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COMPENDIOUS INTRODUCTION 
 
 STUDY OF THE BIBLE 
 
 BEING AN 
 
 ANALYSIS 
 
 OP 
 
 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE CRITICAL STUDY AND KNOWLEDGE 
 
 OF THE HOLY SCRIPTURES," IN FOUR VOLUMES, 
 
 BY THE SAME AUTHOR. 
 
 BY THOMAS HARTWELL HORNE 
 
 5ksH KsfSsii 
 
 
 sees gSjSijSi -^w* 
 
 NetD-Ijork: 
 
 PUBLISHED BY LANE & SCOTT, 
 
 200 Mulberry-street. 
 
 JOSEPH LON6KING, PRINTER. 
 
 1850. 
 
•VU7 
 
 
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 ADVERTISEMENT 
 
 LAST ENGLISH EDITION 
 
 The present Edition has been carefully revised and cor- 
 rected throughout. A few passages, which were consider- 
 ed too critical to be interesting to general readers, have 
 been omitted ; and by condensing that part which treats 
 on the Interpret' [ion of Scripture, the Author has obtain- 
 ed room, withou increasing the price of the volume, foi 
 various additions : — particularly, a Table of the principal 
 Predictions relative to the Person and Offices of the Mes ■ 
 siah, with their Fulfilment, and also a Geographical 
 Index, abridged from his larger work, of the most remark- 
 able places mentioned in the Holy Scriptures, especially 
 in the New Testament. These additions, the Author 
 trusts, will be found to render this Manual more perma- 
 nently useful as a Compendious Introduction to the Study 
 of the Bible, and not unworthy a continuance of that pa- 
 tronage with which his labours have hitherto been ho- 
 noured. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The little Manual, now offered to the Public, has 
 been undertaken in consequence of requests long since 
 communicated to the Author, and frequently repeated, 
 that he would prepare an Analysis, or Abridgment of 
 the four octavo volumes of his larger " Introduction to 
 the Critical Study and Knowledge of the Holy Scrip- 
 tures f as an assistant to the studies of Gentlemen, at 
 the Universities and other Seminaries of Theological 
 Literature, as also of those individuals who may re- 
 spectively possess that work, and to whom such an 
 auxiliary would be acceptable. At the same time, the 
 present volume has been so arranged, as to form a 
 Comprehensive Guide to the Study of the Bible, adapt- 
 ed to the use of general readers : it will be found 
 to contain, 
 
 I. A Summary of the Evidences of the Genuine- 
 ness, Inspiration, &c. of the Holy Scriptures, refuting 
 the most modern objections of Infidels ; 
 
 II. An Outline of the Literary History and Inter- 
 pretation of the Bible ; 
 
 III. A Compendium of Biblical Geography and 
 Antiquities ; and 
 
 IV. Introductory Prefaces to the several Books of 
 Scripture. 
 
 In preparing this Manual for the press, the order of 
 the larger Introduction has generally been followed ; 
 the Parts and Books, into which it is divided, corres- 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 ponding with the volumes, and parts of volumes in that 
 work. Those bibliographical, critical, and other de- 
 tails only have been omitted, which either would not 
 admit of abridgment, or which would be uninteresting 
 to the generality of English readers. 
 
 The Author has subjoined, in an Appendix, a List of 
 Select Chapters of the Bible, forming an Epitome of 
 the Old and New Testaments, adapted to perusal in 
 the family, or in private, together with chronological 
 and other tables ; which he trusts, with the Divine 
 blessing on his labours, will contribute to facilitate the 
 devout and attentive reading of " the Holy Scriptures, 
 which alone are able to make us wise unto salvation, 
 through faith which is in Christ Jesus." 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS, 
 
 PART I. 
 
 ON THE GENUINENESS, AUTHENTICITY, INSPIRATION, ETC., OF THE 
 HOLY SCRIPTURES. 
 
 Tage. 
 Chapter I. On the Necessity, &c. of a Divine Revelation ... I 
 
 Chapter II. On the Genuineness find Authenticity of the Books of 
 
 the Old and New Testament 4 
 
 Sect. I. Genuineness and Authenticity of the Old Testament - ibid. 
 Sect. II. Genuineness and Authenticity cf the New Testa- 
 ment •... 6 
 
 Sect. III. On the uncorrupted Preservation of the Books of the 
 
 Old and New Testament ; 8 
 
 Chapter HI. On the Credibility of the Old and New Testaments • 10 
 Sect. I. Direct Evidences of the Credibility of the Old and New 
 
 Testaments ibid. 
 
 Sect. II. Testimonies to the Credibility of the Old and New Tea- 
 taments, from Natural and Civil History - - - • 14 
 § 1. Testimonies from Natural and Civil History to the Cre- 
 dibility of the Old Testament ibid. 
 
 § 2. Testimonies of Profane Writers to the Credibility of the 
 
 New Testament 19 
 
 § 3. Collateral Testimonies to the Truth of the Facts record 
 ed in the Scriptures, from ancient Coins, Medals, and Mar- 
 bles 2i 
 
 Chapter IV. All the Books of the Old and New Testaments are of 
 
 Divine Authority, and their Authors are divinely inspired • 24 
 
 Sect. I. Preliminary Considerations ibid. 
 
 Sect. II. The Miracles related in the Old and New Testaments 
 are Proofs that the Scriptures were given by Inspiration of 
 
 God 25 
 
 Sect. III. On Prophecy 37 
 
 Class I. Prophecies relating to the Jewish Nation in parti- 
 cular 39 
 
 Class II. Prophecies relating to the Nations or Empires that 
 
 —were neighbouring to the Jews 41 
 
 Class III. Prophecies directly announcing the Messiah - • 42 
 Class IV. Prophecies by Jesus Christ and his Apostles - - 43 
 Refutation of various Objections against Prophecy • - 45 
 
 Chapter V. Internal Evidences of the Inspiration of the Scriptures 47 
 Sect. I. The System of Doctrine and the Moral Precepts, which 
 are delivered in the Scriptures, are so excellent and so per- 
 fectly holy, that the persons who published them to the 
 World, must have derived them from a purer and more ex- 
 alted Source than their own Meditations .... ibid. 
 a 1. A Concise View of the Religion of the Patriarchal Times 48 
 § 2. A Summary View of the Doctrines and Precepts of the 
 
 Mosaic Dispensation 49 
 
 § 3. A Summary View o<" the Doctrines and Precepts of the 
 
 Gospel Dispensation • • • 63 
 
 I* 
 
VJ CONTENTS. 
 
 S 4. On the Objections of Unbelievers to the Doctrine and 
 Morality of the Bible 53 
 
 Sect II. The wonderful Harmony and intimate Connexion 
 subsisting between all the Parts of Scripture are a further 
 Proof of its Authority and Divine Original 58 
 
 Sect. III. The Preservation of the Scriptures is a Proof of their 
 Truth and Divine Origin ibid. 
 
 Sect. IV. The Tendency of the Scriptures to promote the present 
 and eternal Happiness of Mankind constitutes another unan- 
 swerable Proof of their Divine Inspiration .... ibid. 
 
 Sect. V. The peculiar Advantages possessed by the Christian 
 Religion over all other Religions, a Demonstrative Evidence 
 of its Divine Origin and Authority 60 
 
 Sect. VI. Inability to answer all objections, no just cause for 
 rejecting the Scriptures.— Unbelievers in Divine Revelation 
 more credulous than Christians ... - • 63 
 
 Chapter VI. Recapitulation. — Moral Qualifications for the Study of 
 
 the Scriptures 64 
 
 PART II. 
 
 ON THE LITERARY HISTORY, CRITICISM, AND INTERPRETATION OF 
 THE SCRIPTURES. 
 
 Book I.— on the literary history and criticism of the scriptures. 
 
 Chapter I. On the Original Languages of Scripture 67 
 Sect. I. On the Hebrew Language, and the Samaritan Penta- 
 teuch ibid. 
 
 Sect. II. On the Greek Language 69 
 
 Chapter II. On the Manuscripts of the Bible 71 
 
 Sect. I. On the Hebrew Manuscripts of the Old Testament • ibid. 
 Sect. II. Account of Greek Manuscripts containing the Old and 
 
 New Testaments 74 
 
 Chapter III. On the Divisions and Marks of Distinction occurring in 
 
 the Old and New Testaments 78 
 
 Sect. I. Divisions and Marks of Distinction occurring in the Old 
 
 Testament ibid. 
 
 Sect. II. Divisions and Marks of Distinction occurring in the 
 
 New Testament 81 
 
 Chapter IV. On the Ancient Versions of the Scriptures 82 
 Sect. I. Of the Targums or Chaldee Paraphrases - - - ibid. 
 Sect. II. Ancient Greek Versions of the Old Testament - . 83 
 Sect. III. Ancient Oriental Versions of the New Testament - 86 
 Sect. IV. Ancient Western Versions of the Scriptures - . 88 
 Sect. V. Use and Application of Ancient Versions 89 
 Chapter V. On the Modern Versions of the Scriptures 90 
 Sect. I. On the Modern Latin Versions of the Old and New Tes- 
 taments ibid. 
 
 Sect. II. Versions in the Modern Languages of Europe, Asia, 
 
 Africa, and America 92 
 
 Chapter VI. On the Various Readings occurring in the Old and 
 
 New Testaments 100 
 
 Chapter vn. On the Quotations from the Old Testament in the 
 
 New ... 101 
 
CONTENTS. v Jj 
 
 Page. 
 Chapter VHL On the Poetry oi the Hebrews « • ■ -108 
 
 Chapter IX. On Harmonies of Scripture • 11 
 
 Book U. — on the interpretation op scripture. 
 
 Chapter I. Of the Literal, Grammatical, or Historical Sense of 
 
 Scripture 113 
 
 Sect. I. Rules for Investigating the Meaning of Words gene- 
 rally 114 
 
 Sect. JI. Aids for Investigating the Meaning of Words in com- 
 bination 115 
 
 § 1. Of the Scope and Context ibid. 
 
 § 2. Analogy of Scripture or Parallel Passages * - -118 
 
 § 3. Of the Analogy of Faith 121 
 
 § 4. Historical Circumstances 123 
 
 § 5. Ancient Versions -127 
 
 § 6. On Commentators ibid. 
 
 Chapter II. On the Interpretation of the Figurative Language of 
 
 Scripture 129 
 
 Sect. I. General Observations on the Interpretation of Tropes 
 and Figures ibid. 
 
 Sect. II. On the Interpretation of the Metonymies occurring 
 in Scripture 131 
 
 Sect. III. On the Interpretation of Scripture Metaphors and 
 Allegories • 134 
 
 Sect. IV. On the Interpretation of Scripture Parables • » 136 
 
 Sect. V. On Scripture Proverbs - -138 
 
 Sect VI. Concluding Observations on the Figurative Language 
 
 of Scripture 139 
 
 Chapter III. On the Spiritual Interpretation of Scripture • • 140 
 
 Sect. I. General Observations on the Spiritual or Mystical Sense 
 of Scripture ibid. 
 
 Sect. II. Rules for the Spiritual or Mystical Interpretation of 
 Scripture 141 
 
 Sect. III. On the Interpretation of Types - - - • • 142 
 Chapter IV. On the Interpretation of Scripture Prophecies • • 144 
 Chapter V. On the Doctrinal, Moral, and Practical Interpretation 
 
 of Scripture • 149 
 
 Sect. I. On the Doctrinal Interpretation of the Scriptures - ibid. 
 
 Sect. II. On the Interpretation of the Moral Parts of Scripture • 151 
 
 Sect. III. On the Interpretation of the Promises and Threaten- 
 ings of Scripture 152 
 
 Sect. IV. On the Practical Reading of Scripture • • .154 
 
 PART III. 
 
 A COMPENDIUM OP BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY AND ANTiaUITIES. 
 Book I. — a sketch op the geography op the holy land 
 
 Chapter I. Historical Geography of the Holy Land .... 158 
 Chapter II. Physical Geography of the Holy Land • • 169 
 
 Book II. — political antiquities op the jews. 
 
 Chapter I. Different Forms of Government, from the Patriarchal 
 
 Times to the Babylonish Captivity 182 
 
VJI1 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 Chapter II. Political State of the Jews, after their Return from the 
 Babylonish Captivity, to the Subversion of their Civil and 
 
 Ecclesiastical Polity 186 
 
 Chapter III. Courts of Judicature, Legal Proceedings, Criminal 
 
 Law, and Punishments of the Jews 191 
 
 Sect. I. Jewish Courts of Judicature and Legal Proceedings - ibid. 
 Sect. II. Roman Judicature, Manner of Trial, and Treatment <3>f 
 
 Prisoners • 193 
 
 Sect. III. On the Criminal Law of the Jews - • - -195 
 Sect. IV. On the Punishments mentioned in the Scriptures - 200 
 Chapter IV. Jewish and Roman Modes of computing Time, men- 
 tioned in the Scriptures 204 
 
 Chapter V. Of the Tributes and Taxes mentioned in the Scriptures. 
 
 Contracts — how made 208 
 
 Chapter VI. Of the Military Affairs of the Jews, and other Nations 
 
 mentioned in the Scriptures 209 
 
 Book III. — sacred antiquities of the jews and other nations 
 
 MENTIONED IN THE SCRIPTURES. 
 
 Chapter I. Of Sacred Places . • • - • » - . 214 
 
 Sect. I. Of the Tabernacle ibid. 
 
 Sect. II. Of the Temple 217 
 
 Sect. III. Of the High Places, Proseuchfe, or Oratories of the 
 
 Jews 222 
 
 Sect. IV. On the Synagogues of the Jews 223 
 
 Chapter II. Sacred Persons ........ 225 
 
 Sect, I. Of the Jewish Church and its Members - • • ibid. 
 Sect. II. On the Ministers of the Temple and other Ecclesiasti- 
 cal or Sacred Persons 226 
 
 Chapter III. Sacred Things.— On the Sacrifices and other Offer- 
 ings of the Jews - 231 
 
 Chapter IV. Sacred Times and Seasons observed by the Jews • • 236 
 Chapter V. Sacred Obligations and Duties. — Of Oaths. — Nature and 
 
 Different Sorts of Vows 242 
 
 Chapter VI. On the Corruptions of Religion by the Jews . - 245 
 Book IV. — domestic antiquities of the jews and other nations 
 
 INCIDENTALLY MENTIONED IN THE SCRIPTURES. 
 
 Chapter I. On the Dwellings of the Jews 250 
 
 Chapter II. On the Dress of the Jews 253 
 
 Chapter HI. Marriage Customs of the Jews 254 
 
 Chapter IV. Birth, Education, &c. of Children * - 256 
 Chapter V. Condition of Slaves, and the Customs relating to them, 
 
 nentioned or alluded to in the New Testament • . 257 
 
 Chapter VI. Domestic Customs and Usages of the Jews - . • 259 
 
 Chapter VII. On the Occupations, Arts, and Sciences of the Jews • 262 
 
 Sect. I. Agriculture and Horticulture of the Jews - - . ibid. 
 
 Sect. II. On the Arts and Sciences of the Jews .... 265 
 Chapter VIII. Allusions to the Theatres, Theatrical Performances, 
 
 and to the Grecian Games in the New Testament - - - 271 
 
 Chapter IX T ewish Mode of treating the Dead.*— Funeral Rites • 272 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PART IV. 
 
 ON THE ANALYSIS OF SCRIPTURE. 
 
 Book I. — analysis of the old testament. 
 
 Chapter I. On the Pentateuch • 
 
 Sect. I. On the Book of Genesis • 
 Sect. IT. On the Book of Exodus - 
 Sect. III. On the Book of Leviticus 
 Sect. IV. On the Book of Numbers 
 Sect. V. On the Book of Deutoronomy 
 
 Chapter II. On the Historical Books - 
 Sect. I. On the Book of Joshua • 
 Sect. II. On the Book of Judges - 
 Sect. Ill On the Book of Ruth 
 Sect. IV. On the Two Books of Samuel 
 Sect. V. On the Two Books of Kings - 
 Sect. VI. On the Two Books of Chronicles 
 Sect. VII. On the Book of Ezra - 
 Sect. VIII. On the Book of Nehemlah • 
 Sect. IX. On the Book of Esther 
 
 Chaptfr III. On the Poetical Books • 
 Sect. I. On the Book of Job - 
 Sect. II. On the Book of Psalms - 
 Sect. III. On the Book of Proverbs 
 Sect. IV. On the Book of Ecclesiastes - 
 Sect. V. On the Song of Solomon 
 
 and 
 
 Chapter rv. General Observations on the Prophets 
 
 Writings 
 
 Chapter V. On the Prophets who nourished before the Babylonian 
 Captivity 
 
 Sect. I. On the Book of the Prophet Jonah 
 
 Sect. II. On the Book of the Prophet Amos 
 
 Sect. III. On the Book of the Prophet Hosea 
 
 Sect. IV. On the Book of the Prophet Isaiah 
 
 Sect. V. On the Book of the Prophet Joel - 
 
 Sect. VI. On the Book of the Prophet Micah 
 
 Sect. VII. On the Book of the Prophet Nahum . 
 
 Sect. VIII. On the Book of the Prophet Zephaniah 
 
 Chapter VI. Of the Prophets who nourished near to and during the 
 
 Babylonian Captivity 
 
 Sect. I. On the book of the Prophet Jeremiah - 
 Sect. II. On the Lamentations of Jeremiah 
 Sect. III. On the Eook of the Prophet Habakkuk 
 Sect. IV. On the Book of the Prophet Daniel 
 Sect. V. On the Book of the Prophet Obadiah 
 Sect. VI. On the Book of the Prophet Ezekiel 
 
 Chapter VII. On the Prophets who flourished after the return 
 
 Jews from Babylon 
 
 Sect. I. On the Book of the Prophet Haggai 
 Sect. II. On the Book of the Prophet Zechariah 
 Sect. III. On the Book of the Prophet Malachi • 
 
 Chapter VIII. On the Apocrypha 
 
 their 
 
 of the 
 
x CONTENTS. 
 
 Book II.*— analysis op the new testament. 
 
 tarn. 
 
 Chapter I. On the Historical Books of the New Testament . - 316 
 
 Sect. I. On the Name and Number of the Canonical Gospels • ibid. 
 
 Sect. II. On the Gospel by Saint Matthew 316 
 
 Sect III. On the Gospel by Saint Mark • • • • 317 
 
 Sect. IV. On the Gospel by Saint Luke 318 
 
 Sect. V. On the Gospel by Saint John 319 
 
 Sect. VI. On the Acts of the Apostles 321 
 
 Chapter IT. On the Epistolary or Doctrinal Writings of the New 
 
 Testament, particularly those of Saint Paul .... 323 
 Sect. I. A Brief Account of the Apostle Paul. — Nature of the 
 
 Epistolary Writings of the New Testament .... ibid. 
 
 Sect. II. On the Epistle to the Romans 326 
 
 Sect. III. On the First Epistle to the Corinthians • • 328 
 
 Sect. IV. On the Second Epistle to the Corinthians ... 329 
 
 Sect. V. On the Epistle to the Galatians 330 
 
 Sect. VI. On the Epistle to the Ephesians ... ■ ibid. 
 
 Sect. VII. On the Epistle to the Philippians .... 331 
 
 Sect. VIII. On the Epistles to the Colossians .... ibid. 
 Sect. IX. On the First Epistle to the Thessalonians • • -332 
 
 Sect. V. On the Second Epistle to the Thessalonians • • 333 
 
 Sect. XI. On the First Epistle to Timothy 334 
 
 Sect. XII. On the Second Epistle to Timothy .... 335 
 
 Sect. XIII. On the Epistle to Titus 336 
 
 Sect. Xrv. On the Epistle to Philemon 337 
 
 Sect. XV. On the Epistle to the Hebrews 338 
 
 Chapter III. On the Catholic Epistles 339 
 
 Sect. I. On the Genuineness and Authenticity of the Catholic 
 
 Epistles ibid. 
 
 Sect. II. On the General Epistle of James 340 
 
 Sect. III. On the first General Epistle of Peter • • • 341 
 
 Sect. IV. On the second General Epistle of Peter • • • 343 
 
 Sect V. On the first General Epistle of Saint John - • • ibid. 
 
 Sect. VI. On the Second and third Epistles of Saint John • • 345 
 
 Sect. VII. On the General Epistle of Saint Jude .... 346 
 
 Chapter IV. On the Revelation of Saint John the Divine • 347 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 No. I. Tables of Weights, Measures, and Money, mentioned In the 
 
 Bible 351 
 
 H. A Table of the Order and Dates of the Books of the New Tes- 
 tament 353 
 
 III. A Table of the Psalms, classed according to their several sub- 
 
 jects, and adapted to the Purposes of Private Devotion - 354 
 
 IV. A Table or List of Select Chapters of the Holy Scriptures, 
 
 forming an Epitome of the Bible, and adapted to Family or 
 
 Private Reading 355 
 
 V. A List comprising the most necessary works upon the Holy 
 
 Scriptures 363 
 
 VI. A concise Chronological Table of the Principal Epochs men- 
 tioned in the Old and New Testaments .... 364 
 VII. A Table of the principal Prophecies relative to the Messiah, 
 
 with their accomplishment as related in the New Testament 369 
 INDEXES. 
 
 1. Geographical Index of the principal Places mentioned In the 
 
 Scriptures, especially the New Testament .... 375 
 
 2. Index of Matters 386 
 
COMPENDIOUS INTRODUCTION 
 
 TO 
 
 THE STUDY OF THE BIBLE, 
 
 ETC., ETC 
 
 PART I 
 
 ON THE GENUINENESS, AUTHENTICITY, INSPIRATION, ETC., OF THE 
 HOLY SCRIPTURES. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 ON THE NECESSITY, ETC., OP A DIVINE REVELATION 
 
 I. Revelation defined. 
 
 Revelation is a discovery by God to man of Himself or 
 of his will, over and above what He has made known by 
 the light of nature, or reason. 
 
 II. A Divine Revelation possible. 
 
 No one, who believes that there is a God of infinite 
 wisdom, power, and knowledge, can reasonably deny the 
 possibility of His making a revelation of Himself, and of 
 his will to men, in an extraordinary way, different from 
 the discoveries made by men themselves, in the mere 
 natural and ordinary use of their own powers. To ad- 
 mit the existence of a God, and to deny him such a power, 
 is a glaring contradiction. Though we cannot explain 
 in what manner ideas originate, or are impressed upon the 
 human mind ; yet, since we know that this is effected in 
 various ways, it is reasonable to suppose that God can 
 act upon the mind, in order to impart to us the know- 
 ledge of his will. And, if so, he can do it in such a man- 
 ner as to give those, to whom such revelation is made, an 
 assurance that it proceeds from himself. 
 
2 NECESSITY OF A 
 
 III. The Probability of such Revelation appears from 
 the two following arguments : 
 
 1. From the general sense of mankind in every age, 
 who believed that divine revelations were probable : and 
 from the credit given to pretended revelations, thus evin- 
 cing a consciousness of their own ignorance, and the need 
 of a supernatural illumination. 
 
 2. From the confession of some of the wisest philoso 
 phers, that they stood in need of such a revelation, and 
 the hope they expressed that God would at some future 
 time vouchsafe to make one. 
 
 IV. Divine revelation is not only possible and proba- 
 ble, but NECESSARY I 
 
 1. From the utter inability of mere human reason to 
 attain any certain knowledge of the will or law of God, of 
 the true happiness of man, or of a future state, as is evi- 
 dent from the endless differences and inconsistencies, which 
 prevailed among the most celebrated ancient philosophers, 
 some of whom taught immoral doctrines, while the influ- 
 ence of all was very inconsiderable, both in rectifying the 
 notions, and in reforming the lives of mankind. Thus 
 
 (1.) Their ideas respecting the Nature and Worship of God 
 were dark, confused, and imperfect. 
 
 (2.) They were ignorant of the true account of the Creation 
 of the World. Also, 
 
 (3.) Of the origin of Evil, and the cause of the depravity 
 and misery which actually exist among mankind. 
 
 (4.) Of any Method by which a Reconciliation could be ef- 
 fected between God and man. 
 
 (5.) Of Divine Grace and Assistance towards our attainment 
 of Virtue and perseverance in it. 
 
 (6.) They had only dark and confused notions of the Sum- 
 mum Bonum or Supreme Felicity of man : 
 
 (7.) They had weak and imperfect notions concerning the 
 Immortality of the Soul ; and also concerning 
 
 (8.) The Certainty of the Eternal Rewards and Punish- 
 ments of a Future State, and the Resurrection of the Body. 
 
 2. From the defective instructions of the best of the 
 philosophers, which, moreover, were unsuited to the com- 
 mon people, and which they wanted authority to enforce 
 in practice. 
 
 3. From the gross ignorance and idolatry universally 
 prevalent among unenlightened heathen nations. 
 
DIVINE REVELATION. 3 
 
 V. Refutation of the Objection that Philosophy and 
 Right Reason are sufficient to instruct men in their duty. 
 
 Answer 1. It is a fact, that the doctrines of Christ have had 
 a more powerful influence upon men, than all the reasonings 
 of philosophers: and though modern opposers of Revelation 
 ascribe the ignorance and corruption of the heathen, not to the 
 insufficiency of the light of reason, but to their non- improve- 
 ment of that light ; yet, if this were true, it would not prove 
 that there is no need of a revelation, because it is certain 
 that the philosophers wanted some higher assistance than that 
 of reason. 
 
 2. Notwithstanding the pretences of modern deists to su- 
 perior wisdom, it is a fact that they have borrowed almost all 
 their wise and true observations from divine revelation. It is 
 one thing to perceive that the rules of life, which are laid be- 
 fore us, are agreeable to reason, and another thing to discover 
 them by the mere light of reason. 
 
 3. Besides, the speculations of modern deists, concerning 
 religion, are so glaringly contradictory, and their ethical pre- 
 cepts are so utterly subversive of every principle of morality, 
 as to demonstrate the necessity of a divine revelation now, in 
 order to lead mankind to the knowledge of God, and of their 
 duty to one. another. 
 
 VI. Possible Means of affording a Revelation. 
 There appears to be only two ways of doing this, viz. 1. 
 
 An immediate Revelation to each individual ; or, 2. A 
 Commission given by God to certain persons to make 
 known his will, accompanied with indisputable credentials 
 of their being delegated by him. The former method 
 would be ineffectual : for either the freedom of the will 
 must be destroyed, or else it would fill the world with con- 
 tinual impostures and pretences to revelation. The latter 
 method, therefore, is the most eligible and satisfactory ; 
 and writing was the best means of transmitting such a 
 revelation, on account of 
 
 1. The uncertainty and insecurity of oral tradition. 
 
 2. The greater security and permanence of writing. 
 
 3. The fairness and openness, which is the result of 
 writing. 
 
 4. The importance of the matter, the variety of the 
 subjects, and the design of the institutions contained in 
 the books, which Jews and Christians receive as contain- 
 ing a divine revelation. 
 
GENUINENESS AND AUTHENTICITY 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 ON THE GENUINENESS AND AUTHENTICITY OP THS BOOKS OF THE OLD AND NEW 
 
 TESTAMENT. 
 
 Section I.— Genuineness and Authenticity of the Old Testament. 
 
 I. Genuineness and Authenticity denned. 
 
 A Genuine Book is one, that is written by the person 
 whose name it bears. — An Authentic Book is one in 
 which matters of fact are related, as they really hap- 
 pened. 
 
 There are two classes of proof; 1. Historical Testi- 
 mony or External Evidence ; and 2. Internal Evidence 
 arising from an examination of the Books themselves. 
 
 II. Historical Testimony, or External Evidence. 
 
 1. The persons, contemporary with any Hebrew wri- 
 ter whose books they transcribed, knew by whom they 
 were written ; and, having a certain knowledge of the 
 author and of the age in which he lived, delivered them 
 to their descendants, and these again to their posterity. 
 
 2. The small number of books, extant at the time when 
 the books of the Old Testament were written, would render 
 fault impossible. 
 
 3. The Hebrews or Jews, by testifying that these books 
 are genuine, become witnesses against themselves, and 
 their testimony consequently is unexceptionable. 
 
 4. A particular tribe was consecrated for the express 
 purpose of watching over the preservation of these books. 
 
 5. The testimony of the ancient Jews, of which we have 
 an unbroken chain ; and the fact that the Greek version 
 of the Old Testament, usually called the Septuagint, was 
 executed at Alexandria two hundred and eighty-two years 
 before the Christian era. 
 
 III. Internal Evidence, arising from an examination 
 of the Books themselves. 
 
 Arg. 1. The difference in language, style, and manner 
 of writing, proves that the Books of the Old Testament 
 must have been written at various times and by different 
 persons. As Hebrew ceased to be spoken as a living 
 language soon after the Babylonish captivity, all those 
 books must be nearly as ancient as that captivity ; and 
 
OF THE NEW TESTAMENT g 
 
 as they could not all be written in the same age, some must 
 be considerably more ancient. 
 
 Arg. 2. The multitude of minutely particular circum- 
 stances of time, place, persons, &c, mentioned in the books 
 of the Old Testament, is a further argument both of their 
 genuineness and authenticity ; because no forger of false 
 accounts superabounds in such peculiarities, or could fur- 
 nish them; and because such forgeries or falsehoods could 
 be easily detected and exposed. 
 
 IV. Proofs of the genuineness and authenticity of the 
 Pentateuch in particular. 
 
 This is manifest. 
 
 1. From the language in which it is written, the sim- 
 plicity and archaisms of which prove it to be the earliest 
 of all the Hebrew sacred books. 
 
 2. From the Nature of the Mosaic Law, as contained 
 in the four last books of Moses. 
 
 These books contain a system of ceremonial and moral laws , 
 which, unless we reject the authority of all history, were ob- 
 served by the Israelites, from their departure out of Egypt until 
 their dispersion at the taking of Jerusalem. Their civil and re- 
 ligious polity are so inseparably connected, and many of their 
 institutions are so connected with historical facts, as to render 
 forgery impossible. 
 
 3. From the United Historical Testimony of Jews and 
 Gentiles 
 
 [i.] Jewish Testimony: — Jesus Christ, Ezra, Daniel, Solo- 
 mon, David, Moses, and others ; to which is to be added the 
 fact, that the law of Moses was received by both Jews and Sa- 
 maritans before they became divided into two kingdoms. 
 
 [ii.] Gentile Testimony ;— Manetho, Eupolemus, Artapanus, 
 Tacitus, Diodorus, Siculus, Strabo, Justin, the abbreviator of 
 Trogus, Juvenal, and many other writers, testify that Moses 
 was the leader of the Jews, and the founder of their laws. The 
 great critic J^onginus, and Numenius, a Pythagorean philoso- 
 pher of Apamea, in Syria, both speak highly of Moses : and 
 Porphyry admitted the genuineness of the Pentateuch. The 
 Egyptian, Greek, and Roman authors concur in relating the 
 tradition respecting the creation, the fall of man, the deluge, 
 and the dispersion of mankind. 
 
 4. From the contents of the Pentateuch. 
 
 The frequent genealogies prove that it was composed 
 by a writer of very early date, and from original mate- 
 rials. 
 
Q GENUINENESS AND AUTHENTICITY 
 
 The geographical details of places bespeak a writer 
 personally present at the transactions recoided. 
 
 The frequent repetitions, which occur in the Penta- 
 teuch, and the neglect of order in delivering the precepts, 
 are strong proofs, that it has come down to us precisely 
 as it was written by Moses ; to which may be added co- 
 incidences, so minute, latent, indirect, and undesigned, 
 that they could only have been produced by reality and 
 truth influencing the mind and the pen of the legislator. 
 
 Section n. — Genuineness and Authenticity of the New Testament. 
 
 I. General Title of the N*ew Testament. 
 
 Every thing we know concerning the belief, worship, 
 manners, and discipline of the first Christians, corresponds 
 with the contents of the books of the New Testament now 
 extant, and which therefore are most certainly the primi- 
 tive instructions which they received. The collection of 
 these books is known by the appellation of the New Tes- 
 tament or New Covenant, (because it contains the terms 
 of the new covenant, upon which God is pleased to offer 
 salvation through the mediation of Jesus Christ;) in op- 
 position to the doctrines, precepts, and promises of the 
 Mosaic dispensation, which Saint Paul terms the Old 
 Covenant. 
 
 II. Canon of the New Testament. 
 
 The records, thus collectively termed the New Testa- 
 ment, consist of twenty-seven books, composed on various 
 occasions, and at different times and places, by eight dif- 
 ferent authors contemporary with Jesus Christ, whose his- 
 tory they either relate, together with the first propagation 
 of his religion, or unfold the doctrines, principles, and 
 precepts of Christianity. 
 
 III. The Genuineness and Authenticity of the New 
 Testament are proved, not only from arguments which 
 demonstrate that it is not spurious, but also from positive 
 evidence arising from the impossibility of forgery, and 
 from direct external or historical evidence. 
 
 Of all the grounds, that either have been or may be as- 
 signed for denying a work, to be genuine, not one can just- 
 ly be applied to the New Testament : for, 
 
OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 7 
 
 1. No one doubted of its genuineness and authenticity 
 when it first appeared. 
 
 2. No ancient accounts are on record, whence we may 
 conclude it to be spurious. 
 
 3. No considerable period of time elapsed after the 
 death of the Apostles, in which the New Testament was 
 unknown. On the contrary, it is mentioned not only by 
 their contemporaries, but also by succeeding writers. 
 
 4. No arguments can be brought in its disfavour from 
 the nature of its style, which is exactly such as might be 
 expected from the writers of its several books. 
 
 5. No facts are recorded, which happened after the 
 death of the apostles. 
 
 6. No doctrines or precepts are maintained, which con- 
 tradict their known tenets. 
 
 IV. Positive Evidence : 
 
 1. The absolute impossibility of forgery arising from 
 the nature of the thing itself; because it is impossible to 
 establish forged writings as authentic where there are per- 
 sons strongly inclined and qualified to detect fraud, as was 
 the case both with Jews and Gentiles. 
 
 2. External or Historical Evidence, 
 
 [i.] The Books of the New Testament are quoted or alluded 
 to, times innumerable, by a series of Christian writers as well 
 as by adversaries of the Christian faith, who may be traced 
 back in regular succession from the present time to the aposto- 
 lic age. 
 
 [ii.] The Ancient Versions of the new testament are another 
 important evidence for its genuineness and authenticity, as well 
 as of its antiquity ; some of them (as the Syriac and several 
 Latin versions) being made so early as the close of the first, or 
 at the beginning of the second century. 
 
 3. Internal Evidence of the Genuineness and Authen- 
 ticity of the New Testament. 
 
 [i.] The Character of the Writers of the New Testament : 
 
 They are said to have been Jews by birth, and of the Jewish 
 
 religion, and immediate witnesses of the events which they have 
 
 recorded. And every page of their writings corresponds with 
 
 their actual character. 
 
 [ii.J The Language and Style. — The Langicage is Greek, 
 which was a kind of universal language, just as the French 
 now is : but it is Hebrew-Greek, i. e. Greek intermixed with 
 many peculiarities from the native dialect of the Jews of Pales- 
 tine, and consequently such as we might expect from the per- 
 
g GENUINENESS AND AUTHENTICITY 
 
 sons, to whom the several parts of the New Testament are 
 ascribed. 
 
 The Style or manner of writing, too, is such as shows that its 
 authors were born and educated in the Jewish religion. 
 
 [iii.] The Circumstantiality of the narrative, and the 
 coincidence of the accounts delivered in the New Testament 
 with the history of those times, are also an indisputable internal 
 evidence of its authenticity. 
 
 Section III.— On the Uncorrupted Preservation of the Books of the Old and 
 New Testament. 
 
 I. The Uncorrupted Preservation of the Old Testa- 
 ment is proved from the impossibility of its being cor- 
 rupted: for 
 
 1. There is no proof or vestige whatever of any pre- 
 tended alteration : if the Jews had wilfully corrupted the 
 books of the Old Testament before the time of Christ and 
 his apostles, the prophets would not have passed such an 
 heinous offence in silence : and, if they had been corrupt- 
 ed in the time of Christ and his apostles, these would no* 
 have failed to censure the Jews. If they had been muti- 
 lated or corrupted after the time of Christ, the Jews 
 would unquestionably have expunged the falsified prophe- 
 cies concerning Christ, which were cited by him and by 
 his apostles. 
 
 2. In fact, neither before nor after the time of Christ 
 could the Jews corrupt the Hebrew Scriptures ; for, before 
 that event, any forgery or material corruption would be 
 rendered impossible by the reverence paid to these books 
 by the Jews themselves, the publicity given to their con- 
 tents by the reading of the law in public and in private, 
 and by the jealousies subsisting between the Jews and 
 Samaritans, and between the different sects into which 
 the Jews were divided. And since the birth of Christ, 
 the Jews and Christians have been a mutual guard and 
 check upon each other. 
 
 3. The Agreement of all the Manuscripts. 
 
 II. The integrity and uncorruptness of the books of 
 the New Testament is manifest, 
 
 1. From their contents; for, so early as the two first 
 centuries the very same facts and doctrines were univet* 
 
OP THE NEW TESTAMENT. 9 
 
 sally received by the Christians, which we at this time be- 
 lieve on the credit of the New Testament. 
 
 2. Because an universal corruption of those writings 
 was both impossible and impracticable, in consequence 
 of the early dispersion of copies, which were multiplied 
 and disseminated, either in the original Greek or in trans- 
 lations, as rapidly as the boundaries of the church in- 
 creased, and also of the effectual check interposed by the 
 various sects that existed in the Christian church. 
 
 3. From the agreement of all the manuscripts, the va- 
 rious readings in which are not only of so little moment, 
 as not to affect any article of faith or practice ; but they 
 also prove that the books of the New Testament exist at 
 present, in all essential points, precisely the same as they 
 were, when they left the hands of their authors. 
 
 4. From the agreement of the ancient versions of these 
 books, and the quotations made from them in the writings 
 of the Christians of the three first centuries, and in those 
 of the succeeding fathers of the church. 
 
 III. That no canonical books of Scripture have been 
 lost, may be proved by the following considerations, viz : 
 
 1. The ordinary conduct of Divine Providence, and 
 the care which the Divine Being has in all ages taken to 
 preserve these books. 
 
 2. The zeal of the faithful to preserve their sacred 
 books. 
 
 3. The dispersion of these books into the most distant 
 countries and into the hands of innumerable persons. 
 
 IV. With regard to the Old Testament, more particu- 
 larly, we may conclude, that, if any books seem to be 
 wanting in our present canon, they are either such as are 
 still remaining in the Scriptures, unobserved, under other 
 appellations ; or they are such as never were accounted 
 canonical, and contained no points essential to the salva- 
 tion of man. Consequently they are such of which we 
 may safely remain ignorant here, and for which we shall 
 never be responsible hereafter 
 
 V. The same observation applies with equal force to 
 the Books of the New Testament ; in which some learned 
 men have imagined that they have discovered allusions 
 to writings no longer extant ; but on examination, their 
 conjectures prove to be destitute of foundation. Thus the 
 
10 ON THE CREDIBILITY OP 
 
 expression Eypaxia I have written, in 1 Cor. v. 9, (which 
 has given rise to a supposition that St. Pa„l had already 
 written an epistle to the Corinthian Church, that is no 
 longer extant,) may probably be put for Tpafa, I write ; 
 there being nearly one hundred instances in the New Tes- 
 tament, in which the past tense is put for the present. — 
 So also, the expression h EnroXi7 t< AaoStKias — the Epistle 
 from Laodicea (Col. iv. 16,) w T hich seems to intimate 
 that the same apostle had previously written an epistle to 
 the church at Laodicea, is in all probability that which is 
 called the Epistle to the Ephesians, Laodicea being within 
 the circuit of the Ephesian Church. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 ON THE CREDIBILITY OF THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 
 
 Section I. — Direct evidences of the Credibility of the Old and New Testa- 
 ments. 
 
 I. The writers of the Books of the Old and New Tes- 
 taments had a perfect knowledge of the subjects which 
 they relate : and their moral character, though rigidly 
 tried, was never impeached by their keenest opponents. 
 
 II. If there had been any falsehood in the accounts of 
 such transactions as were public and generally known, it 
 could (and doubtless would) have been easily detected : fir 
 these accounts were published among the people, who 
 witnessed the events related by the historians. But this 
 was not the case with the writings, either of Moses and 
 the Prophets, or of the Evangelists. 
 
 1. It is impossible that Moses could have asserted false 
 hoods in his writings : for 
 
 [i.] If he had been an impostor, it is utterly incredible that 
 he could have given to men so perfect and holy a law as he 
 did. 
 
 [ii.] As Moses had been educated in all the learning of 
 the Egyptians, and was not of a rash, credulous, or superstitious 
 temper, he could not possibly have been himself deceived. 
 
 [iii.J It is absolutely incredible that he should or could have 
 imposed on the Israelites, as true, things that were notoriously 
 false, and of the falsehood of which they could convict him : 
 for he relates facts and events which had taken place in the 
 
THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. \\ 
 
 presence of six hundred thousand men ; and urges the reality 
 and truth of those facts upon them, as motives to believe and 
 obey the new religion which he had introduced among them. 
 
 [iv.] We cannot conceive for what end or with what view 
 Moses could have invented all these things. He sought nei 
 ther riches nor honours for himself, and he left neither offices 
 of honour nor emoluments to his children. He did not write 
 to flatter his nation, nor did he conceal his own failings, or at- 
 tempt to palliate or excuse the errors or sins of his countrymen. 
 
 These observations are equally applicable to the wri- 
 ters who succeeded Moses. 
 
 2. The credibility of the Writers op the books op. 
 the New Testament is established on evidence equally 
 conclusive with that adduced for the old Testament. 
 For 
 
 (1.) The actions ascribed to Jesus Christ in the New 
 Testament are of such a description, that they could not 
 possibly have been recorded, if they had not been true, 
 Plain and unlettered Jews, as the apostles were, though 
 adequate to the office of recording what they had seen and 
 heard, were incapable of fabricating a series of actions, 
 which constituted the most exalted character that ever 
 '■ ived upon earth. It is, indeed, highly probable, that the 
 ipostles and evangelists were not wholly aware of that 
 perfection which they themselves have described : for it 
 is not contained in any formal panegyric, but is known 
 only by comparison and inference. Whence it follows, 
 that the actions which are ascribed to Jesus Christ, either 
 are 'truly ascribed to him, or they have been invented for 
 a purpose, of which the inventors themselves were proba- 
 bly not aware, viz. the delineating of a model of perfec- 
 tion ; and applied to that purpose by means which the 
 inventors did not possess. And when we further consider 
 that the plan, developed by those facts, was in direct 
 opposition to the notion and expectation of the Jews 
 respecting a temporal Messiah, it is impossible to believe 
 that the apostles could have invented them. 
 
 (2.) The apostles could not be deceived in the facts 
 which they have recorded; because 
 
 [L] They were competent witnesses of the facts which they 
 attested : and their testimony respected facts which they had 
 themselves witnessed with their eyes and with their ears. (See 
 1 John i. 1—3., and 2 Peter i. 16.) They had lived with Jesus 
 
IZ ON THE CREDIBILITY OP 
 
 Christ during his ministry ; they had heard his discourses ; they 
 had seen his wonderful works, and consequently received them 
 on the testimony of their own senses. They had all the same 
 knowledge and in the same degree, and they all agree in the 
 same essential testimony. 
 Qi-] They were neither enthusiasts nor fanatics. , 
 They were not enthusiasts : for they became Christ's disci- 
 ples, not upon internal persuasion alone, but upon rational con- 
 viction, arising from proofs submitted alike to the judgment of 
 their minds and to the evidence of their senses, which enthusi- 
 asm could not have counterfeited, and would never have re- 
 quired : and, at every step of their progress, as their faith was 
 called to signalise itself by new exertions,' or to sustain new 
 trials, it was fortified by new proofs. Their slowness and cau- 
 tion in giving credit to miraculous operations, particularly the 
 account of their Master's resurrection from the dead, exempt 
 them from all suspicion of being the dupes of delusion and 
 credulity. Throughout their writings the utmost impartiality, 
 sobriety, and modesty prevail; and, contrary to the practice 
 of enthusiasts, they record their own mistakes, follies, and 
 faults. 
 
 Neither were they fanatics.— This is evinced by the style of 
 the New Testament, which is the very reverse of fanaticism, 
 which is always obscure, arrogant, and violent. Though they 
 insist on the necessity of receiving and believing the Christian 
 system, yet they equally condemn all spirit of persecution and 
 all religious differences. 
 
 (3.) As they could not be deceived themselves, so they 
 neither would nor did deceive others. 
 
 The whole tenor of their lives proved (what their adversaries 
 confessed) that they were men of piety and integrity. If the 
 evangelists and apostles had confederated to impose upon man- 
 kind, it is incredible that none of their associates should "not 
 have confessed the fraud. They had nothing to gain by obtru- 
 ding falsehoods ; but, on the contrary, they were exposed to 
 the loss of every thing, even of life itself, for preaching the doc- 
 trine of the cross, and bearing witness to the truth of Christi- 
 anity. It is also utterly incredible, that so many precepts ot 
 piety and virtue should have been delivered by men cf such 
 abandoned principles as they must have been, had they really 
 been impostors. Still less is it to be credited on that supposition, 
 that they performed miracles, (the reality of which was ac- 
 knowledged by their enemies,) in confirmation of their doctrine. 
 Lastly, if the apostles and evangelists had designed to impose 
 upon mankind, they would have accommodated themselves to 
 the humours of the people whom they addressed ; and would 
 carefully have avoided whatever might shock or offend them : 
 whereas they acted in quite a different manner. 
 
 (4.) On the contrary, they were men of the strictest 
 
 INTEGRITY and SINCERITY. 
 
THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. J 3 
 
 This is evident from the style and manner of their writings, 
 which are characterized by the most rigid impartiality and fide- 
 lity. There is in them no preparation of events ; there are no 
 artful transitions or connexions; no set characters or persons 
 to be introduced; no reflections on past transactions or the 
 authors of them ; no excuses or apologies for what might pro- 
 bably disturb their readers ; no specious artifices, no plausible 
 arguments to set off a doubtful action, and to reconcile it to 
 some other, or to the character of the person who did it. They 
 do not dissemble certain circumstances in the life and suffer- 
 ings of their Master, which have no tendency to advance his 
 glory in the eyes of the world. They announce the miracles 
 of Jesus Christ, with the same dispassionate coolness, as if 
 they had been common transactions, saying nothing pre viously 
 to raise expectation, nor, after the recital, breaking out into 
 exclamations. 
 
 The same striking integrity marks the conduct of the evan- 
 gelists, when speaking of their enemies, and also when they 
 are relating any circumstances respecting themselves. Their 
 enemies are barely mentioned, without censure and without 
 resentment; while they record the meanness of their own 
 stations, the inveteracy of their prejudices, the weakness of 
 their faith, their ambition, and, on certain occasions their secu- 
 lar views. 
 
 (5.) They appealed to miracles and other notorious 
 proofs, in such a manner, that if they had conspired to 
 impose falsehoods upon the world, they might have been 
 easily detected and confuted. And 
 
 (6.) Lastly, they suffered every thing for the truth 
 of their narration, even death itself, and brought many 
 of their contemporaries, (among whom were persons of 
 eminent rank and acquirements,) to a conviction of its 
 truth. 
 
 III. The Credibility of the Old and New Testaments 
 is further attested by the principal facts contained in 
 them being confirmed by certain commemorative 
 ordinances, or monuments of great celebrity, that existed 
 among Jews and Christians from the very time when the 
 events took place, which they are said to commemorate, 
 and which subsist to the present day in every country 
 where either Jews or Christians are to be found. For 
 instance, 
 
 [i.] Among the Jews there are the ordinance of Circumci- 
 sion and the feasts of the Passover, of Tabernacles, and of 
 Pentecost. 
 
 [ii.] In like manner, among Christians, the sacraments of 
 Baptism and of the Lord's Supper, and the festival observed on 
 
 2 
 
14 TESTIMONIES TO THE CREDIBILITY OF 
 
 the first day of the week, in honour of Christ's resurrection 
 from the dead. 
 
 IV. The wonderful Establishment and Propagation 
 of Christianity is a most convincing proof of the entire 
 credibility of the New Testament, and of the religion 
 which it establishes. It prevails without the assistance 
 of any temporal power, and it triumphs over all oppo- 
 sition. 
 
 In considering all these direct evidences of the credi- 
 bility of the writers of the New Testament, it is of impor- 
 tance to observe, that there is no opposite testimony to 
 contradict the positive credible testimony of the apostles, 
 evangelists, and multitudes of other persons, to the history 
 and miracles of Jesus. Those persons, therefore, who 
 reject the Gosple, are compelled to maintain, in opposition 
 to positive credible testimony, that the most extensive 
 and important events have taken place, without any ade- 
 quate cause. 
 
 Section II. Testimonies to the Credibility of the Old and New Testaments, 
 from Natural and Civil History. 
 
 § 1.— Testimonies from Natural and Civil History to the Credibility of the 
 Old Testament. 
 
 I. Testimonies to the Mosaic Account of the Creation 
 of the World. 
 
 1. The Heathens had a tradition concerning the primeval 
 chaos and the production of all things by the Supreme Mind. 
 This applies particularly to the Chaldaean, Egyptian, Phoeni- 
 cian, Hindoo, Chinese, Etruscan, Gothic, Greek, and American 
 Cosmogonies. 
 
 2. The division of time into weeks has prevailed among the 
 Hebrews, Egyptians, Chinese, Greeks, Romans, and northern 
 barbarians. 
 
 3. Even the Mosaic method of reckoning by nights, instead 
 of days, has prevailed in more than one nation. 
 
 II. The Formation of Man in the Moral image of 
 God and his State in Paradise. 
 
 These were the origin of the fabled golden age, which is 
 described by the poets ; and may also be distinctly traced in the 
 legends of our Scythian forefathers, and in the age of perfec- 
 
THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. J 5 
 
 tion of the Hindoos. In the classical story of the garden of 
 the Hesperides, we may equally discover a tradition of the 
 Mosaical Paradise, and of the promised Saviour who should 
 bruise the head of the infernal dragon. 
 
 III. The Fall of Man and the Introduction of Sin into 
 the World. 
 
 The Mosaic Narrative of these events agrees in the most 
 striking manner, both with the obvious facts of labour, sorrow, 
 pain and death. Whatever some may assert to the contrary, 
 and however they may attempt to explain away that narrative, 
 or attempt to prove it false; yet the evidently ruined condi- 
 tion of the human race would still remain as an undeniable fact ; 
 and the Mosaic Account of the Fall is confirmed by various 
 historical traditions. Thus, 
 
 1. From the Fall of the Angels, in all probability, originated 
 the Tr tdition of the Titans, and giants invading heaven. 
 
 2. The Disobedience of Eve is plainly alluded to in the le- 
 gend of Pandora. 
 
 3. The Corruption and Depravation of Human Nature are 
 frequent subjects of complaint among the ancient heathen 
 moralists, philosophers and poets. 
 
 4. The form, assumed by the Tempter, has been handed 
 down in the traditions of the most ancient nations, particularly 
 the Persians. Hindoos, Greeks, Egyptians and Scythians, or 
 Goths. 
 
 5. A conviction of the necessity of an Atonement for sin has 
 universally prevailed, together with the practice of devoting 
 piacular victims. 
 
 IV. The Translation of Enoch 
 
 May be traced in the Grecian fables of the translation of then- 
 heroes and demi-gods, particularly of Hesperus and Astraea : 
 and in the translation of Dhruva among the Hindoos; or 
 Buddha among the Ceylonese, and of Xaca, among the Cal- 
 m licks of Siberia. 
 
 V. The Longevity of the Antideluvians 
 
 ]< confirmed by various heathen writers, mentioned by Jo«e- 
 plius: (Ant. Jud. lib. i. c. 3,) and the Mosaic account of Men 
 of a Gigantic Stature is confirmed by the Greek and Roman 
 poets and historians, particularly Pausanias, Philostratus, and 
 Pliny. 
 
 VI. The Fact of the Deluge is most completely at- 
 tested both by Natural and Civil History. 
 
 1. Testimonies from Natural History. 
 
 The Mosaic narrative of the Deluge is confirmed by the fOs 
 
IQ TESTIMONIES TO THE CREDIBILITY OF 
 
 silised remains of animals belonging- to a former world, which 
 are found in every quarter of the globe, frequently on the sum- 
 mits of the most lofty mountains : and it is worthy of remark, 
 that the remains of animals, belonging to one part of the globe, 
 are often found in another part very distant. Further, the 
 deep southern indentations on the different continents of the 
 terraqueous globe, and the bold projecting capes on the north, 
 corroborate the account of the ark drifting northwards. 
 
 2. Testimonies from Civil History. 
 
 [i.] The paucity of mankind, and the vast tracts of 
 uninhabited land, mentioned in the accounts of the first 
 ages. 
 
 [ii.] The late invention and progress of arts and sci- 
 ences. 
 
 The fabulous nature of early history shows how little credit 
 is due to the pretences to antiquity, made by the several na- 
 tions among the heathens :— pretences, which have no support 
 whatever from authentic history, but are grounded only on the 
 uncertain calculations of astronomy, in which science they ac- 
 tually had but little or no skill. 
 
 [iii.] The universal tradition of this event, which lias 
 obtained among mankind in all ages. 
 
 The Chaldaeans, Phoenicians, Assyrians, Greeks, Romans, 
 Goths, and Druids, the Persians, Hindoos, Burmese, Chinese, 
 Mexicans, Peruvians, Brazilians, Nicaraguans, the inhabitants 
 of Western Caledonia, the Otaheitans, and Sandwich Island- 
 ers, all bear testimony to this fact. The deluge is also men- 
 tioned by Berosus, Hieronymus the Egyptian, and Nicolaus 
 of Damascus, according to Josephus ; and by Alexander Poly- 
 histor, Plato, Diodorus Siculus, and Lucian. It is most evi- 
 dently alluded to in Ovid's description of Deucalion's flood, 
 and Plutarch relates the same particulars of a dove sent out 
 bv Deucalion, as Moses records of the dove sent out by 
 Noah. 
 
 Notwithstanding all these testimonies, the Mosaic nar- 
 rative of the deluge has been objected to, as an improba- 
 ble event, contrary to matter of fact. 
 
 Objection 1. — The Ark could not contain all the ani- 
 mals which are said, to have entered it. 
 
 Answer.— The contrary has been satisfactorily demonstrated. 
 Reckoning the cubit at eighteen inches, Dr. Hales has proved 
 that the Ark was of the burden of 42,413 tons. (Analysis 
 of Chronology, vol. i. p. 328.) Larger calculations have 
 
THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. ff 
 
 been made, but the preceding is abundantly sufficient for our 
 purpose. 
 
 Obj. 2. — As the same causes produce the same effects, 
 the Rainbow must have existed before the flood. 
 
 Answer.— So it may, but not as a sign of the Covenant. 
 The Hebrew word, which in Gen. ix. 13, is rendered set 
 ought to be rendered appoint; in which case the passage would 
 run thus :— " I do appoint my bow in the cloud to be a sign or 
 token of the covenant between me and the earth." 
 
 Obj. 3. — If all mankind sprang from one white pair, 
 (Noah and his wife,) it is impossible to account for the 
 origin of the blacks, 
 
 Answer.— This difference of colour does not invalidate the 
 Mosaic Narrative : for it has been ascertained that the influ- 
 ence of climate, and the local circumstances of air, water, food, 
 customs, &c. are abundantly sufficient to account for the dis- 
 similarity in the appearance of different nations. 
 
 Obj. 4. — The peopling of America and of several 
 islands, in which mischievous terrestrial animals have been 
 found, has also been urged as an objection to the univer- 
 sality of the deluge. 
 
 Answer.— The straits that divide North America from Tar- 
 tary are so narrow, as to admit of a very easy passage from 
 one continent to the other : and the resemblance found between 
 the inhabitants of the opposite sides of that passage, and their 
 uncivilised state and rude ignorance of the arts, prove them to 
 have had one common origin. 
 
 VII. The Building of the Tower of Babel 
 
 Is circumstantially mentioned by Berosus, a Chaldaean his- 
 torian : according to Josephus, it is mentioned by Hestiaeus 
 and one of the ancient Sybils ; and, as Eusebius informs us, 
 by Abydenus and Eupolemus. That it was constructed with 
 burnt bricks and bitumen, is attested by Justin, Quintus Cur- 
 tius, and Vitruvius, and also by the relations of modern travel- 
 lers. 
 
 VIII. The History of the Destruction of Sodom 
 and Gomorrah 
 
 Is attested by Diodorus Siculus, Strabo, Solinus, Tacitus, Pliny, 
 and Josephus, whose accounts mainly agree with the Mosaic 
 Narrative: and their reports concerning the physical appear- 
 ance of the Dead Sea are confirmed, in all material points, by 
 the relations of all modern travellers. 
 
lg TESTIMONIES TO THE CREDIBILITY OF 
 
 IX. Ancient historians, cited by Josephus and Euse- 
 bius, make mention of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, 
 
 X. The Departure of the Children of Israel from 
 Egypt, and their miraculous passage of the Red Sea, 
 
 Are attested by Berosus, Artapanus, Strabo, Diodorus Siculus, 
 Numenius, Justin, and Tacitus. 
 
 XI. The Heathen Writers borrowed images from 
 the accounts communicated in the Scriptures. 
 
 Such are the representations of their deities being veiled in 
 clouds, &c; together with several religious institutions, and 
 other particulars. 
 
 XII. Many other occurrences related in the Old Tes- 
 tament appear to have given rise to various stories among 
 the ancients 
 
 Thus, the Story of Iphigenia being sacrificed by her father 
 Agamemnon, was borrowed from the circumstance of Jeph- 
 thah's devoting his daughter. The story of Scylla having cut 
 off the purple lock of her father, Nisus, and given it to his 
 enemy, Minos, was in all probability taken from the history of 
 Sampson's being shaved. Herodotus relates the departure of 
 the sun from its course four times, which seems to refer to the 
 times of Joshua and Hezekia. Numerous other instances 
 occur, in which scripture characters and events are mentioned 
 by heathen writers. 
 
 XIII. Lastly, the Fertility of the Soil of Palestine 
 
 is confirmed by the unanimous testimony of ancient writers, 
 *\s well as of most, if not all the travellers who have visited 
 ihat country : and, if Palestine were as well inhabited and as 
 well cultivated as formerly, its produce unquestionably would 
 exceed all calculation. 
 
 Besides the attestations from natural and profane his- 
 tory, we may consider the Jews themselves as bearing 
 testimony, to this day, in all countries of the world, to the 
 truth of their ancient history, that is, to the truth of the 
 Old Testament. Allow this, and it will be easy to see, 
 why they still persist in their attachment to that religion, 
 those laws, and those predictions, which so manifestly 
 condemn them, both in past times and in the present. 
 Suppose, however, that any considerable alterations have 
 oeen made in their ancient history, that is, any such 
 alteration as may answer their purposes of infidelity, and 
 their present state will be inexplicable. 
 
THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 
 
 19 
 
 5 2.— Testimonies of Profane Writers to the Credibility of the New Testa- 
 ment. 
 
 I. Testimonies of Jewish and Pagan Authors to the Ac- 
 counts of Princes and Governors mentioned in the New 
 Testament. 
 
 Thus, Josephus, the Jewish historian, and various ancient 
 writers, mention Herod, Archelaus, Pontius Pilate, and other 
 persons, whose names occur in the New Testament ; and they 
 differ but little from the Evangelical Historians, concerning 
 their offices and characters. 
 
 II. The Evangelical Writers agree with Josephus, and 
 with profane Authors respecting the Sects, Morals, and 
 customs of the Jews. 
 
 III. The Characters and Pursuits of Heathen Nations, 
 for instance, the Cretans, Athenians, &c. which are occa- 
 sionally introduced in the New Testament, are corroborated 
 by the testimonies of profane writers. 
 
 IV. Testimonies of Jewish Adversaries to the Name 
 and Faith of Christ. 
 
 1. Josephus bears testimony to the character, miracles, and 
 doctrines of Jesus Christ, in the eighteenth book of his Jewish 
 Antiquities, Chap. iii. Sect. 3, which passage, though rejected 
 by some writers as spurious, has been satisfactorily demon- 
 strated to be genuine. 
 
 2. The Talmuds, or Books containing the Jewish Traditions, 
 the rabbinical constitutions, and explications of the law, though 
 blended with falsehood, refer to the nativity of Jesus Christ ; 
 they relate his journey into Egypt ; and do not deny that he 
 performed numerous eminent miracles. 
 
 V. Testimonies of Heathen Adversaries to the Chris- 
 tian Name and faith. 
 
 1. Mention is made of the Life and Character of Jesus 
 Christ in the Acta Pilati, (which were an account sent by Pi- 
 late to Rome of the transactions that occurred in his province, 
 and to which the Christian writers, Justin and Tertullian, ap- 
 pealed in their apologies ;) and also in the writings of the hea- 
 then historians, Suetonius, Tacitus, Pliny, and jElius Lampri- 
 dius. And Celsus, Porphyry, and Julian, who were the earliest 
 learned opposers of the Christian Religion, bear evidence to the 
 genuineness of the books received by Christians, and conse- 
 
 Suently to the truth of the history of the Life and Character of 
 esus Christ. 
 
 2. To the Innocency of Life, and constancy of the first 
 Christians in the profession of their faith, explicit testimony is 
 borne, during the Neronian persecution (A. D. 95,) by Tacitus 
 Suetonius, Martial, and Juvenal : and the celebrated epistle of 
 the Younger Pliny, which was written to the emperor Trajan, 
 
20 TESTIMONIES TO THE CREDIBILITY OF 
 
 A. D. 107, together with that emperor's reply or rescript, are 
 valuable documents, corroborating the truth of the New Tes- 
 tament, inasmuch as they attest 
 
 (1.) The great progress made by the Christian Religion in a 
 short space of time. 
 
 (2.) The fortitude of the Christians in suffering, and their 
 steady perseverance in the faith of Jesus Christ. 
 
 (3.) That they disowned all the Gods of the Heathens, paid 
 divine worship to their God and Saviour Jesus Christ, and de- 
 voted themselves to the practice of moral virtue. 
 
 (4.) The innocent and virtuous lives of the first Christians, 
 whose religion was their only crime. 
 
 Further, Celsus ridicules the Christians for their worship of 
 Christ, and attests the gradual increase of their numbers. He 
 also acknowledges that there were modest, temperate, and in- 
 telligent persons among them ; and bears witness to their faith 
 in Christ. Lucian also, another bitter enemy of the Christian 
 Faith, has borne testimony to its principal facts and doctrines, 
 as well as to the upright character of the Christians : and their 
 fortitude and constancy under persecution are referred to by 
 the philosopher Epictetus (A.D. 109,) the emperor Marcus An- 
 toninus (A.D. 161,) and by Galen. (A.D. 200.) Porphyry also, 
 (A.D. 270,) and the emperor Julian (A.D. 361,) have both at- 
 tested the truth of many facts and things related in the New 
 Testament. 
 
 VI. Refutation of the Objection to the Credibility of 
 the Scripture History, which has been raised, in conse- 
 quence of the silence of profane historians to the facts 
 therein recorded. 
 
 That silence may be satisfactorily accounted for. by their 
 great ignorance of facts which occurred very long before their 
 own time, and by the peculiar contempt which several of them 
 entertained both for Jews and Christians, arising from the di- 
 versity of their customs and institutions. To these considera- 
 tions we may add— - 
 
 1. That many books of those remote ages are lost, in which 
 it is very possible that some mention might have been made of 
 these facts. 
 
 2. Some of the Roman Historians, whose works hav&come 
 down to our time, are defective. 
 
 3. That of the few remaining historians, who wrote about 
 the ages in question, most were engaged upon other subjects. 
 Besides, no profane historians, whether Jews or Gentiles, take 
 notice of all occurrences. 
 
 4. That several of the facts relating to Christ and his mira- 
 cles, coming from Jews, would be slighted as fabulous by the 
 Gentile writers, especially considering, on the one hand, how 
 common prodigies and magical stories were ; and, on the other, 
 how superstitious and credulous the Jews were reputed to be ; 
 and 
 
 5. That the first appearance of the Christian scheme would 
 
THE OLD AND N£',\ TESTAMENTS. £l 
 
 shock them, as seeming so improbable, and so contrary to their 
 received maxims, that it cannot excite surprise, that many of 
 them ?,ared but little to inquire into the evidences and facts re- 
 lating to Christianity. Many, however, who did inquire, doubt- 
 less became Christians ; their testimony therefore is not to be 
 reckoned in this place. 
 
 § 3. — Collateral Testimonies to the Truth of the Facts recorded in the 
 Scriptures, from ancient Coins, Medals, and Marbles. 
 
 These are confessedly among the most important proofs 
 of ancient history in general ; and the confirmation which 
 they afford of many particulars recorded in the Scrip- 
 tures, is not less important and decisive than the series of 
 evidence, furnished by profane historians in the preceding 
 sections. Thus, 
 
 L The Mosaic Narrative of the Deluge 
 
 Is confirmed by a coin, struck at Apamea in the reign of Philip 
 the elder ; which commemorates the sending forth of the dove 
 by Noah. (Gen. viii. 7—11.) On one of the front pannels of 
 the chest or ark, which is represented on the reverse of this 
 medal, is the word NOE in ancient Greek characters. 
 
 II. The account of Pharaoh-Necho's war against 
 the Jews and Babylonians, which is related in 2 Chron, 
 xxxv. 20 — 24, and xxxvi. 1 — 4, 
 
 Is confirmed by Herodotus, (Hist. lib. ii. c. 159,) and especially 
 by the discoveries of the late Mr. Belzoni, in the tombs of the 
 Egyptian sovereigns. (See his Narrative of Operations in 
 Egypt, &.c. pp. 242, 243. 4to. edit- and Nos. 4, 5, and 6, of his 
 
 folio Atlas of Plates.) 
 
 III. The Invasion of the Kingdom of Israel, by Shal- 
 maneser, King of Assyria, and the carrying of the ten 
 tribes into captivity, which are narrated in 2 Kings, xvii. 
 6, and xviii. 10, 
 
 Are confirmed by certain ancient sculptures on the mountains 
 of Be-Sitoon, near the borders of the ancient Assyria, which 
 are described in Sir Robert Ker Porter's Travels in Georgia, 
 Persia, &c. vol. ii. pp. 154—162. 
 
 IV. Acts xiii.. 7, is confirmed by a coin, proving that 
 tlu island of Cyprus was at that time under the govern- 
 ment of a proconsul. 
 
JJ2 TESTIMONIES TO THE CREDIBILITY OF 
 
 On this coin the same title ANGYIIATOS, or Deputy, is given 
 to Proclus, which St. Paul gave to his predecessor, Sergius 
 Paulus. 
 
 V. In Acts xvi. 11, 1*2, the evangelist Luke says, 
 
 " We came to Philippi, which is the chief city 
 
 of that part of Macedonia, and a colony," — This pas- 
 sage may more correctly be rendered — " Philippi, a 
 city of the first part of Macedonia, or of Macedonia 
 Prima" 
 
 The province of Macedonia had undergone various changes, 
 and had been divided into various portions, particularly into 
 four, while under the Roman government. Many medals of 
 the first province, or Macedonia Prima, are extant, with the 
 inscription MAKEAONQN IIPQTH2, or the " 'first part of Ma- 
 cedonia" which confirm the accuracy of Luke, and show his 
 attention to the minutest particulars. Further, by using the 
 term KOAQN1A, (which was originally a Latin word, Colonia,) 
 instead of the corresponding Greek word SuroiKia, the historian 
 plainly intimates that it was a Roman colony, which the twenty- 
 first verse certainly proves it to have been. Now, among some 
 coins that have been discovered, in which it is recorded under 
 this character, there is one in particular, which explicitly states 
 that Julius Caesar himself bestowed the privileges of a Roman 
 colony on the city of Philippi, which were afterwards confirmed 
 by Augustus. 
 
 VI. In Acts xvi. 14, we read that Lydia, a dealer in 
 purple, from Thyatira, had settled at Philippi. 
 
 Now, among the ruins of Thyatira, there is an inscription 
 extant with the words 01 BA$EIE (the diers;) whence we learn 
 that the art and trade of dying purple were carried on in that 
 city. 
 
 VII. In Acts xvii. 23, Paul relates his having found 
 an altar at Athens, with the inscription ArNQETQ 0E12, 
 to the unknown god. 
 
 We know from the testimony of Lucian, that there was such 
 an inscription : and the occasion of this altar being erected, in 
 common with many others bearing the same inscription, is 
 related at length by Diogenes Laertius (in Epimenide, lib. i. c. 
 x. § 3.) 
 
 VIII. In Acts xix. 35, the word NEQKOPON (in 
 the English version rendered a worshipper) is very em~ 
 phatic. 
 
 It properly signifies r person dedicated to the service of some 
 
THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. %$ 
 
 god or goddess, whose peculiar office it was to attend the tem- 
 ple, and see that it was kept clean. At length the NEftK OPOI 
 became persons of great consequence, and were those who of- 
 fered sacrifices for the life of the emperor. Whole cities took 
 this appellation, as appears on many ancient coins and medals. 
 Ephesus is supposed to have been the first which assumed this 
 title ; and there is a medal extant, in which it is given to that 
 city. 
 
 IX, The Triumphal Arch erected at Rome in honour 
 of Titus, (whereon are represented certain vessels used 
 by the Jews in their religious worship, agreeably to the 
 statements in the Old Testament,*) is an evidence to the 
 truth of the historic accounts, which describe the dissolu- 
 tion of the Jewish State and Government, and relate the 
 conquest of Jerusalem. 
 
 Further, there are extant numerous medals of Judaea 
 vanquished, struck by order of the Roman general Titus, 
 (who was afterwards emperor,) in order to commemorate 
 the conquest of Judaea and the subversion of the Jewish 
 state and polity. 
 
 The following representation of the reverse of one of 
 these is given from the original very rare coin, preserved 
 in the cabinet of the British Museum. 
 
 It represents the conquered country as a desolate female 
 sitting under a tree, and affords an extraordinary fulfilment 
 of Isaiah's prediction (iii. 26. She being desolate shall 
 sit upon the ground,) delivered at least eight hundred 
 year? before, as well as a striking illustration of the La- 
 mentations of Jeremiah (ch. i. ver. 1.) Mow doth the 
 city sit solitary, that was full of -people I How is she 
 
 * The vignettes, given in the subsequent part of this volume, are copied 
 from this arch. 
 
24 WVIKS AlTIIORITY GF 
 
 become as a widow ! she that was great among the 
 nations, princess among the provinces, how is she 6e« 
 come tributary ! 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 ALL THE BOOKS OP THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS ARE OP DIVINE AUTHORITY, 
 AND THE1B AUTHORS ARE DIVINELY INSPIRED. 
 
 Section I. — Preliminary Observations. 
 
 I. Inspiration defined. 
 
 It is the imparting of such a degree of divine influence, 
 assistance, or guidance, as enabled the authors of the seve- 
 ral Books of Scripture to communicate religious knowledge 
 to others, without error or mistake. 
 
 II. Such Inspiration is both reasonable and neces- 
 sary. 
 
 1. It is reasonable that the sentiments and doctrines, 
 delivered in the scriptures, should be suggested to the 
 minds of the writers by the Supreme Being himself; since 
 they relate to matters, concerning which the communica- 
 tion of information to men is worthy of God. 
 
 2. Further, Inspiration is necessary; for, 
 
 (1.) Some past facts are related in the Bible, which could not 
 possibly have been known, had not God revealed them. 
 
 (2.) Some events are predicted, which God alone could fore- 
 know. 
 
 (3.) Other things also are contained in the Scriptures which 
 are far above the capacity of man. 
 
 (4.) The authoritative language of Scripture argues the ne- 
 cessity of inspiration, admitting the veracity of the writers. 
 They do not present us with their own thoughts, but exclaim, 
 ' Thus saith the Lord;" and on that ground they demand our 
 assent. 
 
 III. The Scriptures could not have been the invention 
 of men. Wicked men would not have produced books 
 which condemn every thing that is unholy, even if they 
 were capable of doing so ; and good men could not de- 
 ceive. 
 
 IV. Criteria of Inspiration. 
 
 These are twofold, viz. Miracles and Prophecy. 
 
 \ 
 
THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 25 
 
 To these may be added other internal evidences foi 
 the divine inspiration of the Scriptures ; viz. 
 
 The sublime doctrines and precepts which they con 
 tain; 
 
 The harmony and connexion subsisting between tlieh 
 various parts ; 
 
 The miraculous preservation of the Scriptures ; and 
 
 Their tendency to promote the present and eternal 
 happiness of mankind, as evinced by the blessed effects 
 which are invariably produced by a cordial belief of the 
 doctrines of the Bible. 
 
 Section II— The Miracles, related in the Old and New Testaments, a*« 
 Proofs, that the Scriptures were given by Inspiration of God. 
 
 I. A Miracle defined. 
 
 A Miracle is an effect or event, contrary to the esta 
 blished constitution or course of things ; or, a sensible sus- 
 pension or controlment of, or deviation from, the known 
 laws of nature, wrought either by the immediate act, or 
 by the assistance or by the permission of God, and ac- 
 companied with a previous notice or declaration that it is 
 performed according to the purpose and power of God, 
 for the proof or evidence of some particular doctrine, or 
 in attestation of the authority or divine mission of some 
 particular person. 
 
 Nature is the assemblage of created beings : these beings act 
 upon each other, or by each other, agreeably to certain laws, 
 the result of which is, what we call the course or order of na- 
 ture. These laws are invariable : it is by them God governs the 
 world. He alone established them ; He alone therefore can 
 suspend them. Effects, which are produced by the regular 
 operation of these laws, or which are conformable to the esta- 
 blished course of events, are said to be natural; and every 
 palpable deviation from the constitution of the natural system, 
 ana the correspondent course of events in that system, is called 
 a miracle. 
 
 II. Nature of the evidence arising from Miracles. 
 Objection. — Miracles are beyond comprehension, and 
 
 therefore are contrary to reason. 
 
 Answer.— This is by no means the case : for the possibility 
 of miracles is not contrary to reason. Every thing we see, in- 
 deed, is in one sense a miracle. How many of the most com- 
 
20 tlVINE AUTHORITY OF 
 
 mon phenomena m nature are beyond our comprehension ! 
 And yet, notwithstanding we cannot comprehend or solve the 
 most common of these pnenomena, they make no impression 
 on us, because they are common, because they happen accord- 
 ing to a stated course, and are seen every day. If they were 
 out of the common course of nature, though in themselves not 
 more difficult to comprehend, they would still appear more 
 wonderful to us, and more immediately the work of God. 
 Thus, when we see a child grow into a man, and, when the 
 breath has left the body, turn to corruption, we are not in the 
 least surprised, because we see it every day: but were we to 
 see a man restored from sickness to health by a word, or raised 
 to life from the dead by a mere command, though these things 
 are not really more unaccountable, yet we call the uncommon 
 event a miracle, merely because it is uncommon. We acknow- 
 ledge, however, that both are produced by God, because it is 
 evident that no other power can produce them. 
 
 Such, then, is the nature of the evidence which arises 
 from miracles : and we have no more reason to disbe- 
 lieve them, when well attested, and not repugnant to the 
 goodness or justice of God, only because they were per- 
 formed several ages ago, than we have to disbelieve the 
 more ordinary occurrences of Providence which passed 
 before our own time, because the same occurrences may 
 never happen again during our lives. The ordinary 
 course of nature proves the being and providence of God ; 
 these extraordinary acts of power prove the divine com- 
 mission of that person who performs them. 
 
 III. Design of Miracles. 
 
 This is, not to prove the great doctrines and duties of na- 
 tural religion, but to prove new revealed doctrines, which 
 neither were nor could be known to the reason of man 
 Consequently, believers in the Bible do not argue in a cir- 
 cle (as some modern objectors have asserted,) proving the 
 doctrines first by the miracles, and then the miracles by 
 the doctrines : because the doctrines which they prove by 
 miracles, and the doctrines by which they try them, are 
 not the same doctrines. 
 
 No miracles are related in the Scriptures to have been 
 wrought in confirmation of falsehoods ; yet this has been 
 objected in the cases of the Egyptian Magicians, the Witch 
 of Endor, and Satan in the time of Christ's temptation 
 But this objection is utterly destitute of foundation : for, 
 
 1. The Magicians did not perform any miracle. All they 
 did,— as the .narrative of Moses expressly states,— was to busy 
 
OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 27 
 
 themselves in their enchantments ; by which, every man knows, 
 miracles cannot be accomplished. 
 
 2. The Witch of Endor neither wrought nor expected to 
 work any miracle, being herself terrified at the appearance of 
 Samuel, who was sent by God himself. 
 
 3. There was nothing miraculous in Satan's leading Christ, 
 by his free consent, to a lofty mountain, whence he could dis- 
 cover,— not all the world, but all the four tetrarchies or king 
 doms of olxovpsvYig, that is, the land of Judaea. 
 
 The proper effect of miracles is, to mark clearly the 
 divine interposition; and the Scriptures intimate this to 
 be their design ; for both Moses and the Prophets, and Je- 
 sus Christ and his Apostles, appealed to them, in proof of 
 their divine mission. 
 
 IV. Credibility of Miracles vindicated and proved. 
 
 Whatever miracles are wrought, they arc matters of 
 fact, and capable of being proved by proper evidence, as 
 other historical facts are. The witnesses, however, must 
 be supposed to be acquainted with the course of nature so 
 as to be able to judge that the event in question was con- 
 trary to it; for an event is not miraculous merely because 
 it is to us strange or unaccountable, but because it is con- 
 trary to the known course of nature. To those who be- 
 held the miracles of Moses and Jesus Christ, the seeing 
 of those miracles was sufficient evidence of their divine 
 inspiration. But to other men, miracles, like other 
 events, admit of the evidence of testimony : the cre- 
 dibility of the witnesses therefore is the only point now to 
 be considered. 
 
 Hints for estimating the value of human testimony. 
 
 1. Any thing capable of being proved by mere testimony is 
 credible, in proportion to the opportunity which the witness 
 had of being well informed concerning it himself, and his free- 
 dom from any bias which might make him wish to impose 
 upon others. 
 
 If the person, who gives us information of any fact, appears to be a 
 competent judge of it, — and to have been in a situation in which he had 
 the best opportunity of being rightly informed, and if there be no ap- 
 pearance of its being his interest to deceive us, we give our assent, — but 
 we hesitate in proportion to the doubts we entertain on either of these 
 heads. 
 
 2. The more persons there are, who relate the same transac- 
 tion of which they are equally credible witnesses, the stronger 
 is the evidence for it. But the more persons there are, 
 through whose hands the same narration is conveyed to us. 
 the weaker is the evidence. 
 
gri DIVINE AUTHORITY OF 
 
 In the latter case the witnesses are called dependent ones ; but in the 
 former they are said to be independent. Whatever imperfection there 
 may be in any one of a number of independent witnesses, it is in part re- 
 moved by the testimony of others : but every imperfection increases in 
 proportion to the number of dependent witnesses, through whose hands 
 the story is transmitted. 
 
 3. The proper mark or criterion of a story being related by 
 a number of independent witnesses, of full credit, is their com- 
 plete agreement in the principal arguments, and their disa- 
 greement with respect to things of less consequence, or, at 
 least, variety or diversity, in their manner of relating the same 
 story. 
 
 4. We likewise distinguish respecting the nature of the fact 
 to which our assent is required. Miracles require stronger 
 testimony than common facts ; and such testimony they really 
 have. 
 
 The greater part of our knowledge has no other foundation than testi- 
 mony. Yet has it been laid down as a maxim, that no human testimony 
 is sufficient to establish the truth of a miracle. This assertion was first 
 made by the ablest and acutest of the deistical philosophers, and it has 
 commonly been accounted the strong hold of infidelity. His argument, in 
 substance, is this: — "Experience, which in some things is variable, in 
 others is uniform, is our only guide in reasoning concerning matters of 
 fact. Variable experience gives rise to probability only ; an uniform ex- 
 perience amounts to proof. Our belief of any fact from the testimony of 
 eye- witnesses is derived from no other principle, than our experience of the 
 veracity of human testimony. If the fact attested be miraculous, there 
 arises a contest of two opposite experiences, or proof against proof. Now, 
 a miracle is a violation of the laws of nature : and as a firm and unal- 
 terable experience has established these laws, the proof against a mira- 
 cle,— from the very nature of the fact, — is as complete as any argument 
 from experience can possibly be imagined : and if so, it is an undeniable 
 consequence, that it cannot be surmounted by any proof whatever, de- 
 rived from human testimony." 
 
 To this specious reasoning it may be replied, 
 
 (1.) That the evidence arising from human testimony is not 
 
 derived solely from experience : on the contrary, testimony 
 
 has a natural influence on belief. 
 
 It is therefore more consonant to truth, to say, that our diffidence in tes- 
 timony is the result of experience, than that our faith in it has this foun- 
 dation. Besides, the uniformity of experience, in favour of any fact, is not 
 a proof against its being reversed in any particular instance. The evi- 
 dence, arising from the single testimony of a m an of known veracity, 
 will go further to establish a belief of its being reversed. 
 
 (2.) What is usually called the 'course of nature' is nothing 
 but the will and pleasure of God acting continually upon mat- 
 ter, according to certain rules of uniformity, still bearing rela- 
 tion to contingencies. Now God is the governor of the moral 
 as well as of the physical world : and, since the moral well- 
 being of the universe is of more consequence than its physical 
 order and regularity, it follows, that the latter may be subser- 
 vient, and occasionally yield to the former. 
 
 (3.) The futility of this sophism may also be shown upon its 
 own avowed principles. If the secret of compounding gun- 
 
THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 29 
 
 powder had perished by the accidental death of its inventor, 
 immediately after its extraordinary powers had been exhibited 
 before a hundred competent witnesses, on the principles of the 
 sophism now before us, the fact of its extraordinary powers 
 must be rejected as a falsehood. 
 
 V. The Credibility of Miracles does not decrease with 
 the lapse of years, as the antagonists of Christianity ob- 
 ject. 
 
 There may be cases, in which crediblity vanishes with 
 time; but no testimony is really, in the nature of things, 
 rendered less credible by any other cause than the loss or 
 want of some of those conditions, which at first made it 
 rationally credible. A testimony continues equally cre- 
 dible so long as it is transmitted with all those circumstan- 
 ces and conditions, which first procured it a certain degree 
 of credit amongst men, proportionate to the intrinsic 
 value of those conditions. But the evidence in favour of 
 the facts of the Christian Religion has increased instead 
 of diminishing ; as recent inquiries of learned men have 
 produced fresh testimonies. 
 
 VI. Criteria of Miracles : — they are six in number 
 viz. : 
 
 1. A miracle should have an important end in view, 
 worthy of its author. 
 
 2. It must be instantaneously and publicly performed, 
 before credible witnesses. 
 
 3. It must be sensible and easy to be observed ; in 
 other words, the fact purporting to be miraculous must be 
 such, that the senses of mankind can clearly and fully 
 judge of it. 
 
 It ought to be independent of second causes. 
 
 Objection. — In three of his miracles (John ix. 1—7. Mark 
 viii. 23—26. Mark vii. 32— 37 J Jesus made use of external 
 applications. 
 
 Answer.— These applications were made only upon the blind 
 or the deaf; and in these cases, the reason for using them seems 
 to have been, to convey to the persons on whom the miracu- 
 lous cures were performed, a clear assurance that Jesus Christ 
 was the author of such cures. 
 
 5. Not only public monuments must be kept up, but 
 some outward actions must also be constantly performed, 
 in memory of the facts thus publicly wrought. 
 
 6. Such monuments must be set up ? and such actions 
 and observances instituted, at the very time when those 
 
 3* 
 
>#$ DIVINE AUTHORITY OF 
 
 events took place, and be afterwards continued without 
 interruption. 
 
 These two rules render it impossible that the belief of any 
 facts should be imposed upon the credulity of after ages, when 
 the generation asserted to have witnessed them had expired ; 
 for, whenever such facts come to be recounted, if not only 
 monuments are said to remain of them, but public actions and 
 observances had further been constantly used to commemorate 
 them by the nation appealed to, ever since they had taken 
 place, the deceit must be immediately detected, by no such 
 monuments appearing, and by the experience of every indi- 
 vidual, who could not but know that no such actions or ob- 
 servances had been used by them, to commemorate such 
 events. 
 
 VII. Application of these Criteria to the Miracles re- 
 lated in the Sacred Writings. 
 
 1. With regard to the miracles recorded to have been 
 wrought by Moses and Joshua : — 
 
 The posterity of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, being chosen 
 by Jehovah to be his peculiar people for the preservation of 
 true religion, the miracles performed on their behalf were un- 
 questionably worthy of their Almighty Author. These mira- 
 cles were instantaneously performed at the command of Moses, 
 and before great numbers of Egyptians or Israelites, sometimes 
 in the presence of both nations ; as in the case of the plagues, 
 and the destruction of Pharaoh's army, which were witnessed 
 by the whole people of Israel, and were felt by the Egyptians. 
 
 In commemoration of these and other miraculous occurren- 
 ces, were instituted the three great festivals of the Hebrews, 
 —the Passover, the feast of Tabernacles, and the feast of Pen- 
 tecost ; all the first born of man and beast were solemnly con- 
 secrated to God ; and the tribe of Levi was set apart, in special 
 commemoration of the destruction of the first born of the' 
 Egyptians. 
 
 The memory of the miraculous supply of the Israelites with 
 food was perpetuated by the pot of manna; and the twelve 
 stones, taken out of the midst of Jordan at the time of the 
 miraculous passage of the Israelites over that river, were set ur 
 by Joshua at Gilgal, as a perpetual memorial to them. 
 
 In all these instances, the preceding criteria are mosi 
 decisively established. 
 
 2. With respect to the miracles related in the New 
 Testament. 
 
 (1.) The number of Christ's miracles was very great. 
 
 About forty of them are narrated at length. The gospel 
 history is full of them : and one of Christ's biographers informs 
 us that he performed a greater number than are in any way 
 recorded. 
 
THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 3| 
 
 (2.) There was great variety in the miracles recorded 
 in the New Testament. 
 
 They were of a permanent nature, and might be reviewed and 
 re-examined, as in many instances they actually were. We 
 behold Christ giving sight to the born blind ; — healing the ob- 
 stinate leprosy ;— making those who wanted a limb, perfect ;— 
 those who were bowed double, straight ; — those who shook 
 with palsy, robust ;— nerving the withered arm with strength ; 
 — restoring the insane and demoniacs to reason ; — and raising 
 the dead to life. We behold the apostles also expelling de- 
 mons, restoring the lame from his birth, giving sight to the 
 blind, healing all manner of diseases, and giving life to the 
 dead. All these supernatural works were performed, not in a 
 few instances with hesitation and diffidence, but were very fre- 
 quently repeated through a series of years ; so that all suspicion 
 of human management, compact, and imposture, was for ever 
 precluded. 
 
 (3.) The design of Christ's miracles was important, 
 and worthy of their Almighty Author. 
 
 The end and purpose, for which these miracles were wrought, 
 was, to carry on one vast and consistent plan of Providence, 
 extending from the creation to the consummation of all things - 
 to establish a system of belief, hope, and practice adapted to the 
 wants and conditions of mankind; which had been revealed in 
 part to the Jews, and promised to the prophets, and which 
 tended to destroy the four great moral evils, so prevalent and 
 so pernicious, viz.— atheism, scepticism, immorality, and vice. 
 In subservience to their grand object, (the confirmation of his 
 divine mission,) the miracles of Christ were wrought for the 
 most benevolent of all purposes, — the alleviation of misery in 
 every form ; and they carry in them the characters of the 
 greatest goodness, as well as of the greatest power. 
 
 Only two of Christ's miracles bear any marks of seve- 
 rity ; viz. his suffering the demons to enter the herd of 
 swine (Matt. viii. 28 — 34. Mark v. 12 — 17.,) and his caus- 
 ing the fig-tree to wither away. 
 
 [i.] As to the destruction of the swine, though commonly 
 regarded as a miraculous work, it was in point of fact not a 
 miracle. He did not command, but only permitted, the de- 
 mons to enter the swine ; for which permission several satis- 
 factory reasons may be assigned. For, if the owners of the 
 swine were Jews, as there is every reason to believe, they were 
 justly punished for their deliberate violation of their laws. 
 which prohibited the keeping of swine : and if they were Gen- 
 tiles, Christ might have permitted the demons to enter the 
 swine, to convince them of the sanctity and divinity of the 
 Jewish laws (which they were accustomed to ridicule,) and, 
 further, it may be, to punish them for laying a snare in the way 
 of the Jews. 
 
32 DIVINE AUTHORITY OF 
 
 [il] In causing the barren fig-tree to wither away, Jesus 
 Christ neither invaded private property, nor did any injury to 
 the community at large ; but by this action he dictated an im- 
 pressive and important moral lesson both to his disciples and to 
 all mankind : viz. — That if we neglect or wilfully misemploy 
 our opportunities of improvement in religious knowledge and 
 in holiness, we must expect to be withered like the barren fig- 
 tree before the displeasure of the Lord Jesus, when he shall 
 come to judge the world. 
 
 Consider further the greatness of Christ's Miracles. 
 
 The diseases which he healed were incurable, inveterate, and 
 had baffled every attempt of art : and this greatness of Christ's 
 miracles secures them against the suspicion of imposture. Im- 
 postors usually satisfy themselves with little tricks, because 
 they are less open to suspicion, and usually gain credit. 
 
 (5.) Observe also the persons by whom these miracles 
 were accomplished. 
 
 They were wrought by persons, who were known to be poor, 
 unlearned, of low condition, and destitute of great friends and 
 powerful patrons ; who gave other proofs of their mission, and 
 did not rest the whole of rheir cause upon miracles, but like- 
 wise insisted upon the reasonableness of the doctrines which 
 they offered to examination. Further, they were offered by 
 persons, who appealed to God, and ueclared that they would 
 perform them. 
 
 (6.) The persons, before whom the miracles were 
 wrought, claim our especial notice. 
 
 They were wrought in a learned age, and before people who 
 were not easily deluded, and they were stigmatised by the 
 name of magic. 
 
 (7.) The manner too in which these miracles were per- 
 formed is equally worthy of attention for its publicity, 
 simplicity, and disinterestedness. 
 
 (8.) Another circumstance, which confirms the validity 
 and truth of these miracles, is, the effects produced by 
 them. 
 
 Numbers who were spectators of them yielded to conviction, 
 and embraced the Gospel. 
 
 (9.) Lastly, the reality of the miracles of Christ and 
 his apostles was never denied. 
 
 Both Jewish and Heathen opposers of the Christian faith 
 were constrained, however reluctantly, to admit the reality of 
 the miracles of Christ and his apostles ; though they ascribed 
 them to magic )6 and denied the divine commission of him who 
 performed them. 
 
THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 33 
 
 VIII. A brief examination of a few of the principal 
 Miracles related in the New Testament. 
 
 1. The Conversion of Water into Wine. (John ii. 1 — 10.) 
 The Jewish weddings continued seven days: during the nuptial feast, 
 from the poverty of the bridegroom and bride, or perhaps from the num- 
 ber of guests being greater than was expected, there was a deficiency of 
 wine. Jesus commanded the servants to fill the vessels with water up to 
 the brim; it was therefore impossible to mix any wine. The servants 
 alone were privy to the process ; and the governor of the feast gives his 
 attestation to the miraculous supply in so easy and natural a manner, 
 that we cannot but esteem it beyond the reach of artifice. 
 
 2. The miraculous Feeding of jive thousand men, besides 
 women and children. (Matt. xiv. 15—21. Mark vi. 35—44. 
 John vi. 5— 13.) 
 
 The orderly disposition of the multitude, in ranks by hundreds and by 
 fifties, exposed the miraculous operation to the view of all ; so that de- 
 ception was impossible. The gathering up of twelve baskets full ot frag- 
 ments is a proof that they had plenty of food ; and the circumstance of the 
 people being desirous to make Christ a King (for which he rebuked them 
 on the following day,) is a further proof of the reality of the miracle, and 
 of the impression which it had made. 
 
 3. The Healing of the Paralytic. (Matt. ix. 2—8. Mark ii. 
 4-12. Luke 5. 18-26.) 
 
 This miracle was wrought in the presence of many witnesses, some of 
 whom were enemies to Jesus Christ. The manner in which the sick man 
 was presented, is unparalleled, and shows the confidence which he and 
 others had in Christ's power of healing him. The manner, too, in which 
 Christ addressed him, is still more striking, beginning with the remission 
 of his sins, without saying any thing concerning his malady. 
 
 4. The giving of Sight to a man who had been born blind, 
 (John ix. 1—7. 
 
 There are many remarkable circumstances in this miracle. The man 
 had not become blind by any accident, which admits of relief. He was 
 born blind. He did not ask to be restored to sight : thus there was no 
 room for suspicion on his part. 
 
 The question, proposed by the disciples (John ix. 1, 2,) proves that the 
 man's blindness was from his birth ; but the answer was so little in uni- 
 son with their notions, that it never could have entered their minds if 
 they had not heard it from Jesus. The mcde employed for giving this 
 man sight, was utterly inadequate to produce the effect which followed. 
 Lastly, the miracle was performed in public, and immediately subjected 
 to the strictest possible scrutiny. 
 
 5. The Cure, by Peter and John, of a man who had been 
 Lame from his Birth (Acts iii. 1—10,) is equally remarkable. 
 
 The man's person and lameness were universally known in Jerusalem ; 
 a perfect cure was instantaneously wrought ; and the transaction imme- 
 diately underwent a severe examination, the effect of which was only to 
 make the miracle still more widely known. 
 
 6. The Raising of the Daughter of Jairus to life. (Matt. ix. 
 18.-26. Mark v. 22-43. Luke viii. 41-56.) 
 
 Though all the circumstances in the account of this miracle have the 
 aspect of the most natural and unexpected occurrences, (which could 
 neither have been combined by human contrivance nor anticipated by 
 human foresight,) no circumstance was wanting, either to ascertain the 
 
34 DIVINE AUTHORITY OF 
 
 reality of the miracle, or without any apparent ostentation or design, to 
 give it the most unquestionable publicity. 
 
 7. The Raising of the Widow^s Son from the Dead at Nain. 
 (Luke vii. 11-15.) 
 
 The fact of the young man's death was indisputable: a considerable 
 number of her townsmen accompanied his mother who was following 
 his remains to the grave : and in their presence the miracle was instan- 
 taneously and publicly performed. 
 
 8. The Resurrection of Lazarus from the dead. (John xi.) 
 The precise time of Christ's arrival at Bethany gave his enemies an 
 opportunity of observing the transaction. u Many of the Jews had come 
 to Martha and Mary :" and the restoring of Lazarus to life has every cha- 
 racter of a miracle. For it was instantaneously and publicly performed 
 before credible witnesses ; it was independent of second causes ; and the 
 end for which it was performed, was important, for it was, to attest the 
 divine mission of the Son of God. 
 
 IX. The most remarkable of all the miracles, related 
 in the New Testament, is the resurrection of Jesus 
 Christ from the dead, and it demands a distinct examina- 
 tion. 
 
 1. As to Christ's prophetic declarations concerning his 
 death and resurrection. 
 
 Jesus repeatedly predicted the circumstances of his death and resurrec- 
 tion to his disciples. Now, when he did this, he either did or did not fore- 
 see his resurrection. If he did not foresee it, with what hopes did he 
 comfort his disciples? and why did he voluntarily offer himself to death, 
 and actually endure the ignominious death of crucifixion 1 If he did 
 foresee that he should rise again, he could not have believed it, but only 
 on the experience he had already made of his power of giving sight to the 
 blind, health to the sick, and (above all) life to the dead. His miracles 
 therefore must be true ; and, if so, he then possessed sufficient power to 
 raise himself to life. 
 
 No one can doubt that Christ foretold his resurrection, who considers 
 that it was on this very account that the chief priests and Pharisees set a 
 watch at the sepulchre. 
 
 2. Evidence of the Reality of the resurrection. 
 
 It is an indisputed fact that Jesus died upon the cross and was interred 
 In the sepulchre; at which the Jews took the precaution of placing a 
 military guard. After the resurrection, the Jews reported that the disci- 
 ples stole the body away while the guard were sleeping ; a circumstance 
 bo manifestly improbable as well as false, that Matthew, though he faith- 
 fully records the report, does not offer a syllable to refute it. 
 
 Consider further, 
 
 (1.) The terror of the timid disciples, and the paucity of their number; 
 the season, — that of the great annual festival, the Passover, when Jeru- 
 salem was full of people, and when also, it being the time of the full 
 moon, the night was very light. 
 
 (2.) Is it probable that so many men, as composed the guard, would all 
 fall asleep in the open air at once 7 
 
 (3.) If the soldiers were all asleep, they could not know what was doing 
 in the mean time; would not the noise, made in opening the sepulchre, 
 have awakened some, if not the whole of them 1 and if any of them were 
 awake, would thev not soon have alarmed the rest, and prevented such 
 an attempt? 
 
 (4.) Besides, are the appearances of composure and regularity in the 
 
THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. #5 
 
 tomb consistent with the hurry and trepidation of thieves, stealing when 
 an armed guard is at hand, and in a moonlight night. 
 
 (5.) But, observe the conduct of the rulers. Why did not they order 
 the Apostles to be seized? Why did they not command the soldiers to be 
 punished 7 Why did they not bring the whole to a judicial determination 1 
 Why is this neglect in men who had been so anxious to have a guard 
 placed upon the sepulchre'? Wiry did they never after charge the disci- 
 ples or apostles themselves with having stolen the body 1 
 
 Objection. Christ did not show himself to the Chief 
 Priests and Jews. 
 
 Answer.— For this various satisfactory reasons may be as- 
 signed. 
 
 [ *..] It is not probable that the Jews would have submitted to that evi- 
 dence. 
 
 [*»*.] If Jesus had appeared to them after his resurrection, and they had 
 acknowledged him to be the Messiah, it is most probable that the persons 
 who made this objection would not have been satisfied, but would have 
 suspected, and would have represented, the whole as an artifice and im- 
 posture. Or, it might have been said that they were haunted with spec- 
 tres, and consequently that their testimony was of no value. 
 
 [Hi.] If they had remained unconvinced, the fact would have been ques- 
 tioned : if they had been convinced, without honesty or resolution to de- 
 clare the truth, the fact would still have been doubtful ; and, if they had 
 been convinced, and had acknowledged Jesus to have been the Messiah 
 or Christ, loud would have been the clamour of a combination, and the 
 progress and prevalence of Christianity would have been ascribed to the 
 secular influence of its advocates. 
 
 3. The Character of the Witnesses also proves the 
 truth of the Resurrection of Christ. Observe, 
 
 (1.) The Condition of these witnesses. 
 
 They were mean, despised, and unlearned men, and consequently were 
 unequal, to the task of imposing upon others. 
 
 (2.) Their Number, and also the number of the different 
 appearances of Jesus Christ, which was more than sufficient to 
 establish any fact. 
 
 Seven different Jewish Wkiters have related or mentioned not fewer 
 than eleven distinct appearances of Jesus Christ at different hours of the 
 day and at different places ; and on one occasion to " above five hundred" 
 persons. 
 
 (3.) The Incredulity of the witnesses, and their slowness in 
 believing the resurrection of Christ. 
 
 (4.) The Moral Impossibility of their succeeding in palming 
 an imposition upon the world. Because, 
 
 [».] It is inconceivable that a man should willingly expose himself to 
 all sorts of punishment — even to death itself— on purpose to testify a mat- 
 ter of fact which he knew to be false. 
 
 [it.] Although there should have been one person so disposed, it cannot 
 be imagined — indeed it would be the height of absurdity to imagine, — that 
 numbers would have formed the same resolution. 
 
 [Hi.] Though a great number of persons should have agreed together to 
 attest a falsehood, yet it is incredible that they should bear witness to it, 
 who considered perfidy and lying as sins utterly inconsistent with their 
 •alvation : neither could it be supposed or expected of those, who, if they 
 allowed the resurrection of Jesus Christ to be a fiction, must also allow 
 that they had followed an imaginary Messiah. 
 
#(} DIVINE AUTHORITY OF 
 
 [iv.] Such a mutual concert or agreement could never have been so 
 carried on, but that some of them, in order to avoid punishment, or to 
 gain reward, would have disclosed the whole intrigue. 
 
 [v.] The very same principles, which had dissolved their mutual Jide- 
 lity, would more probably break off their mutual treachery. It cannot 
 reasonably be supposed that those disciples, who were scattered when 
 their master was crucified, would afterwards conspire to affirm a bold 
 and unprincipled falsehood. 
 
 (5.) Observe the Facts, which they themselves avow. 
 
 Their testimony relates to facts, in which it was impossible that they 
 could have been deceived ; such as the seeing, touching, sitting at table 
 and conversing with, their risen master. 
 
 (6.) Consider further the Agreement of their evidence. 
 
 They all unanimously deposed that Christ rose from the dead. 
 
 Observe also the Tribunals before which they gave evidence, 
 and the multitude of people by whom their testimony was scru- 
 tinised,— by Jews and heathens, philosophers and rabbis, and 
 by a vast number of persons who went annually to Jerusalem : 
 for Providence so ordered those circumstances, that the testi- 
 mony of the apostles might be unsuspected. 
 
 (8.) Take notice also of the Time, when this evidence was 
 given. 
 
 Only three days after the crucifixion, they declared that Christ was 
 risen again, as he had foretold. Would impostors act thus? 
 
 (9.) Consider likewise the Place, where the apostles bore 
 their testimony to the resurrection. 
 
 They preached a risen Saviour, in the synagogues, and in the prseto- 
 rium, at Jerusalem, the very city where he had been jgnominiously 
 crucified. 
 
 (10.) Consider the Motives, which induced the apostles to 
 publish the fact of Christ's resurrection. 
 
 It was, not to acquire fame, riches, or glory, but to found on this fact 
 a series of exhortations to repentance, faith, and holiness: — topics these 
 which were never proposed by an impostor. At the same time, they 
 lived as no impostor ever did, and were enabled to appeal to their con- 
 verts for the sanctity, justice, and unblamable tenour of their own lives. 
 
 (11.) Lastly, the Miracles performed by these witnesses in 
 the name of Jesus Christ, after the effusion of the Holy Spirit 
 on the day of Pentecost, and the success which attended their 
 preaching throughout the world, are God's testimony to the 
 fact of Christ's resurrection from the dead, as well as to their 
 veracity in proclaiming it. 
 
 On the miraculous fact of Christ's resurrection, the first 
 four of the Criteria above noticed (see p. 29. supra) are 
 most clearly to be discerned. With regard to the last two, 
 (see p. 30,) we may remark, that the Lord's Supper was 
 instituted as a perpetual memorial of the death of Jesus 
 Christ; and that the weekly festival of the Lord's Day 
 (or Sunday) commemorates the mii*culous fact of his 
 resurrection. These memorials, it nius' be observed, were 
 
THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 37 
 
 mstitated at the very time when the circumstances to 
 which they relate took place, and they have been observed 
 throughout the Christian world, in all ages, to the present 
 time. 
 
 X. A Comparison of the Scripture Miracles with pre- 
 tended Pagan and Popish Miracles. 
 
 Counterfeit miracles are no proof that the miracles, re- 
 lated in the New Testament, are not real : the more strict- 
 ly such pretended miracles are investigated, the more de- 
 fective is the evidence adduced for them. For, 
 
 1. The scene of most of them is laid in remote countries and 
 in distant ages. 
 
 2. They were performed in ages of gross ignorance, when 
 the common people were likely to be deceived, and were 
 wrought in secresy. 
 
 3. They were performed by persons of high rank, who were 
 held in the profoundest veneration by the common people, and 
 were never subjected to any scrutiny. 
 
 4. The heathen miracles were designed to support the esta- 
 blished religion, and were engrafted upon the superstitious 
 notions of the vulgar. 
 
 5. They are Hot vouched to us by any credible testimony. 
 
 6. They were not credited by the intelligent and judicious 
 even among the heathen. 
 
 The same remarks are equally applicable to the pretended 
 popish miracles. 
 
 But the contrary is the case with respect to the mira- 
 cles recorded in the Scriptures, the reality of which is 
 substantiated by the most positive and irresistible evi- 
 dence. 
 
 Section III,— On Prophecy. 
 
 I. Prophecy defined. 
 
 Prophecy is a miracle of knowledge, a declaration, or 
 description, or representation of something future, beyond 
 the power of human sagacity to discern ©r to calculate ; 
 and it is the highest evidence, that can be given, of super- 
 natural communion with the Deity, and of the truth of a 
 revelation from God. 
 
 II. Difference between the pretended predictions of 
 Heathen Oracles, and the Prophecies contained in the 
 Scriptures. 
 
 The oracles of the ancient heathens were delivered 
 either for the purpose of satisfying some trivial curiositv, 
 
 i 
 
38 DIVINE AUTHORITY- OF 
 
 or to abet the designs of some ambitious leader. They 
 uttered no spontaneous predictions. Those, who conduct- 
 ed them, threw various obstacles in the way of inquiry by 
 sacrifices, &c. Sometimes, the gods were not in a hu- 
 mour to be consulted : at other times, when no means of 
 evasion remained, the answers given were ambiguous or 
 delusive ; and whenever the oracles failed, there was al- 
 ways some subterfuge, to which the priests had recourse. 
 If an evil event took place, when an auspicious one had 
 been promised, this was ascribed to the fault of the in- 
 quirer. Something defective in the sacrifices was disco- 
 vered, when too late ; or the gods were averse to him. 
 If the contrary proved to be the case, this was ascribed to 
 the intercession of the priests. 
 
 Widely different are the prophecies contained in the 
 Scriptures: for, 
 
 1. They were delivered without solicitation, and were 
 pronounced openly before the people : and the prophet 
 knew himself to be exposed to capital punishment, if any 
 one of his predictions were to be overthrown. The 
 events foretold were often complicated and remote ; 
 depending on the arbitrary will of man, and arising from 
 a great variety of causes, which concurred to bring them 
 to pass. 
 
 2. Some were accomplished shortly after they were de- 
 livered : others somewhat later ; and others had a still 
 more distant object. But the different events foretold 
 were so connected with each other, that the most distant 
 bordered pretty nearly upon some others, the accomplish- 
 ment of which was preparatory to the fulfilment of the 
 last. The fulfilment of the first served to raise an expec- 
 tation of those which were distant, and the accomplish- 
 ment of the last served to confirm the first. 
 
 3. A large portion of the scripture-prophecies was com- 
 mitted to writing, and left open to public examination : 
 this is a test, which the spurious predictions of the hea- 
 thens could never endure. 
 
 III. The Use and Intent of Prophecy was, — to raise 
 expectation, and to soothe the mind with hope ; to main- 
 tain the faith of a particular providence, and the assurance 
 of a promised Redeemer ; and to attest the divine inspi 
 ration of the Scriptures. 
 
THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENT. 39 
 
 IV. Of the chain of Prophecy. 
 
 The scripture-prophecies respect contingencies too won- 
 derful for the powers of man to conjecture or to effect. 
 Many of those, which are found in the Old Testament, 
 foretold unexpected changes in the distribution of earthly 
 power : and, whether they announced the fall of nourish - 
 ing cities, or the ruin of mighty empires, the event has 
 minutely corresponded with the prediction. These pro- 
 phecies form a regular chain or system, which may be re- 
 duced to four classes, viz. 
 
 1. Prophecies relating to the Jewish Nation in par- 
 ticular. 
 
 2. Prophecies relating to the neighbouring nations or 
 empires. 
 
 3. Prophecies directly announcing the Messiah. 
 
 4. Prophecies delivered by Jesus Christ and his 
 apostles. 
 
 Class I. — Prophecies relating to the Jewish Nation in particular. 
 
 1. Predictions concerning the Posterity of Abraham, 
 Gen. xii. 1. xlvi. 3. ; Exod. xxxii. 13. Gen. xiii. 16. 
 
 xv. 5. xvii. 2. 4 — 6. xxii. 17. xxvii. 4. xxviii. 14. xxxii. 
 
 12. xxxv. 11. 
 
 See the fulfilment of these predictions, as it respects the Jews (to omit 
 the increase of Abraham's other posterity,) in Exod. i. 7. 9. 12. Numb, 
 xxiii. 10. Deut. i. 10. x. 22. Ezek. xvi. 7. Heb. vi. 12. In less than 
 five hundred years after the first of the above predictions was delivered, 
 the number of the Israelites amounted to six hundred thousand men, be- 
 sides women and children. 
 
 2. Prophecies concerning Ishmael, — Compare Gen. 
 xvi. 10—12. xvii. 20, and xxv. 12—18. 
 
 From him descended the various tribes of Arabs, whose numbers and 
 manner of living have ever since been, and to this very day are, a verifi- 
 cation of the predictions respecting them. 
 
 3. It was foretold that the Posterity of Abraham^ 
 
 Isaac, and Jacob, should possess the land of Canaan : so 
 
 that, though they should be expelled thence for their sins, 
 
 yet their title should endure, and they should be resettled 
 
 in it, and there continue in peace to the end of the world. 
 
 (See Gen. xii. 7. xiii. 14, 15. 17. xv. 18—21. Exod. 
 
 iii. 8. 17. Gen. xvii. 7, 8.) 
 
 Accordingly, the Jews enjoyed this land for above a thousand years : 
 and when the two tribes of Judah and Benjamin were carried into captt* 
 
40 DIVINE AUTHORITY OF 
 
 vity, it was announced that it should be for seventy years: which the 
 event proved to be true, and they continued in possession of Canaan, for 
 six hundred years, until the final subversion of their polity by Titus. Al- 
 though the ten tribes carried captive by Shalmaneser, and the body of tha 
 two tribes who were carried into captivity by Titus, are not now in Ca- 
 naan ; yet since the time of their final restoration has not arrived, this is 
 no objection against these ancient prophecies, but a fulfilment of others: 
 besides we have reason to believe that the Jews will ultimately be restor- 
 ed to their native country. 
 
 4. The twenty-eighth chapter of Deuteronomy contains 
 most striking Predictions concerning the Jews, which 
 have literally been fulfilled during their subjection to the 
 Chaldaeans and Romans, and in later times in all nations 
 where they have been dispersed. To specify a very few 
 particulars: — 
 
 (1.) Moses foretold that their enemies would besiege 
 and take their cities : 
 
 This prophecy was fulfilled by Shishak King of Egypt, Shalmaneser 
 King of Assyria, Nebuchadnezzar, Antiochus Epiphanes, Sosius and 
 Herod, and finally by Titus. 
 
 (2.) Moses foretold grievous famines during those 
 sieges, so that they should eat the flesh of their sons and 
 daughters. 
 
 This was fulfilled six hundred years after the time of Moses, among the 
 Israelites, when Samaria was besieged by the King of Assyria; again, 
 about nine hundred years after Moses among the Jews, during the siege 
 of Jerusalem before the Babylonish captivity; and, finally, fifteen hun- 
 dred years after his time, during the siege of Jerusalem by the Romans. 
 
 (3.) Moses predicted that the Jews should he few in 
 
 number. 
 
 This was literally fulfilled by immense numbers perishing by famine 
 during the last siege of Jerusalem, after which many thousands were 
 sold ; and also after their final overthrow by Hadrian, when many thou- 
 sands were sold, and those for whom purchasers could not be found (Mo- 
 ses had foretold that no man would buy them) were transported into Egypt, 
 where very many perished by shipwreck or famine ; and others were mas- 
 sacred. Yet notwithstanding all their miseries and oppressions, they still 
 continue a separate people, and have become "an astonishment and a 
 bye-word among the nations." 
 
 5. Josiah was prophetically announced by name, 
 (1 Kings xiii. 2,) three hundred and sixty-one years be- 
 fore the event. 
 
 The fulfilment of this prophecy was remarkable, plainly showing it to 
 be, not from man, but from God. (2 Kings xxxiii. 15.) 
 
 6. The utter Subversion of Idolatry among the Jews, 
 foretold by Isaiah (ii. 18 — 21,) was fulfil ed after their 
 return from the Babylonish Captivity. 
 
 The calamities, denounced against them by the same prophet, on ac 
 count of their wickedness, within two hundred years afterwards overtook 
 
THE QLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 41 
 
 them. (Isa. iii. 1 — 14, compared with 3 Chron. xxxvi.) And, on the 
 capture of Jerusalem try the Chaldeans, a few poor people were left to 
 till the land, as Isaiah had prophesied. (Isa. xxiv. 13, 14, compared with 
 Jer. xxxix. 10.) 
 
 7. Jeremiah foretold the Conquests of Nebuchadnezzar, 
 and the consequent captivity of the Jews. 
 
 These were literally accomplished. Compare Jer. xxvii. 3—7, with 
 xxxix. 11—14- And although the predictions of Jeremiah and Ezekiel 
 concerning Zedekiah appeared to contradict each other, both were ful- 
 filled in the event; Zedekiah seeing the King of Babylon at Jerusalem, 
 who commanded his eyes to be put out, and being carried to Babylon 
 where he died. 
 
 8. While Ezekiel was a captive in Chaldaaa, he pro- 
 phesied (v. 12, and viii.) that the Jews, who remained in 
 Judaea, should be punished for their wickedness. In a 
 very few years all the evils predicted, literally came upon 
 them by the Chaldaeans. 
 
 9. The profanation of the temple by Antiochus Epi- 
 phanes, was foretold by Daniel (viii.) four hundred and 
 eight years before the accomplishment of the prediction. 
 The same prophet also foretold the destruction of Jeru- 
 salem, and the cessation of the Jewish sacrifices and 
 oblations. 
 
 10. Hosea foretold the present state of the people of 
 Israel in these words — " They shall be wanderers among 
 the nations." (12. 17.) 
 
 Class II. — Prophecies relating to the Nations or Empires that were neigh- 
 bouring to the Jews. 
 
 1. The once prosperous city of Tyre, as Ezekiel had 
 foretold, (xxvi. 3 — 5. 14. 21,) is now become like " the top 
 of a rock, a place for fishers to dry their nets on." 
 
 2. The prophecies concerning Egypt, (see Isai. xix. 
 Jer. xliii. 8 — 13, and xlvi. ; and Ezek. xxix. — xxxii., par- 
 ticularly Ezek. xxix. 10. 15, and xxx. 6. 12. 13,) have 
 been signally fulfilled. 
 
 Not long after these predictions were delivered, this country was suc- 
 cessively attacked and conquered by the Babylonians and Persians; next 
 It became subject to the Macedonians, then to the Romans, after them to 
 the Saracens, then to the Mamelukes, and is now a province of the Turk- 
 ish empire. And the denunciation — " I will make her rivers dry," is ful- 
 filled by the generally neglected state of the numerous canals with which 
 Egypt was anciently intersected. 
 
 2. The doom of Ethiopia was foretold by Isaiah, 
 
42 DIVINE AUTHORITY OF 
 
 (xviii. 1 — 6, xx. 3 — 5, and xliii. 3,) and by Ezekiel, 
 (xxx. 4 — 6.) 
 
 This country was invaded by Sennacherib, King of Assyria, or by Esar- 
 haddon his son, and also by Cambyses, King of Persia. About the time 
 of Christ's birth, it was ravaged by the Romans, and has since been ra- 
 vaged successively by the Saracens, Turks, and Giagas. 
 
 4. Such an " utter end" has been made of Nineveh, 
 agreeably to the predictions of Nahum, (i. 8, 9. ii. 8 — 13> 
 iii. 17 — 19,) and Zephaniah, (ii. 13. 15,) that its very site 
 cannot be ascertained. 
 
 5. Babylon is made " a desolation forever," as Isaiah 
 
 (xiii. 4. 19—22. xliv. 27,) and Jeremiah (1. 38. Ii. 7. 36, 
 
 37. 64,] had severally foretold. 
 
 This city was taken, when Belshazzar and his thousand princes were 
 drunk at a great feast, after Cyrus had turned the course of the Euphrates, 
 which ran through the midst of it, and so drained its waters that the river 
 became easily fordable for his soldiers to enter the city. Its site cannot 
 now be exactly determined. 
 
 6. Daniel predicted the overthrow in succession of the 
 four great Empires of antiquity ; the Babylonian, Per- 
 sian, Grecian, and Roman. (Dan. ii. 39, 40. vii. 17 — 24 
 viii.) This prediction has literally been fulfilled : but 
 neither the rise of the last three, nor their fall, could have 
 been foreseen by men. 
 
 Class III. Prophecies directly announcing the Messiah. 
 
 The great object of the prophecies of the Old Testa- 
 ment is the redemption of mankind. This, as soon as 
 Adam's fall had made it necessary, the mercy of God was 
 pleased to foretel. And as the time for its accomplish- 
 ment drew near, the predictions concerning it gradually 
 became so clear, that almost every circumstance in the 
 life and character of the most extraordinary personage, 
 that ever appeared among men, was most distinctly fore- 
 told. 
 
 The prophecies announcing the Messiah are numerous, 
 pointed, and particular. They not only foretel that a 
 Messiah should come ; but they also specify the precise 
 Time when he was to come; the Dignity of his Cha- 
 racter, that he should be God and man together ; from 
 whom he was to be descended ; the Place where he was 
 to be born ; the circumstances of his Birth, Manner of 
 
THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 43 
 
 Life and Doctrine, his sufferings and Death ; Resurrec- 
 tion and Ascension ; and the Abolition of the Jewish Co- 
 venant by the introduction of the Gospel. — See a Table 
 of the Principal Prophecies relative to the Messiah, in the 
 Appendix, No. VII. 
 
 The connexion of the predictions belonging to the Mes- 
 siah, with those which are confined to the Jewish people, 
 gives additional force to the argument from prophecy ; 
 affording a strong proof of the intimate union which sub- 
 sists between the two dispensations of Moses and of Jesus 
 Christ, and equally precluding the artful pretensions of 
 human imposture, and the daring opposition of human 
 power. The plan of prophecy was so wisely constituted, 
 that the passions and prejudices of the Jews, instead of 
 frustrating, fulfilled it, and rendered the person whom they 
 regarded, the suffering and crucified Saviour, who had 
 been promised. It is worthy of remark, that most of these 
 predictions were delivered nearly, and some of them more 
 than three thousand years ago. Anyone of them is sufficient 
 to indicate a prescience more than human ; but the col- 
 lective force of all taken together is such, that nothing 
 more can be necessary to prove the interposition of Om 
 niscience, than the establishment of their authenticity. 
 And this, even at so remote a period as the present, we 
 have already seen, is placed beyond all doubt. 
 
 Class IV.— Prophecies by Jesus Christ and his Apostles. 
 Jesus Christ foretold, 
 
 1. The Circumstances of Ms own death ; Matt. xvi. 21. 
 Mark x. 33, 34. Matt. xx. 18, 19. xxvi. 23. 31, all which were 
 most minutely accomplished. 
 
 2. His Resurrection; Matt. xvi. 21. xxvi. 32, fulfilled in 
 
 Matt, xxviii. 
 
 3. The Descent of the Holy Spirit; Luke xxiv. 49, Mark 
 xvi. 17, 18, fulfilled in Acts ii. 
 
 4. The Destruction of Jerusalem with all its preceding signs 
 and its concomitant circumstances ; (Matt. xxiv. 1 — 28. Mark 
 xiii. 1—23. Luke xxi. 5—24,) and the very generation that 
 heard the prediction lived to be the miserable witnesses of its 
 accomplishment. 
 
 5. The Spread of Christianity ; and both sacred and profane 
 historians bear testimony to the rapid propagation of the 
 Gospel. 
 
44 DIVINE AUTHORITY OF 
 
 The character of the age, in which the Christian Faith was 
 first propagated, must be considered. 
 
 It was not barbarous and uncivilized, but was remarkable 
 for those improvements by which the human faculties were 
 strengthened. 
 
 The profession of Christianity was followed by no worldly 
 advantage, but, on the contrary, with proscriptions and perse- 
 cutions. 
 
 Sceptics, particularly Mr. Gibbon, have endeavoured to 
 account for the miraculous success of Christianity from 
 causes merely human, viz. 
 
 (1.) The inflexible and intolerant Zeal of the first 
 Christians, 
 
 This indeed might supply Christians with that fortitude which 
 should keep them firm to their principles : but it could hardly 
 be of service in converting infidels. No intolerance, however, 
 existed among the primitive Christians ; but, on the contrary, 
 among their heathen persecutors. 
 
 (2.) The Doctrine of a Future Life. 
 
 The success which attended the preaching of this doctrine, 
 was owing rather to the demonstration of the spirit and of the 
 power that accompanied it, than to the doctrine itself, which 
 was by no means suited either to the expectations or the wishes 
 of the Pagans in general. Men must have believed the Gos- 
 pel, generally, before they believed the doctrine of a future life 
 on its authority. 
 
 (3.) The Miraculous Poioers ascribed to the Primitive 
 Church. 
 
 The actual possession of such powers by the apostles and 
 first preachers of Christianity has already been proved. But 
 when the numerous pretended miracles ascribed to the popular 
 deities of the heathen, and the contempt in which they were 
 held by the philosophers and by other thinking men, are con- 
 sidered, the miracles ascribed to the first propagators of Chris- 
 tianity, must have created a prejudice against their cause, 
 which nothing could have subdued but miracles really and 
 visibly performed. 
 
 (4.) The Virtues of the first Christians. 
 
 These Mr. Gibbon reduces to a mean and timid repentance 
 for sins, and zeal in supporting the reputation of their society. 
 But such virtues would have equally excited opposition to 
 Christianity. The infidel historian does not account for the 
 exemplary virtues of the first Christians ; whose virtues arose 
 from their faith, and not their faith from their virtues. 
 
 (5.) The Union and Discipline of the Christian Re- 
 public, as he terms the Christian Church. 
 
THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 45 
 
 But it is an incontrovertible fact, that the Gospel was propa- 
 gated, before its professors were sufficiently numerous to esta- 
 blish a discipline, or to form themselves into a society. 
 
 V. Notwithstanding the variety and force of the evi- 
 dence in favour of Christianity, its opposers continue to 
 raise a variety of objections, viz. 
 
 Objection 1. — The rejection of Christianity by the 
 unbelieving Jews, in the time of Christ, and also by the 
 greater part of the Gentiles. 
 
 In reply to this objection, we may 
 
 Answer 1. — As to the Jews — That the Almighty does not 
 force the judgment, and that their wickedness and strong pre- 
 judices blinded their understandings, and prevented them from 
 receiving the evidences of the Gospel. Anger, resentment, 
 self-interest, and worldly-mindedness induced the scribes and 
 Pharisees to reject Christ and cause him to be put to death, and 
 to prevail upon the people at large to reject the Gospel. Such 
 were the principal causes of the infidelity of the Jews and of 
 their rejection of Christ at first: nor is it difficult to conceive 
 what may be the reasons of their persisting in their infidelity 
 now. For 
 
 (1.) In the first place, on the part of the Jews, most (if not 
 all) the same reasons which gave birth to their infidelity, con- 
 tinue to nourish it, particularly their obstinacy, their vain hopes 
 and expectations of worldly greatness, and the false Christs and 
 false prophets who at different times have risen up among 
 them. To which may be added their want of charitableness 
 towards Christians, and their continuing to live insulated from 
 the rest of mankind. 
 
