise Lost, x. 610. With that she fell distract. And, her attendants absent, swallowed fire. Julius Ccesar, iv. 3. 20 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. This construction has been called the ^ nominative absolute,' or by others the ^ case absolute.' Dr. Adams prefers to call it the * dative absolute.' He says, after citing the instances just quoted, that the words marked in italics * have no grammatical connection with tlie rest of the sentence : i. e., are not governed by any word or words in the sentence to which they are at- tached, and are therefore called Datives Absolute^ or Detached Datives, In Latin, the ablative is employed in these detached or absolute phrases ; in Greek, the genitive ; and in Anglo- Saxon, the dative. This A.-S. dative was the origin of the absolute construction in English. Most grammarians, since the case-endings are lost, prefer to call these words nominatives. But the loss of a suffix cannot convert one case into another. The meaning conveyed by these absolute words cannot be ex- pressed by a true nominative.' — Adams, Elements^ § 493. In support of this view, we may take the instance quoted by Dr. Adams from Milton : And, him destroyed^ Or won to what may work his utter loss, For whom all this was made, all this will soon Follow, as to him linked in weal or woe. Paradise Lost, ix. 130-3 To which we may add, from the same poet, by whose aid This inaccessible high strength, the seat Of Deity supreme, us dispossessed, He trusted to have seized. — Ibid, vii. 140-3. This proves that Milton, at all events, thought the construc- tion demanded an oblique case, that is, some case other than the nominative. But Milton was a learned poet, and here, as elsewhere, he may have been imitating the Latin or Greek. As the point is doubtful in English, we may be content to employ the term Case Absolute in reference to these construc- tions, leaving the particular case an open question. But in practice we should be very careful in using this construction, especially at the beginning of a sentence. For the reader may mistake the noun used absolutely, thinking it a subject-nomi- native; and presently, when the true subject-nominative is introduced, like the true Amphitryon in the play, it appears that another has usurped his place. 28. The following classification of adverbs and adverbial phrases may be useful : — INFINITIYE USED SUBSTANTIVELY. 21 Adverbs arc frequently classed in accordance with their meaning — once, always, daily, before, here, aloft, around, much, very, greatly, almost, well, thus, truly, so. 1. Ti7ne . 2. Place . 3. Degree 4. Manner 5. Cause and Inference Many of the adverbs may have their places supplied by an adverbial or prepositional phrase — }■ therefore, wherefore, hence. 1. Time . . . always = at all times. daily = every day. 2. Place . . . here = in this place. aloft = on high. 3. Degree . . . greatly = in a great measure. 4. Manner . . thus = in this way. truly = in truth. 5. Cause . therefore = for this cause. and > = for this reason. . wherefore = for which cause. Inference = for which reason. THE INPINITIVE MOOD OP A VEEB USED AS A SUBSTANTIVE. 29. * Sometimes the Infinitive is the Nominative case to the Verb,' said the old rule. In truth, the Infinitive is a Verbal Substantive, and is used sometimes as a nominative, sometimes as an objective. But in the English language this point is attended with peculiar difficulties, arising from the fact that our grammatical forms have been subject to various changes, and that the origin of those forms has sometimes been forgotten or ob- scured. The first thing, therefore, is to inquire, what is the English infinitive ? If we are asked what is the infinitive of the verb love^ we answer to love, and we call to the ^ sign ' of the infinitive. But here, at the very outset, we must make a distinction, which is of great importance. Sometimes, indeed, to is a mere sign of the infinitive, and may be omitted in certain 22 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. instances. For example, we say * He dares to go,^ and ' He dares not go.^ After many auxiliaries it is usual to omit the sign to ; and so also after other verbs, as hid, make, ^ They hid him. ccme,'' ^ThejmaJce him leap;^ where come and leap are infinitives dependent upon the governing verbs ^ bid ' and ^ make.' In older English there are variations both ways ; our fore- fathers sometimes emitted the sign where we use it, and used the sign where we omit it. So Shakespeare : You ought not ivalk, Jidius Ccesar^ i. 1. and on the other hand, I durst ^ my lord, to wager she is honest. Othello, iv. 2. There are also many varieties in provincial dialects ; in some counties we may hear ^ They helped him mow the grass,' «^ for ^ to mow.^ 30. But, in many other instances, the word to^ so far from being a mere sign, is a true preposition, meaning in order to ; as, ^ He came to see me,' that is, ' in order to see me,' or * for the purpose of seeing me.' This distinction is to be carefully remembered when we are translating from English into other languages. When to is a mere sign, we may gene- rally render the verb by the Latin infinitive. But it is a gross error to do so where to signifies in order to ; in such instances we must employ the preposition ad with a gerund, or with a noun coupled with the participle in -dus^ or we must use ut with a verb in the subjunctive mood. At one period in the history of the language our forefathers forgot the original force of the preposition to in these con- structions, and inserted an additional preposition for ; as, What went ye out for to see? Matthew^ xi. 8. In some parts of the country similar phrases are even yet occasionally heard ; and sometimes for is employed before - the sign to^ where there is not even the shadow of an excuse to justify it ; as, ' He told me for to do it J* 31. But in English we have another form of the infinitive in 'ing, the same in sound and spelling as the present par- ticiple. Thus instead of saying * to see is to helieve^^ we gene- rally say * seeing is believing,'* In like manner 4t is healthful to rise early,' may be expressed * rising early is healthful.' FORMS IN -ING. 23 In the sentence * riding is pleasant/ or ^ he loves riding,^ the form riding is used substantively, and is really an infini- tive, or, as some prefer to call it, a gerund. But in the sen- tence * he came riding at full speed,' riding is a participle, and has the force of an adjective. Grammarians have produced much needless perplexity by confounding the two forms, and by supposing that a participle or a participial phrase can ever be used substantively. The very employment of these forms must convince us that the^ are infinitives, and not participles ; for the participle partakes of the nature of an adjective, and not of a substantive. — See Whately, Logic ^ II. 1. 3. 32. The forms in -ing demand very careful attention. For the English termination -ing represents no less than three distinct endings in Anglo-Saxon — namely, those of the infinitive, the present participle, and the verbal substantive. The Anglo- Saxon verb writariy * to write,' gives us the following forms : — Infinitive : ivritan, ' to write,' ' writing.' Gerund : to writanne^ * to write,' * for writing.' Present Participle : writende^ ^ writing.' It so happens that the Verbal Substantive derived from this verb ends in -m^, loriting ; but the more usual termination of verbal substantives is -ung^ as mearcung^ ^ a marking,' clcensung^ * a cleansing.' 33. The so-called Gerund in Anglo-Saxon appears to be nothing more than the Dative case of the infinitive governed by the preposition to. When the infinitive was used substan- tively, the form writan was employed for the nominative and accusative cases ; to writanne was used as the dative. In process of time, ivritan became write ^ writing ; to ivritanne became to write : and the following confusion took place : — The infinitive form writing was confounded with the participle present, and its true origin was forgotten. The form to write was not confined to phrases denoting a purpose, where a dative case is proper, but was used generally for an infinitive, even in phrases re- quiring a nominative or an accusative case. For example, we say To err is human. But etymologically, this is as great a violation of the prin- ciples of Anglo-Saxon grammar, as Ad errandum est humanum 24 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. would be a violation of Latin grammar. No doubt, custom sanctions our present usage; but, etymologically, to err re- presents tbe dative of the infinitive used substantively, and not the nominative. 34. Thus the nominative and accusative writ-an assumed the forms writ-en^ writ-in, and finally writ-ing. This form of the infinitive is also known to modern grammarians as the Gerund J a term borrowed from the Latin Grammar, and one which might, in the opinion of Dr. Adams, be advantageously excluded from the grammar of the English language. — See Adams, Elements^ § 287. However, since the term Gerund has obtained admission into many schools, some teachers may wish to retain it, as ap- plicable to the form in -ing. But if so, they should carefully distinguish between, 1. The Gerund in -ing^ as writing, 2. The Gerund with tOj as to write ; wh^ This is the book which I gave you. This is the house in which I live. This is the way by which I came. He left the day on which I arrived, 105. According to our notions of grammatical construction, founded in a great measure upon the grammar of the Latin language, we cannot analyse sentences of this kind without supplying some word to stand in the place of a relative pro- noun ; as * This is the book that I gave you.' This .... Subject-nominative. is Predicate-verb. the .... Article, qualifying the predicate- nominative, ' book.' book .... Predicate-nominative. that I gave you Adjective-clause, qualifying the predi- cate-nominative, ^ book.' If I might offer a conjecture, the sentence *This is the book I gave you,' represents the ancient British idiom, answering to the modern Welsh idiom ; for I believe that the traces of the old British are much more numerous in our language than is generally surmised. The sentence 'This is the book that I gave you,' corresponds to the Anglo-Saxon form ; and 'This is the book which I gave you,' is the modern English, founded upon imitation of the Latin construction. RULES AND CAUTIONS. Chapter V. NOUNS. NOMINATIVE. Relations of Subject and Predicate. The Nominative and The Verb, 106. * The Verb agrees with its Nominative case in number and person,' said the old rule. But as there may be many verbs and many nominatives in a sentence, the rule was somewhat indefinite, and was learned rather by practical application, than from any precision in the terms employed. ' The nominative to the verb ' meant the swJJec^-nominative ; and * the nominative after the verb * meant the predicate- nominative. By the Verb was understood the predicate-VGrh, The form of analysis, which we propose for simple sen- tences, is 1. Time flies. Time Subject-nominative* flies Predicate-verb, 2. Mirth is good. Mirth Subject-nominative, is Predicate-verb. good Predicate-nominative. 107. We shall first consider the relations of the subject- nominative and the predicate-nominative. Then we shall proceed to the relations of the subject-nominative and the predicate-verb. 64 RULES AND CAUTIONS. JRelations of the Suhject-nominative and the Predicate' nominative. As the terms themselves imply, the subject-nominative and the predicate-nominative agree in case ; but with regard to gender and number, the agreement depends upon several con- siderations. If the predicate-nominative be an adjective^ it agrees with the subject-nominative in gender and number, as well as in case. And though, in English, adjectives do not vary their ending to show this agreement, the difference must be ex- pressed in translating from English into Latin or any other language, where such variations are necessary. For example, The boy is good Puer est hon-us. The girl is good Puella est bon-a. The boys are good .... Pueri sunt bon-e. The girls are good .... Puellae sunt hon-ce, 108. But if the predicate-nominative be a noun, there may be diversity of gender and number. If, indeed, a noun changes its form to denote difference of gender, we generally make the change ; we say, for example, John Kemble was an actor. Mrs. Siddons was an actress. However, we do not always follow the rule exactly. For though, in strictness, we ought to say ^ Sims Eeeves is a singer' and ^ Jenny Lind is a songstress;' still, in ordinary conversation, we commonly call Jenny Lind a ' singer.' And yet, during the height of her popularity, when admiring critics rose into enthusiasm, she was sometimes styled * this gifted songstress/ ^ this divine songstress.' 109. Greater latitude is allowed, with regard to number. We say. Dutiful children are great blessings. or, or, Dutiful children are a great blessing. The fine arts are sources of delight, The fine arts are a source of delight. But when the number is not the same on both sides, a difiSculty sometimes arises in the use of the verb, which might agree with either, but cannot possibly agree with both. NOUNS. 65 Very oflen the verb agrees Tvith the nominative which comes first, as in the examples just given : and so here, This convention was really the two Houses of Parliament. Kerr's Blackstone, i. 138. But not always ; as, . His pavilion round about him were dark waters and thick clouds of the skies. — Psalm xviii. 11. The wages of sin is death. — Hom. vi. 23. A similar, question occurs, when the subject-nominative and the predicate-nominative differ in person, as we shall see more particularly in considering the use of pronouns. We commonly say, ' It is I,' but Chaucer says 'It am I ; ' and instead of * It is the sheriff's men/ he has ' It ben the sherrefes men.' Belations of the Subject-nominative and the Predicate-verb, 110. Generally speaking, the form must be our guide ; singular follows singular, and plural follows plural. Some- times, however, the meaning overrides the form ; and we have to enquire whether the idea of unity, or of plurality is intended. Wlien the subject-nominative is in the singular, the predi- cate-verb is in the singular ; as, ^ Time flies.' No matter how many singular or plural nouns, dependent on prepositions, or under any other government, may intervene between the subject- nominative and the predicate-verb, they cannot affect this rule. But even the best writers are liable to trip, in such in- stances ; as The right to recall the governor-general and to declare war are vested in the coiu't of directors. Kerr's BlacJcstone, i. 96. As when the excellence of the Church, of the House of Lords and Commons, of the procedure of law courts, &c., are inferred from the mere fact that the country has prospered under them. MiU, Logic, i. 422. Here the SfC. must depend on the preposition of; and then we have ^ the excellence . . . are.' K it be replied that ^c, stands in the place of a second subject-nominative, what are we to understand by ^the excellence . . ♦ &c.? ' 66 RULES AND CAUTIONS. I recently observed the following passages in tlie reviews and magazines : — The discovery of gold, however, brought a greatly in- creased population to the adjacent colony of Victoria, and the superior richness of its gold-fields have since maintained it at the head of the group. Edinburgh Review^ April 1865» No. 248, p. 357. Our fancy to speak of books, and their writers, and sellers, have led us aside from the area marked out by Mr. Thornbury for his own explorations, so we must return to bounds, within which we find Lincoln's- Inn Fields. Dublin University Magazine^ July 1865. 111. These are mere slips of the pen, and without constant care anyone may fall into similar errors. But some persons are guided almost entirely by the ear. In 'the ship sails,' and ^ the ships sail,' 'the boy walks,' and * the boys walk,' there is an alternation of the letter s which catches the ear, and is the chief guide which many people follow. Hence, in ex- amining a written sentence, they will ask hoio it 7^eads, often meaning nothing more than how it sounds. And thus, if several dependent nouns, in the plural, occur between the subject-nominative and the predicate- verb, the notion of plu- rality takes possession of the mind, and the verb follows in the plural. But it is evident that this is a very unsafe method of judging; for we ought to be guided by the sense, and not by the sound alone. Here, therefore, we should always keep the subject-nominative distinctly in view. 112. If the subject-nominative has a plural form, but is still regarded as one thing, the predicate -verb is generally in the singular; as 'The "Pleasures of Hope " was written by Campbell ; ' because we mean to assert that the poem called * The Pleasures of Hope,' was written by Campbell. And yet. Dr. Johnson, speaking about his 'Lives of the Poets,' says, 'My "Lives" are reprinting,' where the Lives are re- garded as plural. In these instances, the intention of the writer, and not the form, must be the guide. 113. Some nouns, which have a plural form, are often used as singular ; for example, ' news,' ' pains,' ' means,' ' sum- mons,' and the names of sciences, as, ' mathematics,' ' ethics,' * optics.' Older writers vary considerably in the employment of these NOUNS. 67 words. For example, Shakespeare employs * news ' some- times in the singular, at other times in the plural : as, Gonzalo, What is the news ? Boatswain, The best news is^ that we have safely found the king and company. Tempest^ v. 1. This news is old enough ; yet it is every day's news. Measure for Measure^ iii. 2. Thus answer I in name of Benedick, But hear these ill news with the ears of Claudio. Much AdOf ii. 1. But wherefore do I tell these news to thee. l5^ Hen. IV. iii. 2. These news are everywhere ; every tongue speaks them. Hen, VIII, ii. 2. Wolsey. Wha* more ? CromivelL That Cranmer is returned with welcome, Installed Lord Archbishop of Canterbury. Wolse?/, That's news, indeed. Ibid. iii. 2. 114. So in the use of ^ means,' we observe variety. Occa- sionally we find the singular form * mean : ' as. Yet nature is made better by no mean^ But nature makes that mean ; so, o'er that art, Which, you say, adds to nature, is an art That nature makes. — Wintei^'s Tale, iv. 3. But we also find ' means ' used in the singular : as ; 1 am courted now with a double occasion; gold, and a means to do the prince my master good. — Ibid. iv. 3. By this means shall we sound what skill she hath. 1st Hen. VI. i. 2. But it occurs just as often in the plural, and this is the more usual construction in modern English : Chief Justice, Your means are very slender, and your waste is great. Falstaff, I would it were otherwise ; I would my means were greater, and my waist slenderer. 2nd Hen. IV. i. 2. With all appliances and means to boot. — Ibid. iii. 1. 115. It is more usual to find ^ pains ' in the plural ; but even this word is found in the singular : as, 68 KULES AND CAUTIONS. Nay, then, thou lov'st it not, And all my pains is sorted to no proof. Taming of the Shrew, iv. 3. .... for this pains Caesar hath hanged him. Ant, and Cleop, iv. 6. 116. A collective noun represents a number of individuals collected in one mass or group ; as, army, government, com- mittee. It is singular in form, but it may often be regarded as conveying the idea of plurality. In older English, these nouns were frequently considered as singular, where modem writers would use them with a verb in the plural : as. Blessed is the people that know the joyful sound : they shall walk, O Lord, in the light of thy countenance. — Psalm Ixxxix. 15. Here, however, we observe a mixture of two constructions ; for * know ' and ' they ' imply plurality. Accordingly, the older grammarians decided that nouns of this kind might be treated as either singular or plural. But modern grammarians hold that, when the idea of unity is pro- minent, the verb must be used in the singular ; when, on the other hand, the idea of plurality is prominent, the verb must be in the plural : as. The House has decided the question. The College of Cardinals have elected the Pope. 117. Professor Bain distinguishes between a collective nonn and a noun of multitude, in this way, that a * collective noun ' represents a great number of individuals included in one mass or body. Thus he says, {English Grammar, p. 12,) * when a multitude act together, as a " fleet," or a " parliament," they are spoken of in the singular number and have a singular verb : as ** the fleet was victorious," " the Parliament was opened by the Queen in person." But the designation " noun of multitude " is applied to express collective bodies, whose action is not collective but individual : as *' the clergy were opposed to the measure." ' ^ According to this view, when the predicate is true of the whole mass in its collective unity, the verb should be in the singular : as * the fleet is under orders to sail.' But when the predicate applies to the individuals of the collection acting separately, the verb should be in the plural : as * the people NOUNS. 69 of the rude tribes of America are remarkable for their artifice and duplicity : ' ^ the public are often deceived by false ap- pearances.' — See Bain, English Grammar^ p. 172. 118. Where so much depends upon the intention of the writer, it is difficult to lay down precise rules. We might suppose, however, that consistency was desirable ; that having once made up our minds to prefer the singular or the plural con- struction, we ought to persevere in the same to the end of the sentence. Yet Dr. Angus says (Handbook ^ § 365), ' Sometimes the two usages are combined in the same sentence with pecu- liar force : as, Behold, the people is one, and they have all one language. — Gen, xi. 6.' And Professor Bain remarks {English Grammar^ p. 173) :— * The following sentence sounds awkward, but it is strictly correct : " The Megarean sect ivas founded by Euclid, not the mathematician, and were the happy inventors of logical syl- logism, or the art of quibbling." — Tytler. In the first part, the sect is spoken of in its collective capacity ; and in the second, as individuals.' But, to say the least, this sudden change of construction within the limits of a sentence, leaves the whole sentence open to cavil. Professor Bain admits that the sound is awkward ; and this very objection is likely to arouse the suspicion of a critic. Besides, if a sentence is somewhat long, and pronouns are introduced referring to the collective noun, confusion will almost inevitably ensue ; so that, in careless compositions, we may even find it in one clause, and they in another. 119. The safest rule is this : 1. As to mere form : A collective noun, used as a sub- ject-nominative, may take the verb in the singu- lar, or in the plural. 2. As to meaning : Consider whether you intend to give prominence to the idea of unity or of plu- rality ; and put the verb in the singular, or in the plural, accordingly. 8, But never attempt to combine both constructions in the same sentence. 4. And if pronouns are introduced, referring to the collective noun, be careful to employ them con- sistently, in the singular, or in the plural, accord- ing to the view originally taken. 70 EULES AND CAUTIONS. 120. When two or more subject-nominatives are used in the same sentence, some difficult questions are involved. We have to consider the doctrine of contraction, and the vexed question whether conjunctions couple sentences alone, or whether they may be said to couple words also. See §§ 99-102. We shall discuss the particular cases. 121. I. Cases, where the subject-nominatives are in the singular \ and where the conjunction and is the connective employed. (a) When the predicate is true of the subjects, not seve- rally, but jointly, the verb must be in the plural : as, William and Mary are a handsome couple. Two and three make five. The bishop, the earl, and the sheriff hold the shire-mote. Octavian, Antony and Lepidus constitute the triumvirate. (J) When the predicate is true of the subjects severally ^ the doctrine of contraction may be applied, and the predicate-verb, in the singular, may be understood of each subject-nominative. In some languages, as in Latin and in German, the principle is admitted more freely than with us. Thus, in one of Uh- land's ballads, the hostess says, Mein Bier und Wein ist frisch and klar : My Beer and Wine is fresh and clear. 122. However, there are limitations. If the nouns used as subject-nominatives denote living beings, and especially ^^r- sons, the verb is always in the plural : as, ^ Caesar and Pompey go to war.' And in regard to things without life, the same rule is observed where distinct objects are signified. But in the case of nouns denoting abstract ideas, as ' virtue,' ^ piety,' * vice,' * folly,' and the like, we find considerable variation. Here the Latin language freely admits a verb in the singular : as, * Cum tempus necessitasque jwstulat, decertandum manu est : ' * when occasion and necessity demands, we must fight amain.' And those English writers who have formed their style upon the Latin models sometimes employ the same con- struction : so Hooker speaks of ' the glorious inhabitants of those sacred palaces, where nothing but light and blessed im- NOUNS. 71 mortality, no shadow of matter for tears, discontentment, griefs, and uncomfortable passions to work upon ; but all joy^ tranquillity^ and peace, even for ever and ever doth dwelV — Ecclesiastical Polity, i. 4. The Oxford edition of 1807 reads, ' do dwell.' 123. But this form does not find general approval with modern critics ; and by some it is condemned as a breach of English grammar ; on this ground, that nouns in the singu- lar, coupled by the conjunction ' and,' are equivalent to a plural. As to principle, the form may be defended, if we admit the doctrine of contraction. But in practice the following rules will be found to work well : — Eule /. — ^When the two or more nouns, in the singular, mean different things, or represent distinct ideas, put the verb in the plural. Rule II. — But when the two nouns mean the same thing, or very nearly the same, strike out one of them, put the verb in the singular, and learn to avoid using two words where one is enough. 124. Whenever modifying words are introduced, such as ' every,' * each,' ^ no,' showing that the predicate is asserted of the subjects severally, the predicate- verb must be in the singular. For here, the doctrine of contraction clearly ap- plies ; in other words, the predicate-verb is evidently appli- cable to every one of the subject-nominatives: as. Every limb and feature appears with its appropriate grace. When subject-nominatives in the singular are emphatically distinguished, they belong to different propositions, and the verb follows in the singular : as. Somewhat, and, in many cases, a great deal is put upon us. The same principle operates when the phrase ' as well as,' or the conjunction * but ' is used : so. Veracity, as well as justice, is to be our rule. 125. — ^11. Cases where the conjunction or or nor is used. Where the connective * or ' or ' nor ' is used, the whole sen- tence really involves distinct propositions. Hence, if the sub- ject nominatives are in the singiilar, the verb must be in the singular : as, <2 BULES AND CAUTION'S. The secrecary or the treasurer draws up the report. Neither the raaster nor the scholar understands the ques- tion. 126. — III. Cases where the subject-nominatives, or some of them, are in the plural. Where the subject-nominatives are all in the plural, the predicate-verb must be in the plural : as, Joys and sorrows follow in succession. When some of the subject-nominatives are in the singular, and some are in the plural, we have to consider the connection of the whole sentence : {a) Where the conjunction ' and ' is used, even one sub- ject-nominative in the plural will require a verb in the plural. For, according to the doctrine of con- traction, the verb must apply to each subject- nominative ; and upon no supposition can a verb in the singular agree with a noun in the plural, if it be a genuine plural. But it is quite consistent, that one or more nouns in the singular, together with a noun in the plural, should be followed by a verb in the plural. (Z>) When subject-nominatives of different numbers are separated by ^ or ' or ^ nor,' the verb is generally in the plural ; and it is then convenient to place the plural subject- nominative next the verb ; as, Neither the king nor his ministers were in favour of the change. When two subject-nominatives of different numbers are found in different clauses of the sentence, there are really two distinct propositions, and the verb had better be repeated ; as, The voice is Jacob's, but the hands are Esau's. 127. Some peculiarities deserve notice in constructions where the verb precedes the subject-nominatives. In the Welsh language there is a curious rule that when the verb stands first it must be in the singular, even though the subject-nomi- native following be in the plural. Without going to this extreme, many of our English writers use great license, when the verb stands first. Shakespeare says, — There is tears for his love ; joy for his fortune ; honour for his valour ; and death for his ambition. Julius Ccesar, iii. 2. NOUNS. 73 There '5 two or three of us have seen strange sights. Julius Ccesar, i. 3. Hence when a predicate-verb is followed by two or more subject-nominatives in the singular, the verb will often be found in the singular, as. Now abidetli faith, hope, charity ; these three. 1 Cor. xiii. 13. Thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the glory. Matthew vi. 13. His sceptre shows the force of temporal power, The attribute to awe and majesty, Wherein doth sit the dread and fear of kings. Merchant of Venice^ iv. 1. POSITION". 128. Those languages which have great variety of inilection admit many changes of position in the order of words. Thus in Latin, the sentence ' C^sar G-allos vicit' will admit six different collocations, each having a different emphasis ; as,^ — 1. Csesar Gallos vicit. 2. Gallos Csesar vicit. 3. Caesar vicit Gallos. 4. Gallos vicit Cgesar. 5. Vicit Csesar Gallos. 6. Vicit Gallos Csesar. It is difficult to express these diversities in Enghsh, without turning the active voice into the passive, in some cases ; but the following version will convey an idea of the change of emphasis. 1. Cassar conquered the Gauls. 2. The Gauls were conquered by Caesar. 3. It was Caesar who conquered the Gauls. 4. It was the Gauls who were conquered by Csesar. 5. Caesar did conquer the Gauls. 6. The Gauls were conquered by Csesar. 129- But just in proportion as there are fewer inflections in English, so the position becomes important to determine the sense. Because, where there are no changes in the form of the word itself, to denote various relations, these relations must E 74 KULES AND CAUTIONS. be marked either by particles, as for example by prepositions, or by the position of the words themselves. In the sentences, * John beats Peter,' and ' Peter beats John,' there is nothing but the position to show which gives the blow, and which receives it. Whereas in Latin the form of the words would show the distinction : — Johannes Petrwm verberat. Tetrus Johann^??z verberat. 130. Hence it is that, in English, the order of words becomes most important; for in very many instances bad order is not merely an inelegance, but it is positively bad grammar. As a general rule the English language follows the logical order of subject and predicate. The subject-nominative comes first ; then we have the predicate-verb, or the predicate-verb followed by a predicate-nominative, as the case may be. If the verb is transitive, the object generally follows the verb. A change in the order of words often takes place to mark emphasis. The Tery change itself awakens attention ; and, generally, importance is assigned to those words which occupy the first place. Hence, we often find the predicate, or por- tions of the predicate preceding the subject; as, — Great is Diana of the Ephesians. — Acts xix. 84. In another passage our translators have not been so suc- cessful. We read, Eev. xviii. 4, * Babylon the great is fallen, is fallen,' where the repetition at the close weakens the emphasis. But on the other hand, * Fallen, fallen is Babylon the great ' would call attention to the most emphatic word in the sentence ; and this, indeed, is the order of the original : — "ETTfo-f V, tTTsae 'BafivXwy rj jjLeyaXrj, 131. In indicative sentences the predicate-verb precedes the subject-nominative, when the sentence or clause opens with * neither,' or * nor,' (used in the sense of *and not'): as, — Thou know'st that aU my fortunes are at sea ; Neither have I money, nor commodity To raise a present sum. Merchant of Venice, i. 1. My ventures are not in one bottom trusted, Nor to one place ; nor is my whole estate Upon the fortune of this present year. — Ibid, NOUNS. 75 So too after the particle ^ there/ used not as an adverb of place, but by way of introducing a sentence : There was sl king in Thule. There came a philosopher from India. When a conditional clause is employed without the con- junction * if,' an auxiliary verb may stand first : as, Were he present, he would say so. Had I been there I should have seen him. When other parts of the predicate, as, for example, the ob- ject, are placed first for the sake of emphasis, the predicate- verb will often precede the subject- nominative, in order to keep the various parts of the predicate as near together as possible : Other refuge have I none. Charles Wesley, So when an adverb, or an adverbial clause, stands first, the verb may precede the subject-nominative : as, Here folloiced a long ti^ain of officials. In this unhappy battle of Newbury, luas slain the Lord Viscount Falkland, Cautions, 132. — 1. Take care that there be a subject-nominative in the sentence. The following sentence occurs in a well-known passage, where the historian Eobertson is describing the character of Mary Queen of Scots : — Polite, affable, insinuating, sprightly, and capable of speaking and of writing with equal ease and dignity. The context shows that we must supply the words * she was.' The whole passage reads thus : To all the charms of beauty, and the utmost elegance of external form, she added those accomplishments which render their impression irresistible. Polite^ affable, insinuating, sprightly, and capable of speaking and of writing with equal ease and dignity. Sudden, however, and violent in all her attachments ; because her heart was warm and unsuspicious. Impatient of contradiction ; because she had been accustomed from her infancy to be treated as a queen. No stranger, on E 2 76 / RULES AND CAUTIONS. some occasions, to dissimulation ; which, in that per- fidious court where she received her education, was reckoned among the necessary arts of government. Not insensible of flattery, or unconscious of that pleasure with which almost every woman beholds the influence of her own beauty. Formed with the qualities which we love, not with the talents that we admire, she was an agreeable woman rather than an illustrious queen. . — Eobertson, History of Scotland^ book vii. Grammatically considered, the whole passage from * Polite, afiable,' to ' illustrious queen,' forms one long sentence, of -which ^she' is the subject-nominative, and * was' is the pre- dicate-verb. This form of composition is highly rhetorical, and is admired by some critics ; but youthful composers should be cautious in imitating this style. 133. — 2. Take care that there be a predicate in the sen- tence. In other words, having a subject to speak about, take care to say something about it. This rule is more frequently violated than the former. It is ofl:en observable in answers to questions in examination. Pupils should be habituated to give full answers ; that is to say, each answer should form a complete sentence. Take this instance : The poems of Homer, which have exercised an im- portant influence upon the literature of the world. But what of the poems of Homer, which have exercised an important influence upon the literature of the world ? There is, indeed, a verb, ' have exercised ; ' but it occiurs in the ad- jective-clause qualifying the subject-nominative ^ poems.' But nothing is predicated. Nothing is stated, nothing is affirmed or denied respecting the poems of Homer. The verses containing the remonstrance addressed to Eichard 11. by Old John of Gaunt, * time-honoured Lancas- : ter,' are sometimes quoted thus : — This royal throne of kings, this scepter'd isle, This earth of majiesty, this seat of Mars, This other Eden, demi-paradise ; This fortress built by Nature for herself Against infection and the hand of war ; This happy breed of men, this little world ; KOUNS. 77 Tliis precious stone set in tlie silver sea, Which serves it in the office of a wall, Or as a moat defensive to a house, Against the envy of less happier lands ; This blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England. But what about * this England ? ' If we refer to the origi- nal, we find that the remonstrance does not end there ; but goes on as follows : — This blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England, This nurse, this teeming womb of royal kings, Feared by their breed, and famous by their birth, Eenowned for their deeds as far from home (For Christian service and true chivalry) As is the sepulchre in stubborn Jewry Of the world's ransom, Blessed Mary's Son ; This land of such dear souls, this dear, dear land, Is now leased out (I die pronouncing it) Like to a tenement, or pelting farm ; England, bound in with the triumphant sea. Whose rocky shore beats back the envious siege Of w^atery Neptune, is now hound in with shame. With inky blots, and rotten parchment bonds : That England, that was wont to conquer others. Hath made a shameful conquest of itself. Ah, would the scandal vanish wdth my life, How happy then were my ensuing death ! Richard 11.^ ii. 1. This passage contains three distinct propositions, followed by an exclamation : 1 . This royal throne of kings ... is now leased out. 2. England ... is now bound in with shame. 3. England . . . hath made a shameful conquest of itself. Then follows the exclamation ' would the scandal vanish . . . how happy were my . . . death ! ' 134. 3. The careless use of the Case Absolute gives occa- sion to a class of errors, into which Latin scholars are pecu- liarly liable to fall. As the Latin language has no perfect participle active, the perfect participle passive is used in its stead ; but both the participle and the substantive, with which it agrees, are put in the ablative case. Now, in Latin, this ablative case is a safeguard ; because the noun or pronoun, so used absolutely, can never be mistaken for a nominative. 78 RULES AND CAUTIONS. But when this construction is imitated in English, the safe- guard is lost. Some grammarians tell us that nouns so employed are in the Nominative Absolute in English. If, then, a so-called nominative absolute be employed in the beginning of a sentence, the reader may mistake it for a subj ect -nomina- tive ; and afterwards, when the true subject-nominative is introduced, perplexity may arise. (See § 27.) The confusion is made worse when a participle is used, unconnected with any substantive at all. Here is part of an advertisement, pub- lished by the proprietor of an educational establishment : * Having to pass an examination for admission, a few months' preparation at is strongly recommended.' In this sentence the participle is used without any substan- tive at all. Of course, the meaning is, ^ As pupils have to pass an examination for admission, a few months' preparation, ^c. : ' and the form which the writer had in his mind was ^ Pupils having to pass an examination ' By further license, the writer omits the word ' pupils,' and the phrase stands ^ Having to pass,' without stating who is to pass. 135. So here: Having found that there were great difficulties on both sides, it was resolved to proceed no further in the business. From this collection of words we infer that a resolution was formed to proceed no further in a certain business. But we are not told ivJio found difficulties, or who resolved to proceed no further ; although the participle ^having found' leads us to expect a subj ect -nominative indicating persons. The pas- sage is quoted from the Report of a Committee, who were ashamed to confess that they had abandoned the business in question. If they had said, ^ we resolved to proceed no further,' they would not only have wi'itten correctly, but they would have told the whole truth. This confession, however, did not suit the purpose of the Committee ; and, as one fault leads to another, their dissimulation led them into bad grammar. 136. In the early part of a sentence, before the introduction of the subject-nominative, it is dangerous to use the Case Absolute ; and it is equally dangerous to employ introductory participles, referring to any noun, other than the subject- nominative : for example, * Having gone through this amount of villany, King George thought he was qualified to represent him at the court NOUNS. 79 of Lisbon, and thither Lord Tyrawley proceeded ac- cordingly.' — Doran, Annals of the Stage^ ii. 275. The context shows that it was not King George, but Lord Tyrawley, who had gone through an amount of villany ; and that therefore the King thought Tyrawley a suitable represen- tative. But the phrase * having gone through this amount of villany,' stands in treasonable proximity to King George ; and there is nothing in the form of the sentence to guard us against making a wrong application of the phrase* POSSESSIVE CASE. 137. The Possessive in English corresponds to the Genitive in Latin and other languages ; and is the only case in English nouns where we find a change of termination. The form in 's is the only case- ending in our nouns. These exhibit no difference in form between the nominative and objective cases. The possessive alone exhibits a variation. In Anglo-Saxon there are several declensions. Some nouns form their genitive singular in ~es, as smithy smithes ; others in a?z, others in e. But in the transition from Anglo-Saxon to English, the form in es seems to have been preferred in all instances ; it was written -6S, -25, -?/5, and finally '5. According to Ben Jonson, {English Grammar, c. xiii.) the change from es to is was the cause of a singular grammatical error, and * brought in first the monstrous syntax of the pro- noun his joyning with a noune betokening a possessor, as the Prince his house, for the Prince's house.' Dr. Lowth thinks that ' Christ his sake ' in our Liturgy is a mistake of the printers, or of the compilers. He compares, * Nevertheless, Asa his heart was perfect with the Lord,' 1 Kings xv. 14 ; and ^ To see whether Mordecai his matters would stand,' Esther iii. 4 ; where, however, our more recent copies read ' Asa's heart,' and ^ Mordecai's matters.' Donne says : Where is this mankind now ? Who lives to age Fit to be made Methusalem his page ? Pope, in his translation of the Odyssey, has, By young Telemachus his blooming years. Addison writes : My paper is the Ulysses his bow, in which every man of wit or learning may try his strength. — Guardian^ 98. 80 HULES AND CAUTIONS. And it is evident that Addison thus wrote advisedly ; for elsewhere he tells us that ^ the same single letter s on many Occasions does the office of the whole word, and represents the his and her of our forefathers.' (Spectator, 135.) * The latter instance/ says Dr. Lowth, ' might have shown him how groundless this notion is ; for it is not easy to con- ceive how the letter s added to a feminine noun should repre- sent the word her, any more than, if added to a plural noun, as ^the children's bread,' it can stand for their. But the direct derivation of this case from the Saxon genitive is suffi- cient of itself to decide the matter.' (See Lowth, English Grammar, p. 32.) 138. But along with the form in '5, we have another method of expressing the genitive case, namely by means of the pre- position of; we say * the master's house,' and ' the house of the master.' The origin of this second form is an interesting question. Dr. Adams says (Elements^ § 144), * The use of the prepo- sition of to express the genitive was unknown in Anglo-Saxon. It was introduced from the Old Norse by the Danes.' Other grammarians think that it was introduced by the Normans, and that it is a translation of the French de. There is a fashion in grammar, as in other things. Some gi-ammarians have a tendency to trace everything to a Saxon or Danish origin ; and some of them maintain that the Nor- man-French has had no influence upon our grammar. They cannot deny that our vocabulary is made up to a great extent of Anglo-Saxon and Norman-French; but they tell us that the same combination finds no place in our grammatical forms. Professor Max Muller holds that there is no sucTi thing as a mixed language. Of course he does not dispute the mix- ture of words in a vocabulary ; he admits that we can detect Celtic, Norman, Greek, and Latin ingredients in the English dictionary ; but he denies the mixture of grammatical forms in a language. For he calls grammar the * blood of the language ;' and he asserts that, in this sense, the English language is Teutonic. He maintains (Science of Language^ 1st Series, p. 70), that ' not a single drop of foreign blood has entered into the organic system of the English language. The grammar, the blood and soul of the language, is as pure and unmixed in English, as spoken in the British Isles, as it was when spoken on the shores of the German Ocean by the Angles, Saxons, and Juts of the Continent.' Again he says NOUNS. 81 expressly (p. 74), ^ Languages, thougli mixed in their dic- tionary, can never be mixed in their grammar. For,' he adds, * * we may form whole sentences in English consisting entirely of Latin or Romance words, yet whatever there is left of grammar in English bears unmistakeable traces of Teutonic workmanship,' 139. We shall test this principle as we go along ; but we premise that the argument from analogy leads us to regard the doctrine with suspicion. The English language, like the constitution, the law, the custom of the country, partakes of the nature of a compromise. We have commons and barons, common law and feudal tenure, democracy and aristocracy; so, too, in our vocabulary we have English words and French derivatives. It would, therefore, be strange if there were no traces of French idiom in our grammar. There are some forms which can be explained on no other principle ; and I am inclined to think that, wherever we have double forms inEnglish grammar, one of them has arisen from the Norman-French. 140- So much for the argument from analogy. Then, if we may quote one authority against another, Mr. Marsh is decidedly of opinion that the English grammar is mixed ; that although the traces of foreign idiom may not be numerous, they are still to be found. He admits that grammatical structure is a much more essential and permanent characteristic of languages than the vocabulary ; and that, therefore, it is alone to be considered in tracing their history and determining their ethnological affini- ties. But this theory, he thinks, is carried too far when it is insisted that no amalgamation of the grammatical character- istics of different speeches is possible. The English language has been affected, in both vocabulary and structure, by the influence of all the Gothic and Eomance tongues with which it has been brought into long and close contact. Doubtless, this influence is most readily perceived in the stock of words ; but the same influence, though smaller in extent, is not less unequivocal in its effects upon the syntax. He then gives instances ; as, the double forms in the com- parison of adjectives : (1) By the terminations -er and -est '^ (2) by prefixing the adverbs more and most. So also the double forms in the genitive of nouns. He says, ^ the pos- sessive relation between nouns was expressed in Anglo-Saxon by a regular possessive or genitive case, and not by a prepo- sition ; in Norman-French, in general, by a preposition only. E 3 82 EULES AND CAUTIONS. In English botli modes are used.' (Marsh, Origin and History of the English Language^ pp. 4o-48.) 141. The Germans can place their genitive before or after the nonn on which it depends. They can say, Gottes Gnade, * God's grace,' and die Liehe Gottes^ literally ' the love God's,' for * God's love,' or ' the love of God.' But in English we have not the power of placing the possessive immediately after the governing noun: we may say, Hhis work is Cicero's;' but not ' this is a work Cicero's.' And yet we can say, ' this is a play of Shakespeare's.' I have sometime* suspected that this phrase has resulted from an amalgamation of the two idioms; and that our grammarians, finding the anomaly in existence, have turned it to use, and put a new meaning upon it. For they explain the phrase as signifying ' a play of Shakespeare's plays ; ' that is, ' one of the plays written by Shakespeare.' As they correctly remark, we may say, * a son of your's,' but not ' a father of your's ; ' for a man may have several sons, but he can have only one father. And thus they distinguish ^ a bust of Cicero,' that is, *a bust representing Cicero,' from ' a bust of Cicero's,' meaning * one of the busts in the possession of Cicero.' I believe that this distinction, however ingenious, is an after thought ; and that the form has arisen from a mixture of two constructions. 142. In older English we find a genitive of juxta-position : so Chaucer says, of the Knight, He never yit no vilonye ne sayde In al his lyf unto no maner wight, Q- Canterbury Tales, Prologue, 70. that is, * to any manner of person.' And so again, ^ a manere Serjeant,' that is, 'a kind o/ servant.' This is the usual idiom in Welsh, in which language there is no case-ending to mark the genitive. In the phrases ^ for conscience' sake,' ' for righteousness' sake,' it is usual to employ a mark of apostrophe. Those who are curious in minute points may inquire whether the mark is necessary. It might be argued that the word ' con- science' acquires, by position, the force of a genitive case ; just as in composition we say the * house-top ' for the * house's-top.' In composition sometimes the form in -s is used, and sometimes not ; as wolf's-bane = wolf's poison, hen-bane = hen's poison. NOUNS. 83 143. In some instances, we find the preposition of used, where we might expect a noun in apposition ; as ^ The city o/Rome ' for ' The city Rome,' Urhs Roma, We may term this the apposition genitive. We find it used, 1. In geographical descriptions : as, The city q/ London. The town o/ Liverpool. The borough o/Wigan. But we are not consistent ; for we say, ^ The river Thames,' not ' The river of Thames ; ' and ^ The Hill of Howth,' but * Mount Lebanon.' 2. In descriptions of persons or things: as, A rogue q/an attorney. A monster of a man. A brute of a dog. A rag of an umbrella. We employ this second construction chiefly in a humorous or satirical sense ; but in Welsh the construction is idiomatic, and employed generally. Thus Rowland teUs us, {Welsh Grammar^ § 411) ^ two nouns are set in apposition by means of the preposition o (^ of '), when the one describes the character^ occupation^ &c. of the other ; and when one of them may be converted into an adjective, or, in fact, frequently omitted ; thus gwr o hrophwydj ' a man of a prophet,' is equi- valent to gwr prophwydol, ^ sl man prophetic,' or simply pro- phwi/d, ^ a prophet.' I do not venture to say that this idiom has come in from the Welsh ; but I certainly think that the British element in our history and our language demands more careful attention than it has yet received. 144. We have, then, five constructions of the genitive case in English : 1. The form in 's : Milton's poem. 2. With the preposition of: The life of Dryden. 3. A combination of the two : A work of Cicero's. 4. By juxta-position : A many people, (for * many ' is an old noun, signifying a ^ multitude'). 5. By apposition : The city of Paris. Compare the French, La ville de Paris, 145. With regard to meaning we observe that the genitive has a double force. 84 KULES AND CAUTIONS. 1. The subjective genitive, as it is termed, indicates some quality of the noun on which it is dependent ; and as, among other qualities, it denotes possession, this kind of genitive has given rise to the term possessive case, and is generally ex- pressed in Englisk by the form 's ; as * the master's house.' 2. The objective genitive expresses the object of some feel- ing or action. It is commonly rendered in English by the preposition 'of;' as 'the love of fame;' 'the pursuit of wealth.' In fact, if the governing noun were turned into a verb, the objective genitive would be turned into the objec- tive (or accusative) case. For example, ' he has a love of fame ' is equivalent to ' he loves fame.' Sometimes the same relation is expressed by other prepositions : as ' longing for rest,' ' remedy /or pain,' ' love to virtue.' 146. As the form in '5, called the possessive case, chiefly denotes possession, its use is generally limited to words which denote persons or living beings : as, The master's house. The lion's mouth. But in older English, and in poetry, the form is often applied to words denoting things or abstract notions : as, The house's beauty. Sin's poison. With pronouns, the form in '5 is often used objectively : for instance, his stands for ' of him : ' thus, His virtues Will plead like angels, trumpet-tongued, against The deep damnation of his taking off. Macbeth^ i. 6. 147. When a compound name is used, the final word alone takes the termination '5 : as, ' the Bard of Lomond's Lay.' If two nouns used in apposition are thrown into the geni- tive case, and if the principal noun comes last, that noun alone takes the termination 's : as, For thy servant David's sake. Psalm cxxxii. 10. But when the principal noun comes first, and the apposition noun follows, we find diversity of usage. Some would employ the form 's with the last word : as, 1. I bought it at Tonson the bookseller's. Others would prefer : 2. I bought it at Tonson's the bookseller. NOUNS. 85 While others would repeat the form with each word : as, 3. I bought it at Tonson's the bookseller's. The first and third examples are the most defensible in theory ; for in the first case, we may regard ^ Tonson the bookseller ' as one compound term ; and the '5 follows regu- larly at the end. In the third case, we have an ordinary instance of apposition. But the second case, though the least defensible in theory, is the most convenient in instances where two or more words in apposition follow the principal possessive : as, I bought it at Tonson's, the bookseller and stationer. 148. When two possessives are used, coupled by the con- junction and^ we have to consider whether the governing noun applies to them jointly or severally. 1 . If the governing noun applies to the possessives jointly, it is sufficient to affix the form 's to the final posses- sive : as, William and Mary's house. The King and Queen's marriage. 2. But when the governing noun applies to the posses- sives severally, the form '5 should be attached to each : The Parliament's and the King's forces ap- proached each other. The work was neither Cicero's nor Seneca's. So, too, when any words intervene, throwing a pause upon the first possessive, the form 's should be used in both in- stances : as, These are William's, as well as Mary's books. 149. The construction involving the form which we call the * infinitive, or gerund in -ing ' demands carefiil considera- tion. Take, for example : Wliat is the meaning of this ladu's holding vjj her fan ? These are the rules of Grammar, by the observing of which you may avoid mistakes. Some grammarians call this form in -ing a Gerund ; others a Participle ; and others, a Verbal, or a Verbal Substantive. Dr. Lowth says (English Grammar^ p. 125) : — ^ The parti- ciple with an article before it, and the preposition of after it, becomes a substantive, expressing the action itself which the 86 RULES AND CAUTIONS. verb signifies ; as, ^^ These are the rules of Grammar by the observing o/whicli you may avoid mistakes." Or it may be expressed by the participle or gerund ; " by observing which ; " not, " by observing 0/ which ; " nor, " by the obsei^ving which ; " for either of those two phrases would be a confounding of two distinct forms.' He then states the principle on which this rule is founded : * a word which has the article before it, and the possessive preposition of after it, must be a noun ; and if a noun, it ought to follow the construction of a noun, and not have the regimen of a verb.' But Dr. Lowth seems to confound a ' noun ' with a ' sub- stantive ; ' the infinitive mood of a verb may be used substan- tively, yet without losing its powers as a verb. Beside, the prefixing of the article does not turn any part of a verb into a >substantive ; but, on the contrary, because it is used substan- tively, it is capable of taking the article. Hence all the four forms may be defended : 1. by observing which. 