Vol. Ill, pp. 53-204, PLS. 2-20 May 29, 1891 X. THE NATIONAL GEOdp^PHIC MAGAZINE AN EXPEDITION TO MOUJSTT ST. ELIAS, ALASKA ISRAEL C. RUSSELL ■i'iSCYflV.V LSlMi WASHINGTON Published by the National Geographic Society Price $1.50. //>■/// the Compliinnits of ISRAEL C. RUSSELL, L'nitnf States Gaylo^^ical Sun'e Washingto?!. D. C. Vol. Ill, PP. 53-204, PLS. 2-20 May 29, 1891 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE AN EXPEDITION TO MOUNT ST. ELIAS, ALASKA BY ISRAEL C. RUSSELL. (Arn'i,t('<1 for juihJirdtidii Mdrch IS, 1891.) CONTENTS. Page. Introduction— The Southern Coast of Alaska 55 Part I — Previous Explorations in the St. Elias Region 58 Bering, 1741 - 58 CooM778 . 58 La Perouse, 178G 58 Dixon,1787 ^0 Douglas, 1788 fi2 Malaspina, 1792 <>2 Vancouver, 1794 — <>0 Belcher, 1837 «» Tebenkof, 1852 '>f> United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, 1874, 1880 70 New York Time's Expedition, 188(5 72 Topham Expedition, 1888 78 Part II— Narrative of the St. Elias Expedition of 1890 75 Organization — 75 Eroni Seattle to Sitka 78 From Sitka to Yakutat Bay 79 Canoe Trij) \\\) Yakutat Bay 81 Base Camp on th e Shore of Yakutat P>ay 86 First Day's Tramp 89 Canoe Trip in Disenchantment Bay 9G From Yakutat Bay to Blossom Island 103 Blossom Island 113 Life a]x)ve the Snow-Lino 1-- First Cami> in tlie Snow T-4 n— Nat. Geog. 1VI.\g., vol. Ill, isoi. (•'':'') 54 I. ('. /^'.s.sy// — KfjKillfioii ii> Mount SI. FJlax. Page. Arross Pinnaclo Pass 120 First full View of St. Elias l.T) Summit of Piiinatlc Pass Cliffs l.">7 Across Seward (ilacicrto Dome Pass 142 Up the A^'assiz ( ilacicr 147 Camp on the Newton (Jlacier l'")0 Ilifjhest Point reaelied lol Alone in the highest Camj) h")4 The Ketnrn l-">« Suggestions . 1<>'5 Part III— Sketeh of the Geology of the St. EHas Region 1()7 Generel Features ; l'>7 Yakutat System 107 Pinnacle System 170 St. EHas Sehist--- 17:5 Geological Structure 174 Part IV— Glaciers of the St. Elias Region 17(1 Natural Divisions of Glaciers — 17fi Alpine (ilaciers 170 Characteristics of Ali)ine (ilaciers above the Snow-Line 180 Characteristics of Alpine (ilaciers l)elow the Snow-Miie 1S:5 Piedmont Glaciers -, • 18") Part V— Height and Position of :\rount St. Elias 189 Appendix A — Official Instructions governing the Expedition 1!)2 AppcMidix B — Report on topographic Work ; by Mark B. Kerr 1!).") Apjiendix (■ — Rei)f)rt on auriferous Sands from Yakutat Bay; l)y .F. Stanley-Brown lil() App;>ndix D— R.'port on fossil Plants ; by Lester F. Ward 199 Index 201 TLU'STl^.VTTOXS. Plate 2— Sketcii Map of Alaska --- 5.'] 3_Map of the St. Elias Region, after La Perouse - 00 4 — Maj) of the Eastern Shore of Yakutat Bay, after Dixon — (52 5 — Map of the St. Elias Region, after Malaspina 04 — Map of Bay de Monti, after Malasi)ina — - -. 0() 7 — Map of Disenchantment Bay, after >hdaspina --- 08 8_Sketch !\rai) of St. Elias Region, l)y Mark B. Kerr 75 n — The IInbl)ard Glacier; drawn from IMiotograph by \. L. P.roadbent 100 10— Wall of Ice on Eastern Side of the Atrevida (ilacier ; from a Photograph 102 n_View on the .\trevida ( dacii'r ; from a Photograph -..- 104 12 — I'aitranci' of an Icc-Tiumcl ; from a Piiotogra]ih 100 l;>_I),.l(as in an .\l)andoiicil Lakc-I'.cd ; from a Photograph 108 14 — A River on tlic Lucia (daricr; from a i'linliigrnph (rcpro- diicrd fidui 77/< rM-/-'/7/. April. 1S!I1). 110 A RocL'-boiual Const. 55 Page. riutc 15 — Entrance to a Glaciiil Tuuucl ; from a Pliolograi)li 112 IG — View of the Malaspina Glacier from Blossom Island ; from a Photograph ; 114 17 — Moraines on the Marvine Glacier; fnjm a Photograph IKi 18 — View of the Hitchcoflc Range from near Dome Pass- IIS 19 — View of Mount St. Elias from Dome Pass; drawn from a Photograph 14(j 20 — View of Mount St. Elias from Seward ( ilacier ; drawn fnjm a Photograph 190 Figure 1 — Diagram illustrating the Formation of Iceljergs 101 2 — View of a glacial Lakelet ; from a Photograpli .- 119 3 — Section of a glacial Lakelet 120 4 — Diagram illustrating the Formation of marginal Crevasses- 128 5 — Crevasses near Pinnacle Pass ; from a Photograph 130 () — Snow Crests on Ridges and Peaks ; from Field Sketches 143 7— Faulted Pebble from Pinnacle Pass 171 8— F'aulted Pebble from Pinnacle Pass 172 INTRODUCTION. THE SOUTHERN COAST OF ALASKA. The southern coast of Ahiska is rennirkahle for the regularity of its general outline. If a circle a thousand miles in diameter be inscribed on a map of the northern Pacific with a point in about latitude 54° and longitude 145° as a center, a large part of its northern periphery will be found to coincide with the south- ern shore of Alaska l)etweeii Dixon entrance on the east and the Alaska peninsula on the west. On the northern part of this great coast-circle lies the region explored in the summer of 1890 and described in the following pages. From Cross sound, at the northern end of the great system of islands forming southeastern Alaska, westward along the base of the Fairweather range, the mountains are exceedingly rugged, and present some of the finest coast scenery in the world. There are but two inlets east of Yakutat bay on this shore which afford shelter even for small boats. These are Lituya l)ay and Dry bay. Ships may enter Lituya 1)ay, at certain stages of the tide, and find a safe harljor within; l)ut the a|)proaches to Dry l)ay are not navigable. West of Yakutat '])ay the coast is equally in]ios[iital)le all the wa}^ to Prince William sound. 50 /. ('. lliii^sill — iliinililiDn In Mniml SI. /-yiiis. As if t(j coniitcnsatc for the lack of n'l'u'ic on citlicr v\\i\, tlici-c is in the center ol'this great stretch olrdck-lKHind coast, over -"id!) iiiiKs in extent, a inagniticent inlet kn(»\vn as Vakutat l)ay, in Avhich a thousand ships could find safe ancliora;4-e. On some old maps this l)ay is designatetl as " Bale de Monti," "Admiralty bay " and " Bering bay," as will be seen Avhen its discovery and history are discussed on another page. The southern shore of Alaska, for a distance of 200 miles along the bases of the Fairweather and St. l^^lias ranges, is formed of a low tabledand intervening between the mountains and the sea. Vakutat bay is the only bight in this plateau sutiiciently deep to reach the mountain to the northward. This bay has a broad opening to the sea ; the distance l)etween its ocean cai)es is twenty miles, and its extension inland is about the same. Its eastern shore is fringed with low, wooiled islands, among which are sheltered harbors, safe from every wind that blows. The most accessiljle of these is Fort Mulgrave, near its entrance on the eastern side. The shores of Yakutat bay, on l)oth the east and the? west, are low and densely wooded for a distance of twenty-tive miles from the ocean, where tlie foot-hills of the mountains l)egin. ' At the head of the bay the land rises in steel) hhif^l-^ :iii<^ forms pictur- esque mountains, snow-capped the year I'ound. 'i'hest' liigh- lands, although truly mountainous in their ])roi)ortions, are but the foot-hills of still nolder uplifts innnediately northward. The bay extends through an opening in the first range to the liase of the white peaks beyond. This o])eniug was examined a century ago by ex])lorcrs in search of the delusive " Northwest passage," in the hoi)e that it would lead to the long-sought "Strait of Annan " — the dream of many voyagers. It was surveyed l»y the expedition in command of !\Ialasi)ina in 17!)2, and on account of his frustrated hopes was named " Puei'to del l)e-;cngano," or "Disenchantment bay," as it has been rendei'i'd by Knglish writers. The watci-s of Vakutat and Disenchantment hays are deep, and broken only l)y islands and reefs along their eastern shores. A few soundings made in Disenchantment bay within half a mile of the land showed a (U'pth of tVoiu Into 120 fathoms. The swell of the ocean is ielt u]) to tlii' very head of the inlet, indi- cating, as was remarked to nic by Captain 0. L. Hooper, that there are no bars or i-eefs to break the force of the incoming swells. The Picdiiioid Plateau, and the Moaiitainn. 57 The lowlands l)nrtloriii>i; Yakutat l)ay on the .southea.st arc composed of assorted glacial debris. Much of the country is low and swampy, and is reported to contain numerous lakelets. Northwest of the bay the plateau is higher than toward the southeast, and has a general elevation of about 500 feet at a dis- tance of a mile from the shore ; but the height increases toward the interior, where a general elevation of 1,500 feet is attained over large areas. All of this i)lateau, excepting a narrow fringe along the shore, is formed by a great glacier, Ijelonging to wliat is termed in this i)apcr the Ptrdiiiont type. There are many reasons for believing that the })lateau southeast of Yakutat bay was at one time covered by a glacier similar to the one now ex- isting on the northwest.* The mountains on the northern border of the seaward-stretch- ing tal)le-lands, both southeast and northwest of Y^akutat bay, are abrupt and })resent steep southward-facing bluffs. This escarpment is formed of stratified sandstones and shales, and owes its origin to the upheaval of the rocks along a line of frac- ture. In other words, it is a gigantic fault scarp. The gravel and Ijowlders forming the plateau extending oceanward have l)een accumulating on a depressed orographic block (or mass of strata moved as a unit by mountain-making forces), which has undergone some movement in very recent times, as is recorded by a terrace on the fault scarp bordering it. West of Yakutat the geological structure is more complex, and long mountain sjjurs i)roject into the })latform of ice skirting the ocean. Filling the valleys Ijctween the mountain spurs, there are maiiy large seaward-flowing glaciers, tributary to the great Peidmont ice- sheet. This l)rief sketch of the geography of Yakutat bay, together with the accom])anying outline map of Alaska (plate 2), will, it is lio])ed, aid in making intelligil)le the following historical sketch and the narrative of the present expedition. * This matter will be discussed in part IV of this paper, where it is also shown that Yakutat Ixiy itself was formerly occupied by ijlacial ice. I'Airr I. PKKVIOI'S EXPLORATIONS IX TIII^: ST. lOLIAS KEc;ioX/;= F.Kiuxc;, 1741. The lii'st (liscoviTy of the soiitlKi'ii coast of Alaska was made by N'itus InTiiii:- and AK'xci ('licriknl', in the vessels St. Pchr and St. PdiiK ill 1711. On -luly 20 of that year, Jk-ring saw the luouu- tains of the mainland, hut anchored his vessels at Kyak island, 180 miles west of Yakiitat hay, without touchinu; the continental shore. A towerinir, snow-clad summit northeast of Kyak island was named '' Mount St. Klias," after the })atron saint of the day. Cook, 177S. The next explorer to visit this })ortion of Alaska was ('a[)(ain James Cook, who sailed past the entrance of ^'akutat hay on May 4, 1778. Thinkin'j; that this was the hay in which luring anehored, he named it " Bering's l)ay." IVFount St. Klias was seen in the northwest at a distance oi'40 leagues, hut no atteinj)t was matle to measure its height. L.v PEKDrsK, 178().t Yakutat hay, in wdiich we are si)eciany interested, was next seen by the celebrated French navigator, J. F. G. de la Perouse, in command of the frigates La Boasfiole and VAdrohibc, on June 23, 178G. Tlie ehart showing the route followt'd by Pa Perouse during this portion of his voyage is reproduced in plate o. In the splendid atlas aecompanying the narrative of his travels, tlic ex- plorer pictures the (|uaint, high-pooped vessels in whicli he cir- * For more e(nui)lete bibliographic references than space will allow in tills p:ii)er, the reader is referred to Dull and baker's "Partial li^^t of hooks, pamphlets, papers in serials, journals and other publications on Alaska and adjacent regions ; " in Pacific Coast Pilot: Coasts and bilcts of Alaska; second series. U. 8. Coast and Geodetic 8urvey, AVashington, I87i) ; 4°, i)p. 22r)-;}75. t Voyage de la Perouse autour du monde. Four vols., 4°, and atlas; Paris, 17!)7 ; vol. 2, pp. l:J0-15(). (5S) The ear lied Exploraiions. 59 cuninaviii-ated the (ill/!nii to .]fnnnt St. AVm.s'. ThcMiamo '' I^aio (](_■ Monti " was irlvcn to tlic inlet in honor of Do Monti, tlu' oHiccr who first landed. The location of tliis bay, as described in the narrative and indicated on the niaj) accompanyinu- tlie report of the voyage, shows that it corresponds with the Yakutat l)ay of niodcM-n niajjs. Observations made at this time by M. Dajielet, the astronomer of the expedition, detei-niined the elevation of Mount St. Elias to be 1 ,9S() toises. ('onsiderin; this measurement is not recorded, and we have therefore no means of decidinti; the dei>;ree of contidence to be ])laced in it. After failing to find an anchorage at Yakutat l)ay,La Pcrouse sailed eastward, and on June 2'.) discovered another bay, whicli he supposed t(^ be the iidet named " Ik'ring's bay" by Captain Cook. It will l)e remembered that Cook's "Bering's l:)ay " is Yakutat bay as now known. It is evident that the French navigator made an error in liis idcntifi(^ation, as the inlet designated as Bering's bay on his chart corres]n)nds with that now known as Dry l)ay. On tlu^ majjs referrcMl to, a. stream is represented as cm[)tying into the liend of this l)ay and rising a long distance northward; this is evidently Alsek river, the existence of which was for a long time doubted, l)ut has recently been established I)e3^ond all (juestion. Finding it impossible to enter Dry bay, La Perouse ccmtinued eastAvard and discovered Lituya bay, as now known, but which he named " Port des Francais." Here his ships anchoi-ed, alter experiencing great diiriculty in entering the harbor, and remained for many days, during which trade was carried on with the In- dians, wliihi surveys were nuide of the adjacent shonvs. Dixox, 17S7.=i^ Although the actual discovery of Yakutat bay is to be crcditi'd to the French, the first cx})loration of its shores was made by an h^nglish captain. On May 28, 1787, Captain (leorge Dixon an- chored his vessel, the Queen Ch((rl()tfe, within the shelter of its southeastern cape, and, in honor of Constance John i'bipp-^. Lord Mulirravc. named the hnvcn there discovered '' Port Mul- * The Voyutio around tlu> World ; l>a1 inoro j)arMcnliirly to the Xortli- wcst ( 'oiist of .'ViiKM-icM. I'i'rfonncd in 17SS-17S!), in the Klmj (•'mri/r awil (Jiirni cliiirlnllr : Cnptinns I'.irt luck mid Dixon: I", l.oml'.n, 17SU. Early English Expl^-ations. 61 grave." The harbor is described in the narrative of Dixon's voyage as being " entirely surrounded l)y low, Hat islands, where scarcely any snow could be seen, and well sheltered from any winds whatever." The voyage of the Queen Charhtte was not made for the pur- pose of increasing geographic knowledge, but with a commercial ol)ject. Trade was at once opened with the natives, Init resulted less favorably than was desired, as only sixteen sea-otter skins and a few less valuable furs were secured. On the chart accompanying the narrative of Dixon's voyage the inlet now known as Yakutat bay is named "Admiralty bay." A survey of the adjacent shores and inlets was made, and the astronomical position of the anchorage was apj)roximately de- termined. The map resulting from these surveys, the first ever made of any portion of Yakutat bay, is reproduced on a reduced scale as plate 4. At the time of Dixon's voyage, the inhabitants numbered about seventy, including men, women, and cliiVlren, and were thus described : " They are of about middle size, their limbs straight and well shaped, but, like the rest of the inhabitants we have seen on the coast, are par- ticularly fond of painting their faces with a variety of colors, so that it is not any easy matter to discover their real complexion." An amusing instance is narrated of inducing a woman to wash her face, when it was discovered that — " Her countenance had all the cheerful gloM^ of an English milk maid and the healthy red which flushed her cheeks was even heautlfnlhi con- trasted with the whiteness of her neck ; her eyes were black and spark- ling ; her eyebrows the same color, and most beautifully arched ; her forehead so remarkably clear that the transparent veins were seen niean- dering even in their minutest branches — in short, she was what would be reckoned as handsome even in England. The symmetry of her features, however, was marred, at least in the eyes of her English admirer, by the habit of wearing a labret in the slit of her lower lip." During our recent visit to Port Mulgrave we did not find tlie native women answering to the glowiiig description of the voy- ager who discovered the harbor ; but this may be owing to the fact that we did not j)revail upon any of them to wash their faces. One other discrepancy must Ije noted l»etween the records of Dixon's voyage and my own observations, made one hundred 10— Nat. Geog. Mag., vol. Ill, 1891. 02 I. ('. Rii.'^iicJl — Krpcditinii fo Momtt Sf. Iilias. years later. Tlic houses dt' tlu- natives are desta-ilied in tlie nar- rative just cited as — "The most wretched liovels tliat can ]i()Sf;i1)ly be conceived: a few poles stuck in tlie irnmnd, witliont (ndcr or rcL:nlaiity, recrossed and covered with loose l)()ards, * * * (|uitc insullicicnt to ki't'j) out tlic snow and rain." While this (leseri])ti()n would a|i]ily to the temporary shelters now used by the Yakutat Indians when on their sunnner hunt- i\v^ and iishing expeditions, it hy no means describes the liouses in which they pass the winter. These are large and substantially built of ]danks hewn from spruce trees, and in some instances supported from the inside by four huge posts, carved and painted to represent grotesque figures. In the center of the roof there is a large opening through wdiich the smoke esca})es from the fire kindli'd in an ()])en space in the floor. Hut few of tlii' Indian villages of Alaska, exce[iting perhaps the homes of the Thlinkets in the iVlexandrian archipelago, are better built or more comfortable than those at Port ^lulgrave. ()u the map of J'ort JNIulgrave already referred to, '" Point Turner "' and '' Point C'arrew " appear. The former was named for the second mate of the Queen (ViarhiHe, who was the first of her officers to laml ; the second nanu' was probably (h'sigued to honor another ollicer of the exi»e(litiou, but of this I am not positive. J)oU(iLAS, 1782 para reconocer el estrecho de Fuca ; con una introiluccjon en »ini' sc da noticia dc las cxpcdicionesexecntadas antcriornicnlc por los lOspanoIcs en linsca del paso del noroeste de la America [Tor l>on Dionisio Alcala (ialiano]. Madrid, ISirj [accomi>anie(l l.y an atlasj. \'[<. CXIl-CXXl. NAT. GEOG. MAG, VOL. Ill, 1951 PL. 4. MAP OF THE EASTERN SHORE OF YAKUTAT BAY, AFTER DIXON, D'lHvovcrii of Di.sciic/ianfiiK'iif ItdiJ. 63 nortliern Atlantic with the northern Pacitic, was revived hy the renewal of the (liseussion as to the authenticity of Maldonado's reported discovery of the " Strait of Annan." The western en- trance to this strait was su})i)osed to he al)ont in the })osition of Yakutat hay. Spijin, in particular, after three hundred years of exidoration and discovery in all parts of the world, was still anxious to extend her conquests, and, if possible, to discover the long-souwht " Northwest passage." Two of her ships, the Des- cubiciia and Atrevida, were then at Acapulco, in command of Don Alejandro Malaspina, who was engaged in a voyage of discovery. Malaspina, like Columbus, was a native of Italy in the service of Spain. Orders were sent to him to cruise northward and test the truth of Maldonado's report. The narrative of this voyage is supposed to have been written by Don Dionisio Alcala Galiano, but his name does not appear on the title page. Still more curious is the tact that Malaspina 's name is omitted from the narrative of his own voyage. On his return to Sixain, he was thrown into prison, on account of court intrigues, and his dis- coveries were suppressed for many years. Malaspina left Acapulco on the first of May, 1791, and reached the vicinity of the present site of Sitka on June 25. Two days later. Mount Fairweather, or " Monte Buen-tiempo," as it is designated on Spanish maps, was sighted. Continuing north- westward, the entrance to Yakutat bay was reached. The open- ing thi]ough the first range of mountains at its head seemed to correspond to Maldonado's description of the entrance to the mythical " Strait of Annan." The eastern shore of Yakutat l)ay, called "aVlmiralty l)ay " on the Spanish chart, was explored, and an excursion was made in boats into Disenchantment l)ay as far as Haenke island. " Disen- chantment bay," as the name appears on modern charts, was named " Desengano bay" by Malaspina, as previously stated, in allusion to the frustration of his hopes on not finding a passage leading to the Atlantic. Explorations in Disenchantment bay w^ere checked by ice, which descended from the north and filled all of the inlets north of Haenke island. This is indicated on the map forming plate 7 (page (>S), whicli is reproduced from the atlas accompanying the narratiA^e of Malaspina "s voyage. Special inter- est attaches to this map for the reason that by comparing it with that forming plate 8 (page 75), made 100 years later, the retreat 64 /. ('. ItiissiU — Exprditioii to Mount St. Eliai^. of the filaciers (lurinoring irlaciers wliich do not now reach tide-Avater; the whole forminjij a confluent ice stream whii-h occui)ied all of Disenchantment bay northeast of Haenke island. A portion of the general map of the coast of southern Alaska, showing the route followed by the De.-^nihicrta and the Atrerirla, and depicting the topography of the adjacent shores, has been rei)roduced in i)latc 5. It will be noticed that on this map Lituya bay is called " Pt. des Francais,'' while Dry l)ay is desig- nated as " Bering's bay.'' These and other names were adopted fi-oni the maps of La Perouse. A map of " Bahia de Monti," from Malas[)ina's report, is reproduced m plate 6. An extract from Galiano's account of Malaspina's discoveries in Yakutat and Diseiichantnient bays,t translated by Robert Stein, of the U. S. Geological Survey, is here inserted, in order that tlie reader may be able to form an independent judgment of the value of the evidence just referred to as bearing on the retreat of the glaciers : "An observatory was establishcil on shore, and sonie al>sulut(' altitndcs were taken in order to furnish a basis for the reckoninp of the watches; but the great concourse of Indians, their importunity and thievishness, made it necessary to transfer all the instruments on Iward. Still the lati- tude was determined, the watches were regulated, the number of oscilla- tions maile l)y the sim])le pendulum was observed, and the height of Mount St. Klias was measured, beincr (),o07.6 varas [17,y lueaiiH of ^ood ohservatidus fnmi thr cuds of a ijullii'ient base. A (juatlraut was iiHed to ineasuiv the anyjle of apparent altitude of the mountain, 2° US'' (!"', and allo\vin.<^ for terrestrial refraction, wliieh is one-tenth of the distanee of oo.l miles, the tnie altitude was found to be 2° o4' I]!)''; whenee its elevation a])ove sea-level was concluded to lie 2,7n.") toises [17,S(iO feet], and the lentrth of the tangent to the hori- zon, ir)2 miles, allowance lieiuL:' ma le for tlu' increase due to terrestrial refrai'tion * ■''. " Lastly, with the rhumb, or astronomic a/.inuith, and the distance from the observatory tif Mul<4rave to ]Monnt St. Elias, it was ascertained that that mountain was -i'.V W to the north and 1° !)' to the west, whence its latitude is found to be ()0° 17' ;;")" and its longitude i:!4° I!:/ !()'' west of Cadiz." 1\ikin;i- tlu' longitude of Cadiz as (')° VX 07" \V. (San Sehastian liiilit-ii(insc), the loii'^itiidc oi' St. Elias iVoui tliis (leteniiinatioii wouhl be 140° .")2' 17" W. Vax(ouvi-:i{, 1794.* The next vessels to visit Yakutat bay after Malaspiua's voyage, so far as known, were the Discoreri/ and Chatham, luider coni- iiiand i)f ('ai)tain (ieorife Vancouver. This voya^ne increased kuowledue of the ,ii-eoii;rai)liy of southern Alaska more than any that ])receded it, and was also of u;reater iin]iortance than any siiiule expedition of later date to tliat region. 44ie best maps of southern Alaska pul)Hshed at the [)resent (hiy are based larirely on the surveys of Vaiieouver. The Diacovcrji, under the inunediate connuand of \'ancouver. and the Chniham, in charge of Peter Puget, cruised eastward along the southern coast of Alaska in 1794. The Dkcorerii passed the entranee to Yakutat bay without sto})ping, hut the ('hafhaiii anchored there, and important surveys were earried on under Puget's directions. On Jiuie 2S, the Di-^rorcrj/ was in the vicinity of ley l)ay, Avhere the shore of the ocean seemed to l)e composed of solid ice. East- ward from ley bay tlie coast is described as "bordered by low- lands rising with a gradual and uniform ascent to the foot-hills of lofty mountains, whose sumnnts are but the l)ase from which >b)unt St. Klias lowt'rs magnilicently into the regions of per- *A Voyage of Discovery to the Northern Pacific Ocian and around the World, 17!)0-'95; new edition, (J vols., London, 1801. The citations which follow are from vol. 5, pp. 348-407. V J 'S ^ 5 '^ PvgeC^ Cruise and Discoveries. 67 petiial frost." A low projecting point on the western side of the entrance to Yakutat l)ay was named " Point Manby." The coast beyond this toward the northeast l:)ecanie less wooded, and seemed to produce only a l)rownish vegetation, which farther eastward entirely disappeared. The country was then bare and composed of loose stones. The narrative contains an interesting account of the grand coast scenery from St. Elias to the eastern end of the Fairweather range ; but this does not at present claim atten- tion. ^\'hile the Chatham continued her cruise eastward, Puget as- cended Yakutat bay nearly to its head, and also navigated some of the channels between the islands along its eastern shore. A cape on the eastern side, where the l)ay penetrates the first range of foot-hills, was named " Point Latouche ; " l:)ut the same land- mark had previously Iteen designated " Pa. de la Es})eranza " by ]\Ialasi)ina. The l»ay at the head of the inlet, which Malas- pina had named " Desangano," was named " Digges sound," after one of the otHcers of the Chailiam. Boats were sent to ex- plore this inlet, but found it " closed from side to side by a firm, com2:)act body of ice, beyond wliich, to the back of the ice, a small inlet appeared to extend N. 55° E. about a league."* These observations confirm those made by Malaspina and in- dicated on the chart reproduced on plate 7, where the ice front is represented as reaching as far south as Haenke island. The evidence furnished by Malaspina and Vancouver as to the former extent of the glaciers at the head of Yakutat bay is in harmony with observations made by Vancouver's party in Icy strait and Cross sound.f Early in July, 1794, these straits were found to be heavily encuml)ered with floating ice. At the pres- ent time l>ut little ice is met with in that region. On ^Vancouver's charts there is no indication that he was aware of the existence of Glacier Ijay, although one of his rf:)fhcers, in navigating Icy strait, passed its immediate entrance. These records, although somewhat indefinite and of negative character, indicate that the fields of floating ice at the mouth of Glacier bay were nuich more extensive a hundred years ago than at present ; Init they do not show where the glaciers of that region formerly terminated. After the return of the Chathain''s boats from the exploration of * Vancouver's Voyage, vol. ."), ],. ;!S9. tibid., pp. 417-421. G8 7. ('. UiixsrII—ExiHiVilion In Mnnnt Sf. AVm.s. l)isoncli:intni('iit l>ay, an exploration of tlie eastern sliorc of Yakutat l>ay was made. The following extract indicates the eharaetei" of woi'k done tiiere: " Dijigos' soiiiid [1 lisciicliantincnt Itay] was the only ]>lace in the l>ay tluit i)resente(l the least |ir(is|icct (if any interim- naviuation, and this was neeessai'ily very liniiled )>>• tlu' close eonneeteil i'an,0° \V. about six nnles to the east ]»oint of a channel leading to the southwest^ between the continent and some islands that lie oft" it. This was con- sidered to lead along the shores of the maiidand to Point Mulgrave, and in the event of its proving navigable, the examination of the bay would have been complete, and the vessel brought to our appointt'(l place of meeting, whiidi was now su])pose(l to 1k' no very great distance." In endeavoring to reach Port Mulgrave by a channel leading between the islands on the eastern side of the bay and the main- land, the Chatham grounded, and was gotten off with considera- ble difficulty. jNIany observations concerning the geogr.iphy and the natives are recorded in the narrative of this exploration. Bklcukr, 1887.* The next account f of explorations around Yakutat bay that * Narrative of a Voyage round the World, performed in the ship Sulphur during the years 18:5()-1S42 ; by CajitainSir Edward Belcher: 2 vols., 8°, London, 1S4:!. fA fort was built by the Russians, in ITiT), on the strip of land separating Bay de ISIonti from the ocean, and was colonized by convicts from Russia. In LSO.'i, all of the settlers were killed and the fort was destroyed by the Yakutat Indians. So complete was this massacre that no detailed account of it has ever aiipeaied. (Alaska and its Resources, by W. H. Hall, 1870, pp. 310, 317, 323.) NAT GEOG MAG 'OL. irr, l&Ol. PL 7. MAP OF DISENCHANTMENT BAY, AFTER MALASPINA. Ice Clip at Icy Bay. 69 has come to hand is by Sir Edward Belcher, who visited that coast in Her Majesty's ship SuJpJiur in 1S37. In the narrative of this voyage, a Inief account is given of the ice cliffs at Icy bay, which are stated to have a heiglit of about thirty feet and to jjresent the a})])earance of veined marble. Where the ice was exposed to the sea it was excavated into alcoves and archways, recalling to the narrator's mind the Chalk cliffs of England. " Point Riou," as named l)y ^'ancouver, was not rec- ognized, and the inference seems to l)e that it was formed of ice and was dissolved away between tlie visits of \"an<'ouver and Belcher. Accompanying the narrative of Belcher's voyage is an illustra- tion showing Mount St. Elias as it appears from the sea near Icy bay, which represents the mountain more accurately than some similar pictures published more recently. The »S';(//)/;;;/- ancliored in Port Mulgrave; but no account is given of the character of the surrounding country. Tebenkof, 1852.