 (2.) Secondly, on the part of the world, the obstacles are, 
 the prevalence of Mohammedism, and other false religions, the 
 schisms of Christians, the unholy lives of many nominal Chris- 
 tians, and the cruelties, which have at various times been in- 
 flicted on this unhappy people. So far, however, is the infi- 
 delity of the Jews from being an objection to the truth of the 
 Gospel, that, on the contrary, it affords us a great number of 
 unsuspected witnesses to the truth of the Old Testament : and 
 many predictions of Moses and the prophets, of Christ and his 
 apostles, are remarkably fulfilled, It is also a great advantage 
 to the Christian Religion, to have been first preached and 
 propagated in a nation of unbelievers : for nothing but divine 
 truth could have stood the trial, and triumphed over all oppo- 
 sition. 
 
 Answer 2. — With regard to the rejection of the Gospel by 
 the Gentiles, many of the preceding observations on the infi- 
 delity of the Jews are equally applicable to them. Both Jews 
 and Gentiles were influenced by the prejudices of education, — 
 by hatred of the pure morality of the Gospel,— by the temporal 
 inconveniences which attended the profession of Christianity, 
 and the temporal advantages to be obtained by rejecting or 
 opposing it,— by the mean appearance, which Christ had made 
 
46 DIVINE AUTHORITY OP 
 
 in the world, — and by his ignominious death, which they knew 
 not how to reconcile with the divine power ascribed to him by 
 his disciples. 
 
 The Gentiles also had other causes of unbelief peculiar to 
 themselves, viz. the high notion, entertained by them, of the 
 efficacy of magic, of charms and incantations, and of the 
 power of demons and demi-gods ;— their indifference about, reli- 
 gion in genera], — the utter incompatibility of Christianity with 
 the established worship of their several countries, — the bad 
 opinion which they had of the Jews in general, of whom Chris- 
 tians were for some time accounted to be a sect, — the false doc- 
 trines and crimes of heretical teachers and vicious professors 
 of Christianity, — and lastly, the antiquity of paganism. 
 
 Objection 2. — The prevalence of Mohammedism over 
 a considerable portion of the world. 
 
 _ Answer. — The prophecies are fulfilled, when all parts of the 
 world shall have had the offer of Christianity ; but it by no 
 means follows that it shall be upheld among them by a miracle. 
 The present state of those countries, where the Koran is re- 
 ceived, is an accomplishment of prophecy ; inasmuch as it was 
 foretold that such an apostacy would take place. The rapid 
 progress of Mohammedism is not to be compared with the 
 propagation of Christianity, for Mohammed came into the 
 world at a time exactly suited to his purposes, when its policy 
 and civil state were favourable to a new and ambitious con- 
 queror: and he availed himself of every means, especially 
 force of arms, to promote the diffusion of his pretended reve- 
 lation. 
 
 Objection 3. — Christianity is known only to a small 
 portion of mankind. 
 
 Answer.— For one who professes deism, we shall find in the 
 world one thousand who profess Christianity. 
 
 The partial propagation of the Gospel, with the other objec- 
 tions brought against Christianity, having rendered its divine 
 original a matter of dispute, the tendency of these disputes has 
 been to separate the wheat from the chaff, and to make Chris- 
 tians draw their religion from the Scriptures alone. 
 
 The not having more evidence for the truth of the Gospel is 
 not a sufficient reason for rejecting that which "we already have. 
 If such evidence were irresistible, it would restrain the volun- 
 tary powers too much, to answer the purpose of trial and pro 
 bation. "Men's moral probation maybe, whether they will 
 take due care to inform themselves by impartial consideration ; 
 and afterwards, whether they will act as the case requires, upon 
 the evidence they have." Further, if the evidence of the 
 Gospel were irresistible, it would leave no room for internal 
 evidence. They who sincerely act ? or endeavour to act accord- 
 ing to the just result of the probabilities in natural and reveal- 
 ed religion, seldom fail of proceeding further ; while those, 
 who act in a contrary manner, necessarily fail to perceive the 
 force of the evidences for the truth of the Gospel. 
 
INTERNAL EVIDENCES OF THE SCRIPTURES. 47 
 
 VI. Objections have been made to the darkness and 
 uncertainty of prophecy, which have been ascribed. 
 1. To its Language ; and 2. To the Indistinctness of Us 
 Representations. 
 
 Answer I. — With regard to prophetic Language^ as pro- 
 phecy is a peculiar species of writing, it is natural to expect a 
 peculiarity in the language of which it makes use. Sometimes 
 it employs plain terms, but most commonly figurative ones. It 
 has symbols of its own, which are common to all the prophets ; 
 and these symbols have their appropriate rules of interpre- 
 tation. 
 
 Answer 2. — With respect to the alleged Indistinct Repre- 
 sentations of events predicted, it should be remembered, that, 
 if some prophecies be obscure, others are clear : the latter fur- 
 nish a proof of the inspiration of the Scriptures, the former 
 contain nothing against it. Some predictions were to have 
 their accomplishment in the early ages of the church, while 
 others were designed for the benefit of those who lived in 
 after ages. 
 
 Answer 3. — Another reason for throwing a veil over the 
 face of prophecy will appear on considering the nature of the 
 subject. Some of the events predicted are of such a nature, 
 that the fate of nations depends upon them ; and they are to 
 be brought into existence by the instrumentality of men. In 
 the present form of prophecy, men are left entirely to them- 
 selves ; and they fulfil the prophecies without intending, or 
 hinking, or knowing that they do so. The accomplishment 
 strips off the veil, and then the evidence from prophecy appears 
 in all its splendour. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 INTERNAL EVIDENCES OP THE INSPIRATION OF THE SCRIPTURES. 
 
 Section I.— The System of Doctrine and the Moral Precepts, which are 
 delivered in the Scriptures, are so excellent and so perfectly holy, that 
 the Persons who published them to the World, must have derived them 
 from a purer and more exalted Source than their own Meditations. 
 
 The sacred volume opens with an account of the crea- 
 tion of the world by the Almighty, and of the formation 
 of man in a happy state of purity and innocence. In 
 this account there is nothing but what is agreeable to right 
 reason, as well as the most ancient traditions which have 
 obtained among the nations. We are further informed, 
 that man fell from that state by sinning against his Maker ; 
 and that sin brought death into the world, together with 
 all the miseries to which the human race is now obnoxious; 
 
4S INTERNAL EVIDENCES OF 
 
 but that the merciful Parent of our being, in his gieat 
 goodness and compassion, was pleased to make such reve- 
 lations and discoveries of his mercy, as laid a proper 
 foundation for the faith and hope of his offending creatures, 
 and for the exercise of religion towards him. (Gen. iii.) 
 Accordingly, the religion delivered in the Scriptures is the 
 religion of man in his lapsed state : and every one, who 
 impartially and carefully investigates and considers it, 
 will find, that one scheme of religion and of moral duty, 
 substantially the same, is carried throughout the whole, till 
 it was brought to its full perfection and accomplishment by 
 Jesus Christ. This religion may be considered principally 
 under three periods, viz. 
 
 1. The Religion of the Patriarchal Times ; 
 
 2. The Doctrines and Precepts of the Mosaic Dispen- 
 sation ; and 
 
 3. The Doctrines and Precepts of the Christian Reve- 
 --alioii. 
 
 § l.— A Concise View of the Religion of the Patriarchal Times. 
 
 The Book of Genesis exhibits to us a clear idea of the 
 P jmarchal Theology, which taught 
 
 I. Concerning the nature and attributes of God : 
 
 That He is the Creator, Governor, and Preserver of all things ; that He 
 is eternal, omniscient, true, omnipotent, holy, and just, kind, supreme, 
 merciful, long-suffering, gracious towards them that fear Him, and that 
 He is not the Author of Sin. 
 
 [I. Concerning the Worship of God: 
 
 The Patriarchs held that it was the duty of men to fear Him, to bless 
 Him for mercies received, and to supplicate Him with profound humility ; 
 that the knowledge of God is to he promoted; vows made to Him are to 
 be performed, and idolatry is to be renounced. With regard to the exter- 
 nal rites of religion, the most ancient on record is that of offering sacri- 
 fice ; and the Sabbath also appears to have been observed by the Patri- 
 archs. 
 
 III. With regard to the Moral Duties between man 
 and man : 
 
 These likewise are clearly announced, either by way of precept or by 
 example; more particularly, the duties of children to honour their 
 parents, of parents to instil religious principles into the minds of their 
 offspring, and of servants to obey their masters. Wars may be waged in 
 a good cause. Anger is sinful in the sight of God ; strifes are to be avoid- 
 ed ; murder is prohibited ; hospitality is to be exercised ; and injuries are 
 to be forgiven. Matrimony is appointed by God, from whom a virtuous 
 
THE INSPIRATION OF THE SCRIPTURES. 49 
 
 wife is to be sought by prayer ; and a wife is to be subject to her husband. 
 Children are the gift of God ; and adultery and all impurity are to be 
 avoided, 
 
 § 2.— A Summary View of the Doctrines and Precepts of the Mosaic 
 Dispensation. 
 
 The Mosaic Dispensation was substantially the same as 
 that given to the Patriarchs, but with the addition of a 
 special covenant made by the Almighty with a particular 
 people, for wise and moral purposes worthy of the Su- 
 preme Being, and beneficial in its results to the whole 
 human race. 
 
 I. In the Mosaic Law the essential Unity of God is 
 most explicitly inculcated, no less than His underived self- 
 existence, eternity, immutability, omnipotence, providence, 
 justice, mercy, and other perfections. And the same 
 sublime representations of the Divine Being and Perfec- 
 tions are made by the prophets and other inspired writers 
 among the Jews. 
 
 II. Concerning the Duty of Man towards God, — both 
 Moses and the Prophets enforce the obligation of loving 
 Him, fearing Him, believing in Him, trusting in His pro 
 mises, and obeying all His commandments ; together with 
 the duties of patience and resignation to the divine will, 
 and the internal worship of the heart. 
 
 III. The belief of a Future State, which was held by 
 the Patriarchs, (though not explicitly taught by Moses, 
 whose writings pre-suppose it as a generally adopted arti- 
 cle of religion,) was transmitted from them to the Israel- 
 ites, and appears in various parts of the Old Testament. 
 
 The Book of Job is very explicit on this subject ; David has spoken of 
 it with great confidence, particularly in Psalms xxi. xxxvi. xlix. lxxiii. 
 and cxxxix. ; and Solomon expressly alludes to it in Proverbs v. 21 — 23. 
 xiv. 32, and Eccles. iii. 16, 17, and viii. 11. 13. This doctrine is also incul- 
 cated, and pre-supposed as a matter of popular belief, by the prophets 
 Isaiah (xiv. 19. xxvi. 19 — 21,) Hosea (xiii. 14,) Amos (iv. 12, 13.) ana 
 Daniel (viii. 9—14. xii. 1—3.) 
 
 IV. The Expectation of a Redeemer, which bad been 
 cherished by the Patriarchs, was also kept up by various 
 predictions, delivered by Moses and the prophets. 
 
 V. The Morality of the Jewish Code exhibits a per- 
 fection and beauty in no respect inferior to its religious 
 doctrines and duties. We owe to it the decalogue — a 
 manual of duty to God and man, so pure and comprehen- 
 
50 INTERNAL EVIDENCES OF 
 
 sive, as to be absolutely without parallel : and the sanc- 
 tions of the remaining enactments of the law are such as 
 morality possessed in no other nation. More particularly, 
 
 1. It taught humility and meekness. 
 
 2. It prohibited all uncleanness and unnatural lusts, as well as drunk- 
 enness, gluttony, and all covetous desires. 
 
 3. Our duty towards our neighbour is also cl early set forth (Lev it. xix. 
 18,; together with all the social and relative duties of life. 
 
 4. Every kind of justice was strictly required by the law of Moses. 
 Murder was forbidden by the sixth commandment, adultery by the 
 seventh, and theft by the eighth. All kinds of violence, oppression, and 
 fraud were also forbidden. 
 
 5. All hatred and malice were prohibited ; nor were kind offices to be 
 confined to brethren and friends ; they were also to be performed to ene- 
 mies and to strangers. Nay, mercy was to be extended even to the brute 
 creation. 
 
 VI. The Mosaic Dispensation was introductory to 
 Christianity. 
 
 The Law of Moses, though not absolutely perfect, had a perfection suit- 
 ed to its kind and design. It was adapted to the genius of the people to 
 whom it was given, and calculated to keep them distinct from the rest of 
 mankind, and to prevent them from being involved in the idolatries com- 
 mon among other nations. It was at the same time ordained to pre-sig- 
 nify good things to come, and to bear a strong attestation to the truth ot 
 the Christian Religion. 
 
 But, however excellent in itself, and admirably adapted 
 to the purposes for which it was designed, the Mosaic 
 Dispensation was only of a local and temporary nature, 
 and preparatory to that fuller manifestation of the divine 
 will, which " in the fulness of time" was to be made known 
 to the world under the Gospel Dispensation. 
 
 § 3.— A Summary View of the Doctrines and Precepts of the Gospei 
 Dispensation. 
 
 I. The whole Character and Conduct of the Founder 
 of Christianity proved him to be a divine person. Never 
 indeed was there so perfect a character, so godlike, vene- 
 rable, and amiable, and so utterly remote from that of an 
 enthusiast or an impostor. 
 
 II. The Leading Doctrines of the Gospel are worthy 
 of the character of the Almighty, and adaDted to the ne- 
 cessities of mankind. More particularly, 
 
 1. The Account of God and of his Perfections, is worthy of the highest 
 and most excellent of all beings. Of all the views of God which had 
 ever been given, none was so calculated to endear Him to us, and to in- 
 spire our hearts with confidence, as this short but interesting description, 
 of which the scheme of redemption affords a sublime illustration— "Gob 
 Is Lovb '" 
 
THE INSPIRATION OF THE SCRIPTURES. 5j 
 
 2. What men had, in all ages, wifhed for in vain — an Atonement for 
 sin, (which conscience and their natural notions of divine justice taught 
 them to be necessary)— the Sacred Books point out in the death of Jesus, 
 which, in consequence of the dignity of his person, our reason perceives 
 to have been of sufficient value to expiate the guilt of innumerable 
 millions. 
 
 3. The divine justice being satisfied, we are assured of the Forgiveness 
 of our Sins, through Jesus Christ, upon sincere repentance; and our siim 
 being forgiven, we are justified, or " accounted righteous before God, only 
 for the merit of our Lord Jesus Christ, by faith, and not for our own merits 
 or deservings." 
 
 4. In the Gospel we find the best principles of comfort and refreshment 
 to the soul, under all the calamities and afflictions of life, as well as a 
 rich magazine of all means proper for the sanctification of our souls, and 
 our most successful advances in true piety. In the Scriptures we see that 
 the Holy Spirit is ready with his mighty aids (which are promised to all 
 who humbly pray for them,) to assist, enlighten, and strengthen our spirits 
 in proportion to our sincere desires and endeavours after godliness ; and 
 there we are directed every day and at all times, to seek unto God, through 
 Christ, by fervent and believing prayer, for his guidance and protection, 
 and are assured that we shall never seek his face in vain. 
 
 5. In favour of the Immortality of the Soul, a point so important, but 
 which to the wisest of the Gentiles seemed so doubtful, the Scriptures 
 speak in the most decisive language, and hold out to the hopes and fears 
 of mankind rewards and punishments suited to their nature, and which 
 it is worthy of God to dispense. 
 
 6. Lastly, in the Gospel we see the dead both small and great restored 
 to life, and appearing before the tribunal of God, to receive a sentence, 
 " according to the deeds done in the body." The glories of heaven, which 
 are reserved " for them that love him," and the everlasting miseries, 
 which will be the terrible portion of all the wilfully impenitent workers 
 of iniquity, are disclosed in the Scriptures: which alone set forth the true 
 reason of our being in this world, viz. not for enjoyment but for trial ; not 
 to gain temporal pleasures or possessions, but that our souls may be dis- 
 ciplined and prepared for immortal honour and glory. While the divine 
 displeasure is declared against all ungodliness and unrighteousness of 
 men, and the most awful warnings are denounced against sinners, the 
 means by which they may obtain mercy are clearly displayed and offered 
 to them. 
 
 Tn all these doctrines we observe nothing low, or mean, 
 or frivolous : every one of them is grand, sublime, and 
 worthy of God ; every one of them is most deeply inte 
 resting to man ; and, altogether, they make up an infinitely 
 more consistent and rational scheme of belief, than the 
 most distinguished sages of antiquity ever did contrive, 
 or the most cunning of modern unbelievers can possibly 
 invent. 
 
 III. The Moral Precepts of the Gospel are admira- 
 bly adapted to the actual state of mankind. 
 
 1. As to the Duties between man and man, the Gospel particularly en- 
 joins integrity of conduct, charity, forgiveness of injuries. 
 
 2. It lays down the duties incumbent upon us in the several relations 
 which we sustain in civil and social life ; for instance, the mutual duties 
 of governors and subjects, masters and servants, husbands and wives, 
 parents and children. 
 
52 INTERNAL EVIDENCES OF 
 
 3. It enforces, and recommends by various considerations, the personal 
 duties of sobriety, temperance, chastity, humility, &c. ; and guards ua 
 against an immoderate passion for transient worldly riches ; while it 
 affords us the best remedies against anxious cares, excessive sorrows, and 
 desponding fears. While it enjoins trust in God, it directs us to the use 
 of all honest and proper means and industry on our parts. 
 
 4. The Holiness of the moral precepts of the Gospel is another proof of 
 its divine origin. All its precepts aim directly at the heart ; teaching us 
 to refer all our actions to the will of our Creator, and correcting all self- 
 ishness in the human character, by teaching us to have in view the hap- 
 piness of those about us. 
 
 5. The Manner in which the morality of the Gospel is delivered attests 
 Its divine origin. 
 
 Among- the heathen, no provision was made for the moral 
 instruction of the unlettered multitude : but Christ taught all 
 that would listen to him, with inimitable plainness and sim- 
 plicity, and at the same time with the most perfect modesty 
 and delicacy, blended, with the utmost boldness and integrity. 
 
 The character of Christ forms an essential part of the mo- 
 rality of the Gospel. To the morality of almost every other 
 teacher, some stain attaches: but he is charged, by no vice 
 either by friends or by enemies. In each of the four narratives 
 of his life, besides the absence of every appearance of vice, we 
 perceive traces of devotion, humility, patience, benignity, be- 
 nevolence, mildness, and prudence. In short, the New Testa- 
 ment is replete with piety and devotional virtues, which were 
 unknown to the ancient heathen moralists. 
 
 IV. Superiority of the Motives to duty presented by 
 the Gospel. 
 
 However excellent and complete a rule of moral duty may 
 be in itself, it will not and cannot answer the end proposed, un- 
 less it be enjoined by a proper authority, and enforced by the 
 most powerful motives. Now in this respect the religious and 
 moral precepts of the Gospel have an infinite advantage over 
 every other system of doctrine or of morals ; for they are urged 
 upon us as the commands of the Eternal God himself, and are 
 enforced by various motives, which are admirably adapted to 
 influence the human heart. These motives are drawn, 
 
 1. From a consideration of the Reasonableness of the Duty recom- 
 mended or enforced, or the infamy of the vice from which Christians are 
 dissuaded. See instances of this in Rom. xii. 1. Acts iv. 19. Rom. x 
 12, 13, and Phil. iv. 8. 
 
 2. The singular Favours conferred upon us by God, as in Acts iii. 26. 
 1 Cor. vi. 20. Eph. iv. 32. Tit. ii. 14. 
 
 3. The Example of Christ. Matt. xi. 29. Eph. V. 2. Rom. XV. 2, 3. 
 Phil. ii. 3—5. 1 Pet. i. 15. 
 
 4. The Sanctions of Duty which the civil relations among men have 
 received from God : as in Rom. xiii. 2. 4, 5. Eph. vi. 5—7. 9. Col. iii. 22, 
 
 5. The Regard which Christians owe to their holy profession. Eph. iv. 
 1—3. I Thess. ii. 12. Phil. i. 27. Tit. ii. 10. 
 
 6. The Acceptableness of true Repentance, and the assurance of pardon 
 to the really penitent. 
 
 7. The Divine Assistance, offered to support men in the performance 
 of their duty. John xiv. 16. 1 Cor. iii. 13. vi. 16. Luke xi. 13. 2 Cor. 
 Xiii. 14. Heb. iv. 16. 
 
 8. Our Relation to Heaven^ while upon earth. Phil. iii. 20. 1 Pet, ii. 11. 
 9.' The Rewards and Punishvtents proclaimed in the Gospel. 
 
THE INSPIRATION OF THE SCRIPTURES. 53 
 
 All these sublime lessons of morality are found in various 
 parts of the New Testament. They enrich the divine sermon 
 on the mount ; and they are contained in the excellent para- 
 bles delivered by Jesus Christ ; they are also to be found in 
 the discourses and epistles of the apostles. Wherever indeed 
 we open the Christian volume, we may find some direction, 
 which, if properly observed, would render us good neighbours, 
 good members of society, good friends, and good men. Is it 
 possible, then, to doubt the divine original of a system, which 
 furnishes such rules, and contemplates so glorious an object? 
 
 All these sublime moral precepts and motives are found 
 in various parts of the New Testament. How the writers 
 of that volume should be able to draw up a system of 
 morals, which the world, after the lapse of eighteen cen- 
 turies, cannot improve, while it perceives numberless 
 faults in those of the philosophers of India, Greece and 
 Rome, and of the opposers of revelation, is a question of 
 fact, for which the candid deist is concerned to account in 
 a rational way. The Christian is able to do it with ease 
 The Evangelists and the Apostles of Jesus Christ " spake 
 as they were moved by the Holy Spirit." 
 
 § 4. — On the Objections of Unbelievers to the Doctrines and Morality of 
 the Bible. 
 
 Objection I. — Some of the peculiar doctrines which 
 the Scriptures propound to our belief, are mysterious and 
 contrary to reason : and, where mystery begins, religion 
 ends. 
 
 Answer. — This assertion is erroneous : for nothing is so mysterious as 
 the eternity and self- existence of God ; yet, to believe that God exists, is 
 the foundation of all religion. We cannot comprehend the common ope 
 rations of nature ; and if we ascend to the higher departments of science 
 — even to the science of demonstration itself, the mathematics — we shall 
 find that mysteries exist there. 
 
 Mysteries in the Christian Religion, instead of being suspected, should 
 rather be regarded as a proof of its divine origin : for, if nothing more 
 were contained in the New Teotament than we previously knew, or 
 nothing more than we could easily comprehend, we might justly doubt 
 if it came from God, and whether it was not rather a work of man's 
 device. 
 
 Further, the mysteries which appear most contrary to reason, are closely 
 connected with the truths and facts of which reason is convinced. 
 
 Though some of the truths revealed in the Scriptures are mysterious, 
 yet the tendency of the most exalted of its mysteries, is practical. If, for 
 instance, we cannot explain the influences of the Spirit, happy will it be 
 for us, nevertheless, if we experience that the " fruits of the spirit are 
 love, joy, peace, long-suffering, gentleness, goodness, faith, meekness, 
 temperance. '■' 
 
54 INTERNAL EVIDENCES OF 
 
 Objection II. — The scripture doctrine of redemption 
 is inconsistent with the ideas, which are now generally re- 
 ceived concerning the magnitude of creation. 
 
 Answer. — The comparative dimension of our world is of no account : 
 if it be large enough for the accomplishment of events, which are suffi- 
 cient to occupy the minds of all intelligences, that is all which is re- 
 quired. 
 
 Objection III. — The doctrine of a future judgment 
 is improbable : and the two-fold sanction of rewards and 
 punishments is of human invention. 
 
 Answer — It is hut reasonable, that the same person, by whom God 
 carried on his merciful design of recovering mankind from a state of sin, 
 who felt our infirmities, and was tempted as we are, should be appointed 
 the final judge of all men, and the dispenser of future retribution. 
 
 Lord Bolingbroke intimates, that the notion whereon the sanction of 
 future rewards and punishment is founded, savours more of human pas- 
 sions than of justice or prudence; and that it implies, that the proceed- 
 ings of God towards men in this life are unjust, if they need rectifying in 
 a future one. But the present life is a state of trial, to fit us for a future 
 and better condition of being. Though justice requires that rewards and 
 punishments should, in this world, be proportioned to the different degrees 
 of virtue and vice; facts prove that this is not the case. If therefore 
 there be no recompense hereafter, injustice must characterise the divine 
 government, and the Christian doctrine alone vindicates the ways of God 
 to man. 
 
 Lord Shaftesbury argues against the doctrine of future rewards and 
 punishments, as affording a mercenary and selfish motive to virtue, 
 which ought to be practised because it is good and amiable in itself. It 
 will however be seen, that this is not the case, if it be considered that the 
 Christian looks for his reward, only to higher improvements in useful 
 knowledge and moral goodness, and to the exalted enjoyments which re- 
 sult from these. But it is a proper reason to choose virtue, because it 
 will make us happy ; for man has a natural desire of life and happiness, 
 and a fear of losing them ; and a desire of well-being may conspire with 
 the rest in the discipline of the mind, and assist the growth of more libe- 
 ral principles. 
 
 Further, when this respect to a future recompense is the effect of a de- 
 liberate trust in the Judge of the universe, an acquiescence in his govern- 
 ment, and a belief that he is the rewarder of such as faithfully seek hirn, 
 and disposes us to well-doing, it becomes religious faith, the first duty of 
 rational beings, and a firm bond of virtue, private, social, and divine. 
 
 Objection IV. — Christianity establishes a system of 
 priestcraft and spiritual despotism over the minds and 
 consciences of men. 
 
 Answer. — Christianity establishes no such thing. That there should be 
 teachers of religion, to insu-uct men in its principles, to enforce its pre- 
 cepts, and to administer its consolations, has nothing in it contraiy to the 
 fitness of things, and the public good. This argument acquires additional 
 weight, when we consider the qualifications which the New Testament 
 requires of the different orders of Christian ministers. See particularly 
 1 Tim. iil. 1—7. iv. 11, 12. 16. 2 Cor. vi. 3. 2 Tim. ii. 22. 24, 25. 1 Tim. 
 iv 12, 13, 14. 1 Tim. iii. 8—10. 
 
 It has however been said, that the most extravagant claims to wealth 
 and power have been made by men, who call themselves minisfers of the 
 Gospel. But with these claims Christianity is not chargeable. The New 
 
THE INSPIRATION OF THE SCRIPTURES. 55 
 
 Testament establishes the support of the ministers of religion on a rea- 
 sonable footing. Is it thought equitable, that those who teach philosophy 
 and the learned languages should be recompensed for their labour 1 The 
 Gospel sets the maintenance of its ministers on the same footing (see 
 Luke x. 7. 1 Cor. ix. 11—14;) but it does not countenance in them any 
 claim of either power or wealth. 
 
 Objection V. — The Gospel prohibits free inquiry, and 
 demands a full and implicit assent, without any previous 
 examination. 
 
 Answer.— The contrary is the fact. The Gospel not only invites but 
 demands investigation : free inquiry is not prejudicial, but in the highest 
 degree beneficial to Christianity, whose evidences shine the more clearly, 
 in proportion to the rigour with which they are examined. 
 
 Objection VI. — The Morality of the Bible is too strict, 
 and lays mankind under too severe restraints. 
 
 Answer. — The contrary is the case : for the morality of the Bible restrains 
 us only from what would be hurtful to ourselves or to others, while it 
 allows of every truly rational, sober, and humane pleasure. 
 
 Objection VII. — Some of the Moral Precepts of Jesus 
 Christ are unreasonable and impracticable. 
 
 Answer.— A candid examination of a few of the precepts objected to, 
 will show how little foundation there is for such an assertion. For, 
 
 1. The prohibition of anger, in Matt. v. 22, condemns only implacable 
 anger, — sinful anger unrppented of. The same restriction must be undei - - 
 stood respecting other general assertions of Jesus, as Matt. x. 33, which 
 cannot apply to Peter. 
 
 2. The precept of Jesus Christ to forgive injuries, has been asserted to 
 be contrary to reason and nature. 
 
 A few of the most eminent heathen philosophers, however, have given 
 the same direction; particularly Socrates, Cicero, Seneca, and Confucius. 
 
 It has further been objected that this precept is given in a general and 
 indefinite way : whereas there are certain necessary restrictions. 
 
 Assuredly. But these exceptions are so plain, that they will always be 
 supposed, and consequently need not to be specified. The Christian reli- 
 gion makes no alteration in the natural rights of mankind, nor does it for- 
 bid necessary self-defence, or seeking legal redress of injuries in cases 
 where it may be expedient to restrain violence and outrage. The substance 
 of what :t recommends, relates chiefly to the temper of the mind. 
 
 3. Against the injunction to love our enemies, it has been argued, " If 
 lore carry with it complacence, esteem, and friendship, and these are due 
 to all men, — what distinction can we then make between the best and worst 
 of men ?" 
 
 But, ir> this precept, as in all moral writings " love" signifies benevo- 
 lence and good will; which maybe exercised by kind actions towards 
 those whom we cannot esteem, and whom we are even obliged to 
 punish. 
 
 4. The commandment to " love our neighbour as ourselves," is also ob- 
 jected to as unreasonable, and impossible to be observed. 
 
 In moral writings, love (as we have just noticed) signifies good will ex- 
 pressing itself in the conduct. Now, this precept of Jesus Christ may be 
 understood, 
 
 (I.) As enjoining the same kind of affection to our fellow creature as to 
 ourselves, disposing us to avoid his misery, and to consult his happiness 
 as well as our own. Or, 
 
 (2.) It may require us to love our neighbour in some certain proportion 
 as we love ourselves. The love of our neighbour must bear some pro 
 
56 INTERNAL EVIDENCES OF 
 
 porti«n to self-love, and virtue consists in the due proportion . of it. Or, 
 
 (3.) The precept may be understood of an equality of affection. Moral 
 obligation can extend no further than to natural possibility. Now, we 
 have a perception of our own interests, like the consciousness of our own 
 existence, which we always carry about with us ; and which, in its con- 
 tinuation, kind, and degree, seems impossible to be felt with respect to the 
 interests of others. Therefore, were we to love our neighbour in the same 
 degree (so far as this is possible) as we love ourselves, yet the care of our- 
 selves would not be neglected. 
 
 The precepts, — to " do to others as we would have them do to us," and 
 to " love our neighbour as ourselves," — are not merely intelligible and 
 comprehensive rules : but thpy also furnish the means of determining the 
 particular cases which are included under them: and they are likewise 
 useful means of moral improvement, and afford a good test of a person's 
 progress in benevolence. 
 
 5. The command to believe in Jesus Christ, and the sanctions by which 
 it is enforced, — "he that believeth and is baptised, shall be saved, but he 
 that believeth not shall be condemned," (Mark xvi. 16,) — have been ob- 
 jected against : and it has been said that " Faith, considered in itself, can 
 neither be a virtue nor a vice, because men can no otherwise believe than 
 as things appear to them." 
 
 Yet, that they appear in such a particular manner to the understanding of 
 individuals, maybe owing entirely to themselves. All threatenings, more- 
 over, must be understood of unbelievers, who had sufficient light and evi- 
 dence afforded them, and who, through inattention, neglect, wilful preju- 
 dice, or from corrupt passions and vices have rejected the Gospel, as Christ 
 himself says in John iii. 19, and xv. 22. 
 
 Objection VIII. — Christianity produces a timid pas- 
 sive spirit, and also entirely overlooks the generous senti- 
 ments of friendship and patriotism. 
 
 Answer 1. Christianity omits precepts founded upon false principles, 
 such as recommend fictitious virtues, which, however admired and cele- 
 brated, are productive of no salutary effects, and in fact are no virtues 
 at all. 
 
 Valour, for instance, is for the most part constitutional ; and, when not 
 under the control of true religion, so far is it from producing any salutary 
 effects by introducing peace, order, or happiness into society, that it is the 
 usual perpetrator of all the violences, which, from retaliated injuries, dis- 
 tract the world with bloodshed and devastation. But, though Christianity 
 exhibits no commendation of fictitious virtues, it is so far from generating 
 a timid spirit, that, on the contrary, it forms men of a singular courage. 
 It teaches them to be afraid of offending God, and of doing injury to man; 
 but it labours to render them superior to every other fear. The lives of 
 Christians have, in numberless instances, displayed the efficacy of its di- 
 vine principles, which have enabled them to sustain unexampled active 
 exertion, persevering labour, and patient suffering. 
 
 2. With regard to Friendship, various satisfactory reasons may be as- 
 signed why Jesus Christ did not enact any laws concerning it. 
 
 [i.] A pure and sincere friendship must be a matter of choice, and re- 
 luctant to the very appearance of compulsion. 
 
 [ii.] It depends upon similarity of disposition, and coincidence of 
 sentiment and affection, and upon a variety of circumstances not within 
 our control, or our choice. 
 
 [iii.] Partial attachments, which usually led persons to prefer their 
 friends to the public, would not be favourable to the general virtue and 
 happiness. But though the Gospel makes no provision for friendship, it 
 does not prohibit that connexion, but rather sanctions it by the example 
 of Christ himself; whose attachment to Lazarus and his family, and to 
 
INSPIRATION OF THE SCRIPTURES. 57 
 
 John the beloved disciple, may satisfy us of his approbation of friendship 
 both as a duty and as an enjoyment. 
 
 3. With respect to Patriotism, — if by this be meant a bigoted, selfish, or 
 fiery love of our country, which leads us to seek its aggrandisement, re- 
 gardless of the morality of the means by which that is accomplished, it is 
 no virtue. 
 
 But Jesus Christ virtually established the duty of patriotism, by esta- 
 blishing the principle from which it flows, viz. the universal obligation 
 of justice and love ; leading us to do good unto all men, but especially 
 unto them who are of the household of faith, and enforcing more than 
 ordinary affection between husbands and wives, parents and children, 
 brethren and sisters. In all which cases he has decided that every addi- 
 tional tie, by which man is connected with man, is an obligation to addi- 
 tional love. Above all, Christ himself, by his own conduct, sanctioned, 
 exemplified, and commanded patriotism. 
 
 Objection IX. — The Bible is the most immoral book 
 
 in the world. 
 
 Answer. — A candid examination of the morality of the Scriptures, most 
 completely refutes this assertion. If, indeed, the Bible be an immoral bock, 
 how is it that the reading of this book should have reclaimed millions 
 from immorality 1 — a fact, too notorious to be denied by any impartial ob- 
 server. Further, many of the immoral statements, which are said (but 
 which cannot be proved) to exist in the Bible, are founded on a wilful in- 
 attention to the difference which exists between ancient and modern 
 manners. The characteristic of modern manners is the free intercourse 
 of the two sexes in the daily commerce of life and conversation. Hence 
 the peculiar system of modern manners ; hence that system of decorum, 
 delicacy, and modesty (founded on the morality of Scripture) which be- 
 long entirely to this relation of the sexes, and to the state of society in 
 which it exists. But in the ancient world there was nothing of this in- 
 tercourse. Besides, the immoral actions which are recorded in Scripture, 
 are not related for our imitation, but for our caution. 
 
 Objection. X. The Bible inculcates a spirit of intole- 
 rance and persecution. 
 
 Answer. — The religion of Jesus Christ has been represented as of an un- 
 social, unsteady, surly, and solitary complexion, tending to destroy every 
 other but itself. It does, indeed, tend to destroy every other, but in the 
 same manner as truth in every subject tends to destroy falsehood, that is, 
 by rational conviction. Jesus Christ uniformly discountenanced bigotry 
 and intolerance in his disciples. Distinctions of nations, sects, or parties, 
 as such, to him were nothing: distinctions of truth and falsehood, right 
 and wrong, were to him every thing. 
 
 The moderation and liberality of pagan governments have been eulo- 
 gised by the opposers of Christianity, who have asserted that persecution 
 for religion was indebted for its first rise to the Christian system. The 
 very reverse is the fact. Ancient history records numerous instances of 
 pagan governments that persecuted the professors of other religions. 
 
 Thus, the Athenians put Socrates to death, on account of his religiou* 
 tenets; and Antiochus Epiphanes exercised the most horrid cruelties 
 against the Jews for their religion. (1 Mac. i. 40 — 64,) Tiberius prohibited; 
 the Egyptian and Jewish worship, banished the Jews from Rome, and re- 
 strained the worship of the Druids in Gaul, while Claudius had recourse 
 to penal laws, to abolish their religion. Domitian and Vespasian banished 
 the philosophers from Rome, and the former confined some of them in the 
 islands, and whipped or put others to death. The violent means and cruel 
 persecutions, which were adopted by pagan governors to annihilate the 
 Christian religion, for three hundred years after its first origin, are too 
 well known to be controverted. 
 
 Men, indeed, calling themselves Christians, have cruelly persecutes 
 
58 INTERNAL EVIDENCES OP 
 
 others ; DUt the Gospel does not authorise such a conduct, and therefore 
 is not chargeable with it. And facts and experience have proved (par- 
 ticularly m Fiance during the revolution,) that not the friends but the 
 enemies of the Gospel, — not sincere believers, but apostates and atheists, — 
 have been the most cruel oppressors and persecutors, and the greatest 
 enemies both of civil and religious liberty. 
 
 Section II. — The wonderful Harmony and intimate'Connexion subsisting 
 between all the Parts of Scripture, are a further proof of its Divine 
 Authority and Original. 
 
 Most of the writers of the Scriptures lived at very dif- 
 ferent times, and in distant places, through the long period 
 of sixteen hundred years, so that there could be no con- 
 federacy or collusion : and yet their relations agree with, 
 and mutually support, each other. 
 
 The same essential agreement, and the same dependency 
 of one upon another, obtains also among the chief practical 
 precepts, as well as between the doctrines and precepts 
 of Christianity. 
 
 Objection. — There are contradictions to morality as 
 tvell as among the different writers themselves. 
 
 Answer. — These contradictions, as they are termed, are seeming only, 
 and not real : they perplex only superficial readers. Nor is there a sin- 
 gle instance, which does not admit of a rational solution, by attending 
 to the original languages, and to the manners, customs, &c, that ob- 
 tained in the countries where scenes mentioned in the Scriptures were 
 situated. 
 
 Section III.— The Preservation of the Scriptures a Proof of their Truth and 
 Divine Origin. 
 
 To nothing, indeed, but the mighty power of God, can 
 we ascribe their preservation, amid all the attempts made 
 to annihilate them. 
 
 Section TV. — The tendency of the Scriptures to promote the present and 
 eternal Happiness of Mankind, constitutes another Proof of their Divine 
 Inspiration. 
 
 Were all men sincerely and cordially to believe the 
 Bible to be a divine revelation, and to obey its precepts, 
 how would the moral face of the world be changed ! 
 Wherever it has been thus embraced, the most beneficial 
 effect* have been the result. 
 
THE INSPIRATION OF THE SCRIPTURES. 
 
 59 
 
 I. The Writings of the earliest Professors of Christi- 
 anity prove, that the first converts were reformed charac- 
 ters. 
 
 1. For testimonies from the New Testament, compare Rom. vi. 21, 22. 
 1 Cor. vi. 9—11. 1 Pet. iv. 3, 4. 
 
 2. The various Christian Apologists, who Were compelled to vindicate 
 their character, bear ample testimony to their exemplary lives and con- 
 versation. Among these, the attestations of Justin Martyr, Athenagoras, 
 Tertullian, Minucius Felix, Origen, and Lactantius, are particularly wor- 
 thy of notice. 
 
 Though we cannot expect, from Pagans, direct testimonies to the vir- 
 tues of men whom they persecuted ; yet the works of heathen writers in- 
 cidently furnish proofs of their innocence and worth. Pliny, for instance, 
 in his memorable letter to Trajan, says, that the great crime of the Chris- 
 tians consisted, — not in the commission of any wickedness, but— in as- 
 sembling together on a stated day before light, to sing hymns to Christ as 
 God The apostate emperor Julian, also, in his epistle to an heathen 
 pontiff, commended their charity and other virtues to the imitation of the 
 pagans. If the Gospel were merely the contrivance of man, the virtues 
 and holiness of the first Christians would be an inexplicable fact. 
 
 II. A Summary of the beneficial effects of Christianity 
 
 On SOCIETY IN GENERAL. 
 
 The benevolent spirit of the Gospel has served as a bond of union be- 
 tween independent nations, and has broken down the partition which se- 
 parated Heathens and Jews ; has abated their prejudices, and has render- 
 ed them more liberal towards each other. Further, it has checked pride 
 and promoted humility and forgiveness ; has rendered its sincere profes- 
 sors just and honest, and it has inspired them with firmness under perse- 
 cution. 
 
 The benign influence of the Gospel has descended into families, and 
 abolished polygamy ; has diminished the pressure of private tyranny , 
 has exalted and improved the female character; has improved every do- 
 mestic endearment ; given tenderness to the parent, humanity to the 
 master, respect to superiors, and to inferiors ease : numberless charitable 
 institutions unknown to the heathen world, have sprung from Christi- 
 anity. 
 
 III. Beneficial Effects of Christianity on the political 
 state of the World. 
 
 A milder system of civil government, and a better administration of 
 civil justice, have been introduced : the horrors of war have been miti- 
 gated; and the measures of governments have been directed to their 
 oroper objects. 
 
 IV. Beneficial Effects of Christianity on Literature 
 und the Fine Arts. 
 
 Christianity has been the means of preserving and disseminating moral, 
 classical, and theological knowledge in every nation where it has been 
 established. The Law, the Gospel, the comments on them, and the works 
 of the fathers, were written in Hebrew, Greek, or Latin, so that the know- 
 ledge of these languages became necessary to every man, who wished 
 to become an intelligent Christian. The Christian doctrines and precepts 
 being contained in books, the use of letters became necessary to its teach 
 ers ; and by them was learning preserved. Modern opposers of revelation 
 ascribe all our improvements to philosophy : but it was religion, the rb- 
 tioios of christ, thai took the lead. The reformers opened to us the Scrip- 
 
(JO INTERNAL EVIDENCES OF 
 
 tures, and broke all those fettera which shackled human reason. Philo- 
 sophy crept humbly in her train, and now ungratefully claims all the 
 honour and praise to herself. Luther, Melancthon, and Cranmer, preGed- 
 ed Lord Bacon, Boyle, Newton, and Locke. 
 
 Christianity is not to be charged with the crimes of those who have as 
 sumed the name of Christians, while their conduct has shown that they 
 were utterly destitute of every Christian sentiment. It is not peculiar to 
 the Christian revelation, that it has sometimes furnished a pretext for in- 
 troducing the very evils and oppressions which it was designed to remedy. 
 
 The mischiefs, which, through the corrupt passions of men, have been 
 the accidental consequences of Christianity, ought not to be imputed to 
 its sp-irit. Nothing is better calculated to diffuse real comfort, peace, and 
 happiness throughout the world : and a candid comparison of the morals 
 of professing Christians throughout the world, with those of heathen na- 
 tions in a similar stage of society, will demonstrate the beneficial effects 
 of Christianity. 
 
 V. Historical facts attest the benefits conferred by the 
 Gospel on the world. 
 
 Wherever Christian Missionaries have gone, the most barbarous heathen 
 nations have become civilised. The ferocious have become mild ; those, 
 who prowled about for plunder, have acquired settled property, as well 
 as a relish for domestic happiness. Persons, who dwelt in caves or huts 
 have learnt from missionaries the art of building ; they who fed on raw 
 flesh have applied to agriculture ; men who were clothed in skins and 
 were ignorant of manufactures, have become acquainted with the com- 
 forts of apparel ; and the violent and rapacious have renounced their ra- 
 pine and plunder. 
 
 The ancient inhabitants of Germany, Hungary, Scythia, Denmark, 
 Sweden, and the aboriginal inhabitants of Britain and Ireland, as well as 
 the modern inabitants of North and South America, the East and West 
 Indies, Greenland, South and West Africa, are all illustrious monuments 
 of the blessed effects produced by Christianity. 
 
 VI. The practical efficacy of Christianity, 
 
 Especially when contrasted with the effects of infidelity, is seen more 
 conspicuously and more satisfactorily in the holy, useful, and exemplary 
 lives of real Christians in the private walks of life, and in the peculiar 
 supports and consolations which they enjoy under adversity and afflic- 
 tions, and in the prospect of futurity : while infidelity offers, and can 
 offer, no ground or prospect of support to its unhappy professors. 
 
 Section V.— The peculiar Advantages, possessed by the Christian Religion 
 over all other Religions, a demonstrative Evidence of its Divine Origin 
 and authority. 
 
 It is the peculiar and distinguishing excellency of the 
 Christian Religion, that it possesses advantages which no 
 other religions pr revelations have : at the same time it 
 has none of the defects by which they are characterised. 
 
 No other religions are confirmed by ancient prophecies, 
 or by the blood of an infinite number of sensible and in- 
 telligent martyrs, who voluntarily suffered death in defence 
 of what they had seen and believed. And although other 
 
THE INSPIRATION OF THE SCRIPTURES. 61 
 
 religions may pretend to be confirmed by signs and re 
 markable events, (as the Romans ascribed the success of 
 their arms to their deities, and the Mohammedans consider 
 the successes of their prophet as a proof of the divinity of 
 his mission ;) yet h is not prosperity or adversity simply 
 considered., but prosperity or adversity as foretold by God 
 or his prophets, which is a certain character of true re 
 ligion. 
 
 Nor has the Christian Religion any of those defects, by 
 which other religions are characterised. It is not design- 
 ed for the satisfaction of the carnal and worldly appetites 
 of men, as that of the Jews, who aspire after temporal 
 prosperity and worldly pomp ; nor is it a medley like that 
 of the ancient Samaritans, made up of a mixture of the 
 Jewish and Pagan religions ; nor has it any of the faults 
 or extravagant superstitions of the various religions of the 
 heathen nations, ancient or modern. 
 
 The superiority of the Christian Religion over every 
 other is particularly evident in the following respects : 
 
 I. In its Perfection. 
 
 Other religions, as being principally of human invention and institu- 
 tion, were formed, by degrees, from the different imaginations of several 
 persons, who successfully made such additions or alterations as they 
 thought convenient. But it is not so with the Christian Religion : which 
 was wholly delivered by Christ, is entirely contained in each of the Gos- 
 pels, and even in each epistle of the apostles. 
 
 II. In its Openness. 
 
 Other religions durst not show themselves openly, and therefore were 
 veiled over with a mysterious silence, and an affected darkness. But the 
 Christian Religion requires no veil to cover it, no mysterious silence, no 
 dissimulation or disguise ; although it proposes to us such objects as are 
 contrary to our prejudices and received opinions. 
 
 III. In its Adaptation to the Capacities of all Men. 
 
 In heathen countries, the philosophers always derided the religion of 
 the vulgar; and the vulgar understood nothing of the religion of the phi- 
 losophers. But the Christian Religion is alike suited to the learned and 
 to the unlearned, having a divine efficacy ; and an agreeable power suit- 
 able to all hearts ; and it is most wonderfully adapted to those habits and 
 sentiments which spring up in proportion as knowledge and rennen^.-^nt 
 advance. 
 
 IV. In the Spirituality of its Worship. 
 
 The heathen worship was corporeal and grossly sensual, both in its. 
 object and in its rites. But the Christian Religion gives us for the ob ect 
 of out worship,— not a God in human form,— but a God who is a Sp'b't, 
 whom it teaches us to honour not with a carnal but with a spirilual w<>r- 
 fillip. (John iv. 24.) 
 
62 INTERNAL EVIDENCE OF 
 
 V. In its Opposition to the Spirit of the World. 
 
 While all other religions induce men to seek after the pleasures and 
 profits of the world, in the worship of God ; the Christian Religion makes 
 us glorify God by renouncing the world, and teaches us that we must 
 either glorify God, at the expense of worldly pleasures, or possess the ad- 
 vantages of the w T orld with the loss of our religion. 
 
 VI. In its Humiliation of man, and Exaltation of the 
 Deity. 
 
 All false religions debase the Deity and exalt man : but the Christian 
 Religion debases man and exalts the Deity. 
 
 VII. In its Restoration of Order to the world. 
 
 The heathen religions degraded their deities to an equality with them- 
 selves, and elevated four-footed beasts, fowls of the air, and creeping 
 things, — yea, even their own vices and imperfections, to the rank of gods. 
 But the Christian Religion alone restores that order which ought to be 
 established in the world, by submitting every thing to the power of man, 
 that he might submit himself to the will of God. 
 
 VIII. In its Tendency to eradicate all evil passions 
 from the heart. 
 
 Other religions chiefly tend to flatter the corrupt desires and propensi- 
 ties of men. But the Christian Religion tends to eradicate those desires 
 and propensities from our hearts, and teaches us utterly to renounce 
 them. 
 
 IX. In its Contrariety to the covetousness and ambi- 
 tion of mankind, and in its aversion to policy, and corrup- 
 tion, all of which were promoted by other religions. 
 
 X. In its Restoration of the Divine Image to Man. 
 
 Other religions would have God to bear the image of weak and sinful 
 man ; but the Christian Religion teaches us, that men ought to bear the 
 image of God, which is a most powerful motive to holiness. 
 
 XI. In its Mighty effects. 
 
 False religions were the irregular, confused productions of the politest 
 and ablest men of those times; whereas the Christian Religion is a won- 
 derful composition, which seems to proceed only from the most simple 
 and ignorant sort of people; and, at the same time, is such as evinces 
 that it must have for its principle the God of holiness and love. 
 
 To conclude this argument : — if we contrast the advan- 
 tages, which infidelity and Christianity respectively afford 
 to those who embrace them, we shall perceive the evident 
 superiority of the latter. The deist is not happier, or 
 more useful, in society, than the real Christian, nor can he 
 look into futurity with more composure. But the latter is 
 both happy in himself, and useful in his day, and he looks 
 forward to futurity with humble and holy tranquillity. At 
 least, he is as safe in his death as any of the children of 
 men. The deist, on the contrary, by rejecting all moral 
 
THE INSPIRATION OF THE SCRIPTURES, (J3 
 
 evidence, forfeits all things, and gains nothing ; while 
 the Christian hazards nothing, and gains all things. 
 
 Section VI.— Inability to answer all Objections, no just Cause for reject- 
 ing the Scriptures. — Unbelievers in Divine Revelation more credulous 
 than Christians. 
 
 Even though all the difficulties which are alleged to exist 
 in the Sacred Writings could not be accounted for, yet 
 this would be no just or sufficient cause, why we should 
 reject the Scriptures ; because objections are, for the most 
 part, impertinent to the purpose for which they are ad- 
 duced ; and if they were pertinent, yet, unless they could 
 confute that evidence, they ought not to determine us 
 against the Bible. If the various arguments by which 
 our Religion appears to be true, cannot be disproved (and 
 disproved they cannot be,) all the objections which can be 
 conceived must proceed from some mistake ; and those 
 arguments, together with the conclusions deduced from 
 them, ought not to be rejected on account of the objec- 
 tions, but such objections ought to be rejected on account 
 of the arguments. There is no science without its diffi- 
 culties, and it is not pretended that theology is without 
 them. But difficulties can never alter the nature of 
 things, and make that which is true to become false. 
 
 To a considerate mind, all the objections which can be 
 invented against the Scriptures, cannot seem nearly so 
 great as that which arises from infidelity, from the suppo- 
 sition that God should not at all reveal himself to man- 
 kind ; or that the heathen oracles, or the Koran of Mo- 
 hammed should be of divine revelation. 
 
 Nothing is more frequent than the charge of superstition 
 and credulity, which is brought by modern unbelievers 
 against Christianity : and yet this charge attaches with no 
 small force to the opposers of revelation. For it is much 
 more easy to believe the facts recorded in the New Tes- 
 tament, than to suppose them false, and believe the absurd 
 consequences which must follow from such a supposition. 
 It is much more credible that God should work a miracle 
 for the establishment of a useful system of religion, than 
 that the first Christians should act against every principle 
 that is natural to man. 
 
64 RECAPITULATION. 
 
 They, who will not be convinced by^ the present evi- 
 dence of the truth and certainty of the Christian Reli- 
 gion, would not be convinced by any other evidence 
 whatever. 
 
 No man of reason can pretend to say, but that God 
 may require us to take notice of some things at our peril, 
 to inquire into them, and to consider them thoroughly. 
 And the pretence of want of greater evidence, which is 
 sometimes made, will not excuse carelessness or unreason- 
 able prejudices, when God has vouchsafed to us all that 
 evidence, which was either fit for him to grant, or reason- 
 able for men to desire, or of which the nature of the thing 
 itself, that was to be proved, was capable. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 RECAPITULATION. — MORAL QUALIFICATIONS FOR THE STUDY OF THE 
 SCRIPTURES. 
 
 I. Such are the principal proofs for the genuineness, 
 authenticity, credibility, and inspiration of the Holy Scrip- 
 tures : and taking the whole together, every candid in- 
 quirer must be convinced that we have every possible evi- 
 dence for their truth and divinity, which can be reasonably 
 expected or desired. How absolutely necessary a reve- 
 lation was, to make known to mankind the proper object 
 of their worship, and to communicate to them a just rule 
 of life, is manifest from the deplorable state of religion 
 and morals in the Heathen world, both ancient and 
 modern, 
 
 II. The manner in which the sacred Scriptures have 
 been transmitted to us, their language and style, together 
 with the minute circumstantiality of the facts and doctrines 
 recorded in them, added to the moral impossibility of im- 
 posing forged writings upon mankind — are all indisputable 
 proofs of their Genuineness and Authenticity. 
 
 III. Equally satisfactory is the evidence Tor the Credi- 
 bility of the writers. For they had a perfect knowledge 
 of the subjects which they have related, and their moral 
 character was never impeached by their keenest opponents : 
 their accounts were published among the people, who wit- 
 
RECAPITULATION. (J5 
 
 nessed the events which they had recorded, and who could 
 easily have detected falsehood if any such there had been, 
 but who did not attempt to question either the reality of 
 those facts or the fidelity of the narrators ; there is an 
 entire harmony between the , Sacred Writers and profane 
 history, both natural and civil ; and the reality of the 
 principal facts related in the Bible, is perpetuated and 
 commemorated by monuments that subsist to this day in 
 every country, where either Jews or Christians are to be 
 found. 
 
 IV. And that the Scriptures are not merely entitled to 
 be received as credible, but also as containing the reveal- 
 ed will of God, — in other words, that they are divinely 
 fnspired, — we have evidence of various kinds amounting 
 to moral demonstration : for, on the one hand, their sacred 
 origin is evinced by the most illustrious external attesta- 
 tions, viz. miracles and prophecy, which carry with them 
 the most manifest proofs of a divine interposition ; and 
 which it cannot reasonably be supposed that God would 
 ever give, or permit to be given, to an imposture. And, 
 on the other hand, the Scriptures have the most excellent 
 internal characters of truth and goodness, in the sublimity, 
 excellence, and sanctity of the system of doctrines and 
 morals which they announce, — in the harmony and con- 
 nexion that subsist between all the parts of which they 
 consist, in the preservation of the Sacred Scriptures, and 
 in their admirable tendency (which is shown by its effects 
 wherever the Scriptures are cordially and sincerely be- 
 lieved) to promote the glory of God and the good of man- 
 kind, and the cause of virtue and righteousness in the 
 world, and to prepare men, by a life of faith and holy 
 obedience upon earth, for the eternal enjoyment of God 
 in Heaven ; — together with the peculiar advantages pos- 
 sessed by the Christian Religion over all other religions. 
 
 On all these accounts the Holy Scriptures are thank- 
 fully to be received and embraced, as the word of God, 
 and as the rule of Christian faith and practice. " And till 
 I can see the evidence of them disproved, or the religion 
 of Christ demonstrated to be irrational and absurd, I am 
 determined, by the grace of God, to hold fast my profes- 
 sion to the end, seeking after the kingdom of glory by the 
 practice of that righteousness which prepares for, and 
 
66 THE STUDY OF THE SCRIPTURES: 
 
 leads to it, in a firm dependence upon that comfortable 
 declaration of Jesus Christ : That God so loved the world 
 that whosoever believeth in him should not perish, but 
 have everlasting life."* 
 
 Since the Holy Scriptures contain all things necessary 
 to salvation, it becomes the indispensable duty of all, care 
 fully and constantly to peruse these sacred oracles, that 
 through them we may become perfect, thoroughly furnish- 
 ed to every good work, (2 Tim. iii. 17.) This, indeed, is 
 not only agreeable to the divine command — Search the 
 Scriptures, (John v. 39,) and to the design of the Sacred 
 Writings, but is further commended by the practice of the 
 Church in every age, and by the divine promise to all true 
 believers, that they shall all be taught of God, (Isa. 
 liv. 13.) The circumstances of every individual must re- 
 gulate the portion of time, that ought daily to be devoted 
 to this important study ; which should be undertaken with 
 devout simplicity and humility, and prosecuted with dili- 
 gence and attention, with a willingness to resort to all 
 necessary helps for advancement in the truth, and for 
 security against error. To these qualifications, especially, 
 should be added prayer for divine aid and teaching, toge- 
 ther with a sincere desire to know and perform the will of 
 God, and, laying aside all prejudice, to follow the Scrip- 
 tures wherever conviction may lead our minds : for it is 
 indubitable that persons of piety, who are anxiously desi- 
 rous of the knowledge of divine truth, are aided by the 
 Spirit of God, in searching out the meaning of Scripture, 
 particularly in such subjects as have a special reference te 
 faith and religious practice. 
 
 • Bishop Watson's Tracts, vol. ill. p. 484. 
 
PART II. 
 
 ON THE LITERARY HISTORY, CRITICISM, AND INTERPRETATION OP 
 THE SCRIPTURES. 
 
 BOOK I.— ON THE LITERARY HISTORY AND CRITICISM OF THE 
 SCRIPTURES. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 ON THE ORIGINAL LANGUAGES OF SCRIPTURE 
 
 Section I.— On the Hebrew Language, and the Samaritan Pentateu ei;. 
 
 I. Antiquity of the Hebrew Language. — In this 
 language the Old Testament is written, with the excep- 
 tion of a few words and passages in the Chaldaean dia- 
 lect, which occur in Jer. x. 11. Dan. ii. 4, to the end 
 of vii. and Ezra iv. 8, to vi. 19, and vii. 12 — 17. It 
 derived its name from the root *qy (aber) to pass 
 over : whence Abraham was denominated the Hebrew, 
 (Gen. xiv. 13,) having passed over the Euphrates, to 
 come into the land of Canaan. The shortness of its words, 
 the descriptive character of the names of places, of ani- 
 mals, and of nations, as well as of the names given to 
 heathen deities, (as Jove, which is deduced from Jehovah, 
 Vulcan from Tubal-cain, &c.) together with the traces of 
 Hebrew, which are to be found in the Chaldee, Syriac, 
 Arabic, Persian, and other languages; — all combine to 
 prove that Hebrew is the original of all the languages or 
 dialects which have been spoken in the world. The know- 
 ledge of this language was very widely diffused by means 
 of the commercial connexions of the Phoenician mer- 
 chants. 
 
 The Hebrew language has had its several ages or de- 
 grees of purity. Its golden age was the period from the 
 time of Moses to that of David ; its silver age was the 
 interval between the reigns of Solomon and Hezekiah, 
 or Manasseh ; the iron age, between that period and the 
 
(58 ORIGINAL LANGUAGES 
 
 70 years' captivity in Babylon : after which the Jews for 
 a short time spoke a mixed dialect of Chaldee and He- 
 brew, and ultimately lost it. The Priests and Levites, 
 however, continued to cultivate it to the time of Christ, 
 as a learned language, that they might be enabled to ex- 
 pound the law and the prophets to the people ; which last 
 period has been termed the leaden age. 
 
 II. Antiquity of the Hebrew characters. — The twen- 
 ty-two characters, now in use, are of a square form, and 
 are generally ascribed to Ezra, who transcribed the an- 
 cient characters of the Hebrews into the square characters 
 of the Chaldaeans, since which time the Samaritan or an 
 cient Hebrew character lias fallen into disuse. 
 
 III. Origin of the Samaritans. — 
 
 The Samaritans, mentioned in the New Testament, 
 were descended from an intermixture of the ten tribes 
 with the Gentile nations. This origin rendered them 
 odious to the Jews, who refused to acknowledge them as 
 Jewish citizens, or to permit them to assist in rebuilding 
 the Temple, after their return from the Babylonish cap- 
 tivity. In consequence of this rejection as well as of 
 other causes of dissension, the Samaritans erected a tem- 
 ple on Mount Gerizim, and instituted sacrifices according 
 to the prescriptions of the Mosaic law. Hence arose that 
 inveterate schism and enmity between the two nations, so 
 frequently mentioned or alluded to in the New Testament. 
 The Samaritans (who still exist but are greatly reduced in 
 numbers) reject all the sacred books of the Jews except 
 the Pentateuch, or five books of Moses, of which they 
 preserve copies in the ancient Hebrew characters : these 
 agree in all material points with our present copies, which 
 were those of the Jews, and thus prove that the important 
 books of Moses have been transmitted to us uncorrupted, 
 in any thing material. 
 
 II. The few differences that actually exist between the 
 Samaritan and Hebrew Pentateuchs, may be satisfactory 
 accounted for by the usual sources of various readings, 
 viz. the negligence of copyists, the confounding of similar 
 letters, transposition of letters, <fcc. The Samaritan Pen- 
 tateuch is of great importance in establishing correct read- 
 ings. Two versions of it are extant. 
 
 1. The Samaritan Version, made in the Aramaean dia- 
 
OF SCRIPTURE. £9 
 
 iect (which is intermediate between the Chaldee and the 
 Syriac languages,) by an unknown author in Samaritan 
 characters before the schism took place between the Jews 
 and Samaritans. It is close, and faithful to the original. 
 2. An Arabic Version, in Samaritan Characters, which 
 was made by Abu Said in A. D. 1070, to supplant the 
 Arabic translation of the Jewish Rabbi, Saadia Gaon, 
 which had till that time been in use among the Samari- 
 tans. 
 
 Section II, — On the Greek Language. 
 
 I. The Septuagint Version of the Old Testament was 
 executed in the Greek language ; and as every Jew, who 
 read Greek at all, would read the Greek Bible, the style 
 of this operated in forming the style of the Greek Testa- 
 ment, to which, as well as to the Old Testament, the Sep- 
 tuagint is an important source of interpretation. 
 
 II. The New Testament was written in Greek, be- 
 cause it was the language best understood both by writers 
 and readers, being spoken and written, read, and under- 
 stood throughout the Roman Empire. Its style is charac- 
 terised by the prevalence of Hebrew phraseolog}', the 
 language of the New Testament being formed by a 
 mixture of oriental idioms and expressions, with those 
 which are properly Greek. Hence it has been termed 
 Hebraic Greek : and, from the circumstance of the Jews 
 having acquired the Greek language rather by practice 
 than by grammar from the Greeks, among whom they re- 
 sided, it has also been termed the Hellenistic-Greek. A 
 large proportion of the phrases and constructions of the 
 New Testament, however, is pure Greek, that is, of the 
 same degree of purity as the Greek spoken in Macedonia, 
 and that in which Polybius wrote his Roman History : 
 whence the language of the New Testament will derive 
 considerable illustration from consulting the works of clas- 
 sic authors, and particularly from the Septuagint Version 
 of the Old Testament. 
 
 III. The popular Greek dialect was not spoken and 
 written by the Jews, without some intermixtures of a 
 foreign kind : in particular, they intermixed many idioms 
 
70 ORIGINAL LANGUAGES OF SCRIPTURE. 
 
 and the general complexion of their vernacular language;. 
 These peculiar idioms are termed Hebraisms ; and their 
 nature and classes have been treated at considerable 
 length by various writers. A few examples will suffice to 
 show the nature of these Hebraisms. Thus : 
 
 1. To be called, to arise, and to be found, are the same as to be. See 
 Isa. lxi. 3. Matt. v. 9. 1 John iii. 1. Esth. iv. 14. Luke xxiv. 38. 
 Dan. v. 12. Luke xvii. 18. 
 
 2. Verbs, expressive of a person's doing an action, are often used to sig- 
 nify his supposing the thing or discovering and acknowledging the fact, 
 or his declaring and foretelling the event. Matt. x. 39. 1 Cor. iii. 18. 
 lea. vi. 9, 10. Acts x. 1.5. 
 
 3. Negative verbs are often put for a strong positive affirmation. Psal. 
 lxxxiv. 11. Rom. dv. 19. John xiv. 8. 
 
 4. The privileges of the first born among the Jews being very great, the 
 chief or most eminent thing of any kind is called the first born. Job. 
 xviii. 13. The first born of death is the most fatal and cruel death. 
 
 5. The words sow, and children, have various peculiar significations: 
 as, Sons of Belial, wicked men; Children of disobedience (Eph. ii.) are 
 disobedient persons, &e. 
 
 6. Name is frequently synonymous with Persons. John i. 12. iii. 18. 
 Rev. iii. 4. 
 
 7. The Jews, having but few adjectives and no superlatives, in their 
 language, had recour-se to substantives to supply their place. Thus king- 
 dom and glory denote a. glorious kingdom, 1. Thess. ii. 12; glory of his 
 power, denotes glorious power. 2. Thess. i. 9 ; Mountains of God are 
 exceeding high mountains, Psal. xxxvi. 7, &c. 
 
 8. According to the Hebrew idiom, a sword has a mouth; or, the edge 
 of a sword is called a mouth. Luke xxi. 24. Heb. xi. 34. 
 
 9. The verb to knaio frequently denotes to approve; as in Psal. i. 6. 
 Matt. vii. 23. 
 
 10. To hear denotes to understand, to attend to, and to regard what is 
 said, Deut. xviii. 1 5, with Acts iii. 23. Matt. xvii. 5. Luke viii. 8. 
 
 Besides these Hebraisms there are found in the New 
 Testament various Syriac, Chaldee, Latin, and other idi- 
 oms and words, which are respectively denominated Syri- 
 asms, Persisms, Latinisms, &c &c. 
 
 1. Syriasms are the idioms peculiar to the Syriac or West- Aramaean 
 dialect ; and Chaldaisms are those peculiar to the Chaldee or East-Ara- 
 maean dialect. Instances of these idioms occur in Rom. viii. 15. Matt, 
 xxvii. 46. Mark v. 41. vii. 34. 
 
 2. Latinisms are those Latin words and phrases, which occur in the 
 New Testament, in consequence of the intercourse of the Jews with the 
 Romans, after Judaea had been reduced into a Roman province. See 
 Matt. x. 29. John ii. 15. Acts. vi. 9, &c. 
 
 3. The number of words used by St. Paul in peculiar senses, as well as 
 words not ordinarily occurring in Greek writers, are considered to be 
 provincial idioms at that time used in Cilicia : whence they have been 
 termed Cilicisms. 
 
ON THE MANUSCRIPTS OF THE BIBLE. 
 
 71 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE MANUSCRIUTS OF THE BIBLE. 
 
 Form of a Synagogue Roll of the Pentateuch. 
 
 ftECTioN I.— On the Hebrew Manuscripts of the Old Testament 
 
 I. Hebrew Manuscripts are divided into two classes, 
 viz. autographs, or those actually written by the inspired 
 penmen, and apographs, or copies made from the origi- 
 nals, and multiplied by repeated transcription. The ma- 
 nuscripts still extant are of two descriptions ; viz. 
 
 1. The Rolled Manuscripts used in the synagogues, 
 which are transcribed with great care, and under various 
 minute regulations designed to secure the purity of the 
 sacred text. The form of one of these rolled manuscripts 
 (from the original among the Harleian MSS. in the Bri- 
 tish Museum, No. 7619,) is given in the vignette at the 
 head of this section. It is a large double roll, containing 
 the Hebrew Pentateuch ; written with very great care on 
 forty brown African skins. These skins are of different 
 breadths, some containing more columns than others. 
 The columns are one hundred and fifty-three in number, 
 each of which contains about sixty-three lines, is about 
 twenty-two inches deep, and generally more than five 
 inches broad. The letters have no points, apices, or 
 flourishes about them. The initial words are not larger 
 
72 ON THE MANUSCRIPTS 
 
 than the rest ; and a space equal to about four lines, is 
 left between every two books. Altogether, this is one of 
 the finest specimens of the synagogue-rolls that has been 
 preserved to the present time. 
 
 2. The Square Manuscripts, which are in private use 
 among the Jews, are written, after the manner of our 
 printed books, on vellum, parchment, or paper of various 
 sizes. 
 
 II. Among the Jews, five exemplars, or standard copies, 
 have been particularly celebrated for their correctness ; 
 and from them all subsequent copies have been made. 
 These are, 
 
 1. The Codex of Hillel, a manuscript seen by Rabbi 
 Kimchi, in the 12th century, at Toledo. 
 
 2, 3. The Codices of Aaron Ben Asher, President of 
 the Jewish Academy at Tiberias, and of Jacob Ben 
 Naphtali, President of -the Jewish Academy at Babylon ; 
 who, in the eleventh century, respectively collated the 
 Manuscripts of the Oriental and Occidental Jews. 
 
 4, 5. The Codex of Jericho and the Codex of Sinai are 
 both in high repute for their correctness. Of the Codex 
 Sanbouki nothing certain is known. 
 
 III. Various criteria,* furnished by external testimony 
 as well as by internal marks, have been laid down by 
 learned men, for ascertaining the age of Hebrew Manu- 
 scripts : but these criteria have been questioned by other 
 distinguished critics, who have advanced strong reasons to 
 prove that they are uncertain guides in determining the 
 age of manuscripts. 
 
 IV. The order in which the Sacred Books are arran- 
 ged varies in different manuscripts. Few of those which 
 have been preserved contain the Old Testament entire ; 
 the greater part, indeed, comprise only particular portions 
 of it ; and many have become mutilated by the consu- 
 ming hand of time. 
 
 V. As the Hebrew Manuscripts, which have been in 
 use since ihe 11th century, have all been corrected after 
 some particular recension or edition, they have, from this 
 circumstance, been classed into three or four families, 
 according to the country where such recension has obtain- 
 ed : viz. 
 
OB' THE BIBLE. 73 
 
 1. The Spanish Manuscripts, which were corrected 
 after the Codex of Hillel, follow the Masoretic System 
 with great accuracy. They are beautifully written, and 
 highly valued by the Jews, though some critics hold them 
 in little estimation. 
 
 2. The Oriental Manuscripts are nearly the same as 
 the Spanish MSS., and may be referred to the same 
 class. 
 
 3. The German Manuscripts are less elegantly written 
 than the Spanish MSS. They do not follow the Masore- 
 tic Notation, and frequently exhibit important various 
 readings, that are not to be found in the Spanish MSS. 
 This class, though little esteemed by the Jews, is highly 
 valued by Biblical critics. 
 
 4. The Italian Manuscripts hold a middle place, both 
 in execution and critical value, between the Spanish and 
 German MSS. 
 
 VI. The total number of manuscripts collated by Dr. 
 Kennicott, for his edition of the Hebrew Bible, is about 
 630 : the total number collated by M. De Rossi, for his 
 Collection of Various Readings, is 479 MSS., besides 288 
 printed editions. 
 
 Almost all the Hebrew Manuscripts of the Old Testa- 
 ment, at present known to be extant, were written be- 
 tween the years 1000 and 1457 ; whence Dr. Kennicott 
 infers that all the MSS. written before the years 700 or 
 800 were destroyed by some decree of the Jewish senate, 
 on account of their numerous differences from the copies 
 then declared genuine. 
 
 VII. Among the valuable biblical manuscripts brought 
 from India, by the late Rev. Dr. Claudius Buchanan, and 
 now deposited in the University Library, at Cambridge, 
 there is a roll of the Pentateuch, which he procured from 
 the black Jews in Malabar, who (there is every reason to 
 believe) are descended from the remains of the first dis- 
 persion of that nation by Nebuchadnezzar. The date Of 
 this MS. cannot be ascertained ; but it is supposed to be 
 derived from those copies which their ancestors brought 
 with them into India. It agrees in all material points with 
 our common printed Hebrew text, and affords an addition- 
 al argument for the integrity of the Pentateuch. 
 
74 ON THE MANUSCRIPTS 
 
 Section II.— Account of Gieek Manuscripts containing the Old and New 
 
 Testaments. 
 
 I. Materials of Greek Manuscripts. — These are two- 
 fold : viz. 1. Vellum, of various thickness, which is either 
 purple-coloured, or of its natural hue ; and, 2. Paper, 
 made of cotton or linen. MSS. on paper are of much 
 later date than those on vellum. 
 
 II. Form of Letters. — The letters are either capital, 
 which in the time of Jerome were called uncial, i. e. initial, 
 or cursive, that is, small. Greek MSS. were written in 
 capital letters till the seventh century ; and a few so late- 
 ly even as the ninth century : but the small letters were 
 generally adopted towards the close of the tenth century. 
 The most ancient MSS. were written without accents, 
 spirits, or indeed any separations of the words, until the 
 ninth century. 
 
 III. Numerous abbreviations exist in the earliest 
 MSS. They are made by putting together the first and 
 last letters, and sometimes also the middle letter : thus 
 KC (KS) for Kvpios (kmHos) Lord,EHP (ser) for £ wr ^ (soten,) 
 Saviour, &c. 
 
 In the author's larger work, facsimile specimens are 
 given of some of the more ancient MSS. which could not 
 be reduced within the size of this page, so as to convey 
 an accurate idea of them : but the following literal ren- 
 dering of Matt. v. 1 — 3., according to the Codex Bezae, or 
 Cambridge MSS. of the Four Gospels and Acts, (which is 
 described in p. 78, infra,) will convey to the English 
 reader some idea of the manner in which manuscripts 
 were anciently written and printed : — 
 
 Matt. v. 1—3 
 andseeingthemultittjdes"hewentupintoamountain 
 andwhenhewassetdown'cametohim 
 hisdisciples'andopeninghismouth 
 hetacghtthemsaying 
 
 * 
 
 blessed^irjsthepoorinspt'fortheirsis 
 thek1ngdomofheaven. 
 
 SPT is contracted for sptn'T : the original Greek is 1INI (pni) for 
 ILNEYMATI (PNeumart.) 
 
OF THE BIBLE. 75 
 
 Very few MSS. contain the whole either of the Old or 
 the New Testament ; and almost all the more ancient 
 manuscripts are imperfect. 
 
 Corrections and erasures occur in all MSS. Such cor- 
 rections as were made a primd manu, that is, by the copy- 
 ist of a manuscript, are preferable to those made dsecundd 
 manu, that is, by later hands. Erasures were made, either 
 by drawing a line through a word, or with the penknife, 
 or sometimes the old writing was obliterated with a sponge, 
 and other words — treatises indeed — were written in lieu of 
 it. Manuscripts thus re-written are termed Codices Pal- 
 impsesti, or Rescript! : many of them are of considerable 
 antiquity. They may be easily known, as it rarely hap- 
 pens that the former writing is so completely erased, as 
 not to exhibit some traces. In a few instances both wri- 
 tings are legible. 
 
 IV. Account of Greek Manuscripts, containing the 
 Old and New Testaments. 
 
 No existing MSS. of the New Testament can be traced 
 higher than the fourth century ; and most of them are 
 still later. Some contain the whole New Testament ; 
 others comprise particular books or fragments of books, 
 and several contain only detached portions or lessons ap- 
 pointed to be read in the public service of the Church. 
 Some are accompanied with a version, either interlined 
 or in a parallel column. These are called Codices Be- 
 Ungues: the greatest number of them is in Greek and 
 Latin ; and the Latin version is in general one of those 
 which existed before the time of Jerome.^ 
 
 1. The Codex Alexandrinus, or Alexandrian Manu- 
 script, is one of the most precious relics of Christian anti- 
 quity. It consists of four folio volumes: the three first 
 containing the Old Testament and Apocryphal Books ; 
 the fourth comprising the New Testament, together with 
 the first epistle of Clement to the Corinthians, the apocry- 
 phal psalms ascribed to Solomon, and some liturgical 
 hymns. Athanasius's Epistle to Marcellus precedes the 
 
 • As the author found it impracticable to abridge the numerous bibliogra- 
 phical accounts of MSS., which are given in his larger Introduction to the 
 Critical Study and Knowledge of the Holy Scriptures, so as to convey a 
 full idea of their various contents, he has been obliged to confine the analy- 
 sis contained in this section, to a notice of the three most important manu- 
 scripts ; viz the Alexandrian, Vatican, and Cambridge, MSS. 
 
76 ON THE MANUSCRIPTS 
 
 Psalms, to which last are annexed the arguments of Euse- 
 bius, as his canons are, to the Gospels. In the New Tes* 
 tament there is wanting the beginning as far as Matt. xxv. 
 6 ; likewise, from John vi. 50, to viii. 52 ; and from 2 Cor. 
 iv. 13, to xii. 7. This MS. was procured at Alexandria, 
 by Cyrillus Lucaris, Patriarch of Constantinople, by whom 
 it was sent as a present to King Charles I., in the year 
 1628. Since the year 1752, it has been deposited in the 
 British Museum. It was most probably written between 
 the middle and end of the fourth century : and tradition 
 attributes the transcribing of it to one Thecla, amartyress, 
 of whom nothing certain can now be known. It is written 
 in uncial or capital letters. A fac-simile of the new Tes- 
 tament was published in 1786, in folio, by Dr. Woide, 
 Assistant Librarian at the British Museum ; and a fac- 
 simile edition of the Old Testament is now in progress, 
 under the editorial care of the Rev. H. H. Baber, keeper 
 of the printed books in that noble library. The following 
 passage, rendered rather more literally than the idiom of 
 our language will admit, will enable the reader to form a 
 correct idea of the manner in which the original Greek is 
 written 
 
 John 1—14. 
 
 INTHEBEGINNINGWASTHEWORDANDTHEWORDWAS 
 
 WITHGOD'ANDGCODWASTHEWORD* 
 
 HEWASINTHEBEGINN1NGWITHGOD 
 
 ALLWEREMADEBYHIMANDWITH 
 
 OUTHIMWASMADENOTONE THING 
 
 THATWASMADEINHIMLIFEWAS 
 
 ANDTHELIFEWASTHELIGHTOFMEN 
 
 ANDTHELIGHTINDARKNESSSHIN 
 
 ETHANDTHEDARKNESSDIDNOTITCOMPRE 
 
 HEND* THEREWASAMANSE 
 
 ^"TFROMGODWHOSENAME WAS 
 
 JOHN-THISPjE-RSOiyCAME 
 
 ASAWITNESSTHATHEMIGHTTESTI 
 
 FYCONCERNINGTHEL1GHTTHATA 
 
 LLMrGHTBELIEVETHROUGHHIM. 
 
 2. The Codex Vaticanus, or Vatican Manuscript, 
 which is preserved in the Vatican Library at Rome, is 
 
OF THE BIBLE. 77 
 
 also written on vellum in uncial characters, and most 
 probably before the close of the fifth century, though some 
 critics assign to it an earlier, and others a later date. It 
 wants, in the Old Testament, from Gen. i. to xlvi. and 
 from Psalm cv. to cxxxvii. inclusive ; and in the New 
 Testament, from Hebrews, ch. ix. 14, to the end of that 
 epistle, as well as St. Paul's other epistles to Timothy, 
 Titus, and Philemon, and the entire book of the Revela- 
 tions. This last book, however, has been added, as well 
 as the latter part of the epistle to the Hebrews, by a mo- 
 dern hand in the fifteenth century. In many places, the 
 faded letters have been retouched by a modern but care- 
 ful hand. Various defects, both in orthography and lan- 
 guage, indicate that this MS. was written by an Egyptian 
 copyist. 
 
 The following literal English version of the prophecy 
 of Ezekiel, cb. i. ver. 1 — 3 ; will enable the reader to form 
 a similarly correct idea of the manner in which the Codex 
 Vaticanus was executed 
 
 IEZEKIEL. 
 
 + + + 
 
 "?X"T]N0WITCAMET0PASSINTHETHIR 
 
 r*i 
 
 INTHE 
 
 TIETHYEARFOURTH 
 
 MONTHONTHEFIFTHOFTHEMONTH 
 
 WHENIWASINTHEMIDST 
 
 OFTHECAPTIVESBV THE 
 
 RIVERCHOBARAND 
 
 THEHEAVENSWEREOFENED 
 
 ANDISAWTHEVISIONSOFGDONTHKFI 
 
 FTHOFTHEMONTHTHIS 
 
 WASTHEFIFTHYEAROFTHE 
 
 CAPTIVITYOFTHEKI 
 
 NGJOACHIM ANDCA 
 
 METHEWORDOFTHELDTOE 
 
 ZEKIELTHESONOFBUZITHE 
 
 PRIESTINTHELANDOFTilECHALDEESB 
 
 YTHERIVERCHO 
 
 BARANDU PONME W AS 
 
 THEHANDOFTHELDANDILOOKEDANDLO 
 
 AWHIRLWNDCAMEOOTOF 
 
 THENORTHANDAGREATCLOUD 
 
 WITHIT 
 
 This manuscript has been repeatedly collated by vari- 
 ous critics : the Roman edition of the Septuagint, pub- 
 
7$ DIVISIONS AND MARKS OF DISTINCTION 
 
 lished in 1587, professes to exhibit the text of this manu- 
 script, of which no fac-simile edition has ever been printed, 
 3. The Codex Cantabrigiensis was presented to the 
 University of Cambridge by Theodore Beza, in 1531, 
 after whom it is most commonly called the Codex Bezce. 
 It is a Greek-Latin manuscript ; concerning its date, 
 critics greatly differ ; but it may most probably be re- 
 ferred to the fifth or sixth century. It contains the four 
 Gospels and Acts of the Apostles : sixty-six leaves of it 
 are much torn and mutilated, and ten have been supplied by 
 a later transcriber. Notwithstanding its acknowledged 
 antiquity, this MS. is deemed of comparatively little value, 
 in consequence of the Greek text having been altered 
 and readings introduced from some Latin version, which 
 were warranted by no Greek manuscript. An elegant 
 fac-simile edition of it was printed at the expense of the 
 university of Cambridge, under the editorial care of the 
 Rev. Dr. Kipling, in 2 vols, folio, 1793. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 ON THE DIVISIONS AND MARKS OP DISTINCTION OCCURRING IN MANUSCRIPTS 
 AND PRINTED EDITIONS OF THE SCRIPTURES. 
 
 Section I. — Divisions and Marks of Distinction occurring in the Old 
 Testament. 
 
 I. Different Appellations given to the Scriptures. 
 The collection of writings, which is regarded by Chris- 
 tians as the rule of their faith and practice, has been va- 
 riously termed, — the Scriptures, as being the most im- 
 portant of all Writings; — the Holy or Sacred Scrip- 
 tures, because they were composed by divinely inspired 
 persons ; — the Canonical Scriptures, either because they 
 are the rule of our faith and practice, or to distinguish 
 them from apocryphal writings, (those of uncertain au- 
 thority and of human origin ;) — and, most frequently, the 
 Bible, that is, The Book, by way of eminence, as being 
 the Book of Books, infinitely superior to every unassisted 
 production of the human mind. 
 
 II. The Canonical Books are usually divided into two 
 parts : 1 The Old Testament, containing the revelations 
 
OCCURRING LN THE OLD TESTAMENT. 79 
 
 of the divine will before the Birth of Christ ; and 2. The 
 New Testament, which comprises the inspired writings of 
 the Evangelists and Apostles. 
 
 III. The Old Testament was divided into three portions 
 or classes ; viz. : 
 
 1. The Law, including the Pentateuch, or five Books of Moses. 
 
 2. The Prophets, containing the Books of Joshua, Judges, 1 and 2 
 Samuel, and 1 and 2 Kings: these were termed the Former Prophets; 
 and also the prophetical Books of Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the twelve 
 minor Prophets, who were called the Latter Prophets, with reference to 
 the time when they flourished. 
 
 3. The Cetubim, or Hagiographa, that is, the Holy Writings, so called 
 because the Jews affirm that they were written by holy men divinely in- 
 6pired, but who had no public mission as prophets. This division com- 
 prehended the Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Song of Solomon, Ruth, Lamenta- 
 tions of Jeremiah, Ecclesiastes, Esther, Daniel. Ezra, and Nehemiah, and 
 the two Books of Chronicles. 
 
 The Pentateuch is divided into fifty or fifty-four Para- 
 schiothj or larger sections, according as the Jewish year is 
 simple or intercalary, one of which is read in the syna- 
 gogues every Sabbath day : and these Paraschioth are fur- 
 ther subdivided into smaller sections termed Siderim, or 
 orders. The reading of the law being prohibited during the 
 persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes, the Jews substituted 
 for it fifty-four Haphtoroth or sections from the prophets, 
 which are further divided into pesukim or verses. After 
 the restoration of the reading of the law, by the Macca- 
 bees, the section which had before been read from the law 
 was used for the first, and that from the prophets for the 
 second lesson. 
 
 IV. Origin and rise of the Masora. — The sacred text 
 was, originally, written without any divisions into chapters 
 or verses, or even into words. In the lapse of ages, va- 
 rious readings having arisen in consequence of successive 
 transcriptions, the Jews had recourse to a canon, which 
 they judged to be infallible, in order to fix the reading of 
 the Hebrew text. This rule they called Masora, or Tra- 
 dition, pretending that it was at first given by God to 
 Moses, on Mount Sinai, when he taught him, first, its true 
 reading, and, secondly, its true interpretation. The 
 former is the subject of the Masora, the latter (or true 
 interpretation) is that of the Misna, or Collection of Jew- 
 ish Traditions and Expositions of Scripture Texts, and 
 of the Gemara, or Commentary thereon. 
 
 The Masoretic criticisms relate to the divisions of the 
 
g() DIVISIONS ETC.. IN THE OLD TESTAMENT. 
 
 books and sections of books, the number of verses, the 
 notation of omissions, alterations, repetitions of words 
 and verses, and other minutiae. To this system also be- 
 long the marginal corrections found in Hebrew MSS. and 
 printed editions of the Old Testament, termed Ketib, that 
 is, written, and Keri, that is, read ox readings as if to in- 
 timate, " write in this manner," but " read in that man- 
 ner ;" for instance, instead of the sacred name Jehovah, 
 the Jews substitute Adonai or Elohim. Learned men are 
 greatly divided in sentiment concerning the date of the 
 Masora ; but the most probable opinion is that which re- 
 fers i'ts commencement to the sixth century, when it was 
 invented by the learned Jews of Tiberias, and continued 
 at different times by various authors. Their chief design 
 in this undertaking, appears to have been the establishment 
 or preservation of the Hebrew text, without variations. 
 
 V. The Old Testament is now divided into four parts ; 
 viz.: 
 
 1. The Pentateuch, or five Books of Moses. 
 
 2. The Historical Books, comprising Joshua to Esther, inclusive. 
 
 3. The Doctrinal or Poetical Books of Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesias- 
 tes, and the Song of Solomon; and 
 
 4. The Prophetical Books of Isaiah, Jeremiah, with his Lamentations, 
 Ezekiel, Daniel, and the twelve Minor Prophets. 
 
 These are severally divided into chapters ana verses. 
 The former were invented by Cardinal Hugo de Sancto 
 Caro, about the middle of the thirteenth century : who, 
 having projected a concordance to the Latin Vulgate 
 translation, divided the Old and New Testaments into 
 chapters, which are the same we now have. These, again, 
 he subdivided into smaller sections, distinguished by the 
 letters A, B, C, D, E, F, and G. The facility of refer- 
 ence, afforded by these subdivisions, suggested the idea of 
 a Hebrew concordance, upon the same plan, to Rabbi Mor- 
 decai Nathan, a celebrated Jewish teacher in the fifteenth 
 century, who retained the divisions of chapters, but sub- 
 stituted numeral figures for the Cardinal's marginal let- 
 ters. The introduction of verses into the Hebrew Bible 
 was first made, in 1661, by Athias, a Jewish printer at 
 Amsterdam : and from him the division of verses has been 
 adopted in all copies of the Bible in other languages. 
 
DIVISIONS, ETC., IN THE NEW TESTAMENT. gj 
 
 Section II.— On the Divisions and Mams of Distinction occurring in the 
 New Testament. 
 
 I. Ancient Divisions. — Before the fourth century the 
 New Testament was divided into longer chapters, called 
 tit\oi (titloi,) and others which were shorter called Ks<j>a\tua 
 (kephalaia,) or heads, and also breves. The most ce- 
 lebrated division of the four Gospels into chapters was 
 that of Ammonius, a learned Christian of Alexandria, in 
 the third century, from whom they have been termed the 
 Ammonian Sections. The Acts of the Apostles and the 
 Catholic Epistles were similarly divided by Euthalius, an 
 Egyptian Bishop, in the fifth century, after whom these 
 divisions have been called the Euthalian Sections. Saint 
 Paul's Epistles were divided in like manner, by some un- 
 known author, in the fourth century. These divisions 
 were superseded by Cardinal Hugo's chapters, in the 
 thirteenth century. 
 
 II. Punctuation and Division of Verses. — Euthalius, 
 who has just been mentioned, was the in venter of the di- 
 vision of the New Testament into p%oi (stichoi,) or lines 
 regulated by the sense ; so that each terminated where 
 some pause was to be made in reading. The introduction 
 of points or stops, to mark the sense, is a gradual improve- 
 ment, commenced by Jerome in the fourth century, and 
 continued and improved by succeeding critics. The verses 
 at present found in the New Testament were invented (in 
 imitation of those contrived by Rabbi Nathan) by Robert 
 Stephens, a learned printer, who first introduced them into 
 his edition of the New Testament published in 1551. 
 
 III. The Inscriptions, or Titles, prefixed to the vari- 
 ous books of the New Testament, are of great antiquity 
 They were added, in order to distinguish one book from 
 another, after the canon of the New Testament was form- 
 ed, but the author of them' is not known. 
 
 IV. But the Subscriptions annexed to the epistles are 
 manifestly spurious, for some of them contradict both 
 chronology and history. For instance, according to the 
 subscriptions to 1 and 2 Thessalonians, those epistles 
 were written at Athens, whereas they were written at 
 Corinth. The subscription to 1 Corinthians states that it 
 was written at Philippi ; notwithstanding it appears from 
 
g2 ON THE ANCIENT VERSIONS 
 
 xvi. 8, and 19, that the apostle was at that very time ia 
 Asia. The subscription to the epistle to the Galatians 
 purports that epistle to have been written from Rome ; 
 whereas Saint Paul did not go to Rome until ten years 
 after the conversion of the Galatians. And the sub- 
 scription to the first epistle to Timothy evidently was not, 
 and indeed could not have been, written by the apostle 
 Paul: for it states that epistle to have been written from 
 Phrygia Pacatiana ; whereas the country of Phrygia was 
 not divided into the two provinces of Phrygia Pacatia- 
 7>a, or Prima, and Phrygia Secunda, until the fourth 
 century. The author of these subscriptions, it is evident 
 was either grossly ignorant, or grossly inattentive. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 ON THE ANCIENT VERSIONS OP THE SCRIPTURES. 
 
 To those who possess ability, means, and leisure of con- 
 sulting them, the Ancient Versions of the Old Testament 
 are a very important source of criticism and interpretation 
 of the sacred writing ; the value of them, however, varies 
 according to the age and country of their respective au- 
 thors, the purity of the text whence these versions were 
 made, and the ability and fidelity of the translators. 
 
 Section I.— Of the Targums, or Chaldee Paraphrases. 
 
 Targum is a Chaldee word, signifying generally any 
 version or explanation ; but this appellation is particularly 
 restricted to the versions or paraphrases of the Old Testa- 
 ment, which have been composed in the Chaldee Dialect. 
 Ten of these expositions have been preserved to our 
 times : viz. 
 
 I. The Targum of Onkelos on the Pentateuch, or five 
 books of Moses, was composed by a learned Jewish rabbi 
 of the same name, who is supposed to have been contem- 
 porary with our Saviour. It is preferred to every other, 
 on account of the purity of its style, and its general free- 
 dom from idle legends. 
 
OF THE SCRIPTURES. 83 
 
 II. The Targum of the Pseudo-Jonathan, so called 
 from being erroneously ascribed to Jonathan Ben Uzziel, 
 is a more liberal paraphrase of the Pentateuch than the 
 preceding", but abounds with the most idle Jewish legends. 
 From internal evidence, learned men concur in referring 
 its date to the seventh or eight century of the Christian 
 JEra. 
 
 III. The Jerusalem Targum, also on the five books of 
 Moses, in many respects agrees with that of the Pseudo- 
 Jonathan, in the impurity of its style, legendary tales, <fcc. 
 It was most probably written in the eighth or ninth century. 
 
 IV. The Targum of Jonathan Ben Uzziel, on the Pro- 
 phets (that is according to the Jewish Division of the sacred 
 books mentioned in p. 79,) is held in the highest estima- 
 tion. Its date cannot be exactly ascertained ; some learn- 
 ed men making it nearly coeval with the time of Christ, 
 while others place it three or four hundred years later. 
 
 V. The barbarous, and in many places, obscure Targum 
 on the Cetubim, or Holy Writings, though ascribed to 
 Eabbi Joseph, surnamed the Blind, in the third century, 
 is evidently a compilation of much later date. 
 
 VI. The Targum on the Megilloth, or five books of 
 Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Lamentations of Jeremiah, 
 Ruth, and Esther, could not be written before the sixth 
 century. It is of very little value. The same remark is 
 applicable to 
 
 VII — IX. Three Targums on The Book of Esther ; 
 and X. a Targum on The Books of Chronicles ; all of 
 which are of very recent date. 
 
 XI. Of all these Chaldee Paraphrases, the Targums of 
 Onkelos and Jonathan Ben Uzziel are held in the highest 
 estimation by the Jews ; but it is in establishing the 
 genuine meaning of particular prophecies relative to the 
 Messiah, in opposition to the false explications of the Jews 
 and the erroneous expositions of Anti-Trinitarians, that 
 these paraphrases are pre-eminently useful. 
 
 Section II.— Ancient Greek Versions of the Old Testament. 
 
 I. Among the Greek Versions of the Old Testament, 
 the most ancient and valuable is that usually designated 
 
84 ON THE ANCIENT VERSIONS OF 
 
 the Septuagint, from the tradition (now generally reject- 
 ed) of one Aristeas, who related that it was made in seven- 
 ty-two days, and by seventy learned Jews, who had been 
 sent by the Jewish High Priest Eleazar to Alexandria, at 
 the request of Ptolemy Philadelphus, King of Egypt. It 
 is, however, most probable, that this version was really 
 executed during the join! reigns of Ptolemy Lagus, and 
 his son Philadelphus, and about 285 or 2S6 years before 
 the Christian iEra. 
 
 II. The introduction of Coptic, or pure Egyptian words, 
 and the rendering of Hebrew ideas in the Egyptian man- 
 ner, clearly prove that the translators were natives of 
 Egypt ; as the difference of style and various ability, with 
 which particular books have been rendered into Greek, 
 evince this version to have been the work, not of one, 
 but of several individuals. 
 
 III. The Septuagint Version, though originally made 
 for the use of the Egyptian Jews, gradually acquired the 
 highest authority among the Jews of Palestine, who were 
 acquainted with the Greek language, and subsequently 
 also among Christians. It retained its authority, even 
 with the rulers of the Jewish Synagogue, until the com- 
 mencement of the first century after Christ ; when the 
 Jews being unable to resist the arguments from prophecy 
 which were urged against them by Christians, in order 
 to deprive these of the benefit of that authority, began to 
 deny that it agreed with the Hebrew Text, and, ultimate- 
 ly abandoning it they adopted the Greek Version of Aquila, 
 which is noticed in p. S6, infra. 
 
 IV. Numerous errors having in the lapse >f ages crept 
 into the Septuagint, by the inaccuracy of transcribers and 
 other circumstances, Origen, a learned Christian Father, 
 in the early part of the third century, undertook the labo- 
 rious task of collating the Greek Text then in use, with 
 the original Hebrew, and with other Greek Translations 
 then extant, and from the whole to produce a new recen- 
 sion orrevisal. Twenty-eight years were devoted to this 
 frreat critical work, which ancient writer* have variously 
 
 termed the Tetrapla, Hexapla, Octapla, and Enneapla. 
 Tetrapla contained the four Greek Versions of Aquila, 
 Svmmachus, the Septuagint, and Theodotion : when he 
 subsequently added, in two columns, the Hebrew Text, in 
 
OF THE SGBIPTtrjUES. £5 
 
 Us original characters, and also in Greek characters, the 
 six columns formed the Hexapla. The addition of two 
 other Greek Versions of some parts of the Scriptures, in 
 particular places, composed the Octapla ; and a separate 
 translation of the Psalms being afterwards subjoined, the 
 entire work has by some been termed the Enneapla It 
 is, however, most probable, that Origen edited only the 
 Tetrapla and the Hexapla. As Origen's object was to 
 correct the differences found in the existing copies of the 
 Old Testament, he carefully noted the alterations made 
 by him, with peculiar marks. Fifty years after his death, 
 this great work was discovered in an obscure corner of 
 the city of Tyre, by Eusebius and Pamphilus, by whom 
 it was deposited in the Library of Pamphilus the Martyr, 
 where Jerome saw it about the middle of the fourth centu- 
 ry. It is supposed to have perished on the capture of that 
 city by the Arabs, A. D. 653. A few fragments, retrieved 
 from MSS. of the Septuagint and the writings of the Fa- 
 thers, are all that remain of this noble undertaking in be- 
 half of sacred literature. 
 
 V. The Septuagint continuing to be read in most of 
 the Greek churches, the text, as corrected by Origen, 
 was transcribed for their use together with his critical 
 marks. In progress of time, from the introduction of nu- 
 merous errors by copyists, a new revision became neces- 
 sary : and as all the oriental churches did not receive 
 Origen's labours with equal deference, three principal 
 recensions were undertaken nearly at the same time, viz : 
 
 1. The edition, undertaken by Eusebius and Pamphi- 
 lus, about A. D. 300, from the Hexaplar Text, with the 
 whole of Origen's critical marks : by repeated transcrip- 
 tions these marks soon became changed, and were finally 
 omitted. 
 
 2. The recension of the Vulgate, or common Greek 
 Text, by Lucian, a presbyter of the Church at Antioch, 
 who suffered martyrdom A. D. 311. He took the He- 
 brew Text for the basis of his edition, which was received 
 in all the eastern churches from Constantinople to Anti- 
 och. Contemporary with Lucian was 
 
 3. Hesychius, an Egyptian Bishop, who undertook 
 a similar revision, which was generally adopted in the 
 churches of Egypt. 
 
gg ON THE ANCIENT VERSIONS 
 
 All MSS. and printed editions of the Septuagint, now 
 extant, are derived from these three recensions. The 
 Septuagint Version is of great importance, in a critical 
 point of view, not only for correcting the Hebrew text, 
 but also for ascertaining the meaning of particular idio- 
 matic expressions and passages in the New Testament. 
 
 VI. It remains to notice, briefly, some other ancient 
 Greek Translations, which have been incidentally men- 
 tioned. 
 
 1. The Version of Aqtjila, a native of Sinope, in Pon- 
 tus, was executed about the year 160. He was of Jew- 
 ish descent, and had apostatised from the Christian faith 
 to Judaism. His version, which is very literal, was un- 
 dertaken to gratify the Jews. Nearly contemporary with 
 him was 
 
 2. Theodotion, an Ebionite, or semi-christian : his 
 version is a kind of revision of the Septuagint ; it holds 
 a middle place between the servile closeness of Aquila 
 and the freedom of 4. Symmachus, who lived about the 
 year 200, and was also an Ebionite. 
 
 4 — 6. The three anonymous translations, usually 
 called the fifth, sixth, and seventh versions, derive their 
 names from the order in which Origen disposed them in 
 his columns. Their authors are not known. 
 
 Section III.— Ancient Oriental Versions of the Old and New Testaments. 
 
 I. Syriac Versions. — Christianity being very early 
 preached in Syria, several versions of the Scriptures were 
 made into the language of that country. 
 
 1. The most celebrated of these is the Peschito, (that 
 is, right, literal, or exact,) also called the Versio Simplex, 
 on account of its close adherence to the original sacred 
 text. It was made early in the second, if not at the close 
 of the first century : and, from some internal evidences 
 furnished by the style, it is supposed to have been the 
 work of several authors. The second epistle of Peter, 
 the second and third epistles of John, and the epistle of 
 
 * In the larger edition of the author's Introduction to the Study and 
 Knowledge of the Scriptures, he has treated the oriental versions of the 
 Old and New Testaments in distinct sections. They are here condensed. 
 In order to avoid repetitions, that would otherwise be necessary. 
 
OF THE SCRIPTURES. 87 
 
 Jude, as well as the disputed passages in John viii. 2— - 
 11, and 1 John v. 7, are all wanting in the New Testa- 
 ment of this version ; having been added in the sixth 
 century by some unknown and indifferent translator. 
 This version is much esteemed for its singular fidelity. 
 
 2. The Philozenian, or Syro-Philoxenian Version, de- 
 rives its name from Philoxenus or Xenayas, Bishop of 
 Hierapolis in Syria, A. D. 488 — 518, who employed his 
 rural bishop, Polycarp, to translate the New Testament 
 from the original Greek into the vernacular Syriac of 
 that time. Though inferior to the preceding, it is ne- 
 vertheless of considerable value in a critical point of 
 view, as well as for the interpretation of the New Tes- 
 tament. 
 
 3. The Syriac Translation of Jerusalem is known to 
 have existed, from its having been discovered in a lec- 
 tionarium, or book containing ecclesiastical lessons from 
 the New Testament. It has never been published. 
 
 II. Egyptian Versions. — Two Translations of the 
 Scriptures have been made in the Egyptian language, 
 — one in the Coptic or ancient dialect of Lower Egypt, 
 the other in the Sahidic, or dialect of Upper Egypt, and 
 both from the Greek. The Coptic Version is by some 
 eminent scholars referred to the second or third century, 
 though others carry its date so low as the fifth century ; 
 the Sahidic Version was probably executed in the second 
 century. 
 
 III. Several Arabic Translations have been made at 
 different times between the seventh, and the tenth or 
 eleventh centuries, for the inhabitants of those countries, 
 where the Syriac and Egyptian languages have been 
 supplanted by the Arabic. They were not all executed 
 from the original text, but from those versions, which 
 they were intended to accompany. 
 
 IV. The Ethiopic, or Abyssinian Version of the Old 
 Testament was made from the Septuagint ; some frag- 
 ments of it only have been printed, but the entire New 
 Testament, has been published. This version is of con- 
 siderable antiquity, the Old Testament being referred to 
 the second, and the New Testament to the fourth 
 century 
 
 V. The Armenian Version of the Old Testament was 
 
33 ON THE ANCIENT VERSIONS 
 
 also made from the Septuagint ; the New Testament has 
 been twice translated, from the Syriac, and then from the 
 Greek. This version is ascribed to Miesrob, the inven- 
 tor of the Armenian Alphabet, towards the close of the 
 fourth, or early in the fifth century 
 
 VI. Though the Scriptures are said to have been early 
 translated into the Persian language, no fragments of 
 this ancient version are extant. The Pentateuch is all 
 that has been printed of the Old Testament ; it was tra*- 
 lated by a Jew, and for the benefit of Jews. Of the ftow 
 Testament, there are extant two versions of the four Gos- 
 pels ; the most ancient and valuable of which is printed 
 in the London Polyglott, by bishop Walton, from a ma- 
 nuscript of the fourteenth century. 
 
 Section IV.— Ancient Western Versions of the Scriptures. 
 
 I. Many Latin Versions of the Scriptures were made 
 at the first introduction of Christianity, by unknown au- 
 thors. One of these, called the Vetus Itala, or Old Italic, 
 appears to have acquired a more extensive circulation 
 than the others, to which it was preferred on account of 
 its clearness and fidelity. It was translated from the 
 Greek, both in the Old and New Testaments; and was 
 made in the early part of the second century. In the 
 progress of time, very numerous alterations, however, 
 being made by transcribers, Jerome, towards the close ot 
 the fourth century, undertook to revise it, and make it 
 more conformable to the original Greek. Some parts 
 only of this revision have been preserved. But before it 
 was completed, he undertook, and at length accomplished, 
 a version of the Bible, which gradually acquired so great 
 an authority in the West of Europe, that, ever since the 
 seventh century, it has been exclusively adopted by the 
 Romish Church ; and in the sixteenth century, the assem- 
 bly or council of Trent pronounced the Latin Vulgate 
 (for so this version is termed) to be authentic, and to be 
 exclusively used in the public service of the church. Va- 
 rious grave errors having crept into this version in the 
 lapse of ages, several revisions were undertaken by learn 
 ed men. Of these the most celebrated is the revision o. 
 
OF THE SCRIPTURES. g9 
 
 Pope Sixtus V., published at Rome in 1590, but suppres- 
 sed by Pope Clement VIII., whose authentic edition ap- 
 peared in 1592. This edition has been followed in all 
 subsequent impressions of the Latin Vulgate. Notwith- 
 standing the variations between the Sixtine and Clemen- 
 tine editions, (both published by infallible pontiffs !) and 
 that several passages are mistranslated in order to sup- 
 port the peculiar dogmas of the Romish Church, the La- 
 tin Vulgate preserves many true readings, where the 
 modern Hebrew copies are corrupted. 
 
 II. The Gothic Version of the Bible was made from 
 the Greek, both in the Old and New Testaments, by Ul- 
 philas, Bishop of the Maeso-Goths, who invented the 
 Gothic characters. A fragment of the Book of Nehemiah, 
 the four Gospels, and some portions of the Epistles, are 
 all that has been published, from this version ; which, 
 though interpolated from the Latin Vulgate, is neverthe- 
 less much esteemed for its general fidelity. 
 
 III. The Sclavonic or Old Russian translation was 
 executed from the Greek, in the ninth century, by the 
 two brothers, Cyril and Methodius. It is said to have 
 undergone several revisions ; and the New Testament is 
 rendered with more perspicuity than the Old. 
 
 IV. The Anglo-Saxon Version is ascribed by Dr. Mill 
 to several authors, and is supposed to have been executed 
 in the eighth and ninth centuries. Having been made 
 from the Old Latin, it may be of use in determining the 
 readings of that version. Several portions of it have been 
 published at different times. 
 
 Section V.— Use and Application of Ancient Versions. 
 
 As no one version can be absolutely free from error, 
 reliance ought not to be implicitly placed on any one 
 translation. Versions of Versions, that is, versions not 
 made immediately from the Hebrew of the Old Testament, 
 or the Greek of the New Testament, are of authority 
 only to determine the meaning of the version from which 
 they are taken. 
 
 I. The Alexandrian, or Septuagint Greek Version, from 
 its very great antiquity, and its influence on the style of the 
 New Testament, claims the first place. Next in order is, 
 
90 
 
 ON TUB MODERN VERSIONS 
 
 II. The Syriac Peschito, which is particularly service- 
 able for the interpretation of the New Testament. 
 
 III. The Latin Vulgate, with the exception of the Psalms, 
 claims the third place 
 
 IV. The Targums, or Chaldee Paraphrases, especially 
 that of Jonathan Ben Uzziel, illustrate many difficult pas- 
 sages in the Old Testament, as well as in the New Testa- 
 ment. 
 
 V. Other versions made immediately from the Hebrew 
 and Greek originals follow next in order. 
 
 Ancient versions need not to be consulted, except in 
 passages that are really difficult, or unless an examination 
 of them be instituted for some special object of inquiry. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 ON THE MODERN VERSIONS OF THE SCRIPTURES. 
 
 Numerous as were the ancient versions of the Sacred 
 Scriptures, the publication of a version, being accomplish- 
 ed by the tedious process of transcription, was necessarily 
 slow, while the high price of manuscripts enabled only the 
 wealthy to procure them. The discovery of the art of 
 printing in the fifteenth century, and the establishment of 
 the glorious reformation throughout Europe in the follow- 
 ing century, facilitated the circulation of the Scriptures, 
 both in the original Languages and through the medium 
 of translations. The Modern Versions of the Scriptures 
 are two-fold, viz. : in the Latin Language, and in the 
 vernacular languages of almost all the countries in which 
 Christianity has been propagated : and both are made, 
 either by persons in communion with the Church 0/ 
 Rome, or by Protestants, 
 
 Section I. On the Modern Latin Versions of the Old and New Testament. 
 
 I. Modern Latin Versions, executed in communion with 
 the Church of Rome. 
 
 1. The Version of Sanctes Pagninus a Dominican monk, 
 was undertaken under the patronage of several popes ; and, 
 
OF THE SCRIPTURES 9| 
 
 after twenty-five years of unremitting labour, was publish- 
 ed in 1528. Though it has been censured by one critic 
 for its close adherence to the original text,, all the later 
 commentators and critics commend it for its exactness and 
 fidelity. It contains only the Old Testament. This trans- 
 lation was revised by 
 
 2. Arias Montanus, who has from this circumstance been 
 erroneously, considered as a new translator of the Bible 
 into the Latin Language. Montanus's aim being to 
 translate the Hebrew words by the same number of Latin 
 words, his edition may rather be considered as a gramma- 
 tical commentary than a true version, and is best adap- 
 ted to suit young beginners in the Hebrew language. 
 
 3. The translations of Thomas Malvenda, and of Car- 
 dinal Cajetan (who was not the author of that which bears 
 his name) have both fallen into oblivion. 
 
 4. Houbigant's Latin Version of the Old Testament is 
 framed according to the corrected Hebrew Text, publish- 
 ed by him in 1753, in 4 vols, folio ; a work which has 
 not answered the high expectations entertained of it. 
 
 II. Modern Latin Versions of the Bible, executed by 
 Protestants 
 
 1. The translation of Sebastian Munster, first publish- 
 ed in 1534, is considered, upon the whole, as very exact 
 and conformable to the original. 
 
 2. The Version which bears the name of Leo Juda, 
 though commenced by him, was finished by others : it is 
 acknowledged to be very faithful. It was first published in 
 1543. 
 
 3. Sebastian Chatillon (better known by the name of 
 Castalio) in 1&51 published a version of the Bible, in which 
 he aimed at rendering the Old and New Testaments into 
 classical Latin. His style has been severely censured, as 
 departing from the simph grandeur of the sacred originals. 
 
 4. The Version of Francis Junius andlmmanual Tre- 
 mellius, first printed in 1575, is held in great estimation 
 for its simplicity, perspicuity, and fidelity. 
 
 5. The Latin Translation of Sebastian Schmidt, publish- 
 ed in 1696, is strictly literal. 
 
 6. The Version of Professor J. A. Dathe, printed be- 
 t veen the years 1779 and 1789, is deservedly in high 
 
 „pute for its general fidelity and excellence, 
 
92 OX THE MODERN VERSIONS 
 
 7. The Version of the Old Testament, commenced in 
 1816, by H. A. Schott and J. F. Winzer, professes to be 
 very close. The Pentateuch only has been published. 
 
 III. Besides the preceding new modern Latin Versions, 
 there have been several editions of the Latin Vulgate, so 
 much corrected from the Hebrew and Greek originals, as 
 in some degree to be considered new translations. Of 
 this number are the Latin Bibles published by Isidore 
 Clarius, in 1542 ; by Paul Eber, in 1565 ; and by Luke 
 Osiander, in 1578, and Andrew Osiander in 1600. The 
 edition of Clarius, who was a Romanist, is preferred to 
 those of the other three Protestant scholars. 
 
 IV. Of the Latin Version of the New Testament the 
 following are the principal : 
 
 1. Erasmus claims the first place. His version was 
 published in 1516 ; and it is admitted that he succeeded 
 in giving a clear and faithful version as far as it was pos- 
 sible, at that time. He varied but little from the Vul- 
 gate. 
 
 2. The Latin Version of Theodore Beza, published in 
 1556, has always been held in high estimation for its 
 fidelity. 
 
 3. The Latin Version of Leopoldo Sebastiani, which 
 appeared in 1817, professes to be formed after the text 
 of the Alexandrian Manuscript, collated with other MSS. 
 and critical helps. In all doctrinal points it agrees with 
 the tenets of the Romish Church. 
 
 Section II.— Versions in the Modern Languages of Europe, Asia, Africa, 
 and America. 
 
 The translations of the Scriptures into the different 
 modern languages, which are spoken in the four quarters 
 of the globe, are so numerous, that it is extremely difficult 
 to obtain correct accounts of all of them, and still more 
 difficult to compress those accounts into an analysis like 
 the present. The following tables, however, will exhibit 
 at one view the principal translations, together with 
 the dates when they appeared, the authors by whom they 
 were executed, and the places where they were severally 
 
OF THE SCRIPTURES. 93 
 
 printed. The first of these tables is taken from the second 
 volume of the author's larger work, with a few addi- 
 tions; and the second and third are given, by permission, 
 from the eighteenth volume of the Encyclopaedia Me- 
 tropolitana, for which work he originally composed them 
 
94 
 
 ON THE MODERN VERSIONS 
 
 Table I. 
 
 VERSIONS IN THE LANGUAGES OF MODERN EUROPE. 
 
 Translation. 
 
 N. T. 
 
 Bible. 
 
 Author. 
 
 Place of Printing 
 
 German 
 
 1522 
 
 1534 
 
 Martin Luther 
 
 Wittemberg 
 
 English 
 
 1526 
 
 1535 
 
 Tindal, and Coverdale 
 
 Uncertain 
 
 Frsnch 
 
 
 1535 
 
 Robert Olivetan 
 
 Geneva 
 
 Swedish 
 
 1534 
 
 1541 
 
 Olaus Petri 
 
 Up9al, Sweden 
 
 Danish 
 
 1524 
 
 1550 
 
 Palladius and others 
 
 Copenhagen 
 
 Dutch 
 
 . 
 
 1560 
 
 
 
 Italian 
 
 . 
 
 1562 
 
 ( Antonio Brucioli'sre- ) 
 ( viseu ? ) 
 Cassiodorus de Reyna 
 
 Geneva 
 
 Spanish 
 
 1556 
 
 1569 
 
 Frankfort orB^sil 
 
 Russian 
 
 1519 
 
 1531 
 
 Cyril and Methodius 
 
 Ostrog 
 
 Helvetian dialect 
 
 1525 
 
 1529 
 
 
 Zuiich 
 
 Lower Saxon dialect 
 
 . 
 
 1533 
 
 
 Lubeck 
 
 Finnish 
 
 154S 
 
 1642 
 
 
 Stockholm 
 
 Croatian • 
 
 1553 
 
 ■ • 
 
 
 Tubinger 
 
 Basque 
 
 1571 
 
 . 
 
 
 Rochelle 
 
 Welsh 
 
 1567 
 
 15S3 
 
 
 London 
 
 Hungarian - 
 
 1574 
 
 15S9 
 
 
 Vienna 
 
 Wendish 
 
 
 15S4 
 
 
 Wiuemberg 
 
 Icelandic 
 
 . 
 
 15S4 
 
 Thorlaci 
 
 Holum, Iceland 
 
 Pomeranian diaiect - 
 
 . 
 
 1538 
 
 
 Barth 
 
 Polish 
 
 15S5 
 
 1596 
 
 Several 
 
 
 Bohemian 
 
 _ 
 
 1593 
 
 Several 
 
 Cralitz. Moravia 
 
 Hebrew 
 
 1599 
 
 • 
 
 Elias Hutter 
 
 Nuremberg 
 
 Modern Greek 
 
 1633 
 
 . 
 
 Maximus Calliergi 
 
 Geneva 
 
 WalJachian - 
 
 164S 
 
 . 
 
 
 Belgrade 
 
 Romanese 
 
 . 
 
 1657 
 
 
 Schuol 
 
 Lithuanian - 
 
 . 
 
 1660 
 
 Chylinsky 
 
 London 
 
 Turkish 
 
 1666 
 
 . 
 
 Lazarus Seaman 
 
 Oxford 
 
 Irish 
 
 1602 
 
 1635 
 
 Dr. Daniel, Bp. Bedell 
 
 London 
 
 Livonian 
 
 1635 
 
 16S9 
 
 
 Riga 
 
 Esthonian 
 
 16S5 
 
 1639 
 
 
 Ris-a 
 
 Esthonian, dialect of 
 
 16S6 
 
 • 
 
 
 Riga 
 
 Dorpatian dialect 
 
 17-27 
 
 
 
 
 Orisons 
 
 . 
 
 17J9 
 
 
 Coirs 
 
 Upper Lusatian 
 
 1706 
 
 1728 
 
 Several 
 
 Bautzen 
 
 Lapponic 
 
 1755 
 
 
 
 
 Manks 
 
 - 
 
 1763 
 
 ( BishopsWilson andHil- 
 l desley, 
 I James Stewart and > 
 I others J 
 5 Ferreira d'Almeida. ) 
 I Cath. \ 
 
 
 Gaelic 
 
 1767 
 
 1S02 
 
 Edinburgh 
 
 Portuguese >\ 
 
 1712 
 
 1743-53 
 
 Amsterdam and 
 Batavia 
 
 I 
 
 1781 
 
 1783 
 
 Antonio Pereira, Cain. 
 
 Lisbon 
 
 Spanish 
 
 . 
 
 1793,4 
 
 Padre Scio, Cath. 
 
 Madrid 
 
 Maltese 
 
 1320 
 
 - 
 
 < Rev.W. Jowett, M.A. > 
 t and Signor Cannolo 5 
 
 Malta 
 
 Samogitian 
 
 1820 
 
 
 
 Petersburgh 
 
 Judaeo-Polish 
 
 1S21 
 
 . 
 
 N. Solomon 
 
 London 
 
 Modern Russ 
 
 1821 
 
 
 ] 
 
 
 Russian Dialects, viz 
 
 
 
 
 
 Karelian (Gospel ? 
 of Matthew) S 
 
 1S20 
 
 - 
 
 ■ Russian Bible Society 
 
 Petersburgh 
 
 Mordwassian (4 ) 
 Gospels) 5 
 
 1821 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tcheremissian,(4 j 
 Gospels) S 
 
 1821 
 
 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 
OF THE SCRIPTURES. 
 
 Table II. 
 
 VERSIONS IN THE LANGUAGES OP MODERN ASIA. 
 
 95 
 
 
 New Te 
 
 stament, or 
 
 Bible, or 
 
 Old Testa- 
 
 
 
 
 detached Books 
 
 ment, or detached 
 
 
 
 
 thereof. 
 
 Books thereof. , 
 
 
 Place of 
 
 Language. 
 
 
 
 
 Author. 
 
 New 
 
 Detached 
 
 Bible, or 
 
 Detached 
 
 Printing. 
 
 
 Test. 
 
 Books. 
 
 Old Tes. 
 
 Books. 
 
 
 
 1. Arabic, and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 its derivative 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 languages. 
 tdrabic, 
 
 1816 
 
 4 Goap. 
 1804 
 
 \ Z 
 
 : s 
 
 N. Sabat and Rev. 
 H. Martyn, B. D. 
 
 > Calcutta 
 
 Persian 
 
 ~ J 
 
 
 Lt.Ool. Colebrookc 
 
 J 
 
 
 1815 
 
 
 
 
 Rev. H. Martyn 
 
 Petersburg^ 
 
 Pushtoo 
 
 1813 
 
 - 
 
 -I 
 
 Gen. Lev. 
 1822 
 
 John Leyden, M.D. 
 and others. 
 
 i Serampore 
 
 Bulocha 
 
 - 
 
 ( 4 Gosp. 
 1 1316 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 2. Sanscrit, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and its de- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rivative lan- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 guages. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sanscrit, 
 
 1808 
 
 — 
 
 1811-18 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 SikhorPun- 
 jabee 
 
 jlSll 
 
 1819 
 
 - 
 
 — 
 
 Pent. 1818 
 
 
 
 Assamese 
 
 _ 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 Kashmiree 
 
 1S19 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 Wutch, or 
 
 |lS19 
 
 1S20 
 1819 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Multanee 
 
 "*~ 
 
 ~~ 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 Guzerattee 
 Bikaneer 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Baptist > 
 Missionaries J 
 
 Serampore 
 
 Kunkuna 
 
 1318 
 
 — 
 
 __ 
 
 __ 
 
 
 
 Maruvvar 
 
 1822 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oojuvinee 
 
 1322 
 
 — - 
 
 __ 
 
 __ 
 
 
 
 Bundelkun- 
 
 ^1822 
 1822 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 dee 
 
 ~ 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 Nepaulese 
 
 — 
 
 _ 
 
 _ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 Pent, and 
 
 
 
 Mahratta 
 
 1807 
 
 
 " 
 
 Hist. Bks. 
 
 1312-15 
 
 Pnt. Hist. 
 
 
 
 Hindee 
 
 1912 
 
 - 
 
 - • 
 
 and Poet. 
 Books, 
 
 
 
 Hindoostan- 
 hee 
 
 (,- 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 1806-12 
 Ps. 1747 
 
 ( Danish Mission 
 I Benj. Schultz 
 
 I Halle 
 Calcutta 
 I Serarapo e 
 
 •Bengalee I 
 
 1S08--14 
 
 — * 
 
 — 
 
 
 Rev. H. Martyn 
 
 1801 
 
 — 
 
 1801-05 
 
 
 ( Baptist Mission- 
 l aries 
 
 Orissa 
 
 1807 
 
 — 
 
 1809-14 
 
 — 
 
 Canarese 
 
 1S20 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 Rev. W. Hands 
 
 
 Tamul 
 
 1715 
 
 - 
 
 1723-28 
 
 - 
 
 (Danish Miss. ") 
 < Ziegenbalg, V 
 ( and Schultz ) 
 
 Tranquebai 
 
 Telinga or ? 
 Telogoo S 
 
 _ \ 
 
 Gosp. of 
 Mark, 
 
 \- 
 
 
 VL. Des Granges 
 
 { Vizagapa 
 ) tarn 
 
 I 
 
 1812 
 
 ) ( 
 
 Gen. Ex. 
 
 Tybrantz and 
 Phillipz 
 
 i 
 
 C 
 
 1771-30 
 
 
 - ) 
 
 and Lev it. 
 
 V Colombo 
 
 Cingalese 1 
 
 
 
 ( 
 
 1771-83 
 
 ( Mr. W. Tolfrey 
 I and others 
 
 
 ( 
 
 1820 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 ~~ 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Amsterdam 
 
 Malay 
 
 1663 
 
 — 
 
 1731-33 
 
 
 Various Persons < 
 
 & Batavia 
 
96 
 
 ON THE MODERN VERSIONS 
 
 Table II. — continued. 
 
 
 New Testament, or 
 
 Bible, or 
 
 Old Testa- 
 
 
 
 
 detached Books 
 
 ment, or detached 
 
 
 
 Language. 
 
 thereof. 
 
 Books thereof. 
 
 Author. 
 
 Place of 
 
 i New 
 
 Detached 
 
 Bible, or Detached 
 
 Printing. 
 
 
 Test. 
 
 Books. 
 
 Old Tes. 
 
 Books. 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 1309-14 
 
 — 
 
 1315-21 
 
 — 
 
 Rev.Dr.Marshman 
 
 Seramporo 
 
 3. Chinese < 
 
 1311-13- 
 16 
 
 — 
 
 1815-20 
 
 — 
 
 ( Rev.Dr.Morriaon 
 I & Rev.Mr. Milne 
 
 > Canton 
 
 4. Other Asia- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tic Versions 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Formosan 
 
 1313 
 1820 
 
 Matt, and 
 John 1661 
 
 i- 
 
 
 Robert Junius 
 
 Amsterdam 
 
 Tartar 
 Orenburg ) 
 Tartar $ 
 
 
 Fsal. 1815 
 
 Edin. Soc. Mission 
 Ditto 
 
 ( Karass Si 
 I Astrachau 
 Astrachat 
 
 Calmuc ) 
 Tartar \ 
 
 1815-20 
 
 — 
 
 - 
 
 — 
 
 Morav. Mission 1 
 
 
 Montgolian 5 
 
 IS 
 
 Matt, and 
 
 i- 
 
 - f 
 
 Two Mongolian [ 
 
 Petersburg! 
 