2. by the observing 0/ which. 3. by observing c)/ which. 4. by the observing which. 1. We have the simple infinitive, or gerund, governing the objective ^ which.' 2. The infinitive, with the article, is used substantively, and followed by the genitive, * of which.' 3. The infinitive, without the article, is used substantively, and followed by the genitive, ^ of which.' 4. The infinitive is used substantively, with the article, but still retains its powers as a verb, and governs the ob- jective, * which.' POSITION. 150. The form in -s precedes the governing word : as ^ the father's house/ * the master's dog.' In German the cor- responding form may follow the governing noun: as * ein Werk Schiller's,' literally ' a Work Schiller's,' where we say, * a work of Schiller,' or ' a work of Schiller's.' And it is curious that both these English phrases are questioned ; some grammarians doubt the one, and some the other. One says that ^ a work of Schiller ' is absolute nonsense, and not English. Another maintains that ' a work of Schiller's' is a blunder, , NOUNS. 87 and not to be allowed. I have already stated my opinion, that ^ a work of Schiller's' has arisen from a confusion of the two forms ; aad it certainly is warranted by the authority of good writers. On the other hand, I see no reason to condemn * a work of Schiller,' meaning ' a work written by Schiller.' 151. But as we have two forms in English, we should be careful to avail ourselves of this advantage, in order to guard against ambiguity of expression. For example, where Hume says, ' They attacked Northum- berland's house, whom they put to death,' we observe a little awkwardness in that form of expression. It seems better to say, * They attacked the house of Northumberland, whom they put to death.' For although the gender of the pronoun shows that Northumberland is referred to, yet we are so accustomed in English to find the antecedent coming imme- diately before the relative, that the position of * house ' between the two makes us fancy that there is something wrong. It is a good rule that, if we can make any alteration which will prevent the attention of the reader from being called to the mere form of words, we ought to avail ourselves of the privilege, and to ^ his attention, not upon the sign, but upon the thing signified. OBJECTIVE. 152, We saw, § 13 — 20, that there may be various kinds of Objectives in a sentence ; and we distinguished three ; the Primary and Secondary Objectives, and the Complement- Objective. As an example of the care required to distinguish Objectives, we may take the following passage : — Lafeu. They say miracles are past; and we have our philosophical persons to make modern and familiar things supernatural and causeless. Hence it is that we make trifles of terrors ; ensconcing ourselves into seeming knowledge, when we should submit oiu'selves to an unknown fear.— JZZ's TFeZZ, ii. 3. In some editions the words are pointed thus : — * to make modern and familiar things, supernatural and causeless.' But the meaning is just the contrary : ^ to make modern and fami- liar, things supernatural and causeless.' The word ^modern' is used in the literal sense of * daily,' * trivial,' ' common-place,' and the meaning is * to modernise 8B RULES AND CAUTIONS. and familiarise things, which are really above nature, and beyond the laws of cause and effect, as commonly understood by us.' So also the phrase * we make trifles of terrors ' means, * we turn terrors into sport.' The adjectives 'supernatural' and * causeless ' are used to qualify the objective ' things ; ' while the adjectives 'modern' and 'familiar' are complement- objectives, to be taken in connection with the verb ' make.' 153. In our version of the Scriptures, we read : Who maketh his angels spirits ; his ministers a flaming fire. — Psalm civ. 4. It has sometimes been suggested that this passage might be taken just the other way : Who maketh the winds his messengers ; the flames of fire his ministers. But I have some doubts as to the latter clause. Compare, too, Hebrews i. 7, 8. 154. As there is, in English nouns, no distinction of form between nominative and objective, the order of words is a mat- ter of great importance. In the following passage from Gibbon, objectives are immediately followed by nominatives ; and the reader is obliged to peruse the sentence more than once, in order to discover where the objectives end, and the nomi- natives begin. Speaking of Theodoric, he says : The ambassadors who resorted to Ravenna from the most distant countries of Europe admired his wisdom, mag- nificence and courtesy ; and if he sometimes accepted either slaves or arms, white horses or strange animals, the gift of a sun-dial, a waterclock, or a musician, admonished even the princes of Gaul of the superior art and industry of his Italian subjects. Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire^ c. 39. After a little reflection, it is easy to see that the objectives end at animals, and the nominatives begin with the gift of a sun-dial. But a writer should not cause his readers to hesitate, even for a moment, upon mere points of grammar. 155. As a general rule, transitive verbs govern an objec- tive, and intransitives do not. But we must be very care- ful to watch the change of construction in verbs. For an intransitive verb, when compounded with a preposition, may acquire a transitive force ; and as, in English, the preposition NOUKS. 89 is generally not attacliGcl to the verb, hut put after it, the con- struction is sometimes misunderstood. For instance, imn is an intransitive verb ; but run through is transitive, in the sense oi {1) loierce^ (2) waste : as, They ran him through, with a sword. He ran through his property. Here him is the objective, governed by the compound verb ran through ; and property is the objective, governed, not by the preposition through, but by the compound verb ran through. For we might turn the sentences thus : They pierced him with a sword. He squandered his property. See §§ 490, 491. 156. These constructions should be distinguished from others, where the intransitive, used mth a preposition, still remains intransitive : as ' depart from,' ' despair of.' But one remark is common to both ; that this appending of a preposi- tion gives rise to the idiom of throwing a preposition to the end of the sentence : as, This I was afraid of. That result I despaired of Those grammarians who derive their notions from the idiom of the Latin language, condemn this usage of the preposition as inelegant ; but more recent investigations, in the Germanic dialects, have proved that this is an old English idiom. — See §§ 483-485. 157. A noun denoting time, space, or measure is often used absolutely ; and from the analogy of similar constructions in Latin, we say that such nouns are in the objective case : as, They rode all day. That tower was twenty feet high. In 1661, the justices fixed the labourer's wages at seven shillings a week, wheat seventy shillings the quarter, and the labourer worked twelve hours a day. — Macaulay, It has been surmised, that a, in these constructions, is not the indefinite article, but a remnant of the Anglo-Saxon pre- position an, ' in,' ^ on.'' But see § 304. 158. Dr. Angus remarks, {Handhooh, § 413) that the prepo- sition o/is sometimes erroneously used with an adjective, in such constructions as the following : Let a gallows be made o/ fifty cubits high. — Esther v. 14, To an infant of two or three years old. — Wayland. 90 RULES ANB CAUTIONS. But in the present state of our knowledge, we must guard against hasty judgments. We must not rashly condemn an idiomatic usage, if it be really idiomatic ; but we must exa- mine the custom of old writers, before we arrive at a final conclusion. 159. A noun in the objective case is often found with an intransitive verb, when the noun and the verb are akin in meaning. This is called in Latin grammar the Cognate Accu- sative : as, ^ to dream a dream,' ^ to run a race.' So, Let me die the death of the righteous, and let my last end be like his. — Numbers xxiii. 10. 160. The infinitive mood, used substantively, can stand as an objective : \ John loves to study ; ' and the infinitive so employed does not lose its power as a verb, but may have another objective dependent upon itself: as. Ladies, you deserve To have a temple built you. CoriolanuSj v. 3. Occasionally, we find a forerunning it employed to show that an infinitive phrase is coming : as, Thou dost ; and think'st it much to tread the ooze Of the salt deep. Tempest^ i. 2. 161. We saw, §§ 37, 38, that when a sentence takes the place of an objective, there are three forms in which the sub- ordinate clause may appear : 1. I know [he is eloquent]. 2. I know [that he is eloquent] 3. I know [him to be eloquent]. We have termed the objective Am, in the third example, a * subject-accusative,' because it forms the subject of the sub- ordinate clause, and yet it stands in the accusative or objec- tive case before the infinitive to he. This mode of explanation is borrowed from the Latin grammarians, and is the most satis- factory that can be oiFered. POSITION. 162. As a general rule, the objective follows the governing verb; but sometimes for the sake of emphasis, the order is reversed, and the objective stands first : as, Honey firom out the gnarled hive I'll bring. Keats, Endymion^ 4. NOUNS. 91 Such sober certainty of waking bliss I never heard till now. Milton, Comus, 263. As pronouns often exhibit variations to mark difference of case, there is, with them, less danger of confusion ; and a pro- noun in the objective is freely placed before the verb : as, Him the Almighty Power Hurled headlong flaming from the ethereal sky. Milton, Paradise Lost, i. 44-5. So, too, when the subject-nominative denotes a person, and the objective a thing or quality : as. Equal toil the good commander endures with the common soldier. Interrogative and relative pronouns, when used in the ob- jective, occupy the first place in the sentence or clause ; as, * whom did he mean "? ' ' this is the man whom I mentioned.' THE SECONDAKY OBJECTIVE. 163. In Latin, some verbs govern two accusatives ; others an accusative and a dative ; others an accusative and a geni- tive. What we have termed the * secondary objective ' cor- responds to the second accusative, to the dative, or to the genitive in the Latin construction. The employment of the secondary objective, in place of a dative, is particularly observable in the usage of personal pro- nouns ; for, me and thee are old datives, as well as accusatives ; and hi7n is a true dative, though we commonly employ it as an accusative. 164. The secondary objective is formed after verbs of * giving,' • telling,' * showing : ' as. Give me that book. I will tell thee a tale. They showed him all. Give sorrow words : the grief that does not speak, Whispers the o'erfraught heart, and bids it break. Macbeth, iv. 3. 165. The secondary objective, in the case of personal pro- nouns, is often used to represent the person for whom, for whose benefit, or at whose request anything is done. This corresponds to what is called the dativus commodi : so, 92 RULES AND CAUTIONS. Prince Henry. I am good friends with my father, and may do anything. Falstaff, Eob me the exchequer the first thing thou doest. l5^ Hen. IV. iii. 3. Talbot. Convey me Salisbury into his tent. 1st Hen. VL i. 4. Petruchio. Villain, I say, knock me here soundly. Grumio. Knock you here, sir ! why, sir, what- am I, sir, that I should knock you here, sir ? Petruchio. Villain, I say, knock me at this gate, And rap me well. Taming of the Shreiv, i. 2. 166. The secondary objective is found after the verbs list and like, both in the sense of ' please ;' after seem and think in the sense of ^ appear : ' as, And al that likith me, I dare wel sayn It likith the. Chaucer. i.e.y ' all that pleaseth me, pleaseth thee.' When in Salamanca's cave Him listed his magic wand to wave, The bells would ring in Notre Dame. Scott, Lay of the Last Minstrel, ii. 13. Yet there, meseems, I hear her singing loud. Sidney. Hotspur. By heaven, methinks, it were an easy leap To pluck bright honour from the pale-faced moon. 1st Henry IV. i. 3. Hamlet. Madam, how like you this play ? Queen. The lady protests too much, methinks. Hamlet, iii. 2: In such phrases as * methinks,' * meseems,' ' meseemeth,' the pronoun me is a dative, and the sense is ^ it appears to me,' ' it seems to me.' Some grammarians have found a difficulty in the form * methinks,' from not being aware that in Anglo- Saxon there are two verbs, thencan, German denken, ' to think,' and thincan, German, dunken^ ' to seem.' It is from the latter verb that we have our phrase me-thinks, correspond- ing to the German mir dunkt, or mich dunkt, ^ it seems to me.' We may remark that the Germans can use, in this construc- tion, either. the dative mir or the accusative mich. ADJECTITES. 93 167. In such phrases as ' woe is m^,' ^ woe worth the day^^ we have similar instances ; for they signify * woe is to me,' * woe be to the day.'' Here worth is a form derived from the Anglo-Saxon weor^an, ^ to become.' Much wo Worth the man, That misruleth his in^vitte ; And well ivorth Piers Plowman, That pursueth God in his going. That is to say, Much woG betide the man, That misruleth his conscience ; And fair befall Piers Plowman, That followeth God in his conduct. Sir Walter Scott, imitating the language of the old ballads, nas the following passage : — I little thought, when first thy rein I slacked upon the banks of Seine, That Highland eagle e'er should feed On thy fleet limbs, my gallant steed ! Woe worth the chase, woe worth the day, That costs thy life, my gallant grey ! Lady of the Ldke^ i. 9. Some adjectives govern an objective case ; as lilze^ nigh^ near ^ worth: ^ It is liJce hi?n -^^ ^ This is near me '^ ^ That is worth twenty pounds,' Analogy would lead us to the con- clusion that these objectives represent dative cases ; and the argument is corroborated by the fact that the preposition to is sometimes added, like to, near to. Chapter VI. ADJECTIVES. 168. *An Adjective is a word added ^o a substantive to express its quality.' (Lowth, Grammar^ p. 44.) This definition is founded upon the literal meaning of the word adjective, which is derived from the Latin ad-jectus, * put on,' ' added to.' But we must bear in mind the distinction between the 94 RULES AND CAUTIONS. Attributive and the Predicative use of the Adjective. When we speak of * the good boy,' ' the red apple,' we qualify the words ' boy ' and ' apple.' This is called the attributive use of the adjective; and it was treated under the head of Quali- fications, §§ 4, 7, 14. But when we assert that 'the boy is good^^ and ^ the apple is red^' we employ the adjective as a predicate, and this is termed the predicative use of the adjec- tive. See Predicate-nominative, §§ 5, 6. In short, the so-called copula is, and an a^'ective, are to- gether equivalent to a verb ; as may be seen by comparing English with Latin forms : — is wise = sapit. is white = albet. is green = viret. 169. But we have now to consider the substantive use of the Adjective. Becker says : ^Adjectives are termed Substantive adjectives when sub- stantively used, that is to say, when expressing a person or thing; e.g.der Gute, "the good man," die Kranken, "the sick persons," das Schone, " the beautiful," or " the beautiful thing." ' — German Grammar , Fraedersdorf s Transl. § 127. Dr. Lowth remarks (English Grammar, p. 44, note), that 'Adjectives are very improperly called Nouns, for they are not the Names of things. The adjectives good and white are applied to the nouns man, snow, to express the qualities belonging to those subjects ; but the names of those qualities in the abstract, that is, considered in themselves, without being attributed to any subject, are goodness, whiteness, and these are Kouns or Substantives.' Dr. Lowth does not accurately distinguish between Nouns and Sub- stantives. But, to pass over that point, his argument depends upon the principle that nouns are names of things ; and that words which are not names of things are not nouns. But this again depends upon the meaning of the word thing. If the word be restricted to material or physical things, then Dr. Lowth's rule is not correct : for virtue, wisdom, pride, are not names of material things, and yet they are nouns. If, on the other hand, we extend the term thing, to make it include * thoughts,' ' feelings,' and ' qualities,' why may not an adjective be the ' name of a thing ? ' There seems to be no reason why an adjective should not represent a quality in the abstract. In Greek and Latin the neuter of the adjective is constantly so used. And though in Greek the adjective used substantively is always accompanied by the article, that is no warrant for supposing that the article and the adjective are together equal to a substantive ; or that the substantive force is due to the presence of the article. The case may be just the other way ; because the adjective is used substantively, it is capable of receiving the article. ADJECTIVES. 95 Besides, the neuter adjective is constantly used as a substantive in Latin, where no article whatever is found. Utile and honestum are used by Cicero for 'expediency' and 'honour ;* and so Horace — Omne tulit punctum qui miscuit utile dulci. Be Arte Poetical 34S. * Profit with pleasure.' . . . molle atqu.e facetum ^ Virgilio annuerunt gaudentes rure Camoenae. Sat. I. X. 44. * Tenderness and grace.' They used to tell us at school, that with an adjective so employed, a substantive must be * understood; ' and as res is unfortunately feminine, we were bidden to supply negotium, which does not suit the meaning. But why must a substantive be understood ? Only because the gram- marians are determined not to admit the claim of the adjective. If we niay ' understand ' and ' supply ' words at pleasure, it is easy to prove anything. Even when an adjective stands as the predicate of a propo- sition, as ■ Snow is white,^ this is sometimes explained by grammatical ellipsis : as, ' Snow is a white (thing),' or * a white (substance),' or ' a white (object).' The poets, however, have no scruple. I\Iilton, in particular, is very fond of this construction : Who shall tempt with wandering feet, The dark unbottomed infinite abyss, And through the palpable obscure find out His uncouth way ? Paradise Lost, ii. 404-407. Dark with excessive bright thy skirts appear. Rid. iii. 380. So much of death her thoughts Had entertained, as dyed her cheeks with ^ale. Ibid. X. 1009. So Shakespeare : Call you me fair ? That ' fair ' again unsay : Demetrius loves your /air. happy fair ! Your eyes are lodestars, and your tongue's sweet air More tuneable than lark to shepherd's ear, When wheat is green, when hawthorn buds appear. Midsummer FigM s Dream, i. 1. And so Spenser, where the adjective used substantively may be taken in the concrete : * The lyon, lord of everie beast in field,' Quoth she, ' his princely puissance doth abate. And mightie "proud to humble wealce does yield.' Faerie Qicee^ie, I. iii. If it be urged that this is merely poetic license, we may quote the • deep ' used for the ' sea,' the waste for the ' desert,' with the philosophic terms, * the good,' ' the true,' ' the beautiful.' 96 RULES AKD CAUTIONS. POSITION. 170. Adjectives generally stand before the nouns which they qualify ; as, ^ the bright sky,' ' the distant shore.' But, in poetry, the order is often changed, to vary the diction, and to raise it above ordinary prose ; as, ^ O lady/mV,' *-my father dear,'' It is a common practice with Milton to place an adjective both before and after a noun ; as, At length a universal hubbub wild Of stunning sounds and voices all confused, Borne through the hollow dark, assaults his ear With loudest vehemence. Paradise Lost, ii. 951-4. Thus with the year Seasons return, but not to me returns Day, or the sweet approach of ev'n or morn, Or sight of vernal bloom, or summer's rose, Or flocks, or herds, or human face divine. Ibid. iii. 40-4. So, too, he alludes to Isocrates as ^that old man eloquent,^ where, however, * old man ' may be considered almost one word, equivalent to the Latin senex : ... as that dishonest victory At Chseronea, fatal to liberty, Bailed with report that old man eloquent. Sonnet ix. Even in prose, participles are often found after a noun : as, the persons named^ * the reasons mentioned,^ 171. Chaucer uses an adjective with the indefinite article after a noun : as, A monk there was a fayre, Canterbury Tales ^ Prologue^ 165. A frere there was a wanton and a mery, — Ibid, 208. And, in more modern English, it is not unusual for one adjective to precede the noun, while others foUow connected by and : as, A dark prince, and infinitely suspicious* — Bacon* ADJECTIVES. 97 When the adjective or participle is itself qualified it follows the noun : as, Out flew Millions of flaming swords drawn from the thighs Of mighty cherubim. Milton, Paradise Lost, i. 664. 172. Wlien two numerals qualify one noun, the ordinal adjective generally stands first, and the cardinal second : as, ' the last three chapters of John,' ' the first two of Matthew.' Strictly, there cannot be ^ three last chapters,' or ^ two Jirst chapters.' And yet the terms ^ three last ' and ^ two first,' might occur in another construction, and with a different meaning. For instance, if there were three classes in a school, the boys at the bottom of each might be termed the ^ three last.' Or if there were two classes, the boys at the head of each might be styled the ^ two first.' DEaEEES OF CO:P^IPAEISON. 173- English adjectives have no changes to express gender, number, or case ; but they undergo changes, to denote De- grees of Comparison. There are three Degrees of Comparison, in English : 1. The Positive, which gives the word in its simplest form ; as bright, 2. The Comparative, which ascribes a quality in a higher degree ; as brighter. 3. The Superlative, which ascribes a quality in the ; highest degree ; as brightest. We have two methods of denoting comparison in adjec- tives ; one, derived from the Anglo-Saxon, by adding termi- nations to the positive ; the other, borrowed from the Norman- French, by prefixing to the positive the adverbs 7Jiore and most. Formation of Comparison by adding Terminations. First Rule. In Adjectives, which end in a consonant, the comparative is formed by adding -er, and the superlative by adding -est to the positive ; as bright, bright-er, bright-est. Ohs. — When an adjective ends in -e, the vowel e of the termi- nation -cr, -esty is dropped, or, practically, -r and -st are added to the positive : as wise^ wise-r, wisest. F 98 nULES AND CAUTIONS. Second Rule, — When the positive ends in c?, g^ or f, preceded by a single vowel, the final consonant is doubled in form- ing the comparative and superlative : as, red redder reddest. big higger biggest. hot hotter hottest. But if the cZ, ^, or t be preceded by another consonant, or by more than one vowel, the final consonant is not doubled : as, kind kinder kindest, neat neater neatest. Third Rule. — When the positive ends in ?/, preceded by a consonant, the y is changed to i before -er and -est : as, lovely loveli-er loveli-est. These rules are applicable to adjectives of one or two syllables, which very commonly are of Anglo-Saxon deriva- tion. With adjectives containing more than two syllables, it is usual to prefix more and most. The Germans, indeed, append the terminations -^r and -est to all adjectives, no matter how many syllables they may contain. But in Eng- lish, custom has ruled that the terminations -er and -est shall be restricted to adjectives of one and two syllables. 174. In the Indo-European family of languages, a few ad- jectives exhibit peculiarities of comparison : and it is curious to remark that these adjectives, in the several languages, cor- respond in meaning. For our purpose, it will be sufficient to compare the English with the Latin. good bonus " bad malus much or many multus little parvus Some grammarians maintain that these forms as, for example, good and better^ are derived from distinct roots. Dr. Latham says that good has no comparative or superlative : and that better has no positive. — Latham, English Grammar^ § 110. Professor Key, in an able treatise appended to his Alphabety better melior worse best. optimus. worst. pejor pessimus. more most. (plus) less plurimus. least. minor minimus. ADJECTIVES. 99 endeavours to prove that ^ good, better, best,' ^ bonus, melior, optimus,' owe their variety of form to two principles : (1) the difference of pronunciation, called * dialect ; ' (2) those euphonic changes which grow out of the approxima- tion of particular sounds. Professor Key's arguments are highly ingenious; I wish I could add that they are equally convincing. 175. The following peculiarities of comparison deserve notice, especially in reference to the use of the termination -most : aft after aftermost. far farther farthest, farthermost. fore former first, foremost. forth further furthest, furthermost. hind hinder hindmost, hindermost. in inner inmost, innermost. late later, latter latest, last. out ■ outer, utter utmost, outermost. up upper upmost, uppermost. Grimm doubts whether such words as ^ after-most,' ^ in- most ' are formed immediately by the addition of -most. He finds in Gothic and in Anglo-Saxon superlative forms aftuma, innema, and, what he considers double superlatives, wftemest^ innemest. According to this view, both the letter ??i, and the termination -est, are marks of the superlative degree. Then he thinks that the English forms ^ aftermost,' ^ inmost,' &c., have arisen by corruption, or by false analogy. To use his o^vn expression, the English termination -most in these words is ' an unorganic -most,'' See Grimm, Deutsche GrammatiTc, vol. iii. pp. 628-631 : and compare Latham, English Language j § 481, English Grammar ^ § 117. 176. We must beware of supposing that comparison neces- sarily involves the notion of greater or less ; for in the sentence, * He is as tall as I am,' we have as truly a comparison as in the sentence, * He is taller than I am.' In other words, there may be a comparison of equality ; and in the Welsh language there is a fourth degree of comparison, with a distinct form, to express the relation which we denote by prefixing as or so to the positive. See Eowland, Welsh Grammar^ § 149. Hence, before we make use of a comparison, involving the notion of greater or less, we should consider whether the quality expressed by the adjective admits of degrees. Strictly speaking, perfect is an absolute term : that which is not ^ per- f2 100 RULES AND CAUTIONS, feet' is 'imperfect/ and althougli a thing may be brought nearer to perfection than it was before, it cannot properly be called ' more perfect.' Yet Addison writes : Our sight is the most perfect and most delightful of all our senses. — Spectator ^ No, 411. Similarly extreme is ' uttermost,' and yet many persons write most extreme, \h2it i^ literally 'most uttermost.' In the fol- lowing passages we find extremest : While the extremest parts of the earth were meditating a submission. — Atterbury, Sermons, i. 4. That on the sea's extremest border stood. Addison, Travels, 177- Cobbett well remarks, {English Grammar, § 220) : — ' But our ears are accustomed to the adverbs of exaggeration. Some writers deal in these to a degree that tires the ear and offends the understanding. With them every thing is exces- sively or immensely or extremely or vastly or surprisingly or wonderfully or abundantly, or the like. The notion of such writers is, that these words give strength to what they are saying. This is a great error. Strength must be found in the thought, or it will never be found in the words. Big- sounding words, without thoughts corresponding, are effort without effect.' 178- The word chief, derived from the French chef, ' head,' denotes primacy ; and as there can be no more than one * first ' in the same series, it is not strictly correct to say chiefest. Yet we read : Whosoever of you will be the chiefest, shall be servant of all. — Mark x. 44. One of the first and chief est instances of prudence. Atterbury, Sermons^ iv. 10. But first and chief est with thee bring Him that yon soars on golden wing. Guiding the fiery-wheeled throne, The Cherub Contemplation. Milton, II Penseroso, 179. When we are comparing things, or classes of things, it is necessary to consider whether our comparison involves the number two, or more than two. If we compare two things, or two classes of things ; or, if ADJECTIVES. 101 one individual is contrasted with the rest of a class, we use the comparative degree : as, An acre in Middlesex is better than a principality in Utopia. He is wiser than all the rest put together. But if we mean to express that one of a class, more than two, possesses a quality in the highest degree, we employ the super- lative: as, This was the noblest Eoman of them all. Julius Ccesar, v. 4. 180. As we have seen, there are two methods, in English, of denoting the comparative and the superlative degree ; and this is one proof, among others, that English is a mixed language, in its grammar, as well as in its vocabulaiy. For the Anglo- Saxon, in comparisons, varied the adjective by change of ter- mination only, and not by adverbs corresponding to moi^e and 77105^, while the Norman-French made use of adverbs. The English employs both methods ; the latter uniformly with long words. (Compare §§ 138 — 140.) Now some of our older writers, when they wish to be emphatic, employ double comparatives or superlatives ; so Shakespeare : Timon will to the woods ; where he shall find The unkindest beast moi^e kinder than mankind. Timon of Athens, iv. 1. This was the most unkindest cut of all. ^ Julius Ccesar, iii. 2. 181. When both forms are used in the same phrase, it is better to put the adjective ending in -er or -est first, and then the adjective combined with more or most; as. He was the wisest and most learned of them all. Otherwise it is desirable to repeat the article : — He was the most learned, and the wisest of them all. 182. In using comparatives and superlatives, we ought to take care that the construction be consistent with itself When a superlative is used, the class which fiu:nishes the objects of comparison, and which is introduced by of, should always include the thing compared. Yet Milton, imitating a Greek idiom, writes : Adam the goodliest man, of men since born His sons ; the fairest of her daughters, Eve. Paradise Lost, iv. 323. 102 RULES AND CAUTIONS. If these lines be construed literally, Adam is one of his own sons, and Eve is one of her own daughters. Some writers use the superlative, when only two objects are implied : as, The question is not whether a good Indian or bad Englishman be most happy, but which state is most desirable, supposing virtue and reason to be the same in both. — Johnson. Here, others would say ' be the more happy,' ^ is the more desirable.' And, no doubt, the comparative degree is prefer- able, because two individuals and two states are compared. 183. The following is an example of wrong construction in the comparative : This noble nation hath of all others admitted fewer cor- ruptions. — Swift. The construction is not consistent with itself; for the phrase ^ of all others ' would lead us to expect a superlative degree ; but even that would not mend the sentence, because * this nation ' is here confounded with * all others.' The writer meant to say : This noble nation hath admitted fewer corruptions than any other. So here : The vice of covetousness is what enters deepest into the soul of any other. — Guardian^ No. 19. First of all, the phrase * of any other ' is most unfortunately placed ; for it might mean ' the soul of any other person.' But the chief fault is, that covetousness is classed among all other vices; and is then said to enter the deepest of those vices. The writer might have said : The vice of covetousness enters deeper into the soul, than any other. or. Of all viceSy covetousness enters deepest into the soul. 184. In comparisons of eqiiality, the second clause is intro- duced by as ; in comparisons of greater or less, the second clause is introduced by than. Sometimes awkwardness re- sults from coupling these two kinds of phrase in one construc- tion : as, ADJECTIVES. 103 Will it be urged, that the four gospels are as old or even olde?^ than tradition? — Bolingbroke, Essays^ iv. 19, The words ' as old' and ^ older' cannot have a common con- struction : the one should be followed by as^ the other by than. If Bolingbroke had said * as old as tradition and even older^ there would have been no error. — See Campbell, Philosophy of Rhetoric ^ pp. 182 — 187. 185. We have seen, § 64, that the word than^ commonly called a conjunction, is a later form of the adverb then. Hence, ' this is better than that ' means, * first this is better ; then that [is good].' The same word than is used after other, rather, else, other- wise, and all forms of speech implying comparison : Ye watch, like God, the rolling hours, With larger other eyes than ours, To make allowance for us all. Tennyson, In Memoriam, 50. Style is nothing else than that sort of expression which our thoughts most readily assume. — Blair, Lecture 10. When a comparative is used with than, the thing compared must always be excluded from the class of things with which it is compared. Take this sentence : Jacob loved Joseph more than all his children. But Joseph was one of those very children. Therefore, if he loved Joseph more than all, he loved Joseph more than his other children, and Joseph to boot. If we read ^ than his other children ' or * than all his other children,' there could be no room for objection. The noun or pronoun that follows than, will be in the nominative or objective according to the construction of the subordinate clause. Thus, I esteem you more than they, means, But, means, I esteem you more than they [esteem you]. I esteem you more than them. I esteem you more than [I esteem] them. 186. Dr. Priestley seems to have had a notion that than, in some cases, is a preposition ; and this view is very properly rejected by Dr. Campbell, Philosophy of Rhetoric, pp. 182, 183. 104 RULES AND CAUTIONS. Yet there is one construction in which the objective has been so commonly used after tlian^ that we can hardly refuse to accept the anomaly, though it cannot be justified by rule. In the best authors we find such phrases as these : The Duke of Argyle, than whom no man was more hearty in the cause. — Hume. Cromwell, than whom no man was better skilled in artifice. — Hume, Pope, than ivhom few men had more vanity. — Johnson, Dr. Lowth says, {Grammar^ p. 154) : * The relative who, having reference to no verb or preposi- tion understood, but only to its antecedent, when it follows than is always in the objective case; even though the pro- noun, if substituted in its place, would be in the nominative ; as, Beelzebub, than whom, Satan except, none higher sat. Milton, Paradise Lost, ii. 299. which, if we substitute the pronoun, would be, ' none higher sat than heJ* It is evident that there is no reason for using the objective in this construction. I suspect that this peculiarity has re- sulted from confounding the English idiom with the Latin, where the comparative is followed by the ablative quo. In Latin quo means ^ than who,' and than is expressed by the ablative. Our classical scholars, writing in English, have supplied than, and yet, with the Latin syntax in their minds, have retained the oblique case. The influence of Latin idioms upon English style would form an interesting subject of inquiry ; and I think that when boys are translating upon paper, they should not be allowed to follow the original so closely as to violate the English idiom. * Which when Caesar saw,' and similar phrases, are not English. They may pass in oral construing, but not in written translation. PRONOUNS. 105 Chapter VIL PRONOUNS. 187. A Pro-noun is defined as a word used instead of a noun. Buttmann, however, says, / Pronouns cannot be so precisely defined ^s not to admit many words whicli may also be con- sidered as adjectives.' — Angus, Handhooh of the English Tongue^ p. 179. Grammarians are not all agreed upon the meaning of the word noun. According to some it comprises both substan- tives and adjectives ; and those who take this view distinguish ' nouns substantive ' and * nouns adjective.' To avoid controversy, we have uniformly used the word noun in the sense of a ^ noun substantive ; ' but we shall ex- tend the t^rm * pronoun ' to comprise ^ pronoims substantive,' and ^ pronouns adjective.' Pronouns are divided into the following classes :— 1. Personal. 2. Possessive. 3. Demonstrative. 4. Interrogative. 5. Eelative. 6. Reflective. 7. Reciprocal. We shall consider, in a separate chapter, words which have been variously termed Adjective Pronouns or Pronominal Adjectives. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 188. There are three persons which may form the subject of any discourse : 1. The person who speaks, may speak of himself. 2. He may speak of the person to whom he addresses himself. 3. He may speak of some other person, or of some thing. These are called, respectively, the first, second, and third persons. The persons speaking and spoken to, being at the same time the subjects of the discourse, are supposed to be present ; hence their sex is commonly known, and needs not to be f3 106 RULES AND CAUTIONS. marked by a distinction of gender in the pronouns ; but the third person or thing spoken of, being absent and in many respects unknown, needs to be marked by a distinction of gender. Accordingly the pronoun of the third person has, in the singular, three genders ; but in the plural, we have only one set of forms for all the genders. 189- In pronouns, we have some remains of the variations used in Anglo-Saxon. Thus in the First Personal Pronoun, we have, Singular. Plural. J^om., I we Gen,j mine our Dat,, me us Ace, me us We shall remark upon the genitives mine and our under the head of Possessive Pronouns. The old dative me appears in such forms as me- seems, me- thinks, meaning * it seems to me,' ^ it appears to me.' For here * thinks ' is derived not from thencan, * to think,* but from thincan, ^ to seem.' The same dative is frequently used as a secondary objec- tive : ^ Give me the book,' ' Tell me the story.' In like manner the old dative us is employed as a secondary objective : as, * He gave us good words.' 190. In the Second Personal Pronoun we have the follow- ing forms : — Singular. Plural, Nom.j thou ye (you) Gen., thine your Dat,, thee you Ace, thee you In former times in England, tJiou was used as a mark of endearment among relatives ; and the corresponding pronoun is still so used in France, Germany, and other countries. Perhaps one reason why it has gone out of common use with us, is that being adopted by the Society of Friends, and used by them on all occasions, it became a token of sectarian dis- tinction. But, beside expressing affection, it was used, in old times, to denote familiarity ; and the transition from familiarity to contempt is soon made : If thou thouest him some thrice, it shall not be amiss. — Twelfth Night, iii. 2. PRONOUNS. 107 We shall discuss thine and your under the head of Posses- sive Pronouns. Thee and yoiiy old forms of the dative, are commonly used as secondary objectives. Thou and ye are very commonly used in solemn language, and in poetry ; Thmi sun, said T, lair light ! And thou enlightened earth, so fresh and gay ! Ye hills and dales ! Ye rivers, woods, and plains ! And ye that live and move, fair creatures, tell, Tell if ye saw, how came I thus, how here ? Milton, Paradise Lost, viii. 273-7. It is a common error with young writers to begin by using thou in the early part of a sentence ; and then, forgetting the commencement, to slide into you ; and sometimes even to mix up ^ thou ' with ^ your/ or ' you ' with ^ thy ' in the same clause. In poetry this licence is sometimes taken : as, I prythee give me back my heart, Since I can not have thine ; For if from yours you will not part. Why then should'st thou have mine ? Sir John Suckling. In older English ye was the nominative of the plural, and you the objective : as, * I know you not, whence ye are.' But the forms were confounded, and in Shakespeare we find ye em- ployed as an objective : so. The more shame for ye ; holy men I thought ye, Henry VIII., iii, I. On the stage it is very common for actors to utter ye in the objective, where the copies have you. They seem to think it more rhetorical. 191. The forms of the Third Personal Pronoun are made up from the Anglo-Saxon personal he, heo, hit, and the demon- strative se, seo, thcet. We have, Si ngular. Plural. Masc, Fern, JSfeut. M, F, N, Nom, he she it . . . . they Gen, his her its . . . . their Dat. him her it . . . them Ace, him her it . . . them. In Old English the neuter nominative was hit^ and the neuter 108 RULES AND CAUTIONS. genitive his. This neuter form of the genitive constantly occurs in our English Bible : as, The fruit-tree yielding fruit after his kind, whose seed is in itself, — Gen, i. 11. It shall bruise thy head, and thou shalt bruise his heel.— Gen. iii. 15. If the salt have lost his savour. — Matt, v. 13. The word its does not occur in the original edition of the English Bible. In one passage, where our modern copies have its^ That which groweth of its own accord — Leviticus xxv. 5. the original copy reads, That which groweth of it own accord. (See Alford, The Queen's English, p. 7, note.) Shakespeare often uses his in the neuter : as, And that same eye, whose bend doth awe the world, Did lose his lustre. Julius Ccesavy i. 2. In such a time as this it is not meet That every nice offence should bear his comment. Ibid. iv. 3. But he also has its : as, Heaven grant us its peace, but not the King of Hungary's.. Measure for Measure, i. 2. Before the form its came into full use, there seems to have been a period of transition, when it was used as a * genitive by juxta-position : ' thus. It knighthood and it friends. Ben Jonson, Silent Woman, ii. 3. Go to it grandam, child . . . and it grandam will give it a plum. — Shakespeare, King John, ii. 1. It will be observed that the forms of the plural thet/, their, them, wherein th is found, are derived from the Anglo-Saxon demonstrative. 192. In nouns, there is no difference in form between the nominative and objective cases ; but as in pronouns such a distinction exists, we must be careful to observe it, especially in compound sentences. ^ She is as tall as me,' should be, ' as tall as /,' meaning ^ as I am.' And so where the poet Thom- son says. PRONOUNS. .^. 109 The nations not so blest as fA^^, ' ' Must in their turn to tyrants fall ; Whilst thou shalt flourish great and free, The dread and envy of them all : he makes ' thee ' rhyme with ' free ; ' but his grammar is wrong ; he should have said * as thou^^ because he means * as thou art.' So again, no one would think of saying * let / go,' instead of saying * let me go ; ' and yet many persons think it right to say, * let you and I go.' Charles Dickens systematically adopts this construction, and he may think that it is correct. And so Southey : Let you and / endeavour to improve the inclosure of the Carr. — The Doctor. But a little reflection must convince us, that if it is correct to say * let me go,' the addition of * you ' can have no power to turn an objective into a nominative construction. Besides, in this case, let is properly a verb in the imperative mood, go is an infinitive dependent upon that imperative ; and the con- struction is, ^ grant me to go,' or ^ allow me to go.' Similarly, ' let you and me go ' means ^ grant you and me to go.' If, in- deed, we could suppose that introduced, the case would be quite altered : ^ grant that you and I go ; ' but such a phrase as * let that ' is unwarranted, and is barely intelligible. 193. The construction after hut is more doubtful. The word was originally a preposition he-utan, * by-out,' akin in signifi- cation to with'Utan, ' with-out : ' For warld's wrak but welfare nought avails. Dunbar, that is, * without well-being.' So Gawin Douglas, Admonist us but mare delay to ga. Book 4. ' without more delay.' Now if we admit that * but ' still retains its force as a pre- position, we may say, ^ there was no one present but me,' that is, * beside me.' If on the other hand we do not allow the prepositional force of ^ but,' we must consider ^ but ' as nothing else than a conjunction, and say, ' there was no one present but I,' that is, ^ but I was present.' So Shakespeare : Which none but heaven, and you, and I shall hear. King John, i. 1. And so Coleridge : Which none may hear but she and thou, — See § 473. 110 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 194. The rules that regulate the use of a verb, in the singular or in the plural, after two or more nouns, or after a collective noun, apply also to the use of pronouns in the singular, or in the plural ; as, Every one must judge of his own feelings. But as *■ every one ' must include women as well as men, and as the singular preserves the distinction of gender, there is a tendency to avoid the difficulty by using the plural : If an ox gore a man or woman, so that they die. Exodus xxi. 28. Not on outward charms alone should man or woman build their pretensions to please. — Opie. In such instances, Cobbett would repeat the pronoun, in different genders, in the singular : ' so that he or she die,' * build his or her pretensions ; ' for he argues that, however disagreeable repetition may be, it is better than obscurity or inaccuracy. This point is not omitted in the parody upon Cobbett's style in the Rejected Addresses : ' I take it for granted that every intelligent man, woman, and child, to whom I address myself, has stood severally and respectively in Little Eussell Street, and cast their, his, her, and its eyes on the outside of this building before they paid their money to view the inside.' Hampshire Farmer's Address, CAUTIONS. 195- In using pronouns we should constantly remember to what words they refer ; and examine whether the reference be consistent with other parts of the sentence, as well as with the clause in which the pronoun itself is found. For want of proper attention errors frequently occur in the use of pronouns. Take, for example, the following sentence from Addison : ' There are, indeed, but very few who know how to be idle and innocent, or have a relish of any pleasures that are not criminal ; every diversion they take is at the expense of some one virtue, or other, and their very first step out of business is into vice or folly.' — Spectator ^ No. 411. Of this passage Dr. Blair says {Rhetoric^ Lecture 20) : — * Nothing can be more elegant, or more finely turned than this sentence. It is neat, clear, and musical. We could hardly PRONOUNS. Ill alter one word, or displace one member, without spoiling it. Few sentences are to be found more finished or more happy.' But to what persons does the pronoun they relate in that sentence ? Surely not to the good * few ' who know how to be innocent, but to the wicked 'many ' who plunge into vice. As Cobbett justly remarks {Grammar, § 176) the meaning of the sentence is this : ' that but few persons know how to be idle and innocent; that few persons have a relish of any plea- sures that are not criminal; that every diversion these few persons take is at the expense of some one virtue or other, and that the very first step of these few persons out of business is into vice or folly.' Hence he adds, ' the sentence says precisely the contrary of what the author meant ; or rather, the whole is perfect nonsense. All this arises from the misuse of the pronoun they. If, instead of this word, the author had put people in general, or most people, or most men, or any word, or words, of the same meaning, all would have been right.' Yet I have often asked persons to examine this sentence ; and at the first reading scarcely any one has been able to detect an error. We are so accustomed to use they in a general sense, that the grammatical reference to the ' few ' does not readily occur to the mind. A critic, with whom I conversed on one occasion, undertook to defend Addison against Cobbett, on the ground that the pronoun they is here used indefinitely, like on in French, and man in German. The defence is more ingenious than sound. It is better candidly to admit that Addison tripped; and that Dr. Blair, being occupied with the harmony of the sentence, did not observe the error. In his remarks upon this passage, Cobbett is very droll ; but he is too severe upon Dr. Blair. 196- Where several persons are spoken of in the same sentence, the reference to each is sometimes doubtful, especially if the reader is not well acquainted with the matter in question. Take this passage from Sir W. Blackstone : For, the custom of the manor has, in both cases, so far superseded the will of the lord, that, provided the services be performed, or stipulated for by fealty, he cannot, in the first instance, refuse to admit the heir of his tenant, upon his death ; nor, in the second, can he remove his present tenant so long as he lives. Kerr's Blackstone, ii. 94. This means that * the lord cannot, in the first instance, refiise to admit the heir of his tenant, in case of that tenant's death ; 112 UTILES AND CAUTIONS. nor, in the second, can he remove his present tenant, during the lifetime of that tenant.' 197. When a personal pronoun refers to a collective noun, we must be consistent in our usage. We may generally take our choice, whether we mean to consider the collective noun as singular or plural ; but having once made our election, we ought to persevere in the same : we must not mix up together * they ' and * its,' or * it' and ' their.' 198. When two nouns in the singular are coupled by the conjunction and, the pronoun referring to them both ought, strictly, to be in the plural. But ' double-barrelled ' substan- tives, as Sydney Smith terms them, are often taken as making one idea ; for example. Dr. Blair says of Lord Shaftesbury : He was fonder of nothing than of wit and raillery ; but he is far from being happy in iL — Rhetoric, Lecture 19. It may be argued, that if wit and raillery are different things, the pronoun should have been them : * he is far from being happy in them,'' If, on the other hand, wit and raillery are the same, one of the terms is unnecessary. See Cobbett, Grammar^ § 179. This, no doubt, is the strict law; and in composition we ought to be severe critics of our own work. But in the writings of the last century we may find scores of passages parallel to that of Dr. Blair. Wlien, however, nouns in the singular take the alternative conjunction or^ the pronoun must be in the singular : as, ' when he shoots a partridge, a pheasant, or a woodcock, he gives 2^ away.' IT. 199. This convenient little word is constantly misused by careless writers. We ought never to use it, without being quite sure that we know what we are doing, and that our con- ^ruction is accurate. We shall examine the causes of error, and try to discover some useful cautions. 1. The pronoun it is often used to represent a person or persons unknown, where the gender and the number are ahke uncertain. Thus when we ask, ^ Who is it ? ' the answer may be, * it is I,' ^ it is he,' ' it is she,' or * it is they.' In these sentences, as the verb stands between two nominatives, it might, strictly, agree with either of them. In Anglo-Saxon PRONOUNS. 113 we find ic sylf hit eojn, ^ I self it am ' Q it ig myself), Imke xxiv. 39. Chaucer says * it am 1/ and the Germans say * es sind Manner,' * it are men,' where we say * there are men.' In all such cases we make the verb agree with ity no matter what person or number may follow. Some critics have entertained doubts about the propriety of this usage. Dr. Johnson says, ' This mode of speech, though used by good authors, and supported by the il y a oi the French, has yet an appearance of barbarism.' Dr. Lowth thinks that the phrases which occur in the fol- lowing examples, though pretty common and authorised by custom, are yet somewhat defective. ^Tis they^ that give the great Atrides' spoils; ^Tis they J that still renew Ulysses' toils. Prior. 'T25 two or three^ my lord, that bring you word Macduff is fled to England. 3Iacheth, iv. 1. 200. Dr. Campbell, in reviewing the question, observes, that the indefinite use of the pronoun it may have a reference, 1. To persons as well as to things. 2. To the first person and the second, as well as to the third. 3. To a plural as well as to a singular. Against the first application to persons as well as to things, neither Dr. Johnson nor Dr. Lowth seems to have any objec- tion ; and both these critics speak with some hesitation about the other two. Yet, in the opinion of Dr. Campbell, if one be censurable, they are all censurable; and if one be proper, they are all proper. For the distinction of genders is as essential as the distinction of persons, or tkat of numbers. Besides, where a personal pronoun must be used indefinitely, as when we ask a question about a person or persons un- known, we are obliged to use one person for all the persons, one gender for all the genders, and one number for both num- bers. Now, in English, custom has chosen, for this indefinite use, the third person, the neuter gender, and the singular number — ^namely, the pronoun it. \v 114 RULES AND CAUTIONS. justified in beginning tliat answer by the same indefinite form, which appeared in the question. The words it is are consequently warrantable here, whatever be the words which ought to follow, whether / or lie^ we or they. And if there be nothing faulty in the expression, when it is an answer to a question actually proposed, there can be no fault in it when used absolutely. Nor is there any reason why one number may not as well serve indefinitely for both numbers, as one person for all the persons, and one gender for all the genders. 202. Writers have been more scrupulous about the diiFer- ence of number, in this construction, than about the variations of person or gender ; probably because they disliked to use a verb in the singular followed by a plural nominative. In order to avoid this supposed incongruity, the translators of the Bible have employed the unusual phrase * they are they ' for * it is they : * Search the scriptures, for in them ye think ye have eternal life ; and they are they which testify of me. — John V. 39. In the other applications they have not hesitated to use the indefinite form zY, as in this expression, * It is /, be not afraid.' (^Matt. xiv. 27.) Yet the phrase * they are they ' in the first quotation is no better English than * I am I ' would have been in the second. A convenient mode of speech, which custom has established, and for which there is frequent occasion, ought not to be hastily given up, especially when the language does not fur- nish us with another equally simple to supply its place. — See Campbell, Philosophy of Rhetoric^ pp. 208-211. 203. — 2. Frequently, the pronoun it refers, not to a single noun, but to a phrase, or to a sentence : as, * Walking before breakfast is healthy, and he is very fond of eV,' i. e. * walking before breakfast : ' ^ I told them so before, and they know itj i. e. ^ that I told them so before.' We should take care that the reference be clear ; and there is risk of error, if, in the same sentence, we have one it refer- ring to a single noun, and another it referring to a phrase. 204. — 3. The pronoun it is frequently employed as Sifore- runner, to represent a coming phrase or sentence : as, It is pleasant to ride on horseback. It is true that the war is over. PRONOUNS. 115 Here the meaning is ' to ride on horseback is pleasant,' * that the war is over is true.' In this construction subordi- nate clauses are commonly introduced by that^ but other par- ticles, as if J whetJie?', may be used in the same way : It is uncertain if he will come. It is doubtful luhether he will go. 205. We may easily see that the various references of this pronoun are a frequent cause of ambiguity ; for we are often unable to tell which of the several possible references a writer has in view, when he uses the word. For instance : There are so many advantages of sj^eaking one's own language well, and being a master of itj that let a man's calling be what it will, it cannot but be worth while taking some pains in it. The first it refers to ^ language ; ' the second to ^ calling ; ' the third is a forerunner and stands for ^ taking some pains ; ' the fourth goes back to * language.' 