* Tebenkof 's notes, which are often referred to by writers on Alaska, consist principally of compilations from reports of Rus- sian traders, which were intended to accompany and explain an atlas of the shores of northwestern America, puldished in 1852 in St. Petersburg and in Sitka. ]Map number 7 of the atlas represents the southern coast of Alaska from Lituya bay westward to Icy bay. On the same sheet there is a more detailed chart of the islands along the eastern border of Yakutat bay. The height of St. Elias is given as 17,000 feet; its position, latitude (Jl° 2' 6" and longitude 140° 4', distant 30 miles from the sea.t It is stated that in 1839 the mountain " began at times to smoke through a crater on its southeastern slope." At the time of an earthquake at Sitka (1847) it is said to have emitted flames and ashes. * Atlas of the Xorthwest Coast of America from Bering strait to Cape Corrientes ami the Aleutian Islands [etc.] : 2°, St. Petersburg, 1S52. With index and hydrographic observations : 8°, St. Petersburg, 1852. t In a foot-note on page 33 it is stated that Captain Vasilef, in the ship Olkryt'te {Dlscoreri^), ascertained the height of Mount Fiiirweather to be 1:5,946 feet. 11— Nat. Geog. Mag., vol. Ill, 18!U. 70 I. C. J!usscll — K.ipalition io Mounf Si. Elian. It will be seen from the aeeount of the exploration earried on last suniiner that ^h)unt St. Elias is (•oni])os(!(l of stratified rocks, with no in(n(atinii ol' volcanic oi-iLiin ; and these reports of cinip- tion nuist eonseqnently l)e coiisidered erroneous. The low eonntrv hetw(HMi ^Fount St. Elias and the sea is de- S!'i'il»tMl liy Tclx'nkof as a tnndra ci)\('rc(l with t'orcsts and li'i'ass ; "throujih cracks in the jiravelh' soil, ice could he seen ]»eneath." Moi'(> recent knowleduc shows that this statement also is errone- ous. The ailjaccnt ocean is state(l to he shallow, with shelvin<>- ])ottom : at a distance of half a verst, live to twelve fathoms were ol)tained, and at two miles liom land, thiily to forty fathoms (of seven feetj. The Pimpluna rocks are said to have heeii discovered in ITT'.I l)y the Spanish cai)tain Arteiga. 'i'hey wei'e also seen in 17*)4 hy the helmsman Talin, in the ship Ord, and named after his vessel. These observations are inteivstinii', and indicate that possil)ly there may bi' submerf>-e(l moraines in the region whei'e these rocks are reported to exist. Many other observations are recorded concei'ning the moun- tains and the bays in the vicinity of Vakutat. While of interest to navigation and to geograjdiers, these have no innnediate con- nection with the region exi)lored during the recent exi)edition. Umtku Statks Coast and (iKonirric Siijn'kv, lS74.-i- iSSU.t The surveys carrie(l on in 1S74 l)y the I'nited Statt'S Coast Survev on the shores of Alaska eml)race(l the region about Yakutat bay. They were conducted by \\ . II. Dall and Ahircus Baker. Besides the survey of the coast-line, deternnnations were made of the heights and ])Ositions of several monntain pt'aks In'tween (ilacier bay and Cook inlet. Dalls ac(;ount of this survey contains a 1)rief sketch of })revious exjdorations and a sunnnary of the measurements of the higher peaks of the I'cgion. This material has been used on anothei' page in discussing the height of Mount St. Elias. Besides the geographic data gathei-ed l)y the United States Coast Survey, many ol)servations were made on geology and on the glaciers of the region about Yakutat bay anhi(i (Racier. 71 cxi)loratioiis, to t^oine of tlie conchisions reached in tliis connec- tion, as will appear in the cliapter devoted to geology and glaciers. A description of the St. Elias region in the Pacific Coast Pilot supplements the paper in the coast survey report for 1875. This is an exhaustive compilation from all available sources of infor- mation interesting to navigators. It contains, besides, a A'aluable summary of Avhat was knoAvn at the time of its publication con- cerning the history and physical features of the country to which it relates. In this pul )licati( )n the true character of the Malaspina glacier was first recorded and its name ])roposed. The dcscri[)- tion is as follows : " At Point ]Man))y and eastward to the Kwik viwv tlir shore was bor- dered by trees, ai)parently willows and alders, with ii somewhat denser Ijelt a little farther back. Behind this rises a blutt"or bank of high land, as described by various navigators. About tlie vicinity of Tebienkotf 's Nearer Point the trees cease, but begin again near the river. The blufi' or table-land behind rises liigher than the river valley and conijiletely hides it from the southward, and is in summer bai'e of vegetation (except a few i-are patches on its face) and apparently is composed of glacial debris, much of wdiich is of a reddish color. In May, 1874, when observed by the U. S.- Coast Survey party of that year, the extensive flattened top of this table- land or plateau was covered with a smooth and even sheet of pure wdiite snow. In the latter part of June, ISSO, however, this snow had melted, and for the first lime the real and most extraordinary character of this plateau was revealed. Within the beucli and extending in a northwesterly direction to the valley behind it, at the font of the St. Elias Alps an unde- termined distance, this plateau, or a large part of it, is one great field of buried ice. Almost everywhere nothing is visible but bowlders, dirt and gravel ; but at the time mentioned, back of the l)ight between Point Manby and Xearer Point, for a space of several square miles the coverlid of dirt had fallen in, owing to the melting of the ice beneath, and revealed a surface of l^roken pinnacles of ice, each crowned by a patch of dirt, stand- ing close to one another like a forest of prisms, these decreasing in height from the summit of the plateau gradually in a sort of semicircular sweep toward the beach, near which, however, the dirt and debris again predom- inate, forming a sort of terminal moraine to this immense, buried, immov- able glacier, for it is nothing else. Trains of large bowlders were visible here and there, and the general trend of the glacier seemed to be north- west and southeast. " Between Disenchantment bay and the foot of Mount St. Elias, on the flanks of the Alps, seventeen glaciers were counted, of which about ten were behind this plateau, but none are of very large size, and the sum total of them all seemed fiir too little to supply the waste of the plateau if it were to possess motion. The lower ends of these small glaciers come 72 1. ('. liiiHSill — J'J.rprdifinii Id Moiiiif Sf. Elias. down into tlic livrr valley before mentioned and at rijilit angles in general to the trend of'tlu' plateau. To the buried glacier the U. S. Coast Survey has applied the name of ^[alasi)ina, in honor of that distinguished and unfortunate explorer. No eonneetion eould be seen between the small glaciers and the Malaspina i>lateau, as the former dip below the level of tlie summit of the latter. The .Malaspina had no neve, nor was there any high land in the direction of its a*is as far as the eye could reach. Every- where, I'xcept where the jjinnacles protrudi'd and in a few spots on the face of the bluff, it was covered with a tliick stratum of soil, gravel and stones, here and there showing small patches of briglit green herbage. The bluff westw'ard from Point Manl)y may probably prove of the same character." Mount Cook ;ui(l Mount \":uirouver are named in tlie Pacific Coast Pilot, and their elevations and po.sitions are definitely stated. Mount ^Malaspina was also named, but its position is not >iiven. During the expedition of last sunniier it was fotmd imin'aeticable to decide definitely to which i)eak the name of the great navigator Avas applied. So existing nomenclature was followed as nearly as possible by attaching IMalaspina's name to a i)eak about eleven miles east of ]N[ount St. Elias. Its posi- tion is indicated on the accompanying ma}>, plate 8 (page 75). Several charts of the southern coast of Alaska accompany the reports of the United States Coast Survey for 1875, referred to above. A part of these have been independejitly published. These charts were used in niai)])ing the coast-line as it ajtpears on ])late 8, and were freiiucntly consulted Avhile writing the fol- lowing })ages. New Yoi;k Times Expedition, 1886. An expedition sent out by the New York Timrs, in charge of Lieutenant Frederick Schwatka, for the pur])ose of making geo- grai)hic explorations and climbing Mount St. Elias, left Sitka on the U. S. S. Plnta. on July 10, 1886, and reached Yakutat bay two days later. As it was found impracticable to obtain the necessary assistance from the Indians to continue the voyage to ley bay, whence the start inland was planned to be made. Cap- tain N. E. Nichols, the commander of the Pinta, concluded to take the exi)e(lition to its destination in his vessel. On July 17 a landing was madi' through the surf at lev bay. anil exploration at once began. The ])arty consisted of Lieutenant Schwatka, in charge; Pro- fessor William Lilibev. Jr.; and Lietitenant H. W. Seton-Karr. PrevioKs Attcinpfi^ to Scale St. Elias. 73 The camp hands were John Dalton, Josepli ^^^)0(ls, and several Indian packers.* From Icy bay the expedition proceeded inland, for about six- teen miles, in a line leading nearly due north, toward the summit of Mount 8t. Elias. The highest point reached, 7,200 feet, was on the foot-hills of the main range now called the Karr hills. The time occupied hy the expedition, after leaving Icy l)ay, was nine or ten days. So far as known, no systematic surveys were carried on. An interesting account of this expedition appeared in Seton- Karr's l)Ook, " The Shores and Alps of Alaska." Many olxserva- tions on the glaciers and moraines of the region explored are recorded in this work. The map })ublished with it has been used in comi)iling the w'estern portion of the map forming plate 8, where the r(nite of the expedition is indicated. Another ac- count, es})ecially valualde for its records of scientific observations, by Professor libbey, was published l)y the American Geographic Society. The Guyot, Agassiz and Tyndall glaciers, the Chaix hills, and Lake Castani received their names during this expedi- tion. Lieutenant Schwatka's graphic and entertaining account of this expedition, published in The Centurjj Ma i'..Q«w.c..(' ^^ SKETCH MAP OF MOUNT ST. tLIAS RLGION, ALASKA By Mark B. V.^x\. Westeen part from maps by H . W.Seton-Karr and W.H. Topham •Coast line from U.S. Coast Survey. PART II. NARHATTVE OF T?IE ST. ELTAS EXPEDTTTOX OF ISflO. Organizatiox. A long-cherished desire to study the geography, geok)gy. and glaciers of the region around Blount St. Elias was finally gratified when, in the summer of ISDO, the Xational Oeograijhic Society made it })ossil)le for me to undertake an expedition to that part of Alaska. The expedition ^vas organized under the joint auspices of the Xational Geographic Society and the United States Oeological Survey, but was greatly assisted by individuals who felt an in- terest in the extension of geographic knowledge. For the ince})- tion of exploration and for securing the necessary funds, credit is due Mr. ^\mard D. Johnson. The names of those who sul)scribe(l to the exph)ration fund of the Society are as follows : Boynton Leach. Everett Hayden. Richardson Clover. C. M. McCarteney. C. A. Williams. Willard D. Johnson. Israel C. Russell. Gilbert Tliompson. Harry King. Morris Bien. Wm. B. PoweH. Z. T. Carpenter. C'harles Xordhoff. Henry Gannett. Charles J. Bell. J: S. Diller. J. W. Powell. J. G. Judd. A. Graham Bell. Gardiner G. Hul)))ard. A. W. Greely. J. W. I)ol>l)ins. .1. \V. Hays. Edmund Alton. Bailey Willis. E. S. Hosmer. Rogers Birnie, Jr. I was chosen by the Board of Managers of the Xational Geo- graphic Society and by the Director of the United States Geological Survey to take charge of the expedition and to carry on geological and glacial studies. Mr. Mark B. Kerr, topographer on the Geological Sur^•ey, was assigned as an assistant, with the duty of making a topographical map of the region ex^jlored. (75) 7() /. (\ Rii.'<-se/l — Expediiion to Momil Sf. Ellas. ]\[r. E. S. Hosiucr, (if W'nsliintitoii, I). ('.. voluntrcriMl his services as ^leneral assistant.'^' Mr. Kerr left ^Vas]lin,^t()n (Ml .May'Jl for Saii l''i'ancisc(i, wlicro he lua-lc aiTaiiL-'cments t'oi- liis sjiccial woi-k.and rc|)()rtc(l to nie at Soattk' on .June 1"). 1 Id't W'ashin.iitou on May 'In and went directly to Seattle, w liei'e llie necessary ])rei)arations for ex])lor- in;^- an nid^nown and isolated reiiion were made. From the large number of frontiersmen and sailors who applit'd for ])ositions on the expedition, seven men were selected as cam|> hands. The foreman of tliis foi'ce was .]. II. ( 'hristie, of Seattle, who had sjx'nt the previous winter in charge of an ex- ])editi()n in the Olympian mountains, and was well versed in all that i)ertains to IVontier life. The otlKM' camp hands were J. IT. Ci'umhack, L. S. J)oney, W. L. Lindsley. William Partridge, Tliomas Staniy, and Thomas White. The indi\'idual memln'.rs of tlie pai'ty will he mentioned fre- qu(,'ntly during this narrative; hut I wish to state at the begin- ning that very much of the success of the enterprise was due to the hai'd and faithful W(_)rk of the cam]) hands, to each one of whom 1 feel personally indebted. Two dogs, " Bud " and '' Tweed," belonging to Mr. Christie, also became members of the expedition. All cam]) su|)plies, including tents, l)lankets, rations, etc., were ])Ui'ehased at Seattle. Rations for ten n)en tor one hundred days, on the basis of the subsistence furnished by the United States (Geological Survey, were purchased and suitably ])acked for trans])ortati()n in a lunnid climate. Twcnty-tive tin cans were obtained, each measuring (> x 12 x 14 inches, and in each a mixed ration suHicient for one man for fifteen days Avas packed and hermetically sealed. These rations, thus secured against moisture and in convenient shape for cai'rying on the back (or " ])aeking "), were for use above the tindx'i' line, whei'c cooking was ])ossible only by means of oil stoves. The remainder ol' the su])})lies, intended for use whei'e fuel for cam])-tires could be obtained, were secured either in tin cans or in canvas sacks. For cooking above timber line, two double-wick oil stoves were jirovitled, the usual cast-iron l)ases l)eing rei)laced by smaller reservoirs of tin, in order to avoid unnecessary weight. Coal oil was carried in five-gallon cans, but a few rectangular cans hold- *C()i)ies of ill! instructions L'ovcniini:- the work of Ihc cxpciUtion are given in Appendix A. The Outfit. ' 77 ing one gallon each were provided for use while on the marcli. Subsequent experience i)roved that this arrangement was satis- factory. Four seven-l)y-seven tents, witli ridge rojoes, and two pyram- idal nine-by-nine center-pole tents, with flies, were provided, all made of cotton drilling. The smaller tents were for use in the higher camps, and the larger ones for the l)ase camps. The tents were as light as seemed practicable, and were found to answer well the purpose for which they were intended. Each man was svipplied with one double Hudson Bay blanket, a water-proof coat, a water-proof liat (the most serviceable lieing the " sou'westers " used by seamen), and an alpenstock.* Each man also carried a sheet made of light duck, seven feet square, to protect his Idankets and to be used as a shelter-tent if re- quired. Each member of the party was also required to have heavy boots or shoes, and suitaljle woolen clothing. Each man was furnished with two pieces of hemp " cod-line," 50 feet in length, to be used in packing blankets and rations. The lines were doubled many times, so as to distribute the weight on the shoulders, and were connected with two leather straps for buck- ling about the package to be carried. The cod-lines were used instead of ordinary pack-straps, for the reason that they dis- tribute the weight on the shoulder over a broader area, and also because they can be made immediately availalde for climl)ing, crossing streams, etc., when required. Several extra lines of the same material were also taken as a reserve, or to be used in roping the party together when necessar3\ Several of the party carried rifles, for each of which a hundred rounds of fixed am- munition were issued. Two ice-axes for the party were also provided. A can^-as boat was made by the men while en route for the field, l)ut there was no occasion to use it, except as a cover for a cache left at one of the earlier camps. Subsequent experience showed that snow-shoes and one or two sleds would have been serviceable ; but these were not taken. Our instruments were furnished by the United States Geo- logical Survey. The list included one transit, one gradienter, one sextant, two prismatic compasses, one compass clinometer, * Light rubl)er cloth was ordered from San Francisco for the purpose of allowing each man a water-proof sheet to place under his blankets, but was not received in time to be used. 1-2— Nat. Geog. Mag., vol. HI, 1801. 78 /. ('. I*ii.s.<^(!/ — Krpeditittn to Momif Sf. Ellas. Wmv ]i(>ckct tlirniKiiiiclci-s, Iwn iisycln'omctcvs. one lield-glasH, two iiici'cui'ial liaroniL'tcTs, tlirrc aneroids, steel ta])e-]inc8, and two ])lioto,i:ra])liic outfits. I''i;(i.\i Si:A'r'i'Li': to Sti'ka. I'reparatioiis liavinu l>t'en coiupleted. tlie expeflitioii sailed i'roiii SeattK' June !(>, on the sti'auier ()ii(oth shown on ])late S). The village on Khantaak island is the older of the two, and consists of six houses built along the water's edge. The houses are made of ])lanks, each hewn from a single so T. ('. Jhii^.'^rfJ—ExprrJifion to }[(,iti,i Sf. EUaa. l() Mount St. FJirii^. throuu-h tlu' (Irit'tiii'i mist, wa-; iidvcI and cnjoyal)!!' in s|»ite of discomforts due to tlii' rain. W'v rcjuiccd at the tlioimlit that we were nearinL>- the place where tlie actnal hihi>i-s oftlie I'xpedi- tion wiudd he^in : we were a])i)roaehin'i the unknown : visions of nnexplored regions tilled with new wonder.s oecui)ied our fancies, and made us ea^cr to press on. Ahout noon on the tirst day we ])it<'hed our tents on a strip of slTumle skirtinu' the shore of the mainland to the east of Kuiuht island. The Piiifii\s hoats spread Iheir white win,u;s and sailed away to the southward hefore a fre.-iihenini>; wind, and our last connection with civilization was hroken. As one of the frontiers- men of our party remarked, we were "at home once more." It may appear strange to sonic that any one coidd a])})ly such a term to a camp on the wild shore of an unexplored eonutry ; hut the Bohemian spirit is sostronii' in some hreasts, and the restraint of civilization so irksome, that the homing instinct is reversed and k'ads irresistil)ly to the wilderness and to the silent moun- tain tops. 'J'he morning alter arriving- at our first camp, Kerr, Christie, and Ilenilriksen, with all the camp hands except two. went on with the canoes, and in a few houi's reached the entrance of Dis- enehantnu'Ut hay. They found a camping place ahout tAvelve miles ahead, on a narrow strip of shingle beneath the ]ireeipices of Point Es))eranza, and there established our second camp. My necessary delay at Camp 1 was utilized, so far as ])ossil)le, in learning what 1 covdd concei'ning the adjacent country, and in making a l)eginning in the study of its geology. Our cam]) was at the immediate base of the mountains, and on the north- eastern side of the wide platea\i bordering the continent. The ])lateau stretches southeastward for twenty or thirty nule.s, and is low and heavily forested. The eastern shore of the bay near our tirst camp is Ibrmed of bluffs about loO feet high, which have been eaten l)aek l)y the waves so as to ex})ose tine sections of the strata of sand, gravel and bowlders of wdiieh the plateau is composed. .Ml the lowlands l»ordering the mountains have, ai)pai-ently, a connnon histoiy, and doubtless owe their origin jM'incipally to the deposition of debris brought from the moun- tains by former glaciers. When this material was deposited, or soon afterward, the land was de)»ressed about 150 feet lower than at ])resent, as is shown by a terrace cut along the base of the mountains at that elevation. The steep mountain face ex- Ow' First Camp. 83 tending northwestward from Camp 1 to the month of Disen- chantment bay bears evidence of being the upheaved side of a fault of quite recent arigin. The steep incHnation and shattered condition of the rocks along this line are evidently due to the crushing which accompanied the displacement. In the wild gorge above our first camp, a small glacier was found descending to within 5(M) feet of the sea-level, and giving rise to a wild, roaring stream of milky water. Etforts to reacli the glacier were frustrated l)y the density of the dri})})ing x'cgeta- tion and liy the clouds that obscured the mountains. A canoe trip Avas made to a rocky islet lietween Knight island and the mainland toward the north. The islet, like the rocks in the adjacent mountain range, is composed of sandstone, greatly shattered and seamed, and nearly vertical in attitude. Its surface was densely carpeted with grass and Ijrilliant flowers. Many sea birds had their homes there. From its summit a fine view was obtained of the cloud-capped mountains toward the northeast, of the dark forest covering Knight island, and of the broad plateau toward the southeast. Some of the most charm- ing elfects in the scenery of the forest-clad and mist-covered shores of Alaska are due to the wreaths of vapor ascending from the deep forests during the interval in which the warm sunlight shines through the clouds ; and on the day of our visit to the islet, the forests, when not concealed l)y mist, sent up smoke-like vapor wreaths of many fantastic shapes to mingle with the clouds in Avhich the higher mountains disappeared. At Cam}) 1 the personnel of the party was unexpectedly re- duced. ]\Ir. Hosmer Avas ill, and remained Avith me at cam]) instead of i)ushing on Avith Kerr and Christie ; and the Aveather continuing stormy, he concluded to aljandon the expedition and return to the mission at Port Mulgrave. Having secured the services of an Indian Avho chanced to pass our camp in his canoe, Mr. Hosmer ]»ade us g()od-V)ye, ensconced himself in the frail craft, and started for sunnier lands. It Avas suljsequently learned that he reached Yakutak Avithout mishap, and a few days later sailed for Sitka in a small trading schooner. Our force during the remainder of the season, not including Mr. Hendriksen and the Indians, whose services Avere engaged for only a fcAV daySj numbered nine men all told. On the evening of June oO wc liad a briglit (•am])-firc l)lazing on the beach to Avelcome the returning jiarty. Near sunset a 84 7. ('. nu><>«U — pyjirdifion In Mount St. Elirift. canoo ai-pcnrcd in tlie ditstance, and a sliot was fired as it came rduiid a liciid in tlic slioi'o. A\\> felt sure that our eom]»aiii()ns wci'c iTturniiiiz, and piled drilt-wond on the roaring eani])-lire to clicri- tlicni after their liard day's woi-k on the water. As the canoe a|i|)roaclie(h each dip of the padcUe sent a liasli of light to us, and we could distinguish the men at tlieii' work : Imt we soon discovered that it was oceupietl not hy our own party l>ut l>y Indiaiis returning from a seal hunt in Disenchantment hay. 'I'licy hrouglit theii' canoe high on the heach, an )iarty. all armed with guns. In former times such an arri\al \vould have l)een regarch'd with susj)ici()n ; l)ut thanks to the somewhat frequent visits of war vessels to Yakutat. and also to the lahors of missionaries, the wild spii'its of the Indians have heen greatly suhdued and re- duced to semi-civilized condition during the ]»ast (juartcr of a century. Just as the long twilight deepened into night, another craft came around the distant headland, hut less swiftly than the former one ; and soon t)ur ])icturesque canoe, with Christie at the stern steering with a paddle in true Indian fashion, grated on the shingle l)each. Christie has spent many years of his life with the Indians of the Northwest, and has adopted some of their hahits. On heginning frontier life once more, he discarded the hat of the white man, and wore a blue cloth tied tightly an)un(l his forehead and streaming otf in loose ends hehind. The change was welcome, foi- it added to the i)ictui'cs(|Ue ai)})earance of the l)arty. The nu'U, weary with their long row against currents and head-winds, greatly enjoyed the cam])-fire. Our Indian visitors, after lunching lightly on the leaf-stalks of a ])lant resemhling celery {ArchangeUai)^ which gi"ows abundantly everywhere on the lowlands of southern Alaska, departetl toward ^'akutat. Su])per was served in one of the large tents, and wc all I'olled ourselves in oui- blankets for the night. The next day, July 1, we al)andoned Camp 1, i)asse(l ))y Canq) 2, and late in the afternoon reached tlie northwestern side of Vakutat hay, opposite Point Esperanza. Our tri[» along the wild shore, against whieli a heavy surf was breaking, was full of nov- elty and interest. The mountains rose sheer I'roui the water to a height of two or three thousand feet. .Vliout their l)ases, like Landing Amid Icebergs. 85 dark drapery, following all the folds of the mountain side, ran a liand of vegetation ; Init the spruce forests had mostly disap- peared, and only a few trees were seen here and there in the deej^cr canons. Tlie position of the terrace along the base of the mountain, first noticed at Camp 1, could be plainly traced, although densely covered with 1)Iis]k'S. The mountain peaks above were all sharp and angular, indicating at a glance that they had never been subjected to glacial action. The sandstone and shales forming the naked cliffs are fractured and crushed, and are evidently yielding ra])idly to the weather; but the char- acteristic red color due to rock decay could not be seen. The prevailing tone of the mountains, when not buried l>eneath vegetation or covered with snow, is a cold gray. Bright, warm, summer skies are needed to reveal the variety and beauty of that forbidding region. Our large canoe behaved well, although heavily loaded. Some- times the wind was favorable, when an extemporized sail lessened the fatigue of the trip. The landing on the northwestern shore was effected, through a light surf, on a sandy beach heavily en- cumbered with icebergs. As it was hazardous to beach the large canoe with its load of boxes and bags, the heavy freight was transferred, a few pieces at a time, to smaller canoes, each manned by a single Indian, and all was safely landed beyond the reach of the breakers. Camp 8 was established on the sandy beach just al)Ove the reach of the tide and near the mouth of a roaring brook. The drift-wood along the shore furnished almndant fuel for a blazing cam})-fire ; our tents were }jitched, and once more we felt at home. Two canoes were dispatched, in care of Doney, to the camp on the opposite shore (C!amp 2), with instructions to bring over the equipments left there. Kerr went over also for the })urpose of making a topographic station on the bluff forming Point P]spe- ranza should. the morrow's weather permit. It was curious to note the care which our Indians took of their canoes. Not only were they drawn high up on the beach, out of the reach of all possible tides, but each canoe was swathed in wet cloths, especially at the prow and stern, to prevent them from drying and cracking. The canoes, being fashioned from a single spruce log, are especially liable to split if alhnved to dry thor- oughly. The day after our arrival, all of our party and all of our camp 13— Nat. Geog. Mag., vol. Ill, 1891. 8() /. (\ Hnxsr// — Exi>(lilii>n fn }f(>iiiif SI. l-^lds. i»utlit were :iss('iul>l<'(l ;it Cniiiii •">. Mr. I Iciiili'icksrn ami ouv Indian iVicnds tonk their dcpartufc. and the work for wlilcli \vc had conic so I'ar was ai-tnally l)c,uun. l>Asi'. Cami' O.N I'lii-: SiiiiiM-; of ^'aktiwi' I'>av. Al)ont tlu' ti'uts at Canij) '■'> the rank grass {ircw \vaist-l)ijili, slu'ltcrinu' tlic straw! X'rrics and dwai'l" i'as))l)erri('s that l»h)oin('d IxMU'ath. A'Httlc way hack iVoni the shore, chnnps ol'alch'rs. in- tci'spersed with S])ruce trees, marked the hei>;innin,ii- of the I'orest whicli covered the hills toward the west and southwest. Toward the nortli rose ruti'u'cd mountains, their sunnuits slirouch'd in mist; in the steej) , and about a mile distant, rose a densely wooded hill about 300 feet high, with a curving outline, convex southward. This hill had excited my curiosity on first catching sight of the shore, and I decided to make it my first study. Its ])ositidn at the mouth of a steep gorge in the hills beyond, down which a small glacier fiowed, suggested that it might l)e an ancient moraine, (lei)osited at a time when the ice- stream advanced farther than at i)r^^sent. IVIy surprise therefore was great when, after forcing my way through the dense thickets, I reached the top of the hill, and found a large kettle-shaped de- pression, the sides of wbich were solid walls of ice fifty feet higli. This showed at once that the suj)])osed hill was really the ex- tremity of a glacier, long dead and dee])ly buried beneath forest- covered (le])ris. In tbe bottom of the kettle-like depression lay a pond of muddy water, and, as the ice-clitts about the lakelet melted in the warm sunlight, miniature avalanches of ice and stones, mingled with sticks and l)ushcs that bad been under- mined, frequently rattled down its sides aitd si>lashed into the Avaters V)elow. Further examination revealed tlie fact that scores of such kettles are scattered over the surface of the l)uried glacier. This ice-stream is that designated the (hilhirin (/lurirr on the ac- comi)anying map. Continuing on mv wav toward the mouth of the gorge in the 00 /. ('. f!ns.s(// — ExjHililiiHi Id Moil 1,1 SI. FJ'kis. jiiountains nlii)\c. 1 forccil my way Inr nearly a mile tlirouirli dense thickets. l'iHM|uently niakintz' wide detours to avoid tlie kettle holes. .