 Tartar J 
 
 Luke 1815 
 
 Chieftains 
 
 
 Georgian 
 
 — 
 
 1743 
 
 
 Unknown 
 
 Moscow 
 
 Otaheitean or 
 
 j 1813-25 
 
 
 
 
 (Missionaries of 
 f theLond. Soc. 
 
 Eimeo and 
 
 Tahitan 
 
 
 
 
 Tahift 
 
 Table III. 
 
 VERSIONS IN THE LANGUAGES OF MODERN AFRICA AND AMERICA. 
 
 Language. 
 
 'African. 
 
 Bullom. 
 
 Amharic, 
 dialeet of 
 Abyssinia 
 American In- 
 dian. 
 
 Virginian 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Indian-Massa- 
 chusett 
 
 Mohawk 
 
 Esquimaux 
 Grcenl andish 
 West Indian. 
 Cfeolesc 
 
 New Testament, or 
 detached Books 
 thereof. 
 
 New Detached 
 Test. Books 
 
 1822 
 
 -I 
 
 1809-13-19 
 1799 
 
 1781 
 
 Gosp. of 
 Matt. 
 1816 
 
 3 Epist. 
 of John 
 
 1813 
 Gosp. of 
 
 John 
 
 1709 
 
 Matt. 
 Mark, & 
 
 John 
 17S7, 1304 
 
 Bible, or Old Testa- 
 ment,or detached 
 Books thereof. 
 
 Bible, or] Detached 
 Old Tea. Books. 
 
 i- 
 
 Author. 
 
 Rev.G.Ny lander 1 
 
 M. Asselin 
 Cherville 
 
 def 
 
 Psal. 1709 
 
 Rev. John Eliot \ 
 
 C. F. Denke 
 
 ( Experience 
 I Mayhew 
 
 Rev. Mr. Freeman 
 Capt. Brant 
 Capt. Norton 
 
 Moravian Mission 
 Ditto 
 
 Unknown 
 
 Place of 
 Printing 
 
 London 
 
 Cambridge 
 
 New Eng. 
 
 New-York 
 
 Boston, New 
 England 
 
 London 
 
 Copenha 
 gen 
 
OF THE SCRIPTURES. 97 
 
 Of the numerous versions noticed in the preceding ta- 
 bles, those are most interesting to the reader, which have 
 been executed in our vernacular tongue : a few particu- 
 lars, therefore, respecting the different translations into the 
 English language, which have been made at different 
 times, will appropriately conclude this section. 
 
 The earliest English translation, known to be extant, 
 was made by an unknown individual, and is placed by 
 Archbishop Usher to the year 1290. Of this there are 
 three manuscript copies preserved in the Bodleian Libra- 
 ry, and in the Libraries of Christ's Church and Queen's 
 Colleges, Oxford. Towards the close of the following 
 century, John de Trevisa, vicar of Berkeley, in Glouces- 
 tershire, is said to have translated the Old and New Tes- 
 taments into the English tongue, at the request of his pa- 
 tron, Lord Berkeley : but as no part of this work appears 
 ever to have been printed, the translation ascribed to him 
 is supposed to have been confined to a few texts, which 
 were painted on the walls of his patron's chapel, at Ber- 
 keley Castle, or which are scattered in some parts of his 
 writings ; several copies of which are known to exist in 
 manuscript. Nearly contemporary with him, was the cele- 
 brated John Wickliffe, who, about the year 1380, transla- 
 ted the entire Bible from the Latin Vulgate : the New 
 Testament of Wickliffe was published in folio by Mr. 
 Lewis in 1731 ; and was handsomely re-edited in quarto, 
 in 1810, by the Rev. Henry Hervey Baber, one of the 
 librarians of the British Museum, who prefixed a valuable 
 memoir of this " Apostle of England," as Wickliffe has 
 sometimes been called. 
 
 The first printed edition of any part of the Scriptures 
 in English was of the New Testament, at Hamburgh, in 
 the year 1526. It was translated by William Tindal, or 
 Tyndale, with the assistance of John Fry and William 
 Roye : the whole of this impression (with the exception, 
 it is said, of a single copy,) being bought up and burnt by 
 Tonstal, Bishop of London, and Sir Thomas More, Tindal 
 put forth a new edition in 1527, and a third in 1528 ; 
 and, two years after, his translation of the Pentateuch ap- 
 peared at Hamburgh, with another edition of his Testa- 
 ment. In 1535 was published the translation of Miles 
 Coverdale^ great part of which was Tindal's ; and two 
 
98 ON THE MODERN VERSIONS 
 
 years after, John Rogers, martyr, (who had assisted Tin- 
 dal in his biblical labours,) edited a Bible, probably at 
 Hamburgh, under the assumed name of Thomas Matthews, 
 whence it is generally known by the name of Matthews's 
 Bible. A revised edition of this translation, corrected by 
 Cranmer and Coverdale, was printed at London, in 1539, 
 by Grafton and Whitchurch, in large folio, and from its 
 size is usually denominated the great bible. No new 
 version was executed during the reign of Edward VI. ; 
 though several editions were printed both of the Old and 
 New Testaments. 
 
 During the sanguinary reign of Queen Mary, Miles 
 Coverdale, John Knox, Christopher Goodman, and other 
 English exiles, who had taken refuge at Geneva, publish- 
 ed a new translation, between the years 1557 and 1560, 
 with short annotations, inculcating the doctrines espoused 
 by Calvin. The New Testament of this edition was the 
 first in English, which was divided into verses. The Ge- 
 neva Bible was highly esteemed by the Puritans ; and, in 
 the course of little more than thirty years afterwards, not 
 fewer than thirty editions of it were printed in various 
 sizes, principally by the royal printers. This translation 
 is allowed to possess considerable merit, for its general 
 fidelity and perspicuity. Eight years after the comple- 
 tion of the Geneva Bible, a new version was published, 
 with two prefaces, by Archbishop Parker, now generally 
 termed the Bishops' Bible, from the circumstance of eight 
 of the translators being bishops : although this translation 
 was read in the churches, the Geneva Bible was generally 
 preferred in families. 
 
 In 1582, the Roman Catholics published in 4to. an En- - 
 glish translation of the New Testament at Rheims, and 
 of the Old Testament at Douay, in 1609-10, in 2 vol- 
 umes 4to. It was crowded with barbarous and foreign 
 terms, calculated to perplex rather than to diffuse the light 
 of truth. 
 
 The last English version, which remains to be noticed, 
 is the translation now in use, which is commonly called 
 King James's Bible. Shortly after his accession to the 
 throne in 1603, several objections being made to the En- 
 glish Bible, the King, at the Conference held at Hampton 
 Court in the following year, commanded that a new ver- 
 
MODERN VERSIONS OF THE SCRIPTURES. 99 
 
 sion snould be undertaken, and fifty-four men, of distin- 
 guished learning and piety, were appointed to this im- 
 portant labour : but, before it was begun, seven of the 
 persons were either dead, or had declined the task. 
 Such of them as survived till the commencement of the 
 work, being ranged under six divisions, entered upon their 
 labour in 1607, and completed it in 1610 ; it was then 
 revised by a committee of six of the translators, and final- 
 ly reviewed by Bishop Bilson and Doctor Smith ; the 
 latter prefixed the arguments, and wrote the preface. 
 This translation, generally known by the name of King 
 James's Bible, was first printed in 1611, and is that now 
 universally adopted wherever the English language is spo- 
 ken. The edition, generally reputed to be the most cor- 
 rect, is that of Oxford, in quarto and folio, 1769, printed 
 under the superintendence of the late Rev. Dr. Bfayney : 
 the text was carefully collated with several correct edi- 
 tions, and the punctuation amended ; the summaries of 
 chapters and running titles at the top of each page were 
 also corrected, and 30,495 new references were inserted 
 in the margin. From the singular pains bestowed, in 
 order to render this edition as accurate as possible, it has 
 hitherto been considered the standard edition, from which 
 all subsequent impressions have been executed. Notwith- 
 standing, however, the great labour and attention bestow- 
 ed by Dr. Blayney, his edition must now yield the palm 
 of accuracy to the very beautiful and correct editions pub- 
 lished by Messrs. Eyre and Strahan, His Majesty's Prin- 
 ters, but printed by Mr. Woodfall in 1806, and again in 
 1813 in quarto ; as not fewer than one hundred and six- 
 teen errors were discovered in collating the edition of 
 1806 with Dr. B.'s, and one of these errors was an omis- 
 sion of considerable importance. Messrs. Eyre and Stra- 
 han's editions may therefore be regarded as approaching 
 as near as possible to what bibliographers term an imma- 
 culate text. 
 
 Of all modern versions, the present authorised English 
 translation is, upon the whole, undoubtedly the most ac- 
 curate and faithful ; the translators having seized the very 
 spirit of the sacred writers, and having almost every where 
 expressed their meaning with a pathos and energy that 
 have never been rivalled by any subsequent versions 
 
100 VARIOUS READINGS 
 
 either of the Old or the New Testament. " Its style is 
 incomparably superior to any thing which might be ex- 
 pected from the finical and perv r erted taste of our own 
 age. It is simple ; it is harmonious ; it is energetic ; and, 
 which is of no small importance, use has made it familiar 
 and time has rendered it sacred."* 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 OF THE VARIOUS READINGS OCCURRING IN THB OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 
 
 I. Origin and Nature of Various Readings. 
 
 The Old and New Testaments, in common with all 
 other ancient writings, being preserved and diffused by 
 transcription, the admission of mistakes was unavoidable : 
 which, increasing with the multitude of copies, necessari- 
 ly produced a great variety of different readings. 
 
 Among two or more different readings, one only can 
 be the true reading ; the rest must either be wilful cor- 
 ruptions, or the mistakes of the copyist. As it is often 
 difficult to distinguish the genuine from the spurious, 
 whenever the smallest doubts can be entertained, they all 
 receive the appellation of Various Readings : but, where 
 a transcriber has evidently written falsely, they receive 
 the name of errata. 
 
 II. Sources of Various Readings. 
 
 As all manuscripts were either dictated to copyists, or 
 transcribed by them : and, as all these persons were not 
 supernaturally guarded against the possibility of error, 
 different readings would naturally be produced, 1. By 
 the negligence or mistakes of the transcribers ; to which 
 we may add, 2. The existence of errors or imperfections 
 in the manuscript copied ; 3. Critical emendations of the 
 text made by the copyist without any authority ; and 4. 
 Wilful corruptions made to serve the purposes of a party. 
 Mistakes thus produced in one copy, would of course be 
 propagated through all succeeding copies made from it, 
 each of which might have peculiar faults of its own ; so 
 that various readings would thus be increased, in propor- 
 tion to the number of transcripts made. 
 
 • Bishop Middleton on the Greek article, p. 328. 
 
VARIOUS READINGS. jyj 
 
 III. The means by which the true reading is to be de- 
 termined are, 1. Manuscripts ; 2. The most ancient, and 
 best Editions ; 3. Ancient Versions ; 4. Parallel Passa- 
 ges, (which, being an important help to interpretation, are 
 noticed again in a subsequent page ;) 5. Quotations made 
 from the Scriptures in the Writings of the early Fathers 
 of the Christian Church ; and 6. Conjectural Criticisms. 
 All these sources are to be used with great judgment and 
 caution ; and the common reading ought not to be reject- 
 ed but upon the strongest evidence. 
 
 IV. Infidels have endeavoured to shake the faith of 
 less informed Christians, by raising objections against the 
 number of various readings. The unlettered Christian, 
 however, need not be under any apprehension that they 
 will diminish the certainty of his faith. Of all the many 
 thousand various readings that have been discovered, 
 none have been found that affect our faith, or destroy a 
 single moral precept of the Gospel. They are mostly of 
 a minute and trifling nature : and by far the greatest 
 number make no alteration whatever in the sense. Such 
 are Aa/3i8 (DaBtd) for AclvlS (David ;) EoXo/iwvra (SolomonTa) 
 for HoXojjLcova (Solomona) Solomon; tcayoy (kago) for K ai eyw 
 (kai ego) ( ^/^ for and I ;) Na^sr (NazareT) for Neaped 
 (NazareTn) Nazareth ; which, with many others, may be 
 used indifferently. 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 ON THE QUOTATIONS FROM THE OLD TESTAMENT IN THE NEW. 
 
 A considerable difference of opinion exists among 
 some learned men, whether the evangelists and other 
 writers of the New Testament quoted the Old Testament 
 from the Hebrew, or from the venerable Greek versions 
 usually called the Septuagint. From an actual collation 
 of the passages thus cited, (which is given at length in 
 Hebrew, Greek, and English, in the author's larger work,) 
 it appears, that, though the sacred writers of the New 
 Testament have in many instances quoted from the He- 
 brew Scriptures ; yet they have very frequently made their 
 citations from the Septuagint, because it was generally 
 
IQ2 ON TUE «M- : OTAT»MS FROM 
 
 known and read : and as the apostles wrote for the use of 
 communities, whose members were ignorant of Hebrew, 
 it was necessary on that account that they should refer to 
 the Greek version. But where this materially varied 
 from the meaning of the Hebrew Scriptures, they either 
 gave the sense of the passage cited, in their own words, 
 or took as much of the Septuagint as was necessary, in- 
 troducing the requisite alterations. 
 
 Difficulty sometimes arises, with respect to the appli- 
 cation of the quotations made by the apostles and evan- 
 gelists ; when they are applied to a purpose to which they 
 seem to have no relation, according to their original 
 design. This difficulty is occasioned by the writers of 
 the New Testament making quotations from the Old, with 
 very different views. It is, therefore, necessary to dis- 
 tinguish accurately between such quotations as, being 
 merely borrowed, are used in the w r ords of the writer 
 himself, and such as are quoted in proof of a doctrine, or 
 the completion of a prophecy 
 
 The quotations from the Old Testament in the New 
 are generally introduced by certain formulae, such as, That 
 it might be fulfilled — As it is written — &c, and various 
 rules have been framed in order to account for their ap- 
 plication. They may, however, be referred to the four 
 following classes, viz. : 
 
 I. Quotations from the Old Testament in the New, in 
 which the things predicted are literally accomplished. 
 
 Direct Prophecies are those which relate exclusively to 
 Christ and the Gospel, and cannot legitimately be taken 
 in any other sense ; and the Scripture is said to be ful- 
 filled in the literal sense, when that event which it 
 foretells is accomplished. The following table exhibits 
 the principal quotations which belong to this class : 
 
 Gen. xii. 3.xviii. 18. xxii. 18. quoted in Acts iii. 25. Gal. iii. 
 
 Gen. xvii. 7. 19. xxii. 16, 17 
 Deut. xviii. 15. 19. 
 Psalm ii. 1, 2. - 
 Psalm ii. 7. • 
 Psalm viii. 2. • 
 Psalm viii. 4. - 
 Psalm xvi. 8 — 11. 
 Psalm xvi. 10. 
 Psalm xxii. 1. 
 
 Psalm xxii. 18. 
 
 Psalm xxii. 22. 
 
 Luke i. 55. 72, 73, 74. 
 
 Acts iii. 22, 23. 
 
 Acts iv. 25, 26. 
 
 Acts xii. 33. Heb. i. 5. v. 4. 
 
 Matt. xxi. 16. 
 
 Heb. ii. 6—8. 
 
 Acts ii. 25—28. 31. 
 
 Acts xiii. 35. 
 
 Matt, xxvii. 46. Mark xv. 34. 
 
 Matt, xxvii. 35. Mark xv. 34. 
 
 Luke xxiii. 34. John xix. 24 
 Heb. ii. 12. 
 
THE OLD TESTAMENT IN THE NEW. 
 
 103 
 
 Psalm xxxi. 5. 
 Psalm xli. 9. 
 Psalm xlv. 6, 7. - 
 Psalm lxviil. 18. • 
 
 Psalm lxix. 21. 
 
 Psalm lxix. 25, cix. 8. « 
 Psalm xcv. 7 — 11. - 
 Psalm cii. 25—27. • 
 
 Psalm ex. 1. • • * 
 
 Psalm ex. 4. - 
 
 Psalm cxviil. 22, 23. 
 
 Psalm cxviii. 25, 26. 
 Psalm exxxii. 11. 17. 
 Isa. vii. 14. 
 
 Isa. ix. 7. (with Dan. vii. 14. 
 
 Isa. xi. 10. 
 
 Isa. xxv. 8. 
 
 Isa. xxvii. 9, and lix. 20, 21. 
 
 Isa. xxviii. 16. (with Joel ii. 32 
 
 Isa. xl. 3—5. - 
 
 Isa. xliii. 1 — 4. 
 
 Isa. xlix. 6. 
 
 Isa. liii. 1. 
 
 Isa. liii. 3—6. 
 
 Isa. liii. 4—6. 11. 
 
 Isa. liii. 4. 
 
 Isa. liii. 9. 
 
 Isa. liii. 12. 
 
 Isa. liv. 13. - 
 
 Isa. lv. 3. 
 
 Jer. xxxi. 31 
 
 Hosea i. 10. 
 
 Hosea ii. 23. 
 
 Joel ii. 28—32. (in the Hebrew, iii. 
 
 1-4.) 
 Amosix. 11, 12. 
 Micah v. 2. 
 Habak. i. 5. • 
 Haggai ii. 6. - 
 Zech. ix. 9. 
 Zech. xi. 13. - 
 Zech. xii. 10. - 
 Zech. xiii. 7. - 
 Mai. iii. 1. 
 
 Mai. iv. 5, 6. • 
 
 -34. 
 
 quoted in Luke xxiii. 46. 
 
 John xiii. 18. Acts i. 16. 
 
 Heb. i. 8, 9. 
 
 Eph. iv. 7, 8. 
 $ John xix. 28, 29. Matt, xxvil. 48. 
 ( Mark xv. 36. and Luke xxiii. 36. 
 
 Acts i. 20. 
 
 Heb. iii. 7—11, iv. 3. 5—7. 
 
 Heb. i. 10—12. 
 
 Matt. xxii. 44. Mark xii. 36. Luke 
 xx. 42. Acts ii. 34 35. Heb. i. 
 13. 
 
 Heb. v. 6. 
 $ Matt. xxi. 42. Mark xii. 10. Luke 
 i xx. 17. Actsiv. 11. 
 
 Matt. xxi. 9. Mark xi. 9. John xii. 13. 
 
 Luke i. 69. Acts ii. 30. 
 
 Matt. i. 23. 
 
 Matt. iv. 15, 16. 
 27.) - Luke i. 32, 33. 
 
 • Rom. xv. 12. 
 
 - 1 Cor. xv. 54. 
 
 - Rom. xi. 26, 27. 
 ** - Rom. ix. 33. and 1 Pet. ii. 6. 
 
 - Matt. iii. 3. Mark i. 3. Luke iii. 4—6. 
 
 - Matt. xii. 17—21. 
 
 - Acts xiii. 47, and xxvi. 23. Luke ii. 32. 
 
 - John xii. 38. Rom. x. 16. 
 
 - Acts xxvi. 22, 23. 
 
 • 1 Pet. ii. 24, 25. 
 
 - Matt. viii. 17. 
 
 • 1 Pet. ii. 22. 
 
 - Mark xv. 28. Luke xxii. 37. 
 
 - John vi. 45. 
 . Acts xiii. 34. 
 
 - Heb. viii. 8—12. x. 16, 17. 
 
 • Rom. ix. 26. 
 
 - Rom. ix. 25. Pet, ii. 10. 
 
 I Acts ii. 16—21. 
 
 Acts xv. 16, 17. 
 
 Matt. ii. 5, 6. John vii. 42. 
 
 Acts xiii. 40. 
 
 Heb. xii. 26. 
 
 Matt. xxi. 4, 5. John xii. 14. 16. 
 
 Matt, xxvii. 9, 10. 
 
 John xix. 37. 
 
 Matt. xxvi. 31. 56. Mark xiv. 27. 50. 
 
 Matt. xi. 10. Mark i. 2. Luke vii. 27. 
 $ Matt. xi. 13, 14. xvii. 10—13. Mark 
 I ix. 11—13. Luke i. 16, 17. 
 
 II. Quotations from the Old Testament in the New, in 
 which that is said to have been done, of which the Scrip- 
 tures have not spoken in a literal, but in a spiritual sense. 
 
 There are citations out of the Old Testament in the 
 New, in a mediate and typical, or spiritual sense, respect- 
 ing Christ and his mystical body, the Church. The 
 Scripture is therefore said to be fulfilled, when that is 
 
104 
 
 ON THE QUOTATIONS FROM 
 
 accomplished in the antitype which is written concerning 
 the type. Thus, in John, xix. 36, we read, These things 
 were done that the Scripture should be fulfilled, — "a 
 bone of him shall not be broken." These words, which 
 were originally written of the paschal lamb, (Exod. xii. 
 46. Numb. ix. 12.) are said to be fulfilled in Christ, who 
 is the antitype of that lamb. Additional examples of the 
 same kind will be found in the annexed passages 
 
 Gen. xiv. 18, 20. cited and applied in 
 
 Gen. xv. 5. 
 
 Gen. xvi. 15. • 
 
 Gen. xvii. 4. • 
 
 Gen. xviii. 10. 
 
 Gen. xxi. 1 — 3. 
 
 Gen. xxi. 12. • 
 
 Gen. xxv. 23. - 
 
 Exod. xii. 46. Numb. Ix. 12. 
 
 Exod. xvi. 13—15. • 
 
 Exod. xvii. 6. Numb. xx. 11 
 
 Exod. xix. 6. - 
 
 Exod. xxiv. 8. 
 
 Levit. xxvi. 11, 12. 
 
 Numb. xxi. 8, 9. • 
 
 Deut. xxi. 23. 
 
 Deut. xxxii. 21. 
 
 2 Sam. vii. 14. 
 
 Psalm ii. 9. 
 
 Psalm viii. 4. • 
 
 Psalm viii. 6. - 
 
 Psalm xviii. 49. 
 
 Psalm xxxv. 19. lxlx. 4. and cix. 3. 
 
 Psalm xl. 6—8. 
 
 Psalm lxix. 9. 
 
 Psalm civ. 4. 
 
 Isa. xl. 6, 7. - 
 
 Isa. lii. 7. and Nahum i. 15. 
 
 Isa. liv. 1. 
 
 Isa. lxiv. 4. 
 
 Hosea, xi. 1. ., 
 
 Jonah i. 17. 11. 1. and ili 
 
 Habak. ii. 3. - 
 
 Habak. ii. 4. • 
 
 Heb. vii. 1—10. 
 
 Rom. iv. 18. 
 
 Gal. Iv. 22. 
 
 Rom. iv. 17. 
 
 Rom. ix. 9. 
 
 Gal. iv. 22, &c 
 
 Rom. ix. 7. 
 
 Rom. ix. 10. 
 
 John xix, 36. 
 
 John vi. 31. 49. 1 Cor. X. 3. 
 
 1 Cor. x. 4. 
 
 1 Pet. ii. 9. 
 Heb. ix. 20. 
 
 2 Cor. vi. 16. 
 John iii. 14. 
 Gal. iii. 13. 
 Rom. x. 19. 
 Heb. i. 5. 
 Rev. ii. 27. 
 Heb. ii. 6—8. 
 1 Cor. xv. 27. 
 Rom. xv. 9. 
 John xv. 25. 
 Heb. x. 6, 7. 
 John ii. 17. 
 Heb. i. 7. 
 
 1 Pet. i. 24, 25. 
 
 Rom. x. 15. 
 
 Gal. iv. 27. 
 
 1 Cor. ii. 9. 
 
 Matt. Ii. 15. 
 
 Mat. xii. 40, 41. Luke xt 30. 32. 
 
 Heb. x. 37. 
 
 Rom. i. 17. Gal. lit 11. Heb. x. ! 
 
 III. Quotations from the Old Testament in the New, 
 in which a thing is done neither in a literal nor in a 
 spiritual sense, according to the fact referred to in the 
 Scriptures, but is similar to that fact; in other words, 
 where the passages referred to, are cited in the way of 
 illustration. 
 
 Numerous passages of the Old Testament are cited and 
 applied by the writers of the New Testament to an oc- 
 currence, which happened in their time, merely on account 
 
THE OLD TESTAMENT IN THE NEW. 
 
 105 
 
 of correspondence and similitude. These citations are not 
 prophecies, though they are said sometimes to be fulfilled. 
 This method of explaining Scripture by the way of illus- 
 tration, will enable us to solve many difficulties relating 
 to the prophecies. Similar instances, are to be found in 
 some classic authors. 
 
 The following table presents a list of the passages, thus 
 quoted from the Old Testament, by the writers of the 
 New, in the way of illustration : 
 
 Gen. xv. 5. 
 
 Gen. xv. 6. 
 
 Gen. xviii. 10. 
 Gen. xix. 15. 26. « 
 Gen. xxi. 12. 
 Gen. xxv. 23. 
 Gen. xxv. 33. 
 Gen. xxvii. 28, &c. 
 Exod. ix. 16. 
 Exod. xxxii. 6. • 
 Exod. xxxiii. 19. 
 Lev. xi. 45. 
 Lev. xviii. 5. 
 Deut. vi. 13. 
 Deut. vi. 16. 
 Deut. viii. 3. 
 Deut. xxv. 4. 
 Deut. xxvii. 26. • 
 Deut. xxxii. 35. • 
 Deut. xxxii. 36. 
 Deut. xxxii. 43. • 
 Josh. i. 5. - 
 
 1 Sam. xxi. 6. • 
 
 1 Kings xix. 14. 18. 
 Psalm v. 10. and cxl. 
 Psalm x. 7. - 
 Psalm xiv. 1 — 3. and 
 Psalm xix. 4. 
 Psalm xxiv. I. • 
 Psalm xxviii. 16. 
 Psalm xxxii. 1, 2. 
 Psalm xxxiv. 12 — 16. 
 Psalm xxxvi. 1. • 
 Psalm xliv. 22. - 
 Psalm li. 4. 
 Psalm Ixix. 9. 
 Psalm lxix. 22, 23. 
 Psalm lxxviii. 2. 
 Psalm lxxxii. 6. 
 Psalm cxii. 9. 
 Psalm cxvi. 10. • 
 Psalm cxvii. 1. - 
 Psalm cxviii. 6. - 
 Prov. i. 16. Isa. lix. 78 
 Prov. iii. 11, 12. 
 Prov, iii. 34. 
 
 liii. 1 
 
 cited in Rom. iv. 18. 
 
 $ Rom. iv. 3. Gal. iii. 6. and James 
 " I ii. 23. 
 
 • Rom. ix. 9. 
 - Luke xv ii. 28, 29. 32. 
 
 • Rom. ix. 7. 
 
 Rom. v. 12. 
 
 Heb. xii. 16. 
 
 Heb. xi. 20. xli. 17. 
 
 Horn. ix. 7. 
 
 I Cor. x. 7. 
 
 Rom. ix. 15. 
 
 1 Pet. i. 16. 
 
 Rom. x. 5. Gal. iii. 12. 
 
 Matt. iv. 10. Luke iv. 8. 
 
 Matt. iv. 7. Luke iv. 12. 
 
 Matt. iv. 4. Luke Iv. 4. 
 
 1 Cor. ix. 9. 1 Tim. v. 18. 
 
 ■ Gal. iii. 10. 
 
 Rom. xii. 19. Heb. x. 30. 
 Heb. x. 30. 
 Rom. xv. 10. 
 
 ■ Heb. xiii. 5. 
 
 $ Matt, xii. 3, 4. Mark ii. 25, 26 
 i Luke vi. 3, 4. 
 . Rom. xi. 3, 4. 
 
 Rom. iii. 13. 
 
 Rom. iii. 14. 
 
 Rom. iii. 10—12. 
 
 ■ Rom, x. 18. 
 
 • 1 Cor. x. 26. 
 
 ■ Rom. x. 11. 
 
 • Rom. iv. 7, 8. 
 
 • 1 Pet. iii. 10—12, 
 . Rom. iii. is; 
 
 ■ Rom. viii. 36. 
 
 • Rom. iii. 4. 
 
 • Rom. xv. 3. 
 
 . Rom. xi. 9, 10. 
 Matt. xiii. 35. 
 
 ■ John x. 34. 
 
 • 2 Cor. ix. 9. 
 
 . 2 Cor. iv. 13 
 Rom. xv. 11. 
 Heb. xiii. 6. 
 Rom. iii. 15—17. 
 Heb. xii. 5, 6. 
 James iv. 6. 
 
10(5 
 
 ON THE QUOTATION'S IROM 
 
 Prov. x. 12. 
 Prov. xxv. 21, 22. 
 Prov. xxvi. 11. • 
 Isa. i. 9. 
 
 Isa. vi. 9, 10. 
 
 Isa. 
 Isa. 
 Isa. 
 Isa. 
 Isa. 
 Isa. 
 
 Isa. 
 
 viii. 12, 13. 
 viii. 17, 18. 
 x. 22, 23. 
 xxix. 10. 
 xxix. 13. 
 xxix. 14. 
 xxix. 1 6, and xlv, 
 xlv. 23. 
 
 lii. 5. with Ezek 
 Hi. 7. and Nahum 
 lii. 11, 12. 
 lii. 15. - 
 
 Isa. lvi. 7. and Jer. vii. 1 
 
 Isa. lxi. 1, 2. 
 
 Isa. lxv. 1, 2. 
 
 Isa. lxvi. 1, 2. 
 
 Jer. xxxi. 15. 
 
 Jer. xxxi. 33. and xxxii. 
 
 2 Sam. vii. 14.) 
 Hab. ii. 4. - 
 Joel ii. 32. - 
 Mai. i. 2, 3. 
 
 ■\ 
 
 Matt. xlil. 14, 15 
 Rom. xi. 8 
 
 xxx vi. 
 i. 
 
 cited in 1 Pet. tv. 8. 
 Rom. xii. 20. 
 1 Pet. ii. 22. 
 Rom. ix. 29. 
 John xii. 40. 
 
 Luke viii. 10. 
 1 Pet iii. 14, 15. 
 Heb. ii. 13. 
 Rom. ix. 27, 28. 
 Rom. xi, 8. 
 Matt. xv. 8, 9. Mark vii. 6. 
 
 1 Cor. i. 9. 
 Rom. ix. 20, 21. 
 Rom. xiv. 11. Phil. 11. 10. 
 Rom. ii. 24, 
 Rom. x. 15. 
 
 2 Cor. vi. 17. 
 Rom. xv. 21. 
 
 q Matt. xxi. 13. Mark xi. 17. Luke 
 I xix. 46. 
 
 Luke iv. 18, 19. 
 
 Rom. x. 20, 21. 
 
 Acts vii. 49, 50. 
 
 Matt. ii. 17. 18. 
 
 38. with^ 2Cor>vi>18! 
 
 • Rom. i. 17. 
 
 • Rom. x. 13. 
 
 • Rom. ix. 13. 
 
 IV. Quotations and other passages from the Old Tes- 
 tament which are alluded to in the New. 
 
 The following table presents a list of the principal pas- 
 sages of this description : 
 
 Gen. i. 6. 9, 
 
 Gen. 1. 27. 
 
 Gen. ii. 2, 3. 
 Gen. ii. 7. 
 Gen. ii. 21, 22. 
 
 Gen. ii. 24. 
 
 Gen. iii. 6. 
 Gen. iii. 4, 13. 
 Gen. iii. 16. 
 Gen. iv. 4 
 
 Gen. iv. 8. 
 
 Gen. v. 24 - 
 
 Gen. vi. vii 
 
 Gen. xii. 1—4. 
 Gen. xiii. 15. 
 Gen. xv. 13, 14. 
 Gen. xvii. 10. 
 Gen. xviii. 3. xix. 2 
 Gen. xviii. 10. 
 Gen. xviii. 12. 
 Gen. xix. 12. 
 
 alluded to in 2 Pet, iii. 5. 
 
 ; Matt. xix. 4. Mark x. 6. 1 Cor. xi. 7. 
 ( James iii. 9. 
 
 Heb. iv. 4. 
 
 1 Cor. xv. 45. 
 
 1 Cor. xi. 8. 1 Tim. ii. 13. 
 < Matt. xix. 5. Mark x. 7. 1 Cor. vi. 16. 
 I Eph. v. 31. 
 
 1 Tim. ii. 14. 
 
 2 Cor. xi. 3. 
 1 Cor. xiv. 34 
 Heb. xi. 4. 
 
 $ Matt, xxiii. 35. Luke xL 61. I John 
 ( iii. 12. Jude verse 11. 
 
 Heb. xi. 5. 
 (Matt. xxiv. 37, 3S. Luke xvii. 26, 27. 
 \ Heb. xi. 7. 1 Pet. iii. 19, 20. 2 Pet 
 C ii. 5. iii. 6. 
 
 Acts vii. 5. Heb. xl 8. 
 
 Rom. iv. 13. 
 
 Acts vii. 6, 7. 
 
 Acts vii. 8. 
 
 Heb. xiii. 2. 
 
 Heb. xi. 11. 
 
 1 Pet ill. 6. 
 
 2 Pet. ii. 6. Jude verse 7. 
 
THE OLD TESTAMENT IN THE NEW. . 
 
 107 
 
 alluded to in 
 
 Gen. zxl. 12. 
 
 Gen. xlvi. 27. 
 Gen. xlvii. 31. 
 Gen. 1. 24. 
 Exod. ii. 2. 11. 
 
 Exod. iii. 6. 
 
 Exod. xii. 12. 18. 
 Exod. xiv. 22. 
 Exod. xix. 12. 18, 19. 
 
 Exod. xx. 12—16. Deut. v. 16—20. 
 
 Lev. xlii. 2. Numb. vlll. 16, 17. xviii. 
 
 15. 17. 
 Lev. xiv. 3, 4. 10. 
 Lev. xix. 12. 
 Lev. xix. 18. 
 Numb. xi. 4. 
 Numb. xiv. 23. 29. 37. &xxvi. 64, 65. 
 Numb. xxi. 4—6. 
 Numb. xxii. 23. 39. 
 Deut. xviii. 1, 
 Deut. xxiv. 1. 
 Josh. ii. 1. vi. 22, 23 
 Josh. vi. 20. 
 Judges, the whole book generally, 
 1 Sam. viii. 5. and x. 1. 
 1 Sam. xiii. 14. xv. 23. xvi. 12, 13, 
 1 Kings xvii. 1. and xviii. 42—45 
 I Chron. xxiii. 13. 
 Psalm xc. 4. 
 Prov. xxvil. 1. 
 Isa. xii. 3. 
 Isa. lxvi. 24. 
 Jer. vi. 16. 
 Lam. iii. 45. 
 Dan. iii. 23—25 
 •Dan. ix. 27. xii. 11. 
 Hos. xiii. 14. 
 IF os. xiv. 2. 
 Amos v. 26, 27 
 
 Heb. xi. 18. 
 
 Acts vii. 14 
 
 Heb. xi. 21. 
 
 Heb. xi. 22. 
 
 Heb. xi. 23—27. Acts vii. 20—29. 
 $ Mark xii. 26. Acts vii. 31, 32. Heb. 
 ( Xi. 16. 
 
 Heb. xi. 28. 
 
 1 Cor. x. 2. Heb. xi. 29. 
 
 Heb. xii. 18—20. 
 J Matt. xix. 18, 19. Markx. 19. Luke 
 ( xviii. 20. Rom. xiii. 9. James ii. 2. 
 
 | Luke ii. 23. 
 
 Matt viii. 4. Mark 1. 44. Luke v. 14. 
 
 Matt. v. 33. 
 
 Matt. v. 43. Gal. v. 14. 
 
 I Cor. x. 6. 
 
 Heb. iii. 16, 17. Jude verse 5. 
 
 1 Cor. x. 9. 
 
 2 Pet. ii. 15, 16. Jude verse 11. 
 
 1 Cor. ix. 13. 
 
 Matt. v. 31. Mark x: 4. Luke xvi. 28. 
 
 Heb. xi. 31. James ii. 25. 
 
 Heb. xi. 30. 
 
 Acts xiii. 20. Heb. xi. 32. 
 
 Acts xiii. 21. 
 
 Acts xiii. 22. 
 
 James v. 17, 18 
 
 Heb. v. 4. 
 
 2 Pet iii. 8. 
 James iv. 13, 14 
 John vii. 38 
 Mark ix. 44. 
 Matt xi. 29. 
 
 1 Cor. iv. ia 
 
 Heb. xi. 34. 
 
 Matt xxiv. 15, Mark xlii. 14. 
 
 I Cor. xv. 55. 
 
 Heb. xiii. 15. 
 
 Acts vii. 42, 43. 
 
 Concerning the class of quotations contained in the pre- 
 ceding table, it has been remarked, that when the inspi- 
 red writers quote a passage from the Old Testament, 
 merely in the way of allusion, it is enough that the words 
 which they borrow, emphatically express their own mean- 
 ing. It is not necessary that they be precisely the same 
 with those of the passage alluded to, nor that they be there 
 used, either of the same subject, or of a similar subject. 
 Thus, Deut. xxx. 12 — 14, which was originally written 
 concerning the law, is by Saint Paul accommodated to 
 the Gospel, (Rom. x. 6 — 8,) with proper variations and 
 explanations. 
 
108 
 
 ON THE POETRY 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 ON THE POETRY OP THE HEBEEWS. 
 
 I. Nature of Hebrew Poetry. 
 
 The diversity of style, evident in the different books of 
 Scripture, sufficiently evinces which of them were written 
 in prose, and which are poetical compositions ; though 
 the nature of the Hebrew verse cannot now be exactly 
 ascertained. The grand characteristic of Hebrew Poetry, 
 is what Bishop Lowth terms Parallelism; that is, a cer- 
 tain equality, resemblance, or relationship, between the 
 members of each period : so that, in two lines or mem- 
 bers of the same period, things shall answer to things, and 
 words to words, as if fitted to each other by a kind of 
 rule, or measure. Such is the general strain of Hebrew 
 Poetry, instances of which occur in almost every part 
 of the Old Testament, particularly in the ninety-sixth 
 psalm. 
 
 II. Gradations of the poetical parallelism. 
 
 The poetical parallelism has much variety and many 
 gradations ; which may be referred to four species, viz. : 
 Parallel Lines Gradational, Parallel Lines Antithetic, 
 Parallel Lines Synthetic, and Parallel Lines Introverted. 
 An example or two of each of these shall be given, which 
 will enable the attentive reader of our admirable authori- 
 sed version readily to discover others as they arise : for, 
 that version being strictly word for word after the origi- 
 nal, the form and order of the original sentences are pre- 
 served ; and this circumstance will account for its retain- 
 ing so much of a poetical cast, notwithstanding it is exe- 
 cuted in prose. 
 
 1. Parallel Lines Gradational are those in which the 
 second or responsive clause so diversifies the preceding 
 clauses, as generally to rise above it ; sometimes by a de- 
 scending scale, in the value of the related terms and pe- 
 riods, but in all cases with a marked distinction of mean- 
 ing. This species of parallelism is of most frequent oc- 
 currence, particularly in the psalms and the prophecies of 
 Isaiah. The following example is given from the evan- 
 fellcal prophet, ch. lv. 6, 7. : 
 
OF THE HEBBEWS, 1()9 
 
 Seek ye Jehovah [or, the Lord] while he may be found; 
 
 Call ye upon him while he is near ; 
 
 Let the wicked forsake his way, 
 
 And the unrighteous man his thoughts : 
 
 And let him return unto Jehovah, and he will compassionate him ; 
 
 And unto our God for he aboundeth in forgiveness. 
 
 "In the first line, men are invited to seek Jehovah, not knowing where 
 he is, and on the bare intelligence that he may be found ; in the second 
 line, having found Jehovah, they are encouraged to call upon him by the 
 assurance that he is neak. In the third line, the wicked, the positive and 
 presumptuous sinner, is warned to forsake his way, his habitual course of 
 iniquity ; in the fourth line, the unrighteous, the negatively wicked, is 
 called to renounce the very thought of sinning. While, in the last line, 
 the appropriative and encouraging title, our God, is substituted for the aw- 
 ful name Jehovah, and simple compassion is heightened into overflowing 
 mercy and forgiveness." (Bp. Jebb's Sacred Literature, pp. 37, 38.) See 
 further instances in Isa. li. 1. 47. Joel ii. 7. Psalm i. 1. xxi. 1, 2. and 
 xziv. 3, 4. 
 
 2. Parallel Lines Antithetic are those in which two 
 lines correspond one with another, by an opposition of 
 terms and sentiments ; when the second is contrasted 
 with the first, sometimes in expressions, sometimes in 
 sense only This is not confined to any particular form. 
 Accordingly, the degrees of antithesis are various, from 
 an exact contraposition of word to word, sentiment to 
 sentiment, singulars to singulars, plurals to plurals, down 
 to a general disparity, with something of a contrariety in 
 the two propositions. Thus, Prov. ch. x. 1. 
 
 A wise son rejoiceth his father : 
 
 But a foolish son is the grief of his mother. 
 
 Here every word has its opposite, the terms "father" and " mother" dc 
 ing relatively opposite. 
 
 3. Parallel Lines Constructive are those in which the 
 parallelism consists only in the similar form of construc- 
 tion ; wherein word does not answer to word, and sen- 
 tence to sentence, as equivalent, or opposite : but there is 
 a correspondence and equality, between the different pro- 
 positions in respect of the shape and turn of the whole 
 sentence, and of the constructive parts ; such as noun an- 
 swering to noun, verb to verb, member to member, nega- 
 tive to negative, interrogative to interrogative. This form 
 of parallelism admits of great variety, the parallelism be- 
 ing sometimes more, sometimes less exact, and some- 
 times hardly at all apparent. Psalm xix. 7 — 11, will 
 furnish a beautiful instance of this description of poetical 
 parallelism. 
 
 10 
 
HO ON THE POETRY 
 
 The law of Jehovah is perfect, restoring the soul ; 
 
 The testimony of Jehovah is sure, making wise the simple 
 
 The precepts of Jehovah are right, rejoicing the heart : 
 
 The commandment of Jehovah is clear, enlightening the eyes: 
 
 The fear of Jehovah is pure, enduring forever; 
 
 The judgments of Jehovah are truth, they are just altogether ; 
 
 More desirable than gold, or than much fine gold, 
 
 And sweeter than honey or the dropping of honey combs. 
 
 4. Parallel Lines Introverted, or Introverted Parol 
 lelisms, are stanzas so constructed, that whatever be the 
 number of lines, the first line shall be parallel with the 
 last ; the second with the penultimate, or last but one ; 
 and so throughout, in an order that looks inward, or, to 
 borrow a military phrase, from flanks to centre. Dr. 
 Jebb, Bishop of Limerick, has illustrated this definition 
 with numerous apposite examples, from which the follow- 
 ing has been selected. 
 
 "And it shall come to pass in that day; 
 
 Jehovah shall make a gathering of his fruit 
 From the flood of the river ; 
 To the stream of Egypt : 
 And ye shall be gleaned up, one by one , 
 O ye sons of Israel. 
 " And it shall come to pass in that day ; 
 
 The great trumpet shall be sounded 
 
 And those shall come, who were perishing in the land 
 
 of Assyria ; 
 And those who were dispersed in the land of Egypt ■ 
 And they shall bow themselves down before Jehovah 
 In the holy mountain, in Jerusalem. (Isa. xxvii. 12, 13.) 
 
 " In these two stanzas, figuratively inthe first, and literally in the second, 
 is predicted the return of the Jews from their several dispersions. The 
 first line of each stanza is parallel with the sixth ; the second with the 
 ffith ; and the third with the fourth. Also, on comparing the stanzas one 
 with another, it is manifest, that they are constructed with the utmost pre- 
 cision of mutual correspondence; clause harmonizing with clause, and 
 line respectively with line; the first lint of the first stanza with the 
 first line of the second, and so throughout." (Sacred Lit. pp. 54, 55.) 
 
 Until very recently, the poetical parallelism was sup- 
 posed to be confined to the Books of the Old Testament : 
 but Bishop Jebb has shown that this characteristic of He- 
 brew Poetry, also exists, to a considerable degree, in the 
 New Testament. 
 
 III. Different kinds of Hebrew Poetry. 
 
 Bishop Lowth reduces the various productions of the 
 Sacred Poets to the following classes. 
 
 1. Prophetic Poetry , or that peculiar to the prophetic 
 Books : for, though some parts of them are evidently in 
 prose, yet the remainder are clearly poetical. 
 
 2. Elegiac Poetry, of which many passages occur in 
 
OF THE HEBREWS. 
 
 Ill 
 
 the prophetical Books, in the Book of Job, in the Psalms, 
 and especially in the Lamentations of Jeremiah. 
 
 3. Didactic Poetry ', or that which delivers moral pre- 
 cepts in elegant verses. To this class belongs the Book 
 of Proverbs. 
 
 4. Of Lyric Poetry , or that which is designed to be 
 accompanied with music, numerous instances occur in the 
 Old Testament, especially in the Book of Psalms. See 
 also Exod. xv. Deut. xxxii. and Habakkuk iii. 
 
 5. Of the Idyl, or short pastoral poem, the historical 
 Psalms afford abundant instances. See particularly Psalms 
 Ixxviii. cv. cvi. cxxxvi. and cxxxix: 
 
 6. To Dramatic Poetry, Bishop Lowth refers the 
 Book of Job, and the Song of Solomon : but this opinion 
 has been questioned by later critics. Many of the Psalms 
 however are a kind of dramatic ode, consisting of dia 
 logues between persons sustaining certain characters. 
 
 7. Acrostic, or Alphabetical Poems, are those which 
 consist of twenty-two lines, or twenty-two systems of 
 lines, periods, or stanzas, according to the number of let- 
 ters of the Hebrew alphabet ; that is, the first line or first 
 stanza begins with ft (aleph,) the second with ^ (bcth,) 
 and so on. Twelve of these poems are found in the Old 
 Testament, viz. Psalms xxv. xxxiv. xxxvii. cxi. cxii. cxix. 
 and cxlv. Prov. xxxi. 10 — 31. Lamentations of Jere- 
 miah i. ii. iii. iv. Some of these poems are perfectly, 
 and others more or less, alphabetical. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 ON HARMONIES OP SCRIPTURE. 
 
 I. Occasion and Design of Harmonies. 
 
 The several Books of the Holy Scriptures, having been 
 written at different times, and on different occasions, ne- 
 cessarily treat on a great variety of subjects, historical, 
 doctrinal, moral, and prophetic. The sacred authors 
 also, writing with different designs, have not always re- 
 lated the same events in the same order ; some are intro- 
 duced by anticipation ; and others again are related first, 
 which should have been placed last. Hence, seeming 
 contradictions have arisen, which have been eagerly sei- 
 
H£ OiN HARMONIES OF SCRIPTURE; 
 
 zed by the adversaries of Christianity, in order to perplex 
 the minds and shake the faith of those who may not be 
 able to detect their sophistries. These contradictions, 
 however, are not real: for they disappear as soon as they 
 are brought to the test of candid examination. 
 
 The manifest importance and advantage of comparing 
 the sacred writers with each other, have induced many 
 learned men to undertake the compilation of works, which, 
 being designed to shew the perfect agreement of all parts 
 of the sacred writings, are commonly termed Harmonies. 
 Two classes of these principally claim to be noticed in 
 this place, viz. : Harmonies of the Old, and Harmonies 
 of the New Testament. 
 
 II. Harmonies of the Old Testament. 
 
 The design of these is, to dispose the historical, poeti- 
 cal, and prophetical Books in Chronological Order, so 
 that they may mutually explain and authenticate one an- 
 other. Our learned countryman, Dr. Lightfoot, in the 
 year 1647, published a " Chronicle," or Harmony of the 
 Old Testament ; on the basis of which the Rev. George 
 Townsend constructed " The Old Testament arranged 
 in Historical and Chronological Order ;" but he has de- 
 viated from and improved upon the plan of Lightfoot 
 very materially. His work is noticed in the Appendix. 
 
 III. Harmonies of the New Testament are of two 
 sorts, viz. : 
 
 1. Harmonies of the entire New Testament, in which 
 not only are the four Gospels chronologically disposed, 
 but the Epistles are also placed in order of time, and in- 
 terspersed in the Acts of the Apostles. Mr. Townsend's 
 " New Testament arranged in Chronological and Histori- 
 cal Order" is the most complete work of this kind in the 
 English language. 
 
 2. Harmonies of the Gospels, in which the narratives, 
 or memoirs, of the four evangelists, are digested in their 
 proper chronological order. These are very numerous, 
 according to the plans which their several authors pro- 
 posed to themselves. Among foreign authors, the Latin 
 Harmony of Chemnitz (or Chemnitius) is the most es- 
 teemed : and among our British divines those of Drs. 
 Doddridge and Macknight are most generally read, on 
 account of their valuable expositions and commentaries, 
 
113 
 
 BOOK II.— ON THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 
 
 The Literary History of the Sacred volume having 
 thus been considered, we now proceed to discuss its In- 
 terpretation : and here the various subsidiary means 
 for ascertaining the sense of the inspired writers, first de- 
 mand attention. This is the subject of the first chapter 
 of the present book : the remaining chapters will show 
 in what manner the sense, when discovered, is to be com- 
 municated, expounded, and applied. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 ON THE LITERAL, GRAMMATICAL, OR HISTORICAL SENSE OP SCRIPTURE. 
 
 Although, in every language, there are very many 
 words, which admit of several meanings, yet in common 
 speech there is only one true sense attached to any word, 
 which sense is indicated by the connexion and series of 
 the discourse, by the design of the speaker or writer, or 
 by some other circumstances, unless any ambiguity be 
 purposely intended. The same usage obtains in tho sa- 
 cred writings. 
 
 The Literal Sense of any place in Scripture is that 
 which the words signify, or require in their natural and 
 proper acceptation. Thus, in 
 
 Gen. i. 1. God created the heavens and the earth, the words mean what 
 they literally import, and must be interpreted according to the letter. So, 
 in John x. 30., the words, I and the Father are one, so distinctly and une- 
 quivocally assert the Deity of Christ, and his equality with God the Fa- 
 ther, that it is difficult to conceive how any other than their proper and 
 literal meaning could ever be given to them. 
 
 The literal sense has been termed the Historical 
 Sense, as conveying the meaning of the words and phra- 
 ses used by a writer at a certain time. 
 
 Thus, in Gen. x. 5. Isa. xi. 11. and many other passages of Scripture, 
 the word isles or islands signifies every inhabited region, particularly all 
 the Western Coasts of the Mediterranean Sea, and the seats of Japhet'g 
 posterity, viz. : the northern parts of Asia, Asia Minor, and Europe, to- 
 gether with some other regions. 
 
U4 ON THE LITERAL, GRAMMATICAL, 
 
 Section L— Rules for investigating the Meaning of Words, generally. 
 
 Since words compose sentences, from which the mean- 
 ing of Scripture is to be collected, it is necessary that the 
 individual meaning of such words be ascertained, before 
 we proceed further to investigate the sense of Holy Writ. 
 As the same method and the same principles of interpre- 
 tation are common both to the sacred volume and to the 
 productions of uninspired man, the signification of words 
 in the Holy Scriptures must be sought precisely in the 
 same way in which the meaning of words in other works 
 usually is, or ought to be sought. And since no text of 
 Scripture has more than one meaning, we must endea- 
 vour to find out that one true sense precisely in the same 
 manner as we would investigate the sense of any ancient 
 writer ; and in that sense, when so ascertained, we ought 
 to acquiesce, unless, by applying the just rules of inter- 
 pretation, it can be shown that the meaning of the pas- 
 sage has been mistaken, and that another is the only just, 
 true, and critical sense of the place. The following gene- 
 ral rules will be found useful for this purpose. 
 
 1. Ascertain the notion affixed to a word by the persons in 
 general, by whom the language either is now or formerly was 
 spoken, and especially in the particular connexion in which 
 such notion is affixed. 
 
 The meaning of a word used by any writer, is the meaning affixed to it 
 by those for whom he immediately wrote. For there is a kind of natural 
 compact between those who write and those who speak a language; by 
 which they are mutually bound to use words in a certain sense : he, 
 therefore, who uses such words in a different signification, in a manner 
 violates that compact, and is in danger of leading men into error, contra- 
 ry to the design of God, "who will have all men to be saved, and to come 
 unto the knowledge of the truth." (I Tim. ii. 4.) The received significa- 
 tion of a word is to be retained, unless weighty and necessary reasons re- 
 quire that it should be abandoned or neglected. 
 
 We shall be justified in rejecting the received meaning of a word in the 
 following cases, viz. : 
 
 (1.) If such meaning clash with any doctrine clearly revealed in the 
 Scriptures. 
 
 (2.) If a certain passage require a different explanation from that which 
 it appears to present : as Mai. iv. 5,6, compared with Luke. i. 17, and 
 Matt xi. 14. 
 
 2. Where a word has several significations in common use, 
 that must be selected which best suits the passage in question, 
 and which is consistent with an author's known character, 
 sentiments, and situation, and the known circumstances under 
 which he wrote. 
 
OR HISTORICAL &EKSE Of SCRIPTURE. X15 
 
 For Instance, the word Blood, which on various accounts is very signi- 
 ficant in the Sacred Writings, denotes — our natural descent from one 
 common family, in Acts xvii. 26 ; — death, in Heb. xii. 4 ; the sufferings 
 and death of Christ, considered as an atonement for the souls of sinners, 
 in Rom. v. 9. and Eph. i. 7 ; and also as the procuring cause of our 
 justification, in Rom. v. 9, and of our sanctificalion in Heb. ix. 14. 
 
 3. Although the force of particular words can only be deriv- 
 ed from etymology, yet too much confidence must not be 
 placed in that frequently uncertain science. 
 
 4. The distinctions between words, which are apparently 
 synonymous, should be carefully examined and considered. 
 
 In the 119th Psalm there are ten different words, pointing out the word 
 of God ; viz. : Law, Way, Word, Statutes, Judgments, Commandments, 
 Precepts, Testimonies, Righteousness, and Truth, or Faithfulness. Now 
 all these words, though usually considered as synonymous, are not lite- 
 Tally synonymous, but refer to some latent and distinguishing properties 
 of the Divine Word, whose manifold excellencies and perfections are thus 
 illustrated with much elegant variety of diction. 
 
 5. The epithets introduced by the sacred writers are also to 
 be carefully weighed and considered, as all of them have either 
 a declarative or explanatory force, or serve to distinguish one 
 thing from another, or unite these two characters together. 
 
 6. General terms are used sometimes in their whole extent, 
 and sometimes in a restricted sense, and whether they are to 
 be understood in the one way, or in the other, must depend 
 upon the scope, subject-matter, context, and parallel passages. 
 
 The word, live, in 1 Thess. iii. 8, it is evident, both from the subject- 
 matter and the context, must be taken in a restricted sense, and not as 
 implying the apostle's natural life or existence. 
 
 Section II.— Aids for Investigating the Meaning of Words in combination. 
 
 § 1.— Of the Scope, and Context. 
 
 1. The Scope defined. 
 
 A consideration of the Scope, or design which the in- 
 spired author of any of the books of Scripture had in 
 view, essentially facilitates the study of the Bible : be- 
 cause, as every writer had some design in view, it is na- 
 tural to conclude that he would express himself in terms 
 adapted to his purpose. To be acquainted with the scope, 
 therefore, is to understand the chief part of the book. 
 The scope of an author is either general, or special ; by 
 the former, we understand the design which he proposed 
 to himself in writing his book; by the latter, we mean that 
 design which he had in view, when writing particular sec- 
 tions, or even smaller portions, of his book or treatise 
 
HQ ON THE LITERAL, GRAMMATICAL, 
 
 II. Hints for ascertaining the Scope. 
 
 The means, by which to ascertain the scope of a par- 
 ticular section, or passage, being nearly the same with 
 those which must be applied to the investigation of the 
 general scope of a book, we shall briefly consider them 
 together in the following observations. 
 
 1. When the scope of a whole book, or of any particular por- 
 tion of it, is expressly mentioned by the sacred writer, it should 
 be carefully observed. 
 
 The scope and end of the whole Bible collectively, is contained in Its 
 manifold utility, which St. Paul expressly states in 2 Tim. iii. 16, 17, and 
 also in Rom. xv. 4. In like manner, the author of Ecclesiastes announces 
 at the beginning of his book, the subject he intends to discuss, viz: to show 
 that all human affairs are vain, uncertain, frail and imperfect ; and such 
 being the case, he proceeds to inquire, What profit hath a man of all his 
 labour which he taketh under the sun? (Eccl. i. 2, 3.) And towards the 
 close of the same book, (ch. xii. 8,) he repeats the same subject, the truth 
 of which he had proved by experience. So, in the commencement of the 
 book of Proverbs, Solomon distinctly announces their scope (ch. i. 1 — 1. 6.) 
 St. John (xx. 31,) announces his object in writing his Gospel to be, that 
 men might believe that Jesus is the Christ the Son of God, a?i d that be- 
 lieving, they might have life through his name ; therefore all those dis- 
 courses of our Lord, which are recorded almost exclusively by this evan- 
 gelist, are to be perused with reference to this particular design. 
 
 2. The scope of the sacred writer may be ascertained from 
 the known occasion, upon which his book was written, and 
 also from history. 
 
 We know from history that many persons disseminated errors and de- 
 fended Judaism, during the time of the apostles; who therefore found it 
 necessary to oppose and refute such errors. This was the occasion of 
 Saint Peter's second Epistle : and the circumstance will enable us to as- 
 certain the scope of many of the other apostolic letters. 
 
 3. The express conclusion, added by the writer at the end 
 of an argument, demonstrates his general scope. 
 
 Thus in Rom. iii. 28, after a long discussion, St. Paul adds this conclu- 
 sion : — Therefore we conclude, that man is justified by faith without the 
 deeds of the law : Hence we perceive with what design the whole pas- 
 sage was written, and to which all the rest is to be referred. The conclu- 
 sions interspersed through the epistles may easily be ascertained by means 
 of the particles, " wherefore," " seeing that," " therefore," "then," &c. a» 
 well as by the circumstances directly mentioned or referred to. 
 
 II. Context denned. 
 
 Another most important assistance, for investigating 
 the meaning of words and phrases, is the consideration of 
 the Context, or the comparison of the preceding and sub 
 sequent parts of a discourse : as this alone, in many in- 
 stances, can enable us to determine that signification which 
 is best adapted to any word or passage. 
 
 *1.) The Hebrew word *W2 (Be-sHeR) literally signifies the s/«*., by a 
 metonomy, the flesh beneath the skin ; and by a synecdoche it denote* 
 every animal ', especially man, considered as infirm or weak; a. In Jei. 
 
OR HISTORICAL SENSE OF SCRIPTURE. Hf 
 
 XVii. 5 — Cursed be the man that trusteth in man, and maketh flesh his 
 arm; but that the word 7?esA is to be understood of maw only in Gen. vi. 12, 
 will be evident on the slightest inspection of the context. All Jiesh had 
 corrupted his way — that is all men had wholly departed from the rule of 
 righteousness, or had made their way of life abominable throughout the 
 world. 
 
 (2.) There is a difference of opinion whether the address of Job's wife 
 (Job ii. 9,) is to be understood in a good sense, as, Bless (or ascribe glory to) 
 God and die ; or in a different signification, Curse God and die, as it is ren- 
 dered in our authorized version. Circumstances show that the last is the 
 proper meaning; because as yet Job had not sinned with his lips, and 
 consequently his wife had no ground for charging him with indulging a 
 vain opinion of his integrity. 
 
 1. The context of a discourse in the Scriptures, may 
 comprise either one verse, a few verses, entire periods, 
 or sections, entire chapters, or whole books. Thus, 
 
 (1.) If 1 Cor. x. 16, be the passage under examination, the preceding 
 and subsequent parts of the epistle, which belong to it, are the eighth, 
 ninth, and tenth chapters. 
 
 (2.) If Isa. Ii. be the chapter in question, the reader must not (stop at the 
 end of it, but continue his perusal to the 12th verse of ch. lii. ; for these 
 together form one subject or argument of prediction, in which the pro- 
 phet is announcing to his countrymen the certainty of their deliverance 
 and return from the Babylonish captivity. This entire portion ought 
 therefore to be read at once, in order to apprehend fully the prophet's 
 meaning. 
 
 (3.) In like manner, the verses from v. 13 of ch. lii. to the end of ch. liii. 
 form a new and entire section relative to the sufferings of the Messiah. 
 Here then is a wrong division of chapters, to which no regard should be 
 paid in examining the context of a book. Ch. Ii. ought to include v. 12 
 of ch.lii. and ch. lii. ought to commence at v. 13, and be continued to the 
 end of ch. liii. 
 
 (4.) In like manner, the first verse of the fourth chapter of St. Paul's 
 Epistle to the Colossians ought to be joined to the third chapter: the 
 slightest attention to this point will enable a diligent student to add nu- 
 merous other examples. 
 
 III. Hints for examining the Context. 
 
 1. Investigate each word of every passage. 
 
 2. Next, examine the entire passage with minute attention. 
 Sometimes a single passage will require a whole chapter, or 
 several of the preceding and following chapters, or even the 
 entire book, to«be perused; and that not once, or twice, but 
 several times. 
 
 For instance, that otherwise difficult passage, Rom. ix. 18 — Therefore 
 hath he mercy on whom he will have mercy, and whom he will he hardeneth, 
 will become perfectly clear by a close examination of the context, begin- 
 ning at verse 18, of chapter viii. and reading to the end of the eleventh 
 chapter ; this portion of the epistle being most intimately connected. 
 
 3. A verse, or passage must not be connected with a remote 
 context, unless the latter agree better with it than a nearer 
 
 context. 
 
 Thus Rom. ii. 10, although it makes a good sense if connected with the 
 preceding verse, makes a much better when joined with verse 12, (the 
 intermediate verses being read parenthetically as in the authorized ver- 
 sion ;) and this shows if. to be the true and proper context. 
 
218 ON THE LITERAL, GRAMMATICAL, 
 
 4. Examine whether the writer continues his discourse, lest 
 we suppose him to make a transition to another argument, 
 when he in fact is prosecuting the same topic. 
 
 Rom. v. 12. will furnish an illustration of this remark. From tha 
 verse to the end of the chapter St. Paul produces a strong argument tc 
 prove, that as all men stood in need of the grace of God in Christ to re- 
 deem them from their sins, so this grace has been afforded equally to all, 
 whether Jews or Gentiles. To perceive the full force, therefore, of the 
 apostle's conclusion, we must read the continuation of his argument from 
 verse 12. to the close of the chapter. 
 
 5. The Parentheses which occur in the sacred writings 
 should be particularly regarded : but no parenthesis should bs 
 interposed without sufficient reason. 
 
 Parentheses, being contrary to the genius and structure of the Hebrew 
 language, are, comparatively, of rare occurrence in the Old Testament. 
 But in the New Testament, they are frequent, especially in the writings 
 of St. Paul; who, after making numerous digressions, (all of them appro- 
 priate to, and illustrative of, his main subject,) returns to the topic which 
 he had begun to discuss. 
 
 Thus, in Rom. ii., verses 13, 14, and 15 are obviously parenthetical; be- 
 cause the context evidently requires verses 12 and 16 to be read toge- 
 ther. In Rom. v., verses 12, 18, 19 evidently form one continued sentence ; 
 and all the intermediate verses are undoubtedly to be read as a paren- 
 thesis, though they are not marked as such in the authorised translation. 
 1 Cor. viii. 1, beginning with the words, Knowledge puffeth up, &c. to the 
 end of the first clause in verse 4, is in like manner parenthetical. The 
 connexion, therefore, of the first with the fourth verse is this: — Now, as 
 touching things offered unto idols, we know that we have all knowledge. — 
 We know that an idol is nothing, «fcc. 1 Cor. x. 29, latter clause, and verse 
 30, are parenthetical ; as also are 2 Cor. ix. 9, 10, which are so printed in 
 our version. A still more signal instance of parenthesis occurs in Eph. iii. 
 where the first and fourteenth verses are connected, the twelve interme- 
 diate verses, (2 to 13,) being parenthetical : as also is 1 Tim. i. verses 3 to 
 17, inclusive. 
 
 7. Where no connexion exists with the preceding and sub- 
 sequent parts of a book, none should be sought. 
 
 This observation applies solely to the Proverbs of Solomon, and chiefly 
 to the tenth and following chapters; which form the second part of that 
 book, and are composed of sentences, or proverbs, totally distinct and un- 
 connected, though each individual precept is pregnant with the most 
 weighty instruction. 
 
 § 2. — Analogy of Scripture, or Parallel Passages. 
 
 1. Nature and importance of Parallel Passages. 
 
 Parallel Passages are those which bear some degree of 
 resemblance in sentiment, language, or idiom : and the 
 comparison of them is a most important help for interpre- 
 ting such parts of ScriptuFe as may appear to us obscure, 
 or uncertain : for, on almost every subject, there will be 
 found a multitude of phrases, that, when diligently colla- 
 ted, will afford mutual illustration and support to each 
 other ; the truth, which is more obscurely intimated in 
 
OR HISTORICAL SENSE OF SCRIPTURE. \\Q 
 
 one place, being expressed with greater precision in 
 others. 
 
 Parallelisms are either near, or remote : in the former 
 case, the parallel passages are sought from the same wri- 
 ter ; in the latter, from different writers. They are fur- 
 ther termed adequate, when they affect the whole subject 
 proposed in the text : and inadequate, when they affect it 
 only in part : but the most usual division of the analogy 
 of Scripture, or parallelisms, is into verbal, or parallel- 
 isms of words ; and real, or parallelisms of things. 
 
 1. A Verbal Parallelism, or Analogy, is that in which, 
 on comparing two or more places together, the same words 
 and phrases, the same mode of argument, the same me- 
 thod of construction, and the same rhetorical figures, are 
 respectively to be found. 
 
 2. A Real Parallelism, or Analogy, is where the same 
 event, or thing is related, the same doctrine is taught, or 
 the same subject is discussed. But besides these two spe- 
 cies of parallelisms, there is, 
 
 3. A third, partaking of the nature of both, and which 
 is of equal importance for understanding the Scriptures : 
 This has been termed a Parallelism of Members : it con- 
 sists chiefly in a certain equality resemblance, or parallel- 
 ism, between the members of each period ; so that in two 
 lines, or members of the same period, things shall answer 
 to things, and words to words, as if fitted to each other by 
 a kind of rule, or measure. 
 
 The nature of this kind of parallelism, which is the 
 grand characteristic of the poetical style of the Hebrews, 
 has been already considered ; and its critical uses have 
 been illustrated. See pp. 108 — 110, supra. 
 
 A single example will suffice to show the importance 
 of this help to the interpretation of the poetical parts of 
 Scripture. 
 
 Psal. lxxxiv. 5 — 7. is confessedly a difficult passage of 
 Scripture, but by considering it as an introverted paral- 
 lelism (the nature of which is defined in p. 110.) Bishop 
 Jebb has thrown much light upon those verses. 
 
 " Blessed is the man whose strength is in Thee : 
 The passengers in whose heart are the ways, 
 In the valley of Baca make it a spring ; 
 The rain also filleth the pools; 
 They go from strength to strength ; 
 '5e shall appear before God in Zion. 
 
120 ox THE LITERAL, GRAMMATICAL, 
 
 " Th^e first and sixth limes are here considered, at once, as constructively- 
 parallel, and as affording a continuous sense : the intermediate four lines 
 may be accounted parenthetical ; the second, constructively parallel with 
 the fifth ; and the third with the fourth. The first line seems to contain 
 the character of a confirmed proficient in religion, — his strength is in 
 God; the sixth line, to describe his final beatification,— he shall appear 
 before God in Zion. The intermediate quatrain may be regarded as 
 descriptive of the intermediate course pursued by those who desire to be 
 good and happy; they are passengers; but they know their destination, 
 and they long for it ; at a distance from the temple, they are anxious to 
 arrive there; the very highways to Jerusalem are in their heart. And 
 what is the consequence 1 ? Affection smooths all difficulties : the parched 
 and sandy desert becomes a rich well-watered valley ; and they cheer- 
 fully advance from strength to strength; from one degree of virtuous pro- 
 ficiency to another." (Sacred Literature, pp. 55, 56.) 
 
 II. Rules for comparing Parallel Passages. 
 
 1. Ascertain the primary meaning of the passage under con- 
 sideration. 
 
 In 1 Cor. iv. 5, we read, Judge nothing before tlie time, until the Lord 
 cojyie, who will both bring to light the hidden things of darkness, and will 
 make manifest the counsels of the hearts. Now here is a parallelism of 
 members, but the fundamental meaning is, that God judges the counsels 
 of men ; he therefore judges without respect of persons, and with unerring 
 impartiality. The Apostle's design was, to show that it is impossible for 
 men to perceive and judge the counsels of one another. 
 
 2. Although the Sacred Scriptures, primarily coming from 
 God, are perfectly consistent, and harmonize throughout ; yet, 
 as they were secondarily written by different authors, on 
 various topics, and in different styles, those books are in the 
 first instance to be compared, which were composed by the 
 same author, in the same language, and on a parallel subject. 
 
 By comparing Psal. xxxviii. 10, with 1 Sam. xiv. 26, 27, (in which Jo- 
 nathan, having taken some honey for his refreshment, is said to have had 
 his eyes enlightened,) we shall readily apprehend the force of the psalm- 
 ist's complaint, that the light of his eyes was gone from him ; for the eyes 
 of a person in good health are so strong as to sparkle with the rays oi 
 light that fall upon them; whereas, when the constitution is worn by 
 long sickness, or broken by grief, the eyes lose their vigour and brilliancy, 
 and, in cases of incipient blindness, the light gradually fails the eyes. 
 
 3. Collect all those similar passages, in which the same 
 forms of speech occur, and the same topics are proposed : and 
 consider well, whether they are really parallel, that is, not 
 only whether the same word, but also the same thing, answers 
 together, in order to form a safe judgment concerning it. 
 
 It often happens that one word has several distinct meanings, one of 
 which obtains in one place, and one in another place. When, therefore, 
 words of such various meanings present themselves, all those passages 
 where they occur are not to be immediately considered as parallel, unless 
 they have a similar power. Thus, if any one were to compare Jonah iv. 
 10, (where mention is made of the gourd which came up in a night, and 
 perished in a night, and which, in the original Hebrew, is termed the son 
 of a night.) with 1 Thess. v. 5, where Christians are called, not children of 
 the night, but children of the day, ft would be a spurious parallel. 
 
 4. Where two parallel passages present themselves, the 
 clearer and more copious place must be selected to iliustrata 
 one that is more briefly and obscurely expressed. 
 
OR HISTORICAL SENSE OF SCRIPTURE. 
 
 121 
 
 5. No assistance is to be derived from similar passages, the 
 sense of which is uncertain. 
 
 The method here indicated is the only effectual way 
 by which to ascertain parallel words and phrases, as well 
 as parallelisms of things : it will indeed require a conside- 
 rable portion of time and study, which every one may not 
 perhaps be able to give ; but individuals thus circumstan 
 ced may advantageously facilitate their researches by 
 having recourse to editions of the Bible with parallel re- 
 ferences, and to concordances, the most useful of which 
 are specified in the Appendix. 
 
 § 3.— Of the Analogy of Faith. 
 
 I. Analogy of Faith defined. 
 
 The Analogy of Faith may be defined to be the con- 
 stant and perpetual harmony of Scripture in the funda- 
 mental points of faith and practice, deduced from those 
 passages, in which they are discussed by the inspired pen- 
 men, either directly, or expressly, and in clear, plain, and 
 intelligible language. Or, more briefly, the analogy of 
 faith may be defined to be that proportion, which the doc- 
 trines of the Gospel bear to each other, or the close con- 
 nexion between the truths of revealed religion. It is one 
 of the most important aids for ascertaining the sense of 
 Scripture. The Analogy of Faith is an expression bor- 
 rowed from Saint Paul's Epistle to the Romans, (xii. 6,) 
 where he exhorts those who prophesy in the church (that, 
 is, those who exercise the office of authoritatively ex- 
 pounding the Scriptures,) to prophesy according to the 
 proportion, or, as the word is in the original, the Analogy 
 of Faith. 
 
 II. Hints for investigating the Analogy of Faith. 
 
 1. Whenever any doctrine is manifest, either from the whole 
 tenor of divine revelation, or from its scope, it must not be 
 weakened or set aside by a few obscure passages. 
 
 No truth is more certain in religion, or is more frequently asserted in 
 the Bible than this, viz. : that God is good, not only to some individuals, but 
 also towards all men. (See Psal. cxlv. 9. Ezek. xviil. 23. 32. John iii. 16. 
 Tit. ii. 11, &c. &c.) If, therefore, any passages occur which at first sight 
 appear to contradict the goodness of God, as, for instance, that He has 
 created some persons that he might damn them, (as some have insinuated ;) 
 in such case the very clear and certain doctrine relative to the goodness 
 of God is not to be impugned, much less set aside, by these obscure places, 
 which, on the contrary, ought to be illustrated by such passages as are 
 more clear. Thus Prov. xvi. 4, has, by several eminent writers, been sup 
 
122 ON THE LITERAL, GRAMMATICAL, 
 
 posed to refer to the predestination of the elect, and the reprobation of the 
 wicked, but without any foundation. The passage, however, may be more 
 correctly rendered, The Lord hath made all things to answer to themselves, 
 or aptly to refer to one another, yea, even the wicked, for the evil day, that 
 is, to be the executioner of evil to others ; on which account they are in 
 Scripture termed the rod of Jehovah, (Isa. x. 5,) and his sword (Psal. xvii. 
 13.) But there is no necessity for rejecting the received version, the plain 
 and obvious sense of which is that there is nothing in the world which 
 does not contribute to the glory- of God, and promote the accomplishment 
 of his adorable designs. 
 
 2. No doctrine can belong to the analogy of faith, which is 
 founded on a single text. 
 
 Every essential principle of religion is delivered in more than one place. 
 Besides, single sentences are not to be detached from the places where 
 they stand, but must be taken in connexion with the whole discourse. 
 
 From disregard of this rule, the temporary direction of the apostle 
 James (v. 14, 15,) has been perverted by the church of Rome, and ren- 
 dered a permanent institution, (by her miscalled a sacrament, for it was 
 never instituted by Jesus Christ,) from a mean of recovery, to a charm, 
 when recovery is desperate, for the salvation of the soul. 
 
 3. The whole system of revelation must be explained, so as 
 to be consistent with itself— When two passages appear to be 
 contradictory, if the sense of the one can be clearly ascer- 
 tained, in such case that must regulate our interpretation of 
 the other. 
 
 4. An obscure, doubtful, ambiguous, or figurative text must 
 never be interpreted in such a sense as to make it contradict a 
 plain one. 
 
 In explaining the Scriptures, consistency of sense and principles ought 
 to be supported in all their several parts ; and if any one part be so in- 
 terpreted as to clash with another, such interpretation cannot be justi- 
 fied. Nor can it be otherwise corrected than by considering every doubt- 
 ful or difficult text, first by itself, then with its context, and then by com- 
 paring it with other passages of Scripture ; and thus bringing what may 
 seem obscure into a consistency with what is plain and evident. 
 
 The doctrine of transubstantiation, inculcated by the church of Rome, 
 is founded on a strictly literal interpretation of figurative expressions, 
 "This is my body," &c. (Matt. xxvi. 26, &c.) and (which has no relation 
 to the supper,) "Eat my flesh, drink my blood," (John vi. 51—58.) But 
 independently of this, we may further conclude that the sense put upon 
 the words, " This is my body," by the church of Rome, cannot be the 
 true one, being contrary to the express declaration of the. New Testament 
 history, from which it is evident that our Lord is ascended into heaven, 
 where he is to continue " till the time of the restitution of all things;" 
 (Acts iii. 21,) that is, till his second coming to judgment. How then can 
 his body be in ten thousand several places on earth at one and the 
 same time? We may further add that, if the doctrine of transubstantia- 
 tion be true, it will follow that our Saviour, when he instituted the Sacra- 
 ment of the Lord's Supper, did actually eat his own flesh, and drink his 
 own blood : a conclusion this, so obviously contradictory boUi to reason 
 and to Scripture, that it is astonishing how any sensible and religious 
 man can credit such a test. 
 
 5. Such passages as are expressed with brevity are to be 
 expounded by those, where the same doctrines or duties are 
 expressed more largely and fully. 
 
 i. The doctrine of justification, for instance, is briefly stated in Phil. iii. , 
 but that momentuous doctrine is professedly discussed in the Epistle to 
 the Galatians, and especially in that to the Romans: and according to the 
 
OR HISTORICAL SENSE OF SCRIPTURE. J23 
 
 tenor of these, particularly Rom. iii., all the other passages of Scripture 
 that treat of justification, should be explained. 
 
 ii. Even slight variations will frequently serve for the purpose of reci- 
 procal illustration. Thus, the beatitudes, related in Luke vi., though deli- 
 vered at another time, and in a different place, are the same with those 
 delivered by Jesus Christ, in his sermon on the mount, and recorded in 
 Matt. v. Being, however, epitomised by the former evangelist, they may 
 be explained by the latter. 
 
 6. " Where several doctrines of equal importance are pro- 
 posed, and revealed with great clearness, we must be careful to 
 give to each its full and equal weight." 
 
 " Thus, that we are saved by the free grace of God, and through faith 
 in Christ, is a doctrine too plainly affirmed by the sacred writers, to be set 
 aside by any contravening position. (Eph. ii. 8.) But so, on the other 
 hand, are the doctrines of repentance unto life, and of obedience unto 
 salvation. (Acts iii. 19. Matt. xix. 17.) To set either of these truths at 
 variance with the others, would be to frustrate the declared purpose of the 
 Gospel, and to make it of none effect. Points thus clearly established, and 
 from their very nature indispensable, must be made to correspond with 
 each other : and the exposition, which best preserves them unimpaired 
 and undiminished, will, in any case, be a safe interpretation, and most 
 probably the true one. The analogy of faith will thus be kept entire, and 
 will approve itself, in every respect, as becoming its Divine Author, and 
 ■worthy of all acceptation." (Bp. Vanmildert's Bampton Lectures, p. 294.) 
 
 It must, however, be ever borne in mind, that, valua- 
 ble as this aid is, it is to be used only in concurrence with 
 those which have been discussed and illustrated in the pre- 
 ceding sections. But, by a due attention to these princi- 
 ples, accompanied by humility and sincerity, with a de 
 sire to know and obey the revealed will of God, and, above 
 all, with fervent supplication to the throne of Grace foi 
 a blessing on his labours, the diligent inquirer after Scrip- 
 ture truth, may confidently hope for success, and will be 
 enabled to perceive the design of every portion of holy 
 writ, its harmony with the rest, and the divine perfection 
 of the whole. 
 
 § 4. Historical Circumstances. 
 
 Historical Circumstances are an important help to 
 the correct understanding of the sacred writers. Under 
 this term are comprised : — 1. The Order; 2. The Title; 
 3. The Author ; 4. The Date of each of the several books 
 of Scripture; 5. The Place where it was written; 6. The 
 Occasion upon which the several books were written ; 7. 
 Ancient Sacred and Profane History ; 8. The Chrono- 
 logy, or period of time embraced in the Scriptures gene- 
 rally, and of each book in particular ; 9. Biblical Anti- 
 quities ; (All these topics are adverted to, in the third ana 
 
124 0N THE LITERAL. GRAMMATICAL, 
 
 fourth parts of this volume :) and, 10. The knowledge of 
 the Affections, or feelings of the Sacred writers, and of 
 the sentiments of the persons whom they addressed. 
 
 I. A knowledge of the Order of the different Books, 
 especially such as are historical, will more readily assist 
 the student to discover the order of the different histories 
 and other matters discussed in them, as well as to trace 
 the divine economy towards mankind, under the Mosaic 
 and Christian dispensations. 
 
 II. The Titles are further worthy of notice, because 
 some of them announce the chief subject of the book — as 
 Genesis, the generations of heaven and earth — Exodus., 
 the departure of the Israelites from Egypt, &c. ; while 
 other titles denote the churches, or particular persons 
 for whose more immediate use some parts of scripture 
 were composed, and thus elucidate particular passages. 
 
 III. Where the name of the Author of a book is not 
 distinctly stated, it may be collected from internal circum- 
 stances ; as, his peculiar character, mode of thinking, and 
 style of writing, as well as the incidental testimonies con- 
 cerning himself, which his writings may contain. Thus, 
 
 The expressions in 2 Pet. i. 18, and iii. 1. 15, prove Saint Peter to have 
 been the author of that epistle; and a comparison of the Epistles and 
 Gospel of St. John proves also that they are the production of one and the 
 same author. 
 
 IV. A knowledge of the Time when a book was writ- 
 ten, also of the state of the Church at that time, will in- 
 dicate the reason and propriety of things said in such 
 book, as we'll as the author's scope, or intention in wri- 
 ting it. Thus, 
 
 (1.) The injunction in 1 Thess. v. 27, which may appear unnecessary, 
 will be found to be a very proper one, when it is considered that that was 
 the first epistle written by St. Paul; and that the apostle, knowing the 
 plenitude of 'his divine commission, demands the same respect to be paid 
 to his writings, which had been given to those of the ancient prophets, 
 which, in all probability, were read in every assembly for Christian 
 worship. 
 
 (2.) When St. James wrote his epistle, the Christians were suffering a 
 cruel persecution, in consequence of which many were not only declining 
 in faith, love, and a holy life, but also abused the grace of God to licen- 
 tiousness, boasting of a faith destitute of its appropriate fruits; viz. : who 
 boasted of a bare assent to the doctrines of the Gospel, and boldly affirmed 
 that this inoperative and dead faith was alone sufficient to obtain salva- 
 tion. (Chapter ii. verse 17, et seq.~) Hence we may easily perceive, that 
 the apostle's scope, was not to treat of the doctrine of justification ; but, 
 the state of the church requiring it, to correct those errors in doctrine, 
 and these sinful practices, ichich had crept into the church, end particit' 
 ler!jf to expose that fundamental error of a dead faith unproductive of 
 
OR HISTORICAL SENSE OF SCRIPTURE. 
 
 125 
 
 good works. This observation further shows the true way of reconciling 
 the supposed contradiction between the apostles Paul and James, concern- 
 ing the doctrine of salvation by faith. 
 
 V. The consideration of the Place where a Book 
 was written, as well as of the nature of the place, and 
 the customs which obtained there, is likewise of great im- 
 portance. 
 
 The first Psalm being written in Palestine, the comparison (in ver. 4,) of 
 the ungodly to chaff driven away by the wind, will become more evident, 
 when it is recollected that the threshing-floors in that country were not 
 under cover, as those in our modern barns are, but that they were formed 
 in the open air, without the walls of cities, and in lofty situations, in order 
 that the wheat might be the more effectually separated from the chaff by 
 the action of the wind. (See Hosea xiii. 3.) In like manner, the know- 
 ledge of the nature of the Arabian desert, through which the children of 
 Israel journeyed, is necessary to the correct understanding of many pas- 
 sages in the books of Exodus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy, which were 
 written in that desert. 
 
 VI. A knowledge of the Occasion on which a book 
 
 was written, will greatly help to the understanding of the 
 
 Scriptures, particularly the Psalms, many of which have 
 
 no title. The occasion in this case, must be sought from 
 
 internal circumstances. 
 
 Psalm xlii. was evidently written by David, when he was in circum- 
 stances of the deepest affliction : but, if we compare it with the history of 
 the conspiracy of Absalom, aided by Ahithopel, who had deserted the 
 councils of his sovereign, as related in 2 Sam. xv., and also with the cha- 
 racter of the country whither David fled, we shall have a key to the 
 meaning of that psalm, which will elucidate it with equal beauty and 
 propriety. 
 
 VII. A knowledge of Sacred and Propane History 
 
 is of great importance to the interpretation of the Bible, 
 not only as it enables us to trace the fulfilment of pro- 
 phecy, but also because it enables us to explain many 
 customs and institutions which the Jews borrowed from 
 neighbouring heathen nations, notwithstanding they were 
 forbidden to have any intercourse with them. 
 
 A judicious comparison of the notions that obtained among ancient, and 
 comparatively uncultivated nations, with those entertained by the He- 
 brews or Jews, will, from their similitude, enable us to enter more fully 
 into the meaning of the sacred writers. Thus many pleasing illustrations 
 of patriarchal life and manners may be obtained by comparing the wri- 
 tings of Homer and Hesiod with the accounts given by Moses: such com- 
 parisons are to be found in the best of the larger philological commentaries. 
 
 In order, however, that we may correctly explain the 
 manners, customs, or practices, referred to by the sacred 
 writers at different times, it is necessary that we should 
 investigate the laws, opinions, and principles of those 
 nations among whom the Hebrews resided for a long time, 
 
126 ON TIIE LUEKAL, GRAMMATICAL, 
 
 or with whom they held a close intercourse, and from 
 whom it is probable they received some of them. 
 
 The Hebrews, from their long residence in Egypt, seem to have derived 
 some expressions and modes of thinking from their oppressors. A single 
 example will suffice to illustrate this remark. Under the Jewish theo- 
 cracy, the judges are represented as holy persons, and as sitting in the 
 place of Jehovah. The Egyptians regarded their sovereigns in this light. 
 Hence it has been conjectured, that the Israelites, just on their exit from 
 Egypt, called their rulers gods, not only in poetry, but also in the com- 
 mon language of their laws. See Exod. xxi. 6, where the Vf 0x6. judges is, 
 in the original Hebrew, gods. 
 
 VIII. Chronology, or the science of computing and 
 adjusting periods of time, is of the greatest importance 
 towards understanding the historical parts of the Bible, 
 not only as it shows the order and connexion of the 
 various events therein recorded, but likewise as it enables 
 us to ascertain the accomplishment of many of the pro- 
 phecies, and sometimes leads to the discovery and cor- 
 rection of mistakes in numbers and dates, which have 
 crept into particular texts. The chronology in the mar- 
 gin of our larger English Bibles is called the Usserian 
 Chronology, being founded on the Annales Veteris et Novi 
 Testamenti of the eminently learned Archbishop Usher. 
 
 IX. To all these are to be added a knowledge of Bib- 
 lical Antiquities ; which include Geography, Gene- 
 alogy, Natural History, and Philosophy, Learning and 
 Philosophical Sects, Manners, Customs, and Private Life, 
 of the Jews and other Nations mentioned in the Bible, 
 A concise sketch of the principal topics comprised under 
 this bead, is given in the Third Part of this manual. 
 
 X. Lastly, in order to enter fully into the meaning of 
 the sacred writers, especially of the New Testament, it is 
 necessary that the reader in a manner identify himself 
 with them, and invest himself with their Affections or 
 feelings ; and also familiarize himself with the sentiments, 
 &c. of those to whom the different books or epistles were 
 addressed. 
 
 This canon is of considerable importance, as well in the investigation 
 of words and phrases, as in the interpretation of the sacred volume, and 
 particularly of the prayers and imprecations related or contained therein. 
 If the assistance, which may be derived from a careful study of the 
 affections and feelings of the inspired writers, be disregarded or neglected, 
 it will be scarcely possible to avoid erroneous expositions of the Scrip- 
 tures. Daily observation and experience prove, how much of its energy 
 and perspicuity familiar discourse derives from the affections of the 
 speakers: and also that the same words, when pronounced under the in- 
 fluence of different emotions convey very different meanings. 
 
OR HISTORICAL SENSE OF SCRIPTURE. J 27 
 
 § 5. — Ancient Versions. 
 
 Of the Ancient Versions of the Holy Scriptures, and 
 their uses in sacred criticism, an account has already been 
 given in pages 83 — 90. It may here be remarked, that, 
 to those who are able to consult them, these versions 
 afford a very valuable aid in the interpretation of the 
 Bible : for they were the works of men, who enjoyed 
 several advantages above the moderns, for understanding 
 the original languages and the phraseology of Scripture. 
 A single instance will illustrate the propriety of this 
 remark. 
 
 In the first promulgation of the Gospel to mankind, (Gen. iii. 15,) God 
 said to the serpent that beguiled our first parents, And I will put enmity 
 between thee and the woman, and between thy seed and her seed, and IT, 
 (that is, the seed of the woman, as our authorized translation rightly ex- 
 pounds it,) shall bruise thy head, and thou shalt bruise his heel. But in 
 the Anglo-Romish version, after the Latin vulgate, (which has ipsa con- 
 teret caput tuum,) it is rendered, She shall bruise his head, as if a woman 
 should do it: which the Romanists interpreting of the Virgin Mary, 
 ascribe to her this great victory and triumph over sin and Satan, and are 
 taught to say, in their addresses to her, " Adoro et benedico sanctissimoa 
 pedes tuos, quibus antiqui serpentis caput calcasti ;" that is, " I adore and 
 bless thy most holy feet, whereby thou hast bruised the head of the old 
 Berpent." That this rendering of the Romanists is erroneous is proved by 
 the Septuaglnt Greek version, by the Chaldee paraphrase, and by the 
 Syriac version, all of which refer the pronoun IT to the seed of the woman, 
 and not to the woman herself. (Bp. Beveridge's Works, vol. ii. p. 193. 
 vol. ix. pp. 233, 234. Agier, Propheties concernant Jesus Christ etl'Eglise, 
 pp. 243, 244.) 
 
 § 6. — On Commentators. 
 
 I. Nature and Classes of Commentators. 
 
 Commentators are writers of Books of Annotations on 
 Scripture: they have been divided into the following 
 classes, viz : 
 
 1. Wholly spiritual, or figurative ;— this class'of expositors proceed on 
 the principle, that the Scriptures are every where to be taken in the 
 fullest sense of which they will admit:— a principle, of all others the 
 most unsafe, and most calculated to mislead the student. 
 
 2. Literal and Critical ; — those who apply themselves to explain the 
 mere letter of the Bible. 
 
 3. Wholly practical /—those who confine themselves to moral and doc- 
 trinal observations : and, 
 
 4. Those who unite critical, philological, and practical observations 
 
 Expository writings may also be classed into Scholiasts^ 
 or writers of short explanatory notes, who particularly 
 aim at brevity ; — Commentators, or authors of a series of 
 
128 ON THE SENSE OF SCRIPTURE. 
 
 perpetual annotations, in which the train of their thoughts, 
 and the coherence of their expressions, are pointed out ; — 
 and Paraphrasts, who expound a sacred writer by ren- 
 dering his whole discourse, as well as every expression, in 
 equivalent terms. 
 
 II. Use of Commentators, and in what manner .hey 
 are to be consulted. 
 
 The use of Commentators is two-fold : first, that we 
 may acquire from them a method of interpreting the 
 Scriptures correctly ; and second, that we may understand 
 obscure and difficult passages. The best commentators 
 only should be consulted ; and, in availing ourselves of 
 their labours, the following hints will be found useful : 
 
 1. We should take care that the reading- of commentators 
 does not draw us away from studying the Scriptures for our- 
 selves, from investigating their real meaning, and meditating 
 on their important contents. 
 
 This would be to frustrate the very design for which commentaries are 
 written, namely, to facilitate our labours, to direct us aright where we 
 are in danger of falling into error, to remove doubts and difficulties which 
 we are ourselves unable to solve, to reconcile apparently contradictory 
 passages, and, in short, to elucidate whatever is obscure or unintelligible 
 to us. No commentators, therefore, should be consulted until we have 
 previously investigated the sacred writings for ourselves, making use of 
 every grammatical and historical help, comparing the scope, context, 
 parallel passages, the analogy of faith, &c. : and even then, commentaries 
 should be resorted to, only for the purpose of explaining what was not 
 sufficiently clear, or of removing our doubts. This method of studying 
 the sacred volume will, unquestionably, prove a slow one; but the stu- 
 dent will proceed with certainty; and, if he have patience and resolution 
 enough to persevere in it, he will ultimately attain greater proficiency in 
 the knowledge of the Scriptures, than those who, disregarding this me- 
 thod, shall have recourse wholly to assistances of other kinds. 
 
 2. We should not inconsiderately assent to the interpretation 
 of any expositor or commentator, or yield a blind and servile 
 obedience to his authority. 
 
 3. Where it does not appear that either ancient or modern 
 interpreters had more knowledge than ourselves respecting 
 particular passages ; and where they offer only conjectures,— 
 in such cases their expositions ought to be subjected to a strict 
 examination. If their reasons are then found to be valid, we 
 should give our assent to them : but, on the contrary, if they 
 prove to be false, improbable, and insufficient, they must be 
 altogether rejected. 
 
 4. Lastly, as there are some commentaries, which are either 
 wholly compiled from the previous labours of others, or which 
 contain observations extracted from their writings, if any thing 
 appear confused and perplexed in such commentaries, the ori- 
 ginal sources whence they were compiled must be referred to, 
 and diligently consulted. 
 
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE OF SCRIPTURE. ]29 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 ON THE INTERPRETATION OF THE FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE OF SCRIPTURE. 
 
 Figurative language had its rise in the first ages of 
 mankind : the scarcity of words occasioned them to be 
 used for various purposes : and thus figurative terms, 
 which constitute the beauty of language, arose from its 
 poverty ; and it is still the same in all uncivilized nations. 
 Figures, in general, may be described to be that language, 
 which is prompted either by the imagination or by the 
 passions. They are commonly divided into, 1. Tropes, 
 or Figures of Words, which consist in the advantageous 
 alteration of a word, or sentence, from its original and 
 proper signification, to another meaning ; and, 2. Fi- 
 gures of Thought, which suppose the words to be used 
 in their literal and proper meaning, and the figure to 
 consist in the turn of the thought ; as is the case in ex- 
 clamations, apostrophes, and comparisons ; where, though 
 we vary the words that are used, or translate them from 
 one language into another, we may, nevertheless, still pre- 
 serve the same figure in the thought. This distinction, 
 however, is of no great use, as nothing can be built upon 
 it in practice : neither is it always very clear. It is of 
 little importance, whether we give to some particular 
 mode of expression the name of a trope, or of a figure, 
 provided we remember that figurative language always im- 
 ports some colouring of the imagination, or some emotion 
 «*f passion expressed in our style. 
 
 Disregarding, therefore, the technical distinctions, which 
 nave been introduced by rhetorical writers, we shall first 
 offer some hints by which to ascertain and correctly inter- 
 pret the tropes and figures occurring in the sacred wri- 
 tings ; and in the following sections we shall notice the 
 principal of them, with a few illustrative examples. 
 
 Section I.— General Observations on the Interpretation of Tropes and 
 Figures. 
 
 In order to understand fully the figurative language of 
 the Scriptures, it is requisite, first, to ascertain and de- 
 
130 
 
 ON THE INTERPRETATION OF THE 
 
 termine what is really figurative, lest we take that to be 
 literal which is figurative, as the disciples of our Lord and 
 the Jews frequently did, or lest we pervert the literal mean- 
 ing of words by a figurative interpretation ; and secondly, 
 when we have ascertained what is really figurative, to in- 
 terpret it correctly, and deliver its true sense. For this 
 purpose the following hints will be found useful in addition 
 to a consideration of historical circumstances, parallel 
 passages, and the context. 
 
 1. The literal meaning of words must be retained, more in 
 the historical books of Scripture, than in those which are 
 poetical 
 
 We are not, therefore, to look for a figurative style in the historical 
 books : and still less are historical narratives to be changed into allegories 
 and parables, unless these are obviously apparent. Those expositors, 
 therefore, violate this rule, who allegorize the history of the fall of man, 
 and that of the prophet Jonah. 
 
 2. The literal meaning of words is to be given up, if it be 
 either improper, or involve an impossibility, or where words, 
 properly taken, contain any thing contrary to the doctrinal or 
 moral precepts delivered in other parts of Scripture. Thus, 
 
 (1.) The expressions in Jer. i. 18, are therefore necessarily to be under- 
 stood figuratively. So, the literal sense of Isa. i. 25, is equally inapplica- 
 ble ; but in the following verse the prophet explains it in the proper 
 words. 
 
 (2.) In Psal. xviii. 2, God is termed, a rock, a fortress, a deliverer, a 
 buckler, a horn of salvation, and a high tower; it is obvious that these 
 predicates are metaphorically spoken of the Almighty. 
 
 (3.) Matt. viii. 22 — " Let the dead bury their dead, cannot possibly be ap- 
 plied to those who are really and naturally dead ; and consequently must 
 be understood figuratively. " Leave those who are spiritually dead to 
 perform the rites of burial for such as are naturally dead." 
 
 (4.) The command of Jesus Christ, related in Matt, xviii. 8, 9, if inter- 
 preted literally, is directly at variance with the sixth commandment, 
 (Exod. xx. 13,) and must consequently be understood figuratively, 
 
 (5.) Whatever is repugnant to natural reason, cannot be the true 
 meaning of the Scriptures; for God is the original of natural truth, as 
 well as of that which comes by particular revelation. No proposition, 
 therefore, which is repugnant to the fundamental principles of reason, can 
 be the sense of any part of the word of God; hence the words of Christ, 
 This is my body, and, This is my blood, (Matt. xxvi. 26, 28,) are not to be 
 understood in that sense which makes for the doctrine of transubstanti- 
 ation ; because it is impossible that contradictions should be true; and we 
 cannot be more certain that any thing is true, than we are that that doc- 
 trine is false. 
 
 (6.) To change day into night (Job xvii. 12,) is a moral impossibility, 
 contrary to common sense, and must be a figurative expression. In Isa. 
 i. 5, 6, the Jewish nation are described as being sorely stricken, or chas- 
 tised, like a man mortally wounded, and destitute both of medicine as 
 well as of the means of cure. That this description is figurative, is evi- 
 dent from the context ; for in the two following verses the prophet deline- 
 ates the condition of the Jews in literal terms. 
 
 It is not, however, sufficient to know whether an expression 
 be figurative or not, but, when this point is ascertained, another 
 
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE OF BC'RIFTUllE. 13£ 
 
 of equal importance presents itself; namely, to interpret meta- 
 
 fhorical expressions, by corresponding and appropriate terms. 
 n order to accomplish this object, it is necessary, 
 
 3 That we inquire in what respects the thing compared, and 
 that with which it is compared, respectively agjee, and also in 
 what respects they have any affinity or resemblance. 
 
 For, as a similitude is concealed in every metaphor, it is only by dili- 
 gent study that it can be elicited, by carefully observing the points ol 
 agreement between the proper, or literal, and the figurative meaning. 
 For instance, the prophetic writers, and particularly Ezekiel, very fre- 
 quently charge the Israelites with having committed adultery, and play- 
 ed the harlot, and with deserting Jehovah, their husband. From the 
 slightest inspection of these passages, it is evident that spiritual adultery, 
 or idolatry, is intended. Now the origin of this metaphor is to be sousht 
 from one and the same notion, in which there is an agreement between 
 adultery and the worship paid by the Israelites to strange gods. That 
 notion, or idea, is unfaithfulness ; by which, as a wife deceives her hus- 
 band, so they are represented as deceiving God, and as violating their 
 fidelity in forsaking him. 
 
 4. Lastly, in explaining the figurative language of Scripture, 
 care must be taken that we do not judge of the application of 
 characters from modern usage; because the inhabitants of the 
 East have very frequently attached a character to the idea ex- 
 pressed, widely different from that which usually presents itself 
 to our views. 
 
 In Deut. xxxiii. 17, the glory of the tribe of Joseph is compared to the 
 firstling of a bullock ; in like manner Amos (iv. 1.) compares the noble 
 women of Israel to the kine of Bashan, and Hosea compares the Israelites 
 to refractory kine that shake off the yoke. If we take these metaphors 
 according to their present sense, we shall greatly err. The ox-tribe of 
 animals, whose greatest beauty and strength lie in their horns, was held 
 in very high honour among the ancient nations, and w as much esteemed 
 on account of its aptitude for agricultural labour : hence, in the East, it 
 is not reckoned disgraceful to be compared with these animals. In the 
 comparison of the tribe of Joseph, to the firstling of a bullock, the point of 
 resemblance is strength and power. In the comparison of the matrons of 
 Samaria to the kine of Bashan, the point of resemblance is luxury and 
 wantonness, flowing from their abundance. 
 
 Section II.— On the Interpretation of the Metonymies occurring in 
 Scripture. 
 
 A metonymy is a trope, by which we substitute one 
 appellation for another, as the cause for the effect, the 
 effect for the cause, the subject for the adjunct or the ad- 
 junct for the subject. 
 
 A Metonymy of the cause is used in Scripture, when the person acting 
 is put for the thing done, or the instrument by which a thing is done is 
 put for the thing effected, or when a thing or action is put for the effect 
 produced by that action. 
 
 A Metonymy of the effect occurs, when the effect is put for tire efficient 
 cause. 
 
 A Metonymy of the subject is. when the subject is put for the adjunct, 
 
£32 INTERPRETATION OF THE 
 
 that is, for some circumstance or appendage belonging to the subject 
 when the thing or piace containing is put for the thing contained or 
 placed ; when the possessor is put for the thing possessed ; when the 
 object is put for the thing conversant about it ; or when the thing signified 
 is put for its sign. 
 
 A Metonymy of the adjunct is, when that which belongs to any thing 
 serves to represent the thing itself. 
 
 § 1.-— Metonymy of the Cause. 
 
 I. Frequently the person acting is put for the thing done. 
 
 Thus, 
 
 1 . Christ is put for his doctrine in Rom. xvi. 9. 
 
 2. The Holy Spirit for hjs Effects and Operations, in 2 Cor. iii. 6. 
 Psalm li. 10 ; Influences, in Luke xi. 13, and 1 Thess. v. 19 ; a Divine 
 Power, reigning in the soul of the renewed man, in Luke i. 46, 47, com- 
 pared with 1 Thess. v. 23 ; the Extraordinary Gifts of the Spirit, in 
 2 Kings ii. 9. Dan. v. 12; and for revelations, visions, or ecstacies, whether 
 really from the Holy Spirit, or pretended to be so, in Ezek. xxxvi. 1, 
 2 Thess. ii. 2, and Rev. i. 10. 
 
 3. Parents, or Ancestors, are put for their Posterity ; as in Gen. ix. 27. 
 Exod. v. 2, and very many other passages of holy writ. 
 
 4 The Writer, or Author, is put for his Book or Work : as in Luke xvi. 
 29. xxiv. 27. Acts xv. 21, xxi. 21, and 2 Cor. iii. 15, in which passages 
 Moses and the Prophets respectively mean the Mosaic and Prophetic 
 writings. 
 
 II. Sometimes the cause or instrument is put for the thing 
 effected by it. Thus, 
 
 1. The mouth, the lips, and the tongue, are respectively put for the 
 speech, in Deut. xvii. 6, xix. 15. Matt, xviii. 16, &c. 
 
 2. The mouth is also put for commandment in Gen. xlv. 21. (marginal 
 rendering) (Heb. mouth.') Numb. iii. 16. 39, xx. 24, xxvii. 14. Deut. i. 
 26. 43. and in Prov. v. 3. the palate (marginal rendering) is also put for 
 speech. 
 
 3. The throat is also put for loud speaking, in Isa. lviii. 1. Cry aloud, 
 tlleb. with the throat.) 
 
 4. The hand is ordinarily put for its writing, 1 Cor. xvi. 21. Col. iv. la 
 
 5. The sword, famine, and pestilence, likewise respectively denote the 
 effects of those scourges, as in Ezek. vii. 15. 
 
 § 2. — Metonymy of the Effect. 
 
 III. Sometimes, on the contrary, the effect is put for the 
 cause. 
 
 Thus God is called Salvation, that is, the Author of it, Exod. xv. 2, our 
 life and the length of our days, Deut.xxx. 20, our strength, Psalm xviii. 1. 
 So Christ is termed Salvation, Isa. xlix. 6. Luke ii. 30. Life, John Xi. 25. 
 and the Resurrection in the same place. 
 
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE OF fcCIHPlTJRE. J33 
 
 § 3.— Metonymy of the Subject. 
 
 IV. Sometimes the subject is put for the adjunct, that is. 
 for some circumstance or appendage belonging to, or depend- 
 ing upon the subject. Thus, 
 
 The heart is frequently used for the will and affection, Deut. iv. 29, vi. 
 5, &c. : and for the understanding, Deut. iv. 39, vi. 6. Luke ii. 51, <&c. 
 
 V. Sometimes the place or thing denotes that which is con- 
 tained in such place or thing. 
 
 The earth and the world are frequently put for the n en that dwell 
 therein, as in Gen. vi. 11. Psalm xcvi. 13, &c. The Houses of Israel and 
 Levi denote their several families, in Exod. ii. 1, and Ezek. iii. 1. 
 
 VI. Sometimes the possessor of a thing is put for the thing 
 
 Thus, Deut. ix. 1. To possess nations greater and mightier than thyself, 
 means to possess the countries of the Gentiles. See also Psalm lxxix. 7, 
 where Jacob means the land of the Israelites. 
 
 VII. Frequently the object is put for that which is conversant 
 about it. 
 
 Thus glory and strength are put for the celebration ©f the divine glory 
 and strength, in Psalm viii. 2 ; explained by Matt. xxi. 16 ; see also Psalm 
 xcvi. 7, 8. 
 
 VIII. Sometimes the thing signified is put for its sign. 
 
 So, the strength cf God, in 1 Chron. xvi. 11, and Psalm cv. 4, is the ark, 
 which was a sign and symbol of the divine presence and strength. 
 
 IX. When an action is said to be done, the meaning fre- 
 quently is, that it is declared, or permitted, or foretold, to be 
 done : as in Gen. xli. 3. Jer. iv. 10. Matt. xvi. 9, &c. 
 
 X. An action is said to be done, when the giving of an occa- 
 sion for it is only intended. 
 
 1 Kings xiv. 6. Jeroboam made Israel to sin, i. e. occasioned it by his 
 example and command. See Acts i. 18, Rom. xiv. 15, and 1 Cor. vii. 16. 
 
 § 4.— Metonymy of the Adjunct, in which tne Adjunct is put for the 
 
 Subject. 
 
 XI. Sometimes the accident, or that which is additional to a 
 thing, is put for its subject in kind. 
 
 The abstract is put for the concrete. So gray hairs (Heb. hoariness or 
 gray -head edness) in Gen. xlii. 38, denote me, who am now an old man 
 and gray-headed ; abomination for an abominable thing, in Gen. xlvi. 34, 
 and Luke xvi. 15. 
 
 XII. Sometimes the thing contained is put for the thing 
 containing it, and a thing deposited in a place, for the place 
 itself. 
 
 Thus Gen. xxviii. 22, means, this place where I have erected a pillar 
 of stone, shall be God's house. Jo&h. xv. 19. Springs of water denote 
 some portion of land, where there may be springs. Matt, ii. 11. Treasures 
 
 are the cabinets or other vessels containing them. 
 
 12 
 
]34 INTER PKETATION OF THE 
 
 XIII. Time is likewise put for the thing's which are done or 
 happen in time, as in 1 Chron. xii. 32. John xii. 27. 
 
 XIV. In the Scriptures, things are sometimes named or de- 
 scribed according to appearances, or to the opinion formed of 
 them Dy men, and not as they are in their own nature. 
 
 Thus Hananiah, the opponent of Jeremiah, is called a. prophet, not be- 
 cause he was truly one, but was reputed to be one, Jer. xxviil. 1. 5. 10. 
 In Ezek. xxi. 3, the righteous mean those who had the semblance of 
 piety, but really were not righteous. And in Luke ii. 48, Joseph is called 
 the Father of Christ, because he was reputed so to be. 
 
 XV. Sometimes the action or affection, which is conversant 
 about any object, or placed upon it, is put for the object itself. 
 
 Thus, the senses are put for the objects perceived by them, as hearing 
 for doctrine or speech, in Isa. xxviii. 9, (marg. rend.) and liii. 1, (Heb.) 
 In John xii. 38, and Rom. x- 16, the Greek word euro 17, translated report, 
 literally means hearing, and so it is rendered in Gal. iii. 2. 5. Hearing is 
 also put for fame or rumour in Psalm cxii. 7. (Heb.) Ezek. vii. 26 
 Obad. 1. Hab. iii. 2. (Heb.) Matt. iv. 24, xiv. 1, and xxiv. 6. Mark i. 28, 
 and xiii. 7, &c. 
 
 The eye, in the original of Numb. xi. 7. Lev. xiii. 55. Prov. xxiii. 31 
 Ezek. i. 4, viii. 2, andx. 9, is put for colours which are seen by the eye. 
 
 XVI. Sometimes the sisrn is put for the thing signified as in 
 Gen. xlix. 10. Isa. xxii. 22. Matt. x. 34. 
 
 XVII. Lastly, the names of things are often put for the 
 things themselves, as in Psalm xx. 1, cxv. 1. Acts ii. 21. Rom. 
 x. 13", &c. 
 
 Section III. — On the Interpretation of Scripture Metaphors and 
 
 Allegories. 
 
 I. Nature and sources of Metaphors. 
 
 A metaphor is a trope, by which a word is diverted 
 from its proper and genuine signification to another mean- 
 ing, for the sake of comparison, or because there is some 
 analogy between the similitude, and the thing signified. 
 Of all the figures of rhetoric, the metaphor is that which 
 is most frequently employed, not only in the Scriptures, 
 but likewise in every language : for, independently of the 
 pleasure which it affords, it enriches the mind with two 
 ideas at the same time, the truth and the similitude. To 
 illustrate this definition : — In Deut. xxxii. 42, w T e read, I 
 will make mine arrows drunk with blood, and my sword 
 shall devour flesh. Here, the first metaphor is borrowed 
 from excessive and intemperate drinking, to intimate the 
 very great effusion of blood, and the exceeding greatness 
 of the ruin and destruction which would befall the diso- 
 bedient Israelites : the second metaphor is drawn from 
 
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE OF SCRIPTURE. 
 
 135 
 
 the voracious appetite of a hungry beast, which in a 
 lively manner presents to the mind the impossibility of 
 their escaping the edge of the sword, when the wrath of 
 God should be provoked. The foundation of them con- 
 sists in a likeness, or similitude between the thing from 
 which the metaphor is drawn, and that to which it is ap- 
 plied. When this resemblance is exhibited in one, or in 
 a few expressions, it is termed a simple metaphor. When 
 it is pursued with a variety of expressions, or there is a 
 continued assemblage of metaphor, it is called an alle- 
 gory. When it is couched in a short sentence, obscure 
 and ambiguous, it is called a riddle. If it be conveyed 
 in a short saying only, it is a proverb ; and if the meta- 
 phorical representation be delivered in the form of a 
 history, it is a parable. When the resemblance is far- 
 fetched, — as to see a voice, (Rev. i. 12,) it is termed a 
 catackresis. This last-mentioned species of figure, how- 
 ever, is of less frequent occurrence in the Bible than any 
 of the preceding. Scripture Metaphors are variously de- 
 rived from the works of nature — from the ordinary occu- 
 pations and customs of life, as well as from such arts as 
 were at that time practised ; — from sacred topics, that is, 
 the Religion of the Hebrews, and things connected with 
 it, and also from their Natural History. 
 
 II. Nature of an Allegory. 
 
 The Allegory is another branch of the figurative lan- 
 guage of Scripture ; in which a foreign or distant mean- 
 ing is concealed under the literal sense of the words. It 
 differs from a metaphor, in that it is not confined to a 
 word, but extends to a thought, or even to several thoughts. 
 Of this species of figure Bishop Lowth has distinguished 
 three kinds, viz. : 
 
 1. The Allegory properly so called, and which he 
 terms a continued metaphor ; — 2. The Parable, or simi- 
 litude, which is discussed in the following section : — and, 
 3. The Mystical Allegory, in which a double meaning 
 is couched under the same words, or when the same pre- 
 diction, according as it is differently interpreted, relates to 
 different events, distant in time, and distinct in their na- 
 ture. This case of allegory is exclusively derived from 
 things sacred; and, while in those other^ forms of alle- 
 gory, the exterior, or ostensible imagery, is fiction only, in 
 
136 
 
 INTERPRETATION OF THE 
 
 the mystical allegory each idea is equally agreeable to 
 truth. As the mystical arid typical interpretation of 
 Scripture is discussed in a subsequent part of this vo- 
 lume, we shall, at present, consider allegory, or continued 
 metaphor, properly and strictly so called. 
 
 III. The following rules may assist us to determine tho 
 meaning of an allegory. 
 
 1. The proper or literal meaning of the words must be as- 
 certained, before we attempt to explain an allegory. 
 
 2. The design of the whole allegory must be investigated ; 
 and the point of comparison must not be extended to all the 
 circumstances of an allegory. 
 
 For this purpose, the occasion that gave rise to it must be diligently ex- 
 amined and considered, together with historical circumstances, as well as 
 the nature of the thing spoken of, and also the scope and context of the 
 whole passage, in which it occurs ; b-jcause the scope and interpretation 
 of an allegory are frequently pointed out by some explanation that is 
 subjoined. 
 
 3. We must not explain one part literally, and another part 
 figuratively. 
 
 Thus the whole of 1 Cor. iii. 9 — 13, is allegorical : a comparison is there 
 Instituted between the office of a teacher of religion, and that of a builder. 
 Hence a Christian congregation is termed a building ; its ministers are 
 the architects, some of whom lay the foundation on which others build ; 
 some erect a superstructure of gold and silver ; others of wood, hay, and 
 stubble. The sense concealed under the allegory is apparent: a Chris- 
 tian congregation is instructed by teachers, some of whom communicate 
 the first principles, others impart further knowledge: some deliver good 
 and useful things, (the truth,) while others deliver useless things, (errone- 
 ous doctrines, such as at that time prevailed in the Corinthian church.) 
 That day (the great day of judgment) will declare what superstructure a 
 man has raised; that is, whether what he has taught be good or bad. 
 And as fire is the test of gold, silver, precious stones, wood, hay, stubble, 
 so the great day will be the test of every man's work. Though th~ whole 
 of this passage is obviously allegorical, yet it is understood literally by 
 the church of Rome, who has erected upon it her doctrine of the fire of 
 purgatory. How contrary this doctrine is to every rule of right interore 
 tatjon, is too plain to require any exposition. 
 
 Section IV.— Interpretation of Scripture Parables. 
 
 I. Nature of a Parable. 
 
 The word Parable is of various import in Scripture, 
 denoting a proverb, or short saying, a thing darkly, or 
 figuratively expressed, and a similitude, or comparison. 
 Strictly speaking, a parable is a similitude taken from 
 things natural, in order to instruct us in things spiritual. 
 This mode of instruction is of great antiquity, and an 
 admirable means of conveying moral lessons : " by laying 
 
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE OF SCRIPTURE. ytf 
 
 hold on the imagination, parable insinuates itself into the 
 affections ; and, by the intercommunication of the facul- 
 ties, the understanding is made to apprehend the truth 
 which was proposed to the fancy." In a word, this 
 kind of instruction seizes us by surprise, and carries with 
 it a force and conviction which are almost irresistible. It 
 is no wonder, therefore, that parables were made the 
 vehicle of natural instruction in the most early times ; 
 that the prophets, especially Ezekiel, availed themselves 
 of the same impressive mode of conveying instruction or 
 reproof; and that our Lord, following the same example, 
 also adopted it for the same important purposes. 
 
 II. For the interpretation of a parable, (to which the 
 rules belonging to the allegory may indeed be applied,) 
 the following hints will be found useful : 
 
 1. The first excellence of a parable is, that it turns upon an 
 image well known and applicable to the subject, the meaning 
 of which is clear and definite : for this circumstance will give 
 it that perspicuity which is essential to every species of alle- 
 gory. 
 
 How clearly this rule applies to the parables of our Lord, is obvious to 
 every reader of the New Testament. It may suffice to mention his para- 
 ble of the Ten Virgins (Matt. xxv. 1 — 13, ) which is a plain allusion to 
 those things which were common at the Jewish marriages in those days. 
 In like manner, the parables of the lamp, (Luke viii. 16,) of the sower and 
 the seed, of the tares, of the mustard seed, of the leaven, of the net cast 
 into the sea, all of which are related in Matt. xiii. as well as of the house- 
 holder that planted a vineyard, and let it out to husbandmen, (Matt. xvi. 
 33,) are all representations of usual and common occurrences, and such 
 as the generality of our Saviour's hearers were daily conversant with, 
 and they were-therefore selected by him as being the most interesting 
 and affecting. 
 
 2. Further, the image must be not only apt and familiar, but 
 must also be elegant and beautiful in itself; and all its parts 
 must be perspicuous and pertinent ; since it is the purpose of 
 a parable, and especially of a poetic parable, not only to ex- 
 plain more perfectly some proposition, but frequently to give it 
 animation and splendour. 
 
 Of all these excellencies there cannot be more perfect examples than 
 the parables which have just been specified : to which we may add, the 
 well known parables of Jotham, (Judges' ix. 7—15 ;) of Nathan, (2 Sam. 
 xii. 1—4 ;) and of the woman of Tekoah, (2 Sam. xiv. 4—7.) 
 
 3. As every parable has two senses, the literal, or external, 
 and the mystical, or internal sense ; the literal sense must be 
 first explained, in order that the correspondence between it 
 and the mystical sense maybe the more readily perceived. 
 And wherever words seem to be capable of different senses, 
 particularly in the parables of Jesus Christ, we may with cer- 
 tainty conclude that to be the true sense which lies most 
 
 12* 
 
13b INTERPRETATION OF THE 
 
 level to the apprehensions oi those to whom the parable was 
 delivered. 
 
 4. It is not necessary, in the interpretation of parables, tnat 
 we should anxiously insist upon every single word ; nor ought 
 we to expect too curious an adaptation or accommodation of 
 it, in every part, to the spiritual meaning inculcated by it ; for 
 many circumstances are introduced into parables, which are 
 merely ornamental, and designed to make the similitude more 
 pleasing and interesting. 
 
 Inattention to this obvious rule has led many expositors into the most 
 fanciful explanations: resemblances have been accumulated, which are 
 for the most part futile, or at best, of little use, and manifestly not includ- 
 ed in the scope of the parable. In the application of this rule, the two fol- 
 lowing points are to be considered, viz. : 
 
 (1.) Persons are not to be compared with persons, but things with 
 things ; part is not to be compared with part, but the whole of the para- 
 ble with itself. Thus, the similitude in Matt. xiii. 24, 25, is, not with the 
 men there mentioned, but with the seed and the pearl : and the construc- 
 tion is to be the same as in verses 31 and 33, where the progress of the 
 Gospel is compared to the grain of mustard seed, and to leaven. 
 
 (2.) In parables, it is not necessary that all the actions of men, mention- 
 ed in them, should be just actions, that is to say, morally just and honest : 
 for instance, the unjust steward (Luke xvi. 1 — 8,) is not proposed either 
 to justify his dishonesty, or as an example to us in cheating his lord, (for 
 that is merely ornamental, and introduced to fill up the story ;) but as on 
 example of his care and prudence in providing for the future. 
 
 Section V.— On Scripture Proverbs. 
 
 I. Nature of Proverbs. 
 
 Proverbs are concise and sententious common sayings, 
 founded on a close observance of men and manners. 
 They were greatly in use among the inhabitants of Pales- 
 tine, in common with other oriental nations : and the 
 teachers of mankind who had recourse to this mode 
 of instruction, in order to render it the more agree- 
 able, added to their precepts the graces of harmony ; and 
 decorated them with metaphors, comparisons, allusions, 
 and other elegant embellishments of style. 
 
 II. Different kinds of Proverbs. 
 
 Proverbs are divided into two classes, viz. : 1. Entire 
 Sentences ; and 2. Proverbial Phrases, which by common 
 usage are admitted into a sentence. 
 
 1. Examples of Entire Proverbial Sentences occur in Gen. x. 9, and 
 xxii. 14. 1 Sam. x. 12, and xxiv. 13. 2 Sam. v. 8, and xx. 18. Ezek. xvi 
 44, and xviii. 2. Luke iv. 23. John iv. 37, and 2 Pet. ii. 22 ; in which pas- 
 sages the inspired writers expressly state the sentences to have passed 
 into proverbs. 
 
 2. Examples of Proverbial Phrases, which indeed cannot be correctly- 
 termed proverbs, but which have acquired their form and use, are to be 
 
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE OF SCRIPTURE, lyy 
 
 found in Deut. xxv. 4. 1 Kings xx. 11. 2 Chron. xxv. 9. Job. vi. 5, xiv, 
 19, and xxviii. 18. Psal. xlii. 7, and lxii. 9. The Book of Proverbs like- 
 wise contains many similar sentences; examples of which may also be 
 seen in the Book of Ecclesiastes, in some of the Prophets, as well as in the 
 New Testament. 
 
 III. Interpretation of the Proverbs in the New Testa- 
 ment. 
 
 The Proverbs occurring in the New Testament are to 
 be explained, partly by the aid of similar passages from 
 the Old Testament, and partly from the ancient writings 
 of the Jews ; whence it appears how much they were in 
 use # among that people, and that they were applied by 
 Christ and his apostles, agreeably to common usage. 
 
 Section VI.— Concluding Observations on the Figurative Language of 
 Scripture. 
 
 Besiaes the figures discussed in the preceding sections, 
 there are many others dispersed throughout the sacred 
 Scriptures, the infinite superiority of which over all unin- 
 spired compositions, they admirably elucidate. Two or 
 three of these, from their importance and frequent occur- 
 rence, claim to be noticed in this place. 
 
 1. A Synecdoche is a trope in which, 1. The whole is put for 
 2L2>art; 2. A part is put for the whole; 3. A certain number 
 for an uncertain one ; 4. A general name for a particular one ; 
 and, 5. Special words for general ones. 
 
 [i.] The whole is sometimes put for apart: 
 
 As, the world for the Roman empire, which was but a small, though 
 very remarkable part of the. world, in Acts xxiv. 5, and Rev. iii. 10. The 
 world for the earth which is a part of it, 2 Pet. iii. 6. Rom. i. 8. 1 John 
 v. 19. 
 
 [ii.] Sometimes the part is put for the whole. 
 
 Thus in Gen. i. 5. 8. 13. 19. 23. 31, the evening and morning, being the 
 principal parts of the day, are put for the entire day. So the soul com- 
 prehends the entire man, Acts xxvii. 37. Tree, in Gen. iii. 8, is in the ori- 
 ginal put for trees ; and man, in Gen. xlix. 6, for men. 
 
 [iii.] A certain number for an uncertain number, as twice for several 
 times, in Psal. lxii. 11. Ten, for many, in Gen. xxxi. 7; and seven for an 
 indefinite number, in Gen. iv. 15, and very many other passages of Scrip- 
 ture. 
 
 [iv.] A general name is put for a particular one. 
 
 As in Mark xvi. 15, where every creature means all mankind; as flesh 
 also does in Gen. vi. 12. Psal. cxiv. 21. Isa. xl. 5, 6, lxvi. 23. Matt. xxiv. 
 22. Luke iii. 6, and Rom. iii. 20. 
 
 [v.] Sometimes special words, or particular names, are put for such as 
 are general : 
 
 Thus,, father is put for any ancestor in Psal. xxii. 4 ; father, for grand- 
 father, in 2 Sam. ix. 7, and Dan. v. 1 1 . 18 ; father and mother for all supe- 
 riors, in Exod. xx. 12. 
 
