fast "Btxiah rf ftitessl Irsta f5 BY EMMA WILLARD. (DESIGNED FOR PRESENTATION.) NEW YORK: PUBLISHED BY A. S. BARNES A CO. 1855. (copyright secured.) THE LAST PERIODS ^ ... V"" MRS. WILIARD'S UNIVERSAL HISTORY Prefatory Remarks.-^— The fresh events just added to my Universal History are, f^hoiigli forcibly condensed into small compass, numerous, and full of interest and importance. Like Columbus, I have steered my bark through untraveled seas, having collected my facts mostly from newspapers and periodicals, including annals ; but I have journeyed in the meantime in my own and in foreign countries, and have often enjoyed the privilege of conversing with the actors of the historic drama, or those personally acquainted with their deeds. The ability to trace great events to their true causes, cannot exist without previous familiarity with his- tory; nor is tMs 'alone sufFicieift. And here it becomes no historian to presume on his own success^ but humbly to. await the award of his judges. Hoping, however, that my work may satisfy and j)lease, I oflPer it to those, whom I respect and honor. To rny personal friends I send it as a token of affection. To my litefrary friends, whether known or un- known, it is in many cases sent as a grateful acknowledgement of similar gifts. But especially do I wish to place thi's new portion of my history under the eye of those who are judges of its correctness, and from whose benevolence or personal regard, I may hope the favor, that if any error is perceived, it will be made known to me, that I may correct it. The " Last Periods " will also be sent as a specimen of the entire work ; yet they will give but an imperfect idea of the Universal History as a whole. As such, we claim for it, the first clear and logical arrangement of the subject ; — adopted by the author without precedent, but with conclusive reasons. Instead of dividing the long line of time into ancient and modern, with the uncertain period of the middle ages coming in- definitely between, and instead of taking for the beginning of modern his- tory, either the vague period of the revival of learning, or the close of an empire long in hopeless decay, our plan boldly cuts the line of time into three definite parts — ancient, middle, and modern — by the two most important epochs of history, viz. : the birth of Christ and the discovery of America, Each part was then easily subdivided into its appropriate periods by epochs. The early geographical extension of the world is, at the places of these divisions, shown to the eye by a series of maps ; and the memory is farther aided by j^ictorial illustrations. The dates are made in heavy type on the margins. The dynasties of the reigning sovereigns are also set on the margin, but d,istinguished by running lengthwise of the page ; the battle-fields, with the known numbers of contending forces and their losses, are also placed there, but with a peculiar type, and the treaties with still another; and these peculiar characters are kept in the chrono- logical table. Thus each page becomes a species of picture, leaving its daguerrean impression on the mind of the student. The grand problem, what is the true method of representing historic time by space, was solved by the completion of the "Temple of Time," of which the first conception was formed in the arrangement of this work,, and the first published sketch is the frontispiece, and its enlarged floor- work, called a " Picture of Nations," precedes the chronological table. Finally, my improvements in educational history were thirty years in progress ; and the success of many schools is due, in no small degree, to their adoption and skillful use. EMMA WILLARD. Tiioy, August, 1855. TABLE OF CHRONOLOGY, FOR THE TENTH AND LAST PERIOD OF MRS. WILLARD'S UNIVERSAL HISTORY. Modern His. iu D. Pa«b ^ _^ ^ -^ V 1848 Feb. 24, Eevolution in France. Downfall of Louis Philippe. Establishment of a republic, ----- 501 March, Eevoltjtions in the smaller States of Germany, - -505 In Prussia, - - - - -.- - - 506 In Aw&iriQ. {Downfall of Metternich)^ - - - 507-8 In Lombardy, and other States of Italy, - - - - 509 March 29, The Hungarians complete, with the pretended sanc- tion of the emperor of Austria, their free constitution, - 518 Eising of the people in Sleswick and Holstein, - - -514 May 18, Delegates meet at Frankfort-on-the-Maine to constitute a federal government for Germany. (The attempt fails), - 505 June 23 to 26, Terrible riot of the Socialists in Paris, - - 503 August, Insurrection in Ireland. Smith O'Brien and others ta- ken and transported, ------ 517 Nov. 25, Flight of the Pope to Gaeta in Naples, — the Eepublic in Eome, - - - - - - - 511 Extension of the British Empire in India, - - -515 In America, the Mormons settle Salt Lake City, - - 526 Gold discovered in California. (Great Immigration succeeds), - 526 Dec. 2, Ferdinand, emperor of Austria, resigns his crown to Francis Joseph, the counter-revolution being completed, - 509 1849 March 24, NO VARA. Charles Albert, of Sardinia, defeated by Eadetzky, abdicates in favor of his son Victor Emmanuel, and Lombardy is regained by the Austrians, - - - 510 " August, Venice retaken by the Austrians after a long and severe siege, -- - - - - - -511 rv CHEONOLOGICAL TABLE. Modern, Ms. A. D. Pagb ^^.-..^,-.1 ..^ 1849 April 26, Counter-revolution in Prussia completed by count Brandenburg, -.-__--_ 507 " April, French troops under Gen. Oudinot sent to Eome. (July 5, they bombard and take the city, destroy the Eepublic, and re-establish the Pope), ------ 508 " April 12, Palermo, after a bloody revolt, submits to the king of the Two Sicilies, Ferdinand II., - - - - 511 " TIJMESVAB, Aug. 9. Hungary having conquered the Aus- trians, is cruelly subjugated to Austria by the Kussians, - 514 1850 Eebellion breaks out in China, _ - _ _ _ 524 " Great slavery agitation in the American Congress, - - 526 1851 May 1, Opening of the Great Exhibition of the Industry of all Nations at London, ---___ 517 " Ecclesiastical Titles Bill passed by the British Parliament, - 517 " Slavery agitation in America quieted by the passage of Mr. Clay's Compromise Bill, - - - - - - 526 " Dec. 2, French Eepublic brought to an end by Louis Napoleon's " coup d^etat^'''' ------- 504 1852 March 19, Chinese rebels take Nankin, - - - - 525 " November 21, The French Empire restored, under Napoleon III., 504 185S Gold discovered in Australia, _ _ _ - -516 " April 13, Prince Menchikoff sent to Constantinople by the czar to set up his claim to the essential sovereignty of Turkey, which leads to the Russo-Turkish War, - - 520 " OLTENITZA. Turks on the Danube defeat the Eussians who have invaded the Principalities, = _ _ _ 520 " Nov. 11, Alliance between France and England, against Eussia, - - - -- - - - 521 " Nov. 27, SINOPR Eussians capture the entire Turkish fleet in the Black Sea, " Santa Anna recalled* and made dictator of Mexico, - -525 1854 Sept. 20, Allies advancing upon Sebastopol, gain the victories of ALMA, BALAKLA VA, and INKERMANN, *' In the American Congress the Nebraska Bill is passed, " Dec. 2, Treaty of Vienna. Double dealing of Austria, 1855 March 2, Death of the czar Nicholas, - - - " Treaty of America with Japan, _ _ - Tiie Battle of Waterloo. PERIOD IX. THE BATTLE ) June, ( f 1815,1 OF WATERLOO THE EXTENSION OF THE AM. REPUBLIC BY THE TREATY OF GUADALUPE, AND THE DISCOV- ERY OF GOLE IN CALIFORNIA, f Pph AND THE DOWNFALL OF 1 S J-S \ I-'^UIS-PHILIPPE BY THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. CHAPTER I. Brazil and Portugal. — Revolutions in America and Europe. 1. The removal of John YI. of Portugal, and the Portuguese government, in 1808, to Brazil, was the beginning of that great South American empire. . . The Brazilian government open- ed their ports to all friendly nations ; abolished the Inquisition and the slave-trade,* and entered into an advantageous treaty of alliance and commerce with England. In 1815, John VI. re- turned to Portugal, and his son, Pedro, administered the gov- ernment. The Brazilians now asserted their independence, formed a constitution, and elected that prince emperor, under the title of Pedro I. Portugal acknowledged the independence of Brazil, and the emperor exchanged ministers and treaties with foreign nations. 2. John VI. died in Portugal, March 10th, 1826, By the constitution of Brazil, Pedro the emperor, to whom the crown * Yet many slaves are to this time carried annually to Brazil. 1855. Modern His. PEKI'D CHAP. 1815. Brazil inde- pendent of Por- tugal. Pedro I. Period IX. — Chap. I. — I. Who was sovereign of Portugal at the time of the government's removal to Brazil? When did the removal occur? What were the first acts of the government ? What occurred in 1815 ? 469 470 CIVIL WAES OF PORTUGAL AND SPAIN". Modem Mis. of Portugal now belonged, could not leave the new empire ; and PEKI'D IX. he resigned Portugal to his young daughter, Maria de Gloria. CHAP. I. Miguel, brother of Pedro, contested her right, and was aided ^""""V"-^ by the nobility and the priests. The constitutionalists and pa- qSen^f triots were in favor of Maria. In the mean time, the Brazilians Portugal, demanded reforms, which were by no means agreeable to the Portuguese. Pedro wavered between the parties. Both the 1§31. army and the people were against him, and on the 8th of April, m?father 1831, he abdicated in favor of his infant son, Pedro II,, a native returns to of Brazil ; and having established a regency, he embarked with °^ "sa • Mai-ia^ and the rest of his family for Portugal. 3. Pedro having entered his hereditary dominions, summoned his brother to surrender to the queen, his daughter. The cruel- 1§32. ties of Miguel, had already arrayed against him the hberal party, Portu^L^ who now rallied under Pedro. The Portuguese clergy branded them as heretics, with whom no faith was to be kept ; and thus 1§33. ^^^ ^^^'^^ w^^ sharpened by religious persecution. The fleet of July 4th. Miguel was captured, Lisbon surrendered, and the usurper fled ^endersTo' ^^ Spain. The populace rallied, proclaimed Maria, broke open Maria. the prisons, and liberated 5,000 prisoners. The queen's right was acknowledged by the high powers of Europe ; the clergy were humbled, the convents were suppressed, and their property 1834. confiscated to the state. Miguel, however, still kept up a cruel Qu'druple partisan warfare ; when, on the 24th of April, 1834, a quadruple Alliancet alliance was signed between the powers of Portugul, Spain, France, and Great Britain, which guarantied the throne of Portu- ^arrfedTn gal to Maria II. An adequate force was sent from England to ^^^Eug^r maintain her authority. Under these circumstances Portugal a^SonTfter was of coursc Tulcd by that nation. — Spain had, by a singular to^he*?uSf coincidence, its young queen Isabella II., daughter to Ferdinand saxe cobuxg.) yxj,^ whosc claim was upheld by the liberal party, and a usurper- uncle, Don Carlos, who was sustained by the royalists and clergy. The Quadruple AlHance also guarantied the claims of 1§33. Isabella against Carlos. In 1836, three years after the accession Isabella ^^ of Isabella, her mother Christina being regent, liberalism was dinand VII. for a time in the ascendant. The order of Jesuits was suppressed, "B sifi ^^^ convents were interdicted, and their property confiscated. 900 convents Thesc violent proceedings strengthened the party of Don Carlos, interdicted, and renewed for a time the horrors of civil war. 4. THE AMERICAN COLONIES OF SPAIN.— The jealous policy of Spain had led her to suppress, as much as possible, all 2. How was Pedro situated on the death of his father, and what course did he take ? Give an account of Miguel. What occurred in Brazil, and what new arrangements were made ? Who went to Portugal ? — 3. What was done by Pedro, and who rallied under his banner ? Who were against him and his daughter, and what was the condition of Portugal? What successes had Pedro against Miguel? What number of prisoners were liberated? Who acknowledged the queen's right? What was done with respect to the convents ? What powers formed a quadruple alliance ? What did the alliance guarantee m respect to the government of Por- tugal? What in respect to Spain? When did Isabella succeed her fa- ther? Who was regent? What was done iu 1836 ? What was the con- Bequence ? MIRANDA AND BOLIVAR. 471 intercourse between lier extensive American colonies and the ^^("^^^''n ins. rest of the world. Wearied with despotism, and disgusted with rEiiri) ix. the quanels and crimes of the reio-ning family, these provinces ^"^^'- ^■ took advantage of the invasion of Spain by Napoleon, and as- '^"""^^ serted their independence. This opened an intercoui'se between jndqxjiTd'? them and foreign nations, and their history thenceforth began to <^"'=^- be known. 5. In 1806, GENERAL Miranda, a native of Caraccas, who i§06. had served with reputation in the armies of republican France, Movement made a generous, but premature attempt to liberate his native America. country. But in 1810, the patriots rose again, and although GENERAL MuRTLLO, with 10,000 troops was sent from Spain, yet the Spanish authorities were deposed, and a new govern- --e^^ ment organized, under the name of the " Confederation of Vene- venezuei'a zuela." A congress assembled, independence was declared, and a declares in- constitution on republican principles was adopted. But the numerous clergy were hostile, and soon found an occasion to arrest the progress of pubHc opinion, in the fatal earthquake which occurred March 26, 1812. On that day at 4 o'clock, 1812. P. M., with scarce a minute's warning, 4,500 dwellings and 19 Eanhquake churches were swallowed up, and 8,000 people went down to atcaraccaa. one common grave. The priests represented this dreadful phe- nomenon as a sign of the particular wrath of heaven, inflicted upon a rebellious and disobedient country, for daring to alter their political condition. The people were dismayed, and the whole province again submitted to royal authority. 6. In 1813, this province was again emancipated by the bold i§i3. genius and successful military operations of Simon Bolivar. August 16. In repeated battles he conquered the Spaniards, expelled them plants tho from Caraccas, and then entering New Granada, he drove standard of them from Carthagena, its capital, which he entered on the cnceTn^Car- 16th of Augusts Buenos Ayres became independent in ti^agena. 1816, Chili in 1818, Peru and Guatimala in 1821. The Spanish authorities continued to resist, until their defeat at the great battle of Ayacucho. The power of Spain over these ex- tensive countries is broken, and their independence of foreign (f is55. un- dominion established. But they seem destined to be rent by ^^ema^k^?^ domestic factions, and the lawless desire for power, of ambitious still true.) military chieftains.f 7 MEXICO. — While under the government of Spain, Mexico w^a5 a viceroyalty ; the viceroy having all the powers of a king. The Mexicans declared independence in 1813. Iturbide, an 4. What policy had Spain pursned with regard to her American colo- nies ? With what were their people wearied and disgusted ? What cir- cumstances did they take advantage of, and what do? — 5. Who made the first attempt to free a Spanish colony, — when was it made, and how did it succeed? What was done in 1810? What occasion was seized by the priests, and what did they do? — 6. By whom was Venezuela finally eman- cipated ? What is related of New Granada ? Of Buenos Ayres ? Of Chili ? Of Peru and Guatimfila, or Central America? At what battle was the Spanish power in America entirely broken ? — 7. What was Mexico while under Spain ? A¥hen did Mexico "declare independence? Give some ac- count of Iturbide. 472 TEXAS DECLARES INDEPENDENCE. ifodernHis. ambitious Mexican, at first opposed the revolution. In 1815, PEEi'D IX. lie destroyed or drove to the mountains, all the revolutionary CHAP. I. (.}iiefs^ except Guerrero; and in 1822 he restored the vice- royalty. Iturbide then raised his own standard, and caused himself to be proclaimed eraperor, under the title of Augustine I. The populace shouted him, and drew his carriage through the streets of Mexico. But a powerful party, headed by Vit- 1§23. TORiA, Guerrero, Santa Anna, and other distinguished mihtary Compelled men, opposed the new government, and after a bloody struggle, the emperor was, in 1823, compelled to abdicate; but he was iSfetnfns ^^^^^^^^ ^^ take refuge in Europe on a pension. In 1824 Itur- iturbide^s* bide returned ; and as soon as he stepped upon the shore of his death. country, he was arrested and shot. 8. In 1824 Mexico adopted a free republican constitution. ^ .' Struggles for the Presidency arose. In 1828, Santa Anna, being adopts a head of the army, subverted the government by using military ^'^^tS^^**^' ^^^^^ ^^ establish Pedraza, his candidate. From this period until that in which the Mexican history became almost identi- fied with the American, Santa Anna remained in the ascendant ; although, amidst the frequent civil wars of the period, he was sometimes displaced. Subsequently, he changed the Republic 1§33. from a federal, to a central system. Anarchy and misrule, inse- Asiatic choi- curity to life and property, prevailed. The Asiatic cholera in ^^^ico. ^ 1833 added its ravages, and destroyed in the capital alone, 22,000 persons. 9. TEXAS, in extent of territory, was one of the most consid- erable states of Mexico. Being contiguous to the republic of ■'"^^ America, it was filling fast with enterprising citizens, who be- S'Texas' heved that Mexico would adhere to republican principles. They ^AusSn^and"*" belonged to that Puritan race, which the old Spanish stock had his company, not forgotten to hate ; and they had failed to observe the com- pact by which Austin, the American founder of Texas, obtained the territory — that the Catholic religion and the Spanish lan- guage should be taught in the schools. A quarrel soon grew up between them and the Mexican government, which resulted in war. Santa Anna despatched general Cos, with a strong force, to the mouth of the river Brasos. General Houston assumed the command of the Texan forces. He took JBaMa, the fort of Goliad; and finally, with severe loss on both sides, he conquered the Alamo — the name given to a fortress in San Antonio de Bexar. 1§36. 10. On the 2d of March, 1836, a convention of delegates drew March 2. up and pubhshed an ?i\>\Q, Declaration of Independence. Santa laration of Anna, on the 6th of March, arrived at the Alamo, with an army Independ- of 4,000 men. That fortress, defended by 180 Texans, under ence. — 8. What was done by the Mexicans in 1824? What was done by Santa Anna in 1828? What afterwards? What disease prevailed? When? To what extent did it prevail in the capital ?— 9. Give some account of Texas: of its inhabitants. Who was the American founder of Texas? What compact is spoken of? Did the Americans on their part fulfil it? What next occurred ?— 10. What was done on the 2d of March, 1836 ? EEVOLT OF THE GREEKS. 