206. We should avoid using it in relation to different nouns in the same sentence ; and when we are obliged to employ it in reference to a preceding noun, we should not in- troduce a forerunning it in addition. So in this passage : The best way in the world for a man to seem to be any- thing is really to be what he would seem to be. Besides that it is many times as troublesome to make good the pretence of a good quality as to have it ; and if a man have it not, it is ten to one but he is dis- covered to want itj and then all his pains and labours to seem to have it are lost. POSSESSIVE PKONOUNS. 207. Possessive pronouns have arisen from the genitive cases of the personal, or of other pronouns, used as adjectives. Thus, for example, in Anglo-Saxon, mm, the genitive case of the first personal pronoun ic, is used as an adjective and regularly declined : masc. mm, fem. mine, neut. min. Simi- larly, in Latin, cujus, the genitive of the relative pronoun, is declined like an adjective, cujus, cuja, cujum\ as in Yirgil, Cujum pecus ? an Melibosi ? Eclogue^ iii, 1. 116 RULES AND CAUTIONS. We sHall not consider the pronoun whose in this place ; iDut we shall confine our attention to those possessive pro- nouns which have arisen from personals or demonstratives. And first we remark that many of the possessive pronouns in English have two forms ; as my, mine ; thy^ thine ; her^ hers ; our^ ours ; your^ yours ; their ^ theirs. As a general rule, the shorter form is used before a noun ; and the longer form when no noun follows. Of his and its there are no second forms : we may say ' that is his book,' and ^that book is his.'' But instead of 'that is my book,' we cannot say ' that book is my ; ' but, * that book is mme.' 208. It will be necessary to consider these forms more particularly. Mine is from the Anglo-Saxon min-^ it is sometimes used as an adjective, and sometimes it retains the force of a geni- tive. In the sentence * that book is mine^ it is an open ques- tion, whether * mine ' is the genitive of the personal, or an adjective. In early English, the true genitive force is ex- hibited, in such phrases as ' maugre myne^ i. e. * in spite of me^ used by Robert de Brunne. As we trace the history of the language, we find the form KYiine^ used adjectively, still remaining before nouns beginning with a vowel, or with the letter h\ as ' myn helthe ' for * my health : ' and so, Shall I not take mine ease in mine inn, but I shaU have my pocket picked ? — \st Hen. IV. iii. 3. But it became customary, before nouns beginning with a con- sonant, to use the shortened form my. In the following passage both forms are used, one before a consonant, the other before a vowel : Mine eye also shall see my desire upon mine enemies, and mine ears shall hear my desire of the wicked that rise up against me. — Psalm xcii. 11. In modern English, mine is the form employed as a predi- cate, when used absolutely, that is without a following noun : as, * that book is mine.'' It also occurs in such idiomatic phrases as * that is a book of mine^ which I explain in the same way as the sentence * that is a play of Shakespeare's,' namely, that we have a double form of the genitive. (See § 141.) Grammarians expound the idiom thus ; ' that is a book of my books ; ' but I believe that PRONOUNS. 117 this is an aflerthouglit ; and that the old genitive mine was used with the preposition of, by a confusion of the two kinds of genitive. 209. Thine, Similar remarks apply to this word. It is derived from the Anglo-Saxon thin, the genitive of the second personal pronoun thu, ' thou.' Its true character as a genitive is seen in the old English phrase ' maugre thin/ i. e., * in spite of thee,'' (Havelok the Dane.) In modern English, it stands alone as a predicate : , ^ that book is thine ; ' and in the phrase ' that :s a book of thine.^ Before nouns, where it has the force of an adjective, it is shortened to thy ; as * that is thy book.' 210. Our is from the Anglo-Saxon ure, genitive plural of iCj Vhich was also used as an adjective. In Old English we find oure : as, Gif he passeth with honour Oure is the deshonour. Kyng Alisaunder. If he passes with honour Our is the dishonoiu:. Oure is the maistry of the felde. Ibid. That is, And so, That is, Our is the mastery of the field. In niodem Jinglish our is used before a noun ; but when the word is used absolutely, it takes the form ours, where the s is said to represent the possessive case. If so, we have here a ^ort of double genitive ; for our itself is derived from a genitive plural, and if s is the mark of possession, that is equivalent to a genitive. In some counties of England the form ourn may be heard ; this is probably formed by the adjective termination en, our en contracted to ourn, Etymologically, ourn is just as good a word as ours ; perhaps even better ; and if it were only custo- mary, we should think it quite correct. 211. Your is from the Anglo-Saxon'' eower, the genitive plural of the second personal pronoun. I cannot find any ad- jective form of this word in Anglo-Saxon. In Old EngUsh it is used absolutely, as a predicate : so Chaucer, 118 EULES AND CAUTIONS. Fro that blisMl hour That I you swore to be all freely your. And again, I am and will be your in will and herte. In modern English, when the word is used absolutely, that is without a following noun, the form of the double genitive yours is employed : as ^ I am yours ; ' and there seems to be no necessity for using the apostrophe in these cases, your'^s ; at all events, the best writers do not introduce it. The adjective form yourn occurs in some provincial dialects : as ^ that's none o' yourn.' 212. His is from the Anglo-Saxon A?/5, or Ms^ the genitive of the masculine he and of the neuter hit. In Anglo-Saxon it does not appear to have been declined like an adjective ; but Dr. Adams thinks that in Old English it received inflectional endings like an adjective : as, And hise disciples camen and took his body. — WyclifFe. The adjective form hisn occurs in provincial dialects. Her is from the Anglo-Saxon hyre or hire^ the genitive of the feminine heo^ a word still preserved in Lancashire, and pronounced hoo. When this pronoun is used absolutely, it takes the form of the double genitive hers : , * that is hers.' Its, This form is comparatively modern, not much more than three hundred years old. It is employed both before notms and absolutely ; and strictly it is rather the genitive of a personal, than a possessive pronoun. Their : this is formed from thara^ the genitive of the Anglo- Saxon demonstrative, and not from the genitive of the personal hira or heora. When the word is used absolutely, it takes the form theirs : ' the estate was theirs.' We have then the following forms : — Before a Noun. Used absolutely. my thy ... . . mine . thine our . ours your . . . . his . yours . his her . hers their . . theirs PEONOTJNS. 119 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 213. Demonstrative Pronouns are used to ^ point out ' {de- monstrate) the objects to which they refer; more especially to show the locality of objects. They vary their forms to denote number, but not to denote gender or case : Singular. Plural, 1. This These. 2. That Those. This and these are used to point out objects near the speaker ; that and those to point out objects at some distance from the speaker. 214. Some grammarians deny that this and that are pro- nouns. Professor Bain classes them under Adjectives, and terms them Pronominal Demonstratives. His reason for placing them under adjectives, and not imder pronouns, is that they ' require a noun after them which the proper pronouns do not.' — English Grammar, p. 28. But as he cannot deny that these words often appear to stand alone, he ^ays, (p. 29) * The frequent ellipsis of the noun with the demonstrative adjectives is w^hat gives them the character of demonstrative pronouns : "after that, I shall say no more ; " " this being granted." ' Here, as usual with grammarians, he has recourse to the artifice of ' understanding ' a noun. 215. Crombie, quoted by Kerchever Arnold, (^English Gram- mar^ § 71) says : 'it is abundantly evident that this and that are not pronouns, for they never represent a noun.' ^ But surely,' replies Mr. Arnold, ' to go no further, " that" does stand for a noun in the example quoted by himself : the only good on earth "Was pleasure ; not to follow that was sin. Here that stands simply for pleasure ; there is no ellipse, for we cannot put in the word pleasure withoiit striking out that. That stands for pleasure, and not for that pleasure. So in such sentences as, " the first opportunity was that of the Prince of Denmark's death," that stands for the opportunity,^ 216. Dr.Lowth is of opinion that these words are Adjectives, and not Pronouns ; he says {English Grammar, p. 40), ' Beside the foregoing, there are several other Pronominal Adjectives; which, though they may sometimes seem to stand by themselves, 120 BULES AND CAUTIONS. yet have always some Substantive belonging to them, either referred to or ^ understood ; ' as, This^ that, other, any, some, one, none. 217. Sir John Stoddart rejoins (Universal Grammar,^. 44), * Almost all pronouns, except the first and second personals, are clearly adjectives in origin; but we cannot admit that they continue to be such when they stand by themselves, or as Lowth rather singularly expresses it, " seem to stand by themselves/' It is true that, in such cases, they often have " some substantive belonging to them, either referred to or understood ; " but this only proves that they are pronouns. Whether we say " this is good," " it is good," or " Ae is good," there is always some noun referred to or understood ; and the words it and he " seem to stand by themselves," just as much as the word this does.' 218. The whole diffi<3ulty arises from the unwillingness of grammarians to admit that the term noun may comprise adjectives as well as substantives. They further maintain that an adjective can never stand alone, but must always have a substantive, either expressed or understood. As before stated, we do not scruple to extend the term pronoun ; hence, we call this and that pronouns ; and we say that they are used sometimes as substantives, sometimes as adjectives; in other words, sometimes absolutely, and stand- ing by themselves ; sometimes with a following noun. 219. In the plural number, the substantive use is very common, and is admitted by some grammarians who question the same usage in the singular : so. Some place the bliss in action, some in ease ; Those call it pleasure, and contentment these. Pope, Essay on Man, iv. 21, 22. In the singular the substantive use is more common in reference to things, or to thoughts : as, Self-love, the spring of motion acts the soul ; Reason s comparing balance rules the whole ; Man, but for that, no action could attend ; And, but for this, were active to no end. lb, ii. 59—62. Often, too, that is used referring to a phrase, or to an entire sentence : as, To be or not to be, that is the question. Hamlet, iii. 1. PRONOUNS. 121 In reference to persons, when this and that are used sub- stantively, it will be found, as a general rule, that a noun is used as a predicate-nominative in the sentences : as, * this is my brother,' * that is my friend/ We cannot say, ^ this did the deed,' meaning ^ this man ; ' or * that shall be punished,' meaning that person.' — See Mason, English Grammar, § 157. 220. A very common use of that is before a genitive case, in order to avoid the repetition of a noun : as, He mistook his own room for that of the stranger. We might express this more briefly by saying ^ for the stranger's.' Professor Bain suggests (Encjlish Grammar, p. 20), that the form ^ that of the stranger ' is derived from the French. So in the plural : The rules of style, like those of law, arise from prece- dents often repeated. 221. This and that are also used as ^ logical ' pronouns ; that is, they refer to some word or words, which have oc- curred in discourse : as, The general was in command of a large force. This force consisted of infantry and cavaby. Cromwell, I charge thee, fling away ambition : By ito sin feU the angels. Henry VII I. iii. 2. 222. When two objects are named, this represents the latter ; that the former ; like hie and ille in Latin : as, This can unlock the gates of Joy ; Of Horror that^ and thrilling Fears. Gray, Progress of Poetry. 223. The singular this is sometimes used with a plural noun and an adjective, when they mark a period of time : This seven years did not Talbot see his son. 1st Henry VI, iv. 3. 224- The adjective use of this and that is so common as hardly to need exemplification : Beneath those rugged elms, that yew-tree's shade, Where heaves the turf in many a mouldering heap, Each in his narrow cell for ever laid, The rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep. Gray, Elegy.. 122 RULES AND CAUTIONS. CAUTIONS. 225. Younger pupils must learn to distinguish between the demonstrative that^ the relative that^ and the conjunction or connective particle that. Probably these forms have all arisen irom the Anglo-Saxon demonstrative thcet ; but diversity of usage has given them a different character. At present, it will be enough to furnish an example of each : Deinonstrative , That man told me so. Eelative . . . He is the man that told me so. Conjunction . . He said that he would come. 226. Some difference of opinion prevails resjDecting the use of the demonstrative followed by a relative : as, those whoy those that ; and in particular, whether it be correct to say they who, they that, using they in the sense of any persons, or persons in general, Cobbett draws a distinction : in the sentence * We ought always to have a great regard i«r them who are wise and good,' he maintains that we ought to say ^for those who are wise and good ' if we mean ^ those ' persons in general * who are wise and good.' But in reference to particular persons, who are stated to be wise and good, and who are also beloved, we may €ay ' I love them who are wise and good,' where the pronoun ^ who ' has a co-ordinating force. Hence he condemns this passage in Dr. Blair's Rhetoric (Lecture 21) : * The two paragraphs are extremely worthy of Mr. Addison, and exhibit a style which they who can success- fully imitate may esteem themselves happy.' He thinks that they ought to be those ; and in commenting upon another passage he remarks, ' It is truly curious, that Lindley Murray should, even in the motto in the title-page of his English Grammar, have selected a sentence containing a grammatical error ; still more curious, that he should have found this sen- tence in Dr. Blair's Lectures on Language ; and most curious of all, that this sentence should be intended to inculcate the great utility of correctness in the composing of sentences ! ^' They who are learning to compose and arrange their sen- tences with accuracy and order, are learning, at the same time, to think with accuracy and order." ' — Cobbett, Grammar, § 210. 227. But we must not be too hasty in condemning Lindley PROXOUNS. 123 Murray and Dr. Blair ; we may do well to inquire whether there be a grammatical error in this sentence ; whether, in fact, this use of they may not be warrantable. 228. Etymologically, theij is a demonstrative pronoun : it is inaccurate to consider they the plural oi he. The words be- long to different systems ; and they is formed fiom the Anglo- Saxon demonstrative se^ seo, thcet. — See Latham, English Grammar^ § SI* 229. The question resolves itself into one of usage ; and there can be no doubt as to the phrase they that in the older stages of the langu^ige. Professor Bain advocates the use of that instead of icho^ in what he calls the restrictive use of the relative in adjective clauses. In accordance with that view, he argues {English Grammar), p. 192: * The form "those who," applied in a restrictive sense, is the modern substitute for the ancient idiom " they that," an idiom in accordance with the true meaning of "that:" '^ they that told me the story said ; " " blessed are they that mourn ; " " and Simon and they that were with him; " "I love them that love me, and they that seek me early shall find m.e." ' — See § 92. We have, then, authority for they that ; and the modern those who is unquestioned. They ivho is frequently employed by Dr. Johnson, in those general propositions which he is fond of enunciating ; and, as we have seen, it has the authority of Dr. Blair. The phrase is not so manifestly wrong as Mr. Cobbett sur- mises; but, in practice, it is safer to write those who, or those that, in general statements. 230. That is used after relative pronouns and relative ad- verbs, in a manner which seems to us superflaous ; but this usage was very common in older English : as. In olde dayes of the Kyng Arthour, Of which that Britouns speken gret honour, Al was this lond fulfilled of fayrie. Chaucer, The Wyf of Bathes Tale, Wot ye not wher ther stent a litel toim, Wliich that icleped is Bob-up-and-doun. Chaucer, Prologue of the Maunciples Tale, Wlien that the poor have cried, Caesar hath wept. Julius Ccesar, iii. 2, In modern English we have still the phrases noio that, so that, — See Adams, Elements, § 531. g2 124 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 231, Yon, 9/dnd, and yonder are forms derived from the Anglo- kSaxon adverb geond, which appears in our word he-yond. In practice, however, these forms are sometimes used with the force of demonstrative pronouns : Yond Cassius hath a lean and hungry look. Julius Ccesar, i. 2. Near yonder copse, where once a garden smiled, And still where many a garden flower grows wild. Goldsmith, Deserted Village, INTEEKOaATIVE PRONOUNS. 232. Interrogative pronouns, used in asking questions, are who and w?tat. We have also to consider which and whether ; and we shall find that, etymologically, which is not the neuter of who, but a compound word. Whether is a derivative. 233. Of the pronoun ivho, what, the following forms remain, common to the singular and plural : Masc, and Fern. Neut, Nom. who , . . • , what Gen. whose .... (whose) Dat. whom .... — Ace. whom .... what There are doubts whether whose may be used in the neuter gender ; but, etymologically, there is no reason against it. And, practically, the usage in the neuter is very convenient ; for otherwise we are obliged to say * of which ; ' as for ex- ample, instead of * the trees whose leaves are withered,' we must turn the phrase, ^ the trees the leaves of which are withered.' These forms are used in the singular and in the plural. What may be employed adjectively; the rest are used as substantives. When what is used as a substantive, it is singular and neuter ; when used as an adjective, it may be joined to a noun of any gender, and of either number. 234. Wliich is properly a compound word, from the Anglo- Saxon hwilc, contracted from hwa-lic *what-like,' correspond- ing to the Latin qua-lis. As an interrogative it may be used PRONOUNS. 125 substantively or adjectively, for any gender, and for either number: as, Which was it ? Which of you will go ? Which will you have ? Which place did he choose ? Which numbers did she select ? In asking questions we distinguish between ivho and which. For example, ' who spoke ? ' asks the question generally ; ^ which spoke ? ' inquires for a particular individual of a number or class. 235. Whether^ Anglo-Saxon hwcether, is the interrogative pro- noun hwa, 'who,' with the old termination -tho^ which denotes * one of two,' as we see it in ' o-ther^^ * ei-ther.'' In modern English its force as a pronoun has been lost, and it is employed adverbially; but in older English it is seen as a true pro- noun : Whether of them twain did the will of his father ? i, e. * which of the two ? ' Caution, 236. When an interrogative pronoun introduces a dependent clause, there is danger of mistaking it for a relative. To determine whether ' who,' ' which,' or ' what ' is an inter- rogative, turn the sentence into a question. If the dependent clause gives the answer to such a question, the pronoun is an interrogative : as, I asked ivho was there. Question, — What did you ask ? Answer, — Who was there. They inquired what he was going to do. Question, — What did they inquire ? Answer, What he was going to do. In these sentences who and ivhat are interrogative pronouns. — See Arnold, English Grammar^ § 78. 237. When the interrogatives. ivho and whom are placed near the words with which they are joined in construction, there is not much risk of error : as ' Who was there ? ' ' Whom did you see V ' To whom did he give it ? ' But when the interrogatives stand at some distance from the related words, the ear gives no assistance, and mistakes may arise as, who 126 RULES AND CAUTIONS. did he give it to ' for * whom did he give it fo.' In spite of Lindley Murray, it is idiomatic, in English, to throw a prepo- sition to the end of a clause or sentence ; but then we must carefully remember the government : ' whom did he give it to ? ' exhibits precisely the same government as ' To whom did he give it ? ' Take these instances : * Whom do men say that / am ? But whom say ye that / aju ? ' — Matt, xvi. 13-15. ^ Whom think ye that / am ? ' — Acts xiii. 25. In these places ivhom ought to be loho^ for the pronoun is not governed by the verb say or thinky but enters into the construction of the sub- ordinate sentence. For, in an indicative sentence, we might have * Ye say that I am he :' then, in the way of interrogation, the nominative he being thrown to the beginning of the question becomes who, not whom : — ' Wlwj say ye, that I am ? ' — See Lowth, English Gram- mar J p. 110. EELATIVE PRONOUNS. 238. Etymologically, we have no true relative pronoun in English ; but we borrow other pronouns, and use them as relatives. In our earliest writings, that is so employed ; in course of time, the interrogatives who and what, with the com- pound pronoun luhich, were also used ; and although, in practice, which serves as a neuter, this was not the original force of the word. But, what is the meaning of the word relative^ in the term ^relative pronoun ? ' Other pronouns may involve a reference to some word which has gone before in a sentence, and which might be termed the antecedent, that is, the ' fore-goer,' or the ' fore-runner.' 239. The distinctive character of ^relative pronouns,' pro- perly so called, is that they cannot be used to form the subject of an independent sentence ; but that they are employed to introduce a subordinate sentence, otherwise termed a de- pendent clause. And as they must, of necessity, look for some subject to which they relate^ they are called relative. For example, the interrogative ^ who' may be used alone in an interrogative sentence ; as, ^ Who did it ? ' But the relative ' who ' cannot be used alone in an indicative sentence : to say. PRONOUNS* 127 * Who did it * ^tould have no meaning ; but the sentence, ^ I know the man wlio did it^^ is intelligible. The noun or pronoun, to which the relative points, is usually called the antecedent^ because it conimonlj^ ' goes before ' the relative. But sometimes the noun or pronoun * comes after ' the relative, in which case the term a?^^e-cedent is not literally correct. Sometimes a relative pronoun refers to a phrase, or to a whole sentence, which then takes the place of an antecedent. 240. We shall consider the origin and the uses of the forms that, who, ivhat, and which. That is from the Anglo-Saxon thcetj the neuter of the demonstrative se, seo, thcet. In Anglo-Saxon, the relative is expressed sometimes by the demonstrative, and at other times by the indeclinable particle the ; as, Se the of heofone com, se ys ofer ealle. He that from heaven came, he is over all. Joh7i iii. 31. Thset the acenned is of flassc, thset is fl^sc. That which born is of flesh, that is flesh* Id, iii. 6. Sometimes we find thcet doubled : Ic sende eow to rypanne, thwt th(]Bt ge ne beswuncon. I sent you to reap that that ye ne belaboured. Id, iv. 38. i.e. ^ that for which he have not laboured.' This will explain the use of that in older English, where the one word is made to do double duty : To consider advisedly of that is moved. — Bacon, Essay xxii. We speak that we do know, and testify that we have seen. — John iii. 11. where Wycliffe reads, ^ that that we witen.' A nice question might be raised, one more curious than useful, whether the first or second thcet was omitted : the ante- cedent thcet or the relative thcet. In like manner, the neuter pronoun it is used where we should employ that which, or what : By this also a man may understand, when it is that men may be said to be conquered ; and in what the nature of a conquest and the right of a conqueror consisteth ; for this is it implieth them alL — Hobbes, Leviathan. 128 RULES AND CAUTIONS. And this IS it men mean by distributive justice, and is properly tempered equity. — Hobbes, Elements of Law ^ part i. chap. iv. 2. The English relative that is used for all genders, and for either number ; hence it is conveniently used for who or which^ when we do not wish to discriminate gender ; and in instances where the antecedents refer to things, as well as persons : thus, Ulysses spoke of the men and the cities that he had seen. 241. Who is derived from the interrogative hwa^ * who ? ' In the authorised version of the Bible, the relative who is oc- casionally employed, but the more usual relative is that. Who is never used as an adjective. The genitive ivhose is used as the possessive case of the relative pronoun ; and in prose, custom has been in favour of restricting it to the masculine and feminine genders. Etymo- logically, it might be used of all genders, for, in Anglo-Saxon, the genitive hwces was employed for the neuter as well as for the masculine or the feminine. In the poets, we constantly find whose referring to neuter nouns : as, But that I am forbid To tell the secrets of my prison-house, I could a tale unfold, whose lightest word Would harrow up thy soul. — Hamlet, i. 5. But that the dread of something after death, The undiscovered country, from whose boiu*n No traveller returns, puzzles the will ; And makes us rather bear those ills we have. Than fly to others that we know not of. — Id, iii. 2. Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste Brought death into the world and all our woe, With loss of Eden, till one greater man Eestore us, and regain the blissful seat, Sing, heavenly Muse. Milton, Paradise Lost, i. 1-6. 242. Wliat is derived from hwcet, the neuter of the interro- gative : it is nominative or objective, singular and neuter. When used as a relative, ivhat may be used substantively or adjectively. But it has a peculiar force; it appears to be equivalent to an antecedent and a relative combined : ' Wliat 1 said was this,' i.e. ' that which I said was this ; ' * what time I am afraid, I will trust in thee,' i.e. * at that time at which I PEONOUNS. 129 am afraid, I will trust in thee.' But it is a mistake, says Mr. Mason {English Grammar, § IGl), to parse the word what, as though it were made up of that which. In such a sentence as * I know what is correct,' it is wrong to say that what is in any sense governed by the verb know, Wliat is the subject of the verb 2*5, and is in the nominative case. We may suppose that this use of what originated from the employment of that in two co-ordinate sentences : as, That he bids, that thou shalt do. What he bids, that thou shalt do. What he bids, thou shalt do ; and by conversion, Thou shalt do what he bids. But let us consider this passage : What he bids be done is finished with his bidding. — CoriolanuSj v. 4. Here we want a nominative to the verb is ; and we also want an objective dependent upon the verb bids, or to stand as a subject-accusative to the infinitive he done : hence there is a strong temptation to resolve what into that which : That, which he bids be done, is finished with the bidding. If we say, that ivhat is here the objective, then the nominative of the sentence (that) is omitted, and we have a sentence with- out an apparent nominative. 243. Which, as we have seen (§ 234), is a compound word, and is used both as an adjective and a substantive. Although, in practice, its use is limited to inanimate and irrational beings, yet it is not properly the neuter of who. Hence ^ Our Father which art in heaven ' is grammatically \ accurate ; although it appears that the Americans have thought {v right to alter which into who. Cobbett says (English Grammar, § 65), * This application of the relative which solely to irra- tional creatures is, however, of modern date; for, in the Lord's Prayer, in the English Church Service, we say, " Our Father ivhich art in heaven." In the American Liturgy this error has been corrected ; and they say, " Our Father who art in heaven." ' But there was no error, and consequently no necessity for change. Still the usage of the language has varied, and by present custom who, whose, whom are now limited, in prose, to rational beings ; ichich to irrational beings, inanimate objects, and collective nouns, when the idea of per- g3 130 RULES AND CAUTIONS. soDtility is not prominent ; while that may represent nouns of any kind. — See Angus, Handhooh^ § 435. 244. When inanimate objects are personified, wliOj whose, and whom may be employed ; but we should avoid a confu- sion of genders : as, 'Twas Love's mistake, who fancied what it feared. Crahhe, Connection of the Antecedent a7id the Relative. 245. The Antecedent may be a noun, a pronoun, an infini- tive used substantively, a phrase, or a sentence. Some men are too ignorant to he humble, without ivhich there can be no docility and no progress. — Berkeley. Homer is remarkably concise, ivhich renders him lively and agreeable. — Blair, Here the antecedents are the * being humble ' and the fact of ' being concise.' 246. Every relative must have an antecedent to which it refers, either expressed or understood : as. Who steals my purse, steals trash. Othello, iii. 3. that is, the man who, or he ivho. 247. The relative is of the same person with the antece- dent ; and the verb agrees with it accordingly : as, Who is this that cometh ftom Edom ; this that is glorious in his apparel ? I that speak in righteousness. Isaiah Ixiii. 1. shepherd of Israel ; Thou that leadest Joseph like a flock ; Thou that die el I est between the Cherubims, shine forth. — Psalm Ixxx. 1. Now take this passage ; 1 am the Lord that maketh all things ; that siretcheth forth the heavens alone ; that spreadeth abroad .the earth by myself. — Isaiah xliv. 21. In the first part of the sentence * I am the Lord that maketh . . . that stretcheth,^ all is right : the Lord in the third person is the antecedent, and the verb agrees with the relative in the third person : ^ I am the Lord, which Lord, or he, that maketh all things.' It would have been equally right, if / had been made the antecedent, and the relative and the verb had agreed PEONOUNS. 131 with it in the first person : * / am the Lord, that make all things,' But when it follows, * that spi^eadeth abroad the earth by inyself^'' there arises an apparent confusion of the third and first persons. — See Lowth, English Grammar^ p. 145. But in Hebrew poetry we often find an alternation of per- sons, not in accordance with formal grammar, but quite intelligible, and conducive to poetical ornament : as, O that my people had hearkened unto me, and Israel had w^alked in my ways ! / should soon have subdued their enemies, and turned wjj hand against their adver- saries. The haters of the Lord should have submitted themselves unto him\ but their time should have endured for ever. He should have fed thein also with the finest of the wheat ; and with honey out of the rock should / have satisfied thee. Psalm Ixxxi. 13-16. 248. Our own poets sometimes take a license which is not so warrantable, because it exhibits rather confusion than alter- nation : as^ Thou great first cause, least understood, Who all my sense confin'd^ To know but this, that Thou art good, And that myself am blind : Yet gave me in this dark estate, &c. Pope, Universal Prayer, In strict grammar, the poet should have Avritteu conjinedst or didst confine^ gavest or didst give. And so here : O thou supreme ! high throned all height above ! O great Pelasgic, Dodonean Jove ! Who midst surrounding firost, and vapours chill. Preside on bleak Dodona's vocal hill. Pope, Iliad, xvi, 284. where the grammar requires presidest, 249. A collective noun, representing a class or group of individuals, is referred to by which, and the verb follows in the singular ; but w4ien the idea of plurality is intended, the notion of personality also comes in; and then the reference is by means of the pronoun * who,'' and the verb follows in the plural : The committee, which was appointed last session, reports in favour of the biU. 132 RULES AND CAUTIONS. The ministry, who were divided among tnemselves, were obliged to resign. Care must be taken not to combine the two constructions : as, That ingenious nation, who have done so much for modem literature, possesses in an eminent degree the talent of narra tion . — Blair, 250. In older English, which and that are frequently found after such : as, Avoid such games, which require much time or long attendance. — Jeremy Taylor, But with such words that are but rooted in your tongue. 251. Instead of a relative pronoun, we more commonly use the relative adverb as, after the antecedents such^ same : as, Tears, such as angels weep, burst forth. Milton, Paradise Lost, i. 620. i. e. ^ tears like those which angels weep.' Art thou afeard To be the saine in thine own act and valour, As thou art in desire ? Macbeth, i. 7. In like manner but is frequently equivalent to a relative and a negative : There is no vice so simple, but assumes Some mark of virtue on his outward parts. Merchant of Venice, iii. 2. 252. But although as, after such and same, has the force of a relative, we cannot admit that it is a relative pr^onoun. Dr. Adams (English Grammar, § 253) and Professor Bain {English Grammar, p. 24) are careful to use the term ^ relative,' and not ^ relative pronoun.' So too Dr. Angus {Handbook, § 227). But the latter adds, * The use of as and so with a pro- nominal force, is justified by analogous forms in the Gothic languages.' No doubt there is a tendency in the Germanic languages to employ an adverb where other languages would use a pro- noun. We say ' wherein,' ' whereby,' for ^ in which,' ^ by which ; ' and the Germans are fond of using such forms as * dazu,' ' dabei,' ^ dadurch,' equivalent to ^ thereto,' ^ thereby,' * therethrough.' PRONOUNS. 133 Compare also tlie following passages : I have heard Where many of the best respect in Eome, (Except immortal Caesar), speaking of Brutus, And groaning underneath this age's yoke, Have wished that noble Brutus had his eyes. Julius Ccesar, i. 2. The abuse of greatness is, when it disjoins Eemorse jfrom power ; and, to speak truth of Caesar, I have not known when his affections swayed More than his reason. Ibid. ii. 1. But it is one thing to say that an adverb is used where we might expect a pronoun, or where other languages would em^ ploy a pronoun ; and it is another thing to maintain that an adverb is a pronoun. I have sometimes suspected that, in an older stage of the language, the phrases ^ as that,^ * but that ' may have occurred in such constructions ; but I have not yet been able to find instances. Omission of the Antecedent, 253. When the antecedent is Ae, they^ or those^ it is often omitted: as, Who steals my purse, steals trash. Othello J iii. 3. When the neuter antecedent thati^ omitted, the relative form is what and not which : as, * He knows what he wants.' In older English, that sometimes stands alone in such construc- tions : as, * we speak that we do know ; ' and grammarians generally regard that in such instances as an antecedent, with omission of the relative. Hence, Dr. Angus lays down the following rule : ^ These sentences are best read by pausing after " that," and before *^ what," thus treating them as ante- cedent and relative respectively : as. We speak — what we know. We testify that — we have seen.' Angus, Handbook, § 227. This is a good practical rule ; but the theory might be matter of controversy. 134 RULES AND CAUTIONS. The antecedent is very seldom omitted when governed by a preposition ; but Milton writes, How wearisome Eternity so spent in worship paid To whom we hate. Paradise Lost, ii. 247. i. e. ^ to Mm whom,^ Dr. Adams remarks {English Gramma?' ^ § 546), that ^ the antecedent is sometimes implied in a possessive pronoun ; ' as, And do you now strew flowers in his way. That comes in triumph over Pompey's blood ? Julius Ccesar, i. 1. But this passage is capable of another interpretation : his may be taken as the genitive of the personal pronoun == of him : and then the construction would be * in the way of him that comes, &c.* Omission of the Relative. 254. The relative is frequently omitted, when, if expressed, it would stand in the objective case : as ' The man I saw,' for * the man whom I saw : ' so ^ the horse I bought,' * the book I gave,' But where the omitted relative would, if expressed, be de- pendent upon a preposition, there is an awkwardness in omit ting the preposition as well as the relative : so. Had I but served my God with half the zeal I served my king, he would not in mine age Have left me nak^d to mine enemies. Henr^j VIII, iii. 2. Here the meaning is * with half the zeal that I sei^ved my kiog withy or * with which I served my king.' In the temper of mind he was. Spectator, 54. for ^ that he was ^7^,' or * in which he was.' The omission of the relative, when, if expressed, it would stand in the nominative case, is much less frequent : as, In this 'tis God directs, in that 'tis man ; i. e. * 'tis God who directs.' In some few instances, where the relative is omitted, the antecedent is attracted into the case of the relative ; that is, PRONOUNS. 135 it is put into the case in which the relative would have stood : as, Him I accuse The city ports by this hath entered. Coriolanus^ v. 5. i, e. * he, lohom I accuse . . . hath entered.' POSITION. 255. The relative pronoun usually stands immediately after the antecedent ; but when the sense of the passage clearly in- dicates the antecedent, qualifying words, or phrases, are some- times interposed. But here there is great risk of error. A careless writer often introduces qualifying phrases, and then employs a rela- tive pronoun referring to some word in the former part of the sentence, but without considering whether the reader may not apply the pronoun to some word in the quahfying phrase. Classical scholars are liable to errors of this kind. For they have been accustomed to the construction of the Greek and Latin languages, in which the varieties of termination, the concords of gender and number, are a guide to the sense ; hence, when composing in English, they are apt to forget that the position of words is the great safeguard. Therefore, as a general rule, it is well to place qualifying phrases in some other part of the sentence, and not between . the relative and its antecedent ; unless those qualifying phrases have exclusive reference to the antecedent, and do not involve a new subject. 256. The order of words, in the government of a relative pronoun by a preposition, demands attention, as showing a re- markable difference between that and who. We can use a preposition before ' whom ' and ^ which,' but not before ' that.' We cannot say, * the man of that I told you ; ' but the preposition must be thrown to the end of the clause, * the man that I told you q/.' The same construction may be found with ' whom : ' as, Horace is an author whom I am much delighted with. The world is too well bred to shock authors with a truth, which generally their booksellers are the first that in- form them of. — Pope, Preface to Poem^. But there is this distinction : the preposition may stand before 136 nULES AND CAUTIONS. * whom,' ^whicli,' or it may be thrown to the end of the clause: with ^ that ' there is no choice ; the preposition must be throAvn to the end. This is an idiom which prevails in common conversation, and accords with similar constructions in GermaD ; but, about two hundred years ago, an opinion began to prevail that this usage was inelegant, if not incorrect. Dry den published two editions of his ^ Essay on Dramatic Poesy,' the first in 1668, and the second sixteen years afterwards, in 1684. The alter- ations made by Dryden in the second edition are carefully noted by Malone, and are very suggestive. Among other changes, the idiom of ending a sentence with a preposition is re- jected. Thus, * I cannot think so contemptibly of the age I live in,' is alt-ered to * the age in which I live.' — See §§ 483-485. 257. When the antecedent is governed by a preposition, it often happens that the preposition is rot repeated after that^ although such repetition would be necessary before whom or tvJiich : as, In the day that thou eatest thereof, thou shalt surely die. — Genesis, ii. 17. i. e. ' in the dav in which.^ EEFLECTIVE PKONOUNS. 258. A Reflective pronoun refers to the subject of the pre- position in which it stands. — Matthias, Greek Grammar, § 11'7. Reflective pronouns refer to the person or thing expressed in the nominative case. In English the word self is used for this purpose. — Key, Latin Grammar, § 278. Professor Key argues (§ 279) that Reflective pronouns, from their very nature, can have no nominative or vocative. But for the sake of emphasis, the Greek avrot: and the English self axe constantly found in opposition with the subject- nominative. 259. There is no distinct reflective pronoun in Anglo- Saxon, or in modern English : thaet folk hit reste : the folk it rested ; i.e. * rested itself.' tha theowas wyrmdon hig ; the servants warmed the?n ; i.e. ' warmed themselves.' PEONOUKS. 137 So in older English, and in poetry, the personals are em- ployed where the agent is acting upon himself, or makes reference to himself: as, I thought me richer than the Persian kmg. — Ben Jonson, He sat him down at a pillar's base. — Byron, But commonly the word self is added in such instances ; and confusion has arisen from not clearly determining the force of this word. ' Myself would lead us to think self a sub- stantive ; but 'himself looks as if self were an adjective; indeed, in some provincial dialects, we find * his-^eW uni- formly used for '• hvn-selV Nor should we despise these dialectic varieties; they sometimes throw light upon gram- matical theories. 260. Let us examine the history of self In Anglo-Saxon s?/Z/ appears to be an adjective, and it agrees with the pronoun to which it is joined. R^sk says (Anglo-Saxon Gramma?^, § 141) sylf is usually added to the personal pronoun in the same case and gender ; as ic sylf hit eom ; I self it am. — Luke xxiv. 39. i. e. * it is I myself.' ic swerige thurh me sylfne ; I swear through me self. Gen, xxii. 16. i. e. ' by myself.' Sometimes however, adds Eask, the dative of the perse nal pronoun is prefixed to the nominative of sylf : as, ic com me-sylf to eow I come myself to you. ^If jsr. r. p. 35. 1. e. ^ of my own accord.' £er thu the-seJf hit me gerehtest ere thou thyself it to-me didst-explain. Boethms, v. 1. 261« In Layamon's Brut the word sometimes has the mean- ing of ' alone ; ' thus when Cordelia is sent away to be married to the French king Aganippus, King Leir sends her, mid seolven hire clathen ; . / with selves her clothes; / that is, with the clothes she wore, but without any outfit, or anything in the way of dowry. 138 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 262. Besides the emphatic forms used to strengthen the nominative ic me-sylf and thu the-sylf^ we also find ic sylf^ ' I self and thu sylf^ * thou self.' In early English, me-sylf and the-sylf passed into mi-sylf my-sylf thi-sylf tliy-sylf^ whence it was thought that self had a substantive force, and that my^ thy were pot^sessive pronouns. Hence too, by analogy, such forms as ourselves and yourselves arose. In older English we find 7i/5-56Z/ and their-selves, M^hich are formed on the analogy of myself and yourself and are theoretically defensible, though not allowed in modern English: — Every of us, each for hisself laboured how to recover him. That they would willingly, and of theirselveSy endea- vour to keep a perpetual chastity. 263- It is worth remarking that, in modern English, the first and second persons exhibit the substantive force of self: as myself thyself ourselves^ yourselves ; where Dr. Latham remarks {^English Grammar^ § 331) that the word self (or selves) governs the words m?/, thy^ our^ your^ just as in the expression John's hat, the word hat governs the word John's ; so that my, thy, are possessive cases. On the other hand, in the third person, we find the word used apparently as an adjective, but added to the objective case of the pronoun, in the forms himself themselves. This pre- sents no difficulty when the pronouns are used as the object of a verb : * He crowned himself^ ' They praised themselves.^ But it is very difficult to justify the use of himself as a nomi- native in the sentences, ' He himself said so,' * Himself bare our sins.' We can only say that it is the custom of the lan- guage, one of the many anomalies that have crept in. 264. The word herself is ambiguous ; since it is doubtful whether her be a possessive or an objective case. In like manner it is doubtful whether it-self was originally itself or itsself Oneself and one^s self are both used ; though oneself is the more common. In the poets we find self sometimes as a substantive, and sometimes as an adjective : as. Swear by thy gracious self PRONOUNS. 139 Being over full of 5 e// affairs My mind did lose it. Midsummer Night's Dreain^ i. 1. 265. Whenever any words are interposed between the pro- nominal part and self^ the substantive force of self predomi- nates. We say him- self, but ' his own selfj * his own dear self.' So them-selvesj but ' their own precious selves,^ 266. To express the adjectival Keflective (Lat. suus) we use the word own (Anglo-Saxon agen) with the possessive pronoun, or the genitive of the personal : as, * That is ?/??/ own book ; ' ^ Virtue is its own reward.' EECIPKOCAL PKOKOtmS. 267. A Reciprocal pronoun is said to be one that implies the mutual action of different agents ; but we have no forms, in English, to which this term can strictly be applied. With us, reciprocity of feeling or action is expressed by the combi- nation each other, one another. In the constructions, ' They love each other,'' ' They love one another,' we consider each and one as nominatives, in opposition with the subject-nominative M^^; and other, another, objectives governed by the verb love. In such expressions as * after each other,' ^ to one another,' the place of the preposition has been disturbed. The real construction is ' each after other,' ^ one to another,' as we actually find in older English : A thousand sighes, hotter than the glede, Out of his breast each after other went. Chaucer. Some grammarians assert that each other strictly refers to two, and one another to any number more than two ; but this dis- tinction is not always observed. 14(1 RULES AND CAUTIONS. Chapter VIII. WORDS VAEIOUSLY TEEMED ADJECTIVE PRO- NOUNS, OR PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES, ■ 268. When England and Scotland were distinct kingdoms, and often at war with one another, there was a belt of land on the Border, absolutely held by neither nation, and termed the ' Debateable Land.' So there are words which lie on the border lino, between two Parts of Speech ; sometimes found on one side of the line, and sometimes upon the other ; but obstinately refusing allegiance to either. Grammarians have led us astray, by wishing to make it appear that the Parts of Speech are something more than an artificial division of their own ; and as though there were some corre- sponding natural division. Hence they have gravely discussed the question, whether the Parts of Speech are eight or nine in number. But, all along, they take for granted that the parts of speech can be clearly defined ; that all words can be brought Tinder one heading or another; and in order to make out their case, they have recourse to forced explanations. 269. For example, in many languages, adjectives are used substantively; but the grammarians labour hard to show that, in such instances, a noun is always understood. They argue thus : that in speaking we do not always express all that we have in our thoughts ; but, very often, our words indicate what is meant, though not expressed. Hence adjectives are very oflen used, when the nouns to which they relate are not expressed. In such cases, the adjective is said to be used substantively ; that is, as though it were itself a substantive ; the real explanation being that the substantive, to which the adjective belongs, is not expressed, — See Mason, English Grammar^ §§ 97-99. But grammarians are obliged to admit, that some adjectives are used so completely as substantives as to have the ordinary inflections of nouns; when in fact the adjective becomes, to all intents and purposes, a noun substantive. Thus the words subject and individual are proper adjectives; but they are also nouns in such phrases as, ^ A subject'' s duties,' 'The subjects of the Queen,' ' Some individuals.'' Where are we to draw the line? It may be urged, that proper adjectives cannot have the inflections of a noun; that ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS, ETC. 141 where such inflections are used, the word ceases to be an adjective, and becomes a substantive. 270. But, on the other hand, we must be careful not to confound meaning with form. No doubt, when we speak of * the good,' we mean ^ good men ' or ^ good persons ; ' but there seems to be no reason, why we should insist upon supplying a word, a grammatical form, merely because we are unwilling to admit that the adjective may stand in the place of a substantive. In the same way, because each^ other ^ &c., are constantly used as Substantives, some grammarians do not like to call them adjectives^ but contend that they must be pronouns at all events ; and some, by way of compromise, have termed them Adjective Pronouns. Others again, thinking that most of these words are origi- nally adjectives, have stated the compromise in the other way, and called them Pronominal Adjectives. In truth, grammarians have hardly known what to call them. But this very difficulty should have led grammarians to reflect, and to inquire whether the distinction between Parts of Speech is, or is not, absolute. — See §§ 403, 404. 271. We shall divide these words, accordingly, as they de- note quality or quantity. I. Words denoting quality : such^ same, only. Such means literally * so-like,' and is derived from the Anglo-Saxon swa-lic, swilc. It is commonly used as an adjective : as. Such harmony is in immortal souls. Merchant of Venice, v. 1. It is also used as a substantive : as. Mere strength of understanding would have made him such in any age. — De Quincey, i. e. * such a person.' The adverb so is frequently found where we might expect such : as. We think our fathers fools, so wise we grow ; Our wiser sons, no doubt, will think us so. Pope, Essay on Criticism, 438, 439. In these [free states] no man should take up arms, but with a view to defend his country and its laws : he puts not off the citizen, w^hen he enters the camp ; but it is because he is a citizen, and w^ould wish to 142 BULES AND CAUTIONS. continue so, that he makes himself for a while a soldier. — Kerr's Blackstone, i. 414. Cobbett ventures to correct Sir William Black stone, saying that so ought to be such ; but the custom of the language warrants this use of so, Lindley Murray unfortimately took it into his head to order such to be turned into so, whenever it was found in company with another attributive. The notion has no foun- dation in truth or reason ; and the construction is constantly found in our best writers : * such worthy attempts,' Hilton ; ^ such great and strange passages,' South, — See Kerchever Arnold's English Grainmar, § 72. 272. Same is called by some grammarians a demonstrative pronoun. It is used both as an adjective and as a substantive ; and is usually preceded by the, this, or that. The two men were of the same nature. He that abideth in me, and I in him, the same bringetK forth much fruit. — John xv. 5. Obs, — The Anglo-Saxon same is an adverb. The correspond- ing adjectives are sylf, ' self,' and ylc, the Scottish illCf as ' Glengarry of that ilk,' i.e. * of the same ' or * Glen- garry of Glengarry.' 273. Only (Anglo-Saxon an-lic, * one-like ') is a derivative of one. The original pronunciation of the word (one) is pre- served in this derivative, and in alone, ^ all-one.' It is not used substantively, but as an adjective; ^ the only son,' 'an onl?/ child.' It is also used as an adverb. — See §§ 434-438. II. Words denoting quantity, or number. 274. Indefinites, These might be called Indefinite Nume- rals, as they have reference to number or quantity, without however ' defining,' that is, ' marking out ' or ' d(itermining ' the precise number. One. The numeral one is often used substantively, meaning a single individual of some kind already mentioned. When thus used, it may even take the plural form : ^ Give me an- other pen ; ' this is a bad one,' or ' these are bad ones.'' One = French on. We must not confound this word (which is said to be derived ultimately from the French homme, ' man ') with the numeral just mentioned. It is never found in the plural, but admits the possessive case singular : as, One does not like to lose one^s property. Some writers consider this use of the possessive inelegant ; ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS, ETC. 143 but it is still more awkward to introduce the genitive of a per- sonal pronoun in its stead : as, * One does not like to lose his property.' In such instances, perhaps the best w^ay is to give the whole sentence a turn : as, * Loss of property is not agree- able to any one.' This word is always used substantively. 275. None is compounded ofne-one'^ that is, not-one. And although, if one be singular, we might expect not one to be also siugular ; yet when this word is used substantively, it is sometimes followed by a plural verb. Indeed, this is almost invariably the case when a genitive plural intervenes : as, * None of the castles were taken.' This is literally ' not-one .... were ; ' but an idea is suggested to the mind, ' that all the castles were safe ; ' ^ that all were wn- taken ; ' and so the verb runs into the plural. This usage is so common, with good writers, that I suppose we must allow it. When this word is used adjectively, it is interchanged with no ; that is, none differs from 720, as mine differs from my. No is used when the noun which it qualifies is expressed ; and none v/hen the noun is not expressed : as, * I have no book, and my friend has none.'' 276. Any is from the Anglo-Saxon wn-ig, which is derived from an or cen, ' one,' wdth the adjective termination -ig j so that the word any is originally an adjective. With nouns in the singular it often implies quantity ; but, with nouns in the. plural, it always refers to number. . Its general signification is any whatever : as. Mere strength of understanding would perhaps have made him such in any age. — De Quincey. With words of negation it excludes all : as, ' He has not received any letters.' The substantive use of the word is very common : as, Brutus. Who is here so base, that would be a bond- man ? If any^ speak ; for him have I offended. Who is here so rude, that would not be a Eoman ? If any, speak ; ioT him have I offended. Who is here so vile, that wall not love his country ? If any^ speak ; for him have I offended. I pause for a reply. Citizens. None, Brutus, none. Brutus. Then none have I offended. Julius Ccesar, iii. 2. 277. Aught is in Anglo-Saxon a-wiht, aht. 144 EULES AND CAUTIONS. The Anglo-Saxon wilit is the English whit and ivight, * thing ' and ' person.' Hence aiight means ' anything.' The derivation is in favour of writing aughtj rather than ought ; and convenience dictates the same spelling ; for ought is employed as part of the verb ' owe,' and there is an advan- tage in keeping distinct forms for distinct meanings. Naught is compounded of the negative ne and aught, mean- ing * not anything.' These words aught and naught are originally substantives, and not adjectives. The true adjective formed from ' naught ' is naughty, literally meaning * of no value,' * worthless.' Where we read ' It is naught, it is naught, saith the buyer,' we may explain the construction thus : that a substantive in the pre- dicate has often the force of an adjective. 