 2. An Irony is a figure, in which we speak one thing and de- 
 
140 ON THE SPIRITUAL 
 
 sign another, in order to give the greater force and vehemence 
 to our meaning. An irony is distinguished from the real sen*- 
 timents of the speaker, or writer, by the accent, the air, the 
 extravagance of the praise, the character of the person, or the 
 nature of the discourse. 
 
 Instances of irony may be seen in 1 Kings xviii. 27, 1 Kings xxii. 15. Job 
 xii. 2, and 1 Cor. iv. 8. 
 
 Under this figure we may include the Sarcasm which may be defined 
 to be an irony in its superlative keenness and asperity. See examples of 
 this figure in Matt, xxvii. 29, and Mark xv. 32. 
 
 3. Hyperbole, in its representation of things, or objects, either 
 magnifies, or diminishes them beyond or below their proper 
 limits 5 it is common in all languages, and is of frequent occur- 
 rence in the Scripture. 
 
 Thus, a great quantity, or number, is commonly expressed by the sand 
 of the sea, (he dust of the earth, and the stars of heaven, Gen. xiii. 16, xli. 
 49. Judges vii. 12. 1 Sam. xiii. 5. I Kings iv. 29. 2 Chron. i. 9. Jer. 
 xv. 8. Heb. xi. 12. In like manner we meet, in Numb. xiii. 33, with 
 smaller than grasshoppers, to denote extreme diminutiveness : 2 Sam. i. 
 23 swifter than eagles to intimate extreme celerity. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 ON THQ SPIRITUAL INTERPRETATION OP SCRIPTTJHE. 
 
 Section I.— General Observations on the Spiritual or Mystical Sense of 
 Scripture. 
 
 Where, besides the direct or immediate signication of 
 a passage, whether literally or figuratively expressed, 
 there is attached to it a more remote or hidden meaning, 
 this is termed the spiritual or mystical sense : and this 
 sense is founded not on a transfer of words from one sig- 
 nification to another, but on the entire application of the 
 matter itself to a different subject. Thus, 
 
 Exod. xxx. 10, and Levit. xvi. What is here said concerning the high 
 priest's entrance into the most holy place, on the day of atonement, we 
 are taught by St. Paul to understand spiritually of the entrance of Jesus 
 Christ into the presence of God, with his own blood. (Heb. ix. 7—20.) 
 
 The spiritual sense of Scripture has frequently been 
 divided into allegorical, typical, and parabolic. 
 
 1. The Allegorical Sense is, when the Holy Scrip- 
 tures, besides the literal sense, signify any thing belong- 
 ing to faith, or spiritual doctrine. 
 
 Such is the sense which is required rightly to understand Gal. iv. 24, in 
 our version rendered, which things are an allegory ; literally, which things 
 are allegorically spoken, or, which things are thus allegorized by me ; that 
 is, under the veil of the literal sense they further contain a spiritual or 
 mystical sense. 
 
INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 
 
 141 
 
 2. The Typical Sense is, when, under external objects, 
 or prophetic visions, secret things are represented, whether 
 present or future ; especially when certain transactions, 
 recorded in the Old Testament, presignify, or shadow 
 forth those related in the New Testament. 
 
 Thus, in Psal. xcv. 11, the words, they should not enter into my rest, 
 literally understood, signify the entrance of the Israelites into the Promised 
 Land ; but, typically, the entering into rest, and the enjoyment of hea- 
 ven, through the merits and mediation of Jesus Christ, as is largely shown 
 in the third and fourth chapters of the Epistle to the Hebrews. 
 
 3. The Parabolic Sense is, when, besides the plain and 
 obvious meaning of the thing related, an occult or 
 spiritual sense is intended. As this chiefly occurs in 
 passages of a moral tendency, the parabolic has by some 
 writers been termed the moral, or topological sense. 
 
 Of this description is the parable of the talents : the design of which is 
 to show that the duties which men are called to perform, are suited to 
 ♦heir situations, and the talents which they severally receive; that, 
 whatever good a man possesses, he has received from God, as well as the 
 ability to improve that good; and that the grace and temporal mercies 
 of God are suited to the power which a man has of improving them. 
 Thus, also, the injunction in Deut. xxv. 4, relative to muzzling the ox, 
 while treading out the corn, is explained by St. Paul, with reference to 
 the right of maintenance of ministers of the Gospel. (1 Cor. ix. 9 — 11.) 
 
 Section II.— Rules for the Spiritual or Mystical Interpretation of Scripture. 
 
 Some injudicious expositors having unduly preferred 
 the spiritual, or mystical sense, to the literal sense, which 
 is undoubtedly first in point of nattireas well as in order 
 of signification ; others have been induced to conclude 
 that no such interpretation is admissible. " A principle," 
 however, "is not therefore to be rejected, because it has 
 been abused : since human errors can never invalidate 
 the truth of God." The following hints will be found 
 useful for the spiritual interpretation of Scripture. 
 
 In this department of sacred literature it may be consi- 
 dered as an axiom, that the spiritual meaning of a passage 
 is there only to be sought, where it is evident, from cer~ 
 tain criteria, that such meaning was designed by the 
 Holy Spirit. 
 
 The criteria, by whicn to ascertain whether there is a 
 latent spiritual meaning in any passage of Scripture, are 
 two-fold : either they are seated in the text itself, or they 
 are to be found in some other passages. 
 
142 °** THE SPIRITUAL 
 
 1. Where these criteria are seated in the text, vestiges of a 
 spiritual meaning' are discernible, when the things, which are 
 affirmed concerning the person or thing immediately treated 
 of, are so august and illustrious that they cannot in any way 
 be applied to it, in the fullest sense of the words. 
 
 The writings of the prophets, especially those of Isaiah, abound with 
 Instances of this kind. Thus, in the 14th, 40th, 41st, and 49th chapters 
 of that evangelical prophet, the return of the Jews from the Babylonish 
 captivity is announced in the most lofty and magnificent terms. If we 
 compare this description with the accounts actually given of their return 
 to Palestine by Ezra and Nehemiah, we shall not find any thing corres- 
 ponding with the events so long and so beautifully predicted by Isaiah. 
 In this description, therefore, of their deliverance from captivity, we must 
 look beyond it to that infinitely higher deliverance, which, in the fulness 
 of time, was accomplished by Jesus Christ. 
 
 2. Where the spiritual meaning of a text is latent, the Holy 
 Spirit (under whose direction the sacred penman wrote) some- 
 times clearly and expressly asserts, that one thing or person 
 was divinely constituted or appointed to be a figure or symbol 
 of another thing or person : in which case the indisputable 
 testimony of eternal truth removes and cuts off every ground 
 of doubt and uncertainty. 
 
 For instance, if we compare Psalm ex. 4, with Heb. vii. 1, we shall find 
 that Melchisedec was a type of Messiah, the great high priest and king. 
 So Hugar and Sarah were types of the Jewish and Christian Churches. 
 (Gal. iv. 22—24.) 
 
 3. Sometimes, however, the mystical sense is intimated by 
 the Holy Spirit in a more obscure manner; and, without exclu- 
 ding the practice of sober and pious meditation, we are led by 
 various intimations (which require very diligent observation 
 and study) to the knowledge of the spiritual or mystical 
 meaning. 
 
 This chiefly occurs in the following cases : 
 
 I. When the antitype is proposed under figurative names taken from 
 the Old Testament. 
 
 Thus, in 1 Cor. v. 7, Christ is called the paschal lamb ; — in 1 Cor. xv. 
 45, he is called the last Adam ; the first Adam, therefore, was in some 
 respect a type or figure of Christ. 
 
 [ii.] When, by a manifest allusion of words and phrases, the inspired 
 writers refer one thing to another. 
 
 Thus, from Isa. ix. 4, which alludes to the victory obtained by Gideon 
 (Judges vii. 22,) we learn that this represents the victory which Christ 
 should obtain by the preaching of the Gospel, as Vitringa has largely 
 shown on this passage. 
 
 So, when St. Paul is arguing against the Jews from the types of Sarah, 
 Hagar, Melchisedec, &c. he supposes that in these persons there were 
 some things in which Christ and his church were delineated, and that 
 these things were admitted by his opponents: otherwise, his arguments 
 would be inconclusive. 
 
 Section III. — On the interpretation of Types. 
 
 I. Nature of a Type, and its different species. 
 
 A type, in its primary and literal meaning, simply de- 
 
INTliiii'KLTATlUN OF SCRIPTURE. \±$ 
 
 notes a rough draught, or less accurate model, from which 
 a more perfect image is made : but, in the sacred or 
 theological sense of the term, a type may be defined to be 
 a symbol of something future and distant, or an example 
 prepared and evidently designed by God to prefigure that 
 future thing. What is thus prefigured is called the 
 antitype. 
 
 In the examination of the sacred writings three species 
 of types present themselves to our notice, viz. : 
 
 1. Legal Types, or those contained in the Mosaic law. 
 On comparing the history and economy of Moses with 
 the whole of the New Testament, it evidently appears, 
 that the ritual law was typical of the Messiah and of 
 Gospel blessings : and this point has been clearly esta- 
 blished by the great apostle of the Gentiles, in his Epistle 
 to the Hebrews. 
 
 2. Prophetical Types are those by which the divinely 
 inspired prophets prefigured or signified things either 
 present or future, by means of external symbols. Of this 
 description is the prophet Isaiah's going naked (that is, 
 without his prophetic garment,) and barefoot, (Isa. xx. 2,) 
 to prefigure the fatal destruction of the Egyptians and 
 Ethiopians. 
 
 3. Historical Types are the characters, actions, and 
 fortunes of some eminent persons recorded in the Old 
 Testament, so ordered by Divine Providence as to be 
 exact prefigurations of the characters, actions, and for- 
 tunes of future persons who should arise under the Gospel 
 dispensation. 
 
 Great caution is necess-ary in the interpretation of types; 
 for unless we have the authority of the sacred writers 
 themselves for it, we cannot conclude with certainty that 
 this or that person or thing, which is mentioned in the 
 Old Testament, is a type of Christ on account of the re- 
 semblance which we may perceive between them : but 
 we may admit it as probable. 
 
 II. Hints for the interpretation of Types. 
 
 1. There must be a fit application of the Type to the Anti- 
 type 
 
 This canon is of great importance : and inattention to it has led fan- 
 ciful expositors into the most unfounded interpretations of holy writ. In 
 further illustration of this rule, it may be remarked, 
 
 [i.] The type itself must, in the first instance, be explained according to 
 Its literal sense ; and if any part of it appear to be obscure, such obscurity 
 
144 ON THE INTERPRETATION 
 
 must be removed : as in the histoiy of Jonah, who was swallowed by a 
 great fish, and cast ashore on the third day. 
 
 [ii.] The analogy between the thing prefiguring, and the thing prefi- 
 gured must be soberly shown in all its parts. 
 
 2. There is often more in the type than in the antitype. 
 
 God designed one person or thing in the Old Testament to be a type or 
 shadow of things to come, not in all things, but only in respect to some 
 particular thing, or things; hence we find many things in the type, that 
 are inapplicable to the antitype. The use of this canon is shown in the 
 epistle to the Hebrews, in. which the ritual and sacrifices of the Old Tes- 
 tament are fairly accommodated to Jesus Christ, the antitype, although 
 there are many things in that priesthood which do not accord. Thus the 
 priest was to offer sacrifice for his own sins, (Heb. v. 3) which is in no 
 respect applicable to Christ. (Heb. vii. 27.) 
 
 3. Frequently there is more in the antitype than in the type. 
 
 The reason of this canon is the same as that of the preceding rule: for, 
 as no single type can express the life and particular actions of Christ, 
 there is necessarily more in the antitype than can be found in the type 
 itself; so that one type must signify one thing, and another type another 
 thing. 
 
 4. In types and antitypes, an enallage or change sometimes 
 takes place ; as when the thing prefigured assumes the name 
 of the type or figure ; and, on the contrary, when the type of 
 the thing represented assumes the name of the antitype. 
 
 Of the first kind of enallage we have examples in Ezek. xxxiv. 23, 
 xxxvii. 24, 25. and Hos. iii. 5; in which descriptions of Messiah's kingdom 
 he is styled David; because as he was prefigured by David in many re- 
 spects, so he was to descend from him. 
 
 Of the second kind of enallage we have instances:—]. Prophetical 
 Types, in which the name of a person or thing, properly agreeing with 
 the antitype, and for which the type was proposed, is given to any one. 
 as in Isa. vii. 3, and viii. 1 — 3. 2. In Historical Types ; as, when hang- 
 ing was called in the Old Testament the curse of the Lord, because it was 
 made a type of Christ, who was made a curse for our sins, as St. Paul 
 argues in Gal. iii. 13. 
 
 5 That we may not fall into extremes in the interpretation 
 of types, we must, in every instance, proceed cautiously, " with 
 fear and trembling," lest, we imagine mysteries to exist where 
 none were ever intended. 
 
 No mystical or typical sense, therefore, ought to be put upon a plain 
 passage of Scripture, the meaning of which is obvious and natural; 
 unless it be evident from some other part of Scripture that the place is to 
 be understood in a double sense. When St. Paul says, (Gal. iii. 24. Col. 
 ii. 17,) that the law was a schoolmaster to bring men to Christ, and a 
 shadow of things to come, we must instantly acknowledge that the cere- 
 monial law in general, was a type of the mysteries of the Gospel. 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 ON THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE PROPHECIES. 
 
 Prophecy, or the prediction of future events, is justly 
 considered as the highest evidence that can be given of 
 
OF SCRIPTURE PROPHECIES. 145 
 
 supernatural communion with the Deity. The force of 
 the argument from prophecy, for proving the divine in- 
 spiration of the sacred records, has already been exhibited ; 
 and the cavils of objectors have been obviated. (See 
 pp. 37 — 47, supra.) Difficulties, it is readily admitted, 
 do exist in understanding the prophetic writings : but 
 these are either owing to our ignorance of history, and of 
 the Scriptures, or because the prophecies themselves are 
 yet unfulfilled. The latter can only be understood when 
 the events foretold have actually been accomplished : but 
 the former class of difficulties may be removed in many, 
 if not in all cases ; and the knowledge, sense, and mean- 
 ing of the prophets may, in a considerable degree, be 
 attained by prayer, reading, and meditation, and by com- 
 paring Scripture with Scripture, especially with the 
 writings of the New Testament, and particularly with the 
 book of the Revelation. With this view, the following 
 general rules will be found useful in investigating, first, 
 the sense and meaning of the prophecies, and, secondly, 
 their accomplishment. 
 
 I. Rules for ascertaining the sense of the Prophetic 
 Writings. 
 
 1. As not any Prophecy of Scripture is of self-interpretation 
 (2 Pet. i. 20,) o'r is its own interpreter, " the sense of the pro- 
 phecy is to be sought in the events of the world, and in the 
 harmony of the prophetic writings, rather than in the bare 
 terms of any single prediction." 
 
 In the consideration of this canon, the following circumstances should 
 be carefully attended to. 
 
 [i.] Consider well the times when the several prophets nourished, in 
 what place and under what kings they uttered their predictions, the du- 
 ration of their prophetic ministry, and their personal rank and condition, 
 and, lastly, whatever can be known respecting their life and transac- 
 tions. 
 
 [ii.] As the prophets treat not only of past transactions and present 
 occurrences, but also foretell future events, In order to understand them, 
 we must diligently consult the histories of the following ages, both sacred 
 and profane, and carefully see whether we can trace in them the fulfil- 
 ment of any prophecy. 
 
 [iii.] The words and phrases of a prophecy must be explained, where 
 they are obscure ; if they be very intricate, every single word should be 
 expounded; and, if the sense be involved in metaphorical and emblema- 
 tic expressions, (as very frequently is the case,) these must be explained 
 according to the principles already considered. 
 
 [iv.] Similar prophecies of the same event must be carefully compared, 
 in order to elucidate more clearly the sense of the sacred predictions. 
 
 For instance, after having ascertained the subject of the prophet's dis- 
 course and the sense of the words, Isa. lili. 5, (He was wounded, literally, 
 pierced through, for our transgressions,) may be compared with Psal. 
 xxii. 16, (They pierced my hands and my feet,) and with Zech. xii.*lO, 
 
140 0$ T *i^ INTiillPilO'ATiGS 
 
 {They shall look on me whom they have pierced.) In thus paralleling the 
 prophecies, regard must he had to the predictions of former prophets, 
 •which are sometimes repeated with abridgment, or more distinctly ex- 
 plained by others ; and also to the predictions of subsequent prophets, 
 •who sometimes repeat, with greater clearness and precision, former pro- 
 phecies, which had been more obscurely announced. 
 
 2. In order to understand the prophets, great attention 
 should be paid to the prophetic style, which is highly figura- 
 tive, and particularly abounds in metaphorical and hyperbolical 
 expressions. 
 
 By images borrowed from the natural world, the prophets often under- 
 stand something in the world politic. Thus, the sun. moon, stars, and 
 heavenly bodies, denote kings, queens, rulers, and persons in great power ; 
 and the increase of splendour in those luminaries denotes increase of 
 prosperity, as in Isa. xxx. 26, and lx. 19. On fhe other hand, their dark- 
 ening, setting, or falling, signifies a reverse of fortune, or the entire de- 
 struction of the potentate or kingdom to which they refer. 
 
 3. As the greater part of the prophetic writings was first 
 composed in verse, and still retains much of the air and cast ot 
 the original, an attention to the division of the lines, and to 
 that peculiarity of Hebrew poetry by which the sense of one 
 line oi couplet so frequently corresponds with another, will 
 frequently lead to the meaning of many passages : one line of a 
 couplet, or member of a sentence, being generally a commen- 
 tary on the other. 
 
 Of this rule we have an example in Isa. xxxiv. 6 : 
 
 The Lord hath a sacrifice in Bozrah, 
 And a great slaughter in the land of Idumea. 
 Here, the metaphor in the first verse is expressed in the same terms in 
 
 the next : the sacrifice in Bozrah means the great slaughter in the land 
 
 of Idumea, of which Bozrah was the capital. 
 
 4. Particular names are often put by the prophets for more 
 general ones, in order that they may place the thing represented, 
 as it were, before the eyes of their hearers : but in such passa- 
 ges they are not to be understood literally. 
 
 Thus, in Joel iii. 4, Tyre and Sidon, and all the coasts of Palestine, are 
 put, by way of poetical description, for all the enemies of the Jews. 
 
 5. The order of time is not always to be looked for in tb.3 
 prophetic writings : for they frequently (particularly Jeremiah 
 and Ezekiel) resume topics of which they have formerly 
 treated, after other subjects have intervened, and again discuss 
 them. 
 
 6. The prophets often change both persons and tenses, some- 
 times speaking in their own persons, at other times represent- 
 ing God, his people, or their enemies, as respectively speaking, 
 and without noticing the change of persons ; sometimes taking 
 ttengs past or present for things future, to denote the certainty 
 of the events. 
 
 Isa. ix. 6, liii. throughout, lxiii. throughout, Zech. ix. 9, and Rev 
 xviii. 2, to cite no other passages, may be adduced as illustrations of this 
 remark. 
 
 7- When the prophets received a commission to declare any 
 thing, the message is sometimes expressed as if they had been 
 appointed to do it themselves. 
 
OF SCRIPTURE PROPHECIES. 147 
 
 Isa. vi. 9, 10, is merely a prediction of what the Jews would do : for 
 "When the prophetic declaration was fulfilled, Jesus Christ quoted the pas- 
 sage and explained its general sense in Matt. xiii. 15. 
 
 8. As symbolic actions and prophetic visions greatly resem- 
 ble parables, and were employed for the same purpose, viz. : 
 more powerfully to instruct and engage the attention of the 
 
 Eeople, they must be interpreted in the same manner as para- 
 ]es. (For which, see pp. 136 — 138, supra.) 
 
 II. Observations on the Accomplishment of Scripture 
 Prophecies. 
 
 A prophecy is demonstrated to be fulfilled, when we 
 can prove from unimpeachable authority, that the event 
 has actually taken place, precisely according to the man- 
 ner in which it was foretold. 
 
 1. The same prophecies frequently have a double meaning, 
 and refer to different events, the one near, the other remote , 
 the one temporal, the other spiritual, or perhaps eternal. The 
 prophets thus having several events in view, their expressions 
 may be partly applicable to one, and partly to another, and it 
 is not always easy to mark the transitions. What has not been 
 fulfilled in the first, M r e must apply to the second ; and what 
 has already been fulfilled, may often be considered as typical of 
 what remains to be accomplished. « 
 
 The following examples, out of many which might be offer- 
 ed, will illustrate this rule: 
 
 [i.] The second psalm is primarily an inauguration hymn, composed oy 
 David, the anointed of Jehovah, when crowned with victory, and placed 
 triumphant on the sacred hill ofSion. But, in Acts iv. 25, the inspired 
 apostles with one voice declare it to be descriptive of the exaltation of 
 the Messiah, and of the opposition raised against the Gospel, both by Jews 
 and Gentiles. 
 
 [ii.) Isa. xi. 6. — What is here said of the wolf dwelling with the lamb, 
 &c, is understood as having its first completion in the reign of Hezekiah, 
 when profound peace was enjoyed after the troubles caused by Senna- 
 cherib ; but its second and full completion is under the Gospel, whose 
 power in changing the hearts, tempers, and lives of the worst of men, is 
 here foretold arid described by a singularly beautiful assemblage of ima- 
 ges. Of this blessed power there has in every age of Christianity been a 
 cloud of witnesses. 
 
 Thus, it is evident that many prophecies must be taken in a 
 double sense, in order to understand their full import ; and as 
 this twofold application of them was adopted by our Lord and 
 his apostles, it is a full authority for us to consider and apply 
 them hi a similar way. 
 
 2. Predictions, denouncing judgments to come, do not in 
 themselves speak the absolute futurity of the event, but only 
 declare what is to be expected by the persons to whom they 
 arc made, and what will certainly come to pass, unless God 
 in his mercy interpose between the threatening and the 
 event. 
 
 Of these conditional comminatory predictions we have examples in Jo- 
 nah's preaching to the Ninevites (Jonah iii. 4—10,) and in Isaiah's denun- 
 
A 48 0N THE SCRIPTURE PROPHECIES. 
 
 ciation of death to Hezekiah. (Isa. Xxxviii. I.) See also a similar in- 
 stance in Jer. xxxviii. 14 — 23. 
 
 III. Observations on the accomplishment of Prophe- 
 cies concerning the Messiah in particular. 
 
 1. Jesus Christ being the great subject and end of Scripture 
 revelation, we ought every where to search for prophecies 
 concerning him. 
 
 We have the united testimony of Christ (John v. 39. Luke xxiv. 25 — 27. 
 44,) and of an inspired apostle, (Acts x. 43 ; ) that he is the subject of 
 Scripture prophecy. Whatever therefore is emphatically and cha- 
 racteristically spoken of some other person, not called by his own name, 
 in the psalms or prophetical books, so that each predicate can be fully 
 demonstrated in no single subject of that or any other time, must be taken 
 and said of the Messiah. Psalm xxii. and Isa. liii. may be adduced as an 
 illustration of this rule. 
 
 2. The interpretation of the word o f prophecy, made by 
 Jesus Christ himself, and by his inspired apostles, is a rule and. 
 key by which to interoret correctly the prophecies cited or al- 
 luded to by them. 
 
 The prophecy (in Isa. viii. 14,) that the Messiah would prove a stone of 
 stumbling and a rock of offence, is more plainly repeated by Simeon* 
 (Luke ii. 34,) and is shown to have been fulfilled by St. Paul (Rom. ix. 32, 
 33,) and by St. Peter, (1 Pet. ii. 8;) and the sixteenth psalm is expressly 
 applied to Jesus Christ by the latter of these apostles. (Acts ii. 25 — 31.) 
 
 3. Where the prophets describe a golden age of felicity, they 
 clearly foretell Gospel times. 
 
 Many passages might be adduced from the prophetic writings in con- 
 firmation of this rule. It will however suffice to adduce two instances 
 from Isaiah, ch. ix. 2 — 7, and xi. I — 9. In the former of these passages, 
 the peaceful kingdom of the Messiah is set forth, its extent and duration ; 
 and in the latter, the singular peace and happiness which should then 
 prevail, are delineated in imagery of unequalled beauty and energy. 
 
 4. Things, foretold as universally or indefinitely to come to 
 pass under the Gospel, are not to be understood,— as they respect 
 the duty,— of all persons ; but,— as they respect the event,- 
 only of God's people. 
 
 The highly figurative expressions in Isa. ii. 4, xi. 6, and lxv. 25, are to 
 be understood of the nature, design, and tendency of the Gospel, and what 
 is the duty of all its professors, and what would actually take place in 
 the Christian world, if all who profess the Christian doctrine did sincerely 
 and cordially obey its dictates. 
 
 5. As the ancient prophecies concerning the Messiah are of ' 
 two kinds, some of them relating to his first coming to suffer, 
 while the rest of them concern his second coming to advance 
 his kingdom, and restore the Jews ; in all these prophecies, 
 we must carefully distinguish between his first coming in hu- 
 miliation to accomplish his mediatorial work on the cross, and 
 his second coming in glory to judgment. 
 
 In studying the prophetic writings, the two following 
 cautions should uniformly be kept in vie%, viz. : 
 
 I. That we do not apply passing events, as actually 
 fulfilling particular prophecies. 
 
ON DOCTiUNAL LNTEitl'KLTATION. X4^ 
 
 2. That we do not curiously pry beyond what is ex- 
 pressly written, or describe, as fulfilled, prophecies which 
 are yet future. What the Bible hath declared, that toe 
 may without hesitation declare: beyond this all is mere 
 vague conjecture. 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 ON THE DOCTRINAL, MORAL, AND PRACTICAL INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 
 
 Section I. — On the Doctrinal Interpretation of Scripture. 
 
 As the Holy Scriptures contain the revealed will of 
 God to man, they not only offer to our attention the most 
 interesting histories and characters for our instruction by 
 example, and the most sublime prophecies for the confir- 
 mation of our faith, but they likewise present, to our se- 
 rious study, doctrinal truths of the utmost importance. 
 Some of these occur in the historical, poetical, and pro- 
 phetical parts of the Bible : but they' are chiefly to be 
 found in the apostolic epistles, which, though originally 
 designed for the edification of particular Christian churches 
 or individuals, are nevertheless of general application, 
 and designed for the guidance of the universal church 
 in every age. For many of the fundamental doctrines of 
 Christianity are more copiously treated in the epistles, 
 which are not so particularly explained in the gospels : 
 and as the authors of the several epistles, wrote under the 
 same divine inspiration as the evangelists, the epistles and 
 gospels must be taken together, to complete the rule of 
 Christian faith. The doctrinal interpretation, therefore, 
 of the sacred writings is of paramount consequence : as 
 by this means we are enabled to acquire a correct and 
 saving knowledge of the will of God concerning us. In 
 the prosecution of this important branch of sacred litera- 
 ture, the following observations are offered to the attention 
 of the student : 
 
 1. The meaning of the sacred writings is not to be deter- 
 mined according to modern notions and systems : but we must 
 endeavour to carry ourselves back to the very times and places 
 in which they were written, and realize the ideas and modes 
 of thinking of the sacred writers. 
 L3* 
 
150 02s THE ©OCTllUSAL INTERPRETATION 
 
 This rule is of the utmost importance for understanding the Scriptures , 
 but is too commonly neglected by commentators and expositors, who, 
 when applying themselves to the explanation of the sacred writings, have 
 a preconceived system of doctrine, which they seek in the Bible, and to 
 which they refer every passage of Scripture. Thus they rather draw the 
 Scriptures to their system of doctrine, than bring their doctrines to the 
 standard of Scripture; a mode of interpretation which is altogether un- 
 just, and utterly useless in the attainment of truth. The only way by 
 which to understand the meaning of the sacred writers, and to distinguish 
 between true and false doctrines, is, to lay aside all preconceived modern 
 notions and systems, and to carry ourselves back to the very times and 
 places in which the prophets and apostles wrote. In perusing the Bible, 
 therefore, this rule must be most carefully attended to. It is only an un- 
 biassed mind that can attain the true and genuine sense of Scripture. 
 
 2. In order to understand any doctrinal book or passage of 
 Scripture, we must attend to the controversies which were 
 agitated at that time, and to which the sacred writers allude: 
 for a key to the apostolic epistles is not to be sought in the 
 modern controversies that divide Christians, and which were 
 not only unknown but, also, were not in existence at that 
 time. 
 
 The controversies, which were discussed in the age of -the apostles, are 
 to be ascertained, partly from their writings, partly from the existing 
 monuments of the primitive Christians, and likewise from some passages 
 in the writings of the Rabbins. The most important passages of this kind 
 are to be found in almost all the larger commentators. 
 
 3. The doctrinal books of Scripture, for instance, the Epis- 
 tles, are not to be perused in detached portions or sections ; 
 but they .should be read through at once, with a close attention 
 to the scope and tenor of the discourse, regardless of the divi- 
 sions into chapters and verses, precisely in the same manner in 
 which we would peruse the letters of Cicero, Pliny, or other 
 ancient writers. 
 
 Want of attention to the general scope and design of the doctrinal parts 
 of Scripture, particularly of the epistles, has been the source of many and 
 great errors : the reading, however, which is here recommended, should 
 not be cursory or casual, but frequent and diligent ; and the Epistles should 
 be repeatedly perused, until we become intimately acquainted with their 
 contents. On the investigation of the Scope, see p. 1 16, supra. 
 
 4. Where any doctrine is to be deduced from the Scriptures, 
 it will be collected better, and with more precision, from those 
 places in which it is professedly discussed, than from those in 
 which it is noticed only incidentally, or by way of inference. 
 
 For instance, in the Epistles to the Romans and Galatians, the doctrine 
 of justification by faith is fully treated: and in those to the Ephesians 
 and Colossians, the calling of the Gentiles and the abrogation of the 
 ceremonial law are particularly illustrated. These must therefore be 
 diligently compared together, in order to deduce those doctrines correctly. 
 
 5. Distinguish figurative expressions from such as are proper 
 and literal ; and when easy and natural interpretations offer 
 themselves, avoid all those interpretations which deduce asto- 
 nishing and incredible doctrines. 
 
 6. It is of great importance to the understanding of the doc- 
 trinal books of the New Testament, to attend to and dis- 
 tinctly note the transitions of persons which frequently occur, 
 especially in Saint Paul's Epistles. 
 
OF THE BGMPTU RES. \ 5 1 
 
 The pronouns /, We, and You, are used by the apostles in such a variety 
 of applications, that the understanding of their true meaning is often a 
 key to many difficult passages. Thus, by the pronoun 2", Saint Paul some- 
 times means himself, sometimes any Christian ; sometimes a Jew ; and 
 sometimes any man, &c. To discover these transitions requires great at- 
 tention to the apostle's scope and argument ; and yet, if it be neglected or 
 overlooked, it will cause the reader greatly to mistake and misunderstand 
 his meaning, and wiil also render the sense very perplexed. Mr. Locke, 
 and Dr. Macknight, in their elaborate works on the Epistles, are particu 
 larly useful in pointing out these various transitions of persons and sub- 
 jects. 
 
 7. No article of faith can be established from metaphors, 
 parables, or single obscure and figurative texts. 
 
 Instead of deriving our knowledge of Christianity from parables and 
 figurative passages, an intimate acquaintance with the doctrines t of the 
 Gospel is necessary, in order to be capable of interpreting them. The beau- 
 tiful parable of the man who fell among thieves, (Luke x. 30 — 37,) is evi- 
 dently intended to influence the Jews to be benevolent and kind like the 
 good Samaritan, and nothing more. And yet, regardless of every princi- 
 ple of sound interpretation, that parable has by some writers been con- 
 sidered as a representation of Adam's fall, and of man's recovery, through 
 the interposition and love of Jesus Christ ! 
 
 Section II. — On the Moral Interpretation of Scripture. 
 
 The moral Parts of Scripture are replete with the most 
 important instructions for the government of life. They 
 are to be interpreted precisely in the same manner as ail 
 other moral writings ; regard being had to the peculiar 
 circumstances of the sacred writers, viz. : the age in 
 which they wrote, the nation to which they belonged, their 
 style, genius, &c. In the examination of the moral parts 
 of Scripture, the following more particular rules will be 
 found useful. 
 
 1. Moral propositions or discourses are not to be urged too 
 far, but must be understood with a certain degree of latitude, 
 and with various limitations. 
 
 For want of attending to this canon, how many moral truths have 
 been pushed to an extent, which causes them altogether to fail of the ef- 
 fect they were designed to produce ! It is not to be denied that universal 
 propositions may be offered : such are frequent in the Scriptures as well 
 as in profane writers, and also in common life ; but it is in explaining the 
 expressions by which they are conveyed, that just limits ought to be ap- 
 plied, to prevent them from being urged too far. The nature of the thing, 
 and various other circumstances, will always afford a criterion by which 
 to understand moral propositions with the requisite limitations. 
 
 2. Principals include their accessaries, that is, whatever ap- 
 proaches or comes near to them, or has any tendency to them. 
 
 Thus, where any sin is forbidden, we must be careful not only to avoid 
 it, but also every thing of a similar nature, and whatever may prove an 
 occasion of it, or imply our consent to it in others : and we must endea- 
 vour to dissuade or restrain others from it. Compare Matt. v. 21—31. 
 1 Thess. v. 22. Jude 23. Ephes. v. 11. 1 Cor. viii. 13. Levit. xix. 17 
 
152 0N THE iNTBaPKBTAarKW of 
 
 James v. 19, 20. So, where any duty is enjoined, all means and facili- 
 ties, enabling either ourselves or others to discharge it, according to our 
 respective places, capacities, or opportunities, are likewise enjoined. 
 
 3. Negatives include affirmatives, and affirmatives include 
 negatives : in other words, where any duty is enjoined, the 
 contrary sin is forbidden ; and where any sin is forbidden, the 
 contrary duty is enjoined. 
 
 Thus, in Deut. vi. 13, where we are commanded to serve God, we are 
 forbidden to serve any other. Therefore, in Matt. iv. 10, it is said, him 
 only shait thou serve. 
 
 4. Negatives are binding at all times, but not affirmatives: 
 that is, we must never do that which is forbidden, though good 
 may ultimately come from it. (Rom. iii. 8.) We must not 
 speak wickedly for God. (Job xiii. 7.) 
 
 5. "When an action is either required or commended, or any 
 promise is annexed to its performance ; such action is supposed 
 to be done from proper motives and in a proper manner. 
 
 The giving of alms may be mentioned as an instance; which, if done 
 from ostentatious motives, we are assured, is displeasing in the sight of 
 God. Compare Matt. vi. 1.— 4. 
 
 6. When the favour of God, or salvation, is promised to any 
 deed or duty, all the other duties of religion are supposed to be 
 rightly performed. 
 
 7. When a certain state or condition is pronounced blessed, 
 or any promise is annexed to it, a suitable disposition of mind 
 is supposed to prevail. 
 
 Thus, when the poor or afflicted are pronounced to be blessed, it is be- 
 cause such persons, being poor and afflicted, are free from the sins usually 
 attendant on unsanctified prosperity, and because they are, on the con- 
 trary, more humble and more obedient to God. If, however, they be not 
 the characters described, (as unquestionably there are many to whom the 
 characters do not apply,) the promise in that case does not belong to them. 
 Vice versa, when any state is pronounced to be wretched, it is on account 
 of the sins or vices which generally attend it. 
 
 8. Some precepts of moral prudence are given in the Scrip- 
 tures, which nevertheless admit of exceptions, on account of 
 some duties of benevolence or piety that ought to prepon- 
 derate. 
 
 We may illustrate this rule by the often -repeated counsels of Solomon 
 respecting becoming surety for another. (See Prov. vi. 1, 2, xi. 15, xvii. 
 18, and xx. 16.) In these passages he does not condemn suretyship, which, 
 in many cases, is not only lawful, but, in same instances, even an act of 
 justice, prudence, and charity ; but Solomon forbids his disciple to become 
 surety rashly, without considering for whom, or how far he binds him- 
 self, or how he could discharge the debt, if occasion should require it. 
 
 Section III. — On the Interpretation of the Promises and Threatenings of 
 Scripture. 
 
 1. Distinction between Promises and Threatenings, 
 A promise, in the Scriptural sense of the term, is » 
 
PROMISES OF SCRIPTUKE. 153 
 
 declaration or assurance of the divine will, in which God 
 signifies what particular blessings or good things he will 
 freely bestow, as well as the evils which he will remove. 
 The promises, therefore, differ from the threatenings of 
 God, inasmuch as the former are declarations concerning 
 good, while the latter are denunciations of evil only : at 
 the same time it is to be observed, that promises seem to 
 include threats, because, being in their very nature condi- 
 tional, they imply the bestowment of the blessing pro- 
 mised, only on the condition being performed, which 
 blessing is tacitly threatened to be withheld on non-com- 
 pliance with such condition. Further, promises differ 
 from the commands of God, because the latter are signifi- 
 cations of the divine will concerning a duty enjoined to 
 be performed, while promises relate to mercy to be 
 received. 
 
 There are four classes of promises mentioned in the 
 Scriptures, particularly in the New Testament ; viz. : 
 1. Promises relating to the Messiah ; 2. Promises rela- 
 ting to the church ; 3. Promises of blessings, both tem- 
 poral and spiritual, to the pious ; and, 4. Promises 
 encouraging to the exercise of the several graces and 
 duties that compose the Christian character. The two 
 first of these classes, indeed, are many of them predictions 
 as well as promises ; consequently the same observations 
 will apply to them, as are stated for the interpretation of 
 Scripture prophecies : but in regard to those promises 
 which are directed to particular persons, or to the per- 
 formance of particular duties, the following remarks are 
 offered to the attention of the reader. 
 
 1. "We must receive God's promises in such wise as they 
 be generally set forth in the Holy Scripture." (Art. xvii.) 
 
 To us the promises of God arc general and conditional : if, therefore, 
 they be not fulfilled towards us, we may rest assured that the fault does 
 not rest with Him, " who cannot lie," but with ourselves, who have fail- 
 ed in complying with the conditions, either tacitly, or expressly, annexed 
 to them. 
 
 2. Such promises as were made in one case, may be applied 
 in other cases of the same nature, consistently with the analogy 
 of faith. 
 
 It is in promises as in commands; they do not exclusively concern 
 those to whom they were first made ; but being inserted in the Scriptures, 
 they are made of public benefit: for, "whatsoever things were written 
 aforetime, were written for our use ; that we, through patience, and com- 
 fort of the Scriptures, might have hope." (Rom. xv. 4.) Thus, what waa 
 
^54 ON TUVl PRACTICAL 
 
 spoken to Joshua, (ch. i. 5,) on his going up against the Canaanites, lest 
 he should be discouraged in that enterprise, is applied by St. Paul to the 
 believing Hebrews, (Ileb. xiii. 5.) as a remedy against covetousness. or in- 
 ordinate cares concerning the things of this life ; it being a very compre- 
 hensive promise, that God will never fail us, nor forsake us. But if Ave 
 were to apply the promises contained in Psal. xciv. 14. and Jer. xxxii. 40, 
 and John x. 28, as promises of indefectible grace, to believers, we should 
 violate every rule of sober interpretation, as well as the analogy of faith. 
 
 3 God has suited his promises to his precepts. 
 
 By his precepts we see what is our duty, and what should be the scope 
 of our endeavours ; and by his promises we see what is our inability, 
 what should be the matter, or object of our prayers, and where we may 
 be supplied with that grace which will enable us to discharge our duty. 
 Compare Deut. x. 16, with Deut. xxx. 6. Eccles. xii. 13. with Jer. xxxii. 
 40. Ezek. xviii. 31, with Ezek. xxxvi. 37. and Rom. vi. 12, with v. 14. 
 
 4. "Where any thing 1 is promised in case of obedience, the 
 threatening of the contrary is implied in case of disobedience: 
 and where there is a threatening- of any thing- in case of disobe- 
 dience, a promise of the contrary is implied, upon condition of 
 obedience. 
 
 In illustration of this remark, it will be sufficient to refer to, and com- 
 pare Exod. xx. 7, with Psal. xv. 1 — i. and xxiv. 3, 4, and Exod. xx. 12. with 
 Fiov. XXX. 17. 
 
 Section IV.— On the Practical Reading of Scripture. 
 
 The sense of Scripture having been explained and as- 
 certained, it only remains that we apply it to purposes of 
 practical utility; which may be effected either by de- 
 ducing inferences from texts, or by practically applying 
 the Scriptures to our personal edification and salvation : 
 for, if serious contemplation of the Scriptures and prac- 
 tice be united together, our real knowledge of the Bible 
 must necessarily be increased, and will be rendered, pro- 
 gressively, more delightful. This practical reading may 
 be prosecuted by every one, with advantage : for the ap- 
 plication of Scripture, which it recommends is connected 
 with our highest interest and happiness. 
 
 The simplest practical application of the word of God, 
 will, unquestionably, prove the most beneficial; provided 
 it be conducted w T ith a due regard to those moral qualifi- 
 cations which have already been stated and enforced, as 
 necessary to the right understanfKng of the Scriptures. 
 Should, however, any hints be required, the following 
 may, perhaps, be consulted with advantage. 
 
 1. In reading the Scriptures, then, with a view to personal 
 application, we should be careful that it be done with a pure 
 
 intention. 
 
 
READING"' OF SCRIPTURE. 155 
 
 He, however, who peruses the sacred volume, merely for the purpose 
 of amusing himself with the histories it contains, or of beguiling time, er 
 to tranquillize his conscience by the discharge of a mere external duty, is 
 deficient in the motive with which he performs that duty, and cannot ex- 
 pect to derive from it either advantage, or comfort, amid the trials of life. 
 Neither will it suffice to read the Scriptures, with the mere design of be- 
 coming intimately acquainted with sacred truths, Unless such reading be 
 accompanied with a desiref that, through them, he may be convinced of 
 his self-love, ambition, or other faults, td-which he may be peculiarly ex- 
 posed ; and that by the assistance of divine grace, he may be enabled to 
 eradicate them from his mind. 
 
 2. In reading the Scriptures for this purpose, it will be advi- 
 sable to select some appropriate lessons from its most useful 
 parts ; not being particularly solicitous about the exact con- 
 nexion, or other critical niceties that may occur, (though at 
 other times, as ability and opportunity offer, these are highly 
 proper objects of inquiry,) bat simply considering them in a 
 devotional, or practical view. 
 
 After ascertaining, therefore, the plain and obvious meaning of the les- 
 son under examination, we should first consider the present state of our 
 minds, and carefully compare it with the passage in question: next, we 
 should inquire into the causes of those faults, which such perusal may 
 have disclosed to us; and should then look around for suitable remedies 
 to correct the faults we have thus discovered. 
 
 3. In every practical reading, and application of the Scrip- 
 tures to ourselves, our attention should be fixed on Jesus 
 Christ, both as a gift to be received by faith, for salvation, and 
 also as an exemplar, to be copied and imitated in our lives. 
 
 We are not, however, to imitate him in all things. Some things he did 
 by his divine power, and in those we cannot imitate him : other things he 
 performed by his sovereign authority, in those we must not imitate him : 
 other things also he performed by virtue of his office as a Mediator ; and 
 in these, we may not, we cannot follow him. But, in his early piety, his 
 obedience to his reputed earthly parents — his unwearied diligence in 
 doing good, his humility, his unblameable conduct, his self denial, his con- 
 tentment under low circumstances, his frequency in private prayer, his 
 affectionate thankfulness, his compassion to the wretched, his holy and 
 edifying discourse, his free conversation, his patience, his readiness to for- 
 give injuries, his sorrow for the sins of others, his zeal for the worship of 
 God, his glorifying his heavenly Father, his impartiality in administering 
 reproof, his universal obedience, and his love and practice of holiness— in 
 all these instances, Jesus Christ is the most perfect pattern for our imi- 
 tation. 
 
 4. We should carefully distinguish between what the Scrip- 
 ture itself says, and what is only said in the Scripture, and also, 
 the times, places, and persons, when, where, and by whom any 
 thing is recorded as having been said or done. 
 
 In Mai. iii. 14, we meet with the following words: "It is in vain to 
 serve God ; and what profit is it that we have kept his ordinance?" And 
 in 1 Cor. xv. 32, we meet with this maxim of profane men — " Let us eat 
 and drink, for to-morrow we die." But, when we read these, and similar 
 passages, we must attend to the characters introduced, and remember 
 that the persons who spoke thus were \ricked men. Even those, whose 
 piety is commended in the sacred volume, did not always act in strict 
 conformity to it. Thus, when David vowed that he would utterly destroy 
 Nabal's house, we must conclude that he sinned in making that vow: 
 and the discourses of Job's friends, though in themselves extremely beau- 
 
156 
 
 ON THE PRACTICAL 
 
 tiful and instructive, are not, in every respect, to be approved ; for we are 
 informed by the sacred historian, that God was wroth with them,, because 
 they had not spoken of him the thing that was right. (Job xlii. 7.) 
 
 5. As every good example, recorded in the Scriptures, has 
 the force of a rule, so when we read therein of the failings, 
 as well as of the sinful actions of men,- we may see what is in 
 our own nature : for tl^ere are in us the seeds of the same sin, 
 and similar tendencies to its commission, which would bring- 
 forth similar fruits, were it not for the preventing and renew- 
 ing grace of God. And as many of the persons, whose faults 
 are related in the volume of inspiration, were men of infinitely 
 more elevated piety than ourselves, we should learn from them 
 not only to " be not high-minded, but fear '," (Rom. xi. 20 ;) but 
 further, to avoid being rash in censuring the conduct of others. 
 
 The occasions of their declensions are likewise deserving of our atten- 
 tion, as well as the temptations to which they were exposed ; and whether 
 they did not neglect to watch over their thoughts, words, and actions, en- 
 trust too much to their own strength (as in the case of Peter's denial of 
 Christ ;) what were the means that led to their penitence and recovery, 
 and how they demeaned themselves after they had repented. By a due 
 observation, therefore, of their words and actions, and of the temper of 
 their minds, so far as this is manifested by words and actions, we shall 
 be better enabled to judge of our real progress in religious knowledge, 
 than by those characters which are given of holy men, in the Scriptures, 
 without such observation of the tenor of their lives, and the frame of 
 their minds. 
 
 6. In reading the promises and threat en ings, the exhortations 
 and admonitions, and other parts of Scripture, we should ap- 
 ply them to ourselves, in such a manner as if they had been 
 personally addressed to us. 
 
 For instance, are we reading any of the prophetic Sermons? Let us so 
 read and consider them, and, as it were, identify ourselves with the times 
 and persons, when, and to whom such prophetic discourses were deliver 
 ed, as if they were our fellow-countrymen, fellow-citizens, &c, whom 
 Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and other prophets rebuke, in some chapters, 
 ■while in others they labour to convince them of their sinful ways, and to 
 convert them, or in the event of their continuing disobedient, denounce 
 the divine judgments against them. So, in all the precepts of Christian 
 virtue, recorded in Matt. v. vi. and vii, we should consider ourselves to be 
 as nearly and particularly concerned, as if we had personally heard 
 them delivered by Jesus Christ on the Mount. Independently, therefore, 
 of the light which will thus be thrown upon the prophetic, or other por- 
 tions of Scripture, much practical instruction will be efficiently obtained ; 
 for, by this mode of reading the Scriptures, the promises addressed to 
 others, will encourage us ; the denunciations against others, will deter us 
 from the commission of sin ; the exhortations delivered to others, will ex- 
 cite us to the diligent performance of our duty, and, finally, admonitions 
 to others will make us walk circumspectly. 
 
 7. The words of the passage selected for our private read- 
 ing, after its import has been ascertained, may beneficially be 
 summed up, or comprised in very brief prayers or ejaculations. 
 
 The advantage resulting from this simple method has been proved by 
 many, who have recommended it. If we pray over the substance of 
 Scripture, with our Bible before us, it may impress the memory and heart 
 the more deeply. Should any references to the Scriptures be required, in 
 confirmation of this statement, we would briefly notice, that the follow- 
 ing passages, among many others that might be cited, will, by addressing 
 
READING OF SCRIPTURE. 157 
 
 them to God, and, by a slight change also in the person, become admira- 
 ble petitions for divine teaching; viz. : Col. i. 9, 10. Eph. i. T7, 18, 19. 
 
 I Pet. ii. 1, 2. The hundred and nineteenth Psalm contains numerous 
 similar passages. 
 
 8. In the practical reading of the Scriptures, all things are 
 not to be applied at once, but gradually and successively ; and 
 this application must be made, not so much with the view of 
 supplying us with materials for talking, as with matter for 
 practice. 
 
 Finally, this practical reading ana application must be 
 diligently continued through life ; and we may, with the 
 assistance of divine grace, reasonably hope for success in 
 it, if to reading we add constant prayer, and medita- 
 tion on what we have read. With these we are further to 
 conjoin a perpetual comparison of the sacred writings ; 
 daily observation of what takes place in ourselves, as well 
 as what we learn from the experience of others ; a strict 
 and vigilant self-examination ; together with frequent con- 
 versation with men of learning and piety, who have made 
 greater progress in saving knowledge ; and lastly, the 
 diligent cultivation of internal peace. 
 
 Other observations might be offered ; but the preceding 
 hints, if duly considered and acted upon, will make us 
 
 II neither barren nor unfruitful in the knowledge of our 
 Lord Jesus Christ." (2 Pet. i. 8.) And if, to some of his 
 readers, the author should appear to have dilated too much 
 on so obvious a topic, its importance must be his apology. 
 Whatever relates to the confirmation of our faith, the im- 
 provement of our morals, or the elevation of our affec- 
 tions, ought not to be treated lightly or with indifference. 
 
 
158 
 
 PART III. 
 
 A COMPENDIUM OF BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY AND ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 BOOK I.— 1. A SKETCH OF THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE HOLY LAND. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE HOLY LAND 
 
 Grotto at Nazareth, said to have been the Rouse of Joseph and Mary. 
 
 This country has, in different ages, been called by va- 
 rious Names, which have been derived either from its in- 
 habitants, or from the extraordinary circumstances attach- 
 ed to it. Thus in Jer. iv. 20, it is termed generally the 
 land : and hence, both in the Old and New Testament, 
 the original word, which is sometimes rendered earth , 
 
GEOGRAPHY OF THE HOLY LAND. 159 
 
 land, or country, is by the context, in many places, deter- 
 mined to mean the promised land of Israel ; as in Josh, 
 ii. 3, Matt. v. 5, and Luke iv. 25. But the country oc- 
 cupied by the Hebrews, Israelites, and Jews, is, in the 
 sacred volume, more particularly called 
 
 1. The Land of Canaan, from Canaan, the youngest 
 son of Ham, and grandson of Noah, who settled here after 
 the confusion of Babel, and divided the country among 
 his eleven children. (Gen. xi. 15. et seq.) 
 
 2. The Land of Promise, (Heb. xi. 9,) from the pro 
 mise made by Jehovah to Abraham, that his posterity 
 should possess it, (Gen. xii. 7, and xiii. 15 ;) who being 
 termed Hebrews, this region was thence called the Land 
 of the Hebrews. (Gen. xl. 15.) 
 
 3. The Land of Israel, from the Israelites, or poste- 
 rity of Jacob, having settled themselves there. This 
 name is of most frequent occurrence in the Old Testa- 
 ment : it is also to be found in the New Testament, (as in 
 Matt. ii. 20, 21.) Within this extent lay all the provinces 
 or countries visited by Jesus Christ, except Egypt, and 
 consequently almost all the places mentioned, or referred 
 to in the four Gospels. After the separation of the ten 
 tribes, that portion of the land which belonged to the 
 tribes of Judah and Benjamin, who formed a separate 
 kingdom, was distinguished by the appellation of Judsea, 
 or the land of Judah, (Psal. lxxvi. 1 ;) which name the 
 whole country retained during the existence of the second 
 temple, and under the dominion of the Romans. 
 
 4. The Holy Land, which appellation is to this day 
 conferred on it by all Christians, as having been hallowed 
 by the presence, actions, miracles, discourses, and suffer- 
 ings of Jesus Christ. This name is also to be found in 
 the Old Testament, (Zech. ii. 12,) and in the Apocryphal 
 books of Wisdom (xii. 3,) and 2 Maccabees, (i. 7.) The 
 whole world was divided by the ancient Jews into two 
 general parts, the land of Israel, and the land out of Is- 
 rael, that is, all the countries inhabited by the nations of 
 the world, or the Gentiles ; to this distinction there seems 
 to be an allusion in Matt. vi. 32. All the rest of the 
 world, together with its inhabitants, (Judaea excepted,) was 
 accounted as profane, polluted, and unclean, (see Isa. xxxv. 
 9, Hi. 1, with Joel iii. 17, Amos vii. 7, and Acts x. 1 ;) 
 
1(J0 HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 but, though the whole land of Israel was regarded as holy, 
 as being the place consecrated to the worship of God, and 
 the inheritance of his people, whence they are collectively 
 styled saints, and a holy nation or people, (in Exod. xix. 6. 
 Deut. vii. 6, xiv. 2, xxvi. 19, xxxiii. 3. 2 Chron. vi. 41. 
 Fsal. xxxiv. 9, 1. 5. 7, lxxix. 2, and cxlviii. 4,) yet the 
 Jews imagined particular parts to be vested with more 
 than ordinary sanctity, according to their respective situa- 
 tions. Thus the parts situated beyond Jordan were con- 
 sidered to be less holy than those on this side ; walled 
 towns were supposed to be more clean and holy than 
 other places, because no lepers were admissible into them, 
 and the dead were not allowed to be buried there. Even 
 the very dust of the land of Israel was reputed to possess 
 such a peculiar degree of sanctity, that when the Jews re- 
 turned from any heathen country, they stopped at its 
 borders, and wiped the dust of it from their shoes, lest the 
 sacred inheritance should be polluted with it ; nor would 
 they suffer even herbs to be brought to them, from the 
 ground of their Gentile neighbours, lest they should bring 
 any of the mould with them, and thus defile their pure 
 land. To this notion, our Lord unquestionably alluded 
 when he commanded his disciples to shake off the dust of 
 their feet, (Matt. x. 14,) on returning from any house or 
 city that would neither receive nor hear them ; thereby 
 intimating to them, that when the Jews had rejected the 
 Gospel, they were no longer to be regarded as the people 
 of God, but were on a level with heathens and idolaters. 
 
 5. The appellation of Palestine, by which the whole 
 land appears to have been calleu, in the days of Moses, 
 (Exod. xv. 14,) is derived from the Philistines, a people 
 who migrated from Egypt, and, having expelled the abori- 
 ginal inhabitants, settled on the borders of the Mediter- 
 ranean ; where they became so considerable as to give 
 their name to the whole country, though they in fact pos- 
 sessed only a small part of it. The Philistines were, foi 
 a long time, the most formidable enemies of the children 
 of Israel ; but about the year of the world 3841, (e. c. 
 159,) the illustrious Judas Maccabeus subdued their coun- 
 try ; and about sixty-five years afterward Jannseus burnt 
 their city Gaza, and incorporated the remnant of the Phi- 
 listines with such Jews as he placed in their country. 
 
OF THE HOLY LAND \Q J 
 
 The Boundaries of the land promised to Abraham 
 are, in Gen. xv. 18, stated to be from the river of Egypt 
 unto the great river, the river Euphrates. Of this tract, 
 however, the Israelites were not immediately put in pos- 
 session : and although the limits of their territories were 
 extended under the reigns of David and Solomon, (2 Sam 
 viii. 3. et seq. 2 Chron. ix. 26,) yet they did not always 
 retain that tract. It lies far within the temperate zone, 
 and between 31 and 33 degrees of north latitude, and was 
 bounded on the west by the Mediterranean or Great Sea, 
 as it is often called in the Scriptures ; on the east by Ara- 
 bia ; on the south by the river of Egypt, (or the river 
 Nile, whose eastern branch was reckoned the boundary of 
 Egypt, towards the great desert of Shur, which lies be- 
 tween Egypt and Palestine,) and by the Desert of Sin, or 
 Beersheba, the southern shore of the Dead Sea, and the 
 river Anion ; and on the north by the chain of mountains 
 termed Antilibanus, near which stood the city of Dan : 
 hence, in the sacred writings we frequently meet with the 
 expression, " from Dan to Beersheba" to denote the whole 
 length of the land of Israel. 
 
 The land of Canaan, previously to its occupation by 
 the Israelites, was possessed by the descendants of Ca- 
 naan, the youngest son of Ham, and grandson of Noah ; 
 who divided the country among his eleven sons, each of 
 whom was the head of a numerous clan or tribe. (Gen. x. 
 15 — 19.) Here they resided upwards of seven centuries, 
 and founded numerous republics and kingdoms. In the 
 days of Abraham, this region was occupied by ten nations ; 
 the Kenites, the Kenizzites, and the Kadmonites, to the 
 east of Jordan ; and westward, the Hittites, Perizzites, 
 Rephaims, Amorites, Canaanites, Girgashites, and the Je- 
 busitcs. (Gen. xv. 18 — 21.) These latter, in the days of 
 Moses, were called the Hittites, Girgashites, Amorites, 
 Canaanites, Perizzites, Hivites, and Jebusites. (Dent. vii. 
 1. Josh. iii. 10, xxiv. 11.) Besides these devoted nations 
 there were others, either settled in the land, at the arrival 
 of the Israelites, or in its immediate environs, with whom 
 the latter had to maintain many severe conflicts : they 
 were six in number, viz. : the Philistines, the Midianites, 
 or descendants of Midian, the fourth son of Abraham, by 
 Keturah, (Gen. xxv. 2 ;) the Moabites and Ammonites, 
 14* 
 
HJCJ HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 who sprang from the incestuous offspring of Lot; (Gen 
 xix. 30 — 38 ;) the Amalekites, who were descended from 
 Amalek, the son of Ham, and grandson of Noah ; and 
 the Edomites, or descendants of Esau or Edom. 
 
 On the conquest of Canaan by the children of Israel, 
 Joshua divided it into twelve parts, which the twelve tribes 
 drew by lot. The tribe of Levi, indeed, possessed no 
 lands : God assigned to the Levites, who were appointed 
 to minister in holy things, without any secular incum- 
 brance, the tenths and first-fruits of the estates of their 
 bretkren. Forty-eight cities were appropriated to their 
 residence, thence called Levitical cities ; these were dis- 
 persed among the twelve tribes, and had their respective 
 suburbs, with land surrounding them. Of these cities the 
 Kohathites received twenty-three, the Gershomites thir- 
 teen, and the Merarites twelve ; and six of them, three on 
 each side of Jordan, were appointed to be cities of refuge, 
 whither the inadvertant man-slayer might flee, and find 
 an asylum from his pursuers, and be secured from the 
 effects of private revenge, until cleared by a legal pro- 
 cess. (Numb. xxxv. 6—15. Deut. xix. 4 — 10. Josh. xx. 7, 
 8.) In this division of the land into twelve portions, the 
 posterity of Ephraim and Manasseh (the two sons of Jo- 
 seph) had their portions as distinct tribes, in consequence 
 of Jacob having adopted them ; and these two are reckon- 
 ed instead of Joseph and Levi. The tribes of Reuben, 
 Gad, and half tribe of Manasseh, had their portion beyond 
 Jordan ; the rest settled on this side of the river. Dan 
 was reputed to be the furthest city to the north of the Holy 
 Land, as Beersheba was to the south. 
 
 Another division of the Holy Land took place after the 
 death of Solomon, when ten tribes revolted from Reho- 
 boam, and erected themselves into a separate kingdom 
 under Jeroboam. This was called the kingdom of Israel, 
 and its metropolis was Samaria. The other two tribes of 
 Benjamin and Judah, continuing faithful to Rehoboam, 
 formed the kingdom of Judah, whose capital was Jerusa- 
 lem. But this division ceased on the subversion of the 
 kingdom of Israel by Shaimaneser king of Assyria, after 
 it had subsisted two hundred and fiftv-four years, from the 
 year of the world 3030 to 3283. (b.'c. 717.) 
 
 hi the time of Jesus Christ, the whole of this country 
 
OF THE HOLY LAND. XG3 
 
 was divided into four separate regions, viz. : Judaea, Sa- 
 maria, Galilee, and Perae, or the country beyond Jordan. 
 
 I. Jud^a. — Of these regions, Judaea was the most distin- 
 guished, comprising the territories which had formerly be- 
 longed to the tribes of Judah, Benjamin, Simeon, and part 
 of the tribe of Dan. The southern part of it was called 
 Idumaea, and it extended westward from the Dead Sea to 
 the Great (or Mediterranean) Sea. Its metropolis was 
 Jerusalem, of which a separate notice will be found in a 
 subsequent number : and of the other towns or villages of 
 note, contained in this region, the most remarkable were 
 Arimathea, Azotus, or Ashdod, Bethany, Bethlehem, 
 Bethphage, Emmaus, Ephraim, Gaza, Jericho, Joppa, 
 Lydda, and Rama. 
 
 II. Samaria. — This division of the Holy Land derives 
 its name from the city of Samaria, and comprises the tract 
 of country which was originally occupied by the two 
 tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh, within Jordan, lying ex- 
 actly in the middle, between Judaea and Galilee ; so that 
 it was absolutely necessary for persons, who were desirous 
 of going expeditiously from Galilee to Jerusalem, to pass 
 through this country. This sufficiently explains the remark 
 of St. John (iv. 4.) The three chief places of this di 
 vision noticed in the Scriptures are, Samaria, Sichem, or 
 Schechem, and Antipatris. 
 
 III. Galilee. — This portion of the Holy Land is very 
 frequently mentioned in the New Testament ; it exceed- 
 ed Judaea in extent, but its limits probably varied at diffe- 
 rent times. It comprised the country formerly occupied 
 by the tribes of Issachar, Zebulun, Naphtali, and Asher, 
 and part of the tribe of Dan ; and is divided by Josephus 
 into Upper and Lower Galilee. Upper Galilee abounded 
 in mountains ; and, from its vicinity to the Gentiles who 
 inhabited the cities of Tyre and Sidon, it is called Gali- 
 lee of the Gentiles (Matt. iv. 15,) and the coasts of Tyre 
 and Sidon. (Mark vii. 31.) The principal city in this 
 region was Caesarea Philippi, through which the main 
 road lay to -Damascus, Tyre, and Sidon. Lower Galilee 
 was situated in a rich and fertile plain between the Me- 
 diterranean Sea and the lake of Gennesareth ; and, 
 according to Josephus, this district was very populous, 
 containing upwards of two hundred cities and towns. 
 
|(J4 HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 This country was most honoured by our Saviour's pre- 
 sence. The principal cities of lower Galilee, mentioned 
 in the New Testament, are Tiberias, Capernaum, Chora- 
 zin, Bethsaida, Nazareth, Cana, Nain, Caesarea of Pales- 
 tine, and Ptolemais. 
 
 IV. Perjea. — This district comprised the six following 
 provinces or cantons, viz. : Abilene, Trachonitis Iturasa, 
 Gaulonitis, Batanea, and Peraea, strictly so called, to which 
 some geographers have added Decapolis. 1. Abilene 
 was the most northern of these provinces, being situated 
 between the mountains of Libanus and Antilibanus, and 
 deriving its name from the city Abila. It is one of the four 
 tetrarchies mentioned by Saint Luke (iii. 1.) 2. Tra- 
 chonitis was bounded by the desert Arabia on the east, 
 Batanea on the west, Ituraea on the south, and the coun- 
 try of Damascus on the north. It abounded with rocks, 
 which afforded shelter to numerous thieves and robbers. 
 
 3. Iturjea anciently belonged to the half tribe of Manas- 
 seh, who settled on the east of Jordan : it stood to the 
 east of Batanea and to the south of Trachonitis. Of these 
 two cantons Philip, the son of Herod the Great, was te- 
 trarch at the time John the Baptist commenced his minis- 
 try. (Luke iii. 1.) It derived its name from Jetur, the 
 son of Ishmael, (I Chron. i. 31,) and was also called 
 Auranitis from the city of Hauran. (Ezek. xlvii. 16. 18.) 
 
 4. Gaulonitis was a tract on the east side of the lake of 
 Gennesareth, and the river Jordan, which derived its 
 name from Gaulan or Golan the city of Og, king of Ba- 
 shan. (Josh. xx. 8.) This canton is not mentioned in 
 the New Testament. 5. Batanea, the ancient kingdom 
 of Bashan, was situated to the north-east of Gaulonitis : 
 its limits are not easy to be defined. It was part of the 
 territory given to Herod Antipas and is not noticed in the 
 New Testament. 6. PERiEA, in its restricted sense, in- 
 cludes the southern part of the country beyond Jordan, 
 lying south of Ituraea, east cf Judese and Samaria ; and 
 was anciently possessed by the two tribes of Reuben and 
 Gad. Its principal place was the strong fortress of Ma- 
 chae-rus, erected for the purpose of checking the predatory 
 incursions of the Arabs. This fortress, though not spe- 
 cified by name in the New Testament, is memorable as 
 the place where John the Baptist was put to death. (Matt. 
 
OF THE HOLY LAND. 165 
 
 xiv. 3 — 12.) The canton of Decapolis, (Matt. iv. 25. 
 Mark v. 20, and vii. 31,) which derives its name from 
 the ten cities it contained, was part of the region of Persea. 
 Concerning its limits, and the names of its ten cities, geo- 
 graphers are by no means agreed : among them, however, 
 we may safely reckon Gadara, where our Saviour wrought 
 some miracles, and perhaps Damascus, chiefly celebrated 
 for the conversion of Saint Paul, which took place in its 
 vicinity. Of the whole country thus described, Jerusa- 
 lem was the metropolis during the reigns of David and 
 Solomon ; after the secession of the ten tribes, it was the 
 capital of the kingdom of Judah, but during the time of 
 Christ, and until the subversion of the Jewish polity, it 
 was the metropolis of Palestine. 
 
 Jerusalem is frequently styled in the Scriptures the 
 Holy City, (Isa. xlviii. 2. Dan. ix. 24. Nehem. xi. 1. 
 Matt. iv. 5. Rev. xi. 2,) because the Lord chose it out of 
 all the tribes of Israel to place his name there, his temple 
 and his worship; (Deut. xii. 5, xiv. 23, xvi. 2, xxvi. 2 ;) 
 and to be the centre of union in religion and government 
 for all the tribes of the commonwealth of Israel. It is 
 held in the highest veneration by Christians for the mira- 
 culous and important transactions which happened there 
 and also by the Mahommedans, who to this day never 
 call it by any other appellation than El-Kods, or the Holy, 
 sometimes adding the epithet El- Sheriff, or The Noble. 
 The original name of the city was Salem, or Peace : (Gen. 
 xiv. IS :; the import of Jerusalem is, the vision or inhe- 
 ritance of peace ; and to this it is not improbable that our 
 Saviour alluded in his beautiful and pathetic lamentation 
 over the city. (Luke xix. 41.) It was also formerly 
 called Jebus from one of the sons of Canaan. (Josh, 
 xviii. 28.) After its capture by Joshua, (Josh, x.) it was 
 jointly inhabited both by Jews and Jebusites (Josh. xv. 
 63,) for about five hundred years, until the time of David ; 
 who, having expelled the Jebusites, made it his re- 
 sidence, (2 Sam. v. 6 — 9,) and erected a noble palace 
 there, together with several other magnificent buildings, 
 whence it is sometimes styled the City of David. (1 
 Chron. xi. 5.) 
 
 Jerusalem, after its destruction by the Chaldasans, was 
 rebuilt by the Jews, on their return from the Babylonish 
 
|55 HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 captivity. The city was built on three principal hills ; 
 viz. : 1. Sion, on the southern side, which was the highest, 
 and contained the citadel, the king's palace, and the up- 
 per city. 2. Moriah, on which was the temple, a smaller 
 eminence on the east of the northern part of Sion, and 
 separated from it by a valley, over which was a bridge ; 
 and 3. Acra, so called in a later age, lying north of Sion, 
 and covered by the lower city, which was the most con- 
 siderable portion of the whole metropolis. 
 
 On the south side stood the mount of Corruption, 
 wher"* Solomon, in his declining years, built temples to 
 Moloch, Chemosh, and Ashtaroth. (1 Kings, xi. 7. 2 
 Kings xxiii. 13.) 
 
 Towards the west, and without the walls of the city, 
 agreeably to the law of Moses, (Levit. iv,) lay mount 
 Calvary or Golgotha, that is, the place of a skull. (Matt. 
 xxvii. 33.) 
 
 During the time of our Saviour, Jerusalem was adorn- 
 ed with numerous edifices, some of which are mentioned 
 or alluded to in the New Testament ; but its chief glory 
 was the Temple, (described in a subsequent page,) which 
 magnificent and extensive structure occupied the northern 
 and lower eminence of Sion, as we learn from the Psal- 
 mist, (xlviii. 2.) Beautiful for situation, the delight of 
 the whole earth, is Mount Sion. On her north side is the 
 city of the great king. 
 
 Next to the temple in point of splendour, was the very 
 superb palace of Herod, wnich is largely described by Jo- 
 sephus ; it afterwards became the residence of the Roman 
 procurators, who for this purpose generally claimed the 
 royal palaces in those provinces which were subject to 
 kings. These dwellings of the Eoman procurators in the 
 provinces were called jrrcstoria : Herod's palace therefore 
 was Pilate's praetorium : (Matt, xxvii. 27. Johnxviii. 2S:) 
 and in some part of this edifice was the armoury or bar- 
 rack of the Roman soldiers that garrisoned Jerusalem, 
 whither Jesus was conducted and mocked by them. 
 (Matt, xxvii. 27. Mark xv. 16.) In the front of this pa- 
 lace was the tribunal, where Pilate sat in a judicial capa- 
 city to hear and determine weighty causes : being a raised 
 pavement of Mosaic work, (\idor P a>roi>, lithostroton,) the 
 evangelist informs us, that in the Hebrew language it was 
 
OF THE HOLY LAND. \QJ 
 
 on this account termed gabbatha, (John xix. 13,) i. e. an 
 elevated place. On a steep rock, adjoining the north-west 
 corner of the Temple, stood the Tower of Antonia, a 
 strong citadel, in which a Roman legion was always 
 quartered. It overlooked the two outer courts of the 
 temple, and communicated with its cloisters by means of 
 secret passages, through which the military could descend 
 and quell any tumult that might arise during the great 
 festivals. This was the guard to which Pilate alluded in 
 Matt, xxviii. 65. The tower of Antonia was thus named 
 by Herod, in honour of his friend Mark Antony : and this 
 citadel is the castle into which St. Paul was conducted, 
 (Acts xxi. 34, 35,) and of which mention is made in Acts 
 xxii. 24. As the temple was a fortress that guarded the 
 whole city of Jerusalem, so the tower of Antonia was a 
 guard that entirely commanded the temple. According 
 to the Jewish Historian, Josephus, the circumference of 
 Jerusalem, previously to its being besieged and destroyed 
 Dy the Roman army, was thirty-three furlongs, or nearly 
 four miles and a half : and the wall of circumvallation, 
 constructed by order of the Roman general, Titus, he 
 states to have been thirty-nine furlongs, or four miles eight 
 hundred and seventy-five paces. 
 
 During the reigns of David and Solomon, Jerusalem 
 was the metropolis of the land of Israel ; but, after the 
 defection of the ten tribes under Jeroboam, it was the 
 capital of the kings of Judah, during whose government 
 it underwent various revolutions. It was captured four 
 times without being demolished, viz. : by Shishak, sove- 
 reign of Egypt, (2 Chron. xii,) from whose ravages it 
 never recovered its former splendour ; by Antiochus Epi- 
 phanes, who treated the Jews with singular barbarity; 
 by Pompey the Great, who rendered the Jews tributary 
 to Rome ; and by Herod, with the assistance of a Roman 
 force under Sosius. It was first entirely destroyed by 
 Nebuchadnezzar, and again by the emperor Titus, the re- 
 peated insurrections of the turbulent Jews having filled 
 up the measure of their iniquities, and drawn down upon 
 them the implacable vengeance of the Romans. Titus 
 ineffectually endeavoured to save the temple : it was in- 
 volved in the same ruin with the rest of the city, and, 
 after it had been reduced to ashes, the foundations of that 
 
168 HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 sacred edifice were ploughed up by the Koman soldiers. 
 Thus literally was fulfilled the prediction of our Lord, 
 that not one stone should be left upon another that should 
 not be thrown down. (Matt. xxiv. 2.) On his return to 
 Rome, Titus was honoured with a triumph ; and, to 
 commemorate his conquest of Judsea, a triumphal arch 
 was erected, which is still in existence. Numerous 
 medals of Judaea vanquished were struck in honour of 
 the same event. A representation of one of these is given 
 in page 23. supra. 
 
 The emperor Adrian erected a city on part of the 
 former site of Jerusalem, which he called ^Elia Capito- 
 lina : it was afterwards greatly enlarged and beautified by 
 Constantine the Great, who restored its ancient name. 
 During that emperor's reign, the Jews made various efforts 
 to rebuild their temple, which, however, were always frus- 
 trated ; nor did better success attend the attempt made 
 a. d. 363, by the apostate emperor Julian. An earth- 
 quake, a whirlwind, and a fiery eruption, compelled the 
 workmen to abandon their design. 
 
 From the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans to 
 the present time, that city has remained, for the most 
 part, in a state of ruin and desolation ; " and has never 
 been under the government of the Jews themselves, but 
 oppressed and broken down by a succession of foreign 
 masters — the Romans, the Saracens, the Franks, the 
 Mamelukes, and last by the Turks, to whom it is still 
 subject. It is not, therefore, only in the history of Jose- 
 phus, and in other ancient writers, that we are to look 
 for the accomplishment of our Lord's predictions : — we 
 see them verified at this moment before our eyes, in the 
 desolate state of the once celebrated city and temple of 
 Jerusalem, and in the present condition of the Jewish 
 people, not collected together into any one country, into 
 one political society, and under one form of government, 
 but dispersed over every region of the globe, and every 
 where treated with contumely and scorn." (Bp. Porteus.) 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE HOLY LAND. \QQ 
 
 Mount Tabor, as seen from the Plain of Esdraelon. 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY Ot THE HOLY LAND. 
 
 The surface of the Holy Land being diversified witn 
 mountains and plains, its climate varies in different 
 places ; though in general it is more settled than in our 
 more western countries. Generally speaking, however, 
 the atmosphere is mild ; the summers are commonly dry 
 and extremely hot : intensely hot days, however, are fre- 
 quently succeeded by intensely cold nights ; and it is to 
 these sudden vicissitudes, and their consequent effects on 
 the human frame, that Jacob refers, when he says that 
 in the day the drought consumed him, and the frost by 
 night. (Gen. xxxi. 40.) 
 
 Six several seasons of the natural year are indicated 
 in Gen. viii. 22. viz. : seed-time and harvest, cold and heat t 
 summer and winter ; and as agriculture constituted the 
 principal employment of the Jews, we are informed by 
 the rabbinical writers, that they adopted the same division 
 of seasons, with reference to their rural work. These 
 divisions also exist among the Arabs to this day. 
 
 1. Seed-time comprised, the latter half of the Jev/ish 
 month Tisri, the whole of Marchesvan, and the former 
 half of Kisleu or Chisleu, that is, from the beginning of 
 October to the beginning of Llecember. During this sea- 
 
170 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 son the weather is various, very often misty, cloudy, witk 
 mizzling or pouring rain. 
 
 2. Winter included the latter half of Chisleu, th< 
 whole of Tebeth, and the former part of Shebeth, that is, 
 from the beginning of December to the beginning ot 
 February. In this season, snows rarely fall, except on 
 the mountains, but they seldom continue a whole day ; 
 the ice is thin and melts as soon as the sun ascends above 
 the horizon. As the season advances, the north wind 
 and the cold, especially on the lofty mountains, which are 
 now covered with snow, is intensely severe, and some- 
 times even fatal : the cold is frequently so piercing, that 
 persons born in our climate can scarcely endure it. The 
 cold, however, varies in the degree of its severity, accord- 
 ing to the local situation of the country. 
 
 3. The cold season comprises the latter half of She- 
 beth, the whole of Adar, and the former half of Nisan, 
 from the beginning of February to the beginning of April. 
 At the commencement of this season, the weather is cold, 
 but it gradually becomes warm and even hot, particularly 
 in the plain of Jericho. Thunder, lightning, and hail 
 are frequent. Vegetable nature now revives ; the almond 
 tree blossoms, and the gardens assume a delightful ap- 
 pearance. Barley is ripe at Jericho, though but littie 
 wheat is in the ear. 
 
 4. The harvest includes the latter half of Nisan, the 
 whole of Jyar (or Zif,) and the former half of Si van, that 
 is, from the beginning of April to the beginning of June. 
 In the plain of Jericho the heat of the sun is excessive, 
 though in other parts of Palestine the weather is most 
 delightful ; and on the sea-coast the heat is tempered by 
 morning and evening breezes from the sea 
 
 5. The summer comprehends the latter half of Sivan, 
 the whole of Thammuz, and the former half of Ab, that 
 is, from the beginning of June to the beginning of August. 
 The heat of the weather increases, and the nights are so 
 warm that the inhabitants sleep on their house-tops in the 
 open air. 
 
 6. The hot season includes the latter half of Ab, the 
 whole of Elul, and the former half of Tisri, that is, from 
 the beginning of August to the beginning of October, 
 During the chief part of this season the heat is intense. 
 
OF THE HOLY LAND. 171 
 
 though less so at Jerusalem than in the plain of Jericho : 
 there is no cold, not even in the night, so that travellers 
 pass whole nights in the open air without inconvenience. 
 Lebanon is for the most part free from snow, except in 
 the caverns and defiles where the sun cannot penetrate. 
 
 During the hot season, it is not uncommon in the East 
 Indies for persons to die suddenly, in consequence of the 
 extreme heat of the solar rays, (whence the necessity of 
 being carried in a palanquin.) This is now commonly 
 termed a coup-de-soleil or stroke of the sun. The son of 
 the woman of Shunem appears to have died in conse- 
 quence of a coup-de-soleil ; (2 Kings iv. 19, 20 ;) to which 
 there is an allusion in Psalm cxxi. 2. 
 
 Rain falls but rarely, except in autumn and spring ; but 
 its absence is partly supplied by the very copious dews 
 which fall during the night. The early or autumnal 
 rains and the latter or spring rains are absolutely neces- 
 sary to the support of vegetation, and were consequently 
 objects greatly desired by the Israelites, and Jews. The 
 early rains generally fall about the beginning of Novem- 
 ber, when they usually ploughed their lands and sowed 
 their corn ; and the latter rains fall sometimes towards 
 the middle, and sometimes towards the close of April ; 
 that is, a short time before they gathered in their 
 harvest. These rains, however, were always chilly 
 (Ezra x. 9, and Song ii. 11,) and often preceded by 
 whirlwinds, (2 Kings iii. 1*6, 17,) that raised such 
 quantities of sand as to darken the sky, or, in the words 
 of the sacred historian, to make the heavens black with 
 clouds and wind. (1 Kings xviii. 45.) In the figurative 
 language of the Scripture, these whirlwinds are termed 
 the command and the word of God : (Psalm cxlvii. 15. 18:) 
 and as they are sometimes fatal to travellers who are 
 overwhelmed in the deserts, the rapidity of their advance 
 is elegantly employed by Solomon to show the certainty 
 as well as the suddenness of that destruction which will 
 befall the impenitently wicked. (Prov. i. 27.) The 
 rains descend in Palestine with great violence ; and as 
 whole villages in the east are constructed only with palm- 
 branches, mud, and tiles baked in the sun, (perhaps cor- 
 responding to and explanatory of the untempered mortar 
 noticed in Ezek. xiii. 11,) these rains not unfrequently 
 
172 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 dissolve the cement, such as it is, and the houses fall to 
 the ground. To these effects our Lord probably alludes 
 in Matt. vii. 25 — 27. Very small clouds are likewise 
 the forerunners of violent storms and hurricanes in the 
 east as well as in the w T est : they rise like a marts hand, 
 (1 Kings xviii. 44,) until the whole sky becomes black 
 with rain, which descends in torrents. In our Lord's 
 time, this phenomenon seems to have become a certain 
 prognostic of wet weather. See Luke xii. 54. 
 
 In consequence of the paucity of showers in the east, 
 Water is an article of great importance to the inhabitants. 
 Hence, in Lot's estimation, it was a principal recommen- 
 dation of the plain of Jordan that it was well watered every 
 where: (Gen. xiii. 10:) and the same advantage continued 
 in later ages to be enjoyed by the Israelites, whose coun- 
 try was intersected by numerous brooks and streams. 
 
 Although rivers are frequently mentioned in the sacred 
 writings, yet, strictly speaking, the only river in the Holy 
 Land is the Jordan, which is sometimes designated in 
 Scripture as the river without any addition ; as also is the 
 Nile, (Gen. xli. 1. Exod. i. 22, ii. 5, iv. 9, vii. 18, and viii. 
 3. 9. 11,) and, occasionally, the Euphrates: (as in Jer. ii. 
 IS :) in the passages here referred to, the tenor of the dis 
 course must determine which is the river actually intend- 
 ed by the sacred writers. The name of river is also given 
 to inconsiderable streams and rivulets, as to the Kishon 
 (Judges iv. 7, and v. 21,) and the Anion. (Deut. iii. 16.) 
 
 The principal river which waters Palestine is the Jor- 
 dan, or Yar-Dan, i. e. the river of Dan, so called because 
 it takes its rise in the vicinity of the little city of Dan. 
 Its true source is in the lake Phiala, near Caesarea Philippi, 
 at the foot of Antilibanus, or the eastern ridge of mount 
 Lebanon, whence it passes under ground, and, emerging 
 to the light from a cave in the vicinity of Paneas, it flows 
 due south through the centre of the country, intersecting 
 the lake Merom and the sea or lake of Galilee, and (it is 
 said) without mingling with its waters ; and it loses itself 
 in the lake Asphaltites or the Dead Sea, into which it 
 rolls a considerable volume of deep water, and so rapid as 
 to prevent a strong, active and expert swimmer from 
 swimming across it. The course of the Jordan is about 
 one hundred miles ; its breadth and depth are various. 
 
THE HOLY LAND. 173 
 
 All travellers concur in stating that its waters are turbid, 
 from the rapidity with which they flow. 
 
 Anciently, the Jordan overflowed its banks about the 
 time of barley harvest, (Josh. iii. 15, iv. 18. 1 Chron. xii. 
 
 15. Jer. xlix. 19,) or the feast of the passover ; when, 
 the snows being dissolved on the mountains, the torrents 
 discharged themselves into its channel with great impetu- 
 osity. Its banks are covered with various kinds of bushes 
 and shrubs, which afford an asylum for wild animals now, 
 as they did in the time of Jeremiah, who alludes to them 
 (Jer. xlix. 19.) 
 
 The other remarkable streams, or rivulets of Palestine, 
 are the following, viz. : 1. The Arnon, which descends from 
 the mountain of the same name, and discharges itself into 
 the Dead Sea :— 2. The Sihor (the Belus of ancient geo- 
 graphers, at present called the Kardanah,) has its source 
 about four miles to the east of the heads of the river Ki- 
 shon. It waters the plains of Acre and Esdraelon, and 
 falls into the sea at the gulph of Keilah : — 3. The brook 
 Jabbok takes its rise in the same mountains, and falls into 
 the river Jordan : — 4. The Kanah, or brook of reeds, 
 springs from the mountains of Judah, but only flows du- 
 ring the winter : it falls into the Mediterranean Sea, near 
 Caesarea : — 5. The brook Besor, (1 Sam. xxx. 9,) falls 
 into the same sea, between Gaza and Rhinocorura : — 6. 
 The Kislion issues from the mountains of Carmel, at the 
 foot of which it forms two streams ; one flows eastward 
 into the sea of Galilee, and the other, taking a westerly 
 course through the plain of Jezreel, or Esdraelon, dischar- 
 ges itself into the Mediterranean Sea. This is the stream 
 noticed in 1 Kings xviii. 40 : — 7. Kedron, Kidron, or 
 Cedron, as it is variously termed,* runs in the valley of 
 Jehoshaphat, eastward of Jerusalem, between that city 
 and the mount of Olives: except during the winter, or 
 after heavy rains, its channel is generally dry, but, when 
 swollen by torrents, it flows with great impetuosity. 
 
 Lakes, Seas, &c. 
 
 Of the Lakes mentioned in the Scriptures, two are par- 
 ticularly worthy of notice ; that of Gennesareth, and the 
 
 • 2 Sam. xv. 23. 1 Kings xv. 13. 2 Kings xxiii. 6. 12. 2 Chron. 
 
 16. Jer. xxxi. 40. John xviii. 1. 
 
 15* 
 
X74 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 lake of Sodom, both of which are termed seas, agreeably 
 to the Hebrew phraseology, which gives the name of sea 
 to any large body of water. 
 
 The Sea of Galtlee, through which the Jordan flows, 
 was anciently called the Sea of Chinnereth, (Numb, xxxiv. 
 11,) or Cinneroth, (Josh. xii. 3,) from its vicinity to the 
 town of that name ; afterwards, Genesar, (1 Mac. xi. 67,) 
 and in the time of Jesus Christ, Genesareth, or Genneza- 
 reth, (Luke v. 1,) from the neighbouring land of the same 
 name, (Matt xiv. 34. Mark xv. 53,) and also the sea of 
 Tiberias, (John vi. 1, xxi. 1,) from the contiguous city of 
 Tiberias. The waters of this lake are very sweet, and 
 abound with fish : this circumstance marks the propriety 
 of our Lord's parable of the net cast into the sea, (Matt, 
 xiii. 47 — 49,) near the shore. Pliny states this lake to 
 be sixteen miles in length, by six miles in breadth. Dr. 
 D. E. Clarke, by whom it was visited rather more than 
 twenty years since, describes it as longer, and finer than 
 our Cumberland and Westmoreland lakes, although it 
 yields in majesty to the stupendous features of Loch 
 Lomond, in Scotland: like our Windermere, the lake of 
 Gennezareth is often greatly agitated by winds. (Matt 
 viii. 23—27. 
 
 The Lake, or Sea op Sodom, or the Dead Sea, is 
 about seventy-two English miles in length, and nearly 
 nineteen in breadth. It was anciently called in the Scrip- 
 tures, the Sea of the Plain, (Deut. iii. 17, iv. 49,) being 
 situated in a valley, with a plain lying to the south of it ; 
 the Salt Sea, (Deut. iii. 17. Josh. xv. 5,) from the ex- 
 tremely saline, bitter, and nauseous taste of its waters ; 
 the Salt Sea eastward, (Numb, xxxiv. 3,) and the East 
 Sea, (Ezek-. xlvii. 18. Joel ii. 20.) By Josephus and 
 other writers, it is called the lake Asphaltites, from the 
 abundance of bitumen found in it ; and also the Dead 
 Sea, from ancient traditions, erroneously, though gene- 
 rally received, that no living creature can exist in its stag- 
 nant and sulphureous waters. Here formerly stood the 
 cities of Sodom and Gomorrah, which, with two other 
 cities of the plain, were consumed by fire from heaven : 
 to this destruction, there are numerous allusions in the 
 Scriptures. 
 
 Beside the preceding rivers and lakes, the Scriptures 
 mention several Fountains and Wells: of these the 
 
OF THE HOLY LAND. j 75 
 
 most remarkable are the fountain, or pool, of Siloam, and 
 Jacob's Well. 
 
 Siloam was a fountain under the walls of Jerusalem, 
 east, between the city and the brook Kedron : it is 
 supposed to be the same as the fountain En-Rogel, or 
 the Fuller's Fountain. (Josh. xv. 7, and xviii. 16. 2 
 Sam. xvii. 17, and 1 Kings i. 9.) " The spring issues 
 from a rock, and runs in a silent stream, according to the 
 testimony of Jeremiah." 
 
 Jacob's Well, or fountain, is situated at a small dis 
 tance, from Sichem, or Shecbem, also called Sychar, and 
 at present Napolose : it was the residence of Jacob be- 
 fore his sons slew the Shechemites. It has been visited 
 by pilgrims of all ages, but especially by Christians, to 
 whom it has become an object of veneration from the me 
 morable discourse of our Saviour with the woman of Sa- 
 maria. (John iv. 5 — 30.) 
 
 In our own time, it is the custom for the oriental wo- 
 men, particularly those who are unmarried, to fetch wa- 
 ter from the wells, in the mornings and evenings ; at which 
 times they go forth adorned with their trinkets. This 
 will account for Rebecca's fetching water, (Gen. xxiv. 
 15,) and will further prove, that there was no improprie- 
 ty in Abraham's servant presenting her with more valua- 
 ble jewels, than those she had before on her hands. (Gen, 
 xxiv. 22—47.) 
 
 Mountains, &c. 
 
 Palestine is a mountainous country, especially that 
 part of it, which is situated between the Mediterranean, 
 or Great Sea, and the river Jordan. The principal 
 Mountains, not already mentioned, are those of Leba- 
 non, Carmel, Tabor, the mountains of Israel and of Gilead. 
 
 1. Lebanon, by the Greeks and Latins termed Liba- 
 nus, is a long chain of lime-stone mountains, extending 
 from the neighbourhood of Sidon on the west, to the vi- 
 cinity of Damascus eastward, and forming the extreme 
 northern boundary of the Holy Land. It is divided into 
 two principal ridges, or ranges parallel to each other, the 
 most westerly of which is known by the name of Liba- 
 nus, and the opposite, or eastern ridge, by the appella- 
 
176 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 tion of Anti-Libanus. These mountains may be seen 
 from a very considerable distance ; and it rarely happens 
 that some part or other of them, is not covered with snow 
 throughout the year. They are by no means barren, but 
 are almost all well cultivated and well peopled : their 
 summits are, in many parts, level, and form extensive 
 plains, in which are sown corn, and all kinds of pulse. 
 They are watered by numerous springs, rivulets, aud 
 streams of excellent water, which diffuse on all sides 
 freshness and fertility, even in the most elevated regions. 
 To these Solomon has a beautiful allusion. (Song iv. 15.) 
 Lebanon was anciently celebrated for its stately cedars, 
 which are now less numerous than in former times ; they 
 grow among the snow near the highest part of the moun- 
 tain, and are remarkable, as well for their age and 
 size, as for the frequent allusions made to them in the 
 Scriptures. (See 1 Kings iv. 33. Psalm lxxx. 10, and 
 xcii. 12, <fec. &c.) 
 
 Anti-Libanus, or Anti-Lebanon, is the more lofty ridge 
 of the two, and its summit is clad with almost perpetual 
 snow, which was carried to the neighbouring towns for 
 the purpose of cooling liquors ; (Prov. xxv. 13, and per- 
 haps Jer. xviii. 14 ;) a practice which has obtained in 
 the east to the present day. 
 
 2. Mount Carmel, is a range of hills, about fifteen 
 hundred feet in height, and extending six or eight miles 
 nearly north and south. It is situated about ten miles to 
 the south of Acre, or Ptolemais, on the shore of the Medi- 
 terranean Sea. Its summits abound with oaks and other 
 trees ; and among brambles, wild vines and olive trees 
 are still to be found. On the side next the sea is a cave, 
 to which some commentators have supposed that the pro- 
 phet Elijah desired Ahab to bring Baal's prophets, when 
 celestial fire descended on his sacrifice. (1 Kings xviii, 
 19 — 40.) There was another mount Carmel, with a city 
 of the same name, situated in the tribe Judah, and men- 
 tioned in Joshua xv. 55. 1 Sam. xxv. 2, and 2 Sam iii. 3. 
 
 3. Tabor, or Thabor, is a mountain of a conical form, 
 entirely detached from any neighbouring mountain, and 
 stands on one side of the great plain of Esdraelon : it is 
 entirely covered with green oaks, and other trees, shrubs, 
 and odoriferous plants. The prospects from this moun- 
 
OF THE IIOLV LAND. 177 
 
 tain, are singularly delightful and extensive ; and on its 
 eastern side there is a small height, which by ancient tra- 
 dition, is supposed to have been the scene of our Lord's 
 transfiguration. (Matt. xvii. 1—8. Mark ix. 2—9.) 
 
 4. The Mountains op Israel, also called the moun- 
 tains of Ephraim, were situated in the very centre of the 
 Holy Land, and opposite to the Mountains of Judah. 
 The soil of both is fertile, excepting those ridges of the 
 mountains of Israel, which look towards the region of the 
 Jordan, and which are both rugged and difficult of ascent, 
 and also with the exception of the chain extending from 
 the Mount of Olives near Jerusalem to the plain of Jeri- 
 cho, which has always afforded lurking-places to robbers. 
 (Luke x. 30.) The most elevated summit of this ridge, 
 which appears to be the same that was anciently called 
 the lock of Rimmon, (Judg. xx. 45. 47,) is at present 
 known by the name of Quarantania, and is supposed to 
 have been the scene of our Saviour's temptation. (Matt, 
 iv. 8.) It is described by Maundrel, as situated in a 
 mountainous desert, and being a most miserably dry and 
 barren place, consisting of high rocky mountains, torn 
 and disordered, as if the earth had here suffered some 
 great convulsion. The Mountains of Ebal (sometimes 
 written GebaT) and Gerizim (Deut. xi. 29, xxvii. 4. 12. 
 Josh. viii. 30 — 35,) are situate, the former to the north, 
 and the latter to the south of Sichem or Napolose, whose 
 streets run parallel to the latter mountain, which over- 
 looks the town. In the mountains of Judah, there are 
 numerous caves, some of a considerable size : the most 
 remarkable of these is the cave of Adullam, mentioned 
 in 1 Sam. xxii. 1, 2. 
 
 5. The Mountains of Gilead are situated beyond 
 the Jordan, and extend from Hermon southward to Ara- 
 bia Petra?a. The northern part of them, known by the 
 name of Bashan, was celebrated for its stately oaks, and 
 numerous herds of cattle pastured there, to which there 
 are many allusions in the Scriptures. (See, among other 
 passages, Deut. xxxii. 14. Psalm xxii. 12, and lxviii. 15. 
 Isa. ii. 13. Ezek. xxxix. 18. Amos iv. 1.) The middle 
 part, in a stricter sense, was termed Gilead; and in the 
 southern part, beyond Jordan, were the Mountains of 
 Abarim, the northern limits of the territory of Moab, 
 
178 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 which are conjectured to have derived their name from 
 the passes between the hills of which they were formed. 
 The most eminent among these are Pisgah and Nebo, 
 which form a continued chain, and command a view of 
 the whole land of Canaan. (Deut. iii. 27, xxxii. 48 — 50, 
 xxxiv. 1, 2, 3.) From Mount Nebo, Moses surveyed the 
 promised land, before he was gathered to his people. 
 (Numb, xxvii. 12, 13.) The Hebrews frequently give 
 the epithet of everlasting to their mountains, because they 
 are as old as the earth itself. See, among other instances, 
 Gen. xlix. 26, and Deut. xxxiii. 15. 
 
 The Mountains of Palestine were anciently places of 
 refuge to the inhabitants when defeated in war, (Gen. xiv. 
 10,) and modern travellers assure us that they are still re- 
 sorted to for the purpose of shelter. The rocky summits 
 found on many of them, appear to have been not unfre- 
 quently employed as altars, on which sacrifices were offer- 
 ed to Jehovah ; (Judg. vi. 19 — 21, and xiii. 15 — 20 ;) al- 
 though they were afterwards converted into places for idol 
 worship, for which the prophets Isaiah (lvii. 7,) and Eze- 
 kiel (xviii. 6,) severely reprove their degenerate country- 
 men. And as many of the mountains of Palestine were 
 situated in desert places, the shadow they project has 
 furnished the prophet Isaiah with a pleasing image of the 
 security that shall be enjoyed under the kingdom of 
 Messiah, (xxxii. 2.) 
 
 Valleys, Plains, &c. 
 
 Numerous Valleys are mentioned in Scripture : the 
 three most memorable of these are, 
 
 1. The Vale of Siddim, in which Abraham discom- 
 fitted Chedorlaomer, and his confederate emirs, or kings, 
 Gen. xiv. 2—10. 
 
 2. The Valley of Elah, which lies about three miles 
 from Bethlehem, on the road to Jaffa : it is celebrated as 
 the spot where David defeated and slew Goliath. (1 Sam. 
 xvii.) " Nothing has ever occurred to alter the appear- 
 ance of the country. The very brook whence David 
 chose him Jive smooth stones has been noticed by many a 
 thirsty pilgrim, journeying from Jaffa to Jerusalem ; all 
 of whom must pass it in their way." 
 
 3. The narrow Valley of Hinnom lies at the foot of 
 
OF THE HOLY LAND. J 79 
 
 Mount Sion, and is memorable for the inhuman and bar- 
 barous, as well as idolatrous worship, here paid to Moloch ; 
 to which idol parents sacrificed their smiling offspring, by 
 making them pass through the fire. (2 Kings xxiii. 10. 
 2 Chron. xxviii. 3.) To drown the lamentable shrieks 
 of the children thus immolated, musical instruments (in 
 Hebrew termed Tuph) were played ; whence the spot 
 where the victims were burnt, was called Tophet. From 
 the same circumstance, Ge-Hinnom (which in Hebrew 
 denotes the Valley of Hinnom, and from which the Greek 
 word Yc'evva. Gehenna, is derived,) is sometimes used to 
 denote hell, or hell-fire. 
 
 The country of Judaea, being mountainous and rocky, 
 is full of Caverns ; to which the inhabitants were accus- 
 tomed to flee for shelter from the incursions of their en- 
 emies. (Judg. vi. 2. 1 Sam. xiii. 6, xiv. 11.) Some of 
 these caves were very capacious : that of Engedi was so 
 large, that David and six hundred men, concealed them- 
 selves in its sides ; and Saul entered the mouth of the cave 
 without perceiving that any one was there. 
 
 Numerous fertile and level tracts, are mentioned in the 
 sacred volume, under the title of Plains. Three of these 
 are particularly worthy of notice, viz. : 
 
 1. The Plain of the Mediterranean Sea, which 
 reached from the river of Egypt to Mount Carmel. 
 
 2. The Tract between Gaza and Joppa, was simply 
 called the Plain : in this stood the five principal cities of 
 the Philistine satrapies, Ascalon, Gath, Gaza, Ekron, or 
 Accaron, and Azotus, or Ashdod. 
 
 3. The Plain of Jezreel, or Esdraelon, also called the 
 Great Plain, (the Armageddon of the Apocalypse :) it 
 extends from Mount Carmel and the Mediterranean, to the 
 place where the Jordan issues from the Sea of Tiberias, 
 through the middle of the Holy Land. This plain is en- 
 closed on all sides by mountains, and is cultivated. 
 
 Wildernesses, or Deserts. 
 
 Frequent mention is made in the Scriptures of Wil- 
 dernesses, or Deserts, by which we usually, though 
 erroneously, understand desolate places, equally void of 
 cities and inhabitants: for the Hebrews gave the name of 
 
]gO PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 desert, or wilderness, to all places that were not cultivated, 
 but which were chiefly appropriated to the feeding of cat- 
 tle, and in many of them trees and shrubs grew wild. 
 Some of them are mountainous and well watered, while 
 others are sterile sandy plains, either destitute of water, 
 or affording a very scanty supply from the few springs 
 that are occasionally to be found in them ; yet even these 
 afford a grateful, though meagre pasturage to camels, goats, 
 and sheep. In this latter description of deserts, it is that 
 the weary traveller is mocked by the distant appearance 
 of white vapours, which are not unlike those white mists 
 we often see hovering over the surface of a river in a sum- 
 mer evening, after a hot day. When beheld at a distance, 
 they resemble an expanded lake ; but, upon a nearer ap- 
 proach, the thirsty traveller perceives the deception. To 
 this phenomenon the prophet Isaiah alludes, (xxxv. 7,) 
 where, predicting the blessings of the Redeemer's king- 
 dom, he says, The glowing sand shall become a pool, and 
 the thirsty soil bubbling springs. 
 
 The deserts of the Hebrews frequently derived their 
 appellations, from the places to which they were contigu- 
 ous. The most celebrated is the Great Desert, called the 
 JVilde?'ness, or Desert of Judah. (Psal. lxiii. title.) The 
 desert of Judaea, in which John the Baptist abode till 
 the day of his showing unto Israel, (Luke i. 80,) and where 
 he first taught his countrymen, (Matt. iii. 1. Mark i. 4. 
 John x. 39,) was a mountainous, wooded, and thinly in- 
 habited tract of country, but abounding in pastures ; it 
 was situated adjacent to the Dead Sea, and the River 
 Jordan. In the time of Joshua it had six cities, with 
 their villages. (Josh. xv. 61, 62.) 
 
 This country also produced some Woods, or Forests 
 mentioned in holy writ, such as those of Hareth in the 
 tribe of Judah, to which David withdrew from Saul; 
 (1 Sam. xxii. 5 ;) of Ephraim, where Absalom received 
 the due reward of his unnatural rebellion (2 Sam. xviii. 
 6 — 9;) that of Lebanon, where Solomon erected a sump- 
 tuous palace (1 Kings vii. 2 ;) the forest of Bethel, sup- 
 posed to have stood near the city of that name ; (2 Kings 
 ii. 24 ;) and the Forest of Oaks, on the hills of Bashan. 
 (Zech. xi. 2.) 
 
OF THE iioiiY LAND. 1Q£ 
 
 The Fertility of the soil of the Holy Land, so often 
 mentioned in the sacred writings, (and especially in Deut. 
 vii;. 7—9, xi. 10—12. Gen. xxvi. 12. and Matt. xiii. 8,) 
 is confirmed by the united testimonies of ancient writers, 
 as well as by all modern travellers. We are assured that 
 under a wise and beneficent government, the produce of 
 the Holy Land, would exceed all calculation. Its peren- 
 nial harvest ; the salubrity of its air ; its limpid springs ; 
 its rivers, lakes, and matchless plains ; its hills and vales 
 — all these, added to the serenity of its climate, prove this 
 land to be indeed "a field which the Lord hath blessed:" 
 (Gen. xxvii. 28 :) " God hath given it of the dew of hea- 
 ven, and the fatness of the earth, and plenty of corn and 
 wine." 
 
 Such being the state of the Holy Land, at east of that 
 part of it which is properly cultivated, we can readily ac- 
 count for the vast population it anciently supported. Its 
 present forlorn condition is satisfactorily explained by the 
 depredations and vicissitudes to which it has been exposed 
 in every age : and so far is this from contradicting the as- 
 sertions of the sacred writings, that it confirms their au- 
 thority ; for, in the event of the Israelites proving unfaith- 
 ful to their covenant engagements with Jehovah, all these 
 judgments were predicted, and denounced against them; 
 (Lev. xxvi. 32. Deut. xxix. 22. et seq. ;) and the exact 
 accomplishment of these prophecies affords a permanent 
 comment on the declaration of the royal psalmist, that 
 God " turneth a fruitful land into barrenness for the wick- 
 edness of them that dwell therein." (Psal. cvii. 34.) 
 
182 
 
 BOOK II— POLITICAL ANTIQUITIES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 DIFFERENT FORMS OF GOVERNMENT FROM THE PATRIARCHAL TIMES, TO THE 
 BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY. 
 
 I. The earliest Form of Government of which we 
 read in Scripture, was the Patriarchal ; or that exerci- 
 sed by the heads of families over their households, with- 
 out being responsible to any superior power. Such was 
 that exercised by Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. The pa- 
 triarchal power, was a sovereign dominion, so that pa- 
 rents may be considered as the first kings, and children 
 the first subjects : they had the power of life and death, 
 of disinheriting their children, or of dismissing them from 
 the paternal home without assigning any reason. 
 
 II. On the departure of the Israelites from the land of 
 their oppressors, under the guidance of Moses, Jehovah 
 was pleased to institute a new form of government, which 
 has been rightly termed a Theocracy ; the supreme le- 
 gislative power being exclusively vested in God, or his 
 oracle, who alone could enact, or repeal laws. Hence 
 the judges, and afterwards the kings, were merely tempo- 
 ral viceroys, or the first magistrates in the state : their 
 office was, to command the army in war, to summon and 
 preside in the senate, or council of princes and elders, 
 and in the general assembly of the congregation of Israel, 
 and to propose public matters to the deliberation of the 
 former, and to the ratification of the latter. During the 
 life of Moses, the chief magistracy was lodged in him : 
 but, his strength being inadequate to determine all matters 
 of controversy between so numerous a nation, a council 
 of seventy princes, or elders was instituted, at his request, 
 to assist him with their advice, and to lighten the burden 
 of government. (Exod. xviii. 13 — 26.) 
 
DIFFERENT FORMS OF GOVERNMENT. \Q§ 
 
 III. On the death of Moses, the command of the chil- 
 dren of Israel was confided to Joshua, who had been his 
 minister, (Exod. xxiv. 13. Josh. i. 1,) and under whom 
 the land of Canaan was subdued, and divided agreeably 
 to the divine injunctions : but, his office ceasing with his 
 life, the government of Israel was committed to certain 
 supreme magistrates, termed Judges. Their dignity was 
 for life ; but their office was not hereditary, neither was 
 their succession constant. Their authority was not infe- 
 rior to that of kings : it extended to peace and war. They 
 decided causes without appeal ; but they had no power to 
 enact new laws, or to impose new burdens upon the peo- 
 ple. They were protectors of the laws, defenders of re- 
 ligion, and avengers of crimes, particularly of idolatry, 
 which was high treason against Jehovah, their Sove- 
 reign. 
 
 IV. At length, the Israelites, weary of having God for 
 their sovereign, desired a king to be set over them. (1 Sam. 
 viii. 5.) Such a change in their government was fore- 
 seen by Moses, who accordingly prescribed certain laws 
 for the direction of their future sovereigns, which are re- 
 lated in Deut. xvii. 14 — 20. 
 
 Though the authority of the kings was in some re- 
 spects limited, by stipulation, yet they exercised very am- 
 ple powers. They had the right of making peace, or 
 war, and of life and death ; and they administered justice, 
 either in person, or by their judges. And though they 
 exercised great power in reforming ecclesiastical abuses, 
 yet this power was enjoyed by them, not as absolute sove- 
 reigns, in their own right. They were merely the vice- 
 roys of Jehovah, whu was the sole legislator of Israel : 
 and, therefore, as the kings could neither enact a new 
 law, nor repeal an old one, the government continued to 
 be a theocracy, as well under their permanent administra- 
 tion, as we have seen that it was under the occasional ad- 
 ministration of the judges. They were inaugurated to 
 their high office with great pomp, and were arrayed in 
 royal apparel, with a crown and sceptre. The majesty of 
 royalty was studiously maintained. It was accounted 
 the highest possible honour to be admitted into the royal 
 presence, and above all to sit down in his presence. The 
 knowledge of this circumstance illustrates several passa- 
 
1Q4 DIFFERENT FORMS OF GOVERNMENT 
 
 ges of Scripture, particularly Luke i. 19. Matt. v. 8, 
 xviii. 10, xx. 20 — 23. After the establishment of royalty 
 among the Jews, it appears to have been a maxim in their 
 law, that the king's person was inviolable, even though he 
 might be tyrannical and unjust; (1 Sam. xxiv. 5 — 8;) a 
 maxim which is necessary not only to the security of the 
 king, but also to the welfare of the subject. On this 
 principle, the Amalekite, who told David the improbable 
 and untrue story of his having put the mortally wounded 
 Saul to death, that he might not fall into the hands of the 
 Philistines, was, merely on this, his own statement, or- 
 dered by David to be instantly despatched, because he had, 
 laid his hand on the Lord's Anointed. (2 Sam. i. 14.) 
 
 The eastern monarchs were never approached but with 
 presents of some kind or other, according to the ability 
 of the individuals, who accompanied them with expres- 
 sions of the profoundest reverence, prostrating themselves 
 to the ground ; and the same practice continues to this 
 day. Thus Jacob instructed his sons to carry a present 
 to Joseph, when they went to buy food of him, as gover- 
 nor of Egypt. (Gen. xliii. 11. 26.) In like manner, the 
 magi, who came from the east to adore Jesus Christ, as 
 king of the Jews, brought him presents of gold, frankin- 
 cense, and myrrh. (Matt. ii. 11.) Allusions to this prac- 
 tice occur in Gen. xxxii. 13. 1 Kings x. 2. 10. 25. 2 
 Kings v. 5; see also 1 Sam. ix. 7, and 2 Kings viii. 8. 
 The prostrations were made, with every demonstration 
 of reverence, to the ground. See an instance in 1 Sam. 
 xxiv. 8. 
 
 Further, whenever the oriental sovereigns go abroad, 
 they are uniformly attended by a numerous and splendid 
 retinue : the Hebrew kings, and their sons, either rode on 
 asses, or mules, (2 Sam. xiii. 29. 1 Kings i. 33. 38,) or 
 in chariots, (1 Kings i. 5. 2 Kings ix. 21, x. 15,) preceded 
 or accompanied by their royal guards, (who, in 2 Sam. 
 viii. 18, and xv. 18, are termed Cherethites and Pele- 
 thites;) as the oriental sovereigns are to this day. And 
 whenever the Asiatic monarchs entered upon an expedi- 
 tion, or took a journey through desert and untravelled 
 countries, they sent harbingers before them, to prepare all 
 things for their passage, and pioneers to open the passes, 
 level the ways, and remove all impediments. To this 
 
FROM THE PATR1ARCHIAL TIMES. ETC. 
 
 185 
 
 practice there are allusions in Isa. xl. 3, and Matt. iii. 3. 
 
 The revenues of the kings arose from various sources, 
 viz. : 1. Voluntary offeri?igs, which were made to them, 
 conformably to the oriental custom. (1 Sam. x. 27, xvi. 
 20.) 2. The Produce of the Royal Flocks, (1 Sam. xxi. 
 7. 2 Sam. xiii. 23. 2 Chron. xxxii. 28, 29,) and also of 
 the royal demesnes, over which certain officers were ap- 
 pointed. 3. The Tenth Part of all the produce of the 
 fields and vineyards, the collection and management of 
 which seem to have been confided to the officers mention- 
 ed in 1 Kings iv. 7, and in 1 Chron. xxvii. 25. It is also 
 probable from 1 Kings x. 14, that the Israelites likewise 
 paid a tax in money. 4. A portion of the spoil of con- 
 quered nations, (2 Sam. viii.) upon whom tributes or im- 
 posts were also laid ; (1 Kings iv. 21. Psal. lxxii. 10, com- 
 pared with 1 Chron. xxvii. 25 — 31 ;) and, lastly, 5. The Cus- 
 toms paid to Solomon, by the foreign merchants who passed 
 through his dominions, (1 Kings x. 15,) afforded a consi- 
 derable revenue to that monarch : who, as the Mosaic 
 laws did not encourage foreign commerce, carried on a 
 very extensive and lucrative trade, (1 Kings x. 22,) parti- 
 cularly in Egyptian horses, and the byssus, or fine linen 
 of Egypt. (1 Kings x. 28,29.) 
 
 Besides the kings, there were some inferior magistrates, 
 who, though their origin may be traced to the time of 
 Moses, continued to retain some authority, after the esta- 
 blishment of the monarchy. Of this description were, 1. 
 the Heads, or Princes of Tribes, who appear to have 
 watched over the interest of each tribe ; they were twelve 
 in number ; and, 2. The Heads of Families, who are 
 sometimes called Heads of Houses of Fathers, and some- 
 times simply heads. These are likewise the same persons 
 who, in Josh, xxiii. 2, and xxiv. 1, are called Elders. 
 (Compare also Deut. xix. 12, and xxi. 1 — 9.) It does not 
 appear in what manner these heads, or elders of families, 
 were chosen, when any of them died. The princes of 
 tribes do not seem to have ceased with the commence- 
 ment, at least, of the monarchy : from 1 Chron. xvii. 
 16 — 22, it is evident that they subsisted in the time of 
 David ; and they must have proved a very considerable 
 restraint upon the power of the king. 
 
 V. The kingdom which had been founded bv Saul, and 
 16* 
 
186 POLITICAL STATE OF THE JEWS 
 
 carried to its highest pitch of grandeur and power by 
 David and Solomon, subsisted entire for the space of one 
 hundred and twenty years ; until Rehoboam, the son and 
 successor of Solomon, refused to mitigate the burdens of 
 his subjects, when a division of the twelve tribes took 
 place ; ten of which, adhering to Jeroboam, formed the 
 kingdom of Israel, while the tribes of Judah and Benja 
 min, continuing faithful in their allegiance to Eehoboam, 
 constituted the kingdom of Judah. The Kingdom of Is- 
 rael subsisted under various sovereigns, during a period 
 of 264, or 271 years, according to some chronologers; its 
 metropolis, Samaria, being captured by Shalmaneser, king 
 of Assyria, b. c. 717, or 719, after a siege of three years ; 
 of the Israelites, whose numbers had been reduced by 
 immense and repeated slaughters, some of the lower sort 
 were suffered to remain in their native country ; but the 
 nobles, and all the more opulent persons, were carried into 
 captivity beyond the Euphrates. The Kingdom of Judah 
 continued 388, or according to some chronologers, 404 
 years; Jerusalem, its capital, being taken, the temple 
 burnt, and its sovereign, Zedekiah, being carried captive 
 to Babylon, by Nebuchadnezzar ; the rest of his subjects 
 (with the exception of the poorer classes, who were left in 
 Judaea) were likewise carried into captivity, beyond the 
 Euphrates, where they, and their posterity, remained 
 seventy years, agreeably to the divine predictions. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 political state of the jews, prom their return from the babylonish 
 captivity, to the subversion of their civil and ecclesiastical polity. 
 
 I. Political State of the Jews under the Maccabees 
 and the sovereigns of the Herodian Family. 
 
 After the return of the Jews from Babylon, they obey- 
 ed the High Priests, from whom the supreme authority 
 subsequently passed into the hands of the Maccabean 
 Princes. Mattathias was the first of these princes ; and 
 was succeeded by his three valiant sons, Judas, Jonathan, 
 and Simon, the last of whom was succeeded by his son, 
 John Hyrcanus. The name Maccabees is supposed, to 
 
AFTER THEIR RETURN FROM CAPTIVITY. 1^7 
 
 have been derived from the four letters, M. C. B. I. which 
 are the initial letters of the Hebrew words Mi Chamoka 
 Baelim Jehovah, that is, who among the gods is like unto 
 thee, O Jehovah? (Exod. xv. 11,) which letters were dis- 
 played on their standards. This illustrious house, whose 
 princes united the regal and pontifical dignity in their 
 own persons, administered the affairs of the Jews, during 
 a period of one hundred and twenty-six years ; until 
 disputes arising between Hyrcanus II. and his brother, 
 Aristobulus, the latter was defeated by the Romans, under 
 Pompey, who captured Jerusalem, and reduced Judaea to 
 a tributary province of the republic, (b. c. 59.) 
 
 Though Pompey continued Hyrcanus in the high priest- 
 hood, he bestowed the government of Judaea on Antipater, 
 an Idumaean by birth, who was a Jewish prosefyte, and 
 the father of Herod, surnamed the Great, who was sub- 
 sequently king of the Jews. Antipater divided Judaea 
 between his two sons, Phasael and Herod, giving to the 
 former the government of Jerusalem, and to the latter the 
 province of Galilee ; which being at that time greatly in- 
 fested with robbers, Herod signalized his courage by dis- 
 persing them, and shortly after attacked Antigon us, the 
 competitor of Hyrcanus in the priesthood, who was sup- 
 ported by the Tyrians. In the mean time, the Parthians 
 having invaded Judaea, and carried into captivity Hyrca- 
 nus, the high priest, and Phasael, the brother of Herod ; 
 the latter fled to Rome, where Mark Antony, with the 
 consent of the senate, conferred on him the title of king 
 of Judaea. By the aid of the Roman arms, Herod, a 
 sanguinary and crafty prince, kept possession of his dig- 
 nity ; and after three years of sanguinary and intestine 
 war with the partizans of Antigonus, he was confirmed 
 in his kingdom by Augustus. 
 
 Herod, misnamed the Great, by his will divided his do- 
 minions among his three sons, Archelaus, Herod Antipas, 
 and Herod Philip. 
 
 To Archelaus he assigned Judaea, Samaria, and Idu- 
 maea, with the regal dignity, subject to the approbation of 
 Augustus, who ratified his will as it respected the territo- 
 rial division, but conferred on Archelaus the title of Eth- 
 narch, or chief of the nation, with a promise of the regal 
 dignity, if he should prove himself worthy of it. His sub • 
 
|gg POLITICAL STATE OF THE JEWS 
 
 sequent reign was turbulent ; and, after repeated com- 
 plaints against his tyranny and mal-administration, he was 
 deposed and banished by Augustus, and his territories were 
 annexed to the Roman province of Syria. 
 
 Herod Antipas, (or Antipater,) another of Herod's sons, 
 received from his father the district of Galilee and Peraea, 
 with the title of Tetrarch. He is described by Joscphus 
 as a crafty and incestuous prince, with which character the 
 narratives of the evangelists coincide ; for, having desert- 
 ed his wife, the daughter of Aretas king of Arabia, he for- 
 cibly took away and married Herodias the wife of his 
 brother Herod Philip, a proud and cruel woman, to gra- 
 tify whom he caused John the Baptist to be beheaded, 
 (Matt. xiv. 3. Mark vi. 17. Luke iii. 19,) who had 
 provoked her vengeance by his faithful reproof of their 
 incestuous nuptials. Some years afterwards, Herod as- 
 piring to the regal dignity in Judaea, was banished together 
 with his wife, first to Lyons, in Gaul, and thence into Spain. 
 
 Philip, tetrarch of Trachonitis, Gaulonitis, and Bata- 
 ncea, is mentioned but once in the New Testament, (Luke 
 iii. 1 :) on his decease without issue, after a reign of thirty- 
 seven years, his territories were annexed to the province 
 of Syria. 
 
 Agrippa, or Herod Agrippa, was the son of Aristobulus, 
 and grandson of Herod the Great, and sustained various 
 reverses of fortune previously to his attainiug the royal 
 dignity. He governed his dominions much to the satisfac- 
 tion of his subjects, (for whose gratification he put to 
 death the apostle James, and meditated that of St. Peter, 
 who was miraculously delivered, Acts xii. 2 — 17 ;) but 
 being inflated with pride on account of his increasing 
 power and grandeur, he was struck with a noisome and 
 painful disease, of which he died at Caesarea in the man- 
 ner related by St. Luke. (Acts xii. 21. — 23.) 
 
 Agrippa junior, was the son of the preceding Herod 
 Agrippa : being only seventeen years of age at the time 
 of his father's death, he was judged to be unequal to the 
 task of governing the whole of his dominions. These 
 were again placed under the direction of a Roman procu- 
 rator or governor, and Agrippa was first king of Chalcis, 
 and afterwards of Batanasa, Trachonitis, and Abilene, to 
 which other territories were subsequently added. It was 
 
AFTER THEIR RETURN PROM CAPTIVITY. jgg 
 
 before this Agrippa and his two sisters, Bernice and Dru- 
 silla the wife of the Roman governor Felix, that St. Paul 
 delivered his masterly defence. (Acts xxvi.) 
 
 II. Political State of the Jews under the Roman Pro- 
 curators. 
 
 The Jewish kingdom, which the Romans had created 
 in favour of Herod the Great, was of short duration ; ex- 
 piring on his death, by his division of his territories, and 
 by the dominions of Archelaus, (which comprised Sama- 
 ria, Judaea, and Idumaea,) being reduced to a Roman 
 province, annexed to Syria, and governed by the Roman 
 procurators. These officers not only had the charge of 
 collecting the imperial revenues, but also had the power 
 of life and death in capital causes ; and on account of 
 their high dignity they are sometimes called Governors. 
 Though the Jews did not enjoy the power of life and 
 death, yet they continued to possess a large share of civil 
 and religious liberty ; and lived pretty much after their 
 own laws. Three of these procurators are mentioned in 
 the New Testament, viz. : Pilate T Felix, and Festus. 
 
 1. Pontius Pilate was sent to govern Judoea, a. d. 26 
 or 27. He was a cruel and unjust governor ; and dread- 
 ing the extreme jealousy and suspicion of Tiberius, he de- 
 livered up the Redeemer to be crucified, contrary to the 
 conviction of his better judgment, and in the vain hope 
 of conciliating the Jews whom he had oppressed. After 
 he had held his office for ten years, having caused a num- 
 ber of innocent Samaritans to be put to death, that inju- 
 red people sent an embassy to Vitellius, proconsul of Sy- 
 ria : by whom he was ordered to Rome, to give an ac- 
 count of his mal-administration to the emperor. But Ti- 
 berius being dead before he arrived there, his successor, 
 Caligula, banished him to Gaul: where he is said to have 
 committed suicide, about the year of Christ 41. 
 
 2. On the death of king Herod Agrippa, Judasa being 
 again reduced to a Roman province, the government of it 
 was confided to Antonius Felix : he liberated that 
 country from banditti and impostors ; (the very worthy 
 deeds alluded to by Tertullus, Acts xxiv. 2 ;) but he was 
 in other respects a cruel and avaricious governor, inconti- 
 nent, intemperate, and unjust. So oppressive at length 
 did his administration become, that the Jews accused him 
 
190 POLITICAL STATE OF THE JEWS, ETC 
 
 before Nero, and he with difficulty escaped condign pun- 
 ishment. His wife, Drusilla, (mentioned Acts xxiv. 24,) 
 was the sister of Agrippa junior, and had been married to 
 Azizus king of the Emesenes: Felix, having fallen despe- 
 rately in love with her, persuaded her to abandon her le- 
 gitimate husband and live with him. The knowledge of 
 these circumstances materially illustrates Acts xxiv. 25, 
 and shows with what singular propriety St. Paul reasoned 
 of righteousness, temperance, and a judgment to come. 
 On the resignation of Felix, the government of Judaea 
 was committed to 
 
 3. Portius Festus, before whom Paul defended him- 
 self against the accusations of the Jews, (Acts xxv,) and 
 appealed from his tribunal to that of Caesar. Finding his 
 province overrun with robbers and murderers, Festus 
 strenuously exerted himself in suppressing their outrages. 
 He died in Judaea about the year 62. 
 
 The situation of the Jews under the two last-mentioned 
 procurators was truly deplorable. Distracted by tumults, 
 excited on various occasions, their country was overrun 
 with robbers, that plundered all the villages whose inhab- 
 itants refused to listen to their persuasions, to shake off 
 the Roman yoke. Justice was sold to the highest bidder ; 
 and even the sacred office of high priest, was exposed 
 to sale. But, of all the procurators, no one abused his 
 power more than Gessius Florus, a cruel and sanguinary 
 governor, and so extremely avaricious, that he shared 
 with the robbers in their booty, and allowed them to fol- 
 low their nefarious practices with impunity. Hence, con- 
 siderable numbers of the wretched Jews, with their fami- 
 lies, abandoned their native country ; while those who 
 remained, being driven to desperation, took up arms 
 against the Romans, and thus commenced that war, 
 which terminated in the destruction of Judaea, and the 
 taking away of their name and nation. 
 
 
COURTS OF JUDICATURE, ETC. 19| 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 COURTS OF JUDICATURE, LEGAL PROCEEDINGS, CRIMINAL LAW, AND PUNISHMENTS 
 OF THE JEWS. 
 
 Section I. — Jewish Courts of Judicature, and Legal Proceedings. 
 