473 command of colonel Travis, he assaulted at midnight. At -^^^g^" ms. dawn only seven men of the garrison were found alive. They rEiU'D ix. cried for quarter, and being refused, renewed the battle, and c"a.p. l fought till every man was slaughteied. More than one thousand '"■■'"'"v ' of the assailants are said to have perished. tjip: ' 11. After the fall of the Alamo, general Houston, with about g^[;^y^n^5 1000 men, fell back upon the Colorado. Colonel Fanning, cruelty; with a garrison of 400, was left to defend Goliad ; but, inferior ^^'^ '^'"'^'^^ in force, he evacuated the fortress. Santa Anna pursued, and cut off his retreat. Fanning surrendered upon the faith of being qoliad. treated according to the rules of Christian warfare ; but Santa Massacre of Anna caused him and his men to be cruelly put to death. Ela- ning with ted and confident, he then hastened to engage the main body of '^^^ ™^"- the Texans, encamped upon the Brasos, whom his cruelty had wrought to iuxy. Houston, bearing down upon his enemies, thrice his own number, brought them to action so close as to be i§3@, within half rifle distance; and in less than thirty minutes com- April 21. pelled them to flee. Among the prisoners was Santa Anna, ja'cin'to. who, as first magistrate of Mexico, entered into a treaty which Houston and recognized the independence of Texas, and the Eio-Grande as its defeat TanTa boundary. This treaty, when returned to Mexico, he repudiated, ^j^na, and A constitution was adopted by Texas, and general Houston was dependence, elected president. 12. THE GREEK REVOLUTIOlSr.— The desire of liberty among the people, and a more just appreciation of human rights, i§20-21 distinguishes the nineteenth century. In 1820-21 it manifested struggles of itself, not only in the rising republics of America, but in Spain, *^® people. Portugal, Naples, Piedmont, — and lastly, in the Turkish empire, where in Greece it produced permanent eflfects. 13. Russia, as we have seen, had often in her employ able foreigners. Such were the Greeks, count Capo D'Istrias, Al- (jreek revo- EXANDER Ypsilanti, and others. Their hearts were set upon lution begins, the release of their country ; and the Russian authorities, willing to weaken the Porte, that they might take its provinces, encour- aged them by hopes of aid, to raise the standard of revolt. They formed a secret society, called " the Hetaireia," who were bound by oath to stand for each other, and for the liberties of Greece. They then openly revolted. The Turks, of course, made war upon them to reduce them to submission. Russia having thus divided the Turkish empire against itself, treacherously with- held her promised aid, and left the Greeks to fight their own battles. The struggle with them was now, not for liberty only, but for life ; and there is nothing in the history of ancient Greece to compare with the fierce valor with Avhich the med- io. Describe the military operations till after the fall of the Alamo. — 11. From the fall of the Alamo to the battle of San Jacinto. Relate that battle and its consequences. — 13. By what is the nineteenth century distinguished? How did this spirit manifest itself in the years 1820-21 ? "To what einpire did Greece at this time belong? — 13. What Greeks were in the service of Eussia, what did they desire, and what encouragement did they have? What did they then do? What part did Russia now take? What was the character of the struggle in which the Greeks were now engaged? 60 474 REVOLT OF THE GREEKS. Mod<:rn Ris. Q^Ti Greeks resisted their oppressors. Even their women took PERPD IX. arms. CHAP. I. 24. Turkish vengeance attacked first the Greek clergy; and Gregory, the venerable patriarch of Constantinople, was bar- barously slaiu, at the door of his sanctuary. This act roused the Greeks, and appalling horrors were perpetrated in the conflicts ^ifskiir*^" which ensued. The Greeks were without a government, and without support, except what they received from charitable asso- 1§22 ciations in Great Britain, France, and America. Yet they pro* Greeks form ceedcd, in 1822, to form a union under an i7idependent federa- * ^'Jn™' i^ve government. The Persians having now invaded the Turkish empire, the sultan was obliged to send a powerful army to the Euphrates; and he also placed a strong military force upon the Danube, to watch certain hostile movements of Russia. One of his own vassals, also, the bold and desperate Ali Pacha, of Albania, was in open rebelHon against him. These troubles compelled him for a season to relax his operations against the revolted Greeks ; but having at length purchased a peace with Persia, beheaded Ali Pacha, and entered into friendly relations with Russia, he was again ready to prosecute the Greek war. Scio. Pop. 1^- Fifteen thousand of the most barbarous of the Asiatic 120,000. Turks were let loose upon the beautiful island of Scio. The massacred. Sciotes resisted ; but were overpowered, and their little paradise laid waste, — and 40,000 men, women, and unresisting children were massacred, while 30,000 were carried into Mahometan They are Captivity. The Turkish fleet now took on board the murderers avenged by ^j^o Were prepared to desolate the Morea. The Ipsariotes, with ipsara! ° the courage of desperation, grappled their fire-ships to the ship commanded by the Turkish admiral, which blew up, destroying three thousand men. Gre!ksrl?s\i ^^' ^URCHID Pacha, at the head of 25,000 Turks, passed money by a the straits of Thermopylae, and inhumanly laid waste the Morea. ^ed^inEn'^i^-' '^^^ Greek chieftains, Nichetas, Demetrius Ypsilanti, and laad.) CoLocoTRONi, occupied the straits which the enemy had passed, and cut off" his communications. The Turkish commander, re- duced to extremities, offered to evacuate the Grecian territory, Lo^rVByron whicli was refused him. He then made a desperate effort to break diedat^Mis- through the Greek defences in the night. But Nichetas fell hlvSJf em- upon the confused and bewildered Turks, and cut up and destroyed ^^i^^^^H!'"" the whole army. After this, the Turks made but little proarress self and his .^ .'', ^ t-,' ^„ -Vii fortune in m Greece, until Ibrahim Pacha, ot Egypt, was appomted by the causroFSl-e- sultan, govcmor of Greece, and charged with the management of cian liberty.) the War. He Opened the campaign of 1826 with energy, and 14. WIio were the first objects of the vengeance of the Turks ? In what year did the Greeks form an independent government ? What circum- stances for a time called off the attention of the Turks from the Greek war? — 15. What was the first act of the Turks after this suspension? What numbers were massacred and carried away prisoners at Scio? What was done by the men of Ipsara?— IG. What military operations are next re- lated ? When the great commander, Ibrahim Pacha, was sent to Greece by the sultan, what occurred ? ENGLAND INTERFERES FOR GREECE. 475 the conquest of Greece seemed inevitable. In this alarming crisis, the Greeks implored aid of the Christian powers. 17. England now interfered, and on the 6th of July, 182Y, by The Treaty of London^ the ministers of Great Britain, France, and Russia, guarantied the pacification of Greece ; and the minis- ters of the three powei^s notified the Turkish government, that " Greece must thereafter govern herself." The Turks rejected the offered pacification of the three powers, and Ibrahim, with the Turkish-Egyptian fleet, entered the bay of Navarino. While lying there in order of battle, the combined Bntish, French, and Russian fleets approached, and a deadly conflict ensued. The Turkish armada of 110 ships fought with desperation. Not a flag was struck, and the whole fleet was either burnt, sunk, or disabled. Hostihties now ceased, and the sultan soon after acceded to the treaty of London. 18. The Greeks had chosen a republican form of government, and made count Capo d'lstnas their president ; but the combined powers, having decided that the government must be monarchi- cal, conferred the crown upon prince Otho, second son of Louis, king of Bavaria. His ministers, in organizing the government, gratified the people by establishing the religion of the Greek church ; which is also that of Russia.* Commerce and agricul- ture began to revive and schools were encouraged. On the 5th of July, 1834, a royal decree was made to encourage the spread- ing of female education over Greece, by the establishment of a school at Athens for the instruction of female teachers.j The Greeks had been long petitioning for a charter of rights. Not receiving this just claim, they combined, and in the summer of 1843 compelled Otho to grant them a constitutional government. Modern ITis. PEKI'D IX. CHAP. IL 1827. Treaty of London. Settles the affairs of Greece. 1§27. BatUe of NA VAJil- Peace. (+1834. "Thia school was projected \>j a society of ladies in the 17. States.") 1§43. Greek con- stitution. CHAPTER n. The British Empire. 1. Until the close of the wars of the French revolution, the -.ei^j attitude of Great Britain had been warlike. She had stood the National bulwark of Europe against the encroachments of Napoleon, but in so doing had subjected herself to immense sacrifices. Her ^ * Owing to this sympathy in religion, the Greeks are in favor of the Eus- sians, while the remembrance of past wrongs sets them against the Turks, as in the war now pending (1854) they have manifested ; and they have therefore been checked by England and France, which are now allied against Kassia. 17. What power now interfered, and what treaty was made? What notice was given to the Turkish authorities, and how did they receive it ? Eelate the battle which followed, with its results. — 18. What government had the Greeks chosen? What form of government did the allied powers impose upon them, and whom give them for a king? What is said of re- ligion and education in Greece ? What has lately taken place in Greece in respect to a constitution ? Chap. II. — 1. What was the attitude of Great Britain during the wars with Napoleon ? debt 476 RADICAL EEFORMEES. Modern His. PEEPD IX. CHAP. U. 1§19. Aug. 16. " Mass Meet- ing" iu Man- chester, debt amounted to more than the whole resources of the kingdom, if applied to no other purpose, could pay in forty years.f As usual, war had been a season of excitement and intoxication ; and peace, like the sudden withdrawal of a fever, left the nation lan- guid and exhausted. Hundreds of thousands had been provided for, who were at once thrown out of employ; the nation expending less by £50,000,000 annually, than in the years of the war. Want bred discontent and murmurs. America, the best custo- mer of England,* was suffering a similar depression, so that foreign trade failed to afford relief. Seasons were unfavorable, and harvests scanty ; wages low, and provisions high. Laborers pressed by necessity, combined to extort higher wages. Masters could give no more, and discharged their operatives. Writers took advantage of these disaffections to sow disorganizing princi- ples; and the faults of the English government, real and imaginary, became the agitating theme of her discontented people. Vast assemblages met in the open air, whose orators harangued them on their poverty, contrasted with the luxury of those, who, doing nothing, rioted in the nation's wealth. But they chiefly fixed on the gi'ievance of the unequal representation in the house of com- mons, — by which Manchester, with 187,000 inhabitants, and other large manufacturing cities, had no representative in parlia- ment ; while the borough of Old Sarum, with only twelve inhab- itants, and fifty others similarly situated and called ^'■rotten boroughs^'' were each represented — and by the creatures of the ministry. The cry of these people was for a radical reform of these abuses. Hence they were called "The Radicals." A fleet was sent to Algiers under lord Exmouth, who put an entire stop to the piracy of the Algerines, — a good work begun by the Americans. After the city had been bombarded by the English, the Dey bound himself by treaty to deliver all Christian slaves, and no more to make Christian captives. 2. In 1819, disturbances became more alarming. Both in England and Scotland, vast field meetings were held ; and the throne and the houses of parliament were overwhelmed with pe- titions. The more violent were preparing by secret organization and nocturnal trainings, to raise the standard of open rebellion. On the 16th of August 50,000 people of all ages and both sexes, went forth from Manchester to hold a meeting in the fields, with banners, where floated the characters " Liberty or Death," "An- nual Parliaments," " No Corn Laws," &c. None wore an oflfen- * So much the best customer, that when in 1836 all the exports from Great Britain to every part of the world, including Tier own provinces^ amounted to £53,368,000, those to our republic were £12,425,000,— nearly one-quarter of the whole. 1. What do you learn of her national debt in 1816 ? What was the first effect of peace? What was the difference of the national expenditure dur- ing the last years of the war and the first of the peace ? What was the actual expenditure in each? (See side note.) Describe the progress of dis- content among the people. What grievance was complained of? Describe the origin of the term "the Kadicals." What did Lord Exmouth accom- plish ?— 2. What was the state of things in 1817-18 ? CATHOLIC EMANCIPATION. 477 sive weapon, and the speaker was just expressing his confident hope of their quiet demeanor, when suddenly a body of cavalry came upon them, dashed through their thickest ranks, trampling them to death, and cutting them down with sabres ! Thus more than 400 peaceable citizens were massacred. This severe mea- sure was followed, Nov. 13th, by "TAe Six Acts," which em- bodied strong measures for preventing riotous assemblages, — empowering magistrates to enter houses to search for arms by day or night. These measures produced quiet, but not content. 3. On the death of the aged and insane monarch, George III., the prince regent, now George IV., was invested with full sov- ereignty. He was an immoral man. No cruelty, exercised on the mind and character, could exceed that with which he had treated his wife, Caroline of Brunswick. She was a woman of high spirit, and being made unhappy in England, she had been abroad for some years. She now came home to claim a part in the approaching coronation. Her return was met by a prosecu- tion for breach of the marriage vow, instituted by her husband, and odious to the nation ; as the prosecutor was notoriously guilty himself, and had done every thing the opposite of affording her a husband's protection. After a trial she was acquitted by the judges ; but she was not allowed to share in the coronation. This was celebrated with pomp, and at an expense of £262,000 ; notwithstanding it was a season of such distress in Ireland, that more than 200,000 persons were without the means of subsist- ence, and many were daily starving to death. 4. In the succeeding years, England sometimes took a ground with regard to the " Holy Alliance," which checked their tyran- nical proceedings. She caused the independence of Greece from the Turkish yoke to be recognized ; but she united with the other nations in prohibiting a republican form of government, and imposing on that people a foreign king. 5. The catholics in Ireland had suffered, since their conquest by William III., grievous privations; but their condition had gradually been made better. In 1778 a law was abolished by which children of that denomination were deprived of the inher- itance of parents ; and another which forbade a cathohc to keep school on pain of imprisonment. In 1791 their places of wor- ship and schools were tolerated, and they were allowed to prac- tise law. In 1793 they were permitted to hold offices in the army and navy. The catholic question was again agitated, and LORD John Russell introduced a bill by which the catholics were permitted to share in all municipal offices of power and Modern Ilia. PERID IX. OUAP. II. 1§20. Jan. 29. George IV. suc- ceeds his father. 1§21. July 19. Corona- tion of George IV. Queen Caroline was de- fended by Brough- am. 1§22. Congress at Verona. (Lord J. Russel's " Corpo- ration and Test Bill.") 2. Relate the occurrences of the 16th of Auafust, 1819, at Manchester. What was done by parliament the November following? — 3. Who became king, and at what time? What was his character, and his treatment of his wife ? Who was she ? What conrse did she pursue? What is said of the coronation as to expense ? What better use does it seem that the money might have been put to, as it respects the people of Ireltind? — 4. What is said of the course of England as respects the Holy Alliance? — 5. Give an account of the progress of emancipation in Ireland up to the time of the Wellington ministry. 478 THE EEFOEM BILL. Modern His. PERFD IX. CHAP. n. Irish af- fairs to 18M. 1§33. Ilavery abol- «hed. 1§34. Poor law amend- ment trust. But they were yet dissatisfied, and in Ireland, " The Ca- tholic Association," at the head of which was Daniel O'Connell, contrived means to get so entire a control over the whole catholic population, comprising the greater part of the Irish people, as to levy a tribute from them under the name of rent. The duke of Wellington became prime minister, and contrary to expectation he made it his policy to settle this question by concession. He therefore, though with great difficulty, carried through parliament laws granting the catholics the highest of- fices in the judiciary and the legislature. O'Connell, however, soon found other subjects of agitation, and contrived to keep and increase his authority over the people. His principle sub- ject of complaint was the legislative union of Ireland with Eng- land, and the " RepeaV meetings held under his auspices, were attended by hundreds of thousands. He was apprehended, tried, and imprisoned, and although liberated, he soon after died. 6. William IV. succeeded his brother, George ly. The French revolution of the " Three Days" brought afresh to the people desires for the reformation of abuses, especially of the unequal representation in the house of commons. The house itself Avas now favorable to the reform. The Reform Bill was brought in by LORD Brougham, and after many struggles on the part of its friends, it passed to the great joy of the nation at large.* Old Sarum, and fifty-five other " rotten boroughs," whose members had been sent into the house of commons, either by the crown or nobility, were by this bill disfranchised ; and 42 manufactur- ing cities and flourishing places, were now first empowered to send their representatives. In Hanover the people felt the im- pulse towards an increase of political liberty, and the English government gave them a new constitution, by which they have a legislature of two branches. Some one of the royal family of England was to constitute the chief executive. In 1833, Oreat Britain abolished colonial slavery ; parliament granting £20,- 000,000 to remunerate the slave owners, Mr. Wilberforce was active in procuring these laws. 7. In 1834, parliament passed "The Poor Law Amendment Act." The poor laws in England and Wales had dispensed large sums to the poor ; but great abuses had been reported to parliament by persons employed to investigate. Paupers were so provided for, that their condition was better than that of the independent laborer, who had to sustain his part of the enor- mous expenditure. By the many officers employed in dispen- * The principal supporters of this bill, — lord Brouofham, lord John Rus- sel, earl Grey, and lord Althorpe, received presents of gold cnps purchased by penny subscriptions, to which 300,000 persons contributed. 