\t lonu'th the vegetation hecanie le-^s dense, and gave place to hi'oad open fields of rocks and dirt. coverinLi' the glaci(M" tVom side to side. This (h'hi-is was clcai'ly of the nature of a moraine, as the ice cotdd lie seen heneath il in mnnerous erevasses ; hut no division into niari^inal oi" medial moraines could be distin!j,uished. It is i-eally a thin, irre^idar sheet of eonnniinited rock, together \vith angular inas.ses of sand.stono and shale, the larucst of which are ten or fifteen feet in diameter. When seen from a litth' dist;'.nce the debris com]>letely conceals tlu^ ic(> and tbnns a harren. ru'iged surface, the picture of desola- tion. After ti'aversinu' this naked area the dear ice in the center of the uor^-e was reached. All ahout were wild (difVs, strt'tchintr up toward the snow-covered ])eaks above; several cataracts of ice. fornu'd by tributary u'laciers descendinu' throtiudi ru^'ed. highly incline(l channels, were in si^ht : while the snow-fields far above jrleanu'd brilliantly in the sunlight, and now and then sent down small avalanches to awaken the echoes of the cliffs and fill the still air with a ilahel of tongues. Pushing on toward the western border of the glacier, across the harren field of stones, I came at length to the bi'ink of a precipice of dii'tv ic<' more than a hundred feet high, at the toot of which IIowcmI a swift stream of turhid water. A few hundred yards hclow. this stream suddenly disa.ppeared heneath an ai'ch- way fornu'd by the end of a glacial tiunicl. and its further course was lost to view. It was a strange sight to see a swift, foanung ri\-er hui'st from beneath overhanging ice-cliffs, roar along over a howlder-covei-ed bed, and then phinge into the mouth of a cavern, leaving no trace of its lowei' course except a dull, heavy rum- bling fai' down below the icy surface. A still grander example of these glacial streams, observed a few days latei', is (lescrii)ed on another ])age. The bank of the gulf opposite the point at which I first reache(l it is formed by a steep mountain-side su])porting a dense growth of vegetation. Here and there, however, streams of water ])lung(; down the slope, making a chain of foaming cascades, and o])en- ing the way through the vegetation. It seemed ])ractieahle to traverse one of these stream lieds without great diflficu.ltv, and thus to reacli the plateau which I knew, from a more distant view, to exist above. Fivf^i Vinr of St. FJim. 91 Crossing tlie glacial river al)Ovc the U})per arelnvay, T reached the mountain side and began to ascend. The task was far more difficult than anticii>ated. The hushes, principally of alder and currant, grew dense and extended their branches down the steep sloi)e in such a manner that at times it was utterly im])ossible to force a way through them. Much of the way I crawled du hands and knees up the steep watercourse beneath tlie dense tangle of vegetation overhanging from either l)ank and interlacing in the center. On neariilg the top 1 was so fortunate as to strike a l)ear trail, along which the animal had forced his way through the bushes, making an ()])ening like a tunnel. Througli this 1 ascended to the to}) of the slope, coming out in a wild amphi- theatre in the side of the mountain. The bottom of the ami)hi- theatre was exceedingly rough, owing to confused moraine-heaps, and held a number of small lakes. On account of its elevation, it was not densely covered with 1)ushes, and no trees wcn-e in sight except along its southern margin. Al)out its northern l)order ran a 1)r()ad terrace, marking the height of the great glacier which formerly occupied the site of Yakutat bay. The terrace formed a convenient pathway leading westward to a sharp ridge run- ning out from the mountains and connecting with an outstand- ino- butte, whidi ])romised to afford an unol)structed view to the westward. Pressing on, I found that the terrace on which I was traveling at length became a free ridge, some three hundred feet high, with steep slopes on either side, like a huge railroad embankment. This ridge swept across the valle}^ in a graceful curve, and shut off a portion of the ^vestern part of the amphitheatre from the general drainage. In the })ortion thus isolated there Avas a lake without an outlet, still frozen. The snow l>anks bordering the frozen lake were traced in every direction l)y the trails of l^ears. Continuing my tramp, T crosseil Ijvoad snow-ftelds, cHml)ed the ridge to the westward, and obtained a far-reaching, unolistructed view of the surrounding country. The elevation reached was only aljout 1,500 feet above sea-level, luit was al)ove the timber line. The mountain slopes toward the north were bare of vege- tation and generally covered with snow. The first ol)ject to claim attention was the huge pyramid form- ing the sunnnit of Mount St. Elias, which stood out clear and sharp against the northwestern sky. Although thirty-six miles distant, it dominated all other ]jeaks in view and rose far above 92 /. ('. J!>issr//—Krpr,!H!n,i fo Mi,iinf Sf. FJiofi. the ruirti'od crests (if nearer rans|iIutc, al'tci' so many days ol' mist and rain, was somethinu' si'ldom if ever e:|uallc(l in U-s.s humid lands. Much nearer than St. lOlias, and a little west of ni)i-tli of my station, rose Mount ('ook,t)ne of the most heautiful ]ieaks in the i-e^ion. Its sumunt, uidike the is(tlated |iyi-amid in which St. Klias terminates, is formed of three white domes, with here and there suhordinate pinnacles of pure white, shootinji up li-om the snow-iields like great crystals. On the southern side of Mount Cook there are several ruuged and au'iular ridt>es, which swee]) away i'or many nnles and ])roject like headlands into the sea of ice. known as the ^Talaspina alacier, hoi'deriuir the ocean to- warV. J'Jlia!^. Tlie qiiiektst and easiest way down was to slide on tlie snow. I'sinu- mv aljUMistock as a brakf. i descended swiftly several liundvecl tet't without dilliculty. tliecloLis l)oundin;^- alcniu' Ix'side me, when on looking up 1 was startle(l to see two luiears had long yellowish-brown hair, and were of the size and cliaracter of tlie "grizzly," with which they are thought 1)V hunters, if not by naturalists, to l)e sjH'cilically iden- tical. They were not at all disturbed l)y my presence, and in spite of my shouts, wluch 1 thought would make them travel off, one of them came leisurely toward me. His striiU's ovei- tiie snow revealed a strength and activity connnanding achniration despite the decidedly \nicondbrta1)le feeling awakened by his proximity and evident curiosity. Later in the season I meas- ured the tracks of an animal of the same species, made while Avalking over a soft, level surface, and found eacli im})ression to measure 9 by 17 inches, and the stride to reach 64 inches. So far as I have been able to learn, this is the largest bear track that has been rei)orteil. Realizing my danger, I continued my snow- slide, l)ut in a diti'erent direction and with accelerated s})eed. The upi^er limit of the dense thicket clothing the slo})e of the mountain was soon reached, and my miwelcomc companions were lost to sight. Following the l)ed of a torrent fed by the snow-tields above, I soon came to the creek cliosen for my route back to cam]): the waters, brown- and turl)id with sediment, welled out of a cavern at the fot)t of an ice precipice 200 feet higli. and formed a roaring stream too dee)) and too swift for fording. The i-oaring of the brown waters and tlu; startling noises made l)y stones rattling down tlu' ice-clitf, together with the dark shadows of the deep gorge, walled in by a steep mountain slope on one side and a glaeier on the other, made the route seem uncanny. On the sands filling the spaces between the 1)owlders thei-e wei-e many fresh l)ear tracks, which at least suggested that the lielate(l trav- eler should be carel'ul in his movements. This locality was afterward occujiied as a cam]iing place, and is shown in the picturi' foi'miiiL;' plate 1". The dark-colored ice. Jh'lafal in the Forest. 95 11)1x0(1 witli stones and earth, might easily be mistaken for strati- fied rock ; hut the dirt discoloring the ice is almost entirely suj^er- ficial. The crest of the cliff is formed of debris, and is the edge of the sheet of stones and earth covering the general surface of the glacier. Owing to the constant melting, stones and bowlders ' are continually loosened to rattle down the steep slope and plunge into the Avater beneath. I followed down the bank of the stream, by s})ringing from bowlder t(j l)owlder, for al)Out a mile, and then came to a steep l)luff, the western side of which was swept by the roaring flood. The banks aljove were clothed with spruce trees and dense under- brush ; l)Ut, there 1)eing no alternative, I entered the forest and slowly worked my way in the direction of cam}). To traverse the unbroken forests of southern Alaska is always difficult, even Avhen one is fresh ; and, wear}^ as I was with many hours of laborious climbing, my progress was slow indeed. One of the principal oljstacles encountered in threading these Arctic jungles is the plant known as the " Devil's club " (Panax horrldnm), which grows to a height of ten or fifteen feet, and has broad, palmate leaves that are especially conspicuous in autumn, owing to their bright yellow color. The stems of this plant run on the earth for several feet and then curve upward. Every portion of its surface, even to the ril)S of the leaves, is thickly set with spines, which inflict painful wounds, and, breaking off in the flesh, cause festering sores. In forcing a way through the brush one frequently treads on the i)rostrate }X)rtion of these thorny i)lants, and not infrequently is made aware of the fact by a lilow on the head or in the face from the over-arching stems. I struggled on througli the tangled vegetation until the sun Avent down and the woods became dark and somber. Thick moss, into Avhich the foot sank as in a bed of sponge, covered the ground everywhere t(i the depth of two or three feet ; each fallen trunk was a rounded mound of green and brown, decked Avith graceful equiseta and ferns, or brilliant Avith floAvers, but most treacherous and annoying to the Ijclatcd traveler. In the gloom of the dim-lit Avoods, the trees, bearded AA'ith moss, as- sumed strange, fantastic shapes, Avhich e\'ery unfamiliar sound seemed to start into life; while the numerous trails made by the bears in forcing their Avay through the thick tangle Averc posi- tive evidence that not all tlie inhabitants of the forest Avere crea- tures of the imagination. ]\Iv faithful comitanions, " Bud " and 9(J /. C. liiissr/l — Krprtliflon lo Mount SI. K/ids. "Tweed" slidwcd sIli'Iis of wearine-is, and oM'ercd no oWicction when I stai'tcil n lire nnd. cxpres.sed my iii1<'ntit, I sliared tliem witli the do;j;s, and stretehinu- myseli'on a luxuriant bank of lichens tried to slec'it, only to tind the moscpiitoes so ener- getic; that there was no h()i)e of passing the niglit in comfort. After resting I felt" refre-ihed, and eonelude 1 to ])ress on tlirough the gathering dai-kness, and after another hour of liard work I came out of the forest and u])on :i Held of torrent-swe[it l)owlders, de])osited by the stream Avhich 1 liad left farther up. I was surprised to lind that tlie twilight was not so far spent as 1 had fancied. Tlie way ahead l)eing free of vegetation, I has- tened on, and after traveling al)0ut two miles was rejoiced l)y tlie sight of a eamp-Hre blazing in the distance. The warm hre and a hearty supper soon made me forget the fatigues of the day. This, my first day's exi)loration, must stand as an example of many similar days sitent on the hills and in tlu' forests north- west of Yakutat bay, of which it is not necessary to give detailed descriptions. CaXOE ThII- I.N i)lSEX(MrA\TMKXT 1>AV. ( )n July '■), I continued my examination of the region about the head of Yakutat bay by making a canoe trip U]) Disenchant- ment bay to Haenke island. With the assistance of Christie and Crumback, our canoe was launched through the surf without difliculty. and wc slowly worked our way through the lields of Hoating ivr which covered all the U[)[)er ])ortion of the inlet. The men |)lied the oars with which the canoe was fortunately provided, while 1 directed its course with a jiaddle. A heavy swell rolling in ti'om the ocean rendered the task of choosing a route tlirough the grinding ice-pack somewhat ditlicult. After tour or five hours of hard work, during which time several vain attempts were made to traverse leads in the ice which had only one o])ening, we succeedeil in ix'aching the southern end oi' the island. ;,] The shores of llariike island are steepa ml I'ocky. and, so tar as I am awaiv, alford only one cove in which a boat can take refuge. This is at theexti'eiue southern point, and is not visibk; until its entrance is reacheil. A bi'eak or jissure in the ro(d-:s there admits of the accumulation ol' stone and sand, and this ('aiiociiu/ (t'liiovf/ J<'('hnrj>i. 97 has been exteudecl l)y tho action of the waves and tides until a beach a hundred feet in length has l)een deposited. The dash- ing of the bowlders and sand against the cliffs at tlie head of the cove b}^ the incoming waves has increased its extension in that direction so as to form a well-sheltered refuge. The aljsence of beaches on other portions of the island is due to the fact that its bordering precipices descend abruptly into deep water, and do not admit of the accumulation of debris about their bases. A\^ith- out stones and sand with which the waves can work, the excava- tion of terraces is an exceedingly sIoav operation. The precipitous nature of the l)orders of the island is due, to some extent at least, to the aljrasion of tlie rocks 1)y the glacial ice which once encir- cled it. Palling our canoe far u\) on the Ijcach, we l)egan the ascent of the cliffs. Hundreds of sea l)irds, startled from their nests by our intrusion, circled fearlessly about our heads and filled the air with their wild cries. The more exposed portions of the slopes Avere Imre of vegetation, but in the shelter of every depres- sion dense thickets obstructed the w^ay. Many of the little basins between the rounded knolls hold tarns of fresh water, and were occui)ied at the time of our visit by flocks of gray geese. It is evident that the island was intensely glaciated at no distant day. The surfaces of its rounded domes are so smoothly polished that they glitter like mirrors in the sunlight. On the i)olished sur- faces there are deep grooves and fine, hair-like lines, made liy the stones set in the V)ottom of the glacier which once fiowed over the island and removed all of the rocks that were not firm and hard. On many of the domes of sandstone there rest liowlders of a different character, which have evidently l)een l)rouglit from tl:ie mountains toward the northeast. The summit of the island is aliout 81)0 feet a])ove the level of the sea, and, like its sides, is polished and striated. The terraces on the mountains of the mainland show that the glacier which formerly flowed out from Disenchantment V)ay must have been fully 2,0'JO feet dee}). The bed it occuj)ied toward tlie south is now flooded by the waters of '^I'akutat })ay. At the time of Malaspina's visit, 100 years ago, the glaciers from the north reached Haenke island, and surrounded it on three sides.* At the rate of retreat indicated l)y comparing * The map accompanying Malaspina's report and indicating these condi- tions has already been mentioned, and is reproduced on plate 7, page 68. 1)8 /. C. l:>lssrl/ KrpxJUln,, t(, M(,l(,t( St. Kluix. Malaspiua s re^-onls with the present condition, tlie i>laeiers must have reached Point Espt'ranza, at the mouth of Disenelumtment l>av. altout 21):) years au"() : and an aHowanee of hetween ■")'.):) and 1. ();):) years wouhl seem anijtle for the retreat of tlie ulaeiers since I hey were at their Hood. Ueachinir tlie topmost dome of Ilaenke island, a wondi'rful panorama of snow-covered mountains, ulaciers. and icehergs lay before us. The island occupies the position of the stage in a vast amphitheatre; the spectators are hoary mountain peaks, each a monarch robed in ermine and bidding deliance to the ceaseless war of the elements. How insignificant the wanderer who con- fi-ont< such an audience, and how weak his effort-; to dc-cribe such a scene ! From a wild clitf-cnclosc I valley toward the north. guardc(l by towering pinnacles and massive clifi's, Hows a great glacier, the fountains of which are far back in the heart of the mountains beyond the reach of vision. Having vainly sought an Indian name for this ice-stream. I concluded to christen it the Dalton (llac'ter. in honor of .John Dalton. a miner and frontiersman now living at Yakutat. who is justly considered the j)ioneer explorer of the region. Tlie glacier is greatly shattered and pinnacled in descending its stee]) channel, and on reaching the sea it expands into a broad ice-loot. The last steep descent is made just before gaining the water, and is marked by crevasses and pinnacles of magniiicent })ro[)ortion and lieautiful color. This is one of the few glaciers in the St. Elias region that has well-defined medial and lateral moraines. At the bases of the cliffs on the western side there is a broad, lateral moraine, and in the center, looking like a winding road leading up the glacier, runs a triple-banded ribbon ofdebris, forming a typical medial moraine. Themorainal material carried by the gl-acier is at last deposited at its foot, or Hoated away by icebergs, and scattered far and wiilc ovci- the l>ottom of Yakutat bay. The glacier expands on entering the water, as is the habit of all glaciers when unconfined, and ends in magnificent ice-cliffs some two miles in length. The water dashing against the bases of the cliffs dissolves them away, antl the tides tend to i-aisc' and lower the expanded ice-foot. The result is that huge masses, sonu'times reaching from summit to base of the cliffs, are under- mined, and topple over into the sea with a tremendous crash. OwiuLi- to tbcflistanceof the glacier from Ilaenke island, we could The Formnfioi) of Trrberr/ft. 00 f^ee tlio fall long Ix'forc the roar reached our oars; the dirts sepa- rated, and huge masses seemed to sink without a sound; the spray thrown up as the l)lue pinnacles disaj^peared ascended like gleaming rockets, sometimes as high as the tops of the clitt's, and then fell back in silent cataracts of foam. Then a noise as of a cannonade came rolling across the waters and echoing from clifTto cliff. The roar of the glacier continues all day when the air is warm and the sun bright, and is most active when the sum- mer days are finest. Sometimes, roar succeeded roar, like artil- lery fire, and the salutes Avere answered, gun for gun, f)y the great Hubbard glacier, which pours its flood of ice into the fjord a few miles further northeastward. This ice-stream, vaoHt magnificent of the tide-water glaciers of Alaska yet discovered, and a towering mountain peak from which the glacier receives a large part of its drainage, were named in honor of (iardiner (!. Hul>l)ard. ])resi- dent of the National (ieographic Society. r.ooking across the waters of the bay, whitened by thousands of floating bergs, we could see three miles of tlie ice-cliffs formed where the Hubbard glacier enters the sea. A dark headland on the shore of the mainland to the right shut off the full view ol' the glacier but formed a strongly drawn foreground, which en- hanced the picturesque effect of the scenery. The Hubbard glacier flows majestically through a deep valley leading back into the mountains, and has two main branches, with a smaller and steeper tributary between. These branches unite to form a single ice-foot extending into the bay. The western branch has a dark medial moraine down its center, whicli makes a l)old, sweeping curve before joining the main stream. There is also a broad lateral debris-belt along the bases of the cliffs forming its right ])ank. The whole surface of the united glacier, and all of the white tongues running Ijack into the mountains Ijeyond the reach of vision, are broken and shattered, owing to the steepness and roughness of the Ijed over which they flow. The surface, Avhere not concealed b}'' morainal material, is snow-white ; but in the multitude of crevasses the l)lue ice is exposed, and gives a greenish-l)lue tint to the entire stream. Where the sul)glacial slopes are steep, the ice is broken into pinnacles and towers of the grandest descrij^tion. On the steep mountain sides sloping toward the Hul)bar(l glacier there are more than a dozen secondary ice-streams which are tributary to it. The amphitheatres in which tlie glacier has 100 /. ('. Hiissrl/ — Erprdlfin)) in Moimi St. Klia^. its l)('ii;inninus luivo lU'Vcf liccii seen ; l)ut nurgcncnil knowlcdiie nt' the fountains fVoiii which iilacicrs lh)\v assures us'that not only sc ires hut huiKh'cds ot' other scconi hi i"v and tertiary u'laeiers far h;ick into the iiiountains eonti'ihute their Moods to the same ,L:reat stream. Al'ter l)einu' reeei\-(Ml on hoard the '' '(//■//■/■;/. hitr in Se|itcmher, \vc hud an opi)ortunity to view the j^reat sea-eHtl's of the Huhhai-d ghu'ier near at IkukL ('a])tain Hooper, attracted hy tlie niaunili- eent seeneiy. took his vessel up 1 )iseuehantment hay to a ])oint l)ey()nd Haenke island, whenee a view could he had of tlie ea.steru extensioi\ of the inlet. So far as is known, the (hririri was the first vessel to naviedition. which connnands even a wider prospect than can \\v ohtainel from Haenke island. Future visitors to this remote coast should endeavor to reach this islet, after having beheld the grand [)anorama obtainable from the summit of Haenke island. The portion of Disenchantment bay stretching eastAvard from the foot of Hubbard glacier is enclosed on all sides by l)old mountains, the lower slopes of which have the subdued and flowing outlines characteristic of glaciated regions. Several glaciers occur in the high-grade lateral valleys oi)ening from the bay ; but these have recently retreated, and none of them have sufficient volume at present to reach the water. The general recession, in which all the glaciers of Alaska are ])articipating, is manifested here l)y the broad debris fields, which cover all the lower ice-streams not ending in the sea. The al)sencc of vegetation on the smooth rocks recently aban- doned by the ice also tells of recent climatic changes. A del)ris-covere(l glacier, so completely conct'aled by continu- ous sheets of stones and earth that its true character can scarcely be recognized, descends from the mountains just east of Hul)bard glacier. It is formed l)y the union of two pi-incipal ti-ihutaries^ and, on reaching comparatively level ground, expands into a Ijroad ice-foot, l)ut does not have sufficient volume to reach the sea. Another glacier, of smaller size hut of the same general character, lies between the Huhl)ar(l and Dalton glaciers. In a rugu'ed delile in the mountains just west of Haenke island there is another small dirt-covered glacier, which ci^'cps down from the ))recipices above and reaches within a mile of the water. Tide-water Glaciers. 101 At its end there i.s a cliff of Ijlack, dirty ice, scarcely to be dis- tinguished from rock at a little distance, from the base of which tiows a turl)id stream. This glacier is covered so completely with earth and stones that not a vestige of the ice can be seen unless we actually traverse its surface. Its appearance suggests the name of Black glacier, b_v which it is designated on the accompanying map. The visitor to Haenke island has examples of at least two well- marked types of glaciers in view : The small debris-covered ice- streams, too small to reach the water, are typical of a large class of glaciers in southern Alaska, which are slowly wasting away and have become buried beneath debris concentrated at the sur- fiice by reason of their own melting. The Galiano glacier is a good example of this class. The Hul)bard and Dalton glaciers are fine examples of another class of ice-streams which flow into the sea and end in ice-cliffs, and which for convenience we call tide-water glaciers. Nowhere can finer or more beautiful ex- amples of this type be found than those in view from Haenke island. FrerRE 1 — Diagram illnstral'mg the Formation of Iceherqa. The formation of icebergs from the undermining and breaking down of the ice-cliffs of the tide-water glaciers has already been mentioned. But there is another method by which bergs are formed — a process even more remarkable than the avalanches that occur when portions of the ice-cliffs topple over into the sea. The ice-cliffs at the foot of the tide-water glaciers are really sea-cliffs formed by the waves cutting back a terrace in the ice. The submerged terrace is composed of ice, and may extend out a. thousand feet or more in front of the visible part of the ice-cliffs. These conditions are represented in the accompanying diagram (figure 1), which exhiliits a longitudinal section of the loAver end of a tide-water glacier where it pushes out into the sea. As the sea-cliff of ice recedes and the submerged terrace in- creases in breadth there comes a time when the l)U()yancy of the 15— Nat. Geog. Mao., vol. Ill, 1>91. 102 I. C. naHHvll—E.cpalitioii fo Minuii St. Elinx. ice at the ])ottoni oxccmhIs its stivnirtli, and ])iofcs break off and rise U) tlic suiiacc The watci- altout tlu' cuds of the glaciers is so intensely muddy that the sulmierged ice-foot is hidden from view, and its presence would not he suspected were it not for tlie fragments occasional!}^ rising from it. Tlic sudden appearance of these masses of hottom ice at the surl'ace is always startling. While watching the ice-cliffs and admiring the play of colors in the deep crevasses which penetrate them in every direction, or tracing in fancy the strange history of the silent river and won- dering in what age the snows fell on the mountains, which are now returning to tlieir ])arent, tlie sea, one is frequently awakened by a commotion in the waters below, perhaps several lumdred feet in front of the ice-cliffs. At first it seems as if some huge sea-n)onster had risen from the dec}) and was lashing the waters into i'oam ; l)ut soon the waters })art, and a blue island rises to the surface, carrying hundreds of tons of water, which Hows down its sides in cataracts of foam.. Some of the bergs turn conipletely over on emerging, and thus add to the tumult and confusion that attends their birth. The waves roll away in widening circles, to break in surf on the adjacent shores, and an island of ice of the most lovely blue floats serenely away to join the thousands of similar islands that have preceded it. The fragments of the glacier rising from tht^ bottom in this manner are usually larger than those broken from the faces of the ice-cliffs, sometimes measuring 200 or 300 feet, in diameter. Their size and the sud- denness with which they rise would insure certain destruction of a vessel venturing too near the treacherous ice-walls. At the time of our visit to Haenke island, the entire surface of Disenchantment bay and all of Yakutat l)ay as far southward as we could see formed one vast fit'ld of lloating ice. Most of the bergs were small, but hert' and there rose masses which measured 150 by 200 feet on their sides and stood 40 or oO feet out of the water. The bei'gs are divided, in reference to color, into three classes — the white, the blue, and the black. The white ones are those that have fallen from the iace of the ice-walls or those that have been sufliciently exposed to the atmos})herc to become melted at the surface and tilled with air cavities. The blue bergs are of many shades and tints, finding their nearest match in color in Antwcrj) blue. These are the ones that have recently risen from the submerged ice-foot, oi' lia\"c turned over owing to a change of ])()sition in the center of gi-a\ity. Rapid as is the 1 •■•^ ^ * "■ .1 'V,v':| 1 .•;;?■< H 'i:\']\\ -* #• 1 A^ y J-' /J.f t^i .^ lU Delai/ed by Icebergs. 103 melting of the ice when exposed to the air, it seems to liquefy even more quickly when submerged. The changes thus pro- duced finally cause the hergs to reverse their positions in the water. This is done Avithout the slightest warning, and is one of the greatest dangers to be guarded against while canoeing among them. The white color })resented by the majority of the bergs is changed to blue when they l^ecome stranded, and the surf breaks over them and dissolves away their porous surfaces. A few of the bergs are black in ct)lor, owing to the dirt and stones that they carry on their surfaces or frozen in their mass. Quantities of debris are thus floated away from the tide-water glaciers and strewn over the bottoms of the adjacent inlets. This digression may be wearisome, but one cannot stand on Haenke island without wishing to know all the secrets of the great ice-streams that flow silently liefore him. Returning from our commanding station at the summit of tlie island to where we left our canoe, we were surprised and not a little startled to find that the tide had run out and left the strand lietween our canoe and the water completely l)locked with huge fragments of ice. There was no way left for us to launch our canoe exce]:)t by cutting away and leveling off" the ice with our axe, so as to form a trail over which we could drag it to the water. This we did, and then, poising the canoe on a low flat berg, half of which extended l)eneath the water, I took my place in it with paddle in hand, while Christie and Crumback, waiting for the moment when a large wave rolled in, launched the canoe ftir out in the surf. By the vigorous use of my paddle I suc- ceeded in reaching smooth water and brought the canoe close under the cliff forming the southern side of the cove, where the men were able to drop in as a wave rolled under us. We slowly worked our way doAvn the bay through l)lue lanes in the ice-pack, against an incoming tide, and reached our tents near sunset. Thus ended one of the most enjoyable and most instructive days at Yakutat bay. Fkom Yakutat Bay to Blossom Island. Our camp on the shore of Yakutat Ijay was held for several days after returning from Haenke island, but in the meantime an advailce-camp was established on the side of the Lucia glacier, from which Mr. Kerr and myself made explorations ahead. 