 On the settlement of the Israelites in the land of Ca- 
 naan, Moses commanded them to appoint judges and offi 
 ters in all their gates throughout their tribes. (Deut. xvi. 
 18.) The priests and Levites, who from their being de- 
 voted to the study of the law were consequently best 
 skilled in its various precepts, and old men who were 
 eminent for their age and virtue, administered justice to 
 the people : in consequence of their age, the name of 
 Elders became attached to them. Many instances of this 
 kind occur in the New Testament : they were also called 
 Rulers. (Luke xii. 58, where ruler is synonymous with 
 judge.) 
 
 In the early ages of the world, the Gate of the City 
 was the seat of justice ; (Gen. xxiii. 10. Deut. xxi. 19, xxv. 
 6, 7,) on which account, in the time of Moses, the judges 
 appear to have been termed the Elders of the Gate. 
 (Deut. xxii. 15, xxv. 7. Isa. xxix. 21.) 
 
 From these inferior tribunals, appeals lay to a higher 
 court, in cases of importance. (Deut. xvii. 8—12. 
 
 But the highest and most eminent tribunal of the Jews, 
 after their return from the Babylonish captivity, was the 
 Sa?ihedrin, or Great Council, so often mentioned in the 
 New Testament. It consisted of seventy or seventy-two 
 members, under the chief presidency of the high priest, 
 under whom was a vice-president, called the Father of the 
 Council. These assessors comprised three descriptions 
 of persons, viz.: 1. The Chief Priests, who were partly 
 such priests as had executed the Pontificate, and partly 
 the princes or chiefs of the twenty-four courses or classes 
 of priests, who enjoyed this honourable title ; — 2. The 
 Elders, perhaps the princes of tribes or heads of families ; 
 — and 3. The S;ribes, or men learned in the law. It does 
 not appear that all the elders and scribes were members 
 of this tribunal : most probably those only were assessors 
 who were either elected to the office, or nominated to it 
 by royal authority. 
 
192 COURTS OF JUDICATURE, 
 
 Besides the Sanhedrin, the Talmudical writers assert 
 that there were other smaller councils, each consisting of 
 twenty-three persons who heard and determined petty 
 causes : two of these were at Jerusalem, and one in every 
 city containing one hundred and twenty inhabitants. Jo- 
 sephus is silent concerning these tribunals, but they cer- 
 tainly appear to have existed in the time of Jesus Christ: 
 who, by images taken from these two courts, in a very 
 striking manner represents the different degrees of future 
 punishments, to which the impenitently wicked wili be 
 doomed according to the respective heinousness of their 
 crimes. See Matt. v. 22. 
 
 These various tribunals had their inferior ministers or 
 officers, who are alluded to in Matt. v. 25. 
 
 It appears from Jer. xxi. 12, that causes were heard, 
 and judgment was executed in the morning; and at first 
 every one pleaded his own cause; (1 Kings iii. 16 — 28;) 
 though, in succeeding ages, the Jews seem to have had 
 advocates, for Tertullus was retained against St. Paul. 
 (Acts xxiv. 1,2.) 
 
 On the day appointed for hearing the cause, the parties 
 appeared before the judges ; who, in criminal cases, ex- 
 horted the culprit to confess his crime. (Josh. vii. 19.) 
 In matters of life and death, the evidence of two or three 
 credible witnesses was indispensable. (Num. xxxv. 30. 
 Deut xvii. 6, 7, xix. 15.) All perjury was most severely 
 prohibited. (Exod. xx. 16, xxiii. 1 — 3.) Recourse was, 
 in certain cases, had to the sacred lot, called Urim and 
 Thummim, in order to discover the guilty party. (Josh, 
 vii. 14—18. 1 Sam. xiv. 37—45.) 
 
 Sentences were only pronounced in the daytime, as ap- 
 pears from Luke xxii. 66. Where persons had rendered 
 themselves obnoxious to the populace, it was usual (and 
 the same practice still obtains in the East) for them to de- 
 mand prompt justice on the supposed delinquents. This 
 circumstance illustrates Acts xxii. 28 — 36. As soon as 
 sentence of condemnation was pronounced against a per- 
 son, he was immediately dragged from the court to the 
 place of execution. Thus our Lord was instantly hurried 
 from the presence of Pilate to Calvary : a similar in- 
 stance of prompt execution occurred in the case of Achan ; 
 and the same practice obtains to this day, both in Turkey 
 
 
LEGAL PROCEEDINGS ETC. OF THE JEWS J 93 
 
 and Persia. So zealous were the Jews for the observance 
 of their law, that they were not ashamed themselves to 
 be the executioners of it, and to punish criminals with 
 their own hands. In stoning persons, the witnesses threw 
 the first stones, agreeably to the enactment of Moses. 
 (D-eut xvii. 7.) Thus the witnesses against the protomar- 
 tyr Stephen, after laying down their clothes at the feet of 
 Saul, stoned him: (Acts vii. 58, 59:) and to this custom 
 there is an allusion in John viii. 7. As there were no 
 public executioners in the more ancient periods of the 
 Jewish history, it was not unusual for persons of distin- 
 guished rank themselves to put the sentence in execution 
 upon offenders. See an instance in 1 Sam. xv. 33. 
 
 But in whatever manner the criminal was put to death, 
 according to the Talmudical writers, the Jews always 
 gave him some wine with incense in it, in order to stupify 
 and intoxicate him. This custom is said to have origi- 
 nated in the precept, recorded in Prov. xxxi. 6, which suf- 
 ficiently explains the reason why wine mingled with 
 myrrh, was offered to Jesus Christ when on the cross. 
 CMark xv. 23. 
 
 Section II. — Roman Judicature, Manner of Trial, and Treatment of 
 Prisoners. 
 
 Wherever the Romans extended their power, they also 
 carried their laws ; and though, as we have already seen, 
 they allowed their conquered subjects to enjoy the free 
 performance of their religious worship, as well as the ex- 
 ercise of some inferior courts of judicature, yet in all 
 cases of a capital nature the tribunal of the Roman prefect 
 or president was the last resort. Without his permission 
 no person could be put to death at least in Judasa. 
 
 The Roman law forbade any one especially Roman citi- 
 zens, to be scourged or condemned, unheard and without 
 a trial. To this St. Paul alludes in Acts xxii. 25. Nei- 
 ther could a Roman citizen be legally bound, in order to 
 be examined by scourging, or by any other mode of tor- 
 ture, for the purpose of obtaining a confession. When 
 therefore, the tribune, Lysias, not knowing that the apos- 
 tle enjoyed the citizenship of Rome, had commanded that 
 
194 COURTS OF JUDICATURE, 
 
 he should be bound and examined with thongs, and was 
 subsequently informed that he was a citizen, the sacred 
 historian relates that he was afraid, after he knew that he 
 was a Roman, and because he had bound him. (Acts xxii, 
 29.) Further, Roman citizens had the privilege of ap- 
 pealing to the imperial tribunal ; and this privilege the 
 same apostle exercised. (Acts xxv. 9 — 12. 
 
 "The Roman method of fettering and confining crimi- 
 nals was singular. One end of a chain, that was of com- 
 modious length, was fixed about the right arm of the pri- 
 soner, and the other end was fastened to the left arm of a 
 soldier. Thus a soldier was coupled to the prisoner, 
 and every where attended and guarded him. This man- 
 ner of confinement is frequently mentioned, and there 
 are many beautiful allusions to it in the Roman writers. 
 Thus was St. Paul confined. Fettered in this manner, 
 he delivered his apology before Festus, king Agrippa, and 
 Bernice." (Acts xxvi. 29.) 
 
 Sometimes the prisoner was fastened to two soldiers, 
 one on each side, wearing a chain both on his right and 
 left hand. St. Paul at first was thus confined. When 
 the tribune received him from the hands of the Jews, he 
 commanded him to be bound with two chains. (Acts xxi. 
 33.) In this manner was Peter fettered and confined by- 
 Herod Agrippa. The same night Peter was sleeping be- 
 tween two soldiers^ bound with two chains. (Acts xii. 6.) 
 If these soldiers appointed to guard criminals, and to 
 whom they were chained, suffered the prisoner to escape, 
 they were punished with death ; (Acts xii. 19 ;) and the 
 same punishment appears to have awaited gaolers, who 
 permitted their prisoners to escape. (Acts xvi. 27.) 
 
 Though not strictly a Roman tribunal, yet as its sittings 
 were permitted by the Roman government, the senate and 
 court of Areopagus, at Athens, claims a concise notice in 
 ♦*»is nlace. It took cognizance, among other things, of 
 matters ot religion, the consecration of new gods, the 
 erection of temples and altars, and the introduction of 
 new ceremonies into divine worship. On this account, 
 Saint Paul was brought before the tribunal of the Areo- 
 pagus, as a setter forth of strange gods, because he preach- 
 ed unto the Athenians Jesus and Avas-aais, ( Anaslasis,) or 
 the Resurrection. (Acts xvii. 19.) Its sittings were held 
 
LEGAL PROCEEDINGS, ETC. OF THE JEWS. 195 
 
 on the ApeiosJlayoi,(Are'ios Pagos, or Hill of Mars, whence 
 its name was derived,) which is situated in the midst of 
 the city of Athens. 
 
 Section III. — On the Criminal Law of the Jews. 
 
 I. Crimes against God. — The government of the Is- 
 raelites being a Theocracy, that is, one in which the su- 
 preme legislative power was vested in the Almighty, who 
 was regarded as their king, it was to be expected that, in 
 a state confessedly religious, crimes against the Su- 
 preme Majesty of Jehovah should occupy a primary 
 place in the statutes given by Moses to that people. Ac- 
 cordingly 
 
 1 . Idolatry, that is, the worship of other gods, in the 
 Mosaic law occupies the first place in the list of crimes. 
 An Israelite therefore was guilty of idolatry, 
 
 (1.) When he actually worshipped other gods besides 
 Jehovah, the only true God. This crime is prohibited in 
 Exod. xx. 3. 
 
 (2.) By worshipping images, whether of the true God 
 under a visible form, to which the Israelites were but too 
 prone, (Exod. xxxii. 4, 5. Judg. xvii. 3, xviii. 4 — 6. 14 — 17. 
 30, 31, vi. 25—33, viii. 24—27. 1 Kings xii. 26—31,) 
 or of the images of the gods of the Gentiles, of which 
 we have so many instances in the sacred history. All 
 image-worship whatever is expressly forbidden in Exod, 
 xx. 4, 5 ; and a curse is denounced against it in Deut. 
 xxvii. 15. 
 
 (3.) By prostration before, or adoration of, suchimages t 
 or of any thing else revered as a god, such as the sun, 
 moon, and stars. (Exod. xx. 5, xxxiv. 14. Deut. iv. 19.) 
 This prostration consisted in falling down on the knees, 
 and at the same time touching the ground with the fore- 
 head. 
 
 (4.) By having altars or groves dedicated to idols, or 
 images thereof; all which the Mosaic law required to bo 
 utterly destroyed ; (Exod xxxiv. 13. Deut. vii. 5, xii. 13;) 
 and the Israelites were prohibited, by Deut. vii. 25 26, 
 
196 COURTS OF JUDICATURE, 
 
 from keeping, or even bringing into their houses, the gold 
 and silver that had been upon any image, lest it should 
 prove a snare, and lead them astray. 
 
 {5.) By offering sacrifices to idols, which is forbidden in 
 Levit. xviii. 1 — 7, especially human victims, which is 
 prohibited in Levit. xviii. 21. Deut. xii. 30. and xviii. 10. 
 
 (6.) By eating of offerings made to idols, made by other 
 people, who invited them to their offering-feasts. Though 
 no special law was enacted against thus attending the 
 festivals of their gods, it is evidently presupposed as un- 
 lawful in Exod. xxxiv. 15. 
 
 Idolatry was punished by stoning the guilty individual. 
 When a whole city became guilty of idolatry, it was con- 
 sidered in a state of rebellion against the government, 
 and was treated according to the laws of war. Its inha- 
 bitants, and all their cattle, were put to death ; no spoil 
 was made, but every thing which it contained was burnt, 
 together with the city itself ; nor was it ever allowed to 
 be rebuilt. (Deut. xiii. 13 — 19.) This law does not ap- 
 pear to have been particularly enforced : the Israelites, 
 from their proneness to adopt the then almost universally 
 prevalent polytheism, in most cases overlooked the crime 
 of a city that became notoriously idolatrous ; whence it 
 happened, that idolatry was not confined to any one city, 
 but soon overspread the whole nation. In this case, 
 when the people, as a people, brought guilt upon them- 
 selves by their idolatry, God reserved to himself the in- 
 fliction of the punishments denounced against that na- 
 tional crime ; which consisted in wars, famines, and other 
 national judgments. (Lev. xxvi. Deut. xxviii., xxix., xxxii.) 
 For the crime of seducing others to the worship of strange 
 gods, the appointed punishment was stoning to death. 
 (Deut. xiii. 2 — 12.) In order to prevent the barbarous 
 immolation of infants, Moses denounced the punishment 
 of stoning upon those who offered human sacrifices; 
 which the by-standers might instantly execute upon the 
 delinquent, when caught in the act, without any judicial 
 inquiry whatever. (Levit. xx. 2.) 
 
 2. God being both the sovereign and the legislator of 
 the Israelites, Blasphemy, that is, the speaking injuriously 
 of his name, his attributes, his government, and his reve- 
 
LEGAL PROCEEDINGS, ETC. OF THE JEWS. J 97 
 
 lation, was not only a crime against Him, but also against 
 the state ; it was therefore punished capitally by stoning. 
 (Lev. xxiv. 10—14.) 
 
 3. It appears from Deut. xviii. 20 — 22, that a False 
 Prophet was punished capitally, being stoned to death. 
 
 4. Divination, or the conjecturing of future events, 
 from things supposed to presage them, is expressly prohi- 
 bited in Levit. xix. 26. 31, xx. 6. 23. 27, and Deut. 
 xviii. 9 — 12. The punishment of the party consulting a 
 diviner, was reserved to God himself; (Levit. xx. 6 ;) 
 but the diviner himself was to be stoned. (Levit. xx. 27.) 
 
 5. Perjury is, by the Mosaic law, most peremptorily 
 prohibited as a most heinous sin against God, to whom 
 the punishment of it is left. 
 
 II. Crimes against Parents and Magistrates con- 
 stitute an important article of the criminal law of the 
 Hebrews. 
 
 1. In the form of government among that people, we 
 recognise much of the patriarchal spirit ; in consequence 
 of which, fathers enjoyed great rights over their families. 
 The cursing of parents, that is, not only the imprecation 
 of evil on them, but probably also all rude and reproach- 
 ful language towards them, was punished with death ; 
 (Exod. xxi. 17. Levit. xx. 9;) as likewise was the strik- 
 ing of them. (Exod. xxi. 15.) An example of the crime 
 of cursing a parent, which is fully in point, is given by 
 Jesus Christ in Matt. xv. 4 — 6, or Mark vii. 9 — 12. 
 Both these crimes are included in the case of the stub- 
 born, rebellious, and drunkard son ; whom his parents 
 were unable to keep in order, and who, when intoxicated, 
 endangered the lives of others. Such an irreclaimable 
 offender was to be punished with stoning. (Deut. xxi. 18 
 — 21.) Severe as this law may seem, we have no in- 
 stance recorded of its being carried into effect ; but it 
 must have had a most salutary operation in the prevention 
 of such crimes. 
 
 2. Civil government being an ordinance of God, pro- 
 vision is made in all well regulated states for respecting 
 the persons of magistrates. All reproachful words, or 
 curses, uttered against persons invested with authority, 
 are prohibited in Exod. xxii. 28. No punishment, how- 
 
 17* 
 
19S COURTS OF JUDICATURE, 
 
 ever, is specified ; probably it was left to the discretion of 
 the judge, and was different, according to the rank of the 
 magistrate and the extent of the crime. 
 
 III. The Crimes, or Offences against Property, men- 
 tioned by Moses, are theft, man-stealing, and the denial 
 of any thing taken in trust, or found. 
 
 1. On the crime of Theft, Moses imposed the punish- 
 ment of double (and in certain cases still higher) restitu- 
 tion; and if the thief was unable to make it, he was or- 
 dered to be sold for a slave, and payment was to be made 
 to the injured party, out of the purchase money. (Exod. 
 xxii. 1. 3.) The same practice obtains, according to 
 Chardin, among the Persians. If, however, a thief, after 
 having denied, even upon oath, any theft with which he 
 was charged, had the honesty, or conscience, to retract 
 his perjury, and to confess his guilt, instead of double 
 restitution, he had only to repay the amount stolen, and 
 one-Jifth more. (Levit. vi. 2. 5.) In case of debt also, 
 the creditor might seize the debtor's person, and sell him, 
 together with his wife and children, if he had any. This 
 is inferred from the words of the statute, in Levit. xxv. 
 39. There is an allusion to this custom in Job xxiv. 9 ; 
 and a case in point is related in 2 Kings iv. 1. This 
 practice also obtained among the Jews, in the days of Ne- 
 hemiah, (v. 1 — 5,) and Jesus Christ refers to it in Matt, 
 xviii. 25. 
 
 2. Man-stealing, that is, the seizing, or stealing of the 
 person of a free-born Israelite, was absolutely and irre- 
 missibly punished with death. (Exod. xxi. 16. Deut. 
 xxiv. 7.) 
 
 3. Where a person was judicially convicted of having 
 denied any thing committed to his trust, or found by him, 
 his punishment, as in the case of theft, was double resti- 
 tution. If the person accused of this crime had sworn 
 himself guiltless, and afterwards, from the impulse of his 
 conscience, acknowledged the commission of perjury, he 
 had only one-fifth beyond the value of the article denied, 
 to refund to its owner. (Levit. vi. 5.) 
 
 IV. Among the Crimes which may be committed 
 
 AGAINST THE PERSON, 
 
 1. Murder claims the first place. As this is a crime 
 
LEGAL PROCEEDINGS, ETC. OF THE JEWS. 199 
 
 of the most heinous nature, Moses has described four 
 necessary circumstances, or marks, by which to distin- 
 guish it from simple homicide, or manslaughter, viz. : 1. 
 When it proceeds from hatred, or enmity. (Numb. xxxv. 
 20, 21. Deut. xix. 11.) 2. When it proceeds from thirst 
 of blood, or a desire to satiate revenge with the blood of 
 another. (Numb. xxxv. 20.) 3. When it is committed 
 vremeditatedly and deceitfully. (Exod. xxi. 14.) 4. When 
 a man lies in wait for another, falls upon him, and slays 
 him. (Deut. xix. 11.) The punishment of murder wa« 
 death, without all power of redemption. 
 
 2. Homicide, or Manslaughter, is discriminated by the 
 following adjuncts, or circumstances: 1. That it takes 
 place without hatred or enmity. (Numb. xxxv. 22. Deut. 
 xix. 4 — 6.) 2. Without thirst for revenge. (Exod. xxi. 
 13. Numb. xxxv. 22.) 3. When it happens by mistake. 
 (Numb. xxxv. 11. 15.) 4. By accident, or (as it is term- 
 ed in the English law) chance-medley. (Deut. xix. 5.) 
 The punishment of homicide was confinement to a city 
 of refuge. 
 
 3. For other corporal injuries of various kinds, diffe- 
 rent statutes were made, which show the wisdom and hu- 
 manity of the Mosaic laws. See Exod. xxi. 18, 19, 22 — 
 27, and Levit. xxiv. 19—22. 
 
 4. Adultery, and another crime not to be named, were 
 both punished with death. (Levit. xx. 10, xviii. 22, 23, 
 and xx. 13. 15, 16.) 
 
 V. Crimes of Malice were punished with equal jus- 
 tice and severity. 
 
 Malicious informers were odious in the eye of the law ; 
 (Levit. xix. 16 — 18 ;) and the publication of false reports, 
 affecting the characters of others, is expressly prohibited 
 in Exod. xxiii. 1 ; as also is all manner of false witness, 
 even though it were to favour a poor man. But where a 
 person was convicted of having borne false testimony 
 against an innocent man, he suffered the very same pu- 
 nishment which attended the crime of which he accused 
 his innocent brother. (Deut. xix. 16 — 21.) 
 
OQQ COURTS OF JUDICATURE, 
 
 Section IV.— On the Punishments mentioned in the Scriptures. 
 
 The Punishments, mentioned in the sacred writings, 
 are usually divided into two classes, — non-capital, and 
 capital. 
 
 I. The non-capital, or inferior punishments, were as 
 follow : 
 
 1. Scourging ; this was the most common corporal 
 punishment under the Mosaic law. It is frequently men- 
 tioned, both in the Old and New Testaments ; and in 
 order that the legal number of forty stripes might not be 
 exceeded, it was inflicted with a scourge consisting of 
 three lashes, so that the party received only thirteen 
 blows, or forty stripes, save one. 
 
 2. Retaliation, (Exod. xxi. 24,) or returning like for 
 like, was the punishment of corporal injuries to another. 
 It is expressly forbidden by Jesus Christ, in Matt. v. 
 38, 39. 
 
 3. Restitutio?! of things stolen, and for various other 
 injuries done to the property of another person. (Exod. 
 xxi. 32, 33, 34. 36, xxii. 6. Levit. xxiv. 18.) 
 
 4. Compensation to an injured party, to induce him to 
 depart from his suit, was permitted, at least in one case, 
 (Exod. xxi. 30,) but was forbidden in the case of murder 
 and homicide. (Num. xxxv. 31, 32.) 
 
 5. Sin and Trespass Offerings were also in the nature 
 of punishments : the various cases for which they were 
 to be made, are specified in Levit. iv. 2, v. 1. 4 — 7. 14, 
 15, vi. 1—7, and xix. 22. 
 
 6. Imprisonment, though not enjoined by Moses, was 
 practised, both during the Jewish monarchy, and in the 
 time of Christ. In Gen. xli. 14, Jer. xxxviii. 6, Zech. 
 ix., and Acts v. 18, there are allusions to inner prisons or 
 dungeons, where the persons confined were very harshly 
 treated ; especially as the ancient gaolers (like those in the 
 East to this day) had a discretionary power to treat the 
 prisoners just as they pleased. To this painful situation 
 of prisoners, there are allusions in Psal. lxxix. 11. and 
 Jer. xxxvii. 16 — 20. 
 
 7. Banishment was not introduced among the Jews 
 until after the captivity. It also existed among the Ro- 
 
LEGAL ritOCEEDINGS, ETC. OF THE JEWS. 201 
 
 mans. St. John was banished to the isle of Patmos. 
 (Rev. i. 9.) 
 
 8. In the East, anciently, as well as in modern times, 
 prisoners were deprived of their eyes. See instances in 
 Judg. xvi. 21, and 2 Kings xxv. 7. 
 
 9. Plucking off the hair, with great violence, was both 
 a painful and ignominious punishment. It is alluded to 
 in Neh. xiii. 25. 
 
 10. Excommunication, or exclusion from sacred wor- 
 ship, was a civil, as well as an ecclesiastical punishment, 
 which varied in the degrees of its severity. The first, 
 called Nidui, was simply casting out of the synagogue, 
 (John ix. 22, xvi. 2, &c.,) and was in force for thirty days, 
 which might be shortened. In the second, termed Cherem, 
 or anathema, the excommunicated party was delivered 
 over to Satan, and devoted by a solemn curse. To this 
 St. Paul alludes in 1 Cor. v. 5, and Rom. ix. 2. The third 
 degree was called Sham-Atha, or Maran-Atha, i. e. the 
 Lord cometh, or may the Lord come ; and intimated that 
 the party had nothing more to expect but the terrible day 
 of judgment. The effects of excommunication were 
 dreadful : the individuals against whom it was fulminated 
 were debarred of all social intercourse, and the privilege 
 of divine worship, and were subjected to various civil 
 disabilities. 
 
 11. Eleven different sorts of Capital Punishments are 
 mentioned in the Scriptures, viz. : 
 
 1. Slaying with the sword, which appears to have been 
 inflicted in any way in which the executioner thought 
 proper. This was the punishment of murder : but in 
 the case of homicide, if the next of kin, called Goel, or 
 the Blood-avenger, overtook and slew the unintentional 
 man-slayer, before he reached an asylum, he was not con- 
 sidered to be guilty of blood. The man-slayer was theie- 
 fore enjoined to flee to one of the six cities of refuge, 
 which, if he reached, he was immediately protected ; and 
 an inquiry was instituted, whether he had deliberately, or 
 accidentally caused his neighbour's death. In the former 
 case he was judicially delivered to the goel, who might 
 put him to death in any way that he chose ; in the latter, 
 the homicide continued to reside in the place of refuge 
 until the high priest's death : yet, if the goel found him 
 
202 COURTS OF JUDICATURE, 
 
 without the city, or its suburbs, he might slay him, with- 
 out being guilty of blood. (Numb. xxxv. 26, 27.) There 
 is a beautiful allusion to the goel in Heb. vi. 17, 18, 
 
 2. Stoning was denounced against idolaters, blasphe- 
 mers, Sabbath-breakers, and other criminals, mentioned in 
 Levit. xx. 2. 27, xxiv. 14. Deut. xiii. 10, xvii. 5, xxi. 21, 
 and xxii. 21. 24. The witnesses threw the first stones, 
 and the rest of the people followed. The frequent taking 
 up of stones, by the Jews, against our Saviour, mention- 
 ed in the New Testament, and also the stoning of Ste- 
 phen, (Acts vii. 59,) and of Paul, (Acts xiv. 19,) have 
 been referred, erroneously, to this punishment : it belong- 
 ed to what was, in the later times of the Jewish common- 
 wealth, called the rebels' beating. It was often fatal, and 
 was inflicted by the populace on those who had either trans- 
 gressed, or were supposed to have transgressed, any pro- 
 hibition of the scribes. 
 
 3. Burning alive was the punishment denounced, 
 against certain criminals, mentioned inLcvit. xx. 14, and 
 xxi. 9. It is also mentioned in Gen. xxxviii. 24. Jer. 
 xxix. 22, and Dan. iii. 6. 
 
 The preceding are the only capital punishments de- 
 nounced in the Mosaic Law : in subsequent times others 
 were introduced among the Jews, as their intercourse in- 
 creased with foreign nations ; viz. : 
 
 4. Beheading. It is mentioned in Gen. xl. 19, Matt. 
 xiv. 8—12, and Mark vi. 27. 
 
 5. Precipitation, or casting headlong from a window, 
 though rarely used, yet was practised on certain occasions. 
 See instances in 2 Kings ix. 30 — 33, and 2 Chron. xxv. 12. 
 
 6. Drowning is alluded to in Matt, xviii. 6, but we 
 have no proof that it was practised by the Jews. 
 
 7. Bruising, or Pounding in a mortar, is alluded to 
 in Prov. xxvii. 22. It is still in use among the Turks. 
 
 8. Dichotomy, or cutting asunder, was a punishment 
 inflicted in the countries contiguous to Judaea, (see Dan. 
 ii. 5, and iii. 29,) as it still is in Barbary and Persia 
 
 9. Beating to death was in use among the Greeks : it 
 was practised by Antiochus towards the Jews, (2 Mace, 
 vi. 19. 28. 30,) and is referred to by St. Paul, in Heb. xi. 
 35. (Gr. in our version rendered tortured.) 
 
 10. Exposing to ivild Beasts was a punishment among 
 
LEGAL PROCEEDINGS, ETC. OF THE JEWS. 203 
 
 the Medes and Persians ; (Dan. vi. 7. 12. 16 — 34 ;) from 
 them it passed to the Romans, who either cast slaves 
 and vile persons, to wild beasts, to be devoured by them, 
 or sent armed men into the theatre to fight with the ani- 
 mals. If they conquered, they had their lives and liberty ; 
 but if not, they fell a prey to the beasts. To this latter 
 usage St. Paul refers in 2 Tim. iv. 17, and 1 Cor. xv. 32. 
 11. Crucifixion was a punishment which the ancients 
 inflicted only upon the most notorious criminals and male- 
 factors ; and it included every idea and circumstance of 
 lingering torture, odium, disgrace, and public scandal. 
 Hence St. Paul takes occasion to magnify the exceeding 
 great love of our Redeemer, in that, ichile we were yet 
 sinners, Christ died for us, and, for the joy that was set 
 before him, endured the cross, despising the shame and ig- 
 nominy attached to it. (Rom. v. 8. Heb. xii. 2.) In this 
 punishment, the cross was made of two beams > either 
 crossing at the top at right angles, or in the middle of 
 their length, like an X. Our Lord appears to have been 
 crucified on a cross of the former kind. The horror of 
 crucifixion will be evident, when it is considered that the 
 person was permitted to hang (the whole weight of his 
 body being borne up by his nailed hands and feet, and by 
 the projecting piece in the middle of the cross,) until he 
 perished through agony and want of food. There are 
 instances of crucified persons living in this exquisite 
 torture several days. The rites of sepulture were de- 
 nied them. Their dead bodies were generally left on 
 the crosses on which they were first suspended, and 
 became a^prey to every ravenous beast, and carnivorous 
 bird. This mode of executing criminals, obtained among 
 various ancient nations, especially among the Romans, 
 by whom it was inflicted chiefly on vile, worthless, and 
 incorrigible slaves. In reference to this, the apostle, de- 
 scribing the condescension of Jesus, and his submission 
 to this most opprobrious death, represents him as taking 
 upon him the form of a servant, (Phil. ii. 7, 8,) and be- 
 coming obedient to death, even the death of the cross. All 
 the circumstances attending the crucifixion of Jesus Christ, 
 as related in the four gospels, agree with the accounts 
 given of this punishment by Greek and Roman authors.* 
 
 * For a full detail of these circumstances, which do not admit of abridg- 
 ment, see the author's larger Introduction, vol. iii. pp 150—160. 
 
204 JEWISH AND ROMAN MODES 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 JEWISH AND ROMAN MODES OP COMPUTING TIME, MENTIONED IN TBK 
 SCRIPTURES. 
 
 A knowledge of the different divisions of time men- 
 tioned in the Scriptures, will elucidate the meaning of a 
 multitude of passages with regard to seasons, circumstan- 
 ces, and ceremonies. 
 
 I. The Hebrews computed their Days from evening 
 to evening, according to the command of Moses. (Lev, 
 xxiii. 32.) 
 
 The Romans had two different computations of their 
 days, and two denominations for them. The one they 
 called the civil, the other the natural day : the first was 
 the same as ours; the second, which was the vulgar com- 
 putation, began at six in the morning, and ended at six in 
 the evening. The civil day of the Jews varied in length, 
 according to the seasons of the year. This portion of 
 time was, at first, divided into four parts, (Nehem. ix. 3 ;) 
 which, though varying in length according to the seasons, 
 could nevertheless be easily discerned from the position, 
 or appearance of the sun in the horizon. Afterwards, the 
 civil day was divided into twelve hours, which were mea- 
 sured either from the position of the sun, or from dials 
 constructed for that purpose. 
 
 II. These Hours were equal to each other, but un- 
 equal with respect to the different seasons of the year ; 
 thus the twelve hours of the longest day in summer were 
 much longer than those of the shortest day in winter. 
 The Jews computed their hours of the civil day, from six 
 in the morning, till six in the evening; thus their first 
 hour corresponded with our seven o'clock ; their second 
 to our eight ; their third to our nine, &c. 
 
 The night was originally divided into three parts, or 
 watches, (Psal. lxiii. 6, xc. 4. Lam. ii. 19. Jud. vii. 19. 
 Exod. xiv. 24,) which probably were of unequal length. 
 In the time of Jesus Christ, it was divided into four 
 watches ; a fourth watch having been introduced among 
 the Jews from the Romans. The hour is frequently used 
 with great latitude in the Scriptures, and sometimes im- 
 plies the space of time occupied by a whole watch. (Matt. 
 
OF COMPUTING TIME. 205 
 
 xxv. 13, xxvi. 40. Mark xiv. 37. Luke xxii. 59. Rev. 
 iii. 3.) 
 
 The Jews reckoned two evenings : the former began 
 at the ninth hour of the natural day, or three o'clock in 
 the afternoon ; and the latter at the eleventh hour. Thus 
 the paschal lamb was required to be sacrificed betioeen 
 the evenings. Exod. xii. 6. Lev. xxiii. 4.) 
 
 III. Seven nights and days constituted a Week ; six 
 of these were appropriated to labour, and the ordinary 
 purposes of life, and the seventh day, or Sabbath, was ap- 
 pointed by God to be observed as a day of rest. Besides 
 weeks of days, the Jews had weeks of seven years, (the 
 seventh of which was called the sabbatical year,) and 
 weeks of seven times seven years, or of forty-nine years, 
 which were reckoned from one jubilee to another. The 
 fiftieth, or jubilee year was celebrated with singular festi- 
 vity and solemnity. 
 
 IV. The Hebrews had their Months, which like those 
 of all other ancient nations, were lunar ones, being mea- 
 sured by the revolutions of the moon, and consisting alter- 
 nately of twenty-nine and thirty days. While the Jews 
 continued in the land of Canaan, the commencement of 
 their months and years was not settled by any astrono- 
 mical rules, or calculations, but by the phasis or actual 
 appearance of the moon. As soon as they saw the moon, 
 they began the month ; but since their dispersion through- 
 out all nations, they have had recourse to astronomical 
 calculations and cycles, in order to fix the beginning of 
 their months and years. 
 
 Originally, the Jews had no particular names for their 
 months, but called them the first, second, &c. In Exod. 
 xiii. 4, the first month is termed Abib ; in 1 Kings vi. 1 , the 
 second is named Zif ; in 1 Kings viii. 2, the seventh is 
 named Ethanim ; and the eighth, Bui, in 1 Kings vi. 38 : 
 but concerning the origin of these appellations, critics are 
 by no means agreed. On their return from the Babylo- 
 nish captivity, they introduced the names which they had 
 found among the Chaldeans and Persians, and some of 
 which are mentioned in the sacred writings. 
 
 V. The Jews had four sorts of years ; one for plants, 
 so called, because they paid tithe-fruits of the trees which 
 budded at that time ; another for beasts, in which they 
 
 18 
 
206 
 
 JEWISH AND ROMAN MODES 
 
 paid tithes of the beasts that fell within the year : a third 
 for sacred purposes, and the fourth was civil and common 
 to all the inhabitants of Palestine. The two last as be- 
 ing most known, require briefly to be noticed. 
 
 1, The Ecclesiastical, or Sacred Year, began in 
 March, or on the first day of the month Nisan, because at 
 that time they departed out of Egypt. From that month 
 they computed their feasts, and the prophets also occa- 
 sionally dated their oracles and visions. (See Zech. vii. 1.) 
 The following table presents the months of the Jewish 
 ecclesiastical year, compared with our months : 
 
 ii. 1. [ 
 iii. 7.)) 
 
 Nisan or Abib 
 
 (Neh 
 
 Esth. iii 
 Jyar or Zif 
 Sivan (Esth. viii. 9.) 
 Thammuz 
 Ab 
 
 Elul (Neh. vi. 15.) 
 Tisri - 
 Marchesvan - 
 Kisleu or Chisleu 
 (Zech. vii. 1. Neh. i. 
 Thebet 
 
 Sebat (Zech. i. 7.) 
 Adar (Ezr. vi. 15. Esth. iii. 7.) 
 
 answering to part of March and April. 
 
 April and May. 
 May and June. 
 June and July. 
 July and August. 
 August and September. 
 September and October. 
 October and November. 
 
 November and December. 
 
 J 
 
 December and January. 
 January and February. 
 February and March. 
 
 2. The Civil Year, commenced on the fifteenth of our 
 September, because it was an old tradition that the world 
 was created at that time. From this year the Jews com- 
 puted their jubilees, dated all contracts, and noted the 
 birth of children, and the reigns of kings. The annexed 
 table exhibits the months of the Jewish civil year with the 
 corresponding months of our computation : 
 
 corresponds with part of September and October. 
 
 2. Marchesvan -' 
 
 October and November. 
 
 3. Chisleu or Kisleu 
 
 . November and Becember 
 
 4. Thebet 
 
 - December and Janaury. 
 
 5. Sebat • 
 
 - January and February. 
 
 0. Adar - 
 
 . February and March. 
 
 7. Nisan or Abib 
 
 . March and April. 
 
 8. Jyar or Zif 
 
 . April and May 
 
 9. Sivan . 
 
 - May and June. 
 
 10. Thammuz • ■ « 
 
 . June and July. 
 
 11. Ab 
 
 . July and August. 
 
 12. Elul - 
 
 . August and September. 
 
 Some of the preceding names are still in use in Persia. 
 
 As the Jewish years, being regulated by the phases, or 
 appearances of the moon, were lunar years, consisting of 
 three hundred and fifty-four days and eight hours, it be 
 
OF COMPUTING TIME. Ctffl 
 
 came necessary to accommodate them to solar years, in 
 order that their months, and consequently their festivals, 
 might always fall at the same season. For this purpose, 
 the Jews added a whole month to the year, as often as it 
 was necessary ; which occurred commonly once in three 
 years, and sometimes once in two years. This interca- 
 lary month was added at the end of the ecclesiastical year, 
 after the month Adar, and was therefore called Ve-Adar, 
 or the second Adar. 
 
 VI. In common with other nations, the Jews reckoned 
 any part of a period of time for the whole, as in Exod. 
 xvi. 35. Thus, a part of the day is used for the whole, 
 and part of a year for an entire year. An attention to 
 this circumstance will explain several apparent contra- 
 dictions in the sacred writings ; particularly the account 
 of our Lord's resurrection, in Matt, xxvii. 63, and Mark 
 viii. 31, three days after, with that of his resurrection 
 on the third day, according to Matt. xvi. 21, and Luke 
 ix. 22. 
 
 Besides the computation of years, the Hebrews first, 
 and the Jews afterwards, were accustomed to reckon their 
 time from some remarkable seras, or epochas: as, 1. The 
 Lives of the Patriarchs, or other illustrious persons ; (Gen. 
 vii. 1, viii. 13 ;) — 2. From their Departure out of Egypt, 
 and the first institution of their polity ; (Exod. xix. 1, xl. 
 17. Numb. i. 1, ix. 1, xxxiii. 38. 1 Kings vi. 1 ;)— -3. After- 
 wards, from the Building of the Temple, (1 Kings ix. 10. 
 2 Chron. viii. 1,) and from the reigns of the kings of Ju- 
 dah and Israel; — 4. Then from the commencement of 
 the Babylonian Captivity. (Ezek. i. 1, xxxiii. 21, xl. 1.) 
 Tn process of time they adopted, and for one thousand 
 years employed, 5. The sera of the Selucidae, which in the 
 books of Maccabees is called the sera of the Greeks ; in 
 later times, (1 Mace, xiii.42, xiv.27,)they computed accord- 
 ing to the years of the Maccabean princes ; and since the 
 compilation of their Talmud, they have reckoned their 
 years from the foundation of the world. 
 
208 TRIBUTES AND TAXES MENTIONED IN SCRIPTURE. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 OH THE TRIBUTES AND TAXES MENTIONED IN THE SCRIPTURES.— CONTRACTS, 
 HOW MADE. 
 
 I. Of Tributes and Taxes. 
 
 On their first departure out of Egypt, the Israelites con 
 tributed, upon any extraordinary occasion, according to 
 their several ability : after the erection of the tabernacle, 
 half a shekel was paid by every male of twenty years and 
 upwards, (Exod. xxx. 13, 14,) when the census, or sum of 
 the people was taken. On their return from the Babylo- 
 nian captivity, an annual payment of the third part of a 
 shekel was made towards the temple worship and service ; 
 (Neh. x. 32 ;) and in the time of our Saviour, two drachmae 
 were paid by every Jew, whether he resided in Palestine 
 or elsewhere : besides which, every one, who was so dis- 
 posed, made voluntary offerings according as he or she 
 was able. (Mark xii. 41 — 44.) 
 
 To supply the Jews, who came to Jerusalem from all 
 parts of the Roman Empire, to pay the half-shekel above 
 mentioned, with the current coins, money-changers sta- 
 tioned themselves at tables in the courts of the temple, 
 and chiefly, it should seem, in the court of the Gentiles, 
 for which they exacted a small fee. It was the tables on 
 which these men trafficked for this unholy gain, which 
 were overturned by Jesus Christ. (Matt. xxi. 12.) 
 
 While the Jews were in the height of their prosperity, 
 the Moabites and other neighbouring nations were tribu- 
 tary to their sovereigns. Afterwards, however, the Jews 
 became tributaries to other nations. For a short time they 
 were freed from paying tribute under the Maccabean 
 Princes ; but after they were conquered by the Romans, 
 they were subjected to the payment of a capitation tax of 
 a denarius, as well as various other burdens, which they 
 paid with great reluctance. This will account for their 
 hatred of the Publicans, or Tax gatherers. In the pro- 
 vinces of the Roman empire, the tributes were farmed by 
 Roman knights, who had under them inferior officers. 
 Some of these are called chief publicans, (as Zaccheus,) 
 probably because they were receivers-general for large 
 districts : others were receivers for some particular post, 
 
MILITARY AFFAIRS OF THE JEWS, ETC. 
 
 or place. Such was Matthew, who is simply termed a 
 publican. 
 
 II, Of Contracts and bargains of Sale. 
 
 Among the Hebrews, and long before them, among the 
 Canaanites, the purchase of any thing of consequence was 
 concluded, and the price paid, at the gate of the city, as 
 the seat of judgment, before all who went out and came 
 m. (Gen. xxiii. 16 — 20. Ruth iv. 1, 2.) In process of 
 time, the joining, or striking of hands was introduced as a 
 ratification of a bargain and sale. This usage was not 
 unknown in the days of Job, (xvii. 3,) and Solomon often 
 alludes to it. (See Prov. vi. I, xi. 15, xvii. 18, xx. 16, 
 xxii. 26, xxvii. 13.) The earliest vestige of written in- 
 struments, sealed and delivered for ratifying the disposal 
 and transfer of property, occurs in Jer. xxxii. 10 — 12, 
 which the prophet commanded Baruch to bury in an 
 earthen vessel in order to be preserved for production at 
 a future period, as evidence of the purchase, (14, 15.) 
 No mention is expressly made of the manner in which 
 deeds were anciently cancelled. Some expositors have 
 imagined, that in Col. ii. 14, Saint Paul refers to the can- 
 celling of them by blotting, or drawing aline across them, 
 or by striking them through with a nail ; but we have no 
 information whatever from antiquity to authorize such a 
 conclusion. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 OF THE MILITARY AFFAIRS OF THB JEWS, AND OTHER NATIONS MENTIONED 
 IN THE SCRIPTURES. 
 
 I. Respecting the Military Discipline op the Jews, 
 
 numerous particulars are incidentally dispersed through the 
 Sacred Writings, for a full account of which the reader 
 is necessarily referred to the author's larger work : from 
 which the following leading circumstances are selected. 
 
 The earliest wars, noticed in the sacred writings, ap- 
 pear to have been nothing more than mere predatory ex- 
 cursions, like those of the modern Bedouin Arabs. The 
 wars in which the Israelites were engaged, were of two 
 kinds, either such as were expressly enjoined by divine 
 command, or such as were voluntary, and entered upon 
 by the prince for revenging some national affronts, and 
 18* 
 
210 MILITARY AFFAIRS OF THE JEWS, ETC. 
 
 for the honour of his sovereignty. After their departure 
 from Egypt, the whole of the men, from twenty years and 
 upwards until the age of fifty, (when they might demand 
 their discharge if they chose,) were liable to military ser- 
 vice, the priests and Levites not excepted. (Numb. i. 3. 
 22. 2 Sam. xxiii. 20. 1 Kings ii. 35.) Like the mili 
 tia in some countries, they were always ready to assemble 
 at the shortest notice. If the occasion were extremely 
 urgent, affecting their existence as a people, all were sum- 
 moned to war ; but ordinarily, when there was no neces- 
 sity for convoking the whole of their forces, a selection 
 was made. This mode of choosing soldiers, to which 
 there are numerous allusions in the Scriptures, accounts 
 for the rapid formation of the vast armies, of which we 
 read in the Old Testament. There were, however, cer- 
 tain exemptions in favour of particular persons, which are 
 specified in Deut. xx. 5—8, xxiv. 5. The officers, who 
 were placed at the head of the Hebrew forces, appear 
 not to have differed materially from those whom we find 
 in ancient and modern armies. The most distinguished 
 was the Captain of the Host, (2 Kings iv. 13,) who pos- 
 sessed great power and influence, sometimes indeed near- 
 ly equal to that of the sovereign, and who appears to have 
 been of the same rank with him who is now termed the 
 commander in chief of an army. After the establishment 
 of the monarchy, this officer, and alsor the captains of 
 thousands, hundreds, &c, received their commissions 
 from the sovereign; (2 Sam. xviii. 1. 2 Chron. xxv. 5;) 
 who at first went to war in person, and fought on foot, like 
 the meanest of his soldiers, until David being exposed 
 to great danger, his people would no longer allow him to 
 lead them on to battle. (2 Kings xxi. 17.) There were 
 no horse in the Israelitish army before the time of Solo- 
 mon ; nor, though mention is made in Scripture of the 
 military chariots of other nations, does it appear that the 
 Hebrews ever used war chariots. Solomon, indeed, had 
 a considerable number, but no military expedition is re- 
 corded, in which he employed them. No information is 
 given us in the Scriptures concerning the order of en- 
 campment adopted by the Israelites after their settlement 
 in Canaan. L>uring their sojourning in the wilderness, the 
 form of their camp, according to the account given in 
 
MENTIONED IN THE SCRIPTURES. 
 
 211 
 
 Numb. ii. appears to have been quadrangular, having 
 three tribes placed on each side, under one general stan- 
 dard, so as to enclose the tabernacle, which stood in the 
 centre. Between these four great camps and the taber- 
 nacle, were pitched four smaller camps of the priests and 
 Levites, who were immediately in attendance upon it ; the 
 camp of Moses and of Aaron and his sons (who were the 
 ministering priests, and had the charge of the sanctuary,) 
 was on the east side of the tabernacle, where the entrance 
 was. The following diagram, which is reduced from the au- 
 thor's larger work, will give the reader an idea of the beau- 
 tiful order of the Israelitish Encampment, which extorted 
 from the mercenary Balaam, the exclamation related in 
 Numb xxiv. 2. 5. 6. 
 
 EAST 
 
 196,400 Men. 
 FIRST GRAND DIVISION. 
 
 JUDAH, 
 
 74,600. 
 
 Issachar, and Zebulun, 
 
 54,400 57,400 
 
 
 
 MOSES, AARON 
 
 
 
 
 And the Priests. 
 
 
 
 „ 
 
 
 
 
 W 
 
 So 
 
 
 W 
 
 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 PS 
 
 
 en i-rt 
 
 <5 
 
 PS 
 
 
 « 
 Eh 
 
 
 H 
 ft 
 
 
 •099 8 
 
 
 
 
 S3XIW0HSH3O 
 
 
 s ^ s pW 
 
 •OOt-'SS *005'58 
 
 'uiuiBfuaa puB 'qassBUBj^ 
 
 •ooe'o* 
 
 •NoisiAia (mvho ohihi. 
 
 ' ua H 001 '801 
 
 •JL33A1 
 
 During the encampment of the Israelites in the wilder- 
 ness, Moses made various salutary enactments, which are 
 recorded in Deut. xxiii. 10 — 15. Anciently, the Hebrews 
 received no pay for their military service : the Chere- 
 thites and Pelethites appear to have been the first stipen- 
 diary soldiers. During the monarchy, however, both 
 officers and privates were paid by the sovereign, who re- 
 warded them for distinguished achievements. (See 2 Sara, 
 
212 MILITARY AFFAIRS OF THE JEWS, ETC. 
 
 xviiL 11. Jos. xv. 16. 1 Sam. xviii. 25. 1 Chron. xi. 
 6.) In the age of the Maccabees, the patriot Simon both 
 armed and paid his brave companions in arms at his own 
 expense. (1 Mac. xiv. 32.) Afterwards it became an es- 
 tablished custom, that all soldiers should receive pay. 
 (Luke iii. 14. 1 Cor. ix. 7.) 
 
 From various passages of Scripture, and especially from 
 Isa. ii. 4, and Mic. iv. 3, it appears that there were mili- 
 tary schools, in which the Hebrew soldiers learned war % 
 or, in modern language, were trained by proper officers in 
 those exercises which were in use among the other na- 
 tions of antiquity. Swiftness of foot was an accomplish- 
 ment highly valued, both for attacking and pursuing an 
 enemy. The Hebrews do not appear to have had any 
 peculiar military habit ; as the flowing dress, which they 
 ordinarily wore, would have impeded their movements, 
 they girt it closely around them when preparing for bat- 
 tle, and loosened it on their return. They used the same 
 arms as the neighbouring nations, both defensive and of- 
 fensive ; and these were made either of iron or of brass, 
 but principally of the latter metal. 
 
 At first every man provided his own arms ; but, after 
 the establishment of regal government, the sovereigns 
 formed depots, whence they supplied their troops. (2 
 Chron. xi. 12, xxvi. 14, 15.) The defensive arms con- 
 sisted of a helmet, breast-plate, shield, military girdle, and 
 greaves, or boots to protect the feet and legs from stakes, 
 which were stuck into the ground to impede the march of 
 a hostile force. Their offensive arms were, the sword, 
 spear, or javelin, bows and arrows. 
 
 The onset of battle was very violent, and was made 
 with a great shout. (Numb.xxiii.24. Exod.xxxii. 17. 1 Sam. 
 xvii. 20, 52, &c.) When the victory was decided, the bo- 
 dies of the slain were interred, (1 Kings xi. 15. 2 Sam. ii. 
 32. 2 Mac. xii. 39,) but sometimes the remains of the slain 
 were treated with every possible mark of indignity ; (1 Sam. 
 xxxi. 9 — 12 ;) and various cruelties were inflicted upon 
 the unhappy captives, from which not even women and 
 children were exempted. (2 Sam. iv. 12. Judg. i. 7. 
 Isai. iii. 17. 2 Kings viii. 12. Psal. cxxxvii. 9.) 
 
 On their return home, the victors were received with 
 every demonstration of joy. (Exod. xv. 1 — 21. Judg. 
 
 
 
MENTIONED IN THE SCRIPTURES. 213 
 
 xi. 34. 1 Sam. xviii. 7, 8. 2 Chron. xx. 27, 28.) Be- 
 sides a share of the spoil and the honours of a triumph, 
 various rewards were bestowed on those warriors who had 
 pre-eminently distinguished themselves : allusions to them 
 occur in 1 Sam. xvii. 25. 2 Sam. v. 8, and xviii. 11. 1 
 Chron. xi. 6. 
 
 II. At the time the apostles and evangelists wrote, 
 Judsea was subject to the dominion of the Romans, whose 
 troops were stationed in different parts of the country. 
 Hence numerous allusions are made to the Military 
 Discipline of the Romans, in the New Testament, par- 
 ticularly in the writings of Saint Paul. See especially 
 Eph. vi. 11 — 17, in which the various parts of the ar- 
 mour of their heavy troops are distinctly enumerated and 
 beautifully applied to those moral and spiritual weapons 
 with which the true Christian ought to be fortified. 
 
 The strictest subordination and obedience were exacted 
 of every Roman soldier, who was also inured to great 
 hardships, and was not allowed to marry. To these cir- 
 cumstances there are allusions in Matt. viii. 8, 9, and 2 
 Tim. id. 3, 4 ; and Rev. iii. 5, probably refers to tne prac- 
 tice of expunging from the muster-roll the names of those 
 who died, or were cashiered for misconduct. Upon those 
 who pre-eminently distinguished themselves, were confer- 
 red rich and splendid crowns, frequently of gold, to which 
 there are allusions in Rev. ii. 10, James i. 12, 1 Pet. v 
 4, and 2 Tim. iv. 8. But the highest military honour 
 which any one could receive, was a Triumph : in which, 
 besides great numbers of wagons full of the arms and the 
 richest spoils which had been taken from the vanquished 
 foe, the most illustrious captives — sovereigns not excepted 
 — were led in fetters before the victorious general's cha- 
 riot, through the streets of Rome, amidst the applause of 
 the assembled multitudes. After the triumphal procession 
 was terminated, the unhappy captives were generally im- 
 prisoned, and, if not put to death, were sold for slaves. 
 The. knowledge of these circumstances beautifully illus- 
 trates the allusions in 1 Cor. ii. 14 — 16, and Col. ii. 15. 
 
214 
 
 BOOK III.— SACRED ANTIQUITIES OF THE JEWS, AND OF OTHER 
 NATIONS MENTIONED IN THE SCRIPTURES. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 OF SACRED PLACES. 
 
 The Patriarchs, both before and after the flood, were 
 accustomed to worship Almighty God, before altars, and 
 also upon mountains, and in groves. (Gen. viii. 20, xii. 8, 
 xxi. 33, and xxii. 2.) In the wilderness, where the Israel- 
 ites themselves had no settled habitations, they had, by 
 God's command, a moving tabernacle ; and as soon as 
 they were fixed in the land of promise, God appointed a 
 temple to be built at Jerusalem, which David intended, 
 and his son Solomon performed. After the first temple 
 was destroyed, another was built in the room of it, (Ezra 
 iii. 8,) which Christ himself owned for his house of prayer. 
 (Matt. xxi. 13.) There were also places of worship, 
 called in Scripture High Places, used promiscuously 
 during the times of both the tabernacle and temple, until 
 the captivity ; and, lastly, there were Synagogues among 
 the Jews, and other places used only for prayer, called 
 Proseuchai, or oratories, which chiefly obtained after the 
 captivity : of these various structures some account will 
 be found in the following sections. 
 
 Section I. — Of the Tabernacle. 
 
 Mention is made in the Old Testament of three diffe- 
 rent tabernacles, previously to the erection of Solomon's 
 temple. The first, which Moses erected for himself, is 
 called the tabernacle of the congregation ; (Exod. xxxiii. 
 7 ;) here he gave audience, heard causes, and inquired 
 of Jehovah; and here also at first, perhaps, the public 
 offices of religion were solemnized. The second taber- 
 nacle was that erected by Moses, for Jehovah, and at his 
 
OF SACRED PLACES. 215 
 
 express command, partly to be a palace of his presence 
 as the king of Israel, (Exod. xl. 34, 35,) and partly to be the 
 medium of the most solemn public worship, which the 
 people were to pay to him, (26 — 29.) This tabernacle 
 was erected on the first day of the first month, in the 
 second year after the departure of the Israelites from 
 Egypt. The third public tabernacle was that erected by 
 David in his own city, for the reception of the ark, when 
 he received it from the house of Obed-edom. (2 Sam. vi. 
 7. 1 Chron. xvi. 1.) Of the second of these tabernacles 
 we are now to treat ; it was called the Tabernacle, by 
 way of distinction, and was a moveable chapel, so con- 
 trived as to be taken to pieces, and put together again at 
 pleasure, for the convenience of carrying it from place to 
 place. The materials of this tabernacle were provided 
 by the people, who contributed each according to his 
 ability, as related in Exodus, ch. xxxv. and xxxvi. 
 
 The tabernacle consisted, first, of a house, or tent, 
 the form of which appears to have resembled that of our 
 modern tents, but much larger ; and, secondly, of an open 
 court that surrounded it. Its constituent parts are mi- 
 nutely described in Exod. xxv. — xxx. and xxxv. — xl. from 
 which the following particulars have been selected : 
 
 1. The tent itself was an oblong square, thirty cubits 
 in length and ten in height and breadth ; and the body of 
 it was composed of forty-eight boards, or planks, each of 
 which was a cubit and a half wide, and ten cubits high, 
 and its roof was a square frame of planks. The inside 
 of it was divided by a veil, or hanging, made of rich em- 
 broidered linen, which separated the Holy Place from the 
 Holy of Holies. In the former stood the altar of incense, 
 overlaid with gold, the table of shewbread, consisting of 
 twelve loaves, and the great candlestick of pure gold, con- 
 taining seven branches : none of the people were allowed 
 to go into the holy place, but only the priests. The Holy 
 of Holies, so called because it was the most sacred place 
 of the tabernacle, into which none went but the high 
 priest, contained in it the ark, called the ark of the testi- 
 mony, (Exod. xxv. 22,) or the ark of the covenant. (Josh, 
 iv. 7.) This was a small chest, or cofTer, made of shittim 
 wood, overlaid with gold, into which were put the two 
 tables of the law, as well the broken ones, say the Jews, 
 

 21(3 OF SACRED PLACES. 
 
 as the whole, with the pot of manna, and Aaron's rod 
 that budded. (Heb. ix. 4.) 
 
 The lid, or covering of this ark, was wholly of solid 
 gold, and called the mercy-seat : at the two ends of it 
 were two cherubim, or hieroglyphic figures, the form of 
 which it is impossible now to ascertain, looking inwards 
 towards each other, with wings expanded, which, embrac- 
 ing the whole circumference of the mercy-seat, met on 
 each side in the middle. Here the Shechinah, or Divine 
 Presence, rested, both in the tabernacle and temple, and 
 was visibly seen in the appearance of a cloud over it. 
 (Lev. xvi. 2.) From this the divine oracles were given 
 out by an audible voice, as often as Jehovah was consult- 
 ed on behalf of his people. (Exod. xxv. 22. Numb. vii. 
 89.) And hence it is that God is so often said, in Scrip- 
 ture, to dwell between the cherubim. (2 Kings xix. 15. 
 Psal. lxxx. 1.) 
 
 2. The Tabernacle was surrounded by an oblong court, 
 separated by curtains from the camp of Israel. The 
 priests, and other sacred ministers, alone were permitted 
 to enter it ; the people, who came to offer sacrifices, stop- 
 ped at the entrance, opposite to which stood the brazen 
 altar for burnt offerings: and nearly in the centre of the 
 court stood a capacious brazen vessel, called the brazen 
 laver, in which the priests washed their hands and feet 
 previously to performing any of their sacred functions. 
 
 The tabernacle being so constructed as to be taken to 
 pieces, and put together as occasion required, it accom- 
 panied the Israelites in all their progresses, until they ar- 
 rived in the land of Canaan. There it was set up, first 
 at Gilgal, and afterwards at Shiloh : on being restored by 
 the Philistines, who had taken it and deposited it in the 
 temple of one of their idols, as related in 1 Sam. iv. 10, 
 11, v., vi. ; it remained for twenty years in the custody of 
 Abinadab, of Gibeah, and afterwards, for three months, in 
 the house of Obed-edom, whence David brought it with 
 great solemnity into that part of Jerusalem, which was 
 called the city of David. (2 Sam. vi. 17. 1 Chron. xv. 
 25, xvi. 1.) Here it remained until it was deposited in 
 the temple of Solomon, where, having been subsequently 
 removed, it was again replaced by order of the pious 
 King Josiah. (2 Chron. xxxv. 3.) It is supposed to have 
 
OF SACRED PLACES. 
 
 217 
 
 been consumed in the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebu- 
 chadnezzar. 
 
 Section IL — Of the Temple. 
 
 Representation of the Golden Candlestick, from the Triumphal Arch 
 of Titus. 
 
 Two Temples are mentioned in the Scriptures, 1. 
 That of Solomon ; and 2. That erected after the Cap 
 ivity. 
 
218 0F SACRED PLACES. 
 
 I. The first temple is that which usually bears the 
 name of Solomon ; the materials for which were provided 
 by David before his death, though the edifice was raised 
 by his son. It stood on Mount Moriah, an eminence of 
 the mountainous ridge, in the Scriptures termed Mount 
 Sion, (Psal. cxxxii. 13, 14,) which had been purchased 
 of Araunah, or Oman, the Jebusite. (2 Sam. xxiv. 23, 
 24. 1 Chron. xxi. 25.) The plan, and whole model of 
 this superb structure, were formed after that of the taber- 
 nacle, but of much larger dimensions. It was dedicated 
 by Solomon with great solemnity. Various attempts 
 have been made to describe the proportions, and several 
 parts of this structure : but as no two writers, scarcely, 
 agree on this subject, a minute description of it is design- 
 edly omitted. It retained its pristine splendour only thirty- 
 three or thirty-four years, when Shishak, king of Egypt, 
 took Jerusalem, and carried away the treasures of the 
 temple ; and, after undergoing subsequent profanations 
 and pillages, this stupendous building was finally plun- 
 dered and burnt by the Chaldaeans, under Nebuchadnezzar, 
 in the year of the world 3416, or before Christ, 584. (2 
 Kings xxv. 13—15. 2 Chron. xxxvi. 17—20.) 
 
 II. After the captivity, the temple emerged from its ruins, 
 being rebuilt by Zerubbabel, but with vastly inferior and 
 diminished glory; as appears from the tears of the aged 
 men who had beheld the former structure in all its gran- 
 deur. (Ezra iii. 12.) The second temple was profaned 
 by order of Antiochus Epiphanes ; (a. m. 387, b. c. 163 ;) 
 who caused the daily sacrifice to be discontinued, and 
 erected the image of Jupiter Olympus on the altar of 
 burnt offering. In this condition it continued three years, 
 (1 Mace. i. 62,) when Judas Maccabeus purified and re- 
 paired it, and restored the sacrifices and true worship of 
 Jehovah, (a. m. 3840. b. c. 160.) 
 
 Some years before the birth of our Saviour, the repair- 
 ing, or rather gradual rebuilding, of this second temple, 
 which had become decayed in the lapse of five centuries, 
 was undertaken by Herod the Great, who for nine years 
 employed eighteen thousand workmen upon it, and spared 
 no expense to render it equal, if not superior, in magni- 
 tude, splendour, and beauty, to any thing among man- 
 kind. But though Herod accomplished his original de- 
 
OF SACRED PLACES. 219 
 
 sign, in the time above specified, yet the Jews continued 
 to ornament and enlarge it, expending the sacred treasure 
 in annexing additional buildings to it ; so that they might 
 with great propriety assert, that their temple had been 
 forty and six years in building. (John ii. 20.) 
 
 The second temple, originally built by Zerubbabel, 
 after the captivity, and repaired by Herod, differed in se- 
 veral respects, from that erected by Solomon, although 
 they agreed in others. 
 
 The temple erected by Solomon was more splendid and 
 magnificent than the second temple, which was deficient 
 in five remarkable things that constituted the chief glory 
 of the first : these were, the ark and mercy-seat, the 
 shechinah, or manifestation of the divine presence in the 
 holy of holies, the sacred fire on the altar, which had 
 been first kindled from heaven, the urim and thummim, 
 and the spirit of prophecy. The second temple, however, 
 surpassed the first in glory ; being honoured by the fre- 
 quent presence of our divine Saviour, agreeably to the 
 prediction of Haggai, (ii. 9.) Both, however, were erect- 
 ed upon the same site, a very hard rock, encompassed by 
 a very frightful precipice ; and the foundation was laid 
 with incredible expense and labour. The superstructure 
 was not inferior to this great work : the height of the 
 temple wall, especially on the south side, was stupendous. 
 In the lowest places it was three hundred cubits, or four 
 hundred and fifty feet, and in some places even greater. 
 This most magnificent pile was constructed with hard 
 white stone of prodigious magnitude. Of its general dis- 
 position some idea may be formed from the plan annexed 
 to the Map which faces page 163. 
 
 The temple itself, strictly so called, which comprised 
 the portico, the sanctuary, and the holy of holies, formed 
 only a small part of the sacred edifice on Mount Moriah ; 
 being surrounded by spacious courts, making a square of 
 half a mile in circumference. It was entered through 
 nine magnificent gates : one of which, called the Beauti- 
 ful Gate in Acts iii. 2, was more splendid and costly 
 than all the rest : it was composed of Corinthian brass, the 
 most precious metal in ancient times. The first, or outer 
 court, was called the Court of the Gentiles ; because 
 they were not permitted to advance any further, though 
 
220 OF SACRED PLACES. 
 
 they were allowed to enter it. Markets were held here 
 for the sale of incense, salt, animals, and every other ar- 
 ticle necessary for the Jewish sacrifices. Here also sat 
 the money-changers. (Matt. xxi. 12, 13. Mark xi. 15 — 
 17.) This court was surrounded by a range of porticoes, 
 or cloisters, one of which was called Solomon's Porch. 
 (John x. 23. Acts iii. 11.) The south-east corner of the 
 roof of this portico is supposed to have been the pinnacle, 
 whence Satan tempted Christ to precipitate himself. (Mat. 
 iv. 5.) 
 
 Within the court of the Gentiles stood the Court of the 
 Israelites, divided into two parts, or courts, the outer one 
 being appropriated to the women, and the inner one to 
 the men. The Court of the Women was separated from 
 that of the Gentiles, by a low stone wall, or partition, of 
 elegant construction, on which stood pillars at equal dis- 
 tances, with inscriptions in Greek and Latin, importing 
 that no alien should enter into the holy place. To this 
 wall Saint Paul most evidently alludes in Eph. ii. 13, 14. 
 In this court was the Treasury, mentioned in Mark xii. 
 41, and John viii. 20. 
 
 From the court of the women, which was on higher 
 ground than that of the Gentiles, there was an ascent of 
 fifteen steps into the inner, or men's court ; and so called 
 because it was appropriated to the worship of the male 
 Israelites. In these two courts, collectively termed the 
 court of the Israelites, were the people praying, each 
 apart by himself, for the pardon of his sins, while 
 Zechariah was offering incense within the sanctuary. 
 (Luke i. 10.) 
 
 Within the court of the Israelites was that of the 
 priests, who alone were permitted to enter it : thence 
 twelve steps ascended to the Temple, strictly so called, 
 which consisted of three parts, viz. : the Portico, the outer 
 Sanctuary, and the Holy Place. 
 
 1. In the Portico were suspended the splendid votive 
 offerings, made by the piety of various individuals, which 
 are alluded to in Luke xxi. 5. Similar offerings were 
 common in the temples of the heathen. From this porch, 
 
 2. The Sanctuary, or Holy Place, was separated from 
 the holy of holies by a double veil, which is supposed to 
 have been the veil that was rent in twain at our Saviour's 
 
OF SACRED PLACES. 
 
 221 
 
 crucifixion ; thus emblematically pointing out that the se- 
 peration between Jews and Gentiles was abolished, and that 
 the privilege of the high priest was communicated to all 
 mankind, who might thenceforth have access to the throne 
 of grace thr®ugh the one great Mediator, Jesus Christ. 
 (Heb. x. 19—22.) 
 
 This corresponded with the Holy Place in the Taber- 
 nacle. In it were placed the Golden Candlestick, the 
 Altar of Incense, and the Table of Shew-Bread, which 
 consisted of twelve loaves, according to the number of the 
 tribes of Israel. In the Hebrew, these loaves are collec- 
 tively termed, Bread of the faces; because each loaf, being 
 square, had, as it were, four faces or sides. Various fan- 
 ciful delineations have been given of these articles : in 
 the vignette at the head of this section, is represented the 
 form of the Golden Candlestick, as it was actually carried 
 in the triumphal procession of the Roman General, Titus ; 
 and the following engraving exhibits the table of shew- 
 bread, with a cup upon it, and with two of the sacred 
 
 trumpets, which were used to proclaim the year of Jubi- 
 lee, as they were also carried in the same triumph. They 
 are copied from the plates in Reland's Treatise on ihe 
 19* 
 
222 OF SACRED PLACES. 
 
 Spoils of the Temple of Jerusalem,* the drawings for 
 which were made at Rome, upwards of a century since, 
 when the triumphal arch of Titus (which has been men- 
 tioned in p. 23, supra,) was in a much better state of pre- 
 servation than it now is. 
 
 3. The Holy of Holies was twenty cubits square. No 
 person was ever admitted into it but the high priest, who 
 entered it once a year on the great day of atonement. 
 (Exod. xxx. 10. Levit. xvi. 2. 15. 34. Heb. ix. 2—7.) 
 
 This most magnificent temple, for which the Jews che- 
 rished the highest veneration, was utterly destroyed by the 
 Romans, a.m. 4073, (a.d. 73,) on the same day of the same 
 month in which Solomon's temple had been razed to the 
 ground by the Babylonians 
 
 Section III. — Of the High Places, Proseuchee, or Oratories, of the Jews. 
 
 I. The High Places, which are frequently mentioned 
 in the Old Testament, were places appropriated to divine 
 worship, in groves, woods, or mountains, first by the pa- 
 triarchs, and afterwards by the heathen idolaters, by 
 whom they were made the scenes of the most diabolical 
 and impure rites. As the Canaanites, among whom the 
 Israelites lived, were eminently addicted to this idola- 
 trous worship, after a place had been assigned for the 
 worship of God, it became unlawful to offer sacrifices upon 
 these high places, or any where else, but in the place that 
 God did choose. Hence it is that the conduct of the Is- 
 raelites, both kings and people, in offering sacrifices even 
 after the erection of the temple, is so frequently reprobated 
 in the books of Kings and Chronicles. They were 
 indeed removed by several pious kings, and particularly 
 by Josiah, after whose time they are not mentioned in 
 sacred history. 
 
 II. Though public worship was forbidden to be offered 
 in any but the appointed place, yet mention is made, in 
 Scripture, of places built for private devotion, and resort- 
 ed to for that purpose only. These have been termed 
 
 * De Spoliis Hierosolymitani in Arcu Titiano Romae Conspicuis. The 
 first edition was printed at Utrecht, in 1716. 8vo. ; the second, with a pre- 
 liminary dissertation and notes, by Professor Schultze, in 1765, 8vo. 
 
OF SACRED PLACES. 223 
 
 Proseuchjs, or Oratories. From the proseucha, (so it 
 should be rendered in Luke vi. 12,) where our Lord 
 spent a whole night in prayer, being erected on a moun- 
 tain, it is probable that these edifices were the same as the 
 High Places already noticed. The Jews, who were resi- 
 dent in heathen countries, appear to have erected them 
 in sequestered retreats, commonly on the banks of rivers, 
 or on the sea-shore. The proseucha, or oratory at Philippi, 
 where the Lord opened the heart of Lydia, that she attend- 
 ed unto the things which were spoken by Paul, was by a 
 river side ; (Acts xvi. 13, 14. 16 ;) the Jews being ac- 
 customed, before prayer, to perform an ablution. 
 
 Section IV.— On the Synagogues of the Jews. 
 
 The Synagogues were buildings in which the Jews 
 assembled for prayer, reading and hearing the sacred 
 Scriptures, and other instructions. Though frequently 
 mentioned in the historical books of the New Testament, 
 their origin is not very well known ; and many learned 
 men are of opinion that they are of recent institution. In 
 the time of the Maccabees, synagogues became so frequent 
 that they were to be found in almost every place in Judaea. 
 Maimonides says, that wherever any Jews were, they 
 erected a synagogue. Not fewer than four hundred and 
 eighty are said to have been erected in Jerusalem, pre- 
 viously to its capture and destruction by the Romans. In 
 the evangelical history we find, that wherever the Jews 
 resided, they had one or more synagogues, constructed 
 after those at Jerusalem. It does not appear that the syna- 
 gogues had any peculiar form of structure : there were., 
 however, various officers whose business it was to see that 
 the duties of religion were decently performed therein. 
 These were, 1. The Rulers of the Synagogue, (Luke 
 xiii. 14. Mark v. 22,) of whom there appear to have 
 been several : they regulated all its concerns, and gave 
 permission to persons to preach. 2. Next to the Ruler 
 of the Synagogue was an officer, whose province it was 
 to offer up public prayers to God for the whole congrega- 
 tion ; hence he was called Sheliach Zibbor, or the Angel 
 of the Church, because, as their messenger, he spoke to 
 God for them. Hence also, in Rev. ii., iii. the ministers 
 
224 
 
 OF SACRED PLACES. 
 
 of the Asiatic churches are termed angels. 3. The 
 Chazan appears to have been a different officer from the 
 Skeliach Zibbor, and inferior to him in dignity. He seems 
 to have been the person, who, in Luke iv. 20, is termed 
 the Minister, and had the charge of the sacred books ; 
 and whose office it was to hand the book of the law to the 
 person who was to read it, and return it to its place. 
 
 The service performed in the synagogue consisted of 
 three parts, viz. : prayer, reading the Scriptures, and 
 preaching, or exposition of the Scriptures. 
 
 1. The first part of the Synagogue service is Prayer ; 
 for which some learned men have thought that the Jews 
 had liturgies, in which are all the prescribed forms of 
 synagogue-worship. Though the eighteen prayers, used 
 by the modern Jews, are of great antiquity, yet they can- 
 not be referred to the time of Jesus Christ. 
 
 2. For the more commodious reading of the Scrip- 
 tures, the Law was divided into Paraschioth, or Sections, 
 and the Prophets into Haphtoroth, or Portions ; of which 
 a brief notice has already been given in page 79. 
 
 3. The third and last part of the synagogue service is, 
 Exposition of the Scriptures, and Preaching to the 
 people. The first was performed at the time of reading 
 them, and the other after the reading of the law and the 
 prophets. In Luke iv. 15 — 22, we have an account of 
 the service of the synagogue in the time of Christ ; who 
 appears to have taught the Jews in both these ways. From 
 this passage we learn that when Jesus Christ came to 
 Nazareth, his own city, he was called out, as a member of 
 that synagogue, to read the haphtoroth, that is, the section 
 or lesson out of the prophets for that day ; which appears 
 to have been the fifty- first haphtoroth, and to have commen- 
 ced with the first verse of Isa. lxi. Further, he stood up (as 
 it was customary, at least for the officiating minister to do, 
 out of reverence for the word of God) to read the scriptures ; 
 and unrolled the manuscript (or opened the volume, as it 
 is rendered in Luke iv. 17,), until he came to the lesson 
 appointed for that day ; which having read, he rolled it 
 up again (or closed the book, verse 20,) and gave it to the 
 proper officer ; and then he sat down and expounded it, 
 agreeably to the usage of the Jews. The ancient books, 
 being written on parchment, or vellum, and similar flexi- 
 
 
SACRED PERSONS. 225 
 
 ble materials, were rolled round a stick, and, if they were 
 very long, round two, from the extremities. This is the 
 case in the vignette inserted in page 71,^ which will 
 convey some idea of the manner in which the Synagogue 
 Rolls are unrolled. It is taken from the original and very 
 valuable manuscript in the British Museum, which is 
 described at length in p. 71, supra. 
 
 Those who had been guilty of any notorious crime, or 
 were otherwise thought unworthy, were cast out of these 
 synagogues, that is excommunicated, and excluded from 
 partaking with the rest in the public prayers and religious 
 offices there performed ; so that they were looked upon 
 as mere Heathens, and shut out from all benefit of the 
 Jewish religion, which exclusion was esteemed scan- 
 dalous. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 SACRED PERSONS. 
 
 Section I. — Of the Jewish Church and itsMembers, 
 
 From their covenant relation to Almighty God, the whole 
 Jewishnation are, in the scriptures, frequently termed holy; 
 and the apostles, being Jews by birth, (though they wrote 
 in Greek,) have often applied to Christians the phraseology 
 of the Old Testament, in order to convey to them accurate 
 ideas of the magnitude of God's love to them in Christ. 
 
 The first members of the Jewish Church were the im- 
 mediate and lineal descendants of Abraham, Isaac, and 
 Jacob ; who professed the Jewish religion and used the 
 national language wherever they might reside, and whom 
 St. Paul (Phil. iii. 5,) terms Hebrews of the Hebrews, as 
 opposed to the Hellinists, or those Jews who lived among 
 the Greeks and spoke their language, and many of whom 
 (as Timothy, Acts xvi. 1,) were descended from parents, 
 one of whom only was a Jew. They did not, however, 
 exclude such persons as were willing to qualify them- 
 selves for participating in their sacred rites. Hence they ad- 
 mitted Gentile converts to Judaism, who are often termed 
 strangers and sojourners, or proselytes. The Libertines, 
 
 Hence is derived the term volume, or thing rolled up, from the Latin 
 ■trord volvo. to roll. 
 
226 SACRED PERSONS. 
 
 mentioned in Acts vi. 9, were the descendants of the Li' 
 berti, or those Jews, who, having been taken captive at dif- 
 ferent times and carried into Italy, had subseqently acquir- 
 ed their liberty. The Devout men who feared God, of 
 whom we frequently read in the New Testament, were 
 Gentiles ; who, though they did not qualify themselves 
 for full communion with the Jewish church, had, neverthe- 
 less, acquired a better knowledge of the Most High than 
 the Pagan Theology furnished, and who, in some respects, 
 conformed to the Jewish religion. Of this description was 
 Cornelius the Centurion. (Acts x.) 
 
 All these persons, with the exception of the last class, 
 were members of the Jewish church, participated in its 
 worship, and regulated themselves by the law of Moses, 
 (or at least professed to do so,) and by the other inspired 
 Hebrew books, whence their sacred rites and religious in- 
 struction were derived. No person, however, was allowed 
 to partake of the sacred ordinances until he had undergone 
 the rite of circumcision : which sacrament was enjoined to 
 be observed on the eighth day after the birth of a male 
 child, who then received a name. (Gen. xvii. 12. Luke i. 
 59, ii. 22.) 
 
 In the initiation of proselytes to the Jewish religion, 
 according to the rabbinical writers, the three following 
 observances were appointed, namely, circumcision, bap- 
 tism, and the offering of sacrifice. 
 
 All these rites, except circumcision were performed by 
 the women, as well as the men, who became proselytes ; 
 and it was a common notion among the Jews, that every 
 person, who had duly performed them all, was to be consi- 
 dered as a new-born infant. 
 
 Section II.— On the Ministers of the Temple, and other Ecclesiastical, or 
 Sacred Persons. 
 
 On the establishment of the Jewish Commonwealth, 
 the tribe of Levi was specially devoted to the service of 
 God, instead of the first-born of the tribes of Israel, and) 
 was disengaged from all secular labours. The honour of 
 the priesthood, however, was reserved to the family of, 
 Aaron alone, the rest of the tribe being employed in the 
 
SACKED PERSONS. 227 
 
 inferior offices of the temple : so that all the priests were 
 Levites, but all the Levites were not priests. 
 
 Originally, the Levites, or tribe of Levi, were divided 
 into the three families and orders of Gershomites, Koha- 
 thites, and Merarites ; (1 Chron. vi. 16, <fcc. ;) but after- 
 wards they were divided by David (1 Chron. xxiii.) into 
 four classes. 
 
 Their principal office was to wait upon the priests, and 
 be assisting to them in the service of the tabernacle, with 
 its utensils, (which, during the migrations of the Israelites 
 in the wilderness, they alone were permitted to carry and 
 to set up when the camp rested,) and afterwards in the 
 service of the temple ; so that they were properly the 
 ministers and servants of the priests, and obliged to obey 
 their orders. (Numb. iii. 9. 1 Chron. xxiii. 28.) It 
 was their duty to open, close, and guard the temple, to 
 cleanse the sacred vessels, to have the charge of the sa- 
 cred loaves, &c. fcc. Some of them also sang psalms, 
 while others played on instruments, but all were divided 
 into companies, over whom a president was placed. The 
 Levites had under them persons called Nethinims, who 
 performed various laborious services in the temple. 
 
 In order to enable the Levites to devote themselves to 
 that service, forty-eight cities were assigned to them for 
 their residence, on the division of the land of Canaan ; 
 thirteen of these were appropriated to the priests, to which 
 were added the tithes of corn, fruit, and cattle. (Numb, 
 xviii. 21 — 24.) The Levites, however, paid to the priests 
 a tenth part of all their tithes ; and as they were posses- 
 sed of no landed property, the tithes which the priests re- 
 ceived from them were considered as the first fruits which 
 they were to offer to God. 
 
 Next to the Levites, but superior to them in dignity, 
 were the ordinary Priests, who were chosen from the 
 family of Aaron exclusively. They served immediately 
 at the altar, prepared the victims, and offered the sacri- 
 fices. They kept up a perpetual fire on the altar of the 
 burnt sacrifices, and also in the lamps of the golden can- 
 dlestick in the sanctuary ; in short, performed, first in the 
 tabernacle, and afterwards in the temple, every thing di- 
 rectly connected with the service of God. And, as the 
 number and variety of their functions required them to be 
 
228 SACKED PERSONS. 
 
 well read in their law, in order that they might be able to 
 judge of the various legal uncleannesses, &,c. ; this circum- 
 stance caused them to be consulted as interpreters of the 
 law, (Hos. iv. 6. Mai. ii. 7, <fcc. Lev. xiii. 2. Numb. 
 v. 14, 15,) as well as judges of controversies. (Deut. xxi. 
 5, xvii. 8 — 13.) In the time of war, their business was 
 to carry the ark of the covenant, to sound the holy trum- 
 pets, and animate the army to the performance of its du- 
 ties. To them also it belonged publicly to bless the peo- 
 ple in the name of the Lord. 
 
 The priests were divided by David into twenty-four 
 classes, (1 Chron. xxiv. 7 — 18,) which order was retain- 
 ed by Solomon, (2 Chron. viii. 14,) and at the revivals 
 of the Jewish religion by the kings Hezekiah and Jo 
 siah. (2 Chron. xxxi. 2, xxxv. 4, 5.) As, however, only 
 four classes returned. from the Babylonish captivity, (Ezra 
 ii. 36 — 39. Neh. vii. 39 — 42, xii. 1,) these were again 
 divided into twenty-four classes, each of which was dis- 
 tinguished by its original appellation. One of these classes 
 went up to Jerusalem every week to discharge the sacer- 
 dotal office, and succeeded one another on the Sabbath- 
 day, till they had all attended in their turn. To each or- 
 der was assigned a president, (1 Chron. xxiv. 6 — 31. 2 
 Chron. xxxvi. 14,) whom some critics suppose to be the 
 same as the chief priests, so often mentioned in the New 
 Testament. The prince, or prefect of each class appoint- 
 ed an entire family to offer the daily sacrifices ; and at 
 the close of the week, they all joined together in sacri- 
 ficing. And as each family consisted of a great number of 
 priests, they drew lots for the different offices which they 
 were to perform. It was by virtue of such lot, that the 
 office of burning incense was assigned to Zacharias, the 
 father of John the Baptist, when he went into the temple 
 of the Lord. (Luke i. 9.) 
 
 For the residence of the priests, thirteen of the Levi- 
 tical cities, already mentioned, were assigned, around 
 each of which they had three thousand cubits of land : 
 their maintenance was derived from tithes, and various 
 other offerings enumerated in Levit. vii. 6. 10. 33, 34, 
 Deut. xviii. 3, Numb, xviii. 13. 15, 16, Levit. xix. 23, 
 24, and Numb. xxxi. 28—41. 
 
 Over all the priests was placed the High Priest, who 
 
SACRED PERSONS. 229 
 
 enjoyed peculiar dignities and influence. He alone could 
 enter the Holy of Holies in the tabernacle, and afterwards 
 in the temple : the supreme administration of sacred 
 things was confided to him ; he was the final arbiter of all 
 controversies ; in later times he presided over the sanhe- 
 drin, and held the next rank to the sovereign, or prince. 
 His authorit}', therefore, was very great at all times, espe- 
 cially when he united the pontifical and regal dignities in 
 his own person. In the Old Testament he is sometimes 
 called the priest, by way of eminence, (Exod. xxix. 30. 
 Neh. vii. 65,) and sometimes the head, or chief of the high 
 priests, because the appellation of high priests was given 
 to the heads of the sacerdotal families, or courses. 
 
 The pontifical dignity, in its first institution, was held 
 for life, provided the high priests were not guilty of crimes 
 that merited deposition. During this period the high 
 priesthood is supposed to have been elective. 
 
 The first high priest, after the return from the capti- 
 vity, was Joshua, the son of Josedek, of the family of Elea- 
 zar ; whence the succession went into a private Levitical 
 family. The office was then filled by some of the princes 
 of the Maccabean family. According to the law, it was, 
 or ought to have been held, for life ; but this was very ill 
 obeyed under the Roman government, especially during 
 the time of our Saviour, and in the latter years of the 
 Jewish polity, when election and the right of succession 
 were totally disregarded. The dignity, sanctity, and au- 
 thority of the high priest were then almost annihilated ; 
 and this office was not unfrequently sold to the highest 
 bidder, to persons who had neither age, learning, nor rank 
 to recommend them ; nay, even to individuals who were 
 not of the sacerdotal race ; and sometimes the office was 
 made annual. The knowledge of this fact will explain 
 the circumstance of several high priests being in existence 
 at the same time, or father of their being several pontifi- 
 cal men, (Annas and Caiphas, for instance,) who, having 
 once held the office for a short time, seem to have retain- 
 ed the dignity originally -attached to the name. 
 
 The high priest, who was the chief man in Israel, and 
 appeared before God, in behalf of the people, in their sa- 
 cred services, and who was appointed for sacrifice, for 
 blessing, and for intercession, was a type of Jesus Christ, 
 20 
 
830 ^ . ,JRED PERSONS. 
 
 that great high priest, who offered himself a sacrifice for 
 sin, who blesses his people, and who evermore liveth to 
 make intercession for them. The term priest is also ap- 
 plied to every true believer, who is enabled to offer up 
 himself a spiritual sacrifice acceptable to God through 
 Christ. (1 Pet. ii. 5. Rev. i. 6.) 
 
 Next to the Levites, priests, and high priests, the Of- 
 ficers of the Synagogue may be mentioned here, as 
 being, in some degree, sacred persons ; since to them was 
 confided the superintendence of those places which were 
 set apart for prayer and instruction. Their functions and 
 powers have been stated in pp. 223, 224, supra. 
 
 The Nazarites, or Nazarenes, (as the Hebrew word 
 Nazir implies,) were persons separated from the use of 
 certain things, and sequestered, or consecrated to Jeho- 
 vah. They are commonly regarded as sacred persons : 
 a notice of their institute will be found infra, in page 243. 
 
 The Rechabttes, are by many writers considered as 
 a class of holy persons, who, like the Nazarites, separated 
 themselves from the rest of the Jews, in order that they 
 might lead a more pious life. But this is evidently a mis- 
 take : for they were not Israelites, or Jews, but Kenites, 
 or Midianites, who used to live in tents, and traverse the 
 country in quest of pasture for their cattle, as the Naba- 
 thaean Arabs anciently did, and as the modern Arabians, 
 and Crim-Tartars still do. Their manner of living was 
 not the result of a religious institute, but a mere civil or- 
 dinance grounded upon a national custom. They derived 
 their name from Jonadab, the son of Rechab, a man of 
 eminent zeal for the pure worship of God against idola- 
 try, who assisted king Jehu in destroying the house of 
 Ahab and the worshippers of Baal. (2 Kings x. 15, 16. 
 23.) The Rechabites flourished, as a community, about 
 one hundred and eighty years ; but were dispersed after 
 the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar. Some 
 of their descendants are said to have been lately disco- 
 vered in Arabia. 
 
 The Prophets were eminently distinguished among 
 the persons accounted holy by the Jews : they were raised 
 up by God in an extraordinary manner for the perform- 
 ance of the most sacred functions. Originally, they were 
 called Seers : they discovered things yet future, declared 
 
SACKED THIis 
 
 231 
 
 the will of God, and announced the-ir divine messages, 
 both to kings and people, with a confidence and freedom 
 that could only be produced by the conviction that they 
 were indeed authorized messengers of Jehovah. The gift 
 of prophecy was not always annexed to the priesthood ; 
 there were prophets of all the tribes, and sometimes even 
 among the Gentiles. The office of a prophet was not 
 confined to the prediction of future events ; it was their 
 province to instruct the people, and they interpreted the 
 law of God; hence the words prophet and. prophecy are, 
 in many passages of the Scriptures, synonymous with in- 
 terpreter, or teacher, and interpretation, or teaching. They 
 also had seminaries, termed Schools of the Prophets, 
 where religious truths, or the divine laws, were particu- 
 larly taught. It is unanimously agreed, both by Jews and 
 Christians, that Malachi was the last of the prophets under 
 the Old Testament dispensation : and it is a remarkable 
 fact, that so long as there were prophets among the Jews, 
 they were not divided by sects, or heresies, although they 
 often fell into idolatry. This circumstance may thus be 
 accounted for. As the prophets received their communi- 
 cations of the divine will immediately from God himself, 
 there was no alternative for the Jews ; either the people 
 must obey the prophets, and receive their interpretation of 
 the law, or no longer acknowledge that God who inspired 
 them. When, however, the law of God came to be ex- 
 plained by weak and fallible men, who seldom agreed in 
 their opinions, sects and parties were the unavoidable re- 
 sult of such conflicting sentiments. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 SACKED THINGS.— ON THE SACRIFICES AND OTHER OFFERINGS OF THE JEWS. 
 
 The offerings prescribed to the Israelites have been 
 divided into four classes, viz.: Bloody Offerings, Un- 
 bloody Offerings, Drink Offerings, and Oblations of dif- 
 ferent kinds. 
 
 I. Bloody Offerings were sacrifices properly and 
 strictly so called ; by which we may understand the inflic- 
 tion of death on a living creature, generally by the effu- 
 
<232 SACKED THINGS. 
 
 sion of its blood, in a way of religious worship, and the 
 presenting of this act to God as a supplication for the 
 pardon of sin, and as a supposed mean of compensation 
 for the insult and injury offered by sin to his majesty and 
 government. In all sacrifices of this class, it was re- 
 quired that the victims should be clean, that is, such as 
 might be eaten. Of the bird tribe, the dove was the most 
 common offering ; of quadrupeds, oxen, sheep, and goats 
 were the only kinds destined for the altar. Further, the 
 victim was to be without blemish, (Levit. xxii. 22,) and 
 one which had never borne the yoke. Being found im- 
 maculate, it was led to the altar by the person offering 
 the sacrifice, who laid his hands upon its head ; by which 
 act he acknowledged the sacrifice to be his own, and that 
 he offered it as an atonement for his own sins, by which 
 he had forfeited his life to the violated law of God. The 
 animal being immolated, the blood was caught in a vessel, 
 and partly sprinkled round about upon the altar ; by which 
 the atonement was made. (Levit. i. 5 — 7.) The remainder 
 of the blood was poured out at the foot of the altar ; pre- 
 viously to laying the sacrifice thereon, it was salted for 
 the fire. (Levit. ii. 13. Mark ix. 46.) At first, sacrifices 
 were offered at the door of the tabernacle ; but after the 
 erection of the temple, it was not lawful to offer them 
 elsewhere. The Jewish sacrifices were of three kinds, 
 viz. : 
 
 1. The Burnt Offerings, or Holocausts, were free- 
 will offerings, wholly devoted to God, according to the 
 primitive patriarchal usage. The man himself was to 
 bring them before the Lord, and they were offered in the 
 manner just described. The victim to be offered was, ac- 
 cording to the person's ability, a bullock without blemish, 
 or a male of the sheep, or goats, or a turtle-dove, or 
 pigeon. (Levit. i. 3. 10. 14.) If, however, he was too 
 poor to bring either of these, he was to offer a mincha, or 
 meat-offering, of which an account is given in page 234. 
 It was a very expressive type of the sacrifice of Chrkt, 
 as nothing less than his complete and full sacrifice could 
 make atonement for the sins of the world. 
 
 2. The Peace Offerings (Levit. iii. 1,) were also free- 
 will offerings, in token of peace and reconciliation between 
 God and man ; they were either eucharistical, that is, 
 
SACRIFICES, ETC. OF THE JEWS. 233 
 
 offered as thanksgivings for blessings received, or were 
 offered for the impetration of mercies. These offer- 
 ings consisted either of animals, or of bread, or dough ; 
 if the former, part of them was burnt upon the altar, es- 
 pecially all the fat, as an offering to the Lord ; and the 
 remainder was to be eaten by the priest, and by the party 
 offering. To this sacrifice of praise, or thanksgiving, 
 Saint Paul alludes in Heb. xiii. 15, 16. In this kind of 
 sacrifices the victims might be either male or female, pro- 
 vided they were without blemish. The same apostle has 
 a fine allusion to them in Eph. ii. 14 — 19. 
 
 3. Sin Offerings were offered for sins committed, 
 either through ignorance, or wilfully against knowledge, 
 and which were always punished unless they were expi- 
 ated. In general they consisted of a sin offering to God, 
 and a burnt offering, accompanied with restitution of 
 damage. (Levit. v. 2 — 19, vi. 1 — 7.) 
 
 4. The Trespass Offerings were made, where the 
 party offering had just reason to doubt whether he had 
 violated the law of God or not. (Levit. v. 17, 18.) They 
 do not appear to have differed materially from sin offer- 
 ings. In both these kinds of sacrifices, the person who 
 offered them placed his hands on the victim's head, if a 
 sin offering, and confessed his sin over it, and his trespass 
 over the trespass offering; the animal was then consider- 
 ed as vicariously bearing the sins of the person who 
 brought it. 
 
 All these sacrifices were occasional, and had reference 
 to individuals ; but there were others which were national 
 and regular, daily, weekly, monthly, and annual. 
 
 The perpetual, or Daily Sacrifice, was a burnt offering, 
 consisting of two lambs, which were offered every day, 
 morning and evening, at the third and ninth hours. (Exod. 
 xxix. 38—40. Levit. vi. 9—18. Numb, xxviii. 1—8.) 
 They were burnt as holocausts, but by a small fire, that 
 they might continue burning the longer. With each of 
 these victims was offered a bread offering, and a drink 
 offering of strong wine. The morning sacrifice, accord- 
 ing to the Jews, made atonement for the sins committed 
 in the night, and the evening sacrifice expiated those com- 
 mitted during the day. 
 
 The Weekly Sacrifice, on every Sabbath-day, was equal 
 20* 
 
234 SACRED THINGS, 
 
 to the daily sacrifice, and was offered in addition to it. 
 (Numb, xxviii. 9, 10.) 
 
 The Monthly Sacrifice, on every new moon, or at the 
 beginning of each month, consisted of two young bul- 
 locks, one ram, and seven lambs of a year old, together 
 with a kid for a sin offering, and a suitable bread and 
 drink-offering. (Numb, xxviii. 11 — 14.) 
 
 The Yearly Sacrifices were thus offered on the great 
 annual festivals, which are noticed in the following chap- 
 ter, viz. : 1. The paschal lamb at the passover, which 
 was celebrated at the commencement of the Jewish sacred 
 year ; 2. On the day of Pentecost, or day of first-fruits : 
 
 3. On the New Moon, or first day of the seventh month, 
 which was the commencement of their civil year ; and, 
 
 4. on the day of expiation. 
 
 II. The Unbloody Sacrifices, or Meat-offerings, were 
 taken solely from the vegetable kingdom : they could not, 
 regularly, be presented as sin-offerings, unless the person 
 who had sinned was so poor that he could not afford to 
 bring two young pigeons, or two turtle-doves. They were 
 to be free from leaven, or honey, but to all of them it was 
 necessary to add pure salt, that is, saltpetre. 
 
 III. Drink-Offerings were an accompaniment to both 
 bloody and unbloody sacrifices: they were never used 
 separately ; and consisted of wine, which appears to have 
 been partly poured upon the brow of the victim, in order 
 to consecrate it, and partly allotted to the priests, who 
 drank it, with their portions of both these kirkls of of- 
 ferings. 
 
 IV. Besides the preceding sacrifices, various other ob- 
 lations are mentioned in the sacred writings, which have 
 been divided into ordinary, or common, voluntary, or free 
 oblations, and such as were prescribed. 
 
 1. The Ordinary Oblations consisted, 1. Of the She?v- 
 bread, which has been already noticed in p. 221 ; 
 the loaves were placed hot, every Sabbath-day, by the 
 priests, upon the golden table of the sanctuary before the 
 Lord, when they removed the stale loaves which had 
 been exposed the whole of the preceding week ; and, 2. 
 Of Incense, which was composed of several fragrant 
 spices, prepared according to the commands given in 
 Exod. xxx. 34 — 36. It was offered twice, daily, by the 
 
SACRIFICES, ETC. OF THE JEWS. 235 
 
 officiating priest, upon a golden altar, whereon no bloody- 
 sacrifice was to come, except on the day of atonement, 
 when it was offered by the high priest. During this of- 
 fering, the people prayed silently without ; (Luke i. 10 ;) 
 and to this solemn silence St. John alludes in Rev. viii. 1. 
 
 2. The Voluntary, or Free Oblations were, the fruits 
 either of promises or of vows ; but the former were not 
 considered so strictly obligatory as the latter, of which 
 there were two kinds : 1. The vow of consecration, when 
 any thing was devoted to God, either for sacrifice or for 
 the service of the temple, as wine, wood, salt, &c. To 
 this class of vows belonged the Corban, reprobated by Je- 
 sus Christ, which the Pharisees carried so far as to exone- 
 rate children from assisting their indigent parents (Mark 
 vii. 9 — 11. 13;) and, 2. The vow of engagement, when 
 persons engaged to do something that was not in itself 
 unlawful, as not to eat of some particular meat, not to 
 wear some particular habits, not to drink win»e, nor to cut 
 their hair, &c. 
 
 3. The Prescribed Oblations were either First Fruits, 
 or Tithes. 
 
 (1.) All the First Fruits, both of fruit and animals, 
 were consecrated to God ; (Exod. xxii. 29. Numb, xviii. 
 12, 13. Deut. xxvi. 2. Neh. x. 35, 36 ;) and the first 
 fruits of sheep's wool were offered for the use of the Le- 
 vites. (Deut. xviii. 4.) These first fruits were offered 
 from the feast of Pentecost, until that of Dedication, be- 
 cause after that time the fruits were neither so beautiful, 
 nor so good as before. Further, the Jews were prohibit- 
 ed from gathering in the harvest until they had offered 
 to God the omer, that is, the new sheaf, which was 
 presented the day after the great day of unleavened bread ; 
 neither were they allowed to bake any bread made of new 
 corn, until they had offered the new loaves upon the altar 
 on the day of pentecost ; without which all the corn was 
 regarded as unclean and unholy. To this St. Paul alludes 
 in Rom. xi. 16. 
 
 2. Besides the first fruits, the Jews also paid the tenths, 
 or tithes, of all they possessed ; (Numb, xviii. 21 ;) they 
 were, in general, collected from all the fruits of the earth, 
 but chiefly of corn, wine, and oil, and were rendered every 
 year, except the sabbatical vear. 
 
236 SACRED TIMES AND SEASONS 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 SACRED TIMES AND SEASONS OBSERVED BY THE JEWS. 
 
 In order to perpetuate the memory of the numerous 
 wonders God had wrought in favour of his people, Moses 
 by the divine command instituted various festivals, which 
 they were obliged to observe : these sacred seasons were 
 either weekly, monthly, or annual, or recurred after a 
 certain number of years. 
 
 I. Every seventh day was appropriated to sacred re- 
 pose, and called the Sabbath ; although this name is in 
 some passages given to other festivals, as in Levit. xxv. 
 4 ; and sometimes it denotes a week, as in Matt, xxviii. 1, 
 Luke xxiv. 1, and Acts xx. 7. It was originally instituted 
 to preserve the memory of the creation of the world ; 
 ( Gen. ii. 3 ;) and when God gave the Israelites rest in the 
 land of Canaan, he commanded the Sabbath to be statedly 
 kept. (Exod. xx. 10, 11, xvi. 23.) Accordingly, it was 
 observed with great solemnity ; the Jews religiously ab- 
 staining from all servile work. (Exod xx. 10, xxiii. 12, 
 &c. &c.) It was therefore unlawful to gather manna on 
 that day, (Exod. xvi. 22 — 30,) to light a fire for culinary 
 purposes, and also to sow or reap. (Exod. xxxv. 3. Numb, 
 xv. 32 — 36. Exod. xxxiv. 21.) The services of the temple, 
 however, might be performed without profaning the sabbath, 
 such as preparing the sacrifices ; (Lev. vi. 8 — 13. Numb, 
 xxviii. 3 — 10. Matt. xii. 5 ;) and it was also lawful to 
 perform circumcision on that day. (John vii. 23.) The sab- 
 bath commenced at sun-set, and closed at the same time 
 on the following day. (Matt. vii. 16. Mark i. 32.) What- 
 ever was necessary was prepared on the latter part of the 
 preceding day, that is, of our Friday; whence the day 
 preceding the Sabbath is termed the preparation in Matt, 
 xxvii. 62, Mark xv. 42, Luke xxii. 54, and John xix. 
 14.31.42. 
 
 We know not with certainty from the Mosaic writings 
 what constituted the most ancient worship of the Israelites 
 on the Sabbath-day. It is, however, evident from the 
 New Testament, that the celebration of this day chiefly 
 consisted in the religious exercises which were then per- 
 
OBSERVED BY THE JEWS. 237 
 
 formed : though there is no injunction recorded, except 
 that a burnt-offering of two lambs should on that day be 
 added to the morning and evening sacrifices, (Numb, 
 xxviii. 9,) and that the shewbread should be changed. 
 (Levit. xxiv. 8,) In the synagogues, as we have already 
 see-n, the sacred writings were read and expounded; to 
 which was sometimes added, a discourse, or sermon by 
 some doctor, or eminent teacher. (Luke rv. 16. Acts 
 xiii. 15.) 
 
 Prayer also appears to have formed a part of their sacred 
 worship in the synagogue, and especially in the temple : 
 (1 Sam. i. 9, 10. 1 Kings viii. 29, 30. 33. Psal. xxviii. 
 2. Luke xviii. 10 :) the stated hours were at the time of 
 offering the morning and evening sacrifice, or at the third 
 and ninth hours ; (Actsii. 15, and lii. 1 ;) although it was the 
 custom of the more devout Jews, as David (Psal. lv. 17,) 
 and Daniel, (vi. 10.) to pray three times a day. Peter 
 went up to the house top to pray. (Acts x. 9.) 
 
 II. The Jewish months being lunar, were originally cal- 
 culated from the first appearance of the moon, on which 
 the Feast of the new moon, or beginning of months, (as 
 the Hebrews termed it,) was celebrated. (Exod. xii. 2. 
 Numb. x. 10, xxviii. 11. Isa. i. 13, 14.) It seems to 
 have been in use long before the time of Moses, who by 
 the divine command prescribed what ceremonies were 
 then to be observed. It was proclaimed with the sound 
 of trumpets, (Numb. x. 10. Psal. Ixxxi. 3,) and several 
 additional sacrifices were offered. (Numb, xxviii. 11 — 15.) 
 
 Besides the Sabbath, Moses instituted other festivals : 
 three of these, viz.: the passover, the feast of pentecost, 
 and the feast of tabernacles, which are usually denomina- 
 ted the Great Festivals, were distinguished from the Sab- 
 bath, and indeed from all other holy days, by the circum- 
 stance of each of them lasting seven (one for eight) suc- 
 cessive days ; during which, the Jews were bound to re- 
 joice before the Lord for all their deliverances and mer- 
 cies. (Deut. xvi. 11 — 15.) All the males of the twelve 
 tribes were bound to be present at these grand festivals ; 
 (Exod. xxxiv. 23. Deut. xvi. 16 ;) and for their encour- 
 agement to attend, they were assured that " no man 
 should desire their land" during their absence : (Exod. 
 xxxiv. 24 :) in other words, that they should be secure 
 
23S SACRED TIMES AND SEASONS 
 
 from hostile invasion during their attendance on religious 
 worship : — a manifest proof this of the divine origin of 
 their religion, as woll as of the power and particular provi- 
 dence of God, in working thrice every year an especial 
 miracle for the protection of his people. 
 
 III. The first and most eminent of these festivals was 
 the Passover, instituted the night before the Israelites' 
 departure from Egypt, for a perpetual memorial of their 
 signal deliverance, and of the favour which God showed 
 them in passing over, and sparing their first-born, when 
 he slew the first-born of the Egyptians. (Exod. xii. J 2 — 
 14. 29, 30—51.) This festival was also called the feast, 
 or the days of unleavened bread ; (Exod. xxiii. 15. Mark 
 xiv. 1. Acts xii. 3 ;) because it was unlawful to eat any 
 other bread during the seven days the feast lasted. The 
 name was also, by a metonymy, given to the lamb that 
 was killed on the first day of this feast, (Ezra vi. 20. 
 Matt. xxvi. 17,) whence the expressions, to eat the pass- 
 over (Mark xiv. 12. 14,) and to sacrifice the passover. 
 (1 Cor. v. 7.) Hence also, St. Paul calls Jesus Christ 
 our passover, (ibid.) that is our true paschal lamb. But 
 the appellation, passover, belongs more particularly to the 
 second day of the feast, viz. : the fifteenth day of the 
 month Nisan. It was ordained to be celebrated on the 
 anniversary of the deliverance of the Israelites. This 
 was an indispensable rite, to be observed by every Israel- 
 ite, except in particular cases enumerated in Numb. ix. 1 
 — 13, on pain of death ; and no uncircumcised person 
 was allowed to partake of the passover. In the later 
 times of the Jewish Polity, the custom was introduced, 
 of liberating some criminals, in order to render this festi- 
 val the more interesting : and this custom had become so 
 strong that Pilate could not deviate from it, and therefore 
 reluctantly liberated Barabbas. (Matt, xxvii. 15. Luke 
 xxiii. 17. John xviii. 39.) The particular rites with 
 which this festival was to be celebrated, are specified in 
 Exod. xii. The later Jews made some addition to the 
 rites prescribed by Moses respecting the paschal sacrifice. 
 They drank with it four cups of wine, of which the third 
 was called the cup of blessing, (alluded to in 1 Cor. x. 16, 
 compared with Matt. xxvi. 27.) After which they sang 
 the hymn called the "Great Hallel," viz.: Psalm cxiii. — 
 
OBSERVED BY THE JEWS. 
 
 ^39 
 
 cxviii. Sometimes, when, after the fourth cup, the guests 
 felt disposed to repeat Psalms cxx. — cxxxvii. a fifth cup 
 was also drunk. These ceremonies appear to have been 
 in part imitated by Jesus Christ, in the institution of the 
 Eucharist. The paschal victim typified Jesus Christ, his 
 sufferings, and death : not a bone of it was to be broken: 
 a circumstance, in which there was a remarkable corres- 
 pondence between the type and the antitype. (Exod. xii. 
 46. John xix. 33—36.) 
 
 IV. The Second Great Festival, was the Feast of 
 Pentecost, which was celebrated on the fiftieth day 
 after the first day of unleavened bread. It was a festi- 
 val of thanksgiving for the harvest, which commenced 
 immediately after the passover. On this account two 
 loaves made of the new meal were offered before the 
 Lord as the first fruits: whence it is called the day of 
 the first fruits. The form of thanksgiving is given in 
 Deut. xxvi. 5 — 10. 
 
 V. The Feast of Tabernacles, was instituted to com- 
 memorate the dwelling of the Israelites in tents, while 
 they wandered in the desert. (Lev. xxiii. 34 — 43.) Hence 
 it is called by St. John, the feast of tents, (cK^vonnyia, skeno- 
 pegia, John vii. 2.) It is likewise termed the feast of 
 ingatherings, (Exod. xxiii. 16, xxxiv. 22.) Further, the 
 design of this feast was, to return thanks to God, for the 
 fruits of the vine, as well as of other trees, which were 
 gathered about this time, and also to implore his blessing 
 upon those of the ensuing year. During the whole of 
 the solemnity they were obliged to dwell in tents, which 
 anciently were pitched on the flat terrace-like roofs of 
 their houses. (Neh. viii. 16.) Besides the ordinary 
 daily sacrifices, there were several extraordinary ones 
 offered on this occasion, which are detailed in Numb. 
 xxix. One of the most remarkable ceremonies perform- 
 ed at this feast, was the libation, or pouring out of water, 
 drawn from the fountain, or pool of Siloam, upon the al- 
 tar. As, according to the Jews themselves, this water 
 was an emblem of the Holy Spirit, Jesus Christ mani- 
 festly alluded to it, when he " cried, saying, If any man 
 thirst, let him come unto me and drink." (John vii. 
 37-39.) 
 
 VI. To the three grand annual festivals above descri- 
 
240 SACRED TIMES AND SEASONS 
 
 bed, Moses added two others, which were celebrated with 
 great solemnity, though the presence of every male Israel- 
 ite was not absolutely required. 
 
 1. The first of these was the Feast of Trumpets: 
 it was held on the first and second days of the month 
 Tisri, which was the commencement of the civil year of 
 the Hebrews. This feast derives its name from the blow- 
 ing of trumpets in the temple with more than usual solem- 
 nity. (Numb. xxix. 1. Levit. xxiii. 24.) On this fes- 
 tival, they abstained from all labour, (Levit. xxiii. 25.) 
 and offered particular sacrifices to God, which are de- 
 scribed in Numb. xxix. 1 — 6. 
 
 2. The other feast alluded to, was the Fast, or Feast 
 of Expiation, or Day of Atonement; which day the 
 Jews observed as a most strict fast, abstaining from all 
 servile work, taking no food, and afflicting their souls. 
 (Levit. xxiii. 27 — 30. Of all the sacrifices ordained by 
 the Mosaic law, the sacrifice of the atonement was the 
 most solemn and important : it was offered on the tenth 
 day of the month Tisri, by the high priest alone, for the 
 sins of the whole nation. On this day only, in the course 
 of the year, was the high priest permitted to enter the 
 sanctuary, and not even then without due preparation, 
 under pain of death ; all others being excluded from the 
 tabernacle during the whole ceremony, which prefigured 
 the grand atonement to be made for the sins of the whole 
 world by Jesus Christ. The particulars incident to this 
 solemnity are detailed in Levit. xvi. 
 
 VII. Besides these various annual festivals, which were 
 instituted by divine command, the Jews in later times in- 
 troduced several other feast and fast days, of which the 
 following were the principal : — 
 
 1. The Feast of Purim, or of Lots, as the word signi- 
 fies, is celebrated on the fourteenth and fifteenth days of 
 the month Adar, (or of Ve-Adar, if it be an intercalary 
 year,) in commemoration of the providential deliverance 
 of the Jews from the cruel machinations of Hainan, who 
 had procured an edict from Artaxerxes to extirpate them. 
 (Esth. iii. — ix.) On this occasion the entire book of 
 Esther is read in the synagogues of the modern Jews, 
 not out of a printed copy, but from a roll, which general- 
 ly contains this book alone. All Jews, of both sexes, and 
 
OBSERVED BY THE JEW W . 241 
 
 of every age, who are able to attend, are required to come 
 to this feast, and to join in the reading, for the better pre- 
 servation of the memory of this important fact. 
 
 2. The Feast of Dedication, mentioned in Jolan x. 
 22, was instituted by Judas Maccabeus, to commemorate 
 the purification of the second temple, after it had been 
 profaned by Antiochus Epiphanes. (1 Mace. iv. 52 — 59.) 
 It commenced on the 25th day of the month Cisleu, and 
 was solemnized throughout the country with great re- 
 joicings. 
 
 VIII. The preceding are the chief annual festivals no- 
 ticed in the sacred writings, that are particularly deserving 
 of attention : the Jews have various others, of more modern 
 institution, which are here designedly omitted. We, there- 
 fore, proceed to notice those extraordinary festivals, which 
 were only celebrated after the recurrence of a certain 
 number of years. 
 
 1. The first of these was the sabbatical year; for, as 
 the seventh day of the week was consecrated as a day of 
 rest to man and beast, so this gave rest to the land; 
 which, during its continuance, was to lie fallow, and the 
 " sabbath of the land," or its spontaneous produce, was 
 dedicated to charitable uses, to be enjoyed by the servants 
 of the family, by the way-faring stranger, and by the cat- 
 tle. (Levit. xxv. 1 — 7. Exod. xxiii. 11.) This was also 
 the year of release from personal slavery, (Exod. xxi. 2,) 
 as well as of the remission of debts. (Deut. xv. 1, 2.) 
 
 2. The Jubilee was a more solemn sabbatical year, 
 held every seventh sabbatical year, that is, at the end of 
 every forty-nine years, or the fiftieth current year. (Levit. 
 xxv. 8 — 10.) It commenced on the evening of the day 
 of atonement, and was proclaimed by the sound of trum- 
 pet throughout the whole land. All debts were to be can- 
 celled; all slaves, or captives, were to be released. Even 
 those who had voluntarily relinquished their freedom at 
 the end of their six years' service, and whose ears had 
 been bored in token of their perpetual servitude, were to 
 be liberated at the jubilee : for then they were to proclaim 
 liberty throughout all the land, unto all the inhabitants 
 thereof. (Levit. xxv. 10.) Further, in this year all es- 
 tates that had been sold reverted to their original proprie- 
 tors, or to the families to which they had originally be- 
 
242 IN THE CORRUPTIONS 
 
 longed ; thus provision was made, that no family should 
 be totally ruined, and doomed to perpetual poverty ; for 
 the family estate could not be alienated for a longer pe- 
 riod than fifty years. The value and purchase-money 
 of estates, therefore, diminished in proportion to the near 
 approach of the jubilee. (Levit. xxv. 15.) From this 
 privilege, however, houses in walled towns were except- 
 ed ; these were to be redeemed within a year, otherwise 
 they belonged to the purchaser, notwithstanding the jubi- 
 lee, (ver. 30.) During this year, as well as in the sabbati- 
 cal year, the ground also had its rest, and was not culti- 
 vated. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 SACRED OBLIGATIONS AND DUTIES. OF OATHS. — NATURE AND DIFFERENT SORTS 
 
 OF VOWS. 
 
 I. Of Oaths. — The person who confirmed his asser- 
 tion by a voluntary oath, pronounced the same with his 
 right hand elevated : but when an oath was exacted, 
 whether judically, or otherwise, the person to whom it 
 was put, answered by saying, Amen, Amen, (So let it be,) 
 or, Thou hast said it. (Numb. v. 19 — 22. Deut. xxvii. 15 
 —26. Matt. xxvi. 64.) In the time of Christ, the Jews 
 were in the habit of swearing by the altar, by Jerusalem, 
 by themselves, &c. &c. ; and because the sacred name of 
 God was not mentioned in such oaths, they considered 
 them as imposing little, if any deception. Such fraudu 
 lent conduct is severely censured by Jesus Christ in Matt, 
 v. 33-— 37, and xxiii. 16—22. 
 
 II. Nature and different kinds of Vows. 
 
 A Vow is a religious engagement, or promise, volunta- 
 rily undertaken by a person towards Almighty God : to 
 render it valid, Moses requires that it be actually uttered 
 with the mouth, and not merely in the heart; (Numb 
 xxx. 3. 7. 9. 13. Deut. xxiii. 24;) and in Deut. xxiii. 18, 
 he prohibits the offering of what is acquired by impure 
 means. Two sorts of Vows are mentioned in the Old 
 Testament ; viz. : 
 
 I. The Cherem, or Irremissible Vow : it was the most 
 solemn of all, and was accompanied with a form of exe- 
 
SACRED OBLIGATIONS AND DUTIES. 243 
 
 cration. This vow is no where enjoined by Moses. The 
 species of cherem with which we are best acquainted, was 
 the previous devotement to God of hostile cities, against 
 which they intended to proceed with extreme severity ; 
 and that with a view the more to inflame the minds 
 of the people to war. In such cases, not only were all 
 the inhabitants put to death, but also, according as the 
 terms of the vow declared, no booty was made by any Is- 
 raelite ; the beasts were slain ; what would not burn, as 
 gold, silver, and other metals, was added to the treasure 
 of the sanctuary; and every thing else, with the whole 
 city, burnt, and an imprecation pronounced upon any at- 
 tempt that should ever be made to rebuild it. Of this the 
 history of Jericho (3osh. vi. 17 — 19. 21 — 24, and vii. 1. 
 12 — 26,) furnishes the most remarkable example. 
 
 2. The common vows were divided into two sorts, viz. : 
 1. Vows of dedication; and, 2. Vows of self-interdiction, 
 or abstinence. 
 
 i. The Neder, or vow, in the stricter sense of the word, 
 was when a person engaged to do any thing, as, for in- 
 stance, to bring an offering to God ; or otherwise to dedi- 
 cate any thing unto him. Things vowed in this way, 
 were, 1. Unclean beasts. These might be estimated by 
 the priest, and redeemed by the vower, by the addition of 
 one-fifth to the value. (Lev. xxvii. 11 — 13.) 2. Clean 
 beasts used for offerings. Here there was no right of re- 
 demption ; nor could the beasts be exchanged for others, 
 under the penalty of both being forfeited, and belonging 
 to the Lord. (Lev. xxvii. 9, 10.) 3. Lands and houses. 
 These had the privilege of valuation and redemption. 
 (Lev. xxvii. 14 — 24.) To these we have to add, 4. The 
 person of the vower himself with the like privilege. (Lev. 
 xxvii. 1 — 8.) 
 
 ii. Vows of Self-interdiction, or self-denial, were, 
 when a person engaged to abstain from wine, food, or any 
 other thing. To this class of vows may be referred the 
 Nazareate, or Nazariteship, the statutes respecting which 
 are related in Numb. vi. The Nazarites were required 
 to abstain from wine, fermented liquors, and every thing 
 made of grapes, to let their hair grow, and not to defile 
 themselves by touching the dead ; and if any person had 
 accidentally expired in their presence, the Nazarites of 
 
244 SACRED OBLIGATIONS AND DUTIES. 
 
 the second class were obliged to recommence their Naza 
 riteship. 
 
 Similar to the Nazareate was the vow frequently made 
 by devout Jews, on their recovery from sickness, or de- 
 liverance from danger, or distress : who, for thirty days 
 before they offered sacrifices, abstained from wine, and 
 shaved the hair of their head. This usage illustrates the 
 conduct of St. Paul, as related in Acts xvii. 18. 
 
 III. The Purifications of the Jews were various, 
 and the objects of them were either persons, or things 
 dedicated to divine worship. The Jews had two sorts of 
 washing ; one, of the whole body by immersion, which 
 was used by the priests at their consecration, and by the 
 proselytes at their initiation ; — the other, of the hands, or 
 feet, called dipping, or pouring of water, and which was 
 of daily use, not only for the hands, and feet, but also for 
 the cups and other vessels used at their meals. (Matt. xv. 
 2. Mark vii. 3, 4. John ii. 6.) To these two modes of 
 purification, Jesus Christ seems to allude in John xiii. 10 
 
 IV. In the Mosaic law, those persons are termed un- 
 clean, whom others were obliged to avoid touching, or 
 even meeting, unless they chose to be themselves defiled, 
 that is, cut off from all intercourse with their brethren ; 
 and who, besides, were bound to abstain from frequent- 
 ing the place where divine service and the offering-feasts 
 were held, under penalties still more severe. 
 
 The duration and degrees of impurity were different. 
 In some instances, by the use of certain ceremonies, an 
 unclean person became purified at sunset ; in others, this 
 did not take place, until eight days after the physical cause 
 of defilement ceased. Lepers were obliged to live in a 
 detached situation, separate from other people, and to keep 
 themselves actually at a distance from them. They were 
 distinguished by a peculiar dress ; and if any person ap- 
 proached, they were bound to give him warning, by cry- 
 ing out, Unclean! unclean! Other polluted persons, again, 
 could not directly touch those that were clean, without 
 defiling them in like manner, and were obliged to remain 
 without the camp, that they might not be in their way. 
 (Numb. v. 1 — 4.) Eleven different species of impurity 
 are enumerated in the Levitical law, to which the later 
 Jews added many otkers. But the severest of all was the 
 
ON THE CORRUPTIONS, ETC. 245 
 
 Leprosy, an infectious disease of slow, and imperceptible 
 progress, beginning very insidiously and gently, until at 
 length it became incurable, and most offensively loath- 
 some. The Mosaic statutes respecting this malady, are 
 recorded in Levit. xiii. xiv. Numb. v. 1 — 4, and Deut. 
 xxiv. 8, 9. The leprosy has ever been considered as a 
 lively emblem of that moral taint, or corruption of the na- 
 ture of every man, that naturally is engendered of the off- 
 spring of Adam ;* as the sacrifices, which were to be 
 offered by the healed leper, prefigured that spotless Lamb 
 of God that taketh away the sin of the world. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 ON THE CORRUPTIONS OF RELIGION BY THE JEWS. 
 
 I. On the Idolatry of the Jews. — II. Jewish Sects, mentioned in the New 
 Testament. — III. Extreme corruption of the Jewish People at the time 
 f Christ's Birth. 
 
 I. Idolatry op the Jews. 
 
 Idolatry is the superstitious worship of idols, or false 
 gods. From Gen. vi. 5, compared with Rom. i. 23, there 
 is every reason to believe that it was practised before the 
 flood ; and this conjecture is confirmed by the apostle 
 Jude, (ver. 4,) who, describing the character of certain 
 men in his days, that denied the only Lord God, adds, in 
 the eleventh verse of his epistle, Wo unto them, for they 
 are gone into the way of Cain ; whence it may be infer- 
 red that Cain and his descendants were the first who 
 threw off the sense of a God, and worshipped the crea- 
 ture instead of the Creator. The heavenly bodies were 
 the first objects of idolatrous worship, and Mesopotamia 
 and Chaldaea were the countries where it chiefly prevail- 
 ed after the deluge, whence it spread into Canaan, Egypt, 
 and other countries. Although Moses, by the command 
 and instruction of God, had given to the Israelites such a 
 religion as no other nation possessed, and notwithstanding 
 all his laws were directed to preserve them from idolatry, 
 yet, so wayward were the Israelites, that, almost immedi- 
 
 * Article IX. of the Confession of the Anglican Church. 
 
 21 
 
246 ON THE corruptions 
 
 ately after their departure from Egypt, we find them wor- 
 shipping idols. (Exod. xxxii. 1. Psal. cvi. 19, 20. Acts vii. 
 41 — 43.) Soon after their entrance into the land of Ca- 
 naan, they adopted various deities that were worshipped 
 by the Canaanites and other neighbouring nations ; (Judg. 
 ii. 13, viii. 33 ;) for which base ingratitude, they were 
 severely punished. And, after the division of the two 
 kingdoms, it is well known, that, with the exception of a 
 few short intervals, both the sovereigns and people of Is- 
 rael, were wholly given to idolatry : nor were the people 
 of Judah, exempt from the worship of strange gods, as the 
 frequent reproofs of the prophets abundantly testify. At 
 length, however, become wiser by the severe discipline 
 they had received, the tribes that returned into their native 
 country from the Babylonian captivity, wholly renounced 
 idolatry ; and thenceforth, uniformly evinced the most 
 deeply rooted aversion from all strange deities, and foreign 
 modes of worship. This great reformation, was accom- 
 plished by Ezra and Nehemiah, and the eminent men who 
 accompauied, or succeeded them ; but, in the progress of 
 time, though the exterior of piety was maintained, the 
 " power of godliness" was lost ; and we learn from the 
 New Testament, that, during our Saviour's ministry, the 
 Jews were divided into various religious parties, which 
 widely differed in opinion, and pursued each other with 
 the fiercest animosity, and with implacable hatred. 
 
 II. Of these Sects, and their respective tenets, to 
 which there are frequent allusions in the New Testament, 
 we are now to give a concise account. 
 
 . The sect of the Sadducees derived its name from 
 Sadok, a pupil of Antigonus Sochaeus, president of the 
 sanhedrin, or great council ; who flourished about two 
 hundred aud sixty years before the Christian sera. They 
 disregarded all the traditions and unwritten laws, which 
 the Pharisees prized so highly, and professed to consider 
 the Scriptures, as the only source and rule of the Jewish 
 religion. They denied the existence of angels and spirits, 
 considered the soul as dying with the body, and conse- 
 quently admitted of no future state of rewards and pun- 
 ishments. The tenets of this sect, which was small in 
 point of numbers, were not so acceptable to the people as 
 those of the Pharisees. 
 