5. What policy did Wellington pursue, and what carry through parlia- ment ? What subjects of agitation employed O'Connell and his party ? — 6. Who succeeded George IV. ? What do you understand by the Keform Bill, and what can you relate respecting it? What was done in Hanover? What laws did parliament make regarding slavery ? What liberal sum ap- propriate ? — 7. What is said of the operation of the poor laws ? BRITISH EMPIRE IN THE EAST. 479 sing the fund a considerable part of it was absorbed. The ^^^^'^^n ni«. "Amendment Act" provided that the rehef of tlie poor should peiu'D ix be placed in the hands of three commissioners^ who are em- ^uap. n. powered to appoint their assistants. The great amount of pau- ^"^^^^ perism led to the belief that the population was in excess, and the consequent encouragement of emigration to the United States, 1§34 Australia, and the Cape of Good Hope. Lord Brougham brought - *il^ forward in the house of commons, a plan of popular education, and lord John Russell a project for the " Reform of Municipal Corporations," both of which passed into laws. 8. x\fter a short reign in which England had advanced in T pohtical liberty, industrial arts, and mercantile enterprise, Wil- j^^^ ^' liam IV. died, and was succeeded by his niece, Victoria. On Victoria account of the Salic law she is excluded from a throne in Ger- wiSSin many ; and Ernest, the oldest surviving son of George III, be- ^^• came king of Hanover. He dying in 1851, was succeeded by his son George V. — A rebellion in Canada, which Great Britain ruled with much moderation, now broke out, chiefly among the disaffected of the French population, improperly aided by indi\iduals of the United States. But it appeared, that, though the rebels showed fighting courage, they had neither Hon In well-digested plans, nor strict concert; and the rebellion was Canada, soon crushed. -' 9. THE BRITISH EMPIRE IN INDIA continued to ex- tend. In 1816 the isles of Mauritius and Bourbon were con- quered from France. In 1815, by a war with the natives, the English obtained Kumaoon and the mountain passes ; and the same year the native kingdom of Candy in Ceylon. In 1818, a last effort of the Mahrattas was quelled, and their whole country 1S25. subjected. In 1824, in a war with Birmah, the British con- Peace of quered its north-eastern states, which were ceded, together with YandabU. an annual tribute in 1825, at the Peace of Yandahu. In 1814 cfje^fiy^, the charter of the East India Company was modified, and their provinces, monopoly limited to twenty years. At the close of 1833, the £f,5oo5J)o China trade being free to all British subjects, difficulties occurred yearly trib- between the English traders and the Chinese, in regard to the sale of opium, which the authorities of that Empire had inter- ^nri^iiteous dieted as hurtful to the people. The English continued to bring interference large quantities ; the Chinese took prisoners the buyers, and g^overnment compelled them to throw overboard the deleterious drug, to the value of £2,000,000. The English government took up the i§4i, quarrel, — attacked the Chinese, and obtained such military island of advantages, that the emperor made peace by submitting to pay ^aS^nlm the English 111,000,000, to throw open five of his ports, and China, cede in perpetuity the island of Hong-Kong. 7. Of their amendment? Of emigration ? What further laws did this period of reform produce ? — 8. What is remarked concerning the short reign of William IV. ? Who succeeded him ? Who became sovereign of Hanover? Give some account of the rebellion in Canada.— 9. Give an account of the growth of the British empire in India. 480 THE FEEE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND. the Free Churcli. Modern ffis. 10. Yet, with an empire on which the sun never sets, there PEEi'D IX. ^^® home-bred clouds in the horizon of Great Britain. She has CHAP. iL a great national debt. The ardent Irish are ruled by the catho- r""^^ lies, and hence at enmity with the British government ; and 1843. now its all-powerful aristocracy have against them, in "the Free Di-'^lfaimers Church," the bone and sinew of the nationahty of Scotland, and the When in the reign of Queen Anne, the Scots merged their parlia- panylband m^iit iuto that of Great Britain, it was on the condition that their church should be left free. But the Bolingbroke ministry procured a law, giving to the aristocracy of Scotland a right to the disposal of the church livings. These lay-patrons, at first, forebore to impose pastors on unwilHng congregations. When they did attempt this legal abuse, a majority of the General Assembly of the Scottish Church, with the venerable Chalmers at their head, refused to ordain. The lay-patrons, at- tempting coercion, carried the case before the British House of Lords, and there obtained a decision in their favor. At the ;nLext meeting of the Assembly, the moderator declared, that not being free, that body could no longer legislate for the Church. He rose — left the house, and 500 devoted ministers followed him; voluntarily relinquishing their right in $14,000,000 of church 10. In whose reign was the Scotch parliament merged into the Enghsh? On what condition did the Scots give their consent? By what law was this condition contravened ? What was at first the course of the lay pat- rons ? When they attempted to enforce the legal abuse, what was done by the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland? Who was the leading member ? What course did the lay-patrons pursue, and what decision ob- tain ? Eelate what occurred at the next meeting of the General Assembly. " THE HOLY ALLIANCE." 481 property. But their people gloried in the act, and large volun- -^/oc^ern. ma. tary contributions were soon obtained for " The Free Church of perpd ix, Scotland." Five hundred new churches were built, and 800 con- ^^^^' ™- ffre2:ation5 formed. v--i»-v-^»-> ^ ^ 1843. k CHAPTER m, France aad the Holy Alliance, including a general view of Continental Europe, from 1815 to ISM. ISl'S 1, On the final abdication of Napoleon, the command of the juiy 6.* French army devolved on marshal Davoust. By a mihtary ''^^re^.eJtera ^' convention \vith Blucher and Wellington, he withdrew his army Paris, behind the Loire ; and Paris was again occupied with foreign July 7. troops, under whose protection Louis XVIIL, a second time, took ^"t^es. ^^' possession of the throne, France was now compelled to surren- .^^^j^ ^^ der some of her most flourishing provinces, — to maintain, for five leon delivers years, a foreign army, in eighteen fortresses on the north and tiJl^ En^Iii^S.) east — to pay a tribute of 700,000,000 francs — and to restore the works of art to the nations from which Napoleon had taken them. Marshal Ney was condemned and shot, contrary to the treaty of capitulation. Murat, who had been deposed, made a foolish attempt to regain the throne of Naples ; but he was taken as he landed on the shore, and afterwards shot. Alexander of Russia, having assumed the title of czar and king of Poland, gave the Poles, by a charter, the semblance of constitutional hberty ; and appointed Constantine, his brother, commander-in-chief of the kingdom. 1815. 2. The grand league called the Holy Alliance was now form- Sept. 26, at ed at Paris, by Austria, Russia, and Prussia ; and although with j p„^Tp' nf high pretensions of religion, yet its real object, as interpreted by fj^p^Tj^iy its acts, was to crush the spirit of constitutional liberty, intro- a ]];{,«/.« duced into Europe by the American revolution, and thus to quiet the monarchies in irresponsible absolutism. The origina- tors of this league were Alexander of Russia, and Clement, Prince (bornTrrs,' of Metternich, the Richelieu of his time, who had already ambassador ^ 11 1 T /• * • i • • irom. Austria tor ten years been the real ruler ot Austna, As minister to to France, France, he had by his seductive elegance of speech and manner ^^^^ ™jnfs- first gained the ear of Napoleon, and then wheedled him into the terof Austria Austrian marriage ; — thus creating in him a false dependence on "^ '' Austria, which, at a moment then anticipated by this wily states- man, was withdrawn, and Napoleon, as we have seen, ruined, 10- What did the 50O ministers relinquish ? What is this division of the church called ? (ohserve the quotation marks.) What followed ? Chajp, III, — 1 . What occurred in Paris on the abdication of Napoleon ? To what were the French compelled by the allies ? What is related of MarshiJ Ney ? What was the fate of Murat ? What was done by Alexan- der in respect to Poland ? — ^. What nations entered into a league ? What was it called, and what was its real character ? Who were its principal con- trivers ? What was the character of Metternich, as shown by his course with respect to Napoleoa ? 61 482 METTEENICH. Modern ms. "Wlierever delegates of tlie allied powers were met to legislate, PERI'D IX. Mettemich was President of the CoDgress ; and during its recess OHAP.UL }je ^vas its Executive. This gave him the virtual headship of ' y'"^ continental Europe ; and, contented with the reahty of power "^TScon-^ without its show, he retained it for more than thirty years, greseesheid Sitting at Vienna, as the spider by his web, his Argus-eyes AuSnce."^ watched the feebler powers — and if any of their people pre- sumed to form for themselves free institutions, f^rth darted the Austrian troops — violated their nationality, and deprived them of their liberty.* 3. To produce the full calm of despotism, Metternich studied to learn what privileges the people could have, which would not interfere with his system, — and to forestall their wishes, as far as was consistent with absolutism. Hence he patronized improve- ments in the arts, and in agi'iculture. Education, too, he fos- tered ; yet only so far as the divine right of kings was inculcated by the closely-watched instructors. The rights of individuals (t Hence the were Systematically and most unscrupulously violated in the se- '^'beaureau^ cret government bureaux^j- especially by opening and taking notes cracy.") Qf private letters sent by mail. — Towards Russia, the attitude of Metternich was always humble. England, having in her government a mixture of both abso- lutism and its opposite, if at any time her ministry were found too closely fraternizing with the League, then their more liberal co-patriots, armed with the eloquence of natural justice, called them, in parliament, to a stern account. Hence we find England * "With a gigantic mind, he spread his toils over the whole continent — ^had his spies in all the capitals of Europe : in Portugal, he was with the Miguels ; in Spain, France, and in Italy, with the aristocrats and priests."' "In the support of his systenn, nations and their rights became as chattels in his hands, which he disposed of at pleasiu-e, where he could effect the greatest advantage. He sacrificed the Greeks to the Turks, the Poles to the Eussians, and the Italians to their oppressors. He occnpied the States of the Church with Austrian armies upon the slightest disturbance." "Even as late as two years before he surrendered liis power, he extin- guished the little republic of Cracow, the last refuge of Polish nationality ; and the very last year of his irsore tiian imperial sway, he opposed the lib- eral party of Switzerland, and supported their opponents, the Souderbond, as is said, by the 'material aid' of a million of dollars." The favorite pol- icy of Metternich was " to govern through the DIVISION of the different nationalities of the empire." We make these quotations from Stiles' able "History of Austria, 1848-49." Is it possible to suppose that Metternich should have failed to embrace in his all-pervading 2)olicy that nation, from whose lead in free institutw?is the absolutists of Europe had svffered most, and had most to fear ? For the author's views on this subject, see her " History of the Eepublic of America," especially the part beginning on p. 451. In 1831, Mr. Wheaton, then in London on a visit, and after a residence in northern Europe, asserted, in the author's hearing, that one of the meas- ures was to send here convicts, the sooner to bring us to ruin by anarchy. The papers of the day (Jan. 1854) show late developments made in New York, proving the fact that this Metternich policy is still practised. 2. What gave him the virtual headship of continental Europe ? How long did he retain his power, and why? By what comparison does your author describe his operations? {For proof see note.) — 3. In what respect, and how far, did Metternich consult the wishes of the people? In what respect were the rights of individuals violated ? What was the attitude of Metternich towards Eussia ? How do we find England in respect to the Holy Alliance ? USURPED POWERS OF THE HOLY ALLIANCE. 483 sometimes acting Avith, and sometimes against the " Holy Al- -^^otfcrrt ms. liance." When at its fiist organization Geoige IV. was invited peri'd ix. to become a party to tlie League, he declined giving it his signa- " ' lure, although he expressed his approval of its principles. 4. At the con(j7'ess of Aix-la- Chape lie, France became a mem- ber of the Holy Alliance. This congress established the princi- ple of an "armed intervention;'''' or, in other words, the mem- bers of the Holy Alliance agreed to assist each other with their whole military force, against their subjects, in case of a re- volt in either kingdom. At the congress which convened at Troppau, these principles were still further extended, and the right was claimed to ititerfere by coercion in the domestic affairs of all other nat'ions. This pretended right was exercised in rela- tion to the affairs of Spain, Portugal, and Naples. The people of all these kingdoms had obtained better securities for their lib- erties, by adopting free constitutions. Their respective rulers had sworn to be governed by them, and the citizens felt that they had secured the blessings of liberty to themselves and their pos- terity. But Metternich, in the name of the "Holy Alliance," ^gs'u?^*^^ sent armies, broke up the domestic arrangements of the people, the Holy abrogated their constitutions, and restored the sovereigns to ab- ^^^^®' solute power. These acts of gross violence against the sovereignty of nations 1§23. were abhorrent to all conscientious and enlightened men, not Th?5Sonroe only in Europe, but in America. The government of the United Doctrine" States, through president Monroe, took solemn notice of them ; Fn the^Suai and declared that such principles should not be extended to any message to , P ^-y K ' j^- J. congress. part ot the American contment. 5. In France, the principles of the Holy Alliance created great excitement ; and they were boldly denounced in the chamber of (May 9, 1826, deputies. The ministry became alarmed, and were proceeding ^^^qq^q"^' to extreme measures, when public attention was diverted by the Charles x. death of Louis XVIIL His brother, the duke of Artois, a bigot ^SieiSV' in poHtics and religion, ascended the throne, under the title of Charles X. As liberal ideas gained ground with the people, the government became more and more agitated with alarm. i|; The return of Lafayette, from a triumphal visit to the United EetuTn of States, was watched with apprehension. The arbitrary Villele Lafayette was at the head of the ministry, and he had obtained a majority ica. in the French chamber of deputies by controlling the elections. But this short-sighted expedient only increased the general dis- affection. 6. Pending the struggle with Napoleon, the sovereigns of 4. What principics did the allied monarchs adopt at Aix-la-Chapelle, with regard to their own subjects? "What at Troppau in regard to inter- fering with the domestic affairs of other nations ? What nations at- tempted to make free governments, and were prevented ? By whom ? How? How did this violation of the sovereignty of nations affect the minds of conscientious men? What was done in America ? — 5. How did the French receive the doctrines of the Holy Alliance ? What change of sovereigns occurred? What is said in reference to Lafayette? What is eaid of Villele? 484 COMMERCIAL LEAGUE OF THE GERMAN STATES. Modem His. PEEI'D IX. CHAP. ni. I§a6. December. Death of Alexander. Accession of Nicholas. (Nicholas, in 1844, visited England to arrange, aa appears (1854), the division of Turkey.) 1§28. "War between Eussia and Turkey. 1§29. Peace of Adrian- ople. 1833. Peace of llnkiar Skelessi. 1832. KOmEK Ibrahim do- feats the Turks, who lose 30,000. 1848. Mehemet Ali succeeded first by his son Ibrahim, then by his nephew Ab- bas Pacha. Germany had promised their subjects, what, by their progress in intelligence they ardently desired, constitutional governments ; but when the war was over, few remembered their engagements. I'he king of Bavaria and the duke of Baden, however, in spite- of the Holy Alliance, fulfilled theii-s in good faith. These states and Prussia have given gi'eat attention to primary education. A Commercial League^ under the auspices of Prussia, was form- ed, connecting in a, new bond almost all the states which former- ly belonged to the Germanic body. This league is called the ''Zoll Vereinr 1. On the death of Alexander I. of Russia — ^which the civil- ized world regretted — Constantine, his brother, who had been appointed commander of Poland, was declared emperor ; but he renounced his hereditary rights in favor of his brother Nicholas, who assumed the government, and dated his reign from the death of Alexander. He repelled an invasion of the Persians under Abbas Mirza, and compelled him to cede to Russia large territories on both sides of the river Araxes. 8. Mahmoud IL, the sultan of Turkey^ took occasiou from an insurrection of the Janizaries, to attack and destroy the danger- ous power of that body, the praetorians of Turkey. He modelled his armies on the European system, and placed himself in a hos- tile attitude against Russia, then occupied with the Persian war. The Russian forces, amounting to 200,000, invaded his kingdom, and after numerous sieges and battles, in which victory repeat- edly changed sides, at length prevailed. Having passed the Balkan Mountains, the Russians occupied Adrianople, the sec- ond city in the Turkish empire, where, in 1829, they dictated the terms of a peace by which they obtained the free navigation of the Black Sea and Dardanelles. Subsequently, l>y the treaty of Unkiar Skelessi, the Porte engaged to close those straits against any other nation, at the demand of Russia. This alarm- ed England, lest Russia should, by subjugating Turkey, get a preponderating power. . . The able viceroy of Egypt^ Mehemet Ali, sent his son Ibrahim with an army, who overran S3^ria, and defeated the Turks at the battle of Konieh. The English, fearing that Russia, already too powerful, should annihilate Turkey and possess Constantinople, interfered, and obliged Mehemet to with- draw his forces, and still noknowledge his vassalage to the sultan ; but the subjection was uitacr nominal than real. 9. Egypt greatly improved in arts, agriculture, and commerce under the direction of Mehemet Ali. Ibrahim succeeded him in the viceroyalty of Egypt in 1848. He died two months after- 6. What is said of Germany in regard to its progress ? To the promises of the sovereigns and their fulfilment ? To education ? The Commercial League? — 7 When occurred the death of Alexander? What is said of Nicholas? — 8. What was done by Mahmoud of Turkey? Give an account of the war between Turkey and Eussia. What was obtained by Kussia at the treaty of Adrianople? Of Unkiar Skelessi ? AVhat did the English apprehend? What occurred in Syria? What did England oblige Me- hemet to do ? — 9. What was the state of Egypt under Mehemet Ali ? What two persons succeeded him in quick succession, and in what year? FRENCH "revolution OF THE THREE DAYS." 485 and was succeeded by his able nephew Abbas Paciia. . . -3/o. withdrawn. They were afterwards, by act of congress, placed The (iep<|?it3 in certain selected state banks, which were encouraged to dis- Sie''"pet count freely; and thus facihties too great before, by which i^aQ^s." money might be obtained on credit, were increased. 