101 /. C. Ram II— Expedition lo Mo, mi ,S7. J-JlUifi. Bcfdve leaving; the liase-cnnip I visited lilack glacier for the ]>ur|»<)se of taking i)lioto,(rrai)lis and studying tli(> apiiearance of an old glacier far spent and fast passing away. This, like the (ialiano glacier, is a good example of a great nunil)er of ice- stn'anis in the same region Avhich are covered from side to side with dclii'is. The cnrion walls on either side rise ])recipit(iusly. and their h)wer slopes, for the height of 200 or 8IJ() feet, are hare of vegetation. The surface of the glacier has evidently sunken to this extent within a period too short to allow of the accumula- tion of soil and the rooting of plaiit-^ on the slojjes. The Icinks refi^rred to are in part helow the U]i])er limit of timber growth, and the adjacent surfaces are covered with hushes, grasses, and (lowers. Under tlie climatic conditions there prevailing, it is evident tliat the formation of soil and the spreading of plants over areas ahandoned by ice is a matter of comparatively few years. It is for this reason that a very recent retreat of Black glacier is inferred. Many of the glaciers in southern Alaska give similar evidence of recent contraction, and it is evident that a climatic change is in progress which is either decreasing the winter's snow or increasing the sunnner's heat. The most sensi- tive indicators of these changes, resi)onding even more (piickly than does the vegetation, are the glaciers. The fourth of July was spent by us in cutting a trail u[) the steep mountain slope to the am})hitheatre visited during my first tramp. No one can appreciate the dcMisity and luxuriance of the vegetation on the lower mountain in that region until he has cut a i)assage through it. 8even men, working continuously for six or seven hours Avith axe-! and knives, were able to o]ien a comparatively good trail about a mile in length. The remainder of the way was along stream courses and up bowlder-washes, which were free from vegetation. In the afternoon, having lin- ished our task, a half-holiday was spent in an exciting search for two huge brown bears discovered by one of the party, but they vanished liefort' the guns could be brought out. The next day an advance-camp was made in tlu' ani[)hitheatre al)ove timl)er line, and there Mr. Kerr and myself ])asse 1 the night, molested only by swarms of mosipiitoes, and the day fol- lowing occu])ied an outstanding butte as a topogra})hical station. In the afternoon of the same day the advance-caiup was moved to the l)ord(;r of the Atrevida glacier at a point already descril)ed, where a muddv stream gushes out from under the ice. Confrad of Desolation and Verdure. 105 Our next advance-camp, established a few days later, was at Terrace j^oint, as we called the extreme end of the mountain spur separating the Lucia and Atrevida glaciers. These ice- streams were formerly much higher than now, and when at their flood formed terraces along the mountain side, which remain distinctly visible to the present day. The space between the two glaciers at the southern end of the mountain spur became filled with bowlders and stones carried down on the side of the ice- streams, and, as the glaciers contracted, added a ta})ering point to the mountain. Between the present surface of the ice and the highest terrace left at some former time there are many ridges, sloping down stream, which record minor changes in the fluctu- ation of the ice. A i)ortion of one of these terraces is seen to the left in plate 10. Terrace point, like all the lower portions of the mountain spurs extending southward from the main range, is densely clothed with vegetation, and during the short summers is a paradise of flowers. Our tent was pitched on a low terrace just beyond the border of the ice. The steep bluff rising to an elevation of some 200 feet on the east of our camp was formed by glacial ice buried beneath an absolutely barren covering of stones and dirt. On the west the ascent was still more precipitous, but the slope from base to summit was one mass of gorgeous flowers. Kerr and myself made several excursions from the camjj at Terrace point, and explored the country ahead to the next mountain spur for the purpose of selecting a site for another advance-camp. In the meantime the men were busy in Ining- ing up supplies. Our reconnoissance westward took us across the Lucia glacier to the mouth of a deep, transverse gorge in the next mountain spur. The congeries of low peaks and knobs south of this pass we named the Floral hills, on account of the luxuriance of the vegetation covering them ; and the saddle separating them from the mountains to the north was called Floral pass. In crossing the Lucia glacier we experienced the usual ditii- culties met with on the debris-covered ice-field of Alaska. The way was exceedingly rough, on account of the ridges and valleys on the ice, and on account of the angular condition of the del^ris resting upon it. Many of the ridges could not conveniently be climbed, owing to the uncertain footing afforded by the angular lUU /. C. RusscU — Expedition lo Moitut >S7. Klias. stones resting on the slipijevv slope l)eneatli. Fortunately, the erevasses were mostly filled with stones fallen from tlie sides, so that tlie daiiLier from open fissures, whicli has usually to be guarded against in glacial excursions, Avas obviated ; yet, as is usually the case when crevasses l)econie filled with debris, the melting of the adjacent suii'aces had caused thciii to stand in relief and form ridges of loose stones, wliidi were exceechngly troublesome to the traveler. Near the western side of the Lucia glacier, l)etween Terrace point and Floral pass, there is a huge rounded dome of sand- stone rising boldly out of the ice. This corresponds to the " nun- ataks " of the Greenland ice-fields, and was covered by ice when the glaeiation was more intense than at present. Ou the north- ern side of the island the ice is forced high up on its Hanks, and is deeply covered with motaines ; but on the southwestern side its base is low and skirted by a sand plain deposited in a valley formerly occupied by a lake. . The melting of the glacier has, in fact, progressed so far that the dome of rock is free from ice on its southern side, and is connected with the border of the valley toward the west by the sand plain. This ])lain is composed of gravel and sand deposited by streams which at times became dammed lower down and exi^anded into a lake. Sunken areas and holes ovei' portions of the lake liottom show that it rests, in ])art at least, upon a l)ed of ice. The most novel and interesting feature in the fAicia glacier is a glacial river wliich bursts from beneath a high archway of ice just at the eastern l)ase of the nunatak mentioned above, and Hows for about a mile and a half through a channel excavated in the ice, to then enter the mouth of another tunnel and l)ecome lost to view. An illustration of this strange river and of the mouth of tbc tunnel in the del)ris-covered ice into which it rolls, reproduced from a photograph by a mechanical process, is given on plate 14 (page 110), and another view of the mouth of the same tunnel is presented in the succeeding plate. This is the finest example of a glacial river that it has ever been my good fortune to examine. The stream is swift, and its waters ai-e brown and heavy with sediment. Its breadth is al)out 150 feet. For the greater part of its way. where open to sunlight, it flows between banks of ice and over an icy floor. Fragments of its Ijanks, and porti(jns of A fyjncal glacial Elver. 107 the sides and roof of the tunnel from which it emerges, are swept along by the swift current, or stranded here and there in mid- stream. The sand plain already mentioned borders the river for a portion of its course, and is flooded wlien tlie lower tunnel is obstructed. The archway under which the stream disaj^pears is about fifty feet high, and the tunnel retains its dimensions as ftir as one can see by looking in at its mouth. Where the stream emerges is unknown ; Ijut the emergence could no doubt be discovered by examining the border of the glacier some miles southward. No explorer has yet been bold enough to enter the tunnel and drift through with the stream, altliough this could possibly be done without great danger. The greatest risk in such an undertaking would be from falling blocks of ice. While I stood near the mouth of the tunnel there came a roar from the dark cavern within, reverberating like the explosion of a heavy blast in the chambers of a mine, that undoubtedly marked thefall of an ice mass from the arched roof The course of the stream below the mouth of the tunnel may be traced for some distance by scarps in the ice above, formed by the settling of the roof Some of these may be traced in the illustrations. When the roof of the tunnel collapses so completely as to obstruct the passage, a lake is formed above the tunnel, and when the obstruction is removed the streams draining the glacier are flooded. At the mouth of the tunnel there are always confused noises and rhythmic vibrations to be heard in the dark recesses within. The air is filled witli pulsations like deep organ notes. It takes but httle imagination to transform these strange sounds into the voices and songs of the mythical inha])itants of the nether regions. Toward the right of the tunnel, as shown on plate 14,°there appears a portion of the former river bed, now abandoned, (nving to the cutting across of a bend in the stream. The floor of this old channel is mostly of clear, white ice, and has a peculiar, hummocky appearance, which indicates the direction of the current that once flowed over it. A portion of the bed is covered with sand and gravel, and along its border are gravel terraces resting on ice. These occurrences illustrate the foct that rivers flowing through channels of ice are governed hy the same general laws as the more familiar surface streams. After examining this glacial river, during our first excursion on the Lucia glacier, we reached its western l>an.ks bv crossino- 108 /. ('. fiiiss//l — Expedition to Mount St. Elias. above the upper archway. Traversing the sand ]»l;un to the westward, we came to another .stream of nearly equal interest, flowing along the western margin of the glacier, past the end of the deep gorge called Floral pass. A small creek, flowing down the pass, joins the stream and skirts the glacier just below tlic mouth of a wild gorge on the side of the main valley. Tliis stream once flowed along the l)or(ler of the lAicia glacier when it was nuich higher than now, and began the excavation of a channel in the rock, whicli was retained after tlie surface of the glacier was lowered by melting. It still flows in a r(K'k-cut channel for al)()ut a mile before descending to the l)order of the glacier as it exists at i)resent. The geologist will see at once that this is a peculiar example of superimi)Osed drainage. The gorge cut by the stream is a deep narrow trench Avith rough angular cliffs on either side, and is a good examjjle of a water-cut canon. AA'hen the Lucia glacier melts away and leaves the broad- bottomed valley clear of ice, the deep nai'row gorge on its western side, running parallel with its longer axes, l)ut a thousand feet or more above its bottom, Avill remain as one of the evidences of a former ice invasion. During our reconnoissance we turned back at the margin of the second river, but a day or two later reached the same jjoint with the camp hands and camping outfit, and, placing a roi)e from bank to l)ank, effected a crossing. Our next camp was in Floral ])ass. From there we occupied a topographical station on the sunmiit of the Floral hills, and made another reconnoissance ahead, across the Hajidea glarier,^^ to the next mountain s)»ur. Floral ])ass,likeso many of the topographical features examined during the recent expedition, has a peculiar history. It is a com- ])ai'atively low-grade gorge leading directly across the end of an angular mountain range forming one of the spurs of Mount Cook. The ]»osition of the i)ass was detcnuiiicd by an east-and- west fault and l)y the erosion of soft shales turned uj) on edge along the line of displacement. At its head it is shut in by the Hayden glacier, which flows past it and forms a wall of ice about two hundred feet high. The water liowing out from beneatli the side of the glacier forms a muddy creek, which finds its way over a bowlder-covered bed in the bottom of the gorge to the border of Lucia glacier. Along the sides of the gorge there are * Named in honor of the late Dr. Ferdinand V. TIayden, founder of tlie United States CJeolofrical Survi'v nf tlic Tcriiturics. Camp in Floral Pass. 109 many terraces, which record a complicated history. Evenly stratified clays near its lower end, adjacent to the Lucia glacier, show that it was at one time occupied in part by a lake. Above the lacustral beds there are water-worn deposits, indicating that at a later date the gorge was filled from side to side by moraines and coarse stream deposits several hundred feet thick. These were excavated, and portions were lefti clinging to the hill-sides, forming the terraces of to-day. Diverse slopes in the terraces suggest that the drainage may at times have been reversed, ac- cording as the Lucia or the Hayden glacier was the higher. The routes between our various camps, scattered along between Yakutat bay and Blossom island, were traversed several times by every member of the party. To traverse the same trail several times with heavy loads, and perhaps in rain and mist, is dis- heartening work which I will spare the reader the effort of follow- ing even in fancy. From our camp in Floral pass another reconnoissance ahead was made by Mr. Kerr and myself, as already mentioned. These advances, each one of which told us something new, were the most interesting portions of our journey. The little adventures and experiences of each advance Avere reported and talked over when we rejoined our companions around the cam23-fire at night, and were received with gratifying interest by the men. A view of the Hayden glacier from the Floral hills showed us that it differed from any of the glaciers previously traversed. Its surface, where we i)lanned to cross it, was free of debris except alcmg the margins and also near the center, where we could distinguish a light medial moraine. Farther southward, near the terminus of the glacier, its surface from side to side was l)uried l;)eneath a sheet of stones and dirt. As in many other instances, the delnis on the lower portion of the glacier has been concentrated at the surface, owing to the melting of the ice, so as to form a continuous sheet. Early one morning, while traveling over the torrent-swept bowlders in the stream-bed on our way up Floral pass, we were a little startled at seeing the head of a bear just visible through the flowers fi-inging the bank. Before a shot could be fired, he vanished, and remained perfectly quiet among the bushes for several minutes. But a treml^ling of the branches at length be- trayed his presence, and a few minutes later he came out in full view, his yellow-brown coat giving him the appearance of a liuge 16— Nat. Geog. Mag., vol. Ill, 1891. 110 T. (\ niis<rohably still more fortunately for me, the hull et went far above the mark. The huge beast vanished again, al- though the vegetation was not dense, and left us wondering how such a large animal could disappear so quickly and so completely in such an o))en region. On searching for his tracks, we found that he had traversed for a few rods the plant-covered terrace on which he was first discovered, anering westward to the ()i)posite bank, liy following this course, and making a doul)le curve like the letter $, we could cross the steep descent in the center, where it was least crevassed. The marginal moraines on the Hayden glacier aw formed of fragments of l)rowu and gray sandstone and l)lack shale of all sizes and shapes. It is clear that this del^ris Avas gathered l>y the clifFs bordering the glacier on eithei" si(U'. The meilial mo- raine which first appears at the surface just al)ove the rapids is of a diiferent character, and tells that the higher peaks of Mount ('(tok are composeil, in part at least, of a dilfei'ciit material from Detdils of the Glacier.s Surface. Ill the spurs projecting from it. The medial moraine looks black from a distance, but, on traversing it, it was found to be com- posed mainly of dark-green gabbro and serpentine. The debris is scattered over the surface in a belt several rods wide ; but it is not deep, as the ice can almost everywhere be seen between the stones. Where the fragments of rock are most widely separated, there are fine illustrations of the manner in which small, dark stones al)Sorb the heat of the sun and melt the ice beneath more rapidly than the surrounding surface, sinking into the ice so as to form little wells, several inches deep, filled with clear water. Larger stones, which are not warmed through during a day's sunshine, protect the ice beneath while the adjacent surface is melted, and consequently l:»ecome elevated on i)illars or pedestals of ice. The stones thus elevated are fre(|uently large, and form tables which are nearly always inclined southward. In other instances the ice over large areas, especially along the center of the medial moraine, was covered with cones of fine, angular frag- ments from a few inches to three or four feet in height. These were not really piles of gravel, as they seemed, but consisted of cones of ice, sheeted over with thin layers of small stones. The secret of their formation, long since discovered on the glaciers of Switzerland, is that the gravel is first concentrated in a hole in the ice and, as the general surface melts away, acts like a large stone and protects the ice beneath. It is raised on a pedestal, Init the gravel at the 1iorders c(.nitinually rolls down the sides and a conical form is the result. \Miere we crossed the Hayden glacier it is only about a mile l)road in a direct line ; but to traverse it by the circuitous route rendered necessary by the character of its surface required about three hours of hard tramping, even when unincumbered with packs. From the center of the glacier a magnificent view may be obtained of the snow-covered domes of Mount Cook, from which rugged mountain ridges stretch southward like great arms and enclose the white snow-field from which the glacier flows. At an elevation of 2,500 feet the icy portion disappears beneath the neve on which not a trace of debris is visil)le. All the higher }tortions of the mountains are white as snow can make them, except Avherc the i)innacles and precipices are too steep to retain a covering. On reaching the western side of the glacier we found a bare space on the bordering cliffs, al)out a hundred feet high, which 112 /. C. liimdl—Kxpcdit'uni to Jlomil *S7. J^JUas. has l)Pcn al)an(l()n(Ml l)y the ice so recently tliat it is not yet grassed over. AI)ov(^ tliis came the luxuriant and beautiful ve.jjetation covering nil the lower mountain slopes. The mountain spur just west of the glacier, like several of the ridges stretching southward from the higher mountains, ends in a group of hills somewhat sei»ar;ite from the main ridge. The hills are covered with a rank vegetation, and in places sup- port a dense growth of spruce trees. Reaching the grassy summit, we had a fine, far-reaching view of the unexplored region toward the west, and of the vast plateau of ice stretching southward beyond the reach of the vision. \W'st of our station, another great ice-stream, named the Marvine glacier, in honor of the late A. R. Marvine, flows southward Avith a breadth exceed- ing that of any of the icy streams yet crossed. Beyond the Marvine glacier, and forming its western horder, there is an exceedingl}'- rugged mountain range trending northeast and southwest. Although this is, topographically, a portion of the mountain mass forming Mount Cook, its prominence and its peculiar geological structure render it important that it should have an independent name. In acknowledgment of the services t;) science rendered by the iirst state geologist of Massachusetts, it is designated the HitrJimrl- raiuje on our maps. Rising a1)ove the angular crest line of this mountain mass towers the ])yram- idal summit of i\Iount St. Elias, seemingly as distant as when we first beheld it from near Yakutat bay. Al)Out a nule west of the hill on which we stood, and beyond the hed of a lake now drained of its waters by a tunnel leading southward through the ice, rose a steep, rocky island out of the glaciers, its summit overgrown with vegetation and dark with s])ruce trees. This oasis in a sea of ice, subsequently named Blossom island, we chose as the most favorable site for our next advance-cam]). We then returned to our camp in Floral pass, and a day or two later Kerr and Christie started on a side trip up the Hayden glacier, to be absent five days. During this trip the weather was stormy, and only allowed half an hour for topograi)hical work when a somewhat favorable station was reached. This was of great seryice, however, in mapi)ing the country, as it gave a station of considerable elevation on the side of Mount Cook. The tri]) was nearly all above the snow-line, and was relieved by many novel experiences. Encampment in a Paradise. 113 A\']ii]e Kerr and Christie were away, I assisted the camp liauds ill advancing to Blossom island. Our first day's work consisted in packing loads across the Hayden glacier to the wooded hills on its western border, reached during the reconnoissance de- scribed above. The weather was st(jrmy, and a dense fog rolled in from the ocean, obscuring the mountains, and compelling us to find our way across the glacier as best we could without land- .marks. Patiently threading our way among crevasses, we at length came in sight of the forests on the extremity of the moun- tain spur toward the west, and concluded to camp there until the weather was more favoralDle. We climbed the bare slope Ijordering the glacier, and forced our way through the dripping vegetation to an open space beside a little stream and near some aged spruce trees that would furnish good fuel for a camp-fire. We were glad of a refuge, l3ut did not fully appreciate the fact that our tents were in a paradise of flowers until the next morn- ing, when the sun shone clear and bright for a few hours. We hailed with delight the world of summer beauty with which we were surrounded. Our camp was in a little valley amid irregular hills of debris left Ijy the former ice invasion, each of which was a rounded dome of flowers. The desolate ice-fields were com- pletely shut out from view by the rank vegetation. On the slope above us, dark spruce trees loaded with streamers of moss, and seemingly man}^ centuries old, formed a background for the floral decoration with which the ground was everywliere covered. Flowering plants and ferns were massed in such dense luxuri- ance that the streams were lost in gorgeous banks of bloom. Reluctantly we returned to Floral pass for another load of camp supplies, and late in the afternoon pressed on to Blossom island, where we again pitched our tents in rain and mist, and again, when the storm cleared away, found ourselves in an un- trodden paradise. Kerr and Christie rejoined us at Blossom island on July 31, and we were once more readj^for an advance. Blossom Island. Our camp on Blossom island was near a small ]3ond of water and close beside a thick grove of spruce trees on the western side of the land-mass. The tents were so placed as to secure an un- obstructed view to the westward; anci they were visible, in turn, to parties descending from the mountains toward the northwest, Avhither our work soon led us. 114 /. ('. Iiufiell—E.ri)rditinn to Mount Sf. E/ias. background of a magnificent i)icturc. liatcr in the season our tents wpvo ])itche(l at tlieir very l)ases, and they then revealed their full grandeur and fullilled every pnhnise given by distant views. The rugged Ilitc-hcock i-angc hordering tlu' distant margin of the Marvine glacier, like the mountains near at hand and the rocky island on which we stand, is com})Osed of sandstone and shale. h\it presents one interesting feature, to which I shall direct your attention. The trend of the range is northeast and south- west, l)Ut the strata of whicli it is composed run cast and west and are inclined northward. As the range is some eight miles long, these conditions would seem to indicate a thickness of many thousands of feet for the rocks of whicli it is com])osed ; yet the l)eds were deposited in horizontal slieets of sand and mud of very •late date, as will l)e shown farther on. lUit the great apparent thickness of the strata is dece))tive: a nearer examina- tion would reveal the fact that the rocks have been so greatly crushed that even a hand specimen can scarcely he lu'oken olf with fresh surfaces. More than this, the l)lack shale, exhibiting the greatest amount of crushing, is usually in wedge-shai)ed masses, which, in some cases at least, are l)ordered by what are known as thrust planes, nearly coinciding with the Ix'dding planes ofthestrata. The rocks havel)een fractured and rrushed together in such a way as to pile fragments of the same layer on top of each other, and thus to increase greatly their apparent thickness. In the elevations befon^ us the thrust ]tlanes are tipi)ed northeastwardly, and it would seem that the force that produced them acted from that direction. The ai)parent thick- ness of the beds has thus been increased many times. What their original thickness was, it is not now possible to say. Similar indications of a lateral crushing in the rocks may be found in several of the mountain spurs between the Hitchcock range and Yakutat bay; but s])ace will not pei'iuit me to follow this sub- ject further. Turning from the mountains, we direct our eyes seaward ; I))it it is a sea of ice that nieet-^ oui' view and not tlie blue Pacific. I'^ar as the eye can reach toward the west, toward the south, and towai'd the southeast there is nothing in view hut a vast i)lateau of ic(! or barren debris fields resting on \cv and concealing it from view. This is the Malaspina glacier. On the boi'dei' of the ice, just below the cliffs on whidi we (Jairlrns on the Glaciers. 119 stand, tliere is a l)clt of debris perhaps five miles in l)readth, whicli almost completely conceals the ice beneath. Portions of this moraine are covered by vegetation, and in ])]aces it is 1)rill- isf ^^^r^: '''MW^:y FiGUKE 2 — View of (I (jhiclul Ldkclef {dmirnfrom a Photograph). iant with flowers. The vegetation is most alnmdant on the nearer border and fades away toward the center of the glacier. Its distant border, adjacent to the white ice-field beyond, is 120 /. ( '. nn>^>nti'al part of tlie Mala-^jjina Lilacicr. I-'ar lie- yond, faintly outlined a.:iaiust the sky, are the snow-covered hills west of Icy hay. The tlowers in the Ibreirround are arowinu- on tlie ci'est of the stecji lilulf liorderini;' l)loss(»iii island on the south. On the moraino-covered portion, especially wiu're plants Invve taken root, there are Inuidreds, perhaps thousands, of lakelets occupying kettle-shaped depressions. A view of one of these interesting reservoirs in the ice is given in figure 2. If we should go down to the glacier and examine such a lakelet near at hand, we should find that the cliffs of ice sui-rovuiding them are usually unsymmetrical. being especially stec]) and I'ugLred on on(> side Figure o — Section of rei)aration.s having been made the day previous, we started in the direction of the great snow peak to be seen at the head of the Mar^•ine glacier, w'here we hoped to find a pass leading through the moun- tains which would enable us to reach the foot of Mount St. Elias or to discover a practicalile way across the main range into the uidvuown country toward tlie north. All of the camp hands were with us at the start, except Stamy and \Miite, who had been despatched to Port jNIulgrave to ])ur- chase shoes. All but Crumback and Lindslcv were to return to Blossom island, however, after leading their loads at a ren- dezvous as far from Blossom island as could be reached in a day and allow sufficient time to return to the bas(!-camp. Kerr and myself, with the two camp hands mentioned, were to press on to the snow-fields above. A\'e took with us a tent, blankets, rations, an oil-stove, and a supply of coal oil, and felt eur little band of four to make the advance. Descending into a deep black gorge at the border of the ice, formed by its melting back from the bordering cliffs, we clam- bered upward beneath overhanging ice-walls, from which .stones and fragments of ice were occasionally dropi)ing, and finally reached a great snow-bank on the l)order of the glacier. As the storm still continued, and was even increasing in force, we con- cluded to find a camping ground soon as possil)le and make our- selves comfortable as the circumstances would permit. First Caimp ix the 8.