OF RELIGION BY THE JEWS. 247 
 
 2. The Pharisees are supposed to have appeared not 
 long after the Sadducees. They were the most nume- 
 rous, distinguished, and popular sect among the Jews. 
 They derived their name from the Hebrew word Pha- 
 rash, which signifies separated, or set apart, because they 
 separated themselves from the rest of the Jews, to supe- 
 rior strictness in religious observances. They boasted 
 that, from their accurate knowledge of religion, they were 
 the favourites of heaven; and thus, trusting in themselves 
 that they were righteous, despised others. (Luke xi. 52, 
 xviii. 9. 11.) 
 
 Though they professed to esteem the written books of 
 the Old Testament as the sources of the Jewish religion, 
 yet they also attributed great and equal authority to tra 
 ditional precepts, relating principally to external rites. 
 They held the soul to be immortal, and the doctrine of 
 the resurrection of the body ; but they believed that all 
 things were controlled by fate. They rigidly interpreted 
 the Mosaic Law, but not unfrequently violated its spirit 
 by their traditional and philosophical expositions. They 
 were zealous in making proselytes ; and their professed 
 sanctity gave them great influence among the common 
 people, especially with the female part of the community 
 Their general hypocrisy and profligacy, are severely ar- 
 raigned by Jesus Christ. 
 
 3. The Essenes, who were the third principal sect 
 among the Jews, differed in many respects from the Pha- 
 risees and Sadducees, both in doctrines and in practice. 
 They were divided into two classes : 1. The practical 
 who lived in society, (and some of whom were married,) 
 though, it appears, with much circumspection. These 
 dwelt in cities and their neighbourhoods, and applied 
 themselves to husbandry, and other innocent occupations 
 2. The contemplative Essenes, who were also called 
 Therapeutae, or Physicians, from their application prin- 
 cipally to the cure of the diseases of the soul, devoted 
 themselves wholly to meditation, and avoided living in 
 great towns, as unfavourable to a contemplative life. But 
 both classes were exceedingly abstemious, exemplary in 
 their moral deportment, averse from profane swearing, 
 and most rigid in their observance of the Sabbath. They 
 held, among other tenets, the immortality of the soul, 
 
248 ON THE CORRUPTIONS 
 
 (though they denied the resurrection of the body,) the 
 existence of angels, and a state of future rewards and 
 punishments. They believed every thing to be ordered 
 by an eternal fatality, or chain of causes. Though they 
 are not mentioned in the New Testament, they are sup- 
 posed to be referred to in Col. ii. 18. 21. 23 : and the 
 contemplative Essenes, are supposed to have been in- 
 tended by those who in Matt. xix. 12, are said to have 
 made themselves eunuchs, for the kingdom of God's sake. 
 
 4. The Scribes and Lawyers, who are frequently 
 mentioned in the Gospels, are usually classed among 
 Jewish sects. The Scribes had the charge of transcribing 
 the sacred books, of publicly interpreting the more diffi- 
 cult passages, and of deciding in cases which grew out of 
 the ceremonial law. They possessed great influence, as 
 well as the lawyers, or private teachers of the law. 
 
 5. The Samaritans, are generally considered as a 
 Jewish sect : their origin and tenets, have already been 
 noticed in p. 68. 
 
 6. The Herodians, were a political faction, the parti- 
 sans of Herod, misnamed the Great, from whom they de- 
 rived their name, and with whom they co-operated in all 
 his political and time-serving schemes, to conciliate the 
 favour of the Romans. 
 
 7. The Galileans, were the followers of Judas the 
 Gaulonite, or Galileean, whose tenets they embraced, and 
 acted upon. They held, that tribute was due to God 
 alone, and consequently, ought not to be paid to the Ro- 
 mans ; and that religious liberty, and the authority of the 
 divine laws, were to be defended by force of arms. In 
 other respects, their doctrines appear to have been the 
 same as those of the Pharisees. 
 
 The Zealots, so often mentioned in Jewish history, 
 appear to have been the followers of this Judas : and it 
 has been supposed, that the just men, whom the Phari- 
 sees and Herodians sent to entangle Jesus in his conver- 
 sation, were members of this sect. (Matt. xxii. 15, 16. 
 Mark xii. 13, 14. Luke xx. 20.) 
 
 8. The Sicarii, noticed in Acts xxi. 38, were assas- 
 sins, who derived their name from their using poniards, 
 bent like the Roman sicce, which they concealed under 
 
OF RELIGION Bl r THE JEWS. 249 
 
 their garments, and privately stabbed the objects of their 
 malice. 
 
 III. The Corruption op the Jewish People, both 
 in religion and morals, in the time of Christ, sufficiently 
 appears from the censures of Jesus Christ, which are to 
 be found in the four Gospels. The evidence of the sa- 
 cred writers is confirmed by the testimony of profane 
 writers, especially Josephus, the Jewish Historian, from 
 whom we learn, that the corruption and profligacy of the 
 chief priests, and other distinguished leaders, pervaded 
 the priests ; and that from them, the moral and religious 
 contamination had spread to the lowest classes of the peo- 
 ple, who were immersed in ignorance and vice, and che- 
 rished the most supercilious contempt, and bitter hatred 
 towards the Gentiles. So great was their profligacy in 
 the last period of their commonwealth, that Josephus has 
 recorded it as his opinion, that if the Romans had delay- 
 ed any longer to have come against them, the city (Je- 
 rusalem) would either have been swallowed up by an 
 earthquake, overwhelmed by a deluge, or destroyed by 
 fire from heaven, as Sodom was : for that generation was 
 far more enormously wicked, than those who suffered 
 these calamities.* 
 
 * De Bell. Jud. lib. v. c. 13. S & 
 
250 
 
 BOOK IV — DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES OF THE JEWS AND OTHER 
 NATIONS, INCIDENTALLY MENTIONED IN THE SCRIPTURES. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 ON THE DWELLINGS OF THE JEWS. 
 
 The earliest dwellings of mankind, after they began 
 to multiply, are supposed to have been caves : thus Lot 
 and his daughters abode in a cave after the destruction 
 of Sodom : and both ancient and modern travellers attest, 
 that, in some parts of the East, caves have been employ- 
 ed for the purposes of habitation. In succeeding ages, 
 they abode in tents ; (Gen. xviii. 4 ;) and, in progress of 
 time, houses were erected ; those of the rich were formed 
 of stone, or bricks, but the dwellings of the poor, were 
 formed of wood, or more frequently of mud, (as they are 
 to this day, in various parts of the East,) a material 
 which is but ill calculated to resist the effects of the im- 
 petuous torrents, that descended from the mountains of 
 Palestine. Our Lord alludes to this circumstance at the 
 close of his sermon on the mount. (Matt. vii. 26, 27.) In 
 the East Indies also, nothing is more common than for 
 thieves to dig, or break through these mud walls, while 
 the unsuspecting inhabitants are overcome by sleep, and 
 to plunder them. To similar depredations, Jesus Christ 
 appears to allude, when he exhorts his disciples, not to 
 lay up their treasure where thieves break through and 
 steal. (Matt. vi. 19, 20.) In the holes and chinks of 
 these walls, serpents sometimes concealed themselves. 
 (Amos v. 19.) 
 
 The following diagram will convey some idea of the 
 form of an oriental house. 
 
ON THE DWELLINGS OF THE JEWS 
 
 251 
 
 As the style of Architecture and manners of the East 
 have remained unaltered, the description of a modern 
 oriental house will enable us to form a tolerably correct 
 notion of the structure of the Jewish houses. In the East, 
 the streets are usually narrow, the better to shade them 
 from the sun, and sometimes they have a range of shops 
 on each side. If, then, we enter a house from the street, 
 A A j we shall pass through the outer porch, B, into a 
 square court open to the weather. This court, strewed 
 with mats or carpets, is the usual place for receiving large 
 companies at nuptials, circumcisions, and on other occa- 
 sions. The banquet of Ahasuerus was given in a court 
 of the royal palace; (Esth. i. 5;) and in a court the multi 
 tude was assembled to hear the discourse of Jesus Christ, 
 mentioned in Luke v. 19, where it is termed to pevov, (to 
 meson,) the midst. The court is, for the most part, sur 
 rounded with a cloister, over which is a gallery, C C C 
 with a balustrade, or piece of lattice, or carved work 
 going round it, to prevent accidents : and from this clois- 
 ter, we are led into apartments of the same length as the 
 court. D, is an inner porch, at the entrance into the 
 main building. The gates were always shut, and a ser- 
 vant acted the part of porter. (John xvii. 16, 17. Acts 
 xii. 13.) The roofs were flat, (as they still are,) and were 
 formed of earth, spread evenly along, and rolled very 
 
252 ON THE DWELLINGS OF THE JEWS 
 
 hard, to exclude the rain ; but upon this surface, grass and 
 weeds grow freely, to which there is an allusion in Psal. 
 cxxix. 6. and Isa. xxxvii. 27. These roofs are surround- 
 ed by a wall, breast high, to prevent persons from falling 
 through : such a defence, or battlement, was required by 
 Deut. xxii. 8. It was this parapet which the men de- 
 molished, in order to let the paralytic down into the court, 
 or area of the house. (Mark ii. 4. Luke v. 19.) The 
 back part of the house is allotted to the women : in Ara- 
 bic it is called the Harem, and in the Old Testament the 
 Palace. Manahem, king of Israel, was assassinated in 
 his harem, or palace. (2 Kings xv. 25.) The harem 
 of Solomon was an inner and separate building. (1 Kings 
 vii. 8. 2 Chron viii. 11.) 
 
 The furniture of the oriental dwellings, at least in the 
 earliest ages, was very simple : that of the poorer classes, 
 consisted of but few articles, and those such as were ab- 
 solutely necessary. Instead of chairs, they sat on mats, 
 or skins ; and the same articles on which they laid a 
 mattress, served them instead of bedsteads, while their 
 upper garment served them for a covering. (Exod. xxii. 
 25, 26. Deut. xxiv. 12.) This circumstance accounts 
 for our Lord's commanding the paralytic to take up his 
 bed and go unto his house. (Matt. ix. 6.) The more 
 opulent had (as those in the East still have) fine carpets, 
 couches, or divans, and sofas, on which they sit, lay, and 
 slept. (2 Kings iv. 10. 2 Sam. xvii. 28.) In later times, 
 their couches were splendid, and the frames inlaid with 
 ivory, (Amos vi. 4,) and the coverlids rich and perfumed. 
 (Prov. vii. 16, 17.) On these sofas, in the latter ages of 
 the Jewish state, (for before the time of Moses, it appears 
 to have been the custom to sit at table, Gen. xliii. 33.) 
 they universally reclined when taking their meals, (Amos 
 vi. 4. Luke vii. 36 — 38,) resting on their side, with 
 their heads towards the table, so that their feet were ac- 
 cessible to one who came behind the couch. 
 
ON THE DRLSS OF THE JEWS. 253 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 ON THE DRESS OF THE JEWS. 
 
 In the early ages, the dress of mankind was very sim- 
 ple. Skins of animals, furnished the first materials, which, 
 as men increased in numbers and civilization, were ex- 
 changed for more costly articles, made of wool and ftax, 
 of which they manufactured woollen and linen garments ; 
 (Levit. xiii. 47. Prov. xxxi. 13 ;) afterwards, fine linen 
 and silk, dyed with purple, scarlet, and crimson, became 
 the usual apparel of the more opulent. (2 Sam, i. 24. 
 Prov. xxxi. 22. Luke xvi. 19.) In the more early ages, 
 garments of various colours were in great esteem : such 
 was Joseph's robe, of which his envious brethren stripped 
 him, when they resolved to sell him. (Gen. xxxvii. 23.) 
 The daughters of kings, wore richly embroidered vests. 
 (Psal. xlv. 13, 14.) It appears that the Jewish garments, 
 were worn pretty long ; for it is mentioned, as an aggra- 
 vation of the affront done to David's ambassadors, by the 
 king of Ammon, that he cut off their garments in the mid~ 
 die, even to their buttocks. (2 Sam. x. 4.) 
 
 The most simple and ancient garment, was a tunic ; it 
 was a piece of cloth, commonly linen, which encircled the 
 whole body, was bound with a girdle, and descended to 
 the knees. Those who are clothed with a tunic merely, 
 are sometimes said to be naked, as in John xxi. 7. An 
 under garment, or shirt, was worn under the tunic. To 
 prevent the latter from impeding the person, girdles were 
 worn round the loins, whence various figurative expres- 
 sions are derived in the Scriptures, to denote preparation, 
 active employment, and despatch. Sometimes, also, these 
 girdles served as a pouch to carry money, and other ne- 
 cessary things. (Matt. x. 9. Mark vi. 8.) Over the 
 tunic was worn an upper garment, or mantle : it was a 
 piece of cloth nearly square, several feet in length and 
 breadth, which was wrapped round the body, or tied over 
 the shoulders. The feet were protected from injury, by 
 sandals bound round the feet ; to loose and bind them on, 
 was the office of the lowest menial servants. The beard 
 was considered a great ornament : to pluck, or mar it in 
 any way, was considered a great disgrace. (2 Sam. x. 4.) 
 
 22 
 
254 MARRIAGE CUSTOMS OF THE JEWS. 
 
 A heavy head of hair, was considered a great ornament, 
 (2 Sam. xiv. 26,) as baldness was accounted a source of 
 contempt. (2 Kings ii. 23.) The hair was combed, set 
 in order, and anointed, especially on festive occasions. 
 To this practice, there are very numerous allusions in the 
 Scriptures. A sort of mitre, probably similar to the mo- 
 dern turbans, was worn to defend the head. A prodi- 
 gious number of magnificent habits was, anciently, re- 
 garded as a necessary part of the treasures of the rich : 
 and the practice of amassing them is alluded to in Job 
 xxvii. 6, and Matt. vi. 19. It appears from Psal. xlv. 8, 
 that the wardrobes of the East, were plenteously perfu- 
 med with aromatics. 
 
 The dress of the women differed from that of the men, 
 chiefly in the quality of the materials, and in the women 
 wearing a veil. Rings, necklaces, pendants, and other 
 ornaments, still worn by the fair sex, formed part of the 
 apparel of the Jewish ladies : and like the oriental wo- 
 men of our time, they tinged their eyelids with the pow- 
 der of lead ore. Thus Jezebel did, who, in 2 Kings 
 ix. 30, is said to have painted her face : and Job's young- 
 est daughter (xli. 14,) had a name (Keren-happuch, that 
 is, the horn of pouk, or lead ore,) in reference to this 
 practice. 
 
 Mirrors formed an important accompaniment to the 
 female wardrobe : anciently, they were made of molten 
 brass polished, and were carried in the hand. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 MARRIAGE CUSTOMS OF THE JEWS, 
 
 Marriage, was regarded by the Jews, as a sacred ob- 
 ligation, and celibacy was accounted a great reproach. 
 Polygamy was tolerated, but not authoritatively allowed. 
 The concubines, of whom we read, were secondary, or 
 inferior wives, whose children did not inherit the father's 
 property, except on failure of issue by the primary, or 
 more honourable wives. Thus, Sarah was Abraham's pri- 
 mary wife, by whom he had Isaac, who was the heir of his 
 wealth. But besides her, he had two concubines, namely, 
 
MARRIAGE CUSTOMS OF THE JEWS. 355 
 
 Hagar and Keturah ; by these he had other children, 
 whom he distinguished from Isaac : for it is said, he gave 
 them gifts, and sent them away while he yet lived. 
 (Gen. xxv. 5, 6.) 
 
 No formalities appear to have been used by the Jews 
 — at least none were enjoined to them by Moses — in join- 
 ing man and wife together. Mutual consent, followed by 
 consummation, was deemed sufficient. The manner in 
 which a daughter was demanded in marriage, is described 
 in the case of Shechem, who asked Dinah, the daughter 
 of Jacob, in marriage; (Gen. xxxiv. 6 — 12;) and the na- 
 ture of the contract, together with the mode of solemni- 
 zing the marriage, is described in Gen. xxiv. 50, 51 . 57. 
 67. There was indeed, a previous espousal, or betroth- 
 ing, which was a solemn promise of marriage, made by 
 the man and woman, each to the other, at such a distance 
 of time as they agreed upon. This was sometimes done 
 by writing, sometimes by the delivery of a piece of silver 
 to the bride, in presence of witnesses, as a pledge of their 
 mutual engagements. After such espousal was made, 
 (which was generally when the parties were young,) the 
 woman continued with her parents several months, if not 
 some years, (at least till she was arrived at the age of 
 twelve,) before she was brought home, and her marriage 
 consummated. That it was the practice to betroth the 
 bride sometime before the consummation of the marriage, 
 is evident from Deut. xx. 7. Thus we find, that Samson's 
 wife remained with her parents a considerable time after 
 the espousal. (Judg. xiv. 8.) If, during the time between 
 the espousal and the marriage, the bride was guilty of any 
 criminal correspondence with another person, contrary to 
 the fidelity she owed to her bridegroom, she was treated 
 as an adulteress. Among the Jews, and generally through- 
 out the East, marriage was considered as a sort of pur- 
 chase, which the man made of the woman he desired to 
 marry ; and therefore, in contracting marriages, as the 
 wife brought a portion to the husband, so the husband was 
 obliged to give her or her parents money, or presents, in 
 lieu of this portion. See instances in Gen. xxxiv. 12, 
 xxix. 18. 1 Sam xviii. 25. The nuptial solemnity, was 
 celebrated with great festivity and splendour. The para- 
 
256 BIRTH, EDUCATION, ETC. OF CHILDREN. 
 
 ble of the tea virgins in Matt. xxv. gives a good idea of the 
 customs practised on these occasions. 
 
 Marriage was dissolved among the Jews by divorce as 
 well as by death. Our Saviour tells us that Moses suf- 
 fered this only because of the hardness of their heart, but 
 from the beginning it was not so, (Matt. xix. 8,) mean- 
 ing that they were accustomed to this abuse ; and to pre- 
 vent greater evils, such as murders, adulteries, &c, he 
 permitted it ; and he expressly limited the permission of 
 divorce to the single case of adultery. (Matt. v. 31, 32.) 
 Nor was this limitation unnecessary : for at that time it 
 was common for the Jews, to dissolve this sacred union, 
 upon verv slight and trivial pretensions. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 BIIITH, EDUCATION, ETC. OF CHILDREN. 
 
 In the East, child-birth is, to this day, an event of but 
 little difficulty, and mothers were originally the only as- 
 sistants of their daughters, an} 7 further aid being deemed 
 unnecessary, though midwives were sometimes emplov- 
 ed. (Exod. i. 19. Gen. xxxv. 17, xxxviii. 28.) The "birth 
 of a son was celebrated as a festival, which was solemni- 
 zed in succeeding years with renewed demonstrations of 
 joy, especially those of sovereign princes. (Gen. xl. 20. 
 Job i. 4. Matt. xiv. 6.) The birth of a son, or daughter, 
 rendered the mother ceremonially unclean for a certain 
 period. 
 
 On the eighth day after his birth, the son was circum- 
 cised, and received a name. The Jirst-boim son, enjoy- 
 ed peculiar privileges. He received a double portion of 
 the estate : he was the high priest of the whole family ; 
 and he enjoyed an authority over those who were younger, 
 similar to that possessed by a father. The sons remained 
 till the fifth year in the care of the women ; after which, 
 the father took charge of them, and instructed them, or 
 caused them to be instructed, in the arts and duties of life, 
 and in the law of Moses. (Deut. vi. 20 — 25, xi. 19.) 
 The daughters rarely went out, unless sent for a specific 
 purpose. Where there were no children, adoption — or the 
 
ON THE CONDITION OF SLAVES, ETC. 257 
 
 taking of a stranger into a family, in order to make him 
 a part of it, acknowledging him as a son and heir to the 
 estate — was practised. The elder Hebrews, indeed, do 
 not appear to have had recourse to adoption, because 
 Moses is silent concerning it in his laws. It was, however, 
 common in the time of Jesus Christ ; and St. Paul has 
 many beautiful allusions to it in his epistles. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 ON THE CONDITION OF SLAVES, AND THE CL3T0MS RELATING TO THEM, MEN- 
 TIONED, OR ALLUDED TO IN THE NEW TESTAMENT. 
 
 Slavery is of very remote antiquity. It existed before 
 the flood : (Gen. ix. 25 :) and when Moses gave his laws 
 to the Jews, finding it already established, though he 
 could not abolish it, yet he enacted various salutary laws 
 and regulations. 
 
 Slaves were acquired in various ways, viz. : 1. By 
 Captivity; (Gen. xiv. 14. Deut. xx. 14, xxi. 10, 11 ;) 
 
 2. By Debt, when persons, being poor, were sold for pay- 
 ment of their debts ; (2 Kings iv. 1. Matt, xviii. 25 ;) 
 
 3. By committing a Theft, without the power of making 
 restitution; (Exod. xxii. 2, 3. Neh. v. 4, 5;) and 4. 
 By Birth, when persons were born of married slaves, 
 These are termed born in the house, (Gen. xiv. 14, xv. 3, 
 xvii. 23, xxi. 10,) home-born, (Jer. ii. 14,) and the sons, 
 or children of handmaids. (Psal. lxxxvi. 16, cxvi. 16.) 
 
 Slaves received both food and clothing, for the most 
 part of the meanest quality, but whatever property they 
 acquired, belonged to their lords : hence, they are said to 
 be worth double the value of a hired servant. (Deut. xv. 
 18.) They formed marriages at the will of their master, 
 but their children were slaves, who, though they could 
 not call him a father, (Gal. iv. 6. Rom. viii. 15,) yet they 
 were attached and faithful to him as to a father ; on which 
 account, the patriarchs trusted them with arms. (Gen. 
 xiv. 14, xxxii. 6, xxxiii. 1.) Their duty was to execute 
 their lord's commands, and they were, for the most part, 
 employed in tending cattle, or in rural affairs : and 
 though the lot of some of them was sufficiently hard, 
 22* 
 
258 ON THE CONDITION OF SLAVES, ETC. 
 
 yet under a mild and humane master, it was tolerable. 
 (Job xiii. 13.) When the eastern people have no male 
 issue, they frequently (as in Barbary) marry their daughters 
 to their slaves : so Sheshan did, who gave his daughter 
 to his Egyptian servant [slave] Jarha. (See 1 Chron. ii. 
 34, 35.) Various regulations were made by Moses to 
 ensure the humane treatment of slaves ; among which 
 the three following, are particularly worthy of notice ; 1. 
 Hebrew slaves were to continue in slavery only till the 
 year of jubilee, when they might return to liberty, and 
 their masters could not detain them against their wills. 
 If they were desirous of continuing with their master, 
 they were to be brought to the judges ; before whom they 
 were to make a declaration, that, for this time, they dis- 
 claimed the privilege of the law: and they had their ears 
 bored through with an awl, against the door-posts of their 
 master's house, after which, they had no longer any power 
 of recovering their liberty until the next year of jubi- 
 lee, after forty-nine years. (Exod. xxi. 5, 6.) 2. If a 
 Hebrew by birth, was sold to a stranger, or alien, dwell- 
 ing in the vicinity of the land of Israel, his relations were 
 to redeem him, and such slave was to make good the pur- 
 chase money, if he were able, paying in proportion to the 
 number of years that remained, until the year of jubilee. 
 (Lev. xxv. 47 — 55.) 3. Lastly, if a slave of another na- 
 tion fled to the Hebrews, he was to be received hospi- 
 tably, and on no account to be given up to his master. 
 (Deut. xxiii. 15, 16.) 
 
 Although Moses inculcated the duty of humane treat- 
 ment towards slaves, and enforced his statutes by vari- 
 ous strong sanctions, yet it appears from Jer. xxxiv. 8 — 
 22, that their condition was sometimes very wretched ; 
 and, in later times, among the Greeks and Romans, it 
 was, in general, truly miserable. Being for the most 
 part captives taken in war, they were bought and sold 
 like beasts of burden ; and were at the mercy of their 
 owners, who had an absolute right over their lives, and 
 who branded them, in order to mark their property. To 
 the practice of buying, purchasing, and branding slaves, 
 St. Paul has several fine allusions. See particularly, 1 
 Cor. vi. 20, vii. 23, and Gal. vi. 17. The confinement 
 of slaves in mines, appears to bs referred to in Matt. viii. 
 
DOMESTIC CUSTOMS, ETC. OF THE JEWS. 259 
 
 12, and xxii. 13, and crucifixion was a punishment al- 
 most exclusively reserved for them : whence St. Paul 
 takes occasion to illustrate the love of Christ for fallen 
 man, who, for the joy that was set before him, endured 
 the cross, despising the shame and ignominy of such a 
 death. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 DOMESTIC CUSTOMS AND USAGES OP THE JEWS. 
 
 Various are the modes of address and politeness, which 
 custom has established in different nations. The ordinary 
 formulae of salutation were — The Lord be with thee! — 
 The Lord bless thee ! — and Blessed be thou of the Lord ! 
 but the most common salutation was, Peace (that is, may 
 all manner of prosperity) be with thee ! (Ruth ii. 4. 
 Judg. xix. 20. 1 Sam. xxv. 6. 2 Sam. xx. 9. Psal. cxxix 
 8.) In the later period of the Jewish polity, much time 
 appears to have been spent in the rigid observance of these 
 ceremonious forms : which are alluded to m Matt. x. 12. 
 See also 2 Kings iv. 29. 
 
 Respect was shown to persons on meeting, by the salu- 
 tation of Peace be with you ! and laying the right hand 
 upon the bosom : but if the person addressed was of the 
 highest rank, they bowed to the earth. Thus, Jacob bowed 
 to the ground seven times until he came near to his brother 
 Esau, (Gen. xxxiii. 3.) Sometimes they kissed the hem 
 of the person's garment, and even the dust on which he 
 had to tread. (Zech. viii. 23. Luke viii. 44. Acts x. 26. 
 Psal. lxxii. 9.) Near relations and intimate acquain- 
 tances kissed each other's hands, head, neck, beard, (which 
 on such occasions, only, could be touched without affront,) 
 or shoulders. (Gen. xxxiii. 4, xlv. 14. 2 Sam. xx. 9. Luke 
 xv. 20. Acts xx. 17.) 
 
 Whenever the common people approached their prince, 
 or any person of superior rank, it was customary for them 
 to prostrate themselves before them. The allusions to 
 this practice, in the Old and New Testaments, are very 
 numerous ; as well as to the making of presents to supe- 
 riors. (See particularly Matt, ii 11.) 
 
260 DOMESTIC CUSTOMS 
 
 When any person visited another, he stood at the gate 
 and knocked, or called aloud, until the person on whom 
 he called admitted him. (2 Kings v. 9 — 12. Acts x. 17, xii. 
 13, 16.) Visiters were always received and dismissed 
 with great respect. On their arrival, water was brought 
 to wash their feet and hands, (Gen. xviii. 4, xix. 2,) after 
 which the guests were anointed with oil. David alludes 
 to this in Psal. xxiii. 5, and Solomon, in Prov. xxvii. 9. 
 The same practice obtained in our Saviour's time. (Luke 
 vii. 44, 45.) 
 
 The Jews rose early, about the dawn of day, when they 
 breakfasted. They dined about eleven in the forenoon, 
 and supped at five in the afternoon. Their food consist- 
 ed principally of bread, milk, rice, vegetables, honey, and 
 sometimes of locusts, except at the appointed festivals, or 
 when they offered their feast-offerings : at these times 
 they ate animal food, of which they appear to have been 
 very fond. (Numb. xi. 4.) But they were prohibited from 
 eating the flesh of certain animals, as well as with people 
 of another religion. The pottage which Jacob had pre- 
 pared, and which was so tempting to Esau as to make 
 him sell his birthright, shows the simplicity of the ordi- 
 nary diet of the patriarchs. Isaac, in his old age, longed 
 for savoury meat, which was accordingly prepared for him ; 
 (Gen. xxvii. 4. 17;) but this was an unusual thing. 
 The feast with which Abraham entertained the three 
 angels was a calf, new cakes baked on the hearth, together 
 with butter (ghee) and milk. (Gen. xviii. 6, 7.) We 
 may form a correct idea of their ordinary food by the ar- 
 ticles which were presented to David on various occasions 
 by Abigail, (1 Sam. xxv. IS,) by Ziba, (2 Sam. xvi. 1,) 
 and by Barzillai. (2 Sam. xvii. 28, 29.) Their ordinary 
 beverage was water, which was drawn from the public 
 wells and fountains, (John iv. 6, 7,) and which was to be 
 refused to no one. (John vi. 9. Matt. xxv. 35.) Wine of 
 different sorts, which was preserved in skins, was also 
 drunk by the Jews, after their settlement in the land of 
 Canaan. Red wine seems to have been most esteemed. 
 (Prov. xxiii. 31. Rev. xiv. 20, xix. 3. 18.) The women 
 did not appear at table in entertainments with the 
 men. This would have been then, as it is at this day 
 throughout the East, an indecency. Thus, Vashti the 
 
AND USAGES OF THE JEWS. 
 
 261 
 
 Queen made a feast for the women in the royal house, 
 which belonged to Ahasuerus, (E&ther i. 9,) while the 
 Persian monarch was feasting his nobles. 
 
 The Hebrews anciently sat at table as we do now ; af- 
 terwards, they imitated the Persians and Chaldaeans, who 
 reclined on table-beds, or couches, while eating ; some 
 traces of these couches are, nevertheless, observed in 
 Amos, (vi. 4, 7,) Ezekiel, (xxiii. 47,) and Tobit; (ii. 4;) 
 but this use was not general. We see expressions in the 
 sacred authors of those times, which prove that they also 
 sat at table. At Ahasuerus's banquet, (Esth. i. 6,) the 
 company lay on beds, and also at that which Esther gave 
 the king and Haman. (Esth. vii. 8.) Our Saviour, in 
 like manner, reclined at table, when Mary Magdalen 
 anointed his feet with perfume, (Matt. xxvi. 7,) and when 
 John, at the last supper, rested his head on his bosom. 
 (John xiii. 25.) 
 
 When persons journeyed, they provided themselves with 
 every necessary; women and rich men frequently travel- 
 led on asses or camels, which carried not only their mer- 
 chandise, but also their household goods and chattels. 
 The Jews often travelled in caravans, or companies, (as 
 the inhabitants of the East do to this day,) especially 
 when they went up to Jerusalem at the three great annual 
 festivals. The company, among which Joseph and Mary 
 supposed Jesus to have been, on their return from the 
 passover, when he was twelve years old, (Luke ii. 42 — 
 44,) was one of these caravans. 
 
 In the East, anciently, as well as in modern times, 
 there were no inns, in which the traveller could meet 
 with refreshment. Hence hospitality was deemed a sa- 
 cred duty incumbent upon every one. The sacred wri- 
 tings exhibit several instances of hospitality exercised by 
 the patriarchs. (Gen. xviii. 2, 3, &c, xix. 1—3.) St. 
 Paul and St. Peter frequently enforce the sacred duty of 
 hospitality. 
 
262 
 
 ON THE OCCUPATIONS, ARTS, ETC. 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 ON THE OCCUPATIONS, ARTS, AND SCIENCES OF THE HEBREWS 
 
 Section T. — Agriculture and Horticulture of the Jews. 
 
 Agriculture, including sheep husbandry, was the prin* 
 cipal occupation of the patriarchs and their families : and, 
 in succeeding ages, the greatest men, as Moses, David, and 
 others, did not disdain to follow husbandry, however mean 
 that occupation may be accounted in modern times. All 
 the Mosaic statutes, indeed, were admirably calculated to 
 encourage agriculture, as the chief basis of national pros- 
 perity, and also to preserve the Israelites detached from 
 the surrounding idolatrous nations. 
 
 Although the Scriptures do not furnish us with any 
 details respecting the state of agriculture in Judasa, yet 
 we may collect from various passages many interesting 
 hints that will enable us to form a tolerably correct idea 
 of the high state of its cultivation. With the use of ma- 
 nures, the Jews were unquestionably acquainted. Salt, 
 either by itself, or mixed in the dunghill, in order to pro- 
 mote putrefaction, is specially mentioned as one article of 
 manure : (Matt. v. 13. Luke xiv. 34, 35 :) and as the river 
 Jordan annually overflowed its banks, the mud deposited 
 when its waters subsided must have served as a valuable 
 irrigation and top-dressing, particularly to the pasture 
 lands. It is probable that, after the waters had thus sub- 
 sided, seed was sown on the wet soft ground ; in allusion 
 to which, Solomon says, Cast thy bread (corn or seed) 
 upon the waters : for thou shalt find it again, with in- 
 crease, after many days. (Eccles. xi. 1.) And Isaiah, 
 promising a time of peace and plenty, says— Blessed are 
 ye that sow beside all waters, and send forth thither the 
 feet of the ox and the ass. (Isa. xxxii. 20.) 
 
 The method of managing the ground and preparing it 
 for the seed, was much the same with the practice of 
 the present times ; for Jeremiah speaks of ploughing up 
 the fallow ground, (Jer. iv. 3,) and Isaiah of harrowing, 
 or breaking up the clods ; (Isa. xxviii. 24;) but Moses, for 
 wise reasons doubtless, gave a positive injunction, that 
 they should not sow their fields with mingled seed. 
 
OF THE HEBREWS. 263 
 
 The kinds of grain sowed by the Jews were fitches, 
 cummin, wheat, barley, and rice: (Isa. xxviii. 25:) there 
 were three months between their sowing and their first 
 reaping, and four months to their full harvest : their bar- 
 ley-harvest was at the passover, and their wheat-harvest at 
 the pentecost. The reapers made use of sickles, and ac- 
 cording to the present custom they filled their hands with 
 the corn, and those that bound up the sheaves, their bosom : 
 there was a person set over the reapers, (Ruth ii. 5,) to see 
 that they did their work, that they had provision proper for 
 them, and to pay them their wages. Women were employ- 
 ed in reaping as well as the men. The poor were allowed 
 the liberty of gleaning, though the land-owners were not 
 bound to admit them immediately into the field as soon as the 
 reapers had cut down the corn and bound it up in sheaves, 
 but after it was carried off: they might also choose those 
 among the poor, whom they thought most worthy or most 
 necessitous. The conclusion of the harvest, or carrying 
 home the la«st load, was with the Jews a season of joyous 
 festivity, and was celebrated with a harvest-feast. (Psal. 
 cxxvi. Isa. ix. 3, xvi. 9, 10.( The corn being cut and 
 carried in wagons or carts, (Numb. vii. 3 — 8. Isa. v. 8, 
 xxviii. 27, 28. Amos ii. 13,) was either laid up in stacks 
 (Exod xxii. 6,) or barns; (Matt. vi. 26, xiii. 30. Lukexiii. 
 18. 24 ;) and, when thrashed out, was stored in graneries 
 or garners. (Psal. xliv. 13. Matt. iii. 12.) David had 
 storehouses in the fields, in the cities, and in the villages, 
 and in the castles. (1 Chron. xxvii. 25.) 
 
 After the grain was carried into the barn, the next pro- 
 cess was to thrash, or beat the corn out of the ear ; this 
 was performed in various ways. Sometimes it was done 
 by horses (Isa. xxviii. 28,) and by oxen, that trod out the 
 corn, with their hoofs shod with brass. (Mic. iv. 12, 13.) 
 This mode of thrashing is expressly referred to by Hosea, 
 (x. 11,) and in the prohibition of Moses against muzzling 
 the ox that treadeth out the corn, (Deut. xxv. 4,) and it 
 obtains in India to this day. Other modes of thrashing 
 are mentioned in Isa. xxviii. 28, Judg. vi. 11, and 1 
 Chron. xxi. 20. When the corn was ihus thrashed, it 
 was dried either in the sun, or by a fire, or in a furnace. 
 This is called parched corn, (Levit. xxiii. 14, 1 Sam. xvii. 
 17 and xxv. 18,) and was sometimes used in this manner 
 
264 
 
 ON THE OCCUPATIONS, ARTS, ETC. 
 
 for food, without any further preparation ; but generally, 
 the parching- or drying it was in order to make it more fit for 
 grinding. This process was performed either in mortars 
 or mills, both of which are mentioned in Numb. xi. 8 : 
 but mills were chiefly employed for this purpose ; and 
 they were deemed of such use and necessity, that the Is- 
 raelites were strictly forbidden to take the nether oi ^pper 
 millstone in pledge; the reason of which is added, be- 
 cause this was taking a man's life in pledge ; (Deut. xxiv. 
 6 ;) intimating that while the mill ceases to grind, people 
 are in danger of being starved. 
 
 The grinding at mills was accounted an inferior sort of 
 work, and therefore prisoners and captives were generally 
 put to it. To this work Samson was set, while he was in 
 the prison-house. (Judg. xvi. 21.) There hand-mills 
 were usually kept, by which prisoners earned their living. 
 The expression in Isa. xlvii. 2 — Take the millstones and 
 grind meal — is part of the description of a slave ; but, for 
 the most part, the women-servants were employed in this 
 drudgery, as is evident from Matt. xxiv. 1. This was in 
 use not only among the Jews, but also among the Egyp- 
 tians and Chaldeans, as appears from Exod. xi. 5, and Lam. 
 v. 13. The various processes of agriculture have furnished 
 the sacred writers with numerous beautiful allusions. Pa- 
 lestine abounded with generous wine; and in some districts 
 the grapes were of superior quality. The canton allotted 
 to Judah was celebrated on this account. In this district 
 were the vales of Sorek and of Eshcol ; and the cluster, 
 which the Hebrew spies carried from this last place, was 
 so large as to be carried on a staff between two of them ; 
 (Numb. xiii. 23 ;) Lebanon (Hos. xiv. 7.) and Helbon 
 (Ezek. xxvii. 18,) were likewise celebrated for their ex- 
 quisite wines. Grapes were also dried into raisins. (1 
 Sam. xxv. 18. 2 Sam. xvi. 1.) 
 
 The ancient Hebrews were very fond of gardens, which 
 are frequently mentioned in the sacred writings; and de- 
 rive their appellations from the prevalence of certain trees, 
 as the garden of nuts and of pomegranates. (Sol. Song 
 vi. 11, iv. 13.) Besides these and other fruits, which 
 were common in Judaea, (as dates, figs, &c.) they had 
 regular plantations of olives, the oil expressed from which 
 furnished a profitable article of commerce with the Tyrians : 
 (EzeV xxxii. 17. compared with 1 Kings v. 11 :) and 
 
OF THE HEBREWS. 265 
 
 among the judgments with which God threatened the 
 Israelites for their sins, it was denounced, that though they 
 had olive trees through all their coasts yet they should 
 not anoint themselves with the oil, for the olive should cast 
 he* fruit. (Deut. xxviii. 40.) 
 
 Section II. —On the Arts and Sciences of the Jews. 
 
 Of the Arts practised by the Hebrews, in the earlier 
 periods of their history, we have but few notices in the 
 &acred writings. From the mention of utensils, ornaments, 
 and other things, which imply some knowledge of the 
 arts, in the book of Genesis, it is evident that considerable 
 progress must have been made in the time of Noah : and 
 it is scarcely credible that the Hebrews could have resided 
 four hundred years in Egypt, without acquiring some 
 knowledge of those arts, which their masters are allowed 
 to have possessed. Soon after the death of Joshua, a 
 place was expressly allotted to artificers : for, in the 
 genea'logy of the tribe of Judah, delivered in 1 Chron. iv. 
 14, we read of a place called the Valley of Craftsmen, 
 and (ver. 21. 23,) of a family of workmen of fine linen, 
 and another of potters : and when Jerusalem was taken 
 by Nebuchadnezzar, the enemy carried away all the 
 craftsmen and smiths. (2 Kings xxiv. 14.) But, as a 
 proof that their skill in manufactures and trade therein 
 could not be very extensive, we find that the prophet 
 Ezekiel, (chap, xxvii.) in describing the affluence of the 
 goods which came to Tyre, mentions nothing as being 
 brought thither from Judsea, except wheat, oil, grapes, and 
 balm, which were all the natural products of their ground. 
 From Prov. xxxi. 13, it appears that the mistresses of 
 families usually made the clothing for their husbands, 
 their children, and themselves. 
 
 Their knowledge in the Liberal Arts does not seem 
 to have greatly exceeded their skill in mechanics. They 
 knew but little of astronomy and the motions of the hea- 
 venly bodies. Solomon, indeed, was a noble pattern of 
 knowledge and wisdom. His skill in natural philosophy 
 is sufficiently indicated, when we are told, that he spake 
 of trees from the cedar tree that is in Lebanon, even to the 
 hyssop that springeth out of the wall ; he spake also of 
 
266 ON THE OCCUPATIONS, ARTS, &c. 
 
 beasts, and of fowls, and of creeping things, and of fishes. 
 (1 Kings iv. 33.) His books of Proverbs andEcclesiastes 
 abundantly inform us what skill he had in ethics, econo- 
 mics, and politics : but as the wonderful talents, with which 
 he was endued, were the immediate gift of God, and in 
 compliance with his special request for divine wisdom, (2 
 Chron. i. 7 — 13,) so singular an instance is no rule, by 
 which we ought to judge of the genius of the whole na- 
 tion. 
 
 Nor did Building or Architecture attain much perfec- 
 tion prior to the reign of the accomplished Solomon. We 
 read, indeed, before the Israelites came into the land of 
 Canaan, that Bezaleel and Aholiab (who were employed 
 in the construction of the tabernacle (excelled in all man- 
 ner of workmanship, (Exod. xxxv. 30 — 35,) but we are 
 there told, that they had their skill by inspiration from 
 God, and it does not appear that they had any successors : 
 for in the days of Solomon, when the Israelites were at rest 
 from all their enemies, and at full freedom to follow out 
 improvements of every kind, yet they had no professed ar- 
 tists that could undertake the work of the temple ; so that 
 Solomon was obliged to send to Hiram, king of Tyre, for a 
 skilful artist ; (2 Chron. vii. 13, 14;) by whose direction 
 the model of the temple, and all the curious furniture of 
 it, was both designed' and finished. But, after the Jews 
 were under the influence or power of the Romans, there 
 is po doubt that a better taste prevailed among them. 
 Herod, at least, must have employed some architects of dis- 
 tinguished abilities to repair and beautify the temple, and 
 lender it the superb structure, which the description of 
 Josephus shows that it must have been. 
 
 "We read nothing of the art of Writing, in Scripture, 
 before the copy of the law was given by God to Moses, 
 which was written (that is engraven,) on two tables of 
 stone by the finger of God, (Exod. xxxi. 18,) and this is 
 called the writing of God. (Exod. xxxii. 16.) It is there- 
 fore probable that God himself first taught letters to Moses, 
 who communicated the knowledge of them to the Israel- 
 ites, and they to the other eastern nations. Engraving 
 or sculpture seems, therefore, to be the most ancient way 
 of writing, of which we have another very early instance 
 in Exod. xxxix. 30, where we are told, that " Holiness to 
 
OF THE HEBREWS. 267 
 
 the Lord" was written on a golden plate, and worn on the 
 high priest's head. And we find that the names of the 
 twelve tribes were commanded to be written on twelve rods. 
 (Numb. xvii. 2.) Afterwards they made use of broad 
 rushes or flags for writing on, which grew in great abun- 
 dance in Egypt, and are noticed by the prophet Isaiah, 
 when foretelling the confusion of that country. (Isa. xix. 
 6, 7.) 
 
 The other eastern nations made use chiefly of parch- 
 ment, being the thin skins of animals carefully dressed. 
 The best was made at Pergamos, whence it was called 
 Ckarta Pergamena. It is probable that the Jews learn- 
 ed the use of it from them, and that this is what is meant 
 by a roll, (Ezra vi. 2,) and a roll of a book, (Jer. xxxvi. 
 2,) and a scroll rolled together: (Isa. xxxiv. 4:) for it could 
 not be thin and weak paper, but parchment, which is of 
 some consistency, that was capable of being thus rolled 
 up. St. Paul is the only person who makes express 
 mention of parchment. (2 Tim. iv. 13.) In Job xix. 
 24, and in Jer. xvii. 1, there is mention made of pens of 
 iron, with which they probably made the letters, when 
 they engraved on stone or other hard substances : but for 
 softer materials they, in all probability, made use of quills 
 or reeds ; for we are told of some in the tribe of Zebulun 
 who handled the pen of the writer. (Judg. v. 14.) Da- 
 vid alludes to the jpen of a ready writer, (Psal. xlv. 1,) and 
 Baruch, wrote the words of Jeremiah with ink in a book. 
 (Jer. xxxvi. 18.) 
 
 Of the poetry and music of the Hebrews we have more 
 ample information. 
 
 The genius of their Poetry having been already dis- 
 cussed in pages 108 — 111, it is sufficient here to remark, 
 that the effusions of the inspired Hebrew muse infinitely 
 surpass in grandeur, sublimity, beauty, and pathos, all the 
 most celebrated productions of Greece and Rome. Not 
 to repeat unnecessarily the observations already offered 
 on this topic, we may here briefly remark, that the eucha- 
 ristic song of Moses, composed on the deliverance of the 
 Israelites and their miraculous passage of the Red Sea, 
 (Exod. xv. 1 — 19,) is an admirable hymn, full of strong 
 and lively images. The song of Deborah and Barak 
 (Judg. v.) and that of Hannah, the mother of Samuel, (1 
 
268 0N THE OCCUPATIONS, ARTS, ETC. 
 
 Sam. ii. 1,) have many excellent flights, and some noble 
 and sublime raptures. David's lamentation on the death 
 of Saul and Jonathan (2 Sam. i. 19 — 27,) is an incompa- 
 rable elegy. The gratulatory hymn (Isa. xii.) and Heze- 
 kiah's song of praise, (Isa. xxviii.) are worthy of every 
 one's attention. The prayer of Habakkuk (iii.) contains 
 a sublime description of the divine majest)'. Besides 
 these single hymns we have the books of Psalms, Proverbs, 
 Ecclesiastes, Canticles, and Lamentations ; all of which 
 are composed by different poets, according to the usage 
 of those times. The Psalms are a great storehouse of 
 heavenly devotion, full of affecting and sublime thoughts, 
 and with a variety of expressions admirably calculated to 
 excite a thankful remembrance of God's mercies, and for 
 moving the passions of joy and grief, indignation and ha- 
 tred. They consist mostly of pious and affectionate pik- 
 ers, holy meditations, and exalted strains of praise and 
 thanksgiving, intermingled with sublime descriptions, and 
 most beautiful allusions. 
 
 Their sacred songs were accompanied with Music, the 
 nature of which it is now as difficult to determine, as it is 
 to ascertain with precision the various musical instruments 
 which were in use among them, without entering into de- 
 tails and conjectures which are inconsistent with the plan 
 of this volume. Referring the reader, therefore, to the 
 author's larger work, in which he has attempted to collect 
 the most probable accounts, he will only remark in this 
 place, that, if any conclusions may be drawn concerning 
 the Hebrew music from its effects, the sacred history has 
 recorded several examples of the power and charms of 
 music, to sweeten the temper, to compose and allay the 
 passions of the mind, to revive the drooping spirits, and to 
 dissipate melancholy. It had this effect on Saul, when 
 David played to him on his harp. (1 Sam. xvi. 16. 23.) 
 And when Elisha w r as desired bv Jehoshaphat to tell him 
 what his success against the king of Moab would oe, tne 
 prophet required a minstrel to be brought unto him : and 
 when he played, it is said, that the hand of the Lord came 
 upon him ; (2 Kings iii. 15 ;) not that the gift of prophecy 
 was the natural effect of music, but the meaning is, that 
 music disposed the organs, the humours, and, in short, the 
 
OF THE HEBREWS. 269 
 
 whole mmd and spirit of the prophet, to receive these 
 supernatural impressions. 
 
 But music was not exclusively confined to religious 
 worship. From Gen. xxxi. 27, Isa. v. 2, and xxiv. 8, it 
 appears that music was employed on all solemn occasions 
 of entertaining their friends, and also at other entertain- 
 ments. That music and dancing were used among the 
 Jews at their feasts, in latter ages, may be inferred from 
 the parable of the prodigal son. (Luke xv. 25.) Further, 
 dancing was also an ordinary concomitant of music among 
 the Jews ; sometimes it was used on a religious account. 
 Thus, Miriam with her women glorified God (after the 
 deliverance from the Egyptians) in dances as well as 
 songs, (Exod. xv. 20,) and David danced after the ark. 
 (2 Sam. ii. 16.) It was a thing common at the Jewish 
 feasts, (Judg. xxi. 19, 21,) and in public triumphs, (Judg. 
 xi. 34,) and at all seasons of mirth and rejoicing. (Psal. 
 xxx. 11. Jer. xxxi. 4, 13. Luke xv. 25.) The idolatrous 
 Jews made it a part of the worship which they paid to the 
 golden calf. (Exod. xxxii. 19.) The Amalekites danced 
 after their victory at Ziklag, (1 Sam. xxx. 16,) and Job 
 makes it part of the character of the prosperous wicked, 
 (that is, of those who, placing all their happiness in the 
 enjoyments of sense, forget God and religion,) that their 
 children dance. (Job. xxi. 11.) The dancing of the pro- 
 fligate Herodias's daughter pleased Herod so highly, that 
 he promised to give her whatever she asked, and accord- 
 ingly, at her desire, and in compliment to her, he com- 
 manded John the Baptist to be beheaded in prison. (Matt. 
 xiv. 6, 7, 8.) 
 
 The diseases to which the human frame is subject would 
 naturally lead man to try to alleviate or to remove them. 
 Hence sprang the art of Medicine. Anciently, it is said 
 to have been the practice to expose the sick on the sides 
 of frequented ways, in order that those persons who passed 
 along, inquiring into the nature of their complaint, might 
 communicate the knowledge of such remedies as had been 
 beneficial to themselves under similar circumstances. The 
 healing art was unquestionably cultivated ; but there is 
 reason to think that the knowledge of the Jews was very 
 limited, and that it extended little beyond the curing of a 
 green wound, or the binding up of fractures. In the case 
 
 23* 
 
270 0N THE OCCUPATIONS, ARTS, ETC. 
 
 of internal disorders, it does not appear to have been cus- 
 tomary to call in the aid of a physician. These maladies 
 were regarded as the immediate effect of the divine anger, 
 and inflicted by evil spirits, as the executioners of his ven- 
 geance ; and this was the reason why religious people 
 generally had recourse to God only, or to his prophets, 
 (see 2 Kings xx. 7,) while the irreligious resorted to false 
 gods, and charms or enchantments. (2 Kings i. 2. Jer. 
 viii. 17.) 
 
 Various diseases are mentioned in the sacred writings, 
 as cancers, consumption, dropsy, epilepsy, fevers, gan- 
 grenes, hemorrhoids, or piles, leprosy, (concerning which 
 see p. 245, supra,) lunacy, palsy, <fcc. The disease of 
 Saul appears to have been a true melancholy madness ; 
 that of Nebuchadnezzar, a hypochondriacal madness ; that 
 of Job, an incurable elephantiasis, in which the skin be- 
 comes uneven and wrinkled with many furrows, like that 
 of an elephant, whence it takes its name. 
 
 Lastly, in the New Testament we meet with nume- 
 rous cases of what are termed Demoniacal Possession. 
 Some eminent writers have supposed that the demoniacs, 
 or persons who were possessed by evil spirits, were only 
 lunatics. But it is evident that the persons, who in the 
 New Testament are said to be possessed with devils, (more 
 correctly with demons,) cannot mean only persons afflict- 
 ed with some strange disease : for they are evidently 
 here, as in other places, — particularly in Luke iv. 33 — 
 36, 41 — distinguished from the diseased. Further Christ's 
 speaking on various occasions to these evil spirits, as dis- 
 tinct from the persons possessed by them, — his command- 
 ing them, and asking them questions, and receiving an- 
 swers from them, or not suffering them to speak, — and 
 several circumstances relating to the terrible preternatural 
 effects which they had upon the possessed, and to the 
 manner of Christ's evoking them, — particularly their re- 
 questing and obtaining permission to enter the herd of 
 swine, (Matt. viii. 31, 32,) and precipitating them into the 
 sea ; — all these circumstances can never be accounted for 
 by any distemper whatever. Nor is it any reasonable 
 objection, that we do not read of such frequent posses- 
 sions before or since the appearance of our Redeemer upon 
 earth. It seems, indeed, to have been ordered by a spe- 
 
OF THE HEBREWS. 271 
 
 cial providence, that they should have been permitted to 
 have then been more common ; in order that He, who 
 came t© destroy the works of the Devil, might the more 
 remarkably and visibly triumph over him ; and that the 
 machinations and devices of Satan might be more openly 
 defeated, at a time when their power was at its highest, 
 both in the souls and bodies of men ; and also, that plain 
 facts might be a sensible confutation of the Sadducean 
 error, which denied the existence of angels or spirits, 
 (Acts xxiii. 8,) and prevailed among the principal men 
 both for rank and learning in those days. The cases of 
 the demoniacs expelled by the apostles were cases of real 
 possessions : and it is a well known fact, that, in the 
 second century of the Christian sera, the apologists for the 
 persecuted believers in the faith of Christ, appealed to 
 their ejection of evil spirits as a proof of the divine origin 
 of their religion. Hence it is evident that the demoniacs 
 were not merely insane or epileptic patients, but per- 
 sons really and truly vexed and convulsed by unclean 
 demons* 
 
 CHAPTER VIIL 
 
 ALLUSIONS TO THE THEATRES, TO THEATRICAL PERFORMANCES, AND TO THE GRE- 
 CIAN GAMES, IN THE NEW TESTAMENT. 
 
 I. Theatrical performances were in great request 
 among the Greeks and Romans, and this will account for 
 so many theatres being erected in Judaea, soon after that 
 country became subject to the Roman power. The 
 Epistles of St. Paul, being addressed to Gentiles, abound 
 with elegant allusions drawn from the theatre. Thus, in 
 1 Cor. vii. 29 — 31, he refers to the personification of the 
 woes of others, which was common on the stage, while 
 the heart continued unaffected with them, and also to the 
 rapid shifting of the scenes. In 1 Cor. iv. 9, he alludes 
 to the barbarous practice then common in the Roman 
 amphitheatre, where the bestiarii, who in the morning 
 combated with wild beasts, had armour with which to de- 
 fend themselves, and to slay their antagonists : but the 
 last, those who were exposed at noon were naked and 
 
272 JEWISH MODE OF TREATING THE DEAD. 
 
 unarmed, and set forth (as our version renders it) to cer- 
 tain and cruel death. 
 
 II. But the most splendid and renowned solemnities 
 were the Olympic Games, solemnized every fifth year, in 
 the presence of a cloud of witnesses or spectators, assem- 
 bled from almost every part of the then known world. 
 The exercises at these games consisted principally in 
 running, wrestling, and the chariot race. The candidates 
 were to be freemen and Greeks, of unimpeachable cha- 
 racter ; and they were subjected to a long and severe 
 regimen. On the day appointed, the names of the can- 
 didates were called over by the heralds : and on a given 
 signal, those who engaged in the foot-race, rushed for- 
 ward towards the goal, in the presence of the assembled 
 multitude, and especially of the Hellanodics, persons 
 venerable for their years and character, who were appoint- 
 ed judges of the games, and whose province it was to 
 distribute chaplets composed of the fading sprigs of the 
 wild olive, and palm branches, which were conspicuously 
 exposed to the view of the candidates. The knowledge 
 of these circumstances throws much light and beauty on 
 those animating exhortations of St. Paul, in Heb. xii. 1. 
 3. 12, 13. Phil. iii. 12—14. 2 Tim. iv. 7, 8, and 1 Cor. 
 ix. 24, 25. In the two following verses, he alludes to 
 the practice of those who engaged in boxing, as well as 
 to the previous discipline to which all candidates were 
 subjected. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 JEWISH MODE OF TREATING THE DEAD. — FUNERAL RITES. 
 
 By the law of Moses a dead body conveyed a legal pol- 
 lution to every thing that touched it — even to the very 
 house and furniture — which continued seven days. (Numb, 
 xix. 14, 15, 16.) And this was the reason why the priests, 
 on account of their daily ministrations in holy things, were 
 forbidden to assist at any funerals but those of their 
 nearest relatives ; nay, the very dead bones, though they 
 had lain ever so long in the grave, if digged up, conveyed 
 a pollution to any who touched them ; and this was the 
 
FUNERAL RITES. 273 
 
 reason why Josiah caused the bones of the false priests to 
 be burnt upon the altar at Bethel, (2 Chron. xxxiv. 5,) to 
 the intent that these altars, being thus polluted, might be 
 had in the greater detestation. 
 
 When the principle of life was extinguished, the first 
 funeral office among the Jews was to close the eyes of the 
 deceased. This was done by the nearest of kin. Thus, 
 it was promised to Jacob, when he took his journey into 
 Egypt, that Joseph should put his hands upon his eyes. 
 (Gen. xlvi. 4.) The next office was the ablution of the 
 corpse. Thus, when Tabitha died, it is said, that they 
 washed her body, and laid it in an upper chamber. (Acts 
 ix. 37.) This rite was common both to the Greeks and 
 Romans. In Egypt, it is still the custom to wash the 
 dead body several times. Loud lamentations attended 
 the decease c-f persons, especially those who were greatly 
 beloved, not only as soon as they had expired, (Gen. 1. 1. 
 Matt. ix. 23. Mark v. 38,) but especially at the time of 
 interment. (Gen. 1. 10, 11.) In later times, the Jews 
 hired persons, whose profession it was to superintend and 
 conduct these funeral lamentations. (Jer. ix. 17, xvi. 
 6, 7, xlviii. 36, 37. Ezek. xxiv. 16—18. Amos v. 
 16 :) and in the time of Christ, minstrels and mourners 
 were hired for this purpose. (Matt. ix. 23. Mark v. 
 38. 
 
 After the corpse had been washed it was embalmed in 
 costly spices and aromatic drugs, after which it was closely 
 swathed in linen rollers, probably resembling those of the 
 Egyptian mummies now to be seen in the British Museum. 
 So Nicodemus made preparation for the embalming of 
 Jesus Christ ; (John xix. 39, 40 ;) and Lazarus appears to 
 have been swathed in a similar way, when raised to life 
 again by the omnipotent voice of Jesus Christ. (John 
 xi. 44.) At the funerals of some Jewish monarchs, great 
 piles of aromatics were set on fire, in which were consumed 
 their bowels, armour, and other things. (2 Chron. xvi. 
 14. Jer. xxxiv. 5.) 
 
 The Jews showed great regard for the burial of their 
 dead. To be deprived of interment, was deemed one of 
 the greatest dishonours and calamities that could befall 
 any person. (Psal. Ixxix. 2. Jer. xxii. 19, xxxvi. 30.) 
 Their burial-places were in gardens, fields, and the sides 
 
274 
 
 JEWISH MODE OF TREATING THE DEAD. 
 
 of mountains : and over the rich and great were erected 
 splendid monuments. To this practice Jesus Christ al- 
 ludes in Matt, xxiii. 7. From Isa. Ixv. 4, and Mark v. 
 5, it would seem that some tombs had cupolas over them 
 which afforded shelter, similar to those which modern 
 travellers in the East have seen and described. Family 
 sepulchres were in gardens. (John xix. 41.) 
 
 A funeral feast commonly succeeded the Jewish burials. 
 Thus, after Abner's funeral was solemnized, the people 
 came to David to eat meat with him, though they could 
 not persuade him to do so. (2 Sam. iii. 35.) He was 
 the chief mourner, and probably had invited them to this 
 banquet. Of this Jeremiah speaks, (xvi. 7,) where he 
 calls it the cup of consolation, which they drank for their 
 father or their mother ; and accordingly the place where 
 this funeral entertainment was made is called in the next 
 verse the house of feasting. Hosea calls it the bread of 
 mourners. (Hos. ix. 4.) 
 
 The usual tokens of mourning, by which the Jews ex- 
 pressed their grief and concern for the death of their 
 friends and relations, were, the rending of their garments, 
 putting on sack-cloth, sprinkling dust upon their heads, 
 wearing mourning apparel, and covering the face and 
 head. (Gen. xxxvii. 34. 2 Sam. xiv. 2, xix. 4.) 
 
 Anciently, there was a peculiar space of time allotted 
 for lamenting the deceased, which they called the days of 
 mourning. (Gen. xxvii. 41, and 1. 4.) Thus, the Egyp- 
 tians, who had a great regard for the patriarch Jacob, la- 
 mented his death threescore and ten days. (Gen. 1. 3.) 
 The Israelites wept for Moses in the plains of Moab thirty 
 days. (Deut. xxxiv. 8.) Afterwards among the Jews 
 the funeral mourning was generally confined to seven 
 days. Thus, besides the mourning for Jacob in Egypt, 
 Joseph and his company set apart seven days to mourn for 
 his father, when they approached the Jordan with his 
 corpse. (Gen. 1. 10.) No particular period has been 
 recorded, during which widows mourned for their hus- 
 bands. Bathsheba is said, generally, to have mourned 
 for Uriah ; (2 Sam. xi. 26 ;) but her mourning could 
 neither be long nor very sincere. The Jews paid a greater 
 or less degree of honour to their kings after their death, 
 according to the merits of their actions when they were 
 
FUNERAL EITES. 275 
 
 alive. On the death of any prince, who had in any way 
 distinguished himself, they used to make lamentations or 
 mournful songs for them. From an expression in 2 
 Chron. xxxv. 25. Behold, they are written in the La- 
 mentations, we may infer that they had certain collections 
 of this kind of composition. The author of the book of 
 Samuel has preserved those which David composed on 
 occasion of the death of Saul and Jonathan, of Abner and 
 Absalom ; but we have no remains of the mournful elegy 
 composed by Jeremiah upon the immature death of Josiah, 
 the exemplary king of Judah. 
 
276 
 
 PART IV. 
 
 ON THE ANALYSIS OF SCRIPTURE. 
 
 BOOK I.— ANALYSIS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 ON THE PENTATEUCH. 
 
 The Pentateuch, by which title the first five books of 
 Moses are distinguished, is a word of Greek original, 
 HevTarevxos (Pentateuchos) from ttzvte (pente) five, and ra^o? 
 (teuchos) a book or volume, which literally signifies the 
 five instruments or books ; by the Jews it is termed 
 Chometz, a word synonymous with Pentateuch, and also, 
 more generally, the Law, or the Law of Moses, because 
 it contains the ecclesiastical and political ordinances issued 
 by God to the Israelites. The pentateuch forms, to this 
 day, but one roll or volume in the Jewish manuscripts, 
 being divided only into larger and smaller sections. This 
 collective designation of the books of Genesis, Exodus, 
 Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy, is of very consi- 
 derable antiquity, though we have no certain information 
 when it was first introduced. As, however, the names 
 of these books are evidently derived from the Greek, and 
 as the five books of Moses are expressly mentioned by 
 Josephus, who wrote only a few years after our Saviour's 
 ascension, we have every reason to believe that the ap- 
 pellation of Pentateuch was prefixed to the Septuagint 
 version by the Alexandrian translators. 
 
 Section I.— On the Book of Genesis. 
 
 The first book of the Pentateuch, which is called 
 Genesis, (rENESIL,) derives its appellation from the title 
 
ON THE PENTATEUCH. 277 
 
 it bears in the Greek Septuagint Version, BIBA02 TENE- 
 LEOE, (Biblos Geneseos ;) which signifies the Book of the 
 Generation or Production, because it commences with the 
 history of the generation or production of all things. 
 
 Different opinions have been entertained concerning 
 the time when Moses wrote it ; (for it is indisputably hk 
 production ;) but the most probable conjecture is that 
 which places it after the departure of the Israelites from 
 Egypt, and the promulgation of the law. It comprises 
 the history of about 2369 years according to the vulgar 
 computation of time, or of 3619 years according to the 
 larger computation of Dr. Hales ; and may be divided 
 into four parts, viz. : 
 
 Part I. The Origin of the World, (ch. i., ii.) 
 
 Part II. The History of the former World, (ch. iii. — 
 vii.) 
 
 Part III. The General History of Mankind after the 
 Deluge, (ch. viii. — xi.) 
 
 Part IV. The particular History of the Patriarchs, 
 (ch. xii. — 1.) 
 
 Section II.— On the Book of Exodus. 
 
 The title of this book is derived from the Septuagint 
 version, and is significant of the principal transaction 
 which it records, namely, the ESOAOS (Exodos,) Exodus, 
 or departure of the Israelites from Egypt. It comprises 
 a history of the events that took place during the period 
 of 145 years, from the year of the world 2369 to 2514 
 inclusive, from the death of Joseph to the erection of the 
 tabernacle. Though the time when iCwas written by 
 Moses cannot be precisely determined, yet, since it is a 
 history of matters of fact, it must have been written after 
 the giving of the law and the erection of the tabernacle. 
 This book shows the accomplishment of the divine pro- 
 mises made to Abraham, of the increase of his posterity, 
 and their departure from Egypt after suffering great af- 
 fliction. It contains 
 
 I. An Account of the oppression of the Israelites, and 
 the transactions previously to their departure out of Egypt, 
 (ch. i. — xi.) 
 
 24 
 
278 ON THE PENTATEUCH. 
 
 II. The Narrative of the Exodus, or Departure of the 
 Israelites, (ch. xii., xiii.) 
 
 III. Transactions subsequent to their Exodus, (ch. xiv. 
 — xviii.) 
 
 IV. The Promulgation of the Law on Mount Sinai, 
 (ch. xix. — xl.) 
 
 In ch. xxxii.— xxxiv. are related the idolatry of the Israelites, the break- 
 ing of the two tables of the law, the divine chastisement of the Hebrews, 
 and the renewal of the tables of the covenant. 
 
 Section III. — On the Book of Leviticus. 
 
 Leviticus, by the Septuagint styled AEYITIKON, (Le~ 
 vitikon,) derives its name from the circumstance of its 
 containing the Laws concerning the religion of the Israel- 
 ites. It is cited as the production of Moses in several 
 books of Scripture ; and is of great use in explaining 
 many passages of the New Testament, especially the 
 Epistle to the Hebrews, which wotdd otherwise be inex- 
 plicable. The enactments it contains may be referred to 
 the four following heads, viz. : 
 
 I. The Laws concerning Sacrifices, in which the diffe- 
 rent kinds of sacrifices are enumerated, together with their 
 concomitant rites, (ch. i. — vii.) 
 
 II. The Institution of the Priesthood, in which the con- 
 secration of Aaron and his sons to the sacred office is re- 
 lated, together with the punishment of Nadab and Abihu. 
 (ch. viii. — x.) 
 
 III. The Laws concerning Purifications both of the 
 people and the priests, (ch. xi. — xxii.) 
 
 IV. The Laws concerning the sacred Festivals, Vows, 
 Things devoted, and Tithes. 
 
 Chap. xxvi. contains various prophetic promises and threatenings, 
 which have signally been fulfilled among the Jews. (Compare v. 22, 
 with Numb. xxi. 6. 2 Kings ii. 24, and xvii. 25. with Ezek. v. 17.) The 
 preservation of the Jews to this day as a distinct people is a living com- 
 ment on v. 44. 
 
 Section IV. — On the Book of Numbers. 
 
 This fourth book of Moses was entitled APIOMOI, 
 (Arithmoi,) and by the Latin translators it was termed 
 
ON THE PENTATEUCH. 279 
 
 Numeri, Numbers, whence our English title is derived ; 
 because it contains an account of the numbering of the 
 children of Israel, (related in chapters i. — iii. and xxvi.) 
 It appears from xxxvi. 13, to have been written by Moses, 
 in the plains of Moab. Besides the numeration and mar- 
 shalling of the Israelites for their journey, several laws in 
 addition to those delivered in Exodus and Leviticus, and 
 likewise several remarkable events, are recorded in this 
 book. It contains a history of the Israelites, from the 
 beginning of the second month of the second year after 
 their departure from Egypt to the beginning of the 
 eleventh month of the fortieth year of their journeyings : 
 that is, a period of thirty-eight years and nine or ten 
 months. (Compare Numb. i. 1, and xxxvi. 13, with 
 Deut. i. 3.) Most of the transactions here recorded took 
 place in the second and thirty-eighth years : " the dates 
 of the facts related in the middle of the book cannot be 
 precisely ascertained." This book may be divided into 
 four parts ; viz. : 
 
 Part I. The Census of the Israelites, and the mar- 
 shalling of them into a regular camp, " each tribe by 
 itself under its own captain or chief, distinguished by his 
 own peculiar standard, and occupying an assigned place 
 with reference to the tabernacle." (Numb, i., ii.) The 
 sacred census of the Levites, the designation of them to 
 the sacred office, and the appointment of them to various 
 services in the tabernacle, are related in Numb. iii. 
 and iv. 
 
 Part II. The Institution of various Legal Ceremonies. 
 (ch. v. — x.) 
 
 Part III. The History of their Journey from Mount 
 Sinai to the Land of Moab, which may be described and 
 distinguished by their eight remarkable murmurings in 
 the way ; every one of which was visited with severe 
 chastisement, (ch. xi.— xxi.) 
 
 Part IV. A History of the Transactions which took 
 place in the plains of Moab. (ch. xxii . — xxxvi.) 
 
280 ON THE HISTORICAL BOOKS. 
 
 Section V.— On the Book of Deutoronomy. 
 
 This fifth book of Moses derives its name from the title 
 AEYTEPONOMION, (Deuteronomion,) prefixed to it by the 
 translators of the Septuagint version, which is a compound 
 term, signifying the second law, or the law repeated j be- 
 cause it contains a repetition of the law of God, given by 
 Moses to the Israelites. From a comparison of Deut. i. 
 5, with xxiv. 1, it appears to have been written by Moses 
 in the plains of Moab, a short time before his death : and 
 this circumstance will account for that affectionate ear- 
 nestness with which he addresses the Israelites. The 
 period of time comprised in this book is five lunar weeks, 
 or, according to some chronologers, about two months, 
 viz. : from the first day of the eleventh month of the 
 fortieth year, after the exodus of Israel from Egypt, to 
 the eleventh day of the twelfth month of the same year, 
 A. m. 2553, b. c. 1451. This book comprises four parts; 
 viz. : 
 
 Part I. A Repetition of the History related in the 
 preceding Books, (ch. i. — iv.) 
 
 Part II. A Repetition of the Moral, Ceremonial, and 
 Judicial Law. (ch. v. — xxvi.) 
 
 Part III. The Confirmation of the Law. (ch. xxvii. — 
 
 XXX.) 
 
 Part IV. The Personal History of Moses, (ch. xxxi. — 
 xxxiii.) 
 
 The thirty-fourth chapter (which relates the death of Moses) has most 
 probably been detached from the Book of Joshua : for Moses could not re- 
 cord his own death. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 ON THE HISTOHICAL BOOKS. 
 
 This division of the sacred writings comprises twelve 
 books, viz. : from Joshua to Esther inclusive : the first 
 seven of these books are, by the Jews, called the former 
 prophets, probably because they treat of the more ancient 
 periods of Jewish history, and because they are most 
 justly supposed to be written by prophetical men. The 
 events recorded in these books occupy a period of almost 
 
ON THE HISTORICAL BOOKS. 281 
 
 one thousand years, which commences at the death of 
 Moses, and terminates with the great national reform 
 efFected by Nehemiah, after the return of the Jews from 
 the Babylonish captivity. 
 
 Section I.— On the Book of Joshua. 
 
 The book of Joshua, which in all the copies of the Old 
 Testament immediately follows the Pentateuch, is thus 
 denominated, because it contains a narration of the 
 achievements of Joshua the son of Nun, who had been 
 the minister of Moses, and succeeded him in the com- 
 mand of the children of Israel. It has always been re- 
 ceived by the Jews as a part of their canon of Scripture. 
 
 This book of Joshua comprises the history of about 
 seventeen years, or, according to some chronologers, of 
 twenty-seven or thirty years : it relates, 
 
 I. The History of the Occupation of Canaan by the 
 Israelites, (ch. i. — xii.) 
 
 II. The Division of the Conquered Land. (ch. xiii. — 
 xxii.) 
 
 III. The Assembling of the People, the Dying Address 
 and Counsels of Joshua, his Death, and Burial, &c. (ch. 
 xxiii., xxiv.) 
 
 Section II. — On the Book of Judges. 
 
 The book of Judges derives its name from its contain- 
 ing the history of the Israelites, from the death of Joshua 
 to the time of Eli, under the administration of thirteen 
 Judges, and consequently before the establishment of the 
 regal government. It is supposed to have been written 
 by the prophet Samuel : in it are related, 
 
 I. The State of the Israelites after the Death of Joshua, 
 until they began to turn aside from serving the Lord, 
 (ch. i. — iii.) 
 
 II. The History of the Oppressions of the Israelites, 
 and their Deliverances by the Judges, (ch. iv. — xvi.) 
 
 III. An Account of the Introduction of Idolatry among 
 the Israelites, and the consequent corruption of religion 
 
 24* 
 
282 ON THE HISTORICAL BOOKS. 
 
 and manners among them ; for which God gave them up 
 into the hands of their enemies, (ch. xvii. — xxi.) 
 
 Section m.— On the Book of Ruth. 
 
 The book of Ruth is generally considered as an Ap- 
 pendix to that of Judges, and an introduction to that of 
 Samuel : it is therefore, with great propriety, placed be- 
 tween the books of Judges and Samuel. It relates, with 
 equal beauty and simplicity, the history of a Moabitish 
 damsel, who renounced idolatry, and by marriage was 
 ingrafted among the Israelites. David was descended 
 from her. The adoption of Ruth, a heathen converted 
 to Judaism, into the line of Christ, has generally been 
 considered as a pre-intimation of the admission of the 
 Gentiles into the church. A further design of this book 
 is, to evince the care of Divine Providence over those 
 who sincerely fear God, in. raising the pious Ruth from 
 a state of the deepest adversity to that of the highest 
 prosperity. 
 
 Section IV.— On the two Books of Samuel. 
 
 In the Jewish canon of Scripture these two books form 
 but one, termed in Hebrew the Book of Samuel, probably 
 because the greater part of the first book was written by 
 that prophet, whose history and transactions it relates. 
 According to the Talmudical writers, the first twenty-four 
 chapters of the first book of Samuel were written by the 
 prophet whose name they bear; and the remainder of that 
 book, together with the whole of the second book, was 
 commited to writing by the prophets Gad and Nathan, 
 agreeably to the practice of the prophets, who wrote me- 
 moirs of the transactions of their respective times. 
 
 The first book of Samuel contains the history of the 
 Jewish church and polity, from the birth of Samuel, 
 during the judicature of Eli, to the death of Saul, the first 
 king of Israel : a period of nearly eighty years, viz. : 
 from the year of the world 2869 to 2949. It comprises, 
 
ON THE HISTORICAL BOOKS. 283 
 
 I. The Transactions under the Judicature of Eli. (ch. 
 i. — iv.) 
 
 II. The History of the Israelites during the Judicature 
 of Samuel, (ch. v. — xiii.) 
 
 III. The History of Saul and the transactions of his 
 Reign, (ch. xiv. — xxxi.) 
 
 The second book Of Samuel contains the history of 
 David, the second king of Israel, during a period of nearly 
 forty years, viz. : from the year of the world 2948 to 
 2988 ; and, by recording the translation of the kingdom 
 from the tribe of Benjamin to that of Judah, it relates the 
 partial accomplishment of the prediction delivered in 
 Gen. xlix. 10. This book consists of three principal 
 divisions, relating the triumphs and the troubles of David, 
 and his transactions subsequent to his recovery of the 
 throne, whence he was driven for a short time by the re- 
 bellion of his son Absalom. 
 
 I. The Triumphs of David, (ch. i. — x.) 
 
 II. The Troubles of David, and their cause, together 
 with his repentance, and subsequent recovery of the di- 
 vine favour, (ch. xi. — xxiv.) 
 
 III. David's Restoration to his Throne, and subsequent 
 transactions, (ch. xx. — xxiv.) 
 
 The two books of Samuel are of very considerable im- 
 portance for illustrating the book of Psalms, to which they 
 may be considered as a key. 
 
 Section V.— On the Two Books of Kings. 
 
 The two books of Kings are closely connected with 
 those of Samuel. The origin and gradual increase of the 
 united kingdom of Israel, under Saul and his successor 
 David, having been described in the latter, the books now 
 under consideration relate its height of glory under So- 
 lomon, its division into two kingdoms, under his son and 
 successor Rehoboam, the causes of that division, and the 
 consequent decline of the two kingdoms of Israel and 
 Judah, until their final subversion ; the ten tribes being 
 carried captive into Assyria by Shalmenezer, and Judah 
 and Benjamin to Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar. In the 
 Jewish canon these books constitute but one volume, 
 termed Melakim, or Kings, having been divided at some 
 
284 ON THE HISTORICAL BOOKS. 
 
 unknown period into two parts, for the convenience of read- 
 ing. In the Septuagint and Vulgate copies they are term- 
 ed the third and fourth book of Kings ; they are gene- 
 rally ascribed to Ezra. 
 
 The first book of Kings embraces a period of one hun- 
 dred and twenty-six years, from the anointing of Solo- 
 mon and his admission as a partner in the throne with 
 David, a. m. 29S9, to the death of Jehoshaphat, a. m. 3115. 
 
 The first book of Kings may be divided into two prin- 
 cipal parts, containing, 1. The history of the undivided 
 kingdom under Solomon ; and, 2. The history of the di- 
 vided kingdom under Rehoboam and his successors, and 
 Jeroboam and his successors. 
 
 Part I. The History of Solomon's reign (ch. i. — x.) 
 contains a narrative of 
 
 1. The latter days of David; the inauguration of Solomon as his asso- 
 ciate in the kingdom, and his designation to be his successor, (ch. i. ii. 
 1—11.) 
 
 2. The Reign of Solomon from the death of David to his dedication of 
 the temple, (ii. 12—46, iii. — viii.) 
 
 3. The Transactions daring the remainder of Solomon's reign, (ix. — xi.) 
 
 Part II. The history of the two kingdoms of Judah 
 and Israel, (ch. xi. — xxii.) 
 
 1. The accession of Rehoboam, and the division of the two kingdoms. 
 (ch. xi.) 
 
 2. The reigns of Rehoboam ; king of Judah, and of Jeroboam I. king of 
 Israel, (xii. — xiv.) 
 
 3. The reigns of Abijam and Asa, kings of Judah, and the contemporary 
 reigns of Nadab, Baasha, Elah, Zimri, Omri, and the commencement of 
 Ahab's reign, (xv, xvi.) 
 
 4. The reign of Jehoshaphat king of Judah, and of his contemporaries 
 Ahab and Ahaziah, (in part,) during which the prophet Elisha flourished. 
 (xvii. — xxii.) 
 
 The second book of Kings continues the contemporary 
 history of the two kingdoms of Israel and Judah, from 
 the death of Jehoshaphat, a. m. 3115, to the destruction 
 of the city and temple of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, 
 a. m. 3416, a period of three hundred years. The three 
 last verses of the preceding book have been improperly 
 disjoined from this. The history of the two kingdoms is 
 interwoven in this book, which may be divided into two 
 parts, viz. : 
 
 Part I. The contemporary History of the Kingdoms 
 of Israel and Judah, to the end of the former, (ch. i. — 
 xvii.") 
 
ON THE HISTORICAL BOOKS. 2g5 
 
 Part II. The History of the decline and fall of the 
 kingdom of Judah. (ch. xviii. — xxv.) 
 
 Section VI. — On the Two Books of Chronicles. 
 
 The Jews comprise the two books of Chronicles in one 
 book, which they call Dibre Hajamin, that is, The Words 
 of Days, probably from the circumstance of their being 
 compiled out of diaries or annals, in which were recorded 
 the various events related in these books. In the Septua- 
 gint version they are termed HapaXsiwonevcov (Paraleipome- 
 non,) or of Things omitted; because many things which 
 were omitted in the former part of the sacred history are 
 here not only supplied, but some narrations are also en- 
 larged, while others are added. The appellation of Chron- 
 icles was given to these books by Jerome, because they 
 contain an abstract, in order of time, of the whole of the 
 sacred history, to the time when they were written. 
 
 These books were evidently compiled from others, which 
 were written at different times, some before and others 
 after the Babylonish captivity : the period of time con- 
 tained in these books, is about 3468 years. They may be 
 divided into four parts, viz. : 
 
 Part I. Genealogical Tables from Adam to the time of 
 Ezra. (1 Chron. i. — ix.) 
 
 Part II. The Histories of Saul and David. (I Chron. 
 ix. 35 — 44, x. — xxix.) 
 
 Part III. The History of the United Kingdom of Is- 
 rael and Judah under Solomon. (1 Chron. xxix. 23 — 30. 
 2 Chron. i. — ix.) 
 
 Part IV. The History of the Kingdom of Judah, from 
 the secession of the ten tribes, under Jeroboam, to its ter- 
 mination by Nebuchadnezzar. (2 Chron. x. — xxxvi.) 
 
 As the books of Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles, relate 
 the same histories, they should each be constantly read and 
 collated together; not only for the purpose of obtaining 
 a more comprehensive view of Jewish history, but also 
 in order to illustrate from one book what may appear to 
 be obscure in either of the others. 
 
286 0N THE HISTORICAL BOOKS. 
 
 Section VII. — On the Book of Ezra. 
 
 The Books of Ezra and Nebemiah were anciently 
 reckoned by the Jews as one volume, and were divided by 
 them into the first and second books of Ezra. The same 
 division is recognised by the Greek and Latin churches ; 
 but the third book, assigned to Ezra, and received as ca- 
 nonical by the Greek church, is the same, in substance, 
 as the book which properly bears his name, but interpo- 
 lated. And the fourth book, which has been attributed to 
 him, is a manifest forgery, in which the marks of falsehood 
 are plainly discernible, and which was never unanimously 
 received as canonical either by the Greek or by the Latin 
 church, although some of the fathers have cited it, and 
 the Latin church has borrowed some words out of it. It 
 is not now extant in Greek, and never was extant in He- 
 brew. Ezra is generally admitted to have been the author 
 of the book which bears his name : every page, indeed, of 
 the book proves that the writer of it was personally pre- 
 sent at the transactions which he has recorded. 
 
 The book of Ezra harmonizes most strictly with the pro- 
 phecies of Haggai and Zechariah,- which it materially elu- 
 cidates. (Compare Ezra v. with Hagg. i. 12. and Zech. 
 iii. iv.) It evinces the paternal care of the Almighty over 
 his chosen people, and consists of two parts, viz. : 
 
 I. A Narrative of events from the return of the Jews 
 under Zerub babel to the rebuilding of the temple, (cb. i. 
 — vi.) 
 
 II. The arrival of Ezra at Jerusalem, and the Refor- 
 mation made there by him. (vii. — x.) 
 
 The zeal and piety of Ezra appear, in this book, in a 
 most conspicuous point of view : his memory has always 
 been held in the highest reverence by the Jews. 
 
 Section VIII. — On the Book of Nehemiah. 
 
 Some eminent fathers of the Christian church have as- 
 cribed this book to Ezra ; but that Nehemiah, whose 
 name it bears, and who was cup-bearer to Artaxerxes 
 Longimanus, was the author of it, there cannot be any 
 reasonable doubt: the whole of it being written in his 
 
ON THE HISTORICAL BOOKS. 287 
 
 name, and, what is very unusual when compared with the 
 preceding sacred historians, being written in the first per- 
 son. His book contains, 
 
 I. An Account of Nehemiah's departure from Shushan, 
 with a royal commission to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, 
 and his first arrival there, (ch. i., ii. 1 — 11.) 
 
 II. An Account of the building of the walls, notwith- 
 standing the obstacles interposed by Sanballat. (ch. ii. 12 
 —20, iii.— vii. 4. 
 
 III. The first reformation accomplished by Nehemiah. 
 (ch. vii. — xii.) 
 
 IV. The second reformation accomplished by Nehe- 
 miah on his second return to Jerusalem, and his correc- 
 tion of the abuses which had crept in during his absence. 
 
 ( xiii ) 
 
 The administration of this pious man and excellent 
 
 governor lasted about thirty-six years, to the year of the 
 
 world 3574, according to some cm*onologers, but Dr. Pri- 
 
 deaux has, with more probability, fixed it to the year 3595. 
 
 The Scripture history closes with the book of Nehemiah. 
 
 Section IX. — On the Book of Esther. 
 
 This book, which derives its name from the Jewish 
 captive whose history it chiefly relates, is by the Jews 
 termed Megilloth Esther., or the volume of Esther. The 
 history it contains conies in between the sixth and seventh 
 chapters of Ezra : its authenticity was questioned by some 
 of the fathers, in consequence of the name of God being 
 omitted throughout, but it has always been received as 
 canonical by the Jews. The book consists of two parts, 
 detailing, 
 
 I. The promotion of Esther to the throne of Persia ; 
 and the essential service rendered to the king by Mordecai, 
 in detecting a plot against his life. (ch. i., ii.) 
 
 II. The advancement of Haman, his designs against 
 the Jews, and their frustration ; and the advancement of 
 Mordecai. (ch. iii. — x.) 
 
 In our copies, the book of Esther terminates with the 
 third verse of the tenth chapter ; but in the Greek and 
 Vulgate Bibles, there are ten more verses annexed to it, 
 
288 °N THE POETICAL BOOKS 
 
 together with six additional chapters, which the Greek and 
 Romish churches account to be canonical. As, however, 
 they are not extant in Hebrew, they are expunged from the 
 sacred canon by Protestants, and are supposed to have 
 been compiled by some Hellenistic Jew. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 ON THE POETICAL BOOKS. 
 
 Though some of the Sacred Writings, which present 
 themselves to our notice in the present chapter, are ante- 
 rior in point of date to the Historical Books, yet they are 
 usually classed by themselves under the title of the Poet- 
 ical Books ; because they are almost wholly composed in 
 Hebrew verse. This appellation is of considerable anti- 
 quity. The Poetical Books are five in number, viz. : Job, 
 Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and the Canticles, or Song 
 of Solomon : in the Jewish canon of Scripture they are 
 classed among the Hagiographa, or Holy Writings ; and 
 in our Bibles they are placed between the Historical and 
 Prophetical Books. 
 
 Section I. — On the book of Job. 
 
 This book has derived its title from the venerable patri 
 arch J ob, whose prosperity, afflictions, and restoration from 
 the deepest adversity, are here recorded, together with his 
 exemplary and unequalled patience under all his calami- 
 ties. Some critics have doubted, or affected to doubt, the 
 existence of such a character as Job ; but that point is 
 satisfactorily determined by the prophet Ezekiel (xiv. 14,) 
 and the apostle James, (v. 11,) both of whom mention him 
 as a real character. The length of his life places him in 
 the patriarchal times: and Dr. Hales, besides other evi- 
 dences, which cannot here be detailed, has rendered it 
 highly probable that he lived about 184 years before the 
 time of Abraham. He dwelt in Uz or Idumaea. 
 
 Among the conflicting opinions which have been ad- 
 vanced respecting the author of this book, the most pro- 
 
ON THE POETICAL BOOKS. 289 
 
 bable is that of Archbishop Magee, who supposes it to 
 have been originally written by Job, and subsequently 
 transcribed by Moses ; who having applied it to the use 
 of the Jews, and given it the sanction of his authority, it 
 thenceforth became enrolled among the sacred writings. 
 It has been quoted by almost every Hebrew writer from 
 the age of Moses to that of Malachi. In its form, this 
 poem approximates to the Mekama, or philosophical dis- 
 courses of the Arabian Poets. 
 
 Nothing, perhaps, has contributed more to render the 
 poem of Job obscure, than the common division into chap- 
 ters and verses ; by which not only the unity of the gene- 
 ral subject, but frequently that of a single paragraph, or 
 clause, is broken. 
 
 The poem may be divided into six parts ; viz. : The 
 first of these contains the exordium or narrative part, 
 which is written in prose ; (ch. i., ii. ;) the second comprises 
 the first debate or dialogue of Job and his friends ; (hi. — 
 xiv. ;) the third includes the second series of debate or 
 controversy ; (xv. — xxi. ;) the fourth comprehends the 
 third series of controversy ; (xxii. — xxxi. ;) in the fifth 
 part Elihu sums up the argument ; (xxxii. — xxxvii. ;) and 
 in the sixth part Jehovah determines the controversy, Job 
 humbles himself, is accepted, and restored to health and 
 prosperity, (xxxviii. — xlii.) 
 
 Independently of the important instruction and benefit 
 which may be derived from a devout perusal of the book 
 of Job, this divine poem is of no small value, as transmit- 
 ting to us a faithful delineation of the patriarchal doctrines 
 of religion, and particularly the existence of a God, who 
 is the rewarder of them that diligently seek him, and 
 a day of future resurrection, judgment, and final retri- 
 bution. 
 
 Section II. — On the Book of Psalms. 
 
 This book is entitled in the Hebrew Sepher Tehillim, 
 that is, the Booh of Hymns or Praises; because the 
 praises of God constitute their chief subject matter: and 
 as they were set, not only to be sung with the voice, but 
 also to be accompanied with musical instruments, the Sep- 
 tuagint version designates them B</?Xo? ^Ya\ ( aw V} (Biblos Psal- 
 
290 ON THE POETICAL BOORS 
 
 mon,) the Booh of Psalms, by which name they are cited 
 in Luke xx. 42 ; and this appellation is retained in our 
 Bibles. The right of the book of Psalms to a place in 
 the sacred canon has never been disputed : they are fre- 
 quently alluded to in the Old Testament, and are often 
 cited by our Lord and his apostles as the work of the Holy 
 Spirit They are generally termed the Psalms of David, 
 that Hebrew monarch being their chief author. Many 
 of them bear his name, and were composed on occasion 
 of remarkable circumstances in his life, his dangers, his 
 afflictions, and his deliverances. Many of them, however, 
 are strictly prophetical of the Messiah, of whom David ; 
 was an eminent type : but others were composed during 
 the reign of Solomon, or during and subsequent to the 
 captivity. We have no information when these divine 
 poems were collected into a volume. The Psalms of 
 Degrees, or Odes of Ascension, as Bishop Lowth terms 
 them, are supposed to have derived this name from their 
 being sung, when the people came up either to worship in 
 Jerusalem, at the annual festivals, or perhaps from the 
 Babylonish captivity. The word " Selah," which is found 
 in many of the Psalms, appears to have been inserted in 
 order to point out something worthy of most attentive 
 observation. 
 
 For a Table of those Psalms which are strictly prophet- 
 ical of the Messiah, see pp. 102, 103, supra. 
 
 The book of Psalms, being composed in Hebrew verse, 
 must generally be studied according to the laws of Hebrew 
 Poetry, which have been noticed in pp. 108 — 111 : and 
 this the English reader will find little difficulty in accom- 
 plishing, in our admirably faithful authorized version. At- 
 tention to the following hints will also enable him to enter 
 into their force and meaning. 
 
 1. Investigate the Argument of each psalm. 
 
 This is sometimes intimated in the prefixed title : but as these inscrip- 
 tions are not always genuine, it will be preferable, in every case, to de- 
 duce the argument from a diligent and attentive reading of the psalm it- 
 self, and then to form our opinion concerning the correctness of the title, 
 if there be any. 
 
 2. With this view, examine the Historical Origin of the psalm, 
 or the circumstances that led the sacred poet to compose it 
 
 Much advantage and assistance may be derived from studying the psalma 
 chronologically, and comparing them with the historical books of the 01<J 
 
ON TftE POETICAL BOOKS. 291 
 
 Testament, particularly those which treat of the Israelites and Jews, from 
 the origin of their monarchy to their return from the Babylonish captivity. 
 
 3. Attend to the Structure of the psalms. 
 
 The psalms, being principally designed for the national worship of the 
 Jews, are adapted to choral singing : attention to this circumstance will 
 enable us better to enter into their spirit and meaning. 
 
 For a Table of the Psalms adapted to private reading 
 or devotion, see the Appendix, No. IV. 
 
 Section III.— On the Books of Proverbs. 
 
 The book of Proverbs has always been ascribed to So- 
 lomon, whose name it bears, though, from the frequent re- 
 petition of the same sentences, as well as from some varia- 
 tions in style which have been discovered, doubts have 
 been entertained whether he really was the author of every 
 maxim it comprises. As it is no where said that Solomon 
 himself made a collection of proverbs and sentences, the 
 general opinion is, that several persons made a collection 
 of them: Hezekiah, among others, as mentioned in the 
 twenty-fifth chapter : Agur, Isaiah, and Ezra, might have 
 done the same. This book is frequently cited by the apos- 
 tles : its scope is to instruct men in the deepest mysteries 
 of true wisdom and understanding, the height and perfec- 
 tion of which is, the true knowledge of the divine will, 
 and the sincere fear of the Lord. (Prov. i. 2 — 7, ix. 10.) 
 It may be divided into five parts, viz. : 
 
 Part I. In the proem or exordium, containing the first 
 nine chapters, the teacher gives his pupil a series of ad- 
 monitions, directions, cautions, and excitements to the study 
 of wisdom. 
 
 Part II. extends from chapter x. to xxii. 16, and con- 
 sists of what may be strictly and properly called proverbs, 
 — namely, unconnected sentences, expressed with much 
 neatness and simplicity. 
 
 Part III. readies from chapter xxii. 17, to xxv. inclu- 
 sive : in this part the tutor drops the sententious style, 
 and addresses his pupil as present, to whom he gives 
 renewed and connected admonitions to the study of wis- 
 dom. 
 
 The proverbs contained in 
 
 Part IV. are supposed to have been selected from 
 
292 ON THE POETICAL BOOKS. 
 
 some larger collection of Solomon " by the men of Heze- 
 kiah," — that is, by the prophets whom he employed to re- 
 store the service and writings of the Jewish church. (2 
 Chron. xxxi. 20, 21.) This part, like the second, consists 
 of detached unconnected sentences, and extends from 
 chapter xxv. to xxix. Some of the proverbs, which Solo- 
 mon had introduced into the former part of the book, are 
 here repeated. 
 
 Part V. Comprises chapters xxx. and xxxi. In the 
 former are included the wise observations and instructions 
 delivered by Agur, the son Jakeh, to his pupils, Ithiel and 
 Ucal. The thirty-first chapter contains the precepts 
 which were given to Lemuel by his mother, who is sup- 
 posed by some to have been a Jewish woman married to 
 some neighbouring prince, and who appears to have been 
 most ardently desirous to guard him against vice, to esta- 
 blish him in the principles of justice, and to unite him to 
 a wife of the best qualities. Of Agur we know nothing ; 
 nor have any of the commentators offered so much as a 
 plausible conjecture respecting him. 
 
 Section TV.— On the Book of Ecclesiastes. 
 
 The title of this book, in our Bibles, is derived from the 
 Septuagint version, E^A^o-tarns-, (Ecclesiastes,) signifying a 
 a preacher, or one who harangues a public congregation. 
 In Hebrew it is termed, from the initial words, Dibre Co- 
 heleth, " the Words of the Preacher ;" by whom may be 
 intended, either the person assembling the people, or he 
 who addresses them when convened. Although this book 
 does not bear the name of Solomon, it is evident from 
 several passages that he was the author of it. Compare 
 ch. i. 12. \6, ii. 4 — 9, and xii. 9, 10. Its scope is ex- 
 plicitly announced in ch. i. 2, and xii. 13, viz. : to de- 
 monstrate the vanity of all earthly objects, and to draw 
 off men from the pursuit of them, as an apparent good, to 
 the fear of God, and communion with him, as to the 
 highest and only permanent good in this life, and to show 
 that men must seek for happiness beyond the grave. It 
 consists of two parts ; viz. : 
 
 Part I. The Vanity of all earthly conditions, occupa- 
 tions, and pleasures, (ch. i. — vi. 9.) 
 
ON THE POETICAL BOOKS. 293 
 
 Part II. The Nature, Excellence, and Beneficial Effects 
 of true Religion, (ch. vi. — xii. 7.) 
 The Conclusion, (ch. xii. 8 — 14.) 
 
 Section V.— On the Song of Solomon. 
 
 This book has always been reputed to be the produc- 
 tion of the Hebrew monarch. Concerning its structure, 
 there is great difference of opinion among critics, whose 
 various hypotheses are discussed in the author's larger 
 work. The most probable opinion is that which refers it 
 to the idyls of the Arabian Poets. Dr. John Mason Good 
 makes them to be twelve in number ; viz. : 
 
 UIUI 
 
 idyl 1 containing chap. i. 1—8 
 
 2 i. 9, ii. 7. 
 
 3 - ii. 8—17. 
 
 4 iii. 1—5. 
 
 5 iii. 6, iv. 7. 
 
 6 iv. 8, v. 1. 
 
 7 • • • v. 2, vi. 10. 
 
 8 Vi. 11—13. 
 
 9 vii. 1—9. 
 
 10 vii. 10, vii. 4 
 
 11 • - viii. 5—7. 
 
 12 viii. 8—14. 
 
 This poem was composed on occasion of Solomon's 
 marriage. That it is a mystical poem, or allegory, all 
 sound interpreters are agreed ; though some expositors, 
 who have not entered sufficiently into the spirit and 
 meaning of Oriental poesy, have caused particular pas- 
 sages to be considered as coarse and indelicate, which, in 
 the original, are altogether the reverse ; while others 
 have so confounded the literal and allegorical senses as 
 to give neither, distinctly or completely. At the same 
 time, they have applied the figures to such a variety of 
 objects, as to leave the reader still to seek the right; 
 and, by their minute dissection of the allegory, they have 
 not only destroyed its consistency and beauty, but have 
 also exposed the poem to the unmerited ridicule of pro- 
 fane minds. Much, unquestionably, has been done, by 
 later writers, towards elucidating the language and allu- 
 sions of the Song of Songs by the aid of Oriental litera- 
 ture and manners : but, after all the labours of learned 
 2-5* 
 
294 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE PROPHETS, 
 
 men, there will, perhaps, be found many expressions which 
 are very difficult to us, both as to the literal meaning, 
 and the spiritual instruction intended to be conveyed by 
 them ; and some descriptions must not be judged by 
 modern notions of delicacy. But the grand outlines, 
 soberly interpreted, in the obvious meaning of the allegory, 
 so accord with the affections and experience of the sin- 
 cere Christian, " that he will hardly ever read and medi- 
 tate upon them, in a spirit of humble devotion, without 
 feeling a conviction that no other poem, of the same kind, 
 extant in the world, could, without most manifest violence, 
 be so explained as to describe the state of his heart at 
 different times, and to excite admiring, adoring, grateful 
 love to God our Saviour, as this does." (Scott's Pref. to 
 Sol. Song.) 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE PROPHETS AND THEIR WRITINGS. 
 
 We now enter on the fourth, or prophetical part of the 
 Old Testament, according to the division which is gene- 
 rally adopted, but which (as we have already seen in 
 page 79, supra,) forms the second division, according to 
 the Jewish classification of the sacred volume. This 
 portion of the Scriptures is termed prophetical, because it 
 chiefly consists of predictions of future events ; though 
 many historical and doctrinal passages are interspersed 
 through the writings of the Prophets, as there also are 
 many predictions of future events scattered through those 
 books, which are more strictly historical. The authors 
 of these books are, by way of eminence, termed Prophets, 
 that is, divinely inspired persons, who were raised up 
 among the Israelites to be the ministers of God's dispen- 
 sations. The prophets are usually reckoned among 
 sacred persons. Seep. 230, 231, supra; and some ob- 
 servations on the interpretation of Scripture Prophecy, 
 especially the predictions relative to the Messiah, will 
 be found in pp. 144 — 148, supra. 
 
 The prophetical books are sixteen in number, (the La- 
 mentations of Jeremiah being usually considered as an 
 
AND THEIR WRITINGS. 295 
 
 appendix to his predictions,) and, in all modern editions 
 of the Bible, they are usually divided into two classes ; 
 viz. : 1. The Greater Prophets, comprising the waitings 
 of Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel ; who have been 
 thus designated from the size of their books, not because 
 they possessed greater authority than the others. 2. The 
 Minor Prophets, comprising the writings of Hosea, Joel, 
 Amos, Jonah, Obadiah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Ze- 
 phaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi. These books 
 were anciently written in one volume, by the Jews, lest 
 any of them should be lost ; some of their writings being 
 very short. 
 
 Much of the obscurity which hangs over the prophetic 
 writings may be removed by perusing them in the order 
 of time in which they were probably written ; and though 
 the precise time in which some of the prophets delivered 
 their predictions, cannot, perhaps, be traced in every in- 
 stance, yet the following arrangement of the prophets in 
 their supposed order of time, (according to the tables of 
 Blair, Archbishop Newcome, and other eminent critics, 
 with a few variations,) will, we think, be found suffi- 
 ciently correct for the right understanding of their pre- 
 dictions. 
 
 According to the annexed table, the times when the pro- 
 phets flourished maybe referred to three periods ; viz. : 1. 
 Before the Babylonian Captivity ; — 2. Near to and during 
 that event ; — and, 3. After the return of the Jews from 
 Babylon. And if, in these three periods, we parallel the 
 prophetical writings with the historical books written 
 during the same times, they will materially illustrate 
 each other. 
 
296 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON THE PROPHETS, &c. 
 
 Jonah 
 
 Before 
 Christ. 
 
 
 Jehu and Jehoahaz, ac- 
 cording to BishopLloyd; 
 but Joash and Jeroboam 
 the Second, according 
 to Blair. 
 
 Between 856 
 and 784. 
 
 Amos 
 
 Between 810 
 and 795. 
 
 Uzziah, ch. I. 1. 
 
 Jeroboam the Second, 
 ch. i. !. 
 
 Hosea 
 
 Between 810 
 and 725. 
 
 Uzziah,Jotham,Ahaz,the 
 third year of Hezekiah. 
 
 Jeroboam the Second, 
 ch. i. 1. 
 
 Isaiah 
 
 Between 810 
 and 749. 
 
 Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz and 
 Hezekiah, chap. i. 1, 
 and perhaps Manasseh. 
 
 
 Joel 
 
 Between 810 
 and 660, or 
 later, 
 
 Uzziah, or possibly Ma- 
 nasseh. 
 
 
 Micah 
 
 Between '758 
 and 609. 
 
 Jotham, Ahaz, and He- 
 zekiah, ch. i. 1. 
 
 Pekan ana Hosea. 
 
 Nahum 
 
 Eetween 720 
 and 693 
 
 Probablytowards theclose 
 of Hezekiah's reign. 
 
 
 Zephaniah 
 
 Between 640 
 and 609. 
 
 In the reign of Jtwiah 
 ch. i. I. 
 
 Jeremiah 
 
 Between 623 
 and 586. 
 
 In the thirteenth year of 
 Josiah. 
 
 Habakkuk 
 
 Between 612 
 and 59S. 
 
 Probably in the reign of 
 Jehoiakim. 
 
 Daniel 
 
 Between 606 
 and 534. 
 
 During all the captivity. 
 
 Obadiah 
 
 Between 588 
 and 5S3. 
 
 Between the taking of Je 
 r usal em byNebuchadnez- 
 zar, and the destruction 
 of the Edomites by him. 
 
 Ezekiel 
 
 Between 595 
 and 536. 
 
 During part of the 
 captivity. 
 
 Haggai 
 
 About 520 
 to 518. 
 
 After the return from 
 Babylon. 
 
 Zechariah 
 
 From 520 to 
 518,or longer. 
 
 
 Malachi 
 
 Between 436 
 and 397. 
 
ON THE PROPHETS. 397 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 ON THE PROPHETS WHO FLOURISHED BEFORE THE BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY. 
 
 Section I. — On the Book of the Prophet Jonah. 
 
 BEFORE CHRIST, 856 — 784. 
 
 This Book is by the Hebrews called Sepher Jonari, or 
 the Book of Jonah, from its author Jonah, the son of 
 Amittai, who was a native of Gath-Hepher in Galilee. 
 (Jon. i. 1, with Josh. xix. 13.) He is supposed to have 
 prophesied to the ten tribes, according to Bishop Lloyd, 
 toward the close of Jehu's reign, or in the beginning of 
 Jehoahaz's reign; though other chronologers place him 
 under Joash and Jeroboam II., about forty years later. 
 The scope of this book is to show, by the very striking 
 example of the Ninevites, the divine forbearance and long 
 suffering towards sinners who are spared on their sincere 
 repentance. 
 
 The book of Jonah consists of two parts ; viz. : 
 
 Part I. His first mission to Nineveh, and his attempt 
 to flee to Tarshish, and its frustration, together with his 
 delivery from the stomach of the great fish which had 
 swallowed him. (eh. i., ii.) 
 
 Part II. His second mission, and its happy result to 
 the Ninevites, who, in consequence of the prophet's 
 preaching, repented in dust and ashes ; (iii. ;) and the dis- 
 content of Jonah, who, dreading to be thought a false 
 prophet, repined at the divine mercy in sparing the Nine- 
 vites, whose destruction he seems to have expected, (iv.) 
 
 The time of Jonah's continuance in the belly of the 
 fish was a type of our Lord's continuance in the grave. 
 (Luke xi. 30.) 
 
 Section II.— On the Book of the Prophet Amos. 
 
 BEFORE CHRIST, 810 — 785. 
 
 Amos, the third of the minor prophets, is supposed to 
 have been a native of Tekoah, a small town in the king- 
 dom of Judah, situate about four leagues to the south of 
 Jerusalem. He prophesied during the reigns of Uzziah, 
 
298 ON THE PROPHETS WHO FLOURISHED 
 
 king of Judah, and of Jeroboam, son of Jo ash. His pro- 
 phecy consists of four parts, viz. : 
 
 Part I. The Judgments of God denounced against the 
 neighbouring Gentile nations ; as 
 
 The Syrians, (ch. i. 1—5,) which see fulfilled in 2 Kings xvi. 9 ; the 
 Philistines, (i. 6—8,) recorded as accomplished in 2 Kings xviii. 8, Jer. 
 xlvii. 1. 5, and 2 Chron. xxvi. 6 ; the Tynans, (i. 9, 10,) the Edomites, (L 
 11, 12. compared with Jer. xxvi. 9. 21, xxvii. 3. 6, and 1 Mace. v. 3.) the 
 Ammonites, (13 — 15,) and the Moabites. (ii. 1 — 3.) 
 
 Part II. The Divine Judgments denounced against 
 Judah and Israel, (ch. ii. 4, ix. 1 — 10.) 
 
 Part III. Consolatory Promises to the Church, de- 
 scribing her Restoration by the Messiah, (ch. ix. 11 — 15.) 
 
 Section in.— On the Book of the Prophet Hosea. 
 
 BEFORE CHRIST, 810 — 725. 
 
 Hosea, of whose family we have no certain information, 
 prophesied during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, and 
 Ahaz, and in the third year of Hezekiah, kings of Judah, 
 and during the reign of Jeroboam II. king of Israel ; and 
 it is most probable that he was an Israelite, who lived in 
 the kingdom of Samaria, or of the ten tribes, as his pre- 
 dictions are chiefly directed against their wickedness and 
 idolatry. But, with the severest denunciations of ven- 
 geance, he blends promises of mercy. The prophecy of 
 Hosea contains fourteen chapters, which may be divided 
 into five sections, or discourses, exclusive of the title in 
 ch. i. 1, viz. : 
 
 Discourse I. Under the figure of the supposed infide- 
 lity of the prophet's wife is represented the spiritual infide- 
 lity of the Israelites, a remnant of whom, it is promised, 
 shall be saved (ch. i. 2 — 11,) and they are exhorted to 
 forsake idolatry, (ii. 1 — 11.) Promises are then intro- 
 duced, on the general conversion of the twelve tribes to 
 Christianity ; and the gracious purposes of Jehovah 
 toward the ten tribes, or the kingdom of Israel in parti- 
 cular, are represented under the figure of the prophet 
 taking back his wife on her amendment, (ii. 11—23, iii.) 
 
 Discourse II. A reproof of the bloodshed and idolatry 
 of the Israelites, against which the inhabitants of Judah 
 
BEFORE THE BABYLONIAN CAPTIVTTV. 299 
 
 are exhorted to take warning : interspersed with promises 
 of pardon, (ch. iv. — vi. 1 — 3.) 
 
 Discourse III. The prophet's exhortations to repent- 
 ance proving ineffectual, God complains by him of their 
 obstinate iniquity and idolatry, (ch. vi. 4 — 11, vii. 1 — 
 10,) and denounces that Israel will be carried into capti- 
 vity into Assyria by Sennacherib, notwithstanding their 
 reliance on Egypt for assistance, (vii. 11 — 16, viii.) 
 
 Discourse IV. The captivity and dispersion of Israel 
 is further threatened ; (ch. ix., x.) the Israelites are re- 
 proved for their idolatry, yet they shall not be utterly de- 
 stroyed, and their return to their own country is foretold, 
 (xi.) Renewed denunciations are made on account of 
 their idolatry, (xii., xiii. 1 — 8.) 
 
 Discourse V. After a terrible denunciation of divine 
 punishment, intermixed with promises of restoration from 
 captivity, (ch. xiii. 9 — 16,) the prophet exhorts the Is- 
 raelites to repentance, and furnishes them with a beauti- 
 ful form of prayer adapted to their situation ; (xiv. 1 — 3 ;) 
 and foretells their reformation from idolatry, together with 
 the subsequent restoration of all the tribes from their dis- 
 persed state, and their conversion to the Gospel. (4 — 9.) 
 
 Section IV.— On the Book of the Prophet Isaiah. 
 
 BEFOKE CHRIST, 810 — 749. 
 
 Though fifth in the order of time, the writings of the 
 prophet Isaiah are placed first in Order of the prophetical 
 books, principally on account of the sublimity and impor- 
 tance of his predictions, and partly also because the book, 
 which bears his name, is larger than all the twelve minjor 
 prophets put together. 
 
 Concerning his family and descent, nothing certain has 
 been recorded, except what he himself tells us, (i. 1,) viz.: 
 that he was the son of Amos, and discharged the prophetic 
 office* in the days of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, 
 kings of Judah. Concerning the time or manner of his 
 death nothing certain is known. Besides the predictions 
 ascribed to him, it appears from 1 Chron. xxvi. 22, that 
 Isaiah wrote an account of the Acts of Uzziah, king of 
 
3(H) ON THE PROPHETS WHO FLOURISHED 
 
 Judah : this has long since perished. Of all the prophets, 
 none have so clearly predicted the circumstances relative to 
 the advent, sufferings, atoning death, and resurrection of 
 the Messiah, as Isaiah ; who has, from this circumstance, 
 been styled the Evangelical Prophet. His predictions (yet 
 unfulfilled) of the ultimate triumph and extension of the 
 Redeemer's kingdom are unrivalled for the splendour of 
 their imagery, and the beauty and sublimity of their 
 language. 
 
 Part I. contains a general Description of the State 
 and Condition of the Jews, in the several periods of their 
 history ; the Promulgation and success of the Gospel, and 
 the coming of Messiah to judgment, (ch. i. — v.) The pre- 
 dictions in this section were delivered during the reign of 
 Uzziah king of Judah. 
 
 Part II. comprises the predictions delivered in the 
 reigns of Jotham and Ahaz. (ch. vi. — xii.) 
 
 Part III. contains various predictions against the Ba- 
 bylonians, Assyrians, Philistines, and other nations with 
 whom the Jews had any intercourse, (ch. xiii. — xxiv.) 
 
 Part IV. contains a Prophecy of the great calamities 
 that should befall the people of God, His merciful preser- 
 vation of a remnant of them, and of their restoration to 
 their country, of their conversion to the Gospel, and the 
 destruction of x4ntichrist. (ch. xxiv. — xxxiii.) 
 
 Part V. comprises the historical part of the prophecj 7 
 of Isaiah, (ch. xxxvi. — xxxix.) 
 
 Part VI. comprises a series of prophecies, delivered 
 in all probability, toward the close of Hezekiah's reign, 
 (ch. xl. — Ixvi.) 
 
 This portion of Isaiah's predictions constitutes the most 
 elegant part of the sacred writings of the Old Testament. 
 The chief subject is the restoration of the church, which 
 is pursued with the greatest regularity. But, as the sub- 
 ject of this very beautiful series of prophecies is chiefly 
 of the consolatory kind, they are introduced with a pro- 
 mise of the restoration of the kingdom, and the return of 
 the Jews from the Babylonian captivity, through the mer- 
 ciful interposition of God. At the same time this redemp- 
 tion from Babylon is employed as an image to shadow out 
 a redemption of an infinitely higher and more important 
 nature. The prophet connects these two events together, 
 
BEFORE THE BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY. 3Q| 
 
 scarcely ever treating of the former without throwing in 
 some intimations of the latter ; and sometimes he is so 
 fully possessed with the glories of the future more remote 
 kingdom of the Messiah, that he seems to leave the im- 
 mediate subject of his commission almost out of the 
 question. / 
 
 Section V.— On the Book of the Prophet Joel. 
 before christ, 810 — 660, or later. 
 
 Concerning the family, condition, and pursuits ot this 
 prophet, nothing certain is known ; hut from internal evi- 
 dence, we are authorized to place him in the reign of Uz- 
 ziah. Consequently he was contemporary with Amos and 
 Hosea, if indeed he did not prophesy before Amos. His 
 book consists of three chapters, which may be divided into 
 three discourses or parts, viz. 
 
 Part I. is an exhortation, both to the priests and to 
 the people, to repent, by reason of the famine brought 
 upon them by the palmer-worm, &c. in consequence of 
 their sins ; (ch. i. 1 — 20. ;) and is followed by a denunci- 
 ation of still greater calamities, if they continued impeni 
 tent. (ii. 1 — 11.) 
 
 Part II. An Exhortation to keep a public and solemn 
 fast, (ch. ii. 12 — 17,) with a promise of removing the cala- 
 mities of the Jews on their repentance (18 — 26,) and of 
 the Effusion of the Holy Spirit. (27 — 32. Compare Acts 
 ii. 17—21.) 
 
 Part III. predicts the general Conversion and return 
 of the Jews, and the destruction of their opponents, to- 
 gether with the glorious state of the church that is to fol- 
 low, (ch. iii.) 
 
 Section VI. — On the Book of the Prophet Micah. 
 before christ, 758—699. 
 
 Micah, the third of the minor prophets, was a native of 
 Morasthi, a small town in the southern part of the territory 
 
 26 
 
302 ON THE PROPHETS WHO FLOURISHED 
 
 of Judah ; and, as we learn from the commencement of 
 his predictions, prophesied in the reigns of Jotham, Ahaz, 
 and Hezekiah, kings of that country ; consequently he 
 was contemporary with Isaiah, Joel, Hosea, and Amos. 
 His book contains seven chapters, forming three parts ; 
 viz.: 
 
 Introduction, or title, (i. l.j 
 
 Part I. comprises the prophecies delivered in the reign 
 of Jotham king of Judah (with whom Pekah king of Israel 
 was contemporary,) in which the divine judgments are de- 
 nounced against both Israel and Judah for their sins. (ch. 
 i. 2—16.) 
 
 Part II. contains the predictions delivered in the reigns 
 of Ahaz king of Judah (with whom his son Hezekiah was 
 associated in the government during the latter part of his 
 life,) and of Pekah king of Israel, who was also contem- 
 porary with him. (ii. — iv. 8.) 
 
 Part III. includes the prophecies delivered by Micah 
 during the reign of Hezekiah king of Judah, the first six 
 years of whose government were contemporary with the 
 greater part of the reign of Hoshea, the last king of Israel, 
 (iv. 9—13, v.— vii.) 
 
 Chap. v. contains an eminent prediction of the place 
 of the Messiah's Nativity, as well as of his kingdom and 
 conquests. 
 
 Section VII.— On the Book of the Prophet Nahum. 
 
 BEFORE CHRIST, 720—698. 
 
 Nahum, a native of Elkosh, or Elkosha, a village in 
 Galilee, is generally supposed to have lived between the 
 Assyrian and Babylonian captivities, about 715 years be- 
 fore the Christian sera. The repentance of the Ninevites, 
 in consequence of Jonah's preaching, being of short dura- 
 tion, Nahum was commissioned to denounce the final and 
 inevitable ruin of Nineveh and the Assyrian empire by 
 the Chaldeans, and to comfort his countrymen in the cer- 
 tainty of their destruction 
 
 His prophecy is one entire poem, which, opening with 
 a sublime description of the justice and power of God 
 tempered with long-suffering, (ch. i. 1 — 8,) foretells the 
 
NEAR TO AND DURING THE CAPTIVITY. 3()3 
 
 destruction of Sennacherib's forces, and the subversion of 
 the Assyrian empire, (9 — 12,) together with the deliver- 
 ance of Hezekiah and the death of Sennacherib. (13 — 15.) 
 The destruction of Nineveh is then predicted, and described 
 with singular minuteness, (ii., iii.) 
 
 Section VIII. — On the Book of the Prophet Zephanian. 
 
 BEFORE CHRIST, 640 — 609 
 
 This prophet, who was " the son of Cushi, the son of 
 Gedaliah, the son of Amariah, the son of Hizkiah," (i. 1,) 
 is supposed to have discharged the prophetic office before 
 the eighteenth year of Josiah ; that is, before this prince 
 had reformed the abusesand corruptions of his dominions. 
 His prophecy, which consists of three chapters, may be 
 divided into four sections ; viz. : 
 
 Sect. I. A denunciation against Judah for their idola- 
 try, (ch. 1.) 
 
 Sect. 11. Repentance the only means to avert the 
 divine vengeance, (ch. ii. 1 — 3.) 
 
 Sect. III. Prophecies against the Philistines, (ch. ii. 
 4 — 7,) Moabites and Ammonites, (8 — 11,) Ethiopia 
 (12,) and Nineveh. (13—15.) In 
 
 Sect. IV. The captivity of the Jews by the Babylo- 
 nians is foretold, (ch. iii. 1 — 7.) together with their future 
 restoration and the ultimate prosperous state of the church. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 OF THE PROPHETS WHO FLOURISHED NEAR TO AND DURING THE BABYLONIAN 
 CAPTIVITY. 
 
 Section I.- -On the Book of the Prophet Jeremiah. 
 
 BEFORE CHRIST, 628 — 586. 
 
 The prophet Jeremiah was of the sacerdotal race, being 
 (as he himself records) one of the priests that dwelt at 
 Anathoth, (i. I,) in the land of Benjamin, a city appro- 
 
304 PROPHETS WHO FLOURISHED xNEAR TO AM) 
 
 priated out of that tribe to the use of the priests, the sons 
 of Aaron, (Josh. xxi. 18,) and situate, as we learn from 
 Jerome, about three Roman miles north of Jerusalem. 
 He appears to have been very young when called to the 
 prophetic office, in the discharge of which he received 
 much ill treatment from the Jews : he prophesied about 
 forty-two years, and followed the remnant of the Jews on 
 their retiring into Egypt, where he is said to have been 
 put to death by his profligate countrymen. His predic- 
 tions, which are levelled against the crimes of the Jews, 
 are not arranged in the chronological order in which they 
 were originally delivered. The cause of their transposi- 
 tion it is now impossible to ascertain. The late Rev. 
 Dr. Blayney, to whom we are indebted for a learned 
 version of, and commentary on, the writings of this pro- 
 phet, has endeavoured, with great judgment, to restore 
 their proper order by transposing the chapters, wherever 
 it appeared to be necessary. According to his arrange- 
 ment, the predictions of Jeremiah aie to be placed in the 
 following order, viz. : 
 
 Section. I. The prophecies delivered in the reign of 
 Josiah, containing chapters i. — xii. inclusive. 
 
 Section II. The prophecies delivered in the reign of 
 Jehoiakim, comprising chapters xiii. — xx., xxii., xxiii., 
 xxxv., xxxvi., xlv. — xlviii., and xlix. I — 33. 
 
 Section III. The prophecies delivered in the reign of 
 Zedekiah, including chapters xxi., xxiv., xxvii. — xxxiv., 
 xxxvii. — xxxix. xlix. 34—39, and 1., li. 
 
 Section IV. The prophecies delivered under the go- 
 vernment of Gedaliah, from the taking of Jerusalem to 
 the retreat of the people into Egypt, and the prophecies 
 of Jeremiah delivered to the Jews in that country ; com- 
 prehending chapters xl. — xliv. inclusive. 
 
 In ch. xxiii. 5, 6, is foretold the mediatorial kingdom 
 of the Messiah, who is called the Lord our Righteous- 
 ness. Again, in Jer. xxxi. 31 — 36, and xxxiii. 8, the 
 efficacy of Christ's atonement, the spiritual character of 
 the new covenant, and the inward efficacy of the Gospel, 
 are most clearly and emphatically described. Compare 
 Saint Paul's Epistle to the Hebrews, ch. viii. 8 — 13, and 
 x. 16, et seq. 
 
DURING THE BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY 3Q5 
 
 Section II. — On the Lamentations of Jeremiah. 
 
 That Jeremiah was the author of the Elegies or Lamen- 
 tations which bear his name is evident, not only 
 from a very ancient and almost uninterrupted tradition, 
 but also from the argument and style of the book, which 
 corresponds exactly with those of his prophecies. This 
 book consists of five chapters, forming as many pathetic 
 elegies ; in the four first of which the prophet bewails the 
 various calamities of his country ; the fifth elegy is an 
 epilogue to the four preceding. Dr. Blayney considers it 
 as a memorial representing, in the name of the whole 
 body of Jewish exiles, the numerous calamities under 
 which they groaned ; and humbly supplicating God to 
 commiserate their wretchedness, and to restore them to 
 his favour, and to their ancient prosperity. 
 
 Section III.— On the Book of the Prophet Habakkuk. 
 
 BEFORE CHRIST, 612—598. 
 
 Concerning this prophet we have no certain informa- 
 tion ; he exercised the prophetic office, most probably, in 
 the reign of Jehoiakim, and consequently was contempo- 
 rary with Jeremiah. His book consists of two parts. In 
 
 Part I. which is in the form of a dialogue between 
 God and the prophet, the Babylonish captivity is an- 
 nounced ; with a promise, however, of deliverance, and 
 the ultimate destruction of the Babylonian empire. 
 
 Part II. contains the prayer or psalm of Habakkuk, 
 in which he implores God to hasten the deliverance of his 
 people, (ii.) 
 
 Section IV. — On the Book of the Prophet Daniel. 
 
 BEFORE CHRIST, 606 — 534. 
 
 Daniel, the fourth of the greater prophets, if not of royal 
 birth, (as the Jews affirm,) was of noble descent, and was 
 carried captive to Babylon at an early age, in the fourth 
 26* 
 
306 PROPHETS WHO FLOURISHED NEAR TO AND 
 
 year of Jehoiachin king of Judah, in the year 606 before 
 the Christian aera, and seven years before the deportation 
 of Ezekiel. Having been instructed in the language and 
 literature of the Chaldaeans, he afterwards held a very 
 distinguished office in the Babylonian empire. (Dan. i. 
 1 — 4.) He was contemporary with Ezekiel, who men- 
 tions his extraordinary piety and wisdom, (Ezek. xiv. 14, 
 20,) and the latter, even at that time, seems to have be- 
 come proverbial. (Ezek. xxviii. 3.) Daniel lived in 
 great credit with the Babylonian monarchs ; and his un- 
 common merit procured him the same regard from Darius 
 and Cyrus, the two first sovereigns of Persia. He lived 
 throughout the captivity, but it does not appear that he 
 returned to his own country when Cyrus permitted the 
 Jews to revisit their native land. The time of his death is 
 not certainly known. Although the name of Daniel is not 
 prefixed to his book, the many passages in which he speaks 
 in the first person sufficiently prove that he was the author. 
 His writings may be divided into two parts ; viz. : 
 
 Part I. comprises the historical portion of this book : 
 it contains a narrative of the circumstances that led to 
 Daniel's elevation, (ch. i. — vi.) 
 