278. Some, Anglo-Saxon suin, is used as an adjective and as a substantive ; * Some men were there ; ' * some said so, and some said not. In the singular, when employed as a substantive, it usually implies quantity : as. Some of his skiU he taught to me. Scott. In the plural it implies niunber : as, ' Some wish to be rich.' There is a distinction between some and any : Some means * not none,' * one or more.' Any means * some, no matter which.' Professor Bain says (^English Gramma?^, p. 31), * *^ Some " denotes an uncertain portion of an entire collection. * In strict logic it signifies " not none," that is, so7ne at least. There is a more popular meaning, which implies less than the whole, some only, or some at most. " Some men are wise " insinuates that there are other men not wise. Hence the alternative signification : ^' some believed, and some (others) believed not." ' 279- Other. The derivation of this word seems doubtful ; but it is probably derived from the root of the word one, with the termination ther, which denotes ^ one of two,' as in ^ ei-ther,' corresponding to the ter in the Latin u-ter, neu-ter. But, in practice, the word other is not restricted to instances where two alone are in question ; it may apply to any num- ber, and means ^ some one, but not this ; ' * any, but not this.' The ordinary use of the word as an adjective before a sub- stantive is well known ; * the other day,' * the other way.' But ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS, ETC. 145 when it stands alone, referring to a preceding substantive, as ' He had no taste for poetry dramatic or other^ some writers appear to think this construction bald, and would even write, * dramatic or otheininse,'' But, strictly speaking, ' otherwise ' is an adverb, meaning * in another way ; ' whereas, in this construction, we want an adjective. The only way of defend- ing ' otherwise ' in this connection, would be to contend that here it means ^ of another kind.' Such an interpretation, however, is doubtful ; and it is better to say ^ dramatic or other.' So also, in phrases involving a comparison, we should dis- tinguish other than from otherwise than : as, {Adjective) . . He had no books other than classical. (^Adverb) . . . He never spoke otherwise than persuasively. 280. When an precedes other ^ the two are often written as one word, another ; and observe, that the other means ^ the second of two ; ' another means ^ one of any number above two : ' as, Two women shall be grinding at the mill ; the one shall be taken, and the other left. — Matt, xxiv. 41, One generation passeth away, and another generation c>ov[iQ\h.—Ecclesiastes i. 4. Care must be taken not to confound the ideas of ^ two ' and * more than two,' and so to misapply the words * the other ' and ^ another.' For example, in this passage, And the house of Baal was full from one end to another. — 2 Kings x. 21. we are ready to ask, what other ? It should be ^ from one end to the other.'' In short, * another ' is Indefinite ; ' the other ' is Alternative. 281. Many. In Anglo-Saxon there are two words: (1) an adjective, manig, or mce?iig, '• many,' ^ much ; ' (2) a substan- tive, mcenigeo^ ' sl multitude,' ^ crowd.' Both these words appear to have given rise to our word many, which is used sometimes as a substantive, and at other times as an adjective : as, (Adjective) . . . Many men, many minds. — Proverb. {Substantive) . . The many rend the skies with loud ap- plause. — Dryden, Alexander's Feast. The use of many in construction with the indefinite article H 146 RULES AND CAUTIONS. will be considered in the next chapter ; at present, we com- pare the following phrases : — (1) Many men. (2) Many a man. (3) A many men. (1). In the first example, many is an adjective agreeing with men. (2). In the second, many is also an adjective ; and by an idiom, to be discussed in the next chapter, the indefinite article comes between the adjective and the substantive : so, Full many a gem of purest ray serene The dark unfathomed caves of ocean bear : Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, And waste its sweetness on the desert air. Gray, Elegy. (3). In the third example, many is a substantive derived from mcem'geoj denoting multitude ; and men is a genitive by juxtaposition, dependent upon * many.' Hence, * a many men ' means ' a multitude of men.' 282. Few, derived from the Anglo-Saxon adjective feawa, still appears as an adjective in ^ few persons,' ' few things.' It is employed in connection with the indefinite article in such phrases as ' a few years,' * a few apples,' where the construc- tion presents some difficulty. For there is no authority for calling few a substantive ; and, on the other hand, if few be an adjective, it must be in the plural to agree with Spears' or ' apples ; ' whereas the indefinite article a requires that few should be in the singular. 283. Distributives ; ' each,' ' every.' These words have re- ference to the members of a class, or to the parts of a whole, and are thus distinguished : Each means * every ' individual of a certain class, viewed separately. Every means * each ' taken collectively. Each is derived from the Anglo-Saxon celc. It is used adjectively and substantively ; as, Each man had his weapon. Each had his appointed place. It is properly singular ; and the correlative is ' other,' as in the phrase * bear each other'' s burdens.' ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS, ETC. 147 But though each is properly singular, the best writers are liable to err in the use of pronouns referring to this word. Addison ^vrites, Each of the sexes should keep within its particular bounds, and content themselves to exult within their respective districts. — Freeholder^ No. 38. It is very doubtful whether, under any circumstances, themselves and their could gi^mmatically refer to each ; but there can be no doubt at all, that it is a glaring error to use its in one part of the sentence, and themselves in another, both referring to the same word, each. For even if, in the first instance, we might take our choice of singular or plural, we ought to be consistent. And so Crabbe : Now either spoke, as hope or fear impressed * Each ' their alternate triumph in the breast. The same caution applies to the use of ^ every ' : And they were judged every man according to their works. — Revelation^ xx. 13. 284. Every is derived from the Anglo-Saxon mfre^ * ever,' cielc^ '' each,' ^. e. * ever each.' In Early English, it appears in the forms ^ ever-ilk,' * ever-ich.' In modern English, the word is used as an adjective only, and on that ground has been excluded by some writers from the class of pronouns. But in Early English it is frequently employed as a noun : so Chaucer, And everich had a chaplet on her head. When •' each ' denoted ^ one of two,' as seems to have been the case at one period in the history of the language, there was a difference in meaning between ^ each ' and ' every,' which does not appear to exist any longer. At present, the difference is chiefly one of usage : ' each ' may be used sub- stantively and adjectively ; ^ every ' only as an adjective. ^ Every ' is an emphatic word for ^ all,' and makes a direct appeal to individuals ; as,'"^ England expects every man to do his duty. 285. Alternatives ; * either,' * neither.' Either. The element ceg in composition signifies ^ ever,' ' air ; as ceghwa^ '• ever who,' that is ' every one ' ; ceghwcer^ * every where.' In like manner from hwcether, ' which of two,' h2 148 KULES AND CAUTIONS. we have ceghwcether, cegther, ' every one of two,' ^each,' ^ either/ vSee Bosworth, Anglo-Saxon Dictionary^ and Hensleigh Wedg- wood, Dictionary/ of English Etyynology, But Dr. Bosworth gives another form — athor, anther, awthcer, ' either,' ' other,' * both.' And we may observe that the pro- nunciation of the word either is various : some say ether, others Ither, and in some counties the people say other. It is used both as an adjective and as a substantive : Adjective . . Either way is good. Substantive . But never either found another To free the hollow heart from paining. Coleridge, Very commonly we find the alternative either, where we might expect the distributive each : as, On either side Is level fen, a prospect wild and wide, With dike on either hand. Crahhe: Elated with this easy conquest, and presuming on the distresses or the degeneracy of the Romans, Sapor obliged the strong garrisons of Carrhae and Nisibis to surrender, and spread devastation and terror on either side of the Euphrates. — Gibbon, Decline and Fall, c. 10. According to modern usage, either means ^ one or other.' each means ' one and other.' Now Gibbon does not intend to tell us, that Sapor carried devastation on * one or other ' bank of the Euphrates, but upon both banks of the river ; and therefore we might have expected each instead of either. Still, as the older forms of the language exhibit either in the sense of * each,' I do not venture to say that Gibbon is wrong. 286. Neither is compounded of ne ^ not,' and either ; and we remark, that while either means * one or other,' neither means * not one and not the other ' ; for the negative excludes each. Either and neither refer strictly to one of two objects : hence the following sentence is inaccurate : Injustice springs only from three causes. . . . Neither of these causes for injustice can be found in a Being wise, powerful, benevolent. We cannot say '• Neither of three ' : we should read, * No one of these causes.' ARTICLES. 149 Chapter IX. ARTICLES. 287. Professor Max Miiller remarks, that though the gene- ral outline of grammar existed at an early period in the schools of the Greek philosophers, yet the critical study of Greek took its origin at Alexandria, and was chiefly based on the text of Homer. Plato recognised the * noun ' and the * verb ' as the two component parts of speech ; Aristotle added * conjunctions ' and ' articles.' But with Aristotle, the word rhema (pfji^ta), commonly translated by the term verb, is little more than a * predicate,' For, in such a sentence as ^ snow is white,' he would have called ' white ' a rhema {prina) ; and under the head of ' articles' he would have comprised many words, which modern grammarians classify among other parts of speech. When the scholars of Alexandria were engaged in publish- ing critical editions of the Greek classics, they were obliged to discuss the various forms of Greek grammar. They raise such points as these : Did Homer use the article ? Did Homer use the article before proper names? Here the term ^article' had obtained a more precise meaning, as distinguished, for example, from the demonstrative pronoun. Article is a literal interpretation of the Greek word arthron {apdpou), which literally signifies the * socket of a joint.' The word was first used by Aristotle, and was fancifully applied to words which formed the * sockets ' in which the members of a sentence were supposed to move. Before the time of Zenodotus, the first librarian of Alexandria, 250 b.c, all pronouns were simply classed as ' sockets,' arthra, or ' articles ' of speech. Zenodotus was the first to introduce a distinction between personal pronouns and the mere articles or articulations of speech, which henceforth retained the name of arthra. ( See Max Miiller, Science of Language j First Series, pp. 87—89.) 288. In English we have two articles, an (sometimes con- tracted to a) and the. An, called the Indefinite Article, is used in speaking of any individual of a class. The old notion was, that the Inde- finite Article was a, but that n was added (an) before a word beginning with a vowel or silent A. The fact is just the 150 RULES AND CAUTIONS. contrary ; tlie article is an, and n is dropped before a word beginning with a consonant, or with vocal A. The^ called the Definite Article, is employed in speaking of a particular object, or class of objects. It is regarded as * defining,' that is * marking out,' the object in question. INDEFINITE AETICLE. 289. An is a modification of the numeral one ; Anglo- Saxon, an or cen ; Old English, ane^ an, a. When it comes before a word beginning with a consonant, or with h vocal, w or y, the letter n is dropped : as * a man,' * a horse,' ' a wall,' ^ a year.' - In older English it is frequently written before h vocal, as * an house ' ; and even yet^ some writers think proper to say, * an historical account.' It was also common to write an before a word beginning with the letter u : as, ' an University.' But where the initial %t has the force of yw, it is now customary to omit n: as, * a Union,' * a University.' When several objects are separately specified, the indefinite article is usually placed before each :— Leave not a foot of verse, a foot of stone, A page, a grave, that they can call their own. — Pope. Hence, when the indefinite article is expressed ^before the first only of two or more nouns, the reader will infer that the nouns are to be taken together, as referring to the same person or thing. Thus, ' a priest and king ' will be interpreted to indicate the same individual holding the offices of priest and king combined. Similarly, * a coachhouse and stable ' implies that the two form one building, or one tenement, or that they are in close connection. Consequently, if we wish to mark separation, we must repeat the article : ' a priest and a king' ; ^ a coachhouse and a stable.' By this rule, * a black and a white horse ' means two horses ; * a black and white horse ' means one horse. The same rule applies to the use of the Definite Article : ^ the secretary and treasurer ' would lead us to suppose that one person occupied a twofold position ; but ^ the secretary and the treasurer ' would point to two distinct persons. 290. If two nouns are applied to the same person, by way of comparison, the article is used only once : as, South ey is a better piose writer than poet. ARTICLES. lol Not that it would be wrong to say, * a better prose writer than a poet ' ; for we might turn the sentence thus : — Southey is more successful as a prose writer than as a poet. 291. The force of a, prefixed to a noun, is to represent that noun as belonging to a class ; for instance, ^ Gold is a metal,' means, ^Gold is one of the class of metals.' It is there- fore very frequently found with common nouns, that is nouns which are employed in a general sense, as representing a class. Sometimes in poetry, or in oratory, a proper name is used with the indefinite article, and thus receives something of the force of a common noun, indicating a character like that of the person named : — < Frenchmen, I'll be a Salishury to you ; ' that is, as terrible as the Earl of Salisbury. He may be a Newton or a Herschel in affairs of astro- nomy, but of the knowledge of affairs of the world he is quite ignorant. — Burlce, That is, ^ as profound as Newton or Herschel.' This use of the Indefinite Article may sometimes be employed with good effect ; but it has been so hackneyed by rhetoricians and declaimers, that a man of taste will be very careful in imitating this construction. 292. As the Indefinite Article indicates one thing of a kind, it must not be joined with a word denoting a whole kind or class. We say ' the unicorn is a kind of rhinoceros,' but not * the "unicorn is a kind of a rhinoceros.' 293. When two or more objects are distinctly specified, and attention is drawn to each, the Indefinite Article should be re- peated : as, Burleigh had a cool temper, a sound judgment, and a constant eye to the main chance. — Macaulay, 294. When an indefinite article is used with a noun, and the noun is qualified by several adjectives, the construction will depend upon the force of those adjectives : — 1. If the adjectives are all to the same purpose, so that one merely amplifies the other, it is sufi&cient to pre- fix the article to the first alone : as, There is about the whole book a vehement, contentious, replying manner. — Macaulay, 2. But where there is a marked emphasis, or contrast, the article is usually repeated : as. 152 RULES AND CAUTIONS. He went like one that hath been stunned, And is of sense forlorn ; A sadder and a wiser man He rose the morrow morn. Coleridge, Ancient Mariner, There is a difference between a liberal and a prodigal hand. — Ben Jonson. 295. In Early English, when a noim is qualified by the article a, and an adjective follows the noun, it is customary to repeat the article ; as, A monk there was, a fayre. Chaucer, Canterbury Tales, Prologue, Therefore he was a prickasoure a right. — Ibid. that is, ^ a good hard rider ; ' where, however, the more re- cent editions have ^ aright.' When several adjectives follow the noun, the article is re- peated with each : as, A Frere there was, a wanton, and a vaery, — Ibid. In later English, it is not uncommon to find the usual order — article, adjective, noun, and then another adjective with the article repeated : as, Falstaff; And yet there is a virtuous man, whom I have often noted in thy company, but I know not his name. Prince Henry ; What manner of man, an it like your majesty ? Falstaff I A good 'portly man, i' faith, and a corpulent, 1st Hen, IV,, ii. 4. A very good piece of work, I assure you, and a merry. Midsummer Night's Dream, i. 2, POSITION 296. When the indefinite article is used in connection with an adjective and a noun, where the adjective qualifies the noun, varieties of position are observable. In Early English, we sometimes find the same order as in our modern language — article, adjective, noun : for example, to hare feire burge, to a fair burgh. Layamon, Brut, 3553, vol. i. p. 151. ARTICLES. 153 to hare aegene burh, to a high biirgh. Layamon, Brut^ 3610, vol. i. p. 153. At other times, we have the article placed between the adjec- tive and the noun : as, he heo wolde habben. hsege to are queene. he her would have. high to a queen. Ihid, 3132, vol. i. p. 133. that is, * for a noble queen.' And we may remark that similar variations occur in the position of pronouns : — his drichliche lond. his lordly land, gethele his meiden. ' nohle his maiden, that is, ' his noble maiden.' 297. Now, although the former construction has become the general rule in modern composition, we still have vestiges of the latter ; for with the words many^ such, and what joined with nouns, and accompanied by the article, we find the article in the middle place : as. When the merry bells ring round, And the jocund rebecks sound. To many a youth, and many a maid, Dancing in the chequered shade. Milton, U Allegro, I had rather be a dog and bay the moon, Than such a Eoman. — Julius Ccesar, iv. 2. What a piece of work is man ! — Hamlet, ii. 2. A similar order occurs, when an adjective is qualified by the words too, so, how, as. You hold too heinous a respect of grief King John, iii. 4. Ye see how large a letter I have written unto you with mine o^vn hand. — Galatians, vi. 11. 298. Curiously enough, in some passages of Early English we find instances of the other construction ; as, A such will brought this lond to gronde. Robert of Gloucester, h3 154 RULES AND CAUTIONS. Mony blessyng He hadde, for he delivered men of an so foul thyng. Bohert of Gloucester. A so grete beast. — Chaucer, Hence the phrase * many a youth ' is quite in accordance with the older forms of the language ; * many ' is here a true adjective, while the article stands between the adjective and the noun. 299. Archbishop Trench {English Past and Present^ pp. 160-162, ed. 1859) explains ' many a youth ' as arising from confusion of thought, and forgetfulness of original form. In the phrase ' many a youth,' he observes that the following points are perplexing to the student : — 1. The place of the indefinite article between the adjective and the substantive. 2. That it is not lawful to change the order, and to bring back the article to its ordinary position. We cannot say, ^ a many youth,' or * a many maid.' 3. That the junction of ^ many,' an adjective of number, witli * youth ' and ^ maid' in the singular, seems incon- sistent ; for withdraw that ' a,' and it is not lawful to say ^ many youth,' or ^ many maid.' 300. Now the first and second objections are met by com- paring the older forms of the language, where we observe a variation in the order of words : the article takes sometimes the first place, and sometimes the middle place. In reply to the third objection, we admit that the form * many youth ' is not customary, but it would be wai ranted by the analogy of plurimus puer, in Latin. And so Virgil : Crudelis ubique Luctus, ubique pavor, et plurima mortis imago, Aeneidy ii. 369. where Heyne paraphrases plurima mortis imago, h. e. ubique esedes facta cernitur ; passim cassorum cadavera projecta. So Ovid : Plurima lecta rosa est ; sunt et sine nomine flores ; Ipsa crocos tenues liliaque alba legit. Fast, iv. 441. 301- The explanation offered by Archbishop Trench is this — that ' many ' was originally a substantive, the Old French * mesgnee,' ' mesnie,' and signified a * household,' which ARTICLES. 155 meaning it constantly has in Wycliffe, and which it retained down to the time of Spenser : Then forth he fared with all his many bad. ShephercTs Calendar. We still recognise its character as a substantive in the phrases ' a good many,' ^ a great many,' and, in Old English or Scottish, even * a few many.' There can be no doubt that * many ' is often used as a sub- stantive; though it may be derived from the Anglo-Saxon mcenigeo, ' a multitude,' rather than from the Norman-French mesnie, ' meinie^ ' a household,' ' a retinue.' 302. Then Archbishop Trench argues, truly enough, that a is sometimes a corrupted form of the preposition on or of: in this instance he considers it to stand for of, quoting Wycliffe, I encloside manye of seintis [^multos sanctoimni] in prisoun. Acts, xxvi. 10. He concludes, there can be no reasonable doubt that such a phrase as ^ many a youth ' was once ' many of youths,' or ^ a many o/ youths.' By much use ^ of was worn away into * a '; this was then assumed to be the indefinite article, that which was really such being dropped ; and ^ youths ' was then changed into ^ youth ' to match : one mistake, as is so often the case, being propped up and made plausible by a second, and thus we arrive at our present strange and perplexing idiom. This explanation, however ingenious, is wholly unnecessary; because, as we have seen, * many ' can be explained, in this construction, as an adjective. 303. But in the phrases ' a many men,' ' a many ships,' ^ a great many years,' we cannot explain * many ' as an adjective; for if so, it qualifies a noun in the plural, and yet it is joined with * a ' (a;i = ^ one '), which is singular. We have seen above, that in Anglo-Saxon mcenigeo is a noun signifying * multitude,' ' crowd ; ' and even in modern English ^ the many ' bears this interpretation : The many rend the skies with loud applause ; So love was crowned, but music won the cause. Dryden, Alexander's Feast. In these phrases * a many men,' &c., I consider ^ many ' a noun, and the words * men,' ^ ships,' &c., as genitives by juxtaposition. According to tliis view, ^a many men' may 156 . RULES AND CAUTIONS. be rendered in Latin multitudo hominurrij whereas ^ many a youth ' would be plurimus puer. I would apply the same principle to the phrases *a thousand men,' ^ a dozen bottles ; ' but I must admit that it does not apply to * a few horses; ' ion few (Anglo- Saxon /eaii^a) is pro- perly an adjective ; and I can find no authority, beyond this phrase or similar phrases, for the substantive use of that word. 304- We must not lose sight of the fact indicated by Arch- bishop Trench, that a is, in some instances, a contraction of the Anglo-Saxon preposition an or cet. For example, we find the particle a before noims which are used distributively ; as, And passing rich with forty pounds a year. Goldsmith, Deserted Village, where ^ a year ' means ^ for each year,' or * in each year.' So, too, in common conversation we say * sixpence a pound/ ^four shillings a bushel.' It is a nice question whether, in these phrases, a is an indefinite article or a preposition. It may possibly be the relic of an old preposition ; and the tendency in modern times to introduce the Latin per, ^ sixpence per pound,' appears to show the want of a preposition. But, on reference to the Anglo-Saxon, we find that, in phrases of this kind, the noun was used in the dative or some other case, without a preposition, and that the word celc^ ^ ilk,' ^ each ' was frequently introduced ; as celce gear^ * ilk year,' ' each year ; ' celce dcey, ^ ilk day,' * each day.' On the whole, I am inclined to think that, in these phrases, a is the indefinite article, meaning one ; and that * forty pounds a year ' means * forty pounds for one year,' i, e. ' for each and every year.' 305. There is more difiiculty with those phrases where the particle a is joined with numerals ; as. And it came to pass about an eight days after these sayings. — Luke^ ix. 28. There is a vale between the mountains that duretli nere a four mile. For him was lever han at his beedes hed A tweedy hokes clothed in black or red. ARTICLES. 157 Of Aristotle and his philosophie, Than robes riche, or fidel, or sautrie. Chaucer, Cayiterhury TaleSj Prologue^ 295. Here Mr. Morris reads, * Twenty bookes.' This construction deserves further inquiry. At present we leave it to the judgnaent of others. DEFINITE AETICLE. 306. Etymologically, the is derived from a form of the demonstrative pronoun. In modern EngKsh it has no dis- tinction of gender, number, or case ; but in Early English the following inflections occur : — Singular, Masc. Fern. Neut. Norn, the theo (tho) thet (that). Gen, this thare (there) this Dat. thon (than, then) thare (there) thon (than, then). Ace, then (thane) thun thet (that). See Adams, Elements^ § 237. 307. The pronunciation of the is very important, especially in singing. It is the before a word beginning with a consonant, and the before a word beginning with a vowel ; as, ' the time,' ^ the race,' ^ the course.' * the inn,' * the apple,' ^ the orange.' 308. The original use of the definite article is to * demon- strate,' or ' point out,' a particular object, or class of objects ; as, The man that hath no music in himself, Nor is not moved with concord of sweet sounds, Is fit for treasons, stratagems, and spoils. Merchant of Venice^ v. 1. Hence it is very commonly used in reference to some object previously known or mentioned ; as, ' The exhibition which you saw yesterday.' 309. In some languages, the definite article is used with proper names of persons, who are distinguished, and well known to all; as 5 IlXdrw)/ Hhe Plato,' which Cicero renders Ille Plato, So the Italians speak of II Tasso^ and the French of L'Arioste. 158 RULES AND CAUTIONS. In English we may employ this construction in the singular, when a qualifying phrase is added ; as, ^ Handel was the Homer of music ; ' and so, Shakespeare was the Homer or father of our dramatic poets ; Jonson was the Virgil, the pattern of elaborate writing ; I admire him, but I love Shakespeare. Dry den. Essay on Dramatic Poesy, It will be remarked, however, that in such instances, the proper name seems to lose its distinctive individuality, and partakes of the construction of a common noun. In the plural, this construction is very usual : ' the Smiths,* * the Jenkinsons,' ^ the Macgregors,' ' the Macdonalds.' The chief of a Celtic clan is termed * The Macarthy,' ' The O'Donoghue,' ^ The Douglas,' ^ The Mackenzie ; ' and the reason is this, that all the members of a clan, however humble they might be, bore the general name of the clan ; but the chief was the representative clansman. 310. With some geographical terms, as before the names of rivers, moimtains, and seas, we find the definite article ; as, ' the Thames,' ' the Ehine,' ' the Alps,' ' the Baltic' But observe, that we never employ this construction with names of cities ; we never say ' the London,' or ' the Paris.' Com- pare the difference of construction in the ^ river Thames,' and the ' city 0/ London,' § 143. 311. The definite article is used before names which denote a whole class, as, for example, the names of entire nations; often in the plural, as * the French,' ^ the EngHsh ; ' and some- times also in the singular, especially in rhetorical composition, as, '• the Briton, and the Gael.' The same construction with a singular noun is often found in terms used in the Natural Sciences, denoting a whole class of objects ; as, * the lion,' ' the eagle,' ^ the violet,' ' the rose.' Similarly, the article is used with a noun denoting a pro- fession, or the members of a profession viewed collectively ; as, ^ the bar,' ' the church,' ' the army,' * the navy.' Obs. — ' Man ' and * woman ' are already class nouns, and do not admit the article, imless we speak of particular indivi- duals ; so, What a piece of work is man ! How noble in reason ! how infinite in faculties ! in form, and moving, how express and admirable ! In action, how like an angel I ARTICLES. 159 in apprehension, how like a god 1 the beauty of the world ! the paragon of animals ! And yet, to me, what is this quintessence of dust ? Man delights not me, nor woman neither ; though, by your smiling, you seem to say sor. — Hamlet, ii. 2. 312. • It is not the custom, in English, to employ the definite article before nouns denoting an abstract notion ; we say * truth,' ' virtue,' * pride ' — not ' the virtue,' ' the pride.' This enables us to make a distinction, which is not observed in some other languages ; for, with us, * truth ' means ' truth absolutely considered,' 'truth in the abstract; ' but Hhe truth' means ' the truth mentioned before,' or some particular aspect of truth, * mathematical, philosophical, or religious truth.' The French, on the contrary, use the definite article before abstract noiuis; and I suspect that some phrases in older English, which are condemned as ungrammatical, have come down to us from the Norman-French. For example, And I persecuted this way unto the death. — Acts xxii. 4. where Dr. Lowth remarks, 'the Apostle does not mean any particular sort of death, but death in general; the definite article therefore is improperly used. It ought to be unto death, without any article ; agreeably to the original, ayj)*^ davcLTov.^ Compare 2 Chron. xxxii. 24, ' In those days Hezekiah was sick to the death ;' and Eev. xii. 11, 'And they loved not their lives unto the death.' The French would be a la mort. See also Prov. xxix. 21, 'He that delicately bringeth up his servant from a child shall have him become his son at the length.* 313. The is often used where we might expect a possessive pronoun ; and this too, among others, may be a construction derived from the French : as, Her corpse was the object of unmanly and dastardly ven- geance ; the head was severed from the body and set upon a pole. — W, Irving. I have reserved to myself seven thousand men, who have not bowed the knee to Baal. — Romans, xi. 4. 314. When two or more objects are distinctly specified, the definite article, or some word equally distinctive, should be used before each : as, I was with Hercules and Cadmus once. When in a wood of Crete they bayed the bear 160 RULES AND CAUTIONS. With hounds of Sparta ; never did I hear Such gallant chiding ; for, beside the groves, The skies, the fountains, every region near Seemed all one mutual cry ; I never heard So musical a discord, such sweet thunder. Midsummer Night's Dream^ iv. 1. Hence in the following sentence we observe an ambiguity : ' The Chancellor informed the Queen of it, and she imme- diately sent for the secretary and treasurer.' Here, it is not certain whether the secretary and treasurer be not one and the same person ; at all events, it is possible to put that meaning upon the words. If we wish to imply that two dis- tinct persons were summoned, we should repeat the article : ' for the secretary and the treasurer.' 315. When two or more noims are used in opposition, qualifying some other noun, the article is placed before the first alone, of the nouns in opposition : He sends a letter to Mr. Larkins, the bribe-agent and broker on this occasion. — Burke, Similarly, when several adjectives qualify a noun, the definite article is usually employed before the first alone : as, If parts allure thee, think how Bacon shined, The wisest, brightest, meanest of mankind. Pope, Essay on Man, iv. But if we wish to lay emphasis upon the adjectives, we may repeat the article before each : as, A name at the sound of which all India turns pale ; the most wicked, the most atrocious, the boldest and most dexterous villain that that country ever produced. — Burke, 316. When the adjectives cannot be regarded as describing one and the same thing, the article must be repeated if the noun is in the singular, or it must stand before the first ad- jective only, if the noun is in the plural : as. The third and fifth chapters of John. or, , The third and the fifiih chapter of John. POSITION. 317. When the definite article and an adjective qualify a noun, the usual order is — ^article, adjective, noun ; sometimes, VERBS. 161 however, the noun stands first, followed by the article and the adjective j.^ as, Alonzo the brave, and the fair Imogene. Lewis, When the words all and both are used to qualify a noui^, the article occupies the middle place ; as, All the contrivances which we are acquainted with are directed to beneficent purposes. — Paley, He had disobliged both the parties whom he wished to reconcile. — Macaulay. Chapter X. VERBS. 318. Grammarians have not been very successful in their attempts to define the ' verb.' Plato recognised only two parts of speech, the Name (ovo/jlo), and the Saying (^rj/jia). And in fact, when we say * Light shines,' light is the Name of the thing whereof we speak, while shines is our Saying about that thing. When we are speaking the truth, or what we believe to he true, our Saying is the same as our Thinking. Hence we may conclude, that the Name and the Thought are the two main pillars that support the sentence. The Name and the Saying are grammatically termed the Noun and the Verb. But if the term 'Verb' {verbum, *word') is meant as a translation of the term pTJH-a, it is a questionable translation. We might rather expect Dictum ('Saying,' or ' thing said'), than Verhum (' word'). There appears to be no truth in the common assertion that the Verb is the chief Word in a sentence. There are two principal words in every sentence, and the Name is as important as the Saying ; for if there be no Name, there is nothing to speak about. Neither is it true that there can be no sentence without a Verb ; for in Hebrew and in Latin hundreds of sentences can be produced wherein no verb is found. But then, the grammarians maintain that in such instances a Verb is understood ; that is, they lay down a defini-- tion dogmatically, and then they explain away every passage which does not conform to their definition. 319. Some grammarians have founded their definitions upon the meaning of the Verb as a word. As in the old definition, 162 RULES AND CAUTIONS. * A verb is a word which signifies to be, to do, or to suffer ; * or as in the theory wherein ^ motion ' and ^ rest ' are #onsidered the distinctive characteristics of verbs. Others have founded their definitions upon the function of the verb, that is, upon its power in a sentence ; as, ^ A verb is a part of speech which makes an assertion.' 320. I. Definitions founded upon Signification, (1). * A verb is a word which signifies to be, to do, or to suffer/ ' There are three kinds of verbs. Active, Passive, and Neuter verbs.' — Lowth, English Grammar^ p. 45. (2). Theory of Sir Graves C, Haughton. * In the infancy of language the Verb merely denoted the modes of action peculiar to the simplest objects of nature — as, to fly, to run, to strike, &c. ; but in process of time, as language became perfect, the Verb adapted itself to the expression of every want of the human mind, and in this state it is considered as denoting action, being, or suffering. But it is solely by a metaphorical use that language is fitted for de- scribing abstract ideas ; and for this purpose the Verb divests itself of its essential attribute, which is motion in a physical sense. ' If a verb denotes any particular kind of motion, depending or con- ceived to depend on the will of the agent, it is Active, but Intransitive ; that is, it implies voluntary motion, which is commonly called Action, as '* he runs." And when the motion passes on to an object on which it reposes, it is Active and Transitive, as "he strikes the child." * Motion is the essential attribute of the Verb ; and those who hold it to be a mere connective, have not perhaps sufficiently considered its origin ; and have been led to observe its apparent use, which is often metaphorical, rather than its essential quality, which indicates different kinds of motion.' ' After use had first fijxed the forms of the Verb, the rest were easily brought into existence, by that love of analogy which is inseparably connected with the nature of the human mind.' — Preface to a Dictionary, Be7igali and Sanskrit, by Sir Graves C. Haughton, (3) Professor Key gives no general definition of the Verb ; but his whole doctrine depends upon the theory of ' motion ' and * rest.' He says, in his Latin Grammar, §§ 367-385 : 'An active verb denotes action or movement: as caed, *'cut" or "strike;" curr, "run." * The person (or thing) from whom the action proceeds is called the nominative to the verb. * A transitive verb is one which admits an object or accusative after it: as caedit puerum, " he strikes the boy." * An intransitive verb is one which does not admit an accusative ; as, currit, " he runs." * A static verb denotes a state ; as es, " be " ; dormi, " sleep " ; vigila^ " be awake " ; jace^ ** lie " ; metu, " fear." * Wj VERBS. 163 321. n. Definitions founded upon the Function of the Verb, (1). Sir John Stoddart says : — ' The Verb expresses that faculty of the mind by which we assert that anything exists or does not exist. And as all existence is contem- plated by the mind, either simply as existence, or in one of its two distinguishable states, action or passion ; therefore, the common defi- nition of the verb is sufficiently accurate — namely, that " the verb is a word which signifies to do, to suffer, or to be." • Yet we must observe, that the essence of the verb does not consist in the mere signification or naming of existence, or of action, or of passion; because, so far as that goes, the verb is a mere noun. For Mr. Tooke's observation is strictly correct, that " the verb is a noun and something more." ' This " something more," which is the true characteristic of the verb, is the 'power of assertion. It is by this peculiarity alone that the verb is distinguished from the noun.' Sir John Stoddart then reviews several objections : — Objection 1. * We may assert without the express use of verbs. Numerous sentences, with the verb omitted, may be produced from Hebrew, Latin, and English.' Answer, 'True; but then the verb is understood^ [This is begging the question.] Objection 2. ' That connection^ not '' assertion," is the distinguishing characteristic of verbs.' Answer. ' Truly, the verb connects, but it does more ; connection is a secondary characteristic' Objection 3. ' That attribution is the proper function of a verb.' Answer. ' But this is an accidental circumstance applying to some verbs, not as to verbs, but in regard to the nouns which they involve.' Objection 4. ' That to be significant of time is the characteristic of the verb.' Answer. ' No doubt time is a necessary adjunct of assertion, but it is only secondary. Assertion is the appropriate function of the verb.' Objection 6. * That the Infinitive mood asserts nothing.' This objection is urged by Dr. Lowth (English Grammar, p. 54) : ' That the participle is a mere mode of the verb is manifest, if our definition of a verb be admitted. For it signifies being, doing, or suffering, with the designation of time superadded. But if the essence of the verb be made to consist in affirmation, not only the participle will be excluded from its place in the verb, but the Infinitive itself also ; which certain ancient grammarians of great authority held to be alone the genuine verb, denying that title to all other modes.' A7isiver. ' The Infinitive is not properly a verb, but rather a Verbal Noun C'Ovofj.a p-nyLariKov)' — Stoddart, Universal Grammar Encyclo' ^(sdia Metropolitana, pp. 45-47. 164 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 322. (2). Theory of Mr, Garnett In the Proceedings of the Philological Society, vol. iii., we find several papers by the late Kev. Richard Garnett, on the * Nature and Analysis of the Verb/ These and other articles have been reprinted by his son, under the title of 'Philological Essays' (Wilhams and Norgate, 1859). According to the view taken by Mr. G-arnett, • the true definition of a verb appears to be, that it is a term of relation or 'predicate in gram- matical combination with a subject, commonly pronominal. In some languages, any word in any given part of speech is capable of being made the basis of a verb, and of being regularly conjugated through moods, tenses, and persons ; in others this license is considerably restricted.' After remarking that there has been much discrepancy of opinion as to what constitutes a verb, and in what essential particular it differs from a noun, he observes, ' that much of the misapprehension and error prevalent on this subject has originated in confounding the finite verb with the root from which it is formed. It has been admitted that the essence of this part of speech consists in predication or assertion, a view to which no objection can be made. But this immediately de- stroys its claim to be considered as a primitive element of speech. There can be no predication in the concrete without a given subject ; every verb therefore must have its subject — that is, speaking gram- matically, it must be in a definite person. The term expressing this person is an element perfectly distinct from the root ; and when it is taken away, there is no predication, and consequently no verb. In short, a verb is not a simple but a complex term, and therefore no primary part of speech.' But while Mr. Garnett considers that the root or predicative part of a simple verb is, or originally was, an abstract noun, he differs from those philologists who analyse the verb as consisting of a noun con- nected with a subject or nominative by means of a verb substantive understood. He denies that ' Ego (sum) somnium ' can be brought to mean *Ego somnio.' He says: 'Grammarians have not been able to divest themselves of the idea that the subject of the verb must neces- sarily be a nominative ; and when it was ascertained that the distinctive terminations of the verb are in fact personal pronouns, they persisted in regarding those pronouns as nominatives^ abbreviated indeed from the fuller forms, but still performing the same functions.' Mr. Garnett holds that the personal terminations are pronouns, not however nominatives in apposition, but oblique cases, or (as he terms it) 4^7^ regimine. He proves his point by an appeal to many languages ; but no part of the proof is more satisfactory than his reference to the Welsh. He says : ' The personal terminations in Welsh are pronouns, and they are more clearly so than the corresponding endings in Sanskrit. But it is an important fact, that they are evidently in statu regiminiSj not in apposition or concord ; in other words, they are not nominatives, but oblique cases, precisely such as are affixed to various prepositions. For example, the second person plural does not end with the nominative chwif but with ech, wchy och, ych^ which last three forms are also found VERBS. 165 coalescing with various prepositions, iwchy "to you/* ^noch, "in you," vyrthych^ " through you." * Now the roots of Welsh verbs are confessedly nouns, generally of abstract signification; as, for example, dysg is both doctrina, and the second person imperative doce. Dysg-och, or -wch, is not, therefore, docetis or docebitis vos; but doctrina vestricm, " teaching of or hy you." This leads to the important conclusion, that a verb is nothing but a noun combined with an oblique case of a personal pronoun, virtually in- cluding in it a connecting preposition. This is what constitutes the real copula between the subject and the attribute. Doctrina ego is a logical absurdity ; but doctrina ')nei, *' teaching of me," necessarily includes in it the proposition ego doceo, enunciated in a strictly logical and un- equivocal form.' IVIr. Grarnett compares the prepositional forms with the verbal forms, thus: Fr&positional forms : er-ov ,,....* for me.* er-ot * for thee/ er-o * for him.* er-om * for us/ er-och * for you/ er-ynt . . . . . * for them.' Verbal forms : car-ov * I will love/ car-ot * thou wilt love/ car-o * he will love/ car-om 'we will love.* car-och .,...* you will love/ car-ont '^ OP >....* they will love/ car-wynt J And he concludes : * No one capable of divesting his mind of pre- conceived systems, who compares the Welsh prepositional forms with the verbal forms, will deny the absolute formal identity of the respec- tive sets of endings, or refuse to admit that the exhibition of parallel phenomena of languages of all classes, and in all parts of the world, furnishes a ^tvon^ jprimd facie ground for the belief of a general prin- ciple of analogy running thro^lgh all.' — G-amett, Philological Essay s^ pp. 289-342. 323. Amid these diversities, we shall proceed rather by way of enumeration than by way of definition. And we say : I. With regard to meaning ; A Verb is a word which denotes an action, or a state of being. n. With regard to function^ the Verb has several powers : (1). The Indicative mood is used to make an asser- tion. 166 RULES AND CAUTIONS. (2). The Subjunctive mood is used to make a modi- fied assertion. (3). The Imperative mood is used to express com- mands, exhortations, or entreaties. (4). The Infinitive mood and the Gerunds are Verbal Substantives. (5). The Participles are Verbal Adjectives. CLASSIFICATION. 324. We divide verbs into two classes: (1) Transitive; (2) Intransitive. A Transitive Verb generally requires an object to complete the meaning, and is commonly followed by an Objective— -that is, a substantive in the objective case. An Intransitive Verb frequently furnishes a complete mean- ing, and does not, as a general riile, admit an objective case. Transitive Verbs may be used in three relations, which are termed Active, Passive, and Reflective. In some languages, there are distinct forms, involving changes of termination, to denote the change of relation. These forms are commonly termed Voices ; and in Greek grammar, the Reflective form is called the Middle Voice, as though it held a middle place between Active and Passive. In English we have a distinct form for the Active Voice of verbs Transitive : as, WiUiam loves Mary. William loved Mary. The Passive relation is denoted by the verb he coupled with the perfect participle, which, in Transitive Verbs, has a passive signification ; thus, Mary is loved by William. The Reflective relation is denoted by the word self, used in composition with certain pronouns, and governed by a Transi- tive Verb, in the Active Voice ; as, William loves himself, Mary loves herself In Early English, the personal pronouns me, hiniy heTf &c., were used with a reflective force, where we employ myself, himself , &c. ; as, VERBS. 167 * I was weary forwandred, And went one to reste.' Piers Plowman, Vision, i.e. * to rest myself.' In poetry, the same usage still prerails, as * I'll lay me down, and die.' Intransitive Verbs are used in one form only, which corre- sponds, in point oiform, with the Active voice of verbs Transi- tive; as, The boy runs. The girls laugh. Many Transitive verbs in English are used Intransitively ; as, He Jro^e the glass . . . . {Transitive), The glass hrohe {Intransitive), He rolled the stone .... {Transitive), The stone rolled {Intransitive), Many Intransitive verbs, compounded with a preposition, become Transitive. And since in English the preposition fre- quently follows the verb, students are apt to forget that the verb, in such cases, becomes a Compound Verb ; so, He laughed {Intransitive), They laughed at him . . . {Transitive), Intransitive verbs are sometimes followed by a noun in the objective case, when that noun bears a meaning akin to the signification of the verb ; as, ^ to sleep a sleep,' * to run a race,' * to die the death.' In Latin grammar this objective is called the ' cognate accu- sative.' CONJUaATION. 325. To conjugate literally means to yoTce together ; and, as used by grammarians, it means to place under one view the variations (or inflections) in the form of a verb. Hence Conjugation is the arrangement of the several in- flections of a verb, in its different Voices, Moods, Tenses, Numbers, and Persons. Until late years, English verbs were commonly divided into two classes, termed Regular and Irregular, The distinction was thus explained : Kegular Verbs are those in which the past tense and the perfect participle are formed by adding to the verb -edj or -d only, when the verb ends in -e ; as call, calUed ; love^ love-d. 168 BULES ANB CAUTIONS. Irregular verbs are those that vary from this rule, in either or both instances. — See Lowth, English Gram- mar, p. 71. More recent grammarians have contended that verbs of the latter kind are not really irregular, but that they are formed according to rules specially applicable to themselves. And since the verbs termed Eegular are formed by addition to the root, while the so-called Irregular verbs are formed, in most instances, by internal change of the root- vowel — as take, took ; shake, shook \ the Eegulars have been called Weak verbs, and the Irregulars Strong verbs. But other grammarians consider these terms fanciful and objectionable. They remark, truly enough, that all deriva- tives, all verbs borrowed from other languages, in short all new verbs, are formed in the first method, by adding -ed or -d. It is also a fact, that many verbs, which once formed their past tense by change of vowel, now take the form in -ed, -d, or -t ; as Up, step, mew, snew, now take the form leapt, slept, mowed, snowed. Hence we may infer, ' that there is a tendency for the one form to be displaced by the other ; and the more we compare the older stages of our language with the newer, the more clearly we see that such is actually the case.' — Latham, Eng- lish Grammar, § 136. For these reasons, some grammarians prefer the terms New and Old Conjugation ; assigning Regular verbs to the New, and Irregular verbs to the Old. But these terms are liable to mislead the student, for many verbs in the New conjugation are historically as old as verbs in the other. 326. We have, then, the following comparison of terms :— 1. Regular . . . Weak . . . New 2. Irregular . . . Strong . . . Old. Now, we observe that all these terms involve a theory ; and, as a matter of course, the advocates of each fresh proposal condemn their predecessors ; because, unless the former terms were objectionable, there was no necessity for change. But, in the present state of our knowledge, we should beware of giving names which involve any theory whatever, because future investigations may prove that our tenns have been un- advisedly imposed. It appears safer to divide verbs into the First and Second conjugations. VERBS. 169 VEEBS OF THE FIRST CONJUGATION. 327. Verbs of the First Conjugation form their Past Tense and Perfect Participle by adding -ed to the root of the verb, or 'd alone, if the verb itself ends in -e : as, call call-ed call-ed move move-d move-d. But certain changes take place, according to the letters in which the verb itself terminates. When the verb ends in -?/, with a consonant immediately preceding, the y is turned into i in the past tense and the per- fect participle : as, reply replied replied. But if the -y be preceded by a vowel, -ed is generally added : as, delay delayed delayed convey conveyed conveyed. Yet not always ; for sometimes the e is dropped, and the y is changed into i : as, lay laid laid pay paid paid say . said said. Sometimes, too, authors differ in their way of writing : from the verb stay^ some will write stayed, others staid, 328. With reference to verbs ending in a single consonant, the rules are uncertain. We are told that when the verb ends in a single consonant, which has a single vowel imme- diately before it, the final consonant is doubled in the past tense and the perfect participle : as, rap rapped rapped. But this rule holds good only for words of one syllable ; for with verbs of more than one syllable, the consonant is not doubled, unless the accent be on the last syllable : thus we write, open opened opened, but refer referred referred. Yet, even here, usage is not consistent. There is a tendency to double the letters Z, j9, and t : we constantly see levellecL bigotted, rivetted, worshipped. Unless my memory deceives I 170 RULES AND CAUTIONS. me, I have seen heiiefitted in a leading article of the Times, The word unparalleled is constantly written with one I be- fore -ed^ to avoid an accumulation of consonants. The Ame- ricans, following Dr. Webster, generally observe the strict rule, and do not double the consonant, unless the accent falls upon the last syllable of the root. 329. But we have to consider the doctrine of contraction. In all languages, there is a tendency to abbreviation, and we generally pronounce more briefly than we write ; we say ZovW, mov'd for loved^ moved. Archdeacon Hare proposed that, fol- lowing the example of Spenser and Milton, we should adopt that form of writing which expresses the sound. For example, Spenser writes looTct^ pluckt^ nurst, kist ; and Milton has hurld^ worshipty confest. According to this view the rule would be, * where e is omitted in the past tense and perfect participle, the d becomes t after I, m, n, /?, Jc, /, gh, and s ; as dealt, dreamt, learnt, crept, crackt, reft, sought, hist,'' At pre- sent our usage is not uniform ; some write dropt, others dropped', and many who write dropt, would scruple to use wisht and jumpt, for wished and jumped. To show the incon- sistency of our custom, Archdeacon Hare quotes this stanza from Coleridge's Genevieve : Her bosom heaved, she stepped aside, As conscious of my look she stepped Then suddenly, with timorous eye, She fled to me and wept. There is no reason why we should not write stept, just as we write wept. But the English language is full of these incon- sistencies. If the root of a verb ends in a double consonant, one of the two is always rejected before -d or -t : as, dwell dwelt dwelt spill spilt spilt. Hence if the e of dropped is omitted, the word becomes dropt, 330. Many verbs of this conjugation, besides adding -d or r-t, admit changes of the internal vowel. We therefore make the following divisions : I. Verbs forming their past tense and perfect participle by adding -d or -t, and by shortening the vowel of the root. (1) Verbs ending in a vowel : flee fled fled lose lost lost. VERBS. 171 (2) Verbs ending in -Z : deal dealt dealt feel felt felt. In dealt the shortening is not exhibited to the eye ; but the word is pronounced delt, (3) Verb ending in -n : mean meant meant. (4) Verbs ending in -p : creep crept crept keep kept kept sleep slept slept sweep swept swept weep wept wept. In bereave and leave there is not only a shortening of the vowel, but a change of consonant, v'd becoming/'^: bereave bereft bereft leave left left. 331. IL Verbs forming their past tense and perfect par- ticiple, by adding -d or -t, and by changing the vowel of the root : as, sell sold sold tell told told. With verbs ending in ^, g, ch, not only is there a change of vowel, but the final consonant of the root is changed into gh, (1) Verbs ending in -k : seek sought think thought work wrought sought thought wrought (2) Verb ending in -g (or rather bring brought in -ng) : brought. (3) Verbs ending in -ch : catch caught be-seech be-sought teach taught caught be-sought taught. In Old English, the verb reach was conjugated, reach raught raught. So Chaucer says of the Prioresse, Full semely after her mete she raught. Canterbury Tales, Prologue, i2 172 RULES AND CAUTIONS. In the verb huy (A. S. hycg-an) the consonant g does not appear, as a final, in the present tense ; but it finds place in the past tense and the perfect participle : buy bought bought. In the verb fight^ the letter t is an original part of the root ; so that, strictly, this verb ought to be classed with verbs ending in -t, — See § 333. The verb light^ where the -Ms part of the root, is con- jugate light lighted lighted. But sometimes the essential character of the -t is forgotten, and contraction takes place : light lit lit. Verbs ending in -d or -t, 332. Special attention must be paid to verbs the root of which ends in -d or -t. If, for example, we take the verbs which are said not to change their form in the past tense and perfect participle, we find that they all end in -d or -L (1) Verbs ending in -d : rid rid rid shed shed shed shred shred shred spread spread spread. rbs ending in 't: burst burst burst cast cast cast cost cost cost cut cut cut hit hit hit hurt hurt hurt knit knit knit let let let put put put set set set shut shut shut slit slit slit split split ~ split sweat sweat sweat thrust thrust thrust. Dr. Lowth thinks that these forms have resulted from con- VERBS. 