1. A perfect madness of speculation became rife throughout ^^^'^• the land. The lots oi cities, real or imaginary, were so bought miMony and sold that fortunes were made in a day. Idleness and ex- ^^"^^ stop n • -, t ml ■ IT specie pay- travagauce took the place ot industry and economy. Ihis pubhc ment. fever had, in 1837, a fearful crisis. Before it, every one seemed growing rich ; after it, many individuals and families were daily reduced from affluence to hopeless poverty. The banks w^ere obhged to suspend specie payment, and credit seemed universally at an end. But, by a return to the neglected virtues of industry and economy, and by the great productive powers of the labor, the soil, and the manufactures of the country, business revived. The banks of New York, in 1838, resumed specie payment, and (1S54 those in other parts of the country, which did not utterly fail, every^sta™^ soon followed their example. State governments, and other cor- ^^t one has porations, had partaken the general mania of deahng upon credit, ^on for pay- and some of them were unable to fulfil their stipulations in time ; ment.) but none, we trust, will permanently disgrace themselves and their country by repudiating their just debts, especially ; while the fair expedient of direct taxation is before them. 8. A portion of the aboriginal Indian tribes remained on their reservations within the republic. Their settled practice of ma- ^^^ chero- king war, when, so far from having declared it, their show of kees are, we friendship was the greatest, made them dangerous and dreaded g^feQed^T neie'hbors. The a:eneral s'overnment had become involved in an newspaper is agreement with Georgia to extinguish the Indian title to lands estWished ^vithin its borders, as soon as this could peaceably be effected, ^^^^^^f tifei?' Yet, in its northwestern section, the Cherokees, the most civilized principal of the North American tribes, inhabited and refused to quit their ^^^oss.)^^ ancient domain. The president believed, that if the Indians at- tempted to remain, mingled with the white population, it would but lead, as in former cases, to their own destruction. He there- fore proposed to congress that they should set apart a large ter- 6. What was Gen. Jackson's course in regard to the secretary of the treasury ? — 7. Eelate the course of things preceding the revulsion. At what time did that occur ? What was then tlie condition of the country ? What causes produced a return of prosperity ? — 8. What practice of the Indians made it apparently expedient that they should be removed? In what en- gagement was the United States involved ? What plan was proposed — by whom — and what occurred in consequence 'i What is remarked concerning the Cherokees 1 62 490 THE FLORIDA WAK. Modern His. PEEFD IX. CHAP. IV. 1§S7. March 4. Inauguration of VanBuren and Johnson. (Events of the French revolution, 184S, estab- lish the cor- rectness of Mr. V. B.'s principle.) 1§41. Harrison's short presi- dency. May 31. convened. August 18. Mr. Tyler's first veto. Sept. 9. His second- ritoiy in the west, and remove them thither. Congi'ess author- ized general Jackson to cany out his project, and, one by one, the tribes have been sent to their destined abode. 9. The Seminoles of Florida, incited by their chief Osceola, refused to remove ; and a destructive war was carried on to hunt them out from the unhealthy morasses of that peninsula. One little army of 117 men, under major Dade, fell into an ambus- cade, and were all cut off. A year after, at lake Okee-Chobee, 138 were killed, among whom was their commander, colonel Thompson ; and it was not until 1842 that the Seminoles were in any measure subdued. . . While the Florida war was in prog- ress, the Creeks attacked a steamboat on the Chattahoochee river and burned it ; — another was fired, and with all its passengers consumed. General Scott was sent against these Indians ; and in a few months they were reduced to submission, and sent to the west. 10. On the 4th of March, 183*7, occurred the inauguration of Martin Van Buren, as president of the United States, and Richard M. Johnson as vice-president. Mr. Van Buren was unfortunate in the time of his accession to the presidency, as it was the year of " the revulsion," when there was so much pecu- niary distress. The whigs believed, that the government were bound to attempt something for the general relief; but the pres- ident and his party maintained, that the faults of individuals had produced the depression, and individual industry and enterprise would alone suffice to restore prosperity. Meantime, as the banks where the government deposits had been kept, were not considered safe, he projected a plan for keeping the pubhc purse called the " sub-treasury scheme ;" which proving unpopular, the democratic party lost the next election ; which was by the ma- jority given to general Harrison, as president, and John Tyler, as vice-president. The benevolent and kind-hearted Harrison died in one month after he was inaugurated ; when, by the con- stitution, Mr. Tyler became president. 11. The whigs, flushed with their late victory, never doubted that their policy would be carried into effect by the man whom they had elevated. Mr. Tyler had, however, during a previous career of high office, sometimes acted with the democrats, and sometimes refused to hold himself amenable to any party. The question especially at issue was, shall the public money, as maintained by the whigs, be kept in a United States Bank, or, as held by their opponents, remain in an independent treasury ? President Harrison had called an extra congress to meet in May. When the delegates assembled, Mr. Tjder, then president, defeat- ed, by two successive vetoes, bills which the whigs passed to re- 9. Give an account of the Florida, or Seminole war. — 10. What change of presidents occurred, and when ? Why was Mr. Van Buren unfor- tunate in the time of his presidency? Who was Mr. Van Buren's suc- cessor in the presidency, and how lonar did he remain? — 11. What did the whigs expect of president Tyler? What was the question at issue be- tween the political parties ? ANNEXATION OF TEXAS. 491 establish a national bank for a depository of the public money. -^^»t?ern ina. The able cabinet selected by Harrison had all remained in office TEurD ix. up to the time of the second veto, when all resigned, except Dan- *^"'^^- "^* lEL Webster, secretary of state ; and he only remained until he had negotiated the Ashburton Treaty ; by which a very grave dispute with England concerning the boundary between Maine and Lower Canada was happily adjusted. He then resigned, leaving INIr. Tyler to work out the pioblem, whether the American government has the inherent stability to allow an administration to stand, unsupported by any party. Mr. Tyler's not only stood, but, by taking the initial steps in the annexation of Texas, it be- came the first mover in the chain of events, by which America acquired one-third of her present territory. CHAPTER V. War between fhe American Eepublic and Mexico. 1. Although the United States and England had acknowl- edged the independence of Texas, yet Mexico ever claimed the country as her own. On the ground of our peaceable relations jj *f 3 with that power, and of the unsettled boundaries of Texas, Gen. u. s. reco'g- Jackson, and, after him, Mr. Van Buren, declined her repeated "n^depend" overtures for annexation to the republic. But a I'eport was now ence; Eng- spread, that Great Britain was about to take Texas under her same,*^i842.^ protection, and exclude slaver)^ The whole people of the Union were unwilling, that England should control a country upon its southern frontier; and the men of the south, of whose views Mr. Calhoun, now secretary of state, was the exponent, were alarmed by fears of the exclusion of slavery — they being desirous to in- 1§44. crease the number of slave states. The immediate annexation of ^^"Texas^'^ Texas, therefore, became suddenly popular; and in 1844, at the made a test presidential canvas, Henry Clay, the great whig leader wdio op- *i'^'^^"*^°- posed it, lost the election; whilst the democratic candidate, James Feb., is45. K. Polk of Tennessee who favored it, was chosen. After his tion annex- election, but while Mr. Tyler was yet president, Texas was an- ^°= '■^^^^^• nexed by a joint resolution of congress. Senor Almonte, the Mexican ambassador, declared it, casus belli, and immediately ^^"^^^ left Washington. Thus Mr. Polk came into power expecting a Mr. Polk in- war with Mexico ; — and he determined to make it available for augurated. the acquisition of her northwestern provinces. He sent, in March, -t'.T,^^^' ^^^ -. r. 1 ^ , , ^ „ ,.„ . . ^, ,, ' , , ,' Colt's newly- 1845, overland to (Jahiornia, sixty-three able men, well armed,"!* invented re- volver.) 13. How did Mr. Tyler use the veto power? What effect had this upon his cabinet? What is said of the Ashburton treaty? What problem is •worked out by Mr. Tyler's course, and how decided ? Chap. V. — 1. On what ground did Gen. Jackson and Mr. Van Buren de- cide against annexinis: Texas? What occurred to change the views of the Americans? Why did Henry Clay lose the election, and Mr. Polk obtain it ? When and how was Texas annexed ? What was done by the Mexican ambassador ? 492 THE MEXICAN WAK. Modern His, y^t equipped as a scientific corps, and under the command of PEEPD IX. the great explorer, captain John C. Fremont ; — and in the Oc- tober succeeding, for the same destination, he ordered a naval force with marines to proceed, under Com. Stockton, by the way of Cape Horn. 2. In the mean time, Mr. Slidell, a special envoy, was sent to the Mexicans ; but they, with the hereditary hatred of the Span- ish Catholics to the Puritans, refused, as was expected, to treat for peace. On the 30th of July, 1845, an American force under general Taylor was ordered to the mouth of the Rio Grande. A Mexican army, under Arista, was on the opposite shore ; and a collision soon occurred, in which sixteen Americans were either killed or wounded. . . On the 11th of May, 1846, the president Thornton's announced that the Mexicans had invaded our territory, and that '^J^pt'^ije; first "the blood of our citizens had been shed upon our own soil." The American people had not till this moment suspected that a war was in progress. In astonishment and indignation, congress Palo Alto I'esponded " that war existed by the act of Mexico ;" and they May 8 and 9. forthwith passcd laws for appropriating ten millions of dollars, forclfSio; aiitl enlisting 50,000 volunteers. But before any aid could reach M^™'k'&?' '^^y^^^'j ^^^® ^^^ marines, he had twice fought and conquered a 4o6- Am. k!' Mexican force nearly the double of his own. Matamoras now Resacct^de ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ hands of the Americans. Formal declarations of la Paima. war, from each belligerent, soon followed. 3. The Mexican war is unparalleled in regard to the great re- sults, suddenly, and without previous preparation, effected by the internal energies of a young and vigorous nation, put forth in a popular direction ; and also, in regard to the immense distances 1§46. to be swept over by sea and land, as embraced in the plan of May 15. the Campaign, which, on the 15th and 16th of May, was formed the^campaign by the cxecutive, with the aid of major-general Scott. Its wStnAon *^^j^^t ^^^^ t^ conquer California and the intervening territory for ' a permanent possession ; and so to distress the Mexicans in the heart of their country, that the government would peacefully yield these provinces. Vessels were to sail round Cape Horn to CaH- fornia ; — general Kearney, with the " Army of the West," was to go from Fort Leavenworth to Santa Fe, — conquer JS'ew Mexico, and thence proceed to the Pacific, to co-operate in the conquest of California ; — general Wool was to rendezvous at Bexar, in (t Monterey Texas, and to invade Mexico through Coahuila; — while general Not Monti Taylor was to advance, and capture Monterey .f To accomplish rey,asea- all this, the republic had, of regular forces, only 9,000 men. '^^fornia.) ^" Yet these vast designs were carried into effect, and by an army of volunteers, formed on the spur of the occasion. 1. What appears to have been Mr. Polk's views ? What overland expe- dition did he send to California ? What naval expedition ? — 2. What is said of Mr. Slidell's mission? Where was Gen. Taylor sent, and what con- sequence followed ? What did the president announce ? How did con- gress respond ? Relate the movements of Gen. Taylor on the Kio Grande. — 3. In what two respects is the Mexican war unparalleled ? What was the object of the campaign ? What was its plan ? What army had the repub- lic ? By what means were the vast designs of the campaign carried out ? CONQUEST OF CALIFORNIA. 493 4. Gen. Wool, who, during the summer and autumn, had been Modern ins. active ia raising and forming the vohiuteer forces, having pro- perfd ix. ceeded on his destined course to Parras, in Coahuila, was called ^^^^^' ^' to the aid of the army of Gen. Taylor ; which, after the taking of ^^^^^^^ Monterey, was lying at Saltillo, and there threatened by the junction of main Mexican force, at San Louis Potosi, under the commander- ^^l^H^H, in-chief. Notwithstanding their danger, the generals Taylor and tiUo. Wool were now obliged to part with the most efficient portion of their small army, to go to assist Gen. Scott in an attempt ^^^^ upon the Mexican capital. But at the mountain pass of Buena American Vista, they met, and bore back the shock of the finest army, which ^"j;^/^ *j.Jf/ Mexico had ever brought into the field, — and commanded by San- times that ta Anna in person. This general, after his defeat, retired to re- AmS^ioss cruit his forces, and interpose them between the army of Scott ^^jj^^.^jj^^' and the city of Mexico. Gen. Taylor, returning to the United 4^000. States, was rewarded by an election to the presidency ; while Gen. Wool, remaining at Monterey, so governed the conquered region, that its principal citizens thenceforward desired its annex- ation to the American Union. 5. In January, 1846, we find Capt. Fremont on the western borders of the Sierra Nevada, 200 miles east of Californian Mon- terey. At first he was kindly received by the Mexican authori- ties, but subsequently ordered to depart. He retired to Oregon ; returned in June, — was joined by a few American settlers on the ^ ^ -^ Sacramento, and then, as their leader, he raised the standard of j^iy 7^ tii'e independent California. Com. Sloat, the naval commander, -^^J'g^lf^"/ knowing that Fremont Avas acting under executive authority, ence is raised followed, his lead, — took Monterey and San Francisco, and hoisted ^^ ^i-emont. the American flag. Fremont at once exchanged for it, the Cali- fornian. Then proceeding to Monterey, he arrived at the right moment to meet Com. Stockton, who now superseded Sloat, Taking on board Fremont with his Californian battalion, Stock- ton sailed south to the vicinity of Los Angeles. That city was taken, and all Upper California conquered. Stockton and Fre- mont then left Angeles with a garrison. Soon after, the Califor- nians, by the aid of a Mexican force, revolted, and regained the city. 6. Meantime Gen. Kearney, having conquered New Mexico, t (Kearney, and estabhshed an American government at Santa Fe, advanced jjgjjg°|t™p^ with an escort of 200 menf by the river Gila. When within an express forty miles of Angeles, he learned that Southern Cahfornia had ^tra's^ln?" revolted ; and that he was in an enemy's country, surrounded by Fremont's well-mounted hostile cavalry. He found means to send to Stock- thTmai^n part ton, at San Diego, an account of his perilous position; and by of his army.) 4. How were the two armies of generals Wool and Taylor situated with regard to each other? Where was a battle fought, by whom, and with what result? Where did the conquered general go ? What is said of the two victorious generals? — 5. Where was Capt. Fremont in January, 1846? What was his course afterwards ? What was done by Com. Sloat ? Whom did Fremont meet at Monterey, and what followed i What occur- red at Angeles ? 494 Modern Ris. j^q ^id of troops seiit by him, and .by liard fighting at San Pas- PEEi'D IX. ca], Gen. Kearney reached the coast with the remnant of his CHAP. V. \yY^YQ corps. To retake Angeles was now the object of the ' ~~Y ' Americans. Col. Fremont, who had been recruiting at the north, 1§46. ^f^g marching towards Angeles — along the bleak coast of the San Pascal. Pacific Avith 400 men. Stockton and Kearney advanced upon ?ir'5eps' ^^^ same point from San Diego. The Californian troops met the field, them, made a slight resistance, then turned, and passing Angeles, l§4'y. they went to Cowenga, and capitulated to Fremont. Thus was '^?"- 1^; completed the conquest of California. of Cowenga. 1. On the 26th of March, 1847, Gen. Scott, after a masterly Scott's ex- siege of twenty days, took Vera Cruz, the principal port of Mex- 1§4^.' ^^^' ^^^^ ^^® castle of San Juan d'Ulloa, its strongest fortress. March 20. The Other ports on the Gulf were soon captured by naval com- ^"ifken!^^ mandeis ; after which the American government established April 18. custom-houses and collected a revenue. . . On arriving at the GOEDO ^^^'d^^^^^'^^i ^^^- Scott's road lay through a mountain gorge, com- Mex. force mauded by the heights of Cerro Gordo, from which bristled the force ^50™" cannon of Santa Anna. The American engineers, Lee and Mox. lo'ss, k. Beauregard, prepared in secrecy a circuitous route, by which Amrfoss 430. the army attacked the rear of the enemy, and put him to route. ^ , The pursuit, directed by Scott before the battle bee^an, was in- ( August 7. ••^ ' '^ .1 -r^ 1 1 1 TTTl •! 1 Scott moves stant, and ceased not until Puebla was entered. While the m&n iealin<^ American army waited there for reinforcements, sickness thinned in hospitals" its ranks. From Puebla, Gen. Scott's march was at first over ^rison's^ooo!' high table-lands, then up the mountain passes of the Central His line of Cordillcras. On the third day, the army reached the height, open.) when they enjoyed the grand prospect of the Mexican vale, the city, and the surrounding lakes, and giant mountains. 8. The ground plot of the city was once an island, in lake Tezcuco. The greater part of the lake had now become an oozy marsh, through which the city was approached by long straight causeways, enfiladed by the artillery of strong fortresses. Of these, that connected with the Vera Cruz road, on which the army lay, was the most dangerous. Again the engineers made (and for twenty-seven miles) a secret road, over grounds deemed impassable ; and through this, the array were changed to 1§4'?'