 Part. II. comprises various prophecies and visions of 
 things future, until the advent and death of the Messiah, 
 and the ultimate conversion of the Jews and Gentiles to 
 the faith of the Gospel, (ch. vii. — xii.) 
 
 This is an amazing series of prophecy, extending through 
 many successive ages from the first establishment of the Per- 
 sian empire, upwards of 530 years before Christ, to the ge- 
 neral resurrection ! " What a proof does it afford of a Divine 
 Providence, and of a Divine Revelation! for who could 
 thus declare the things that shall be, with their times and 
 seasons, but He only who hath them in his power : whose 
 dominion is over all, and whose kingdom endureth from 
 generation to generation !" 
 
 Section V.— On the Book of the Prophet Obadiah. 
 
 BEFORE CHRIST, 588 — 583. 
 
 The time when this prophet flourished is uncertain : 
 rchbishop Newcome places it, with great probability, 
 
DURING THE BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY. 397 
 
 between the taking of Jerusalem (which happened in the 
 year 587 before Christ) and the destruction of Idumaea, 
 by Nebuchadnezzar, which took place a very few years 
 after. Consequently he was partly contemporary with Jere- 
 miah, one of whose predictions includes the greater part 
 of Obadiah's book. (Compare Obad. 1 — 9, with Jer. 
 xlix. 14, 15, 16. 7. 9, 10.) His writings, which consist of 
 only one chapter, unfold a very interesting scene of 
 prophecy, in two parts ; viz. : 
 
 Part I. is minatory, and denounces the destruction of 
 Edom for their pride and carnal security, (1 — 9,) and for 
 their cruel insults and enmity to the Jews, after the cap- 
 ture of their city. (10 — 16.) 
 
 Part II. is consolatory, and foretells the restoration of 
 the Jews, (17,) their victory over their enemies, and their 
 nourishing state in consequence. (18 — 21.) 
 
 Section VI. — On the Book of the Prophet Ezekiel. 
 
 BEFORE CHRIST, 595 — 536. 
 
 Ezekiel, wnose name imports the strength of God, was 
 the son of Buzi, of the sacerdotal race, and one of the cap- 
 tives carried by Nebuchadnezzar to Babylon with Jehoiachin 
 king of Judah : it does not appear that he had prophesied 
 before he came into Mesopotamia. The principal scene 
 of his predictions was some place on the river Chebar, 
 which flows into the Euphrates about two hundred miles 
 to the north of Babylon, where the prophet resided ; though 
 he was, occasionally, conveyed in vision to Jerusalem. 
 He commenced his prophetic ministry in the thirtieth year 
 of his age, according to general accounts ; or rather, as 
 Calmet thinks, in the thirtieth year after the covenant was 
 renewed with God, in the reign of Josiah, which answers 
 to the fifth year of Ezekiel's and Jehoiachin's captivity, 
 (Ezek. i. 1, xl. 1,) the sera whence he dates his predictions; 
 and he continued to prophesy about twenty or twenty-one 
 years. The events of his life, after his call to the pro- 
 phetic office, are interwoven with the detail which he has 
 himself given of his predictions : but the mariner of its 
 termination is no where ascertained. His prophecies have 
 always been acknowledged to be canonical, nor was it ever 
 
308 PROPHETS WHO FLOURISHED AFTER THE 
 
 disputed that he was their author : they form, in our Bibles, 
 forty-eight chapters, and, as he is extremely punctual in 
 dating them, we have little or no difficulty in arranging 
 them in chronological order. They may be divided into 
 four parts, viz. : 
 
 Part I. EzekiePs call to the Prophetic office, (ch. i. 1, 
 to the first part of verse 28,) his commission, instructions, 
 and encouragements for executing it. (i. 28, latter clause, 
 ii., iii. 1—21.) 
 
 Part II. Denunciations against the Jewish People, 
 (ch. iii. 22 — 27, iv. — xxiv.) 
 
 Part III. comprises Ezekiel's Prophecies against 
 various neighbouring nations, enemies to the Jews. (ch. 
 xxv. — xxxii.) 
 
 Part IV. contains a series of exhortations and conso- 
 latory promises to the Jews, of future deliverance under 
 Cyrus, but principally of their final restoration and con- 
 version under the kingdom of Messiah, (ch. xxxiii. — 
 xlvi.) 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 OF THE PROPHETS WHO FLOURISHED AFTER THE RETURN OF THE JEWS FROM 
 BABYLON. 
 
 Section I. — On the Book of the Prophet Haggai. 
 
 BEFORE CHRIST, 520—518. 
 
 Nothing is certainly known concerning the tribe or 
 birth-place of Haggai, the tenth in order of the minor 
 prophets, but the first of the three who were commission- 
 ed to make known the divine will to the Jews after their 
 return from captivity. The Jews having for fourteen 
 years discontinued the rebuilding of the temple, this pro- 
 phet was commissioned to encourage them in their work, 
 in consequence of the edict issued by Cyrus in their 
 favour. Accordingly the work was resumed, and com- 
 pleted in a few years. His prophecy comprises three dis- 
 tinct prophecies or discourses ; viz. : 
 
 Discourse I. contains a severe reproof of the people, especially of their 
 governor and high-priest, for their delay in rebuilding the temple, which 
 neglect was the cause of the unfruitful seasons, and other marks of the 
 
RETURN OF THE JEWS FROM BABYLON. 3Q9 
 
 divine displeasure, with which they had been visited, (i. 1—11.) The 
 obedience of the governors and people to the prophet's message is then 
 related. (12—15.) 
 
 Discourse II. The prophet comforts the aged men, who, when young, 
 had beheld the splendour of the first temple, and now wept for the dimi- 
 nished magnificence of the second temple, by foretelling that its glory 
 should be greater than that of the first, (ii. 1 — 2.) This prediction waa 
 accomplished by Jesus Christ honouring it with his presence and preach- 
 ing. Haggai then predicts a fruitful harvest, as a reward for carrying on 
 thebuildrhg. (10—19.) 
 
 Discourse IIL The prophet foretells the setting up of Messiah's kingdom 
 under the name of Zerubbabel. (ii. 20—23.) 
 
 Section II.— On the Book of the Prophet Zechariah. 
 
 BEFORE CHRIST, 520 — 518. 
 
 Although the names of Zechariah's father and grand- 
 father are specified, (Zech. i. 1,) it is not known from, 
 what tribe or family this prophet was descended, nor 
 where he was born ; but that he was one of the captives 
 who returned to Jerusalem in consequence of the decree 
 of Cyrus, is unquestionable. As he opened his prophetic 
 commission in the eighth month of the second year of 
 Darius, the son of Hystaspes, that is, about the year 520 
 before the Christian sera, it is evident that he was con- 
 temporary with Haggai, and his authority was equally 
 effectual in promoting the building of the temple. 
 
 The propliecy of Zechariah consists of two parts ; viz. : 
 
 Part I. concerns the events which were then taking 
 place, viz. : the restoration of the temple, interspersing pre- 
 dictions relative to the advent of the Messiah, (ch. i. — vi.) 
 These predictions were delivered in the second year of 
 the reign of Darius, king of Persia. 
 
 Part II. comprises prophecies relative to more remote 
 events, particularly the coming of Jesus Christ, and the 
 war of the Romans against the Jews. (vii. — xiv.) These 
 prophecies were announced in the fourth year of Darius's 
 reign. 
 
 Section HI.— On the Book of the Prophet Malachi. 
 
 BEFORE CHRIST, 436 — 397. 
 
 Malachi, the last of the minor prophets, delivered his 
 predictions while Nehemiah was governor of Judsea 
 
310 0N THE APOCRYPHA. 
 
 more particularly after his second coming from the Per- 
 sian court : and he appears to have contributed the weight 
 of his exhortations to the restoration of the Jewish polity, 
 and the final reform established by that pious and excel- 
 lent governor. The people having relapsed into irreligion, 
 the prophet was commissioned to reprove both priests and 
 people. His writings, which consist of four chapters 
 comprise two prophetic discourses ; viz. : 
 
 Discourse I. reproves the Jews for their irreverence to God, their bene 
 factor, and denounces divine judgments against them. (ch. i., ii.) 
 
 Discourse II. foretells the coming of Christ, and his harbinger, John the 
 Baptist, to purify the sons of Levi, the priests, and to smite the land 'witfr 
 a curse, unless they all repented, (iii., iv.) 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 ON THE APOCRYPHA. 
 
 Besides the Scriptures of the Old Testament, which 
 are universally acknowledged to be genuine and inspired 
 writings, both by the Jewish and Christian churches, 
 there are several other writings, partly historical, partly 
 ethical, and partly poetical, which are usually printed at 
 the end of the Old Testament in the larger editions of the 
 English Bible, under the appellation of the "apocrypha;" 
 that is, books not admitted into the sacred canon, being 
 either spurious, or at least not acknowledged to be divine. 
 These books are deservedly rejected by all Protestants 
 from the canon of Scripture, because they never were re- 
 cognised as canonical by the Jewish or Christian churches; 
 because they contain many things which are fabulous and 
 contradictory to historical truth, as well as to the canoni- 
 cal Scriptures ; and also because they contain passages 
 w ? hich are false, absurd, and incredible. These human 
 productions were first enrolled among the divinely in- 
 spired writings by the assembly of popish prelates and 
 others, who were convened in what is called the council 
 of Trent. 
 
 I. The first book of Esdras is only extant in Greek, 
 and is so called because the events related in it occurred 
 before the Babylonian captivity. It is chiefly historical, 
 and gives an account of the return of the Jew T s from 
 
ON THE APOORVPHA. 31 1 
 
 the Babylonish captivity, the building of the temple, and 
 the re-establishment of divine worship. 
 
 II. The second book op Esdras is supposed to have 
 been originally written in Greek, though at present it is 
 only extant in Latin, of which there is an Arabic version, 
 differing very materially from it, and having many interpo- 
 lations. The author of this book is unknown ; but the 
 allusions to Jesus Christ, and to the phraseology of the 
 New Testament, prove it to be the composition of some 
 Jewish Christian. It abounds with absurd rabbinical tales 
 and fables. 
 
 III. Concerning the author of the book of Tobit, or 
 the time when he flourished, we have no authentic infor- 
 mation. It professes to relate the history of Tobit and 
 his family, who were carried into captivity to Nineveh 
 by Shalmanezer : but it contains so many rabbinical 
 fables, and allusions to the Babylonian demonology, that 
 many learned men consider it as an ingenious and amusing 
 fiction, calculated to form a pious temper, and to teach the 
 most important duties. The simplicity of its narrative 
 and the pious and moral lessons it inculcates, have impart- 
 ed to it an interest, which has rendered it one of the most 
 popular of the apocryphal writings. 
 
 IV. The book of Judith professes to relate the defeat 
 of the Assyrians by the Jews, through the instrumentality 
 of their countrywoman Judith, whose genealogy is recorded 
 in the, eighth chapter ; but so many geographical, histori- 
 cal, and chronological difficulties attend this book, that the 
 most eminent critics have considered it rather as a drama, 
 or parable, than a real history. The author is utterly un- 
 known. This book was originally written in Chaldee, and 
 translated into Latin. 
 
 V. u The rest of the chapters of the book of 
 Esther, which are found neither in the Hebrew nor in 
 the Chaldee," were originally written in Greek, whence 
 they were translated into Latin, and formed part of the 
 Italic or old Latin version in use before the time of Je- 
 rome. Being there annexed to the canonical book, they 
 passed without censure, but were rejected by Jerome in 
 his version, because he confined himself to the Hebrew 
 Scriptures, and these chapters never were extant in the 
 Hebrew language. They are evidently the production 
 
312 ON THE APOCRYPHA. 
 
 of an Hellenistic Jew, but are considered both by Jerome 
 and Grotius as a work of pure fiction, which was annexed 
 to the canonical book of Esther by way of embellishment. 
 
 VI. " The Wisdom of Solomon" is commonly ascribed 
 to that Hebrew monarch, either because the author imita- 
 ted his sententious manner of writing, or because he 
 sometimes speaks in his name, the better to recommend 
 his moral precepts. It is, however, certain that Solomon 
 was not the author, for it was never extant in Hebrew, 
 nor received into the Hebrew canon, nor is the style like 
 that of Solomon. This book has always been admired 
 for its elegance and for the admirable moral tendency of 
 its precepts. It consists of two parts : the first contains a 
 description or encomium of wisdom, (ch. i. — x.) The 
 second part, comprising the rest of the book, treats on a 
 variety of topics widely differing from the subject of the 
 first ; viz. : reflections on the history and conduct of the 
 Israelites during their journeyings in the wilderness, and 
 neir subsequent proneness to idolatry. 
 
 VIT. Although the " Wisdom of Jesus, the son op 
 Sirach," or Ecclesiasticus, has sometimes been con 
 sidered as the production of Solomon, yet the style and 
 other internal evidences prove that it could not possibly 
 have been written by the Hebrew monarch. Respecting 
 the author of Ecclesiasticus we have no information be- 
 yond what this book itself imparts ; viz.: that it was writ- 
 ten by a person of the name of Jesus, the son of Sirach, 
 who had travelled in pursuit of knowledge. This man, 
 being deeply conversant with the Old Testament, and 
 having collected many things from the prophets, blended 
 them, as well as the sentences ascribed to Solomon, with 
 the result of his own observation, and thus endeavoured 
 to produce a work of instruction that might be useful to 
 his countrymen. This book was written in Hebrew, oi 
 rather the Syro-Chaldaic dialect, then in use in Judaea, 
 and was translated by his grandson into Greek, for the 
 use of the Alexandrian Jews, who were ignorant of the 
 language of Judaea. The translator himself is supposed 
 to have been a son of Sirach, as well as his grandfather, 
 the author. The book was probably written about the 
 year 232 b. c, when the author might be seventy years 
 of age ; and it was translated about sixty years after. 
 
ON THE APOCRYPHA. 313 
 
 This book has met with general and deserved esteem 
 in the Western church, and was introduced into the public 
 service by the venerable reformers and compilers of our 
 national liturgy 
 
 It commences with an exhortation to the pursuit of 
 wisdom : this is followed by numerous moral sentences or 
 maxims, arranged in a less desultory manner than the pro- 
 verbs of Solomon, as far as the forty-fourth chapter, at 
 which the author begins his eulogy of the patriarchs, pro- 
 phets, and celebrated men among the Jews, to the end of 
 the fiftieth chapter. And the book concludes with a prayer. 
 
 VIII. It is alike uncertain by whom, or in what lan- 
 guage, the book of Baruch was written ; and whether 
 it contains any matters historically true, or whether the 
 whole is a fiction. The principal subject of the book is 
 an epistle, pretended to be sent by Jehoiakim and the cap- 
 tive Jews in Babylon, to their brethren in Judah and 
 Jerusalem. The last chapter contains an epistle which 
 falsely bears the name of Jeremiah. 
 
 IX. " The song of the three children" is placed 
 in the Greek version of Daniel, and also in the Vulgate 
 Latin version, between the twenty-third and twenty-fourth 
 verses of the third chapter. It does not appear to have 
 ever been extant in Hebrew, and although it has always 
 been admired for the piety of its sentiments, it was never 
 admitted to be canonical, until it was recognised by the 
 council of Trent. 
 
 X. The history of Susanna is evidently the work of 
 some Hellenistic Jew : and in the Vulgate version it forms 
 the thirteenth chapter of the book of Daniel. Some 
 modern critics consider it to be both spurious and fabulous. 
 
 XL " The History of the Destruction of Bel and the 
 Dragon" was always rejected by the Jewish church ; it. is 
 not extant either in the Hebrew or the Chaldee language. 
 Jerome gives it no better title than that of the Fable of 
 Bel and the Dragon ; nor has it obtained more credit 
 with posterity, except with the Romish clergy present at 
 the council of Trent, who determined it to be a part of 
 the canonical Scriptures. The design of this fiction is to 
 render idolatry ridiculous, and to e*xalt the true God ; but 
 the author has destroyed the illusion of his fiction by 
 
314 °N THE APOCRYPHA 
 
 transporting to Babylon the worship of animals, which was 
 never practised in that country. 
 
 XII. "The Prayer of Manasses, king of Judah, 
 when he was holden captive in Babylon," though not un- 
 worthy of the occasion on which it is pretended to have 
 been composed, was never recognised as canonical. It is 
 rejected as spurious even by the church of Rome. 
 
 XIII. The two books of Maccabees are thus denomi- 
 nated, because they relate to the patriotic and gallant ex- 
 ploits of Judas Maccabeus and his brethren : they are 
 both admitted into the canon of Scripture by the church 
 of Rome. 
 
 1. The first book contains the history of the Jews, 
 from the beginning of the reign of Autiochus Epiphanes 
 to the death of Simon, a period of about thirty-four years. 
 It was originally written in the Syro-Chaldaic language, 
 and was most probably composed in the time of John 
 Hyrcanus, when the wars of the Maccabees were termi- 
 nated, either by Hyrcanus himself, or by some persons 
 employed by him. From the Syro-Chaldaic it was trans- 
 lated into Greek, and thence into Latin. Our English 
 version is made from the Greek. The first book of Mac- 
 cabees is a most valuable historical monument. 
 
 2. The second book of Maccabees is very inferior to 
 the preceding, and consists of several pieces compiled by 
 an unknown author ; it must therefore be read with great 
 caution. It contains the history of about fifteen years, 
 from the execution of the commission of Heliodorus, who 
 was sent by Seleucus to bring away the treasures of 
 the Temple, to the victory obtained by Judas Maccabeus 
 over Nicanor, that is, from the year of the world 3S28 to 
 3343. Two ancient translations of this book are extant, 
 one in Syriac, the other in Latin : the version in on 
 Bibles was executed from the Greek. 
 
Bio 
 
 BOOK II.— ANALYSIS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 ON THF. HISTORICAL BOOKS OP THE NEW TESTAMENT. 
 Section I.— On the Name and Number of the Canonical Gospel 
 
 The word EYA-NTEAION, (Euangelion,) which we 
 translate Gospel, among Greek profane writers signifies 
 any good tidings,* and corresponds exactly with our 
 English word Gospel, which is derived from the Saxon 
 words sob, God or good, and rpei, word or tiding, and 
 denotes God's word or good tidings. In the New Testa- 
 ment this term is confined to the glad tidings of the actual 
 coming of the Messiah, and is even opposed to the pro- 
 phecies concerning Christ. (Matt. xi. 5, Rom. i. I, 2.) 
 Hence Ecclesiastical writers gave the appellation of Gos- 
 pels to the lives of Christ — that is, to those sacred histo- 
 ries in which are recorded the " good tidings of great joy 
 to all people," of the advent of the Messiah, together 
 with all its joyful circumstances : and hence the authors 
 of those histories have acquired the title of evangelists. 
 Besides this general title, the sacred writers use the term 
 Gospel, with a variety of epithets, derived from the nature 
 of its contents. See instances in Eph. i. 13, vi. 15, Rom. 
 i. 1. 3, and 2 Cor. v. 19. 
 
 The Gospels which have been transmitted to us are four 
 in number : and we learn from ecclesiastical history, that 
 four, and four only, were ever received by the Christian 
 church as the genuine and inspired writings of the evan- 
 gelists. And it is a considerable advantage, that a history, 
 of such importance as that of Jesus Christ, has been re- 
 corded by the pens of separate and independent writers ; 
 for, by the contradictions, whether real or apparent, which 
 are visible in these accounts, (but which admit of easy 
 
 * From tv (fiu) good, and avyckia (angelia) a message or tidings. 
 
310 ON THE HISTORICAL BOOKS 
 
 solution by any attentive reader,) they have incontestably 
 proved that they did not unite with a view of imposing a 
 fabulous narrative on mankind. And in all matters of 
 consequence, whether doctrinal or historical, there is such 
 a manifest agreement between them as is to be found in no 
 other writings whatever. 
 
 Section II.— On the Gospel by Saint Matthew. 
 
 Matthew, surnamed Levi, was the son of Alpheus, but 
 not of that Alpheus, or Cleopas, who was the father of 
 James, mentioned in Matt. x. 3. He was a native of Gali- 
 lee, but of what city in that country, or of what tribe of 
 the people of Israel, we are not informed. Before, his 
 conversion to Christianity, he was a publican or tax-ga- 
 therer, under the Romans, and collected the customs of all 
 goods exported or imported at Capernaum, a maritime 
 town on the sea of Galilee, and also received the tribute 
 paid by all passengers who went by water. While em- 
 ployed " at the receipt of custom," Jesus called him to be 
 a witness of his words and works, thus conferring upon 
 him the honourable office of an apostle. From that time 
 he continued with Jesus Christ, a familiar attendant on 
 his person, a spectator of his public and private conduct, 
 a hearer of his discourses, a witness of his miracles, and 
 an evidence of his resurrection. After our Saviour's as- 
 cension, Matthew continued at Jerusalem with the other 
 apostles, and with them, on the day of Pentecost, was 
 endued with the gift of the Holy Spirit. Of how long he 
 remained in Judsea after that event, or of where he died, 
 we have no authentic accounts. He is generally allowed 
 to have written first of all the evangelists, though a consi- 
 derable difference of opinion exists as to the language in 
 which and the time when his Gospel was composed. 
 Some critics think that its original language was Hebrew; 
 others, Greek ; while a third class decide in favour of a 
 Hebrew and Greek original. The reasons on which these 
 several opinions are founded are detailed in the author's 
 larger Introduction, which do not admit of abridgment . 
 the most probable is that, which determines that Matthew 
 wrote a Hebrew Gospel for the Hebrew Christians, about 
 
OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 317 
 
 the year 37, and afterwards a Greek Gospel, about the 
 year 61. The present Greek Gospel has every internal 
 mark of being an original writing : and the disappearance 
 of the Hebrew Gospel is sufficiently accounted for, not 
 only by the prevalence of the Greek language, but also 
 by the fact that it was so corrupted by the Ebionites (a 
 sect contemporary with St. John,) as to lose all its au- 
 thority in the church. The authenticity of his Gospel 
 was never doubted. 
 
 The voice of antiquity accords in testifying that St. 
 Matthew wrote his Gospel in Judsea for the Jewish nation 
 while the church consisted wholly of the circumcision, 
 that is, of Jewish and Samaritan believers, but principally 
 Jewish : and that he wrote it primarily for their use, with 
 a view to confirm those who believed, and to convert 
 those who believed not, we have, besides historical facts, 
 very strong presumptions from the book itself. Every cir- 
 cumstance is carefully pointed out, which might concili- 
 ate the faith of that nation ; and every unnecessary ex- 
 pression is avoided, that might in any way tend to obstruct 
 it. The Gospel of St. Matthew consists of four parts ; 
 viz.: 
 
 Part I. treats on the Infancy of Jesus Christ, (ch. i., ii.) 
 Part II. records the Discourses and Actions of John 
 the Baptist and of Jesus Christ, preparatory to our Sa- 
 viour's commencing his public ministry, (ch. iii. iv. 1 
 
 Part III. relates the Discourses and Actions of Christ 
 in Galilee, by which he demonstrated that he was the 
 Messiah, (ch. iv. 12.— xx. 16.) 
 
 Part IV. contains the Transactions relative to the pas- 
 sion and resurrection of Christ, (ch. xx. 17, — xxviii.) 
 
 Section III.— On the Gospel by Saint Mark. 
 
 This evangelist, whose Hebrew name was Jonn, was 
 nephew to Barnabas, (Col. iv. 10,) and the son of Mary, a 
 pious woman in Jerusalem, at whose house the apostles 
 and first Christians often assembled. (Acts xii. 12.) He 
 is supposed to have adopted the surname of Mark, when 
 he left Judsea to preach the Gospel in foreign countries 
 27* 
 
318 ON THE HISTORICAL BOOKS. 
 
 The consent of antiquity attests that he wrote his Gospel 
 in Greek, under the inspection of the apostle Peter, at 
 Rome, and between the years 60 and 63. It may be divi- 
 ded into three parts ; viz. : 
 
 Part I. The Transactions from the Baptism of Christ 
 to his entering on the more public part of his Ministry, 
 (ch. i. 1—13.) 
 
 Part II. The Discourses and Actions of Jesus Christ 
 to his going up to Jerusalem to the fourth and last Pass- 
 over, (ch. i. 14, — xj 
 
 Part III. The Passion, Death, and Resurrection of 
 Christ, (ch. xi. — xiv.) 
 
 Section IV.— On the Gospel by Saint Luke. 
 
 St. Luke was descended from Gentile parents, and in 
 his youth had embraced Judaism, from which he was 
 converted to Christianity. He was for the most part the 
 companion of the apostle Paul : and as no ancient writer 
 has mentioned his suffering martyrdom, it is probable 
 that he died a natural death. The genuineness and au- 
 thenticity of his Gospel and of the Acts of the Apostles 
 were never doubted. The Gospel appears to have been 
 written about the year 63 or 64 : it was written for Gen- 
 tile Christians, and the events which he has recorded are 
 classed, after the manner of some ancient profane writers, 
 instead of being disposed in chronological order, as St. 
 Matthew has related them. The Gospel of St. Luke may 
 be divided into five classes or sections ; viz. : 
 
 Class I. contains the narrative of the birth of Christ, 
 together with all the circumstances that preceded, attended, 
 and followed it. (ch. i. ii. 1 — 40.) 
 
 Class II. comprises the particulars relative to our Sa- 
 viour's infancy and youth, (ch. ii. 41 — 52.) 
 
 Class III. includes the preaching of John, and the 
 baptism of Jesus Christ, whose genealogy is annexed, 
 (ch. iii.) 
 
 Class IV. comprehends the discourses, miracles, and 
 actions of Jesus Christ during the whole of his ministry, 
 (ch. iv. — ix. 50.) This appears evident ; for, after Saint 
 Luke had related his temptation in the wilderness, (ch. iv. 
 
OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 319 
 
 1 — 13,) he immediately adds, that Christ returned to Gali- 
 lee, (14,) and mentions Nazareth, (16,) Capernaum, (31,) 
 and the lake of Gennesareth ; (v. 1 ;) and then he proceeds 
 as far as ix. 50, to relate our Saviour's transactions in 
 Galilee. 
 
 Class V. begins with chap. ix. 51, and contains an ac- 
 count of our Saviour's last journey to Jerusalem. Con- 
 sequently, this class comprises every thing relative to 
 his passion, death, resurrection, and ascension, (ix. 51 — 
 62, x. — xxiv.) 
 
 Section V.— On the Gospel by Saint John 
 
 Saint John, the evangelist and apostle, was the son of 
 Zebedee, a fisherman of the town of Bethsaida, on the 
 sea of Galilee, and the younger brother of James the 
 elder. His mother's name was Salome. He was emi- 
 nently the object of our Lord's regard and confidence ; 
 and was, on various occasions, admitted to free and inti- 
 mate intercourse with him, so that he was characterized as 
 "the disciple whom Jesus loved." (John xiii. 23.) Hence 
 we find him present at several scenes, to which most of the 
 other disciples were not admitted. He died a natural 
 death about the year 100. He wrote his Gospel in Greek, 
 most probably about the year 97 : it has been universally 
 received as genuine : indeed, besides the uninterrupted 
 testimony of Christian antiquity, the circumstantiality of 
 its details prove that his book was written by an eye- 
 witness of the transactions it records. 
 
 The general design of Saint John, in common with the 
 rest of the evangelists, is, as he himself assures us, to prove 
 that Jesus is the Messiah, the Son of Cod, and that be- 
 lieving, we may have life through his name. (xx. 31.) But, 
 besides this, we are informed by ancient writers, that there 
 were two especial motives that induced Saint John to com- 
 pose his Gospel. One was, to supply those important 
 events in our Saviour's life which had been omitted by the 
 other evangelists ; the other motive was, that he might re- 
 fute the heresies of Cerinthus and the Nicolaitans, who 
 had attempted to corrupt the Christian doctrine. Of the 
 Nicolaitans nothing certain is known : but, concerning 
 
320 ON THE HISTORICAL BOOKS 
 
 the tenets of the Cerinthians, the following particulars 
 (taken from the author's larger Introduction) are neces- 
 sary to be known in order to understand the design of the 
 evangelist in composing his Gospel. 
 
 Cerinthus was by birth a Jew, who lived at the close of 
 the first century : having studied literature and philosophy 
 at Alexandria, he attempted, at length, to form a new and 
 singular system of doctrine and discipline, by a monstrous 
 combination of the doctrines of Jesus Christ, with the 
 opinions and errors of the Jews and Gnostics. From the latter 
 he borrowed their Pleroma, or fulness, their JEons, or spi- 
 rits, their Demiurgus, or creator of the visible world, &c. and 
 so modified and tempered these fictions as to give them an 
 air of Judaism, which must have considerably favoured 
 the progress of his heresy. He taught, that the most high 
 God was utterly unknown before the appearance of Christ, 
 and dwelt in a remote heaven called LTAHPfiMA (Pleroma) 
 with the chief spirits, or aeons. That this supreme God 
 first generated an only begotten son, MONOrENHE (Mo- 
 nogenes, who again begat the word, AOFOE (Logos,) 
 which was inferior to the first-born. That Christ was a 
 still lower aeon, though far superior to some others. That 
 there were two higher aeons, distinct from Christ ; one 
 called ZQB.(Zde,) or life, and the other $£2E (Phos,) or 
 the light. That from the aeons again proceeded inferior 
 orders of spirits, and particularly one Demiurgus, who 
 created this visible world out of eternal matter. That 
 this Demiurgus was ignorant of the supreme God, and 
 much lower than the aeons, which were wholly invisible. 
 That he was, however, the peculiar God and protector of 
 the Israelites, and sent Moses to them, whose laws were to 
 be of perpetual obligation. That Jesus was a mere man, 
 of the most illustrious sanctity and justice, the real son of 
 Joseph and Mary. That the aeon Christ descended upop 
 him in the form of a dove, when he was baptized, re- 
 vealed to him the unknown Father, and empowered him 
 to work miracles. That the aeon light entered John the 
 Baptist in the same manner, and, therefore, that John was 
 in some respects preferable to Christ. That Jesus, after 
 his union with Christ, opposed himself with vigour to the 
 God of the Jews, at whose instigation he was seized and 
 crucified bv the Hebrew chiefs, and that when Jesus was 
 
OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 321 
 
 taken captive, and came to suffer, Christ ascended up on 
 high, so that the man Jesus alone was subjected to the 
 pains of an ignominious death. That Christ will one day 
 return upon earth, and renewing his former union with the 
 man Jesus, will reign in Palestine a thousand years, during 
 which his disciples will enjoy the most exquisite sensual 
 delights 
 
 Bearing these dogmas in mind, we shall find that Saint 
 John's Gospel is divided into three parts, viz. 
 
 Part I. contains doctrines laid down in opposition to 
 those of Cerinthus. (John i. 1 — 18.) 
 
 Part TI. delivers the proofs of those doctrines in a 
 historical manner, (i. 19, — xx. 29. 
 
 Part III. is a conclusion, or appendix, giving an ac- 
 count of the person of the writer, and of his design in 
 writing his Gospel, (xx. 30, 31, xxi.) 
 
 Section VL — On the Acts of the Apostles. 
 
 The Book of the Acts of the Apostles forms the fifth 
 and last of the historical books of the New Testament, 
 and connects the Gospels with the Epistles ; being a 
 useful postscript to the former, and a proper introduction 
 to the latter. That Saint Luke was the author of the Acts 
 of the Apostles, is evident, both from the introduction, and 
 from the unanimous testimonies of the early Christians. 
 The Gospel and the Book of the Acts of the Apostles 
 r.re both inscribed to Theophilus : and in the very first 
 verse of the Acts there is a reference made to his Gospel, 
 which he calls " the former Treatise." On this account 
 Dr. Benson and some other critics have conjectured that 
 Saint Luke wrote the Gospel and Acts in one book, and 
 divided it into two parts. From the frequent use of the 
 first person plural, it is clear that he was present at most 
 of the transactions he relates. To the genuineness and 
 authenticity of this book, which was written about the 
 year 63, all the Christian Fathers bear unanimous testi- 
 mony. 
 
 The acts of the apostles may be divided into three prin- 
 cipal parts ; viz. : 
 
322 ON THE HISTORICAL BOOKS 
 
 Part I. contains the Rise and Progress of the mother 
 church at Jerusalem, from the time of our Saviour's 
 ascension to the first Jewish persecution, (ch. i.— viii.) 
 
 Part II. comprises the Dispersion of the Disciples — the 
 propagation of Christianity among the Samaritans — the 
 conversion of Saint Paul, and the foundation of a Chris- 
 tian church at Antioch. (ch. viii. 5, xii.) 
 
 Part III. describes the conversion of the more remote 
 Gentiles, by Barnabas and Paul, and, after their separation, 
 by Paul and his associates, among whom was Luke him- 
 self during the latter part of Paul's labours, (ch. xiii. — 
 xx viii.) 
 
 The Acts of the Apostles afford abundant evidence of 
 the truth and divine original of the Christian religion ; 
 for we learn from this book, that the Gospel was not in- 
 debted for its success to deceit or fraud ; but it was wholly 
 the result of the mighty power of God, and of the excel- 
 lence and efficacy of the saving truths which it contains. 
 The general and particular doctrines comprised in the 
 Acts of the Apostles, are perfectly in unison with the 
 glorious truths revealed in the Gospels, and illustrated in 
 the apostolic Epistles ; and are admirably suited to the 
 state of the persons, whether Jews or Gentiles, to whom 
 they were addressed. And the evidences which the 
 apostles gave of their doctrine, in their appeals to pro- 
 phecies and miracles, and the various gifts of the Spirit, 
 were so numerous and so strong, and at the same time so 
 widely adapted to every class of persons, that the truth of 
 the religion which they attest cannotbe reasonably disputed. 
 
 In perusing this very interesting portion of sacred his- 
 tory, it will be desirable constantly to refer to the accom- 
 panying map of the Travels of the Apostles, particularly 
 those of Saint Paul. 
 
ON THE EPISTOLARY WRITINGS 323 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 ON THE EPISTOLARY OR DOCTRINAL WHITINGS OP THE NEW TESTAMENT, PAR- 
 TICULARLY THOSE OF SAINT PAUL. 
 
 Section I.— A Brief Account of the Apostle Paul. — Nature of the Epistolarly 
 Writings of the New Testament. 
 
 I. A Brief Account of Saint Paul. 
 
 Saul, also called Paul, (by which name this illustrious 
 apostle was generally known after his preaching among 
 the Gentiles, especially among the Greeks and Romans,) 
 was a Hebrew of the Hebrews, a descendant of the patri- 
 arch Abraham, of the tribe of Benjamin, and a native of 
 Tarsus, then the chief city of Cilicia. By birth he was a 
 citizen of Rome, a distinguished honour and privilege, 
 which had been conferred on some of his ancestors for 
 services rendered to the commonwealth during the wars. 
 His father was a Pharisee, and he himself was educated 
 in the most rigid principles of that sect ; but he was also 
 early initiated into Greek literature at Tarsus : and his 
 parents completed his education by having him taught the 
 art of tent-making, in conformity with the custom of the 
 Jews at that time. It appears from Acts xxiii. 16 — 22, 
 and Rom. xvi. 7. 11. 21, that his sister's son and some 
 others of his relations were Christians, and had embraced 
 the Gospel before his conversion ; but Saul himself was 
 an inveterate enemy of the Christian name and faith, until 
 his conversion in a.d. 35, on the road to Damascus 
 whither he was going with letters of commission from the 
 high priest and elders, or sanhedrin, to the synagogue 
 of the Jews at Damascus, empowering him to bring to 
 Jerusalem any Christians, whether men or women, whom 
 he might find there. 
 
 Shortly after his baptism, and the descent of the Holy 
 Spirit upon him, Saul went into Arabia ; (Gal. i. 17 ;) and 
 during his residence in that country he was fully instruct- 
 ed, as we may reasonably think, by divine revelation, 
 and by diligent study of the Old Testament, in the doc- 
 trines and duties of the Gospel. Three years after 
 his conversion, he returned to Damascus, a.d. 38, 
 (Gal. i. 18,) and boldly preached the Gospel to the Jews, 
 
324 EPISTOLARY OK DOCTRINAL WRITINGS 
 
 who, rejecting his testimony, as an apostate, conspired 
 to kill him; but, the plot being communicated to Saul, he 
 escaped from Damascus privately by night, and went up 
 to Jerusalem, for the first time since his conversion. After 
 some hesitation on the part of the Christians in that city, 
 he was acknowledged to be a disciple. He remained at 
 Jerusalem only fifteen days, during which his boldness in 
 preaching the Gospel so irritated the Hellenistic Jews, 
 that they conspired against him ; " which when the brethren 
 knew, they brought him down to Ccesarea Philippi, and 
 sent him forth to Tarsus." (Acts ix. 28 — 30.) 
 
 From that time (a.d. 39) to the year 58, the apostle 
 preached the Gospel in various parts of Asia Minor and 
 in Greece with great energy and success; but, being 
 rescued from a tumultuous assembly of Jews, who would 
 have put him to death, at Jerusalem, (Acts xxi, xxii.) he 
 was sent Csesarea by the tribune Lysias, who directed the 
 Jewish council to accuse him before Felix, the Roman 
 procurator. By this officer he was detained in prison two 
 years ; and, his cause being heard before Festus the suc- 
 cessor of Felix, the apostle appealed to the imperial 
 tribunal, and was sent to Rome, (Acts xxiv. — xxvii.) a.d. 
 60. Here he was confined two years, from a.d. 61 to 63. 
 As Saint Luke has not continued Saint Paul's history be- 
 yond his first imprisonment at Rome, we have no authen- 
 tic record of his subsequent travels and labours from the 
 spring of a.d. 63, when he was released, to the time of 
 his martyrdom. This is said to have taken place by de- 
 capitation, June 29, a.d. 66, at Aquae Salvia?, three miles 
 from Rome. Fourteen epistles are- extant bearing the 
 name of this distinguished " apostle of Jesus Christ," 
 whose life and labours have justly been considered as an 
 irrefragable proof of the truth of the Christian revelation. 
 
 II. Nature and Design of the Epistolary Writings of the 
 New Testament 
 
 The Epistles, or letters addressed to various Christian 
 communities, and also to individuals, by the apostles Paul, 
 James, Peter, and John, form the second principal division 
 of the New Testament. These writings abundantly con- 
 firm all the material facts related in the Gospels and Acts 
 of the Apostles. The particulars of our Savour's life and 
 death are often referred to in them, as grounded upon the 
 
OF THE NEW TESTAMENT, &c. 325 
 
 undoubted testimony of eye-witnesses, and as "being the 
 foundation of the Christian religion. The speedy pro- 
 pagation of the Christian faith, recorded in the Acts, 
 is confirmed beyond all contradiction, by innumerable 
 passages in the Epistles, written to the churches already- 
 planted ; and the miraculous gifts, with which the apostles 
 were endued, are often appealed to in the same writings, 
 as an undeniable evidence of the divine mission of the 
 apostles. 
 
 Though all the essential doctrines and precepts of the 
 Christian religion were unquestionably taught by our 
 Saviour himself, and are contained in the Gospels, yet it 
 is evident to any person who attentively studies the 
 Epistles, that they are to be considered as commentaries 
 on the doctrines of the Gospel, addressed to particular 
 Christian societies or persons, in order to explain and 
 apply those doctrines more fully, to confute some growing 
 errors, to compose differences and schisms, to reform 
 abuses and corruptions, to excite the Christians to holiness, 
 and to encourage them against persecutions. And since 
 these Epistles were written (as we have already shown) 
 under divine inspiration, and have uniformly been received 
 by the Christian church as the productions of inspired 
 writers, it consequently follows, (notwithstanding some 
 writers have insinuated that they are not of equal authority 
 with the Gospels, while others would reject them alto- 
 gether,) that what the apostles have delivered in these 
 Epistles, as necessary to be believed or done by Christians, 
 must be as necessary to be believed and practised in order 
 to salvation, as the doctrines and precepts delivered by 
 Jesus Christ himself, and recorded in the Gospels ; because 
 in writing these Epistles, the sacred penmen were the 
 servants, apostles, ambassadors, and ministers of Christ, 
 and stewards of the mysteries of God, and their doctrine ; 
 and precepts are the will, the mind, the truth, and the com- 
 mandments of God himself. On account of the fuller dis- 
 plays of evangelical truth contained in this portion of the 
 sacred volume, the Epistles have by some divines been 
 termed the doctrinal books of the New Testament. 
 
 The Epistles contained in the New Testament are 
 twenty-one in number, and are generally divided into 
 two classes ; viz. : the fourteen Epistles of Saint Paul, 
 
 28 
 
3»26 EPISTOLARY OR DOCTRINAL WRITLNUa 
 
 and the seven Catholic or general Epistles, written by the 
 apostles James, Peter, John, and Jude : the reason of this 
 appellation will be found in Chapter III. Sect. I. page 338. 
 infra. 
 
 The general plan on which the Epistles are written, is, 
 first, to discuss and decide the controversy, or to refute 
 the erroneous notions, which had arisen in the church, or 
 among the persons to whom they are addressed, and 
 which was the occasion of their being written ; and, 
 secondly, to recommend the observance of those duties, 
 which would be necessary, and of absolute importance to 
 the Christian church in every age, consideration being 
 miefly given to those particular graces or virtues of the 
 Christian character, which the disputes that occasioned 
 the Epistles might tempt them to neglect. 
 
 The observations on the Doctrinal interpretation of 
 Scripture, in pp. 149 — 151, will be found useful in study- 
 ing the Epistles. A Table of the times, when they were 
 most probably composed, will be found in the Appendix, 
 No. II. 
 
 Section. II.— On the Epistle to the Romans. 
 
 The Epistle to the Romans, though seventh in order 
 time, is placed first of all the apostolical letters, eithe* 
 from the pre-eminence of Rome, as being the mistress of 
 .the world, or because it is the longest and most compre- 
 hensive of all Saint Paul's Epistles. Various years have 
 been assigned for its date : but the most probable date is 
 that, which refers this Epistle to the end of 57, or the 
 beginning of 5S ; at which time Saint Paul was at Corinth. 
 
 Christianity is generally supposed to have been first 
 planted at Rome by some of those " strangers of Rome, 
 Jews, and proselytes," (Acts ii. 10,) who heard Peter 
 preach, and were converted at Jerusalem on the day of 
 Pentecost. 
 
 The occasion of writing this Epistle may be easily 
 collected from the Epistle itself. It appears that Saint 
 Paul, who had been made acquainted with all the circum- 
 stances of the Christians at Rome by Aquila and Priscilla, 
 (Rom. xvi. 3,) and by other Jews who had been expelled 
 
tPISTOLAKA OK DOCTRINAL WRITINGS 3^7 
 
 from Rome by the decree of Claudius, (Actsxviii. 2,) was 
 very desirous of seeing them, that he might impart some 
 spiritual gift ; but, being prevented from visiting them, as 
 he had purposed, in his journey into Spain, he availed 
 himself of the opportunity that presented itself to him by 
 the departure of Phoebe to Rome, to send them an Epistle. 
 Finding, however, that the church was composed partly 
 of Heathens who had embraced the Gospel, and partly of 
 Jews, who, with many remaining prejudices, believed in 
 Jesus as the Messiah ; and finding, also, that many con- 
 tentions arose from the Gentile converts claiming equal 
 privileges with the Hebrew Christians, (which claims the 
 latter absolutely refused to admit, unless the Gentile con- 
 verts were circumcised,) he wrote this Epistle to compose 
 these differences, and to strengthen the faith of the Roman, 
 Christians against the insinuations of false teachers ; being 
 apprehensive lest his involuntary absence from Rome 
 should be turned by the latter to the prejudice of the 
 Gospel. 
 
 This Epistle consists of four parts ; viz. : 
 Part I. The introduction, (ch. i. 1—13.) 
 Part II. contains the Doctrinal Part of the Epistle con- 
 cerning justification, (i. 16 — 32, ii. — xi.) 
 
 Part III. comprises the Hortatory or Practical Part 
 of the Epistle, (ch. xii. — xv. 1 — 14,) in which the apos- 
 tle exhorts Christian believers to dedicate themselves to 
 God, and how they should demean themselves to one 
 another. 
 
 Part IV. The Conclusion, in which Saint Paul ex- 
 cuses himself, partly for his boldness in thus writing to 
 the Romans, (xv. 14 — 21,) and partly for not having 
 hitherto come to them, (22,) but promises to visit them, 
 recommending himself to their prayers ; (23—33;) and 
 sends various salutations to the brethren at Rome, 
 (xvi.) 
 
 In perusing this Epistle, it will be desirable to read 
 at least the eleven first chapters at once, uninterruptedly ; 
 as every sentence, especially in the argumentative part, 
 bears an intimate relation to, and is dependent upon the 
 whole discourse, and cannot be understood unless we com- 
 prehend the scope of the whole. Further, in order to 
 enter fully into its spirit, we must enter into the spirit of 
 
32b OF SACKED PLACES. 
 
 a Jew in those times, and endeavour to realize in our 
 own minds his utter aversion from the Gentiles, his valu- 
 ing and exalting himself upon his relation to God and to 
 Abraham, and also upon his law, pompous worship, cir- 
 cumcision, &c. as if the Jews were the only people in the 
 world who had any right to the favour of God. 
 
 Section III. — On the First Epistle to the Corinthians. 
 
 This Epistle was written from Ephesus, about the year 
 57 : its genuineness was never disputed. 
 
 Christianity was first planted at Corinth, by St. Paul 
 himself, who resided here a year and six months, between 
 the years 51 and 53. The church consisted partly of 
 Jews, and partly of Gentiles, but chiefly of the latter ; 
 whence the apostle had to combat, sometimes with Jewish 
 superstition, and sometimes with Heathen licentiousness. 
 On Saint Paul's departure from Corinth, he was succeeded 
 by Apollos, " an eloquent man, and mighty in the Scrip- 
 tures," who preached the Gospel with great success. (Acts 
 xviii. 24 — 28.) Acquila and Sosthenes were also eminent 
 teachers in this church, (xviii. 3. 1 Cor. i. 1.) But shortly 
 after Saint Paul quitted this church, its peace was disturb- 
 ed by the intrusion of false teachers, who made great preten- 
 sions to eloquence, wisdom, and knowledge of their Chris- 
 tian liberty, and thus undermined his influence and the 
 credit of his ministry. Hence two parties were formed, 
 one of which contended strenuously for the observance of 
 Jewish ceremonies, while the other, misinterpreting the 
 true nature of Christian liberty, indulged in excesses 
 which were contrary to the design and spirit of the Gospel. 
 One party boasted that they were the followers of Paul ; 
 and another, that they were the followers of Apollos. 
 To correct these and other abuses, and also to answer 
 some queries which the Christians at Corinth had propo- 
 sed to the apostle, was the design of this Epistle, which 
 divides itself into three parts ; viz. : 
 
 Part I. The Introduction, (ch. i. 1 — 9,) in which Saint 
 Paul expresses his satisfaction at all the good he knew of 
 
OF THE NEW TESTAMENT, drC. 329 
 
 them, particularly at their having received the gifts of the 
 Holy Spirit for the confirmation of the Gospel. 
 
 Part II. contains the Treatise, or Discussion of various 
 particulars, adapted to the state of the Corinthian church ; 
 which may be commodiously arranged into two sections. 
 
 Sect. 1. contains a reproof of the corruptions and abuses which dis- 
 graced the church, (i. 10. — vi. 1 — 20. 
 
 Sect. 2. contains an answer to the questions which the Corinthian 
 church had proposed to the apostle, (vii. — xv.) 
 
 Part III. contains the conclusion, comprising directions 
 relative to the contributions for the saints at Jerusalem, 
 promises that the apostle would shortly visit them, and 
 salutations to various members of the church at Corinth, 
 (xvi.) 
 
 Section IV. — On the Second Epistle to the Corinthians. 
 
 This Epistle was written from Macedonia, most proba-* 
 bly from Philippi, and within a year after the preceding 
 Epistle, that is, early in the year 58 : its genuineness was 
 never doubted. Compelled to vindicate his apostolic cha- 
 racter, Saint Paul here furnishes us with many interesting 
 details respecting his personal history and sufferings for the 
 name and faith of Christ. He commends the faithful mem- 
 bers of the church at Corinth, for their obedience to his 
 injunctions contained in his former Epistle, and particu- 
 larly for excommunicating an incestuous person ; and ex- 
 cites them to finish their contributions for their poor bre 
 thren in Judaea. s 
 
 This epistle consists of three parts, viz. : 
 
 Part I. The Introduction, (ch. i. 1, 2.) 
 
 Part II. The Apologetic Discourse of Saint Paul ; in 
 which 
 
 1. He justifies himself from the imputations of the false teacher and 
 his adherents, by showing his sincerity and integrity in the discharge of 
 his ministry ; and that he acted not from worldly interest, but from true 
 love for them, and a tender concern for their spiritual welfare, (i. 3—24. 
 ii.— vii.) 
 
 2. He exhorts them to a liberal contribution for their poor brethren in 
 Judaea, (viii., ix.) 
 
 3. He resumes his apology; justifying himself from the charges and in- 
 sinuations of the false teacher, and his followers; in order to detach the 
 Corinthians from them, and to re-establish himself and his authority, (x. 
 — xiii. 10.) 
 
 Part III. The Conclusion, (xiii. 11—14.) 
 
330 EPISTOLARY OR DOCTRINAI WRITINGS 
 
 Section V.— On the Epistle to the Galatians. 
 
 The Epistle to the Galatians, among whom Christianity 
 had been planted by Saint Paul himself, was most proba- 
 bly written from Corinth, about the latter end of the year 
 52, or early in 53. The apostle's design in writing it was, 
 first, to assert his apostolical character and authority, and the 
 doctrine which he taught, in opposition to the erroneous 
 tenets of a Judaising teacher ; and, secondly, to confirm 
 the Galatian churches in the faith of Christ, especially 
 with respect to the important point of justification by faith 
 alone ; to expose the errors which had been disseminated 
 among them, by demonstrating to them the true nature 
 and use of the moral and ceremonial law ; and to revive 
 those principles of Christianity which he had taug"i:t when 
 he first preached the Gospel to them. 
 
 This Epistle is written with great energy and force of 
 language, and affords a fine specimen of Saint Paul's skill 
 in conducting an argument. It consists of three parts, 
 viz. : 
 
 Part I. The Introduction, (ch. i. 1 — 5.) 
 
 Part II. The Treatise, or Discussion of the subjects 
 which had occasioned this Epistle : in which the apostle 
 first vindicates his doctrine and authority ; (ch. i. 6 — 24, 
 ii. ;) and then disputes against the advocates for circum- 
 cision, (iii. — v. 9,) and gives the Galatian Christians various 
 instructions for their conduct, (v. 10 — 26, vi. 1 — 10.) 
 
 Part III. The Conclusion, which is a summary of the 
 topics discussed in this Epistle, terminates with an apos- 
 tolic benediction, (vi. 11 — 18.) 
 
 Section VI.— On the Epistle to the Ephesians. 
 
 Ephesus was the metropolis of the proconsular Asia, 
 distinguished for the magnificent temple of Diana, there 
 erected, as well as for the accomplishments, luxury, and 
 lasciviousness of its inhabitants. Christianity was first 
 planted here, about a. d. 54, by Saint Paul ; who wrote 
 this Epistle, (the genuineness of which is undisputed,) about 
 
OF THE NEW TESTAMENT, &c 331 
 
 the year 61, during the early part of hi-s imprisonment at 
 Rome. In this animated epistle he shows the grand design 
 of the Gospel, and exhorts his converts against those evil 
 practices and customs to which they had been addicted 
 when Heathens, (ch. i. — hi.,) and which, as believers in 
 Christ, they had renounced. He then urges them to walk 
 in a manner becoming their profession, in the faithful dis- 
 charge both of the general and common duties of religion, 
 and of the special duties of particular relations, (iv., v. 1 
 — 9,) and encourages them to war the spiritual warfare, 
 and concludes with his apostolic benediction, (vi. 10 — 24.) 
 
 Section VII.— On the Epistle to the Philippians. 
 
 This Epistle was written to the Philippians towards the 
 close of Saint Paul's first imprisonment at Rome, about 
 the end of the year 62, or early in 63 : its genuineness 
 was never questioned. Its scope is to confirm them in the 
 faith of the Gospel, (ch. i. 1 — 20,) and to encourage them 
 to walk in a manner becoming their holy profession, (i. 21 
 • — 30, ii.) He then cautions them against those Judaising 
 teachers who preached Christ through envy and strife, 
 (iii., iv. 1,) and concludes with various exhortations, at the 
 same time testifying his gratitude to them for their Chris- 
 tian bounty to him during his imprisonment, (iv. 2—23.) 
 
 Section VIII. — On the Epistle to the Colossians. 
 
 This Epistle bears so close a resemblance to that ad- 
 dressed to the Ephesians, that they ought to be read 
 together, in order to be fully understood. It is not known 
 by whom Christianity was first planted at Colossae : from 
 internal evidence we are enabled to refer its date to the 
 year 62. No doubt was ever entertained respecting its 
 genuineness. 
 
 The scope of the Epistle to the Colossians is, first, to 
 show, in opposition to the errors of some Judaising teach- 
 ers, that all hope of man's redemption is founded on Christ 
 our Redeemer, in whom alone all complete fulness, perfec- 
 tions, and sufficiency, are centred ; (ch. i., ii. 1 — 7 ;) 
 
332 EPISTOLARY OR DOCTRINAL WRITINGS 
 
 secondly, to caution the Colossians against the insinuations 
 of Judaising teachers, and also against philosophical specu- 
 lations aud deceits, and human traditions, as inconsistent 
 with Christ, and his fulness for our salvation ; (ii. 8 — 23 ;) 
 and to excite the Colossians, by the most persuasive argu- 
 ments, to a temper and conduct worthy of their sacred 
 character, (iii., iv. 1 — 6.) The Epistle concludes with 
 matters chiefly of a private nature, except the directions 
 for reading it in the church of Laodicea, as well as that of 
 Colossa?. (iv. 7—18.) 
 
 The Epistle from Laodicea, mentioned in ch. iv. 16, 
 which some have supposed to have been an epistle to the 
 church at Laodicea, was most probably the Epistle to the 
 Ephesians ; Laodicea being within the circuit of the Ephe- 
 sian church. 
 
 Section IX. — On the First Epistle to the Thessalonians 
 
 Thessalonica was a large and populous city and seaport 
 of Macedonia, the capital of one of the four districts into 
 which the Romans divided that country after its conquest 
 by Paulus ^Emylius. Besides being the seat of the pro- 
 consul of Macedonia, Thessalonica was commodiously 
 situated for commerce, which was carried on by its inhabit- 
 ants to a considerable extent : the Jews were very nume- 
 rous here. Christianity was first planted here by St. 
 Paul, a. d. 50. The first Epistle to the Thessalonians 
 was the earliest of all that apostle's writings : its date is 
 referred to the year 52, and its genuineness has never 
 been questioned. 
 
 St. Paul having heard a favourable report of the stead- 
 fastness of the Thessalonians in the faith of Christ, wrote 
 this Epistle to confirm them in that faith, and to animate 
 them to a holy conversation, becoming the dignity of their 
 high and holy calling. With this view, after a short intro- 
 duction, (ch. i. 1 — 4,) he proceeds to show the divine ori- 
 gin of the Christian revelation, by the four following argu- 
 ments ; viz. : 
 
 I. The miracles wrought by the first preachers of the 
 Gospel, in attestation of their divine commission, (i. 5 
 
OF THE NEW TESTAMENT, &c. 333 
 
 II. That their character, behaviour, and views, evi- 
 denced its truth, (ii., iii.) 
 
 III. That the first preachers of the Gospel delivered to 
 their disciples, from the very beginning, precepts of the 
 greatest strictness and holiness ; so that, by the sanctity of 
 its precepts, the Gospel is shown to be a scheme of religion, 
 every way worthy of the true Go-d, and highly beneficial 
 to mankind, (iv. 1 — 12.) The practical directions intro- 
 duced in this part of the Epistle were admirably suited to 
 the state of the Thessalonian church. 
 
 IV. That Jesus Christ, the Author of our religion, was 
 declared to be the Son of God and the Judge of the world 
 by his resurrection from the dead ; and that, by the same 
 miracle, his own promise, and the predictions of his apos* 
 ties, concerning his return from Heaven to reward the 
 righteous and punish the wicked- — especially those who 
 obey not the Gospel — are rendered absolutely certain, (iv. 
 13—18, v. 1— II.) 
 
 The Epistle concludes with various practical advices 
 and instructions, (v. 12 — 28.) 
 
 Section X. — On the Second Epistle to the Thessalonians. 
 
 This Epistle was evidently written soon after the first : 
 (a* d. 52 :) its scope principally is, to rectify a mistake of 
 the Thessalonians, who, from misunderstanding a passage 
 in his former letter, imagined that the day of judgment 
 was at hand. This Epistle consists of five parts ; viz. : 
 
 Part I. The Inscription, (i. 1, 2.) 
 
 Part II. Saint Paul's Thanksgiving and Prayer for 
 them. (i. 3—12.) 
 
 Part III. The Rectification of their Mistake, and the 
 Doctrine concerning the man of sin. (ii.) 
 
 Part IV. Various Advices relative to Christian virtues, 
 
 particularly, 
 
 i. To Prayer, with a prayer for the Thessalonians. (iv. 1—5.) 
 ii. To correct the disorderly, (iv. 6 — 16.) 
 
 Part V. The Conclusion, (ii. 17, 18.) 
 
834 EPISTOLARY OR DOCTRINAL WRITINGS 
 
 Section XI.— On the First Epistle to Timothy. 
 
 Timothy, to whom this Epistle was addressed, was a 
 native of Lystra, a city of Lycaonia, in Asia Minor. His 
 father was a Greek, but his mother was a Jewess, (Acts 
 xvi. 1,) and, as well as his grandmother Lois, a person of 
 excellent character. (2 Tim. i. 5.) The pious care they 
 took of his education soon appeared to have the desired 
 success ; for we are assured by Saint Paul, that, from his 
 childhood, Timothy was well acquainted with the Holy 
 Scriptures. (2 Tim. iii. 15.) It is generally supposed that 
 he was converted to the Christian faith during the first 
 visit made by Paul and Barnabas to Lystra. (Acts xiv.) 
 From the time of his conversion, Timothy made such pro- 
 ficiency in the knowledge of the Gospel, and was sc re- 
 markable for the sanctity of his manners, as well, as for 
 his zeal in the cause of Christ, that he attracted the esteem 
 of all the brethren in those parts. Accordingly, when the 
 apostle came from Antioch, in Syria, to Lystra, the second 
 time, they commended Timothy so highly to him, that 
 Saint Paul selected him to be the companion of his tra- 
 vels, having previously circumcised him, (Acts xvi. 1 — 3,) 
 and ordained him in a solemn manner by imposition of 
 hands, (1 Tim. iv. 14. 2 Tim. i. 6,) though at that time 
 he probably was not more than twenty years of age. (1 
 Tim. iv. 12.) From this period frequent mention is made 
 of Timothy, as the attendant of Saint Paul in his various 
 journe}^, assisting him in preaching the Gospel, and in 
 conveying his instructions to the churches. 
 
 The date of this Epistle has been much disputed, some 
 writers placing it so early as the year 56, and others so 
 late as the year 64. The latter is considered the most 
 probable. This Epistle has always been acknowledged to 
 be the undisputed production of Saint Paul 
 
 Timothy having been left at Ephesus, to regulate the 
 affairs of the church in that city, Saint Paul wrote this 
 Epistle chiefly to instruct him in the choice of proper 
 officers in the church, as well as in the exercise of a regu- 
 lar ministry. Another, and very important part of the 
 apostle's design, was to caution this young evangelist 
 against the influence of those false teachers, who, by their 
 
OF THE NEW TESTAMENT, &c 335 
 
 subtle distinctions, and endless controversies, had corrupt- 
 ted the purity and simplicity of the Gospel ; to press upon 
 him, in all his preaching, a constant regard to the interests 
 of practical religion ; and to animate him to the greatest 
 diligence, fidelity, and zeal, in the discharge of his office. 
 The Epistle, therefore, consists of three parts ; viz. : 
 
 Part I. The introduction, (ch. i. 1, 2.) 
 
 Part II. Instructions to Timothy how to behave in the 
 administration of the church at Ephesus. (ii. — vi. 19.) 
 
 Part III. The Conclusion, (vi. 20, 21.) 
 
 Section XII. — On the Second Epistle to Timothy, 
 
 This Epistle was written during Saint Paul's second 
 imprisonment, and not long before his martyrdom, most 
 probably in the month of July or August, a. d. 65. 
 
 The immediate design of Saint Paul, in writing this 
 Epistle to Timothy, was to apprise him of the circum- 
 stances that had befallen him during his second imprison- 
 ment at Rome, and to request him to come to him before 
 tne ensuing winter. But, being uncertain whether he 
 should live so long, he gave him in this letter a variety of 
 advices, charges and encouragements for the faithful dis- 
 charge of his ministerial functions, with the solemnity 
 and affection of a dying parent ; in order that, if he should 
 be put to death before Timothy's arrival, the loss might, in 
 some measure, be compensated to him by the instructions 
 contained in this admirable Epistle. With this view he 
 exhorts him to stir up the gift which had been conferred 
 upon him ; (2 Tim. i. 2 — 5;) not to be ashamed of the 
 testimony of the Lord, nor of Paul's sufferings; (6 — 16;) 
 to hold fast the form of sound words, and to guard in- 
 violable that good deposit of Gospel doctrine, (i. 13, 14,) 
 which he was to commit to faithful men who should be 
 able to teach others ; (ii. 1, 2 ;) to endure, with fortitude, 
 persecutions for the sake of the Gospel; (ii. 3 — 13 ;) to 
 suppress and avoid logomachies ; (14. 23 ;) to approve 
 himself a faithful minister of the word ; (15 — 22 ;) and to 
 forewarn him of the perils of the last days, in consequence 
 of wicked hypocritical seducers and enemies of the truth, 
 who, even then, were beginning to rise fa the church. 
 
338 EPISTOLARY OR DOCTRINAL WRITINGS 
 
 These Saint Paul admonishes Timothy to flee, giving him 
 various cautions against them, (iii.) 
 
 This Epistle affords a beautiful instance of the conso- 
 lations which the Gospel imparts to all that truly believe 
 it. " Imagine," says a learned commentator of the 18th 
 century, (Dr. Benson ;) — " Imagine a pious father, under 
 sentence of death for his piety and benevolence to man- 
 kind, writing to a dutiful and affectionate son, that he 
 might see and embrace him again before he left the world ; 
 particularly that he might leave with him his dying com- 
 mands, and charge him to live and suffer as he had done : 
 and you will have the frame of the apostle's mind, during 
 the writing of this whole Epistle." (Pref. to 2 Tim. p. 517. ) 
 
 Section XIII.— On the Epistle to Titos. 
 
 Titus was a Greek, and one of St. Paul's early con- 
 verts, who attended him and Barnabas to the first council 
 at Jerusalem, a. d. 49, and afterwards on his ensuing cir- 
 cuit. (Tit. i. 4. Gal. ii. 1 — 3. Acts xv. 2.) Subsequently, 
 he was confidentially employed by the apostle on various 
 occasions ; and, as appears from this Epistle, was specially 
 appointed by him to regulate the Christian churches in 
 that island. Whether Titus ever quitted Crete, we know 
 not ; neither have we any certain information concerning 
 the time, place, or manner of his death ; but, according to 
 ancient ecclesiastical tradition, he lived to the age of 
 ninety-four years, and died and was buried in that island. 
 
 This Epistle, the genuineness of which was never ques- 
 tioned, is supposed to have been written after St. Paul's 
 liberation from his first imprisonment, a. d. 64. Titus 
 having been left in Crete to settle the churches in the se- 
 veral cities of that island, according to the apostolical 
 plan, Saint Paul wrote this Epistle to him, that he might 
 discharge his ministry among the Cretans with the 
 greater success, and to give him particular instructions 
 concerning his behaviour towards the Judaising teachers, 
 who endeavoured to pervert the faith, and disturb the 
 peace of the Christian church. The Epistle, therefore, 
 consists of three parts. 
 
 Part I. The inscription, (ch. i. 1 — 4.) 
 
 *% 
 
OF THE NEW TESTAMENT, &C. 337 
 
 Part II. Instructions to Titus. 1. Concerning the 
 ordination of elders, that is, of bishops and deacons, (i. 
 5 — 16.) — 2. To accommodate his exhortations to the re- 
 spective ages, sexes, and circumstances of those whom he 
 was commissioned to instruct ; and, to give the greater 
 weight to his instructions, he admonishes him to be an 
 example of what he taught, (ii.) — 3. To inculcate obedi- 
 ence to the civil magistrate, in opposition to the Jews and 
 Judaising teachers, who, being averse from all civil gover- 
 nors, except such as were of their own nation, were apt 
 to imbue Gentile Christians with a like seditious spirit, as 
 if it were an indignity for the people of God to obey an 
 idolatrous magistrate ; and also to enforce gentleness to 
 all men. (iii. 1 — 7.) — 4. To enforce good works, avoid 
 foolish questions, and to shun heretics, (iii. 8 — 11.) 
 
 Part III. An invitation to Titus, to come to the apos- 
 tle at Nicopolis, together with various directions, (iii. 
 12—15.) 
 
 Section XIV. — On the Epistle to Philemon. 
 
 Philemon was an inhabitant of Colossae, most probably 
 a converted Gentile, and it should seem, an opulent and 
 benevolent Christian. As it is evident, from the Epistle 
 itself, that St. Paul was under confinement when he wrote 
 it, and as he expresses (verse 22) his expectation of being 
 shortly released, it is probable that it was written during 
 his first imprisonment at Rome, toward the end of a. d. 
 62, or early in 63 ; and was sent, together with the Epis- 
 tles to the Ephesians and Colossians, by Tychicus and 
 Onesimus. Though some, formerly, questioned the ge- 
 nuineness of this Epistle, the attestations it has received, 
 from the earliest antiquity, are deemed sufficient to estab- 
 lish that point. The design of this short but beautiful and 
 persuasive letter is, to recommend Onesimus, formerly 
 the runaway slave of Philemon, (but now a Christian 
 convert,) to his master, and induce him to receive him 
 again into his house. Whether Philemon pardoned or 
 punished Onesimus, we have no information. 
 
338 EPISTOLARV OR DOCTRINAL WRITINGS. 
 
 Section XV.— On the Epistle to the Hebrews. 
 
 The Hebrews, to whom this Epistle is addressed, were 
 Jewish Christians, resident in Palestine : and, though con- 
 siderable difference of opinion exists concerning its author, 
 yet the similarity of its style and expressions to that of 
 St. Paul's other Epistles, proves that it was written by 
 him in Greek, and not in Hebrew, as some eminent critics 
 have supposed. The absence of his name is accounted 
 for by the consideration that he withheld it, lest he should 
 give umbrage to the Jews. This Epistle was written 
 from Rome, not long before he left Italy; viz. : at the end 
 of a. d. 62, or early in 63. 
 
 The occasion of writing this Epistle will be sufficiently 
 apparent from an attentive review of its contents. The 
 Jews did every thing in their power to withdraw their bre- 
 thren, who had been converted, from the Christian faith : 
 to specious arguments, drawn from the excellency of the 
 Jewish religion, they added others more cogent, namely, 
 persecution and menaces. The object of the apostle, 
 therefore, in writing this letter, is to show the deity of 
 Jesus Christ, and the excellency of his Gospel, when com- 
 pared with the institutions of Moses ; to prevent the He- 
 brews, or Jewish converts, from relapsing into those rites 
 and ceremonies which were now abolished ; and to point 
 out their total insufficiency, as means of reconciliation and 
 atonement. The reasonings are interspersed with nume- 
 rous solemn and affectionate warnings and exhortations, 
 addressed to different descriptions of persons. At length 
 St. Paul shows the nature, efficacy, and triumph of faith, 
 by which all the saints in former ages had been accepted 
 by God, and enabled to obey, suffer, and perform exploits 
 in defence of their holy religion ; from which he takes oc- 
 casion to exhort the Hebrew Christians to steadfastness 
 and perseverance in the true faith. 
 
 The Epistle to the Hebrews consists of three parts ; 
 viz. : 
 
 Part I. demonstrates the Deity of Christ, by the explicit 
 declarations of Scripture concerning his superiority to an- 
 gels, to Moses, to Aaron, and the whole Jewish priesthood, 
 and the typical nature of the Mosaic ritual, (ch. i. — x. 18.) 
 
ON THE CATHOLIC EPISTLES 339 
 
 Part IT. comprehends the Application of the preced- 
 ing arguments and proofs, (x. 19 — 39, to xiii. 1 — 19,) in 
 which the Hebrews are exhorted to steadfastness in the 
 faith of Christ, and are encouraged by the examples of 
 believers in former ages. (ch. x. 19 — 89, to xiii. 1 — 19.) 
 
 Part III. The conclusion, containing a prayer for the 
 Hebrews, and apostolical salutations, (ch. xiii. 20 — 25.) 
 
 CHAPTER III. • 
 
 ON THE CATHOLIC EPISTLES. 
 
 Section I. — On the Genuineness and authenticity of the Catholic 
 
 Epistles. 
 
 The Epistles of Saint Paul are followed in the canon 
 of the New Testament by seven Epistles, bearing the 
 names of the apostles James, Peter, Jude, and John. For 
 many centuries, these Epistles have been generally term 
 ed Catholic, or General Epistles, because they are not 
 addressed to the believers of some particular city or 
 country, or to individuals, as Saint Paul's Epistles were, 
 but to Christians in general, or to Christians of several 
 countries. 
 
 Although the authenticity of the Epistle of James, the 
 second of Peter, the Epistle of Jude, and the second and 
 third Epistles of John, was questioned by some ancient 
 fathers, as well as by some modern writers, yet we have 
 every reason to believe that they are the genuine and au- 
 thentic productions of the inspired writers whose names 
 they bear. The claims to authenticity of these disputed 
 Epistles are briefly noticed in the following sections. In- 
 deed, the ancient Christians had such good opportunities 
 for examining this subject, they exercised so much caution 
 in guarding against imposition, and so well founded was 
 their judgment concerning the books of the New Testa- 
 ment, that no writing which they pronounced genuine has 
 yet been proved spurious ; nor have we, at this day, the 
 least reason to believe any book to be genuine which 
 they rejected. 
 
340 ON THE CATHOLIC EPISTLES. 
 
 Section II.— On the General Epistle of James. 
 
 James, the author of this Epistle, was the son of A.- 
 pheus, or Cleophas ; and is by St. Paul termed the 
 4 Brother," or near relation of our Lord, (Gal. i. 18,19,) 
 and is also generally termed " the Less," partly to distin- 
 guish him from the other James, and probably, also, be 
 cause he was lower in stature. That he was an apostle 
 evident from various passages in the New Testament, 
 though it does not appear when his designation to this 
 office took place. He was honoured by Jesus Christ with 
 a separate interview soon after his resurrection. (1 Cor. 
 xv. 7.) He was distinguished as one of the apostles of 
 the circumcision ; (Acts i. 13 ;) and isoon after the death 
 of Stephen, a. d. 34, he seems to have been appointed 
 president, or bishop of the Christian church at Jerusalem, 
 to have dwelt in that city, and to have presided at the 
 council of the apostles, which was convened there a. d. 
 49. On account of his distinguished piety and sanctity, 
 he <vas surnamed " the Just." He is said to have been 
 stoned to death by the Jews, a. d. 62 ; and most learned 
 men agree in placing his Epistle in the year 61. Though 
 its authenticity has been doubted by some critics, we have 
 every reason to believe it genuine, because it is cited by 
 two of the apostolic fathers (those who immediately suc- 
 ceeded the apostles of Jesus Christ,) and by several suc- 
 ceeding writers. But the most decisive proof of its canon- 
 ical authority is, that the Epistle of Saint James is inserted 
 in the Syriac version of the New Testament, executed at 
 the close of the first, or early in the second century, in 
 which the second Epistle of Peter, the second and third 
 of John, the Epistle of Jude, and the Book of Revelation 
 are omitted. 
 
 The persons to whom this Epistle is addressed were He- 
 brew Christians, who were in danger of falling into the 
 sins which abounded among the Jews of that time. The 
 apostle, therefore, cautions them against those sins, and 
 comforts them under the persecutions to which they were 
 exposed ; and in the course of his epistle he takes occa- 
 sion, in chap. ii. 14 — 26, to rectify the notions of the He- 
 brew Christians concerning the doctrine of justification 
 
ON THE CATHOLIC EPISTLES. 341 
 
 by faith. For as they were not to be justified by the 
 law, but by the method proposed in the Gospel, and that 
 method was said to be by faith, without the works of the 
 law ; they, some of them weakly, and others, perhaps, 
 wilfully, perverted that discovery ; and were for under- 
 standing-, by faith, a bare assent to the truth of the Gos- 
 pel, without that living, fruitful, and evangelical faith, 
 which " worketh by love," and is required of all that 
 would be saved. 
 
 The Epistle of Saint James divides itself into three 
 parts, exclusive of the Introduction ; (ch. i. 1 ;) viz. : 
 
 Part I. contains Exhortations to patience, humility, and 
 suitable dispositions for receiving the word of God aright, 
 (ch. i. 2—27.) 
 
 Part II. censures and condemns various sinful prac- 
 tices and erroneous notions ; and here their mistaken 
 notions of justification by faith without works, are cor- 
 rected and illustrated by the examples of Abraham and 
 Rahab. (ii. — v. 1—6.) 
 
 Part III. comprises various Exhortations and Cautions. 
 / v . 7—20.) 
 
 Section III. — On the First Genera] Epistle of Peter. 
 
 Simon, surnamed Cephas or Peter, which appellation 
 signifies a stone or rock, was the son of Jonas or Jonah, 
 and was born at Bethsaida, on the coast of the sea of 
 Galilee. He had a brother, called Andrew, and they 
 jointly pursued the occupation of fishermen on that lake. 
 These two brothers were hearers of John the Baptist; 
 from whose express testimony, and their own personal 
 conversation with Jesus Christ, they were fully convinced 
 that he was the Messiah ; (John i. 35 — 42 ;) and, from 
 this time, it is probable that they had frequent intercourse 
 with our Saviour, and were witnesses of some of the 
 miracles wrought by him, particularly that performed at 
 Cana in Galilee. (John ii. 1, 2.) Both Peter and Andrew 
 seem to have followed their trade, until Jesus Christ 
 called them to " follow him," and promised to make them 
 " both fishers of men." (Matt. iv. 18, 19, Mark i. 17. Luke 
 v. 10.) From this time they became his companions* 
 
342 OJN THE CATHOLIC EPISTLES. 
 
 and when he completed the number of his apostles they 
 were included among them. Peter, in particular, was 
 honoured with his master's intimacy, together with 
 James and John : he is frequently mentioned in the Gos- 
 pels, and in the former part of the Acts of the Apostles. 
 We know nothing of his personal history after the apostolic 
 council, related in Acts xv., (which is the last place where 
 he is mentioned by Luke,) until many years afterwards, 
 ecclesiastical history informs us, that he received the 
 crown of martyrdom at Rome, a.d. 63, during the Ne- 
 ronian persecution ; being crucified with his head down- 
 wards. The genuineness and authenticity of his first 
 Epistle were never disputed : it was addressed to the same 
 persecuted Hebrew Christians to whom Saint James and 
 Saint Paul respectively wrote their letters. Its design is 
 partly to support them under their afflictions and trials, 
 and also to instruct them how to behave under persecution : 
 and, as their character and conduct were liable to be asper- 
 sed and misrepresented by their enemies, they are exhorted 
 to lead a holy life, that they might stop the mouths of 
 their enemies, put their calumniators to shame, and win 
 others over to their religion, by their holy and Christian 
 conversation. 
 
 The Epistle may be conveniently divided into four 
 sections, exclusive of the introduction and conclusion. 
 
 The Introduction, (ch. i. 1, 2.) 
 
 Section I. contains an exhortation to the Jewish Chris- 
 tians to persevere steadfastly in the faith, and to maintain a 
 holy conversation, amid all their sufferings and persecu- 
 tions, (i. 3—25, ii. 1— 10.) 
 
 Section II. comprises exhortations, 1. To a holy con- 
 versation in general, (ii. 11, 12.) 2. To a particular dis- 
 charge of their several duties, as dutiful subjects to their 
 sovereign, (13 — 15,) who at this time was the ferocious 
 Nero ; as servants to their masters ; (16 — 25 ;) and as 
 husbands to their wives, (iii. 1 — 13.) 
 
 Section III. contains an exhortation to patience, 
 submission, and to holiness of life, enforced by consider- 
 ing the example of Christ, (iii. 14 — 18,) and various 
 other examples and affecting considerations, (iii. 19 — 22, 
 iv. 1 — 19.) 
 
 Section IV. Directions to the ministers of the churches, 
 
ON THE CATHOLIC EPISTLES. 343 
 
 and to the people, how to behave towards each other, (v. 
 1-11.) 
 The Conclusion, (v. 12. 14.) 
 
 Section. IV.— On the Second General Epistle of Peter. 
 
 Though some doubts have been entertained' respecting 1 
 the authenticity of this Epistle, which has been received 
 as the genuine production of St. Peter ever since the 
 fourth century, except by the Syrian church, in which it 
 is read as an excellent book, though not of canonical 
 authority ; yet we have the most satisfactory evidence of 
 its genuineness and authenticity. It is cited or alluded 
 to by three apostolic fathers, and by another writer of the 
 second century : and though no writer in the third cen- 
 tury appears to have cited it, yet ever since the fourth cen- 
 tury it has been recognised as a genuine and canonical 
 epistle. It was also addressed to Hebrew Christians under 
 persecution, and a short time before the apostle's martyr- 
 dom, most probably early in the year 65. This Epistle con- 
 sists of three parts ; viz. : 
 
 Part I. The Introduction, (ch. i. 1, 2.) 
 
 Part II. Having stated the blessings to which God had 
 called them, the apostle exhorts the Christians, who had 
 received these precious gifts, to endeavour to improve 
 in the most substantial graces and virtues. (i. 3 — 21, ii.-) 
 He then guards them against scoffers and impostors, who, 
 he foretells, would ridicule their expectation of Christ's 
 coming, (iii. 1 — 14.) 
 
 Part III. The Conclusion, in which the apostle de- 
 cares the agreement of his doctrine with that of St. Paul 
 (iii. 15, 16,) and repeats the sum of the Epistle, (iii, 
 17, 18.) 
 
 Section V.— On the First General Epistle of Saint John. 
 
 The canonical authority of this Epistle, which ap« 
 pears to have been written a.d. 68 or 69, was never ques- 
 tioned : independently of historical or external testimony. 
 
344 ON THE CATHOLIC EPISTLES. 
 
 we have the strongest internal evidence that this Epistle 
 was written by the apostle John, in the very close analogy 
 of its sentiments and expressions to those of his Gospel. 
 Artless simplicity and benevolence, blended with singular 
 modesty and candour, together with a wonderful subli- 
 mity of sentiment, are the characteristics of this Epistle, 
 which is justly considered a catholic epistle; it being 
 written for the use of Christians of every denomination 
 and of every country, and designed to guard them against 
 erroneous and licentious tenets, and to animate them to 
 communion with God and a holy life. This Epistle con- 
 sists of six sections, besides the conclusion, which is a 
 recapitulation of the whole. 
 
 Sect. I. asserts the true divinity and humanity of Christ, in opposition 
 to the false teachers, and urges the union of faith and holiness of life as 
 absolutely necessary to enable Christians to enjoy communion with God. 
 (ch. i. 1—7.) 
 
 Sect. 2. shows that all have sinned, and explains the doctrine of Christ's 
 propitiation, (i. 8 — 10, ii. 1, 2.) Whence the apostle takes occasion to 
 illustrate the marks of true faith, viz. : Obeying his commandments, and 
 6incere love of the brethren : and shows that the love of the world is incon- 
 sistent with the love of God. (ii. 3 — 17.) 
 
 Sect. 3. asserts Jesus to be the same person with Christ, in opposition to 
 the false teachers who denied it. (ii. 18 — 29.) 
 
 Sect. 4. On the privileges of true believers, and then- consequent happi- 
 ness and duties, and the marks by which they are known to be "the sons 
 of God." (iii.) 
 
 Sect. 5. contains criteria by which to distinguish Antichrist and false 
 Christians, with an exhortation to brotherly love, (iv.) 
 
 Sect. 6. shows the connexion between faith in Christ, the being born of 
 God, love to God and his children, obedience to his commandments, and 
 victory over the world ; and that Jesus Christ is truly the Son of God, able 
 to save us, and to hear the prayers we make for ourselves and others, (v. 1 
 -16.) 
 
 The conclusion, which is a summary of the preceding treatise, shows 
 that a sinful life is inconsistent with true Christianity ; asserts the divinity 
 of Christ; and cautions believers against idolatry, (v. 17 — 21. 
 
 The preceding is an outline of this admirable Epistle; 
 which, being designed to promote right principles of 
 doctrine and practical piety in conduct, abounds, more 
 than any book of the New Testament, with criteria 
 by which Christians may soberly examine themselves 
 whether they he in the faith. (2. Cor. xiii. 5.) 
 
 Considerable discussion has taken place respecting the 
 genuineness of the clause in 1 John v. 7, 8. which runs 
 thus : " in heaven the Father, the Word and the Holy 
 Ghost, and these three are one. And there are three 
 that bear witness in earth." Of the evidence for and 
 against this passage the author has given a copious ab- 
 
ON THE CATHOLIC EPISTLES. 345 
 
 stract in the fourth volume of his larger Introduction 
 which does not admit of abridgment. The humble reader 
 of the Bible, however, need not entertain any apprehension 
 lest any of the truths of the true and proper deity of our 
 Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ should be weakened. 
 Much as has been written on this topic, the question can- 
 not yet be considered as decided, while it is known that 
 many hundred manuscripts of the New Testament still 
 remain uncollated. Even, should it ultimately appear that 
 the disputed clause is spurious, its absence will not di- 
 minish the weight of irresistible evidence which other 
 undisputed passages of holy writ afford to the doctrine of 
 the Trinity. " The proofs of our Lord's true and proper 
 Godhead remain unshaken — deduced from the prophetic 
 descriptions of the Messiah's person in the Old Testament 
 — from the ascription to him of the attributes, the works, 
 and the homage, which are peculiar to the Deity — and 
 from those numerous and important relations, which he 
 is affirmed in Scripture to sustain towards his holy and 
 universal church, and towards each of its true members."^ 
 
 Section VI.— On the Second and Third Epistles of Saint John. 
 
 Although some doubts were, in the fourth century, 
 entertained respecting the canonical authority of these 
 Epistles, yet that point has long been considered as deter- 
 mined by the fact that these Epistles have been cited by 
 Christian writers of the third century, as well as by many 
 in the ages immediately following. The similarity of 
 style also attests that they are the productions of the same 
 author as the first epistle of St. John, who probably wrote 
 them about a.d. 68 or 69. 
 
 The second epistle is addressed to an eminent Chris- 
 tian matron, the Lady Electa, whom the apostle commends 
 for her virtuous and religious education of her children ; 
 and who is exhorted to abide in the doctrine of Christ, to 
 persevere in the truth, and carefully to avoid the delusions 
 of false teachers. But chiefly the apostle beseeches this 
 
 Eclectic Review, vol. v. part i. p. 249. 
 
 I 
 
346 ON THE CATHOLIC EPIETLES. 
 
 Christian matron to practise the great and indispensable 
 commandment of Christian love and charity. 
 
 The third epistle of St. John is addressed to a con- 
 verted Gentile, a respectable member of some Christian 
 church, called Gaius or Cains : most probably Gaius of 
 Corinth, (1 Cor. i. 14,) whom St. Paul calls his " host, 
 and the host of the whole church." (Rom. xvi. 23.) The 
 scope of this Epistle is to commend his steadfastness in 
 the faith, and his general hospitality, especially to the mi- 
 nisters of Christ ; to caution him against the ambitious and 
 turbulent practices of Diotrephes, and to recommend De- 
 metrius to his friendship; referring what he further had 
 to say to a personal interview. 
 
 Section VTI.— On the General Epistle of Jude. 
 
 Jude, or Judas, who was surnamed Thaddeus and Leb- 
 beus, and was also called the brother of our Lord, (Matt, 
 xiii. 55,) was the son of Alpheus, brother of James the 
 Less, and one of the twelve apostles. We are not inform- 
 ed when, or how he was called to the apostleship ; and 
 there is scarcely any mention of him in the New Testa- 
 ment, except in the different catalogues of the twelve 
 apostles. Although the epistle which bears his name, 
 was rejected in the early ages of Christianit}', by some 
 persons, we have satisfactory evidences of its authenticity ; 
 for it is found in all the ancient catalogues of the sacred 
 writings of the New Testament ; it is asserted to be ge- 
 nuine by Christian fathers of the third and following 
 centuries ; and independently of this external evidence, 
 the genuineness of the Epistle of St. Jude is confirmed 
 by the subjects discussed in it, which are in every respect 
 worthy of an apostle of Jesus Christ. There is great 
 similarity between this Epistle and the second chapter of 
 St. Peter's second Epistle. Jude addressed his letter to 
 all who had embraced the Gospel ; its design is to guard 
 them against the false teachers who had begun to insinu- 
 ate themselves into the Christian church ; and to contend 
 with the utmost earnestness and zeal for the true faith, 
 against the dangerous tenets which they disseminated, 
 
ON THE REVELATION OF ST JOHN. 347 
 
 resolving the whole of Christianity into a speculative be- 
 lief and outward profession of the Gospel. And having 
 thus cancelled the obligations of morality and personal 
 holiness, they taught their disciples to live in all manner of 
 licentiousness, and at the same time nattered them with the 
 hope of divine favour, and of obtaining eternal life. The 
 vile characters of these seducers are further shown, 
 and their sentence is denounced ; and the Epistle con- 
 cludes with warnings, admonitions, and counsels to be 
 lievers how to persevere in faith and godliness them- 
 selves, and to rescue others from the snares of the false 
 teachers. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 ON THE REVELATION OF ST. JOHN THE DIVINE. 
 
 It is a remarkable circumstance that the authenticity 
 of this book was very generally, if not universally, ac- 
 knowledged during the first two centuries, and yet in the 
 third century it began to be questioned. This seems to 
 have been occasioned by some absurd notions concerning 
 the Millenium, which a few well-meaning but fanciful 
 expositors grounded on this book ; which notions their 
 opponents injudiciously and presumptuously endeavoured 
 to discredit, by denying the authority of the book itself. 
 So little, however, has this portion of holy writ suffered 
 from the ordeal of criticism, to which it has in consequence 
 been subjected, that, (as Sir Isaac Newton has long since 
 remarked) there is no other book of the New Testament 
 so strongly attested, or commented upon so early, as the 
 Apocalypse, or Revelation of Saint John ; for, besides the 
 strong internal evidence afforded by the similarity of its 
 style to that of the apostle's other writings, we have an 
 unbroken series of external, or historical testimony, from 
 the apostolic age downwards. The revelations contained 
 in this book were made to Saint John during his exile in 
 the isle of Patmos, toward the end of Domitian's reign, 
 though the book containing them could not have been 
 published until after his release, on the emperor's death, 
 
348 OIS THE REVELATION OF 
 
 in the year 96, and after his return to Ephesus. The 
 year 96 or 97, may therefore be considered as its true 
 date. The scope of this book is twofold : first, generally 
 to make known to the apostle " the things which are," 
 (i. 19,) that is, the then present state of the Christian 
 churches in Asia; and, secondly and principally, to reveal 
 to him " the things which shall be hereafter," or the con- 
 stitution and fates of the Christian church, through its 
 several periods of propagation, corruption and amendment, 
 from its beginning to its consummation in glory. The 
 Apocalypse, therefore, consists of two principal divisions, 
 or parts ; viz. : 
 
 After the title of the book. (ch. i. 1 — 3.) 
 
 Part I. contains the " things which are — " that is, the 
 then present state of the church : it includes the Epistles 
 to the seven Asiatic Churches of Ephesus, Smyrna, Per- 
 gamos, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea. (i. 
 9 — 20, ii., iii.) These churches, in the Lydian, or Pro- 
 consular Asia, are supposed to have been planted by the 
 apostle Paul, and his assistants during their ministry. 4 
 They lie nearly in an amphitheatre, and are addressed ac- 
 cording to their geographical positions, as may be seen on 
 reference to our Map of the Travels of the Apostles. 
 These seven Epistles contain excellent precepts and ex- 
 hortations, commendations and reproofs, promises and 
 threatenings, which are calculated to afford instruction to 
 the Universal Church of Christ at all times. 
 
 Part II. contains a Prophecy of " the things which 
 shall be hereafter" or the future state of the church 
 through succeeding ages, from the time when the apostle 
 beheld the apocalyptic visions, to the grand consummation 
 of all things, (ch. iv. — xxii.) 
 
 Although many parts of the Apocalypse are necessarily 
 obscure to us, because they contain predictions of events 
 still future, yet enough is sufficiently clear to convey to us 
 the most important religious instruction. The Eevelation 
 of St. John is to us precisely what the prophecies of the 
 Old Testament were to the Jews, nor is it in any degree 
 more inexplicable. " No prophecies in the Eevelation 
 can be more clouded with obscurity, than that a child 
 chould be born of a pure virgin — that a mortal should 
 not see corruption — that a person despised and numbered 
 
OF THE iNEVV TESTAMENT. 349 
 
 among malefactors should be established for ever on the 
 throne of David. Yet still the pious Jew preserved his 
 faith entire amidst all these wonderful, and, in appearance, 
 contradictory intimations. He looked into the holy books 
 in which they were contained, with reverence, and with 
 an eye of patient expectation ' waited for the consolation 
 of Israel.' We, in the same manner, look up to those 
 prophecies of the Apocalypse, for the full consummation 
 of the great scheme of the Gospel ; when Christianity 
 shall finally prevail over all the corruptions of the world, 
 and be universally established in its utmost purity."^ 
 
 * Giloin's Exposition of the New Testament, vol. ii. p. 42a 
 
351 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 No. I. 
 
 TABLES OF WEIGHTS, MEASURES, AND ' MONEY, MENTIONED IN 1HB 
 BIBLE. 
 
 Chiefly extracted from Dr. Arbuthnot's Tables of Ancient Coins, Weights, and Measuiea. 
 
 1. Jewish Weights reduced to English Troy weight. 
 
 Tbs. oz. pen. gr. 
 The geran, one twentieth of a shekel - • - - • 12 
 
 Bekah, half a shekel - - - • • • • 0050 
 
 The shekel 10 
 
 The maneh, 60 shekels - - - • - - 2600 
 
 The talent, 50 maneh or 3000 shekels - 125 
 
 2. Scripture Measures of Length reduced to English measure. 
 
 A digit 
 
 4 1 A palm • • 
 12 | 3 | A span 
 
 Eng 
 
 feet. Inch. 
 0.912 
 3.648 
 10.944 
 
 24 | 6 | 3 | A cubit - .... 
 
 1 9.888 
 
 96 | 24 1 6 | 2 | A fathom 
 
 3.552 
 
 144 | 36 | 12 | 6 | 1.5 | Ezekiel's reed .... 
 
 10 11.328 
 
 192 | 48 | 16 | 8 | 2 | 1.3 | An Arabian pole 
 
 14 7.10 
 
 1120 | 480 ! 160 | 80 | 20 | 13.3 | 10 1 A schcenus or measuring line 
 
 145 11.04 
 
 
 
 3. The long Scripture measures. 
 
 Eng. miles, paces, feet. 
 
 A cubit 1.884 
 
 400 | A st adium or furlong 145 4.6 
 
 2000 1 5 1 A sabbath day's journey • - - 729 3.0 
 
 4000 | 10 | 2 1 An eastern mile 1 403 1.0 
 
 12000 | 30 | 6 | 3 | A parasang 4 153 3.0 
 
 96000 | 240 [48 |24 | 8 | A day's jonrney - - • 33 172 40 
 
352 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 4. Scripture Measures of capacity for liquids, reduced to English wine 
 measure. 
 
 Gai. pints. 
 
 ACaph 0.G25 
 
 1.3 ( A log -.- ..... 0.833 
 
 5.3 | 4 | A ca b 3.333 
 
 ~16 | 12 | 3 | Ah in .----- - 1 2 
 
 32 | 24 | 6 | 2 | As eah ... g 4 
 
 ~96 | 72 | 18 | 6 1 3 j A b ath or ephah - - - - . - 7 4 
 
 "060 | 720 |180 |60 1 20 [ 10 [ A kor or koros, chomer or homer - 75 5 
 
 6. Scripture Measures of capacity for things dry, reduced to English corn 
 measure. 
 
 Pecks, gal. 
 
 Agachal 
 
 20 | A cab _---G0 
 
 36 | 1.8 | An omer orgomer - - - - - - 
 
 120 | 6 | 3.3 | A s eah 10 
 
 360 | 18 | 10 | 3 | An ephah - 8 
 
 1800 | 90 | 50 |15 | 5 | A letech 16 
 
 3600 1180 \ 100 1 30 1 10 | 2 1 A chomer, homer, kor, or corps - 32 
 
 pints. 
 0.1416 
 
 5.1 
 1 
 3 
 
 
 1 
 
 A gerah 
 
 6 Jewish Money reduced to the English standard. 
 
 10 I Abekah 
 
 20 | 2 | A she kel 
 1200 | 120 | 50 | A maneh, or mina Hebraica 
 
 60000 J 6000 | 3000 | 60 1 A talent 
 
 A soiidus aureus, or sextula, was worth 
 A siclus aureus, or gold shekel, was worth 
 A talent of gold was worth 
 
 
 
 1.2687 
 
 1 
 
 1.6875 
 
 2 
 
 3.375 
 
 5 14 
 
 0.75 
 
 342 3 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 1 16 
 
 6 
 
 5475 
 
 
 
 In the preceding table, silver Is valued at 5s. and gold at il. per oz. 
 
 7. Roman Money, mentioned in the New Testament, reduced to the English 
 standard. 
 
 A mite, (ACT-rov or Acoaptov) 
 A farthing (Ko6pavrns) about 
 A penny or denarius (Arivaptop) 
 A pound or mina 
 
 1. s. d. Tar. 
 0$ 
 1| 
 7 2 
 3 2 6 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 353 
 
 No. II. 
 ATABLE 
 
 OF THE ORDER AND DATES OP THE BOOKS OP THE NEW TESTAMENT, 
 AND OP THE PLACES WHERE THEY ARE SUPPOSED TO HAVE BEEN 
 WRTTTEN. 
 
 GOSPELS. 
 
 Matthew (Hebrew) ? 
 
 ■ (Greek) S 
 
 Mark .... 
 Luke (Gospel) 
 
 (Acts of the Apostles) 
 
 John .... 
 
 II. 
 
 1. THE HISTORICAL BOOKS. 
 
 PLACES. 
 
 Judaea 
 Rome 
 Greece 
 Ephesus - 
 
 THE EPISTLES OF PAUL 
 
 • between 
 
 A. D. 
 
 37 or 38 
 
 61 
 
 and 63 
 
 63 or 64 
 
 97 or 98 
 
 EPISTLES. 
 
 1 Thessalonians 
 
 2 Thessalonians 
 
 Galatians 
 
 1 Corinthians 
 Romans 
 
 2 Corinthians 
 Ephesians 
 Philippians - 
 Colossians 
 Philemon 
 
 Hebrews 
 
 1 Timothy- 
 Titus 
 
 2 Timothy 
 
 PLACES. 
 
 Corinth 
 Corinth 
 
 Corinth 
 
 Ephesus 
 
 Corinth 
 
 < Macedonia 
 ( (perhaps from Philippi) ' 
 Rome 
 
 A. D. 
 
 52 
 52 
 
 <s At the close of 52 
 
 ( or early in 53 
 
 56 
 
 < About the end of 57 
 
 ( or the beginning of 58 
 
 Rome - . j 
 
 Rome 
 
 Rome 
 
 Italy 
 (perhaps from Rome) 
 Macedonia 
 Macedonia 
 Rome 
 
 58 
 
 61 
 
 Before the end of 62 
 
 or the beginning of 63 
 
 62 
 
 ( About the end of 62 
 
 ( or early in 63 
 
 ) ; About the end of 62 
 
 \ ( or early in 63 
 
 64 
 
 65 
 
 ni. THE CATHOLIC, OR GENERAL EPISTLES. 
 
 EPISTLES. 
 
 James 
 
 1 Peter - 
 
 2 Peter - 
 
 1 John - 
 
 2 and 3 John 
 Jude 
 
 PLACES. 
 
 Judaea - 
 
 Rome 
 
 Rome 
 $ Unknown 
 ( (perhaps Ephesus) 
 
 Ephesus 
 
 Unknown 
 
 A. D. 
 61 
 
 64 
 about the beginning of 65 
 
 I • \ 68 
 
 S { or early in 69 
 
 I 68 
 
 * I or early in 69 
 
 64 or 65 
 
 The Revelation of St. John 
 
 Ephesus 
 
 96 or 97 
 
S54 afpendix. 
 
 No. III. 
 
 A TABLE 
 
 ©F THE PSALMS, CLASSED ACCORDING TO THEIR SEVERAL SUBJECTS, AND ADAPTED 
 TO THE PURPOSES OF PRIVATE DEVOTION. 
 
 I. Prayers. 
 
 1. Prayers for pardon of sin, Psal. vi. xxv. xxxviii. li. cxxx. Psalms 
 styled penitential, vi. xxxii. xxxviii. li. cii. cxxx. cxlii. 
 
 2. Prayers, composed when the Psalmist was deprived of an opportu 
 nity of the public exercise of religion, Psal. xlii. xliii. lxiii. lxxxiv. 
 
 3. Prayers, in which the Psalmist seems extremely dejected, though not 
 totally deprived of consolation, under his afflictions, Psal. xiii. xxii. Ixix. 
 lxxvii. lxxxviii. cxliii. 
 
 4. Prayers, in which the Psalmist asks help of God, in consideration 
 of his own integrity, and the uprightness of his cause, Psal. vji. xvil 
 xxvi. xxxv. 
 
 5. Prayers, expressing the firmest trust and confidence in God under 
 afflictions, Psal. iii. xvi. xxvii. xxxi. liv. lvi. lvii. lxi. lxii. lxxi. lxxx*i. 
 
 6. Prayers, composed when the people of God were under affliction or 
 persecution, Psal. xliv. lx. lxxiv. lxxix. Ixxx. lxxxiii. lxxxix. xciv. cii. 
 cxxiii. cxxxvii. 
 
 7. The following are likewise prayers in time of trouble and affliction, 
 Psal. iv. v. xi. xxviii. xli. lv. lix. lxiv. lxx. cix. cxx. cxl. cxli. cxlii 
 
 8. Prayers of intercession, Psal. xx. Ixvii. cxxii. cxxxii. cxliv. 
 
 II. Psalms of Thanksgiving. 
 
 1. Thanksgivings for Mercies vouchsafed to particular persons, Psal. 
 ix. xviii. xxi. xxx. xxxfv. xl. lxxv. ciii. cviii. cxvi. cxviii. cxxxviii. cxliv. 
 
 2. Thanksgivings for mercies vouchsafed to the Israelites in general, 
 Psal. xlvi. xlviii. lxv. lxvi. lxviii. lxxvi. lxxxi. lxxxv. xcviii. cv. cxxiv. 
 cxxvi. cxxix. cxxxv. cxxxvi. cxlix. 
 
 III. Psalms of Praise and Adoration, displayiyig the Attributes of God. 
 
 1. General acknowledgments of God's goodness and mercy, andparticu- 
 Iarly his care and protection of good men, Psal. xxiii. xxxiv. xxxvi. xci. 
 c. ciii. cvii. cxvii. cxxi. cxlv. cxlvi. 
 
 2. Psalms displaying the power, majesty, glory, and other attributes of 
 the Divine Being, Psal. viii. xix. xxiv. xxix. xxxiii. xlvii. 1. lxv. lxvi. 
 lxxvi. lxxvii. xciii. xcv. xcvi. xcvii. xcix. civ. cxi. cxiii. cxiv. cxv. 
 cxxxiv. cxxxix. cxlvii. cxlviii. cl. 
 
 TV. Instructive Psalms. 
 
 1. The different characters of good and bad men : the happiness of the 
 one, and the misery of the other : are represented in the following psalms. 
 1 v. vii. ix. x. xi. xii. xiv. xv. xvii. xxiv. xxv. xxxii. xxxiv. xxxvi. xxxvii 
 1. Iii. liii. lviii. lxxiii. lxxv. lxxxiv. xci. xcii. xciv. cxii. cxix. cxxi. cxxv 
 cxxvii. cxxviii. cxxxiii. 
 
 2. The excellence of God's laws, Psal. xix. cxix. 
 
 3. The vanity of human life, Psal. xxxix. xlix. xc. 
 
 4. Advice to magistrates, Psal. lxxxii. ci. 
 
 5. The virtue of humility, Psal. cxxxi. 
 
 V. Psalms more eminently and directly Prophetical. 
 Psal. ii. xvi. xxii. xl. xlv. lxviii. lxxii. Ixxxvii. ex. cxviii. 
 
 VI. Historical Psalms. 
 Psal. lxxviii. cv. cvi. 
 
APPENDIX. 355 
 
 No. IV. 
 A TABLE, 
 
 OR L18T, OF SELECT CHAPTERS OF THE HOLY SCRIPTURES, 
 
 Forming an Epitome of the Bible, and adapted to Family, or Private 
 Reading. 
 
 tCjr* The following arrangement of Chapters from the Sacred Scrip- 
 tures is not offered with a view to supersede a regular and orderly peru- 
 sal of the word of God. Having devoted a considerable portion of his life 
 to the preparation of his larger " Introduction to the Study and Knowledge 
 of the" entire "Holy Scriptures," the author trusts that he shall be acquit- 
 ted of such an intention. The present selection of chapters is offered, in 
 consequence of a wish which he has often heard expressed, that some list were 
 extant, which should, in a short compass, present the most important portions 
 of the sacred volume to the attention of individuals possessing but little 
 leisure to make a selection for themselves, and who were desirous of be- 
 coming acquainted with the leading facts, doctrines, and precepts of the 
 Bible. The author will rejoice if his attempt shall lead any one to a more 
 frequent and attentive study of that holy volume. To any of his readers, 
 who may be desirous of perusing the entire Scriptures in chronological 
 order, (and who may be able to purchase them,) he can with confidence 
 recommend the Rev. George Townsend's four volumes on the Harmony of 
 the Old and New Testaments, 
 
 Part I.— A Selection of Chapters, forming a Series of the Sacred History 
 of the Old Testament. 
 
 GENESIS. 
 
 Section 
 
 1. An Account of the Origin of the World and of the six days' Creation, 
 
 chap i., ii. 1—6. 
 
 2. A more particular Account of the Creation of Man. The Garden of 
 
 Eden described. The Formation of Woman and Institution of Mar- 
 riage, chap. ii. 7 — 24. 
 
 3. The Fail of Man. The first Promise of the Redeemer. Expulsion of 
 
 Adam and Eve from Paradise, chap. ii. 25, iii. 
 
 4. The Birth of Cain and Abel. Murder of Abel. History of other de- 
 
 scendants of Adam to Lamech, chap. iv. 
 
 5. Genealogy of the Patriarchs from Adam to Noah, chap. v. 
 
 6. The Increase of Wickedness in the World. The Deluge threatened. 
 
 Noah commanded to prepare the Ark, chap. vi. 
 
 7. Noah and his Family enter the Ark. Account of the Destruction of 
 
 the former World by the Deluge, chap. vii. 
 
 8. The Waters subside. Noah and his Family quit the Ark. History of 
 
 the Renovation of the World, chap. viii. 
 
 9. The Covenant of God with Noah. His intoxication, chap. ix. 
 
 10. The erection of the Tower of Babel attempted. The confusion of 
 
 Tongues, and the dispersion of Mankind, chap. xi. 
 
 11. The call of Abraham. He goes into Egypt, chap. xii. 
 
 12. Abraham and Lot return from Egypt and separate, chap. xiii. 
 
35b APPENDIX. 
 
 Section 
 
 13. Abraham blessed by Melchizedek, King of Salem, chap. xiv. 
 
 14. God renews his promises to Abraham, chap. xvii. 
 
 15. Three Angels visit Abraham. His Intercession for Sodom and Go- 
 
 morrah, chap, xviii. 
 
 16. The Destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, chap. xix. 1 — 26. 
 
 17. Abraham commanded to sacrifice his only Son, Isaac. He prepares 
 
 to obey, and receives the divine benediction, chap. xxii. 1 — 19. 
 
 18. Isaac marries Rebekah, chap. xxiv. 
 
 19. The Birth of Esau and Jacob. Esau despises his birthright, chap. 
 
 xxv. 20—34. 
 
 20. The Promise of God to Isaac, chap. xxvi. 1 — 6. 
 
 21. Jacob surreptitiously obtains Isaac's blessing, chap, xxvii. 1 — 40. 
 
 22. Esau menaces Jacob. The marriage of Esau. Jacob's vision at 
 
 Beth-el, and his vow, chap, xxvii. 41 — 46, xxviii. 
 
 23. Jacob entertained by Laban. His Marriage, chap. xxix. 
 
 24. Joseph sold into Egypt, chap, xxxvii. 
 
 25. The Imprisonment of Joseph by Potiphar, chap, xxxix. 
 
 26. Joseph, in prison, interprets the dreams of Pharaoh's chief Baker and 
 
 chief Butler, chap. xl. 
 
 27. The deliverance of Joseph. His advancement in the court of Pha- 
 
 raoh, chap. xli. 
 
 28. The first journey of Joseph's Brethren into Egypt, to buy corn, chap. 
 
 xlii. 
 
 29. Jacob persuaded to send Benjamin into Egypt. Joseph entertains his 
 
 Brethren, chap, xliii. 
 
 30. Joseph makes himself known to his Brethren, chap, xliv., xlv. 
 
 31. Jacob settles in Egypt with his family, chap. xlvi. 
 
 32. Joseph presents certain of his Brethren unto Pharaoh. — His admi- 
 
 nistration in Egypt, chap, xlvii. 1 — 26. 
 
 33. Jacob's last days. — He is visited by Joseph, whose children he 
 
 blesses, chap, xlvii. 27 — 31, xlviii. 
 
 34. Jacob's Prophetic Benediction of his Children, chap. xlix. 
 
 35. The Burial of Jacob. Death and Burial of Joseph, chap. I. 
 
 36. The Oppression of the Children of Israel by Rarneses Miamoun, the 
 
 King who knew neither Joseph nor his services, chap. i. 
 
 37. The Birth and Preservation of Moses. His flight into Midian, chap. 
 
 ii. 
 
 38. God appears unto Moses, and calls him to be the deliverer of the Is- 
 
 raelites, chap, iii., iv. 
 
 39. Moses and Aaron apply to Pharaoh, in the name of God, and on be- 
 
 half of the Israelites, chap. v. 
 
 40. God renews his promise of deliverance to the Israelites, chap. vi. 
 
 1—12. 
 
 41. The interview of Moses with Pharaoh, The first plague, chap. vii. 
 
 42. Pharaoh hardens his heart. The second, third, and fourth plagues, 
 
 chap. viii. 
 
 43. The fifth, sixth, and seventh plagues, chap. ix. 
 
 44. The eighth and ninth plagues, chap. x. 
 
 45. The Death of the First Born threatened, chap. xi. 
 
 46. The Institution of the Passover. The Departure of Israel from Egypt, 
 
 chap. xii. 
 
 47. The Israelites' miraculous passage of the Red Sea. Pharaoh and his 
 
 army drowned, chap. xiv. 
 
 48. The Song of Moses, for the deliverance of the Israelites. The bitter 
 
 waters of Marah sweetened, chap. xv. 
 
 49. The Israelites miraculously fed in the Desert, chap. xvi. 
 
 60. Their murmurs at Rephidim. Water miraculously given them from 
 the rock at Horeb, chap. xvii. 
 
APPENDIX. 357 
 
 Section 
 
 51. The Arrival of Moses' wife and children with Jethro. The counsel 
 
 given by the latter to Moses, chap, xviii. 
 
 52. The preparation of the Israelites for renewing their covenant with 
 
 God, chap. xix. 
 
 53. The Promulgation of the Moral Law, chap. xx. 
 
 54. Moses called to ascend Mount Sinai. The Covenant ratified, chap. 
 
 xx iv. 
 
 55. The people request Aaron to make the Golden Calf. The Punish- 
 
 ment of the Idolaters, chap, xxxii. 
 
 56. Moses removes his tent from the camp. The people mourn, chap. 
 
 xxxiii. 
 
 57. The Tables of the Law renewed. Various instructions given to 
 
 Moses, chap, xxxiv. 
 
 NUMBERS. 
 
 58. Moses despatches Spies into the land of Canaan, chap. xiil. 
 
 59. The murmurs of the people. Joshua's attempt to pacify them, chap. 
 
 xiv. 
 
 60. The Rebellion and Punishment of Korah, Dathan, and Abiram, and 
 
 their associates, chap. xvi. 
 
 DEUTERONOMY. 
 
 61. Discourse of Moses to the Israelites, relating the events that took 
 
 place in the wilderness from their leaving Mount Horeb, until their 
 arrival at Kadesh, chap. i. 
 
 62. Renewal of the Covenant with the People of Israel, chap. xxix. 
 
 63. Promises of Pardon to the Penitent. Good and evil set before them, 
 
 chap. xxx. 
 
 64. Joshua appointed to be the successor of Moses. A solemn charge 
 
 given to him, chap. xxxi. 1 — 27. 
 
 65. The people convened to hear the prophetical and historical Ode of 
 
 Moses, chap. xxxi. 28 — 30. xxxii. 
 
 66. Moses' Prophetic Blessing of the twelve Tribes. Their peculiar feli- 
 
 city and privilege in having the Lord for their God and Protector, 
 chap, xxxiii. 
 
 67. The Death and Burial of Moses, chap, xxxiv. 
 
 68. The Call and Appointment of Joshua to be Captain-General of the 
 
 people of God, chap. i. 
 
 69. The Miraculous Passage of the Israelites over Jordan, and the setting 
 
 up of twelve memorial stones, chap, hi., iv. 
 
 70. Joshua, stricken in years, gives his first charge to the people of 
 
 Israel, chap, xxiii. 
 
 71. Joshua's second charge to the Israelites, chap. xxiv. 
 
 JUDGES. 
 
 72. The people chastised for their sins. Judges raised up. Their admi- 
 
 nistration, chap, ii, 
 
 1 SAMUEL. 
 
 -73. The Birth of Samuel, chap. i. 
 
 74. The Hymn of Hannah. Depraved conduct of Eli's Sons, chap. 11. 
 
 75. The call of Samuel, and his establishment in the Prophetic Office, 
 
 chap. iii. 
 
 76. The Israelites demand a king, chap. viii. 
 
 77. Saul anointed king, chap, ix., x. 
 
 78. Saul rejected by God, chap. xiii. 
 
358 APPENDIX. 
 
 Section 
 
 79. The anointing of David to be king over Israel, chap. xvi. 
 
 80. David's Combat and Victory over Goliath, chap. xvii. 1—54. 
 
 81. Saul's Life in David's power, in the cave at Engedi, who inagnant- 
 
 mously spares it, chap. xxiv. 
 
 82. David spares the Life of Saul a second time, chap. xxvi. 
 
 83. The suicide of Saul, after his total discomfiture by the Philistines, 
 
 chap. xxxi. 
 
 2 SAMUEL. 
 
 84. David anointed king over Israel. His victories, chap. v. 
 
 85. The Bringing up of the Ark to Jerusalem, and the Divine Promises 
 
 made to him, chap, vi., vii. 
 
 86. The Sin and Repentance of David, chap, xi., xii. 
 
 87. David's Psalm of Praise, on a general review of the mercies of his 
 
 life, and of the many deliverances he had experienced, chap. xxii. 
 
 I KINGS. 
 
 88. The death of David, and Accession of Solomon, chap. li. 
 
 89. The commencement of Solomon's Reign, chap. iii. 
 
 90. The Dedication of the Temple, and the Sublime Prayer of Solomon 
 
 on that occasion, chap. viii. 
 
 91. Divine Vision to Solomon. His Opulence and Commerce, chap, ix. 
 
 92. The death of Solomon, and accession of Rehoboam, chap. xi. 
 
 93. The Revolt of the Ten Tribes under Jeroboam, who forms the King- 
 
 dom of Israel, chap. xii. 
 
 94. The Reigns of R«hoboam king of Judah, and of Jeroboam king of 
 
 Israel, chap. xiv. 
 
 95. The Reign of Ahab, against whom Elijah prophesieth. Miracles 
 
 wrought by the Prophet, chap. xvii. 
 
 96. The Prophets of Baal slain, chap, xviii. 
 
 97. Elijah's Flight to Horeb. Transactions there, chap. xix. 
 
 2 KINGS. 
 
 98. The translation of Elijah, chap. ii. 
 
 99. Miracles wrought by his successor, Elisha, chap. iv. 
 
 100. The Healing of Naaman, and punishment of Gehazi, chap. v. 
 
 101. Miracle wrought by Elisha. The Syrian army smitten with blindness. 
 
 chap. vi. 
 
 102. Hoshea, the last king of Israel, dethroned by Shalmaneser, and the 
 
 Israelites carried captive into Assyria, chap. xvi. 
 
 103. The reign of Hezekiah. His danger from Sennacherib's besieging 
 
 Jerusalem, chap. xvii. 
 
 104. The deliverance of Hezekiah. chap xix. 
 
 105. The pious reign of Josiah, chap, xxii., xxiii. 1 — 30. 
 
 106. The reigns of Jehoahaz, Jehoiakim, Jehoiachin, and Zedekiah, the 
 
 last kings of Judah, chap, xxiii. 31 — 37. xxiv. 
 
 107. Rebellion of Zedekiah against Nebuchadnezzar. Jerusalem taken; 
 
 the temple burnt ; and the Jews carried into captivity to Babylon 
 chap. xxv. 
 
 108. Edict of Cyrus, permitting the Jews to return into Judsea and rebuilt 
 
 the temple, chap. i. 
 
 109. The building of the second temple commenced, but hindered by tha 
 
 Samaritans, chap. iii. iv. 
 
 110. Edict of Darius in favour of the Jews. The temple finished and de- 
 
 dicated, chap, v., vi. 
 
APPENDIX. 359 
 
 Section 
 
 111. Haman, prime minister of Ahasuerus, from motives of hatred to. 
 
 wards Mordecai, forms a plan to massacre the Jews throughout 
 Persia, chap. iii. 
 
 112. Esther, the niece of Mordecai, apprises the king of Hainan's sangui- 
 
 nary design, chap. vii. 
 
 113. The Advancement of Mordecai. The deliverance of the Jews, chap. 
 
 viii., ix„ x. 
 
 EZRA. 
 
 114. Ezra the priest returns to Jerusalem with a commission from Arta 
 
 xerxes Longimanus, king of Persia, in favour of the Jews, chap. vii. 
 
 NEHEMIAH. 
 
 115. Departure of Nehemiah for Jerusalem, with a royal commission, in 
 
 favour of the Jews, chap. ii. 
 
 116. Jerusalem and the Temple being rebuilt, Ezra and Nehemiah con 
 
 vene the people, to hear the law read, chap. viii. 
 
 Part II. — A Selection of Chapters, forming a series of the Gospel History 
 
 Section 
 
 1. The Birth of John the Baptist and of Jesus Christ announced. Luke 
 
 i. 1—56. 
 
 2. John the Baptist born. The prophetic hymn of Zacharias, Luke i. 
 
 57—80. 
 
 3. The Nativity and Infancy of Jesus Christ, Luke ii. 
 
 4. The Arrival of the Wise Men from the East to adore Jesus Christ, 
 
 Matt. ii. 
 
 5. The Ministry of John the Baptist. The Baptism of Christ, Luke iii. 
 
 6. The Temptation of Jesus Christ. He beginneth to preach, Matt. iv. 
 
 1—17. 
 
 6. Christ preacheth at Nazareth. Various Miracles wrought by Christ. 
 
 Luke iv. 14—44. 
 
 7. Testimony of John the Baptist to Jesus Christ, John i. 
 
 8. Christ's Miracle at Cana in Galilee, John ii. 
 
 9. His Conversation with Nicodemus, John iii. 
 
 10. His Discourse with the Woman of Samaria, John iv. 
 
 11. Peter, James, John, and Matthew become Christ's stated disciples, 
 
 Luke v. 
 
 12. Jesus Christ heals a Paralytic at the Pool of Bethesda, John v. 
 
 13. The twelve Apostles appointed,. Luke vi. 
 
 14. Christ's Sermon on the Mount, Matt. v. — vii. 
 
 § 1. Who only are truly happy. The duty of Christians to ba 
 exemplary, Matt. v. 1 — 16. 
 
 § 2. The design of Christ's coming ; viz. : to ratify the divine 
 law, v. 17 — 20, which had been much impaired by the tradi- 
 tions of the Pharisees. 1. In respect of its extent: this is 
 exemplified in what concerns Murder, 21—26 ; Adultery, 27 — 
 30; Divorce, 31, 32; Oaths, 33—37; Retaliation, 38—42; the 
 Love of our Neighbour, 43 — 48. 2. In respect op motive: 
 where the end is applause, the virtue is destroyed. This is ex- 
 emplified in Almsgiving, vi. 1 — 4; Prayer, 5 — 15; and FasU 
 ing, 16—18. 
 
 5 3. Heavenly Mindedness enforced by various consideration. 1 - 
 vi. 19—34. 
 
360 APPENDIX. 
 
 Section 
 
 § 4. Cautions against rash judgments of others, vii. 1 — 5; various 
 admonitions, 6 — 14; warnings against /atee teachers, who are 
 commoniy known by their actions, 15 — 20; the wisdom of ad- 
 ding practice to knowledge, and the insignificancy of the latter 
 without the former. 21 — 29. 
 !5. Jesus Christ heals the Centurion's Servant and restores to life the 
 Widow's Son atls'ain, Luke vii. 1 — 17. 
 
 16. Christ's reply to the inquiry of John the Baptist's Disciples, and his 
 
 discourse to the people concerning John, Luke vii. IS — 35. 
 
 17. Christ pardons a woman who had been a sinner, Luke vii. 36 — 50. 
 
 18. The parable of the Sower. Who are Christ's Disciples, Luke viii. 
 
 1—21. 
 
 19. Christ stills a tempest by his command, and heals a demoniac at Ga- 
 
 dara, Luke viii. 22—39. 
 
 20. Christ cures an issue of blood, and raises the daughter of Jairus to life, 
 
 Luke viii. 40 — 56. 
 
 21. Christ heals a paralytic and two blind men, Matt. ix. 
 
 22. The Mission of the Apostles. Five thousand men miraculously fed, 
 
 Luke ix. 1—27. 
 
 23. Christ feedeth five thousand men. Peter's confession, John vi. 
 
 24. Christ performs various miracles, Matt. xv. 
 
 25. Christ foretells his death and resurrection, Matt. xvi. 
 
 26. The transfiguration of Jesus Christ, and the miracle which followed 
 
 it, Matt. xvii. 
 
 27. The Mission of the Seventy Disciples. Luke x. 1 — 24. 
 
 23. The Parable of the benevolent Samaritan. Christ visits Martha and 
 Mary, Luke x. 25 — 42. 
 
 29. Jesus goes to Jerusalem to the Least of Tabernacles, John vii. 
 
 30. Jesus Christ teaches in the Temple, John viii. 
 
 31. Christ heals a man who had "been born blind, John ix, 
 
 32. Instructions concerning Prayer. The Scribes and Pharisees reproved. 
 
 Luke xi. 
 
 33. Cautions against hypocrisy. The Care of Divine Providence, Luke 
 
 xii. 1—34. 
 
 34. Admonition to be prepared for Death. Luke xii. 35 — 18. 
 
 35. Christ reproacheth the people for not knowing the time of Messiah's 
 
 coming. Common reason sufficient to teach men repentance. Luke 
 xii. 49—59. 
 6. Design of God's Judgments. An infirm woman healed. Parable of 
 the Mustard-seed, which prophetically represents the spread of the 
 Gospel, Lukexiii. 1 — 20. 
 
 37. Christ's journey to Jerusalem to keep the Feast of Dedication. His 
 
 lamentation over the judicial blindness of Jerusalem, Luke xiii. 
 22—35. 
 
 38. A dropsical man healed on the Sabbath-day. The parable of the 
 
 great Supper, Luke xiv. 1 — 24. 
 
 39. Courage and perseverance shown to be requisite in a true Christian. 
 
 The unprofitableness of an unsound Christian, Luke xiv. 25 — 35. 
 
 40. Christ illustrates the joy of the angels in heaven over repenting Sin- 
 
 ners, by the Parables, 1. Of the lost sheep, Luke xv. 1 — 7 ; 2. Of the 
 lost piece of money, 8 — 10 ; and, 3. Of the Prodigal Son, 11 — 32. 
 
 41. Parable of the Unjust Steward. The Pharisees reproved for their 
 
 hypocrisy and covetousness, Luke xvi. 1 — IS. 
 
 42. The Parable of the rich man and Lazarus, Luke xvi. 19 — 31. 
 
 43. The duty of not giving offence. Ten lepers healed, Luke xvii. 1 — 19. 
 
 44. Christ discourses concerning his second coming. Luke xvii. 20 — 37. 
 
 45. Encouragement to perseverance in prayer, illustrated by the parable 
 
 of the Importunate Widow. Parable of the Pharisee and Publican, 
 or Tax-gatherer, Luke xviii. 1 — 14. 
 46 Christ encourages young children to be brought to him ; again fore- 
 tells his death \ and cures a blind man near Jericho. Luke xviii. 
 15—42 
 
APPENDIX. 361 
 
 Section 
 
 47. Parable of the Labourers in the vineyard. Humility inculcated. 
 
 Two blind men receive their sight, Matt. xx. 
 
 48. The Resurrection of Lazarus, John xi. 41 — 44. 
 
 49. Account of the different effects produced by this miracle on the Jews, 
 
 John xi. 45—57, xii. 1 — 1 1. 
 
 50. The Conversion of Zaccheus, Luke xix. 1 — 10. 
 
 51 . Parable of the nobleman going into a distant country to receive a 
 
 kingdom, Luke xix. 1] — 28. 
 
 52. Christ's lowly, yet triumphal entry into Jerusalem. He weeps ovet 
 
 her impending calamities, and expels the traders out of the temple, 
 where he teaches the people, Luke xix. 29 — 48. 
 
 53. Christ confutes the chief-priests, scribes, and elders, 1; By a question 
 
 concerning the baptism of John, Luke xx. 1 — 8 ; 2. By the Parable 
 of the Labourers in the vineyard, 9 — 19; and, 3. By showing the 
 lawfulness of paying tribute unto Caesar, 20 — 26. 
 
 54. The Sadducees and Scribes severally confuted. The Charity of a 
 
 poor widow commended, Luke xx. 27 — 47, xxi. 1 — 4. 
 
 55. Christ discourses on the destruction of the temple ; and enforces the 
 
 duty of watchfulness, Luke xxi. 5 — 38. 
 