173 traction ; hence he considers them not as irregular, but as contracted. — See Lowth, English Grammar^ pp. 73, 74. In fact, not being able to pronounce such an accumiilation of consonants as hurst'' d or burs ft, we drop the last letter altogether. 333. In the following verbs, the final -d of the root is changed into -^ in the past tense and the perfect participle : bend bent bent build built built gild gilt gilt gird girt girt lend lent lent rend rent rent send sent sent spend spent spent. In some instances -d or -f remains throughout, but the in- ternal vowel is shortened : bleed bled bled breed bred bred feed fed fed lead led led read read read (pronounced red) speed sped sped meet met met. In Jiffht the internal vowel is changed : fight fought fought. VEEBS OF THE SECOND CONJUOATION. 334. Verbs of the Second Conjugation form the past tense by change of internal vowel, that is, by changing the vowel or diphthong in the root of the verb ; as, break, broke ; drink, drank; steal, stole. The perfect participle, in verbs of this conjugation, is gene- rally formed by adding -en or -n, with or without change of internal vowel. Examples : break broke (or brake) broken choose chose chosen cleave clove (or clave) cloven drive drove (or drave) driven eat ate (or eat) eaten 174, h RULES AND CAVTIOSS. fall feU fallen be-faU be-fell be-fallen freeze froze frozen give for-give gave for-gave given for-given rise rose risen a-rise a-rose a-risen for-sake for-sook for-saken shake shook shaken speak steal spoke (or spake) stole spoken stolen strive strove striven strike struck stricken {or struck) take took taken thrive throve thriven weave wove woven wake a-wake woke a-woke waken [or waked) a-waken {or awaked). \35. When the verb ends in w, y^ , or a vowel, the e of th< feet participle is omitted : as, blow blew blown crow crew [crown] {or crowed) fly flew flown grow know grew knew grown known lie lay lain {or lien) see saw seen slay throw slew threw slain thrown. The verb show had an old form of the past tense shew^ for which showed is now used. The participle shown is still preserved. The same rule aff*ects verbs ending in -r : as, bear {carry) bore {or bare) borne for-bear for-bore for-borne bear {bring forth) bore {or bare) born shore {or sheared) shorn swore sworn tore torn shear swear tear wear worn. 336. With the following verbs, ending in -d or -de^ t or VERBS, 175 -te, the consonant is doubled before the termination -en of the perfect participle. (1) Verbs ending in -d : bid bade for-bid for-bade tread trod bidden for-bidden trodden. (2) Verbs ending in -de : chide chid (or chode) chidden hide hid hidden ride rode ridden slide slid slidden. The verb abide is conjugated, abide abode abode. (3) Verbs ending in -t : get got (or sit sat spit spat Aoot shot gat) gotten (or got) sitten {or sat) spitten shotten (or shot). The verb heat exhibits no change in beat beat the past tense : beaten. (4) Verbs ending in -^e : bite bit smite smote write wrote bitten smitten written. 337. With verbs ending in -n or -ne, -m or -me, the prin- ciple of contraction seems applicable, and the termination -en is omitted altogether. If we compare our verb begin with the German beginnen begann begonnen, we may reasonably conjecture that our participle begun has been derived by contraction from begunnen to begunn^n, and finally to begun, (1) Verbs ending in -n : be-gin be-gan be-gun run ran run spin span spun win won won. (2) Verb ending in -ne : shine shone shone. 176 RULES AND CAUTIONS. swum. come be-come. (3) Verb ending in -m : swim swam (4) Verbs ending in -me : come came be-come be-came 333. The same principle seems to be applicable in cases where the letter n immediately precedes a final consonant, as -nk, -ng. (1) Verbs ending in -nk : drink drank drunken (or drunk) shrink shrank shrunken {or shrunk) sink sank sunken {or sunk) slink slank slunk stink stank stunk. (2) Verbs ending in -ng : cling fling ring sing sling spring sting string swing wring The verb hang is conjugated, hang hung hung ; and also, according to the first conjugation, hang hanged hanged. The latter is used in speaking of persons, the former in refer-p ence to things. To these we may add verbs ending in bind bound find found grind ground wind wound I conjecture that the omission of the termination -en may be due to the presence of n before the final consonant ; and I am inclined to extend the same principle to verbs ending in -Id : as, hold held held {or holden) be-hold be-held be-held {or be-holden). clang [flang] {or flung) clung flung rang rung sang {or sung) sung [slang] {or slung) slung sprang {or sprung) sprung stung stung strung strung swung swung wrung wrung. -nd : boimd found ground wound. TERBS. 177 lEREaULAKS. 339. In the following verbs we find an apparent mixture of the two conjugations ; the past tense ends in -ed^ as with verbs of the first, and the perfect participle in -en or -w, as with verbs of the second conjugation : grave graved graven hew hewed hewn load {or lade) loaded laden {or loaded) mow mowed mown rive rived riven saw sawed sawn sew sewed sewn shave shaved shaven {or shaved) sow sowed sown {or sowed) swell swelled swollen {or swelled) wax waxed waxen {or waxed). The verb stand is conjugated stand stood stood. Some would say that the letter n is dropped in the past tense and perfect participle ; others, perhaps more correctly, that n is a strengthening letter in the present. The verb dig exhibits similarity of form in the past tense, and the perfect participle : dig dug dug. 340. Caution, — The confusion between lie and lay should be carefully avoided. Lie is intransitive, and its past tense is lay. Lay is transitive, and its past tense is laid. Examples of usage : To-day, I lay the book upon the table, and I lie down upon the sofa. Yesterday, I laid the book upon the table, and I lay down upon the sofa. The old participle perfect of lie is lien : as, ^ Though ye have lien among the pots ; * but the form now commonly used \^ lain. The perfect participle of lay is laid. 341. Apart from the use of auxiliaries, which we shall con- sider hereafter, the forms of our verbs are simple, and the inflections are few. We shall take an example of each con- jugation. i3 178 RULES AND CAUTIONS. FIRST CONJUGATION. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. ' 1. I love, 1. We love, 2. Thou lovest, 2. You love, X 3. He loves. . 3. They love. Past Tense. Singular. Plural. 3 1. I loved, 1. We loved, 2. Thou lovedst, 2. You loved, 3. He loved. 3. They loved. Future Tense. [No distinct inflection.] SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I love, 1. We love, 2. Thou love, 2. You love, 3. He love. 3. They love. Past Tense. Singular. Plural . 1. I loved, 1. We loved, 2. Thou loved, 2. You loved, 3. He loved. 3. They loved. Future Tense. [No distinct inflection.] IMPEEATIVE MOOD. Love. Infinitive Mood [to] love.* Gerund (or Infinitive) in -ing . , loving. Gerund with to to love.f PAETICIPLES. Present loving. ^ Perfect loved. * The-eign to is enclosed in brackets [to], in order to show that it may be omitted in certain constructions, t The G-erundial prefix, to, t is never omitted. VERBS. 179 SECOND CONJUGATION. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. ^ 1. I write, 1. We write, 2. Thou writest, 2, You write, 2 3. He writes. 3. They write. Past Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I wrote, 1. We wrote, 2. Thou wrotest, 2. You wrote, 3. He wrote. 3. They Avrote. Future Tense. [No distinct inflection.] SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I write, 1. We write, 2. Thou write, 2. You write, 3. He write. 3. They write. Past Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I wrot€, • 1. We wrote, 2. Thou wrote, 2. You wrote, 3. He wrote, 3. They wrote. Future Tense. [No distinct inflection.] IMPERATIVE MOOD. Write. Infinitive Mood [to] write. Gei^nd (or Infinitive) in -ing . . writing. Gerund with to to write. PARTICIPLES. ^ Present writing. (^^ Perfect written. 180 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 342. The whole number of verbs in the English language has been estimated at upwards of four thousand. Most of them belong to the First Conjugation ; those of the Second Conjugation barely amount to one hundred. Even of these, only a certain number exhibit a distinct form in the past tense and the perfect participle ; while the general bent of the language is towards the other form, which makes the past tense and the perfect participle the same. This general tendency of the language has given rise, as Dr. Lowth thinks, to great corruption, and to confusion of the past tense with the perfect participle, in some of these verbs ; as ' he begun' for ' he began / ' he run ' for '■ he ran;' he drunk'' for ' he drank ;' the participle being used instead of the past tense. And much more frequently the form of the past tense is found, where we should expect the participle ; as, ' I had wrote,'' ' it was wrote' for ' I had written," ' it was written/ * I have drank," for ' I have drunk/ bid for bidde^i, got for gotten, &c. This confusion, adds the Doctor, prevails in common discourse, and is too much authorised by the example of some of our best writers; as, He would have spoke. Milton, Paradise Lost, x. 517. Words interwove with sighs found out their way. Ibid, i. 621. And envious darkness, ere they could return, Had stole them from me. Id. Comus, 195. (Where the Author's MS. and the first edition read siolne.) And in triumph had rode. Id. Paradise Begained, iii. 36. I will scarce think you have swam in a gondola. As You Like It, iv. 1. Then finish what you have began. But scribble faster, if you can. Dryden, Poems, vol. ii. p. 172. Rapt into future times the bard begun * A Virgin shall conceive, a Virgin bear a Son.' Pope, Messiah. A second deluge learning thus o'er-run, And the Monks finished what the Goths begun. Id. Essay on Criticism, No civil broils have since his death arose. Dryden, on Oliver Cromwell. The sun has rose, and gone to bed, Just as if Partridge were not dead. Swift. Some philosophers have mistook. Id. Tale of a Tub, § ix. VERBS. 181 Why, all the souls that were, were forfeit once ; And He, that might the Vantage best have tooky Found out the remedy. Measure for Measure, ii. 2. Silence Was took ere she was ware. Milton, Comus, 557. A fine constitution, when it has been shook by the iniquity of former administrations. . . . — Bolingbroke, Fatriot King, See Lowth, English Grammar, pp. 94-96. To these we may add a stanza from Byron's Hebrew Melodies: And the widows of Ashur are loud in their wail ; And the idols are broke in the temple of Baal ; And the might of the Gentiles unsmote by the sword, Has melted like snow in the glance of the Lord. Home Tooke, opposing the view taken by Dr. Lowth, contends that the Past Participle is the Fast Tense Adjective, by which he means the past tense used adjectively. He thinks that, just as we use one noun sub- stantive to qualify another noun subtantive [e.g. ' a gold watch'], so we are accustomed to use the Past Tense itself, without any change of termi- nation, instead of the Perfect Participle ; and the Past Tense so used answers the purpose equally with the Participle, and conveys the same meaning. Dr. Lowth, he adds, who was much better acquainted with Greek and Latin than with English, finds great fault with this our English custom, calls it a very gross corruption, and complains that it is too much authorised by the example of some of our best writers. He then gives instances of this inexcusable barbarism from Shakespeare, Milton, Dryden, Pope, and Bolingbroke. And if he had been pleased to go further back than Shakespeare, he might (in the opinion of Home Tooke) have given instances of the same from ever?/ writer in the English tongue. It is, says Home Tooke, the idiom of the language ; and Dr. Lowth is undoubtedly in error when he says, ' This abuse has been long growing upon us, and is continually making further encroach- ments.' Home Tooke thinks, on the contraiy, that the custom has greatly decreased ; and as the Greek and Latin languages have become more familiar to Englishmen, our language has proceeded more and more to bend to the rules and customs of those languages. However, he concludes, we shall be much to blame if we miss the ad- vantage afforded by these very defects ; for they may assist us to discover the nature of human speech, by a comparison of our own language with more cultivated languages. And this is eminently the case in the present instances of the Past Participle and the Noun Adjective. Eor, since we can and do use our Noun itself unaltered, and our Past Tense unaltered, for the same purpose and the same meaning, as the Greeks and Latins use their Adjective and their Participle ; it is manifest that their Adjective and Participle are merely their Noun and Past Tense adjectived. — Home Tooke, Diversions of Furley, vol. ii. pp. 470-474. 343. It is not true that writers older than Shakespeare use tlie past tense for the perfect participle. No doubt, as tlie 182 RULES AND CAUTIONS. two forms coincide in verbs of the first conjugation, there was a strong tendency to apply the same principle to verbs of the second conjugation. This tendency prevailed, fi-om the time of Shakespeare to the middle of the last century, especially in poetry, where such forms as took and shook afforded greater facilities of rhyme than taken and shaken. During the last seventy years, the study of our older literature has made us better acquainted with the original idiom of the language ; hence, as Home Tooke admits, * the custom has greatly decreased,' though not for the reasons which he assigns. It was not the study of the Greek and Latin languages, but that of Old English, which led us to see the truth. The case is correctly stated by Dr. Latham. This coinci- dence of the Past Tense and the Perfect Participle appears to have arisen from the rejection of the participial termination -en. The vowel of the participle is often the same as the vowel of the past tense, as spoke ^ spoken ; though not always, as tookj taken. When the vowel is the same, and when the termination -en or -n is rejected, the Past Tense and the Perfect Participle exhibit the same form as * I found ^^ * I h?i>YQ foundj ' I was found.' In such a case, it seems as if the past tense was used for the participle. But it is only in a few words, and in the most modern forms of our language, that this is really done. — See Latham, English Grammar^ §§ ^j 14. VOICE. 344. As there are, in English nouns, no differences of ter- mination to distinguish the objective from the nominative, younger pupils are sometimes perplexed in comparing an active form of verb with the corresponding passive form. Take, for example, the following sentences : — 1. William loves Mary. 2. Mary is loved by William. Here the same fact is stated in both sentences ; but the grammatical construction is very different. In the first case, ' William ' is the subject-nominative, and * Mary ' is the ob- jective ; while, in the second, * Mary' is the subject-nomina- tive, and ' William ' is in the objective case, governed by the preposition * by.' Those who are familiar with inflected languages, such aa Greek and Latin, where the noims alter their terminations to VERBS. 183 denote difference of case, may wonder that any perplexity sliould arise. But the mere English scholar needs assistance to miderstand this point. Cobbett states that he was very much puzzled on account of these cases. He says ( Grammar^ § 233), ^ I saw, that when ^^ Peter was smitten,''^ Peter was in the nominative case] but that, when any person or thing " had smitten Peter," Peter was in the objective ease. This puzzled me much. Reflection on the reason for this apparent incon- sistency soon taught me, however, that, in the first of these cases, Peter is merely named, or nominated, as the receiver of an action ; and that, in the latter instance, Peter is mentioned as the object of the action of some other person or thing, ex- pressed or understood. I perceived that, in the first instance, '^ Peter is smitten,^' I had a complete sense. I was informed as to the person who had received an action, and also as to what sort of action he had received. And I perceived that, in the second instance, ^' John has smitten Peter, ^^ there was an actor who took possession of the use of the verb, and made Peter the object of it, and that this actor, John, now took to the nominative, and put Peter in the objective case. ^ This puzzle was, however, hardly got over, when another presented itself; for I conceived the notion that Peter was in the nominative only because no actor ivas mentioned at all in the sentence ; but I soon discovered this to be an error, for I found that " Peter is smitten by John " still left Peter in the nominative ; and that, if I used the pronoun, I must say " he is smitten by John,' and not ''' him is smitten by John." * At last the little insignificant word by attracted my atten- tion. This word, in this place, is a 2^reposition. Ah ! that is it ! prepositions govern nouns and pronouns ; that is to say, make them to be in the objective case ! So that John, who had plagued me so much, I found to be in the objective case ; and I found that, if I put him out, and put the pronoun in his place, I must say, '' Peter is smitten by him^ ' 345. Now let us analyse the examples taken above : 1. William loves Mary. William .... Subject-nominative loves Predicate-verb Mary Objective, 2. Mary is loved by William. According to the method which we have hitherto followed, we analyse 184 EULES AND CAUTIONS. Mary .... Subject-nominative is Predicate-verb loved .... Predicate-nominative by William . . Adverbial phrase^ qualifying the predicate nominative^ ' loved.' But, in the Latin language * is loved ' would be expressed by a single word amatur ; hence, in the analysis of Latin sen- tences, it is proper to call amatur a * predicate-verb.' I am inclined to think that we may do well to introduce the same form of analysis in English sentences : thus, Mary Subject-nominative is loved .... Predicate-verb J compounded of the auxiliary is^ and the par- ticiple loved^ used as a predi- cate-nominative, by William . . . Adverbial phrase^ qualifying the predicate-verb J ' is loved.' 346. But here a caution must be observed. We are not to suppose that is, or any other part of the verb be, is a * sign of the passive voice.' In the sentence, ' He is breaking the windows,' * is breaking ' is transitive ; in the sentences ^ He is coming,' * He is come,' is coming and is come are intran- sitive. Every passive voice in English forms its tenses by means of the verb be ; though every form in which the verb be is found is not passive. ' I am writing ' is an active form ; and * he is come ' is the present-perfect tense of an intransitive verb. Whether, therefore, a verb is in the passive voice, or whether it exhibits the form of a verb transitive or intransi- tive, is decided not by the presence of the auxiliary, but by the nature of the participle. — See Angus, Handbook, § 276. MOOD. 347. The grammatical term ' Mood ' is derived from the French mode, signifying * manner,'- and this, in turn, comes from the Latin modus. Our ordinary English word * mood ' has another origin, being derived from the Anglo-Saxon mod, which denotes (1) 'mind,' (2) * mood,' ^disposition,' * passion.' (Compare the German muth, * courage,' and ge-micth, * mood,' * disposition.') The two notions of ' manner ' and * mind ' seem to run VERBS. 185 together in the definitions proposed by some of our gram- marians. For instance, Dr. Lowth says : ' A Mode is a par- ticular form of the Verb, denoting the manner in which a thing is, does, or suiFers ; or expressing an intention of mind concerning such being, doing, or suffering.' — Lowth, English Grammar, p. 50, note. And Sir John Stoddart says : ^ The Mood of a verb is that manner in which its assertive power is exhibited, and which depends on the state of mind in which the speaker may be placed with relation to the assertion.' — Universal Grammar, p. 50. We might suspect that English writers were in some way influenced by the twofold derivation of the word * mood ; ' but the same remark could not apply to Priscian, who still says : * Modi sunt diversae inclinationes animi, quas varia consequitur declinatio verb!.' [^ Modi sunt diversge inclina- tiones animi varies ejus affectus demonstrantes.' — Prise, viii. ed. Putsch, p. 819.] No doubt, the mode of the verb, or the manner of expres- sion, will generally correspond with the mood, that is, the mind or disposition of the speaker ; but it is important to dis- tinguish the original meaning of the terms. Dr. Lowth has retained the grammatical term Mode, and in this he is fol- lowed by other writers ; but as the term Mood is more common in English grammars, it is hardly worth while to make any change. Grammarians differ widely as to the number and the names of the Moods. Some make only three ; others admit four, five, six, or even more. The names too are various ; and some terms have been accepted in the grammar of one lan- guage which find no place in the grammar of other languages. For example, in Greek grammar we hear of an ^ optative ' mood. The ' potential ' mood has struggled for a position in some grammars, but with doubtful success ; while the * pre- cative ' and ^ interrogative ' moods have met with still less favour. If by * mood * is meant an alteration of form, in any verb, to express variety of assertion, then we have traces of only four moods in English : the Indicative, the Subjunctive, the Imperative, and the Infinitive. But if we admit variations produced by the help of auxiliary verbs, it is difficult to set any limit to the number of moods. % 186 RULES AND CAUTIONS. The Four Moods, 3.48. 1. The Indicative mood is used to make a simple assertion, or declaration : as, ' Light shines,' * They come,' ' Bread is dear.' 2. The Subjmictive mood is used to make a modified asser- tion : as,/ Kit be,' * Though he slay me.' 3. The Imperative mood is used to utter commands, entrea- ties, or exhortations : as, * Leave me,' * Spare us,' * Go forward.' 4. The Infinitive mood is really a Verbal Substantive. It has the force of a substantive, yet it retains some of the powers of a verb. It loses, however, all distinction of person or number. TENSE. 349. The word tense is derived from the French temps or terns, which itself comes from the Latin tempus, * time.' But we must carefully distinguish between tense and time. Some speculators have maintained that there is no such thing as * time present ; ' for each moment is constantly fleet- ing into ^ time past,' and the moment just about to arrive is * time future.' But tense is the grammatical notion of time ; and we are at liberty to consider time under whatever aspects we please ; we may regard one day as a thousand years, or a thousand years as one day. The general division of time is into ^ past,' ^ present,' and ^ fiiture.' Hence, if the time of an event were the only thing to be considered in grammar, we might make three tenses, and three only. But beside the time of an action, there are three aspects under which an action or event may be viewed. 1. An action may be incomplete, or, as it is usually called, Imperfect. 2. An action may be complete, or Perfect. 3. An action may be regarded as occurring from time to time, or at any time, without any consideration whether it be complete or incomplete : in this case, the term used is Indefinite, or, in Greek grammar, Aorist. The student of Greek grammar should be- ware of confounding aorist with past. There might VERBS. 187 be a present-aorist ; and although such a tense has no distinct form in Greek, the aorist, in Homer ^ has often the force of an indefinite-present. We have then : Present Past Future Indefinite Lnjperfect Perfect I write I am writing I have written I wrote I was writing I had written I shall write. I shall be writing. I shall have written. or, in other words : Present- Indefinite Present-Imperfect Present- Perfect . Past- Indefinite , Past- Imperfect . Past-Perfect . . Future- Indefinite . Future- Imperfect Future- Perfect . I write. I am writing. I have written. I wrote. I was writing. I had written. I shall write. I shall be writing. I shall have written. 350. Younger pupils may be profitably exercised and cross- examined upon a table of this kind, in order to impress upon their minds a correct notion of the tenses. It may be well to explain that the term ' imperfect ' denotes something * con- tinuous,' that is, ^ going on.' For example, the ' present im- perfect,' / am writing J denotes a continuous action, going on at the present time. So the * past-imperfect,' / was writing^ denotes a continuous action, going on at some past time. On the other hand, the term ^ perfect ' means ^ complete,' or ' finished : ' thus, / shall have written means ^ I shall have finished the act of writing.' From this table it appears that perfect and past are not the same. A tense is past, present, or future, according to the time whereof we speak ; not according to the completeness or incompleteness of the action. Many persons are liable to confound the terms past and perfect^ because they derived their first notions of grammar from the Latin language, where the same form has to do double duty, for the past-indefinite and the present-perfect. For example, scripsi may mean ' I wrote,' or ' I have written.' It is sometimes difficult to make pupils see that * I have writ- 188 KULES AND CAUTIONS. ten ' implies time present ; for they argue that the action is finished. So it is ; but it is finished in time present^ that is, in the time whereof the speaker is now speaking. If we arrange the Latin tenses in a manner corresponding to the English tenses given above, we at once perceive the deficiency of the Latin language. Present Fast Future Indefinite Imperfect Ferfect scribo (scribo) (scripsi) scripsi scribebam scripseram scribam. (scribam). scripsero. Here we remark that scribo does duty for * I write ' and ^ I am writing,' as scribam for * I shall write ' and * I shall be writing.' As, however, these are tenses of the same order, present or future respectively, no serious error is likely to arise. But the case of scripsi is very different. That word does duty for tenses of different orders ; for the past indefinite * I wrote,' and for the present perfect ^ I have written.' It is very important to understand that ^ I have written ' is a present tense ; for, although it denotes a ^ perfect ' or ' com- pleted ' action, yet the completion takes place in present time. Thus, for the sake of illustration, we may say : Past. Yesterday at twelve o'clock, I had written my exercise. Present. To-day, at twelve o'clock, I have written my exercise, and the ink is not yet dry. Future. To-morrow, at twelve o'clock, I shall have written my exercise. It must be clear, that * I have written ' points to time pre- sent. And the same tense, the present-perfect, is employed in reference to an action, the effects of which continue up to the present time. Thus we may say, * England has founded a mighty Empire in the East,' because that Empire still con- tinues. But we cannot say, * Cromwell has founded a dynasty,' because the dynasty exists no longer. — See Mason, English Grammar, § 207. 351. Hence, with the present-perfect we should never join adverbs, or other words, which involve a reference to time past. Thus the following passages are incorrect : — I have formerly talked with you about a military dic- tionary. — Johnson. VEEBS. 189 Many years after this article was written, has appeared the history of English Dramatic Poetry by Mr. Collier. — D'Israeli. On the other hand we should not use the past tense inde- finite with an adverb, or other word, which involves time present. In Cork people constantly say, * I did not see him since,^ ^ I did not find it yet,'' for ' I have not seen him since,' * I have not found it yet.' 352. The indefinite tenses refer strictly to a point of time, and to single acts without regard to duration : they are, how- ever, used to express repeated acts and habits. We may observe the following peculiarities : 1. The present indefinite is used to express general truths : as ' Love is stronger than death,' ^ One fool makes many.' 2. Both the present and the past indefinite are used to express habit ; as, ' He writes a good hand,' ' He went to the Hall every day.' In the Irish language, there are forms called Consnetudinal tenses : as, bidhrm (pronounced bee-im), ' I am usually ;' bhidhinn (pronounced vee-i?m), ' I used to be.' — See Connellan, Irish Grammar, pp. 58, 60. In the Anglo-Irish, as spoken at Cork, the Consuetudinal present is rendered by the auxiliaries do and be : as, '1 do be thinking.' Those who wish to make it fine, say ' Fd a be thinking.' At first I thought this was a contraction for ' I would be thinking ;' but I afterwards discovered that this explanation was not correct. 3. In animated narrative, and in poetry, the present is used to describe past events. This is commonly called the Historic Present, So : He through the armed files Darts his experienced eye, and soon traverse The whole battalion views, their order due, Their visages and stature as of gods, Their number last he sums. Milton, Paradise Lost, i. 567. 4. The present indefinite is often used for a future, both for future -indefinite and future- perfect : as. Indefinite, Duncan comes here to-night. Perfect, When he arrives, he will bring the news. i. e. * When he shall have arrived.' 353. This is a remnant of the old language. In Anglo- Saxon there was no distinct form for the fiitiure ; or rather, 190 RULES ANT) CAUTIONS. one form was made to do double duty for the future as well as for the present. Obs. — In Welsh, on the other hand, there is no distinct form for the present tense, and the future sometimes does duty for the present. More commonly, in Welsh, the present is represented by the verb bod^ * be,' joined to a form of the principal verb, with the prefixed particle yn. In Hebrew tl^re is no distinctive present tense. 354. From t*his we may understand the reason why the future tense in English offers so much difficulty. First of all, we must remember, that in modern English there is no distinct infiection to represent the future ; and that, especially in com- mon conversation, we employ a present tense with a future signification : as ^ I go to London to-morrow,' * He comes down next week.' The same usage is very common in accessory clauses : as, ^ When he comes ^ he will tell us.' Here other languages would require a form denoting ^ when he shall come^ or, more strictly, ^ when he shall have come^ This point should be carefully remembered, when we are translating from Eng- lish into other languages. When we wish to employ a distinctive future, we make use of the auxiliaries * shall' and ^ will' followed by the infi- nitive mood, but without the prefix to. For example, in the phrases ^ I will writej * You shall see^ the verbs write and see are grammatically in the infinitive mood, dependent upon the auxiliary verbs ' will' and ^ shall.' In Anglo-Saxon these were independent verbs, with signi- fications of their own : willan^ ^ to will, to wish ; ' sceolan, ^ to owe.' In modem English will retains its independent powers, as ' Man willSj' ' What he wills must be done.' Hence, because these verbs are not mere signs of futurity, but still retain traces of their original signification, they cannot be used indifferently ; but the speaker appropriates as much as he can of the will^ and puts upon other people as much as Y possible of the shall. It is ^ I will ' and * You shall.' 4 I have often been amused to hear two English children dis- puting, and to observe how accurately they discriminate the use of the auxiliaries. As, * I will not^ * But you shall \ ' ^ But I will not^^ ' But, I say, you shall ]^ * But, I tell you, I will not ' . . . ; and so they have gone on, until little could be heard, but will on the one side, and shall on the other. 355. On this subject, the older grammars were not only meagre, but likely to mislead the student ; for the future was given thus : VERBS. 191 Future Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I shall or will love, 1. We shall or will love, 2. Thou shalt or wilt love, 2. You shall or will love, 3. He shall or will love. 3. They shall or will love. Now the future is not expressed by * shall or will ; ' but sometimes by * shall,' and at other times by * will.' When the one form is to be used, and when the other, is a question which the grammarian ought to answer. 356. We have two fature tenses in English ; one express- ing simple futurity; the other expressing determination of some kind, as command, threat, or promise. I call these, I. the Simple Future; II. the Determinate (or Imperative) Future. I. Simple Future. Singular. Plural. 1. I shall write, 1. We shall write, 2. Thou wilt write, 2. You will write, 3. He will write. 3. They will write. II. Determinate Future. Singular. • Plural. 1. I will write, 1. We will write, 2. Thou shalt write, 2. You shall write, 3. He shall write. 3. They shall write. These forms are used in indicative sentences. In interro- gative sentences the following forms are employed : 357. — I. Simple Future {Interrogative^. Singular. Plural. 1. A^Aa^Z I write ? 1. /S'Aa/Z we write ? 2. Shalt thou write ? 2. Shall you write ? 3. Will he write ? 3. Will they write? II. Determinate Future {Interrogative). Singular. Plural. 1. Shall 1 write? 1. Shall we writel 2. Wilt thou write ? 2. Will you write ? 3. Shall he write ? 3. Shall they write ? With interrogatives * shall ' asks permission or advice from 192 BULES AND CAUTIONS. the person addressed. It is, therefore, used with the first and third persons of the Determinate Future Interrogative. In the second person, of the same tense, the inquirer asks the consent of the person addressed, and therefore * will ' is used, especially in invitations. Although shall is used in the first and second persons of the Simple Future Interrogative, there is a tendency to vary the phrase : as, ^ Are you going to write ? ' * Am I likely to hear from him ? ' ' Are they about to sail ? ' 358. It is a common mistake in Ireland to ask ' Will I go ? ' and ^ Will we go ? ' But the speaker ought to know his own mind, and should never interrogate another person about his own will, * Will I ? ' can never be used, except in the repe- tition of a question, in a tone of surprise : as, ^ Will you go ? ' ' Will I go ? Of course I will.' On the other hand, the Irish often say ' I shall,' in answer to a question asking for assent : as, * Will you write to me ? ' * I shall.^ This form occurs in older English, and not un- commonly in Shakespeare : K. Henri/, Brothers both, Commend me to the princes in our camp ; Do my good morrow to them ; and, anon, Desire them all to my pavilion. Gloster, We shall, my liege. — Henry V. iv. 1. K, Henry. Good old Knight, Collect them all together at my tent ; I'll be before thee. Erpingham, I shall do't, my lord. — Ibid. 359. But this use of ^ shall ' is contrary to present custom. \\Taen we expect an assurance of assent, we look for an ex- pression of the loill — * I will.' I have observed, in Ireland, that there is an aversion to the use of absolute, imperative language. People seem to avoid the words ought, must, and the ^ absolute shall ' of which Shakespeare speaks : Licinius, It is a mind That shall remain a poison where it is, Nor poison any further. Coriolanus, Shall remain ! Hear ye this Triton of the minnows ? Mark you His absolute * shall? ' — Coriolanus, iii. 1. TEEBS. 193 People in Cork commonly say * A man has a right to pay bis debts,' and * The money has a right to be paid,' when they mean that, ' A man ought to pay his debts,' and that * The money must or should be paid.' Similarly nurses some- times say to a child, ^ Oh ! you could not have that,' for ' you must not have that.' In like manner, in Scotland, people often say, ^ You require to go out,' where there is no requirement at all, in the sense of ^ wanting ' or ^ wishing ; ' but where the speaker means ^ It is your duty to go out,' or ^ You must go out.' 360. The distinction between ^ shall ' and ^ will ' is one of the great difficulties of the English language, more vexatious to an Irishman or Scotchman than to a foreigner. For the Irishman or Scotchman has to unlearn his own habit of speak- ing, in addition to acquiring the English idiom. Dr. Lowth, (E?iglish Grammar, p. 65,) states the rule thus : ^ Will in the first person singular and plural promises or threatens ; in the second and third persons, only foretels; shall, on the con- trary, in the first person, simply foretels ; in the second and third persons, promises, commands, or threatens.' Then he adds in a note : ' This distinction was not observed formerly as to the word shall, which was used in the second and third persons to express simply the event. So likewise should was used, where now we make use of would. See the Vulgar Translation of the Bible.' He further remarks that this rule must be understood of Explicative, by which, no doubt, he means Indicative sen- tences ; ^ for,' he says, ^ when the sentence is interrogative, just the reverse, for the most part, takes place : thus, " I shall go ; you ivill go," express event only ; but " ivill you go ? " imports intention ; and " shall I go ? " refers to the will of another. But again, " he shall go," and " shall he go ? " both imply will, expressing or referring to a command. Would primarily denotes inclination of will, and should, obligation ; but they both vary their import, and are often used to express a simple event.' Brightland sums up the rule in the following verses : In the first person simply shall foretells ; In will a threat, or else a promise dwells. Shall, in the second and the third, does threat ; Will, simply, then, foretells the future feat. This, however, must be understood of Indicative sentences only. E 194 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 361. Sir Edmund W. Head, who has discussed the question at length in a work entitled ' " Shall " and " Will/' ' lays down the following rules, pp. 119, 120 : ^ Will. TVill^ in the first person, expresses (a) a resolution, or (&) a promise : (a) " I will not go " = " It is mj resolution not to go." (5) "I ivill give it you " = " I promise to give it you." Will, in the second person, foretells : " If you come at twelve o'clock you will find me at home." Will, in the second person, in questions, anticipates (a) a wish, or (h) an intention : " Will you go to-morrow ? " = " Is it your wish or intention to go to-morrow ? " Will, in the third person, foretells, generally implying an intention at the same time, when the nominative is a rational creature : " He will come to-morrow," signifies (a) what is to take place, and {b) that it is the inten- tion of the person mentioned to come. " I think it will snow to-day," intimates what is, probably, to take place. Will must never be used in questions with nominative cases of the first person : " Will we come to-morrow " = " Is it our in- tention or desire to come to-morrow ? " which is an absurd question. 362. * Would. Would is subject to the same rules as will, Would^ followed by that, is frequently used (the nomi- native being expressed or understood) to express a wish : *' Would that he had died before this disgrace befell him " = " I wish that he had died be- fore this disgrace befell him." Would have, followed by an infinitive, signifies a desire to do or make : " I would have you think of these things " = " I wish to make you think of these things." VERBS. 195 Would is often "used to express a custom : *^ He would often talk about these things " = " It was his custom to talk of these things." 363. ^ Shall. Shall^ in the first person, foretells, simply expressing what is to take place : " I shall go to-morrow." Ohs. No intention or desire is expressed by shall. Shall, in the first person, in questions, asks permis- sion : " Shall I read ? " = " Do you wish me, or will you permit me, to read ? " [Sometimes shall in the first person marks a simple interroga- tive, as " shall I see him ? "] Shall, in the second and third persons, expresses (a) a promise, (h) a command, or (c) a threat. (a) " You shall have these books to-morrow " = " I promise to let you have these books to-morrow." (b) " Thou shalt not steal " = "I command thee not to steal." (a) (c) " He shall be punished for this " = " I threaten or promise to punish him for this offence." 364. ^ Should. Should is subject to the same rules as shall. Should frequently expresses dut?/ : ^^ You should not do so " = " It is your duty not to do so." Should often signifies a plan : " I should not do so " = " It would not be my plan to do so." Should often expresses a supposition : " Should they not agree to the proposals, what must I do ? " := " Suppose that it happen that they will not agree to the proposals,' &c." ' 365. These practical rules are good, as far as they go. But then, they have to be modified according to the signification of other words in a sentence. For instance, if I am leaving town, to take a journey, a friend says, *• I hope you will write to me.' I reply, ^ Yes, I will,'' or ^ I will do so Avith pleasure.' But if any word denoting willingness is introduced before the k2 196 RIJLES AND CAUTIONS. word ivrite^ the construction is altered. We do not saj^ * I will be happy to do so,' ^ I will be very glad to write ; ' but ' I shall be happy to do so,' ' I shall be very glad to write.' And why is this ? Because happiness implies willingness ; and to say ' I will be happy ' is almost like saying ' I will be willing.' Hence, it is not enough to study general rules, apart from the construction of sentences, and the mutual dependence of words in sentences. The grammatical rules must be supple- mented by familiarity with the best authors, and by conversa- tion in good society. We must, however, confess that the same attention has not been paid to English syntax that has been given to the Greek. We have nothing in English grammar comparable to the Greek grammars of Matthise, Buttmann, or Kuhner (Jelf). Still, certain points have been discussed. The reader may consult ' shall and will ' in Latham's English Language^ pp. 618-627, introducing the views of Archdeacon Hare and Professor De Morgan. See also a correspondence between H. E. G. and Professor De Morgan, in the Athenceuniy May 6, 1865. NUMBER. 366. In modern English there is generally no distinct ter- mination to mark the plural in verbs. In Anglo-Saxon, the termination of the plural was -ath in the Present Indicative, and on in the Past Indicative, and in the Subjunctive, both Present and Past. In Old English, and in some provincial dialects to the pre- sent day, the termination in -en is found ; so Chaucer, And smale foules maJcen melodie That slepen all night with open eye. Canterbury Tales, Prologue, 9. The chambres and the stables weren wide, And wel we weren esed atte beste. Ibid, 28. This termination was in common use down to the sixteenth century, when all indication of a plural form disappeared. Ben Jonson says, that ^ in former times, till about the reign of King Henry the Eighth, the persons plural were wont to be formed by adding en : thus, loven, say en, complainen. VERBS. 197 But now (whatsoever is the cause) it hath quite grown out of use, and that other so generally prevailed, that I dare not pre- sume to set this afoot again : albeit (to tell you my opinion) I am persuaded that the lack hereof well considered will be found a great blemish to our tongue.' — Ben Jonson, English Grammar^ i. 16. PEESON. 367. The terminations which mark differences of Person are foimd in the singular number of the Present and Past tenses Indicative. 1. First Person Singular. — The only verb which retains a distinctive termination for the first person singular is am {a-m), where the letter m represents the -077i of the Anglo-Saxon e-om. 2. Second Person Singular. — The termination of the second person singular is -est, -st, or -t : as, Present : call-est, csm-st, av-t. Past : spake-est, called-s^. 8. Third Person Singular. — The termination of the third person is -eth or -th, which in modern English assumes the form -es or -s. These terminations appear in the Present In- dicative only : Present : call-e^A, do-th. call-5, do-es, search-es. INFINITIVES AND PAKTICIPLES. Infinitives and Participles are respectively like nouns (sub- stantive) and adjectives. Infinitives resemble nouns, in the fact that they describe acts and states merely as things or notions ; and that the infinitive can be made either the sub- ject or the object of a verb. Participles resemble adjectives in attributing a quahty, without foimallT/ asserting it] and in agreeing with their nouns. But they differ respectively in the following particulars : — The Infinitive admits no plural form, and rarely a possessive genitive (i. e., the form ending in -5) ; and it can govern an objective case. The Participle active, when formed fi:om a transitive verb, can govern an accusative ; and then it gene- rally stands after its noun. See Angus, Handbook, § 286. In connection with the Infinitive, we must consider the forms called Gerunds. 198 EXILES AND CAUTIONS. INFINITIVE AND OEEUNDS. 368. In §§ 29 — 36 we discussed the history of the English infinitive, and we saw that the prefix to, its ordinary sign in modern English, belonged originally to the gerundial form of the Anglo-Saxon infinitive. Even in modern English, this prefix is not always necessary ; it is generally omitted after some of the auxiliaries, as may, can, and after some other verbs, as, hid, make. But in other cases, where to signifies * in order to,' it is a true preposition and marks a gerund. As * He came to see me,' that is, ' for seeing me,' * for the purpose of seeing me ; ' or, as it was expressed at one period, * for to see me.' We call this the Gerund with to. The form in -ing as ' loving,' ^ writing,' which must not be confounded with the present participle, is considered by Dr. Adams, whose opinions we followed, a remnant of the old infi- nitive. But as it has been usual to call this form a Gerund, some may wish to retain that term. If so they should dis- tinguish between the Gerund in -ing, and the Gerund with to, 369. There is considerable difficulty in determining the forms in-ing. The account given by Dr. Adams is the most consistent that I have seen. The following view is taken by Professor Max Miiller, Lectures on the Science of Language, Second Series, pp. 15-18: "We have not very far to go in order to hear such phrases as ' he is a-going, I am a-coming, &c.' instead of the more usual ' he is going, I am coming.' Now, the fact is that the vulgar or dialectic expression ' he is a-going' is far more correct than ' he is going.' (Archdeacon Hare, Words corrupted by False Analogy or False Derivation, p. Qb.y^ " Ing, in our modern grammars, is called the termination of the parti- ciple present, but it does not exist as such in Anglo-Saxon. In Anglo- Saxon the termination of that participle is ande or inde. This was preserved as late as Gower's and Chaucer's time, though in most cases it had then already been supplanted by the termination -ing. For example, Pointis and sieves be wel sittande Full right and straight upon the hande. Bomaunt of the Ease, 2264. ** Now, the termination -ing is clearly used in two different senses, even in modern English. If we say a ' loving child,' loving is a verbal adjec- tive. If we say * loving our neighbour is our highest duty,' loving is a verbal substantive. Again, there are many substantives in -ing, such as building, wedding, meeting, where the verbal character of the substan- tive is almost, if not entirely, lost." *'Now, if we look to Anglo-Saxon, we find the termination -ing used, (1) To form patronymics; for instance, Godvulfing, the son of God- vulf. In the Anglo-Saxon translation of the Bible, the son of Elisha is called Elising. YERBS. 199 (2). " Ing is used to form more general attributive words, such as (B\>€ling (atheling), * a man of rank ;' lyteling, ' an infant ;' nixing, * a bad man.' This -uig being frequently preceded by another suffix, the I, we arrive at the very common derivative -h7ig, in such words as darling^ hireling, yearling , foundling , nestling, worldling, changeling, *' It has been supposed that the modern English participle was formed by the same derivative ; but in Anglo-Saxon, this suffix -ing is chiefly attached to nouns and adjectives, not to verbs. There was, however, another derivative in Anglo-Saxon, which was attached to verbs in order to form verbal substantives. This was -ung, the G-erman -ung. For instance, clcmsung^ ' cleansing ;' bedcnung, ' beaconing,' &c. In early Anglo-Saxon, these abstract nouns in -ung are far more numerous than those in -i72g. Ing, however, began soon to encroach on 'U7ig, and at present no trace is left in English of substantives derived from verbs by means of -ung. " Although, as I said, it might seem more plausible to look on the modern participle in English as originally an adjective in -i7ig, such popular phrases as a-going, a-thinking point rather to the verbal sub- stantive in 'ing as the source from which the modern English participle was derived. ' I am going' is really a corruption of ' I am a-going,' i.e. * I am on going,' and the participle present would thus, by a very simple process^ be traced back to a Locative case of a verbal noun." PAETICIPLES. 370. Participle are verbal adjectives^ differing from ordi- nary adjectives in this, that they retain some of the powers of a verb ; for instance, the active participle of a verb transitive can govern an objective case : as, ^ He stood there throwing stones,^ We have, in English, two participles : — (1) The Imperfect or incomplete participle in -ing. -(2) The Perfect or complete participle ending in -ed, -d^ -^, -e?i, or -n. Sometimes the Imperfect participle is called the present participle, and the Perfect is called the past participle. The participle in -ing has an active force. And as it happens that, in the case of Transitive verbs, the Perfect par- ticiple is always passive^ a confusion has arisen in the minds of some persons, who have not been able to decide whether the form in -ed is originally a past participle, or a passive participle, or whether there be any connection between past and passive. The participle in -ed is Perfect, that is to say, it denotes an action completed or finished , but it is not necessarily passive : for example, in *I have walked^ there is nothing passive. But 200 RULES AND CAUTIONS. in * I have written,'' though the whole phrase stands for the perfect tense active^ yet * written ' is a passive participle. Thie difficulty is thus explained : that * I have written a letter ' is originally * I have a letter written,' where * written ' is the passive participle used as an adjective, and agreeing with ^ letter.' In Latin, we find such forms as haheo scriptam epistolam, which means ' I have (or hold) a letter written,' rather than * I have written a letter ; ' but the construction is near enough to throw light upon our form, and has suggested the explanation. 371. The participle in ~ing is used with the active form of verbs transitive^ or with intransitive verbs : as ^ He is making progress,' * He is travelling.^ Although the auxiliary be is commonly used with passive forms, we must be careful not to mistake it for a sign of the passive : * He is making ' is active and transitive. We should carefully watch the use of the participles with the verb be, in the case of intransitive verbs ; for instance, — He is coming .... Present-imjDerfect tense. He was coming . . . Past-imperfect tense. He is come Present-perfect tense. In modern English, we more commonly say * He has come ; ' but * he is come ' is more common in older English, and is warranted by the German ' er ist gekommen.' 372. There is, however, one construction in which, to all appearance, we find an active participle in -ing^ where we should expect a passive ; as, The house is building. The temple was forty years building. In older stages of the language, these sentences were ex- pressed ^ The house is a-building,' ' The temple was forty years a-building ; ' and the particle a is said to be a contrac- tion of the Anglo-Saxon preposition an, ^on,' * in.' If so, then the word ' building ' is here not a participle but a Gerund (or Infinitive) in -ing. For the participle standing alone could not be governed by a preposition ; such govern- ment demands an infinitive or a gerund. 373. But in a few instances, wherein this explanation does not seem applicable, we still find the form in -ing, where we should expect a passive participle : as, VERBS. 201 beholding for beholden, owing for owed (i,e. * owe '). wanting for wanted. I would not be beholding to fortune for any part of. the victory. — Sidney. I'll teach you what is owing to your Queen. — Dry den. We have the means in our hands, and nothing but the application of them is wanting. — Addison. The phrase a-w anting is heard in some dialects. 374. On the other hand, we sometimes find the Perfect participle of a transitive verb used, where we expect an active and not a passive sense : as, mistaken for mistaking. You are too much mistaken in this king. — Hen, V. ii. 4. Compare the question addressed by Othello to Cassio : How comes it, Michael, you are thus forgot ? i. e. ' that you have so far forgotten yourself.' Othello, ii. 3. AUXILIAEIES. 375. As the inflections of English verbs are few, we need some assistance to express the various relations of Voice, Mood, and Tense. Hence, we call in the aid of certain verbs, which are termed Auxiliaries or Helpers. We have one auxiliary of Voice ; several auxiliaries of Mood ; and three auxiliaries of Tense. I. AUXILIABY OF VOICE. 376. The verb Be, joined to the perfect participle of a transitive verb, is used to form the Passive Voice : as, Active. Passive. Present, 1 love, Present, I am loved. Past, I loved, Past, I was loved. The verb be is thus conjugated : INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I am, 1. We are, 2. Thou art, 2. You are, 3. He is, 3. They are. k3 202 RULES AND CAUTIONS, Past Singular. Plural. 1. I was, 1. We were, 2. Thou wast, 2. You were, 8. He was, 8. They were. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I be, 1. We be, 2. Thou be, 2. You be, 8. Hebe, 8. They be. Past Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I were, 1. We were, 2. Thou wert, 2. You were, 8. He were, 8. They were. IMPERATIVE MOOD, be. INFINITIVE MOOD. [to] be. Gerund (or Infinitive) in -ing . , , being. Gerund with to to be. PARTICIPLES. Present . . . being. Past .... been. The auxiliary verb he is not always the sign of the passive voice. With the present participle of transitive verbs, it denotes the present-imperfect tense of the active voice : as ^ I am loving,' * I am striking.' It is also employed in the present-imperfect tense of intran- sitive verbs, which are never used in the passive ; as, * I am walking,' * I am coming,' * I am going.' These would be rendered in Latin, ambulo, venio, eo. See § 846. TERES. 203 II. AUXILIARIES OF MOOD. 377. Several verbs, all more or less defective in their own conjugation, are used as auxiliaries to express the notions of possibility, permission, obligation, or necessity. The most remarkable of these are, may^ can^ must, dare, let, ought. The principal verb, dependent upon them, follows in the infinitive mood ; and the particle to is generally omitted before the infinitive, but not always. 378. 1. May. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense, Singular. Plural. 1. I may, 1. We may, 2. Thou mayest, 2. You may, 3. He may, 3. They may. Past Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I might, 1. We might, 2. Thou mightest, 2. You might, 3. He might, 3. They might. This verb expresses permission : as, * He may go, if he likes.' It is also used to express a prayer, a wish, or a desire ; in which case it precedes the subject-nominative : as, * ]\Iay he prosper,' *May they be happy.' The beggars in Cork reverse this order : as, * The Lord may bless you,' * The Lord may spare you to your family.' 