\ow. We had now reached the lower limit of ])erpetual snow. There were no more moraines on the surface of the glacier, and no bare rock surfaces large enough to hold a tent. The entire region was snow-mantled as fjir as the eye could see, except Avhere pinnacles and cliff's too steep and rugged for the snow to accu- mulate rose above the general surface. A little to one side of the mouth of a steep lateral gorge we found a spot in which a mass of partly disintegrated shale had fallen down from the cliff'. We scraped the fragments aside, smoothed the snow beneatli, and built a wall of rock along the lower margin. Tlie sjjace al)ove was filled in with fragments of shale, so as to form a shelf on which to })itch our tent. Soon our blankets were spread, with our water-proof coats for a substratum, and supper was i)re- pared over the oil-stove. Darkness settled down over the mountains, and the storm in- creased as the night came on. .What is unusual in Alaska, the rain fell in torrents, as in the tro])ic.s'. Our little tent of light cotton cloth afforded great ])rotection, hut the i-ain-dmps beat on it with such force that the si)ray was driven through and made a fine rain within. Weary with many hours of hard trav- eling over moraines and across crevassed ice, and in an atmos- phere saturated with moisture, we rolled ourselves in our blankets, determined to rest in spite of the storm that raged about. As the rain became heavier, the avalanches, already alarmingly numerous, became more and more frequent : A crash like thunder, followed by the clatter of falling stones, told that many tons of ice and rocks on the mountains to the westward had slid A ^tonn on tlie Moimtain^. 125 down upon the borders of the glacier ; another roar near at hand, caused by an avalanche on our own side of the glacier, Avas fol- lowed by another, another, and still another out in the darkness, no one could tell where. The wilder the storm, the louder and more frequent became the thunder of the avalanches. It seemed as if pandemonium reigned on the mountains. One might fancy that the evil spirits of the hills had prepared for us a reception of their own liking — but decidedly not to the taste of their visitors. Soon there was a clatter and whiz of stones at our door. Looking out I saw rocks as large as one's head bounding past within a few feet of our tent. The stones on the mountain side above had been loosened by the rain, and it was evident that our perch was no longer tenable. Before we could remove our frail shelter to a place of greater safety, a falling rock struck the alpenstock to which the ridge-rope of our tent was fastened and carried it away. Our tent " went by the board," as a sailor would say, and we were left exposed to the j^ouring rain. Before we could gather up our blankets they were not only soaked, but, a bushel or more of mud and stones from the bank above, pre- viously held back l^y the tent, flowed in upon them. Rolling up our blankets and " caching " the rations, instruments, etc., under a rubber cloth held down by rocks, we hastily dragged our tent-cloth down to the l^order of the glacier, at the extremity of a tapering ridge, along which it seemed impossil)le for stones from above to travel. We there pitched our tent on the hard snow, without the luxury of even a few handfuls of shale beneath our blankets. Wet and cold, we sought to wear the night away as best we could, sleep being impossible. Crumback, who had been especially energetic in removing the tent, regard- less of his own exposure, was wet and became cold and silent. The oil-stove and a few rations were brought from the cache at the abandoned camp, and soon a dish of coffee was steaming and filling the tent with its delicious odor. Our shelter became com- fortably warm and the hot coff"ee, acting as a stimulant, restored our sluggish circulation. We passed an uncomfortaljle night and watched anxiously for the dawn. Toward morning a cold wind swept down the glacier and the rain ceased. With the dawn there came indications that the storm had passed, altliough we were still enveloped in dense clouds and could not decide whether or not a favorable change in the weather had occurred. We were still cold and wet and the desire to return to Blossom 18— Nat. Geog. Mag., vol. III, 1891. 12G I. (J. Jiii-'<. island, Avhcre all Avas sunshine and summer, was great. Uncer- tain as to what would he the Avisest course, Ave ])acked our hlankets and started slowly down the mountain, looking anx- iously for signs that the storm liad really i)assed. An hour after sunrise a rift in the mist ahoA'e us revealed the Avonderful hlue of the heavens, and allowed a Hood of sunlight to pour doAvn u])on the Avhite fields heneath. Never was the August sun more welcome. The mists vanished 1)efore its magic touch, leaving here and there fleecy A'apor-Avreaths festooned along the mountain side ; as the clouds disappeared, i)eak after i)eak came into vicAV, and snoAV-domes and glaciers, never seen before, one by one revealed themselves to our astonished eyes. \\'hen the curtain Avas lifted Ave found ourselves in a ncAV world, more Avild and rugged than any Ave had yet beheld. There Avas not a tree in sight, and nothing to suggest green fields or floAvery hill-sides, except on a fcAV of the loAver mountain s})urs, Avhere l)rilliant Al}»ine blossoms added a touch of color to the i)ale land- scape. A\\ else Avas stern, silent, motionless Avinter. The glacier, clear and Avliite, Avithout a rock on its broken sur- face, looked from a little distance like a vast snoAV-covered meadoAV. We Avere al)Out a mile aboA'e the loAver limit of the snoAV-fields, Avhere the blue ice of the glacier comes out from be- neath the neve. The blue ice was deeply buried, and could only be seen in the deepest crevasses. Across the glacier rose the angular cliffs and tapering sjnres of the Hitchcock range. Every ravine and gulch in its rugged sides was occupied by glaciers,' many of Avhich Avere so lyroken and crcA'assed that they looked like frozen cataracts. Cheered by the bright skies and sun-Avarmed air, Ave pushed on up the glacier, taking the center of the stream in order to avoid the cre\'asses, Avhich Avere most numerous along its borders. Tavo or three miles above our first camp avc found a ))lace Avhere a thin layer of broken shale covered the suoav, at a sullicient dis- tance from the steep slopes above to be out of the reach of ava- lanches. ^Wl there estaldished our second camp after leaving lilossom island, dried our Itlankets, and spent tlie remainder of the day basking in the sunlight and gathering energy for coming emergencies. ^^'e found the neve of the Marvine glacier dill'ering greatly IVoni the lower or icy portion previously traversed. Instead of ice with blue and white l)ands, as is common lower doAvn, the Siraiification of the Neve. 127 entire surface, and as far down in the crevasses as the eye could disting-uish, was composed of compact snow, or snow changed to icy particles resemljling hail and having in reality l)ut few of the properties of ordinary snow : it might properly be called neve ice. Usually the thickness of the layers varied from ten to fifteen feet. Separating them were dark lines formed b}^ dust l>lown over the surfiice of the glacier and buried by subsequent snow-storms, or by thin blue lines formed by the edges of sheets of ice and showing that the snow surface had been melted during Ijright sunny days and frozen again at night. The horizontal stratification so plainly marked in all the crevasses in the neve was almost entirely wanting, or at least was not conspicuous, in the lower portion of the glacier, where, instead, we found those narrow blue and white bands already mentioned, the origin of which has been so well described and cxjilained by Tyndall. The center of the Marvine glacier, as in most similar ice- streams, is higher and less broken by crevasses than its borders. The crevasses at the side trend up stream, as is the case with marginal crevasses generally. In the present instance the courses of these rents could be plainly distinguished on each border of the glacier, when looking down upon it from neighboring slopes. The crevasses occur at quite regular intervals of approximately fifty feet, and diverge from the bank at angles of about 40°. In the banks of snow bordering the glacier similar crevasses diverge from the margin of the flowing glacier and trend down along its banks. The marginal crevasses and the crevasses in the border- ing snow-fields, to which no special name has been given, fall nearly in line ; but between the two there is a series of irregular cracks and l)roken snow, shar})ly defining the border of the moving neve. The origin of the marginal crevasses trending up stream was explained during the study of the glaciers of Switzerland. The following diagram and explanation illustrating their development are copied from Tyndall : " Let ^f C be one side of the glacier and B D tlie otlier ; and let the direc- tion of motion be that indicated by tlie arrow. Let >S T be a transverse slice of the glacier, taken straiglit across it, say to-day. A few days or weeks hence the slice will have been carried down, and because the center moves more quickly than the sides it will not remain straight, but will bend into the form >S'' T^. Supposing T i to he a small square of the original slice near the side of the glacier ; in the new isosition the square will be distorted to the lozenge-shaped figure T' /'. Fix your attention upon the 128 /. a Rimcll-' Expedition, to Mount *S7. Klias. diagonal T I of the Hi(]uare ; in the lower position this diagonal, (/' the ice could stretch, would be lengthened to T^ i'. But the ice does not stretch ; it breaks, and we have a crevasse formed at riglit angles to T^ V. The mere insi)ection of the diagram will assure you that the crevasse will point obliqui'ly iijiininl." * "■m — ^ B T T' D Figure 4 — Dhigrdin illtistrntiiH/ tlte Formation of innr(jin v.\\ Fku'KE o — CWrasses on Pinnacle P«,s-s; from a Pholognijili. The cliif on the north of Pinnacle pass is really a huge fault- scarp of recent date, intersecting stratified shale, limestone, and conglomerate, Avith a few thin coal-seams. The strata dip toward the north at a high angle, and present their broken edges in the great cliff rising above the pass. The el ill's extend westward from the jjass, and retain a nearly horizontal crest line, but in- crease in height and grandeur, owing to the downward grade of the glacier along their base. Annie to the westwai'd Iheir elevation is fnll\- two thonsand feet. The clids throULihonf are Yakufaf and Pinuadc Systems. 131 almost everywhere l)are of snow and too steo}) and rugged to be scaled. They form a strongly drawn l)Oundary line in the geology of the region, arid furnish the key to the structure and geological character of an extended area. All the rocks to the southward are sandstone and shale belonging to a well-defined series, and differ materially from the rocks in the fault-scarp. I have called the rocks toward the south, the Yakutat system, and those exposed in the faces of the fault-scarp the Pinnacle sys- tem. Directly north of Pinnacle pass, and at the base of Mount Owen, the rocks of the Yakutat system are exposed, and from their position and association it is eyident that they are younger than the Pinnacle system and belong aboye it. If these con- clusions are sustained by future investigation, they will carry with them certain deductions which are among the most remark- able in geological history. On the crest of the Pinnacle pass cliffs I afterwards found strata containing fossil shells and leaves l)elonging to species still living. These records of animal and plant life show that not only were the rocks of the Pinnacle sys- tem deposited since living species of niollusks and plants came into existence, l:)ut that the Yakutat system is still more recent. More than this, the upheaval of the mountains, the formation of numerous fault-scarps, and the origin of the glaciers, have all occurred since Pliocene times. The discovery of Pinnacle pass left no question as to the route to be traversed in order to reach the mountains to the westAvard. We returned to Camp 12, and the following day, with Crumback and.Lindsley to assist us, advanced our camp across Pinnacle pass and far down the western snow-slope. The day we crossed the pass was bright and clear in the morn- ing, l)ut clouds gathered around all the higher peaks about mid- day, vanishing again at nightfall. As it was desirable to occuj^y, for topographic and other purposes, a station on the top of the cliffs overlooking Pinnacle pass, we made an effort to reach the crest of the ridge by climl)ing up the steep scarp just at the divide, where the cliffs are lowest. While Orund)ack returned to Camp 12 for an additional load and Lindsley went aliead to discover a new camping jjlace, Kerr and myself, taking the neces- sary instrunients, began the ascent ; ])ut we found it exceedingly difficult. The outcrops of shale in the lower portion of the cliff furnished but poor footln^ld, and crumbled and broke away at every step. Once my companion, losing his support, slid slowly lo2 y. ('. Hii^scll—Ej-palilinn In Mnimt Si. Ellnx. down the sl()}>e in spite of vi.u'orous etibrtis to hold on, and a lapid deseent in the yawning chasm beloAv seemed inevitabk', when, coming to a sliglitiy rougher surface, he was able to control his movements and to regain what had l)een lost, ('liml)ing on, we came to the l)<1se of a vertical wall of shale several hundred feet high, and made a detour to the left where a cascade plunged down a narrow channel, ^^"e ascended the l)ed of the stream, which Avas sometimes so stee]) that the spray dashed over us, and readied tln' ha-e of an overhauling clill" of conglomerate com- })osed of well-worn pebl)les. Al:)ove this rose a cliff of snow fifty feet or moi'c in height, which threatened to crash down in ava- lanclies at any moment. One small avalanche did occur dui'ing the ascent, and scattered its spray in our faces. Had a heavy avalanche formed, our ]iosition would have been exceedingly dan- gerous ; but by taking advantage of every overhanging ledge, ami watching for the least sign of movement in the snow above, we reached without accident a sheltered perch underneath an over- hanging cliff near the l)ase of the snow. We then discovered that clouds were forming on all the high mountains, and shreds of vapor blown over the crest of the <'lilf above told us that fur- ther efforts would 1)C useless. Becking a perch protected from avalanches by an overhanging cliff, we had a splendid view far out over the sloping snow-plain toAvard the west and of the moun- tains l)ordering Pinnacle pass on the south. INly notes Avritten in this connnanding station read as follows: ''Looking down from my })erch I can plainly distinguish the undidations and crevasses in the broad snoAV-iields stretching Avestward from Pinnacle pass. Each inequality in the rock be- neath tlu' glacier is reproduced in llowing and subdued outlines in tlie Avhite surface above. The jiositions of bosses and cliffs in the rock beneath are indicated by rounded domes and steep descents in the snow sui'face. Al)out the loAver sides of these inequalities there are in some cases concentric blue lines and in others radiating fissures, marking Avhere the snoAV lias broken in making the descent. The side light shining from the eastAvard doAvn the long Avesterly slo])e reveals by its delicate shading the presence of l)road, terrace-like, transverse steps into Avhich the stream is divided. Wqxh the suoav removed and the rock he- neath exposed, Ave should find broad terraces sejoarated by scarps sweeping across the bed of the glacier from side to side. Similar terraces occur in ulaciated canons in tlie.Rockv Mountains and Vieio from Pinnacle Pass. 133 the Sierra Nevada, but their origin has never been explained. The glacier is here at work sculpturing similar forms ; l)ut still it is impossible to understand how the process is initiated. " Right in front of us, and only a mile or two away, rise the cliffs, spires, and pinnacles of the Hitchcock range. Every ravine and amphitheatre in the great- mountain mass is deeply filled with snow, and the sharp angular crests look as if they had been thrust up through the general covering of white. The northern end of the range is clearly defined by the east-and-west fault to which Pinnacle pass owes its origin. The trend of the mighty cliffs on the southern face, on Avhich we have found a perch, is at right angles to the longer axis of the Hitchcock range, and marks its northern terminus Ijoth topographically and geologically. " There is not even a suggestion of vegetation in sight. The eye fails to detect a single dash of green or the glow of a single Alpine flower anywhere on the rugged slo23es. A small ava- lanche from the snow-cliffs above, cascading over the cliff which shelters me and only a few yards SiWSiy, tells why the j^recipices are so bare and desolate : the}^ have been swept clean l)y ava- lanches. " Far down the western snow-slope I can distinguish crevasses and dirt bands in the Seward glacier, which flows southward past the range on which we sit. The marginal crevasses along the l:)order of the glacier can clearly be distinguished. As usual, they trend up-stream and, meeting medial crevasses, break the surface of the glacier into thousands of pinnacles and tables. Along the center of the stream there are V-shaped dirt bands, separated b}^ crevasses, which point down-stream and give the appearance of a rapid How to the central portion of the glacier. From this distance its center has the appearance of ' watered ' riljbon. "A little toward the south of where the medial crevasses are most numerous, and at a h)cality where two op})osite mountain spurs force the ice-stream through the comparatively narrow gorge, there is evidently an ice-fall, as the whole glacier from side to side disappears from view. The appearance of Niagara when seen from the banks of the river above the Horseshoe falls is suggested. Beyond this silent cataract, the eye ranges far out over the broad, level surface of the Malaspina glacier, and traces the dark raorainal ribbons streaming away for miles from the mountain spurs among which they originate. From the extreme 19— Nat. Geog. Mag., vol. Ill, 1K91. 134 /. ('. /^(.s,s(// — Kfjxdltion to Moii./it »S7. Ellas. southern cape of the Samovar hills there is a hiiihly compound nioraine-l)elt stretchinu- away toward the south, and then divid- inu' and eur\ inu' Ixith east and west. The i-entral liand ot'di'liris must ))e a mile broad. Along its eastern margin 1 can count live lesser bands sei>arated by narrow intervals of ice, and on the farther side sinular secondary bands are suggested, hut the heiglit of the central range almost completely conceals them from view. Jn the distant tattered ends, however, their various divisions can be clearly traced. Great swirls in tlie ice arc there indicated by concentric curves of debris on its suri'ace. " Still fiirthcr westward there arc hills rising In the height of impressive mountains, in which northward dipping rocks, ai>par- ently of sandstone and shale, similar to those forming the Hitch- cock range, are plainly distinguishable. .\11 the northern slopes of these hills are deei)ly buried beneath a uni\crsal covering of snow evidently hundreds of feet thick, which is molded upe)n them so as to reveal every swelling dome and i-avine in their rugged sides. Farther westward still, beyond a dark headland ai)i)arently washed by the sea, there are other ])road ice-fields of the same general character as the Malaspina glacit-r. which stretch away for miles and miles and blend in the dim distance with the haze of the horizon. "Just west of the Seward glacier, and in part Ibrniing its west- ern shore, there are dark, rocky crests i)rojecting through the universal ice mantle, suggesting the lost mountains of Utah and Nevada which ]\-a\o l)ecoine deei>ly buried by the dusts of the desert. The character of the sharp crests beyond the Seward glacier indicate that they are the U})turned edges of fault-blocks similar to the one on which we are seated. Interesting geological records are there waiting an interpreter. The vastness of the mountains and the snow-fields to be seen at a single glance from this point of view can scarcely be realized. There are no familiar objects in sight with which to make eye-measurements ; the pic- ture is on so grand a scale that it defies imagination's grasp." Searching the snow-sheet below with a tield-glass, I discover a nunute spot on the white suii'ace. Its movement, slow but unmistakable, assures me that it is Lindsley returning from the site chosen for our cam]) to-night. Although a])parently near at hand, lu' forms Imt an incoitspiciious speck on tlie vast snow- field. A Diiiirjrroiis Mnimtairi Camp. lo5 Having learned all that I could of the geology of the cliff", and tlie gathering clouds rendering it unnecessary to climh the sum- mits above; we descended Vvdth even more difficulty than we had encountered on our way up, and met Tindsley as he reached the ))ass. Resuming our packs, Ave started on, knowing that Crum- Itack would follow our trail ; and after two hours' hard tramping over a snow surface rendered somewhat soft by the heat of the day, l)ut fortunately little crevassed, we reached the place chosen for our camp. Cruml^ack soon joined us, and wc pitched our tent for the night. The place chosen was on a little island of debris, the farthest out we could discover from the base of the great cliff on the north. Wc; judged that we should there be safe from avalanches, although the screech and hiss of stones falling from the cliff were heard many times during the night. liindsley and Crumback, on revisiting the site of our camp two days later, found that a tremendous avalanche of snow and rocks had in the mean time fallen from the cliffs and ploughed its way out upon the glacier to within fifteen or twenty feet of where we had passed the night. They remarked that if the avalanche had occurred while Ave were in camp, our tent would not have been reached, but that we should probably have been scared to death by the roar. First full View of St. Elias. Ijcaving C'rum!)ack and Lindsley to make our camp as com- fortable as possiV)le, Kerr and I pressed on with the object of seeing all Ave could of the country ahead before the afternoon sunlight faded into tAvilight. Mount St. Elias: had been shut out from vicAV, either by clouds or by intervening mountains, for several days ; but it Avas evident that on approaching the end of the Pinnacle pass fault-scarp Ave should l^ehold it again, and comparatiA'ely near at hand. Continuing doAvn the even snoAV-slope, in Avhich there Avere but few crevasses, the vicAV Vjecame Ijroader and l)roader as avc ad- vanced, and at length the great pyramid forming the culminating summit of all the region burst into full vieAV. What a glorious siglit! The great mountain seemed higher and grander and more regularly projtortioned than any peak I had ever beheld before. The Avhite i)lain formed by the SeAvard glacier gave an even foreground, broken ]jy crevasses Avhich, lessening in jjer- spective, gave distance to the foot-hills forming the Avestern mar- 136 /. ( '. Hiissr/I — Expcdidoii ((I Moiiiit ,sy. Kim^. frin of tlu' glacier. Far ahove the annular crest of the Samovar liills in the middle distance towered St. Elias, sharp and clear against the evening sky. Midway niithclinal slope a lliin, Imri- zontal har of gray clouds was delicately ])enciled. Tlii-oimli the meshes of the fairy scarf shone the yellow sunset sky. The strong outlines of the rugged mountain, which had withstood centuries of storms and earthquakes, were softened and glorified by the breath of the summer winds, chilled as they kissed its crystal slopes. Could I give to the reader a tithe of tlu' impressions that such a view suggests, they would declare that painters had never shown them mountains, but only hills. So majestic was St. Elias, with the halo of the sunset about his brow, that other magnificent peaks now seen for the first time or more fully re- vealed than ever before, although worthy the respect and homage of the most experienced mountain-climber, scarceh' received a second glance. Returning to camp, we passed the night, and the following day, August (i, advanced our camp to the eastern l)order of the Seward glacier at the extreme western end of the upturne\11 was stern and wild and still ; tbci-e was not a touch of life to relieve the deso- lation. A midwinter night in inhal)ited lands was never more solemn. Man had never rested there before. The air grew chill when the shadows crossed our tent, and delicate ice crystals began to shoot on the still surface of our little pond. We bade good night to the stern peaks, alxiut which there were signs of a coming storm, and sought the shelter of our tent. Small and comfortless as was that shelter, it shut out the wintry sctnie and affoi'ded a, welcome retreat. Sound, refreshing sleei), with dreams of loved ones far away, renewed our strentith for another advance. Dust-covered Glaciers. 139 The next day, August 8, a topographic station was occupied on the summit of the Pinnacle pass chffs. We were astir before sunrise, and had In'cakfast over before four o'clock. The morn- ing was cold, and a cutting wind swept down the Seward glacier from the northeast. All of the mountains were lost to view in dense clouds. A few rays of sunshine breaking through the vapor banks above Point Glorious gave promise of better weather during the day. Lindsley and Stamy had not yet returned from the lower camp, where they were to obtain additional rations ; and Kerr and I concluded to try to reach the crest of the Pin- nacle pass cliffs and take the chances of the weather being favor- able for our work. Leaving camj^ in the early morning light, we chose to climb over the summit of Point Glorious rather than thread the cre- vasses at its northern l)ase. Reaching the U)\) of the point, we were still l^eneath the low canopy of clouds, and could see far up the great amphitheatre to the base of Moant Oweu/^- Descending the eastern slope, we soon reached the floor of the amphitheatre, and found the snow smooth and hard and not greatly crevassed. C'heered b}' faint promise of blue skies, we pressed on rapidly, the snow creaking beneath our tread as on a winter morning. Two or three hours of rapid walking brought us to the southern wall of the amphitheatre, nearly beneath the point we wished to occupy. As we ascended the slope the way became more diffi- cult, owing not only to its steepness but also to, the fact that the snow was softening, and also because great crevasses crossed our path. Looking back over the snow we had crossed, two well-characterized features on its surface could l)e distinguished : these were large areas with a gray tint, caused by a covering of dust. This dust comes from the southern faces of the Pinnacle pass cliffs, and is blown over the crest of the ridge and scattered far and wide over the snow-fields toward the north. Should the dust-covered areas become buried beneath fresh snow, it is evi- dent that the strata of snow would be separated by thin layers of darker color. This is what has happened many times, as we could see by looking down into the crevasses. In one deep gulf I counted five distinct strata of clear white snow, separated by narrow dust-bancls. In other instances there are twenty or more such strata visible. Eacli layer is evidently the record of a snow- storm, while the dust-bands indicate intervals of fine weather. Named for David Dale Owen, United States geologist. 140 7. C. ThiKscU—Kxpcdiiion in Mouitf ^y. J'JIias. The strata of snow exposed to view in the crevasses, after heing jfreatly compressed, are usually from ten to fifteen feet thick, hut in one instance exceeded fifty feet. If we assume that each layer represents a winter's snow, and that com[)ressi()n ha^ rcducctl each stratum to a third of its original thickness (and prohahly the compression has heen greater tlian this), it is evident that the fresh snows must sometimes reach the depth of tVniii ")l) to 150 feet. Toiling on up the snow-slope, we liad to wind in and out among deep crevasses, sometimes crossing tlieni hy narrow snow- l)ridges, and again jumping them and plunging our ali)enstocks deep in the snow when we reached the farther side. After many windings we reached the summit of the Pinnacle-pass cliffs- Tlic crest-line is formed of an outcrop of conglomerate composed of sand and jx'hhles, in one layer of whicli 1 found hi rge quanti- ties of mussel shells standing in the position in which the creatures lived. The present elevation of this ancient sea-hottom is 5,000 feet. The strata incline northward at angles of 'M)° to 40°. All of the northern slope of the ridge is deeply covered with snow, and the rock only appears ak)ng the immediate crest. There are, in fact, two crests, as is common with many mountain ridges in this rigion, one of rock and the second of snow ; the snow crest, which is usually the higher, is parallel to the rock crest and a few rods north of it. In the valley between the two ridges we found secure footing, and ascended with ease to the highest [)oint on the cliffs. Looking over the southern or rocky crest, we found a, sheer descent of about 1,500 feet to the; snow- fields below. The clouds diminished in density and gradually bi'oke away, so that the entire extent of the St. Elias range was in view, with the exce})tion of the crowning i)eak of all, which was still veiled from base to sununit. A spur of St. Elias, extending southward from the main peak, and named 77/r Cfiarlot, gleamed brightly in the sunlight. It was the first ])oint on which we made observa- tions. Stretching eastward from St. Elias is the sharp crest of the main range, on which stand Mounts Newton, Jeannette, i\ralas])ina, Augusta, Logan, and s(>veral other splendid peaks not yet named. Just to the i-ight of Mount Augusta, on the inunediaie l)or(ler of tlie S(nvard glacier, rise the Corwin cliifs, marking an inunense fault-scarj) of the saniegeneral character as the one on which we stooil. On Pinnacle Pass Cliffs. 