 56. Christ's Prophetic Discourse concerning the destruction of Jerusalem, 
 
 and the end of the World, Matt. xxiv. 
 
 57. Parables of the Ten Virgins, and of the Talents. The last Judgment 
 
 described, Matt. xxv. 
 
 58. Christ washes his apostle's feet; predicts the treachery of Judas, and 
 
 Peter's denial, John xiii. 
 
 59. Christ celebrates the passover; institutes the Lord's Supper; and 
 
 again warns Peter that he would deny him, Luke xxii. 1 — 38. 
 
 60. Christ's last discourse with his disciples, John xiv. — xvi. 
 
 61. Christ's last prayer for his disciples, and for all who in future ages 
 
 should believe in him, John xvii. 
 
 62. Judas betrays Jesus; who retires to the garden of Gethsemane. 
 
 Peter's denial of Christ, who is arraigned before Pilate, John xviii. 
 
 63. Christ condemned and crucified, Luke xxiii. 
 
 64. The Resurrection of Jesus Christ, Matt, xxviii. 1 — 15. 
 
 65. Christ appears to two disciples on their way to Emmaus, Luke xxiv. 
 
 13 — 35 ; and also to the assembled disciples, 36—48. The Ascension 
 of Christ, 49—53. 
 
 THE ACTS OP THE APOSTLES. 
 
 66. The transactions before and after Christ's ascension into heaven. 
 
 Matthias elected an apostle, chap. i. 
 
 67. The Descent of the Holy Spirit upon the Apostles on the day of Pen- 
 
 tecost, and Peter's discourse to the people in consequence of it, 
 chap. ii. 
 
 68. Peter and John heal a lame man. Peter's discourse to the people, 
 
 char, iii. 
 
 69. A great multitude converted by the preaching of Peter. The apos- 
 
 t'es are put in prison, and released, chap. iv. 1 — 32. 
 
 70. Unanimity of the first Christians; their charity. Hypocrisy and 
 
 punishment of Ananias and Sapphira, chap. iv. 33—37, v. 1—11, 
 ,1. The apostles being imprisoned, are released by an angel. Gamaliel's 
 counsel concerning them, chap. v. 12 — 42. 
 
 72. Seven persons chosen to superintend the distribution of alms, chap. 
 
 vi. 1—8. 
 
 73. Stephen falsely accused. His discourse. He is condemned and 
 
 stoned, chap. vi. 9 — 15, to viii. I, first clause of the verse. 
 
 74. Persecution of the Christians at Jerusalem. A church planted at 
 
 Samaria, chap. viii. 1, and at that time, &c. 2 — 25. 
 
 75. Conversion of the Ethiopian Eunuch, chap. viii. 26 — 40 
 
 76. Conversion, baptism, and first preaching of Saint Paul, chap. Ix, 
 
 1—31. 
 
3G2 APPENDIX. 
 
 Section 
 
 77. Peter heals ^Eneas, and raises Dorcas to life, chap. ix. 32. 43. 
 
 78. Peter instructed by a vision concerning the calling of the Gentiles. 
 
 The conversation of Cornelius and his family, chap, x., xi. 1 — 18. 
 
 79. The first Gentile Church founded at Antioch, chap. xi. 19 — 30. 
 
 80. The apostle James put to death by Herod Agrippa. His miserable 
 
 death, chap. xii. 
 
 81. The planting of several churches in the isle of Cyprus, at Perga, in 
 
 Pamphilia, and Antioch, in Pisidia, chap. xiii. 
 
 82. The gospel preached at Iconium, Lystra, and Derbe. Paul returns to 
 
 Antioch, chap. xiv. 
 
 83. Discussion of the question by the apostles at Jerusalem, concerning 
 
 the necessity of circumcision, and observing the law. Their letter 
 to the churches on this subject, chap. xv. 1 — 35. 
 
 84. Paul's second departure from Antioch. He preaches the gospel in 
 
 various countries, particularly at Philippi, in Macedonia. The con- 
 version of the Philippian gaoler, chap. xv. 36 — 41, xvi. 
 
 85. The journeys and apostolical labours of Paul, and his associates, at 
 
 Thessalonica, Berea, and Athens. His masterly apology before the 
 court of the Areopagites, chap. xvii. 
 
 86. Paul's journey to Corinth, and thence to Antioch, chap, xviii. 1 — 22. 
 
 87. Paul's third departure from Antioch. Consequences of his preaching 
 
 at Ephesus, chap, xviii. 23 — 28, xix. 
 
 88. The labours of Paul in Greece and Asia Minor. His journey toward 
 
 Jerusalem, chap. xx. 
 
 89. On his arrival at Jerusalem Paul relates the fruits of his ministry 
 
 chap. xxi. 
 
 90. The Jews demanded the death of Paul, who pleads his privilege as a 
 
 Roman citizen, chap. xxii. 
 
 91. Paul pleads his cause before the council. A conspiracy is formed 
 
 against his life. He is sent to Caesarea, chap, xxiii. 
 
 92. Paul accused before Felix, pleads his own cause. Effects of his 
 
 preaching upon the conscience of Felix, chap. xxiv. 
 
 93. Paul pleads his cause before Festus, the successor of Felix. His in- 
 
 nocence admitted by the Roman Governor, chap, xxv. 
 
 94. Paul's defence before king Agrippa, chap. xxvi. 
 
 95. Narrative of Paul's Voyage from Csesarea. He is shipwrecked on 
 
 the isle of Malta, chap, xxvii. 
 95. His voyage from Malta to Rome, where he preaches the Gospel to 
 the Jews, and resides for two years, chap, xxviii. 
 
 Part III. — Select Chapters taken from the Apostolic Epistles. 
 
 Section 
 
 1. The blessed consequences of our Justification by Jesus Christ, Rom. v. 
 
 2. Eulogium and Description of Charity, 1 Cor. xiii. 
 
 3. The Resurrection of Jesus Christ. — Victory over death and sin 
 
 1 Cor. xv. 
 
 4. A Future Life.— The love of Christ, 2 Cor. v. 
 
 5. Spiritual blessings in Christ Jesus, Eph. i. 
 
 6. Various Duties of the Christian Life, Eph. iv. — vi. 
 
 7. Exhortations to Christian Holiness, Phil. iv. 
 
 8. The excellence of Godliness, 1 Tim. vi. 
 
 9. The supreme Deity and Dignity of Jesus Christ, his superiority to 
 
 angels, and our duty in consequence, Heb. i., ii. 1 — 4. 
 
 10. Exhortations to perseverance, Heb. xii. 
 
 11. Exhortations and Cautions, James v 
 
APPENDIX. * 3(53 
 
 Section 
 
 12. Exhortation to steadfastness in the faith of Christ, from a considera- 
 
 tion of the peculiar blessings and privileges conferred by Christ, 
 1 Pet. i., ii. 1—10. 
 
 13. Exhortation to various civil and relative duties, 1 Pet. ii. 1 1— 25, 
 
 iii. 1—13. 
 11. The hope and conduct of a Christian, 2 Pet. i. 
 
 15. The second advent of Christ, 2 Pet. iii. 
 
 16. The Love of God opposed to that of the world, 1 John iii. 
 
 17. Exhortation to Brotherly Love, 1 John iv. 
 
 No, V. 
 
 List, comprising the most necessary works upon the Holy Scrip- 
 tures, which the author trusts will be found sufficient for all ordi- 
 nary purposes of study. 
 
 D'Allemand's Edition of the Hebrew Bible. 
 
 Rev. E. Valpy's Edition of the Greek Testament, with Notes. In 
 3 vols. 8vo. 
 
 Vetus Testamentum Grsecum (Valpy's Edition,) 8vo. 
 
 Holy Bible, with marginal renderings and references, 8vo. 
 
 Rev. Geo. Townsend's Harmony of the Old Testament, 2 vols. 8vo. 
 
 ■ r-Harmony of the New Testament, 2 vols. 8vo. 
 
 Introduction to the Critical Study and Knowledge of the Holy Scrip- 
 tures. By the author of this volume, 4 vols. 8vo. 
 
 Professor Lee's Lectures on the Hebrew Language, 8vo. ; or, 
 
 Mr. Yeates's Hebrew Grammar, 8vo. 
 
 Gibb's Hebrew and English Lexicon, 8vo ; or, 
 
 Parkhurst's Hebrew and English Lexicon, 8vo. 
 
 ■ Greek Lexicon to the New Testament, edited by the 
 
 Rev. H. J. Rose. 
 
 Winer's Greek Grammar of the New Testament, 8vo. 
 
 Robinson's Greek and English Lexicon to the New Testament, 
 8vo. ; or, 
 
 Wahl's Clavis Philologica Novi Testament! 
 
 Rev. Dr. D'Oyly's and Bp. Mant's Commentary on the Bible, 3 vols, 
 4to. 
 
 Rev. Matthew Henry's, or Rev. Tho. Scott's Commentary on the 
 Bible, each 6 vols. 4to., and Rev. W. Burkitt's Expository Notes, 
 &c. on the New Testament, will be found particularly useful for 
 practical and expository study. 
 
 Bp. Home's Commentary on the Psalms, 2 vols. 8vo. 
 
 Rev. Messrs. Elsley's and Slade's Annotations on the New Testa- 
 ment, 5 vols. 8vo. 
 
 Rev. iS. T. Bloomfield's Recensio Synoptica Annotationis Sacrae, &c. 
 7 vols. 8vo. 
 
 Rev. Dr. Doddridge's Family Expositor, 6 vols. 8vo. 
 
 Rev. Dr. Robinson's Biblical and Ecclesiastical Dictionary, 8vo. 
 
 Dr. Harris's Natural History of the Bible, 8vo. 
 
 Rev. Geo. Holden's Testimonies to the Deity of Christ, 8vo. 
 
3(54 Ai»PfcN!>«. 
 
 Rev. Dr. J. P. Smith's Scripture Testimony to the Messiah, 3 vola 
 
 8vo. 
 Rev. J. Butterworth's Concordance, 8vo. 
 Bp. Gastrell's Christian Institutes, 12mo. ; or, 
 Mr. Warden's System of Revealed Religion, 2 vols. 8vo. 
 Bp. Newton's Dissertations on the Prophecies, 2 vols. 8vo. 
 
 Should more extended commentaries be required than those here 
 specified, the reader is referred to the works of Dr. A. Clarke, and 
 others, which are enumerated in the Appendix to Vol. II. of the au- 
 thor's larger Introduction. 
 
 No. VI. 
 
 A CONCISE CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAL EPOCHS MEN- 
 TIONED IN THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 
 
 I. Old Testament History. 
 
 B C. 
 
 The Creation of the World 4004 
 
 Noah born 2948 
 
 Peleg, (son of Heber.) — Division of the earth into famihes and 
 
 languages --------- 2247 
 
 Abraham born -------- 1996 
 
 CaU of Abraham 1921 
 
 Ishmael, son of Abraham and Hagar, born - - - 1910 
 
 Destruction of Sodom, Gomorrah, and the cities of the plain 1898 
 
 Covenant with Abraham renewed ----- 1898 
 
 Birth of Isaac - 1871 
 
 Isaac marries Rebekah ------- 1856 
 
 Jacob marries Leah and Rachel ----- 1759 
 
 Joseph sold into Egypt ------- 1728 
 
 Jacob and his family go into Egypt ----- 1706 
 
 Death of Jacob " 1689 
 
 Death of Joseph - 1635 
 
 A Revolution in Egypt.— The Israelites persecuted - - 1577 
 
 Birth of Moses 1571 
 
 The Exodus from Egypt 1491 
 
 The Delivery of the Law 1490 
 
 The death of Moses ; the entrance of the Israelites into the 
 
 promised land, under Joshua - - - - - 1451 
 The Administration of the Elders and Judges, after the death 
 
 of Joshua 1443, &c. 
 
 Saul appointed and consecrated king . - - - 1095 
 
 The accession of David to the throne - 1055 
 
 The reign of Solomon alone - - - - - - 1014 
 
 The dedication of the temple 1004 
 
 Accession of Rehoboam, and the secession of the ten tribes 
 
 under Jeroboam - - 975 
 

 
 APPENDIX. 3(35 
 
 Kings of Israel for 
 
 264 Years. 
 
 Kings ofJudahfor 388 Years. 
 
 
 
 B.C. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 Jeroboam I. - 
 
 
 975 
 
 Rehoboam - - - 975 
 Jerusalem taken by Shishak 
 king of Egypt. The Tem- 
 ple plundered - - 975 
 
 Nadab - 
 
 - 
 
 954 
 
 Abijah -..-- 958 
 
 Baasha 
 
 - 
 
 953 
 
 Asa 955 
 
 Elah --,/-- 930 
 Zimri conspires against Elah, 
 
 and reigns seven days at 
 
 Tirza 
 Omri 929 
 
 Ahab - 
 
 918 
 
 Jehoshaphat - 
 
 914 
 
 Ahaziah - 
 
 897 
 
 
 
 Jehoram, or Joram - , 
 
 896 
 
 Joram - 
 
 889 
 
 Jehu - - - - 
 
 884 
 
 Ahaziah 
 
 885 
 
 
 
 Athaliah 
 
 884 
 
 Jehoahaz - 
 
 856 
 
 Amaziah 
 
 838 
 
 Joash - 
 
 839 
 
 
 
 Jeroboam 11. 
 
 823 
 
 Uzziah, or Azariah 
 
 809 
 
 An interregnum of eleven years 
 
 
 
 begins - 
 
 784 
 
 
 
 Zachariah son of Jeroboam 
 
 773 
 
 
 
 Shallum reigned one month 
 
 772 
 
 
 
 And slain by Menahem - 
 
 770 
 
 
 
 Pekahiah ... 
 
 760 
 
 Uzziah 
 
 
 Pekah - 
 
 758 
 
 Jotham 
 
 757 
 
 Anarchy for nine years - 
 
 738 
 
 Ahaz 
 
 741 
 
 Hoshea - 
 
 729 
 
 Hezekiah 
 
 726 
 
 End of the kingdom of Israel, 
 
 
 
 after it had subsisted two 
 
 
 
 hundred and fifty-four years. 
 
 
 
 Kings of Judah alone. 
 
 B C 
 
 Manasseh - - 697 
 
 Amon ---------- 642 
 
 Josiah ---------- 640 
 
 Jehoaz, son of Josiah ------- 609 
 
 Jehoiakim --------- 60S 
 
 Jeconiah, Ooniah, or Jehoiakim, son of Jehoiakim - - 599 
 
 Zedekiah, unele of Jeconiah, originally named Mattaniah - 597 
 
 Zedekiah revolts against the Chaldaeans - - - - 590 
 The siege of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar. — Zedekiah's Flight. 
 
 He is deprived of sight. — Jerusalem taken, and the temple burnt 588 
 Beginning of the seventy years' captivity. — The destruction of 
 the kingdom of Judah, after it had subsisted four hundred and 
 sixty-eight years from the commencement of David's reign : 
 
366 APPENDIX. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 and three hundred and eighty-eight years from the separation 
 
 between Judah and the ten tribes • 
 
 Daniel's three companions cast into the fiery furnace - 560 
 
 Nebuchadnezzar's death 
 
 Evil-Merodach succeeds him ; reigns but one year 
 Belshazzar his son succeeds him - - - - - 559 
 
 Cyrus liberates the Persians, and takes the title of king - 558 
 
 Belshazzar's impious feast ; his death - 556 
 
 Darius the Mede succeeds Belshazzar 
 
 Daniel's prophecy of the seventy weeks. (Dan. ix., x.) - 555 
 
 Daniel cast into the lion's den ------ 552 
 
 Cyrus sets the Jews at liberty, and permits their return into Judaea 547 
 The Jews, returning from captivity, renew the sacrifices in the 
 
 temple --_.-___- 546 
 
 Darius, otherwise Ahasuerus, acknowledged king of the Persians 521 
 Haggai the prophet ------- 520 
 
 Zechariah begins to prophesy - - - - - - 519 
 
 Darius allows the Jews to rebuild their temple - - - 518 
 
 Here, properly, end the seventy years of captivity foretold by 
 
 Jeremiah, which began a. m. 3416 
 The dedication of the temple of Jerusalem, rebuilt by Zerub- 
 
 babel 515 
 
 Haman vows the destruction of the Jews, and procures from 
 
 Ahasuerus an order for their extermination - 508 
 
 Esther obtains a revocation of this decree 
 Haman hung on the gallows he had prepared for Mordecai 
 The Jews punish their enemies at Shushan, and throughout the 
 
 Persian empire -------- 508 
 
 Xerxes succeed Darius ------- 485 
 
 Xerxes dies ; Artaxerxes succeeds him - 473 
 
 He sends Ezra to Jerusalem. (Ezra vii. 1. 7, 8.) - - 467 
 
 Ezra reforms abuses among the Jews - 466 
 
 Dedication of the walls of Jerusalem by Nehemiah - - 454 
 
 Nehemiah renews the covenant of Israel with the Lord - 453 
 
 Nehemiah returns to king Artaxerxes - 441 
 
 Nehemiah comes a second time into Judaea, and reforms abuses 439 
 Zechariah prophesies under his government ; also Malachi, whom 
 
 several have confounded with Ezra. 
 
 II. New Testament Historf. 
 
 From the Birth of Jesus Christ, to the Completion of the Canon of 
 the New Testament. 
 
 Y.of 
 J. c. 
 The birth of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, the 4th year 
 
 before a. d. _._1 
 
 The circumcision of Jesus Christ 1 
 
 Wise men come to worship Jesus Christ 
 
appendix. 357 
 
 Y.of 
 J.C. 
 
 Purification ol the holy virgin. — Jesus presented in the temple 
 Flight into Egypt 
 
 Massacre of the innocents at Bethlehem 
 Herod dies 
 
 Archelaus appointed king of Judaea by his will 
 Return of Jesus Christ out of Egypt; he goes to dwell at Naza- 
 reth 
 Archelaus banished to Vienna in Gaul ----- 9 
 
 Jesus Christ, at twelve years of age, goes into the temple of Je- 
 rusalem ------ -__-i2 
 
 John the Baptist begins to preach ------ 32 
 
 Jesus Christ baptized by John the Baptist 33 
 
 Jesus goes into the desert 
 
 The second passover of our Saviour's public ministry - - 34 
 
 Our Saviour's sermon on the mount 
 
 Mission of the apostles into several parts of Judaea 35 
 
 John the Baptist slain by order of Herod, at the instigation of 
 
 Herodias 
 Lazarus falls sick and dies - - - - - - - 36 
 
 Jesus comes to Jerusalem to be present at his third and last 
 
 passover ; — 
 Institutes the Lord's supper ; is betrayed and crucified. — His re- 
 surrection and appearance to many. — Ascension into Heaven, 
 and the miraculous effusion of the Holy Spirit 
 Seven deacons chosen - " - - «■■ -. . - - 37 
 
 Stephen martyred -----'„- 37 
 
 Saul persecutes the church .--..- 37 
 
 Conversion of Saul - -- - - - - - 38 
 
 Paul a prisoner at Rome - - 64 
 
 Paul set at liberty - 66 
 
 Paul's second imprisonment at Rome ----- 68 
 
 Paul and Peter put to death there - 69 
 
 The Emperor Vespasian enters Judaea 70 
 
 Jerusalem taken by Titus, and the Temple burnt 73 
 
 John banished to Patmos ----„- 95 
 
 John liberated ---------99 
 
 John writes his Gospel and Revelation . - 100 
 
36g APFENDIX. 
 
 No. VII. 
 
 A TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAL PROPHECIES RELATIVE TO THE 
 
 MESSIAH, 
 
 WITH THEIR ACCOMPLISHMENT, AS RELATED IN THE NEW TESTAMENT, 
 
 1. That a Messiah should come. 
 
 Prophecy. Gen. iii. 15. He (the seed of the woman) shall bruise thy 
 head, and thou shalt bruise his heel. Compare Gen. xxii. 18, xii. 3, xxvi. 
 4, xxviii. 4, and Psal. lxxii. 17. Isa. xl. 5. The glory of the Lord shall 
 be revealed, and all flesh shall see it together. Hagg. ii. 7. The desire 
 of all nations shall come. 
 
 Fulfilment. Gal. iv. 4. When the fulness of time was come, God sent 
 forth his son, made of a woman, (four thousand years after the first pro- 
 phecy was delivered.) Rom. xvi. 20. The God of peace shall bruise 
 Satan under your feet shortly. 1 John iii. 8. The Son of God was mani- 
 fested that he might destroy the works of the Devil, (that old serpent, 
 Rev. xii. 9.) See also Heb. ii. 14. Luke ii. 10. I bring you good tidings 
 of great joy, which shall be to all people. 
 
 2. The Time when he should come. 
 
 Prophecy. Gen. xlix. 10. The sceptre shall not depart from Judah, nor 
 a lawgiver from between his feet, until Shiloh come. The Messiah was 
 to come at a time of universal peace, and when there was a general ex- 
 pectation of him; and while the second temple was standing seventy 
 weeks (of years, i. e. 490 years) after the rebuilding of Jerusalem. See 
 Hagg. ii. 6—9 ; Dan ix. 23—25 ; Mai. iii. 1. 
 
 Fulfilment. When the Messiah came, the sceptre had departed from 
 Judah ; for the Jews, though governed by their own rulers and magis- 
 trates, yet were subject to the paramount authority of the Roman empe- 
 rors ; as was evinced by their being subject to the enrolment of Augustus, 
 paying tribute to Cassar, and not having the power of life and death. 
 Compare Luke ii. 1. 3—5 ; Matt. xxii. 20, 21 ; and the parallel passages ; 
 and John xx. 10. 15. When Jesus Christ came into the world, the Roman 
 wars were terminated, the temple of Janus was shut, and universal peace 
 reigned throughout the Roman empire ; and all nations, both Jews and 
 Gentiles, were expecting the coming of some extraordinary person. See 
 Matt. ii. 1—10 ; Mark xv. 43 ; Luke ii. 25. 38 ; and John i. 19 — 45. for the 
 expectation of the Jews. The two Roman historians, Suetonius and Ta- 
 citus, confirm the fulfilment of the prediction, as to the expectation of the 
 Gentiles. 
 
 3. The Dignity op his Character, — that the Messiah should be God and 
 Man together. 
 
 Prophecy. Psal. ii. 7. Thou art my Son, this day have I begotten 
 thee. Psal. ex. 1. The Lord said unto my Lord. Isa. ix. 6. The mighty 
 God, the everlasting Father. Mic. 5. 2. Whose goings forth have been 
 from of old, from everlasting. 
 
 Fulfilment. Heb. i. 8. Unto the Son, he saith, "Thy throne, O God, is 
 for ever and ever." Compare Matt. xxii. 42 — 55 ; Acts ii. 34, 35 ; Cor. Xv. 
 24 ; Heb. i. 1 3. Matt. i. 23. They shall call his name Emmanuel, that 
 is, God with us. John i. 1. 14. The Word was with God, and the Word 
 was God. The Word was made flesh and dwelt among us Rom. ix. 5. 
 
APPENDIX 3 6 (J 
 
 Of whom (the fathers) as concerning the flesh Christ came, who is God 
 over all, blessed for ever. See also Col. ii. 9 ; 1 John v. 20. 
 
 4. From whom he was to be descended. 
 
 Prophecy. From the first woman. Gen. iii. 15. From Abraham and 
 his descendants, Gen. xii. 3, xviii. 18 ; viz. : Isaac, Gen. xxvi. 4 ; Jacob, 
 Gen. Xxviii. 14; Judah, Gen. xlix. 10; Jesse, Isa. xi. 1; David, Psal. 
 cxxxii. 11, lxxxix. 4. 27 ; Isa. vi. 13, 14, ix. 7 ; Jer. xxiii. 5, and xxxiii. 20, 21. 
 
 Fulfilment. Gal. iv. 4. When the fulness of time was come, God sent 
 forth his son, made of a woman. 
 
 Acts iii. 25. The covenant which God made with our fathers, saying 
 unto Abraham, "And in thy seed shall all the nations of the earth be 
 blessed." See Matt. i. 1. Heb. vii. 14. It is evident that our Lord sprang 
 out of Judah. Rom. xv. 12, Isaiah saith there shall be a root of Jesse. 
 John vii. 42, Hath not the Scripture said, that Christ cometh of the seed 
 of David. See also Acts ii. 30, xiii. 23 ; Luke i. 32. 
 
 5. That the Messiah should be born of a Virgin. 
 
 Prophecy. Isa. vii. 14. Behold a Virgin shall conceive and bring forth 
 a Son. 
 
 Jer. xxxi. 22. The Lord hath created a new thing on the earth ; a woman 
 shall compass a man. (N. B. The ancient Jews applied this prophecy to 
 the Messiah, whence it follows, that the later interpretations to the con- 
 trary are only to avoid the truth which we profess ; viz. : That Jesus was 
 born of a virgin, and therefore is The Christ, or Messiah. Bp. Pearson on 
 the Creed, Art. III. p. 171. edit. 1715. folio.) 
 
 Fulfilment. Matt. i. 24, 25. Joseph took his wife and knew her not, 
 till she had brought forth her first born son. Compare Luke i. 26—35. 
 Matt. i. 22, 23. All this was done, that it might be fulfilled, which was 
 spoken of the Lord by the prophet, saying, 'Behold a virgin shall be with 
 child, and shall bring forth a son.' 
 
 6. The Place where the Messiah was to be born. 
 
 *.■'" 
 Prophecy. Mic. v. 2. Thou Bethlehem Ephratah, though thou be little 
 among the thousands of Judah ; yet out of thee shall he come- forth unto 
 me that is to be ruler in Israel. 
 
 Fulfilment. Luke ii. 4—6. All went to be taxed (or enrolled.) every 
 one into his own city. And Joseph also went up from Galilee, with Mary 
 his espoused wife, unto Bethlehem ; and, while they were there she brought 
 forth her first born son. Compare also Luke ii. 10, 11. 16, and Matt. ii. 1. 
 4—6. 8.11; John vii. 42. 
 
 7. That a Prophet, in the spirit and power of Elias, or Elijah, should be ths 
 Messiah's forerunner and prepare his way. 
 
 Prophecy. Malachi iii. 1, and iv. 5; Isa. xl. 3; Luke i. 17. Behold I 
 will send my messenger, and he shall prepare my way before me. 
 
 Fulfilment. Matt. iii. 1. In those days came John the Baptist preaching 
 in the wilderness of Judaea, saying, Repent ye, the kingdom of heaven is 
 at hand. Matt. xi. 14 ; Luke vii. 27, 28. This is Elias which was for to 
 come. 
 
 8. That he should begin to publish the Gospel z> v .Gaiilee. 
 
 Prophecy. Isa. ix. 1 , 2. In Galilee of the nations^Jh'e p'ei^gj&at walk- 
 ed in darkness haveseen a great light. ; u £•_>', » v^ iv. - • 
 
 Fulfilment. Matt. iv. 12. 17. Now when Jesus heard that: John was 
 cast into prison, he departed into Galilee. From -that time Jesus, began 
 to preach and to say, Repent, for the kingdom of heaven ife at hand. 
 
370 APPENDIX. 
 
 9. That the Messiah was to be a Prophet and Legislator like unto Mo&ts, 
 but superior to him, who should change the law of Moses into a new and 
 more perfect law, common both to Jews and Gentiles, and which should 
 last for ever. 
 
 The law of Moses was promulgated to the Jewish people exclusively, 
 and was full of burdensome ceremonies ; the sacrifices enjoined by it 
 were to be performed only at Jerusalem, audit was delivered by a man 
 to men. But, 
 
 Prophecy. 1. The Messiah is foretold to be a prophet like unto Moses. 
 Deut. 15. 18. " The Lord thy God will raise up unto thee a prophet from 
 the midst of thee, of thy brethren, like unto me. Unto him shall ye 
 hearken." For Moses differs from all the other Old Testament prophets in 
 this, that he was truly a legislator, the friend of God, Exod. xxxiii. 11, and 
 was distinguished by the multitude of his miracles, Deut. xxxiv. 11. 
 
 2. The Messiah was to enact a new law, Isa. iv. 3. Out of Zion shall 
 go forth the law, and the word of the law from Jerusalem. 
 
 3. This law was to be common to all nations ; see Isa. ii. 2, 3, and 11. 4, 5. 
 
 4. The new law, or covenant of the Messiah, was to endure for ever; 
 see Isa. lix. 21 ; Jer. xxxi. 34 ; Ezek. xxxvi. 27, xxxvii. 26 ; Isa. Iv. 3, lxi. 
 8 ; Jer. xxxii. 40 ; Ezek. xxxir. 25 ; Dan. vii. 13, 14 ; Isa. xliii. 6, lxii. 2. 
 
 Fulfilment. Christ is a prophet infinitely superior to Moses : 
 
 1. As to his person. Heb. iii. 5, 6. Moses, verily, was faithful in all his 
 house, as a servant, for a testimony of those things which were to be 
 spoken after ; but Christ as a Son over his own house, whose house are we. 
 
 2. As to his law. Heb. vii. 18, 19. There is a disannulling of the com- 
 mandment going before, for the weakness and unprofitableness thereof; 
 for the law made nothing perfect, but the bringing in of a better hope 
 (i.e. of a new law,) did, by the which we draw nigh to God. 
 
 The law of Moses belonged to one nation only, but the Gospel, which is 
 the law of Christ, is designed for all nations. Compare Nos. 3 and 4 of 
 the preceding predictions, with Matt, xxviii. 19, 20; Mark xvi. 20; and 
 Col. i. 23. 
 
 3. As to the benefits he has conferred. Moses delivered the Israelites 
 from their cruel bondage in Egypt; he was the mediator of the covenant 
 between God and his people ; he conducted them through the desert into 
 Canaan, and interceded with God for them ; but all these were only tem- 
 poral benefits. On the other hand, Christ saves all that truly believe in 
 him, and unfeignedly repent, from the guilt, the power, and the punish- 
 ment of their sins, Matt. i. 23. He hath obtained a more excellent minis- 
 try, by how much also he is the mediator of abetter covenant, which was 
 established upon 'better promises, Heb. viii. 6. See also Heb. vii. 22, ix. 15, 
 xii. 24 ; 2 Cor. iii. 6. Christ has reconciled the world unto God, 2 Cor. v. 
 19 ; 1 John ii. 2 ; and has given us an example that we should follow his 
 steps, 1 Pet. ii. 21—23. As our forerunner, he hath entered into heaven, 
 that where he is, there his followers maybe also, Heb. vi. 20, ix. 24 ; John 
 xiv. 2, 3 ; and as an advocate he ever liveth to make intercession for all 
 that come unto God by him, 1 John ii. 1 ; Heb. vii. 25. 
 
 4. As to the circumstances of his death. Moses died, in one sense, for the 
 iniquities of his people. Their rebellion, which was the occasion of it, 
 drew down the divine displeasure upon them, and upon him. See Deut. i. 
 37. Moses, therefore, went up, in the sight of the people, to the top of 
 Mount Nebo, and there he died, when he was in perfect rigour. Christ 
 suffered for the sins of mankind, and was led up in the presence of the 
 people to Calvary, where he died in the flower of his age. 
 
 " Let us search all the records of universal history, and see if we can 
 find a man who was so like to Moses as Christ was. If we cannot find 
 such a one, then we have found HIM, of whom Moses in the law and the 
 prophets did write, to be Jesus of Nazareth, the Son of God." 
 
APPENDIX. 37 1 
 
 10. That the Messiah should confirm his doctrine by great Miracles. 
 
 Prophecy. Isa. xxxv. 5, 6. Then the eyes of the blind shall be opened, 
 and the ears of the deaf shall be unstopped ; then shall the lame man 
 leap as a hart, and the tongue of the dumb sing. 
 
 Fulfilment. Matt. xi. 4, 5. Jesus . . . said, "Go and show John those 
 things which ye do hear and see : the blind receive their sight, and the 
 lame walk; the lepers are cleansed, and the deaf hear." 
 
 11. In what manner the Messiah was to make his public entry into 
 
 Jerusalem. 
 
 Prophecy. Zech. ix. 9. Rejoice greatly, O daughter of Jerusalem, be- 
 hold thy King cometh unto thee ; he is just, and having salvation, lowly, 
 and riding upon an ass, even upon a colt, the foal of an ass. 
 
 Fulfilment. Matt. xxi. 7 — 10. The disciples, brought the ass and the 
 colt, and put on them their clothes, and set him (Jesus) thereon, (that is, 
 upon the clothes.) And great multitudes spread their garments, &c. &c. 
 Matt. xxi. 4, 5. All this was done, that it might be fulfilled which was 
 spoken by the prophet, saying, Tell ye the daughter ofZion, "Behold thy 
 King cometh," &c. &c. 
 
 12. The Circumstances of his Sufferings and Death. 
 
 1. That the Messiah should be poor and despised, and be betrayed by one 
 of his own disciples, for thirty pieces of silver ; (at that time the ordinary 
 price of the vilest slave;) with which the potter's field should be ptirchased. 
 
 Prophecy. Isa. liii. 3. There is no beauty that we should desire him. 
 He is despised and rejected of men, a man of sorrows, and acquainted 
 with grief; and we hid as it were our faces from him ; he was despised, 
 and we esteemed him not. Ps. xli. 9, and Ps. lv. 12 — 14. Yea, mine own 
 familiar friend in whom I trusted, who did eat of my bread, hath lift up 
 his heel against me. Zech. xi. 12. So they weighed for my price thirty 
 pieces of silver. Zech. xi. 13. And the Lord said unto me, Cast it unto the 
 potter : a goodly price that I was prized at of them ! And I took the thirty 
 pieces of silver, and cast them to the potter in the house of the Lord. 
 
 Fulfilment. Luke ix. 58. The Son of Man hath not where to lay his 
 head. 2 Cor. viii. 9. For your sakes he became poor. John xi. 35. Jesus 
 wept. Luke xxii. 3, 4. Then Satan entered into Judas, being one of the 
 twelve, and he went his way, and communed with the chief priests how 
 he might betray him unto them. Matt. xxvi. 14. And Judas went unto the 
 chief priests, and said unto them, What will ye give me, and I will deliver 
 him unto you 1 and they covenanted with him for thirty pieces of silver. 
 Matt, xxvii. 3 — 8. Then Judas, who had betrayed him, brought again the 
 thirty pieces of silver, saying, I have sinned in that I have betrayed inno- 
 cent blood ; and he cast down the pieces of silver in the temple, and de- 
 parted, and went and hanged himself. And the chief priests took the 
 silver, and they said, it is not lawful to put it into the treasury, because 
 it is the price of blood. And they took counsel, and bought with them the 
 potter's field, to bury strangers in. 
 
 2. That the Messiah should suffer pain and death for the sins of the 
 World. 
 
 Prophecy. Psal. xxii. 16, 17. For dogs, (that is, the Heathens, whom 
 the Jews called dogs,) have compassed me ; the assembly of the wicked 
 have inclosed me ; they have pierced my hands and my feet. I may tell 
 all my bones ; they look and stare upon me. Isa. 1. 6. I gave my back to 
 the smiters, and my cheeks to them that plucked off the hair. I hid not 
 my face from shame and spitting. Isa. liii. 5. 8. He was wounded for our 
 transgressions : he was bruised for our iniquities : by his stripes we are 
 healed. He was cut off out of the land of the living: for the transgres- 
 sion of my people was h°, striken. Isa. liii. 12. And he bare the Bin of 
 many, and made intercession for the transgressors. 
 
372 APPENDIX. 
 
 Fulfilment. John xix. 1, 2. Then Pilate took Jesus, and scourged him. 
 And the soldiers platted a crown of thorns, and they smote him with the 
 palms of their hands. Matt, xxvii. 30; Mark xv. 19. And they did spituporx 
 him, and smote him on the head, Mark xv. 25. And they crucified him. 
 1 Pet. ii. 23, 24. Who, when he was reviled, reviled not again ; when he 
 suffered, he threatened not. Who bare our sins in his own body on the 
 tree, (the cross.) Luke xxiii. 34. Then, said Jesus, " Father, forgive them, 
 for they know not what they do." 
 
 3. That the Messiah should be cruelly mocked and derided. 
 Prophecy. Psal. xxii. 12, 13. 7, 8. Many bulls have compassed me ; 
 
 strong bulls of Bashan, (that is, the wicked and furious Jews, who, like 
 the beasts fattened on the fertile plains of Bashan, " waxed fat and kicked," 
 became proud and rebellious,) have beset me round. They gaped upon 
 me with their mouth ; as a ravening and roaring lion. ^All they that see 
 me, laugh me to scorn ; they shoot out the lip, saying, he trusted in God 
 that he would deliver him : let him deliver him, seeing he delighted in him. 
 Fulfilment. Matt, xxvii. 39.41, 42; Markxv. 31, 32; Luke xxiii. 35, 36. 
 And they that passed by, reviled him, wagging their heads. Likewise 
 also the chief priests, and the rulers also with them, derided, and mock- 
 Ing, said among themselves, with the scribes and elders, " He saved others; 
 himself he cannot save ; if he be the Christ, the chosen of God, let him 
 now come down from the cross, and save himself, that we may see, and we 
 will believe him. He trusted in God, let him deliver him now, if he will 
 have him." And the soldiers also mocked him, saying, "If thou be the 
 King of the Jews, save thyself." 
 
 4. That vinegar and gall should be offered to the Messiah upon the cross; 
 and that his garments should be divided, and lots cast for his vesture. 
 
 Prophecy. Psal. lxix. 21. They gave me also gall for my meat, and 
 in my thirst they gave me vinegar to drink. Psal. xxii. 18. They part 
 my garments among them, and cast lots upon my vesture. 
 
 Fulfilment. John xix. 29. Matt, xxvii. 48; Mark xv. 36. And they 
 filled a sponge with vinegar, and put it upon hyssop, and put it to his 
 mouth, John xix. 23, 24. And the soldiers, when they had crucified Jesus, 
 took his garments, and made four parts, to every soldier a part : and also 
 his coat: now the coat was without seam. They said, therefore, let 
 us not rend it, but cast lots, whose it shall be. 
 
 5. That not a bone of the Messiah should be broken. 
 
 Prophecy. Psal. xxxiv. 20. He keep eth all his bones: not one of them 
 is broken. Zech. xii. 10. And they shall look upon me whom they have 
 pierced. 
 
 Fulfilment. John xix. 32 — 34. Then came the soldiers, and brake the 
 legs of the first, and of the other which was crucified with him ; but 
 when they came to Jesus, and saw that he was dead already, they brake 
 not his legs. But one of the soldiers, with a spear, pierced his side, and 
 forthwith there came out blood and water. 
 
 6. That the Messiah should die with malefactors, but be buried honour 
 ably. 
 
 Prophecy. Isa. liii. 9. And he made his grave with the wicked, and 
 with the rich in his death. 
 
 Fulfilment. Matt, xxvii. 38. 57—60. Then were there two thieves cru- 
 cified with him. There came a rich man of Arimathea, named Joseph, 
 and begged the body of Jesus ; and he wrapped it in a clean linen cloth, 
 and laid it in his own new tomb. 
 
 13. That the Messiah should rise from the dead and ascend into 
 heaven. 
 
 Prophecy. Psal. xvi. 9, 10. My flesh also shall rest in hope. For thou 
 wilt not leave my soul in hell, (the separate state of departed spirits,) 
 neither wilt thou suffer thy holy one to see corruption. Isa. liii. 10. 
 When thou shalt make his soul an offering for sin, he shall prolong his 
 days. Jesus Christ also foretold his own resurrection; see Mark viii. 31, 
 x. 34; Luke ix. 22 1 John ii. 19. 21, x. 17. Psal. lxviii. 18. Thou hast as. 
 
APPENDIX. 373 
 
 tended up on high ; thou hast led captivity captive ; thou hast received 
 gifts for men, that the Lord God might dwell among them. 
 
 Fulfilment. Acts ii. 31. David spake before of the resurrection of 
 Christ, that his soul was not left in hell; (Hades, or the separate state;) 
 neither did his flesh see corruption. See also Acts xiii. 35. Matt, xxviii. 5, 
 6. The angels said unto the Woman, "He is not here, for he is risen, as 
 he said." See Luke xxiv. 5, 6. 1 Cor. xv. 4. He rose again the third day, 
 according to Scriptures: Acts i. 3. He showed himself alive after his pas- 
 sion, by many infallible proofs. Mark xvi. 19; Luke xxiv. 51 ; Acts i. 9. 
 So then, after the Lord had spoken to them, while he was blessing them, 
 and while they beheld him, he was parted from them, and carried up 
 into heaven, and sat at the right hand of God. Compare also 1 Pet, iii. 22 ; 
 1 Tim. iii. 16 ; Heb. vi. 20. 
 
 14. That the Messiah should send the Holy Spirit, the Comforter. 
 
 Prophecy. Joel ii. 28. I will pour out my Spirit upon all flesh ; and 
 your sons and your daughters shall prophesy. Jesus Christ promised, and 
 foretold the gift of the Holy Spirit, in John vii. 38, 39, xiv. 16, 17. 26, xv. 
 26, xvi. 7. 13; Acts i. 4, 5. 8. 
 
 Fulfilment. See all these promises and predictions fulfilled in Acts ii. 
 1—4, iv. 31, viii. 17, x. 44, xi. 15. 
 
 15. The Abolition op the Jewish covenant by the introduction of the 
 Gospel. 
 
 Prophecy. Behold the days come, saith the Lord, that I will make a 
 new covenant with the house of Israel, and with the house of Judah : not 
 according to the covenant that I made with their fathers, in the day that 
 I took them by the hand to bring them out of Egypt ; which my cove- 
 nant they brake, though I was a husband to them, saith the Lord. But 
 this shall be the covenant, that I will make with the house of Israel : 
 After those days, saith the Lord, I will put my law in their inward parts, 
 and write it in their hearts, and will be their God, and they shall be my 
 people. And they shall teach no more every man his neighbour, and 
 every man his brother, saying, "Know the Lord:" for they shall all know 
 me, from the least of them unto the greatest of them, saith the Lord : for 
 I will forgive their iniquity, and I will remember their sin no more. The 
 
 Fulfilment of this prediction is shown at length by St. Paul, in the 
 eighth chapter of the Epistle to the Hebrews, verses 7 — 13. 
 
 The old covenant is abolished, and its observance rendered impossible 
 by the expulsion of the Jew's from Judaea and Jerusalem, and by the utter 
 destruction of that temple and altar, on which the whole of the Jewish 
 Worship depended. It is, therefore, as impossible to doubt that the Medi- 
 ator of the new covenant is come, as to question those external facta 
 which prove that the ancient covenant subsists no longer. 
 
 16. That there is salvation only through Christ. 
 
 Prophecy. Zech. xiii. 1. In that day there shall be a fountain opened 
 to the house of David, and to the inhabitants of Jerusalem, for sin, and 
 for uncleanness. Mai. iv. 2. Unto you that fear my name, shall the Sun 
 of Righteousness arise, with healing in his wings, Isa. liii. 1 1. By his know- 
 ledge shall my righteous Servant justify many. Isa. lix. 20. The Re- 
 deemer shall come to Sion, and unto them that turn from transgression 
 in Jacob. See Rom. ix. 26. Ps. cxviii. 22. The stone which the builders 
 refused, the same is become the head-stone of the corner, Isa. xxviii. 
 16; Markxii. 10. 
 
 Fulfilment. John iii. 16. God so loved the world, that he gave his only 
 begotten Son, that whosoever believeth in him, should not perish but have 
 everlasting life. Compare also 1 Thes. v. 9 ; John xvii. 3. Luke xxiv. 47. 
 That repentance and remission of sins should be preached in his name. 
 See also Acts x. 43, Acts xiii. 38, 39. Through this man is preached unto 
 
 32 
 
3/4 AITENDIX. 
 
 you the forgiveness of sins ; and by him all that believe are justified, 
 Actsiv. 11, 12. This is the stone which was set at naught of you build- 
 ers, which is become the head of the corner. Neither is there salvation in 
 any other : for there is none other name under Heaven given among men, 
 whereby we must be saved. 
 
 17. Of the necessity of believing in Christ, arid the danger of rejecting 
 him. 
 
 Deut. xviii. 15.19. The Lord will raise up unto thee a prophet, unto him 
 shall ye hearken : whosoever will not hearken unto my words, which he 
 shall speak in my name, I will require it of him. [In Acts iii. 23, this 
 prediction is cited and applied to Jesus Christ.] Numb. xv. 30, 31. The 
 soul that doth aught presumptuously, reproacheth the Lord; and that 
 soul shall be cut off from among his people, because he hath despised the 
 word of the Lord. Ps. ii. 12. Kiss the son, lest he be angry, and ye perish 
 from the right way. 
 
 John iii. 18. He that believeth on him is not condemned ; but he that 
 believeth not is condemned already, because he hath not believed in the 
 name of the only Son of God. Heb. ii. 3. How shall we escape if we ne- 
 glect so great salvation. Heb. x. 26. 29. If we sin wilfully, after that we 
 have received the knowledge of the truth, there remaineth no more sacri- 
 fice for sins, but a certain fearful louking for of judgment and fiery indig- 
 nation, which shall devour the adversaries. He that despised Moses' law 
 died without mercy, under two or three witnesses ; of how much sorer 
 punishment shall he be thought worthy, who hath trodden under foot the 
 Son of God, and hath counted the blood of the covenant, wherewith he 
 was sanctified, an unholy thing, and hath done despite unto the Spirit of 
 grace. The Lord shall be revealed from Heaven, with his mighty angels, 
 in flaming fire, talcing vengeance on them that know not God, and that 
 obey not the gospel of our Lord Christ, 2 Thess. i. 7, 8. 
 
 "The testimony of Jesus is the spirit of prophecy," Rev. xix. 10: and 
 of that testimony, it were easy to have offered hundreds of instances, 
 equally striking with those above given. Copious as the preceding table 
 of prophecies is. the selection has necessarily been restricted to the princi- 
 pal, in order that this article might not be extended to an undue length. 
 A more copious table is given in the appendix to the first volume of the 
 author's Introduction to the Critical Study and Knowledge of the Holy 
 Scriptures. To conclude, it is worthy of remark, that most of the pro- 
 phecies concerning the Messiah were revealed nearly, and some of them 
 more than three thousand years ago, and yet scarcely one of them can be 
 applied to any man that ever lived upon earth, except to him, who is 
 Immanuel, God with us, the Lord Jesus Christ, to w T hom "give ail the 
 prophets witness," Acts x. 43. The more we contemplate these, astonishing 
 facts, the more deeply we investigate the wonderful display of Divine 
 power, wisdom, and goodness, the more we shall be disposed to exclaim, 
 with the amazed centurion. " Trulu this was the Son of God." 
 
A CONCISE 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX 
 
 PRINCIPAL PLACES MENTIONED IN THE SCRIPTURES, ESPECIALLY 
 IN THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 Abana and Pharpar, two rivers 
 of Damascus, mentioned in 2 Kings 
 v. 12. The valley of Damascus, 
 which lay between Libanus and 
 Anti-Libanus, was watered by five 
 rivers, of which these were the two 
 principal. Both descended from 
 Mount Hermon : the latter flowed 
 by the walls of Damascus ; the for- 
 mer flowed through the city and di- 
 vided it into two parts. These ri- 
 vers are not now to be distinguish- 
 ed. 
 
 Abarim, mountains of. See pp. 
 177, 178. 
 
 Abel, Abel-beth-Maacha, or Abel- 
 main, a city in the northern part of 
 the canton allotted to the tribe of 
 Naphtali. (2 Sam. xx. 14—22. 1 
 Kings xv. 20. 2 Kings xv. 29.) 
 
 Abel-meholah was the native 
 country of Elisha. (I Kings xix. 
 16.) Not far from hence, Gideon 
 obtained a victory over the Midian- 
 ites. (Judg. vii. 22.) 
 
 Abel-shittim was a town in the 
 plains of Moab, beyond Jordan, op- 
 posite Jericho. Here the Israelites 
 fell into idolatry, and worshipped 
 Baal-Peor, seduced by Balak ; and 
 here God severely punished them 
 by the hands of the Levites. (Numb, 
 xxv. 1, &c.) 
 
 Abilene. See p. 164, supra. 
 
 Accho. See Ptolemais. 
 
 Aceldama, (or the Field of Blood,) 
 the name given to a field purchased 
 with the money for which Judas 
 had betrayed Jesus. It was appro- 
 priated as a place of burial for 
 strangers (Acts i. 19. Matt, xxvii. 
 7,8.) 
 
 Achaia, in a tcider sense, com- 
 prised Peloponnesus and the whole 
 of Greece, properlv so called. (2 
 
 Cor. xi. 10.) In a stricter sense, 
 Achaia is the northern region of 
 Peloponnesus, of which Corinth was 
 the capital. 
 
 ACHMETHA. See ECBATANA. 
 
 Achor, a valley in the territory of 
 Jericho, and in the canton of the 
 tribe of Benjamin, where Achan was 
 stoned. (Josh. vii. 24.) 
 
 Ackshaph, a city belonging to the 
 tribe of Asher. The king of Ack- 
 shaph was conquered by Joshua, 
 (xii. 20.) 
 
 Admah, or Adaha, one of the five 
 cities destroyed by fire from heaven, 
 and afterwards overwhelmed by the 
 waters of the Dead Sea. (Gen. xix. 
 21.) 
 
 Adramyttittm, a maritime town of 
 Mysia, in Asia Minor, for which Paul 
 embarked in his first voyage to Italy. 
 (Acts xxvii. 12.) 
 
 Ajdria, mentioned in Acts xxvii. 
 27, is the Adriatic Sea, now called 
 the Gulf of Venice. 
 
 jEnon, or Enon, signifies the place 
 of springs, where John baptized. 
 (John iii. 23.) It is uncertain where 
 it was situated, whether in Galilee 
 or Judaea. 
 
 Ahava, a river of Babylonia, or 
 of Assyria, where Ezra assembled 
 those captives whom he afterwards 
 brought into Judaea. (Ezraviii. 15.) 
 
 Ajalon, a city in the canton of the 
 tribe of Dan, assigned to the Levites 
 of Kohath's family. It was situated 
 between Timnath and Beth-She- 
 mesh, and is probably the city al- 
 luded to in Josh. x. 12. 
 
 Alexandria, a city of Egypt, built 
 by Alexander the Great, celebrated 
 for the magnificence of its edifices, 
 and for the extensive commerce 
 carried on by its inhabitants, espe- 
 
376 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL H*D£X. 
 
 daily in corn. Alexandria was the 
 native place of Apollos. (Acts xviii. 
 24.) 
 
 Amphipolis, a city between Mace- 
 don and Thrace, but dependant on 
 Macedon, mentioned in Acts xvii. 1 . 
 
 Anathoth, a city in the tribe of 
 Benjamin, memorable as being the 
 birthplace of the prophet Jeremiah. 
 (Josh. xxi. 18. Jer. i. 1.) 
 
 Antioch, the metropolis of Syria, 
 was erected, according to some 
 writers, by Antiochus Epiphanes, 
 according to others, by Seleucus Ni- 
 canor, the first king of Syria after 
 Alexander the Great, in memory of 
 his father Antiochus, and was the 
 royal seat of the kings of Syria. For 
 power and dignity it was little in- 
 ferior to Seleucia or Alexandria. 
 The distinctive name of Christians 
 was here first applied to the follow- 
 ers of Jesus Christ. (Acts xi. 19. 
 26.) 
 
 Antioch of Pisidia, a city of Fhry- 
 gia, but thus denominated because it 
 was attached to the province of Pi- 
 sidia. (Acts xiii. 14.) 
 
 Antipatris, a small town which 
 was situated in the road from Jeru- 
 salem to Csesarea. It was formerly 
 called Capharsalma ; but, being re- 
 built and beautified by Herod the 
 Great, it was by him named Anti- 
 patris in honour of his father Anri- 
 pater. Hither St. Paul was brought 
 after his apprehension at Jerusalem. 
 (Acts xxiii. 31.) 
 
 Apollonia, a city of Macedonia 
 Prima, through which Paul passed, 
 in his way to Thessalonica. (Acts 
 xvii. 1.) 
 
 Aeabia, the name of a large region, 
 including the peninsula which lies 
 oetween Syria, Palestine, the Ara- 
 bian and Persian Gulfs, and the 
 Indian Ocean or Sea of Arabia. Its 
 inhabitants are supposed to be prin- 
 cipally descended from Ishmael. It 
 is distinguished into three parts, 
 Arabia Felix, Petraia, and Deserta ; 
 but these divisions were not ancient- 
 ly known to the inhabitants of the 
 East, nor are they observed in the 
 Bible. 
 
 1. Araeia Felix lies between the 
 ocean on the south-east, and the 
 Arabian and Persian Gulfs. It is a 
 fertile region, especially in the in- 
 terior, producing various species of 
 odoriferous shrubs and fragrant 
 gums ; as, frankincense, myrrh, en? 
 
 sia, &c. The Queen of Sheba C 
 Kings x. 1,) is supposed to have 
 reigned over part of this region. 
 
 2. Arabia Petr^a received its 
 name from the city Petra, and lies 
 on the south and south-east of Pales- 
 tine ; extending to Egypt, and in- 
 cluding the peninsula of mount 
 Sinai. It is remarkable for its 
 mountains and sandy plains. 
 
 3. Arabia Deserta lies between 
 the other two, arid extends north- 
 ward along the confines of Palestine, 
 Syria, Babylonia, and Mesopotamia; 
 including the vast deserts winch lie 
 within these limits, and which are 
 inhabited only by wandering tribes 
 of savage Arabs. 
 
 Aram, fifth son of Shem, was 
 father of the people of Syria, who, 
 from him, are called Aramaeans. 
 The region which in the Old Testa- 
 ment is denominated Aram, is a vast 
 tract, extending from Mount Taurus 
 south as far as Damascus, and from 
 the Mediterranean Sea in an eastern 
 direction beyond the Tigris into As- 
 syria. Different parts of this region 
 are called by different names ; as, 
 Aram Naharaim, or Syria of the 
 Two Rivers, that is Mesopotamia; 
 Aram of Damascus ; Aram of Soba ; 
 Aram Bethrehob ; and Aram of 
 Maacha; because the cities of Da- 
 mascus, Soba, Bethrehob, and Maa- 
 cha, were in Syria ; or at least, be- 
 cause Syria contained the provinces 
 of Soba, Maacha, Rehob, &c. 
 
 Ararat, a celebrated mountain in 
 the Greater Armenia; on which 
 Noah's nrk rested after the deluge. 
 (Gen. viii. 4.) 
 
 Arimathea , a small town to which 
 Joseph belonged, who begged the 
 body of Jesus from Pilate: (Matt, 
 xxvii. 57 :) it was about thirty-six 
 or thirty-seven miles distant from 
 Jerusalem. 
 
 Arn on (River.) Seep. 173, supra. 
 
 Ashdod. SeeAzotus, p. 377, infra. 
 
 Asia, one of the largest divisions 
 of the old world, is not mentioned in 
 the Old Testament, In the New 
 Testament it is always taken for 
 Asia Minor, as it includes the pro- 
 consular Asia, which comprised the 
 four regions of Phrygia, Mysia, 
 Caria, and Lydia. In this procon- 
 sular Asia were the seven churches 
 of Ephesus, Laodicaea, Pergamos, 
 Philadelphia. Sardis, Smyrna, and 
 Thyatira. 
 
GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 377 
 
 Assos, a maritime city of Mysia, 
 according to some geographers, but 
 of Troas, according to others. It is 
 mentioned in Acts xx. 13, 14. 
 
 Assyria, a country of Asia, the 
 boundaries of which it is difficult to 
 assign. Three of its monarchs are 
 particularly mentioned in the Old 
 Testament, viz. Tiglath-pileser, Shal- 
 maneser, and Sennacherib. The 
 former, having defeated Rezin, king 
 of Damascus, and taken that city, 
 put an end to the kingdom there 
 erected by the Syrians. He also 
 entered the kingdom of Israel, con- 
 quered Pekah, and carried away 
 part of the ten tribes beyond the 
 river Euphrates. Shalmaneser, the 
 successor of Tiglath-pileser, came 
 into Syria, a. m. 3280, b. c. 724, and 
 desolated the country of the Moab- 
 ites, agreeably to the prophecy of 
 Isaiah, (xvi. 1,) delivered three years 
 before. He then attacked Samaria, 
 and completed the misfortunes of 
 the Israelites who remained, by car- 
 rying them into captivity beyond 
 the Euphrates. Thus terminated 
 the kingdom of Israel, a. m. 3283, 
 b. c. 721. (2 Kings xvii. 3, xviii. 
 9 — 11.) Hezekiah, by the special 
 protection of God, escaped the fury 
 of Shalmaneser, to whom, however, 
 he became tributary, and the Assy- 
 rian returned in triumph to Nine- 
 veh. He was succeeded on the 
 throne by his son Sennacherib, a. m. 
 3287, b. c. 717. He invaded the 
 kingdom of Judah, during the reign 
 of Hezekiah, who had refused to 
 pay the tributestipulated by Shalma- 
 neser ; but an angel of Jehovah slew 
 one hundred and eighty-five thou- 
 sand of his troops. (2 Kings xix. 35.) 
 Sennacherib returned to Nineveh, 
 where two of his sons, weary of his 
 tyranny and savage temper, slew 
 him while he was worshipping in 
 the temple of Nisroch his god, and 
 Immediately fled into the mountains 
 of Armenia. (2 Kings xix. 37. Tobit 
 i. 21.) He was succeeded by his son 
 Esarhaddon. 
 
 Athens, the capital of Attica, and 
 the chief city of ancient Greece. It 
 was distinguished by the military 
 talents, but still more by the learn- 
 ing, eloquence, and politeness of 
 its inhabitants. Saint Paul coming 
 hither, a. d. 32, found them plunged 
 in idolatry, occupied in inquiring 
 and reporting news, curious to know 
 
 every thing, and divided in opinion 
 concerning religion and happiness. 
 (Acts xvii.) The great apostle of 
 the Gentiles, taking opportunities 
 here to preach Jesus Christ, was 
 carried before the judges of the tri- 
 bunal, called the Areopagus ; where 
 he gave an illustrious testimony to 
 truth, and a remarkable instance of 
 powerful reasoning. (See an account 
 of the Areopagus in p. 194, supra.) 
 
 Attalia, a maritime city of Pam- 
 phylia, and the chief residence of 
 the prefect. It derived its name 
 from king Attalus, its founder. 
 Hither St. Paul went from Perga in 
 Pamphylia. (Acts xiv. 25.) 
 
 Azotus, or Ashdod, a city of Judasa, 
 is situated between Gaza and Jam- 
 nia, or Jafnia, in a pleasant plain. 
 Here the ark of Jehovah triumphed 
 over the Philistine idol Dagon, (1 
 Sam. v. 2,) and Philip the Evangelist 
 was found, after he had baptized the 
 Ethiopian eunuch. (Acts viii. 40.) 
 It is at present an inconsiderable 
 place. 
 
 Babylon, the metropolis of the 
 Chaldaean, or Babylonish Empire, 
 was situated on the river Euphrates, 
 and was celebrated for its extent 
 and for the magnificence of its edi- 
 fices. The most terrible denuncia- 
 tions were uttered against it by the 
 Hebrew Prophets, especially Isaiah ; 
 the literal fulfilment of whose pre- 
 dictions has been shown by various 
 modern travellers. 
 
 Bashan, or Batan^a. See p. 164, 
 supra. 
 
 Berea, a city of Macedonia, where 
 Paul preached the Gospel with great 
 success. Acts xviii. 10. 
 
 Besor, Brook. See p. 173, supra. 
 
 Bethany, a town of Judasa, where 
 Lazarus dwelt, and where he was 
 raised from the dead, was fifteen 
 furlongs east from Jerusalem, on the 
 way to Jericho. (John xi. 8.) But 
 the tract of ground which bore that 
 name reached within eight furlongs 
 of Jerusalem, it being only a sab- 
 bath-day's journey from it ; (Luke 
 xxiv. 50 Acts i. 12 ;) and then be- 
 gan the tract called 
 
 Bethphage, from the (payoc, that 
 is, the green figs, that grew upon it. 
 which ran along so near to Jerusa- 
 lem, that the utmost street within 
 
37S 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 the walls was called by that name. 
 
 Bethlehem was a celebrated city 
 about six miles south-west from Je- 
 rusalem. In Matt. ii. 1.5. it is called 
 Bethlehem of Judaea, to distinguish 
 it from another town of the same 
 name situated in Lower Galilee, and 
 mentioned in Josh. xix. 1 5. In Luke 
 ii. 4, it is called the city of David, 
 because David was born and educa- 
 ted there. (Compare John vii. 42, 
 and 1 Sam. xvi. 1. 18.) This city, 
 though not considerable for its ex- 
 tent or riches, is of great dignity as 
 the appointed birth-place of the 
 Messiah. (Matt. ii. 6. Luke ii. 6— 
 15.> 
 
 Bethsaida was the name of two 
 towns or villages. 
 
 1. Bethsaida of Galilee was situa- 
 ted in Galilee, on the western shore 
 of the lake of Gennesareth, a little 
 south of Capernaum. It was the 
 birth-place of the Apostles Philip, 
 Andrew, and Peter. 
 
 2. The other Bethsaida lay in 
 Gaulonitis, on the eastern side of the 
 lake, and near the place where the 
 Jordan enters it. This town was 
 enlarged by Philip, tetrarch of that 
 region, who called it Julias, in 
 honour of Julia, the daughter of 
 Augustus. 
 
 Bithynia, a region of Asia Minor, 
 bounded on the north by the Eurine 
 Sea, on the south by Phrygia, on the 
 west by the Propontis, and on the 
 east by Galatia. Saint Peter ad- 
 dressed his first epistle (among 
 others) to the Hebrew Christians 
 who were scattered throughout Bi- 
 thynia. (1 Pet. i. 1.) 
 
 Cesarea of Palestine, so called 
 as being the metropolis of Palestine 
 and the residence of the Roman pro- 
 consul, was formerly named the 
 tower of Strato ; but its harbour be- 
 ing extremely incommodious, Herod 
 the Great erected a spacious mole, 
 and greatly enlarged and beautified 
 the city, which he denominated 
 Caesarea, in honour of the emperor 
 Augustus. It is very frequently 
 mentioned in the New Testament ; 
 and was about thirty- five miles from 
 Jerusalem. 
 
 Cjesarea Philippi (formerly called 
 Paneas) was situated at the foot of 
 mount Paneas, near the springs of 
 
 the Jordan. It was at first called 
 Lais or Lechein, (Judg. xviii. 7,) and 
 after it was subdued by the Danites, 
 (v. 29,) it received the appellation of 
 Dan. Caesarea was a day's journey 
 from Sidon; a day and a half from 
 Damascus. Philip the tetrarch built 
 it, or, at least, embellished and en- 
 larged it, and named it Caesarea, in 
 honour of Tiberius ; afterwards, in 
 compliment to Nero, it was called 
 Neronias. The woman who waa 
 troubled with an issue of blood, and 
 healed by our Saviour, (Matt. ix. 20. 
 Luke viii. 43,) is said to have been 
 of Caesarea Philippi. 
 
 Cana, a small town of Galilee, 
 situated on a gentle eminence to the 
 west of Capernaum. Here Jesus 
 Christ performed the miracle of 
 turning water into wine. (John ii. 
 7—10.) 
 
 Canaan, Land of. See p. 159, 
 supra, 
 
 Capernaum, a town of Galilee, 
 situated on the coast of the Lake of 
 Gennesareth, on the borders of the 
 tract occupied by the tribes of Zebu- 
 lun and Nephthalim. This place is 
 celebrated for the many mighty 
 works and discourses performed by 
 our Saviour, which brought a heavy 
 wo upon the inhabitants for their 
 infidelity. (Matt. xi. 23.) 
 
 Cappadocia, a fertile region of 
 Asia Minor, mentioned in Acts ii. 9, 
 and also by the apostle Peter, who 
 addresses his first Epistle to the He- 
 brew Christians who were dispersed 
 through Pontus, Galatia, Cappado- 
 cia, Bithynia, and Asia Minor. 
 
 Carmel, Mount. See p. 176, s«- 
 pra. 
 
 Cedron or Kedron, Brook. See p. 
 173, supra. 
 
 Cenchrea, a haven on the east of 
 the isthmus of Corinth, to which city 
 it was considered as a kind of subsi- 
 diary port. It is mentioned in Acts 
 xviii. 18. 
 
 Chald.ea, a country of Asia, lying 
 near the junction of the Tigris and 
 Euphrates, the capital of which was 
 Babylon, whence it was also deno- 
 minated Babylonia. In ancient times 
 it was known by the names Sh4nar, 
 Shinaar, &c. 
 
 Chios (Acts XX. 15,) is an island of 
 the JSgean Sea, between Lesbos and 
 Samos, celebrated in ancient and in 
 modern times, for its wine, figs, 
 marble, and white earth. 
 
GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 379 
 
 Chittim. The land of Chittim, 
 and the isles of Chittim, denote in 
 general, the maritime countries and 
 islands of the Mediterranean, Greece, 
 Italy, Crete, Cyprus, Corsica, &c. 
 
 Chorazin, a small town situated 
 on the western coast of the Sea of 
 Galilee, at no great distance from 
 Capernaum. It was one of those 
 places where very many of our Sa- 
 viour's miracles were performed, 
 whose inhabitants he upbraided for 
 their infidelity. (Matt. xi. 21. Luke 
 X. 13.) 
 
 Cilicia, a country of Asia Minor, 
 between Pamphylia on the west, 
 and Pieria on the east, the Mount 
 Taurus on the north, and the Cili- 
 cian Sea on the south, celebrated on 
 the account of Cicero, proconsul 
 there, but more on the account of 
 St. Paul's birth at Tarsus, a city of 
 Cilicia. (Acts xxii. 3.) 
 
 Clauda, an island near Crete, situ- 
 ated near the southern and western 
 Bea. It is mentioned in Acts xxvii. 
 16 ; as also is 
 
 Cnidus, (xxvii. 7,) which was a 
 city and promontory of Paria, me- 
 morable for the worship of Venus. 
 
 Colossi, or Colass.®, was a city 
 of Phrygia Pacatiana in Asia Minor, 
 situated near the conflux of the Ly- 
 cus and the Meander, not far from 
 the cities of Hierapolis and Laodi- 
 cea, with which it was destroyed by 
 an earthquake, not long after St. 
 Paul wrote his epistle to the Colos- 
 sians. 
 
 Coos, an island in the J3gean Sea, 
 lying off the coast of Caria in Asia 
 Minor, near the cities of Myndos 
 and Cnidus. It is mentioned in Acts 
 xxi. 1. 
 
 Corinth, the metropolis of Achaia 
 Proper, was situated on the isthmus 
 which connects the Peloponnesus 
 with the main land. It was distin- 
 guished as the seat of commerce, 
 arts, and wealth. St. Paul resided 
 here for some time, about a. d. 52. 
 and collected a Christian Church, 
 the numerous members of which 
 were not afterwards exempt from 
 the common vices of the place. 
 
 Cyprus, an island in the Mediter- 
 ranean Sea, situated between Cilicia 
 and Syria, and anciently celebrated 
 for the profligacy of its inhabitants, 
 whose principal deity was the im- 
 pure goddess Venus. Here Paul and 
 Barnabas landed, a. d. 44, and suc- 
 
 cessfully preached the Gospel. (Acta 
 xiii- 4. et seq. xxi. 3.) 
 
 Cyrene, the principal city of the 
 province of Lybia in Africa, which 
 was thence sometimes demonstrated 
 Cyrenaica, and which, by the evan- 
 gelist Luke, is paraphrastically call- 
 ed Lybia about Cyrene. (Acts ii. 10 ) 
 
 Dalmanutha. See Magdala. 
 
 Damascus, a city of Syria, situated 
 in the valley belween Libanus and 
 Antilibanus, watered by the rivers 
 Abana and Pharphar. (2 Kings v. 
 12.) It is celebrated for its antiquity, 
 and for being still one of the richest 
 and most magnificent cities of the 
 Levant, but most of all for being the 
 place of the miraculous conversion 
 of St. Paul. 
 
 Dead Sea. SeS p. 174. supra. 
 
 Decapolis. See p. 165. supra. 
 
 Derbe, a city of Lycaonia, neai 
 Isauria, not far from the Cilician 
 range of Mount Taurus. It was the 
 country of Timothy, and is mention- 
 ed in Acts xiv. 6. 
 
 Ebal (Mount.) See p. 177. supra. 
 
 Egypt, a country of Africa, bound- 
 ed on the east by Arabia Petraea and 
 the Red Sea, or Arabian gulf; on 
 the west, by Lybia, and Marmarica ; 
 on the south by Ethiopia, and on the 
 north by the Mediterranean Sea. In 
 the earliest times, this country was 
 divided into Upper Egypt, or The- 
 bais, (the Pathros of Scripture,) and 
 Lower Egypt. The whole region 
 was known to the ancient Hebrews 
 by the name of Mizraim ; and the 
 princes who governed it, were, in 
 virtueof their office, styled Pharaohs, 
 or kings, until the time of Solomon, 
 after which they are designated in 
 the Scriptures by their proper names. 
 After the captivity, Egypt became a 
 place of great resort to the Jews. 
 
 Elah, Valley of. See p. 178. us- 
 pra. 
 
 Emmaus, a small village of Judaea, 
 distant sixty furlongs from Jerusa- 
 lem. It is memorable for the very 
 interesting conversation between Je- 
 sus Christ and two of his disciples 
 in the evening of the day of his re- 
 surrection. (Luke xxiv.) 
 
 Ephesus, a city on the western 
 coast of Asia Minor, and the metro- 
 polis of the proconsular Asia, was 
 celebrated for the magnificent tern- 
 
380 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 pie erected there in honour of Diana. 
 In the time of Saint Paul, this city- 
 abounded with orators and philoso- 
 phers ; and its inhabitants, in their 
 Gentile state, were celebrated for 
 their idolatry and skill in magic, as 
 well as for their luxury and lascivi- 
 ousness. Ephesus is now under the 
 dominion of the Turks, and is in a 
 state of almost total ruin. 
 
 Ephuaim, a considerable city of 
 Judcea, eight miles north of Jerusa- 
 lem, and near a desert of the same 
 name ; to which Jesus Christ retired 
 after he had raised Lazarus from the 
 dead. (John xi. 54.) 
 
 Gadara, the metropolis of Percea, 
 or the region beyond Jordan, was 
 situated on the eastern shore of the 
 lake of Gennesareth, opposite to Ti- 
 berias, from which it was about 7 
 or 8 miles distant. Few of its inha- 
 bitants were Jews. 
 
 Galatia, a province of Asia Minor, 
 bounded on the west by Phrygia, on 
 the east by the river Halys, on the 
 north by Paphlagonia, and on the 
 south by Lycaonia. The Galatians 
 were the descendents of those Gauls 
 who, finding their own country too 
 small to support its redundant popu- 
 lation, emigrated from it after the 
 death of Alexander the Great, b. c. 
 278. During the reign of Augustus 
 (a. v. c. 529. b. c. 26.) Galatia was 
 reduced into a Roman province, and 
 was thenceforh governed by the Ro- 
 man laws, under the administration 
 of a proprcetor. This country was 
 the seat of colonies from various na- 
 tions, among whom were many 
 Jews ; and from all these St. Paul 
 appears to have made numerous 
 eonveris to Christianity. (Gal. i. 2. 
 1 Cor. xvi. i. 1 Tim. iv. 10. 1 Pet. 
 i. 1.) 
 
 Galilee, Upper and Lower. See 
 p. 163. supra. 
 
 Galilee, Sea of. Seep. 174. supra. 
 
 Gaulonitis. Seep. 164. supra. 
 
 Gaza, a very celebrated city of the 
 Jews, distant about 60 miles south- 
 west from Jerusalem : it was one of 
 the five cities of the Philestin.es, 
 which fell by lot to the tribe of Ju- 
 dah. (Josh. xv. 47. The city of Gaza, 
 mentioned in Acts viii. 26, was erect- 
 ed near the site of old Gaza, which, 
 after being taken by Alexander the 
 
 Great, was subsequently destroyed 
 (b. c. 96,) by Alexander Jannasus, a 
 prince of the Jews. 
 
 Gennesareth, the name of a re- 
 gion and lake, in the vicinity of 
 which were several towns, where 
 Jesus Christ dwelt, taught, and per- 
 formed miracles. See a notice of the 
 lake of Gennesareth in p. 174. su- 
 pra. 
 
 Gergesa, a city annexed to Perssa, 
 and supposed to have been situated 
 in the country adjacent to Gadara. 
 (Matt. viii. 28. Luke viii. 26.) 
 
 Gepizim, Mount. See p. 177. su> 
 pra. 
 
 Gethsemane, a garden beyond Ke- 
 dron, at the foot of Mount Olivet, so 
 called from the wine presses in it : 
 it is memorable in the evangelical 
 history, as being the scene of our 
 Saviour's agony. 
 
 Gilead, Mountains of. See p. 236. 
 supra. 
 
 Golgotha. See p. 222. supra. 
 
 Gomorrah, one of the cities which 
 formerly occupied the region now 
 covered by the Dead Sea, for the 
 history of its destruction see Gen. 
 xix. 
 
 Greece, in the Scriptures, often 
 comprehends all the countries inha- 
 bited by the descendants of Javan, 
 as well in Greece as in Ionia, and 
 Asia Minor. Since the time of Alex- 
 ander the Great, the name of Greeks 
 is taken in a more uncertain and 
 enlarged sense, because the Greeks 
 being masters of Egypt and Syria, 
 of the countries beyond the Eu- 
 phrates, &c. the Jews called all 
 those Gentiles Greeks. 
 
 Hebron, a city of Judaea, was situ- 
 ated on an eminence, twenty miles 
 southward of Jerusalem, and twenty 
 miles north from Beersheba. It was 
 a place of considerable note in the 
 early history of the Hebrews. Here 
 Zechariah and Elizabeth resided, 
 and John the Baptist was born. 
 
 Hierapolis, a city of Phrygia, in 
 the vicinity of Colosse and Loadicea. 
 (Col. iv. 13.) 
 
 Hinnom, Valley of See p. 238 
 supra. 
 
 Holy Land. See p. 213. supra. 
 
 Horeb, a mountain in Arabia Pe- 
 traea, so near mount Sinai that Horeb 
 and Sinai seem to be two hills of 
 
GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 381 
 
 the same mountain. (Exod. iii. 1 — 
 3. xvii. 6. 1 Kings xix. 8.) 
 
 Iconium, a large city of Asia Mi- 
 nor : here St. Paul preached in the 
 Jewish Synagogue, and made many 
 proselytes. (Acts xiv. 1—3.) 
 
 Illyricum, a province lying to the 
 north and north-west of Macedonia, 
 along the eastern coast of the 
 Adriatic Gulf, or Gulf of Venice. 
 Hither, St. Paul informs Timothy, 
 Titus went (2 Tim. iv. 10: and in 
 Rom. xv. 19, he says that he preach- 
 ed the Gospel from Jerusalem round 
 about unto Illyricum. 
 
 Israel, Land of. See p. 159, su- 
 pra. 
 
 , Kingdom of. See pp. 162, 
 
 163. supra. 
 
 , Mountains of. Seep. 176, 
 
 supra. 
 
 Iturjea. See p. 164. supra. 
 
 Jabbok, Brook. See p. 173, supra 
 
 Jacob's Well. See p. 233, supra. 
 
 Jericho, a celebrated city in the 
 tribe of Benjamin, of which frequent 
 mention is made in the New Testa- 
 ment : it was about 19 miles distant 
 from Jerusalem. The country around 
 Jericho was the most fertile part of 
 Palestine. In the time of our Sa- 
 viour, Jericho was one of the cities 
 appropriated for the residence of the 
 priests and Levites, 12,000 of whom 
 dwelt there ; and as the way thither 
 from Jerusalem was rocky and 
 desert, it was greatly infested with 
 thieves ; this circumstance marks 
 the admirable propriety with which 
 our Lord made it the scene of his 
 beautiful parable of the good Sama- 
 ritan. (Luke x. 30 — 37.) It is now 
 a miserable village. 
 
 Jerusalem, City of. See pp. 165, 
 168. supra. 
 
 Jezreel, Plain of. See p. 179, 
 supra. 
 
 Joppa, now called Jaffa, was an- 
 ciently the chief part of Judsea: it 
 lies on the Mediterranean, about west 
 north-west of Jerusalem. This place 
 is supposed to be of great antiquity. 
 The Gospel was early planted here. 
 - (Acts ix., x., xi.) 
 
 Jordan, River. See p. 172, sujpra 
 
 Judah, Desert of. See p. 180, su- 
 pra. 
 
 Kingdom of. See p. 162, 
 
 supra. 
 
 Mountains of, 175, 176. 
 
 Wilderness of, 1 80. 
 
 JuD-EA, Country of. See p. 163, 
 supra. 
 
 Kana, Brook of. See p. 173, su- 
 pra. 
 
 Kedron, Cedron, or Kidron, Brook 
 of. See p. 173, supra. 
 
 Kishon, Brook of. See p. 173, 
 supra. 
 
 Land of Canaan, 159. 
 
 Holy, 159, 160. 
 
 of Israel, 159. 
 
 of Promise, 159. 
 
 Laodioea, a city of Asia Minor, in 
 the vicinity of Colossae and Hierapo- 
 lis ; together with which cities it 
 was destroyed by an earthquake, 
 about a. d. 65 or 66. Not a vestige 
 of its former magnificence remains. 
 (Col. ii. 1. iv. 13. 15, 16. Rev. i. 11.) 
 
 Lasjea, a maritime city of Crete, 
 visited by St. Paul. (Acts xxvii. 8.) 
 
 Lebanon, Mount. See pp. 175, 176, 
 supra. 
 
 Libya, a region of Africa, lying 
 west of Egypt, on the southern coast 
 of the Mediterranean Sea. (Acts 
 ii. 10.) 
 
 Lybonia, a region of Asia Minor, 
 bounded on the north by Galatia ; 
 on the east by Cappadocia ; on the 
 south, by Isauria and Cilicia, and 
 on the west by Phrygia. Of its va- 
 rious cities, Iconium, Derbe, and 
 Lystra, are mentioned in Acts xiv. 6. 
 
 Lydda, a large village of Pales- 
 tine, not far from Joppa. (Acts ix. 
 32. 34. 38.) 
 
 Lystra, a city of Asia Minor, now 
 called Latik. (Acts xiv. 6. 8. 10, 11, 
 21. xvi. 1.) 
 
 Macedonia, a region lying north 
 of Greece Proper : it was bounded 
 on the north by the mountains of 
 Haemus, on the south by Epirus and 
 Achaia, on the east by the^gean, on 
 the west by the Ionian and Adriatic 
 seas. To this country, whose me- 
 tropolis was then Thessalonica, St. 
 Peul was called by a vision j (Acts 
 
382 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 xvi. 9 ;) and the churches planted by 
 him in it, are celebrated for their 
 great charity, and ready contribu- 
 tion to the distressed Jews in Judaea. 
 (2 Cor. viii. ix.) 
 
 Magdala, a city and territory be- 
 yond Jordan, on the western side of 
 the lake Gennesareth. It reached to 
 the bridge above Jordan, which 
 joined it to the other side of Galilee, 
 and contained within its precincts 
 Dalmanutha ; hence, while Matthew 
 says, (xv. 19,) Christ come into the 
 coasts of Magdala, St. Mark says, 
 more particularly, (viii. 10,) that he 
 came into the parts of Dalmanutha. 
 
 Media, a vast region of Asia, hav- 
 ing on the north the Caspian Sea, 
 on the West Armenia and Assyria, 
 on the south Persia, on the eastHyr- 
 cania and Parthia. In the Babylo- 
 nian captivity, the Jews were carried 
 captive into Assyria, and placed in 
 the cities of the Medes. (2 Kings 
 xvii. 6. and xviii. 11.) Hence, we 
 find many of them and their prose- 
 lytes at Jerusalem, when the Holy 
 Ghost fell on the apostles. (Actsii. 9.) 
 
 Melite, or Malta, an island in the 
 Mediterranean Sea, on which St. 
 Paul was wrecked. (Acts xxviii. 1.) 
 
 Mesopotamia, a famous province, 
 situated between the rivers Tigris 
 and Euphrates. The Hebrews call 
 it Aram Naharaim, or Aram of the 
 rivers ; because it was first peopled 
 by Aram, father of the Syrians, and 
 is situated between two rivers. 
 
 Midian, in Arabia Petraea, the land 
 into which Moses fled from the 
 Egyptians. (Acts vii. 29.) Here Je- 
 thro lived. (Exod. xii. 11.) 
 
 Migdol, a frontier town of Lower 
 Egypt, toward the Red Sea, between 
 which and that sea the Israelites en- 
 camped. (Exod. xiv, 1.) 
 
 Miletus, a seaport of Asia Minor, 
 and a city of Ionia, where Saint Paul 
 delivered to the elders of the church 
 of Ephesus, that affecting discourse 
 which is recorded in Acts xx. 17 — 
 35. There was another Miletus in 
 Crete, where St. Paul left Trophi- 
 mus sick. (2 Tim. iv. 20.) 
 
 Mitylene, a celebrated city, the 
 capital of the island of Lesbos. It 
 was visited by St. Paul, as related in 
 Acts xx. 14. 
 
 Myra, a city on the coast of Lycia, 
 one of the south-western provinces 
 of Asia Minor. (Acts xxvii. 5.) 
 
 Mysia, the north-western province 
 
 of Asia Minor. It was bounded on 
 the north by Bithynia, on the east 
 by Phrygia Minor, on the west by 
 Troas, on the south by the river 
 Hermus. 
 
 Nain, a small city or town of Ga- 
 lilee, not far from Capernaum, at the 
 gates of which Jt,6us Christ raised 
 to life a widow's only son. (Luke vii 
 11—15.) 
 
 Nazareth, a small city of Low- 
 er Galilee, celebrated as having 
 been the place where our Saviour 
 was educated, where he preached 
 and whence he was called a Naza- 
 rene. 
 
 Nebo. Seep. ITS, supra. 
 
 Nineveh, the metropolis of the 
 Assyrian empire. It was celebrated 
 for its extent, magnificence, and the 
 vast number of its inhabitants. Its 
 site can no longer be ascertained. 
 
 Olives, Mount of, a ridge Lying 
 east of Jerusalem (of which it had 
 a commanding view,) and separated 
 from it by the valley of the Cedron. 
 
 Ophir, a country on the eastern 
 coast of Africa, (by the Arabians 
 termed Zanguebar ;) most probably 
 the small country of Sofala, whither 
 Solomon sent a fleet aided by the 
 subjects of Hiram king of Tyre, and 
 from which they brought back gold. 
 (1 Kings ix. 27, 28. 2 Chron. viii. 17, 
 18.) and also almug trees and pre- 
 cious stones. (1 Kings x. 11.) 
 
 Palestine. See page 160, supra. 
 
 Pamphylia, a province of Asia 
 Minor, having to the south thePam- 
 phylian sea, mentioned Acts xxvii. 
 5. Cilicia to the east, Pisidia to the 
 north (whence we find Saint Paul 
 passing through Pisidia to Pamphy- 
 lia, Acts xiv. 24, and from Pamphylia 
 to Pisidia, Acts xiii. 14.) and Lycia 
 to the west. The cities mentioned 
 in the Scripture as belonging to 
 it, are Perga and Attalia. (Acts xiii. 
 13.) 
 
 Paphos, the metropolis of the 
 island of Cyprus (Acts xiii. 4. 6,) 
 and the residence of the preccnsui 
 Numerous Jews dwelt here. 
 
GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 383 
 
 Parthians, mentioned in Acts ii. 
 9, were Jews, who were bom or re- 
 Bided in Parthia, a region of Asia sit- 
 uated between Media and Mesopota- 
 mia. 
 
 Patara, a maritime city of Lycia, 
 mentioned in Acts xxi. 1. 
 
 Patmos, an island in the Mge&n 
 Sea, whither the apostle and evange- 
 list John was banished, a.d. 94, and 
 where he had the revelations which 
 he has recorded in the Apocalypse. 
 
 Per^a. See p. 164 supra. 
 
 Pergamus, a city of Mysia, and the 
 capital of the powerful kingdom of 
 Pergamus : it was celebrated for the 
 noble library collected by the kings 
 of the race of Attalus. (Rev. i. 11, ii. 
 12.) 
 
 Pharpar. See Abana, p. 375. 
 
 Philadelphia, a city of Asia Minor, 
 derived its name from its founder, 
 Attalus Philadelphus, and is situated 
 about twenty-seven miles to the 
 south-east of Sardis. Not long before 
 the date of the Apocalyptic Epistle, 
 this city had suffered so much from 
 earthquakes, that it had been in a 
 great measure deserted by its inhabi- 
 tants ; which may in some degree 
 account for thepoverty of this church 
 as described in this Epistle. 
 
 Philippi was a city of Macedonia 
 Prima, or the first of the four parts 
 into which that province was divi- 
 ded. It was of moderate extent, and 
 situated on the confines of Thrace. 
 Christianity was first planted at 
 Philippi, by Saint Paul, a.d. 50, the 
 particulars of which are related in 
 Acts xvi. 9 — 40. 
 
 Philistines. See p. 215, supra. 
 
 Phcenice, or Phoenix a city and 
 harbour on the south-eastern coast 
 of Crete. (Acts xxvii. 12.) 
 
 Phcenicia, or Phcenice, a narrow 
 region of country on the eastern 
 coast of the Mediterranean, between 
 Judaea and Syria. Its principal cities 
 were Ptolemais, Sidon, and Tyre. 
 
 Phrygia, an inland province of 
 Asia Minor, bounded on the north by 
 Bithynia; on the east by Galatia ; 
 on the south by Pamphylia, and 
 Lycia ; and on the west by Lydia and 
 Mysia. Its chief cities, mentioned 
 in the New Testament, are Laodicea 
 and Hierapolis. (Col. ii. 1.) 
 
 Pisgah, Mount. See p. 178, supra. 
 
 P'isidia, a region of Asia Minor, 
 having Pamphylia on the south, 
 Galatia on the north. Isauria on the 
 
 east, and Phrygia on the west. Its 
 chief city was Antioch in Pisidia, 
 (Acts xiii. 14,) so called to distinguish 
 it from Antioch in Syria. — 
 
 Pontus, a province of Asia Minor, 
 having the Euxine sea on the north, 
 Cappadocia on the south, Paphla- 
 gonia and Galatia on the east, and 
 the Lesser Armenia on the west. 
 (Acts ii. 9. 1 Pet. i. 1.) 
 
 Promise, Land of. Seep. 159 supra. 
 
 Ptolemais, anciently called Accho 
 (Judg. i. 31,) and now known by the 
 name of Acre, is situated ontheshore 
 of the Mediterranean Sea, on the con- 
 fines of Lower and Upper Galilee. 
 Here St. Paul rested for one day on 
 his journey from Ephesus to Jerusa- 
 lem. (Acts xxi. 7.) 
 
 Puteoli (at present called Pozzuo- 
 lo) a city and haven in the kingdom 
 of Naples, eight miles from that city. 
 (Acts xxviii. 13.) 
 
 Rama, Ramah, or Ramathaim, a 
 small town in the tribe of Benjamin, 
 a few miles north of Jerusalem, 
 between Gibeah and Bethel. It is 
 frequently mentioned in the Old Tes- 
 tament. 
 
 Ramoth, a famous city in the 
 mountains of Gilead, often called 
 Ramoth-gilead, and sometimes Ra- 
 moth, and sometimes Ramoth-miz- 
 peh, or the Watch-Tower, (Josh, 
 xiii. 26.) This city belonged to the 
 tribe of Gad. It was assigned to the 
 Levites, and was one of the cities of 
 refuge beyond Jordan. (Deut. iv 
 43. Josh. xx. 8, and xxi. 38.) 
 
 Red Sea, called also the Arabian 
 Gulf, separates Egypt on the west 
 from Arabia on the east. The name 
 in Hebrew signifies the "weedy sea," 
 or the sea of weeds; (which appel- 
 lation it still retains in the Coptic 
 language.) It is thus denominated 
 either from the variety of sea- weeds 
 said to be visible on its shores at 
 low water, or from the quantity of 
 white coral, spread everywhere over 
 its bottom. We derive the name 
 "Red Sea" from the Greeks. Most 
 probably this sea was anciently 
 called the sea of Edom, from its 
 neighbouring coast: and as Edom 
 signifies Red in Hebrew, the Greeks, 
 not understanding the meaning of 
 the appellation, translated it, as we 
 have done after them, the Red Sea. 
 
384 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 Rhegium, a seaport town in Italy, 
 opposite to Sicily. (Acts xxviii. 13.) 
 
 Rhodes, the capital of an island 
 of the same name, lying off the 
 coast of Caria. (Acts. xxi. 1.) 
 
 Rome, the celebrated metropolis 
 of the Roman Empire. 
 
 Salt sea. See p. 174, supra. 
 
 Samaria, Region of. Seep. 163, 
 supra. 
 
 Samaria, City of the ancient capi- 
 tal of the kingdom of Israel, was situ- 
 ated on a hill which derived its 
 name from Semer or Shemer, of 
 w«hom it was purchased by Omri, 
 king of Israel, e. c. 921, who made 
 it the seat of his government, and 
 called it Samaria, (Heb. Shomeron,) 
 from its former owner. By his suc- 
 cessors it was greatly improved and 
 fortified. After having been destroy- 
 ed by Shalmaneser, king of Assyria, 
 and rebuilt during the reign of Alex- 
 ander, b. c. 449, it was again de- 
 stroyed by John Hyrcanus. It was 
 afterwards wholly rebuilt, and con- 
 siderably enlarged by Herod, sur- 
 named the Great, who gave it the 
 name of Sebaste, and erected a tem- 
 ple there in honour of the Emperor 
 Augustus. 
 
 Samos, an island of the Archipe- 
 lago, on the coast of Asia Minor. 
 (Acts. xx. 15.) 
 
 Samothracia, an island of the 
 jEgean Sea, Saint Paul, departing 
 from Troas for Macedonia, arrived 
 first at Samothracia, and then landed 
 m Macedonia. (Acts xvi. 11.) 
 
 Sardis, the capital of Lydia, was 
 situated at the foot of Mount 
 Tmolus, on the banks of the river 
 Pactolus: it was celebrated for the 
 wealth, and for the voluptuous and 
 debauched manners of its inhab- 
 itants. (Rev. 1. 11, iii. 1. 4.) Sar- 
 dis is at present reduced to a mi- 
 serable village, called Sart. 
 
 Sarepta, or Zarephath, (Luke iv. 
 26,) was a city in the territory of 
 Sidon, between that city and Tyre, 
 (1 Kings, xvii. 9. Luke iv. 26.) 
 
 Saron, a spacious and fertile vale, 
 between Lydda and the se>a, which 
 contained several villages. (Acts 
 ix. 35.) 
 
 Shushan, the capital of Susiana, 
 a province of Elam or Persia, which 
 Daniel terms the palace, (viii. 2,) 
 oecause the Chaldseean monarchs 
 
 had a royal palace here. This once 
 splendid metropolis is now a mere 
 wilderness. 
 
 Sichem, Sychar, or Shechem, a 
 city of Samaria, about forty miles 
 distant from Jerusalem, which be- 
 came the metropolis of the Samari- 
 tans after the destruction of Samaria 
 by Hyrcanus. In the vicinity of 
 this place is Jacob's well, (John iv. 
 6,) memorable for our Saviour's con- 
 versation with the Samaritan wo- 
 man. 
 
 Siddim, vale of. See p. 178, supra. 
 
 Sidon, or Zidon, a very ancient 
 and celebrated port and city, origi- 
 nally the metropolis of Phoenicia, is 
 situated on the Mediterranean Sea. 
 Sidon has always been famous for 
 its great trade and navigation ; at 
 present it is called Said. 
 
 Sihor River. See p. 173, supra. 
 
 Silo am, Fountain. See p. 175, 
 supra. 
 
 Sinai, a mountain in Arabia 
 Petree, where the law was given. 
 It had two tops : the one lower, call- 
 ed Horeb, or the Mount of God, 
 (Exod. iii. 1,) where he appeared to 
 Moses in a flame of fire in a bush ; 
 this Horeb is therefore called Sinai 
 by Saint Stephen. (Acts vii. 30.) 
 See Horeb, p. 380, supra. 
 
 Smyrna, a city of Asia Minor, was 
 situated between forty and forty-five 
 miles to the north of Ephesus, of 
 which city it was originally a co- 
 lony. It was one of the most opu- 
 lent and powerful cities of that re- 
 gion ; but is now celebrated chiefly 
 for the number, wealth and com- 
 merce of the inhabitants. 
 
 Sodom, the chief of the Pentapoli- 
 tan cities, or five cities of the plain, 
 gave the name to the whole land. 
 It was burnt with three other cities, 
 by fire from heaven, for the unna- 
 tural lusts of their inhabitants. 
 
 Sodom, Sea of. See p. 174, supra. 
 
 Syrta, the name of a large district 
 of Asia, lying in the widest accepta- 
 tion of the name between Palestine, 
 Mount Taurus, and the Tigris, and 
 thus including Mesopotamia, or 
 Syria of the two rivers, (in Hebrew, 
 Aram Naharaim.) In the New Tes- 
 tament, Syria may be considered as 
 bounded on the west and north-west 
 by the Mediterranean Sea, and by 
 Mount Taurus ; on the east by the 
 Euphrates: and on the south by 
 Arabia Deserta and Palestine, or 
 rather Judaea, for the name Syria, 
 
GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX 
 
 385 
 
 Includes the northern part of Pales- 
 tine. The valley between the ridges 
 of Libanus and Anti-Libanus. was 
 called Coelo-Syria, or Ccele-Syria; 
 which appellation was also some- 
 times extended to the neighbouring 
 country. At the time of the Jewish 
 exile, Syria and Phoenicia were sub- 
 ject to the king of Babylon, and 
 they afterward were tributary to the 
 Persian monarchs. After the coun- 
 try fell into the hands of the Ro- 
 mans, Syria was made the province 
 of a proconsul. (Robinson's Gr. and 
 English Lexicon to the New Testa- 
 ment, p. 731.) 
 
 Syro-Phcenicia is Phoenicia pro- 
 perly so called, of which Sidon was 
 the capital ; which having by right 
 of conquest been united to the king- 
 dom of Syria, added its old name 
 Phoenicia to that of Syria. The Ca- 
 naanitish woman is called a Syro- 
 Phoenician, (Mark vii. 26,) because 
 she was of Phoenicia, which was 
 then considered as making part of 
 Syria. St. Matthew calls her a Ca- 
 naanitish woman, (Matt. xv. 22. 24,) 
 because this country was really 
 peopled by the Canaanites, Sidon 
 being the eldest son of Canaan. 
 (Gen. x. 15.) 
 
 Tabor, or Thabor, Mount. See p. 
 177, supra. 
 
 Tarsus, a rich and populous city, 
 the capital of Cilicia. It was cele- 
 brated in the Scriptures as being the 
 place whither Jonah designed to 
 flee, and where St. Paul was born. 
 
 Thessalonioa, a large and popu- 
 lous city and seaport of Macedonia, 
 the capital of one of the four dis- 
 tricts into which the Romans divided 
 that country after its conquest by 
 Paulus iEmilius. It was situated on 
 the Thermian Bay, and was ar- 
 dently called Thermae; but, being 
 rebuilt by Philip, the father of Alex- 
 ander, after his victory over the 
 Thessalians, it then received the 
 name of Thessalonica. It was in- 
 habited by Greeks, Romans, and 
 Jews ; from among whom St. Paul 
 collected a numerous church. (Acts 
 xvii. 1. 11. 13.) 
 
 Thyatira, a city of Asia Minor, 
 was a considerable city on the road 
 from Pergamos to Sardis, and about 
 48 miles eastward of the former. It 
 is called by the Turks Ak-hisar. 
 
 Tiberius, (John vi. 1—23. xxi. 1,) 
 still called by tba natives Tabaria, 
 
 or Tabbareean, was anciently one 
 of the principal cities of Galilee : it 
 was built by Herod the Great, and 
 so called in honour of the emperor 
 Tiberius. The privileges conferred 
 upon its inhabitants by Herod, caus- 
 ed it in a short time to become a 
 place of considerable note: it was 
 situated in a plain near the lake of 
 Gennesareth, which is thence term- 
 ed the Lake or Sea of Tiberias; 
 for a notice of which see p. 174, 
 supra, 
 
 Trachonitis. See p. 1 64, supra. 
 
 Troas, a port and town of Mysia, 
 visited by St. Paul in his apostolic 
 journeys: it was situated on the 
 western coast, at some distance to 
 the southward of the supposed site 
 of ancient Troy. 
 
 Trogyixium (Acts xx. 15,) a pro- 
 montory at the foot of Mount My- 
 cale, opposite to, and about five 
 miles fix j. Samos. 
 
 Type, a celebrated city and sea- 
 port of Phoenicia, that boasted of a 
 very early antiquity. Even in the 
 time of Joshua it was strongly for- 
 tified ; for it is called the strong city 
 Tyre. (Josh. xix. 29.) After the time 
 of David, Tyre is frequently men- 
 tioned in the Old Testament, where 
 its inhabitants are represented as 
 filled with pride and luxury, and all 
 the vices attendant on prosperity 
 and immense wealth. Judgments 
 are denounced against them by the 
 prophets, in consequence of their 
 idolatry and wickedness ; and the 
 destruction of their city is foretold. 
 After this destruction the great body 
 of the inhabitants fixed themselves 
 on an island opposite the former 
 city, about 30 stadia from the main 
 land, where they erected another 
 city. This also soon became opu- 
 lent and powerful : it was taken by 
 Alexander the Great, after an obsti- 
 nate siege of seven months, in the 
 year 332, b. c. After many subse- 
 quent reverses of fortune, and vari- 
 ous changes of masters, Tyre at 
 length fell under the dominion of 
 the Romans, and continued to enjoy 
 its commercial prosperity. (Robin- 
 son's Lexicon, p. 772.) Tyre is now 
 a miserable place, called Sur, whose 
 inhabitants support themselves by 
 fishing. 
 
 Zarephath. See Sarepta. p. 384, 
 sunra. 
 ZnyoN. See Sidon, p. 384, tupra. 
 
II 
 
 INDEX OF MATTERS. 
 
 Abreviations in Manuscripts, 74, 75 
 
 Abyssinian Version, 87 
 
 Acts of the Apostles, analysis of, 321, 
 322 
 
 Affections of the sacred Writers, im- 
 portance of attending to, 126 
 
 Agriculture of the Jews, 262—264 
 
 Alexandrian Manuscript, 75, 76 
 
 Allegory, Nature of, 135 ; Interpreta- 
 tion of, 136. Allegorical sense, 
 what. 140 
 
 Amos, Book of, 297, 298 
 
 Analogy of Scripture, 118—121 : of 
 Faith, 121. Hints for investiga- 
 ting it, 121—123 
 
 Anglo-Saxon Version, 89 
 
 Antonius Felix, notice of, 189, 190 
 
 Apocrypha, import of, 310. Analy- 
 sis of the Apocryphal Books, 310, 
 
 _ 314 
 
 Apostles and Evangelists, credibility 
 of 11—13 
 
 Aquila, Greek Version of, 86 
 
 Archelaus, 187, 188 
 
 Architecture of the Jews, 266 
 
 Areopagus, Tribunal of, 194 
 
 Armenian Version, 87, 88 
 
 Arts and Sciences of the Jews, 265 
 —271 
 
 Atonement, fast of, 240 
 
 Authenticity of the Old and New 
 Testaments, 4 — 8 
 
 B 
 
 Banishment, a Jewish punishment, 
 
 201 
 Baruch, apocryphal book of, 313 
 Bel and the Dragon, history of the 
 
 destruction of, 313 
 Bible. See Scriptures. 
 Bloody Offerings, 231, 232 
 Burial, Rites of, 272—275 
 Burnt Offerings, 232 
 
 Candlestick, Golden, 217—221 
 Canonical Books, what, 78, 79 
 Catholic Epistles, Genuineness and 
 Authenticity of, 339. Analyses ol 
 them, 340—347 
 Caverns of the Holy Land, 179 
 Chaldee Paraphrases, 82, 83 
 Chapters and Verses, Orign of 80, 81. 
 List of select chapters of the Holy 
 Scriptures, 355—369 
 Children, Birth, Education, &c. of, 
 
 256 
 Christianity, propagation of, 14 — 43. 
 Gibbon's alleged causes of its suc- 
 cess, refuted, 44, 45. Its rejection 
 by Jews and Gentiles accounted 
 for, 45, 46. Its blessed effects up- 
 on mankind, 58—60. Its superi- 
 ority over all other religions, a 
 proof of its divine origin, 60 — 62 
 Chronicles, two Books of, 285 
 Chronological Table of the principal 
 Epochs in the History of the Old 
 and New Testament^ 364 — 368 
 Climate of the Holy Land, 169 
 Codex Alexandrinus, 75, 76. Vati- 
 canus, 76, 77. Cantabrigiensis, 78 
 Coins, testimony of to the truth of 
 
 Scripture, 21—23 
 Colossians, Epistle to, 331 
 Commentators, different classes of, 
 127. Hints on the best mode of 
 consulting them, 128 
 Context, use and study of, 116—118 
 Contracts, how made, 209 
 Corinthians, first Epistle to, 328— 329. 
 
 Second Epistle to them, 329 
 Corruptions of Religion among the 
 
 Jews, 245—249 
 Courts of Judicature, 191—193 
 Credibility of the Old Testament, 
 10, 11; and of the New, 11—14. 
 
INDEX OF MATTERS. 
 
 387 
 
 Testimonies thereto from Natural 
 and Civil History, 14—18, and 
 from Profane Writers, 19—21. 
 Confirmed by Ancient Coins, Me- 
 dals, and Marbles, 21—23. Credi- 
 bility of Miracles, 27 — 29 
 
 Criminal Law of the Jews, 195—199. 
 Execution of Criminals, 192, 193 
 
 Crucifixion, 203 
 
 Daniel, Book of, 305, 306 
 
 Day of Atonement, 240 
 
 Dead, treatment of, 272, 273 
 
 Dedication, feast of, 241 
 
 Deluge, attested by Natural and Ci- 
 vil History, 15 — 17 
 
 Demoniacle Possessions, reality of, 
 270, 271 
 
 Deserts of the Holy Land, 180, 181 
 
 Deuteronomy, Book of, 280 
 
 Divination, 197 
 
 Diseases mentioned in Scripture, 269 
 —271 
 
 Divisions of the Bible, 78—82 
 
 Divorce, 256 
 
 Doctrinal Interpretation of Scripture, 
 149—151 
 
 Doctrine of the Patriarchal, Mosaic, 
 and Christian Religions, summa- 
 ry of, 47—53. Objections of Un- 
 believers to, refuted, 53—58 
 
 Domestic Customs of the Jews, 259 
 —261 
 
 Dress of the Jews, 253, 254 
 
 Drink Offerings, 234 
 
 Dwellings of the Jews, account of, 
 250—252 
 
 Ecclesiastes, Book of, 292 
 
 Ecclesiasticus, Book of, 312 
 
 Egyptian Versions, 87 
 
 Encampments of the Jews, form of, 
 211 
 
 English Translations of the Bible, 
 97—100 
 
 Ephesians, Epistle to, 330, 331 
 
 Epistolary Writings of the New Tes- 
 tament, remarks on, 324—326. 
 Analyses of, 326—334 
 
 Esdras, first and second Books of, 
 310, 311 
 
 Essenes, sect of, 247, 248 
 
 Esther, Book of, 287. Rest of the 
 chapters of the Book of Esther, 311 
 
 Ethiopic Version, 87 
 
 Excommunication, 201 
 
 Exodus, Book of, 277, 278 
 
 Expiation, fast of, 240 
 
 Ezekiel, Book of, 307, 308 
 Ezra. Book of. 286 
 
 Felix, account of, 190, 191 
 Festivals of the Jews, 237—242 
 Festus, account of, 191 
 Fertility of the Holy Land, 181 
 Figurative Language of Scripture, 
 
 Interpretation of, 129—139 
 Firstborn, privileges of, 256 
 First Fruits, 235 
 Florus, notice of, 191 
 Food and Entertainments of the 
 
 Jews, 260, 261 
 Fountains of Palestine, 175 
 Funeral Rites of the Jews, 273—275 
 Furniture of the Jews, 252 
 
 G 
 
 Galatians, Epistle to, 330 
 
 Galileans, sect of, 248 
 
 Gardens of the Jews, 264 
 
 Genesis, Book of, 276, 277 
 
 Genuineness of the Old and New 
 Testaments, 4 — 8 
 
 Geography, Historical, of the Holy 
 Land, 158. Physical Geography, 
 169—181 
 
 Gibbon, (Mr.) objections of, refuted, 
 44,45 
 
 Gospel, import of, 315, Summary 
 of its Doctrines and Precepts, 50 — 
 53. Objection of Unbelievers to 
 it, refuted, 53—58. Its beneficial 
 effects, a proof of Divine inspira- 
 tion, 58—60. Number of the Ca- 
 nonical Gospels, 315. Analyses 
 of them, 316 
 
 Gothic Version, notice of, 89 
 
 Government, form of, to the Babylo- 
 nish Captivity, 182—186; after 
 that Captivity, to the end of the 
 Jewish Polity, 186—190 
 
 Governors, Roman, powers of, 189 
 
 Greek Language of the New Testa- 
 ment, account of, 69, 70. Greek 
 Manuscripts, 74 — 78 
 
 Grinding at Mills, 264 
 
 II 
 
 Habakkuk, Book of, 305 
 Haggai, Book of, 308, 309 
 Happiness of mankind, promoted by 
 
 the Scriptures, 58—60 
 Harmony of Scripture, 58. Uses of 
 
 Harmonies. Ill, 112 
 Hebraisms, 70 
 Hebrew Language, account of, 67— 
 
388 
 
 INDEX OF MATTERS. 
 
 69. Hebrew Manuscripts, 71—73 
 
 Hebrews, Epistle to, 338, 339 
 
 Herod, the Great, 187 
 
 Antipas, 188 
 
 Agrippa, Senior and Junior, 
 
 188 
 
 Herodians, Sect of, 248 
 
 High Places, 222 
 
 High Priests, account of, 228—230 
 
 Historical Books, Analyses of, 280 — 
 288 
 
 Historical Circumstances, impor- 
 tance of, for the interpretation of 
 Scripture, 123—126 
 
 Historical Sense, 113 
 
 Holy Land, Names of, 158—160. 
 Boundaries, 161. Ancient Inhabi- 
 tants, 161. Divisions, 162—168. 
 Physical Geography, 169—181 
 
 Hosea, Book of, 298, 299 
 
 Houses of the Jews, 250 — 252 
 
 Hyperbole. 140 
 
 Idolatry of the Jews. 195, 196. 245, 
 246 
 
 Imprisonment, 200 
 
 Incense, offering, 234, 235 
 
 Infidelity, unprofitableness of, 62, 63. 
 Infidels more credulous than Chris- 
 tians, 63, 64 
 
 Inspiration defined, 24. Criteria of 
 24, 25. Internal Evidences of, 47 
 —64 
 
 Interpretation of Literal, Grammati- 
 cal, or Historical Sense of Scrip- 
 ture, and its subsidiary means, 
 113—128. Interpretation of the 
 figurative Language of Scripture, 
 129—139. Spiritual interpreta- 
 tion 140 — 144. Interpretation of 
 Prophecy, 144 — 149. Doctrinal, 
 Moral, and Practical Interpreta- 
 tion of Scripture, 149—157. 
 
 Irony, 139, 140 
 
 Isaiah, Book of, 299—301 
 
 James, Epistle of, 340, 341 
 
 Jeremiah, Analysis of the Book of, 
 303, 304. Lamentations of, 305 
 
 Jerusalem, Description of, 165 — 168 
 
 Jewish Church and its Members, 
 225, 226 
 
 Jews infidelity of, accounted for, 45, 
 Political state of, to the Babylo- 
 nish Captivity, 182—186. And 
 after that time to their destruc- 
 tion, as a Nation, 186—189. Cor- 
 ruptions of Religion among, 246 
 
 249. Domestic Antiquities of, 
 250 375 
 
 Job, Book of, 288, 289 
 
 Joel, Book of, 301 
 
 John, (St.) Account of, 319. Design 
 and Analysis of his Gospel, 320, 
 321. Of his first Epistle, 343— 
 345. Of his second and third Epis- 
 ties, 345, 346. And of his Revela- 
 tion, 347, 349 
 
 Jonah, Book of, 297 
 
 Joshua, Book of, 281 
 
 Jubilee, Year of, 241, 242 
 
 Jude, Epistle of, 346, 347 
 
 Judges, Book of, 281 
 
 Judges, powers of, 283 
 
 Judicature, Jewish Courts of, 191 — 
 193. Roman Courts of, 193—195 
 
 Judith, Book of, 311 
 
 Kings, (Israelitish,) powers and reve- 
 nues of, 183—185. Duration of 
 the monarchies of Israel and Ju- 
 dah, 186 
 
 Kings, two Books of, 283, 284 
 
 Languages (Original) of Scripture, 
 
 account of, 67, 70 
 Latin Versions, ancient, 88. Modern, 
 
 88, 89 
 Latinisms, 170 
 Lawyers, 248 
 
 Legal Proceedings, 191—193 
 Leprosy, 245 
 
 Letters, form of, in Manuscript 
 Levites, account of, 227 
 Leviticus, Book of, 278 
 Libertines, 226, 227 
 List of the most necessary works for 
 
 the study of the Scriptures, 363— 
 
 367 
 Literal Sense, what, 113 
 Luke (St.) Gospel of, 318, 319. Acts 
 
 of the Apostles written by him, 
 
 321, 322 
 
 M 
 
 Maccabees, 186, 187. Apocryphal 
 
 books of, 314 
 Magistrates, crimes against, 197 
 Malachi, Book of, 309, 310 
 Man, creation and fall of, 15 
 Manasses, apocryphal prayer of, 314 
 Manstealing, punishment of, 198 
 Manuscripts, (Hebrew) of the Old 
 Testament, account of, 71 — 73. Ob- 
 servations on Greek Manuscripts, 
 
INDEX OF MATTERS. 
 
 389 
 
 7^ 75. Manuscripts of the Old 
 and New Testaments, 75 — 78 
 
 I» T ark (St.) Gospel o<", 317, 318 
 
 Carriage customs of the Jews 254 
 —256 
 
 Masora, notice of, 79 
 
 Matthew (St.) Account of, and of his 
 Gospel, 316, 317 
 
 Measures, table of, 351, 352 
 
 Meat Offerings, 234 
 
 Medicine, state of, among the Jews, 
 269, 270 
 
 Messiah, Table of Prophecies con- 
 cerning, 368, et seq. Observations 
 on the accomplishment of those 
 Prophecies, 148, 149 
 
 Metaphors, interpretation of, 134, 
 135 
 
 Metonymy, nature of, 131. Inter- 
 pretation of Metonymies, 131 — 134 
 Micah, Book of, 301, 302 
 
 Military Affairs of the Jews and 
 other Nations, 209—213 
 
 Miracle, denned, 25. Evidence of 
 25, 26. Design, 26. Credibility, 
 27—29. Criteria of, 29, 30. Ex- 
 amination of some of the Old Tes- 
 tament Miracles, 30 ; and of the 
 New Testament Miracles, 30—34 ; 
 particularly of Christ's Resurrec- 
 tion, 34, 36. Comparison of Scrip- 
 ture Miracles with those ascribed 
 to Heathens, 37 
 
 Mohammedism, prevalence of no 
 objection to prophesy, 46 
 
 Money, tables of, 352 
 
 Months of the Jews, 205 
 
 Moral Parts of Scripture, Interpreta- 
 tion of, 151, 152 
 
 Morality of the Patriarchal Religion, 
 48. Of the Jewish Code, 49, 50. 
 Of the Gospel, 51— 53. Objections 
 of Unbelievers to the Morality of 
 the Bible, refuted, 53—58 
 
 Moses, Credibility of, as a writer, 10, 
 1 1. Summary of the Doctrine and 
 Morals taught by him, 49, 50 
 
 Mountains of Palestine, 1 75—178 
 
 Music of the Jews, 268, 269 
 
 Mystical Sense of Scripture, 140. 
 Rules for the Mystical Interpreta- 
 tion of Scripture, 141, 142 
 
 N 
 
 Nahum, Book of, 302, 303 
 Nazareate, vow of, 243 
 Nazarites, 230, 243 
 Nehemiah, Book of, 286, 287 
 New Moon, feast of, 237 
 New Testament, Genuineness and 
 Authenticity of, 6—8. Its uncor- 
 
 rupted Preservation, 8—10. Cre- 
 dibility, 11—14. Confirmed by 
 profane Writers, 19 — 21. And by 
 ancient Coins, Medals, and Mar- 
 bles, 21—23. Why written in 
 Greek, 69. Account of its style 
 and idioms, 69, 70. Origin of 
 Chapters and Verses in, 80. Ana- 
 lyses of the several Books of, 315 
 —349. Table of their dates, 353 
 Numbers, Book of, 278, 279 
 
 Oaths, 242 
 
 Obadiah, Book of, 306, 307 
 
 Oblations, voluntary and prescri- 
 bed, 235 
 
 Old Testament, Genuineness and 
 Authenticity of, 4 — 6. Its uncor- 
 rupted Preservation, 8, 9. Its 
 Credibility, 10, 11. Confirmed by 
 natural and civil History, 14 — 18. 
 And by Ancient Coins, &c„ 21. 
 Divisions of, 78 — 80. Analyses of 
 the several Books of, 276—314, 
 See Manuscripts, Versions. 
 
 Olympic Games, allusions to, 272 
 
 Origen's Biblical Labours, notice of, 
 84, 85 
 
 Parables, nature of, 136, 137. In- 
 terpretation of, 137, 138 
 Parabolic sense, 141 
 Parallel Passages, use of, for intei- 
 
 preting Scripture, 118—121 
 Nature of Parallelism, especially the 
 
 poetical parallelism, 108—111 
 Parents, crimes against, 197 
 Parenthesis, importance of, 118 
 Passover, Feast of, 238 
 Patriarchal Religion, summary of, 
 
 48. Government, 182 
 Paul, (St.) brief account of, 323, 324. 
 
 Analysis of his Epistles, 324, 339 
 Peace Offerings, 232, 233 
 Pentateuch, observations on, 276. 
 
 Analysis of the several Books of, 
 
 276—280 
 Pentecost, feast of, 239 
 Persian Version, 88 
 Peter, (St.) first Epistle of, 341, 342. 
 
 Second Epistle of, 343 
 Pharisees, sect of, 247 
 Philemon, Epistle to, 337 
 Philippians, Epistle to, 331, 
 Pilate, account of, 189 
 Plains of the Holy Land, 179 
 Poetry of the Hebrews, nature and 
 
 species ol 108—111—267,268. An- 
 
390 
 
 LSDEX OF MATTERS 
 
 alyses of the poetical books, 253— 
 294 
 
 Practical reading of Scripture, 155 
 —157 
 
 Prayer, 237 
 
 Preservation (uncurrupted) of Old 
 and New Testaments, 8 — 10. A 
 proof of their divine origin, 58 
 
 Priests, account of. 227, 228 
 
 Prisoners, treatment of, among the 
 Romans, 194 
 
 Promises and Thveatenings of Scrip- 
 ture, interpretation of, 152—154 
 
 Property, crimes against, 198 
 
 Prophets, account of, 230,231. Gene- 
 ral observations on, and on their 
 writings, 294, 295. Table of, 296. 
 Analyses of the prophetical books, 
 297—310 
 
 Prophecy defined, 37. Difference 
 between the pretended predictions 
 of heathen oracles, and the Scrip- 
 ture prophecies, 37, 38. Use and 
 intent of Prophecy, 38. Prophecies 
 relating to the Jews, 39 — 41. To 
 the nations or empires neighbour- 
 ing to them, 41, 42. Prophecies 
 directly announcing the Messiah. 
 42. Prophecies by Jesus Christ 
 and his apostles, 43. Objections 
 to prophecy refuted, 45 — 47. Rules 
 for ascertaining the sense of the 
 prophetic writings, 145 — 147. On 
 the accomplishment of Scripture 
 prophecy, 147. Particularly re- 
 specting the Messiah, 143. Table 
 of the principal prophecies rela- 
 tive to the Messiah, 468, et seq. 
 
 Proselytes, 226 
 
 Proseuchae or Oratories of the Jews, 
 223 
 
 Proverbs of Scripture, interpretation 
 of, 138, 139 
 
 Proverbs, Book of, 291, 292 
 
 Psalms, Book of, 289—291. Table 
 of, according to their subjects, 354 
 
 Publicans, 203 
 
 Punishments mentioned in Scrip- 
 ture, 200—203 
 
 Purifications of the Jews, 244, 245 
 
 Purim, Feast of, 240 
 
 Quotations from the Old Testament 
 in the New, 102. Tables thereof, 
 102—107 
 
 Rechabites, notice of, 230 
 
 Resurrection, evidences of the truth 
 
 of, 34—36 
 Revelation, (Divine) necessity of, 1 
 
 —3 
 Revelation of St. John, analysis of 
 
 tire Book of, 447—449 
 Revenues of the Israelitish Kings, 
 
 185 
 Rivers of the Holy Land, 172, 173 
 Roman mode of treating prisoners, 
 
 194; of computing Time, 204. Al 
 
 lusions to the Roman Discipline, 
 
 213 
 Romans, Epistle to, analysis of, 327, 
 
 327 
 Ruth, Book of, 282 
 
 S 
 
 Sabbath, how solemnized, 236, 237 
 
 Sabbatical Year, 241 
 
 Sacred Obligations and Duties, 242 
 —245 
 
 Sacred Persons, 225—231 
 
 Sacred Places, 214—225 
 
 Sacred Things, 231—235 
 
 Sacred Times and Seasons, 236 — 242 
 
 Sacrifices of the Jews, 231—234 
 
 Sadducees, sect of, 246 
 
 Salutations, form of, 259 
 
 Sanhedrin, powers of, 191 
 
 Samaritans and Samaritan Penta- 
 teuch, account of, 68, 69 
 
 Samuel, Two Books of, 282, 283 
 
 Sciences of the Jews, 265 — 271 
 
 Scalvonic Version, S9 
 
 Scope defined, 115. Hints for ascer- 
 taining it, 116 
 
 Scourging, 200 
 
 Scribes, 248 
 
 Scriptures, genuineness and authen- 
 ticity of, 1 — 8. Their uncorrupt- 
 ed Preservation, 8 — 10—58. Cre- 
 dibility, 10—23. Inspiration, 24. 
 External proofs of: — Miracles, 25 
 —37. And Prophecy, 37—47. In- 
 ternal Evidences of, 54 — 62. Ina- 
 bility to answer all objections, no 
 just cause for rejecting them, 63. 
 Moral Qualifications for reading 
 of them, 66. Literary History and 
 Criticism of, 67 — 112. Interpreta- 
 tion of Scripture, 112 — 154. Prac- 
 tical Reading of Scripture, 154 — 
 157. Table of Select Chapters of, 
 355—363 
 
 Seas of the Holy Land, 173, 174 
 
 Seasons of the Holy Land, 169 — 171 
 
 Sects of the Jews, 246—248 
 
 Septuagint Version, history of, 84— 
 66 
 
INDEX Of MATTERS. 
 
 391 
 
 Shew-Bread, Table of, 221—234 
 
 Sicarii, 248 
 
 Sin Offerings, 200 
 
 Slaves, condition of, 257, 258 
 
 Slaying with the Sword, 201 
 
 Solomon, Proverbs of, 291, 292. Apo- 
 cryphal Book of, 312 
 
 Song of Solomon, analysis of, 293, 
 294 
 
 Song of the three Children, 313 
 
 Spiritual Interpretation of Scripture, 
 140—142 
 
 Spiritual Sense of Scripture, 146. 
 Rules for the interpretation of, 
 141, 142 
 
 Stoning, 202 
 
 Subscriptions to Booka of New Tes- 
 tament, 81, 82 
 
 Susanna, apocryphal Book of, 313 
 
 Symmachus, Greek Version of, 86 
 
 Synagogues of the Jews, and the 
 mode of worship there, 223—225. 
 Representation of a Synagogue 
 Roll of the Pentateuch, 71. De- 
 scription of it, 71 
 
 Synedoche, 139 
 
 Syriac Versions, 86, 87 
 
 Syriasms, 70 
 
 Tabernacle, account of, 214—216 
 
 Tabernacles, feast of, 239 
 
 Targums, notice of, 82, 83 
 
 Temple of Jerusalem ; the first, 218. 
 The second, 218—223. Its minis- 
 ters, 226—230 
 
 Testament. See Old and New Tes- 
 tament 
 
 Theatrical Performances, allusions 
 to, in the New Testament, 271. 
 272 
 
 Theft, punishment of, 198 
 
 Theocracy, 182 
 
 Theodotion, Greek Version of, 86 
 
 Thessalonians, first Epistle to, 332, 
 333. Second Epistle to, 333 
 
 Time, computation of, 204 — 207 
 
 Timothy, first Epistle to, 334, 335. 
 Second Epistle to, 335, 336 
 
 Tithes, 235, 
 
 Titus, Epistle to, 336. 337 
 
 Tobit, Book of, 311 
 
 Trespass Offerings, 233 
 
 Tributes and Taxes, 208 
 
 Tropes and Figures, interpretation 
 of, 129—131 
 
 Trumpets, feast of, 240 
 
 Types, interpretation of, 142—144 
 
 Typical Sense of Scripture, 141 
 U 
 
 Unbelievers, Objections of, to the 
 doctrines and moral precepts of 
 the Bible, refuted, 53—58 
 
 Unbloody Sacrifices, 234 
 
 Unclean, who were deemed so, 244 
 
 Valleys of Palestine, 178, 179 
 
 Various Readings, Origin, and Na- 
 ture of, 100, 101 
 
 Vatican Manuscript, 76, 77 
 
 Verses, origin of, 80, 81 
 
 Versions, Ancient, of the Scriptures, 
 82. Chaldee, 82, 83. Greek, 83— 
 86. Oriental, 86, 88. Western, 
 88, 89. Use of Ancient Versions, 
 90. Modern Versions, 90. Modern 
 Latin Versions, 90—92. Tables of 
 Versions in the Modern Languages 
 of Europe, Asia, Africa, and Ame- 
 rica, 94—96. Account of English 
 Versions, 97—100 
 
 Visits of the Jews, 260 
 
 Vows, different kinds of, 242—244 
 
 Vulgate Latin Version, 88, 89 
 
 w 
 
 Watches, a division of time, 204 
 
 Weeks, 205 
 
 Weights and Measures, table of, 351, 
 
 352 
 Wildernesses of Palestine, 179,180 
 Winter in the Holy Land, 170 
 Wisdom of Solomon, apocryphal 
 
 Book of, 312; and of Jesus the 
 
 son of Sirach, 312, 313 
 Words, Rules for investigating the 
 
 meaning of, generally, 114, 115. 
 
 Aids for investigating the mean- 
 ing of Words, 115—128 
 Writing, art of, among the Jews, 
 
 266. 267. 
 
 Year, sacred and civil, of the Jews, 
 206 
 
 Z 
 
 Zealots, 248 
 
 Zechariah, Book of, 309 
 Zephaniah, Book of, 303 
 
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