379. 2. Can. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense, Singular. Plural. 1. I can, 1. We can, 2. Thou canst, 2. You can, 3. He can, 3. They can. 204 RULES AND CAUTIONS. Past Tense, Singular. Plural. 1. I could, 1. We coiild, 2. Thou couldst, 2. You could, 3. He could, 3. They could. This verb denotes power, or capability, and is used to form what some grammarians call the Potential Mood. The verb can (A.-S. cunnan) originally signifies ^ to know,' and then ^ to be able ; ' like savoir in French, as je sais le faire^ ' I know how to do it,' that is, ' I can (to) do it.' The past tense of the Anglo-Saxon verb is cu^e {ciidhe), whence the Old Eng- lish coud. The form ^ couZd ' has arisen from false analogy, from a fancied resemblance to would and should. But in these words / is part of the root ; whereas in ' couZd ' it is quite superfluous. 380. 3. Must. INDICATIVE MOOD. Singular. Plural. 1. I must, 1. We must, 2. Thou must, 2. You must, 3. He must, 3. They must. This verb is used to denote necessity. It has no inflection whatever, and there is some diflficulty in determining the ques- tion of tense. Dr. Latham says {English Language, § 607) : — * I can only say of this form [mw5^] that it is common to all persons, numbers, and tenses.' But compare Adams {Elements of the English Language, § 366). For my own part, I have always felt the want of a past tense in this auxiliary. For example, when we wish to translate from German such a phrase as e?' musste gehen, we cannot say ' he must go.' We are obliged to give the sentence a turn : * he was obliged to go,' * he was bound to go,' ' he had to go.' We do, indeed, sometimes hear the phrase * he must needs go ; ' but the past tense of the verb must seems confined to that con- struction. VERBS. 205 381. 4. Dare. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I dare or durst, 1. We dare or durst, 2. Tliou darest or durst, 2. You dare or durst, 3. He dares, dare, or durst, 3. They dare or durst. Past Tense, Singular. Plural. 1. I dared or durst, 1. We dared or durst, 2. Thou daredst or durst, 2. You dared or durst, 3. He dared or durst, 3. They dared or durst. Dr. Latham says {English Language j § 598) : — ^Dare^ durst, — The verb dare is both transitive and intransitive. We can say either / dare do such a thing, or / dai^e (challenge) such u man to do it. This, in the present tense, is unequivocally correct. In the perfect, the double power of the v^''ord dai^e is ambiguous ; still it is, to my mind at least, allowable. We can certainly say, / dared him to accept my challenge ; and we can perhaps say, / dared not venture on the expedition. In this last sentence, however, durst is preferable. Durst is intransi- tive only. JDare can be used only in the present tense, dared in the perfect only. Durst can be used in either.' 382. 5. Let. This verb is derived 'from the A.-S. Icetan, past tense let, perfect participle Iceten, which, according to Dr. Bosworth, bears four significations : 1. To let, suffer, permit, to let be, leave — sinere. 2. To let go, release, send, dismiss — mittere. 3. To hinder, let, trifle — impedire. 4. To admit, think, suppose, pretend — admittere, puiare. Mr. Wedgewood, in his Etymological Dictionary, endeavours^ to account for the two senses of let^ apparently the reverse of each other — (1) * to allow, permit,' or even ' to take measures for the execution of a purpose,' as when we say, * let me alone,' * let me go,' ^ let me have a letter to-morrow ; ' and (2) ' to hinder,' as ' I was let hitherto.' 206 RULES AND CAUTIONS. In his opinion the idea of slackening lies at the root of both applications of the term. When we speak of * letting one go,' * letting him do something,' we conceive of him as previously- restrained by a band, the loosening or slackening of which will permit the execution of the act in question. Thus the Latin laxare, * to slacken,' was used in later times in the sense of its modern derivatives, Italian lasciare, French laisser, ^ to let.' So modicum laxa stare, ' let it stand a little while : ' Muratori, Diss, 24, p. 365. At other times, Mr. Wedgewood thinks, the slackness is attiibuted to the agent himself, when let acquires the sense of * be slack in action,' ' delay,' or ^ omit doing,' And down he goth, no longer would he let. And with that word his counter door he shet. Chaucer. Then in a causative sense to let one from doing a thing is * to 7nake him let or omit to do it,' ' to hinder his doing it.' . On the other hand, Kichardson thinks that in let we have two distinct verbs, the same in spelling, but different in meaning : 1. Let, *to give leave,' * permit,' he connects with Ger. lassen, Ital. lasciare, Fr. laisser, ' to relax,' * loosen.' 2. Let, * to retard, delay, hinder,' he connects with Goth. latyan, and the adjective Icet, * late.' It is in the first of these significations that let is an auxiliary in English, commonly used in the first and third persons of the Imperative Mood. Singular. Plural. 1. Let me go, 1. Let us go, 3. Let him go, 3. Let them go. In Cork, the same auxiliary is frequently used with the second person : as, * let you sit here,' * let you go away.' 383. 6. Ought. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I ought, 1. We ought, 2. Thou oughtest, 2. You ought, 3. He ought, 3. They ought. TERBS. 207 Ought is properly the past tense of owe^ which originally meant * to own, possess : ' so Shakespeare, I am not worthy of the wealth I owe. AlVs Well, ii. 5. Not poppy, nor mandragora, Nor all the drowsy syrups of the world. Shall ever medicine thee to that sweet sleep Which thou ow*dst yesterday. Othello, iii. 3. In the following passage, the verb is used in two senses : * to be bound to pay ' and * to own : ' Be pleased then To pay that duty, which you truly owe, To him that owes it, namely, this young prince. King John, ii. 1. Dr. Latham remarks, {English Language, § 605,) that we can say, ^ I owe money ; ' but we cannot say, ^ I owe to pay some ; ' while, on the other hand, we cannot say, ^ I ought money,' though we can say, * I ought to pay some.' The effect of this towfbld sense has been to separate the words owe, and ought, by giving to the former the modern prseterite owed. It has also deprived ought of its * present ' form. The auxiliary ought has lost its original force as a past tense, and is used as a present. Hence, when we wish to state that some duty was imperative in time past, we annex the auxiliary have to the dependent infinitive : as, * he ought to have gone.' This must be remembered in translating into Latin : * he ought to have gone ' is dehuit ire, literally, * he did owe to go.' in. AUXIUAEIES OF TENSE. 384. These are have, shall, will. 1. Have. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I have, 1. We have, 2. Thou hasf, 2. You have, 3. He has, 3. They have. 208 RULES AND CAUTIONS. Past Tense. - Singular. - Plural. 1. I had, 1. We had, 2. Thou hadst, 2. You had, 3. He had, 3. They had. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I have, 1. We have, 2. Thou have, 2. You have, 3. He have, 3. They have. Past Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I had, 1. We had, 2. Thou had, 2. You had, 3. He had, 3. They had. IMPERATIVE MOOD, have. INFINITIVE MOOD. [to] have. Gerund (or Infinitive) in -ing . . having. Gerund with to to have. PARTICIPLES. Present having. Perfect . . . .' . . . had. This auxiliary is joined with the perfect participle, and forms the perfect tenses : as. Present-perfect ... I have written. Past-perfect ... I had written. Future-perfect ... I shall have written. YERBS. 209 Shall and ivill are joined to tlie infinitive mood of a prin- cipal verb, to denote the future. 385. 2. Shall. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense, Singular. Plural. 1. I shaU, 1. We shall, 2. Thou shalt, 2. You shaU, 3. He shall, 8. They shaU. Past Tense, 1. I should, 1. We should, 2. Thou shouldst, 2. You should, 3. He should, 3. They should. The original meaning of this verb is ^ owe ' (A.-S. sceal). So Chaucer, ' By the faithe I schal to God,' i.e., ' I owe to God.' And so Eobert of Gloucester, * al that to Eome sholde servise,' i.e., ^ owed service.' Should, when used as an independent verb, means ought : as, * You should be careful ' — * You ought to be careful.' 386. 3. Will. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I wiU, 1. We will, 2. Thou wilt, 2. You wiU, 3. He win, 3. They wiU. Past Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I would, 1. We would, 2. Thou wouldst, 2. You would, 3. He would, 3. They would. Will is also used as an independent verb. Hence we find the infinitive [to] will, and the participle willing. 210 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 387. Besides these, we have an auxiliary in constant use, the verb cZo, which is employed in various significations. Do. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I do, 1. We do, 2. Thou dost, 2. You do, 3. He does, 3. They do. Past Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I did, 1. We did, 2. Thou didst, 2. You did, 3. He did, 3. They did. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Singular, Plural. 1. I do, 1. We do, 2. Thou do, 2. You do, 3. He do, 3. They do. Past Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I did, 1. We did, 2. Thou did, 2. You did, 3. He did, 3. They did. IMPEKATIVE MOOD, do. INFINITIVE MOOD. [to] do. Gerund {or Infinitive) in -ing . . . doing. Gerund with to to do. PAKTICIPLES. Present doing Past done. VERBS. 211 388. This verb is used as an auxiliary, 1. For emphasis : as, * When they do agree, their unani- mity is wonderful.' 2. In negations : as, * I do not like it.' As a general rule, the negative stands between do and the dependent infinitive : as, * I do not think.' But after neither or Tior, the auxiliary do follows immediately, and pre- cedes the subject-nominative: as, * neither does he wish,' ' nox dol think.' 3. In questions : as, ' Does he say so ? ' * Do they not consent ? ' or ' Do not they consent ? ' often con- tracted ^ Do-iPbt they consent ? ' 4. After an adverb, or an adverbial phrase, the auxiliary do follows immediately, and precedes the subject- nominative : Once again Do I behold those steeps and lofty cliffs. Wordsworth* 5. In reply to a question with an ellipsis of the depen- dent infinitive : as, Portia. Do you confess the bond ? Antonio, I do. Merchant of Venice^ iv. 5. See Adams, Elements of the English Language ^ § 617. Here, when Antonio says * I do,' he means ' I do confess.' 389. Caution, Whenever we employ any part of the verb do^ in reference to some principal verb in the former part of a sentence, there is risk of error ; and, in particular, the reference to an intransitive verb is open to cavil. Take this example : It is somewhat unfortunate, that this paper did not end, as it might very well have done^ with the former beautiful period. — Blair, Rhetoric ^ xxiii. A caviller might ask, * done what ? ' Surely not ' done ending.' In such constructions, it is better to repeat the principal verb ; ' did not end, as it might very well have ended, ^ Repetition is sometimes disagreeable, and tends to enfeeble a sentence ; but it is always preferable to ambiguity. See Cobbett, Grammar^ § 273. 390- Dr. Latham points out that we have in English two distinct words which assume the form do. In the phrase 212 RULES AND CAUTIONS. * this will dOy'* meaning ' this will answer the purpose,' he considers the word do wholly different from do = act. 1. The word in common use do, meaning * to act,' is from the A.-S. don, and corresponds to the German thun, 2. The word do, meaning * to answer the purpose,' is from the A.-S. dugan, and corresponds to the German taugen. He quotes the following passages in illustration of the second meaning. The past tense deih occurs in these lines : Philip of Flaundres fleih, and turned sonne the bak ; And Thebald nouht he deih, Bohert of Bourne, 133. (Philip of Flanders fled, and turned soon the back ; And Thebald did no good,) The king Isaak fleih, his men had no foyson, All that time he ne deih, Robert of Bourne, 159. (King Isaac fled, his men had no provisions, All that time h.Q prospered not.) The present / dow, in the sense of / can, occurs in Burns : I'll laugh, an' sing, an' shake my leg As lang's I dow. See Latham, English Language, § 593. IMPERSONALS. 391. When a verb is used without any apparent subject- nominative it is called an Impersonal Verb. Some grammarians contend that verbs of this kind are not Impersonal ; but that they are used in the third person, and in the third person only. Hence they propose to call such verbs UnipersonaL In English we commonly prefix the neuter pronoun it before the so-called Impersonals. Dr. Lowth says : ' It rains ; it shines ; it thunders.' From which examples it plainly appears, that there is no such thing in English, nor indeed in any language, as a sort of Verbs which are really impersonal. The agent or person in English is expressed by the neuter pronoun ; in some other languages it is omitted, but understood.' Lowth, English Grammar, p. 110. YETIBS. 213 Dr. Latham admits three Impersonals : (1) methinks, (2) 7neseems, (3) me lisfelh. The word thinks in ^ methinks ' is from the Anglo-Saxon thincan, ' to seem,' and not from thencan, * to think.' Hence ^ methinks ' and ^ meseems ' both signiiy ' it seems to me ; ' for 7ne is here the old dative. See Latham, English Grammar^ § 205. But Dr. Adams, Elements of the English Language^ § 27 6, will not aUow that even these are Impersonals ; for he argues that the subject is expressed in the words that follow or pre- cede the verb. Thus in the sentence, Methinks the lady doth protest too much, he would make ' the lady doth protest too much ' a subject- nominative (noun-clause) to the verb ^ thinks.' It may be, as Dr. Lowth maintains, that there are no such things as Impersonal Verbs in any language. But the omis- sion of it is more common with our older poets, than some of the grammarians seem to imagine : So Chaucer : Byfel that in that sesoun on a day In Southwark at the Tabard as I lay. Canterbury Tales, Prologue. and so Spenser : Seemed in heart some hidden care she had, And by her in a line, a milk-white lamb she lad. (i.e, led.) Faerie Queene^ I. i. 4. ' Now,' saide the ladie, * draweth toward night.' ibid. I. i. 32. May seeme the wayne was very evil ledd, When such an one had guiding of the way, That knew not, whether right he went, or else astray. ibid. I. iv. 19. CAUTIONS. 392. In no points of grammar do even good writers more frequently make mistakes than in the use of verbs. ' I intended to have written last week ' is a very common phrase ; but it is certainly vicious. For how long soever it now is since ^ I intended,' still the act of writing was then present to my mind, and must be considered as present when I recall that time, and the thoughts of it. Therefore, we, should say, ' I intended to write last week.' Take the follow- ing examples : — 214 RULES AND CAUTIONS. I cannot excuse the remissness of those whose busi- ness it should have been, as it certainly was their interest, to have interposed their good offices. — Swift. There were two circumstances, which would have made it necessary for them to have lost no time. — Id. History-painters would have found it difficult to have invented such a species of beings. — Addison, Dialogue on Medals. In these passages, the infinitives should be to interpose, to lose^ to invent. So Goldsmith says : I called on him, and wished to have submitted my manuscript to him. This should be * wished to submit.' For the meaning is, ' I wished then and there to submit my manuscript to him.' I wished to do something there, and did not then wish that / had done something before. So here : * I did not speak yesterday so well as I wished to have done."* The meaning intended is * so well as I wished to speak.' The use of the auxiliary do is not elegant in such constructions ; but if used at all, it should stand * so well as I wished to do!' On the other hand, in this sentence, * T had not the pleasure of hearing his sentiments when I wrote that letter,' we ought to say having heard instead of hearing if we mean to imply that the hearing did not take place before the v/riting of the letter. See Lowth, English Grammar, p. 124 ; and Cobbett, English Grammar, § 249. Sequence of Tenses, 393. The sequence of tenses should be carefully observed ; so that the tenses in an accessory or subordinate clause may not be inconsistent with those of the principal sentence. Take this example : Ye will not come unto me, that ye might have life. In two clauses thus connected, when the principal verb is in the present or the future, the verb in the accessory clause can- not be in the past tense. The words, therefore, ought to have been translated * that ye may have life.' On the contrary, had the principal verb been in the past VERBS. 215 tense, the verb in the accessory clause would be correctly put in the past tense also : as, Ye would not come unto me, that ye might have life, or. Ye did not come unto me, that ye might have life. hut J Ye will not come unto me, that ye may have life. Dryden writes : Some, who the depths of Eloquence have found, In that unnavigable Stream were drowned. Dryden, Juvenal^ Satire x. The event mentioned in the first line is connected with pre- sent time by the present-perfect tense have found. But the fact stated in the second line is referred to past time, by the past tense were drowned. Now the last-mentioned event must be subsequent to the first, and therefore there is an incon- sistency between the facts stated and the tenses employed. Therefore, we ought to have either (1) in the second line, ''are or have Jee;i drowned ' in the present-indefinite or present-perfect, which would be consistent with the present-perfect have found in the first line ; or, (2) in the first line we ought to read had found in the past-perfect tense, which would be consistent with the past- indefinite were drowned in the second line. Pope writes : Friend to my life, which did you not prolong. The world had wanted many an idle song. Pope, Epistle to Arhuthnot, Here ,the construction is inconsistent. It ought to be, ' had you not prolonged ... the world had wanted,' or * did you not prolong . . . the world would want,'' 394. Dr. Campbell thinks, that in expressing abstract or universal truths the present tense of the verb ought, according to the idiom of our language, and perhaps of every language, always to be employed. According to this view, the sentence ' He said that there was no God ' is incorrect, because God always exists ; and it ought to be, ^ He said that there is no God.' Yet the Doctor admits that this peculiarity in the pre- 216 RULES AND CAUTIONS. sent has sometimes been overlooked, even by good authors, who, when speaking of a past event which occasions the men- tion of some general truth, are led to use the same tense in enunciating the general truth with that which has been em- ployed in the preceding part of the sentence. See Campbell, Philosophy of Rhetoric^ p. 185. Dr. Webster, in the preface to his English Dictionary^ takes the same view, and condemns the following construction : — ^ Then Manasseh hiew that the Lord he was God,' 2 Chron. xxxiii. 13. In order to show the impropriety of the past tense was^ he remarks that the present tense is that which is used to express what exists at all times : thus we say * God is ' or ^ exists ' whenever we speak of his permanent existence. The German version reads, ^ Da erkannte Manasse, dass der Herr Gott ist^^ and this, as far as it goes, corroborates the view taken by Dr. Campbell and Dr. Webster. But their reason does not appear to be quite satisfactory. It is true, that in principal sentences the present is used to express general pro- positions, or ^ what exists at all times.' Rut it is not quite so clear that the rule applies to the verb in a subordinate or accessory clause. The Latins, in a reported speech, throw the verbs of subordinate sentences into the subjunctive mood ; and though in English we do not vary the mood in a reported speech, I am inclined to think that a variation of tense is agreeable to the idiom of our language. It is confessed that good authors use this construction ; and in conversation most persons would express themselves thus : He says^ that there is no God. He saidj that there was no God. To allege the permanent existence of God is nothing to the purpose, because this is merely a question of grammar, and most persons would expound these sentences in the following way : 1. He 5az/s, that there is no God = He denies the ex- istence of God. 2. He said, that there was no God = He denied the ex- istence of God. No one would interpret the second sentence as signifying a denial of past existence, in opposition to present or future existence. 395. In accordance with his theory, Dr. Webster under- takes to correct this passage : VERBS. 217 If my readers will turn their thoughts back on their old friends, they will find it difficult to call a single man to remembrance who appeared to know that life was short \_is short J, till he was about to lose it. Rambler^ No. 71. 396. But beside this, we find the past tense used in acces- sory clauses where other languages would employ a future indicative, or some tense of the subjunctive mood. Take the following examples, with Dr. Webster's corrections : It was declared by Pompey, that if the commonwealth ivas [should be] violated, he could stamp with his foot and raise an army out of the ground. — Rambler^ No. 10. And he said. Nay, father Abraham, but if one went [shall (or) should go] to them from the dead, they will repent. And he said unto him, If they hear not Moses and the prophets, neither will they be persuaded, though one rose [shall (or) should rise] from the dead. — Luke xvi. 30, 31. i Our verbs are very deficient in forms of the subjunctive mood ; and were anyone to contend that went and rose are past tenses subjunctive^ there is nothing in the form to contradict him. The verb was in the extract from Rambler, No. 10, is against that explanation ; for was must be considered indica- tive. If I made any change at all, in that passage, I would read, * It was declared by Pompey, that if the commonwealth were violated, &c.' 397. I have oflen thought, that the doctrine of the subjunc- tive might be used to defend a passage condemned as bad English, by some grammarians. It is this : I had fainted, unless I had believed to see the goodness of the Lord in the land of the living. — Psalm xxvii. 13. We are told, that this ought to be, ^ I should have fainted.' But if had be taken as the past tense subjunctive (German hdtte), the construction may be defended. 398. In the following sentence, there is an error in the use of mood : If thou bring thy gifl to the altar, and there rememberest that thy brother hath ought against thee. — Matt. v. 23. The construction of the two verbs bring and rememberest L 218 RULES AND CAUTIONS. ought to be the same ; yet the one is in the subjunctive mood, and the other in the indicative. We should read, If thou bring thy gift to the altar, and there remember^ &c., or, . If thou bringest thy gift to the altar, and there remem- berestj &c. The same mood should be employed in both clauses. 399. When two or more auxiliaries are used in reference to one principal verb, care should be taken that the form of the principal verb be applicable to each of the auxiliaries. Take this sentence : This dedication may serve for almost any book, that has, iSy or shall be published. The auxiliary has makes no sense in connection with pub- lished. It requires the addition of been. We should read : This dedication may serve for almost any book, that has been or shall be published. ' The word iSj adding nothing to the sense, may advanta- geously be omitted. So in this passage : I shall do all I can to persuade others to taJce the same measures for their cure which I have. Here, we find have referred to the verb take. Yet it is not the word take which the sense demands, but taken. The par- ticiple, therefore, ought to have been added : * which I have taken.' See Campbell, Philosophy of Rhetoric^ p. 186. POSITION. 400. In Indicative sentences the verb generally follows the subject-nominative ; but in Interrogative sentences the subject- nominative follows the principal verb or the auxiliary : as, * Was he there ? ' * Did Alexander conquer ? ' In older English, and in poetry, the use of the principal verb, in the first place of an interrogative sentence, is not un- common : Says the king so ? Stands Scotland where it did ? — Macbeth^ iv. 3. VERBS. 219 Breathes there the man with soul so dead, Who never to himself hath said, This is my own, my native land ? Scott, Lay of the Last Minstrel^ vi. 1-3. 401. When several interrogative clauses follow one another, care must be taken to use all the verbs consistently. Take this example : Did he not fear the Lord, and besought the Lord, and the Lord repented him of the evil, which he had pronounced against him ? — Jeremiah xxvi. 19. Here the interrogative and indicative forms are confounded. It ought to be : Did he not fear the Lord, and beseech the Lord ? and did not the Lord repent him of the evil ? So in this passage : If a man have an hundred sheep, and one of them be gone astray, doth he not leave the ninety and nine, and goeth into the mountains, and seeketh that which is gone astray? — Matt, xviii. 12. It ought to be go and seek ; that is, ^ doth he not go and seek that which is gone astray ? ' 402. In negative sentences the adverb not is placed after the auxiliary, or sometimes after the principal verb itself: as, it did not touch him,' ^ it touched him not.' Older writers frequently place the negative before the prin- cipal verb : as, For men Can counsel and speak comfort to that grief Which they themselves not feel. Much Ado about Nothing^ v. i. lago. Good name, in man and woman, dear my lord, Is the immediate jewel of their souls : Who steals my purse, steals trash ; 'tis something, nothing; 'Twas mine, 'tis his, and has been slave to thousands ; But he that filches from me my good name, Robs me of that which 7iot enriches him, And makes me poor indeed. Othello^ iii. 3. The merry Greek, tart Aristophanes, Neat Terence, witty Plautus, now not please, 1.2 220 RULES AND CAUTIONS. But antiquated and deserted lie, As they were not of nature's family. Ben Jonson, To the Memory of Shakespeare. I hope, my lord, said he, I not offend. Dryden, Fables, Chapter XI. GENERAL REMARKS ON PARTICLES. 403. Under the term * Particles/ we include the words commonly called Adverbs, Conjunctions, and Prepositions. It is not always possible to draw the line between these, as the same word may be at one time a preposition, at another an adverb or a conjimction. Thus hefore^ in the phrase ' before sunset,' is a preposition ; but in the sentence ' before the sun sets,' it is commonly called a conjunction. Dr. Morell terms it a continuative conjunction, Mr. Mason thinks that it should rather be classed among the adverbs. Professor Bain calls it a relative adverb^ or a subordinating conjunction. Now, if giiimmarians would candidly confess that the so- called Parts of Speech cannot always be discriminated, they would save themselves and their followers a world of per- plexity. Instead of this, they lay down dogmatic rules, which are not always appUcable, and then they try to make their cause good by numerous exceptions and counter- exceptions. It is no wonder that young persons are utterly distracted, or that they consider the study of grammar duU and unpro- fitable. But if the inductive method were followed, much of this perplexity would vanish. Pupils should be taught to observe the usage of words in their reading ; to compare one phrase wuth another ; to suspend judgment ; and gradually to arrive at general principles. In this way they would acquire the habits of observation and comparison ; they would learn to think and to reason ; and Grammar would form an excellent introduction to Logic. 404- In order to concentrate the difficulties which pervade this part of the subject, we shaU devote a separate chapter to ADVERBS. 221 those doubtflil words, which are variously termed Conjunctive Adverbs, Adverbial Conjunctions, Relative Adverbs, Subordi- nating Conjunctions, Continuative Conjunctions, &c., &c. Thus, we shall be able to obtain a clearer view of Adverbs and Conjunctions properly so called ; and the student will perceive wherein the difficult part of the investigation specially consists. Chapter XII. ADYEEBS. Oninis pars orationis, quando desinit esse quod est, migrat in Adverbiiim. — Seevius. 405. The passage quoted from Servius is thus humorously construed by HorneTooke: — Omnis pars oratioms, * every word/ qiiando desinit esse quod est, ' when a grammarian knows not what to make of it/ migrat in Adverbium, ^ he calls an Adverb.' But, according to Sir John Stoddart, the expression of Servius is literally true : Omnis pars orationis migrat in Ad^ verhium. * Every part of speech is capable of being converted into an Adverb.' Servius saw part of the truth ; and his remark is capable of a wider application. The character of a word is determined by its function or usage in a sentence : hence every part of speech, when * it ceases to be what it is,' undergoes a change of function, and partakes of a new character. There can be little doubt, as Home Tooke has sho^vn, that the particle if was originally gif, the imperative of the verb gifan, '• to give,' and was used in making a supposition, or asking for an ad- mission, ^ grant,' * suppose.' In course of time its verbal power was forgotten ; its initial g was lost ; and the word remained as an introductory pai*ticle. But Home Tooke was wrong in supposing that because all particles were originally nouns or verbs, they remain so stiU, and that their function is not changed. For he keeps out of sight, as self-evident, the other premiss, which is absolutely false — namely, that the meaning and force of a word, now, and for ever, must be that 222 RULES AND CAUTIONS. which it, or its root, originally bore. See Whateley, Logic^ iii. § 14. Compare §§ 445, 461. 406. The usual definition given of an Adverb is to this effect : ^ An Adverb is a word used to qualify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.' But a distinction is set up between two kinds of adverbs : — (1) Simple Adverbs, (2) Eelative or Conjunctive Adverbs. (1) A Simple Adverb qualifies the word with which it is used : ^ They came yesterday ^^ ' He is always ready.' Here the definition is immediately applicable. (2) A Eelative or Conjunctive Adverb is said to be one which not only qualifies the word with which it is used, but also serves to connect clauses in a sentence: as, ' He comes ivhen he likes.' In the present chapter we shall confine our attention to Simple Adverbs, reserving the second class for consideration in Chapter XIV. 407. A question may arise, how we ought to treat those sentences, where an adverb is used with a verb which merely expresses existence : as, ^ he is well,^ ' he is asleep.^ It may be asked, for example, whether the word well is here an adverb or an adjective. In the English language, this word is so far adverbial, that it cannot be used to qualify a substan- tive : we cannot say ^ a well man,' any more than we can say * an asleep man.' Yet these words stand in the place of pre- dicates, and have the force of adjectives. We may allow that they are adverbs used as predicates: see §§ 5, 6. But after all, this is only another proof how difficult it is to draw a sharp line between the various parts of speech. In Greek, an adverb placed between an article and a noun, or with the article alone, has the force of an adjective. A similar construction is sometimes found in English : as, Our then dictator. Whom with all praise I point at, saw him fight. CoriolanuSy ii. 2. Drink no longer water, but use a little wine, for thy stomach's sake, and thine often infirmities. — 1 Timothy, V. 23. ADVERBS. 223 408. Many adverbs are formed from adjectives, nouns, and pronouns. 1. Adverbs derived from Adjectives, We saw, §§ 22, 23, that some adjectives appear to be used adverbially, having lost the final e, which in Anglo-Saxon was the distinctive mark of an adverb formed from an adjec- tive. These are chiefly words of Anglo-Saxon origin : as, clean ^ fastj hard, ill, late, long, loud, right, sore, soft, thick, wide, wrong. We shall discuss these severally. We also saw the origin of the termination -Zy, which, though originally the mark of an adjective, came to be regarded as an adverbial suffix. In Anglo-Saxon -lie was an adjective ter- mination, and -lice an adverbial. We have still in English some adjectives ending in -li/, as god-ly, love-ly, lone-ly, and to these we cannot add another -ly to form adverbs. The word * godly ' has an adverbial force in the phrase, ^ to live soberly, righteously, and godly.' 409. We shall now consider those words, in which the adjective and adverbial forms coincide, in modern English : clean, A.-S. clcen, adjective; clcene, adverb. The ad- verbial use of clean, in the sense of ' entirely,' is found in the authorised version of the Scriptures : as. Is his mercy clean gone for ever, doth his promise fail for evermore ? — Psalm Ixxvii. 8. The same usage still prevails in some provincial dialects. fast. A.-S. fcest, adjective ; foeste, adverb. The English fast is used as an adjective and an adverb: ^ It was fast,^ ' He ran fast,^ hard, A.-S. ^ea^-cZ, adjective; hearde, adverb. In English, hard is an adjective, and both hard and hardly are adverbs, but with a difference of meaning. Hard means ' with force or severity,' as, * He hits hard ; ' but hardly means scarcely. Some persons, wishing to be accurate, say, ^ He hits hardly,^ meaning ' He hits hard,^ But * He hits hardly ' might mean ^ He scarcely hits.' ill or evil, A.-S. yfel, adjective ; yfele, adverb. In English, evil and ill are used as adjectives ; and ill as an adverb. The form evilly is sometimes found, but is not generally approved. 224 RULES AND CAUTIONS. late, A.-S. IcBt or lat, adjective; Icete or late^ adverb. The English late is used as an adjective, and as an adverb : * He was late,'' * He came late,^ The form lateli/ is used in the sense of ' recently.' long. A.-S. lang or long, adjective ; lange or longe, adverb. In English the form longly is never used. loud. A.-S. hludj adjective ; hlude, adverb. The English lotid is used as an adjective, and as an adverb : as, Curses, not loud, but deep. — Macbeth, v. 3. And the singers sang loud. — Nehemiah xii. 42. The three forms loud, aloud, and loudly, are used as adverbs : right. A.-S. riht, adjective ; rihte, adverb. In English, the forms right, aright, and rightly are used as adverbs. soft. A.-S. seft or soft, adjective ; sefte or softe, adverb. In poetry, the adverbial use of soft is common : as, ' And soft he said,' * aSo/I^ sighed the flute.' In prose, softly is more common. sore. A.-S. sar, ' sore, painful,' adjective ; sare, ^ sorely, painfully,' adverb. In older English, sore is used ad- verbially : as, * He wept sore.^ thick. A.-S. thic, adjective; thicce, adverb. In English, the forms thick and thickly are used as adverbs. wide. A.-S. wid, adjective ; wide, adverb. The word is used as an adverb in this passage : Is my lord well, that he doth speak so wide ? — Much Ado, iv. 1. wrong. Home Tooke derives this word from wrung, the participle of the verb wring, and explains it ^ wrung or wrested from the " right " or " ordered " line of con- duct.' See Diversions of Purley, ii. 91, 101. Mr. Wedgwood, in his Dictionary of English Etymology, gives a similar explanation. He says wrong is * what is wrung or turned aside from the right or straight way to the desired end.' He compares the Danish vrcenge, * to twist ; ' vrang, ' wrong ; ' and Old Norse rangr, * wry,' ^ crooked,' ^ unjust.' Wrong is used adverbially in the following passages : — Portia. You must take your chance ; And either not attempt to choose at all. ADVERBS. 225 Or swear, before you choose, if you choose wrong^ Never to speak to lady afterward In way of marriage ; therefore be advised. Merchant of Venice^ ii. 1. In choosing wrong ^ I lose your company. Ibid. iii. 2. 2. Adverbs derived from Nouns. 410. In many languages, nouns in an oblique case are used as adverbs. For example, the noun home is used adverbially, in the literal sense, ^ to go home ' (aller a la maison), and in a figurative sense, to denote ' thoroughly,' ' entirely ; ' as, Cloten, Where is she, sir ? Come nearer ; No further halting ; satisfy me home What is become of her. Cymheline^ iii. 5. Imogen, That confirms it home : This is Pisanio's deed, and Cloten' s. Ibid, iv. 2. It is true that our home appears to be the same in form as the nominative home. But a reference to the Latin shows the distinction. The nominative in Latin is domus, but our hom.e answers to the accusative domum^ and our at home to domi, Vossius observes of domi focique in Terence, EunuckuSy act iv. scene 7, that ' without doubt they are genitives used adverbially.' And Donatus goes further, calling not only these genitives, but accusatives and ablatives, adverbs. He thinks that Eamm, Eomam^ Boond, igno- rantly considered nouns, are adverbs of place : ' Bo/ncB, Bcrniam, Bomd, sunt adverbia loci, quae imprudentes putant nomina. In loco, ut sum BomcB ; de loco, ut Bomd venio ; ad locum, ut Bomam pergo.' — Sir John Stoddart, Universal Grammar, p. 106. Professor Key thinks, that domi is not a genitive, but a ' dative in f , with the meaning at ;' so also, huini, * on the ground,' helli, ' in war,' ruri, 'in the country.' He considers that this dative, denoting place, [hence termed by some grammarians the ' locative,'] maintained itself in certain words, in spite of the increasing tendency to express this idea by the preposition in and an ablative. See Latin Grammar , § 1 1 -t? and compare § 952 of the same G-rammar. 411. We seem to have genitive cases in the words eft- soons (^ soon after'), outwards, unawares, and needs, in the phrase ^he needs must go.' Sometimes may be a genitive singular, or plural objective. L 3 226 RULES AND CAUTIONS. following are possibly genitives : — else^ old English el-es, ell-es, els once hence thence since J? on-es henn-es thenn-es sithen-s. The terminations wise and ways are liable to be con- founded. The Anglo-Saxon wise is a noun signifying * man- ner ; ' hence otherwise means ' in another manner.' We find always^ noways^ and nowise. Dr. Adams, Ele- ments of the English Language^ § 396, says, that the form ways is not connected with the word way^ ^ a road.' But compare the German aUe-wege, ^ all- ways,' with the French toujours, ^ all-days,' and tons les jours, ^ all the days.' 412. Whilom. A.-S. hwilum, hwylum, hwilon. This is con- sidered to be a dative plural from the nouns hwil, hwile, ' a while, time,' from which oiu* adverb a-while, ' for a time,' is probably derived. According to this view, whilom signifies * at whiles,' * at times.' seldom, A.-S. seld, seldan, seldon. Whether the termination -om in this instance marks a dative, may be doubted.' Seld is used in composition by Shakespeare : Seld'shown flam ens Do press among the popular throngs, and puff To win a vulgar station. Coriolanus, ii. 1. 413. Beside^ between^ and because are respectively ^by side,' ^ by twain,' (i. e. ^ near two '), and ^ by cause,' also used in the sense of ^ by reason.' The s in besides is not easy to explain. Dr. Adams con- siders it as the mark of an old genitive besid-es. But this is very doubtful. 3. Adverbs having the prefix a, 414. The prefix a is of different origin in different adverbs, and demands very close examination. 1. Sometimes it represents the A.-S. preposition an, in, on, * in,' * on ; ' not only with substantives, as a-bed, a-boardj o-shore ; but also with adjectives, as a-broad, a-loud. 2. Sometimes it represents the preposition of, as a-new, ' of new,' de novo : compare ' of late.' ADVERBS. 227 8. It also represents the A.-S. participial prefix ge^ Early English ye : as a-drift, 4. It stands for the indefinite article a, as a-while, * for a time.' 415. We shall take examples of each. 1. a representing the preposition an, in, on, 'in,' * on.' Prefixed to nouns, a-hacJc, a-hed, a-hlaze, a-hoard, a-hreast, a-fire, a-foot, a-gape, a-ground, a-head, arrjar, a-loft, ashore, aslant, asleep, a-steim, astride. We may remark that several of these are nautical terms, and others might be quoted, as a-midships, a-thwartships, ^c. For the sake of illustration, we add the following notes: — a-bacJc, A.-S. on bmc, ' on back.' Gang thu on besc, Gro thou on hack, * Gret thee hence/ — Matt, iv. 10. Gra on hmc. G-o on hack. * Get thee behind me.' — Mark viii. 33. a-jar. This is explained as on char, * on the turn,' * half open/ from A.-S. cer, cyr, ' a turn,' verb ceorran, cerran, ' to turn.' The form on char is used by Gawain Douglas, in his Translation of Virgil : Ane schot wyndo tmschet ane litel on char. See Wedgwood, Dictionary of English Etymology, * ajar J a-loft. ' On loft,' ' up in the air.' German, in der Luft \ Scottish, in the lift ; so Burns : * It is the moon, I ken her horn. That's blinking in the lift sae hie, She shines sae bright to wyle us hame, But, by my sooth, she'll wait a wee ! * tt'live. This word appears in older English as on lyve, on Hue ; as, By God, quoth he, that wol I tel as bliue, For prouder woman is there none on Hue, Chaucer, Troihis. Inquire whether live is here a noun ' life,' or an adjective as in the phrase ' on loud.' We find the prefix before adjectives in a-broad, a-loud, a thwart. The use of the preposition in or on with adjectives is not 228 EULES AND CAUTIONS, uncommon in modern English : we have ^ in vain,' ^ in secret,* * on high.' We have authority to prove the form on broad: Gawain Douglas (quoted by Sir John Stoddart, Universal Grammar^ p. 77) has His baner quhite as floure In sign of battell did on hrede display. So too : But it ne was so sprede on hrede^ That men within might know the sede. Roman de la Rose, We observe a prefixed to adverbs in a-far^ a-gain, a- gain. A.-S. on-gean^ on-gen, an-gean, a-gean, a-gen. In Anglo-Saxon gen itself is an adverb, signifying * again,' ^ moreover,' ^ besides.' 416- — 2. a representing the preposition of. a-down. In Anglo-Saxon dun signifies * a hill ' ; whence our North Downs, and South Downs. Then of-dune, ' from hill,' * downward,' ^ down,' appears in the form a-diine, adun, whence our * a-down,' * down.' Mr. Wedgwood compares the Old French a mont^ * to the hill,' and a val, ' to the valley,' used in the sense of ' upwards ' and ^ downwards ' respectively. Down is used as a preposition. a- new. That this word represents of neiv, we may infer from a line of Gawain Douglas : The battellis were adjoinit now of new. Compare the Latin de novo. 417. — 3. The participial force of a is seen in a-drift ; unless the particle in that word is a verbal prefix. For, in Anglo-Saxon, there are two verbs, drifan^ participle ge-drifan\ and a-drifan^ ' drive away,' participle adrifed. The participial a may possibly be seen in afloat, a-miss, 418. The prefix a sometimes has the force of * from,' ^ out,' a^, perhaps, in a-way, * out of the Vvay.' The following words are of doubtful derivation : a-ghast, a-Jcimbo, a-loof a-skance, a-ska?it, askew, a-stray. The roots of these words may be traced in other languages, but the force of the prefix a is not clear. afore is from A.-S. cet-foran, ^ at-fore.' ADYERBS. 229 4. Adverbs derived from Pronouns, 419. Adverbs formed from Pronoims, sometimes termed Pronominal Adverbs, form a large class. For instance, the words here and there ; hence and thence^ are manifestly derived from demonstrative pronouns; they signify * at this place/ * at that place ; ' ' from this place,' ^ from that place.' Similarly where and whence are related to the interrogative and relative pronouns. It so happens, that the adverbs of place exhibit three va- rieties, to express * at a place,' * from a place,' and * to a place.' The adverbs of time, manner, and cause are not so com- pletely developed. The following table will show this dif- ference : — where whence whither, when how why. We observe, that here^ hence, hither , are related to the pro- noun he. There, thence, thither to that", where, whence, whither to who, what. Similarly then and when are related to that and what. Why is related to who ; and how may pos- sibly be related to both he and who, 420. The following table exhibits the same adverbs in another form : — 1. Place here there hence , thence hither . thither 2. Time then 3. Manner . thus 4. Cause • • • • Place Motion from Motion to Time Manner Cause Demon- strative here hence hither how Demon- strative there thence thither then thus Interro- gative and Belative where whence whither when how why 230 RULES AND CAUTIONS. Compare Adams, Elements of the English Language^ § 268. 421. These adverbs are frequently compounded with pre- positions: as here-of there-of where-of here-in, there-in, where-in, here-hy^ there-hy, where-hy, and many others. In the simple forms, here and thej^e are principally con- fined to significations of place ; whereas in the compounds they may refer to things ; for example, here-of may denote * of this,' there-of may signify * of that.' In our authorised version of the Scriptures, we constantly find thereof in places where a modern writer would employ its ; as ^ the candle- stick and the branches thereof^ Shakespeare often uses thereby and whereby^ to signify ^ with that,' * upon that,' ' upon which,' ^ in reference to which,' 'on which occasion : ' as, Dame Quiclcly, Well, thereby hangs a tale. Merry Wives of Windsor^ i. 4. Musician. Whereby hangs a tale, sir ? Othello^ iii. 1. Hostess. Canst thou deny it ? Did not goodwife Keech, the butcher's wife, come in then, and call me gossip Quickly ? coming in to borrow a mess of vinegar ; telling us she had a good dish of prawns ; whereby thou didst desire to eat some ; whereby I told thee they were ill for a green wound ? 2nd Hen. IV. ii. 1. 422, The words therefore and wherefore mean 'for that,' ' for which,' denoting ' for that cause,' ' for which reason.' The words for (Latin pro)^ and fore (Latin prai) are some- times used indifferently. Mr. Wedgwood thinks they are one and the same word. Sir John Stoddart, Universal Grammar^ pp. 80, 81, quotes from a Scottish Act of Parliament 1493, James IV. ' Heirfoir, we, James, be the grace of Grod, King of Scottis, &c.,' where heirfoir signifies 'for this cause,' 'for this reason.' He has collected other compounds, from Scottish Acts of Parliament, as, heirintill, ' in this,' ' within this,' heirqf, heirupone, heirtofoir^ heirafter^ heiranent. NEGATIVE ADVEEBS. 423. In Anglo-Saxon the common form of the negative is we, which precedes the verb : as. ADVERBS. 231 And ic hyne ne cu^e. And I him ne knew. * And I knew him not.' — John i. 33. Min tima ne com. My time ne came. * Mine hour is not yet come.' — Id. i. 4. In Anglo-Saxon and in Early English, two negatives strengthen the negation, instead of destroying it as in modern English : so, Ne geseah ncefre nan man God. Ne saw never no man God. *No man hath seen God at any time.' — John i. 18. He never yit ne vilonye ne sayde In all his lyf unto no maner wight. Chaucer, Canterbury Tales, Prologue, 70. i.e. ^ Unto no manner of person.' Ther was no man nowher so vertuous, He was the beste begger in al his hous. Id. 251. This particle ne was commonly incorporated with 'the fol- lowing verb : as, / not, ^ I ne wot,' * I know not' / nabhe, * I ne have,' * I have not.' / nolde, ' I ne wolde,' * I would not,' It nis, ' It ne is,' * It is not.' It nas, * It ne was,' * It was not.' But soth to say I not what men him caUe. Chaucer, Canterbury Tales, Prologue, 286. Nowher so besy a man as he ther nas. And yit he semed besier than he was. Ibid. 323. 424. Our usual negative not is a compound word, allied to naught, nought, and derived from the Anglo-Saxon naht, nauht, noht, which is compounded of the negative ne and aht, * aught,' * anything.' Compare the forms nawht, na-wiht, na-wuht, derived from na, * not,' and wiht, ' anything.' The negative not when used with the infinitive always pre- cedes it ; with other forms of the verb, it either follows the verb, or stands between the principal verb and the auxiliary. Grant me, O God, thy voice to know, And not to be afraid. Hemans. 232 KULES AND CAUTIONS. He blenches not^ he blenches not, Scott, Ivanhoe, I will not sing. 1st Hen. IV. iii. 1. The use of the double negative, with a negative force, was common, down to a late period of our literature : so, I never was, nor never will be, false. Hich. III. iv. 4. The man that hath no music in himself, Nor is not moved with concord of sweet sounds, Is fit for treasons, stratagems, and spoils. Merchant of Venice, v. i. This England never did, nor never shall Lie at the proud foot of a conqueror. King John, v. 7. 425. Nay (nae), and no, A.-S. nd and no, Ne eora ic nd Crist. Ne am I no (not) Christ. * I am not the Christ.' — John i. 20. No thy Ices, * na-the-less,' * never the less/ whence in older English we have * natheless ' and nathless.' In the Scottish dialect, nae and no are constantly used for not : as, * This is no my ain lassie,' and * This is nae my ain lassie.' I suspect that in the phrase * whether or wo,' we have a remnant of the old language ; * It is all the same, whether he comes, or no,' that is, ^ whether he comes, or comes not.'' 426. In ordinary English, nay and no are chiefly used in answers. As a general rule, nay is more common in provin- cial English, than in the language of the metropolis or the imiversities. Sir Thomas More asserts a distinction between nay and no, corre- sponding to a distinction between yea and yes ; and he censures Tyndal for not obser^dng the diiFerence in his translation of John i. 21 : * And thei asked him, what then, art thou Helias ? And he sayd I am not. Arte thou a prophet? And he aunswered, No.' According to Sir Thomas More, No should have been rendered Nay. But the reason assigned by Sir Thomas does not support his argument. He says : ' No aunswereth the question framed by the affirmative. As, for ensample, if a man should ask Tindall himself: ys an heretike mete to translate holy scripture into englishe ? Lo to thys question if he will aunswere trew englishe, he must aunswere naye and not no. But and if the question be asked hym thus, lo ; Is not an heretyque mete to translate ADVERBS. 233 holy scripture into Englishe ? To thys question lo if lie wil aunswere true englishe he must aunswere no and not nay.' According to these examples, the rule should have been stated thus : Nay answers a question framed in the affirmative : as Art thou a prophet ? Nay, No answers a question framed in the negative ; as, Art thou not a prophet ? No, See Marsh, Lectures on the English Language, xxvi. 582. 427. No appears in composition with many words. "We say nO'Where and no-wkither, but not no-whence or no-when. No-hoiv is sometimes employed, but it is not considered elegant. For neither^ nor, see § 449. 428. Never is compounded of ne, * not/ and ever. Never and ever are often confounded. Never is an adverb of time : as, ^ Seldom or never has an English word two full accents.' Ever is an adverb both of time and of degree : as, ^ Ever so rich,' ^ Ever so good.' Hence * charm he ever so wisely ' is now preferred to the older form, * charm he never so wisely.' We may remark that ^ seldom or never ' has the same force as ^ seldom if ever ; ' but * seldom or ever ' is doubtful. Atter- bury says : — We seldom or ever see those forsaken who trust in God. Here it is better to say ' or never.' §567. See Angus, Randhoohy COMPAEISON OF ADVEEBS. 429. Some adverbs, expressing degree or quality, admit degrees of comparison : as. Well, better, best. Ill, worse, worst. Little, les^ least. Long, longer, longest. Much, more, most. sooner, soonest, oftenest. Soon, Often, oftener, The use of the terminations -er and -est in forming the comparative and superlative of adverbs, was formerly much more common than at present : as. Touching things which generally are received . . . . we 234 RULES AND CAUTIONS. are hardliest able to bring such proof of their certainty as may satisfy gainsayers. — Hooker, Ecclesiastical Polity, V. 2. That he may the stronglier provide. — Hobbes, Life of Thucydides, The things highliest important to the growing age. — Shaftesbury, Letter to Molesworth. The question would not be, who loved himself and who not, but who loved and served himself the Tightest , and after the truest manner, — Id., Wit and Hummir. 430. These forms are often found in the poets. So Shake- speare : O Melancholy ! Who ever yet could sound thy bottom ? find The ooze, to show what coast thy sluggish crare Might easiliest harbour in ? Cymbeline, ir. 2. where the folios have easilest. Thrice blessed they that master so their blood, To undergo such maiden pilgrimage ; But earthlier happy is the rose distilled, Than that which, wdthering on the virgin thorn, Grows, lives, and dies in single blessedness. Midsummer Night's Dream, i. 1. On this passage Dr. Johnson remarks : — * Thus all the copies ; yet earthlier is so harsh a word, and earthlier happy, for happier earthly, a mode of speech so unusual, that I wonder none of the editors have proposed earlier happy, "^ Steevens observes, that Pope did propose earlier. But the whole force of the passage consists in the contrast between * earthly happi- ness ' in the one state, and * heavenly bliss ' in the other. In this, as in many cases, Shakespeare was wiser than his editors. And so Milton : ♦ Scepter and power, thy giving, I assume, Aad gladlier shall resign, when in the end Thou shalt be all in all, and I in thee For ever ; and in me all whom thou lov'st. Paradise Lost, vi. 730-733. Which Eve Perceiving, where she sat retired in sight, With lowliness majestick from her seat, ADVERBS. 235 And grace that won who saw to wish her stay, Eose, and went forth among her fruits and flowers, To visit how they prospered, bud and bloom, Her nursery ; they at her coming sprung, And touched by her fair tendance, gladlier grew. Paradise Lost, viii. 40-47. To overcome in battle, and subdue Nations, and bring home spoils, with infinite Man-slaughter, shall be held the highest pitch Of human glory, and, for glory done, • Of triumph to be styled great Conquerors, Patrons of mankind, Gods, and Sons of Gods ; Destroyers rightlier called, and plagues of men. Ibid, xi. 691-697. Princes, Heaven's ancient Sons, ethereal Thrones, Demonian spirits now, from the element Each of his reign allotted, rightlier called Powers of fire, air, water, and earth beneath ! Paradise Regained, ii. 121-124. Each act is rightliest done. Not when it must, but when it may be best. Ihid, iv. 475-476. Adverbs ending in -ly are now usually compared by more and most : as, briefly, more briefly, most briefly, 431> — rather. The A.-S. adverb is rce6e, ra6, ralSe, ' soon,* * quickly ; ' comparative, rd6or, ra^nr ; superlative, ra^ost. Hence * I would rather do so,' means * I would more quickly do so,' * I would sooner do so.' He regned fifi:ene gere, and died all to rathe, — Robert de Brunne, i, e, * all too soon.' O dere cosin min, Dan John, she saide, What aileth you so rathe for to arise ? Chaucer, Shipmannes Tale, Some of our later poets use rathe as an adjective ; so Milton, Bring the rathe primrose that forsaken dies. Lycidas, 142. In a note on this passage, Todd says that^ in the West of 236 RULES AND CAUTIONS. England there is an early species of apple called the rathe-ripe^ * early-ripe.' 432. — liefer. This is a comparative from the A.-S. adjective leof * loved,' * beloved,' * dear.' God saith, As verely as I ly ve, I wilnot the death of a sinner but had liefer hem to be converted and lyve.^ — Joye, Exposicion of Daniel, Shakespeare uses the positive form lief: as, But for my single self, I had as lief not be, as live to be In awe of such a thing as I myself. Julius Ccesar, i. 2. Speak the speech, I pray you, as I pronounced it to you, trippingly on the tongue ; but if you mouth it, as many of our players do, I had as lief the town-crier spoke my lines. — Hamlet, iii. 2. POSITION. 433. Adverbs are placed before the adjectives or partici- ples which they qualify : as, * It was ver?