. the Acapulco road. On the 20th of August, before daylight, the A^r^st 20. Mexican camp at Contreras was taken by storm ; at noon a vic- Agfef.t day tory was obtained over the forces of Santa Anna ; and at evening, ensued the assault and capture of the fortress of Cherubusco. 9. Gen. Scott might now have entered the city in triumph — but he was sent, " not to conquer Mexico, but a peace ;" and willing 6. What had Gen. Kearney effected? In what way did he proceed to California? How did he arrive there? What movements were made to retake Angeles ? Where, and to whom, was the final capitulation of the Californian army made? — 7. What was taken (and when) by the Ameri- cans under Gen. Scott? What was his course from the coast? Describe the battle of Cerro Gordo. The pursuit. Gen. Scott's progress from Puebla. — 8. Describe the situation of the city of Mexico. How did tho American army approach it? What was done by the Americans on tho 20th of August? PEACE CONCLUDKD. 495 "to leave the Mexicans something on which to I'est their national ^fo^crni/is. pride," he granted thein a suspension of arms. But Santa Anna peiu'd ix. violated the armistice, by making a fortress at Molinos del Rey. It was taken, although at a melancholy sacrifice of life. The strongly-fortified hill of Chepul tepee, on which once stood the veritable "halls of the Montezumas," but now the military academy of Mexico, was the only remaining exterior defence of 'Am. Km the city. This the Americans stormed and took, — and again they Mex.^JoL^se- defeated the army of Santa Anna. He sought shelter in the vere, but un- city, — but fled in the course of the night. On the succeeding °TTq morning, September 14th, Gen. Scott made his triumphal entry Mexico into the conquered capital. . . His efforts were directed to the a^. foS^n organization of a government, with which he could treat for the two days- peace. A Mexican congress at length assembled at Queretaro, 'iswlre^ and appointed four commissioners, who, at Guadalupe Hidalgo, officers., met with Mr. Trist, an American envoy already in the country. Here they formed a treaty of peace, which, being duly ratified, America received New Mexico and California ; and obligated her- self to pay to Mexico fifteen millions of dollars.* * It is a new feature in the history of the world, that the victorious na- tion, instead of taxing the conquered, should give them money, or should; pay for provinces already theirs by conquest. Public opinion in America,, however, does not favor possession by mere conquest. If the Americans were, as is erroneously believed in Europe, desirous of making all possible- annexations, they would at this moment have taken full possession of Mex- ico. So far froui any thing to hinder it, many of the inhabitants now anx- iously desired it. From the district ruled by Gen. Wool, there arose, after the peace, a conspiracy, whose object was to separate the northern provinces from the Mexican, and add them to the American republic : and such was the unwonted security of the inhabitants of the capital under the paternal military rule of Gen. Scott, that they offered, if he would remain and govern them, to give him a large sum' of money; but the veteran patriot preferred to go home and ie tried, on petty accusations of his en- emies. Those who talk so much of annexing new states, do not consider the difference between a sister state and a colony. If the Sandwich Islands were to be annexed, and become a state, there must be two senators, hav- ing an equal vote in congress with the two senators from New York. 9. Give an account of the armistice. Of the military operations which, occurred between it and the entrance of Gen. Scott into Mexico. Where and by whom was the treaty of peace made? What were its leading provisions ? 497 The Duchess of Orleans and her Children. PERIOD X. THE TREATY OF GUADALUPE AND EXTENSION OF THE AMEBICAN REPUBLIC, FROM ) Feb. ( [ 1§4§, I AND THE DOWNFALL OF LOUIS PHILIPPE BY THE FRENCH REVOLUTION, THE DEATH OF NICHOLAS, Mar 185 r. 2, r 55. y EMPEROR OF RUSSIA. CHAPTER I. France. — Eevolution of 1848.— The Eepiiblic. — The Eestoration of the Empire. 1. Europe, in 1848, awoke from the long slumber of despot- ism ; and the pent-up discontents of the people, exploded in a series of revolutions. Although they began in Sicily, Italy, and Hungary, yet it was the revolution of France which was as the signal-gun to the battle of the people against their rulers ; and this great event in the eastern hemisphere, has its date in the same month, February 1848, as the founding of the American Pacific empire by the treaty of Guadalupe... Great changes had occurred in France, in the division of landed property. The old revolution of 1*790 deprived the nobility and clergy of their immense estates ;f while by that of July, 1830, and the conse- quent abolition of the hereditary peerage, landed estates became again subdivided ; in consequence of which, France has now a large proportion of independent land-holders, who dread all changes by which individual property becomes insecure. Period X. — Chap. I. — 1. For what is the year 1848 distinguished in Eu- rope? Where did revolutions first appear? What revolution was most marked by its effects? In what month did it occur? What remarkable event in the western continent occurred at the same time? What change had taken place in France in regard to landed estates? and what has France now in consequence ? What was sanctioned by the Code Napo- leonne ? {See note.) Modern Eis, PERIOD X. CHAP. I. (tThe "Code Napoloonne" sanctioned the improv'd condition of landed tenures.) CHAP. I. 500 ELEMENTS OF ANARCHY. Modern Bis. 2. Biit simultaneously a counter influence was forming. The PEKIOD X. truths taught in later times, that the people have rights, and that oppression and tyranny are their wrong's, had, by ambitious demagogues and sensual enthusiasts, been carried out to an ex- treme of licentiousness, and thus, had given rise to the dangerous •comDiuDism, doctrines of socialism, or communism. Although the views of gerous ten- the moderate socialist were less demoralizing than those of the dency. ^\tY2i communist, yet they all acted politically together ; and they indiscriminately receive from current historians either appellation„ socialists;— Their leading object was to bring forward a community of men they are not and women, where, repudiatins: all law, human and divine, no ttTlIG 1*6011 d11" ' / X o ' ' cans. man should presume to claim as his ov/n, either wife, or children, or property. They called themselves republicans — and from the color of the flag which they adopted, they were termed " red republicans ;" but in truth they were as diiferent in their views from men of the stamp of Lafayette, as they were from absolutists. A strong undercurrent of socialism now pervaded, not only France, but other parts of central and southern Europe. 3. Louis Philippe, having manifested abihty in government, gained the support of men of property and business, and made himself respected by foreign nations. His wife, Amelia of Na- ples, was one of the best of the queens of France ; and the royal pair were both examples of conjugal and parental aflection. But he was ungrateful to Lafayette, and those who elevated him ; and in politics, he proved himself an absolutist. He sought the aggrandizement of his family, rather than the public good ; and thus he made shipwreck of both. Instead of paying the enor- 1§4T. mous debt, with which the Bourbons had left France encum- <^ct. 10. bered, he increased it, even in times of prosperity. He offend- the Duke of ©d the nation also by negotiating a marriage of his third son to toe'sS^ with the sister of the queen of Spain ; and thus, contrary to of Isabella of treaties, putting one of the royal family of France into the line ^^"^" of the Spanish succession. In Algiers, the heroic Emir, Abdel- Kader, was bravely contesting the soil of his native land, when, deserted by his followers, he gave himself up to the French, on Abdei-Kader Condition that he should be permitted to go with his family Enprisonei ^^ ^SJP^ ^"^ Syria. Louis Philippe faithlessly imprisoned him at Ham. His minister, M. Guizot, shared the unpopularity of this act ; as also that of giving aid to the " Sonderbund," in Switzer- land, which was regarcka us the party of the Catholic priests against the people. bSns.°" 4. Reform banquets in private houses had been held by the Feb. 22. liberals in various parts of France. One was announced to take 5)pose? pl^ce in Paris. The French chamber of deputies took ground 2. What principles of liberty have been tarsght in later times ? To what raay be ascribed the rise of socialism, or communism? What -was the leading object of the socialist, or communist? Is there any diiference be- tween the two? What were they politically called? Where did sociahstic doctrines prevail ? — 3. What is said of Louis Philippe, and of his wife, ■which is in their favor ? What of Louis Philippe that is against him? In what particular instances did he offend the French nation ? What is said of M. Guizot? 1§4§. Eevolution DOWNFALL OF LOUIS PHILIPPE. 501 against the meeting. Odillon Barrot, one of the reform lead- Modern ms. ers, presented in the chamber a paper impeaching the ministry, period x. A tumult arose, and the president abruptly adjourned the house. c"a^-i- Thousands collected in the streets. On the morning of the 23d "-^"v"*^ of February, M. Guizot announced to the chamber his resigna- "l^'^?' tion. " It is too late," was the ominous cry. All was agitation (tLa Grange and terror. Blood was shed at evening.f Louis Philippe had Office? to made some vain attempts at conciliation; but unmanned by provoke the his fears, he did not take with efficiency the means still in his !!.^Xchthey power to defend his throne. On the 24th, he abdicated, in did.) favor of his young grandson, the Duke of Orleans, — his widowed ^^b 24. mother to be regent. The wretched monarch then stole fi-om the king and the palace, disguised in citizen's dress ; and, leaning on the arm ^^^^^^ ^onf of his braver queen, the pair ascended a small vehicle which deep mourn- bore them swiftly from Paris. The Duchess of Orleans heroical- Duk?o/or- ly led forth her two young sons through the garden of the Tuil- ieans,hereid- leries, to place them under the protection of the deputies. But had^been in the legislative chamber all was uproar and danger. She ^acddentT fled, amidst the shouts " Vive la Republique ;" and finally es- caped with her sons to Germany. 5. A republic was now formally proclaimed at the Hotel de 1§4§. Ville. A Provisional Government was formed, consisting: of the rr^^^^- ^^;. 1 ,. . 1 p X \> ij- T- ^^® repubhc. venerable Dupont de L'iiURE the tnend oi Laiayette,* Lamar- The provis- TiNE the poet and orator, Arago the great astronomer, Ore- ment,— Ixec- MiEux, and Ledru-Rollin. The last was one of the leaders of ^tiye com- the socialists, — this dangerous party being either not under- five, stood, or too strong to be defied. Yet Lamartine spoke to them fearlessly. "You demand of us," said he, "the red flag, in- stead of the tri-color. Citizens ! I will never adopt the red flag. The tri-color has made the circuit of the world, under the repub- lic and the empire, — with our liberties and our glories. The red flag has only made the tour of the Champs de Mars, trained through torrents of the blood of the people.". . . The Provisional p . • j Government, during its forty days, reorganized the army, estab- government, lished the freedom of the press and universal suffi'age, declared ^^l^^^^^' a law to abolish the punishment of death for political ofieuces, and finally decreed a national assembly, to form a constitution on the principles of Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity. The word " fraternity" was introduced by the sociahsts. * After the vile usage by whicli the minions of Louis Philippe deprived Lafayette of the office of commander-in-chief of the National Guards, the indignation among the officers was general, and they wished lo resign. /4.|83j j^ Lafayette would not allow them. "The good of France," he said, " must \^ ^ conver- be consulted." . . "I would permit none of them to resign on my account," sation held said he, to the author of this history,t " but my son, and my friend Dupont in Paris, at DE l' EuEE. ' ' the ' ' Hotel de la Paix.") 4. What was that measure of the liberals which first led to the revolu- tion ? What was done by Odillon Barrot ? What followed ? What occurred on the 23d? What was the course pursued by the king? — the queen?— the Duchess of Orleans ? — 5. What was done at the Hotel de Ville ? Who composed the executive committee ? What is related of Lamartine ? What were the acts of the provisional government ? 502 A BRIGHT DAY OBSCURED. Modern His. Q^ Qii the 23d of April, was chosen the constituent or national PEEIOD X. assembly. The election showed that the middle class of property CHAP. I. liolders were in dread of socialism, although not then developed. Lamartine, who had refused to adopt its flag, became the idol of the nation, and stood at the head of the poll ; whereas Ledru- Rollin was the twenty-fourth on the list. . . On a bright and pleasant day. May 4th, the assembly met ; and such was the en- thusiasm of the people, that 200,000 gathered around the cham- ber, and mingled their shouts with the roar of cannon, as the tri-colored flag was unfurled. It was the boast of the new re- public, that no blood was shed to establish it ; and now the as- sembly required no oath to support it. 7. This happy day was soon obscured. It had been proclaim- ed, under the word Fraternity, that laborers had a right to de- mand of government, work and pay ; and Ledru-Rollin had been A ruinous i^ade Secretary of the interior, and thus encouraged to attempt aw'Jimpi'acti- his ruinous and impracticable schemes. He opened workshops, attempted, where two francs a day were paid to those who could be em- ployed ; while one franc was given to those who could not. By these means the government became a great manufacturing es- tabhshment, which, though it was of necessity ill conducted and unprofitable, yet at the same time, competing with private indus- try and enterprise, it w^as fatal to those foundations of business, on which national wealth depends. Factories and shops were shut. Want and misery were on every side. The national as- LotS^Bhinc ^^^^^y could no longer pay the many thousand, who, according to Barbes, Con- the invitations of the plotting socialists,! had now flocked from ^Ledru-Roi-^ the Country to Paris. Several thousands of their number were liD.) directed to return to their homes. This brought on the crisis ex- pected by the leaders of the red republicans, who now rose to take the property of Paris, — murder resisting citizens, — and estab- June23to26. lish their long-desired community. Instigated by them, the dis- surrlftion^of ^^'^^^^ workmen rushed into the streets, shouting, " Down with the socialists, the Republic !" Other workmen, and the low mob, full of in- vario^usiy^ fernal passions, joined them. The friends of law and morals, stated from and the owners of property, fought — women as well as men — for io,ooo? their homes and their lives. Gen. Cavaignac and other officers ably headed valiant troops ; and after four days, this most bloody and disastrous of all the insurrections of Paris, was quelled. • 8. Sociahsra was now put down. Its leaders either fled, or were, after trial, banished ; but enthusiasm for a republic had perished • too, and men's desires were for security, rather than liberty. ' Gen. Cavaignac was the idol of the people ; and had he been other than a true republican and an honest man, he 6. What is said concerning the election of the constituent assembly? Describe the occurrences of the 4th of May ? — 7. What claim was set up in behalf of laborers ? How was the scheme encouraged ? What was dono by the secretary of the interior? What was the consequence of govern- ment employing workmen? When the assembly could no longer pay the worl<:men, what Avas done? Give an account of the dreadful riot of June, 1848. — 8. What was now the state of things in France? What is said of Gen, Cavaignac? LOUIS NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. 503 might have been the niililary ruler of France. But there was ^^o(i<^>"^ J^Js. now a second "man of destiny" in the field, Louis Napoleon peuiod x. BoNATARTE, ncplicw of the emperor, and grandson of Josephine. *^"'^''* ^' Although his youth had been spent amidst the struggles of pov- ^~^ ^ erty, yet from the death of Napoleon's son, since called Napoleon EeichsuuU: II. ,f he regarded himself as the repret^entative of the Bonapartes, broiia 2 2d of May a national assemblyf met in Berlin, having been ''to foraiT ^^60^6^^ ^^ assist the king in perfecting a new and liberal consti- constitution.) tution, the outlines of which he had himself promulgated. He opened the assembly in person, saying to the deputies — " I wel- come you with joyful earnestness." — " The new constitution, 3. What were the movements of the liberals in Prussia? What part was taken by the king;? What was the date of the rising at Berlin? How was the occasion met by the king? What were the feelings of the people, and. how shown? What followe'd ? — 4. What is said of the Prussian universi- ties ? Of the king's course respecting them, and his language? What blow was given to the C4ermauic union by this insincere language? What is here said of a constituent assembly ? {See side-note.) ANARCHY DESPOTISM. 507 which we are to unite in forming, will constitute a new era in ^^(^f^^-^n iHs. the history of Prussia and of Germany." And so it might, per- pekiod x. haps, have proved, but the people demanded the right to rule ^^^^^- ^^ both the assembly and the king. Instead of putting their wisest " "< '^ men in the lead, they followed the lowest of the mob; who were not only ignorant of the science of government, but who, being 1§4§. imbued with socialism, were not disposed to be satisfied with ^stroys'trur any thing short of the subversion of the whole fabric of societ3^ liberty. As the king made concessions, they continually increased their demands. Again and again, he changed his cabinet to gratify their caprices ; until at length he could scarcely obtain for a min- ister of state, a man of character and ability. Because it was voted in the assembly that the events of March were not a revo- june 16. lution, the mob, in order to make one, stormed the public arse- B^rUn— tho nal, and took and distributed the arms — thereby converting free- arsenal tak'n. dom into a " reign of terror." 