141 Mr. Kerr endeavored at first to occupy a station on the crest of the rocky ridge, Init as the steejiness of the slope and the sliattered condition of the rock rendered the station liazardons, the snow-ridge, which was covered with dust and sand and nearly as firm as rock, was occupied instead. The clouds j^art- ing toward the northeast revealed several giant peaks not before seen, some of which seem to rival in height St. Elias itself. One stranger, rising in three white domes far a1)0ve the clouds, was especially magnificent. As this was probably the first time its summit was ever seen, we took the liberty of giving it a name. It will appear on our maps as Mount Logan, in honor of Sir William E. Logan, founder and long director of the Geological Survey of Canada. The clouds grew denser in the east, and shut off all ho})e of extending the map-work in that direction. While Kerr was making topographic sketches I tried to decii)her some of the geological history of the region around me and make myself more familiar with its glaciers and snow-fields. Even more remarkable than the mighty peaks toward the north, beheld that day for the first time, was the vast 2:)lateau of ice stretching seaward from the foot of the mountains. From my station what seemed to be the ocean's shore near Icy bay could just be distinguished. Beyond the bay there is a group of hills which come boldly down to the sea, and apparently form a sea-cliff at the water's edge. Beyond this headland there is an- other vast glacier extending westward to the limits of vision. The view from this point is essentially the same as that ol)tained from the clifi's at Pinnacle pass a few days earlier, except that it is far more extended. It need not be described in detail. The clouds becoming thicker and settling in dark masses aljout the mountains, we gave U}) all hope of further work and started for our camp. On the way down the ridge between the crest of snow and the crest of rock we found a stratum of sandstone filled with fossil leaves, and near at hand another layer charged with very recent sea-shells. Collecting all of these that we could carry, we trudged on, finding the snow soft and some of the bridges which we had easily crossed in the morning now weak, trem- bling, and insecure. We crossed them safely, however, and, reach- ing the level floor of the amphitheatre, marched wearily on to- ward Point Glorious. This time we passed along the northern base of the butte at an elevation of two or three hundred feet 20— Nat. Geog. Mag., vol. Ill, issd. 142 /. (\ h'lisst// — Expedition to Mount St. FJias^. above the glacier, and, taking a (•(invniient slide down i\\v snow- slope, reached our tent. Soon a delicious cup of coffee was pvejiarcd, l)acon was fried, and these were put in a warm place wliiie some grichUe cakes were being baked. A wai-m su]»])er. I'ollowed l)y a restful pipe, ended the day. Kerr and 1 were our own cooks and oui- own housekeepers during much of the time we lived al)ove the snow- line. M'e cl(\'vred away the remains of the supper, and prepared our lilankets for the night. One of the huge ice pinnacles on tlie glacier fell with a great crash just as we were turning in. I Jain began to fall, and the night was cold and disagreeable ; how it passed I do not know, as I slept soundly. Scarcely anything less serious than the blowing away of our tent could have awakened me. Across Skwaim) Oi.aciki! ro Domi: Pass. Stormy weather and the necessity of bi'inging additional su))- })lii's iVom Blossom island detained us at Camp 14 until August lo. We rose at three o'clock on the morning of that day, and, after a hasty breakfast, prepared to cross the Seward glacier. The morning was cold but clear, and the air was Ijracing. Each peak and mountain crest in the ruggetl landscape stood out boldly in the early light, although the sun had not risen. Soon the sununit of St. Elias became tip])ed with gold, and then ])eak after peak, in order of their rank, caught the radiance, and in a short time the vast sno\\-fields were of dazzling splendor. The frost of the night before had hardened the snow, which made walking a jileasiu'c. We crossed a rocky spur projecting northward from Point (dorious into the Seward glacier, and had to lower our })acks down the side of the ])recipice with the aid of ro})es. Our course led at first \\\) the border of the great glacier to a i)oint above the head of th(> ra]>ids already referred to, then curved to the westward, and for a mile or two coincidcnl with the general trend of the crevasses. Wo made good progress, but at length we came to -where the Augusta glacier pours its flood of ice into the main stream and, owing to its high grade, is greatly broken. Skirting this difficult area, we passed a number of small Ijlue lakelets and reached the western border of the Seward glacier. A\'e found a gently rising snow-slope leading westAvard through a ga}) that could f)e seen in hills a few miles in advance. Put little dillicnlty was now experienced, except that the snow FuniiAitioii, of Show ( Vr.s/.s-. 143 had become soft under the .summer's sun, and walking over it with heavy loads was wearisome in the extreme. We could see, however, that the way ahead was clear, and that encouraged us to push on. Tow^ard night we found a camping place on a steep ridge of shale and sandstone projecting eastward from a spur of Mount Malaspina. This ridge rises about five hundred feet above the surrounding glacier, and has steep roof-like slojies. The summer sun had melted nearly all the snow from its southern face, but the northern slo})e was still heavily loaded. The snow on the northern side stood some thirty or forty feet higher than the rocky crest of the ridge itself, and between thn rock crest and the snow crest there was a little valley which afforded ample shelter for our tent and was (piite safe from avalanches. The melting of the snow-bank during the warm days supplied us with water. The formation of crests of snow standing high above the rocky ridges on which they rest is a peculiar and interesting feature of the mountains of the St. Elias region. A north -and-south section through the ridge on which Camp 15 was situated, exhibiting the doulile crests, one of rock and the other of snow, is shown at a in fio-ure 6. h is a section through a similar ridge with a still Figure 6 — Snow Crests on. Ridges and Peaks; from Field Sketches. higher snow crest. The remaining figures in the illustration are sketches of mountain peaks, as seen from the south, w^hich have been increased in height by a heavy accunmlation of snow on their northern slopes. These sketches are of peaks among the foothills of Mount Malaspina, and show snow pinnacles from fifty to more than a hundred feet high. In some instances, domes and crests of snow were seen along the w^estern sides of the ridges and peaks, Ijut as a rule these snow-tips on the moun- tains are confined to their northern slopes. The edges and sum- mits of the snow-ridges are sharply defined and clearly cut. The southern slope ex})osed above the crest of rock is often con- cave, wdiile the nt)rthern slopes are usually convex. In climbing steep ridges the doulile crests are frequently of great assistance. Safe footing may frequently be found in the channels between the crests of rock and snow, by the aid of which 144 /. C. Rasxcll — Expedition to Mount St. Elie itself affords a sure footinji for one used to iiKiuiUaiii cUnibing. After estal)hshiiiL!,' Camp lo. Liiidslcy and Stamy I'ctunieil to one of the lower cam [)s for additional su|i|tHes. while Ken' and 1 ex[)loretl a way for farther advance. Our camp oecu])ied a connnandinij; situation. From the end of the ridlue shadows of the western [)(>aks creeping across the shining surface were nearly as sharp in outline as the peaks that cast * Named in honor of Professor Roland Duer Irving, U. S. geologist. Roch Avalanches. 145 them. When the chill of evening made itself felt, and the drop- ping water and the indefinite murmurs from the glacier below were stilled, the silence became oppressive. The stillness was so profound that it seemed as though the footsteps of the advanc- ing shadows should be audible. On warm sunny days, however, there are noises enough amid the mountains. The snow, partially melted and softened by the heat, falls from the cliffs in avalanches that make the mountains tremble and, with a roar like thunder, awaken the echoes far and near. During our stay at Camp 15 the avalanches were sometimes so frequent on the steep mountain faces toward the north that the roar of one falling mass of snow and rocks was scared}^ hushed liefore it was succeeded by another. On the southward-facing cliff's of Mount Augusta, composed of schist which disintegrates rapidly, there are frequent rock ava- lanches. A rock or a mass of comminuted schist sometimes breaks away even in midday, although these avalanches occur most frequently when the moisture in the rocks freezes. The midday avalanches, I fancy, may be started by the expansion of the rocks owing to the sun's heat. A few stones dislodged high up on the cliffs fall, and, loosening others in their descent, soon set in motion a train of dirt and stones, which flows down the steep ravines with a long rumbling roar, at the same time send- ing clouds of dust into the air. If the wind is blowing up the cliffs, as frequently happens on warm days, the dust is carried far above the mountains, and hangs in the air like clouds of smoke. It has been frequently stated that St. Elias is a volcano, and sea captains sailing on the Pacific have seen what they supposd to be smoke issuing from its summit. As its southern face is composed of the same kind of rocks and is of the same precipi- tous nature as the southern slope of Mount Augusta, it ai)pears probable that what was suj^posed to be volcanic smoke was in reality avalanche dust l)lown upward by ascending air currents. The disintegration of the mountain summits all through the St. Elias region is so great that one constantly wonders that any- thing is left ; yet, except late in the fall, the snow surfaces at the bases of even the steepest cliffs are mostly bare of debris. The absence of earth and stones on the surfaces of the neve fields is mainly due, of course, to the fact that these are regions of accu- mulation where the winter's snow exceeds the summer's melting. 14G 1. ('. Jin.^acll — Kqjcditiou to Mount St. Ellas. Thus each year the surface is reuewed aud made fresh and clean, and any dehris that may have previously accunuilated is con- cealed. Thert' is another reason, however, why hut little deliris is found at the l)ases of the stee]i i)reci])ices. The snows of winter are Imnked liiuh a^uainst these walls, hut when the rocks are warmed hy the return of the summer's sun the sn(jw near their dark surfaces is melted, and leaves a deep f^ulf hetween the up- ward-sloping hanks of snow and the sides of the cliffs. These hlack chasms are frequently loO or 200 feet deep, and receive all the (It'hris that falls from aho\e. In this way ver\' large quan- tities of earth and stones are injected, as it were, into the glacier, and only come to light again far down toward the ends of the icevStreams, where the sunnner's melting exceeds the winter's supply. On August 14, Kerr and 1 made an excursion ahead to the 1 )order of the Agassiz glacier. The snow-slope south of our camp led Avestward up a gentle grade to a gap in the hills hetween two hold, snow-covered donu's. The ga]) tln'ough which tlie snow extended, uniting with a hroad snow-field sloping westward, was only a few hundred feet wide, and formed a typical mountain pass, designated on our map as Dome p(ts-'<. Its elevation is 4,300 feet. When near the summit ol" the pass a few stei)s car- ried us j)ast the divide of snow, and revealed to our eager eyes the wonderland heyond. St. Elias rose majestically ])efore us, unobstructed l)y intervening hills, and l)are ol" clouds from base to summit. We were greatly encouraged ])y the prospect ahead, as there W(,;re evidently no olwtacles hetween us and the actual base of the mountain. A ])h»)t()graph of the magnificent peak was taken, from which the illustration forming plate 19 has been drawn. To tlie I'ight of the main mountain mass, as shown in the illustration, rises Mount A^ewton,-''^ one of {\\c many separate mountain ])eaks crowning the crest of the St. l*]lias range. Our way lelias stands. After reaching the Agassiz glacier we turned to the right, and made our way to the amj^hi- * Named for Henry Newton, formerly of the School of Mines of Co- lumbia college and author of a report on the geology of the Black hills of Dakota. ml Across Dome Pass. 147 theatre lying between Mount St. Elias and Mount Newton. On the day we discovered Dome pass, we pressed on down the west- ern snow-slope and reached the side of the Agassiz glacier, which we found greatly crevassed ; selecting a camping place on a rocky spur, we returned to Camp 15, and two days later estah- lished camp at the place chosen. Camp 16 was similar in many ways to Camp 14. It had al)out the same altitude ; it was at the western end of a rugged moun- tain spur, and on the immediate l)order of a large southward- flowing glacier. On the lower portions of the cliti's, near at hand, there were velvety patches of brilliant Alpine flowers mingled with thick Ijunches of wiry grass and clumjjs of delicate ferns. ^lost conspicuous of all the showy plants, so bright and lovely in the vast wilderness of snow, were the purple lupines. Already the flowers on the lower portions of their sj^ikes had matured, and pods covered with a thick coating of wooly hairs were beginning to be conspicuous. There are no bees and but- terflies in these isolated gardens, but brown flies with long- pointed wings were abundant. A gray bird, a little larger than a sparrow, was seen flitting in and out of crevasses near the border of the ice, apparently in quest of insects. Once, while stretched at full length on the flowery carpet enjoying the warm sunlight, a humming bird flashed past me. Occasionally the hoarse cries of ravens were heard among the cliffs, but they seldom ventured near enough to be seen. These few suggestions were all there was to remind us of the summer fields and shady forests in f;ir-away lands. Up the Agassiz Glacier. From Camp 16 Kerr and I made an excursion across the Agassiz glacier, while Stamy and Lindsley returned t(> a lower camp for additional supplies. We found the glacier greatly crevassed and the way across more difficult than on any of the ice-fields we had jjreviously traversed ; but by dint of persever- ance, and after many changes in our course, we succeeded at last in reaching the western bank, and saAV that by climl)ing a preci- pice, bordering an ice-cascade we could gain a plateau above? which we knew from previous observations to be comparatively little broken. 'We returned to camp, and on August 18 began the ascent of the glacier in earnest. We were favored in the task bv lirilliant weather. 148 1. C. RumU—ExpcdUion fo Moimf St. FAUtf^. After reachino; tlie western hank of the frlacier, we made our way to the hase of tlie ))re('ipiee U]) whicli Ave had jjreviously wishe(l to cliiiil). In order to reaeli it. however, we had to throw our [laeks across a crevasse over wliicli tliere was no l)ridge, and followed them hy jumping-. Tlie side ol' the crevasse from which we sprauir was higher tlian its opi)osite Hp. and left us veiy un- certain as to how we were to return ; l)ut that was a nuitter for the future ; our aim at the time was to ascend the glacier, and tlic i-cturn was of no immediate concern. lleaching- the base of the cliff at the side of the glacier, we ascended it without great dithculty. and came out upon theliroad ])lateau of snow al)ove. Thinking that tlie way onward would be easier along the steej:) snow-slo})e Ijordering the glacier, we made an effort to ascend in that direction, and spent two or tlii'ce ])recious hours in trying to lind a pi'acticablc route. Although the crevasses were fewer than on the glacier proper, yet they were of larger size and had l)ut few l)ridges. At last we came to a wide gulf on the opposite side of which there was a perpendicular wall of snow a hundred feet high, and all further advance in that direction was stojjped. Although ol)liged to turn back, our elevated })osition commanded a good view of the glacier below and enabled us to choose a way through the maze of crevasses crossing it. Descending, we ])lod(led wearily on in an irregular zigzag course; but the crevasses became broader and deeper as we advanced, and at length we found ourselves traversing flat talde-likc blocks of snow, 1»ounde(l on all sides l)y crevasses so deep that tlu'ir bottoms Avere lost to view. We made our Avay from one suoav -table to another by jum])ing the crcA'asses Avhei'c they Avere narrowest, or by ffail suoav -bridges S])anning the profound gulfs. Night came on Avhile Ave Avere yet in this Avild, broken region, and no choice Avas left us but to ])itcli our tent in the snow and wait until morning. The night Avas clear and cold, and a lirm crust formed on the snow before morning. Although the tem])erature Avas uncomfortal)le, Ave Avere cheered by the prospects of a (ii'in snow surface on the morrow. We continued our mai'cb at sunrise and found the walking easy; but the smi soon came out with uiuisual brilliancy and softened the snow so much that even the slowest movements Averc fatiguing. \\v endeavored to force our way U]» the center of the glacier thnuigh the crevasses and pimiaclcs of a second ice-fall ; but aftei- several hours of exhausting experience we were Scalmc^ Roj^e Cliff. 149 obliged to change our plan, and endeavored to reach a mountain spur projecting from the western border of the glacier. The sun- light reflected from the snow was extremely brilliant, and the glare from every surface about us was painful to our eyes, already weakened by many days' travel over the white snow. Each member of the party was provided with colored glasses, l)ut in traversing snow-bridges and jumping crevasses these had to he dispensed with. The result was that all of us were suffering more or less from snow-];>lindness. About noon we reached the l)ase of the mountain spur toward which our course was bent. It projects into the western liorder of Agassiz glacier. It is the extension of this cliff underneath the glacier that caused the ice-fall which blocked our way. To go round the end of the cliff with our packs was impractical^le, but there seemed a way up the foce of the cliff itself, which one could scale l:)y taking advantage of the joints in the rocks. I ascended the snow-slope to the V)ase of the precipice, but found the way upward more difficult than anticipated ; and, as the light was very painful to my eyes when not protected by colored glasses, I decided to postpone making the climb until I was in better con- dition, and in the meantime to see if some other route could not be found. We decided to camp on a small patch of debris near the base of the cliff, and there left our loads. Kerr and Linds- ley, taking a rope and alpenstocks, went around the end of the rocky spur and worked their way upward with great difficulty to the top of the cliff immediately above where I had essayed to climb it. A roi)e was made fast at the top, and our way onward was secured. This place was afterward called Rope cliff. The remainder of the afternoon I rested in the tent, with my eyes bound U}) with tea-leaves, and when evening came found the l)ain in my head much relieved. Our tent that night was so near the brink of a crevasse that in order to stay the tent one end of the ridge-rope was made fast to a large stone, which was lowered into the gulf to serve as a stake. Al:»ove us rose a precipice nearly a thousand feet high, from which stones were constantly falling ; but a deep black gulf intervened between the position we had chosen and the base of the cliffs, and into this the stones Avere precipitated. Not one of the fall- ing fragments reached the edge of the snow slope on which we were camped, but many times during the night we heard the whiz and hum of the roi-ks as they shot doAvn fi-oiii th(^ cliffs. 21— Nat. Geog. Mao., vol. Ill, 18!)!. 150 /. C. Russrll—KrpnJlfin,, to Moiinf Sf. Kliiiii. The noise made Ity each frao;incnt in its passai^e thruugli tlie air increased rai)i(lly in pitcli, thus indicating that they were ap- proachingus; ])ut they always fell short of our cam] >. 'riiclioni- hardnient from above was most active just after the shadows fell on the cliffs, showing that the stones were loosened by the freez- ing of the water in the interstices of the rock. The next day, August 20, Stamy and liindsley went Itack to Camp 1() for more rations, while Kerr and 1 remained at Camp l.S nursing our eyes and resting. Tlie day i)assed without any- thing worthy of note, exce[)t tlie almost constant thunder of avalanches on tlie inouiitains. About sunset a dense fog spread over the wintry landscape and threatened trt delay the return of the men. Wdien the sun went down, however, the temperature fell several degrees, tlu; mist vanished, and a few stars came out clear and briglit. Just as we were about to despair of seeing the men that night we heard a distant shout announcing their re- turn. ^^'e liad a cup of liot coffee for them Avlicn tliey reached the tent, whicli they drank with eagerness; but they were too tired to partake of food. Rolling themselves in their blankets, they were asleep in a few minutes. Camp om tiik Nkwton CU.acier. On August 21 we clind)ed the clil]' above Cam]) IS l)y means of the roj^e already i)laced there, and found the snow aliove greatly crevassed. We traveled u})ward along the steep slope Ijordering the glacier, Init soon came to a deej) crevasse which forl)ade further i)rogress in that direction. Returning to a lower level, we undertook to smooth olf an extremely narrow snow- bridge so as to make it wide enough to cross, but found tlie undertaking so hazardous that we aliandoned it. By tliis time it was midday, and we ])rc])av('d a cu{) of hot coffee before renew- ing our attack on the clill's. Alter luncheon and a short rest, feeling very much refreshed, we began to cut a series of steps in a])luffof snow about fifty feet higli, and made rapid progress in the undertaking. After an hour's bard work one of us reached the top and, planting an alpenstock deep in the snow, lowered a rope to those below. The packs were drawn up one at a time and we were soon ready to advance again. We found ourselves in a vast am])hitheatre bounded on all sides excepting that from which we had come with rugged, snow- Irimd Cloud Baihner.s. 151 covered precipices. The plain was crossed )>y liiii;o crevasses, some of which were fully a mile in length ; but by traveling around their ends or crossing snow-bridges wc slowly worked our way onward toward St. Elias. Threading our way through the labyrinth of yawning gulfs, we at last, after the sun had gone down l:)ehind the great pyramid toward the west, found a con- venient place on the snow, near a blue pond of water, on which to pass the night. Everything was snow-covered in the vast landscape except the most precii)itous cliffs, and these were dangerous to approach, owing to the avalanches that freipiently fell from them. The weather continued fine. The night Avas clear and the stars were unusually brilliant. Everything seemed favorable for pushing on. The way ahead presented such even snow-slopes and seemed so free from crevasses that we decided to leave Qur tent and blankets in the morning and, taking with us as little as possible of impedimenta, endeavor to reach the summit of St. Elias. HiGPiEST Point reached. Rising at three o'clock on the morning of August 22, we started for the summit of St. Elias, taking with us only our water-proof coats, some food, and the necessary instruments. The higher mountain summits were no longer clearly defined, but in the early light it was impossible to tell whether or not the day was to be fair. From the highest and sharpest peaks, cloud l)anners were streaming off towards the southeast, showing that the higher air currents were in rapid movement. Vapor banks in the east Avere flushed with long streamers of light as the sun rose, l)ut soon faded to a dull ashen gray, while the cloud banners Ijetween us and the sun became brilliant like the halo seen around the moon Avhen the sky is covered with fleecy clouds. This was the first time in my experience that I had seen colored banners waving from the mountain tops. AVe found the snow-surface hard, and made rapid headway up the glacier. Our only difliculty was the uncertainty of the early light, which rendered it impossible to tell the slope of the uneven snoAv-surfaces. The light Avas so evenly diffused that there were no shadoAvs. The rare beauty of that silent, wintry landscape, so delicate in its pearly half tones and so softly lighted, Avas unreal and fairv-like. The Avinds Avere still ; but ir)2 /. C. liHssrll — /'Irpcdidoit fo Monnl St. I'J/ids. i^iniw^o forel )0(ling.s of coming changes filled the air. Long, waving threads of vapor were woven in lace-work across the sky ; the white-rohed mountains were ])artially coiicealed hy cloud- masses drifting like si)irits along their mighty Ijattlements ; and far, far ahove, from the toi)most pinnacles, irised banners were signaling the coming of a storm. We made rapid i)rogress, 1)ut early in the day came to the base of a heavy cloud bank wliich enslirouded all the upper part of St. Elias. Then snow began to fall, and it Avas evident that to proceed farther would be rash and Avithout promise of success. After twenty days of fatigue and hardship) since leaving Blossom island, with our goal almost reached, we were obliged to turn back. Hoping to be able to renew tlie attempt after the storm had passed, Mr. Kerr left his instruments on the snow Ijctween tAvo huge crevasses and avc returned to our tent, where we passed the remainder of the day and the night following. The snow continued to fall throughout the day, and the storm increased in force as night came on. When we awoke in the morning the tempest was still raging. We were in the midst of the storm- cloud ; the dense vapor and the fine drifting snoAV-crystals swept along by the wind obscured everything from view; the white snow surface could not be distinguished from the vapor-fillcd air ; there was no earth and no sky ; we seemed to be suspended in a white, translucent medium which surrounded us like a shroud. The snow Avas already more than three feet deep about our tent, and to remain longer Avith the short supply of provis- ions on hand Avas exceedingly hazardous, as there seemed no limit to the duration of the storm. A can of rations had l)een left at Rope cliti", and Ave decided to return to that place if i)0ssi- ble. Ivcsuming our packs, avc rojjcd ourselves together and began to descend through the blinding mist and snoAV which rendered the atmosphere so dense that a man could not be distinguished at a distance of a hundred feet. AVith only an occasional glimpse of the AA'hite cliH' around to guide us, avc Avorked our Avay doAvn- Avard over snow-bridges and between the crevasses. Our ascent through this dangerous region had been sIoav and difficult, but our descent Avas still more tedious. All day long \vc continued to creej) slowly along througli the blinding storm, and as night ai>proached believe>cale St. ElUt^. 153 basins, we cleared a place down to the old snow large enough for our tent and went into canip. In the morning, August 24, the storm had spent its force and left the mountains with an immaculate covering, but still par- tially veiled l)y shreds of storm-clouds. We found ourselves on one of the many tal)les of snow, l^ounded on all sides by crevasses of great depth, but not far from the snow-cliff where we had cut steps. The steps were obliterated by the new snow, but l)y means of a rope and alpenstocks we made the descent without much difficulty. The last man to go down, not having the help of the rope, used two alpenstocks, and descended by first planting one firmly in the snow and lowering himself as far as he could, still retaining a firm hold, and then planting the other in the snow at a lower level and removing the higher one. By slowly and carefully repeating this operation he descended the cliff safely and rejoined his companions. Passing on beneath the cliffs, dangerous on account of avalanches, we reached in safety the precipice where we had left our rope. A heavy avalanche had swept down from the heights alcove during our absence and sent its spray over the precipice we had to descend. The cliff of ice towering above the place where our rope was fastened had become greatly melted and honey-combed, and threatened every moment to crash down and destroy any one who chanced to be beneath. To stand aljove the precipice in the shadow of the treacherous snow-cliffs while the men were descending the rope was exceedingly trying to one's nerves ; but the avalanches did not come, and the previous camping place below Rope cliff was reached with safety. The following day, August 25, after some consultation, it was decided to once more attempt to reach the top of Mount St. EMas. Lindsley and Stamy, who had shared without complaint our privations in the snow, volunteered to descend to a lower camp for additional rations, while Kerr and myself returned to the higher camp in the hope that we might be able to ascend the peak before the men returned, and, if not, to have sufficient rations when they did rejoin us to continue the attack. The men departed on their difficult errand, while Kerr and I, with blankets, tents, oil-stoves, and what rations remained, once more scaled the cliff where we had placed a rope, and returned on the trail made the day previously. Al)out noon we reached the ex- cavation in the snow where we had bivouacked in the storm, 154 1. C Ila.'iscU — Kcpcdiliou lo MukiiI tSI. I'Jlla,s. and there prepared a lunch. It was then discovered that we had l)een mistaken as to the quantity of oil in our cans ; we found scarcely enoULili to cook a sint;le meal. To attempt to remain several days in the snow witli this small sujiply of fuel seemed hazardous, and Mr. Kerr volunteered to descend and overtake the men at the lower camp, procure some oil. and return the follow- ing day. A\'e then separated, Mr. Kerr starting down the moun- tain, leaving me with a douhle load, weighing hetween sixty and seventy ])ounds, tt) carry through the deep snow to the high camp previously occupied. AlONK I.