/ good ; ' * a man greatly beloved.' So when one adverb qualifies another, the modifying adverb stands first : as, ' not wisely, but too well.' The qualifying adverb usually follows an intransitive verb : as, * He behaved nohly,^ * She walks gracefully. '^ When a transitive verb is used with a following objective, the adverb generally comes afi;er the objective : as, * He received them kindly J * He treated his friends generously' The reason is, that the verb and the objective should be kept as closely toge- ther as possible. And if, for rhetorical purposes, it is desirable to vary the order of the sentence, still the connection of the verb and the objective should not be broken. We may say, for example, * He kindly received them ; ' * Generously he treated his friends.' When an auxiliary verb and a participle are used, the adverb may come between them : as, * I have lately written to him,' *■ They were kindly received.' Or the adverb may follow the participle, or the phrase : as, ' They were received kindly ; ' * I have written to him lately,'* When two auxiliaries are employed, their connection should not be interrupted; the adverb should come between the ADYERBS. 237 second auxiliary and the participle : as, * They have been badly treated ; ' or it may follow the whole plirase, as, ^ They have been treated hadhjJ 434. With regard to position no adverb presents greater difficulties than only. There is no absolute rule to determine whether it should precede or follow the word which it qualifies. In common conversation, great latitude is allowed. When we say ' I only spake three words,' most people understand ^ I spake three words and no more ; ' though strictly the adverb qualifies the verb spake. Some critics would alter thus : * I spake only three words ; ' but even then the position of only is ambiguous. Others would say, * I spake three words only ' ; but that is rather formal, and there can be no doubt that, in ordinary conversation, most persons would say ^ I only spake three words.' In composition, however, greater attention is required; although the best writers are not always free from fault. Dry den says : Her body shaded with a slight cymarr, Her bosom to the view was only bare. Cymon and Iphigenia, But the poet means to say, that ' her bosom only . . . was bare.' Dr. Johnson says : For thoughts are only criminal, when they are first chosen, and then voluntarily continued. — Rambler, No. 8. As the words stand, they imply that ' thoughts are nothing else or nothing more than criminal,' in the case supposed ; but the doctor meant, ^ thoughts are criminal, only when they are first chosen, and then voluntarily continued.' So this passage : ' Think only of the past, as its remem- brance gives you pleasure,' should be, ^ Think of the past, only as its remembrance gives you pleasure.' 435. In the following sentence the adverb only^ from its position, gives a turn to the meaning quite different from that which the author intended : He had suffered the woodward only to use his discretion in the distant woods. In the groves about his house he allowed no marking-iron but his own. — Gilpin, Forest Scenery, 238 RULES AND CAUTIONS. As the words stand, they imply that ^ he had suffered the woodward' (or guardian of the wood), and no other person than the woodward, to use his discretion in the distant woods.' But from the context it is clear that * he had suffered the woodward to use his discretion in the distant woods only.'' The following arrangement would make the sentence plain : It was in the distant woods only^ that he suffered the woodward to use his discretion. In the groves about his house he allowed no marking-iron but his own. 436. Gibbon writes : The province of Gaul seems, and indeed only seems, an exception to this universal toleration. — Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire^ c. ii. On this, Mr. Harrison remarks {English Language^ p. 337), as the passage stands, it means that Gaul was in reality no exception at all ; but that it only seemed an exception, ' whereas Mr. Gibbon means that the sanguinary religious rites of the Gauls, under the Druids, were not tolerated by the Eomans, and that the restraint imposed upon the exercise of those rites was the only exception to the toleration which the Eoman world freely enjoyed.' Mr. Harrison has quite mistaken the meaning. Gibbon intends to say that the exception was merely apparent and not real ; for the Romans, while abolishing human sacrifices and suppressing the dangerous power of the Druids, allowed the priests themselves, their gods, and their altars, to subsist in peaceful obscurity till the final destruction of Paganism. The whole passage reads thus : The province of Gaul seems, and indeed only seems, an exception to this universal toleration. Under the specious pretext of abolishing human sacrifices, the emperors Tiberius and Claudius suppressed the dan- gerous power of the Druids ; but the priests them- selves, their gods and their altars, subsisted in peaceful obscurity till the final destruction of Pagan- ism. 437. Again Gibbon writes : Pestilence and famine contributed to fill up the measure of the calamities of Rome. The first could be only ADVERBS. 239 imputed to the just indignation of the gods; but a monopoly of corn, supported by the riches and power of the minister, was considered as the immediate cause of the second. — Decline and Fall of the Ro- man Empire^ c. iv. * According to this form of expression,' says Mr. Harrison, * the pestilence could be imputed, and nothing more than im- puted^ to the just indignation of the gods ; whereas Gibbon means to say that the pestilence could not be attributed to the wicked administration of Commodus, but solely and entirely to the just indignation of the gods ; only to the just indignation of the gods.' Here there is no doubt of the meaning. The writer intends to say, that the pestilence could be imputed to the just indig- nation of the gods, and to that alone. No one would suppose that only is intended to qualify the word imputed ; and where there is no possibility of mistake or ambiguity, we ought not to be too severe in our criticism. 438. We observe the following errors in the use of not only : Addison writes, By greatness I do not only mean the bulk of any single object, but the largeness of the whole view. — Spectator^ No. 412. Dr. Blair, Rhetoric, Lecture xxi., says that the author intended to refer only to the ^ bulk of a single object ; ' and he corrects, I do not mean the bulk of any single object only, but the largeness of a whole view. 439. The adverbial phrase at least is often misplaced. Dr. Blair says. To support this weighty argument, he enters into a con- troversy with A. GelHus, in order to prove that Aristotle's Ehetoric was not published, till after Demosthenes had spoken at least his most con- siderable orations. — Rhetoric, Lecture xxvi. It is evident that the phrase at least is intended to qualify the words * most considerable ; ' and it would have been better to say, * had spoken the most considerable at least of his orations.' 240 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 440. The inconsistent combination of adverbs should be carefully avoided ; for almost never it is better to say scarcely ever^ or very seldom. Dr. Blair writes : It produces that slow Alexandrian air, which is finely suited to a close, and for this reason such lines almost never occur together, but are used in finish- ing the couplet. — Rhetoric^ Lecture xxxviii. In the following passage we observe an unhappy combina- tion and accumulation of adverbs : How much soever the reformation of this corrupt and degenerate age is almost utterly to be despaired of, we may yet have a more comfortable prospect of future times. — Tillotson, Preface to Sermon^ 49. Chapter XIII. CONJUNCTIONS. 441. A Conjunction, from the Latin con-junctio, signifies a * joining together,' and the term is applied to a certain class of ^ connective ' words. It is agreed that a conjunction joins sentences together ; but whether a conjunction may be said to join individual icoi^ds together, is a disputed point. The early grammarians, says Sir John Stoddart {Universal Grammar^ p. 159), included what we call conjunctions and pre^wsitions under the general name of connective {(rvvSefT/jLog). Subsequent writers, however, thought it would be conve- nient to separate these two classes of connectives. Hence, they gave to that which shows the relation of word to word the name of preposition ; and to that which shows the relation of sentence to sentence the name of conjunction, Harris expressly says (Hermes, ii. 2), ' the conjunction con- nects not words, but sentences ; ' and other grammarians have concluded that * a preposition connects words ; a conjunction connects propositions,' Home Tooke objects, that there are cases in which the words, commonly called conjunctions, do not connect sentences, or show any relation between them : as, ' Two and two mak^ CONJUNCTIONS. 241 four.' ^ John and Jane are a handsome couple.' He asks does two make four ? Is John a couple ? See Diversions of Furley^ i. 209, 210. 442. Again, in this sentence, ^ All men are black or white,' we cannot say that it is compoimded of ' All men are black, or aU men are white.' The meaning is not that * all men are of one colour,' but that, ' If a man is not black, he is white ; if he is not white, he is black.' Sir John Stoddart's reply to this objection is not satisfactory. He contends that the conjunction varies the assertion, and does potentially^ if not actually^ combine different sentences. For example, in such a sentence as this : ^ I bought a book for two and sixpence,' he argues that the purchaser did employ two shillings in buying, and he did employ sixpence in buying. So that if the meaning were fully developed, it would be, ' I bought a book for two shillings and I bought a book for six- pence.' This is very far-fetched. Why, ^ I bought the book for lialf-a- crown ; ' and if we choose to call half-a-crown ' two and sixpence,' that does not divide one sentence into two. But Sir John Stoddart is not quite satisfied with his own theory ; for he adds : ^ Nevertheless, if any one contend that the word and in the above sentences does simply and solely connect together the nouns, then we say it must in such cases be called a preposi- tion ; but this will in no degree alter its property or character as a conjunction, when it is really employed to connect sen- tences.' Universal Grammar^ p. 160. 443. This suggestion, that under certain circumstances and must be called a prepositio7i, may be contrasted with Mr. Cob- bett's notion that with has sometimes the force of a conjunction. He thinks {Grammar , § 246) that when with means along withj together with, in company with^ it is nearly the same as and. Hence he would say, * He, with his brothers, are able to do much.' * If,' says he, ' the pronoun be used instead of brothers^ it will be in the objective case : '^ He, with them, are able to do much." But this is no impediment to the including of the noun (represented by theni) in the nominative. With, which is a preposition, takes the objective case after it; but if the persons, or things, represented by the words coming after the preposition, form part of the actors in a sentence, the understood nouns make part of the nominatives. " The bag. 242 RULES AND CAUTIONS. with the guineas and dollars in it, were stolen ; " for if we say '' was stolen," it is possible for us to mean that the hag only was stolen, " Sobriety with great industry and talent, enable a man to perform great deeds," and not enables ; for sobriety alone woiid not enable a man to do great things.' 444. Here we observe a confusion of form and meaning. As a general rule, a subject-nominative in the singular must have a predicate- verb in the singular. Any number of nouns, under government of the preposition with^ cannot discharge the function of subject-nominatives. Even if these nouns represent persons, that makes no difference ; because they are not formally stated as nominatives. The use of the objective in the phrase with them, when a pronoun is substituted for the noun, evidently suggests a doubt to Mr. Cobbett^s mind ; but he has recourse to the artifice of ' understanding,' and he says that * the understood nouns make part of the nominatives.' The brothers may have been actors in the work, but to main- tain that * they form part of the actors in the sentence ' is quite wrong. He confounds the actors in a work with the subject- nominatives in a sentence, the meaning with the grammatical form. The sentence should be, * He, with his brothers, is able to do much.' ' The bag with the guineas and dollars in it was stolen ' is equivalent to *the bag containing guineas and dollars was stolen.' To allege that this construction might imply that ^ the bag only was stolen' is a piece of special pleading. 445. Home Tooke confounds the origin of conjunctions with their function in a sentence ; and because all conjunctions may, as he thinks, be etymologically traced to other kinds of words, he denies them to he a separate sort of words or Part of Speech. First of all, he endeavours to show that if and an^ which have been called co7iditional conjunctions, are merely the original imperatives of the verbs gifan ' to give,' and annan * to grant.' Then he says that those words which are called conditional conjunctions are to be ac- counted for in all languages, in the same manner as he has accounted for if and an. Not, indeed, that they must all mean precisely give and grant ; but that they have some equivalent meaning, such as, be it, suppose, &c. Hence he discards all supposed mystery, not only about these conditionals, but about all those words called conjunctions of sentences. He denies them to be a separate sort of words ; and he contends, that the peculiar signification of each must be traced among other parts of speech, by the help of the particular etymology of each respective language. * In short,' he says, * there is not such a thing as a conjunction in any language, which may not, by a skilful herald, be traced down to its own family and origin.' — Diversions of Turley, pp. 109-126. CONJU>^CTIONS. 243 This may or may not be the case ; but even if true, it is nothing to the purpose, unless we are prepared to admit the principle that Parts of Speech are to be arranged according to signification and not accord- ing to function. Sir John Stoddart allows that Home Tooke has accu- rately ' traced home ' some conjunctions ; while, in regard to others, he has been mistaken. But whether right or wrong in the particular instances, his general doctrine can derive no benefit from them. To prove that a word performs one function at one time, does not disprove its performing another function at another time. To which we may add, that the etymology of a word has nothing necessarily to do with its function in a sentence ; just as a man's pedigree is not absolutely connected with his occupation as a citizen. — See Universal Grammary p. 159; and compare §§ 405, 461. 446- On the whole, there is no sufficient reason against the doctrine, that conjunctions may join together individual words ; and by admitting this principle, we gain an advantage in the analysis of what are termed * contracted sentences.' Take for example the sentence ^ He saw you and me' Now, if conjunctions cannot couple individual words, this sentence must be analysed thus : (1) He saw you, and (2) He saw me. Whereas, if we admit that the conjunction and couples you and 7?ie, we may take you and me as a compound objective dependent upon the verb saw. Nor can there be any great difficulty in distinguishing between conjunctions and prepositions. A preposition can govern nouns, but a conjunction can not. The two words joined by a conjunction are both affected by a common con- cord or government : as, ^ You and I will accompany him and them, A conjunction can join sentences together, which is never the office of a preposition. When, for instance, before is used to introduce a subordinate sentence, as, 'He came before they left,' it ceases to be a preposition and becomes a conjunction (or conjunctive adverb). Lastly, a preposition may denote various relations of time and place; while the relations denoted by a conjunction are chiefly three: (1) Addition, as and] (2) Alternation, as or\ (3) Opposition, as but 447. Accordingly we divide conjunctions into three classes: (1) Copulative; (2) Alternative; (3) Adversative. These are also termed Co-ordinating Conjunctions, because they join together co-ordinate sentences, that is, sentences of equal rank. The so-called Subordinating Conjunctions will be considered separately. See Chapter xiv. H 2 244 EULES AND CAUTIONS. 1. COPULATIVE CONJUNCTIONS. and. This is the chief of the class ; it unites sentences, where the meaning adds something to that which precedes. Home Tooke derives the word from an-adj which he expounds da congeriem. But this is alto- gether doubtful. It has been doubted whether anan meant * to give,' or ' to grant,' and of the syllable ad which he translates * congeriem^ we know nothing. Mr. Wedgwood, in his Dictionary of English. Ety* mology, considers and and an the same word ; but he does not throw any light upon the origin. both . . . and. For the sake of emphasis, sometimes each co- ordinate sentence has a prefix. The word hoih is fre- quently used with the first sentence. It is originally ia-tiva^ ^both-two,' also written hu-tivu and hu-tu. Other forms are employed to join co-ordinate sen- tences, as * not only . . . but,' * partly . . . partly,' * first . . . then.' also and likewise are enumerated by Professor Bain among co-ordinating conjunctions, Grammar^ p. 64. On the other hand, Mr. Mason says that these words are not conjunctions, but demonstrative adverbs. — Grammar y § 409. Also is A.-S. eall-swa, ' all-so ; ' and likewise is compounded of like and A.-S. wise, ^ way,' ' manner ; ' hence likewise signifies * in like manner.' Professor Bain mentions a play upon the word wise in this com- pound : a remark was made upon the son of a judge who had succeeded to his father's office, but not to his ability, that ' he was a judge also, but not like-wise J* — Grammar, p. 64. eke. This word, as a conjunction, has become nearly ob- solete in modern English, with the exception of a few colloquial phrases, or in ballad poetry : as, John Gilpin was a citizen Of credit and renown ; A train- band captain eke was he, Of famous London town. Cowper. But it is from the same root as the verb eke, * to increase,' or, ' to make a thing last out.' The A.-S. eac, CONJUNCTIONS. 245 * also,' is similarly connected with eacan^ or ecan^ * to increase, add.' Compare the Latin augeOj and the Greek av^avio. See Home Tooke, Diversions of Purley^ i. 134, 171 ; Sir John Stoddart, Universal Grammar^ p. 163 ; and Wedgwood, Dictionary of English Ety- mology^ EKE. 2. ALTERNATIVE CONJUNCTIONS. 448. The chief word of this class is or^ which appears to be contracted from the A.-S. pronoun o'^er^ ^ other;' though the A,-S. word corresponding in signification to or is o^^e. In older English we find other in the sense of the modem or : as, Ful feole and fille Beoth yfounde, in heorte and wille That hadde levere a ribaudye Than to here of God, other of seynte Marie. Kyng Alisaunder, i. e. * Than to hear of God, or of St. Mary.' It is very important to distinguish between or when it is a true alternative, pointing out different things (Latin aut) ; and or, where it expresses an equivalent in other terms, and merely indicates a nominal difference (Latin id est, or alias). Thus in the phrase ^ Christ or the Messiah,' the particle introduces merely an alternative name, the person being the same. And the same occurs when we say, * A Sovereign or Supreme Kuler always rules in England.' But when we say, ' A king or queen always rules in England,' the difference is real, indicating distinct persons. nor. This word is formed from the negative ne and or. The corresponding A.-S. word is na'^or, na^er, naw^er, forms used sometimes- as pronouns, and at other times as conjimctions. We must remember that in some cases, nor has, not an alternative, but a copulative force, equivalent to ' and not : ' as. My ventures are not in one bottom trusted, Nor to one place ; nor is my whole estate Upon the fortune of this present year. Merchant of Venice, i. 1. 246 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 449. In alternative sentences, it frequently happens that each clause has an introductory particle, as either ... or ; and so in the negative, neither . . . nor, either. This is one of the words variously termed an adjective pronoun, or a pronominal adjective (see § 285). But it is also used as a conjunction. The A.-S. cegthery * either,* is used in a similar manner; and so is the pronominal form cSor, au6er» neither. This word is formed from the negative ne and either. Where these particles are used, care should be taken to observe the correct sequence, either . , » or, neither . . . nor. Of course, neither , , . or is quite wrong. Some critics say that 7ior should not be used, unless preceded by neither. If this rule is sound, and it needs verification, it must be restricted to the alternative use of nor. In poetry, or is frequently substituted for either, nor for neither : as. Or by the lazy Scheldt, or wandering Po. — Goldsmith, Nor Simois, Nor rapid Xanthus' celebrated flood. Addison, Either, or, neither, nor should be placed next the words to which they refer : as, * Neither he, nor his friends were present.' ' It neither improves the understanding, nor delights the heart.' 3. ADVERSATIVE CONJUNCTIONS. 450. The principal conjunction in this class is hut, originally a preposition, A.-S. he-utan, hutan, ' by-out,' corresponding in form, and even in signification, to ' with-out.' See § 473. In older English, the forms bot and hut occur. Home Tooke attempts to set up a distinction between them, and derives bot from the imperative of botan, ' to boot,' that is, * to superadd.' See Diversions of Purley, i. 182, 306. This distinction is not considered tenable ; but some of Home Tooke' s observations are weU worth consulting. He shows that, in older English, but and without were indifferently used as prepositions and as conjunctions ; but that in course of time, but ceased to be recognised as a preposition ; and without ceased to be correctly used as a conjunction, p. 306. His criticism of Locke's remarks on the word but, is given ibid, pp. 182-205. CONJUNCTIONS. 247 The adversative force of hut is emphatically marked in this passage : — Messenger, Madam, madam Cleopatra. Antony's dead ? — If thou say so, villain, thou kilVst thy mistress : But well and free, If thou so yield him, there is gold, there My bluest veins to kiss : a hand, that kings Have lipped, and trembled kissing. Messenger, First, madam, he's well. Cleopatra. Why, there's more gold. But^ sirrah, mark; we use To say the dead are well. Messenger, Good madam, hear me. Cleopatra, Well, go to, I will ; But there's no goodness in thy face. . . • • • Messenger, Madam, he's well. Cleopatra, Well said. Messenger, And friends with Caesar. Cleopatra, Thou'rt an honest man. Messenger, Caesar and he are greater friends than ever. Cleopatra, Make thee a fortune from me. Messenger, But yet^ madam Cleopatra,, I do not like hut yet^ it does alloy The good precedence : f^Q upon hut yet. But yet is as a gaoler to bring forth Some monstrous malefactor. Antony and Cleopatra^ ii. 5. 451> Professor Bain remarks {Grammar^ p. ^^^ : — It is a loose employment of this forcible word, to bring it in where there is no exception taken, or no arrest put upon a natural inference. * No man taketh it from me, hut I lay it down of myself.' In this passage Professor Bain considers hut imnecessary. It is also a common mistake to use it in the sense of now^ as signifying the com- pletion of a case in order to draw an inference. * Men are mortal ; hut (for * now ') we are men ; therefore we are mortal.' Still, This word appears to be derived from the adjective stilly and is used in the sense of yet. It is even more emphatic than hut^ suggesting a pause to hear what may be said by way of exception or opposition to the previous statements. * Everything went against him, still he persisted.' 248 RULES AND CAUTIONS. however. This word is compounded of how (see § 460, p. 253), and the word ever. It may be used either at the beginning of a sentence, or in the middle of a clause : as, ' However, this statement was not true ; ' or, * This statement, however, was not true.' Conjunctions of these three classes are termed Co-ordinating Conjunctions, because they join together co-ordinate clauses, or independent affirmations. For the so-called Subordinating or Continuative Conjunctions see Chapter XIV. Chapter XIV. WOEDS VAEIOUSLY TEEMED CONJUNCTIVE ADVEEBS, ADYEEBIAL CONJUNCTIONS, EELATIVE ADVEEBS, SUBOEDINATING CONJUNCTIONS, CONTINUATIVE CON- JUNCTIONS, &c. 452. This is another case of Border Land. Just as we w^ere unable to draw an exact line between Adjectives and Pronouns, ! yet A.-S. gyt. Home Tooke would derive this word from getan or gytan, * to get ; ' but this is doubtfril. Sir John Stoddart calls the word an Adverb, but remarks, * where yet is used for " also," " moreover," or "nevertheless," it is properly to be considered as a Conjunction ; but the distinction between a Conjunc- tion and a Ilelative Adverb is not always easy to be drawn.' — Universal Grammar, p. 87. 260 RULES AND CAUTIONS. Termed : Continuative Conjunction. — Morell, p. 90. Conjunction or Conjunctive Adverb of the Adver- sative Class. — Id, p. 98. Co-ordinating Conjunction of the Arrestive Class. — Bain, p. 66. Chapter XV. PEEPOSITIONS. 469. Prepositions were originally, and for a long time, classed with conjunctions ; and when first separated from them, were only distinguished by the name of Prepositive Con- junctions. Some of the Greek grammarians, considering that preposi- tions connect words, as conjunctions connect sentences, ranked both the preposition and the conjunction under the common head of connective {avvdeafiog) ; and the Stoics called the preposition the ^ preposed connective ' (^crvpBecr/jiog TrpoderiKoc-), In the Greek and Latin languages, the words thus distin- guished were most commonly placed immediately before the substantives which they governed ; and this accidental circum- stance was unfortunately selected by some grammarians to give name to the pre-position. If this was their notion, the view was inaccurate ; for even in Latin, tenus was always placed after the noun which it governed. So Plautus has rnederga for erg a me ; and cmn occupies a similar position in the words mecum^ tecum, nohis- cum, vobiscum. To meet these variations, some grammarians were not ashamed to make a class of postpositive prepositions, which is a manifest contradiction of terms ; for the same word cannot be at once * after-placed ' and ^ fore-placed.' There is, however, one aspect of the case, which may account for the origin of the term. In composition with verbs, in Greek and Latin, the preposition generally precedes the verb, and forms one word with it ; whereas in English (and this we shall find to be a very important fact), the preposition usually follows the verb, and is written separately. 470. A preposition is a word which is used : 1. To express the relation in which one substantive stands PREPOSITIONS. 261 to another : as, ^ The middle of the street,' ^ The hat on the table,' ^the crumbs under the table.' 2. To connect a substantive with a verb : as, ^ He went through the city,' ^ They passed under the bridge.' 3. To connect a substantive with an adjective : as, ' He is ready ybr anything.' 4. In composition with verbs ; most commonly after the verb : as, ^ carry o/",' ' run through,' * take out.' In some cases, however, the preposition is prefixed, as ^ over- throw,' * under-go.' It is curious to observe, that to ' set up ' is to ' establish ; ' but to * upset ' is to ^ over- turn ; ' and to ' take up ' a cause is to ^ imdertake ' it. Certain prepositions correspond to the case-endings of nouns •in Greek and Latin. Thus of answers to the genitive case; to and for to the dative ; from^ hy^ and with to the ablative. As English is a mixed language, we shall find it necessary to consider the EngHsh prepositions, strictly so called, and the Latin prepositions. The necessity of this will fiilly appear when we discuss the subject of Composition. 471. The simple original prepositions in English are these : a, at^ but, by, for, fore, from, in, on, of, over, out, till, to, through, up, with. Doivn and since are employed as prepositions. 472. a. The word a appears to be a remnant of the Anglo- Saxon preposition an, ' in,' ' on.' It is used before the gerund (or infinitive) in -ing : as, * a-coming,' ^ a-going,' ' a-walking,' * a-shooting; ' and before nouns, as ^a-bed,' *a-board,' ^a-shore,' ^a-foot.' Our sailors have pre- served many specimens of this, and of other old English forms. Dr. Wallis supposes a to be tiie preposition at. Dr. Lowth rather thinks it is the preposition on. For at has relation chiefly to place ; whereas 07i has a more general relation, and may be applied to action, as well as to place : ' I was on coming, on going, &c.' So, likewise, the phrases above-mentioned, ' a-bed,' &c., exactly answer to ' on bed,' * on board,' * on foot.' Dr. Bentley plainly supposed a to be the same with on, as appears from the following passage : He would have a learned University to make barbarisms a purpose. — Dissertation on PhalaHs, p. 223, See Lowth, English Grammar, p. 95. • at, A.-S. cet. after. A.-S. cefter. 262 EULES AND CAUTIONS. The root is af\ Gothic afar^ ^ after/ * behind : ' A.-S. C2ft^ ceftan^ cefter. According to Grimm, the final tar is the comparative termination, and the root af is the equivalent of the Greek oitto, Latin ah, 473. hut. This is a true preposition, and is originally he-out^ * by-out ; ' A.-S. he-utan, hutan^ * without,' ^ except,' * besides.' It is curious that hut (be -out) has almost lost its power as a preposition, and remains in force as a conjunction ; while with-out is used as a preposition, and not, in modern English, as a conjimction. In the Scottish dialect we find hen, from A.-S. hinnan, ' within/ the precise correlative of but, ' without; ' ^but and ben,* * without (the house) and within.' Then the terms ' but and ben * are applied to the outer and inner rooms of a house consisting of two apartments. See Wedg- wood, Dictionary of English Etymology. Home Tooke quotes several passages from Gawin Douglas, where the word is used as a preposition. He tries to distinguish between hut, 'be out,' and bot, ' moreover,' *to boot;' but the distinction is now considered untenable. Among the passages quoted from Gawin Douglas we read, Bot thy werke shall endure in laude and glorie, But spot or fait condigne eterne memorie. Preface to Translation of Virgil, p. 3. i.e. * without spot or fault.' Bot sen that Virgil standis hut compare. Prologue to Booke IX, p. 272. i.e. * without comparison.' We add a passage from Dnnbar : For warld's wrak but welfare nought avails, i.e. * without welfare.' Although hut is no longer used as a preposition before nouns, we have instances of its usage with pronouns : as, * There was no one present but me^ ' They all went away but himJ So entirely has the prepositional use of but been forgotten, that many grammarians regard the word as a conjunction only. Hence they consider the phrases ' but me ' and * but him ' violations of grammar. They regard but as a con- junction in all cases ; and they condemn such sentences as these : There was no one present but me. They all went away but him. They correct thus : There was no one present but I. They all went away but he. i.e. ' but I [was present],' * but he [went not].* See § 193. Compare §550. hy, A.-S. he^ hi, hig, ' near,' ' beside.' down. See adown, § 416. PREPOSITIONS. 263 474. for, A.'S.for, ' on account of/ * because of.' fore. A.S.foran, * before.' Wedgwood, in his Dictionary of English Etymology^ classes for and fore together. He compares the Gothic faur^ faura^ and the Old Norse fyrir, ' before,' * fore, ' for,' with the G-erman vor, * for,' and/i^r, ' for.' He thinks the radical meaning in both cases is * in front of.' Like the Latin ]pr(B and pro^ the particles/or and fore may be connected etymologically ; indeed, they may originally have been the same word. But their difference in usage must be observed; and, in composition, both must be carefully distinguished from the inseparable prefix /or, as in for- give, for-get, for-loxn, from, A.-S./m??2. 475. in on. > A.-S. on, in, an. In English the preposition in is used much more widely than in Anglo-Saxon. I have remarked that the people of Cork retain many old uses of the form on, as, * He lives on the South Mall,' * I saw that report on the " Constitution" (newspaper).' So in Italian, ' Si legge sui giornali.' 476. of. A.-S. of, ^ of,' * from,' ' out of,' ^ concerning.* Of is used to denote what is called the genitive case in Greek and Latin. It expresses a variety of relations. (1) Sometimes it has a partitive meaning, that is, it denotes the relation of a part or parts to the whole, as ' the wing of an eagle,' ' the walls of the town.' (2) Sometimes it is used in connection with the properties or qualities of an object: as, 'the length of the room,' 'the strength of a lion,' * the sweetness of honey,' * the height of the mountain.' (3) Sometimes it has an objective force: as, * the love o/ our neigh- bour,' meaning, * love towards our neighbour.' Obs. — There may be an ambiguity in the use of this preposition. For example, * the love of God ' may signify either * the love exhibited by God towards man,' or ' the love felt by man towards God.' The former may be other- wise rendered ' God's love,' but not the latter. (4) Of has sometimes an adjective meaning: as, * a crown o/ gold,' for ' a golden crown ;' * an act o/' grace,' for ' a gracious act.' (5) Of is sometimes used to connect nouns in apposition : as, * the city of London,' ' the city of Rome (urbs Boma). See § 143 ; and compare Bain, English Grammar^ p. 48. This preposition is sometimes contracted to o' : as, * one o'clock,' for * one of the clock.' cnjer. A.-S. ofer, ' over,' ' above,' * upon,' * beside,' * beyond.' Dutch, over. German, iXher. out, A.-S. ut, ute, * out,' * without.' This preposition is constantly used in composition : as. 264 RULES AND CAUTIONS. ' turn out,' * send out.' But it is not found alone be- fore nouns ; though ' out of and * out from ' are usual. 477- since. In Anglo-Saxon we find the adjective si^, * late/ and an adverb of the same form, ' lately.' We also find si6^an ' afterwards,' ' after that,' * then,' * since,' ' further.' In Old English we meet with the forms sith^ sithen, sin (Scottish syne), sithence ; and from the last our English since appears to have come. The old forms were never used as prepositions ; but the English since, though commonly used as a conjunction, has a true prepositional force in such sentences as these : * I have not seen him since Tuesday,' * I have not heard of them since last Christmas.' See § 463. through, A.-S. thurh^ ^ through,' ^ by.' 478. till. A.-S. til The English till is not used with words denoting motion to a place ; we cannot say, with the Scots, ' he's ganging till Montrose.' Its use in English is chiefly confined to relations of time. Until appears to be compounded of ' on-till,' and used to be written * untill.' ' Dr. Grrimm remarks that the English until, *' donee," " usque," though Old English (and not Anglo-Saxon, which uses o^), appears to be a real Danish form.' — Bosworth, Anglo-Saxon Dictionary. to. A,-S. to, ^ to,' * towards,' ' for.' under. A.-S. under ; German unter, up. A.-S. up ; German auf. with. A.-S. wi^. The Anglo-Saxon wi^ has several meanings: (1) ' against,' * oppo- site;' (2) 'near,' * about,' 'by,' 'before;' (3) * towards,' ' with,' ' for,' * through.' The usual signification in English is * together with,' denoting com- panionship : as, Shylock. I will buy with you, sell luitk you, talk with you, walk with you, and so following; but I will not eat with you, drink with you, nor pray with you. Merchant of Venice, i. 3. It is also employed to denote agency or instrumentality : as, * fed with the same food,' ' hurt with the same weapons.' More commonly by is used to denote agency, with to express instrumentality : as, * the field was dug by the labourer, with his spade.' Other prepositions are formed by combining two simple prepositions together; as in-to, un-to (i.e. on-to), un-til (i.e. on-till), up-on, with-in, with-out, through-out, out of, out from. 479. Some prepositions exhibit a derivative form, espe- cially those which are made by help of the prefixes a (* on,' * in,') and be (*by'). These are foimd in composition with PKEPOSITIONS. 265 prepositions, nouns, and even adjectives, something like our phrases ^ in vain,* ^ in secret.' We have : a-haft^ a-bout, a-hove, a-gainsf, a-long, a-mid, a^mong, a-round, a-tJiwart ; be-fore, be-hind, be-low, be-neath^ beside, be-tween, be-twixt, be-yond, 480. a-baft, A.-S. ceftan, be-ceftan, bceftan, * after,' * be- hind.' Hence on-bceftarij * abaft,' literally ' on-by-aft.' Every man shewid his connyng tofore the ship and bafU Chaucer, a-bout A.-S. abutan. From A.-S. utan we find be-utan (^by-out') and butan ; on-butan (* on-by-out ') and a-butan, above. A.-S, a-bufan. From A.-S. nfan wc find be-ufan (' by-up '), bufan, and a-bufan, against. From a-gain, Old English a-gen. From A.-S. simpler forms gean and gegen, * opposite,' we find on- gean, on-gegen. In modern English a-gain has lost its prepositional force, remaining in use as an adverb. a-long. There are two words of this form : (1) a-long, A.-S. and-lang, German, ent-langen. Here lang is originally an adjective agreeing with the noun, which is governed by the preposition and, ^through;' as and langne dceg, * through the long day,' ^ through the length of the day.' The adjective has been absorbed by the preposition. . Compare a-mid. (2) a-long, fi:om A.-S. ge-lang, * owing to,' as in the phrase * it is along of you.' So Shakespeare, All this coil is long of you. Midsummer Nighfs Dream, iii. 2. a-mid. There is another instance in which an adjective has been absorbed, or attracted, by a preposition. A.-S. midd is an adjective, * middle : ' thus, On middre nihte, * at mid night.' On midne daeg, * at mid day.' On midre sae, * in mid sea,' * in the middle of the sea.' On middan thaere ea, * in middle the water,' * in the middle of the water,' * amid the water.' In this last sentence observe the position of the article ihcere between the adjective and the noun. Compare the remarks on *many a youth,' §§ 296-303. N 266 RULES AND CAUTIONS. a-mong. Dr. Boswortb gives the following forms of tlie A.-S. preposition: ge-mang^ ge-mong^ a-mang^ on-mang. There is a noun ge-mang, * mixture,' and a verb mengan, *• to mingle, mix.' It is possible that a-mong originally signified * in the mixed multitude;' but the word requires further investigation. a-round, * on round.' Here we have a preposition with an adjective; compare the phrases * in vain,' ^ in secret.' So Lydgate, speaking of his youthful days : Lik a young colt^that ran withowte brydil, Made my freendys ther good to spend in ydil, * In idle' means ' in vain,' ^ to no purpose.' The adjec- tive ^ round' is from the French rond, Latin roiuiidus, I do not think that ^ around ' is derived from A.-S. rand^ rond, ' rim,' ' border.' The sense would hardly favour that derivation ; and we may remark that the A.-S. preposition used in this signification was yirib, German um. a-thwart. This appears to be another case of a preposition and an adjective. The A.-S. adjective thweor, thweorh, thivir^ thwyr^ thwer, tJnvur, thwurh, signifies 'crooked,' * cross,' ' wicked,' ' thwart ; ' and Dr. Bosworth gives the phrase on thweorh sprecan * perversely speak,' that is, * speak athwart.' Mr. Wedgwood compares the Old Norse um thvert, * across,' ' athwart.' 481. We have now to consider prepositions exhibiting the prefix he-^ ' by.' This prefix is the Anglo-Saxon preposition be, bi, big, *■ by, near to, to, at, upon, about, with.' We find it prefixed to a preposition, as * be-/or^ ; ' to a noun, as ' be- side ;' to an adjective, as ' be-Zow.' be-fore. A.-S. be-foran, * by-fore.' he-hind, A.-S. be-hindan, ' by-hind.' be-low, ' by-low : ' compare * on high.' be-neath, A.-S. be-neo"^, be-neo^an, be-ny^an^ ^by-neath ;' neo^an signifies ' down,' ' downwards.' he-side, ' by side.' he-tween, 'by twain,' that is ' near two.' The notion is, that if a thing is between two others, it is near both. be-twixf, A.-S. be-twuh, be-twy, be-twih, be-twyh, be-tweoh, be-tweohs, be-tweox, be-twux, be twuxt. In Anglo-' PREPOSITIONS. 267 Saxon, li appears to have had a guttural sound; hence, hs are equivalent to x, Mr. Wedgwood says, ' The A.-S. has tiocoh, a different form of twa^ ** two;" and thence twegcn, '' twain." From the former of these are A.-S. betwuh, betweoh, betweohs, bettiu ox, betwKxt, '' hj twoj' "in the middle of two ;" which may be compared, as to form, with amid, A.-S. amiddes, amidst, or with again, against. In like manner from twain is formed between, " in the middle of twain." ' The lie of Man that me clepeth By twene us and Irlonde.' Robert of Gloucester, * The Isle of Man that man calleth By twain us and Ireland.' See Wedgwood, Dictionary of English Etymology, * between.' he-yond, A.-S. he-geond, he-geondan, he-iundan, ' by- yond,' ^ by-yonder.' Geond^ as a preposition, signifies ^ through, over, after, beyond ; ' and as an adverb, *yond, yonder, thither, beyond.' 482, The following words are used as prepositions. They are derived from verbs, either from the imperative mood, or from the form in -ing. From the imperative : except^ save. From the form in ~ing : hating^ concerning^ during, ex- cepting^ pending^ respecting, regarding, notwithstanding. It is difficult to say whether the form in -ing, here used, is participial or gerund ial ; or whether some of these words are used in one construction, others in another. We might con- sider during and pending to be participial, and to have arisen from an absolute construction : * pending the battle ' {pen^ dente prcelio), ^ while the battle was hanging in doubt ; ' so * during the fight,' that is, * while the fight lasted.' But this explanation would not suit ' concerning,' ^ except- ing,' ^regarding.' Wickliffe, who uses ^ out-take ' for except, employs the passive participle in an absolute construction : ' out-taken women and little children/ that is, ' exceptecZ women and little children.' I incline to think that we have borrowed this use of the active participle from the Norman French. We have for ex- ample ' in passing,' en passant, a construction which furnishes grammatical difficulty both in French and Enghsh. k2 268 EULES AND CAUTIONS. POSITION. 483. The noun or pronoun governed generally follows the preposition which governs it. But the preposition is often separated fi'om the relative pronoun which it governs, and is thrown to the end of the clause or sentence : as, Horace is an author, whom I am much delighted with. The world is too well bred to shock authors with a truth, which generally their booksellers are the first that inform them of. — Pope, Preface to his Poems, * This is an idiom,' says Dr. Lowth, * which our language is strongly inclined to ; it prevails in common conversation, and suits very well with the familiar style in writing ; but the plac- ing of the preposition before the relative is more graceful, as well as more perspicuous ; and agrees much better with the solemn and elevated style.' — Lowth, English Grammar j p. 187. Lindley Murray quotes this remark word for word, and has the credit of having laid down a law upon the subject. But the old idiom of throwing a preposition to the end of a sen- tence was beginning to be thought inelegant in the time of Dry den. In his Defence of the Epilogue j he criticises some passages in Ben Jonson's Catiline ; and upon these lines, The waves, and dens of beasts, could not receive The bodies that those souls were frighted ^row, he remarks, ' The preposition in the end of a sentence : a common fault with him, and which I have but lately ob- served in my own writings.' — Dry den, Prose Works (ed. Malone), ii. 237. Accordingly Dryden altered this construc- tion in every sentence where it occurred in his Essay on Dramatic Poesy, The first edition of that work appeared in 1668 ; the second in 1684. Malone has printed the second edition, collated verbatim with the first edition, and he adds the various readings at the close of the essay. Thus : ' I can- not think so contemptibly of the age / live in^ is exchanged for * the age in which I live.' * A deeper expression of belief than all the actor can persuade us to ' is altered, ^ can in- sinuate into W5.'— Dryden, Prose Works, ii. 136-142. 484- Hallam, quoting this passage (Literary History, iii. 556), observes, though the old form continued in use long after the time of Dryden, it has of late years been reckoned PREPOSITIONS. 269 inelegant, and proscribed in all cases, perhaps with an un- necessary fastidiousness, to which I have not uniformly deferred ; since our language is of a Teutonic structure, and the rules of Latin or French grammar are not always to bind us.' In a note Hallam quotes an interrogatory sentence from Hooker : — * Shall there be a God to swear hy^ and none to pray ^o ? ' as an instance of the force which this arrangement, so eminently emphatic, sometimes gives. Hallam's view of the question is this : — * The form is, in my opinion, sometimes emphatic and spirited, though its frequent use appears slovenly. ... In the passive voice, I think it better than in the active ; nor can it always be dispensed with, unless we choose rather the feeble encumbering pronoun which,'' We must not forget that Dry den represented the classical school in our literature ; hence he wished to make our lan- guage conform to the Latin idiom. Since German studies have become fashionable, we have seen that the practice of throwing the preposition to the end of the sentence is a Ger- manic, and therefore presumptively an old English idiom. The perusal of our older authors has strengthened this impression. See § 256, and compare Bain, English Grammar^ p. 189. 485. Professor Bain {English Grammar^ p. 190) quotes the following examples from Massinger's Grand Duke of Florence^ to show the usage of the Elizabethan writers : — For I must use the freedom / was horn with. In that dumb rhetoric which you make use of, the name of friend, Which you are pleased to grace me with. a copious theme, Which would, discoursed at large of make a volume. And so Shakespeare : But that the dread of something after death, The undiscovered country, from whose bourn No traveller returns, puzzles the will ; And makes us rather bear those ills we have, Than fly to others that we know not of Hamlet^ iii. 1. To have no screen between this part he played. And him he played it for ^ he needs will be Absolute Milan. Tempest^ i. 2. These nine in buckram that I told thee of 1st Henry IV, ii. 4. 270 RULES AND CAUTIONS. 486. Caution. — ^Where a relative pronoun is dependent upon a preposition, and the preposition is thrown to the end of the sentence, errors are sometimes found, and the nominative is often improperly used for the objective. In the following passages ivho ought to be whom : — Who servest thou under ? Henry V. iv. 7. Who do you speak to ? ^5 you Like It, V. ii. I'll tell you who time ambles withal, who time trots withal, who time gallops withal, and ivho he stands still withal, — Ibid, iii. 2, We are still much at a loss who civil power be- longs to, — Locke, 487- Some writers separate the preposition from the noun which it governs, in order to connect different prepositions with the same noun; as, To suppose the zodiac and the planets to be efficient of, and antecedent to, themselves. — Bentley, Sermon 6. This, adds Dr. Lowth, whether in the familiar or the solemn style, is always inelegant ; and should never be admitted but in forms of law, or in documents where accuracy of expression must take place of every other consideration. — See Lowth, English Grammar, p. 137, Note. ENaLISH PREPOSITIONS IN COMPOSITION WITH VERBS. 488. Some few of our prepositions are prefixed to verbs, and coalesce with them : these are fore, over, out, with, under, up, and the inseparable preposition for-, corresponding to the German ver-, fore. As in fore-tell (sometimes written fore-teT), fore-hode, fore-hnow, over. As in over-turn, over-whelm, and sometimes with the signification of ' excess,' as in over-do, over-work, out. With the sense pf ' surpassing,' as in out-do, out-run, with. Not in the sense of * along with,' but signifying 'against,' 'away,' as in ivith-stand, with-hold,with-draw, under. As in under-lay, under-mtne, under-write. Some- PREPOSITIONS. 271 times it bears the signification of * defect/ as in under- praisBj under-value. At other times we observe au entire modification of meaning : for example, under- stand does not mean * stand under/ but ' comprehend.' Compare the German ver-stehen. In under-go and under-take, the notion of * under ' is borrowed from * going under,' or * supporting' a burden. up. As in up-hnld^ up-heave, up-lift. Observe that up-set means * over- turn,' but ' set up' means ^ establish.' 489. for. The particle for- may or may not be the same as our preposition for. At all events, it seems akin to the German ver^ and the Latin per-. Compare the Old English for-do^ * ruin,' ^ destroy,* with the German ver-thun, ^ use up,' * consume,' and Avith the Latin per- do, ' destroy.' Compare also for-sivear with the Ger- man ver-schworen, and the Latin per-juro. With a verb of good meaning, it has a contradictory effect, turning good into bad ; but with a verb of bad mean- ing, it appears to have an intensive force. for-do. Sometimes wvitt^w fore-do , ' ruin, weary, destroy.* Compare German ver-thun^ Latin per-do. forfeit. From the French noun forfait^ derived from for-faire^ ' do wrong,' ' transgress.' Hence forfeit means * to lose by mis-, deed;' the term being transferred from the act to the conse- quences. In Low Latin /or-/aire is rendered /om-/ac^^. for-go. Sometimes written fore-go^ ' go without.' for-get, * Lose hold of.' for-give, 'Give away.' In old time he who pardoned an injury gave up his claim to the wer-gild or * compensation.' for-saJce. Properly *put away the subject of dispute,' * renounce,' * deny ;' then simply ' desert.' Old English sake, ' dispute,' * strife.' A.-S. sacan, sacian, ' contend,' ' strive.' Mr. "Wedgwood, in his Dictionary of English Etymology, discusses for- under the words ' for,' * fore,' and says : ' For, in composition, answers to G. ver, Goth, fair, Fr. for, and has the meaning of G. fort, Dan. hort, ''forth," "away;" Latin, foris, "without;" Fr. /or5, "out," " without." Thus/or62c? is to "bid a thing away ;" to forget, to "away- get," to lose from memory ; to forgo, "to go without;" to for fend, "to ward off." In other instances the prefix for, in the sense of out or utterly, implies that the action has been carried to its utmost limits : forwearied is " wearied out." ' Similarly in Piers Ploughman we read : I was vreiry for-wandredf And went me to rest© Under a brood bank By a bournes syde. 272 EULES AND CAUTIONS. 490. But more commonly, in English, the preposition is placed after the verb, and separated from it. And thus several words may come between the verb and the preposition : as, ' he took them all m,' ' he turned every one out.^ It is a very useful exercise to take an English -French Dic- tionary, as that of Spiers, and to look out an English verb. The prepositions used in composition with that verb are added, with French translations of the compound verbs ; and the exercise consists in making a list of the compounds, affixing to each the corresponding Latin-English derivative. The verb talce will furnish us with an example : Take away Abstract^ remove Take about Conduct^ convey. Take after Imitate, Take along Convey, Take down (1) Demolish, deject, (2) Degrade^ humiliate. Take from Subtract, Take in (1) Receive (with hospitality). (2) Deceive, Take off (1) Destroy. (2) Ridicule. Take on Assume. Take to Adopt, Take under Subduct. Take up Raise, elevate. Take upon Arrogate, Take with Convoy, escort, 491. It is also very necessary to observe, that many intran- sitive verbs become transitive, when compounded with prepo- sitions. For example, run is intransitive ; but run through is transitive. In the following list, we mark the transitive verbs * : — Eun away Abscond, * Run away with (1) Abduct. (2) Imagine, * Run down (1) Catch, overwhelm, (2) Decry, depreciate. Run from Eschew, avoid, * Run through (1) Transfix, pierce. (2) Squander, Run off Escape, * Run up Incur (a debt). PREPOSITIONS. 273 LATIN PKEPOSITIONS IN COMPOSITION WITH VEEBS. 492. The Latin element enters largely into the English language ; and it is absolutely necessary to have some know- ledge of Latin prepositions, as they appear in composition with verbs. For fuller information, on this part of the subject, the student may consult Professor Key's ia^m Grammar^ §§ 808- 838, and §§ 1303-1397. It will be sufficient to remark here, that when a Latin preposition ends in a consonant, the final consonant is liable to change, if the verb, with which it is compounded, begins with a consonant. This is called assimi- lation^ or a * making like,' because the final consonant of the preposition is made like to the initial consonant of the verb. For example, from ad and rogo we have, not ad-rogate^ but ar-rogate. In like manner, we have, not ad-similation, but assimilation. To the prepositions, in the following list, we annex the changes to which they are liable ; for instance, we give, ad (ac, af, ag, alj an, ap, ar, as, at). This means, that the preposition ad sometimes appears in composition as ac, af, ag, &c., according to the initial conso- nant of the verb. Latin Prepositions. 493. a, aJ, abs, * from,' * away.' a-vert ' turn from.' absolve ' loosen away.' abS'tract m * draw away.' Prof. Key, Latin Grammar^ § 1304, translates ab-use, * use up,' absorb, * suck down.' ad (ac, af, ag, al, an, ap, ar, as, at,) ' to,' ' at,' * on.' ad'here * stick to.' aC'Cede * step to.' af-fix ' fix on.' ag-glomerate ' heap on.' al-locate * place to.' an-nex * join on.' ap'preciate * put value on,' * set price upon.' ar-rive * come to.' assimilate 'liken to.' at-tend * stretch to.' n3 274 RULES AND CAUTIONS. ante, 'before.' ante-date * fore- date,' * date before.' ante-cede * go before^' 494. circum, * round.' circnm-vent * come round' (i. e. deceive). circum-navigate * sail round.' circumscribe * draw a line round.' com (col, con, cor, co), * with,' * together,' * up.' com-pose * place together.' col-lect ' gather together,' ' gather up.' cor-rohorate ^ strengthen up.' cor-rode ' eat up.' co-operate * work together.' Obs. — This preposition is cow before consonants and co before vowels : con-form, consider, consist ; but co-equal, co-eternal. Many persons write * co-temporary ' for * cow-temporary ;' but Richard Bentley said that ' he could not co-gratulate such persons on the co-position of their words.' contra, 'against.' contra-diet, ' speak against,' * gain-say,' where gain- contains the root of a-gain, a-gainst. contra-vene, ' come against.' contro, 'against.' contrO'Vert, ' turn against.' 495. de, ' down,' ' forth,' ' out,' ' at.' de-scend ' climb down,' ' come down.' de-ject ' cast down.' de-monstrate ' show forffh,' ' point out.' de-ride ' laugh at.' despise ' look down upon.' dis- {dif, di), ' in different directions,' ' apart,' ' away,' ' from.' dissolve ' loosen away.' dis-join ' separate.' dis-arm ' take weapon away.' dif-fuse ' scatter apart.' dif-fer ' carry in different directions.' di-verge ' turn aside.' ex {ef, e\ ' out of,' ' forth.' ex-port ' carry out.' PREPOSITIONS. 275 ex'pose e-merge e-nuntiate e-migrate ' set forth; * come forth.' ' tell out.' * wander forth.' 496. in (inij il, in, and in French derivatives em, en), ^ in,' * into,' ^ upon.' iu'volve * roll in.' in-duct * lead in.' inspire *■ breathe into.' il-lude * play upon.' iUlustrate * throw light upon.' im-pel * urge on.' im-pose * put upon.' im-port * carry into.' ir-radiate ^ shine into.' ir-rigate ' pour water upon.' em-brace * put arms round.' ^ en-vy ' look upon' (i.e. with an evil eye.) inter {intel\ * between,' * among.' inter-cede * pass between,' * mediate.' inter-cept * come between.' inter-change ' change among/ This preposition conveys the idea of opposition or obstruc- tion in the words inter-cept, inter-dict (* for-bid '), inter-fere. In French derivatives it takes the form enter, as enter -prise an ^ undertaking.' intro, * into,' * in.' introduce^ * lead in.' 497- ob {oc, ofy op), ' against,' ' up,' ' upon,' ^ towards.' ob-ject obstruct * cast against,' ' urge against.' * block up.' oC'Cur * run towards.' of-fend of-fer ' strike against.' * bring towards.' op-pose * put against.' op'press op'pugn * press upon.' * fight against.' 498. per, through.' per-mit per-vade * let go through.' * pass through.' 