5. The class of citizens who ever constitute the abiding strength of society, convinced, that though liberty with law is a blessing, yet without it, it is a curse, encouraged the king to with- draw to Potsdam, and to appoint as piime minister an anti-lib- eral, the able and unbending count Brandenburg. Gen. Van Wrangel had already been recalled from the war in Sleswick Holstein, and invested with the command of the ti'oops in Berlin, gg^^ 20. " How melancholy," said he to the people, " does Berlin appear ! Van Wran- No trade ; shops full, but no customers ; laborers without work of Berlin. and without wages ! Your houses are empty, and grass grows in your streets. This shall be changed. I swear it ! The king has confided in me, and I will establish order." Aided by the minister, he accomplished his mission — though not at once, or without a struggle. A motion was brought forward in the as- sembly to assist the inhabitants of Vienna, now besieged by the troops of their emperor; and the populace, impatient for its speedy passage, rushed tumultuously into the chamber, and blood Count Brm was shed in the riot which ensued. The king sent count Bran- *^t1°e^kifg4° denburg to prorogue the assembly, requiring the members in- name, pro- stantly to disperse. " Never !" they exclaimed. " No — a thou- Sembiy. sand times, no !" Gen. Van Wrangel sent men to force them out, but not to harm them. Some of the members were cariied forth by the stalwart arms of the soldiers, while sitting in their chairs. Thus the authority of the crown and the military was re-established ; and the storm of anarchy, sank, as usual, into the calm of despotism. 6. Austria. — There is in man a natural hatred of the oppres- sor's chain, although it may be concealed, as in Austria, by a silken exterior. Abhorrent, too, to natural conscience was the 4. What was now the lansruage and conduct of the king ? Why did his prophecy prove untrue ? What was the conduct of the people in reference to the king ? What was the cause of the riot of June 16th ? — 5. What class of citizens now came forward, and with what conviction? What was done by their advice ? What said Gen. Van Wrangel of the condition of Berlin ? W^hat caused the riot in the assembly, April 26th, 1849 ? What was dono on the occasion } 1§49. April 26, 508 AIISTEIAN KEV0LT7TI0N. Modern His, espionage, by which one half the people were paid by govern- PERIOD X. ment to find out and reveal in private the secrets of the remain- CHAP. iL ^^^, . ^j^^ equally so, was the foul practice, kept up by the bureau ' Y^~-^ of state, of opening the private letters committed to the mail, and the™ei?n of of employing clerks to copy them, to forge papers, and to swear ^•''soiutism, falsely. The knowleda:e of these and other atrocities rankled in ternich, and men's minds. Already demonstrations had been made, and now, Its fruits, to excited by the revolution of France, the people of Vienna rose. l§-i§. The movement was led by the young students of the university, RisS^o/tii ^^^^ rushed into the diet, then in session, and tumultuously de- peopie at manded reforms. The military attempted to restrain them, and Vienna. \,\qq^ ^^s shed. The burgher-guard joined the people. At first reasonable concessions would have quieted them; but Metter- nich, who so well understood the baser passions, now stumbled in the dark over man's awakened conscientiousness and love of liberty ; and when Ferdinand, the reigning emperor, wished to cede to the popular demands, he refused. Then arose from the (t He fled to thronged streets the resolute cry — "Down with Metternich ;" England.) ^^^ j^^ ^^^ forced by the royal family to resign.f 7. The emperor made eveiy concession demanded ; and as he rode forth he was greeted with tears of gratitude. But the peo- ple became intoxicated with a sudden liberty, for which they were unprepared. Low-bred agitators from abroad, whose object was plunder — infidel communists, who wished to destroy not only all civil power, but also to abolish property and family order — now mingled with the better elements of the revolution. The freed press was not only made the vehicle of sedition, but of revenge, indecency, and blasphemy. Ferdinand, now, neither free nor May 17. safe, fled his capital, and went to Innspruck. But this monarch goes to'^^^ was neither a great, a brave, nor even an honest man. He nei- innspruck. ^^^ dealt firmly, nor in good faith with the people. The Vien- Aug. 8. nese, however, besought his return. He came, but not till after toVSnna! ^® ^^^ made a perfidious arrangement with one of his subjects, Jellacic, appointed ban of Croatia, against the liberty of Hungary, which he had solemnly guaranteed : and by that arrangement, he, eventually, brought an army of Croats against his subjects of Vienna. Tbe^emperor ^' Subsequently, Ferdinand fled from Vienna, with his family, flees to to Olmutz ; where he drew around him an able and unscrupulous ^^ ^' cabinet, at the head of which was prince Swartzenburg. In (^Ju"e2 at the name of the emperor, Vienna was now declared in a state of meeting of a siegc. From the north, the army of prince Windisgratz, which con-rcs^foi- ^^ j^^^ qucllcd an insurrection at Prague,f had met and joined lowed, on the . 14tli, by a riot.) 6. Austria. What, in the Austrian bureaucratic system, was wrong, and hateful to the people ? Eelate some of the circumstances of the rising of the people of Vienna: Of the course of the emperor: Of Metternich. — 7. What was done after the departure of Metternich ? What is said of communists? What, under such influences, was the consequences of the freedom of the press ? What was the condition and conduct of Ferdinand ? What qualities did he not possess ? What is said of him after he went to Innspruck ?— 8. What measure did he take, October 6th ? Who was made prime minister ? LOMBfciRDIAN REVOLUTION. 509 the army of Jellacic, which had been defeated by the Hunga- rians ; and it was not until after the terrible destruction of a five days' attack and bombardment, that the two armies were able to enter the now desolated city. After order was restored, the em- peror, still at Olmutz, resigned the imperial crown to his young nephew, Francis Joseph, who declared that he willingly "enter- ed upon the path of a reformation of the monarchy ;" but he has brought Austria back to a state of military despotism.* 9. Italy. — At the period of the French revolution, some of the states of Italy were ripening for revolt ; while others, as Sicily had actually revolted. The Papal States were regarded at that moment by the liberals with great complacency; cardinal Mastat, who had succeeded to the papal chair, under the name of Pius IX., having made reforms and introduced modern improve- ments. Over each of her two Lombardo-Venetian provinces, Austria had placed a viceroy, and a mere shadow of a represen- tative government ; while the real power resided in the bureaux at the two capitals, Venice and Milan, which were wholly sub- ject to that of Metternich at Vienna, and formed on the same corrupt model. 10. In Milan, a duty having been laid on tobacco, a placard was posted up, stating that the American revolution began with the refusal and destruction of tea when taxed. The Milanese proceeded to take and destroy tobacco, wherever they could find it. Marshal Radetzky, the Austrian commander, directed his soldiers to patrol the streets in squads, smoking cigars. The people, attempting to take them away, were fired upon, and a bloody fight ensued. Soon came the electrifying news of the French and German revolutions, when the Milanese rose and pe- titioned for reforms, — which Radetzky refused. Then, to expel the Austrians, they barricaded their streets — men with their costly carriages, and women with their damask sofas and rose- wood pianos; and from the tops of houses they threw down bricks and other dangerous missiles upon the heads of the sol- diers. Brave and cool, as was the veteran commander, the troops could not resist a war from above, below, and on both flanks. He withdrew them from the city, but held it in siege. The * MetternicTi, who resided a while in England, returned to Vienna, thongh not to mingle openly in the affairs of government. Bat the artful double- dealing by which Austria has not only kept her threatened empire from dismemberment during the present Russo-Turkish war, and has really done service to the czar, while pretending friendship to the allies, would seem to indicate that Metternich still rules her secret councils from the recesses of his sumptuous palace in Vienna. This I saw, October, 1854; and was told that he inhabited it; but no one, not even a garrulous French guide, seemed willing to say more. E. W. Modern Ilis. PERIOD X. CHAP. H. 184§. Oct. 31. Vienna tak'n after a bloody siege. Dec. 2. The emperor resigns. 1846. June 14, Accession of Pius IX. Bureaucratic governments under Met- ternich. 1§4§. Jan. 3. The tobacco riots of the Milanese. On both sides, liilled, 200. March 22. Kadetzky evacuates Milan, 8. What was done in regard to Vienna? "What change of emperors is related ? What was the declaration of Francis Joseph, and what his con- duct? — 9. Italy. What was the political condition of some of the states of Italy, at the opening of the French revolution ? What particularly of the two Austrian provinces ? — 10. How began the revolution of Milan ? What happened when the French and German revolutions were known? Who was Radetzky, and what was done by him? How did the Milanese expel the Austrian troops ? 510 CHARLES ALBERT AND EAf)ETZKY. Modern His, PERIOD X CHAP. II, 1§48. April 8. Chas. Albert drives Ea- detzky across the Mincio. May IS to 30, takes Pes- clicira, and is victorious at Gaito. June 3. Eadetzky drives the Sardinians towards Milan. (tChs. Albert relied on a corps sent by the pope, but their general played false.) Aug. 6. Eadetzky re-enters Milan. 1§40. March 24. NOVABA. The act of a patriot king. Milanese made their situation known by sending up small bal- loons which scattered handbills in neighboring cities ; and bands of soldiers soon gathered to their relief. 11. Charles Albert, king of Sardinia, wilhng to become the head of an Italian confederacy, had justly gained the confidence of the liberals, by giving an acceptable constitution to his own subjects. He now appeared with an efficient army for the de- fence of Milan. Radetzky retired in the direction of Vienna, from whence he expected reinforcements. Charles Albert pressed upon the rear of the Austrians, and by several victorious encoun- ters drove them from the Mincio to the Adige. . . The Austrian government, already overwhelmed with difficulties at Vienna, in Hungary, and now also in Venice, would, on the 24th of May, have made peace with the Lombardians on conditions nearly- granting them independence. This w^as the culminating point of the success of the revolu- tionists throughout Europe. Besides the countries already men- tioned, they were in the ascendant in Tuscany^ the grand duke having withdrawn, and left the government for a season in their hands. In Naples and in Sicily they were in arms, waging a bloody and, it then seemed, a successful war against their sover- eign, Ferdinand II. 12. But although the liberals could pull down, they lacked leaders, wise to reconstruct, and firm to uphold. Said Lamartine — " What is needed is a Eu.ropean Washington." And the peo- ple had no conception of that first pi'inciple of a republican gov- ernment, that the majority must rule, and the minority must submit. Their exhilarating prospects were, therefore, soon over- cast. Radetzky received the reinforcements which it had been the object of Charles Albert to prevent,! and the fortune of war changed. He defeated the Sardinians at Somma Compagna, followed them to the gates of Milan, and there entered into an agreement with Charles Albert by which the Milanese were left to their fate, he returning to Sardinia. Radetzky re-entered Milan, but no bloody executions followed ; and the exhausted people, now in peace and security, could not but be glad of the calm which followed the storm, even though it was gained at the expense of liberty. The Austrians soon regained all Lom- bardy. 13. Charles Albert, having recruited his army, again advanced — and Radetzky left Milan to meet him. At Novara they fought, and the Sardinians lost the battle. The king relinquished his crown to his son, Victor Emmanuel, aware that he would obtain 10. How did the Milanese make their situation known? — 11. What is said of Cliarles Albert? What was, till the end of May, the condition of the two armies ? {Observe the side-notes.) Wliat, about the last of May, was the condition and prospects of Austria ? Of the liberals ? Did they attain a higher point of prosperity ? What were then their prospects in Tuscany and Naples?— 12. What was lacking on the part of the liberals?^ What now were the movements of the two armies? When did the Austrians re- occupy Mihm ? What followed ?— 13. What account can you give of the battle of Novara? ILL TKKATMKNT OF THE POPE. ' 511 for his country better terms of settlement. . . Radetzky next turn- ^^^^^^" ^i»- ed all his forces upon Venice, already besieged by the Austrians period x. under gen. haynau ; but they refused to capitulate, although ^^^^^- "• the kind old soldier entreated as well as threatened. At the call of '^^"^^^'""^'^ their leader, Manin, they not only gave their money, but brought to the mint their gold and silver plate. For five months, amidst disease and famine and bombardment, the sea-girt city held out. i§49. But at length licentiousness within, and force without, subdued Aug. 2S. her. Radetzky sutiered the leaders to depart, and foi'gave the J^a^ns^re- people ; whose fevered dream of liberty w^as for the time forgotten enter Venice. in the abundance and security, Avhich, by the providence of their rulers, followed their return to Austrian despotism. 14. The year 1848 is known as the year oi revolution — that of 1849, of reaction. The Sicihans at Palermo.^ who had rejected _ a liberal constitution offered them by their king through the ^p^ii 22. mediation of British and French officers, were finally subdued by Palermo ta- his armies and obliged unconditionally to submit. In Rome, as Jiia/gieriL* COUNT Rossi, one of that liberal ministry which the pope had appointed in May 1848, was alighting from his carriage to enter 1848^ the chamber of deputies, he was fatally stabbed in the neck. Nov. 16. The assembly continued its session without notice of the murder, ^S^Eoii"^ or effort to secure the assassin. The next day all the ministers resigned. A boisterous multitude assembled and demanded the pope. He had taken refuge in the palace of the Quirinal, with none near, to pity or support him, but his body-guard of 100 Nov. IT. Swiss, and the foreign ministers. From his window he saw his E^om& owm troops join the rioters, and advance with them upon the palace. They fired, and killed some of his servants. The pope then submitted ; but eight days afterwards he escaped from Y^u'o?b\e Rome, in the disguise of a servant of the Bavarian minister, — by ''pope, whose aid he was conveyed to Gaeta in Naples. 15. From thence he issued his manifesto, repudiating all for- Dec. 25. _ mer concessions ; and, as in Rome the liberals proceeded to elect *^^festo!^^* a constitutional assembly, which declared the abolition of the pope's temporal power and the estabhshment of a republic, he followed these proclamations, one by one, with his jDublished ana- themas. The catholic nations protested. Even dormant Spain aroused, and proposed an armed, intervention ; and an Austrian force under Gen. Haynau entered the Papal States on the north. A republic at An executive triumvirate was now at the head of the Roman °™^" republic, the first man of whom was Mazzini, who was not im- plicated in the riots of April ; but he and his copatriots glowed with the true Roman love of liberty. Suddenly Gen. Oudinot, sent by republican France, appeared and landed wdth 6,000 men 13. Of the change of sovereigns in Sardinia? How did Eadetzky now employ his forces? Give some account of the siege of Venice. — 14. What is said of two consecutive years ? What was done at Palermo ? At Kome, in reference to count Rossi? What was the condition and conduct of the pope? Give some account of his flight. — 15. What course did he pursue at Gaeta ? What was the feeling of the catholic nations ? What was the condition of things at Rome ? What is said of Mazzini ? 512 NOBLE CONDUCT OF THE HUNGAEIANS. Modern His, ^t Civita Vecchia. Mazzini and the Romans were not so delnd- PEEIOD X. ed by his smooth offers of protection, as to admit him into Rome ; CHAP. iL jjQj, ^{^ ^Qj \yj gjjy discourtesy give the French cause for a ^""^'"'"^^^ quaiTel. They offered them the choice of an encampment any- '^?^^' where except in Rome. But they insisted on entering the city The French — which, after twenty days of cruel bombardment, and the de- enter Home, struction of 400 of its brave defenders, they accomphshed. Th^y then aided to destroy the repubhc, and next to persecute to A^nis ^^^^^ ^^^ banishment the leading repubhcans; and on the re- Poprreturns turn of the popc, in the spring of 1850, they assisted to re-estab- to Kome. jigj^ j^^g authority. 16. Hungary. — Hungary, including Sclavonia and Croatia, although under the same hereditary sovereign as Austria, was a distinct kingdom, with its own diet of two houses — the upper of hereditary lords, and the lower, elected, not by the serfs, but by the titled gentry, the clergy, the widows of magnates, and the enfranchised cities. Hungary was peopled by different races, "^^^of^r^*^ The upper class glory in the name of Magyars — that of the tribe Magyars, who, in 1300, emigrated from the east and founded Hungary. The Magyars are a chivalric race, highly endowed, brave, earn- est, and courteous. Proudly jealous of their distinct nationality, 1S25 ^^^y ^^^ opposed the insidious advances of Metternich's policy, Austrian en- tending to establish over them the entire Austrian bureaucratic ^Tesht'TI!^*^ system of secret police. In 1825 they so met the subject in their Diet, that the Austrian power dared no longer openly to appear, 1»47. i^y^. ^ygg g^iii secretly at work. At the close of 184'7, the diet of Preparation . . •' . . . ' for resistance uobles, preparatory to an avowed opposition, passed a generous r+Th ^^p'^i voluntary law, to divest themselves of hereditary right to the tiiey said, by labor of the peasants, thus insuring their grateful service.f The thdr^serfs^ clcrgy at the same time relinquished their tithes. No indemnity found them was Specified, but the legislature left this to the future, declaring enemies.) ^ ^j^^^ ^^ ^^^ under the broad shield of the national honor."* 1§48. IV. The nation's grievances were being eloquently set forth by ^quence in' I^^uis KossuTH in the Diet, whcrc was pending the question of the diet of carrying them before the Austrian government and asking for res urg. p^(jj.ggg^ when Hungary was electrified with the news of the French and German revolutions. At once the Diet sent to the Hungarian cmpcror, at Vienna, an imposing deputation of one hundred and to^Vienn^ fifty of its members, headed by Kossuth. They reached Vienna at the opportune moment, when Ferdinand was granting to his own people all their demands ; and reluctantly he conceded also * NoAvhere were the serfs more abject than in Hungary. The great land- holders had, at first, the power of life and death; afterwards, a noble, who killed a serf, was fined forty florins. 15. What is said of the invasion and occupancy of Eome by the French ? — 16. Hungary. What is said of the nationality of Hungary ? How was its Diet composed ? Who were the Magyars ? What were their views and their policy in regard to the Austrian "system? What tlie magnanimous conduct of the nobles and clergy in regard to the serfs ? — 17. What was the state of things when the laews reached Hungary of the French and German revolutions ? What was done by the Diet ? IMPERIAL FRAUD. 