\ THK MKUIICST C'aMP. Trudging wearily on, I reached the liigli cam}) at sunset, and pitched my tent in the exciivation previously occupied. An alpenstock was used for one tent-pole, and snow saturated with water, piled up in a column, for the other; the snow froze in a few minutes, and held the tent securely. The ends of the ridge- rope were then stam])ed into the snow, and water was i)oured over them; the edges of the tent were treated in a similar man- ner, and my shelter was ready for occupati(^n. After cooking some supper over the oil-stove, I rolled myself in a hlanket and slept the sleep of the wea'ry. I was awakened in the morning l)y snow drifting into my tent, and on looking out discovered that I was again caught in a hlinding storm or mist of snow. The storm raged all day and all night, and continued without interruption until the evening of the second day. The coal oil becoming exhausted, a can was filled with bacon grease, in Avhich a cotton rag was placed for a wick ; and over this " witch lamp " I did my cooking during the remainder of my stay. The snow, falling steadily, soon buried my tent, already surrounded on three sides l)y an icy wall higher than my head, and it was only by almost constant exertion that it ^vas ke])t from being crushed in. \V\i\\ a pint basin for a shovel I ch'ared the tent as best I could, and several times during the day re-excavated the hole leading down to the ]iond, which had long since disa])])eared beneath the level plain of white. The excavation of a tunnel in the snow was also begun in the expectation that the tent would ])ecome uninbabitalile. The following night it became imi)Ossi- ble to keep the tent clear in s})ite of energetic etlbrts, and early in the morning it was crushed in 1)V a great weight of snow, Alone ill the Snow. 155 leaving me no alternative but to finish my snow-house and move in. A tunnel some four or five feet in length was excavated in the snow, and a chamber aljout six feet long by four feet wide and three feet high was made at right angles to the tunnel. In this chamber I placed my blankets and other belongings, and, hanging a ruljber coat on an alpenstock at the entrance, found myself well sheltered from the tempest. There I i)assed the day and the night following. At night the darkness and silence in my narrow tomlj-like cell was oppressive; not a sound broke the stillness except the distant, muffled roar of an occasional avalanche. I slept soundly, however, and in the morning was awakened l)y the croaking of a raven on the snow immediately above my head. The grotto was filled with a soft bkie light, but a pink radiance at the entrance told that the day had dawned bright and clear. What a glorious sight awaited me ! The heavens were with- out a cloud, and the sun shone with dazzling splendor on the white peaks around. The broad unbroken snow-plain seemed - to burn with light reflected from millions of shining crystals. The great mountain peaks were draped from base to summit in the purest white, as yet unscarred by avalanches. On the steep cliffs the snow hung in folds like drapery, tier above tier, while the angular peaks above stood out like crystals against the sky. St. Elias was one vast pyramid of alabaster. The winds were still; not a sound broke the solitude; not an object moved. Even the raven had gone, leaving me alone with the mountains. As the sun rose higher and higher and made its warmth felt, the snow was loosened on the steep slopes and here and there broke away. Gathering force as it fell, it rushed down in ava- lanches that made the mountains tremble and awakened thun- derous echoes. From a small beginning high up on the steep slopes, the new snow would slip downward, silently at first, and cascade over precipices hundreds of feet high, looking like a fall of foaming water ; then came the roar, increasing in volume as the flowing snow involved new fields in its path of destruction, until the great mass became irresistible and ploughed its way downward through clouds of snow-spray, which hung in the air long after the snow had ceased to move and the roar of the ava- lanche had ceased. All day long, until the shadow of evening fell (»n the steep slopes, this mountain thunder continued. The echoes of one avahiuche scarcely died away licfore tliey were 156 /. C. n>is.roke the fall and prevented serious injury. Alone, without fire, without blankets, having only a canvas cover and a rubbei- cloth for shelter, and with but little food, he passe(l three anxious days and nights before the arrival of the camp liands. TuK RirriKX. Deciding that the ascent of Mount St. I^lias could not be ac- Cimiplished through the new snow, which refused to harden, it was dei'ided to abandon the attem])t and return to r>lossom island. ( )ui" reti'cat was none too soon. Stoi-m succeeded storm thfoUglidUt Scptciiibei'. K:ic\\ time the clouds liftccl, flic mantle Sn()ir-/i/iii(Jiirs.s. 159 of iiGAV snow was seen to have descended lower and lower. Our last view showed the wintry covering nearly down to timber- line. On the night of August 31 we slept at the camp l)eneath Roi)e cliff, but had a most uncomfortable night. Six men sleei)ing in a tent measuring seven l)y seven feet, with Init little protection from the ice beneath, certainly does not seem inviting to one sur- rounded l)y the comforts of civilization. A large part of the night was occupied by Doney in preparing breakfast over our oil-stove. An earl 3^ start was welcome to all ; we were disap- pointed at not being able to reach the top of St. Elias, and were anxious to return to more comfortable quarters. Kerr concluded to return at once to Blossom island to recujoerate, while I made an excursion up the Seward glacier, with the hope of gaining the upper ice-fall and seeing the amphitheatre beyond. We left Rope cliff about six in the morning, and found the snow hard and traveling easy for several hours. After descend- ing the lower ice-fall, however, the snow became soft, and a change in the atmosphere indicated the approach of another storm. Kerr and Doney pressed on and were soon lost to sight, while the rest of the part}^ were delayed, owing to Partridge hav- ing become snow-blind and almost helpless. As the crevasses were exceedingly numerous and the snow-ljridges soft and un- certain, the task of conducting a l)lin(l man to a place of safety was by no means light. Partridge bore up bravely under his afffiction, however, and did not hesitate in crawling across the treacherous snow-bridges with a rope fastened about his body and a man before and behind to assist his movements. Late in the day we reached our camping place at the eastern border of the Agassiz glacier, while Kerr and Doney crossed Dome pass and spent the night in a tent that had been left standing at the first camping east of the pass. We pitched a tent on our old camping place at Camp 16, and had the luxury of a rocky bed to sleep on that night. As Partridge's blindness still continued, Wliite was sent ahead to tell Kerr and Doney to wait for us in the morning, so that Partridge could accompany them to Blossom island. Rain continued all that night and all the next day. As Partridge's eyes were still unserviceable in the morning, I con- cluded to wait a day before allowing him to start for Blossom island. ToAvard evening on Septeml)er 21 Ave moved our camp across 160 I. ('. lUi! Mniiul SI. FJ'nix. lower mountain slojx's ; salmon l)crries and huckicborrios were ill })rofusi()n. and lurnislicd an txcccdinolv agreeal)l(' ('lianj2;e in our diet. After a bath in one ol'llic small lakelets on the island and u good night's rest on a luxui'iant ht'd of spruee houghs, we felt fully restored and ix'ady Ihr another campaign. As Kerr was anxious to get hack to Port Mulgravc. it was ar- ranged that Lindsley and Partridge should go with him, and that the rest of the men should remain. Kerr took his (lci)artuiv on the morning of .Sei)teml)er 7. and on the following day Christie, Doney, and myself crossed the Marvine glacier to the southern end of the Hitchcock range, and the t'ollowing day made an ex- cursion out Uj)on the ^^alaspina glacier. The day of our excur- sion was hriglit and beautiful, and the mountains to the north- ward revealed their full magniticence. The level plateau of ice formed a horizontal plain, from which the mountain rose j^re- cii)itously and ai)])eared grander and more majestic than from any other point of view. 8t. Elias rose clear and sharp, witliout a cloud to ol)scure its dizzy height, and aj)peared to be one sheer preci})ice. It is doubtful if a more impressive mountain face exists anywhere else in the world. After learning all we could concerning the Malaspina glacier we returned to our cami> at the end of the Hitchcock range, and the following day tramped across the extrenu'ly rough morainc-covere(l surface back to l)lossoin island. The folloAving morning, September 12, we started on our I'eturn tri}) to Yakutat I)ay. Two small tents and many articles for which we had no further use were abandoned, so as to make our packs light as possible. We crossed the Hayden glacier, and at night camped at the foot of Floral pass. After making two in- termediate! camjis, traveling each day in the rain, we reached the shore of Yakutat bay on Sei)tember 15. Doney and I halted at Dalton's cabin for the ])urpose of see- ing wliat we could of the o])enings there made for coal, while the rest of the ])arty pressed on to our old camping ])laee on the shore. There they found Kerr and his i)arty still eiicam])eil, but read}' to leave for Port Mulgravc early the next morning. September 18 was occu})i I'd by us in eatehing salmon and trout. We were abundantly successful, as every man returned to eamp with all that he could carry. These were spread out on a i-ack over our cam[)-lii'e and smoked foi' I'urthei" use, as we ast three such rehiy stations should be established Ix'tween the C'haix hills, where wood for camp- tires can be obtained (as is known from the reports of the New York 7V/Hf.sMind To]ibaiii cxpcMlitions ), and the liigli caiiip on the divide. The relay camps suggested should be one day's march apart, and would serve not only for sto])])ing ])laces while carrying rations during the advance, l)ut would furnish a line of retreat. A i)arty making this journey should l»e i)rovide(l witii snow-shoes, which unfortunately we did not take with us. All rations intended for use above the snow-line should be packed in tin cans, each of sufficient size to hold betAveen tifty and sixty pounds, and each should be securely soldered. All articles packed in this way should be thoroughly dry and should be packed in a dry, warm room. A\'hen secured in this manner they are about as easy to carry as if packed in bags, and can be " cached " anywhere out of the reach of iioods and avalanches, with the certainty of being serviceable when wanted. The more perishal)le articles to be used wliere camp-fires are possil)le should also be secured in tin cans. Sacks of Hour, corn-meal, etc., should be protected by an outer covering of strong canvas. The expe- rience of last sunmier showed that the cans of rations intendi'd for use al)ove the snow-line should each contain al)out the fol- lowing ration, which may l)e varied to suit individual taste: Bacon, smoked . . . . .10 lbs. Corned beef, in can . . . . (i " Flour and corn-meal, with necessary (piautity of l)akiiig powder . . . . . . 15 " Coffee ' . 2 '' Rolled oats . . . . . . 5 " Sugar 5 " Chocolate, sweet . . . . . 2 " Salt I " Extract of beef . . . . ^ . 1 " Tobacco i " Condensed milk (small cans) . . .2 Matches (wax) ..... 1 box. Our ex])erience wiib oibstovcs sliowcil thai (licy are service- able. \\'bile oil tlie iiiarcb lliev can lie ean'iey expei't packers to l)ack -straps. It has l)een suggested that experienced Swiss guides are neces- sary to ensure success in clim1)ing Mount St. Elias. Having never followed a guide in the mountains, I am not able to judge of their ettieiency, but it must l)e remenil)ere(l that no one can guide in a region that has never been traversed. The " guide '' as understood in p]urope is unknown in America. In the explora- tion of this country by engineers, geologists, etc., the camp liands have followed their leaders and have not shown them the way. In every frontier town there are hunters, trappers, miners, pros- i:)ectors, cow-boys, voyageurs, etc. — men wlio have passed their lives on the jdains or among •' the hills " and are enured to hard- ship and danger. This is the best material in the world from which to recruit an exploring party. A foreigner engaging the services of such men must take into account the independent spirit that animates them and is the secret of their usefulness. They are not servants, Imt retainers ; that too in regions far beyond the reach of civil law. They will follow their leader anywliere, su])poi-t bini in aJl dangers, and do their work faitb- fully so long as their rights as men are respected. By taking proper precautions wliile traveling across crevassed snow and ice, and guarding against avalanches and snow-blind- ness, an excursion can be made above the snow-line with as little danger as in Ijetter known and more frequented regions. PART III. SKETCH OF THE GEOLOGY OF THE 8T. ELIAS REGION. General Features. In the preceding narrative, many references have been made to the character of the rocks and to the geologiciil structure of the region explored. It was not practicable during the journey to carry on detailed geological studies, but such facts as were noted are of interest, for this reason, if for no other : they relate to a country previously unknown. My reconnoissance enaljled me to determine that there are three well-defined formations in the St. Elias region. These are — - 1. The sandstones and shales about Yakutat bay and west- ward along the foot of the mountain to Icy liay, named the la- kutat system. 2. A system of probal:)ly later date, composed of shale, con- glomerate, limestone, sandstone, etc., best exposed in the cliffs of Pinnacle pass and along the northern and western l)orders of the Samovar hills, and named the Pumade system. 3. The metamorphic rocks of the main St. Elias range, called the St. Elias schist. Yakutat System. The rocks of this system arc of gray and brown sandstones and nearly black shales. They are uniform in lithological character over a large area, and are usually greatly crushed and seamed. So great has been the crushing to which they have been subjected that it is difficult to work out a hand spe3imen with fre-^h sur- faces. Fragments broken out with a hammer are almost inva- riably bounded by plains of previous crushing, and are usually somewhat weathered. These rocks form the l)old shores of Yakutat and Disenchant- ment Ijays, and were the only rocks seen along our route from Yakutat bay to Pinnacle pass. The whole of the Hitchcock range is composed of rocks of this series, as are also the Chaix (167) IGS I. (\ J:iis.s(l/—Krjn(lillo„ fn M<,iii,i St. Eli,(s. hills and the hills west of Icy 1)ay and the soutlicrn imrtioii of the Samovar hills. North of Pinnacle i>ass there are rocks undis- tinguishahle lithogically from tliose about Yakutat l)ay. These are exposed in Mount Owen and on cadi side of Dome pass; they also form the bold s[)urs al)out tlu' immediate bases of Mount Augusta, Mount Malaspina, and Mount St. Elias. In the three instances last named these rocks dij) beneath the schist forming the crest of the St. Elias range, and it is prol)able that a great overthrust there took place before tlic to i-i nation of the faults to which the present relief of the mcjuntains is due. All the mountain spurs of Blount Cook, so far as is known, are composed of sandstones and sliales of the Yakutat series, with the exception of the Pinnacle i)ass cliffs. Nearly all tlie del)ris on the glaciers from Disenchantment bay to the Seward glacier, and ])robably lieyond, is derived from the rocks of this system. The distribution of the rocks from which the debris was derived may be ascertained in a general way by tracing out the sources of the glaciers. Medial moraines on the Plaj^den and Marvine glaciers, however, have their sources on the northern slope of Mount Cook, and are composed of gal)bro and serpentine. These rocks were not seen in place, and their relation to the Yakutat series can only l)e conjectured. Although the rocks of this system are stratified, it is impossi- l)le to determine their tliickness, for the reason that tliey have Ijcen greatly crushed and overthrust. This is well illustrated in the Hitchcock range, wliich, as already explained, trends about northeast and southwest, and is composed of strata of shale and sandstone, having a nearly east-and-west strike and a luiiform dip toward the northeast. Were the rocks in normal jjosition their thickness would be incredible. In addition to this nega- tive evidence, there is the crushed condition of the strata to sliow that movement lias taken i)lacc all tlirough their mass: and in a few instances thrust faults were distinguished, dipping north- eastward at al)0ut the same angle as the lines of bedding. In the; crushing to which the rocks have been subjected the shales have suflered more than the sandstones, and have ])een drawn out into wedge-shaped masses, the sliarp edges of which usually ])oint toward the northeast, which is i)resuinably the dii'cction from which the crushing force acted. The hyi)othesis that the rocks in the St. Elias region liave been crushed and overthrust ex])lains many otherwise inhar- Coal ill tJic Yakutnt Systeni. 169 mouious facts, and accounts for the superposition of the iSt. Elias scliist upon rocks of the Yakutat system. Coal has been discovered in the rocks of the Yakutat system al^out two miles west of the southern end of Disenchantment bay, and is reported to be of workable thickness. I saw thin lignite seams at the surface at this locality, but as the shafts were filled with water I was unable to examine the coal in the open- ings, and cannot vouch for its thickness. Samples obtained from the mine show it to be a black lignite which would apparently be of value for fuel. Fossil leaves are reported to occur in con- nection with the lignite, but these have never been seen by any one who could identify them. The rocks of the Yakutat svstem, wherever seen, dip north- eastward, except when greatly disturbed near fault-lines. East of Disenchantment bay the inclination of the l)eds is from 15° to 20° ; farther westward the dip increases gradually all the way to the Hitchcock range, where the prevailing inclination is from 30° to 40°, and frequently still greater. Beneath Mount Malas- pina and Mount St. Elias the Yakutat sandstones dip northeast- ward at an angle of about 15°, and in the hills west of Icy Imy the dip is about the same. Exceptions to the prevailing dips occur along the immediate shore of Yakutat bay, northwest of Knight island, and at the southern extremity of each of the mountain spurs between Yakutat bay and Blossom island. At these localities the rocks are freqviently vertical or nearly so, owing their high cliiD to the proximity of lines of displacement. The faults indicated by these unusual dips also mark the boundary between the mountains and the seaward-stretching jjlateau of alluvium and ice. The crushing, overthrusting and faulting that has affected the rocks of this system render it dou])tful whether the coal scams whicli occur in it, even if of requisite thickness, can be worked to advantage. Some of the samples of coal obtained at the open- ings made near Yakutat ])ay were slickcnsided, showing that movements in the coal seam had there taken place. As already stated, the rocks of the Yakutat series are remark- ably uniform in character throughout the extent now known, and offer but little variety. The sandstones are intersected in every direction by thin quartz seams, which stand in relief on the weathered surfaces, giving the rocks a peculiar and charac- 170 1. ('. /iiiss(l( — E.i'i)((Hliact, crystalline, gray limestone near the upper portion of the scries, whicli escaped notice in the clitts. At the end of tlu; Pinnacle-pass cliffs, however, wdiere the rocks are turned northward by the gr(>at fault which decides the course of the Sewaird glacier, and dip eastward at a high angle, the lime- stone is well exposed, and has a, thickness of about 50 feet. In many places the surfaces of the layers are covered with fragments of large Pectcn shells. Associated with the limestone there are reddish shales, much crushed and broken, and a peculiar con- glomerate. The j)ebbles in the conglomerate are of many varie- ties, and were observed at places along the Pinnacle i)ass cliffs. Their most marked peculiarity lies in the fact that they liave been sheared by a moviMncnt in the rocks and sometimes broken into several fragments wdiich have been reunited, jirobably by pressure. These faulted pcblilcs are characteristic of the strata from which they were dcri\('(l. Similar pcbl)lcs wciH' afterward obtained in the Marvine glacier near its junction with the j\hdas- l)ina glacier, thus indicating that there are other outcroi)s of the coin4lomerate aliout Mount Cook, near where the Marvine glacier oOO feet. (;()0 '^ oO " oIK) '' 10 " 40 " Ff).c still lixiiiL: in the oceanie waters of Alaska. The very recent auc of the rocks in which thev occur is tlms estahlished. Figure cS — I'millnl r,!,hlr from Pinnnrlf P(i.<oint in the liistory sketched above. The facts on which it rests are as follows : At Pinnacle pass the sandstones and shales forming the southern wall belong to the Yakutat system and are much disturbed, while the northern wall, or the heaved side of the fault, is composed of the rocks of the Pinnacle sys- tem, inclined northward at an angle of 30° or 40°. North of this fault-scarp, in the foothills of Mount Owen, sandstones and shales, seemingly identical with those of the Yakutat system, again occur, although their direct connection with the rocks south of Pinnacle pass was not observed, owing to the snow that obscured the outcrops. Again at Dome pass a similar relation seems evident, but cannot be directly established. The imme- diate foothills of Mounts Augusta, Malaspina, and St. Elias are also of sandstone, lithologically the same as the Yakutat series. The conclusion that the Yakutat system is younger than the Pinnacle-pass rocks was reached in the field after many other hypotheses had been tried and found wanting, and to my mind it explains all the ol>servations made. Even should the sup- posed relations of the two series under discussion be reversed, it would still l)e_true that a very large part of the rocks of the 8t. Elias region were deposited since the appearance of living species of mollusks and plants, and that the prevailing structure of the region was imjiosed at a still later date. This will appear more clearly after examining the structure of the region. St. Elias Schist. The rock forming several tliousand feet of tlie ujtpcv ])()rtion of the St. Elias range is a schist in which the ])lanes of l)edding 2-1— Nat. Geoo. Mao., vol. Ill, Is'Jl. 174 /. ('. Tiiisi^cll — Expedilinn to Momd St. Klias. arc jn'eservod. The dip of the strata is northeastward, and has exerted a decided inilucnce on the wcathcrin,i>- of" the mountain crests. As tlie opiiortunitics for cxaniiniiiu' this I'oiMnation wcri' unsatisfactory, a eauty. The most striking feature of these cracks is their wonderful color. All tints, from the pure white of their crystal lips down to the deep- est blue of their innermost recesses, are reveahnl in each gash and rent in the hardened snow. Above the snow-line all of th(^ mountain tops that are not pre- cijiitous are heavily loaded with snow. \\'here the snow breaks off at the verge of a ])reci])ice and descends in avalanches a dei)th of more than a hundi'ed fet't is fre(juently revealed, but in the valleys and ami)hith(Mitres the snow has far greater thickness. Pinnacles and crests of rock, rising through the icy covering, indicate that the thickness of the neve nuist be many hvnidreds of feet. There are no evidences of Ibrnu'r glaciation on the mountain crests which project above the neve fields. There are no. i)olished and striated rock surfaces or glaciated domes to indicate that the mountains were ever covchmI by a general ca])])ing of ici\ as has been i)ostulate(l I'or sitnilai' mountains elsewhere. When the Blrci^s floiviiKj upon Glaclcrx. ISo glaciers had their greatest expansion the higher mountains were in about their present condition. The increase in the volume of the glaciers was felt almost entirely in their lower courses. Characteristics of Alpine Glaciers below the Snow-Line. The first feature that attracts attention on descending from the neve region to the more icy portion of the glaciers is the rapid melting everywhere taking place. Every day during the summer the murmur and roar of rills, l^rooks and rivers are to be heard in all of the ice-fields. The surface streams are usually short, on account of the crevasses which intercept them. They plunge into the gulfs, which are many times widened out by the flow- ing waters so as to form wells, or mouUn.s, and join the general drainage beneath. The streams then flow either through caverns in the glaciers or in tunnels at the bottoms. While traversing the glacier one may frequently hear the suljdued roar of rivers coursing along in the dark chambers beneath when no other indication of their existence appears at the surface. When these subglacial streams emerge, usually near the margin of the ice, they issue from archways forming the ends of tunnels, and per- haps flow for a mile or two in the sunlight before plunging into another tunnel to continue their way as before. The best example of a glacial river seen during our explora- tion was near the western border of the Lucia glacier. It is shown in the illustration forming plate 12, which is reproduced mechanically from a photograph. This Styx of the ice-world has been described on an earlier page. The lakes formed at the southern end of nearly every mountain spur projecting into the Malaspina glacier discharge through tunnels in the ice, which are similar in every way to those formed by the stream already mentioned. In the beds of the glacial streams there are deposits of sand and gravel, and when the streams expand into lakes these de- posits are spread over their bottoms in more or less regular sheets. When streams from the mountains empty into the lakes, deltas are formed. While these deltas have the same char- acteristics as those built in more stable water bodies, many changes in detail occur, owing to the fluctuation of the water level. 184 I. a Unxsell— Expedition to Mount St. Klias. One of tlic tviiuu'ls leading to a drv lake-licil at the end of llic Hitchcock raniic was explored for several rods and fonnd to he a high, arching cavern following a tortuous course, and large enough to allow one to drive a coach and four through it without danger of collision. Its Hoor was formed of gravel and howlders, and its arching roof was clear ice. Here and there the courses of crevasses could be traced by the stones and finer del)ris that had fallen in from above, giving the appearance of veins in a iniiu'. The deposit on the floor of the tunnel rested upon ice, and would certainly be greatly disturl)ed and broken uj) before reaching a final resting place in case the glacier should melt. In the lake basins, also, the sand and gravel fornnng their l»ot- toms fre(|uently rested. upon sul)strata of ice, and are greatly disturl)ed when the ice melts. At the ends of the glaciers the sul)gla('ial and intraglacial drain- age issues from tunnels and Ibrms muddy streams. These usually flow out from the foot of a })recipice of ice, down which rills are continually trickling. Tlie streams flowing away from the glaciers are usually rapid, owing to the high grade of their built-up channels, and SAveep away large quantities of debris which is deposited along their courses. The streams widen and bifurcate as they flow seaward, and spread vast quantities of bowlders, sand, and gravel over the country to the right and left, not infrequently invading the forests and burying the still up- right trees. The deposits formed 1)y the streams are of the nature of alluvial fans, over which the waters meander in a thousand chainiels. Where this action has taken i)lace long enough the alluvial fans end in deltas; but .should tliere be a current in the sea, the debris is carried away and formed into beaclies and bars along adjacent shores. Should these glaciers disai)pear, it is evident that these great lx)wlder washes would form peculiar to})ographic features, unsu))ported at the apexes, and it nnght be ])erplexing to determine from whence came the waters that dei)osited them. I am not aware that similar waslies have been recognized along the southern boi-der of the Lauren- tide glaciers, but they should certainly be cx[)ected to occur there. .\nother very striking difiterence in the appearance of the glaciers al)ove and l)elow the snow-line is due to the prevalence of debris on the lower })ortion. The melting that takes place Disfj-ihntion of Moraiues. 