276 EULES AND CAUTIONS. Obs. — The particle per in composition has sometimes a mean- ing akin to that of our /or-, German ver-^ as in the Latin per-dOy 'for-do,' i.e. * destroy;* so too, Latin jper-jurOj * for-swear ;' so, perhaps, per-vertj * turn away from (the right)/ post, * after,* ' off.' post-date 'after-date/ * date-after.' post-pone * put off.' pne (pre), ^before.' pre-cede, 'go before,' not ^fore-go,' which is more strictly 'for-go,' ' go without.' pre-clude * shut out beforehand.' pre-dict ^ fore tell.' pre-fer ' put before.' pre-tend * stretch forward' (for the purpose of concealment). pro (por), * for,' * forth,' * before.' pro-ject * cast forward.' por-tend * fore -stretch,' * fore-token.' This preposition appears in French as pour^ whence we have pour-tray, now written por-tray, * draw forth,' * draw in outline ;' pur-pose of the same meaning as p'o-^^ose, * set forth' (as an object), * design.' 499. re {red), ' back,' * again.' re-cur * run back.' re-ject * throw back.' re-move * move back,' ' take away.' red-eem * buy back,' * buy again.' retro, ' back,' * backward.' retro^grade * step backward.' se, ^ apart.' se-cede * go apart,' -^ withdraw.' se-parate * put apart.' 500. sub (sue, suf, suy, sup, sur, sus, 5w[5]), ' under,' * up,' * over,' * after.' sub-due * bring imder.' sub-ject * cast under.' sub-mit * put under.' suc-ceed ^ come up,' * prosper.' suc-cour * run up,' ^ help.' suf-fix * fix under,' * put after.' suf-fuse * spread over.' PREPOSITIONS. 277 sug-gest sup'port sup'pose sur-render suS'pend sus-tain su{s)-spect super, *over,* *on.' super-add super'Scribe super 'Vene The French sur is derived sur-prise sur-vene sur-vey sur-vive trans (tra), * over/ ' across.' trans-mit trans-mute ira-duce * carry up.' * bear up.' * lay under,' * lay down.' * deliver up.' * hang up.' * hold up.' * look under.' * add on.' * write over.' * come on,' ' come in addition.' from super J and appears in * take suddenly.' * come in addition.' * oversee.' * live after.' * send over.' ' change over.' * lead over,' ^ bring before the public,' * expose to ridicule,' * calumniate.' 501. It sometimes happens, that while a verb is compounded with a Latin preposition, an English preposition follows the verb. As a general rule, the two prepositions should agree in meaning ; the Latin derivative should be followed by a pre- position corresponding to that which is used in composition : as 'ac^-apt to,' 'a/-fix tOy ^ di-yert fronij^ ^ ex-'pel from {or out of),'' But sometimes the meaning of the compound verb overrides the original force of the preposition. Take the verb differ. When we say ' dif-fer from,'' the agreement between dis (dif) * in various directions ' and from is sufficiently close. But we also say * dif -fer with ' where the prepositions do not agree. The explanation is this : ' dif-fer from ' is equivalent to * con- tend with ; ' and so, by extension of meaning, we say * differ vjith.^ In this case, the meaning of the verb ' differ ' over- rides the force of the prefix dif and custom prevails against etymology. 502. But the misuse of prepositions is not confined to those which follow compound verbs. Dr. Lowth {English Grammar, 278 RULES AND CAUTIONS. p. 138) has collected the following examples of improper usage : — Your character, which I or any other writer may now value ourselves by drawing, [ypon,'] — Swift, Letter on the English Tongue, You have bestowed your favours to the most deserving persons, [upon.'] — Ihid, Upon such occasions as fell into their cognisance, [under.] — Id, Contest and Dissensions^ &c,, c. iii. That variety of factions into which we are still engaged. [in,] — Ibid. c. v. To restore myself into the good graces of my fair critics. [to,] — Dryden, Preface to Aurungzebe, Accused the ministers for betraying the Dutch, [o/.]— Swift, Four Last Years of the Queen, [It is possible to defend this sentence, thus : * Accused the ministers, on account of their having betrayed the Dutch.'] Ovid, whom you accuse for luxuriancy of verse, [of] — Dryden, On Dramatic Poesy, Something like this has been reproached to Tacitus. — Bolingbroke, On History^ vol. i. p. 136. [It would be necessary to give this sentence a complete turn: * Tacitus has been reproached with something like this.'] He was made much on at Argos. [of] He is so resolved of going to the Persian court, [on,] — Bentley, Dissertation on Themistocles* s Epistles^ sect. iii. Neither the one nor the other shall make me swerve out o/the path, which I have traced to myself, [from,] — Bolingbroke, Letter to Wyndham, p. 242. If poesy can prevail w^on force, [over,] — Addison, Travels, p. 62. [We prevail upon persons, but over physical forces.] I do likewise dissent with the examiner. — Id, Whig Examiner, No, 1. [We * differ with ' but ' dissent /rom.'] Ye bhnd guides, which strain at a gnat, and swallow a camel. — Matthew xxiii. 24. PREPOSITIONS. 279 [The original has divXt^ovTEg, i.e. ^straining out a gnat,' * taking a gnat otit of liquor by straining.'] It was perfectly in compliance to some persons, for whose opinion I have great deference, [with.'] — Swift, Pre- face to Temple^ s Memoirs. The wisest Princes need not think it any diminution to their greatness, or derogation to their sufficiency, to rely upon counsel, [of] [from,] — Bacon, Essay xx. 503. In the use of prepositions after verbs, much depends on usage : We * go heyondy and * rise above,'' We * except from censure,' and state ^exceptions to b, course.' We * inquire of a person,' and * at a place.' We are * dependent on ' and * independent o/.' See Angus, Handbook of the English Tongue, § 590, where the student will find a list of verbs followed by the prepositions commonly used after them. 280 FiXATVfPIiES. EXAMPLES. ' The ordering of exercises is matter of great consequence ' to hurt or help; for, as is well observed by Cicero, men in exercising their faculties, if they be not well advised, do exercise their faults and get ill habits as Avell as good,' — Bacon, In all studies, much depends upon judicious exercise ; for, however useful theory may be in its proper place, the main thing is practice. In grammar, the chief end is accuracy ; and slovenly exer- cises do more harm than good. Scrupulous attention should be paid to the handwriting, and the spelling. Boys are apt to despise these things as trifles ; but they have to learn, that attention to trifles often makes all the difference between a man who succeeds in life, and a man who fails. In the present day, there is too much hurry ; and even boys are ready to account for their negligence by saying ' that they had not time.' This is an idle excuse. No portion of their time can be so well spent as that which is occupied in acquir- ing habits of neatness, and accuracy. In grammatical analysis, two methods may be adopted. The first is the method of construing; that is, to begin by selecting the principal words in a sentence, as, the * subject- nominative ' and the * predicate-verb ; ' then to subjoin the qualifications of each ; and then, to add the dependent words of the sentence. For example : Him the Almighty Power Hurled flaming. Subject-nominative .... Power Predicate-verb hurled Qualifications of the ^ , . . the Subject-nominative j . . . Almighty Objective ...... him Qualification of the Objective . . flaming. The second method is to take the words as they stand, and to explain each in its order : as, Him .... Objective. the ..... Qualification of the Sub- ject-nominative * Power. ^ EXAMPLES. 281 Almighty . • • Qualification of the Sub- ject-nominative * Power,'' Power . . . • Subject-nominative, hurled .... Predicate-verb, flaming . . . . Qualification of the Ob- jective ^him,^ In oral instruction both methods may be employed. But in written analysis, I incline to the second method. For this reason, that the mind is less liable to be distracted by moving from one part of the sentence to another ; and there is less danger of omitting any word. In this way, we begin at the beginning, and go on steadily to the end. However, on this point, there may be difference of opinion ; some may prefer the one way, and some the other. For a while, I hesitated whether to use abbreviations, as, mbj. nom,, pred, verb, or to discard them. At first, there is a temptation to save time and trouble. But in looking over an exercise, the analysis written in full is much more pleasing to the eye, than one in which abbreviations are used. And as there is an artistic pleasure in beholding a well- written exer- cise, I conclude that it is better to discard abbreviations. In selecting examples, I have introduced several of those given by Dr. Morell and Mr. Mason, in order to exhibit the difference of the systems. The reader may compare the analysis here proposed with that of the writers mentioned : Morell, Grrammar of the English Language ^ pp. 80-103 ; Mason, English Grammar, pp. 122-143. I. EXAMPLES OF SENTENCES. 1. The curfew tolls the knell of parting day. The Definite article, qualifying the subject-nomi- native ' curfew.' curfew Noun, Subject-nominative. tolls Predicate-verb. the Definite article, qualifying the Objective ' knell.' knell Noun, Objective. of parting Prepositional phrase, qualifying the Objective day. * knell : consisting of a preposition * of,' a participle * parting,' a noun ^ day.' 282 EXAMPLES. 2. The sun from the western horizon extended his golden wand o'er the landscape. The Definite article^ qualifying the subject-nomi- native ' sun.' sun Noun^ Subject-nominative, from the Adverbial phrase, qualifying the predicate- western verb * extended,' and denoting the place horizon whence, extended Predicate-verb, his Prondun possessive (or in the possessive case\ qualifying the Objective * wand.' golden Adjective^ qualifying the Objective ' wand.' wand Noun J Objective. o'er the land- Adverbial phrase, qualifying the predicate- scape, verb * extended,' and denoting the place where. Obs, — The phrase • of parting day ' is called a prepositional phrase ; whereas ' from the western horizon ' and ' o'er the landscape ' are termed adverbial phrases. In one sense they are all prepositional phrases ; but as the first qualifies a noun, while the second and third qualify a verb, it is better to distinguish the latter as adverbial phrases, 3. The doctor prescribed his patient a receipt. The Definite article, qualifying the subject-nomi- native * doctor.' doctor Noun, Subject- nominative, prescribed Predicate-verb, his Pronoun in the possessive case, qualifying the Secondary Objective ' patient.' patient Noun, Secondary Objective \^to or for his patient]. a Indefinite article, qualifying the Primary Ob- jective * receipt.' receipt. Noun, Primary Objective (immediately de- pendent upon the predicate- verb * pre- scribed '). He gave him a letter to read. Pronoun, Subject- nominative. Predicate-verb. Pronoun, Secondary Objective. Indefinite article, qualifying the Primary Ob- jective * letter.' Noun, Primary Objective. He gave him letter EXAMPLES. 283 to read. Gerund, qualifying the predicate- verb * gave.' Here to is a true preposition signifpng ' in order to : ' i. e. ^ for reading/ or in older English, ^ for to read.' 5. I saw a man with a sword. I Pronoun, Subject-nominative. saw Predicate -verb. a Indefinite article, qualifying the Objective * man.' man Noun, Objective. with a sword. Prepositional phrase, qualiiying the Objective * man.' 6. He killed a man with a sword. He Pronoun, Subject-nominative. killed Predicate-Yexh. a Indefinite article, qualifying the Objective ' man.' man Noun, Objective. with a sword. Adverbial phrase, qualifying the predicate- verb * killed,' and denoting the instrument whereby. Obs. — In Example 5, ' with a sword ' is a prepositional phrase, qualifying the noun ' man ;' but in Example 6. * with a sword ' is an adverbial phrase, qualiiying the verb * kiUed.' 7. Having abandoned their fortifications, the troops of the Emperor began a disastrous retreat. Having aban- Participle, qualiiying the predicate-verb doned * began.' their Pronoun possessive, or in the possessive case, qualiiying the Objective ^ fortifications.' fortificatioiiB Noun, objective dependent upon the parti- ciple ' having abandoned.' the Definite article, qualifying the subject-nomi- native ^ troops.' troops Noun, Subject-nominative, of the Em- Prepositional phrase, G^^iYdjviigihQ Subject- peror nominative * troops.' began Predicate-verb. a Indefinite article, qualifying the Objective ^ retreat.' 284 EXAMPLES. disastrous Adjective^ qualifying the Objective ^ retreat.' retreat Noun, Objective. Obs, 1.— Mr. Mason considers 'having abandoned their fortifi- cations' a participial phrase qualifying the subject- nominative 'troops,' or, as he terms it, an 'attributive adjunct of the subject.' I believe that Dr. JVIorell would agree with Mr. Mason. No doubt in point of concord, the participle 'having abandoned ' agrees with the noun * troops ;' but in point of signification, the participle qualifies the pre- dicate-verb 'began.' For the meaning is that the troops, when they had abandoned the fortifications, began a retreat. In other words, the troops aban- doned the fortifications, and then began a retreats The qualification affects the act, and not the troops themselves. Therefore I am disposed to think that the participle must be held to qualify the verb. Obs, 2. — ^We may take their as a possessive pronoun, or as the possessive (genitive) case of the personal. 8. The enraged officer struck the unfortunate man dead on the spot with a single blow of his sword. The Definite article, qualifying the Subject-nomi- native * officer.' enraged Participle or Adjective, qualifying the Sub- ject-nominative * officer.' officer Noun, Subject-nominative. struck Predicate-verb. the Definite article, qualifying the Primary Ob- jective * man.' unfortunate Adjective, qualifying the Primary Objective ' man.' man Noun, Primary Objective. dead Participle or Adjective, Complement-objec- tive. on the spot Adverbial phrase, qualifying the Predicate- verb * struck,' and denoting the place where. with a single Adverbial phrase, qualifying the Predicate- blow of his verb ' struck,' and denoting the means or sword instrument whereby, 9. A man of weak health is incapable of the thorough enjoyment of life. A Indefinite article, qualifying the Subject- nominative * man.' EXAMPLES. 285 man Noun, Substantive-nominative. of weak health Prepositional phrase, qualifying the Subject- nominative ^man.* is Predicate- verb. incapable Adjective, Predicate-nominative. of the thorough Prepositional phrase, dependent upon the enjoyment of adjective * incapable.' Or perhaps this life might be taken as an Adverbial phrase, qualifying the Predicate-nominative ' in- capable.' — See Mason, English Grammar, §512. 10. Now the bright morning star, day's harbinger, Comes dancing from the East. Now Adverb, qualifying the Predicate-verb * comes.' the Definite article, qualifying the Subject-nomi- native * star.' bright Adjective, qualifying the Subject-nominative ' star.' morning Noun, used adjectively, qualifying the Sub- ject-nominative * star.' star Noun, Subject- nominative. day's Noun in the possessive case, qualifying the noun in apposition * harbinger.' harbinger Noun in apposition, qualifying the Subject- nominative * star.' comes Predicate verb. dancing Participle, Predicate-nominative. from the East. Adverbial phrase, qualifying the Predicate- verb ^ comes,' and denoting the place whence. 11. Him the Almighty Power hurled Him the Almighty Power Hurled headlong flaming from the ethereal sky With hideous ruin and combustion, down To bottomless perdition. Pronoun, Objective. Definite article, qualifying the Subject-nomi- native * Power.' Adjective, qualifying the Subject-nominative ' Power.' Noun, Subject-nominative. Predicate-verb. 286 EXAMPLES. headlong Adjective^ qualifying the Objective ^ him.' flaming Participle^ qualifying the Objective * him.' from the ether- Adverbial phrase^ qualifying the Predicate- eal sky verb ^ hurled,' and denoting the place whence, with hideous Adverbial phrase^ qualifying the Predicate- ruin and verb * hurled^' and denoting the attendant combustion circumstances, down Adverb^ qualifying the Predicate-verb * hurled,' and denoting the direction whither, [Or, down may be taken as a preposition enter- ing into composition with the verb ^ hurled : ' 'hurled down '= Latin de-jecit. to bottomless Adverbial phrase^ qualifying the Predicate- perdition, verb * hurled,' and denoting the place whither^ or the condition to which. Cases of difficulty are constantly arising in analysis; and in some instances, grammarians of equal ability might enter- tain different opinions. Hence, we should guard against hasty conclusions ; we should proceed with caution, and learn to suspend judgment, when a case is not clear. It follows, also, that if a boy has done his best, and yet fails to imderstand the construction of a sentence, he ought not to be discouraged. On the contrary, if he has discovered a real difficulty, that is a sign of growing intelligence. Let us consider ^ few doubtful cases. 12. The moon threw its silvery light upon the lake. The words ' upon the lake' might be taken as an adverbial phrase qualifying the predicate-verb * threw ; ' or, possibly, ' the lake ' might be taken as a secondary objective dependent upon the compound verb * threw upon.' 13. He recommended him to use great moderation in his diet. We might consider ^ to use ' as an infinitive employed sub- stantively, and as the Primaiy Objective dependent upon the Predicate- verb ' recommended.' In that case ' him ' must be the Secondary Objective, because the use was recommended ' to him.' But it is just possible that ' him ' may be the subject-accusative before the infinitive * to use,' equivalent to ' He recommended that he should use.' In any case, *■ mode- ration ' is an objective dependent upon the verb * to use.' EXAMPLES. 287 14. He found all his wants supplied bj the care of his friends. Mr. Mason {^English Grammar^ § ^H) would make * wants' the Objective, and ' supplied' the Complement-Objective. But let us consider : he did not find his wants^ but the supply of his wants. He found, that his wants were supplied. The word * wants' seems to stand in the position of a subject-accu- sative : but then no infinitive is expressed. If we might read, * He found all his wants to he supplied,' there would be no further difficulty. Perhaps we may consider ' supplied ' as a participle used instead of the infinitive. This idiom is very common in Greek. Again, He seems to fly. According to the old grammar rule, this sentence presents no difficulty. One verb governs another in the infinitive mood, and there is an end of the matter. But if we regard an infinitive as a verbal substantive, we expect some government analogous to the government of a noun. After transitive verbs, the case is clear. In the sentence * He loves to ride,' the in- finitive ^ to ride ' stands in the place of an Objective governed by the verb ^ loves.' But how shall we explain the depen- dence of an infinitive ^ to fly ' upon an intransitive verb * seems ? ' The Greeks frequently use a participle in such construc- tions: as, (patrETai TrerofjiEroc^ ^ he seems (or appears) flying;' when the participle is a predicate-nominative. But then the Greeks also employ the infinitive construction, (balyerai ttete- (rdai ; and the Greek grammarians draw a distinction between the use of the infinitive and that of the participle. If we turn both the verbs into nouns, we find that the second appears in the genitive case. ' He seems to fly ' is equivalent to ^ He has the semblance of flight.' I offer the conjecture, that the dependence of an infinitive upon an in- transitive verb is analogous to the dependence of a noun, in the genitive case, upon another noun. The provincial idiom ' He seems a flying ' is easily ex- plained. * He seems on flying,' that is, * in the act of flight.' 288 EXAMPLES. II. EXAMPLES OF COMPOUND SENTENCES. I. CO-OEDINATE SENTENCES. 1. Sentences standing side by side, without any connecting particle, 15. The way was long, the wind was cold. The way was long : First Co-ordinate Sentence, The wind was cold : Second Co-ordinate Sentence, Analysis of the First Co-ordinate, The Definite article, qualifying the Subject-nominative * way.' way Noun, Subject-nominative, was Predicate-verb, long Adjective, Predicate-nominative. Analysis of the Second Co-ordinate, The Definite Article, qualifying the Subject-nominative ' wind.' wind Noun, Subject-nominative, was Predicate- verb, cold Adjective, Predicate-nominative. 2. Copulative. 16. The army advanced, and the enemy fled. The army advanced First Co-ordinate Sentence, and Conjunction Copulative, introducing the Second Co-ordinate Sentence, the enemy fled Second Co-ordinate Sentence, Analysis of the First Co-ordinate, the Definite Article, qualifying the Subject-nomina- tive * army.' army Noun, Subject-nominative, advanced, Predicate- verb. Analysis of the Second Co-ordinate, the Definite Article, qualifying the Subject-nomina- tive ^ enemy.' enemy Noun, Subject-nominative, fled. Predicate-verb. EXAMPLES, 289 3. Alteimative. 17. Either he comes, or you go. Either Conjunction alternative^ introducing the First he conies, or you go. he comes, you Co-ordinate Sentence. First Co-ordinate Sentence. Conjunction alternative^ introducing the Second Co-ordinate Sentence. Second Co-ordinate Sentence. Analysis of the First Co-ordinate, Pronoun, Subject-nominative. Predicate-verb. Analysis of the Second Co-ordinate, Pronoun, Subject-nominative. Predicate-verb. 4. Adversative. 18. The virtuous man dies, but virtue is eternal. The virtuous First Co-ordinate Sentence. man dies, but virtue is eternal. The virtuous man dies, virtue is eternal. Conjunction adversative, introducing the Second Co-ordinate Sentence. Second Co-ordinate Sentence, Analysis of the First Co-ordinate, Definite Article, qualifying the Subject-nomina- tive * man.' Adjective, qualifying the Subject-nominative * man.' Noun, Subject-nominative. Predicate- verb. Analysis of the Second Co-ordinate. Noun, Subject-nominative. Predicate-verb. Adjective^ Predicate-nominative. 290 EXAMPLES. II. COMPOUND SENTENCES CONTAINING COERELATIVE CLAUSES. 19. Where thou dwellest, I will dwell. Where thou Accessory Clause, dwellest I will dwell. Principal clause. Analysis of the Accessory Clause, Where Connective Particle (variously termed * Con- junctive Adverb,' * Adverbial Conjunc- tion, &c.') introducing the sentence, Hhou dwellest.' thou Pronoun^ Subject-nominative. dwellest. Predicate-verb. Analysis of the Principal Clause, I Pronoun^ Subject-nominative. will dwell. Predicate-verb, compounded of the auxiliary * will,' and the infinitive * dwell.' 20. He spoke loud, that I might hear him. He spoke Principal Clause, loud that I might Accessory Clause, hear him. Analysis of the Principal Clause, He Pronoun, Subject-nominative. spoke Predicate- verb. loud Adverb, qualifying the Predicate-verb ' spoke.' Analysis of the Accessory Clause. that Connective Participle, introducing the sentence * I might hear him.'* I Pronoun, Subject-nominative. * In these constructions that is usually termed a conjunction ; but Mr. Mason pre- fers to call it a conjunctional adverb. See Mason, English Grammar, § 534, Note, EXAMPLES. 291 might hear Predicate -verb, compounded of the auxiliary * might/ and the infinitive ' hear.' him. Pronoun, Objective. 21. He spoke loud, in order that I might hear him. He spoke Principal Clause. loud in order that Accessory Clause, I might hear him. Analysis of the Principal Clause, He Pronoun, Subject-nominative. spoke Predicate- verb. loud Adverb, qualifying the Predicate-verb ^ spoke.' Analysis of the Accessory Clause. in order that Conjunctional phrase, introducing the sentence ' I might hear him.' I Pronoun, Subject-nominative, might hear Predicate-verb, compounded of the auxiliary * might/ and the infinitive * hear.' him. Pronoun^ Objective. 22. He ran so fast, that he was quite weary. He ran so Principal Clause. fast that he was Accessory Clause. quite weary. Analysis of the Principal Clause. He Pronoun, Subject-nominative. ran Predicate- verb. so Adverb, qualifying the Adverb ^fast.' fast Adverb J qualifying the Predicate- verb ' ran.' Analysis of the Accessory Clause. that Connective Particle, introducing the sentence ' he was quite weary.' he Pronoun, Subject-nominative, was Predicate-verb. o2 292 EXAMPLES. quite Adverb, qualifying the adjective ' weary.' weary Adjective^ Predicate-nominative. But compare the suggestion offered in § 68. 23. If you write, they will come. If you write Accessory Clause, they will Principal Clause, come. if you write they will come. - Analysis of the Accessory Clause, Connective Particle, introducing the sentence ' you write.' Pronoun, Subject-nominative. Predicate-verb. Analysis of the PrincipaV Clause, Pronoun, Subject-nominative. Predicate-verb, compounded of the auxiliary * will ' and the infinitive * come.' III. COMPOUND SENTENCES CONTAINING SUBOEDINATE CLAUSES. 1. The Noun-clause, 24. The opinion of the judge was that the prisoner was guilty. The Definite Article, qualifying the Subject-nomi- native ' opinion.' opinion Noun, Subject-nominative. of the judge Prepositional phrase, qualifying the Subject- nominative ' opinion.' was Predicate-verb. that the pri- Noun-clause, Predicate-nominative, soner was guilty. that the Analysis of the Noun-clause, Connective Particle, introducing the sentence ^ the prisoner was guilty.' Definite Article, qualifying the Subject-nomi- native * prisoner.' EXAMPLES. 293 prisoner Nouuy Subject-nominative. was Predicate-verb. guilty. Adjective, Predicate-nominative. 25. That he came is certain. That he came Noun-clause, Subject-nominative. is Predicate-verb. certain. Adjective, Predicate-nominative. Analysis of the Noun-clause. that Connective Particle, introducing the sentence * he came.' he Pronoun, Subject-nominative, came. Predicate-verb. 26. He informed me yesterday that he had arrived. He Pronoun, Subject-nominative. informed Predicate-verb. me Pronoun, Primary Objective, immediately de- pendent upon the Predicate-verb * informed.' yesterday Adverb, qualifying the Predicate-verb * in- formed.' that he had Noun-clause, Secondary Objective, dependent arrived. upon the Predicate-verb * informed.' [The clause *that he had arrived' is equivalent to 'concerning his arrival/ or * of his arrival.'] Analysis of the Noun-clause. that Connective Particle, introducing the sentence * he had arrived.' he Pronoun, Subject-nominative. had arrived. Predicate-verb, compounded of the auxiliary * had,' and the participle * arrived.' 27. I told him tiat this would happen, I Pronoun, Subject-nominative. told Predicate-verb. him Pi'onoun, Secondary Objective, dependent upon the Predicate- verb * told.' that this Noun-clause, Primary Objective, immediately would dependent upon the Predicate-verb * told.' happen. 294 EXAMPLES. Analysis of the Noun-clause, that Connective Particle^ introducing the sentence * this would happen.' this Pronoun^ Subject-nominative, would Predicate-verb, compounded of the auxiliary happen. * would,' and the infinitive * happen.' 28. I convinced him that he was mistaken. I Pronoun J Subject-nominative, convinced Predicate-verb, him Pronoun^ Primary Objective, that he was Noun-clause, Secondary Objective, depend- mistaken. ent upon the Predicate-verb * convinced.' [The clause ' that he was mistaken * is equivalent to the phrase ' of his mistake.'] Analysis of the Noun-clause, that Connective-Particle, introducing the sentence ' he was mistaken.' he Pronoun, Subject-nominative, was Predicate-verb, mistaken. Participle, Predicate-nominative. Noun-clauses involving an Indirect Question, 29. I know who did this. I Pronoun, Subject-nominative, know Predicate- verb. who did this. Noun-clause, Objective, dependent upon the Predicate- verb ^ know.' • Analysis of the Noun-clause, who Pronoun, introducing sentence * who did this;' and serving as Subject-nominative of the sentence. did Predicate-verb. this. Pronoun, Objective. 30. He would not say where he lived. He Pronoun, Subject-nominative, would . . . say Predicate-verb, compounded of the auxiliary * would,' and the infinitive ' say.' EXAMPLES. 295 not Negative Adverb, qualifying the Predicate- verb ^ would . . . say.' where he Noun-clause, Objective, dependent upon the lived. Predicate-verb ' would . . . say.' Analysis of the Noun^clause. where Connective Particle, introducing the sen- tence ' where he lived,' and qualifying the Predicate-verb * lived.* he Pronoun, Subject-nominative. lived. Predicate-verb. 31. I wish to know, who you are. I Pronoun, Subject-nominative. wish Predicate-verb. to know Infinitive used substantively. Objective, de- pendent upon the Predicate-verb * wish.' who you are. Noun-clause, Objective, dependent upon the verb * to know.' Analysis of the Noun- clause, who Pronoun, introducing the sentence ' who you are,' and serving as Predicate-nominative in the sentence. you Pronoun, Subject-nominative. are. Predicate-verb. 2. The Adjective-Clause, 32. The cohort, which had already crossed the river, quickly came to blows with the enemy. The D^^mYe -4r^/cZ6, qualifying the subject-nomina- tive * cohort.' cohort, Noun, Subject-nominative, which had al- Adjective Clause, qualifying the Subject-nomi- ready crossed native ^ cohort.' the river, quickly Adverb, qualifying the Predicate-verb [ came.' came Predicate- verb, to blows Adverbial phrase, qualifying the Pi-edicate-verb ' came.' with the Adverbial phrase, qualifying the Predicate-verb enemy. 'came.' 296 EXAMPLES. Analysis of the Adjective -clause. which Pronoun J introducing the Adjective-clause, and serving as Subject-nominative, had . . . crossed Predicate-verb, compounded of the auxiliary ' had,' and the participle * crossed.' already Adverb^ qualifying the Predicate-verb ' had . . . crossed.' the Definite Article^ qualifying the Objective ' river.* river. Noun, Objective. 33. I saw the house in which he was born. Pronoun^ Subject-nominative. Predicate-verb. Definite Article, qualifying the Objective 'house.' Noun, Objective. Adjective-clause, qualifying the Objective ' house.' I saw the house in which he was born. Analysis of the Adjective-clause. in which Adverbial phrase, qualifying the Predicate-verb ' was born.' he Pronoun, Subject-nominative, was bom. Predicate-verb, compounded of the auxiliary ' was,' and the participle ^ born.' 34. I know the man to whom he gave the money. I Pronoun, Subject-nominative, know Predicate-verb. the Defijiite Article, qualifying the Objective ^ man.' to whom he Adjective-clause, qualifying the Objective * man.' gave the Analysis of the Adjective-clause, Prepositional phrase, compounded of a preposi- tion and a pronoun, and used as a Secondary Objective. Pronoun, Subject-nominative. Predicate-verb. Definite Article,qnsdifying the Objective * money.' Noun, Objective (primary). 35. He bought a horse with the money which he had saved. He Pronoun, Subject-nominative, bought Predicate-verb. to whom he gave the money. EXAMPLES. 297 a Indefinite Article^ qualifying the Objective * horse.' horse N^oun, Objective. vdththe money Adverbial phrase f qualifying the Predicate-verb < bought.' which he had Adjective-clause, qualifying the noun * money ' saved, in the Adverbial phrase ^ with the money.' Analysts of the Adjective-clause. which Pronoun, introducing the Adjective-clause, and used as Objective. Pronoun, Subject-nominative. Predicate-verb, compounded of the auxiliary ^ had,' and the participle * saved.' For Contracted and Elliptical Sentences, see Chapter IV. he had saved, Long sentences frequently present combinations of the constructions which we have discussed. The student will examine these in his reading. In this place we shall take two examples, given by Dr. Morell, Grammar^ pp. 91 and 99. Example L A reader unacquainted with the real nature of a classical education will probably undervalue it, when he sees that so large a portion of time is devoted to the study of a few ancient authors, whose works seem to have no direct bearing on the studies and duties of our own generation. First of all we observe that this Compound Sentence ex- hibits Correlative clauses : A reader unacquainted with the real Principal Clause, nature of a classical education will probably undervalue it : when he sees that so large a portion Accessory Clause. of time is devoted to the study of a few ancient authors, whose works seem to have no direct bearing on the studies and duties of o^ir own generation. o3 298 EXAMPLES. Analysis of the Principal Clause, A Indefinite article^ qualifying the Subject-nomi- native * reader.' reader Noun, Subject-nominative, unacquainted Adjective, qualifying the Subject-nominative * reader.' with the real Adverbial phrase, qualifying the Adjective nature ' unacquainted.' of a classical Prepositional phrase, qualifying the Noun education * nature.' will . . . un- Predicate-verb, compounded of the auxiliary dervalue * will,' and the infinitive ' undervalue.' probably Adverb, qualifying the Predicate-verb * will undervalue.' it Pronoun, Objective. when he sees that so large a portion of time is devoted to the study of a few authors. whose works seem to have no direct bearing on the studies and duties of our own generation. that so Analysis of the Accessory Clause, Connective Particle, introducing the sentence ^ he sees,' &c. Pronoun, Subject-nominative. Predicate-verb. Noun-clause, Objective, dependent upon the Predicate-verb * « Adjective-clause, qualifying the Noun * authors.' Analysis of the Noun-clause, Connective Particle, introducing the sentence ' so large a portion,' &c. Adverb, qualifying the Adjective ' large.' EXAMPLES. 299 large Adjective, qualifying the Subject-nominative * portion.' a Indefinite Article, qualifying the Subject-nomi- native ^ portion.' portion Noun, Subject-nominative. of time Prepositional phrase, qualifying the Subject- nominative *' portion.' is devoted Predicate-verb, compounded of the auxiliary ^ is,' and the Participle * devoted.' to the study Adverbial phrase, qualifying the Predicate-verb * is devoted.' of a few Prepositional phrase, qualifying the Noun authors ' study.' Analysis of the Adjective-clause, whose Pronoun, introducing the Adjective-clause, and qualifying the Subject-nominative * works.' works Noun, Subject-nominative, seem Predicate-verb, to have Infinitive, dependent upon the Predicate-verb * seem.' no Adjective, qualifying the Objective * bearing.' direct Adjective, qualifying the Objective ^ bearing.' bearing Verbal-noun (or rather, Infinitive used sub- stantively), Objective, dependent upon the Infinitive ^ to have.' on the studies Prepositional phrase, dependent upon the Verbal and duties Noun ' bearing ; ' (or, Adverbial phrase, de- pendent upon the Infinitive ^bearing.') Obs, The nouns ^ studies' and ' duties ' are coupled by the Conjunction * and.' of our own Prepositional phrase, qualifying the Nouns generation. ^ studies ' and * duties.' Example II, Bourdaloue is indeed a great reasoner, and inculcates his doctrines with much zeal, piety, and earnestness ; but his style is verbose, he is disagreeably full of quota- tions from the Fathers, and he wants imagination. . The whole sentence is divided into two sections, separated by the adversative but. On the one side, we have a con- 300 EXAMPLES. tracted sentence; on the other side, we have three, co- ordinates. Bourdaloue is Contracted Sentence* indeed a great reasoner, and inculcates his doctrines with much zeal, ... - piety, and earnestness : (1) his style is Three Co-ordinates* verbose, (2) he is dis- agreeably full . of quotations from the Fathers, (3) he wants imagination. The third Co-ordinate is joined to the other two, by the Conjunction and. Analysis of the Contracted Sentence, By supplying he in the second clause, we obtain two co- ordinate sentences, connected by the Copulative and : 1. Bourdaloue is indeed a great reasoner. 2. [He] inculcates his doctrines with much zeal, piety, and earnestness. 1. Bourdaloue is indeed a great reasoner. [He] inculcates his doctrines with much zeal, piety, and earnest- ness: Noun, Subject-nominative. Predicate-verb. Adverb, qualifying the Predicate-verb * is.' Indefinite Article, qualifying the Predicate- nominative * reasoner.' Adjective, qualifying the Predicate-nomina- tive ' reasoner.' Noun, Predicate-nominative. Pronoun, Subject-nominative. Predicate-verb. Pronoun in the possessive case, qualifying the Objective * doctrines.' Noun, Objective. Adverbial phrase, qualifying the Predicate- verb ^ inculcates,' and denoting the man* ner how. EXAMPLES. 301 Analysis of the Three Co-ordinates. 1. hia Pronoun in the possessive case, qualifying the Subject- nominative * style.' style Noun, Subject-nominative, is Predicate-verb, verbose, Adjective, Predicate-nominative. 2. he Pronoun, Subject- nominative, is Predicate- verb. disagreeably Adverb, qualifying the Predicate-nominative ' full.' full Adjective, Predicate-nominativeo of quotations Prepositional phrase, dependent upon the from the Adjective * fiill.' Fathers, 3. he Pronoun, Subject-nominative, wants Predicate-verb, imagination. Noun^ Objective. 302 EXEBCISES. EXEECISES FOR ANALYSIS. I. SIMPLE SENTENCES. Subject-Nominative and Predicate- Verb. 1. 2. 1. Time flies. 1. Spring returns. 2. Christmas comes. 2. Earth smiles. 3. Winds blow. 3. Birds sing. 4. Snow falls. 4. Grass grows. 5. Ice appears. 5. Flowers bloom. 6. Boys Side. 6. Corn springs. 7. Men skate. 7. Fishes swim. 8. Children sing. 8. Horses neigh. 9. Bells ring. , 9. Boys run. 10. Fire burns. 10. Girls play. 11. Light shines. 11. Men work. 12. Joy prevails. 12. Women sew. Suhject-Nominative, Predicate- Verb, and Predicate- Nominative. 1 . Life is short. 2. Art is long. 3. Genius is rare. 4. Vast is art. 5. Narrow is wit. 6. Music is charming. 7. Eloquence is delightful. 8. Extremes are dangerous. 9. Great is truth. 10. Men are fallible. 11. Knowledge is power. 12. Business is business. 1. Virtue is bold. 2. Unbelief is blind. 3. Light is sweet. 4. Trial comes unsought. 5. Harry seems wise. 6. Mary grows tall. 7. Thoughts lie deep. 8. Flowers look pretty. 9. Eoses appear fair. 10. Knowledge is good. 11. Boys become idle. 12. Tasks seem heavy. EXERCISES. 303 Qualifications of the Subject-Nominative, N.B. The Articles a and the are considered qualifications. 5. 1. The climate is good. 2. Fertile is the island. 3. The proper study of mankind is man. 4. Sweet are the uses of adversity. 5. The road was bad. 6. The storm was boisterous. 7. True hope is swift. 8. His life was gentle. 9. Musical is Apollo's lute. 6, 1. Sweet is the breath of morn. 2. Pleasant is the sun. 3. The better part of valour is discretion, 4. Charming is divine philosophy. 5. Hard are the ways of truth. 6. The air, a chartered libertine, is free. 7. The virtue of prosperity is temperance. 8. The virtue of adversity is fortitude. Qualifications of the Predicate-Nominative, 7. 1. Order is Heaven's first law. 2. Expression is the dress of thought. 3. Music is the food of love. 4. Full of shapes is fancy. 5. Beauty is a flower. 6. Procrastination is the thief of time. 7. LowKness is young ambition's ladder. 8. Sufferance is the badge of all our tribe. 9. Mercy is an attribute to God himself. 10, Brutus is an honourable man. 8. 1. Brevity is the soul of wit. 2. God is the spring of good. 3. Love is the star to every wandering bark. 304 EXERCISES. 4. Service is no heritage. 5. Fortune is no goddess. 6. Pride is the vice of fools, 7. Prosperity is the blessing of the Old Testament. 8. He was in logic a great critic. 9. Fraud is the ready minister of injustice. 10. She was a maid of grace. 11. They are the faction. Miscellaneous, 9. 1. A little learning is a dangerous thing. 2. True wit is nature to advantage dressed. 3. All nature is but art. 4. The art itself is nature. 5. Virtue alone is happiness below. 6. All the world is a stage. 7. The fairest flowers of the season are our carnations. 8. The happy only are the truly great. 9. Good sense is the gift of Heaven. 10. The child is father of the man. 11. A double blessing is a double grace. Qualifications of the Predicate- Verb, 10. 1. A merry heart goes all the day. 2. Cowards die many times before their deaths. 3. There eternal summer dwells. 4. The Muses in a ring Aye round about Jove's altar sing. 5. Hard by a cottage chimney smokes. 6. Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight. 7. So sinks the day-star in the ocean bed. 8. In gallant trim the gilded vessel goes. 9. The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea. 10. The river glideth at his own sweet will. 11. 1. The third day comes a frost. 2. My high-blown pride At length broke under me. 8. Joy delights in joy. EXERCISES. 305 4. This wine tastes sour. 5. The speech reads well. 6. The rose smells sweet. 7. The violet smells sweetly. 8. A light heart lives long. 9. The merchant from the exchange returns in peace. 10. True ease in writing comes from art. Miscellaneous* 12. 1. Grace was in all her steps, 2. The time is out of joint. 8, Slow rises worth by poverty depressed. 4. Hope springs eternal in the human breast. 5. Men, at some time, are masters of their fates. 6. Such harmony is in immortal souls. 7. His former name Is heard no more in Heaven. ^^ 8. All looks yellow to the jaundiced eye. 9. An old man is twice a child. 10. All colours agree in the dark. The Ohjectivey with or without Qualifications. 13. 1. Eloquence charms the soxd. 2. Song charms the sense. 3. Crafty men contemn studies. 4. Gentle dulness ever loves a joke. 5. Children bring cares. 6. Love rules the court. 7. Full many a gem, of purest ray serene, The dark unfathomed caves of ocean bear. 8. Some natural tears they dropped. 9. Not always actions show the man. 10. The childhood shows the man. 11. The apparel oft proclaims the man. 14. 1, There entertain him all the saints above. . 2. Bacchus from out the purple grape Crushed the sweet poison of misused wine. 306 EXERCISES. 3. Now the herald lark Left his ground-nest. 4. Children gather pebbles on the shore. 5. The ruling passion conquers reason still. 6. Virtue itself escapes not calumny. 7. The widow in distress he graciously relieved. 8. Time hath a wallet at his back. 9. His eye begets occasion for his wit. 10. Eoses have thorns. 11. On her white breast a sparkling cross she wore. 12. Her lively looks a sprightly mind disclose. 15. 1. Charms strike the sight. 2. Merit wins the soul. 3. Here Britain's statesmen oft the fall foredoom Of foreign tyrants. 4. They speak the glory of the British Queen. 5. Wise Peter sees the world's respect for gold. 6. Nature hath framed strange fellows in her time. 7. Education forms the common mind, 8. The power of music all our hearts allow. 9. Every shepherd tells his tale, Under the hawi;horn, in the dale. 10. Cassiiis from bondage will deliver Cassius. 11. Honest plain words best pierce the ear of grief. The Complement- Ohje ctive, 16. 1. One touch of nature makes the whole world kin. 2. Perseverance keeps honour bright. 3. They make themselves the measure of mankind. 4. God calleth preaching folly. 5. Histories make men wise. 6. I will make assurance doubly sure. 7. Your wit makes wise things foolish. The Complement'N'ominative, 17. 1. Some are born great. 2. Lowly feigning is called compliment. 3. Now is the winter of our discontent Made glorious summer by this sun of York. EXERCISES. 307 4. The prisoner was declared innocent. 5. Henry, his son, is chosen king. 6. Louis of France was elected chief of the expedition. 7. He was appointed ruler over the people. The Secondary Objective. - 18. 1. A subtle happiness thou to thyself proposest. 2. Nature to all things fixed the limits fit. 3. Some to conceit alone their taste confine. 4. His silver hairs Will purchase us a good opinion. 5. The valiant never taste of death but once. 6. This isle He quarters to his blue-haired deities. 7. A sable cloud - - - Turns forth her silver lining on the night. 8. Misery acquaints a man with strange bedfellows. 9. A golden mind stoops not to shows of dross. 10. All my engagements I will construe to thee. 11. To whom our fathers would not obey. The Subject-Accusative, 19. 1. I know that virtue to be in you, Brutus. 2. All men think all men mortal, but themselves. 3. At thirty, man suspects himself a fool. 4. He thought content the good to be enjoyed. 5. We think our fathers fools. 6. He soon perceived me to be unfit for his service. 7. We found her in her answers to have an eloquent tongue. The Infinitive used Substantively, 20. 1. All our knowledge is ourselves to know. 2. Not to know some trifles is a praise. 3. Every man desireth to live long. 4. To spend too much time in studies is sloth. 5. To be dull is construed to be good, 6. To gild refined gold is wasteful excess. 7. It is cruelty to beat a cripple with his own crutches. 308 EXERCISES* 8. To seek philosophy in Scripture is to seek the dead among the living. 9. To seek religion in Nature is to seek the living among the dead. 21. 1. Not to know me argues yourselves unknown. 2. To teach a teacher ill beseemeth me. 3. 'Tis phrase absurd to call a villain great. 4. Our humbler province is to tend the fair. 5. That same prayer doth teach us all to render the deeds of mercy. 6. 'Tis not in mortals to command success. 7. It is not for your health thus to commit Your weak condition to the raw cold morning. 8. To err is human. 9. To forgive is divine. Forms in -ing. A. Infinitives or Gerunds^ and Verbal Substantives. 22. 1. All friendship is feigning. 2. All loving is mere folly. 3. Borrowing dulls the edge of husbandry. 4. The felling out of faithfol friends Renewing is of love. 5. Well doing is wealth. 6. Of making many books there is no end. 7. I blame you not for praising Caesar so. 8. Kiiowing him is enough. 9. You have condemned Lucius for taking bribes of the Sardians. 10. Reading maketh a fiill man. 11. Writing maketh an exact man. 12. Teaching is the best way of learning. 13. Wiving goes by destiny. B. Participles in "ing. 23. 1. The rolling stone gathers no moss. 2. The poet's eye, in a fine frenzy rolling, Doth glance from heaven to earth. EXERCISES. 309 3. Life is but a walking shadow. 4. Poetry is a speaking picture. 5. Envy is that dark shadow ever waiting upon a shining merit. 6. Wandering o'er the earth, By falsities and lies the greatest part Of mankind they corrupted. Gerund with *to.' 24. 1 . Under leave of Brutus Come I to speak in Caesar's funeral. 2. Hither the heroes resort To taste awhile the pleasures of a court, 3. I have spoke thus much To mitigate the justice of thy plea. 4. A pious man was duly brought To shrieve the dying. 5. Here comes in embassy The French king's daughter with yourself to speak. 6. That is enough to satisfy the senate. 7. I come not to steal away your hearts. 8. I must be cruel, only to be kind. Miscellaneous. 25. 1. A thing of beauty is a joy for ever. 2. The quality of mercy is not strained, 3. Thou art a monument without a tomb. 4. There is a tide in the affairs of men. 5. I will talk a word with this same learned Theban. 6. Solitude is sometimes the best society. 7. Want of decency is want of sense. 8. Thy wish was father to that thought. 26. 1. This was the noblest Eoman of them all. 2. Idleness is not real pleasure. 3. Agreeable occupation is real pleasure. 4. Men are but children of a larger growth. 5. Fair ladies masked are roses in their bud. 6. Tyrants seldom want pretexts. 7. The world is stiU deceived with ornament. 8. His sceptre shows the force of temporal power. 310 COMPOUND SENTENCES. COMPOUND SENTENCES. I. CO-OEDINATE SENTENCES. 1. Co-ordinate Sentences^ standing side hy side, without any Connecting Particle. 27. 1. E'en from the tomb the voice of nature cries, E'en in our ashes live their wonted fires. 2. Small herbs have grace, 111 weeds do thrive apace. 3. Through tattered clothes small vices do appear, Eobes hide all. 4. The cause is in my will ; I will not come. 5. To be contents his natural desire. He asks no angel's wing. 6. Self-love, the spring of motion, acts the soul; Eeason's comparing balance rules the whole. 7. Great Nature spoke; observant man obeyed; Cities were formed ; societies were made. 8. Antiquity is the young state of the world ; the pre- sent time is the real antiquity. 9. No work is a disgrace ; the true disgrace is idleness. 2. Copulative. 28. 1. The vine still clings to the mouldering wall, And at every gust the dead leaves fall. 2. Thus to relieve the wretched was his pride. And e'en his failings leaned to virtue's side. 3. Jason the Thessalian proposed the plan, Agesilaus the Spartan, attempted its execution, and Alexander the Macedonian finally achieved the conquest. 4. The people are like the sea ; and orators are like the wind. 5. Of all virtues, goodness is the greatest; and without it man is a busy, mischievous, wretched thing. . 6. A friend loveth at all times ; and a brother is bom for adversity. EXERCISES. 311 7. A fooFs moutli is his destruction ; and his lips are the snare of his soul. 8. His face Deep scars of thunder had intrenched ; and care Sat on his faded cheek. 3. Alternative. 29. 1. Either there is a civil strife in heaven, Or else the world, too saucy with the gods, Incenses them to send destruction. 2. Either he is innocent, or he is the most crafty rogue in the country. 3. Either your brethren have miserably deceived us, or power confers virtue. 4. He will either come himself, or he will send a repre- sentative. 5. The king must win, or he must forfeit his crown for ever. 6. He arrived in time, or I should have been lost. 7. Caesar was an able commander, or Gaul would not have been conquered. Adversative, 30. 1. Every subject's duty is the king's; but every subject's soul is his own. 2. It is an honour for a man to cease from strife ; but every fool will be meddling. 3. The demonstrations of logic are common to all mankind ; but the persuasion of rhetoric must be varied according to the audience. 4. A fool speaks all his mind ; but a wise man reserves some- thing for hereafter. 5. Counsel in the heart of a man is like deep water ; but a wise man will draw it out. 6. Knowledge pufFeth up ; but charity buildeth up. 7. The wise man's eyes are in his head ; but the fool walketh in darkness. 8. A superficial tincture of philosophy may incline the mind to atheism ; yet a farther knowledge brings it back to religion. 312 EXERCISES. 9. Learning makes the mind gentle; whereas ignorance renders it churlish. 10. We are commanded to forgive our enemies ; but we are nowhere commanded to forgive our friends. II. COMPOUND SENTENCES EXHIBITINa COKRELATIVE CLAUSES. 31. 1. But when he once attains the upmost round, He then unto the ladder turns his back. 2. Licence they mean when they cry liberty. 3. To the noble mind Eich gifts wax poor, when givers prove unkind. 4. He had a fever, when he was in Spain. 5. Since Cassius first did whet me against Caesar, I have not slept. 6. When beggars die, there are no comets seen. 7. When I spoke that, I was ill-tempered too. 8. From lowest place, when virtuous things proceed. The place is dignified by the doer's deed. 32. 1. Fools rush in, where angels fear to tread. 2. He lay still, where he fell. 3. The tongues of mocking damsels are as keen As is the razor's edge. 4. Because I love you, I will let you know. 5. Since you can cog, I will play no more with you. 6. If we lose this battle, then is this The very last time we shall speak together. 7. If this were true, then should I know this secret. 8. If I live, I will be good to thee. 9. Thou canst not die by traitors Unless thou bringest them with thee. 33. 1. I must not give you the book, for it is not mine. 2. As the tree falls, so it will lie. 3. He cannot thrive Unless her prayers reprieve him from the wrath Of greatest justice. EXERCISES. 313 4. If he were hon ester He were much goodlier. 5. If I be not deceived, you are an Athenian. 6. He were no lion, were not Eomans hinds. 7. The mountain is so high, that there is always snow on the top of it. 8. If it were so, it was a grievous fault. 9. For the strait gate would be made straiter yet, Were none admitted there but men of wit. 34. 1. As the sun breaks through the darkest clouds. So honour peereth in the meanest habit. 2. Freely we serve, because we freely love. 3. Thy tooth is not so keen, Because thou art not seen. 4. Murder, though it hath no tongue, will speak With most miraculous organ. 5. The people perished so fast, that it was impossible for the survivors to perform the rites of sepulture. 6. Although we seldom followed advice, we were all ready enough to ask it. 7. Wherever they marched, their route was marked with blood. 35. 1. Unless a critic is well acquainted with the sciences, his diligence will be attended with danger. 2. Clothes cannot be made to fit, unless measure of the body be first taken. 3. The nature of the mind would be unruffled, if the afiections did not disturb it. 4. J£ too great a burden be laid upon a middling genius, it blunts the cheerful spirit of hope. 5. If the tasks are too light, a great loss is sustained in the amount of progress. 6. If Csesar had been conquered, he would have become more odious than Catiline. 7. If we begin with certainties, we shall end in doubts. 8. If we begin with doubts, we shall end in certainties. 9. If I were not Alexander, I would be Diogenes. 314 EXERCISES. III. COMPOUND SENTENCES, COMPEISINa SUBOKDINATE CLAUSES. 1. The Noun-clause. 36. 1. That you have wronged me, appears in this. 2. The congregated college have concluded That labouring art can never ransom nature. 3. No man can wade deep in learning, without discovering that he knows nothing thoroughly. 4. The opinion of all men was, that the undertaking was doubtful. 5. Yet some maintain that to this day she is a living child. 6. Consider this. That, in the course of justice, none of us Should see salvation. 7. He showed how fields were won. 8. The heart distrusting asks, if this be joy. 37. 1. That a historian should not record trifles is perfectly true. 2. That we cannot is pretended ; that we w^ill not is the true reason. 3. It occasionally happened that his wit obtained the mastery over his other faculties. 4. He asked that he might be restored to his former state. 5. He wished to know, where I was. 6. They asked, whether he would come. 7. The good woman saw at once, that her son was a poet. 2. The Adjective-clause. 38. 1. 111 blows the wind that profits nobody. 2. He jests at scars that never felt a wound. 3. They also serve, who only v/ait. 4. Fame is no plant that grows on mortal soil. 5. He tallcs to me, that never had a son. EXERCISES, 315 6. Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown. 7. All that glitters is not gold. 8. He is well paid that is well satisfied. 89. 1 . Thrice is he armed that hath his quarrel just. 2. The play is the thing, Wherein I'll catch the conscience of the king. 3. Yon gray lines, That fret the clouds, are messengers of day. 4. The evil that men do lives after them. 5. I, that denied the gold, will give my heart. 6. Thou art the ruins of the noblest man That ever lived in the tide of times. 7. He that is down need fear no fall. 8. Ill fares the land, to hastening ills a prey. Where wealth accumulates. CONTEACTED SENTENCES. 40. 1. Cgesar and Pompey fought for victory. 2. William and Mary are a happy couple. 3. The Gauls crossed the Alps, and invaded Italy. 4. Csesar crossed the Eubicon, and marched to Rome. 5. He must sail, or sell. 6. I come to bury Csesar, not to praise him. 7. Neither John nor his brother was present. 8. He is a good writer, but a bad speaker. 9. Good nature and good sense must ever join ; To err is human, to forgive divine. 41. 1. For we will shake him, or worse days endure. 2. Some guide the course of wandering orbs on high, Or roll the planets through the boundless sky. 3. Men may be read, as well as books, too much. 4. Nor stony tower, nor walls of beaten brass, Nor airless dungeon, nor strong links of iron. Can be retentive to the strength of spirit. 5. Stone walls do not a prison make, Nor iron bars a cage. 316 EXERCISES. 6. Princes and lords may flourish, or may fade ; A breath can make them, as a breath has made. 7. He tried each art, reproved each dull delay, Allured to brighter worlds, and led the way. ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES. 42. 1. He is as tall as I. 2. They love him, more than I. 8. They love him, more than me. 4. This is the man I saw. 5. There's not a joy the world can give, Like that it takes away. 6. Who reasons msely is not therefore wise. 7. Who steals my purse, steals trash. 8. To me more dear, congenial to my heart, One native charm, than all the gloss of art. 43. 1. That is the book I gave you. 2. This is the house we live in. 8. This is the way they came. 4. He left the day I arrived. 5. He arrived the day that I left. 6. Thomas is the same as ever. 7. Henry did as he was bidden. LONDON: PRINTED BY SPOTTrSWOODK AND CO., NliW-STBEET SQUATJE AND PAWfJAMlCNT STUEliX