513 those of Ins Hungarian subjects, appoiuting them a ministry of ^^^^^^ ^^- Hberals, under count Louis Batthyani. Returning with the period x. joyful news to Presbui-g, the Diet arranged a free government, *^"^^* "• their executive of course being the emperor, — who now gratified the affectionate Hungarians by coming to Presburg, and in per- son confirming his former concessions, and with seeming cordial- ity approving their hberal system. This was the happy hour of ^omSS*^ Hungary— so short that it coukl scarcely be called a day. But Hungary fell "without a crime." Her brief liberty came not to its'the agent a people wholly unprepared ; nor were they chargeable either t>y whom ■with the excesses of socialistic anarchy, or with the reproach that was^secretiy though they had the strength to pull down, they had not the ^®5*^*^|ee^* wisdom to reconstruct. Hungary was the victim of imperial stiles' Hist, fraudf and foreign force. of Austria.) 18. Those wdio had learned statecraft in the schoolf of Met- (t Literally, ternich w^ere carrying out his favorite maxim, " divide and con- ^"e^xis^ted in." quer." The Hungarians had, in attempting to make the Magyar "^^^^^^^th" language the common tongue of all the Hungarian kingdom, knaveries of unwittingly offended the Croats and Sclavonians, who formed a ^^pioSfa^y^' part of the Hungarian kingdom. Emissaries from Austiia fanned "^vere taught their discontents, and an elegant and popular young demagogue men destined of the Croats, Jellacic,* a former protege of the emperor, was, ^^ t^® trade.) without the consent of the Hungarians, and therefore illegally, made by him, ban or lord of Croatia. He took means to raise a j^^^ j^ revolt. The emperor, to delude the Hungarians, publicly de- Emperor nounced him as a traitor, and deprived him of his command ; jeUacicr while privately, he received him in his palace at Innspruck. Prep- arations to attack the deceived Hungarians went on vigorously in Croatia and Sclavonia. Kossuth, how^ever, foresaw the danger ; and moved by him, the Diet raised 200,000 men, pledging the credit of the state for means to support them. By the 4th of Sep- jeScic^ tember, Jeliacic appeared on the borders of Hungary with a large arms. army. The court of Vienna then threw off" the mask, and the emperor publicly proclaimed him reinstated in his office, and n^^^l'-P' . sent from Vienna count Lamberg to take command of the Hun- bergmurder- garian forces. He was murdered by the mob at Buda. The mobafBuda. whole kingdom was then declared to be in a state of siege, and Jeliacic appointed royal commander over Hungary. The Hun- garians met and defeated him, and he fled in the night to Vienna. Attempts which were then made to send troops to aid the defeat- ed army in their march to Vienna, caused the bloody riot which ^J*^ ^• occurred in that city on the 6th of October — the enraged stu- Vienna. * More frequently spelled Jellackich^ but quite unpronounceable to an. unpractised English, tongue. J has the sound of Y. 17. What was accomplished by the deputation? Subsequently by the Diet ? And after that by the emperor? What was then the state of Hun- gary ? What can you say of the reverses of Hungary ? — 18. AVhat appears to have been the first unfortunate step of the Hungarians ? What is said of Jeliacic ? What was the conduct of the emperor respecting him ? What was done in the Diet of Hungary? What at the court of Vienna? What is said of count Lamberg ? What followed his murder ? 65 inv gary 514: KUSSIAN FOECE. Modern Els. (^jents and liberals being determined that no troops should depart PERIOD X. for that purpose. The violence of that day led to the flight of CHAP, II. ^jjQ emperor to Olmutz ; and probably it was the web of duplicity ""^■""Y ' in which he had thus involved himself, that led to his abdication. 1849. i9_ As soon as Vienna was subjected by the combined armies were vfff-^ of Windisgratz and Jellacic, both generals w^ere sent to reduce ^^'^^i'ilir^ Hungary. Count Batthyani resigned, and Kossuth w^as invested Miskoies; with dictatorial powers. Efforts almost superhuman were now nea/*?es% • ^^^^^^ by all the Hungarians, frojn the highest magnate to the and April 20, lowest peasant ; and after discouraging defeats, their generals, Dembinski, Bem, and Gorgey, led them to repeated victories. June andju- Austria, of herself, was defeated. But by the treaties of the holy ly, three Eus- ,,. -r» • i i i i • • ^ sian armies alhancc, Kussia was pledged to an armed mtervention, whenever Hun- Austria called for aid against her subjects. The call was made, Aug.' 9. and the czar sent 130,000 troops, which invaded Hungary in ^^iW' ^^^"^® divisions, and from opposite quarters. Already impover- Finai defeat ished and desolatcd, the Hungarians could not wn'thstand them. y^sundCT* Their last army of 30,000 men, under Gorgey, was by him surren- Bera and dcred, August 13th, 1849, to the Russians; and despotism, with Au'' 13 added cruelty, was re-established. The resistance of the patriots Surrender of was made their crime. Count Batthyani was shot, and many y^r 'army'^by Others perished.f Kossuth, with a few friends, fled to Turkey, Gorgey. where he was magnanimously protected by the sultan, though Mu Dre^dJs' ^^^manded by the czar. The government of the American re- over the public, aided by England, negotiated his release, and he was "uSoST t>rought to New York. 20. Denmark. — On account of the revolutionary spirit of Eu- rope, Christian VHI., king of Denmark, became involved in a war with the duchies of Sleswick and Holstein — the former being the southern province of the peninsula of Jutland, and the 1 s J.S latter lying on its southern frontier. The liberals in these neigh- March 24. boiing duchies held a meeting at Kiel, where, after resolving l^ibei-^? r^*^ ^^^^ ^^^y would no longer acknowledge the paramount authority of the Diet of Denmark, they proclaimed a provisional govern- ment, and also their intention to become ultimately a state of the German confederation about to be instituted. The Danish king held Holstein by a looser tie, and did not object to its joining the Germanic body, but Sleswick was an integral part of his he- reditary dominions, and he would not rehnquish it. The people of the duchies, however, were determined not to be separated, but together to have a free government. Christian was warmly seconded by the Danes of the north, and a ruinous war ensued. 18. What was the cause of the riot of October 6th at Vienna? To what did it lead ? — 19. "What occurred after Vienna was subjected ? What was done in Hungary? Who were the Hungarian generals? During what months were the Magyars victorious? {Observe the side-notes.) In what months did the Russian armies invade Hungary? What was the conse- quence? When and where were the Magyars finally defeated? What army was surrendered, and by whom? What became of Kossuth? — 20. Denmarh. Give some account of the Danish war of Sleswick Holstein. What part was acted by Prussia ? What was the consequence I What has occurred in Denmark since the war ? THE BRITISH EMPIRE IN THE EAST. 615 Prussia here played a double game, pretend iuGf for a time to ^^^"^^^"^ ^'^^- favor the liberals by sending tlieni troops to fight against Den- period x. mark, while secretly she was plotting on the other side, Van ^^^-^-^'-^i- Wrangel, her ablest general, commanding the Danish armies. "■"" * ~^ At length Prussia openly united with Austria against the duch- j * jg ies, and they were forced to submit. At first a constitution was (A iunda- granted, but the government of Denmark has since that period ^ockimod) made itself absolute. CHAPTER m. Great Britain and her Dependencies. 1839. Afjfhanistan 1848. 1. India. — The East India Company still have the monopoly of the trade and government of India, yet not exclusively ; for parliament appoints a joint power called " The Board of Con- troV Whenever the native chiefs rise against their authority, they send forth British troops, conquer tliem, and annex their territories. Thus, in 1839, Cahd and GMznee Avere taken, the __ chieftain Dost Mahomed was subdued; when all Afghanistan subdued was annexed. In another war with Moolraj, a native chief, Lieut. Edwards obtained a victory, and Mooltan was taken. "^EeiT Lord Gough was afterwards victorious at Goojerat, when the ^^f^^' whole of the Punjauh was annexed. In this manner, the entire British forces peninsula of Hindostan has now fallen under British control. . . ^*^'0^o. In BuRMAH, Prome was taken, in November, 1852. The follow- 1853, ing year, Mea-Toon, a chieftain of Ava^ was vanquished, by Sir ^^^^^^' John Cheape, and the king was obliged to cede to Great Britain Mea-Toon the free navigation of the Irawaddy. defeate . 2. At the Cape of Good Hope^ the fierce and wnly Kaffirs, under their valiant chief Sandilli, made a war of extermination upon the English settlers. In 1853, after a series of bloody con- 1850-51 flicts, Sandilli confessed that he had " no more strength." He £dim^on- submitted to Gen. Cathcart, who sent him, with the Kaffirs, quered. 200 miles north from their country, annexing that to the British crown Great Britain has long been in the practice of export- ing her convicts to her distant colonies ; but the inhabitants of the Cape of Good Hope refused, on the arrival of a convict ship, to receive the criminals. Parliament wisely decided that their objections were valid ; and thenceforward determined to send no Chap. III. — 1. India. What is said of the East India Company? What is done when the native chiefs rise against Britisli authority? What ex- ample of this occurred in 1839? What is the next example mentioned? Wliat war was it, in whicli Lieut. Edwards figured? Where was Lord Gough victorious, and what was the consequence of this war? — of all these wars together? What was done in Burmah ? — 2. Describe the war made upon the English colony at the Cape of Good Hope. What did the colo- nists refuse ? What course did parliament take ? 516 GOLD m ATJSTKALIA. Modern Bis. PERIOD X. CHAP. IIL 1752. (tDiscovered by Tasman. 1577. Visited by Cook.) 1674. (tDiscovered by Dampier in behalf of tbe English. 1770. Visited by Cook.) 17§1. Settled by convicts. 1S51. (tPopnlat'n, 322,000.) 1§3§. Mrs. Chis- liolm brings over wives for the Aus- tralians. l§52-54 Treaties with the XJ. States. (Lord Elgin, tbe govern'r- general, in- strumental in obtaining them from England.) more convicts to colonies whose inhabitants were unwilling to receive them. 3. New Zealand,! where, in 1815, the first missionaries found savage cannibals, was, in 1853, colonized by Britons from Aus- tralia, and is now a flourishing province. The natives are fast becoming civihzed and Christianized. . .* Hong Kong, the small island ceded by China, after the opium war, is a place of great importance ; as it gives the British a footing in that most popu- lous and fertile of all countries. 4. In Australia,! Britain owns a continent; but it is a region naturally sterile ; — without the inlets of bays, or the outlets of large rivers. The first colony was made, 17 8*7, at Botany Bay, now Sydney, by convicts transported from England. Although the British held the land low, and invited settlers ; yet neither the character of the first colonists, nor the face of the country, was inviting. In 1853, Edward Hargraves made the discov- ery of gold, which was found, as in California, in great abund- ance. Settlers came, as the news spread, from every part of the world ; and new cities sprung up, especially in the southeastern partf In 1853, the Murray river was navigated by steam. But, as the new settlers were almost all young men, no family ties could be formed. Mrs. Chisholm, an English woman of ability and benevolence, returned from Australia to England, collected the means, and brought over from Britain to Australia virtuous young women ; who found employment, or became, at their op- tion, wives to the colonists. 5. Canada, and the British Provinces in JiToRTH America, have increased ^ in numbers and wealth. They have shared in the emigration from Europe ; and, partaking of the progressive spirit of the age,, they have connected by railroad and telegraph their own principal cities, and have also reached important points in the United States. The British government have shown a laudable desire to promote their prosperity. They have lately ratified treaties with the American Republic, by one of which the vexed question of the fisheries on the coast has been settled ; and by another, called the Reciprocity Treaty, made June 5th, 1854, reciprocal trade has been established. 6. Jamaica and Guiana have, since the abolition of slavery, given parliament much perplexity. The blacks, naturally indo- lent and improvident. La * u refused to labor even for generous and, since idleness is the parent of vice, they have in too many cases retrograded into barbarism. Meanwhile, the once * The author has lately conversed witli a Mr. Erown, an intelligent Scotch resident of New Zealand, who, in 1854, visited England and America in part to find the best systems for schools. 3. What is here said oi Neio Zealand? — 4. What of Australia, previous to the discovery of gold ? By whom was that discovery made ? When ? What wag the consequence ? What service to the colony was rendered by Mrs. Chisholm 1 — 5. What may be said of the British provinces in North America? By what treaties has the British government sought to promote their prosperity? — 6. What is said of Jamaica and Guiana? 517 valuable estates of the planters having failed for want of hands to Modem m^. work them, have become of little or no value. The repeal of the period x. "corn laws," in 1846, operated ngainst these colonies, and in- ^"^^- "^• creased their distress ; while the repeal of the " navigation laws," ' "^ "^ in 1849, ga;'^ them some relief.* Com w?;e- 7. In April, 1848, when all Central and Southern Europe was peaied. shaken by the French revolution, there wei'e in London rumors ^^. .' of an extensive rising of the disaffected, here called "chartists." lawrfeVJed. But the great majoiity of the people, knowing that there was no (^xhe chart- adequate cause for rebellion, cheerfully aided the government; jh^^rm^aderf which, being fully awake, and on the alei't, so completely and ciicuiousbya easily frustrated an attempt made on the 10th of April, that its to'paiHament, leaders became the subjects of contempt and lidicule.f . . . But aminati'o°n!ito Ireland had, as we have seen, her own subjects of complaint. ^leSa- Her potato-crop, the bread of her people, had failed ; and while oSnetoTds many were dying by famine, others were ripe for deeds of des- "^nam^s.T peration. The " Irish Association," with Smith O'Brien, a mem- ber of parliament, at its head, and with other men of abilities as ^**sJ' leaders, assumed for a time a threatening appearance. With but O'Brien, slight resistance, however, their ill-appointed forces were scattered : ^nd Mftcheii their leaders were taken, tried, and transported to Australia*. sent to Aus- 8. In 1851, parliament was occupied in repelling the advances two^ast es- made in Britain by the Roman church ; there directed by the America genius and ambition of Nicholas Wiseman,| who had been made by the pope, archbishop of Westminster. "The Ecclesias- naiwTseman.) tical Titles bill" was passed in 1851, to prevent titles being given -■ c«r * by a foreign potentate to British subjects. tj^^ Ecciesi- 9. In 1850, Prince Albert, the royal consort, as president of a^^icai^ ^Titles " The Society of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce,"! brought forward a project, which, meeting with public favor, the queen 1850. issued a commission providing for " An Exhibition of the Works prScV of Industry of all Nations ;" which, accordingly, was opened in Albert. * The "corn laws," enacted in 1815, by imposing heavy duties on for- eign breadstuffs, had fiivored the great landed proprietors of England and her dependencies, by keeping up the price of bread, thus oppressing man- -i /^k-i ufacturers, merchants, and the poor. The '' navigation laws," perfected by „ .^ .' Cromwell, were made to favor the mother-country, by sacrificing the pros- law^Tmadeby perity of the colonies — they being prohibited from being the carriers of cromwell. their own produce. t The same society opened an educational ExniBmoN at St. Martin's Hall, 1854. in London, on the 10th of July, 1854. Although considerable was done July 10. to collect the various educational improvements of different nations, and to Educational make each acq^uainted with the modes and facilities of the others ; still there exhibition was not in it the same life and animation as in similar, though smaller edu- opened at cational conventions in the United States. The people in London were London. much occupied with the war. Among foreign delegates, Mr. Barnard, from Connecticut, and Mr. Seljestrom, from Sweden, were the most dis- tinguished. The author speaks from personal observation. 6. What effect upon them had the repeal of the " corn laws?" — of the " navigation laws ?" Give some account of these laws. {See note.) — 7. Who were the chartists, and what happened to them ? What was the condition of Ireland ? What is said of the Irish Association ? What happened to their forces ? — to their leaders ? — 8. What occupied the British parliament in 1851? — 9. Who brought forward the project of the World's Fair?— and what was the first step towards executing it ? What is said of the educa- tional exhibition ? {See note.) 518 Modem ms. London, May 1st, 1851. A million of articles, splendid or rare, PERIOD X. elegant or useful, were sent, from every part of the civilized CHAP. IT. ^yQy\^^ ^f hey wei-e received by the commissioners, and systemat- ^■■""^~^^' ' ically and beautifully arranged in a vast and dazzling structure Th ^^*t's ^^^*^^^^ ^^ Hyde Park, of glass set in iron, and called ''The Crys- pieceofthis tal Palacc." Such a " World's Fair" had never existed before. o?iVinai*of ^^oved by steam, neither oceans, nor continents, now bar the way the "Temple of multitudes, wlio may wish to meet their antipodes. Assem- whic™a'jury bled at the Crystal Palace, each learned what were the produc- b[tioD*awa?d- ^^^'^^^ ^^ manufactures, and the improvements of others ; and ed a medal— what commei'ce might be best established. It was the World's eS'^^TheJu- INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL CoNGRESS, forcshadowing a Po- rieswereof LiTiCAL CoNGREss of all civilizcd iiations, which shall usher in men of differ- ,11 /« tt • i t-» ent nations, the dawn 01 Universal Peace. CHAPTER IV. The Eusso-Turkish War. 1 . Europe, after a peace of thirty-eight years, became again involved in war. Its cause was the just dread, which England and France felt from the increasing power and encroaching spirit of Russia. Since Peter the Great, there seems perpetuated in that mighty empire, as in ancient Rome, an intent to rule the world ; and Constantinople is, in this case, the anticipated capital. Vast ambi- Russia has been constantly spreading herself in every possible Eussia. direction ; and within the last seventy years, has doubled her territory ; and she has fortified in the strongest manner her ex- Devotion of posed points, such as Sebastopol, the stronghold of her naval sOTereignsTo power in the Black Sea. The ambition of the Russian sovereign the Russian scems not for himself, but for his country, — and it takes in all ^^^' future time ; and hence his strategy in treaty-making, and in obtaining indirect advantages, which at some future day will be available, is to be dreaded, as much as his great force in war. Events have shown, that in the scheme of the Holy Alliance, while Austria was made to do the unpopular work among the nations, Russia was establishing a kind of protectorate ; — which the czar Nicholas, after he had aided Austria against Hungary, openly assumed in his diplomacy with England.