185 below the ^now-line removes the ice and leaves the roeks. In this manner the stones i)reviously concealed in the neve are con- centrated at the surface, and finally form sheets of debris many miles in extent. So far as my observations go, there is nothing to indicate that stones are brought to the surface l)y any other means than the one here suggested. Upward currents in the ice that would liring stones to the surface have been postulated by certain writers, l)ut nothing sustaining such an hypothesis has been found in Alaska. The moraines on the lower extremities of the Alpine glaciers may frequently be separated into individual ridges, which in many instances would furnish instructive studies ; but in no case has the history of these accumulations been worked out in detail. With the appearance of moraines at the surface come a great variety of phenomena due to unequal melting. Ridges of ice sheathed with debris, glacial tables, sand cones, etc., everywhere attract the attention ; but these features are very similar on all glaciers where the summer's waste exceeds the winter's increase, and have been many times described. The general distribution of the moraines of the lower portion of the Alpine glaciers of the St. Elias region merits attention. The moraines themselves exhdnt features not yet observed in other regions. From Disenchantment bay westward to the Seward glacier the lower portions of the ice-streams are covered and concealed by sheets of debris. About their margins the debris fields support luxuriant vegetation, and not infrequently are so densely clothed with flowers that a tint is given to their rugged surfaces. On the extreme outer margins of the moraines there are sometimes thickets and forests so dense as to be almost imj>enetrable. The best example of forest-covered moraines resting on living glaciers, however, is found along the borders of the Malaspina ice-field. Piedmont Glaciers. This type is represented in the region explored by the Malas- pina glacier. This is a plateau of ice having an area of l)etween 500 and 600 sipiare miles, and a surface elevation in the central ])art of between l,o()() and 1,(500 feet. It is fed by the Agassiz, Seward, Marvine, and Hayden glaciers, and is of such volume that 186 /. (\ JiU-s^cll — K.vpcdifion In Mount SI. J'JUas. it hiis ai)parently (lis[)laee(l the sea aiid holds it l)ac'k by a wall t)f debris deposited about its niaruin. All of its eentral i)ortion is oi' rlear white ice, and around all its margins, exeeptinti where the Aji'assiz and Seward ghieiers eonie in, it is boun(h'il by a fringe of debris and by moraines resting on the ice. Along the seaward border tlie belt of fringing moraines is about tive miles broa(h 'i'he inner margin of the moraine 1)elt is eomposed of roeks and dirt, without vegetation, and sei)arated n)ore or less ('onn)l('tely into belts by strips of clear ice. On going from the clear ice toward tlie margin of the glaeier one finds slirubs and flowers scattered liere and thc're over the surface. Farther sea- ward the vegetation becomes more dense and the flowers cover the whole surface, giving it the a})pearance of a luxuriant jneadow. Still farther toward the margin dense clumps of alder, with scattered spruce trees, become conspicuous, while on the outer margin spruce trees of larger size form a veritable forest. That this vegetation actually grows on the moraines above a liv- ing glacier is proved beyond all question by holes and crevasses which reveal the ice beneath. The curious lakes scattered abun- dantly over the moraine-covered areas, and occupying hour-glass- shaped depre-ssions in the ice, have already been described. From the southern end of the Samovar hills, where the Seward and Agassiz glaciers unite, there is a compound moraine stretch- ing southward, which divides at its distal extremity and forms great curves and swirl-like figures indicating currents in the glacier. All the central part of the ])lateau is, as already stated, of clear white i(!e, free from moraines ; at a distance it has the a]i])earance of a broad snow surface. This is due to the fact that tlu^ ice is melted and honey-combed during the warm summer and the surfjice becomes vesicular and loses its banded structure. A rougli, coral-like crust, due to the freezing of the i)ortions melted fluring the day, freipiently covers large areas and resem1)les a thick hoar-frost. Crevasses are numerous, but seldom more than a few feet deep. They appear to l)e the lowt'r j)ortions of ilccp crevasses in the tril)utary streams wdiich have ])artially closed, or else not completely removed by the melting and evaporation of the surface. Many of the crevasses are Idled with water, but there are no surface streams and no lakes. Melting is rapid during the warm The Malaspina Glacier. 187 Slimmer days, but the water finds its way down into the glacier and joins the general subglacial drainage. It is evident that the streams beneath the surface must be of large size, as they furnish the only means of escape for the waters flowing lieneath the Agassiz, Seward and INIarvine glaciers, as well as for the waters formed by the melting of the great Malaspina glacier. The outer borders of the Malaspina glacier are practically stationary, but there are currents in its central part. Like the expanded ends of some of the Al})ine glaciers, as the Galiano and Tjucia glaciers, for example, this glacier is of the nature of a delta of ice, analogous in many of its features to river deltas. As a stream in meandering over its delta builds up one portion after another, so the currents in an expanded ice-foot may now follow one direction and deposit loads of debris, and then slowly change so as to occupy other positions. This action tends to destroy the individuality of morainal belts and to form general sheets of debris. The presence of such currents as here suggested has not been proved by measurements, but the great swirls in the Malaspina glacier and the tongues of clear ice in the upper portions of the debris fields on the smaller glaciers strongly suggest their existence. The Malaspina glacier is evidently not eroding its bed ; any records that it is making must be l;)y deposition. Should the glacier melt away completely, it is evident that a surface formed of glacial debris, and very similar to that now existing in the forested plateau east of Yakutat bay, would be revealed. The former extent of the Malas}nna glacier cannot be deter- mined, but it is probable that during its greatest expansion it extended seaward until deep water was reached, and broke off in bergs in the same manner as do the Greenland glaciers at the present day. Soundings in the adjacent waters might possibly determine approximately the former position of the ice-front, and it is possible that submarine moraines might be discovered in this way. The Pimpluna reefs, reported by Russian navi- gators and indicated on many maps, may possibly be a remnant of the moraine left by the Piedmont glacier from the adjacent coast. The glaciers west of Icy bay were seen from the top of Pin- nacle pass cliffs, and are evidently of the same character as the Malaspina glacier and fully as extensive. A study oi" these Pied- ISS /. C. Itasscll — Expedition fo Mount »S'/. Elias. mont glaciers will certainly thi'ow much litrht on the interpreta- tions of the trlaciat records over northeastern Xortli America. Theii' vahie in this connection is enhaiiec(l Iiy tiie tact that they are now retn^ating and making (k'i)osits ratlier tlian renii)\ing })revious geological records. The exi)edition ol' last svimmei' was a hasty reconnoissance, during which hut little detail work could he undertaken. The actual study of the ice-fields of the St. Klias region i-eniains for those who come later. PART V. HEIGHT AND POSITION OF MOUNT ST. ELIAS. The height and position of Mount St. EHas have been measured several times during the past century with varying results. The measurements made prior to the expedition of 1890 have been summarized and discussed by W. H. Dall, of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, and little more can be done at present than give an abstract of his report. The various determinations are shown in the tal)le below. The data from which these results were obtained have not l)een published, with the exception of the surveys made by the United States Coast Survey in 1874, printed in report of the super- intendent for 1875. Hchjld and Position of Mount St. Elias. Date. Authority. Height. Latitude. Longitude W. 1786 1791 1794 1847 1847 1849 1872 1874 La Perouse Malaspina Vancouver Russian Hydrographic Chart 1378 Tebenkof (Notes) Tebenkof (Chart VII) -- Buch. Can. Insehi EngUsh Admiralty Chart 2172 U. S. Coast Survey 12,672 feet 17,851 " 17,854 " 16,938 " 16,938 " 16,758 " 14,970 " 19,500±400 60° 15^ 00'^ 60 17 35 60 22 30 60 21 00 60 22 36 60 21 30 60 17 30 60 21 00 60 20 45 140°10^00'' 140 52 17 140 39 00 141 00 00 140 54 00 140 54 00 140 51 00 141 00 00 141 00 12 All of the figures given in the table have been copied from Ball's report, with the exception of the position determined by Malaspina ; this is from a report of astronomical observations made during Malaspina's voyage, which places the mountain in latitude 60° 17' 35" and longitude 134° 33' 10" west of Cadiz.* Taking the longitude of Cadiz as 6° 19' 07" west of Greenwich, the figures tabulated above are obtained. ■ Ante, p. 65. 20— Nat. Geoo. Mac, vol. Ill, LS'il. (189) 100 T. C. Riixfifll—ExiH'dithyn to Mnnui St. KUas. It was intended that Mr. Kerr's report, forming Appendix 1?, should contain a detailed record of the triantrulation executed last summer, but a careful revision of his work by a committee of the National (!eoo;ra])hic Society led to the conclusion that the results were not of sufiicient accuracy to set at rest the questions raised by the discrepancies in earlier measurements of the height of IMount St. Elias ; and as the work will ])roliably be revised and extended during the summer of 18'.)1, only the map forming plate 8 will be published at this time. Some preliminary publications of elevations have Ix^en made. l)ut these must l)e taken as ap- proximations merely.* B}' consulting the map forming ])lat(' S it will be seen that Mounts Cook, N'ancouver, Irving,- Owen, etc., are not in the St. Elias range. Neither do they form a distinct range either tojx)- graphically oi' geologically, luicb of these mountains is an inde- ])endent U})lift, although they may have some structural con- nection, and are of about the same geological age. Mount Cook and the peaks most intimately associated with it are composed mainly of sandstone and shale belonging to the Yakutat system. Mounts ^^ancouver and Irving are prol)al)ly of the same char- acter, l)ut definite proof that this is the case has not been ob- tained. The St. Elias u])lift is distinct and well marked, both geolog- ically and toi)Ogra})hically, and deserves to be considered as a mountain range. The limits of the range have not been deter- mined, but, so far as known, its maximum elevation is at Mount St. Elias. The range stretches away from this culminating point both northeastward and northwestward, and has a well-marked V-shape. The angle formed by the two branches of the range where they unite at Mount St. Elias is, by estimate, about 140°. Eaeli arm of the V if^ determined by a I'ault, or ])erhai)S mor(^ accurately by a series of iaults liaxing the same general eoui'se, along which the orographic blocks forming the range have been ui)heaved. The structure of the range is monoclinal, and re- * The shore-line of the ipap, plate 8, and the positions of the initial points or base-line of tlie trian-rulation are from the work of the I^nitt'(l States Coast Survej'. The extreme western portion is from maps puljlislunl by the New York TUncH and Topham expeditions. All the topographic data aiv by ^\y. Kerr, and all credit for tlic work and all i-csi)onsibility for its accui'.icy I'cst with him. The nuiufiiciaturc is pi-incipaily my own, and has been a|)|>rovcil by a cuiiimitlec ol' t hr National < icoL;ra|>hic Society. Topoyraphij of fhc St. Elias Range. 191 senibles the type of mountain structure characteristic of the great basin. The dip of the tilted blocks is northward. The crest of the St. Elias range, as already stated, is composed of schists which rest on sandstone, supposed to belong to the Yakutat system. The geological age of the uplift is, therefore, very recent. The secondary topographic forms on the crest of the range have resulted froni the weathering of the upturned edges of orographic blocks in which the bedding planes are crossed by joints. The resulting forms are mainly pyraniids and roof-like ridges with triangular gables. Extreme ruggedness and angularity characterize the range throughout. There are no rounded domes or smoothed and polished surfaces to suggest that the higher summits have ever been subjected to general glacial action ; neither is there any evidence of marked rock de- cay. Disintegration of all the higher peaks and crests is rapid, owing principally to great changes of temperature and the freez- ing of water in the interstices of the rock ; Ijut the delsris result- ing from this action is rapidly carried away by avalanches and glaciers, so that the crests as well as the subordinate features in the sculj^ture of the cliffs and pyramids are all angular. The subdued and rounded contour, due to the accumulation of the products of disintegration and decay, the indications of the ad- vancing age of mountains, are nowhere to l)e seen. The St. Elias range is young ; probably the very youngest of the important mountain ranges on this continent. No evidences of erosion previous to the formation of the ice-sheets that now clothe it have ]:>een observed. Glaciers apparently took immediate possession of the lines of depression as the mountain range grew in height, and furnish a living example from which to determine the part that ice streams play in mountain sculpture. Appendix A. OFFICIAL INSTRUCTIONS GOVERNING THE F^XPEDITION. In order to make tlie records of the St. Elian ex])edition eomplete, cojjies of the instructions under w hich the work was carried out are appended : Department of the Interior, United States Geological Survey, Geologic Branch, ]Vitsli!,u/to)i, I). C, Mdij 28, 1890. Mr. I. C. Russell, Geologic. Sir : You are hereby detailed to visit the St. EHas range of Alaska for work of exploration, under the joint auspices of the National Geographic Society and the United States Geolpgical Survey. The Geological Survey furnishes instruments and contributes the sum of $1,000 towards the ex- penses of the expedition. The money devoted to this purpose is taken from the api)ropriation for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1890, and the manner of its exi)enditure must conform to that fact. The Survey expects that you will give special attention to glaciers, to their distribution, to the associated toi^ographic tj'pes, to indications of the former extent of glaciation, and to types of subaerial seuli)ture under special conditions of erosion, and that you will also bring back informa- tion with reference to the age of the formations seen and the type of structure of the range. With the aid of Mr. Kerr, it is expected that you will secure definite geographic information as to the belt of country traversed by you. Very respectfulh^ • G. K. Gilbert, Chief Geologist. Approved, J. W. Powell, Director. Department ok the Interior, United States Geolocucal Survey, (teologic Branch, Washington, D. C, May 28, ISDO. Mr. I. C. Russell, Geologist. Sir: You will ])roce,ed at the earliest jn-acticable date to Tacoma, Wash- ington Territory, and thence liy water to Sitka, Alaska, at which j^oint you will make special arrangements to visit the St. Elias range of mountains and make geological examinations as per instrucitions otherwise commu- nicated. Mr. Mark B. Kerr, Disbursing Agent, will report to you at Vic- toria, B. C, and accompany you on the expedition, assisting you in the capacities of Disbursing Agent and Toi)ographcr. On the con)i)letion of (192) Mr. Kcrr'f< Udall. 193 your work you will return to "Washington, the route lieing left to your dis- cretion, to be determined l)y considerations wdiich cannot now be foreseen- Very respectfully, G. K. Gilbert, CJuef Geologist. Approved, J. W. Powell, Director. Department of the Interior, United States Geological Survey, Geologic Branch, Washington, D. C, Mat) 28, 1890. Mr. Mark B. Kerr, Disbursing Agent. Sir : You are hereby detailed to assist ]\Ir. I. C. Russell, Geologist, who starts at once on an expedition to Alaska, under the joint auspices of the National Geographic Society and the United States Geological Survey. It is expected that you will immediately aid him in disbursement, and that you will act during the exploratory part of the expedition as topographer. Your duties will, however, not be limited to these special functions, but you will be expected to perform any other duties he may assign to you, and to labor in every way for the success of the expedition. It is expected that you will be reappointed to the grade of topograi:)her on the United States Geological Survey on the 1st of July, 1890, and you will please take the required oath of office before your departure. The money remaining in your iDOSsession as Disbursing Agent includes that needed to meet Mr. Russell's salary and your own, and also the sum of $1,000, allotted from the funds of the Geographic Branch for expenses of the expedition prior to June 30. This amount you will expend as directed by Mr. Russell, and his authority and certificate will need to accompanj^ your vouchers in rendering account of the same. Very respectfully, G. K. Gilbert, Chief Geologist. Approved, J. W. Powell, Director. Department of the Interior, United States Geological Survey, Geologic Branch, Washington, D. C, May 28, 1890. Mr. Mark B. Kerr, Dishu rsing Agent. Sir : You will proceed at once to San Francisco, California, and thence by steamer or by rail and steamer to Sitka, Alaska. It is expected that you will join Mr. I. C. Russell, Geologist, at Victoria, B. C, or at Sitka ; and you will report to him for further orders. Very respectfully, G. K. Gilbert, Chief Geologist. Approved, ' ' ■ J. W. Powell, Director. l!)-i I. ('. Jiit.s.sr/l — Expedition fo Mount St. Klias. \V<(xliii,i/l,„i, I). ('., Mdij ^9, 1890. Ml'. Mai;k r>. Ki:i:u, To/xir/rdjilicr. Sik: You are hereby assif,nie(l to field-work in tlie vieinity of Mount St. Elias, Alaska, in the party under ehar<,a! of 3Ir. I. C Russell. Upon the receipt of these instructions you will please proceed without di'lay ti> tlu' field, and map upon a scale of four miles to an inch such territory in the vii'inity of Mount St. Elias, inckiding tliat mountain, as the field season will i)erniit. The work should, if practicable, l)e controlled, 1)y trianractical)le, l)y barometer in such manner as to be conclusive. The topographic work shoulli< r. XA T/nXAL (UCOail. I I'lIK ' S(>( 'lETY. M('iii<>r((ii(huii of fii.'ut it is not intended that they shall limit the director of tiie expedition in the exercise of his own dist-retitained by Mr. I. C. Russell during the course of his explorations on and about Mount St. Elias is a bottle of sand procured from the l)each on the extreme southern end of Khantaak island, Yakutat ])ay, and characteristic of the shore material over a large area. This sand was turned over to me for examination, and additional interest was given to its study by the fact tluit it is from a com})aratively uninvestigateil region and possesses, i)erhaps, economic value ; for the sam])le is gold-hear- ing, and it is said that a "color" can readily bi' obtained l)y "panning" at many points on the bay shore. Macroscopically, the sand has the appearance of ordinary linely connni- nuted beach material; but it diflers in the uniformity of the size of its ])articles from beach sand from Fort ISIonroe and Sullivan island, South Carolina, with which it was compared. Its mineralogic constituents greatly sur])ass in variety those of the sands referred to, ])ut are markedly similar to those of gold-bearing sand from New Zealand. At least twelve minerals are present, with an unusual predominance of one, as will be noted later. Through the mixture of white, green, and black grains, a dull greenish-black color is given to the mass. The roundness of fragments is such as usually results from water action, but it is less than that which re- sults from transportation by wind. When put into a heavy liquid (Thoulet solution of a density of ;>.l) in order to determine the specific gravity of the constituents, it was found that the sand is made up largely of the heavier materials, for the amount that floated was trifling comi)ared with that which quickly sank. Even the abundant quartz was largely carried down by the weightier ingredi- ents bound up within it, and only a few water-clear fragments were left 1)ehind. Tins would seem to suggest that the lighter minerals are lacking in the neighboring rocks, or else have been carried to greater distances by the sorting power of the water. Among the minerals recognized, gold is the most impoi-tant. though rela- tively not abundant. It occurs in flakes or flattened grains from a quarter to a half of a millimeter in size. The i)articles are suliiciently numerous to be readily selected from their associates by the aid of "panning" and a hand lens of good magnifying pc^wer, and if distributed throughout the beach as plentifullj^ as in the sample would, under favorable conditions, pay for working. The flakes in their roiuided ciiaracter show the effect of the agency which separated tiieiii fVaiatioii so coiii])lete that no rock is foiiinl aillirriii'.:- to the liiains. (li)(J) ' Analysis of Auriferous Sand. 197 JNIagnctite is present in great abundance and in a finely divided state, the largest grains not exceeding a millimeter in length. It forms by weight alone 15 or 20 per cent, of the entire mass, and when the latter is sifted through a sieve of a hundred meshes to the inch it constitutes 44 per cent, of this fine material. Crystallographic faces are rare, and though often marred, still oclahedrons (111, 1) of considerable perfection are found. Garnet occurs in such profusion that a pink tint is gi\-en to a mass of selected grains of uniform size, and its predominance may l)e considered the chief pliysical characteristic of the sand. Two species were noted : one is a brilliant wine-red variety, which, though not nearly so numerous as its duller relative, occurs more fre- (pieutly in crystals — the trapezohedral faces (211, 2-2) predominating. The other gai'uet is readily distinguished by its lighter amethystine tint and its greater abundance. Crystallographic faces are somewhat rare and invariably dodecahedral (110, i). In the absence of chemical analyses, any statements as to the exact species to which these garnets should be referred would be largely conjectural. Attention is quickly drawn to the perfection of these minute garnets in their crystallographic faces and out- lines, and to tlielr association with rounded fragments of their own kind as well as of other minerals. Have these crystals survived by reason of their hai'dness or by favoring conditions, or does their preservation suggest the impotency of wave-action in the destruction of minute l:)odies? Among the 1)lack, heavy grains occur individuals which, excejit in shape and non-magnetic character, resemble magnetite. On crushing be- tween glass slides, thin slivers are obtained which in transmitted light are green, and whicli, from thyir cleavage, pleochroism, high index of refrac- tion, small extinction angle, and insolubility in acid, are readily recognized as hornl>len(le. Two groups of grains were noted which are distinguishable Ijy slight variation in color. Both are clear-yellowish green, but one is somewhat darker than the other. The optical properties of both indicate pyroxene and possibly olivine. Fortunately a fragment was obtained in the ortho- diagonal zone nearly normal to an optic axis which gave an axial figure of sufficient deflniteness to indicate its optically positive character. A number of grains were selected from minerals of l;)0th colors and subjected to prolonged heating in hydrochloric acid without decomposition, indicat- ing that Ijoth minerals are pyroxene. A few zircons, a fraction of a millimeter in size but perfect in form, wei'e found associated with others rounded on their solid angles and edges. The crystals are of the common shoi't form and bear the usual faces in a greater or less degree of development. Pyramids of the first and second order alternate in magnitude ; pinacoid encroaches upon jirism, and ricr irrsa. Quartz constitutes by far the largest proportion of the minerals, l^oth in l)ulk and in weight. It is always fragmental; sometimes water-clear, but chiefly occurs in opaque grains of different colors. It is seldom free from matei-ial of a higher specific gravity, and is often so tinted as to ))e almost indii~tinguishable from magnetite, Imt icadily hlcaclics in acid. 27-N.\T. Gkog. Mac;., vot.. TIT, isni. 198 I. C. IlusscU—Krprditlon lo Movni St. Klhis. Feldspar is sparinjrly present, and ineludeslmth ninnoclinic and tridinic forms, ■whose ('rvstull() has only one representative, biotite, and this ociiirs most spa rintily. TIioul;!! iiuicli of the sand was examined, Init few fraji- ments were fonnd. its foliated character renders it easih' trans])orted by Avater and exjjlains its absence fmiii ainonij: the heavy nunerals. Shaly, slaty and scliistose material forms the major i)art of the coarser jirains. Thin sections from the larji^est pieces i)lainly indicated liorn- blende schist. A ret,don of <,daciers wouhl seem lo he favorable not only to the collec- lioii ofnicleoric material, but also to the destruction of the country rocks, the setting free of their nnneraloi^ic constituents in a comparatively fresli state, and their trausiiortalioii to the sea. It was ho])ed that this sand would yield some of the rarer varietii's of miutrals, but tests for native iron, platinum, cliromite, jrueiss, and the titaniferous nunerals proved iu- elfectiial. Titanium is present, b>it in such small (juantities that it could only be (U'ti'cted by means of hydros^en peroxide. The use of acid super- suli)hate and the borotungslate of calcium test of basaulx failed to reveal, the iiresence of native iron. It will be seen from the fore^oiuL;' enuniei'at ioii that the sand is made up of j^rains of u'old, mauiU'tite, iiarut'l, hornblende, ])yroxi'ue, zircon, (|uartz, feldspar, calcite and mica, associati'd with frajiinents of a shaly, slaty and schistose character. Whik- the infoiiuation at hand is haidly sutlicient to warrant nnich speculation concerning;- the rock masses of the interior, still there is no doubt that the s;ind is derived from the destruc- tion of metamorphic rocks. Appendix 1). REPOllT UN FOSSIL PJ.ANT.S. by le.stek v. ward. Department ok the Ixtekiok, United >State.s GEOLOtiUAi. Sirvey, Washington, D. ('., March Li, ISOl. Mr. I. C. Russell, Unital Stales Gcokxjiral Sitrri-i/. IMy Dear Sir: The following report upon the small collection of fossil l)lants made hy you at Pinnacle pass, near ]\Iount St. Elias, Alaska, and sent to this division for identification has Ijeen prepared l)y Professor F. H. Knowltou, who gave the collection a careful study during my absence in Florida. Previous to going away I had somewhat hastily examined the specimens and seen that they consisted chiefly of the genus Salir, some of them reminding me strongly of living species. I have no doubt that Professor Knowlton's more thorough comparisons can be relied upon with as much confidence as the nature of the collection will permit, and I also agree with his conclusions. "The collection consists of seven small hand si»i'cimens,upon which are impressed no less than seventeen more or less completely preserved dicoty- ledonous leaves. " These specimens at first sight seem to represent six or eight species, but after a careful study I think I am safe in reducing the number to four, as several of the impressions have been nearly obliterated by prolonged exposure and cannot be studied with much satisfaction. " The four determinable species belong, without much doubt, to the genus SaU.i: Number 1, of which there is but a single specimen, I have identified wdth Saliv califonuca, Lesquereux, from the auriferous gravel deposits of the Sierra Nevada in Califjrnia.* The finer nervation of the specimens from the auriferous gravels is not clearly shown in Lesquereux's figures, nor is it well preserved in the Mount St. Elias specimens ; 1 )ut the size, outline, and primary nervation are identical. " Number 2, of which there are six or eight specimens, may be com- pared with Salix raeana, Heer,t a species that was first described from Greenland and was later detected by Lesquereux in a collection IVom Cooks inlet, Alaska.J The M(junt St. Elias specimens are not very much like the original figures of Pleer, but are very similar, in outline at least, to this species as figured by Lesquereux.^ They are also very similar to * Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. VI, no. 2, 1878, p. 10, pi. i, figs. 18-21. fFlor. foss. Arct., vol. 1, 18G8, p. 1()2, pi. iv, figs. Il-i:{; pi. xlvii, fig. 11. JProc. Nat. Mus., vol. V, 1882, p. HI. gloc. cit., pi. vili, fig. 0. (199) 200 /. ('. /i'(^w7/ — l'lq>cdi(l compared with Siill.r macrophijUa, Ileer,* but it cannot l)c tills species. It is also like some of the living forms of »S'. lufjni, Marsh., from wliicli it ditlers in having perfectly entire margins. " Willie It Is manifestly impossible, on the basis of the above IdeulUlca- tions, to speak with confiilence as to the age or formation containing these leaves, it can liardly l)eoltU'r tlian tlie INIiocene, and from its strong re- send)lance to the present existing lloi'a of Alaska it is likely to bi' luuch younger." [F. 11. Knowlton.] Very sincerely yours, Lestek V. W'akd. *Tert. Fl. Ilelv., vol. II, 18",iiiil SI. FJiils. PaKe. Hayden, Dr. F. V., glacier named for... 1U8 Hiiyden, l-^verett, Contributions to ex- ploration fund liy 75 Hayden glacier, Brief aecountof 108 III), III Hays, J. W., Contribution to explora- tion fund bv 75 Height and position of St. Elias 189, l!)U Hendricksen, Reverend Carl J., men- tion of no, 8:j Hitchcock, r'rofes.sor KJward, range named for 112 — range, brief account of 112 fiom Pinnacle pass i:w structure of 118 Hooper, Captain C. L., Navigation of iJisenchantment bay ."iii, loo Hosmer, H .S.. Contribution to explo- ration fund by, ~h — return of K', — , volunteer assistant 70 Hubb.ir Newton, Henry, Mountain named for.. 14ixon Powell, J. VV., Contribution to explora- tion fund by 115 70 102 122 186 121 57 187 137 137 1.32 132 130 170 131 .81 Index. 203 Page. Powell, William B., Contribntion to exploration fund by 75 Puerto