* In this, he manifested that it was his design to overthrow Turkey and take *See the disclosures of Sir George Seymour, the British ambassador. Nicholas — speaking of Turkey " as a sick man," just ready to die — said: 8. What was the mnnber of articles exhibited, and their arrangement? Where were these articles placed? Of what use was it that people should thus meet from ojiposite parts of the earth? What other Congress does this Industrial Congress of nations foreshadow? Chap. IV.— 1. What was the cause of the Rnsso-Turkish war ? In what respect is Russia compared to ancient Rome? What city does she intend to make the capital of her empire? What has Russia been doing? Of ■what kind seems the ambition of the Russian sovereigns? In what re- spect are they to be dreaded? What was effected by the Holy Alliance ? POLICY OF RUSSIA. 519 Constantinople, and tliat England was the only power which he ^^^'^^>">^ ^^j^- felt it necessary to consult ; and her, he endeavored to propitiate rEiiiOD x. by ottering, as her share of the s])oil, Egypt and Candia. But ^"^^'■^'^^ England (and France also) believed that it Russia was allowed to '^T ~' ' establish herself upon the waters of the Mediterranean, she could atstjiefemv, no longer be resisted ; and if they did not intend that Europe J^'Jjf ^f^^^ should "become Cossack,"f they must take an immediate stand, years Europe 2. But here was a most embarrassing point. The government either repub- of Turkey, with its three millions of Mahometans — entering by li^an or cos- violence, remains but as an excrescence upon the body of Chris- tian Eui'ope. Twelve millions of the sultan's subjects are Chris- tians of the Greek church, which is also the religion of Russia; anceofthe and scorned by the Turks as '■'■ giours''' and "Christian ol, On the ^^^ on the 14th of September, 58,000 of their troops, the greater part land"^" French, were landed at Eupatoria. Advancing upon Sebastopol, Sept. 14. the English under lord Raglan, and the French under mar- ""^^patoria^^" SHAL St. Arnaud, they met a large Russian army, and defeated g^ ^ 20. it, in a bloody battle fouo-ht by the river Alma. The aUied ar- alma. mies were from time to time reinforced. wT 1,612. ' 7. The Austrians meantime, under color of neutrality, sent ^''- ^^^^^' •* "W". 1 087. their armies to hold the principalities, — pretending that other- Eussian loss, wise there would be a rising in favor of Russia among the Greek ^- g'^gj ^• Christians. Thus they liberated the Russian forces, who had been vainly besieging Silistria; and who in a victorious sortie Eussians had been driven from that city by the Turks. These, with J'riends of Christianity now learned with sorrow, Nankin. that Tae-ping-wang^'^was after all but an ambitious impostor .f tobettesou The insurgents, although they have experienced reverses, have of God, the advanced towards Pekin. At the beginning of 1855 they held brothef^of Canton in siege. They are still in great force, Nankin being Jesus.) their capital ; and a bloody civil war is desolating the empire :f ^^^se em?' which, however, turn as it may, can hardly fail, eventually, to grate to benefit the people, and allow to foreigners more commercial and other privileges. places.) 5. Mexico. — After the peace (1848) the disorders of pubhc 1§53. affairs more and more portended a crisis. On the 6th of Janu- president re- ary, 1853, PREsmENT Arista resigned. Ceballos, the chief jus- ^is°s and tice, became by law his successor. The legislature at first made cebaiios, his him dictator, but, nine days afterwards, threatened him with im- niaJ^dicta- peachment. He sent the military and expelled them ; but, uu- tor. i9th, able to master the storm of anarchy, he soon fled. The Mexicans ^v^h1m- turned their eyes to Santa Anna ; who, instructed by misfor- peachment; tune, and now a peaceful citizen of Carthagena, received an ur- legislature gent request to return. He came, and appealing directly to the ^^ ^^^'^®* people, he was, by their vote, invested with full sovereignty. Ee^^Tand He has considerably improved public affairs ; yet Alvarez, and return of other brigand chiefs, oppose him, and he sustains his position by ^^.i-^gs" '^^" military force.f Santa Anna 6. When the Central and South American Republics ^of50,o^o!)^ broke off from Spain, they undertook to construct, after the model of our republic, constitutional governments, based on free suffi'age. They recognized the doctrine of the equal rights of 4. What is said of the leaders of the rebellion ? "What was the first measure of the grand chief? What was his account at that time of his mission? What became of Tien-te? Since the tactics of Tae-ping-wang resembled those of a priest of the Grand Lama, examine the side-note and see if you cannot find some other reason for conjecturing that such was his former vocation. What was his course in respect to establishing Chris- tianity? What farther is said of his party? — 5. What was the condition of Mexico after tlie peace of Gaudaloupe? What is said of Arista? — of Ceballos?— of Santa Anna? — 6. What was undertaken by the Central and South American republics ? 526 AGITATIONS IN EEPUBLICS. ifodernBu. the men of the superior or white race ; but the right to worship PERIOD X. God according to the dictates of conscience was not allowed. CHAP. V. Hence there were struggles and intestine divisions, and at times ^~"*|^~^ -^ a state of anarchy, which gave to ambitious men opportunities to SSe'nce P^^^h thcmselves into supreme power. Thus, in 1814, Dr. necessary to Francia made himself dictator in Paraguay. In 1829, Kosas ^freedom, bccamc the tyrant of the Argentine Republic. He was, in 1852, I §52. overthrown and succeeded by Urquiza. But in these countries, Feb. 3. after j^olitical storms, thi elements subside into republicanism ; 'ed^)y i/r- " the statcs cvcr keeping the name and the forms. Some of them, quiza. ^s Grenada., have operated against the authority of the priests ; and some, as Chili^ have earnestly set about educating both sexes, and all ranks of the people. A^folfc'e- '^- ^^^ BEPUBLIC OF AMERICA.— The message of Pres- ment of g^oid idcut Polk, December 4th, 1848, announced that gold covered in California, ^he soil of California. Ships freighted with young men gath- 1§4§-4I> ered to her ports, and emigrants, 30,000 a year, swept across the piii^found™d. Rocky Mountains, — and the Pacific empire was founded. . . Gen. 1§4©. ' Zachary Taylor, and Millard Fillmore of New York were, March 4. March 4th, 1849, inaugurated as president and vice-president... ofTafiofand '^^'^^ Indians having committed murders in Oregon, the people Fillmore, petitioned congress for a territorial government. It was granted tiie^ucceed- them, with a clause, introduced by northern members, forbidding Ore^on^made ^^g'^'^ stavery. The South was indignant, and debates on the a territory, slavery question arose in congress, so violent, that in 1850 the 1§50. stability of the Union was endangered. Henry Clay, Daniel n^tionli de- Webster, and others in the senate, so painted the bloody civil struction. wai's, and the humiliating foreign degradations, which must fol- 1§51. low disunion, that at length Mr. Clay's "compromise measures" Compromise ^yerc adopted : the South consenting: that California should be measures . ^ ,, . .^ , . . adojited. admitted as a state with a constitution which excluded slavery ; and the North agreeing to a law for the rendition of fugitive ^tSritory^ ^ slavcs. . . Utah, erected into a territorj^, 1851, was in 1848 settled 1 §53-54 ^y ^^^® Mormons, a sect founded by Joseph Smith, and so called "Nebraska ffom the " Book of Mormon," produced, like the Koran, by pre- ^^^^•" tended revelations. . .* In passing the law, 1854, by which Ne- * Fanatics, called MiUe?'ites, were then waiting in tents for the Lord to Cause of the (^lescend and take up his saints. Smith taught that his followers were the Monifonism ^"'"^ latter-day saints — that the place of the second advent was to be the Mormon temple, and that none would be saved but those who gatliereu J84J.^ there, bringing all their wealth. Many came, — some from the ditt'crcnt Nauvoo, in states of the Union, but more from Great Britain, whither the Mormons the K bank '^^^^ emissaries to make proselytes. They claimed in 1843 to have 20(t,(M)(i, of the upper '^^' ^hom 10,000 were living at their principal seat, JVauvoo, where tiicy Mississippi, had a stately temple. The earth with its fulness, they said, belonged to 6. What principle did they recognize? What was not with them, as with our republic, allowed ? What was the consequence ? What happened in 1814? What in 1829? In 1852? What shows the attachment of tliese states to republicanism ? What is said of Grenada? — of Chili? — 7. What, after the treaty of 1848, preceded the founding of the American Paciiic empire ? What occurred March 4th, 1849 ? What introduced dangerous debates in congress ? How was the slavery agitation quieted? When was Utah settled, and by whom ? AMERICAN PROSPERITY. 527 braska and Kansas were erected into territories, the line of north Modern lUs. latitude 36° 30' was abrogated by congress, as being the north- period x. eru limit of slavery.! ^"^^- ^• 8. An exploring expedition was sent out, in 1838, under com- ^^■'^v -^ MODORE Wilkes ; who discovered a southern uninhabited conti- 1820, Vhen' nent. . . He imparted such information to the government as Missouri was eventually led to the extension both of the republic's territory,! Ig'^^ ^.', and its commercial relations American sailors had been lani's iiist. of cast away and ill treated on the Japan Islands. Commodore ^|j'^55^*'^ Perry was sent out to them with a squadron ; and after many Feb. u. delays and ceremonies, during which the commodore so played j^turnf wmi his part as to win for his country the respect and confidence of tiie Japan that singular people, he obtained a treaty, by which those also o*ne from wealthy islands, heretofore closed to the world, were partially the Loo- opened to our commerce Disregarding the proclamations of Two Cuban' presidents Taylor and Fillmore, two secret, illegal armaments ^f^^1ch^°"^' Irom southern ports invaded Cuba. Their military bands effected cording to at each time a landing. The first invaders escaped from the nSiolfsrwere coast after a bloody skirmish at Cardenas ; the second, proceed- piratical ing into the interior, the inhabitants rose against them, and took cr^ftenden, them prisoners. Several were put to death, among whom was p^gg^^^^'j^^^ Lopez, the general, a patriot Cuban, and Crittenden, an enthu- the garotte, siastic young American ofiicer. ^^^^' 9. The necessity of a transit to and from her Pacific empire, has brought our repubhc into closer connection with other parts of the continent. By the enterprise of citizens of the United 1855. States, acting with the co-operation of the two governments con- Shmus Cerned, a railroad across the isthmus, from AspINWALL to Eallroad Panama, is now opened, whose running time is but 3 \ hours. . . ^^^"^ There is a prospect that the navigation of the great Amazon will soon, be thrown open to our commerce, as, by treaty, the La Plata now is. 10. The peaceful increase of America, continues to exceed that ^^y"^- r, 1^ ., ,. ',... Foreign em- 01 any other nation known to history, lioreign immigration igrants, is thus far augmenting, it having the last year reached nearly (neariy^haif half a million. A wholesome fear of this vast foreign mass, some Germans). the saints ; and secret theft, rapine, and naurder were rife. Public justice 1844. was either intimidated or bribed. The people around became furious. June 2T. Smith and his brother were murdered in prison, by men in disguise. J- Smith and The Mormons sold Nauvoo, and, under Brigham Young, went west and ^ i^^j.^"^" founded Salt Lake Gity. Providence has thus settled the wilderness, and ^^\^1„q ^^' made a half-way house for famishing emigrants to California. But Mor- . " ' ^ monism must become virtuous before it can truly prosper; and especially ^ must it root out polygamy — by which men are brutalized, women degraded, Mormons and children worse than orphaned. ^Salf Lake° 7. What fanatics were easily turned to Mormonism, and what further account can you give of the Mormons? {See note.) When, and on what occasion was the line of north latitude, 36° 30', abrogated as the northern limit of slavery ? When was it made so ? {See side-note.) — 8. Giye some account of the exploring expedition. Of the obtaining of a treaty with Japan ? Of the two Cuban expeditions. — 9. To what has the necessities of transit between us and the Californians given rise ? What irhportant rail- road is mentioned ? What rivers are mentioned, and what is said of them ? 10. What may be said of the increase of the republic? 528 CONCLUSION. Mod&m His, of whom are vicious, some ignorant, and some imbued with prin- PEEIOD X. ciples antagonistic to American free institutions, begins to per- CHAP. V. ^^^g ^jjg country, — connected with the sensitive apprehension ' "< ' that these are endangered by vice and disregard to law. Hence, fear of^rime learning by the statistics of prisons, &c., that intemperance is the and anarchy, cause of the great majority of crimes, several of the states, folbw- ing the example of Maine, have made stringent laws prohibiting the traffic in intoxicating liquors. . . Officers who faithfuUv exe- cute the laws, especially in cities, where anarchy is most to be feared, are at this time praised and honored by all parties. 11. If, as we believe, they are wrong, who teach that it is the inevitable destiny of our republic to fall into anarchy and thence pass to despotism ; no less do they err, who treat with levity every suggestion that such is our danger. Has the Ruler of Nations given assurance, that he will set aside the order of his providence in our behalf ? Has he given us a license to commit, with im- punity, oflfences for which he has ffiled other nations with blood ? Let the father consider, as he looks upon the group which sur- rounds his fireside, that, although their being has begun under the sunny skies of public prosperity, its course may lie through the gloomy influences of public misrule, and finally, of desolating anarchy ; — then will he turn aside from his too anxious cares to earn a fortune for their present and future luxury, and awake to preserve the institutions of his country, which cannot go to decay without dashing out the value of property, and putting life itself in peril ; for, rocked in the eagle-nest of liberty, America must first be crushed, before she changes her republicanism for mon- archy. He would then lay by his petty prejudices of section or ^hich^our" V^'^J '■) — ^® would vote for no miscreant to public office, who, citizens may false to the laws of his God, and a traitor to his domestic relations, ^^Sinta-y."'^ makes a contemptible parade of his love to his country ; — he would pay no money to support public prints, which are careless of truth, and scatter public immorality; — and he would not, by laxity of family discipline, leave the wills of his children in the untamed condition of savage nature ; but betimes inure them to obey law- ful authorities. In all the boasted political compacts of th^ founders of our government, the solemn obhgation was entered into, to yield voluntary obedience to the constituted powers. The conscientious respect to law in the hearts of the people, is that one virtue — the offspring and the parent of many others — which alone can sustain a republican government. This, with the continued smiles of the God of our Fathers, may preserve our noble political inheritance, — not only to bless our own pos- terity, — but to remain, a refuge, and a star of hope, to the op- pressed of other nations. _ 10. What is said of foreign immigration ? — of the fears and apprehen- sions of the people? What measure, in several states, has the just fear of crime produced ? What is now public sentiment concerning the faithful execution of law? — 11. What are the author's concluding remarks? LIBRARY OF CONGRESS MRS. WILLARD'S Hi 018 485 731 5 PUBLISHED BY A. S. BARNES & C^ 51 JOHK STEEET, NEW YORK. The following series of Histories by Mrs. Emma Willard, founder of the Troy Feaiale Seminary, possess all the important requisites of text- books and private reading. T¥illarcl's History of the United States, or Republic of America, with a full Chronological Table, and a series of Progressive Maps. The subjects are divided into Parts and Periods. Part I. embraces the Discovery and Settlement of the Country ; Part II., Colonization, French and Indian Wars; Part III., American Revolution ; Part IV., Free Constitutional Government. Each Part is divided by Epochs into Periods. This History was Daniel Webster's book of reference. In 1850 he told Senator Winthrop he did not travel without it. Two sizes of this work are published, to meet the wants of the young and the old. The full work is intended for academies, private students, and libraries. Price $1 60. The abridgment is a text-book for schools, and extensively used. Price 76ct8. lifillard'S Republic of America, translated into elegant Spanish by Miguel Tolon. (This Histpry is also translated into German.) Price $1 50. l¥illard's ]L.ast L.eaves of American History, including a HISTOEY OF CALIFOENIA, with a full account of its first settlement, and the disagreement of Fremont and Stockton with Kearney. 1 vol., 12mo. Price 75cts. HVillard's Universal History in Perspective, with a Chronolo- gical Table, a series of Maps, and a Map of Time, or Picture of Nations. Divided into Ancient, Middle, and Modet-n History— each Part divided into Periods by Epochs. This edition of the UNIVERSAL HISTOEY includes the latest events ofthe world to 1855. Price $1 50. l¥illard's Ouide to tiie Temple of Time, and containing an epitome of Universal History, for the use of beginners. Price 62ict8. Willard's Astronogrrapher, or a Treatise upon Astrono- my and the Globes. Just published. Price $1. WILLARD'S CHRONOLOGICAL CHARTS. These Charts were presented at the great "Exhibition of the Works of Industry of all Nations," held in London, 1851, of which a jury, appointed to examine the merits, awarded to Mrs. Willard a medal. Temple of Time, or liVillard's Universal Chronogfrapher: exhibiting a complete view of Universal History. IVillard's Ancient €hronog:raplier : a Chart of Ancient History. This is adapted to Sunday Schools, on account of its connection with Scripture History. "Willard's English Chronographer, or Chart of Eni:lish History. These Charts are handsomely Colored, Varnished, and Mounted, and sold for $1 50 each. Sets to hang in Libraries or School-rooms will be furnished to order.